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165 , amounting to 2 @,@ 064 riders on an average weekday ; this made 34th Street – Hudson Yards the 392nd busiest station in the city out of 422 total stations .
= = Effects = =
The warehouse district west of Eighth Avenue and north of 34th Street was rezoned in 2005 into a commercial and residential area , and the station is part of an effort to accelerate development in the area . The reportedly " transformative " subway extension to 34th Street spurred development in the Hudson Yards area by providing transit access for future tenants of the Hudson Yards development , and by keeping up with the MTA 's goal to " ensure that all new residential and commercial growth in the MTA region between 2008 and 2030 is concentrated within a half @-@ mile of an MTA station " . In addition to providing transit access to residents and tenants of nearby neighborhoods , the construction of the station was expected to bolster the area 's commercial growth and , in turn , creating up to 50 @,@ 000 jobs in the area .
Mitchell Moss , director of New York University 's Rudin Center for Transportation Policy & Management , states that the development of Hudson Yards , and the related subway extension , were among the benefits of the 2012 Olympic bid , saying that " the # 7 Extension will be one of the largest expansions of the New York City transit system in decades and one of the most significant in terms of its potential impact . " Moss says that redevelopment of the west side was a direct result of the new subway station 's construction . Kenneth T. Jackson , editor of The Encyclopedia of New York City , describes the extension as a " very important " one .
Since the station started construction , land prices in the immediate area have nearly doubled . Interest in the surrounding area has also grown , as many development companies are going to Hudson Yards to buy air rights ; for instance Related Companies , already the developer of Hudson Yards , entered a contract to buy a $ 75 million @-@ plus parcel of land between 35th and 36th Streets and between Eleventh Avenue and Hudson Boulevard , as well as land over a McDonald 's to build 50 Hudson Yards . Also as a result of the subway extension , three tenants have already been found for 10 Hudson Yards , and Citigroup is considering moving to the area . Most importantly , however , the $ 750 million platform supporting much of Hudson Yards was built starting in January 2013 ; subway construction for a station that could potentially carry up to 27 @,@ 000 daily passengers necessitated the construction of more buildings , as 70 % of tenants are expected to come to Hudson Yards via the 7 subway extension . Additionally , new restaurants , luxury condominiums , and stores have appeared near the station and along the extension 's route , and residential prices along the extension have also increased . A construction boom has occurred in the greater Hudson Yards area as well .
The station is described by the MTA as the centerpiece of the Hudson Park and Boulevard , as well as of the entire Hudson Yards project , which developers say could not have been started without the 7 subway extension . Horodniceanu stated that " this new , modern station will be the lifeline of Manhattan 's newest neighborhood . It will make it possible for thousands of residents , employees and visitors to get to Hudson Yards easily and quickly . Without the extension , this new development would not have been possible . " The completion of the High Line and the Hudson Boulevard , as well as the Javits Center renovation , are boosting development in the area as well . Although Hudson Yards was not finished at the time of the station 's opening , the High Line and the Javits Center are popular destinations for station patrons .
= Tanyus Shahin =
Tanyus Shahin Saadeh al @-@ Rayfouni ( also spelled Tanios Chahine Saadé Al Rayfouné , given name also spelled Taniyus or Tanius ) ( 1815 – 1895 ) was a Maronite muleteer and peasant leader from Mount Lebanon . He led a peasants ' revolt in the area of Keserwan in 1859 , during which he drove out the area 's Maronite nobility , the feudal Khazen lords , and declared a peasants ' republic . While he had a reputation as a ruffian and provocateur among members of the Maronite clergy and European consuls , Shahin became a popular figure among Christian commoners , many of whom considered him the guardian of their interests , a view which Shahin promoted .
Following his victory in Keserwan , Shahin and his fighters launched intermittent raids against villages in nearby regions , such as Jubail and Matn , often in the name of defending the rights of local Christians . The assaults and their repercussions served as catalysts of the 1860 Mount Lebanon civil war , particularly the battle of Beit Mery between local Maronites and Druze , in which Shahin was a principal belligerent . Although he claimed he could raise an army of 50 @,@ 000 to combat the forces of the Druze feudal lords , he did not participate further in the war . Following the war 's end , he was defeated by Youssef Karam in a struggle over political influence in Maronite affairs . Shahin subsequently relinquished his republic and worked in the judiciary of his home village , Rayfoun .
= = Early life and character = =
According to historian Elizabeth Thompson , there are sparse biographical details available about Shahin . He was born to a Maronite Christian family in the village of Rayfoun in the Keserwan district of Mount Lebanon in 1815 . According to Thompson , Shahin may have been literate as indicated by his early career as an artisan and an entrepreneur , while Lebanese historian Kamal Salibi describes him as " half @-@ literate " . Prior to leading the 1859 peasant revolt in Keserwan , Shahin was a blacksmith and a muleteer who transported goods throughout Keserwan .
Shahin was tall and of muscular build . According to Thompson , Shahin " was more a man of spoken word than the pen , famous for powerful , sermon @-@ like speeches at village meetings " , and for his violent temper , according to Salibi . He acted as a local shaykh shabab ( leader of young men ) , a title that carried honor and typically denoted a village strongman who derived power from his following of armed men . He was admired and respected by the peasants of Keserwan , some of whom considered him their " redeemer " . According to a local chronicler , residents " prepared grand receptions for him amid joy and celebrations " when he entered a local village . Various European diplomats described him as a " ruffian of despicable character " and as dishonest , while some clergymen also regarded him as deceitful .
= = Leadership of peasants ' revolt = =
= = = Uprising in Keserwan = = =
Peasant anger in Keserwan had been building since the mid @-@ 19th century , due to a number of factors , including the burdens of corvée ( unpaid labor for a landlord ) that had been imposed during the rule of Emir Bashir Shihab II , general economic hardship , and the decreasing availability of land . The Maronite Khazen family traditionally served as the sheikhs ( chiefs ) of Keserwan , although their power had been significantly diminished during Emir Bashir 's rule . The Khazens opposed the creation of the " Double Qaimaqmate " in Mount Lebanon in the 1840s , which divided Mount Lebanon into Druze and Christian @-@ run sectors , and were incensed at the appointment of a sheikh from the mixed Druze @-@ Christian Abu 'l Lama family as the qaimaqam ( deputy governor ) of the Maronite section of the Qaimaqamate . The Khazens feared that such an appointment would formally subordinate them to the Abu 'l Lama sheikhs . Following the Abu 'l Lama sheikh 's death in 1854 , his successor Bashir Ahmad Abu 'l Lama attempted to further reduce the Khazens ' influence , prompting the Khazens to stir the peasants to revolt against Bashir Ahmad . The revolt against Bashir Ahmad soon turned against the Khazen sheikhs and their feudal allies . The peasant subjects of the Khazen sheikhs had long been wary of their rule due to the excessive taxes they imposed as well as the additional gifts the peasants were virtually obligated to give the sheikhs , which many peasants considered humiliating .
In early 1858 , a group of peasants from Keserwan lodged a formal complaint against the Khazens to Khurshid Pasha , the Ottoman governor of Beirut . Later , in March 1858 , the Khazens held a summit for the people of Keserwan to garner support for their nomination of a new qaimaqam . Instead , the peasants participating in the summit voiced their dissent against the Khazens and in October , several villages in Keserwan entered into an alliance against the Khazen sheikhs . Shahin was chosen by this alliance of peasants as their leader in December , and was declared the wakil awwal ( first delegate ) .
In January 1859 , Shahin intensified the armed revolt against the Khazen sheikhs and with 800 of his peasant fighters , he besieged the Khazens during a summit they were holding in Ghosta . The siege prompted the sheikhs to flee the village , and the peasants under Shahin subsequently plundered the Khazens ' estates . Shahin and his men proceeded to attack the Khazens in other villages with little blood spilled in the process , with the exception of the wife and daughter of a Khazen sheikh who were killed in Ajaltoun in July during a raid on their home by the peasants . The Maronite patriarch , Paul Peter Massad , condemned their killing as a " horrific crime " . Silk and wheat warehouses belonging to the sheikhs were plundered and the goods were redistributed among the peasants of Keserwan . By July , the Khazens had been routed and between 500 and 600 family members had fled to Beirut in an impoverished state . Shahin broadened the peasants ' main demands of tax relief and refunds for the illegal payments they had previously paid to the Khazen sheikhs to also include political and legal reforms . Shahin cited the Edict of Gülhane , which mandated equality for all Ottoman citizens .
= = = Establishment of republic = = =
Following his victory over the Khazen sheikhs , Shahin and the peasants of Keserwan formed a government , with Shahin declaring a jumhuriyya ( republic ) . He became known as the wakil ' amm ( general delegate ) , and in the fall of 1859 moved the headquarters of the rebellion from the coastal village of Zouk Mikael to his hometown of Rayfoun in the mountains . Although revolts were relatively commonplace in Mount Lebanon , the ousting of a noble family by their peasant subjects was unprecedented . Shahin 's government consisted of a 100 @-@ member council made up of representatives from the villages of Keserwan . Over half of the representatives were peasants who did not own land , 32 were relatively well @-@ to @-@ do farmers , ten were clergymen and three were merchants or lenders . Shahin , who by this point oversaw a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ strong militia , exercised power by seizing arms , ensured the upholding of the law and established security on the roads . He disciplined dissidents suspected of betraying the government and issued decrees in the name of the public . He also entered into negotiations with the Khazen sheikhs , but they reached a stalemate .
The main villages that supported Shahin 's government were Rayfoun , Ajaltoun , Ashqout , Qleiat and Mazraat Kfardebian . The representatives of these villages were able to gain the solidarity of other villages by persuading their inhabitants through both peaceful and coercive means that as Christians they were all a part of single community with a united purpose . The leaders of some villages , such as those of Ghosta , Aramoun , Ghazir and Ftuh opposed Shahin and his revolt . Shahin 's popularity among the Christian peasants of Mount Lebanon grew as he came to be viewed as their savior from both the Druze nobles and the traditional Maronite elites . This reputation was further solidified after Shahin 's men backed Christian residents in a clash with Druze residents in the mixed village of Beit Meri in Matn in August 1859 .
The Khazens demanded the restoration of their rule in Keserwan and lodged complaints to the Ottoman government about property stolen or damaged by the peasantry . The Ottomans launched an investigation in Keserwan , but in their interviews with the peasants , all claimed that they were unaware of looting and other crimes , while representatives of Shahin denied that they were rebels , insisting that they only sought the implementation of the Tanzimat reforms and the restoration of law and order . In petitions to the Maronite Patriarchate , the peasants demanded compensation by the Khazens for taxes that were illegally extorted from them , an abolition to the traditional gift @-@ giving required of the peasants , the abolition of marriage taxes levied by the Khazens and an end to the practice of beating peasants , among other demands . Shahin nominally recognized the Maronite Patriarchate as the ultimate arbiter of disputes , but consistently urged them to honor their obligations to the " ahali " ( commoners ) . In one incident he or his men fired shots toward the patriarch 's headquarters in Bkirki for hosting a number of Khazens who were seeking refuge there . In March 1859 , Shahin rebuffed the church 's request to make an agreement with the Khazen sheikhs , citing the need to first " consult with all the ahali and all the villages " .
Shahin 's rise generally confused the Ottoman government because Shahin used the Tanzimat to legitimize his revolt . The Ottomans did not consider the religious equality called for by the Tanzimat reforms to translate into class equality , which is how Shahin interpreted it . Moreover , the Ottomans did not countenance that a semi @-@ literate Arabic @-@ speaking peasant from a rural region such as Keserwan would serve as a representative of the Tanzimat . They reacted to Shahin 's revolt negatively , although the provincial Ottoman authorities of Beirut generally felt powerless to act against the peasant rebels due to a lack of funds and forces on the ground . Khurshid Pasha sympathized more with the Khazen sheikhs and in a letter to the Patriarchate accused Shahin of using " deceit to lead astray the minds of the people and to seduce them into following his evil ways " . The principal focus of the Ottoman authorities in Lebanon was containing Shahin 's revolt . However , later historians of Lebanon accused Khurshid Pasha of at least tacitly supporting Shahin in order to break communal solidarity .
Khurshid Pasha dispatched Emir Yusuf Ali Murad , a Maronite sheikh from the Abu 'l Lama family , to rein in peasant rebels in Jubail , but Shahin sent a letter warning Emir Yusuf not to " intervene in the affairs " of Jubail because the " Christians of Jubail were united with the ahali of Keserwan " and claimed that " all the Christians of Syria have made common cause " . He condemned Emir Yusuf for aligning himself with the ousted sheikhs and his " Druze relatives " and accused him of attempting to " subjugate the Christians after we achieved our [ freedom ] " . He threatened Emir Yusuf to " return without delay " and that if he " desires a fight , we are more eager than you , and we are not afraid " . Shahin 's confidence in the support he received from the Christian peasantry of Keserwan and other parts of Mount Lebanon and his challenge to Emir Yusuf through a populist sectarian approach alarmed the Maronite elites , the church and the Ottoman authorities .
In response to a Maronite priest 's complaints about harassment by Shia Muslims against Christians , Shahin 's men attacked and plundered Shia villages and travelers in Jubail and demanded that Shia villages convert to Christianity to avoid assault . The Shia residents of Jubail protested these assaults in June 1859 . While Shahin 's actions further frustrated the local elites , Christian , Muslim and Druze alike , his reputation as the defender of Christian rights was bolstered at the popular level .
= = Civil war in Mount Lebanon = =
The increased assertiveness of Maronite peasants as a result of Shahin 's revolt and confidence in their demographic majority in Mount Lebanon alarmed Druze feudal lords , who began arming their peasant fighters . Likewise , Maronite peasants , who despite their general confidence were still wary of growing Muslim hostility toward Christians in Ottoman Syria , were also being armed , in particular by Maronite bishop Tobia Aoun . Tensions spilled into violence , and between March and May 1860 , several retaliatory tit @-@ for @-@ tat killings and attacks of sectarian nature between Druzes and Christians had been occurring throughout Mount Lebanon and its immediate environs . In late May , Shahin and some 300 of his men entered the village of Naccache in the mixed Druze @-@ Maronite Matn district to seize silk owned by a noble family of Keserwan . However , instead of returning to Rayfoun , they proceeded to enter the nearby Maronite village of Antelias . Shahin 's incursion into Antelias was considered a provocation by the Druze who feared that the presence of Shahin 's fighters in that village threatened the Druze residents of Matn . Many Christians in turn viewed the deployment of Khurshid Pasha 's troops in Hazmiyeh on 26 May as a provocation because they suspected Khurshid Pasha of being allied with the Druze and that this was the signal for the beginning of the Druze counter @-@ attack . Shahin 's stated purpose for entering Antelias was to protect the Christian Shihab emirs based in the village of Baabda .
The Shihab emirs requested Shahin and his men withdraw from Baabda 's vicinity to avoid conflict . However , on 29 May , clashes occurred in the Matn village of Beit Mery between its Druze and Christian residents , which led to the participation of their respective coreligionists from other villages in the vicinity . By 30 May , the Druze had defeated the Keserwan fighters in Beit Meri . Fighting subsequently spread throughout Matn , with 35 – 40 Christian villages being burned . According to Lebanese historian Leila Tarazi Fawaz , the Keserwan fighters proved to be undisciplined and ineffective against the more experienced , unified and better organized Druze forces .
The fighting in Matn spread throughout Mount Lebanon and its surrounding area , becoming a civil war mainly between the Druze and the Christians , which later spilled over into other parts of Syria . Shahin claimed that he could raise 50 @,@ 000 fighters to fight the Druze , and Christians from areas outside of Keserwan appealed for his intervention . However , when his men were halted by Ottoman forces in Matn , Shahin and other Maronite militia leaders largely restricted their operations to guarding their areas of origin . In mid @-@ June , when Zahle , the last Christian stronghold , was besieged by the Druze , Shahin did not send reinforcements and the town fell . This all but consolidated a Druze victory in Mount Lebanon . On 29 July , under pressure from Bishop Aoun , Shahin agreed to openly declare his obedience to the Ottoman sultan . Although the peasants ' revolt had not been directly against the Ottoman state , Shahin 's declaration served as a virtual repudiation of the revolt 's legitimacy . In his declaration , Shahin asserted that he was forced to revolt by the treacherous " men of corruption " .
= = Later life and death = =
French @-@ led international intervention ended the civil war and order was restored by 1861 . Shahin 's movement was in a precarious state in the war 's aftermath ; Shahin could not financially support his impoverished peasant partisans , the Maronite clergy was disillusioned with him , and Ottoman officialdom and the local nobility were arrayed against him . The Ottomans , the clergy and the nobility resolved to bring an end to Shahin 's movement because it represented the last obstacle to their political reorganization of Mount Lebanon into the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate . Shahin threatened to convert to Protestantism together with his partisans if the Khazen sheikhs were restored to Keserwan , while Patriarch Massad of the Maronite Church was prepared to excommunicate Shahin and his supporters .
Meanwhile , Youssef Karam , a Maronite leader from Ehden who acquired a degree of popularity during the war and backing from the Maronite Patriarchate and the French government , was appointed acting qaimaqam of the Christian areas of Mount Lebanon by Fuad Pasha after the war 's end . Shahin opposed Karam , who in a bid to reconcile the Maronite community , issued orders directed to the peasants of Keserwan to restore properties seized from the Khazens and compensate the latter for their losses . Shahin was backed by Emir Majid Shihab , who sought to replace Karam as qaimaqam . Tensions between Shahin and Karam in Keserwan in late March 1861 culminated in a battle between their forces in an area between Rayfoun and ' Ashqout , in which Shahin was defeated and fled . Karam subsequently raided Shahin 's home in Rayfoun , imprisoned some of Shahin 's supporters and posted a number of his own troops in villages that supported Shahin 's movement .
Fuad Pasha advised Karam to pursue and capture Shahin , while the British consul communicated his desire to see Karam restore the Khazens to their former position in Keserwan . Shahin ultimately reconciled with Karam on 12 April under the mediation of the French general Charles de Beaufort . Shahin agreed to submit to the Qaimaqamate 's authority without conditions . Later in 1861 , Shahin relinquished the republic that he established in Keserwan . Subsequent to his retirement from politics , Shahin served as a judicial official in Rayfoun . There , in 1895 , he died in relative obscurity . He left no memoirs about his role in the civil war .
= Treehouse of Horror IV =
" Treehouse of Horror IV " ( originally known as " The Simpsons Halloween Special IV " ) is the fifth episode of The Simpsons ' fifth season and the fourth episode in the Treehouse of Horror series of Halloween specials . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 28 , 1993 , and features three short stories called " The Devil and Homer Simpson " , " Terror at 5 ½ Feet " , and " Bart Simpson 's Dracula " . The episode was directed by David Silverman and co @-@ written by Conan O 'Brien , Bill Oakley , Josh Weinstein , Greg Daniels , Dan McGrath , and Bill Canterbury .
In " The Devil and Homer Simpson " , Homer Simpson announces he would sell his soul for a doughnut , and the Devil appears to make a deal with Homer . Homer tries to outsmart the Devil by not finishing the doughnut but eventually eats it and is sent to Hell . A trial is held between Homer and the Devil to determine the rightful owner of Homer 's soul . In " Terror at 5 ½ Feet " , while riding the bus to school , Bart Simpson believes he sees a gremlin taking apart the bus piece by piece . Nobody sees it except for Bart , so he tries to remove it on his own . In " Bart Simpson 's Dracula " , Mr. Burns is a vampire and Bart falls victim to his bite . Lisa and the rest of the family go to Burns ' castle to kill Burns so Bart can return to normal .
As with the rest of the Halloween specials , the episode is considered non @-@ canon and falls outside of the show 's regular continuity . The episode makes cultural references to television series such as The Twilight Zone , Night Gallery , and Peanuts . References are also made to films such as Bram Stoker 's Dracula and The Lost Boys . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 14 @.@ 5 , and was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
Bart introduces each of the three segments by walking through a gallery of paintings and each time choosing one of them as the focus of his story .
= = = The Devil and Homer Simpson = = =
In a parody of The Devil and Daniel Webster , at work , Homer states that he would sell his soul for a doughnut after finding that Lenny and Carl took all the doughnuts and threw them at an old man ( Abe Simpson ) " for kicks " . The Devil , revealed to be Ned Flanders , appears and offers Homer a contract to seal the deal . However , before Homer finishes the doughnut , he realizes that Ned will not be able to have his soul if he does not eat all of the doughnut and keeps the final piece in the refrigerator . Unfortunately , while half @-@ asleep and looking for a midnight snack , he eats the final piece of the " forbidden donut " , and Ned instantly reappears to take possession of Homer 's soul . Marge and Lisa plead with Ned , finally getting him to agree to hold a trial the next day . Until then , Homer is sent to spend the rest of the day being punished in Hell . At the stroke of twelve midnight , Ned brings Homer back to the Simpson household for his trial . Then , when the Simpsons ' lawyer , Lionel Hutz , flees after ruining his case , Marge makes a final effort to save Homer by displaying a photo from their wedding day . On the back of the photo , Homer has written that , in return for Marge giving him her hand in marriage , he pledges his soul to her forever ; therefore , it was not his property to sell at the time of his deal with Ned . The jury rules in favor of the Simpsons and the presiding judge dismisses the case . Enraged , the Devil leaves , but not before he turns Homer 's head into a doughnut .
= = = Terror at 5 ½ Feet = = =
In a parody of the Twilight Zone episode , " Nightmare at 20 @,@ 000 Feet " , after having a nightmare in which he is killed in a bus crash , Bart rides the bus to school one rainy morning . He panics when he sees a gremlin on the side of the bus loosening the lug nuts on one of the wheels . Bart unsuccessfully tries to convince the other passengers of the danger . In desperation , Bart climbs halfway out the window to scare off the gremlin with an emergency flare . The gremlin catches fire and falls from the bus , but is found by Ned Flanders , who decides to adopt the creature . When the bus finally stops , everyone sees the obvious damage , but Bart is still sent away to an insane asylum for the rest of his life for his disruptive behavior . Bart is relieved as he is finally able to rest , but the gremlin appears in the back window of the ambulance , holding Flanders ' decapitated ( yet still living ) head , which makes Bart scream in terror .
= = = Bart Simpson 's Dracula = = =
In a parody of Bram Stoker 's Dracula , after a news story about several vampire attacks , Lisa begins to suspect that Mr. Burns is a vampire , but the rest of the family dismisses her concerns . The family is invited to Burns ' castle in Pennsylvania , where Bart and Lisa discover a secret staircase descending to an eerie basement filled with coffins . As they investigate , vampires emerge from the coffins and encircle them . Lisa escapes , but Bart activates the " Super Fun Happy Slide " , causing him to be captured and get bitten by Burns . Bart returns to the table with Burns , who tells him to take a seat . Bart is very pale and is behaving oddly , but these factors get little attention by the family . Later that night , Lisa is awakened by a now undead Bart and his vampire friends . When Bart is about to bite Lisa , Homer and Marge interrupt and discover that Bart is a vampire . Lisa claims that the only way to restore him is to kill the head vampire , Mr. Burns . The family returns to the Burns ' mansion , where Homer drives a stake through Burns ' heart . Unfortunately , despite Burns ' death , Bart still remains a vampire . To make things worse , Lisa discovers that everyone in the Simpson family except for herself is a vampire , and that the true head vampire is inexplicably Marge , not Mr. Burns . With this revelation , the whole entire family swoops in on Lisa , only to stop and wish everyone a happy Halloween . Then , they all harmonize " Hark the Herald Angels Sing " , parodying A Charlie Brown Christmas .
= = Production = =
" Treehouse of Horror IV " was directed by David Silverman and co @-@ written by Conan O 'Brien , Bill Oakley , Josh Weinstein , Greg Daniels , Dan McGrath , and Bill Canterbury . It is the fourth episode of the annual Treehouse of Horror Halloween specials . As with the rest of the Halloween specials , the episode is considered non @-@ canon and falls outside of the show 's regular continuity . O 'Brien worked on the " wraparounds " of Bart introducing each segment to make sure that they " pulled " the episode together . The wraparounds are based on Rod Serling 's television series Night Gallery , in which Serling appears at an art gallery and introduces each episode by unveiling paintings depicting the stories . Executive producer James L. Brooks loved the show , so it was " great fun " for him to do the parody . Show runner David Mirkin thought the Treehouse of Horror episodes were the hardest episodes to do because the staff had to fit in all three stories in only 22 minutes . Mirkin said , " Things had to happen really fast . They 're really just crammed with jokes and story beats and everything . "
The first segment , " The Devil and Homer Simpson " , was written by Daniels and McGrath . The first time Devil Flanders appears , he looks the same as the devil Chernabog from the 1940 Walt Disney produced film Fantasia ; Silverman particularly admired the animation in that sequence . Oakley loved the idea of Flanders being the Devil because he is the one you would least expect . He also thought Harry Shearer did a good job of playing Flanders in a much darker way , while remaining very true to the character . Many scenes had to be cut to shorten the segment , including one that showed Homer 's severed head being used as a bowling ball by a demon in hell . This scene later appeared in the clip show episode " The Simpsons 138th Episode Spectacular " , which aired in the show 's seventh season .
The second segment , " Terror at 5 ½ Feet " , was written by Oakley and Weinstein . It was inspired by an episode of The Twilight Zone called " Nightmare at 20 @,@ 000 Feet " , in which William Shatner 's character is inside an airplane watching a gremlin tear apart the wing . Silverman watched the episode to get inspiration for Bart 's facial expressions . Oakley said there was a lot of work put into the design of the gremlin in " Terror at 5 ½ Feet " to make him scary " within The Simpsons universe " . Mirkin said he felt the gremlin was well @-@ done because he looked scary and " yet it looks like a completely organic Simpsons character " . Üter , a character from Germany , makes his first appearance on the show in this segment ; he was conceived as a one @-@ time joke , but reappeared in later episodes because Mirkin felt he was " such a perfect stereotype " .
The third segment , " Bart Simpson 's Dracula " , was written by Canterbury . It is based on Francis Ford Coppola 's film Bram Stoker 's Dracula . Mirkin was a big fan of the film and pushed for a segment about vampires inspired by the movie . He liked the final result and felt Mr. Burns was perfect in the role as Dracula . Dracula and his castle was designed by Silverman . Mirkin , a " big " Peanuts fan , came up with the idea for the ending of " Bart Simpson 's Dracula " .
= = Cultural references = =
The wraparound segments are a reference to Rod Serling 's television series Night Gallery . " Terror at 5 ½ Feet " is a parody of The Twilight Zone episode " Nightmare at 20 @,@ 000 Feet " . The title and a majority of the plot of " Bart Simpson 's Dracula " is a parody of the Francis Ford Coppola film Bram Stoker 's Dracula . The ending of " Bart Simpson 's Dracula " is a reference to A Charlie Brown Christmas . The title " The Devil and Homer Simpson " is a reference to the short story " The Devil and Daniel Webster " in which a farmer sells his soul for prosperity but is then defended in court against the Devil with a jury of the Devil 's choosing . The demon who is feeding Homer donuts says : " I don 't understand it . James Coco went mad in fifteen minutes ! " James Coco was a character actor known in the 1970s ... He parodied the Belgian sleuth Hercule Poirot , penned by Agatha Christie . In the movie , James Coco ’ s character throws a volley of subtle food jokes . In his last years , Coco received attention for his culinary talents and best @-@ selling cookbooks . The James Coco Diet , an educational book which included chapters on menu planning and behavior modification as well as choice recipes ) , was just one that he promoted on the talk show circuit . It is probably not a coincidence that he often played characters with extreme food issues . The jury at Homer 's trial consists of John Wilkes Booth , Lizzie Borden , John Dillinger , Blackbeard , Benedict Arnold , the starting lineup of the 1976 Philadelphia Flyers , and Richard Nixon . The first time the Devil appears , he resembles the demon Chernabog from the Walt Disney film Fantasia , especially after Homer discovers a technicality and starts taunting the Devil that he 's " smarter than the devil " , until the Devil turns into the Chernabog @-@ esque demon and glares at him before disappearing . The scene in Hell where Homer is fed all the doughnuts in the world , and asks for more , is a direct parody of the cartoon Pigs is Pigs , in which a generic pig character ( a Porky Pig @-@ esque character ) known for being a glutton is taken in by a scientist and forced to eat all the food in the world . At Mr. Burns ' castle , Lisa notices a tome resting on a stand in the basement . She runs over and reads the title : " Yes , I Am a Vampire , by Monty Burns . Foreword by Steve Allen , " a reference to American actor Steve Allen . Shortly after she finds the tome , she makes allusions to Shemp and Curly Howard of the Three Stooges , mistaken Bart 's fearful attempts at getting her attention as impressions of the two . In " Bart Simpson 's Dracula " , Bart is seen floating outside Lisa 's bedroom window . This is a parody of The Lost Boys as well as Stephen King 's novel Salem 's Lot . The family 's plan to kill the head vampire is also a reference to both the film and novel . In particular , the twist revelation that Burns is not the head vampire is also a reference to the twist ending of The Lost Boys . The closing credits of the episode features a version of the Simpsons theme that is a combination of the instruments used in The Munsters theme song and the harpsichord and clicking from the Addams Family theme song .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Treehouse of Horror IV " finished 17th in the ratings for the week of October 25 to October 31 , 1993 , with a Nielsen rating of 14 @.@ 5 , translating to 13 @.@ 6 million households . The episode was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week .
Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , said the episode included many notable sequences and was " probably the best " Treehouses of Horror episode . They particularly liked the scenes in Hell where Homer is punished by the Devil , and Chief Wiggum 's attempts to deal with Dracula ( whom he thinks is a mummy ) in the " Bart Simpson 's Dracula " segment by ordering the Egyptian wing of the Springfield museum to be destroyed . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson thought " Terror at 5 ½ Feet " was the best segment of the episode . Jacobson praised " The Devil and Homer Simpson " as clever funny , and described " Bart Simpson 's Dracula " as " easily the least effective " , claiming it , " presents some good moments but never quite takes flight " . Patrick Bromley of DVD Verdict gave the episode an A grade and called it " one of the very best " Halloween specials , although said " Treehouse of Horror V " was better . Central Michigan Life 's John Thorpe named it the tenth best episode of the series , and wrote : " The best part comes when Homer decides not to eat the last part of the doughnut , thus saving him from hell . Hilarious . " DVD Talk 's Bill Gibron gave the episode a 4 out of 5 score .
Kim Nowacki of Yakima Herald @-@ Republic named " Treehouse of Horror IV " her " all @-@ time favorite " episode . She praised the parodies of The Twilight Zone and A Charlie Brown Christmas . The episode 's reference to Bram Stoker 's Dracula was named the 32nd greatest film reference in the history of the show by Total Film 's Nathan Ditum .
= Liquid fly @-@ back booster =
Liquid Fly @-@ back Booster ( LFBB ) is a cancelled German Aerospace Center 's ( DLR 's ) project to develop a reusable liquid rocket booster for Ariane 5 in order to significantly reduce a high cost of space transportation and increase environmental friendliness . LFBB would replace existing solid rocket boosters , providing main thrust during the liftoff . Once separated , two winged boosters would perform an atmospheric entry , fly back autonomously to the French Guiana , and land horizontally on the airport like an airplane .
Additionally a family of derivative launch vehicles was proposed in order to take an advantage of economies of scale , further reducing launch costs . These derivatives include a Reusable First Stage in a class of small and medium size launch vehicles like Vega and Arianespace Soyuz , the Super @-@ Heavy Lift Launcher capable of lifting nearly 70 tonnes to the orbit , and a Two @-@ Stage @-@ To @-@ Orbit system operating a dedicated reusable orbiter .
German Aerospace Center studied Liquid Fly @-@ back Boosters as a part of future launcher research program from 1999 to 2004 . After the cancellation of the project , publications at DLR continued until 2009 .
= = Development = =
The German Aerospace Center ( DLR ) studied potential future launch vehicles of the European Union under the Ausgewählte Systeme und Technologien für Raumtransport ( ASTRA ; English : Systems and Technologies for Space Transportation Applications ) programme from 1999 to 2005 , with additional studies continuing until 2009 . The LFBB design was one of two projects within the ASTRA program , the other being Phoenix RLV . During development , scale models were constructed for testing various configurations in DLR 's supersonic Trisonische Messstrecke Köln ( TMK ; English : Trisonic measuring section at Cologne ) and in their Hyperschallwindkanal 2 Köln ( H2K ; English : Hypersonic wind canal at Cologne ) wind tunnels . The preliminary mechanical design of other major elements was done by the companies EADS Space Transportation and MAN .
The advantages of reusable boosters include simplicity from using only one type of fuel , environmental friendliness , and lower reoccurring costs . Studies concluded that reusable fly @-@ back boosters would be the most affordable and the least risky way for European space launch systems to start becoming reusable . These fly @-@ back boosters had the potential to reduce launch costs . However , when other projects , such as Space Shuttle or VentureStar , undertook this objective , they failed to meet their goals . Supporting technologies needed for LFBB construction can be developed within 10 years , and additional launchers can be developed based on fly @-@ back boosters to minimise costs and provide maintenance synergy across multiple classes of launch vehicles . Eventually , the hardware grew too large and the LFBB project was scrapped , with one member of the French space agency ( CNES ) remarking :
The thing that shocked me was that at the beginning , this reusable flyback booster was just a cylinder with engines and little wings , just a turbo fan in the back . And three years later these were complete Airbuses in terms of size with four engines in each of them .
= = Description = =
The overall concept of the liquid boosters in the LFBB programme was to retain the Ariane 5 's core and upper stages , along with the payload fairings , and replace its solid rocket boosters ( EAP P241 , from French Étages d ’ Accélération à Poudre ) with reusable liquid rocket boosters . These boosters would provide the main thrust during take @-@ off . After separation , they would return to a spaceport in French Guiana for landing . This vertical take @-@ off , horizontal landing ( VTHL ) mode of operation would allow liquid fly @-@ back boosters to continue operating from the Guiana Space Centre , thus avoiding any major changes to the ascend profile of Ariane 5 . Launch vehicle payload performance of the Cryogenic Evolution type @-@ A ( ECA ) variant would increase from 10 @,@ 500 kg ( 23 @,@ 100 lb ) to 12 @,@ 300 kg ( 27 @,@ 100 lb ) .
In the reference design , each LFBB consists of three engines installed in a circular arrangement at the aft of the vehicle . Each engine is a Vulcain engine with reduced expansion ratio . An additional three turbofan air @-@ breathing engines , installed in the nose section , provide power for fly @-@ back . The fuselage is 41 m ( 135 ft ) long , with an outer tank diameter of 5 @.@ 45 m ( 17 @.@ 9 ft ) , specifically designed to match the existing Ariane 5 core stage and to reduce manufacturing costs . A low @-@ wing V @-@ tail canard configuration was selected , with a wingspan of approximately 21 m ( 69 ft ) and an area of 115 m2 ( 1 @,@ 240 sq ft ) . The aerofoil was based on a transonic profile from the Royal Aircraft Establishment ( RAE 2822 ) . The gross lift @-@ off mass ( GLOW ) of each booster is 222 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 245 @.@ 3 short tons ) , with 54 tonnes ( 60 short tons ) upon separation and 46 @.@ 2 tonnes ( 50 @.@ 9 short tons ) dry mass . In comparison , the GLOW for EAP P241 is 273 tonnes ( 301 short tons ) .
The booster was designed to have four independent propulsion systems , the first of which – main rocket propulsion – would be based on three gimbaled Vulcain engines fueled by 168 @,@ 500 kg ( 371 @,@ 500 lb ) of propellant . Second , Eurojet EJ200 fly @-@ back turbofan engines would be propelled with hydrogen to reduce fuel mass . Further , ten 2 kN ( 450 lbf ) thrusters placed on each side of the vehicle would be used by the reaction control system . Finally , the fourth propulsion system would be based on solid rocket motors that separate the boosters from the core stage . An up @-@ scaled version of the motors used in existing EAP boosters would be mounted in the attachment ring and inside the wing 's main structure .
A typical mission profile would begin with the ignition of a main stage and both boosters , followed by an acceleration to 2 km / s ( 1 @.@ 2 mi / s ) and then a separation at the altitude of 50 km ( 31 mi ) . As the main stage continues its flight into orbit , the boosters follow a ballistic trajectory , reaching an altitude of 90 – 100 km ( 56 – 62 mi ) . After low @-@ energy atmospheric entry , the boosters reach denser layers of the atmosphere where they perform a banking turn toward the target airfield . Gliding continues until they achieve an altitude that is optimal for engaging turbofan engines and entering cruise flight . At this point , about 550 km ( 340 mi ) from the launch point , the boosters would be flying over the Atlantic Ocean . The cruise back to the airport requires about 3 @,@ 650 kg ( 8 @,@ 050 lb ) of hydrogen fuel and takes over two hours to complete . An undercarriage is deployed and each booster lands autonomously . After separation , the boosters are not under threat of collision until they land due to small differences in their initial flight trajectories .
= = Derivatives = =
The development of liquid fly @-@ back boosters has the potential to enable three additional space transportation systems with an objective of increasing production and creating economies of scale . The aim of the LFBB project at DLR was to reduce Ariane 5 operational costs and to develop future derivatives , including a reusable first stage of a small @-@ to @-@ medium launch vehicle , a super @-@ heavy launch vehicle capable of lifting 67 tonnes ( 74 short tons ) to Low Earth orbit , and a reusable two @-@ stage @-@ to @-@ orbit launch vehicle . Initially , LFBBs would be used only on Ariane 5 . Over time , alternative configurations could phase out Arianespace Soyuz and Vega .
= = = Reusable first stage = = =
The LFBB was studied with the three upper stage composites , to attain a Reusable First Stage ( RFS ) configuration . The first was a Vega derivative , with a Zefiro 23 second stage , a Zefiro 9 third stage and an AVUM upper stage . With the LFBB replacing the P80 stage , the payload to sun @-@ synchronous orbit ( SSO ) would increase to 1 @,@ 882 kg ( 4 @,@ 149 lb ) , compared to the 1 @,@ 450 kg ( 3 @,@ 200 lb ) of the Vega . The second was an Ariane 4 derivative called H @-@ 25 . It was based on an H10 upper stage with a Vinci rocket engine and 25 tonnes ( 28 short tons ) of cryogenic fuel . Depending on the method of deceleration , the payload to SSO is between 1 @,@ 481 and 2 @,@ 788 kg ( 3 @,@ 265 and 6 @,@ 146 lb ) . The third was a large cryogenic upper stage , called H @-@ 185 , based on an alternative , yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ developed Ariane 5 main stage with 185 tonnes ( 204 short tons ) of cryogenic fuel . Its payload to SSO is 5 @,@ 000 kg ( 11 @,@ 000 lb ) .
Two of the lighter configurations ( the Zefiro 23 and the H @-@ 25 ) use upper stages mounted on top of the booster . Due to the lower weight , it might have been necessary to lower the amount of fuel in a booster to ensure that the separation velocity , the flight path , and the reentry do not exceed design bounds . In the case of H @-@ 25 , it might be necessary to accelerate the fly @-@ back boosters to above 2 km / s ( 1 @.@ 2 mi / s ) to help the upper stage achieve its desired orbit . Consequently , two solutions were proposed to decelerate the boosters after separation . The first option was to actively decelerate them using 10 tonnes ( 11 short tons ) of fuel and reduce the velocity by 300 m / s ( 980 ft / s ) . However , launch performance would drop below that of the Vega derivative . Another option is to use aerodynamic forces to decelerate . However , a hypersonic parachute was deemed too expensive and too complex . As a result , an alternative ballute was proposed . Flight dynamics simulation revealed that a ballute with a cross @-@ section of 45 m2 ( 480 sq ft ) offered the best compromise between loads on the booster and deceleration by aerodynamic forces . In this configuration , a launch performance of up to 2 @,@ 788 kg ( 6 @,@ 146 lb ) could be achieved , partly thanks to a higher separation velocity .
The heaviest configuration uses a single booster with an asymmetrically mounted , large , expendable cryogenic stage designated H @-@ 185 . It was proposed as a future variant of the Ariane 5 core stage ( H158 ) , eventually meant to phase out the main stage in a standard launch configuration with LFBB . H @-@ 185 would use a new Vulcain 3 main engine , with increased vacuum thrust . When launched with a single booster , both stages would be operated in parallel , and be delivered to a 180 by 800 km ( 110 by 500 mi ) orbit before separation . The remaining upper stage composite would weigh 7 @,@ 360 kg ( 16 @,@ 230 lb ) , with a 5 @,@ 000 kg ( 11 @,@ 000 lb ) payload performance to SSO . When launching to Low Earth orbit , payload mass can be increased to over 10 @,@ 000 kg ( 22 @,@ 000 lb ) .
= = = Super @-@ heavy lift launcher = = =
The Super @-@ Heavy Lift Launcher ( SHLL ) would consist of a new cryogenic main stage , five liquid fly @-@ back boosters , and a re @-@ ignitable injection stage . This configuration was designed to provide increased capabilities for complex missions , including manned explorations to the Moon and to Mars , as well as the launch of large solar @-@ powered satellites .
The new core stage would stand 28 @.@ 65 m ( 94 @.@ 0 ft ) tall and have a diameter of 10 m ( 33 ft ) , feeding 600 tonnes ( 660 short tons ) of LOX / LH2 to three Vulcain 3 engines . The increased circumference of the main stage allows five LFBBs to be integrated with either retractable or variable @-@ geometry wings . The upper stage would be a derivative of the Ariane 5 ESC @-@ B , with the size upped to 5 @.@ 6 m × 8 @.@ 98 m ( 18 @.@ 4 ft × 29 @.@ 5 ft ) , and strengthened to bear higher loads . The Vinci engine was proofed to be sufficiently powerful for orbital insertion . Payload would be enclosed in an 8 m × 29 @.@ 5 m ( 26 ft × 97 ft ) fairing . The launch vehicle would have a total height of 69 m ( 226 ft ) and a mass of 1 @,@ 900 tonnes ( 2 @,@ 100 short tons ) . The payload to LEO would be 67 @,@ 280 kg ( 148 @,@ 330 lb ) .
When launched to a 200 km × 600 km ( 120 mi × 370 mi ) Low Earth transfer orbit , the LFBBs would separate at an altitude of 51 km ( 32 mi ) , at a speed of 1 @.@ 55 km / s ( 0 @.@ 96 mi / s ) . To avoid simultaneous separation of all boosters , either a cross @-@ feed to the main stage , or throttling could be used . The return flight of the boosters would require an estimated 3 @,@ 250 kg ( 7 @,@ 170 lb ) of fuel , including a 30 % reserve .
= = = Two @-@ stage @-@ to @-@ orbit = = =
A reusable Two @-@ Stage @-@ To @-@ Orbit ( TSTO ) launch vehicle was planned to be implemented about 15 years after the addition of LFBBs to Ariane 5 . However , only a preliminary analysis of TSTO was completed . The proposed configuration consisted of two boosters with retractable wings attached to the external fuel tank , and a reusable orbiter with fixed wings carrying payload on top of it . During geostationary transfer orbit ( GTO ) missions , an additional , expandable upper stage would be used .
The external tank , being a core of the system , would have a diameter of 5 @.@ 4 metres ( 18 ft ) and a height of 30 @.@ 5 metres ( 100 ft ) , carrying 167 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 184 @.@ 6 short tons ) of propellant . The attached orbiter would be 28 @.@ 8 metres ( 94 ft ) tall and 3 @.@ 6 metres ( 12 ft ) in diameter , carrying 50 tonnes ( 55 short tons ) of propellant . The payload fairing mount atop the orbiter would be 5 @.@ 4 by 20 @.@ 5 metres ( 18 ft × 67 ft ) . For LEO missions , the launch vehicle would be 57 @.@ 3 metres ( 188 ft ) tall , with a gross lift @-@ off mass of 739 @.@ 4 tonnes ( 815 @.@ 0 short tons ) . The payload to LEO would be 12 @,@ 800 kilograms ( 28 @,@ 200 lb ) , with an increase to 8 @,@ 500 kilograms ( 18 @,@ 700 lb ) to GTO when using an expandable upper stage .
= Vimala Temple =
The Vimala Temple or Bimala Temple is a Hindu temple dedicated to goddess Vimala ( Bimala ) , located within the Jagannath Temple complex in Puri in the Indian state of Orissa . It is generally regarded as a Shakti Pitha , among the holiest temples dedicated to the Hindu Goddess .
The temple is located in the south @-@ west corner of the inner enclosure of the Jagannath temple complex and on the western corner of the tower of Jagannath , next to the sacred pond Rohini kunda . The temple faces east and is built of sandstone and laterite . It is built in the Deula style with four components ; vimana ( structure containing the sanctum ) , jagamohana ( assembly hall ) , nata @-@ mandapa ( festival hall ) and bhoga @-@ mandapa ( hall of offerings ) . The temple was renovated around 2005 and is maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India , Bhubaneswar Circle .
Though a small shrine in the temple complex , the Vimala temple is important to the Goddess @-@ oriented Shakta and Tantric worshippers , who revere it even more than the main Jagannath shrine . Vimala is considered to be the Tantric consort of Jagannath and a guardian of the temple complex . Devotees pay respect to Vimala before worshipping Jagannath in the main temple . Food offered to Jagannath does not get sanctified as Mahaprasad until it is also offered to Vimala . The Goddess @-@ oriented festival of Durga Puja in the Hindu month of Ashvin ( October ) is celebrated for sixteen days at Vimala , culminating with Vijayadashami .
= = History = =
The central icon of Vimala is of sixth century CE . The present structure , based on its architecture , seems to have been built in the ninth century under the Eastern Ganga dynasty , possibly over ruins of an earlier temple . Its architecture is similar to the shrine of Narasimha near the Mukti @-@ mandapa ( a temple hall ) in the Jagannath temple complex , dated to the ninth century . The Madala Panji states that the temple was constructed by Yayati Keshari , a ruler of Somavashi Dynasty of South Kosala . Kings Yayati I ( c . 922 – 955 ) and Yayati II ( c . 1025 – 1040 ) are known by the title Yayati Keshari . The sculptures , especially the parshvadevatas ( attendant deities ) , as well as the background slab of the central icon , reflect the Somavashi style and may be part of the original temple , on whose ruins the new temple was constructed . Vimala is believed to have preceded even the central Jagannath shrine .
Hindu philosopher and saint Adi Shankara ( c . 8th century ) is believed to have established Govardhana matha in Puri , with Vimala as its presiding goddess . According to Starza ( author of The Jagannatha Temple at Puri ) , the Jagannath Temple was once a centre of worship for the Trimurti of Brahma , Vishnu and Shiva , along with their consorts and the three central forms of the Hindu Goddess , Sarasvati , Lakshmi and Parvati ( in the form of Vimala ) . The Shri Vidya sect devoted to Goddess worship was strong here until the 17th century . Slowly , Shri Vidya and Shiva @-@ centric Shaiva traditions were eroded but remnants continue , with the Vishnu @-@ centric Vaishnavism becoming the sole tradition . The Tantric Panchamakara , which includes fish , meat , liquor , parched grain and ritual intercourse , were replaced with vegetarian offerings and dance of devdasis . Fish was caught locally and offered to the goddess . King Narasimhadeva , who ruled between 1623 – 47 , ended the meat and fish offerings of the goddess , although the tradition was later partly revitalized . Today , the goddess is offered meat and fish on special days .
= = Architecture = =
The temple is located in the south @-@ west corner of the inner enclosure of the Jagannath temple complex and on the right hand western corner of the tower of Jagannath , next to the sacred pond Rohini kunda . The temple faces east and is built of sandstone and laterite . It is built in the Deula style that has four components namely , vimana ( structure containing the sanctum ) , jagamohana ( assembly hall ) , nata @-@ mandapa ( festival hall ) and bhoga @-@ mandapa ( hall of offerings ) . The temple is maintained and was renovated around 2005 by the Archaeological Survey of India , Bhubaneswar Circle .
= = = Vimana = = =
The vimana is a Rekha deula ( a tall building with a shape of sugarloaf ) , 60 feet ( 18 m ) in height and in shape of 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) square . It stands on a 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) platform , which is decorated with lotus and other floral designs and scrollwork . The outer wall of the vimana is divided into 5 parts ( from base to top ) : pabhaga , talajangha , bandhana , upara jangha and baranda . The niches and intervening recesses of the first part of the wall are ornate , with khakhara mundis ( a type of niche ) , scrollwork , floral designs , creepers , love @-@ making couples and Nagas ( serpent @-@ men ) . The niches and intervening recesses of the second part of the wall are also decorated with khakhara mundis , simhavidalas ( a lion @-@ faced beast ) , Gajavidalas ( an elephant @-@ faced lion trampling a lion ) , jaliwork , scrollwork , sikshadana scene ( sages teaching disciples ) and kirtimukha ( a monster face ) motifs , along with the figurines of eight Dikpalas ( guardian gods of the directions ) and some goddesses . The third part of the outer wall has two horizontal mouldings decorated with alasa @-@ kanyas ( beautiful human maidens ) , scrollwork and floral and lotus motifs . The niches and recesses of the fourth part of the wall are decorated with pidha mundis ( a type of niche ) , simhavidalas , erotic scenes , alasa @-@ kanyas , scrollwork , jaliwork and floral designs , along with figures of the consorts of the Dikpalas , Nagas and their female consort Naginis and various goddesses . The Dikpalas and their consorts are seen with their mounts and aligned to their respective directions .
Images of the parshvadevatas ( attendant deities ) are placed in the central niches of the outer wall ( bada ) on three sides : the eight @-@ armed Durga slaying Mahishasura on the south ; the six @-@ armed goddess Chamunda standing on Shiva on the west and an empty niche on the north , which probably had a goddess figure that was stolen . The lintel of the attendant deity niche has Gaja Lakshmi figurines . The frames of the niches are decorated with scrollwork and kirtimukha motifs and two female attendants accompany each niche . The uppermost part of the outer wall has ten horizontal mouldings , ornate with scrollwork , kirtimukha and lotus and floral motifs . Within the vimana lies the garbhagriha ( sanctum ) , which is topped with a pancharatha @-@ style , curvilinear temple pinnacle .
The goddess Vimala is deified within the sanctum , the sixth century inner chamber that is devoid of wall decorations . The central icon of Vimala holds a rosary in the upper right hand . Her lower right hand is held in a boon @-@ giving gesture and her lower left holds a pitcher , considered to be filled with amrita ( celestial elixir of life ) . The attribute in the upper left hand is heavily disputed . Descriptions include a human figurine , a nagini , a mermaid , a naga @-@ pasha ( serpent @-@ noose ) or some other object . She holds no weapons normally attributed to Durga . The icon is installed on a simhasana ( lion @-@ throne ) , adorned with the figures of the goddess ' female attendants Chhaya and Maya on the sides . The image is said to be made of lakha ( a type of wax ) and slightly taller than 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) .
The sanctum door , with a flight of stairs , leads down to the jagamohana . The lintel has the Gaja Lakshmi figurine in the centre surrounded with apsaras ( celestial maidens ) . The Navagraha ( deities of the classical planets ) are carved above the lintel . The doorjambs are decorated scrollwork , creepers , flowers and boys playing . Two gate @-@ keeper sculptors surround the door .
= = = Jagamohana = = =
The jagamohana or mukhasala is a pidha deula ( square building with a pyramid @-@ shaped roof ) , 35 feet ( 11 m ) in height with a 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) square base . It stands on a 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) high platform , which is decorated with floral designs and scrollwork . The outer wall is divided into 5 parts , as in the vimana . The niches and intervening recesses of the first part are adorned with Khakhara mundi niches ( having amorous couples and erotic scenes ) , Naga pilasters , scrollwork , jaliwork and floral motifs . The talajangha has the same motifs as the vimana 's second part of the wall , barring the goddesses . The third part of the wall has three horizontal mouldings . The fourth part of the wall also resembles its counterpart in the vimana , except it does not have the Naga and goddess sculptures . The uppermost part of the wall has seven horizontal mouldings , the central portion of which is decorated with dancing women , amorous couples , elephants , deer , scrollwork and jaliwork . The gavaksha ( decorative arch ) on the northern and southern sides are royal court and sikshadana scenes , with a balustraded window on each side . The frames of the windows are decorated with scrollwork , jaliwork , playing boys , floral designs , creepers and dancing women . The structure is topped with a pyramidal shikhara . The inner walls have no ornamentation . The jagamohana has two doorways : one towards the sanctum ( already discussed in vimana section ) and other towards the natamandapa , which is similar in style and decoration to the former .
= = = Natamandapa = = =
The natamandapa is a pidha deula , 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) in height and in shape of rectangle 35 feet ( 11 m ) in length by 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) . It is probably a later addition to the original temple , which consisted of the vimana and jagamohana . It stands on a 3 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) platform . The five divisions of the outer wall are undecorated . It is topped with a small pyramidal pinnacle . The natamandapa has four door ways , one on each side of the wall . Inner walls of the natamandapa are adorned with Pattachitra @-@ style traditional Orissan paintings , depicting sixteen forms of the Hindu Goddess , including the Mahavidyas .
= = = Bhogamandapa = = =
The bhogamandapa is a pidha deula , 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) in height and in shape of 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) square . It stands on a 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) platform . The five outer wall divisions are undecorated . It is topped with a small pinnacle . An eight @-@ armed dancing Ganesha and a 12 @-@ armed , six @-@ headed standing Kartikeya ( both are the sons of Parvati and Shiva ) occupy niches on the western inner wall . The ceiling has floral paintings with a lotus design in the middle , suspending downwards . The bhogamandapa has four doorways , opening on each side . Two female gatekeepers guard each door . A flight of steps at the eastern doorway serves as the main entrance of the temple .
At the entrance to the shrine outside the bhogamandapa , there is a 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) Gaja @-@ Simha , the lion – the goddess ' vahana ( mount or vehicle ) – riding over an elephant , symbolizing the victory of good over evil . It is covered by a flat roof .
= = Religious significance = =
The Vimala Temple is considered one of the Shakti Pithas , the most sacred temples of the Hindu Goddess , identified with Parvati or Durga as consort of the god Shiva . It is considered to be a prime example of the importance of the Shakti cult in Orissa . It is customary to worship Shiva at each Shakti Pitha in the form of Bhairava , the male counterpart or guardian of the presiding goddess of the Shakti Pitha .
In Goddess @-@ oriented worship , Vimala ( Bimala ) is regarded as the presiding goddess of the Purushottama ( Puri ) Shakti Pitha . Jagannath , a form of the god Vishnu / Krishna ( Krishna is generally regarded as an avatar of Vishnu ) , is worshipped as the Pitha 's Bhairava . This is a departure from the usual tradition of Bhairava as a form of Shiva . So , in this temple complex , Vishnu – one of the Hindu trinity – is equated with Shiva , another of the trinity ; this is interpreted to convey the oneness of God . In this regard , Vimala - generally associated with Shiva 's consort - is also considered as Lakshmi , the consort of Vishnu . Conversely , Tantrics consider Jagannath as Shiva @-@ Bhairava , rather than a form of Vishnu .
The main sanctum of the Jagannath Temple has three deities : Jagannath , Balabhadra ( elder brother of Krishna , sometimes identified with Shiva ) and Subhadra ( the younger sister of Krishna and Balabhadra ) . In Jagannath @-@ centric traditions , while Lakshmi is the orthodox consort of Jagannath in the temple complex , Vimala is the Tantric ( heterodox ) consort and guardian goddess of the temple complex .
Vimala is identified with the goddesses Katyayini , Durga , Bhairavi , Bhuvaneshvari and Ekanamsha in various texts and rituals . She is considered the shakti of Vishnu as well as Shiva in the climactic Durga Puja festivities in the temple . She appears as Mahishasuramardini ( Durga as slayer of the demon Mahishasura ) or Vijayalakshmi ( the warrior form of Lakshmi ) in New Delhi Konark stele , 13th century stone stele originally from Konark Sun Temple and now housed in National Museum , New Delhi .
= = = In Shakti Pitha lists = = =
According to Hindu legend , Sati , the daughter of Prajapati Daksha , married Shiva against the wish of Daksha . Daksha organised a great yajna ( sacrifice ) , but did not invite Sati and Shiva . Uninvited , Sati reached the yajna @-@ site , where Daksha ignored Sati and vilified Shiva . Unable to withstand this insult , Sati sacrificed herself in the fire . The wild , grief @-@ stricken Shiva wandered the universe with her half @-@ burnt corpse . Finally , Vishnu dismembered her body into 51 parts , each of which fell on different places on the earth , each creating a Shakti Pitha .
The list of Shakti Pithas differ in various religious texts . Many mention Vimala or Jagannath temple complex as a Shakti Pitha , and calls the location by various names . In the Kalika Purana , four Pithas ( centres of Tantrism ) are mentioned , corresponding to the four cardinal directions . The Oddiyana or Uddiyana ( now clearly identified as Orissa ) in the west hosts the temple of Katyayini ( identified with Vimala ) and her consort Jagannath . The Hevajara Tantra , which has a similar list , also mentions Katyayini as the Bhairavi and Jagannath as the Bhairava in the Pitha of Udra ( Odra , identified with Orissa ) .
The Pithanirnaya or Mahapithanirupana section from the Tantrachudamani mentions Viraja @-@ kshetra in Utkala ( present @-@ day Orissa ) as a Shakti Pitha , with Vimala as the presiding goddess ( Devi ) , Jagannath as Bhairava and her navel as the body part that fell here . One version of this text , however , demotes the site from a Pitha to an upa @-@ Pitha ( subordinate Pitha ) . Here , the Ucchishta ( that is , left @-@ over or partially eaten food ) of Sati is said to be the " fallen part " ( anga @-@ pratyanga ) and the temple location is called Nilachal or " Blue mountain " , which is the traditional name of the site of the Jagannath temple complex . Nilachal or Nila Parvat is mentioned as an upa @-@ pitha also in the Shiva @-@ charita with Vimala and Jagannath as the Devi and Bhairava respectively .
The Tantric work Kubjika Tantra names Vimala among 42 Siddha Pithas , where Siddhis - a set of supernatural powers - can be gained . The Devi Bhagavata Purana , Prana Toshini Tantra and Brihan Nila Tantra name the Vimala temple as a Pitha in their list of 108 temples . The Matsya Purana mentions Purushottama Kshetra with goddess Vimala as a Shakti Pitha . The Vamana Purana notes it as a sacred pilgrimage site . The Mahapitha Nirupanam also mentions Vimala and Jagannath as deities of the Pitha . In the Namasttotra Sata , a Puranic list of 100 mother goddesses , Vimala of Purushottama is named . The Devi Purana also mentions it as a Pitha where feet of Sati fell .
= = Worship = =
The people of Orissa take pride in the Vimala temple . They consider it the most important temple to the Goddess and a must @-@ visit . Devotees visit the temple religiously every day and recite hymns from the Devi Mahatmya , attributed to the sage Markandeya , Debyaparadhakshyamapana stotram by Adi Shankara and Vimalastakam composed by Purusottam Rakshit . It is prescribed that devotees pay their respects to the goddess Vimala before worshipping Jagannath in the main temple . The waters of Rohini kunda , the tirtha ( sacred pool ) of Vimala , are also considered holy . Tantrics often visit the temple , which they consider more important than the central Jagannath shrine .
The Goddess @-@ oriented festival of Durga Puja in the Hindu month of Ashvin ( October ) is celebrated for sixteen days , culminating with Vijayadashami . On Vijayadashami , Vimala is worshipped by the titular Gajapati king of Puri as the goddess Durga , who is believed to have slain the demon Mahishasura on this day . The earliest record of this is the New Delhi Konark stele , which narrate that King Narasimhadeva I ( reign : 1238 – 1264 ) worshipped Durga @-@ Madhava ( Vimala @-@ Jagannath ) on the tenth day of Durga Puja , that is , Vijayadashami . As the goddess is believed to assume a destructive aspect during the Durga Puja , women are debarred in the temple as they are considered too " weak @-@ hearted " to witness this terrible form of the goddess .
= = = Food offerings = = =
Generally , no separate food offerings are cooked for the goddess Vimala . The goddess is described to survive on the remnants ( Ucchishta ) of Jagannath 's meals . The vegetarian food offerings to Jagannath are offered to Vimala , after which they are sanctified as Mahaprasad ( see also prasad ) . The Mahaprasad consists of dried rice mixed with grated coconut , cheese , curd and butter . The Shankaracharya , head of the Govardhana matha , receives a pot of the mahaprasad and a plate of khichdi that is offered to the goddess , the presiding goddess ( Adya @-@ shakti ) of the matha as well as of the temple .
The legend narrates the tale behind the tradition of offering the Ucchishta , which otherwise is a taboo in Hinduism . Once , Shiva on a visit to Vishnu 's abode Vaikuntha , saw that a few food grains ( Ucchishta ) had fallen on the ground after Vishnu finished his meal . Shiva quickly picked up a grain and swallowed it . Unbeknownst to him , half of it stuck to his beard . When he returned to his abode , the sage Narada saw the half grain on Shiva 's beard , and ate it . Parvati , Shiva 's consort , was upset that her rightful share of Vishnu 's prasad had been eaten by Narada . In a peeved mood , she went to Vishnu and complained . Vishnu pacified her saying that in the Kali Yuga ( the present era as per Hindu beliefs ) , she would live at Puri as Vimala , and would daily eat the remnants of his food .
The only time in the year when separate food is cooked for the goddess is when she is offered non @-@ vegetarian offerings . During Durga Puja , Vimala is offered non @-@ vegetarian food and animal sacrifice , traditionally offered to the Hindu Mother Goddess . The goddess is considered to assume a destructive form during the festival and the meat is considered necessary to placate her . In strict secrecy during the pre @-@ dawn hours , animal sacrifice of a he @-@ goat is offered in the temple , while fish from the sacred Markanda temple tank are cooked and offered to Vimala , as per Tantric rituals . The rituals have to be completed before the doors of the main sanctum of the vegetarian Jagannath are opened at dawn and the first morning aarti is offered to the god . Vaishnava devotees of Jagannath are debarred from the temple . Only a few who witness the ceremony are given the Bimala parusa ( Vimala 's cuisine ) as prasad . The animal sacrifice and the non @-@ vegetarian offerings to Vimala produced protests .
= Tropical Storm Danielle ( 1986 ) =
Tropical Storm Danielle was the only tropical storm to move through the Caribbean Sea in 1986 . A short @-@ lived cyclone , Danielle developed on September 7 to the east of the southern Lesser Antilles . Strengthening to peak winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) , the storm moved through Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , where a rainband moved across the main island with hurricane @-@ force gusts . Continuing westward , Danielle absorbed dry air from northern South America and dissipated on September 10 .
The threat of Danielle prompted gale warnings in Barbados as well as Saint Vincent and the Grenadines . On the former island , wind gusts reached 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) . On Saint Vincent , the winds caused a major power outage , while heavy rainfall left crop damage . Another rain system affected the country a few weeks later , and the combined monetary damage totaled $ 9 @.@ 2 million ( 1986 USD , $ 18 million 2010 USD ) ; 142 people had to seek shelter after their homes were destroyed , and a total of 436 dwellings were impacted to some degree . In Trinidad and Tobago , the outer rainbands produced flooding and mudslides . Further west , Danielle briefly threatened Jamaica , although it dissipated before affecting the island .
= = Meteorological history = =
Around September 1 , a tropical wave moved off the western coast of Africa . It progressed westward through the tropical Atlantic Ocean , initially at a moderate speed before accelerating to 23 mph ( 37 km / h ) on September 6 . A tropical depression developed along the tropical wave early on September 7 , and satellite imagery indicated that it quickly intensified into Tropical Storm Danielle about 385 mi ( 620 km ) east @-@ southeast of Grenada , an island in the Lesser Antilles .
On September 8 , Hurricane Hunters flew into Tropical Storm Danielle and reported maximum sustained winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) , as well as a pressure of 1 @,@ 000 millibars ( 30 inHg ) . Initially , forecasters anticipated Danielle would strengthen further . As the storm moved through Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , a rainband north of the center contained winds of near hurricane force , which moved across the island of Saint Vincent . After maintaining peak winds for about 18 hours , Danielle began weakening in the eastern Caribbean Sea , due to entrainment of dry air from northern South America . Paralleling the northern coast of the continent , the circulation became dislocated from the convection . Late on September 9 , the system weakened to tropical depression status , and the next day it dissipated in the western Caribbean . It was the only tropical cyclone in the Caribbean Sea during 1986 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Before Tropical Storm Danielle moved through the Lesser Antilles , a small @-@ craft advisory was issued , and later , gale warnings were posted for Barbados as well as Saint Vincent and the Grenadines . On Saint Vincent , the threat of the storm forced the closure of the main commercial airport , as well as schools , businesses , and stores . Further west , Danielle briefly posed a threat to Jamaica , prompting officials in that country to issue a tropical storm watch . Two months earlier , the precursor to Tropical Storm Andrew killed 49 people on the island ; to avoid a recurrence , the Jamaican government worked to evacuate fishermen from two small islands as a precaution .
As Danielle moved through the Lesser Antilles , a rainband struck the island of Saint Vincent with wind gusts of near hurricane @-@ force . The winds caused a major power outage on the island , and destroyed the roofs of more than 30 houses . Elsewhere in the country , the combination of winds and heavy rains caused heavy crop damage . Twelve days after Danielle struck , a severe rainstorm affected Saint Vincent and the Grenadines . The combined disasters produced a damage total of $ 9 @.@ 3 million ( 1986 USD , $ 18 million 2010 USD ) , the majority of it from crop damage . About 40 % of the banana crop was destroyed or unfit for cultivation , and 2 @,@ 050 acres ( 8 @.@ 3 km2 ) of other crops were seriously affected . The two storms caused the deaths of 120 animals , although there were no human fatalities . In addition to the crop damage , the combined impact of the two storms left over 100 houses destroyed , with a total of 436 dwellings damaged ; this forced 142 people to seek emergency shelter . Across the country , the heavy rainfall caused mudslides and flooding which disrupted the transportation and utility network .
During its passage , Danielle produced a 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) wind gust at the airport in Bridgetown , Barbados . A coast guard ship from Barbados ran aground into a reef in the southern Grenadines , but it was rescued . Further south , rainbands from Danielle swept through Trinidad and Tobago , producing up to 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) of flooding . The flooding caused 27 landslides and destroyed 4 bridges . Damage in the country was estimated at $ 8 million ( 1986 TTD , $ 1 @.@ 2 million 1986 USD ) .
= The Tale of Peter Rabbit =
The Tale of Peter Rabbit is a British children 's book written and illustrated by Beatrix Potter that follows mischievous and disobedient young Peter Rabbit as he is chased about the garden of Mr. McGregor . He escapes and returns home to his mother who puts him to bed after dosing him with camomile tea . The tale was written for five @-@ year @-@ old Noel Moore , son of Potter 's former governess Annie Carter Moore , in 1893 . It was revised and privately printed by Potter in 1901 after several publishers ' rejections but was printed in a trade edition by Frederick Warne & Co. in 1902 . The book was a success , and multiple reprints were issued in the years immediately following its debut . It has been translated into 36 languages and with 45 million copies sold it is one of the best @-@ selling books of all time .
The book has generated considerable merchandise over the decades since its release for both children and adults with toys , dishes , foods , clothing , videos and other products made available . Potter was one of the first to be responsible for such merchandise when she patented a Peter Rabbit doll in 1903 and followed it almost immediately with a Peter Rabbit board game .
= = Plot = =
The story focuses on a family of anthropomorphic rabbits , the widowed mother rabbit cautioning her young against entering a vegetable garden grown by a man named Mr. McGregor , telling them : " your Father had an accident there ; he was put in a pie by Mrs. McGregor " . Whereas her three daughters obediently refrain from entering the garden , going down the lane to pick blackberries , her rebellious son Peter enters the garden to snack on some vegetables . Peter ends up eating more than is good for him and goes looking for parsley to cure his stomach ache . However , Peter is spotted by Mr. McGregor and loses his jacket and shoes while trying to escape . He hides in a watering can in a shed , but then has to run away again when Mr. McGregor finds him , and ends up completely lost . After sneaking past a cat , Peter sees the gate where he entered the garden from a distance and heads for it , despite being spotted and chased by Mr. McGregor again . He finds difficulties in wriggling beneath the gate , but manages to escape the garden , only to spot his abandoned clothing articles being used to dress Mr. McGregor 's scarecrow . After returning home , a sick Peter is sent to bed by his mother whereas his well @-@ behaved sisters receive a sumptuous dinner of milk and berries as opposed to Peter 's supper of chamomile tea .
= = Composition = =
The story was inspired by a pet rabbit Potter had as a child , which she named Peter Piper . Through the 1890s , Potter sent illustrated story letters to the children of her former governess , Annie Moore , and , in 1900 , Moore , realizing the commercial potential of Potter 's stories , suggested they be made into books . Potter embraced the suggestion , and , borrowing her complete correspondence ( which had been carefully preserved by the Moore children ) , selected a letter written on 4 September 1893 to five @-@ year @-@ old Noel that featured a tale about a rabbit named Peter . Potter biographer Linda Lear explains : " The original letter was too short to make a proper book so [ Potter ] added some text and made new black @-@ and @-@ white illustrations ... and made it more suspenseful . These changes slowed the narrative down , added intrigue , and gave a greater sense of the passage of time . Then she copied it out into a stiff @-@ covered exercise book , and painted a coloured frontispiece showing Mrs. Rabbit dosing Peter with camomile tea " .
= = Publication history = =
= = = Private publication = = =
As Lear explains , Potter titled The Tale of Peter Rabbit and Mr. McGregor 's Garden and sent it to publishers , but " her manuscript was returned ... including Frederick Warne & Co . ... who nearly a decade earlier had shown some interest in her artwork . Some publishers wanted a shorter book , others a longer one . But most wanted coloured illustrations which by 1900 were both popular and affordable " . The several rejections proved frustrating to Potter who knew exactly how her book should look ( she had adopted the format and style of Helen Bannerman 's Little Black Sambo ) " and how much it should cost " . She decided to publish the book herself , and , on 16 December 1901 , the first 250 copies of her privately printed The Tale of Peter Rabbit " was ready for distribution to family and friends " .
= = = First commercial edition = = =
In 1901 , as Lear explains , a Potter family friend and sometime poet , Canon Hardwicke Rawnsley , set Potter 's tale into " rather dreadful didactic verse and submitted it , along with Potter 's illustrations and half her revised manuscript , to Frederick Warne & Co . , " which had been among the original rejecters . Warne editors declined Rawnsley 's version " but asked to see the complete Potter manuscript " – their interest stimulated by the opportunity The Tale of Peter Rabbit offered the publisher to compete with the success of Helen Bannerman 's wildly popular Little Black Sambo and other small format children 's books then on the market . When Warne inquired about the lack of colour illustrations in the book , Potter replied that rabbit @-@ brown and green were not good subjects for colouration . Warne declined the book but opened the possibility for future publication .
Warne wanted colour illustrations throughout the ' bunny book ' ( as the firm referred to the tale ) and suggested cutting the illustrations " from forty @-@ two to thirty @-@ two ... and marked which ones might best be eliminated " . Potter initially resisted the idea of colour illustrations but then realized her stubborn stance was a mistake . She sent Warne " several colour illustrations , along with a copy of her privately printed edition " which Warne then handed to their eminent children 's book illustrator L. Leslie Brooke for his professional opinion , who was impressed with to Potter 's work . Fortuitously , his recommendation coincided with a sudden surge in the small picture @-@ book market .
Meanwhile , Potter continued to distribute her privately printed edition to family and friends , with the celebrated creator of Sherlock Holmes , Arthur Conan Doyle , acquiring a copy for his children . When the first private printing of 250 copies was sold out , another 200 were prepared . She noted in an inscription in one copy that her beloved pet rabbit Peter had died .
Potter arrived at an agreement with Warne for an initial publication of 5 @,@ 000 commercial copies . Negotiations dragged on into the following year with a contract finally signed in June 1902 . Potter was closely involved in the publication process of the trade edition of the tale – redrawing when necessary , making minor adjustments to the prose and correcting punctuation . The blocks for the illustrations and text were sent to printer Edmund Evans for engraving , and she made adjustments to the proofs when she received them . Lear writes that " Even before the publication of the tale in early October 1902 , the first 8 @,@ 000 copies were sold out . By the year 's end there were 28 @,@ 000 copies of The Tale of Peter Rabbit in print . By the middle of 1903 there was a fifth edition sporting coloured endpapers ... a sixth printing was produced within the month " ; and a year after the first commercial publication there were 56 @,@ 470 copies in print .
= = = American copyright = = =
Warne 's New York office " failed to register the copyright for The Tale of Peter Rabbit in the United States " and unlicensed copies of the book " ( from which Potter would receive no royalties ) began to appear in the spring of 1903 . There was nothing anyone could do to stop them " .
The enormous financial loss ... [ to Potter ] only became evident over time " , but the necessity of protecting her intellectual property hit home after the successful 1903 publication of The Tale of Squirrel Nutkin when her father returned from the Burlington Arcade in Mayfair at Christmas 1903 with a toy squirrel labelled Nutkin .
= = Merchandising = =
Potter asserted her tales would one day be nursery classics , and part of the " longevity of her books comes from strategy " , writes Potter biographer Ruth MacDonald . She was the first to exploit the commercial possibilities of her characters and tales ; between 1903 and 1905 these included a Peter Rabbit stuffed toy , an unpublished board game , and nursery wallpaper .
Considerable variants on the original format and version of The Tale of Peter Rabbit as well as spin @-@ off merchandise have been made available over the decades . Variant versions include " pop @-@ ups , toy theatres , and lift @-@ the @-@ flap books " . By 1998 , modern technology had made available " videos , audio cassette , a CD @-@ ROMs , a computer program , and Internet sites " , as described by Margaret Mackey writing in The case of Peter Rabbit : changing conditions of literature for children . She continues : " Warne and their collaborators and competitors have produced a large collection of activity books and a monthly educational magazine " . A plethora of other Peter Rabbit related merchandise exists as well , and " toy shops in the United States and Britain have whole sections of store specially signposted and earmarked exclusively for Potter @-@ related toys and merchandise " .
Unauthorized copying of The Tale of Peter Rabbit has flourished over the decades with products only loosely associated with the original . In 1916 , American Louise A. Field cashed in on the popularity by writing books such as Peter Rabbit Goes to School or Peter Rabbit and His Ma , the illustrations of which showed him in his distinctive blue jacket . In an animated movie by Golden Films , The New Adventures of Peter Rabbit , " Peter is given buck teeth , an American accent and a fourth sister Hopsy . " Another video " retelling of the tale casts Peter as a Christian preacher singing songs about God and Jesus . "
= = Literary criticism = =
Writing in Storyteller : The Classic that Heralded America 's Storytelling Revival , in discussing the difference between stories that lend themselves well to telling and stories that lend themselves well to reading , Ramon Ross explains Peter Rabbit is a story created for reading . He believes Potter created a good mix of suspense and tension , intermixed with lulls in the action . He goes on to write that the writing style — " the economy of words , the crisp writing " — lends itself well to a young audience .
Lear writes that Potter " had in fact created a new form of animal fable in : one in which anthropomorphic animals behave as real animals with true animal instincts " , and a form of fable with anatomically correct illustrations drawn by a scientifically minded artist . She further states Peter Rabbit 's nature is familiar to rabbit enthusiasts " and endorsed by those who are not ... because her portrayal speaks to some universal understanding of rabbity behaviour . " She describes the tale as a " perfect marriage of word and image " and " a triumph of fantasy and fact " .
According to Stuart Jeffries , " ... psychoanalytic critiques of her work have multiplied since her death in 1943 . " Carole Scott writes in Beatrix Potter 's Peter Rabbit that the reader cannot help but identify with rebellious little Peter and his plight as all the illustrations are presented from his low @-@ to @-@ the @-@ ground view , most feature Peter in close @-@ up and within touching distance , and Mr. McGregor is distanced from the reader by always being depicted on the far side of Peter . Scott explains : " This identification dramatically instills fear and tension in the reader , and interacts with the frequently distanced voice of the verbal narrative " , sometimes with contradictory effects . In the verbal narrative and the illustration for the moment when Mr. McGregor attempts to trap Peter under a garden sieve , for example , the verbal narrative presents the murderous intent of Mr. McGregor as a matter @-@ of @-@ fact , everyday occurrence while the illustration presents the desperate moment from the terrified view of a small animal in fear of his life – a view that is reinforced by the birds that take flight to the left and the right .
In the illustration of Peter standing by the locked door , the verbal narrative describes the scene without the flippancy evident in the moment of the sieve . The inability to overcome obstacles is presented in the verbal narrative with objective matter @-@ of @-@ factness and the statement , " Peter began to cry " is offered without irony or attitude , thus drawing the reader closer to Peter ’ s emotions and plight . The illustration depicts an unclothed Peter standing upright against the door , one foot upon the other with a tear running from his eye . Without his clothes , Peter is only a small , wild animal but his tears , his emotions , and his human posture intensifies the reader ’ s identification with him . Here , verbal narrative and illustration work in harmony rather than in disharmony . Scott suggests Potter ’ s tale has encouraged many generations of children to " self @-@ indulgence , disobedience , transgression of social boundaries and ethics , and assertion of their wild , unpredictable nature against the constrictions of civilized living . "
Frank Delaney notes " a self @-@ containment " in Potter 's writing reflective of an uninterested mother and a lonely childhood spent in the company of pets . John Bidwell , curator at the Morgan Library & Museum in New York , observed " ... the sardonic humor that makes Beatrix Potter so much fun for kids and grown @-@ ups . ”
= = Adaptations = =
In 1938 , shortly after the success of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs , Walt Disney became interested in making an animated film based on The Tale of Peter Rabbit . However , Beatrix Potter refused to give the rights to Disney because of marketing issues .
In 1971 , Peter Rabbit appeared as a character in the ballet film The Tales of Beatrix Potter . In the autumn of 1991 , HBO aired an animated musical adaptation of The Tale of Peter Rabbit , narrated by Carol Burnett , as part of the network 's Storybook Musicals series , which was later released to VHS by Family Home Entertainment . In 1992 , the tale was adapted to animation again for the BBC anthology series , The World of Peter Rabbit and Friends , which has since been released on VHS and DVD . In 2006 , Peter Rabbit was heavily referenced in a biopic about Beatrix Potter entitled Miss Potter . In December 2012 , a new CGI @-@ animated children 's TV series titled Peter Rabbit premiered on Nickelodeon , with a full series run beginning in February 2013 .
= Epaulettes ( stamp ) =
Epaulettes ( French : Épaulettes , Dutch : Epauletten ) is the colloquial name of the first series of postage stamps issued by Belgium . The stamps , which depicted King Leopold I and his prominent epaulettes from which the type 's name derives , became legally usable on 1 July 1849 . They were produced as the result of a series of national reforms to the postal system in Belgium , based on the success of similar British reforms in 1840 . Two denominations with the same design were issued simultaneously : a brown 10 centimes and a blue 20 centimes . The stamps allowed postal costs to be pre @-@ paid by the sender , rather than the receiver , and led to a sharp increase in the volume of mail . Although quickly superseded by new types , the Epaulettes proved extremely influential and have since inspired several series of commemorative stamps .
= = Background = =
Heavily influenced by the example of the British postal system , which issued its first stamp , the Penny Black , in 1840 , the Belgian government supported the inauguration of a Belgian equivalent . Under the existing system , postage costs were paid by the receiver rather than the sender , which discouraged people from receiving , and therefore sending , letters . The idea of postage stamps , which would allow the sender to pay in advance , was officially sanctioned by Leopold I on the Loi apportant des modifications au régime des postes ( " Law bringing modifications to the postal system " ) on 24 December 1847 while the radical liberal and future Prime Minister , Walthère Frère @-@ Orban , served as Minister of Public Works . The debate on the reform of the postage in Belgium occurred at the same time as widespread postage reform , influenced by the British example , in France , Bavaria and elsewhere .
A second act , the Loi sur la réforme postale ( " Law on postal reform " ) , was signed on 22 April 1849 . The second law set out more detailed terms for the launch of the postal system and on 17 June 1849 , Leopold I officially requested the new Minister of Public Works , Hippolyte Rolin , to act on the new laws .
= = Stamps = =
On 1 July 1849 , the first postage stamps were launched , produced in two denominations with the same design . The first , a brown 10 centimes stamp , could be used to send a letter up to a distance of 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) ; the blue 20 centimes could be used on all other ordinary national mail . The successful design was just one of a variety of options produced by Jacob Wiener .
The stamps were officially described by an Avis ministériel ( " Ministerial notice " ) of 1849 as each being a " small engraving representing the portrait of the King , with indication as to their value ... they will be printed on a paper of which the reverse is coated in a thin layer of glue . "
The Epaulettes stamps depicted Leopold I wearing military uniform , with highly visible epaulettes , and were printed using the intaglio method . They were inscribed " POSTES " ( " postage " ) at the top , along with the stamp 's value in numbers . At the bottom was the stamps face value in French language text . No Dutch language version was produced . Like the first British stamps , it did not carry the name of its country of origin since they were intended for use only within Belgium . The stamp was designed by Charles Baugniet , based on the King 's official portrait painted by the artist Liévin De Winne . It composition was by Jacob Wiener and the engraver John Henry Robinson . It was not perforated and was instead cut from sheets of 10x10 by hand .
The stamp carried the two crossed " L " s monogram of Leopold I as a watermark . To attach it to an envelope , the stamp , which already contained gum , had to be moistened before application . Around 5 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 examples of each denomination were produced .
Philatelists distinguish several minor variations among the series . For the 10 centimes , some slight colour variations exist , described as grey @-@ brown ( brun @-@ gris ) and russet @-@ brown ( brun @-@ roux ) . In the 20 centimes , variations in dark blue ( bleu @-@ foncé ) and milky blue ( bleu @-@ laiteux ) have been noted . Of all the colour variations , the russet @-@ brown examples commanding the highest premium among collectors . Some double @-@ printed ( error ) stamps are also known .
= = Operation = =
The stamps were sold from post @-@ offices across the country but some were also issued to postmen for sale . Sales started on 25 June 1849 , however their use only became legal on 1 July . Because of the lack of an infrastructure of post boxes , particularly in rural areas , letters could be given directly to the postman in person rather than delivered to post offices to be sent .
For use , the stamps were cancelled with a heavy , circular black ink stamp . The cancellations , like their British equivalent , had a number in the centre ( between one and 135 ) which was different for each post office around the country .
= = Effects and legacy = =
The introduction of the postage stamp , along with daily delivery , allowed a large increase in the volume of mail carried . By 1849 , between ten and fifteen million letters were being carried each year . The creation of the stamps also led to a structural expansion of the national postage system , which in 1830 had counted just 123 post offices and 240 postmen .
The success of the initial Epaulettes series inspired the introduction of three new varieties with different designs and denominations in October 1849 . These new types replaced the epaulettes design with the so @-@ called " Medallion " ( Médaillon ) type , featuring Leopold I 's portrait within a circular medallion window . In the same issue , a new denomination of forty centimes in red was produced for overseas mail . It was rumoured at the time that Leopold I did not like the design at the time , and believed that the epaulettes gave him a childlike aspect . The Epaulettes were officially superseded in 1859 , but remained legally valid until 1 July 1866 when , following Leopold I 's death , all stamps bearing his effigy were demonetised .
A nearly identical re @-@ impression was made in 1866 on laid paper which are distinguished by slightly different dimensions . Further re @-@ impressions date to 1895 . The Epaulettes have also subsequently been the subject of various commemorative stamps . The Epaulettes featured as part of the design of stamps issued by Belgium in 1925 and 1972 . For their 100th and 150th anniversary , in 1949 and 1999 , the Belgian postal service published commemorative series .
= Eduardo Núñez =
Eduardo Michelle Núñez Méndez ( born June 15 , 1987 ) is a Dominican professional baseball infielder for the Minnesota Twins of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He played in MLB for the New York Yankees from 2010 through 2013 . Although shortstop is his primary position , Núñez serves as a utility infielder , and played in the outfield for the Yankees as well .
The Yankees signed Núñez as an international free agent in 2004 . He played minor league baseball in their organization from 2005 through 2010 , until he made his MLB debut with the Yankees on August 19 , 2010 . He has served to allow Derek Jeter and Alex Rodriguez the ability to take days off in the field . Due to struggles and inconsistency , the Yankees designated Núñez for assignment at the start of the 2014 season . He was traded to the Twins , and enjoyed a breakout season in 2016 , when he was named to appear in the MLB All @-@ Star Game .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Minor leagues = = =
The New York Yankees signed Núñez as an international free agent in February 2004 . The organization introduced him to Derek Jeter , his childhood idol , at a press conference , where they told Jeter that Núñez was to be their eventual replacement for Jeter as the Yankees ' starting shortstop .
Núñez made his professional debut in minor league baseball with the Staten Island Yankees of the Class A Short Season New York – Pennsylvania League in the 2005 season . Nunez represented the Yankees in the league 's All @-@ Star Game . That season , the Yankees won their third consecutive league championship , and Nunez was rated as the fourth @-@ best prospect in the New York – Penn League . Going into the 2006 season , Baseball America ranked Núñez the sixth @-@ best prospect in the Yankees organization , and the prospect with the best throwing arm . The Yankees started Núñez with the Tampa Yankees of the Class A @-@ Advanced Florida State League in 2006 ; he struggled with Tampa , and the Yankees demoted him to the Charleston RiverDogs of the Class A South Atlantic League ( SAL ) on May 17 . Overall , Núñez had a .214 batting average for Tampa and Charleston .
In 2007 , Núñez started the season with Charleston , and was named the starting shortstop for the Southern Division in the SAL All @-@ Star Game . He was promoted to Tampa on July 28 . He played for Tampa in 2008 , batting .271 with six home runs and 42 runs batted in ( RBI ) in 94 games . He was promoted to the Trenton Thunder of the Class AA Eastern League for the 2009 season . With Trenton , he had a .322 batting average in 123 games and appeared in the Eastern League All @-@ Star Game , in which he got two hits . The Yankees promoted Núñez to the Scranton / Wilkes @-@ Barre Yankees of the Class AAA International League for the 2009 playoffs . Following the 2009 season , the Yankees added Núñez to their 40 @-@ man roster to protect him from being selected by another franchise in the Rule 5 draft . In 2010 , the Yankees assigned Núñez to Scranton / Wilkes @-@ Barre . There , he batted .289 in 118 games , with 55 runs scored , 25 doubles , three triples , four home runs , 50 RBI , and 23 stolen bases . He was named to the International League All @-@ Star team , the postseason All @-@ Star team , and the Topps Triple @-@ A All @-@ Star Team . Núñez won the Kevin Lawn Award as the Yankees ' minor league player of the year for 2010 .
= = = New York Yankees = = =
Núñez was called up to the majors for the first time on August 19 , 2010 after Lance Berkman was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list . Núñez debuted on the same day , replacing Jeter in the seventh inning and fouling out in his only plate appearance . Núñez received playing time as a fill @-@ in for Jeter and the then @-@ injured Alex Rodriguez . On August 21 , Núñez recorded his first major league hit , a go @-@ ahead RBI single into right field . Núñez hit his first career home run against the Chicago White Sox on August 28 , 2010 . He also stole his first career base the same day . In 30 games for the Yankees , Nunez hit .280 , with one home run , seven RBIs , and scored 12 runs . After the season , Baseball America rated him as the eighth @-@ best prospect in the Yankees organization , while also naming him the " Best Defensive Infielder " and the " Best Infield Arm " in the Yankees organization . Núñez was part of the Yankees postseason in case Jeter or A @-@ Rod get injured again . The Yankees ventured through the playoffs until losing to the Texas Rangers in the 2010 ALCS .
Núñez beat out Ramiro Peña for the role as the utility infielder to start the 2011 season . With the Yankees , Núñez played approximately two games a week , allowing Derek Jeter and Alex Rodriguez to rest more often . Núñez batted .339 while filling in for the Yankees as their starting shortstop for three weeks while Jeter was injured ; he later became the team 's starting third baseman when Rodriguez required arthroscopic knee surgery . In addition to playing various infield positions , manager Joe Girardi also used Núñez as an outfielder when Nick Swisher experienced tendinitis in his elbow . Núñez played in 112 games for the Yankees , and led the team in errors with 20 , despite only playing part @-@ time .
Despite his defensive struggles , the Yankees viewed Núñez as likely to make their 25 @-@ man roster out of spring training in 2012 as a utility infielder . With Brett Gardner , the Yankees ' starting left fielder , injuring his elbow , Núñez received playing time in left field , as well as the infield . In his first twenty games of the 2012 New York Yankees season , Núñez hit .294 , but committed four errors in 58 chances . The day after he committed two errors in a game against the Tampa Bay Rays , Núñez was demoted to the Triple @-@ A Scranton / Wilkes @-@ Barre team . The team decided to abandon their approach of using Núñez as a utility player so that he can receive daily playing time at shortstop and second base , as the organization still views him as an everyday shortstop .
On September 1 , 2012 , the Yankees promoted Núñez from Triple @-@ A and manager Joe Girardi placed him into the starting lineup against the Baltimore Orioles for that day . He finished the regular season with a .292 batting average in 82 at @-@ bats . Though he was left off of the Yankees ' postseason roster for the 2012 American League Championship Series , he was added to the roster when Jeter suffered a fractured ankle . In Game 3 of the 2012 ALCS , Núñez hit his first career postseason home run off of Tigers pitcher Justin Verlander . The Yankees lost the series to the Tigers in a 4 @-@ game sweep .
Heading into the 2013 season , Yankees ' General Manager Brian Cashman said that if Núñez were to make the team , he would do so as a utility infielder , reversing the team 's position . However , Núñez only played shortstop during spring training . Jeter began the season on the disabled list , and Núñez started at shortstop for the Yankees on Opening Day . Núñez was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list on May 12 after missing the previous week due to soreness in his left rib cage . He was then transferred to the 60 @-@ day disabled list due to a strained left oblique . He was activated from the disabled list on July 6 after missing 2 months . He ended the season with .a 260 batting average and 28 RBIs in 90 games played .
In spring training in 2014 , Núñez competed with Zelous Wheeler , Yangervis Solarte , Dean Anna , and Scott Sizemore for a reserve infielder role with the Yankees . With reserve infielder Brendan Ryan starting the season on the disabled list , the Yankees chose Anna and Solarte over Núñez . To add Solarte to the roster , the Yankees designated Núñez for assignment .
= = = Minnesota Twins = = =
With the hope of improving their offense , the Minnesota Twins acquired Núñez from the Yankees on April 7 , 2014 , in exchange for minor league pitcher Miguel Sulbaran . The Twins optioned him to the Rochester Red Wings of the International League . After batting 7 @-@ for @-@ 22 ( .318 ) for Rochester , he was promoted to the Twins as the 26th man on their roster for a doubleheader on April 17 , and was optioned back the next day . He finished the season with a .250 batting average in 72 games played with the Twins .
Núñez and the Twins agreed to a $ 1 @.@ 025 million salary for the 2015 season , avoiding salary arbitration . In 72 games in 2015 , Núñez hit .282 / .327 / .431 with 4 HR and 20 RBI across 4 positions for the Twins .
Avoiding arbitration with the Twins at $ 1 @.@ 475 million for the 2016 season , Núñez entered the season expecting to compete for a reserve role . On the Twins Opening Day roster in 2016 , Núñez impressed in April , hitting .373 in 18 games in a reserve role . However , following an injury to shortstop Eduardo Escobar , Núñez began earning more playing time as the team 's starting shortstop . With an injury to third baseman Trevor Plouffe , Núñez remained in the lineup following Escobar 's return . He became the Twins ' leadoff hitter . On July 5 , Núñez was named to his first All @-@ Star Game . That day , he had a .315 batting average with 11 home runs and 19 stolen bases .
= = Scouting profile = =
The Yankees viewed Núñez as a possible replacement at shortstop for Jeter . Though they were willing to trade Jesús Montero , their top hitting prospect , the Yankees considered Núñez untouchable in trade negotiations . Scouts consider Núñez 's throwing arm to be strong , and compliment his ability to hit for average , hit for power , and baserunning ability . However , scouts feel he can get " lackadaisical in the field " and swings at too many pitches outside of the strike zone .
= Arcade Fire =
Arcade Fire is a Canadian indie rock band based in Montreal , Quebec consisting of husband and wife Win Butler and Régine Chassagne , along with Win 's younger brother Will Butler , Richard Reed Parry , Tim Kingsbury and Jeremy Gara . The band 's current touring line @-@ up also includes former core member Sarah Neufeld , frequent collaborator Owen Pallett , two additional percussionists , Diol Edmond and Tiwill Duprate , and saxophonists Matt Bauder and Stuart Bogie .
Founded in 2001 by friends and classmates Win Butler and Josh Deu , the band came to prominence in 2004 with the release of their critically acclaimed debut album Funeral . Their second studio album , Neon Bible , won them the 2008 Meteor Music Award for Best International Album and the 2008 Juno Award for Alternative Album of the Year . Their third studio album , The Suburbs , was released in 2010 to critical acclaim and commercial success . It received many accolades , including the 2011 Grammy for Album of the Year , the 2011 Juno Award for Album of the Year , and the 2011 Brit Award for Best International Album . In 2013 , Arcade Fire released their fourth album , Reflektor , and scored the feature film Her , for which band members William Butler and Owen Pallett were nominated in the Best Original Score category at the 86th Academy Awards . All four of their studio albums have received nominations for the Best Alternative Music Album Grammy ; the band 's work has also been named three times as a shortlist nominee for the Polaris Music Prize : in 2007 for Neon Bible , in 2011 for The Suburbs and in 2014 for Reflektor , winning the award for The Suburbs .
The band plays guitar , drums , bass guitar , piano , violin , viola , cello , double bass , xylophone , glockenspiel , keyboard , synthesizer , French horn , accordion , harp , mandolin , and hurdy @-@ gurdy , and takes most of these instruments on tour ; the multi @-@ instrumentalist band members switch duties throughout shows .
= = History = =
= = = 2001 – 03 : Formation and early work = = =
Win Butler and Josh Deu originally founded Arcade Fire in Montreal around 2001 , having first met at Phillips Exeter Academy as high school students . Both attended Concordia University where their musical ideas began to develop and the first incarnation of the band was born . The duo began rehearsing their material at McGill University where they met Régine Chassagne , a music student whom they asked to join them . Deu recalls , " Win and I played guitar . Everyone played guitar . We had no music to show her , but she ended up saying yes to joining us , and I don ’ t know why . Maybe there was a little spark with Win . " The trio recorded a set of demos and began performing live in the second half of 2001 . At that time , the band consisted of Butler , Chassagne , Deu , multi @-@ instrumentalist Tim Kyle ( later of Wild Light ) , bassist Alan Lavian ( later of Les Angles Morts , Crystal Clyffs , and AIDS Wolf ) , guitarist / drummer Dane Mills ( later of Crackpot ) , and multi @-@ instrumentalist Brendan Reed ( later of Les Angles Morts and founding member of Clues ) , who lived with Butler and Chassagne in Montreal 's Mile End neighbourhood at the time and was a collaborator with them on song @-@ writing and arrangement ( 2001 – 2003 ) .
The initial Montreal structure of the band began to dissolve in the summer of 2002 , when they travelled to Butler 's family farm on Mount Desert Island , Maine to record their self @-@ titled EP . Tension between Butler and bassist Myles Broscoe led the latter to exit the band following the recording session . Richard Reed Parry , who had been enlisted to help the band record , began to collaborate with them during the sessions and would go on to join the band shortly afterwards . Around the same time , Joshua Deu left the band to continue his studies ; he continued to collaborate on the visual aspects of the band . In the winter of 2003 , the band celebrated the release of its EP with a show at Montreal 's Casa del Popolo . Before a crowd packed beyond capacity , the band 's set ended ( in the middle of an encore ) with an argument between Butler and Reed , who quit the band on @-@ stage . Mills told gathered friends in the crowd immediately thereafter that he considered the band to have broken up , as such resigning from the band as well . Following the on @-@ stage implosion , Butler 's brother William Butler ( subject of the early Arcade Fire song " William Pierce Butler " ) and Tim Kingsbury were brought in to replace Reed and Mills so that the band could continue , and they set out to promote the self @-@ titled EP . The eponymous release ( often referred to by fans as the Us Kids Know EP ) was sold at early shows . After the band achieved fame , the EP was subsequently remastered and given a full release .
The promise shown by the new band in its early live shows allowed them to land a record contract with the independent record label , Merge Records , before the end of its first year together .
When asked about the rumour that the band 's name refers to a fire in an arcade , Win Butler replied : " It 's not a rumour , it 's based on a story that someone told me . It 's not an actual event , but one that I took to be real . I would say that it 's probably something that the kid made up , but at the time I believed him . "
= = = 2004 – 06 : Funeral = = =
Funeral was released in September 2004 in Canada and February 2005 in Great Britain . The title of the debut album referred to the deaths of several relatives of band members ( prominently the Butlers ' grandfather , composer / arranger Alvino Rey ) during its recording . These events created a somber atmosphere that influenced songs such as " Une année sans lumière " ( " A Year Without Light " ) , " In the Backseat " , and " Haïti " , Chassagne 's elegy to her homeland .
The album was critically and commercially acclaimed . It appeared on many top ten album lists for 2004 and 2005 ( due to delayed international releases ) , with Pitchfork , Filter , No Ripcord , and The MTV2 2005 Review crowning it the album of the year . NME named Funeral second in their list of 2005 's best albums . NME also named " Rebellion ( Lies ) " the second best track . By November 2005 , Funeral had gone gold in both Canada and the UK , and sold over half a million copies worldwide , a very large number for an independent release with minimal television or radio exposure . The album became Merge Records ' first in the Billboard 200 chart and the label 's biggest selling album to date , surpassing Neutral Milk Hotel 's In the Aeroplane Over the Sea .
The band booked small clubs for their 2004 tour , but growing interest forced many venue changes , far beyond the band 's expectations , and the tour continued into mid @-@ 2005 throughout the United States , Canada , Europe , the SummerSonic Festival in Japan , and the Hillside Festival in Guelph . Taking much of the summer of 2005 off , the band made key festival appearances at the Halifax Pop Explosion , Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival , the Sasquatch ! Music Festival , Lollapalooza , Vegoose Festival , Reading and Leeds Festival in the UK , Electric Picnic in Ireland and the Lowlands Festival in the Netherlands .
Arcade Fire was featured on the April 4 , 2005 cover of Time 's Canadian edition . On May 1 , 2005 , the band performed at the Coachella Valley Music & Arts Festival . In May 2005 , the band signed a short @-@ term publishing contract with EMI for Funeral , and in June the band released a new single , " Cold Wind " , on Six Feet Under , Vol . 2 : Everything Ends . The BBC used the track " Wake Up " on an advertisement for their autumn 2005 season , and the tracks " Rebellion ( Lies ) " and " Neighborhood No. 1 ( Tunnels ) " ( See Neighborhood 1 ( Tunnels ) ) on adverts in January 2006 . On September 9 , 2005 , the band appeared on the British / US television special " Fashion Rocks " , on which David Bowie joined them for " Wake Up " . This recording , as well as recordings of the band 's collaboration on Bowie 's " Life on Mars " and " Five Years , " were made available on the iTunes Music Store in a virtual live EP . The same trip to New York City took them to the Late Show with David Letterman and a concert in Central Park . The Central Park show featured a surprise appearance by Bowie . On September 11 , 2005 , Arcade Fire appeared on the long @-@ running BBC music series Top of the Pops , performing " Rebellion ( Lies ) " . The band also performed to a TV audience in Paris for Canal + , and the show was later screened on the British television 's Channel 4 . The band scored two number one songs on MTV2 ( UK ) NME Chart Show , with " Neighborhood No. 3 ( Power Out ) " and a three @-@ week run with " Wake Up " . This success followed Rough Trade Records 's last @-@ minute decision to release " Wake Up " only on 7 " vinyl .
" Wake Up " was played immediately before the Irish rock group U2 started their concerts on their 2005 – 06 Vertigo Tour ; Arcade Fire subsequently opened three shows for that tour , and at the third in Montreal , Canada , appeared on stage during U2 's encore to join in a cover of Joy Division 's " Love Will Tear Us Apart " . Additionally , The Dan Patrick Show , a daily national sports talk show in the US , plays the song as a lead @-@ out every Friday to signify the end of their show . The song was also heard numerous times during the Super Bowl telecast on February 5 , 2010 .
Funeral and the single " Cold Wind " were nominated for Grammys in the Best Alternative Rock Album and Best Song Written for a Motion Picture , Television or Other Visual Media categories ( Six Feet Under , Vol . 2 : Everything Ends ) , respectively . On April 2 , 2006 , in Halifax , Nova Scotia , Arcade Fire received the Juno Award for Songwriters Of The Year for three songs from Funeral : " Wake Up " , " Rebellion ( Lies ) " , and " Neighborhood No. 3 ( Power Out ) " . The band was nominated for three BRIT Awards : Best International Group , Best International Album , and Best International Breakthrough Act .
Arcade Fire made an appearance on the BBC show Later with Jools Holland on May 12 , 2005 , performing " Power Out " and " Rebellion ( Lies ) " . On December 27 , 2005 , Funeral was ranked No. 1 on MTV2 's " 50 Greatest Albums of the Year " in the United Kingdom . On October 22 , 2007 , Funeral was ranked No. 8 in Bob Mersereau 's book The Top 100 Canadian Albums . In late 2009 , Pitchfork Media ranked the album No. 2 in their list of the top 200 albums of the 2000s , behind Radiohead 's Kid A.
= = = 2006 – 10 : Neon Bible = = =
During the downtime between Funeral and the beginning of recording sessions for Neon Bible , the band purchased a defunct church in the small Quebec town of Farnham , approximately 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) southeast of Montreal , and spent the early part of 2006 converting it into a recording studio .
The first track officially released from Neon Bible was " Intervention " in December 2006 on iTunes . Proceeds from this release were dedicated to Partners in Health . An error resulted in a second song , " Black Wave / Bad Vibrations " , appearing on iTunes for a short time . The album was leaked to peer @-@ to @-@ peer networks on January 26 , 2007 , and was officially released March 5 , 2007 in the UK and March 6 in North America . Neon Bible premiered at number 1 on the Canadian Albums Chart and the Irish Album Charts , and number 2 on the US Billboard Top 200 charts and the UK Top 40 Album Chart for the week of March 12 , 2007 . The album was also number 1 on the Rock and Indie album charts . The first proper single , " Black Mirror " , reached the No. 1 spot on CBC Radio 3 's R3 @-@ 30 chart for five consecutive weeks , from March 22 to April 19 , 2007 , and was the first single by any band ever to spend more than two weeks atop the chart . The album gained much critical acclaim ( even being mooted as a strong contender for album of the year ) , and because of its success saw the band proclaimed the most exciting act on the earth by British music magazine Q. Paste voted it one of the five best albums of 2007 . Trouser Press writer Jason Reeher ranked Neon Bible " among the best indie rock recordings of all time . "
Arcade Fire made their first appearance on Saturday Night Live on February 24 , 2007 ( Episode 618 ) , performing " Intervention " and " Keep the Car Running " . Owen Pallett was not present as he was recording for his solo project . During the performance , one of Win Butler 's guitar strings broke , prompting him to rip the strings from his acoustic guitar and smash it on the floor until it shattered . On this guitar , " sak vide pa kanpe " was written in duct tape across the front . A Haitian proverb meaning " An empty sack cannot stand up " in Creole , this may have been a reference to the extreme poverty of Haiti , the country of origin of Régine Chassagne .
On July 10 , 2007 , Neon Bible was named to the shortlist for the 2007 Polaris Music Prize . Patrick Watson was announced as the winner at a gala ceremony on September 24 , 2007 . However , due to the band 's preference not to participate in compilation albums , they were the only nominee not to have a track on the Polaris promotional compilation 2007 Polaris Music Prize . Some media initially reported that the Polaris committee had snubbed the band by excluding them , leading the band and the committee to issue a joint press release confirming that the band chose not to have a track included on the album .
The Neon Bible tour continued into September 2007 with 25 + dates scheduled in North America and Europe through mid @-@ November . In Paris the band did a Take @-@ Away Show video session shot by Vincent Moon . The band toured Australia and New Zealand for the first time in early 2008 as part of the 2008 Big Day Out festival . On October 14 , 2007 , Win Butler and Régine Chassagne made a surprise guest appearance at a Bruce Springsteen show in Ottawa , playing " State Trooper " and " Keep the Car Running " . The band committed to give Partners in Health $ 1 @.@ 00 , £ 1 @.@ 00 , or € 1 @.@ 00 of every ticket sold on its 2008 European and North American tours .
Arcade Fire further helped PIH , when it recorded " Lenin " on Red Hot Organization 's latest album , Dark Was the Night . Sales from DWTN generated over $ 850 @,@ 000 in money donated to AIDS related charities — $ 300 @,@ 000 of which was given to PIH on Arcade Fire 's behalf .
In February 2008 , Win Butler announced on the band 's journal that the Neon Bible tour had come to an end , after one year of touring and a total of 122 shows ( including 33 festivals ) in 75 cities and 19 countries .
Win Butler has been a vocal supporter of Barack Obama since the end of the New Hampshire Primary . Arcade Fire performed two free concerts for Obama in Cleveland and Nelsonville , Ohio on March 2 , 2008 and March 3 , 2008 before the state 's March 4 primary . The band , with Superchunk , performed another two free concerts for Obama on May 1 in Greensboro , North Carolina , and on May 2 in Carrboro , North Carolina before the state 's May 6 primary . On January 21 , 2009 , Arcade Fire and Jay @-@ Z were the musical guests at the Obama Campaign Staff Ball at the DC Armory , at Obama 's request . Butler thanked President Obama for his stated intent to close the prison at Guantanamo Bay , and repeatedly thanked the Obama staffers for their work during the election .
The band was rumoured to be working with producer Markus Dravs on the soundtrack for the Richard Kelly film The Box . Win Butler denied the claims , but stated that he and Owen Pallett " may do an instrumental piece or two " for the film .
In December 2008 , Pitchfork reported the band set up the website miroir @-@ noir.com to foreshadow the release of a concert film with the same title , reporting , " Miroir Noir will feature live footage from the Neon Bible tour . " The upcoming film was directed by Vincent Morisset . It was made available to pre @-@ order on December 15 , 2008 with the digital version available to download immediately , and the DVD shipping March 31 , 2009 .
A re @-@ recorded version of the band 's song " Wake Up " from their 2004 debut album , Funeral , has been used for the trailer of the Spike Jonze film Where the Wild Things Are , which was released on October 2009 . The song " Wake Up " has also become popular on sports radio talk shows in the US In 2009 , two nationally syndicated shows — The Dan Patrick Show and The Petros and Money Show — frequently used the song as " bumper " music . The National Football League featured this recording in commercials throughout the broadcast of the 2010 Super Bowl . The band donated the proceeds from licensing the song to the NFL to the charity Partners In Health .
= = = 2010 – 12 : The Suburbs = = =
On May 27 , 2010 it was announced that a new double @-@ sided 12 " single would be released the same day , with the full album , called The Suburbs , to be released on August 2 in the UK and on August 3 in the US and Canada thanks to Merge Records . The album is produced by Markus Dravs , who worked on previous album , 2007 's Neon Bible and was engineered by Marcus Paquin , who has also previously worked with the band . A track @-@ by @-@ track review ahead of The Suburbs release by The Quietus website said , " The progression is similar to the one William Blake takes us through in Songs of Innocence and of Experience that suggests forward momentum and maturity . " The album was released with eight different covers .
The first show announced was Oxegen 2010 which took place in Ireland in July . The band announced that they would play songs from the new album in their headline performance at the Reading and Leeds Festivals in August 2010 , with Win Butler noting " We 're really looking forward to playing the new songs live ... [ it 's ] like an inventor emerging from his basement after a year 's work . "
In July 2010 , Arcade Fire announced they would be broadcasting their August 5 concert at Madison Square Garden live via YouTube . They later announced the video would be directed by Terry Gilliam . The Suburbs was released worldwide at the start of August 2010 to extensive critical acclaim comparable to Funeral and Neon Bible . During the 2010 tour Arcade Fire gave a tribute to Jay Reatard performing the cover of " Oh , It 's Such a Shame . " Win Butler confessed to Zane Lowe that the band wanted Jay Reatard to support the band on this tour , but he died . The Suburbs went on to debut at number one in the US ( on the Billboard 200 ) , selling 156 @,@ 000 units in its first week . It was also number one in the UK and Canada .
In August 2010 , Arcade Fire and Google released an interactive music video , written and directed by Chris Milk and produced by B @-@ Reel , which allows the viewer to enter the address where they grew up and the video is then " geopersonalised " . This video utilizes the band 's song " We Used to Wait " from The Suburbs , and showcases capabilities of HTML5 and Google 's Chrome browser . On November 13 , 2010 , Arcade Fire made their second appearance on Saturday Night Live , performing " We Used to Wait " and " Sprawl
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multi @-@ sports are popular in the Western Isles . The Hebridean Challenge is an adventure race run in five daily stages , which takes place along the length of the islands and includes hill and road running , road and mountain biking , short sea swims and demanding sea kayaking sections . There are four main sports centres : Ionad Spors Leodhais in Stornoway , which has a 25 m swimming pool ; Harris Sports Centre ; Lionacleit Sports Centre on Benbecula ; and Castlebay Sports Centre on Barra . The Western Isles is a member of the International Island Games Association .
South Uist is home to the Askernish Golf Course . The oldest links in the Outer Hebrides , it was designed by Old Tom Morris . Although it was in use until the 1930s , its existence was largely forgotten until 2005 and it is now being restored to Morris 's original design .
I Know Where I 'm Going ! is a 1945 British drama / romance film set mostly in the Outer Hebrides , depicting local lifestyles and speech .
= Cheap at Half the Price =
Cheap at Half the Price is a 1983 solo album by English guitarist , composer and improviser Fred Frith . It was Frith 's fifth solo album , and was originally released in the United States on LP record on The Residents ' Ralph record label . It was the third of three solo albums Frith made for the label .
Cheap at Half the Price was recorded by Frith at his home in New York City on a 4 @-@ track machine . He played all the instruments himself , with the exception of bass guitar on two tracks , and drums , for which he used tapes and samples previously recorded by other drummers . The record differed from Frith 's previous experimental albums in that it consisted largely of pop @-@ like songs , and he sang for the first time .
The LP 's release in 1983 caused a stir in progressive circles because of its " apparent simplicity " and its departure from the experimental music Frith had become known for . But a remastered version of the album released on CD in 2004 was better received by critics , who admitted that they had overlooked what Frith had been doing at the time .
= = Background and recording = =
Cheap at Half the Price was the third of a series of three solo albums Frith made for The Residents 's record label Ralph Records , the first being Gravity ( 1980 ) , an avant @-@ garde " dance " record that drew on rhythm and dance from folk music across the world , and the second being Speechless ( 1981 ) , a mixture of folk music , free improvisation , avant @-@ rock and noise . He had recorded with The Residents in the late 1970s and early 1980s , and appeared on several of their albums . Both Gravity and Speechless were well received by critics .
Frith recorded Cheap at Half the Price at his home in New York City on a 4 @-@ track machine . Unlike his two previous albums for Ralph Records , where he used backing bands , on this album Frith played all the instruments himself , with the exception of bass guitar on two tracks , and drums . Bill Laswell from Frith 's band Massacre played bass on " Same Old Me " , and Tina Curran played bass on " Too Much , Too Little " . For the drumming Frith used samples that had been previously recorded of drummers he had worked with , namely Frank Wuyts of Aksak Maboul , Fred Maher from Massacre , Paul Sears of The Muffins , and Hans Bruniusson from Samla Mammas Manna .
= = Composition = =
Cheap at Half the Price differed from Frith 's previous experimental albums in that it featured a collection of short songs and instrumentals in a " tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek pop vein " . He also played a " cheap " Casio @-@ 101 on all the tracks and sang for the first time . AllMusic described Frith 's singing on the album as " strange [ ly ] high @-@ pitched " , and the songs as " pop @-@ like ditties " with a " simple and repetitive " structure . Leonardo Digital Reviews said most of the tracks had a " happy @-@ go @-@ lucky " feel to them .
The lyrics on Cheap at Half the Price are politically oriented , set during US President Ronald Reagan 's first term of office , with socialist commentaries on , amongst other things , dogs and insects . Despite Frith 's apparent departure from his previous progressive albums , some the tracks on this album have ties to his earlier work . " Some Clouds Do " has a similar " driving rhythm " to Paul Sears ' drumming on " What a Dilemma " on Gravity . " Absent Friends " , a traditional Swedish melody arranged by Frith , has the same " fun and dance " feel that occurs at the end of " Don 't Cry for Me " , also on Gravity . " Absent Friends " is also the only track on Cheap at Half the Price that departs from the album 's " pop vein " .
In contrast to the high @-@ pitched singing on most of the songs , " Same Old Me " , one of the few " dark " tracks on the album , is a " gloomily introspective " song featuring some " rough lyrics " that have been slowed to a drawl over " angry riffing " and " relentless bass and percussion " . Leonardo Digital Reviews said that this and many of the other songs on the album had a complex structure beneath the apparent " carefree and beaming surface " .
= = Reception and influence = =
Followers of Fred Frith 's music generally had trouble coming to terms with Cheap at Half the Price . To them Frith was " progressive , genre @-@ bending music 's last great hope " , and on this album he appeared to have abandoned this role . When the album was released on LP in 1983 , Recommended Records , founded and run by Chris Cutler ( Frith 's band @-@ mate from Henry Cow ) , elected not to stock it because Cutler felt it was not " terribly good " . Trouser Press said that the quality of the record suffered from the lo @-@ fi experiment of recording " at home on a 4 @-@ track " .
In 1985 Michael Bloom of The Boston Phoenix wrote that Cheap at Half the Price " will never get the hearing it deserves " . He said that Frith was trying to shake off this " progressive " mould he had been cast in , and believed that the songs on the album should be judged on their own merit and not as " rarefied art rock " . One 1984 reviewer found the album " a very enjoyable recording " , and stated that Frith 's music " is changing the way many musicians look at the sounds that they take so seriously " . The New Gibraltar Encyclopedia of Progressive Rock described Cheap at Half the Price as Frith 's response to punk , a low @-@ tech approach to performing songs . It called the album a " twisted pop " record , saying that it is " as uncompromising as everything else Frith recorded " . François Couture in a review of Frith 's 2002 album , Prints called Cheap at Half the Price " the best tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek take at the New Wave " .
Despite the criticism the LP received at the time of its release , the remastered CD issued 21 years later was generally well received . In the 2004 Recommended Records catalogue , Cutler wrote that the album had " raised eyebrows at the time ( from , as Fred calls them ' progressive music snobs ' — of which I guess I was one ) for its apparent simplicity and departure from what was then thought of as Fred Style . " René van Peer of Leonardo Digital Reviews admitted in 2005 that he was " one of those snobs " and wrote " I am astonished and embarrassed to find how little I grasped back then of what Frith had put into it . " Looking at Frith 's projects after Cheap at Half the Price made it clear that what he did on the album was not a departure from his musical experiments , as people saw it at the time , but rather a part of it . Van Peer said ( in retrospect ) that Cheap at Half the Price " bursts with inventiveness , and eradiates [ sic ] the irrepressible joy of playful creativity " .
Frith 's exploration of song forms on this album was later developed further with Tom Cora in Skeleton Crew , where Frith and Cora played " deceptively simple catchy songs " , often using melodies derived from Scandinavian and Eastern European traditional music . Songs from Cheap at Half the Price appeared in several of Frith 's later projects . Step Across the Border ( 1990 ) , a film on Frith , and its accompanying soundtrack , featured three such songs , " Same Old Me " , " Evolution " and " Too Much Too Little " . Keep the Dog , a 1989 – 1991 Fred Frith review band , played a number of arrangements of songs from this album , including " Walking Song " , " Some Clouds Do " and " Instant Party " .
= = Track listing = =
All tracks by Fred Frith , except where noted .
= = = Original 1983 release = = =
= = = 1991 CD release = = =
= = Personnel = =
Fred Frith – guitar , 6 @-@ string bass , Casio @-@ 101 , violin , xylophone , homemade instruments , voice
Frank Wuyts – drums
Fred Maher – drums
Paul Sears – drums
Hans Bruniusson – drum samples
Tina Curran – bass guitar ( " Too Much , Too Little " )
Bill Laswell – bass guitar ( " Same Old Me " )
Aksak Maboul – clapping ( " Absent Friends " )
Sheena Dupuis – voice ( " True Love " )
George Cartwright – alto saxophone ( " Person To Person " )
= = = Recording and production = = =
Recorded in August 1983 at Fred Frith 's home in New York City by Frith on a 4 @-@ track recorder , except for " True Love " ( recorded at Noise in New York City ) and " Person To Person " ( recorded at BC Studio in New York City ) .
Fred Frith – engineer , producer ( except " True Love " , " Person To Person " )
Kramer – engineer ( " True Love " )
Martin Bisi – engineer ( " Person To Person " )
Paul Zinman – digital mastering
Peter Bäder – album cover layout
Busag , Zürich – album cover lithography
Tina Curran – album cover photography
= = CD reissues = =
In 1991 East Side Digital and RecRec Music re @-@ issued Cheap at Half the Price on CD with two additional tracks by Frith : " True Love " , from The 20th Anniversary of the Summer of Love ( 1987 ) by various artists ; and " Person to Person " , from North America ( 1985 ) by Curlew . In 2004 Fred Records , Frith 's own record label and an imprint of Recommended Records , issued a remastered version on CD of the original Cheap at Half the Price LP with no extra tracks .
= = = Cited works = = =
Milkowski , Bill ( 1983 ) . " The Frith Factor : Exploration in Sound " . Down Beat ( Maher Publications ) 50 ( 1 ) : 22 – 25 , 61 .
= Eir =
In Norse mythology , Eir ( Old Norse " help , mercy " ) is a goddess and / or valkyrie associated with medical skill . Eir is attested in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources ; the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson ; and in skaldic poetry , including a runic inscription from Bergen , Norway from around 1300 . Scholars have theorized about whether these three sources refer to the same figure , and debate whether Eir may have been originally a healing goddess and / or a valkyrie . In addition , Eir has been theorized as a form of the goddess Frigg and has been compared to the Greek goddess Hygieia .
= = Attestations = =
= = = Poetic Edda = = =
In the Poetic Edda poem Fjölsvinnsmál , the watchman Fjölsviðr presents a list of the maidens that attend the lady of the keep — Menglöð — that includes Eir , and states that they all sit on the hill Lyfjaberg ( Old Norse " hill of healing " or " healing mountain " ) . The exchange between the hero Svipdagr and Fjölsviðr mentioning Eir is as follows :
After the exchange , Svipdagr asks if these figures will give aid if blóts are made to them . Fjölsviðr responds that Svipdagr is correct :
= = = Prose Edda = = =
In chapter 35 of the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , the enthroned figure of High provides brief descriptions of 16 ásynjur . High lists Eir third , and says no more about her other than noting that " she is an extremely good physician . " In chapter 75 of the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál Eir appears within a list of valkyrie names , but Eir is not included in the list of ásynjur in the same chapter .
= = = Skaldic poetry and runic inscription = = =
In skaldic poetry , the name Eir is frequent in kennings for women . A sample construction is Eir aura ( " Eir of riches " ) , occurring in Gísla saga . The name is already used in this way by the 10th century poets Kormákr Ögmundarson and Hallfreðr vandræðaskáld . Similarly , the name Eir is used in a woman kenning in a runic inscription inscribed on a stick from Bergen , Norway around the year 1300 . The stick records a common mercantile transaction followed by a verse from a displeased scribe ( edits applied per the translator 's notes ) :
'Wise Var of wire [ " woman of filigree , " meaning " wise bejeweled woman " ] makes ( me ) sit unhappy .
Eir [ woman ] of mackerels ' ground [ likely gold ] takes often and much sleep from me.'
Mindy Macleod and Bernard Mees posit that the first line of the inscription essentially means " women make me miserable " or potentially " marriage makes me miserable , " whereas the second line means " women often take a lot of sleep from me . "
The name remained frequently used in woman kennings in rímur poetry .
= = Theories = =
Regarding the seemingly three different , seemingly conflicting , mentions of Eir , Andy Orchard says that the etymology of the name Eir may appear to fit the role of Eir as a goddess and servant of Menglöð best , but that one should consider that the valkyries also have the ability to waken the dead . John Lindow is skeptical of there having been a belief in Eir as a goddess , stating that " whether we should trust Snorri and imagine the existence of a goddess Eir is problematic " . Rudolf Simek says that Eir may originally have been simply a valkyrie rather than a goddess , and lists the servant of Menglöð by the same name as a separate figure .
Hilda Ellis Davidson comments that " virtually nothing " is known about Eir outside of her association with healing , and points out that she is " singled out as one of the Norns who shape the lives of children " . Davidson adds that " no satisfactory conclusions " have been drawn from her name , and considers all mentions of Eir as of the same figure . Davidson says that , in reference to Eir 's appearance among Menglöð 's maidens , that the names of these maidens " suggest that they are guardian spirits , and [ they are ] said to ' shelter and save ' those who make offerings of them . They could be akin to protective spirits of the house , guarding both men and women . " She additionally draws a link between these spirits and Lyfjaberg :
Lyfjaberg is where the goddess sits surrounded by her helpful spirits . Although healing by a goddess — or indeed by a god either — has left little mark on Norse myths as they have come down to us , there is no doubt that the healing power of goddesses was of enormous importance in daily life in the pre @-@ Christian period , as was that of many women saints in Christian times . The goddess who presided over childbirth was held to possess power over life and death , and was revered as a lifegiver , both in the family home and in the courts of kings , though she might also pass sentence of death .
Henry Adams Bellows proposes a relationship between Eir and the place name Lyfjaberg , which he translates as " hill of healing " . Bellows notes that manuscripts vary about the spelling of the place name , and that he , like others , has followed 19th @-@ century scholar Sophus Bugge 's choice . Bellows states that the stanza mentioning Lyfjaberg " implies that Mengloth is a goddess of healing , and hence , perhaps an hypostasis of Frigg , as already intimated by her name [ ... ] . In stanza 54 , Eir appears as one of Mengloth 's handmaidens , and Eir , according to Snorri ( Gylfaginning , 35 ) is herself the Norse Hygeia . Compare this stanza to stanza 32 . "
= = In popular culture = =
Eir is portrayed by Alice Krige in the 2013 Marvel Studios film Thor : The Dark World . She is re @-@ imagined as an Asgardian physician .
= Esbjerg =
Esbjerg ( / ˈɛsbjɜːr / , / ˈɛsbjɜːrɡ / ; Danish : [ ˈɛsb ̥ jæɐ ̯ ˀ ] ; West Jutish dialect : [ ˈɛsbʲæa ̯ ] ) is a seaport town and seat of Esbjerg Municipality on the west coast of the Jutland peninsula in southwest Denmark . By road , it is 71 kilometres ( 44 mi ) west of Kolding and 164 kilometres ( 102 mi ) southwest of Aarhus . With an urban population of 71 @,@ 618 ( as of 1 January 2016 ) , it is the fifth @-@ largest city in Denmark , and the largest in west Jutland .
Before a decision was made to establish a harbour ( now the second largest in Denmark ) at Esbjerg in 1868 , the area consisted of only a few farms . Esbjerg developed quickly with the population rising to 13 @,@ 000 by 1901 and 70 @,@ 000 by 1970 . In addition to its fishing and shipping activities , it also became an important centre for agricultural exports . Over the years , many of the city 's visitors have arrived by ferry from Harwich , Essex , England , but this service closed in September 2014 having run since 1875 . The harbour facilities are being expanded to answer the needs of the wind @-@ turbine industry and container shipping traffic . Esbjerg is served by Esbjerg Airport with flights to Aberdeen , Scotland and Stavanger , Norway .
The town has several notable museums and entertainment venues , including Esbjerg Art Museum , Esbjerg Museum and the privately owned Fisheries and Maritime Museum . The Esbjerg Performing Arts Centre was completed in 1997 to designs by Jan and Jørn Utzon . When approached by sea , the Man Meets the Sea is one of the prominent monuments , consisting of four 9 @-@ metre @-@ tall ( 27 feet ) white @-@ coloured men , overlooking Sædding Beach . The sculpture was designed by Svend Wiig Hansen and installed in 1995 . It hosts branches of the University of Southern Denmark and Aalborg University , Esbjerg is increasingly recognized for its university facilities and sporting activities . It is home to the Danish football club Esbjerg fB , who play their home matches at Blue Water Arena , and also has an ice hockey division called Esbjerg Elite Ishockey , which plays at the Granly Hockey Arena .
= = History and economy = =
Esbjerg 's oldest existing house , on the corner of Kongensgade , was built around 1660 . The town itself was not established until 1868 when it was built as a replacement for the harbour in Altona , which had previously been Denmark 's most important North Sea port but came under German control after the Second Schleswig War in 1864 . At the time , Esbjerg consisted of only a few farms . Developed under royal decree from 1868 until 1874 , the harbour was officially opened in 1874 , with rail connections to Varde and to Fredericia , an important hub on the east coast of Jutland . Initial planning of the town was conducted by chartered surveyor H. Wilkens in 1870 with streets laid out in the form of a rectangular grid . The market square ( Torvet ) was positioned at the centre , midway between the harbour and the railway station . From only 400 inhabitants at the beginning of the 1870s , the town and its population grew rapidly , with 1529 residents mentioned in 1880 , and 4 @,@ 211 in 1890 .
In 1893 , Esbjerg became a municipality in its own right ( initially known as Esbjerg Ladeplads ) , receiving the status and privileges of a market town in 1899 and incorporating the parish of Jerne ( east of the centre ) in 1945 . A number of institutions and facilities were soon established , including the courthouse and town hall ( 1891 ) , the gas and waterworks ( 1896 ) and the power plant ( 1907 ) . From the beginning of the 20th century , Esbjerg prospered not only as a fishing port but became one of the country 's major export centres . Established in 1895 by nine local dairies , the butter @-@ packaging factory , Dansk Andels Smørpakkeri , employed some 150 workers until 1920 , packing and dispatching butter for the London market . It was later extended to include egg marketing under the name Dansk Andels Ægeksport . Ultimately , it handled produce from 140 dairies spread across the whole of Jutland . After the Second World War , the town developed several agricultural industries , especially meat processing and packaging with a plant employing over 300 . The slaughterhouse and meat packaging facility , Esbjerg Andels @-@ Slagteri , established in 1887 , became Denmark 's sixth largest by 1962 . It later became part of Vestjyske Slagterier in 1986 , and in 2001 , it was acquired by Danish Crown .
Once Denmark 's principal fishing port , the Port of Esbjerg is still a driving force for the town 's economy . While it has a long history of ferry services to England , the town is by no means a tourist destination . Lonely Planet remarked that " nobody comes to Esbjerg for a holiday , in fact , as with many industrial ports , most visitors rush through as quickly as possible " . Esbjerg is the main town for Denmark 's oil and offshore activities , with companies like Maersk , Ramboll , Stimwell Services , ABB , Schlumberger , COWI and Atkins all having offshore @-@ related activities in the town . Halliburton has an office in Esbjerg . The port has served the Danish offshore industry since oil and gas were first extracted from the North Sea in the early 1970s . More recently , it has become a centre for shipping offshore wind turbines . In addition to handling 65 percent of all Danish wind turbines , which supply 3 gigawatts ( 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 hp ) of offshore wind power , components have been shipped to various British wind farms . In order to cope with enormous future increases in Danish offshore wind power , 12 companies , including DONG Energy and Bluewater Energy Services are already planning the establishment of a Green Offshore Centre in Esbjerg . In connection with this , in June 2013 , the port was significantly expanded with the opening of the Østhavn ( East Harbour ) , covering an area of 650 @,@ 000 m2 ( 7 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sq ft ) .
Historically , in addition to its success as a fishing port , Esbjerg established its position as one of the country 's major export centres . Before World War II , there was a large butter factory , Dansk Andels Smørpakkeri , employing some 150 workers while after the war the town developed agricultural industries , especially for meat processing and packaging with a plant employing over 300 . Latterly owned by Danish Crown and employing 500 , the plant closed in May 2012 .
More recently , Esbjerg has grown into an important centre for education with campuses belonging to the University of Southern Denmark ( 1998 ) and Aalborg University ( 1995 ) . The town holds an annual music festival spanning two weekends ( nine days ) in mid @-@ August . It is focused around the central Torvet Square which hosts the main stage . The music includes everything from church concerts to opera and pop .
= = Geography = =
The town is situated on the southwestern coast of Denmark , and is a port on the North Sea . By road , it is 71 kilometres ( 44 mi ) west of Kolding , 164 kilometres ( 102 mi ) southwest of Aarhus , 298 kilometres ( 185 mi ) west of Copenhagen and 274 kilometres ( 170 mi ) southwest of Aalborg . By sea , it is situated roughly 380 miles ( 610 km ) northeast of Harwich , England . As a result of planned development , the older sections of the town look like a chessboard with long , wide streets with rectangular corners .
The high ground of Esbjerg stretches along the east coast of the Wadden Sea ( now a UNESCO World Heritage Site ) between the rivers of Varde and Sneum , encompassing the coastal area of Ho Bugt and the seaside district of Hjerting to the north . Opposite Esbjerg , across Fanø Bay , is the island of Fanø , 16 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) by 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) , with Nordby as its principal settlement , connected to Esbjerg by ferry . To the west of Esbjerg , the town boundary is defined by a number of small streams . The highest point is some 25 m ( 82 ft ) above sea level . The town is located on top of steep slopes leading down to the flatlands of the harbour area . The built @-@ up area itself is not very hilly but there are considerable differences in terrain . Apart from the cliff in the town park overlooking the harbour , the valley of Fourfelt Bæk , 1 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) in length , is the main feature of the landscape , resulting in differences of up to 20 m ( 66 ft ) with the surroundings .
= = = Climate = = =
= = Demographics and administration = =
As of 1 January 2014 , Esbjerg has a population of 71 @,@ 618 , making it the fifth @-@ largest city in Denmark , and the largest in west Jutland . Until the harbour was developed in the 1860s , the area was sparsely inhabited with just a few farms . Thereafter , it grew rapidly : by 1880 , there were some 1 @,@ 500 inhabitants , rising to some 13 @,@ 000 by 1901 when it was already larger than neighbouring Varde and Ribe . By the end of the 1950s , with almost 60 @,@ 000 inhabitants , it had become Denmark 's fifth @-@ largest city . By 1970 , Esbjerg had seen a fivefold increase in population since 1901 , reaching some 70 @,@ 000 . After 1970 , the increase in population slowed , reaching a maximum of 18 @,@ 023 in 1998 .
In contrast to Denmark 's four largest cities ( Copenhagen , Aarhus , Aalborg and Odense ) where there were substantial increases in population between the first quarter of 2013 and the first quarter of 2014 , Esbjerg Municipality experienced an increase of only 44 inhabitants ( from 115 @,@ 051 to 115 @,@ 095 ) over the same period . In May 2014 , Esbjerg was noted to be one of the least attractive of Denmark 's top 20 cities for house purchases and apartment rentals , dropping to 19th place , along with Herning .
Esbjerg 's city council for the period January 2014 to December 2017 consists of 31 members , 15 of whom are Venstre , Liberal Party of Denmark and nine , Social Democrats . The mayor , also from the Venstre , Liberal Party , is Johnny Søtrup , who has been major of both the former municipality in the period 1994 to 2006 and subsequently in the expanded municipality since the beginning of 2007 . There are also eight special committees which prepare the work of the council covering the areas of finance , labour market , health , children & family , culture & leisure , planning & environment , social services , and technology & supply .
= = = Mayors of Esbjerg since 1898 = = =
Mayors of Esbjerg since 1898 :
= = Landmarks = =
The Courthouse on the main square was designed by Hans Christian Amberg and completed in 1892 when the town had only 4 @,@ 000 inhabitants . The red @-@ brick building with stepped gables , round @-@ arched windows and a tower reaching 30 m ( 98 ft ) in height resembles a medieval castle . After comprehensive renovation work in 2010 , it is now used as a venue for weddings and houses the tourist office .
Man Meets the Sea ( Mennesket ved Havet ) is a monument of four 9 @-@ metre @-@ tall ( 27 feet ) white @-@ coloured men located to the west of Esbjerg , overlooking Sædding Beach . One of the area 's major tourist attractions , the sculpture was designed by Svend Wiig Hansen and installed on 28 October 1995 . It was funded by the Esbjerg Municipality authorities , the Kunstfond arts foundation and private sponsors to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the municipality in 1994 . The monument can be seen by ferry leaving or entering Esbjerg .
The water tower from 1895 was designed by Christian Hjerrild Clausen who had been inspired by Nuremberg 's medieval Nassauer Haus . Standing at the top of a cliff , it commands excellent views of the city and the harbour from its platform which is open to the public . The imposing old Courthouse Building on the central square with its tall tower and stepped gables has recently been fully renovated . A bronze equestrian statue of Christian IX , the founder of Esbjerg , stands at the centre of the square .
The largest hotel in Esbjerg is Hotel Britannica . Other hotels include Danhostel Esbjerg in a former high school about 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) to the northwest of the city , and Hotel Ansgar on Skolegade . Most of the restaurants in Esbjerg are to the east of Torvet . Of particular note are Sand 's Restaurant which serves Danish cuisine such as smørrebrød , meatballs , smoked eels and the fried beef patty pariserbof , and the Paddy Go Easy Irish pub near the main square . Housed in a listed building on the main square , Dronning Louise serves everything from full meals to sandwiches and occasionally offers live music .
= = = Churches = = =
The first church to be built in Esbjerg was the red @-@ brick Church of Our Saviour designed by Axel Møller , which was completed in 1887 . In 1896 , it was expanded with transepts and galleries on either side of the nave , doubling the seating capacity . Several more churches were established after the Second World War when there was a marked increase in the city 's population . The first of these , the yellow @-@ brick Trinity Church with its large triangular stained @-@ glass windows , was designed to accommodate a large congregation while offering additional facilities for both young and old . Breaking with tradition , its square @-@ shaped nave was built directly adjacent to lower ancillary buildings including a hall with a stage , meeting rooms and a kitchen . The bell tower stands alone , quite separate from the church .
St Nikolaj is a Roman Catholic church , built in 1969 . Unusual for a church , it is built of aerated concrete . Its innovative square @-@ shaped design by Johan Otto von Spreckelsen served as a basis for his Grande Arche in Paris . The dimensions of the inner cube of St Nikolaj Church are very close to those of the " holy of holies " in Solomon 's Temple as described in Ezekiel 40 : 5 .
The modern red @-@ brick Grundtvig 's Church , southeast of the town centre , was designed by Ole Nielsen . With its strangely shaped , red @-@ tiled roof , it was completed in 1969 . Inside , the large wall surfaces are broken only by 12 narrow windows on the east side , creating a contrast with the much brighter tower room which opens into the chancel with light entering from a window high on the east side of the tower .
Designed by Inger and Johannes Exner , Sædden Church with wave @-@ like folds in its red @-@ brick walls was inaugurated in 1978 . Daylight focusing on the altar is supplemented by 803 electric light bulbs . Gjesing Church , a red @-@ brick building north of the city centre , was completed 1983 . Like many other modern churches in the area , it has a free @-@ standing bell tower as well as a church hall and meeting rooms . Other churches include Zion 's Church and Jerne Church .
Also built in a style akin to the Neo @-@ Gothic architecture of churches , the Bethania Mission House opposite the Church of our Saviour was completed in 1906 by Clausen .
= = = Museums and theatres = = =
The municipality has a number of museums , libraries and music and drama venues . The Esbjerg Performing Arts Centre ( Musikhuset Esbjerg ) is a complex with two auditoriums . Its concert hall , with seating for over 1 @,@ 100 , can also be adapted for theatrical productions . Completed in 1997 to designs by Jan Utzon and his father , it hosts classical concerts , opera , family shows and drama productions . Located in the City Park close to the harbour , it forms part of a complex which includes the Esbjerg Art Museum ( Esbjerg Kunstmuseum ) displaying works from artists including Asger Jorn . The museum also regularly hosts temporary international exhibitions .
The privately owned Fisheries and Maritime Museum , which opened in 1968 , consists of a saltwater aquarium and a sealarium as well as indoor and outdoor exhibitions on Danish fisheries and shipping . Esbjerg Museum in the city centre has permanent collections covering the history of the city and the surrounding region . It includes displays from the Iron Age and the Viking Period as well as a large exhibition of amber . The Printing Museum traces the history of the art of printing from the beginning of the 20th century until it was replaced by modern technology . The collection includes a variety of machines and equipment used to print books and newspapers , mainly from Germany and Denmark . The Lightship Museum ( Museumsfyrskib ) in the harbour is open to the public on board the Horns Rev lightship . Dating from 1912 , the Horns Rev , also known as Motorfyrskibet Nr. I , is the world 's oldest and best preserved motor lightship . It houses an impressive exhibition of life and work on board .
= = Education and sport = =
Esbjerg is one of the towns hosting the University of Southern Denmark . It also houses a branch of Aalborg University and IT Academy West . The main branch of Profession School – University College West ( Danish : Professionshøjskolen University College Vest ) and the Esbjerg section of the Academy of Music and Dramatic Arts , housed in a former power station , are also located in the city . The town is served by the Southwest Jutland Hospital ( Sydvestjysk Sygehus ) which also has a branch in Brande and treats over 42 @,@ 000 patients annually , with over 500 beds and a staff of about 2 @,@ 500 employees .
Esbjerg is home to the Danish football club Esbjerg fB , established in 1924 and known as EfB for short . The club has won the Danish Championship five times , in 1961 , 1962 , 1963 , 1965 and 1979 . Esbjerg fB play their home matches at Blue Water Arena . Esbjerg also has an ice hockey division called Esbjerg Elite Ishockey which plays at the Granly Hockey Arena . Granly Hockey Arena was built in 1976 and has a seating capacity for 3417 people . In 2011 the arena was the venue for the 2011 Capital One World Women 's Curling Championship .
Rugby in Esbjerg is represented by Esbjerg RK , who play at Guldager Idrætscenter . Esbjerg also has its own Speedway team , which were crowned Danish League Champions in 2012 .
= = Transport = =
The port town of Esbjerg is a large transport hub for both rail and road traffic , and an important port for Danish North Sea oil offshore activity . It is also served by Esbjerg Airport with flights to Aberdeen and Stavanger , while the nearby Billund Airport offers additional travel options .
Esbjerg Station is operated by Danish State Railways . The station is the western terminus of InterCity trains from Copenhagen ( operating once an hour ) , with a journey time of about three hours . DSB also operates local trains to Fredericia . Arriva operates the Vestbanen with local trains travelling south to Ribe and Tønder and north to Struer .
Ferry services connect Esbjerg via Ho Bugt to Nordby on the island of Fanø via Danske Færger . From 1875 until 2014 a passenger service operated over the North Sea to the English port of Harwich via DFDS Seaways , formerly Scandinavian Seaways . The MS Winston Churchill began service between the two ports in 1967 , and served until 1978 when it was transferred to the River Tyne to Gothenburg service . The crossings were discontinued at the end of September 2014 although a freight service is still available on the route from Esbjerg to Immingham . DFDS cited " dwindling demand and high costs " as the chief reasons for the closure of the route .
Esbjerg Harbour is the second largest harbour in Denmark ( after Aarhus ) . It serves Maersk Drilling headquarters , and the regional commuter Esbjerg – Fanø – Esbjerg . For those arriving by pleasure craft , there is a marina along Pier No. 1 with 198 mooring places . The 650 @,@ 000 square metres ( 7 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sq ft ) Østhavn ( “ East Harbour ” ) opened in June 2013 , while construction of a new freight terminal in the Sydhavn section of the harbour is scheduled for 2014 .
= = International relations = =
= = = Twin towns – Sister cities = = =
Esbjerg is twinned with :
= Amanita gemmata =
Amanita gemmata , commonly known as the gemmed Amanita or the jonquil Amanita , is an agaric mushroom of the family Amanitaceae and genus Amanita . The fruit body has a cap that is a dull to golden shade of yellow , and typically 2 @.@ 5 – 12 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) in diameter . The cap surface is sticky when moist , and characterized by white warts , which are easily detached . It is initially convex , and flattens out when mature . The flesh is white and does not change colour when cut . Gills are white and closely spaced . The stem is pale yellow , and measures 4 – 12 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) long by 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 9 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 7 in ) thick . The partial veil that covers the young fruit body turns into the ring on the stem at maturity . The spore print is white , while the spores are roughly elliptical , and measure 8 – 10 by 6 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 5 µm .
This species is a mycorrhizal fungus , widespread in the Americas and Europe . It can grow either singly , scattered , or in groups . It prefers habitats like coniferous and mixed forests and alongside paths , where it fruits in summer and fall . It is a toxic mushroom that has muscarine , the same toxin as Amanita muscaria and Amanita pantherina as well as many species in the Clitocybe and Inocybe genera . It is often confused with various other European species . A. gemmata resembles the false death cap , tawny grisette and panther cap mushrooms . Its cap is brighter in color than the former , and more yellow than the latter two .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The species was first described scientifically by Swedish mycologist and botanist Elias Magnus Fries as Agaricus gemmatus in 1838 . It was transferred to the genus Amanita in 1866 by the French statistician Louis Bertillon . The species has been transferred to several genera in its history , resulting in a number of synonyms , including Amanita muscaria var. gemmata ( 1886 , Lucien Quélet ) , Amanitopsis gemmata ( 1887 , Pier Andrea Saccardo ) , Amanitaria gemmata ( 1940 , Jean @-@ Edouard Gilbert ) , and Venenarius gemmatus ( 1948 , William Murrill ) . Amanita authority Rodham E. Tulloss considers A. amici ( published by Claude Casimir Gillet in 1891 ) to be synonymous with A. gemmata , as the macroscopic characteristics of the former fall within the limits of the range expected for the latter .
Within the genus Amanita , A. gemmata is classified in subgenus Amanita , section Amanita , subsection Gemmatae , and series Gemmatae . Tulloss places the species in a stirps ( an informal ranking above species level ) with A. russuloides and A. viscidolutea . Some mycologists believe that A. gemmata is not different from A. russuloides . Two molecular studies based on sequences of the large ribosomal subunit RNA gene ( nLSU @-@ rDNA ) and the mitochondrial small ribosomal subunit RNA gene ( mtSSU @-@ rDNA ) show that A. gemmata is part of a clade within Amanita with its close relatives A. muscaria , A. farinosa and A. roseitincta .
The mushroom is commonly known as the " gemmed Amanita " , the " jonquil Amanita " , or the " European gemmed Amanita " .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies are colored yellow overall . The fresh cap , ranging in color from dull creamy yellow to golden yellow to buff , is sticky when moist . White warts adorn the cap surface , but they are usually flimsy and easily washed away by rain . They are placed randomly , but tend to be more concentrated in the center . The cap is typically 2 @.@ 5 – 12 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) in diameter , and initially convex before flattening out in maturity . The flesh is white , and shows no change when sliced .
The gills are adnate to adnexed , and white ; they are close together , with little intervening space . The pale yellowish stem is 4 – 12 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) long by 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 9 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 7 in ) thick , and either roughly equal in width throughout , or slightly thicker at the base . Young mushrooms have a membranous partial veil extending from the upper stem to the cap margin ; as the mushroom grows , the partial veil tears to leave a flimsy , skirt @-@ like , easily lost ring on the stem . At the base of the stem is a white volva ( a remnant of the universal veil that covered the immature mushroom ) that usually forms a small , free rim . Spore prints are white . There is no distinctive odour .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
Amanita gemmata has ellipsoid to broadly ellipsoid spores measuring 8 – 10 by 6 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 5 µm with an average Q @-@ ratio ( the fraction of length / width ) of 1 @.@ 35 ; they are not amyloid . The spores are smooth , thin @-@ walled , and they contain one to several small oil droplets . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells of the hymenium ) are usually four @-@ spored , club shaped , and measure 30 – 40 by 8 – 11 µm .
The gill tissue is divergent , meaning that the cells are more or less parallel near the center of the gill , but bend outwards near the end of the gill . The hyphae in this tissue are cylindrical to inflated , thin walled , hyaline ( translucent ) to yellowish , and measure 2 @.@ 2 – 9 µm wide ; the hyphae in the central strand are narrower and typically cylindrical . The hyphae of the subhymenium ( a layer of tissue directly under the hymenium ) are interwoven . These hyphae are branched , cylindrical to slightly inflated , hyaline , and 6 – 9 µm wide . The hyphae of the cap cuticle are filamentous , interwoven , and radially arranged . They are cylindrical , 2 @.@ 7 – 4 µm wide , thin @-@ walled , hyaline to yellowish , and gelatinize when mounted in potassium hydroxide . The cap tissue is also interwoven , with hyphae that are cylindrical to somewhat inflated , 3 @.@ 7 – 14 @.@ 6 µm wide , thin @-@ walled , branched , and hyaline to yellowish . Caulocystidia are abundant on the apex of the stem ; they are club @-@ shaped to cylindrical , thin @-@ walled , hyaline , and measure 3 – 9 µm wide . The annulus tissue comprises interwoven cylindrical hyphae measuring 3 – 9 µm wide . Sphaerocysts ( inflated , spherical cells ) are also present in the annulus tissue ; they are club shaped to ellipsoidal , with dimensions of 29 – 55 by 30 – 70 µm . The warts on the cap surface ( remnants of the universal veil ) comprise loosely interwoven cylindrical to inflated thin @-@ walled hyphae that are 3 @.@ 5 – 8 µm wide . Sphaerocysts in this tissue are 58 @.@ 5 – 70 @.@ 2 by 17 @.@ 5 – 40 µm , ellipsoidal , and hyaline . The volval tissue is interwoven , with cylindrical , hyaline hyphae that are 4 @.@ 4 – 7 @.@ 3 µm wide . The sphaerocysts here are ellipsoidal to roughly spherical , hyaline , and measure 35 – 70 by 20 – 35 µm . In A. gemmata , where they are most abundant in the region just below the cap cuticle , these refractive cells are scattered , and have a width of 3 @.@ 7 – 6 µm . Clamp connections are rare in the hyphae of A. gemmata ; they are present in the annulus , gill tissue , subhymenium , and cap tissue .
= = = Similar species = = =
There are numerous forms in North America that tend to intergrade with A. pantherina . In 2005 , mycologist Rod Tulloss described Amanita aprica , a species that has been confused with A. gemmata several times in the past . According to mycologists Pierre Neville and Serge Poumarat , the Mediterranean species A. amici ( synonymous with A. gemmata f. amici ) is similar in appearance to A. gemmata but is larger . According to Tulloss however , their measurements of the cap and stem dimensions of A. amici fell within the range expected for A. gemmata , and for this reason , the two taxa should be considered conspecific . Neville and Poumarat suggest that the name A. gemmata still persists for Mediterranean collections because of its frequent historical misapplication to the native Italian species A. gioiosa , which had not been described as a distinct species until 2004 . A. orientigemmata , a mushroom ranging from Japan to China , is a lookalike , but has clamps , unlike A. gemmata . Other differences between the two species include the slightly smaller spores of A. orientigemmata , and differences in the microstructure of the cap warts .
= = Toxicity = =
Toxicity is suspected to be due to the presence of muscimol and ibonetic acid .
Generally , symptoms of poisoning appear within three hours of ingestion of the mushroom as visual hallucinations , nausea , vomiting , stomach pain , diarrhea , irregular and slow heart beat and agitation . Severe cases involving coma , convulsions , or death are extremely rare .
= = Ecology , habitat and distribution = =
Amanita gemmata is a mycorrhizal fungus , meaning it forms a mutually beneficial relationship with the roots of compatible host plants . Through the association , the plant provides the fungus with a carbon source , and the fungus provides the plant with several benefits such as nutrients and protection from pathogens . Largent and collaborators ( 1980 ) document mycorrhizal associations of A. gemmata with Manzanita ( Arctostaphylos spp . ) and Lodgepole Pine ( Pinus contorta ) , and Nieto and Carbone with Maritime Pine ( Pinus pinaster ) in Spain . The fungus favours sandy and slightly acidic soils , and is often found in association with Norway Spruce ( Picea abies ) . The mushroom grows either singly , scattered , or in groups in coniferous and mixed forests , especially along paths and roads .
The species is distributed in areas of Asia , the Americas , and Europe . It fruits in summer and fall ( fall and winter in California ) . It is widely distributed ( as a species cluster ) in North America , where it has been found as far south as Ixtlán de Juárez , Mexico . The species has been reported from the Dominican Republic . In South America , it is known from Chile . In Asia , the mushroom has been collected from Iran and China .
= HMS Zealous ( 1864 ) =
HMS Zealous was one of the three ships ( the others being HMS Royal Alfred and HMS Repulse ) forming the second group of wooden steam battleships selected in 1860 for conversion to ironclads . This was done in response to the perceived threat to Britain offered by the large French ironclad building programme . The ship was ordered to the West Coast of Canada after she was completed to represent British interests in the Eastern Pacific Ocean . Zealous became the flagship for the Pacific Station for six years until she was relieved in 1872 . She was refitted upon her arrival and subsequently became the guard ship at Southampton until she was paid off in 1875 . The ship was in reserve until she was sold for scrap in 1886 .
= = Design and description = =
HMS Zealous was given a straight stem and a rounded stern , but her hull was otherwise unmodified from her original form ; it had been found that lengthening the hull , as was done in the earlier Prince Consort class , led to longitudinal weakness . Her conversion to a central battery ironclad therefore cost less than that of any of her contemporaries , though this was offset with a shorter battery and therefore a less effective broadside . She also carried less armour than the earlier class , and was nearly a knot slower ; however , as she was built to serve in distant waters , and not expected to face opposing ships of significant force , these shortcomings were thought acceptable .
Zealous was 252 feet ( 76 @.@ 8 m ) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 58 feet 7 inches ( 17 @.@ 9 m ) . The ship had a draught of 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) forward and 25 feet 9 inches ( 7 @.@ 8 m ) aft . She displaced 6 @,@ 096 long tons ( 6 @,@ 194 t ) .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Zealous had a simple horizontal 2 @-@ cylinder horizontal return connecting @-@ rod steam engine driving a single four @-@ bladed , 19 @-@ foot @-@ 1 @-@ inch ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) propeller . Steam was provided by eight rectangular boilers at a working pressure of 22 psi ( 152 kPa ; 2 kgf / cm2 ) . The engine produced 3 @,@ 623 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 702 kW ) during the ship 's sea trials in November 1866 which gave the ship a maximum speed of 11 @.@ 7 knots ( 21 @.@ 7 km / h ; 13 @.@ 5 mph ) . Zealous carried a maximum of 660 long tons ( 670 t ) of coal . She was ship rigged with three masts and had a sail area of 29 @,@ 200 square feet ( 2 @,@ 710 m2 ) . Her best speed with the propeller disconnected and under sail alone was 10 @.@ 5 knots ( 19 @.@ 4 km / h ; 12 @.@ 1 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
All of the available 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) and 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) guns had already been earmarked for other , more powerful ships . Zealous therefore received an armament of 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) guns , which were deemed adequate for her expected service activity , and which , indeed , she retained for the whole of her active career . She was the only battleship ever to have a uniform armament of this calibre , and she , and her half sister HMS Repulse , were the only Victorian ironclads to retain their original armament unchanged through their entire active careers .
Zealous was armed with twenty 7 @-@ inch rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . Four of these guns were mounted on the upper deck as chase guns , two each fore and aft . The 16 @-@ calibre 7 @-@ inch gun weighed 6 @.@ 5 long tons ( 6 @.@ 6 t ) and fired a 112 @-@ pound ( 50 @.@ 8 kg ) shell . It was credited with the nominal ability to penetrate 7 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 196 mm ) armour .
= = = Armour = = =
Zealous had a complete waterline belt of wrought iron that was 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick amidships and tapered to 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) thick at the bow and stern . From the level of the main deck , it reached 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) below the waterline . The guns on the main deck amidships were protected by a section of 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch armour , 103 feet ( 31 @.@ 4 m ) long , with 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch transverse bulkheads at each end which left the chase guns unprotected . The armour was backed by the sides of the ship which consisted of 30 @.@ 5 inches ( 770 mm ) of teak . The total weight of her armour was 790 long tons ( 800 t ) .
= = Service history = =
HMS Zealous was laid down on 26 October 1859 as a wooden two @-@ deck , 90 @-@ gun ship of the line by Pembroke Royal Dockyard , but her construction was suspended pending experience with the conversion of her half @-@ sisters of the Prince Consort class to broadside ironclads . The Admiralty ordered on 2 July 1862 that she be cut down one deck and converted to an armoured frigate for the price of £ 239 @,@ 258 . The ship was launched on 7 March 1864 and commissioned in September 1866 , but was not completed until 4 October 1866 .
In order to match the French deployment of armored corvettes of the Belliqueuse and Alma classes in the Pacific Ocean the Admiralty ordered Zealous to sail for the west coast of Canada shortly after she was completed . Upon her arrival the ship became the flagship , and reached her operational base at Esquimalt in July 1867 ( Esquimalt was the headquarters of the Pacific Station ) ; she remained moored there , at the end of a telegraph link with Britain , until April 1869 . During this time her only sea service was for gunnery practice on two days every quarter . In January 1870 she picked up a fresh crew at Panama brought out by the two @-@ decker HMS Revenge . After six years on station she was relieved by Revenge as flagship and started for home . Her bottom had not been cleaned since she had left Great Britain and she could only make a maximum of 7 knots ( 13 km / h ; 8 @.@ 1 mph ) under sail or steam so her return voyage took five months . Zealous struck a rock while sailing through the Straits of Magellan , but was only slightly damaged . She was refitted in Plymouth in April 1873 and then became guard ship at Southampton until 1875 , when she was paid off . The ship was placed in reserve in Portsmouth until sold for scrap in September 1886 .
As coal was extremely expensive on the West Coast of the Americas , HMS Zealous generally used her sails and covered more miles under sail than any of the other Victorian sailing ironclads , and in her whole career never once travelled in company with another ironclad . She was also the first British ironclad to sail further from Britain than the Mediterranean .
= M. P. Bajana =
Manek Pallon Bajana ( 14 September 1886 – 28 April 1927 ) was an Indian amateur cricketer who played 55 first @-@ class cricket matches between 1911 and 1920 . Originally a member of the Indian team which toured England in 1911 , he remained in the country and joined Somerset County Cricket Club , for which he played as an opening batsman until 1920 . During his nine @-@ year first @-@ class cricket career , Bajana scored 1 @,@ 975 runs at an average of 20 @.@ 78 . He scored three centuries , and made his highest score in 1920 , scoring 115 runs against Cambridge University .
= = Early life and Indian tour = =
Manek Pallon Bajana was born on 14 September 1886 in India . Leading up to 1911 , he was employed in India by Maharaja Nripendra Narayan of Cooch Behar , and early that year , Bajana travelled as part of the Maharajah 's retinue to England , where Narayan was attending the coronation of King George V. In England , he joined up with the touring Indian cricket team , as one of seven Parsi players in the side . The 1911 tour was the first by a representative Indian team , and included a mix of Hindus , Parsis , Muslims , and two members of the untouchable Chamar caste . Bajana appeared in seven matches during the tour , of which four had first @-@ class status . The team did not fare very well in their contests ; the captain of the side , Maharaja Bhupinder Singh of Patiala , only played three matches and spent the rest of his time socialising with the British high society , and there were rumours of sectarianism between the Parsi and Hindu members of the team . In twenty @-@ three matches , they won six and lost fifteen , the remaining two being drawn . Bajana was one of four batsmen to score a first @-@ class century for the Indians ; he struck 108 against Somerset at Taunton . On his first @-@ class debut , Bajana suffered the ignominy of a pair – dismissed without scoring in both innings . During the tour , Bajana made it known that he was looking to remain in England and play county cricket . His century against Somerset drew the attention of that county , and he joined them in 1912 .
= = County cricketer = =
At the time of Bajana 's arrival in the Somerset team , the county were struggling to compete in the County Championship , and were making a financial loss . In three of the four years prior to 1912 , Somerset had finished bottom of the championship table , and there was little improvement in the final three years before the First World War , each of which resulted in a bottom @-@ three finish . The Somerset cricket historian , David Foot , records that at this time , the county 's recruitment policy was " susceptible to exotic grandeur and haughty lineage , " and suggested that a player 's cricketing ability was often a secondary consideration to their social standing . Bajana made his debut for Somerset in May 1912 , opening the batting for the county against Sussex . He scored twenty @-@ two and seven in a six @-@ wicket victory for his county . In the subsequent match , against Hampshire , Bajana scored his first half @-@ century in county cricket , hitting 71 runs in the second innings ; the highest score of any Somerset batsman in the match . He passed 50 on three further occasions that year , and along with Len Braund and Ernie Robson , was ever @-@ present in the Somerset team that season . His year 's aggregate of 575 runs in the County Championship , and his score of 95 , made against Worcestershire in August , were both the county 's best that season , in a year in which no player scored a century for Somerset .
Bajana appeared less frequently for Somerset in 1913 , playing ten matches for the county . He only scored one half @-@ century , accruing 78 runs against Derbyshire . His batting average of 19 @.@ 75 in 1913 placed him fourth in the Somerset batting averages . He did not play for Somerset in 1914 , and the outbreak of the First World War suspended county cricket until 1919 . During the war Bajana played , and captained , a number of matches for the Indian Gymkhana Cricket Club , and scored a century for the team against a New Zealand APS side in 1918 .
In 1919 , Bajana returned to the Somerset team , playing in six of their twelve County Championship matches . His batting average of 27 @.@ 55 in that competition was the second @-@ highest amongst his team , bettered only by Jack MacBryan . Bajana hit two half @-@ centuries during the season , scoring 77 against Derbyshire , and 59 against Essex . The following 1920 season was Bajana 's last with Somerset . He appeared fifteen times for the county in first @-@ class cricket , averaging just over twenty . In a match against Cambridge University , he achieved his highest first @-@ class score , hitting 14 fours on his way to a total of 115 runs in 135 minutes . In his next match , he scored a second century for Somerset , and his only one in the County Championship , scoring 106 runs against Warwickshire . Bajana played his final first @-@ class match against Middlesex in August 1920 , scoring six and a duck . In all , Bajana scored 1 @,@ 975 first @-@ class runs at an average of 20 @.@ 78 . He scored three centuries and seven half @-@ centuries in 96 innings . He was rarely used as a bowler , and took four wickets at an average of 33 @.@ 00 .
= = Personal and later life = =
In his history of Somerset cricket , David Foot describes Bajana as a " smallish solidly built opening bat " . During his time at Somerset , he was known as " Pyjamas " , which sounds similar to his surname . He played for Shepherd 's Bush Cricket Club from his arrival in England , and was part of a strong batting line @-@ up for the club . For a time , he ran an antiques and art dealership in Bayswater , London with Constantine Diamandis , but they dissolved their partnership in early 1920 . After the conclusion of his first @-@ class cricket career , he continued to play for Indian Gymkhana , including matches at Lord 's against the Marylebone Cricket Club in each of 1922 , 1923 and 1924 . He died in Bethnal Green , London on 28 April 1927 at the age of 40 .
= Rosecroft Raceway =
Rosecroft Raceway , nicknamed the " Raceway by the Beltway " for being close to Interstate 495 , is a harness racing track in Fort Washington , Maryland . It first opened in 1949 and was owned by William E. Miller , a horse trainer and breeder . Rosecroft quickly became Prince George 's County 's political and social center , drawing thousands of people there each racing day . In the early 1950s , average attendance was more than 7 @,@ 000 per day . After Miller died in 1954 , his son John owned Rosecroft until his death in 1969 . Rosecroft hosted memorial stake races annually for both William and John until 1995 . Following the death of John Miller , Earle Brown controlled operations until he moved to a different position in 1980 ; William E. Miller II took over following Brown .
Rosecroft was sold to Mark Vogel in 1987 . Vogel made several mistakes that hurt the horse racing industry in Maryland . Three years later , he was arrested for possession of cocaine , and his company went into bankruptcy . Rosecroft was sold to Weisman 's Colt Enterprises in 1991 . In that same year , the grandstand caught fire and was reconstructed in 1993 for $ 3 @.@ 6 million . In 1995 , after losing millions , the relatives of Weisman sold Rosecroft to Cloverleaf Enterprises . In the 2000s , Cloverleaf attempted to sell Rosecroft multiple times , but due to lawsuits and politics , all the potential buyers became uninterested . Nearby states legalized casinos to help their racetracks . Money generated from the casinos was used to increase the purses and handle ( daily betting turnover ) , and Rosecroft was unable to produce the same amount of money . After filing for bankruptcy once again , Rosecroft Raceway closed down in 2010 . The next year , Penn National Gaming purchased the racetrack with the hope to make it a racino , and Rosecroft reopened in 2011 .
Throughout Rosecroft 's history , it has featured notable races . From 1984 to 1988 , it hosted segments of the Breeders Crown . Starting in 1990 and ending in 1995 , the racetrack hosted the Messenger Stakes , the second leg of the Triple Crown of Harness Racing for Pacers . Rosecroft hosted the Potomac Stakes , Maryland most successful harness race , from 1990 to 1992 . Rosecroft features the Maryland Sire Stakes , which showcases the best standardbred horses in Maryland . Besides the races , Rosecroft has had famous people and horses work and race at the track . John Wager , Maryland 's all @-@ time most winning driver , has been working at Rosecroft since 1974 . Several famous people — Lyndon B. Johnson , Elizabeth Taylor , and Nancy Pelosi , among others — have visited Rosecroft . Cam 's Card Shark raced at Rosecroft in 1994 and challenged the single @-@ season record for most money won in a season by winning over $ 2 million , and Robust Hanover set a track record while winning the Breeders Crown in 1985 .
= = History = =
= = = Miller family : 1947 – 1987 = = =
In September 1947 , a meeting was held about bringing a harness racetrack to Maryland , specifically Prince George 's County , and Rosecroft was chosen to be the site . William E. Miller — a future harness racing Immortal and horse breeder — founded Rosecroft Raceway in 1949 . It was the first raceway to be owned by horse owners , horse trainers , and jockeys . Rosecroft was originally the WE Miller Stables and was located next to the Rosecroft Stock Farm , where horses were bred . The racetrack cost $ 800 @,@ 000 to construct and was " first class in every respect " . The Washington Post estimated a crowd of 12 @,@ 000 on its opening day of May 26 , 1949 , but rain cancelled the races . Rosecroft 's first night of racing was May 27 , 1949 when 6 @,@ 000 people showed up and $ 164 @,@ 501 was wagered . The handle was the second @-@ highest ever recorded for a night trotting track on an opening night .
For years , Rosecroft Raceway held an annual sale of yearling Standardbred horses . It hosted the annual Maryland Sire Stake Races to promote the best of Maryland @-@ bred horses . When Rosecroft opened , it became the political and social center for Prince George 's County , Maryland . Each year during the Miller era , several thousand people traveled from across the country to wager on and watch the horses . In 1953 , Rosecroft 's attendance of 192 @,@ 585 was the highest among all harness tracks in Maryland . Owners , trainers , and drivers from across the United States moved their farms to Maryland in the 1950s following the opening of Rosecroft , hoping to compete with the best horses .
In 1954 , William E. Miller died from a heart attack while driving a horse at Harrington Raceway . After Miller 's death , Rosecroft hosted the William E. Miller Memorial race . Over the years , this race attracted several notable horses , including Cam 's Card Shark , the 1994 Horse of the Year . John W. Miller , William 's son , owned Rosecroft until his death in 1969 . In 1961 , the owners of Rosecroft resurfaced and regraded the track . Following John , Earle Brown owned the racetrack . John Wager , Maryland 's all @-@ time most winning driver , started to work at Rosecroft in 1974 . Earle Brown moved to a different position at the racetrack in 1980 and William E. Miller II , William E. Miller 's grandson , took over operations .
In 1984 , the Hambletonian Society created the Breeders Crown , a traveling series of races to showcase the best 2 @-@ year @-@ old and 3 @-@ year @-@ old horses throughout North American and Canada . In the inaugural year , Rosecroft was awarded with a race . Rosecroft hosted the 2 @-@ Year @-@ Old Pace of the 1985 Breeders Crown , where Robust Hanover won .
= = = Mark Vogel : 1987 – 1990 = = =
Mark Vogel , a Maryland real estate agent , purchased both Rosecroft and Ocean Downs Racetrack in 1987 for $ 6 million in cash plus $ 5 @.@ 5 million in debt . Rosecroft was awarded another Breeders Crown race in 1988 , making it their fifth straight — but final — year of hosting them . Vogel had three main goals when he became owner : to construct a $ 10 million grandstand , simulcast Rosecroft races at other racetracks throughout Maryland to attract a larger market , and have more racing days . In 1989 , Vogel purchased Freestate Raceway . Freestate was sold to a development firm the next year , and Rosecroft was awarded more racing days .
According to The Washington Times writer Rick Snyder , Vogel did not know the horse racing business and made mistakes that negatively affected the industry in Maryland . The year @-@ round racing Rosecroft was awarded lowered the excitement for the locals . Rosecroft was not capable of attracting a new market , and attendance figures declined . He never focused on marketing or daily operations of Rosecroft . Instead , Vogel focused more on his real estate business . As a result , the attendance dropped . Vogel took out money from the betting pools to help his real estate business . Lower betting pools mean smaller payouts for the bettors and less profit for the racetrack owners . Vogel never formed political ties to help pass legislation used to help harness racing , more specially to allow off @-@ track betting and to lower the state tax on betting pools .
Starting in 1990 , Rosecroft Raceway hosted the Messenger Stakes , one of the races for the Triple Crown of Harness Racing for Pacers . Rosecroft attracted the Potomac Stakes , Maryland 's most successful race , starting in that year . The Potomac Stakes was previously held at Freestate Raceway and generated one @-@ million @-@ dollar @-@ plus handles on several occasions . On a September 1990 night , $ 1 @,@ 195 @,@ 681 was wagered by bettors , becoming the then @-@ largest handle in Rosecroft 's history . This record was broken on May 3 , 2003 when $ 1 @,@ 564 @,@ 150 was wagered . Vogel was arrested in September 1990 for possession of cocaine , and his company filed for bankruptcy protection .
= = = Weisman 's Colt Enterprises : 1991 – 1995 = = =
In 1991 , two people were interested in buying the track : Fred Weisman , a California businessman , and former National Football League player Mark May . Weisman out @-@ bid May and purchased Rosecroft out of bankruptcy for $ 18 @.@ 2 million . On November 23 of the same year , the grandstand caught fire a few hours before live racing began . In Weisman 's first full season of operations , Rosecroft experienced a 10 @.@ 5 percent increase in handle and an 8 @.@ 3 percent increase in attendance . In 1992 , Western Hanover , the richest horse of that year , won two of the three Triple Crown races , including the Messenger Stakes at Rosecroft . Rosecroft Raceway went into the record books on October 10 , 1992 , when a three @-@ horse dead heat occurred in the seventh race . It was the 17th time in harness @-@ racing history and the first time in Maryland history .
The new grandstand was completed for $ 3 @.@ 6 million in 1993 . Since Rosecroft had expanded its simulcasting rights , the new grandstand incorporated large @-@ screen televisions and betting windows . For the 1993 season , Rosecroft 's officials decided to stop hosting the five stake races — The Potomac , the Lady Baltimore , The Terrapan , The Turtle Dove , and The North American — inherited when Freestate Raceway closed . The handle was decreasing , and the officials could not afford the purses for the races . To help increase the handle , Maryland racetrack officials voted to allow inter @-@ track simulcasting between all Maryland tracks and authorized off @-@ track betting parlors throughout the state .
In September 1994 , Weisman died from pancreatic cancer in Los Angeles , California , and his relatives took over the racetrack . Although attendance and handle were increasing , the owners were losing money . Reports by independent auditors stated Rosecroft and Ocean Downs combined to lose $ 1 @.@ 1 million in fiscal year ( FY ) 1992 , $ 1 @.@ 4 million in FY 1993 , and $ 6 @.@ 2 million in FY 1994 . According to Rosecroft 's racing official Allan Levey , Weisman 's relatives did not want to operate the track and their only goal was to sell it . For the 1995 season , Rosecroft could not afford the payment to host five stake races — including the Messenger Stakes — and dropped them from the racing schedule .
= = = Cloverleaf Enterprises : 1995 – 2010 = = =
Throughout 1995 , Rosecroft was forced to cut costs . Its owners lowered the amount of purse money , eliminated stake races , and reduced the number of racing days . They decided to sell both Rosecroft and Ocean Downs to Cloverleaf Enterprises , a horseman 's organization , in mid @-@ 1995 for $ 11 million . Weisman 's Colt Enterprises reported that if the racetrack could not be sold , the company would have to file for bankruptcy . Cloverleaf accepted a $ 10 @.@ 6 million loan from Bally Entertainment in hopes that a casino would be allowed at Rosecroft .
In 1994 , the Delaware General Assembly approved slot machines for the state 's three racetracks , and the first racino opened in December 1995 . This helped the horse racing industry in Delaware , as approximately 10 percent of all gross revenue is used to increase the purses . This drew competition away from Maryland . Rosecroft could not fill up a 12 @-@ race card for its opening night during the 1996 season . An estimated $ 80 million in wagering was lost in 1996 from the effect of Delaware 's casinos . Throughout the years , various politicians tried to bring slot machines or table games to Rosecroft , but all were unsuccessful .
In the 2000s , Cloverleaf tried to sell Rosecroft multiple times . In mid @-@ 2002 , several buyers became interested in the track , but Cloverleaf was involved in lawsuits , so the track could not be sold . One bidder was Peter Angelos , the owner of the Baltimore Orioles , but he withdrew in 2005 . All the lawsuits were resolved in 2006 , and only one remaining bidder was left — Penn National Gaming . Maryland passed a casino bill in 2007 , but Rosecroft was not one of the locations sanctioned for expanded gambling by the law . As a result , Penn National lost its interest in Rosecroft and decided not to purchase the track . From the gambling revenue , 7 percent goes to the horse @-@ racing industry .
Cloverleaf announced Rosecroft would close on July 1 , 2010 . Live racing ended in 2009 , and the track only had simulcasts as revenue from off @-@ track betting . After several of the surrounding states legalized casinos , Rosecroft was unable to continue as a successful business . Cloverleaf Enterprises filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in June 2009 . Mark Vogel loaned the track $ 350 @,@ 000 and offered to buy the track , but a bankruptcy court judge refused to approve the plan . Rosecroft officials had hoped that the Maryland General Assembly would approve legislation allowing casino @-@ style gambling at Rosecroft , but that did not occur . In early June 2010 , Cloverleaf filed for Chapter 7 bankruptcy .
= = = Penn National Gaming : 2011 – 2016 = = =
In January 2011 , Penn National Gaming bought Rosecroft for $ 10 @.@ 25 million . Penn National said it planned to return live racing and simulcast wagering to the track as well as pushing for changes in Maryland gaming laws allowing slots and table games . Penn National said it was hoping to convince the state to allow slot machines at the track , even though voters did not approve Prince George 's County as a gambling location . On July 28 , 2011 , the Maryland Racing Commission agreed to allow Penn National Gaming to secure a $ 1 @.@ 4 million line of credit to cover operating losses at Rosecroft for fiscal years 2011 and 2012 . Penn National said it was likely to incur $ 2 @.@ 3 million in losses through 2013 .
Penn National wanted Rosecroft to begin simulcasting races in late August 2011 . Disputes between tracks and simulcasters about revenues , however , led to a delay in reaching new agreements on broadcast rights . In the 2011 , the Maryland legislature passed a bill that required all parties to enter into mediation . If mediation was not successful by October 1 , 2011 , then an arbitrator was required to help . To resolve a conflict of interest , Penn National sold its financial stake in the Maryland Jockey Club 's in July 2011 . In August 2011 , Rosecroft made public its plans for adding a casino at Rosecroft . It planned to destroy the grandstand and build a casino with approximately 4 @,@ 700 slot machines alongside the track .
An agreement on simulcasting of harness and quarter horse races was reached in August allowing Rosecroft to reopen on August 25 , 2011 . Rosecroft owed $ 1 @.@ 24 million in unpaid disbursements under its previous simulcast license , and the parties were negotiating about how much of this debt Penn National would pay . Rosecroft drew 400 to 500 patrons on its opening day . Penn National also announced its intent to spend $ 1 million in the coming year to renovate the property , which would include razing old horse barns , putting a new roof on the betting parlors , and upgrading the HVAC system .
A bill was introduced into the Maryland General Assembly in 2012 which would allow a casino in Prince George 's County . The two likely spots were National Harbor or Rosecroft . The bill passed the Senate , but the House did not vote on it . The bill was passed and signed by the Governor in August 2012 to allow a casino in Prince George 's County , which was passed via referendum in November 2012 . After one season of live racing , Penn National and Cloverleaf reached an agreement to extend live racing at Rosecroft for the next two years . The only exception is if National Harbor becomes the location for the Prince George 's County casino .
= = = Stronach Group : 2016 @-@ present = = =
In May 2016 , the Stronach Group purchased Rosecroft Raceway for an undisclosed sum . The purchase was scheduled to close in mid @-@ summer , pending approval by the Maryland Racing Commission . Stronach Group said it would make some cosmetic improvements to the racing facilities , and then begin an evaluation to see what long @-@ term improvements it might make .
= = Non @-@ horse racing activities = =
Besides horse racing , Rosecroft has allowed other activities . The Old School Boxing Gym is located there , and the track has hosted amateur boxing matches for several years . The gym served as a refuge to children in the area . Before his heavyweight championship tenure , George Foreman beat Sylvester Dullaire at Rosecroft on July 14 , 1969 . Then @-@ undefeated boxer Seth Mitchell also fought at Rosecroft in 2009 . Rosecroft made news when it decided to host an all @-@ female night of boxing in 2009 . In 1974 , Rosecroft Raceway hosted professional motorcycle races . In 2012 , Rosecroft hosted the 46th Annual Cherry Blossom Rugby Tournament . The area also serves large banquets . Other community activities include an annual Senior Citizen Day , hosting flea markets , fundraising for politicians , and hosting Governor '
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Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) and " Crybaby " featuring Snoop Dogg , were released as a double A @-@ side . The songs were at the center of a public feud in between Carey and Sony due to Sony 's alleged weak promotion of the singles . Carey 's cover of Phil Collins " Against All Odds ( Take a Look at Me Now ) " with Westlife peaked at number one in Brazil , Ireland and the United Kingdom .
= = Background = =
Since her debut in 1990 , Carey 's career was heavily calculated and controlled by her husband and head of her label Sony Music Entertainment , Tommy Mottola . For years , Carey 's albums had consisted of slow and meaningful ballads , devoid of any guest appearances or hip @-@ hop . In January 1995 , as she recorded Daydream , Carey began taking more control over her musical style and genre influences . She enlisted the production skills and rap styles of Ol ' Dirty Bastard , who was featured on the remix of her song " Fantasy " . While Mottola was hesitant at first , Carey 's influence paid off : the song became an international chart topper , with critics calling their joint performance one of the pioneering songs of pop and R & B musical collaborations .
During the recording and production of Carey 's Butterfly in 1997 , the couple separated , leaving Carey an extended amount of control over the unfinished album . Following their separation , Carey began working with younger hip @-@ hop and R & B producers and songwriters , aside from her usual work with balladeers Walter Afanasieff and Kenneth Edmonds . While the album incorporated several different genres and components that were not present in Carey 's previous releases , Butterfly also included a balance of her classic ballads and newer R & B @-@ infused jams . While Sony accepted Carey 's new collaborations with writers and producers such as P. Diddy and Bone Thugs @-@ n @-@ Harmony , they continued to focus their promotion on the ballads . After " Honey " , the debut single from Butterfly , was released in August 1997 , Sony halted the release of the succeeding R & B @-@ influenced jams , and released the ballad " My All " as the second worldwide single . Rainbow followed in its predecessors ' footsteps , becoming even more drenched in modern hip @-@ hop and R & B.
= = Writing and recording = =
During the spring of 1999 , Carey began working on the final album of her record contract with Sony , her ex @-@ husband 's label . Carey 's lover at the time , Luis Miguel , was in the midst of a European tour . In order to spend more time with him , she opted to record the album on the secluded island of Capri , Italy , figuring the seclusion would also help her complete the album sooner . During this time , Carey 's strained relationship with Sony affected her work with writing partner Afanasieff , who had worked extensively with Carey throughout the first half of her career . Aside from their growing creative differences , Mottola had given Afanasieff more opportunities to work with other artists . She felt Mottola was trying to separate her from Afanasieff , in hopes of keeping their relationship permanently strained . Due to the pressure and the awkward relationship Carey had now developed with Sony , she completed the album in a period of three months in the summer of 1999 , quicker than any of her other albums . In an interview with Blitz TV , Carey spoke of her decision to record the album in Capri :
I love New York . But if I 'm there , I want to go out , friends come to the studio , the phone rings constantly . But in Capri , I am in a remote place , and there is no one I can run into . I felt that in Capri I would be able to effectively finish the album on a shorter schedule . And I did . I made it in three months , I was like ' Get me off this label ! ' I couldn 't take it . The situation there [ Sony ] was becoming increasingly difficult .
Like her previous releases , Carey co @-@ wrote and co @-@ produced the album 's material , working with several hip @-@ hop and R & B producers such as Jay @-@ Z , Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis , Usher , Snoop Dogg , Missy Elliott , Jermaine Dupri , and Brian Michael Cox . For the album 's debut single release , Carey collaborated with Jay @-@ Z and DJ Clue . During the spring of 1999 , Carey began working with Clue on several hooks and melodies for the lead single . After a few hours , they decided to include a hip @-@ hop star on the track , which eventually led to Jay @-@ Z. Carey 's longtime friend and back @-@ up vocalist Trey Lorenz , who was featured on her remake of the Jackson 5 song " I 'll Be There " , added " some soft male [ back @-@ up ] vocals . " Carey worked with Lewis and Jam on the ballad " Thank God I Found You " . She had already been in the studio with the duo several times when she contacted them to meet her at the studio , where she told them that she had come up with the title , hook , and melody . Usually , when Carey was writing the songs for Rainbow , James " Big Jim " Wright would play the organ or piano and assist Carey to find the " right melody " . However , since Wright was not present , Lewis played the organ while Carey directed him with her lower registers , providing the chord progression . They composed the song and recorded Carey 's vocals . Knowing she wanted to introduce a male vocalist on the track , Lewis brought R & B singer Joe and pop group 98 Degrees into the studio . After a few hours , the group and Joe had recorded all their vocals and the song was complete . In an interview with Bronson , Lewis discussed the night Carey wrote " Thank God I Found You : "
It all happened that night . She told us the title of the song , the concept and sang us the melody . We usually have Big Jim Wright sit in on those kind of sessions to work out the chords. he wasn 't there so I had to work on the chord myself . So I was playing and there was a part where I said ' Man , what chord am I supposed to do here ? ' and Mariah has such a good ear that she sang me the chord .
While the album was immersed further into mainstream R & B territory , Carey included some of her classic ballads and tender love songs on the album , working with writers and producers such as David Foster and Diane Warren . The idea to work with Warren was suggested by Foster , who thought that the two would be able to " hammer out one hell of a ballad " together . The two wrote and produced the song titled " After Tonight " . Carey felt the song was a perfect metaphor for her relationship with Miguel , describing their romance in Capri . While the song was deemed a success by both parties , they described their working relationship with mixed feelings . According to Foster , who was involved in the writing session , Carey and Warren would not always agree on the lyrics and melodious structure of the song . He described it as a " give and take relationship " ; Warren would offer lyrics and Carey would not like them ; she wanted something more intricate and detailed . Carey would produce a hook or lyrics that Warren did not feel were a perfect fit . In the end , Foster felt that they worked " well together " . After recording the song , Carey invited Miguel to record the song with her as a duet . However , after recording his verses several times , Foster and Carey realized that the song would not turn out the way they planned . Foster said the song 's key was " too high for him " ; the voices did not harmonize well . Carey did not have time to re @-@ record her vocals in a lower key to accommodate Miguel 's verses . Miguel , furious over the failed collaboration , later sent a cut @-@ up tape of the demo to Foster . Carey , Warren , and Foster also wrote " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " , one of the other ballads featured on Rainbow .
= = Music and lyrics = =
As with Butterfly , songs for Rainbow were chosen to solidify Carey 's reputation as a multi @-@ genre artist . Throughout the first phase of her career , Carey 's albums predominantly consisted of pop and adult contemporary ballads . Rainbow mixed hip hop and R & B @-@ flavored upbeat songs with softer and lyrically intense ballads resembling those that Carey had previously recorded . " Heartbreaker " , Carey 's first collaboration with Jay @-@ Z , used a sample from " Attack of the Name Game " , recorded by Stacy Lattisaw , as its hook . The loop originated from " The Name Game " by Shirley Ellis ; Ellis and co @-@ writer Lincoln Chase are credited as songwriters on the track . Carey incorporated the hook into the song 's melody , and added instrumentation . Lyrically , the song chronicles the heartbreak the protagonist feels after learning of her lover 's infidelity . " Thank God I Found You " features vocals from Joe and 98 Degrees , as well as songwriting and production from Carey and Lewis . According to Carey , the song reflects on events in her own life at the time , with the lyrics describing the completion the protagonist feels after " finding " their lover . Joe provides the main male vocal throughout each verse , and 98 Degrees sing the background vocals and the bridge .
Prior to the album 's recording , Mariah and her sister , Alison Carey had a falling out in their relationship . Alison had contracted AIDS in 1988 , when she was 27 , and in 1994 she blamed Mariah for many of her problems and heartbreaks throughout the years . Her children were taken away while she received treatment for AIDS and for mental health issues . Carey wrote a song titled " Petals " , which she describes as the most honest lyrics she has ever written . The song tells of Carey 's feelings for her sister , while illustrating the pain Allison 's betrayal and suffering have caused . In an interview with Bronson , Carey described the meaning of the lyrics of " Petals " :
It is a great outlet for me to go into the studio and write a song like ' Petals ' , which is one of my most personal songs and remains one of my favorites . I think [ it had the most ] honest lyrics I 've ever written . The song chronicles a lot of past emotions I 've felt to certain people close to me , and the way I feel towards them and how their actions have impacted me personally . For that reason , I sang in my lower registers , trying to add that breathy effect to go hand in hand with the song 's composition .
" After Tonight " was a song Carey wrote with David Foster and Diane Warren . Carey had strong feelings about the song , as she wrote it about her relationship with Luis Miguel . The song was compared instrumentally to " My All " from Butterfly , which features traces of Latin and guitar instrumentation . In the lyrics , the protagonist asks her lover if he will still love her and come back to her " after tonight " . Carey 's cover of the Phil Collins song " Against All Odds ( Take a Look at Me Now ) " was originally intended to be a solo ballad . The song was re @-@ done after the album was released , with music by the Irish band Westlife replacing the song 's instrumental bridge . " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " was one of the album 's most uplifting ballads , lyrically serving as an anthem for fans and listeners . The message , Carey said , was a personal theme of hers growing up , of not letting others " bring her down " and not allowing them to take away the light inside her . " How Much " is a duet with Usher and features a sample from Tupac Shakur 's " Me and My Girlfriend " .
= = Conflict with Sony = =
As with Butterfly two years earlier , Rainbow became the center of conflict between Carey and her label . After her divorce from Sony record official and Columbia CEO Tommy Mottola , Carey 's working relationship with the label deteriorated . She intended for " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " to be the third single from Rainbow , as it held very personal lyrical content . However , Sony made it clear that they intended the third single should be a more upbeat and urban track . The difference in opinion led to a very public feud , as Carey began posting messages on her webpage in early and mid @-@ 2000 , telling fans inside information on the dispute , as well as instructing them to request " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " on radio stations . One of the messages Carey left on her page read :
Basically , a lot of you know the political situation in my professional career is not positive . It 's been really , really hard . I don 't even know if this message is going to get to you because I don 't know if they want you to hear this . I 'm getting a lot of negative feedback from certain corporate people . But I am not willing to give up .
Carey 's actions were given mixed reception , with critics and executives commending her bold actions regarding a song she felt needed to be heard , while others criticized her for publicizing the dispute further . Soon after , Sony stripped Carey 's webpage of messages and began negotiations . Fearing to lose their label 's highest seller and the best @-@ selling artist of the decade , Sony chose to release the song . Carey , initially content with the agreement , soon found out that the song had only been given a very limited and low @-@ promotion release , which meant the song failed to chart on the official US chart , and made international charting extremely difficult and unlikely .
= = Critical reception = =
Rainbow garnered mixed to positive reviews from contemporary music critics . The album 's main criticism was its lack of originality , as it failed to improve upon her previous opus , Butterfly . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic awarded the album three out of five stars , complimenting it as " the first Carey album where she 's written personal lyrics , and allusions to her separation from Mottola . " He called the lyrics " true " and " deep " , but criticized the lack of originality . Erlewine alluded to Rainbow as " ballad @-@ heavy " and " repetitious " , writing how the album followed the formula of Carey 's previous album too precisely . Erlewine ended his review on a mixed note , writing " Rainbow proves that she can still pull off that difficult balancing act , but it 's hard not to be a little disappointed that she 'd didn 't shake the music up a little bit more – after all , it would have been a more effective album if the heartbreak , sorrow , and joy that bubbles underneath the music were brought to the surface . "
Arion Berger , an editor from Rolling Stone , also gave the album three out of five stars . He felt Rainbow was a genuine R & B and hip @-@ hop album , calling it a " sterling chronicle of the state of accessible hip @-@ hop balladeering at the close of 1999 . " Aside from calling some of the ballads " banal " , Berger concluded his review with " Rainbow is at its best — and Carey at her most comfortable — when urbane hip @-@ hop stylings and faux R & B coexist in smooth middle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ road harmony . " Robert Christgau of The Village Voice gave the album a two @-@ star honorable mention ( ) , indicating a " likable effort consumers attuned to its overriding aesthetic or individual vision may well enjoy . " Christgau cited " Heartbreaker " and " Crybaby " as highlights and quippedly called Carey " not a ' real ' r & b thrush , but good enough to fake it . " Amy Linden from Vibe was unimpressed with the album , writing " I don 't care about it anymore . " While complimenting the album 's genre influences and featured musical guests , Linden felt Rainbow was not original . She concluded her review with " ' Rainbow ' will garner her even more adoration . As for me ? I 'll be okay . " Danyel Smith from Entertainment Weekly gave Rainbow a B + , and concluded " what began on Butterfly as a departure ends up on Rainbow a progression – perhaps the first compelling proof of Carey 's true colors as an artist . " Elysa Gardner from the Los Angeles Times gave Rainbow three and a half out of four stars . She complimented the album 's strong blend of breezy R & B cuts , as well as the lyrically , vocally , and melodically strong ballads . " Exhibiting an emotional authority to match her technical prowess , Carey gives us a vision of love that 's dynamic without being ostentatious , " she wrote . Steve Jones from USA Today gave Rainbow three out of four stars , calling it " colorful " and " some of her most compelling work . "
= = Commercial performance = =
Rainbow debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 chart with 323 @,@ 000 units sold , the highest first @-@ week sales of Carey 's career at that time . In its second week , the album stayed at number two , selling an additional 228 @,@ 000 copies , barred from the top by Faith Hill 's Breathe . In its eighth week , Rainbow experienced its highest weekly sales — during the Christmas week of 1999 — selling 369 @,@ 000 copies , while placing at number nine . It became Carey 's first studio album since Merry Christmas ( 1994 ) to not reach the top position in the United States . In total , Rainbow stayed in the top twenty for ten weeks and on the chart for thirty @-@ five , making one re @-@ entry . It was certified triple @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of three million copies throughout the United States . According to Nielsen SoundScan , the album 's sales in the US are estimated at 2 @,@ 968 @,@ 000 copies . In Canada , Rainbow debuted at number two on the Canadian Albums Chart , and was certified triple @-@ platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) . Sales in Canada are estimated at 300 @,@ 000 units .
Rainbow debuted at number three on the Australian Albums Chart , staying within the chart for seven weeks . The album was platinumby the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of 70 @,@ 000 copies . In France , the album experienced strong success , debuting atop the albums chart and remaining inside the top forty for thirty @-@ four weeks . The album was certified triple @-@ platinum by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) , with estimated sales of 900 @,@ 000 copies . In Germany , Rainbow peaked at number three , and received a platinum certification from the Bundesverband Musikindustrie ( BVMI ) , denoting shipments of 500 @,@ 000 units. in the United Kingdom Rainbow debuted at number eight and stayed within the top 100 for 20 weeks . Rainbow was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , denoting shipments of 300 @,@ 000 units . Additionally , Rainbow received triple @-@ platinum certification in Brazil , with 800 @,@ 000 copies , platinum in New Zealand , triple @-@ platinum in Spain , platinum in Argentina , gold in Belgium , platinum in the Netherlands , and gold in Switzerland . The album has sold 15 million copies worldwide .
= = Singles = =
Five singles were released from Rainbow ; two were worldwide international releases and three were limited promotional releases . " Heartbreaker " , the album 's first worldwide release , became Carey 's fourteenth chart topper in the United States . Aside from staying atop the US chart for two weeks , the song reached the chart 's summit in Canada and New Zealand . Elsewhere , " Heartbreaker " achieved high charting , peaking within the top five in France and the United Kingdom , and within the top ten in Australia , Belgium , the Netherlands , Germany , and Switzerland . The song received mixed reviews from critics . Arion berger from Rolling Stone called the song Carey 's " most insinuating : nasal , silken , declarative , riding the percolating beat . " However , while dismissing some of the song 's vocals and the incorporation of the hook , he complimented its marriage of pop and hip @-@ hop through Jay @-@ Z 's verses . Robert Christgau named the song one of his favorites from Rainbow , calling it " real R & B " . The song 's music video became one of the most expensive music videos of all time , costing an estimated $ 2 @.@ 5 million . The video features Carey visiting a movie theater with her friends , where she finds her lover with another woman . " Thank God I Found You " was released as the second worldwide single from the album . While becoming Carey 's fifteenth chart topper in the US , the song achieved moderate chart success in Europe and other territories . Berger called it a " gospel soar " and complimented Carey 's vocals , as well as the harmonies by 98 Degrees . The music video features footage from a live concert with Carey and the band performing the song .
" Crybaby " and " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " were released simultaneously as a double A @-@ side , with very limited promotion from Sony . These two songs , especially the latter , became the center of a very public controversy between Carey and her label , due to their alleged low promotion of the album . " Crybaby " was chosen as one of the album 's top songs by Christgau , who called it the album 's best attempt at R & B. Carey and Snoop Dogg were featured in the music video for " Crybaby " , with Carey playing an anxious woman who can 't sleep at night due to her lover 's infidelity . A music video for " Can 't Take That Away " was released around the same time , which features Carey on a rooftop garden . Carey sings during a rain storm , and towards the video 's conclusion , the sun arises , bring forth a " new day " . The final single from Rainbow , " Against All Odds ( Take a Look at Me Now ) " , was given a limited release as well . After performing moderately around the world , a new version of the song , featuring Westlife , was released in Ireland and the United Kingdom . It became successful there , peaking at number one in both territories , and became Carey 's second UK chart topper . The song 's video features Carey and Westlife on a boat in Capri . Scenes of the group exploring the island are cut with scenes of them in the studio , though Carey never re @-@ recorded her vocals from the original version .
= = Promotion = =
Prior to the album 's release , Carey made an appearance on Pavarotti & Friends for Guatemala and Kosovo , performing " My All " and " Hero " alongside Luciano Pavarotti in a live duet . The concert benefit was filmed live in Modena , Italy , during the summer of 1999 and was released for sale on September 21 , with funds being donated to relief efforts for natural disasters in Guatemala and Kosovo . Carey made several live television and award show appearances at this time , and recorded her own Fox Broadcasting Company special , titled The Mariah Carey Homecoming Special . A mini @-@ concert filmed at Carey 's old high school in Huntington , New York , the special aired on Fox on December 21 , 1999 . Carey performed " Heartbreaker " and its accompanying remix at the MTV European Music Awards , held on November 11 , 1999 , in Dublin , Ireland . Additionally , the song was performed on The Oprah Winfrey Show , the British music chart program Top of the Pops , and The Today Show , which included a performance of " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " and " Hero " . " Thank God I Found You was performed live at the 2000 American Music Awards as well as on several European programs , including Top of the Pops and Friday Night 's All Wright in the United Kingdom , NRJ and Soulier d 'Or in France , Wetten , dass .. ? in Germany , and Quelli che ... il Calcio in Italy . The album 's final two releases , " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " and " Against All Odds ( Take a Look at Me Now ) " , were performed on The View and at the 2000 Blockbuster Entertainment Awards .
In order to promote Rainbow , Carey embarked of her fourth headlining and third worldwide tour . Titled the Rainbow World Tour , it included nineteen shows : six in Europe , four in Asia , eight in the United States , and one in Canada . For Carey 's previous two tours , she had only visited Europe and Asia , due to the mixed reception of her debut stateside tour in 1993 . However , after achieving record @-@ breaking ticket sales throughout Asia and instant sellouts in Europe , Carey felt secure enough to once again tour her native country . The set list featured songs from most of Carey 's previous studio albums , as well as some tracks from Rainbow . Missy Elliott and Da Brat served as opening acts for the US leg of the tour . Ticket sales were very strong ; the entire US leg sold out in a matter of days . The Asian and European leg mirrored the commercial success of her previous two tours . Reviews for the tour varied from positive to mixed . Some critics and fans reproached her of having a " tired and hoarse voice " , while others commented on Carey 's choice of wardrobe . Several critics and many concert @-@ goers praised the tour , calling it an intense celebration of Carey 's career .
= = Track listing = =
" Heartbreaker " contains a sample of " Attack of the Name Game " by Stacy Lattisaw .
" How Much " contains a sample of " Me and My Girlfriend " by Makaveli .
" Heartbreaker ( Remix ) " contains a sample of " Ain 't No Fun ( If The Homies Can 't Have None ) " by Snoop Dogg .
" Against All Odds ( Take a Look at Me Now ) " is a cover of " Against All Odds ( Take a Look at Me Now ) " by Phil Collins .
" Crybaby " contains samples of " Piece of My Love " by Guy and " Georgy Porgy " by Toto .
" Did I Do That ? " Contains a sample of " It Ain 't My Fault 2 " by Silkk The Shocker .
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= San Giorgio @-@ class cruiser =
The San Giorgio class consisted of two armored cruisers built for the Royal Italian Navy ( Regia Marina ) in the first decade of the 20th century . The second ship , San Marco , was used to evaluate recently invented steam turbines in a large ship and incorporated a number of other technological advances . The ships participated in the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 , although San Giorgio was under repair for most of the war . San Marco supported ground forces in Libya with naval gunfire and helped them to occupy towns in Libya and islands in the Dodecanese . During World War I , the ships ' activities were limited by the threat of Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines , although they did bombard Durazzo , Albania in 1918 .
San Giorgio spent several years in the Far East and Italian Somaliland after the war and became a training ship in 1931 . After a brief deployment to Spain in 1936 , she was reconstructed to better serve her role as a training ship . The ship 's anti @-@ aircraft armament was augmented when she was deployed to Tobruk , Libya to reinforce the port 's defenses after Italy declared war on Britain in May 1940 . San Giorgio was scuttled in early 1941 when Allied forces were poised to capture the port . Her wreck was salvaged in 1952 , but sank while under tow . San Marcos was converted into a target ship in the early 1930s and was found sunk at the end of the war . She was scrapped in 1949 .
= = Design and description = =
The San Giorgio class was ordered almost immediately after the preceding Pisa @-@ class ships , and was an improved version of that design . The forecastle was extended to improve seaworthiness , turret armor was increased , habitability was improved and the propulsion machinery was redistributed . San Marco was given the first steam turbines fitted in a large Italian ship for comparative purposes with San Giorgio , which retained the traditional vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines ( VTE ) . San Marco was a very innovative ship as she was the first turbine @-@ powered ship in any navy to have four propeller shafts , the first with a gyroscopic compass , the first with antiroll tanks , and the first not to use wood in any way .
The San Giorgio @-@ class ships had a length between perpendiculars of 131 @.@ 04 meters ( 429 ft 11 in ) and an overall length of 140 @.@ 89 meters ( 462 ft 3 in ) . They had a beam of 21 @.@ 03 meters ( 69 ft 0 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 35 – 7 @.@ 76 meters ( 24 ft 1 in – 25 ft 6 in ) . The ships displaced 10 @,@ 167 – 10 @,@ 969 metric tons ( 10 @,@ 006 – 10 @,@ 796 long tons ) at normal load , and 11 @,@ 300 – 11 @,@ 900 metric tons ( 11 @,@ 100 – 11 @,@ 700 long tons ) at deep load . The ships had a complement of 32 officers and 666 to 673 enlisted men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The machinery installation of this class was changed in comparison to that of the Pisa class , with the engines amidships with the 14 mixed @-@ firing water @-@ tube boilers fore and aft of the engines . Their exhausts were trunked together into two widely spaced pairs of funnels . Designed for a maximum speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) , the two ships were given different types of propulsion machinery for evaluation . San Giorgio 's two shafts , pair of 19 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 14 @,@ 500 kW ) VTE steam engines and Blechynden boilers differed only slightly from those used by the Pisas . In contrast , San Marco 's four shafts , each driven by a license @-@ built Parsons steam turbine , was a first for the Regia Marina . The turbines used steam provided by Babcock & Wilcox boilers at a working pressure of 210 psi ( 1 @,@ 448 kPa ; 15 kgf / cm2 ) to reach their designed output of 23 @,@ 000 shp ( 17 @,@ 000 kW ) . Both ships exceeded their designed speeds , with San Giorgio reaching 23 @.@ 2 knots ( 43 @.@ 0 km / h ; 26 @.@ 7 mph ) and San Marco 23 @.@ 75 knots ( 43 @.@ 99 km / h ; 27 @.@ 33 mph ) during their sea trials . The biggest difference between the sisters was that the turbines of San Marco proved to be significantly less economical in service ( a range of 4 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ; 5 @,@ 500 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) and 2 @,@ 480 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 590 km ; 2 @,@ 850 mi ) at 21 @.@ 25 knots ( 39 @.@ 36 km / h ; 24 @.@ 45 mph ) ) compared to San Giorgio 's VTE steam engines ( 6 @,@ 270 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 610 km ; 7 @,@ 220 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) and 2 @,@ 640 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 890 km ; 3 @,@ 040 mi ) at 21 @.@ 25 knots ( 39 @.@ 36 km / h ; 24 @.@ 45 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The main armament of the San Giorgio @-@ class ships consisted of four Cannone da 254 / 45 A Modello 1907 guns in electrically powered , twin @-@ gun turrets fore and aft of the superstructure . The turrets had an arc of fire of 260 ° . The 254 mm ( 10 @.@ 0 in ) gun fired 204 @.@ 1 – 226 @.@ 8 @-@ kilogram ( 450 – 500 lb ) armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 870 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 850 ft / s ) . At maximum elevation of + 25 ° , the guns had a range of about 25 @,@ 000 meters ( 27 @,@ 000 yd ) . The ships mounted eight Cannone da 190 / 45 A Modello 1908 in four electrically powered twin @-@ gun turrets , two in each side amidships , as their secondary armament . Their arc of fire was 160 ° . These Armstrong Whitworth 190 mm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) guns fired 90 @.@ 9 @-@ kilogram ( 200 lb ) AP shells at 864 – 892 m / s ( 2 @,@ 835 – 2 @,@ 927 ft / s ) . At maximum elevation of + 25 ° , the guns had a range of about 22 @,@ 000 meters ( 24 @,@ 000 yd ) .
For defense against torpedo boats , the San Giorgios mounted 18 quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 40 @-@ caliber 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns . Eight of these were mounted in embrasures in the sides of the hull and the rest in the superstructure . The ships were also fitted with a pair of QF 40 @-@ caliber 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) guns . The San Giorgio @-@ class ships were equipped with three submerged 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . During World War I , eight of the 76 mm guns were replaced by six 76 mm anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns and one torpedo tube was removed .
= = = Protection = = =
The ships were protected by an armored belt that was 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick amidships and reduced to 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) at the bow and stern . The belt was 2 @.@ 2 m ( 7 ft 3 in ) high , of which 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 ft 11 in ) was below the waterline . The armored deck was 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick and the conning tower armor was 254 mm thick . The 254 mm gun turrets were protected by 200 mm of armour while the 190 mm turrets had 160 mm ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) .
= = Ships = =
= = Service = =
San Giorgio ran aground in August 1911 off Naples @-@ Posillipo ; heavily damaged , she was under repair until June 1912 , missing most of the Italo @-@ Turkish War . San Marco supported the occupations of Benghazi and Derna , Libya during the war and bombarded the fortifications defending the entrance to the Dardanelles . She also supported the forces occupying the island of Rhodes in May 1912 . In February 1913 , San Giorgio cruised the Aegean Sea and made a port visit to Salonica , Greece , the next month . She ran aground again on 21 November in the Strait of Messina , but was only slightly damaged .
During World War I , the activities of the ships were restricted by the threat of submarine attack after the armored cruisers Giuseppe Garibaldi and Amalfi were sunk by submarines shortly after Italy joined the war in May 1915 , although the ships did participate in the bombardment of Durazzo , Albania in late 1918 .
After the war , San Giorgio was deployed to the Far East while San Marcos played a minor role in the Corfu incident in 1923 . San Giorgio , escorted by San Marco , ferried Crown Prince Umberto to South America in July – September 1924 , and then supported operations in Italian Somaliland in 1925 – 26 . The ship was disarmed and converted into a radio @-@ controlled target ship in 1931 – 35 ; her old boilers were replaced by four oil @-@ burning ones which reduced her maximum speed to 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . She was captured by the Germans when they occupied La Spezia on 9 September 1943 ; San Marcos was found at the end of the war half @-@ sunk in the harbor there and was broken up in 1949 .
From 1930 to 1935 , San Giorgio was based in Pola as a training ship , and was sent to Spain after the Spanish Civil War began in 1936 to protect Italian interests . In 1937 – 38 she was reconstructed to serve as a dedicated training ship for naval cadets at the Arsenale di La Spezia : six boilers were removed and the remaining eight were converted to burn fuel oil which reduced her speed to 16 – 17 knots ( 30 – 31 km / h ; 18 – 20 mph ) . Each pair of funnels was trunked together and her 76 / 40 guns were replaced by 47 @-@ caliber 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) guns in four twin turrets abreast the funnels . Her torpedo tubes were also removed while she received a light AA suite for the first time , with the addition of six 54 @-@ caliber Breda 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , a dozen 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) Breda Model 35 autocannon and four 13 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 52 in ) Breda Model 31 machine guns in two twin mounts .
Prior to her being sent to reinforce the defenses of Tobruk in early May 1940 , a fifth 100 / 47 gun turret was added on the forecastle and five more twin 13 @.@ 2 mm machine gun mounts were added to better suit her new role as a floating battery . Two days after Italy declared war on Britain on 10 June , the British light cruisers Gloucester and Southampton bombarded Tobruk and attacked San Giorgio , which was not hit during the engagement . A British submarine fired two torpedoes at San Giorgio on 19 June , but these detonated before reaching the ship . The ship 's guns engaged Allied aircraft attacking Tobruk many times , destroying several . She was scuttled in shallow water on 22 January 1941 to prevent her capture during the Battle of Tobruk . San Giorgio was awarded the Gold Medal of Military Valour ( Medaglia d 'Oro al Valore Militare ) for her performance at Tobruk . Her wreck was refloated in 1952 , but sank under tow en route to Italy .
= Oxford United F.C. =
Oxford United Football Club is a professional association football club based in the city of Oxford , Oxfordshire , England . The team play in League One , the third tier of English football . The chairman is Darryl Eales , the head coach is Michael Appleton and the team captain is John Lundstram .
Founded in 1893 as Headington United , Oxford United adopted their current name in 1960 . They joined the Football League in 1962 after winning the Southern Football League , reaching the Second Division in 1968 . After relegation in 1976 , between 1984 and 1986 the club earned successive promotions into the First Division , and won the League Cup in 1986 . Oxford were unable to enter the 1987 UEFA Cup because of the UEFA ban on English clubs in European competitions . Relegation from the top flight in 1988 began an 18 @-@ year decline which saw the club relegated to the Conference in 2006 . This was the first time in the history of English football that a team that had won a major trophy was relegated from the Football League . After four seasons , Oxford were promoted to League Two in 2010 via the playoffs , and six seasons later were promoted to League One , after finishing 2nd in League Two in 2016 .
Ron Atkinson holds the club record for the most overall appearances with 560 , John Shuker holds the record for the most appearances in the Football League with 478 and Ron 's brother Graham Atkinson holds the record for the most goals scored with 107 . In total , nineteen players have made international appearances while playing for the club . United 's home ground is the Kassam Stadium in Oxford and has a capacity of 12 @,@ 500 . United moved to the stadium in 2001 after leaving the Manor Ground , their home for 76 years . Swindon Town is the club 's main rival .
= = History = =
= = = Headington United = = =
Oxford United were formed as Headington in 1893 , adding the suffix United in 1911 after merging with Headington Quarry . The club was founded by Rev. John Scott @-@ Tucker , the vicar at Saint Andrew 's Church in Headington , and a local doctor named Robert Hitchings . A football team was a way for the cricketers of Headington Cricket Club to maintain their fitness during the winter break . The first football match played was against Cowley Barracks . Headington had no regular home until 1913 , when they were able to purchase Wootten 's Field on London Road , but this was redeveloped in 1920 , forcing the club to move . A permanent home was found in 1925 , when they purchased the Manor Ground site on London Road . The facility was used as a cricket pitch in the summer , and a football pitch in the winter . In 1899 , six years after their formation , Headington United joined the Oxfordshire District League Second Division , where they competed until the outbreak of the First World War ; the Second Division was renamed the Oxfordshire Junior League after the resumption of football in 1919 . In 1921 the club was admitted into the Oxon Senior League . The first season included a 9 – 0 victory , with eight of those goals coming from P. Drewitt . This remains a record for the highest number of goals scored by an Oxford player in a first @-@ team match . At this time a small rivalry existed with Cowley F.C. , who were based a few miles south of Headington . During a league game on May Day , the referee gave two penalties to Cowley ; supporters broke past security and players , resulting in the referee being " freely baited " . The first FA Cup tie played was in 1931 , against Hounslow F.C. in the Preliminary Round , ending in an 8 – 2 defeat for Headington . United spent two seasons in the Spartan League in 1947 and 1948 , finishing fifth and fourth respectively . It was around this time that the cricket team left the Manor and moved to new premises near Cowley Barracks .
A move into professional football was first considered during the 1948 – 49 season . Vic Couling , the president at the time , had applied for Headington to become a member of a new Second Division in the Southern League . Other teams that applied included Weymouth , Kettering Town and future league side Cambridge United . Although the plans were postponed , the First Division was going to be expanded by two clubs ; Weymouth and Headington were elected . It was later discovered that Llanelli had just one vote fewer than Headington . Oxford played its first season in the Southern League in 1949 , the same year they turned professional . Former First Division forward Harry Thompson was hired as manager . In 1950 , Headington United became the first professional club in Britain to install floodlights , and used them on 18 December against Banbury Spencer . They initially played in orange and blue shirts , but changed to yellow home shirts for the 1957 – 58 season . The reason for the change is unknown . In 1960 , Headington United was renamed Oxford United , to give the club a higher profile .
= = = Football League rise = = =
Two years later , in 1962 , the club won the Southern League title for the second successive season and was elected to the Football League Fourth Division , occupying the vacant place left by bankrupt Accrington Stanley . Two successive eighteenth @-@ place finishes followed , before promotion to the Third Division was achieved in 1965 . A year before the promotion , Oxford became the first Fourth Division club to reach the sixth round of the FA Cup , but have not progressed that far in the competition since . Oxford won the Third Division title in 1967 – 68 , their sixth season as a league club , but after eight years of relative stability the club was relegated from the Second Division in 1975 – 76 .
In 1982 , as a Third Division side , Oxford United faced closure because of the club 's inability to service the debts owed to Barclays Bank , but were rescued when businessman Robert Maxwell took over the club . In April 1983 , Maxwell proposed merging United with neighbours Reading , to form a new club called the Thames Valley Royals , to play at Didcot . Jim Smith would have managed the club and been assisted by Reading boss Maurice Evans . The merger was called off as a result of fans of both clubs protesting against the decision . Furthermore , the Reading chairman stepped down and was replaced by an opponent of the merger . Maxwell also threatened to fold the club if the merger did not go through . Oxford won the Third Division title after the 1983 – 84 season under the management of Jim Smith , who also guided them to the Second Division title the following year . This meant that Oxford United would be playing First Division football in the 1985 – 86 season , 23 years after joining the Football League . Smith moved to Queens Park Rangers shortly after the promotion success , and made way for chief scout Maurice Evans , who , several seasons earlier , had won the Fourth Division title with Reading .
= = = First Division and cup success = = =
Oxford United finished eighteenth in the 1985 – 86 First Division , avoiding relegation on the last day of the season after defeating Arsenal 3 – 0 . They also won the Football League Cup , known at the time as the Milk Cup under a sponsorship deal . As winners , Oxford would have qualified for the following season 's UEFA Cup , had it not been for the ban on English teams that had resulted from the previous year 's Heysel Stadium disaster . After beating fellow First Division side Aston Villa in the semi @-@ final 4 – 3 on aggregate , Oxford faced Queens Park Rangers in the final , which was held at Wembley Stadium on 20 April 1986 . The game finished 3 – 0 with goals from Trevor Hebberd , Ray Houghton and Jeremy Charles . After the match long @-@ serving physiotherapist , 72 @-@ year @-@ old Ken Fish , collected one of the winners medals , instead of manager Maurice Evans . Evans felt that Fish deserved the medal for his service to the club , and so gave him his , in what was seen as an " unprecedented gesture " . It was the last time the League Cup was played under the name " Milk Cup " , with sponsors Littlewoods taking over the following season . The 1986 – 87 season saw Oxford United narrowly survive relegation and stay in the First Division . Robert Maxwell resigned as chairman in May 1987 , to take over at Derby County , handing the club to his son Kevin . Maurice Evans was sacked in March 1988 with Oxford bottom of the First Division .
Former Liverpool defender Mark Lawrenson was named as Oxford 's new manager , but was unable to prevent relegation to the Second Division . He was sacked three months into the 1988 – 89 Second Division campaign after a dispute with the chairman over the £ 1 million sale of striker Dean Saunders to Derby County ; Derby were owned by Robert Maxwell , father of the then Oxford United chairman , Kevin Maxwell . Following Robert Maxwell 's death in 1991 , his personal estate , including the club , became insolvent . After a long search for a new owner , during which BioMass Recycling Ltd took over the club , Brian Horton was named as Oxford 's new manager . He remained in charge until September 1993 , when he moved to Manchester City in the recently formed FA Premier League . Horton led United to mid @-@ table finishes during his management spell , apart from a 21st @-@ place finish at the end of the 1991 – 92 season . A 2 – 1 win over Tranmere Rovers , and a win for Blackburn Rovers over Plymouth Argyle , meant United survived relegation by two points . Oxford , now in the renamed Football League Division One , briefly restored Maurice Evans as manager , before turning to Bristol City manager Denis Smith . Despite Smith 's efforts , Oxford was relegated to Division Two at the end of the 1993 – 94 season , with just four wins in the last eleven games .
= = = Financial problems = = =
Denis Smith brought in two strikers who were experienced in the top division : Southampton 's Paul Moody and Nottingham Forest 's Nigel Jemson . Oxford finished seventh in 1994 – 95 season , and in the following season gained promotion by finishing runners @-@ up to rivals Swindon Town , despite not winning an away game till the end of January . Robin Herd , co @-@ owner of the March Racing Team , took control of the club in 1995 . In June of that year , the board of directors unveiled plans for a new 16 @,@ 000 @-@ seat stadium at Minchery Farm , to replace the dilapidated Manor Ground . The club had hoped to move into the new stadium near the Blackbird Leys housing estate by the start of the 1998 – 99 season , but construction was suspended during the preceding season , because construction company Taylor Woodrow had not been paid for the work already undertaken .
= = = Dropping through the divisions = = =
The 1996 – 97 season saw Oxford finish seventeenth , and included the sale of Scottish international defender Matt Elliott to Leicester City . Despite Smith 's departure to West Bromwich Albion in December 1997 , United finished twelfth the following season under his successor , and former captain , Malcolm Shotton . Shotton was previously the assistant manager of the Barnsley side that gained promotion to the Premier League . During October 1998 , the backroom staff at the club went unpaid , due to United 's financial situation with the new stadium , and the threat of administration caused a group of fans to set up a pressure group called Fighting for Oxford United 's Life ( FOUL ) . The group began to publicise the club 's plight through a series of meetings and events , including a ' Scarf of Unity ' , which was a collection of scarfs from various clubs which was long enough to stretch around the perimeter of the pitch . Chairman Robin Herd stepped down to concentrate on his engineering projects , and in April 1999 Firoz Kassam bought Herd 's 89 @.@ 9 % controlling interest in Oxford United for £ 1 , with which he also inherited the club 's estimated £ 15 million debt . Kassam reduced the £ 9 million of the debt to just £ 900 @,@ 000 , by virtue of a Company Voluntary Arrangement , by which unsecured creditors who were owed over £ 1 @,@ 000 were reimbursed with 10p for every pound they were owed . Secured creditors were paid off when Kassam sold the Manor to another of his companies , for £ 6 million . Kassam set about completing the unfinished stadium , gaining planning permission for a bowling alley , multiplex cinema and hotel next to the stadium , following a series of legal battles which were eventually all settled . The season ended with relegation back to the Second Division .
Oxford 's poor form continued into the 1999 – 2000 season and , with the team in the relegation zone , Shotton resigned in late October . After a few months with Mickey Lewis as player @-@ manager , former manager Denis Smith returned to the club , managing a twentieth @-@ place finish , one place clear of relegation . Smith 's second spell didn 't last long , and he was replaced by David Kemp a few weeks into the following campaign . At the end of the 2000 – 01 season , Oxford were relegated back to the Third Division after a 35 @-@ year absence , with 100 goals conceded . They suffered 33 league defeats , the second @-@ highest number of league defeats ever endured by a league club in a single season .
= = = Division Three years = = =
Oxford began the next season with a new manager and a new stadium , with the relocation to the Kassam Stadium completed after six years of speculation . Former Liverpool and England defender Mark Wright was given the manager 's job , but resigned in late November , after being accused of making racist remarks to referee Joe Ross . Wright 's successor , Ian Atkins , was unable to make an immediate impact and Oxford finished in 21st position in the league , at the time their lowest @-@ ever league position . United missed out on the play @-@ off places the following season , by one place and one point . Fifteen wins at the start of the 2003 – 04 season saw Oxford top of the table at the end of January . However , Ian Atkins was sacked in March after agreeing to take charge at rivals Bristol Rovers . His replacement , Graham Rix , could only manage a ninth @-@ place finish at the end of the season , and was sacked the following November . Oxford replaced him with Argentine Ramón Díaz , who managed the team to a mid @-@ table finish . Diaz and his team of assistants left the club at the beginning of May 2005 , after being banned from the ground by the chairman due to failed negotiations . During his time at the club , Diaz brought in a number of South American players including his own sons , and Juan Pablo Raponi . Ex @-@ England midfielder and former West Bromwich Albion manager Brian Talbot signed a two @-@ year contract to replace Rix . Talbot found little success and was sacked in March 2006 , with the club in 22nd place . He was replaced by youth team coach Darren Patterson .
On 21 March 2006 , Firoz Kassam sold the club for approximately £ 2 million , including the club 's debts , to Florida @-@ based businessman Nick Merry , who had played for United 's youth team in the mid @-@ 1970s . Merry immediately made changes to the club , including the hiring of former manager Jim Smith in his second spell . Despite signing five new players on his first day in charge , Smith was unable to prevent relegation at the end of the 2005 – 06 season . After 44 years in English league football , Oxford were relegated to the Conference National after finishing in 23rd place , becoming the first former winners of a major trophy to be relegated from the league . Coincidentally , Accrington Stanley , the side who went bankrupt in 1962 allowing United to be elected into the League , were one of the two teams promoted to replace them .
= = = Non @-@ league football = = =
Jim Smith was retained as manager for the following season , and it started positively for Oxford , with 14 wins and 8 draws from the opening 25 games . A run of eleven league games without a win followed , and saw United drop to second , where they remained until the end of the season . On Boxing Day 2006 , a crowd of 11 @,@ 065 watched United draw 0 – 0 with Woking at the Kassam Stadium , the largest @-@ ever attendance for a Conference match ( excluding play @-@ offs ) . Oxford qualified for the play @-@ offs by finishing second , but lost on penalties in the semi @-@ final to Exeter City .
On 9 November 2007 , Jim Smith resigned as manager and first @-@ team coach Darren Patterson returned as manager . In a lacklustre season which included defeats to Droylsden and Tonbridge Angels , camouflaged by a belated run of eight wins in the last eleven games , Oxford finished 9th in the Conference National in 2007 – 08 , 10 points off the last play @-@ off place .
On 2 October 2008 , Nick Merry stepped down as chairman to be replaced by Kelvin Thomas , who had been part of the management team at the time of Merry 's takeover . Just under two months later , Patterson was sacked after a poor run of form , and was replaced by former Halifax Town manager Chris Wilder . Following Wilder 's arrival , the team won 15 of the remaining 21 league matches that season . A 5 @-@ point deduction for fielding an unregistered player resulted in a seventh @-@ place finish , four points and two places short of the play @-@ offs .
Oxford led the table for most of the first half of the 2009 – 10 season , but dropped into the play @-@ off places after a poor run of form , finishing third . They beat Rushden & Diamonds over two legs to advance to the play @-@ off final against York City on 16 May 2010 . Oxford won the final 3 – 1 , to return to the Football League for the 2010 – 11 season . The attendance was 42 @,@ 669 , a new record for the final , with around 33 @,@ 000 being United fans .
= = = Return to the Football League = = =
Oxford 's first game back in the Football League was away to Burton , which finished in a 0 – 0 draw ; their first League win was on 4 September against Morecambe at the Kassam Stadium , with James Constable scoring a hat @-@ trick in a 4 – 0 victory . They finished the season in 12th place .
The team spent much of the 2011 – 12 season in or around the playoff places , and achieved the double over rivals ( and eventual champions ) Swindon Town for the first time since the 1973 – 74 season . However , they failed to win any of their last seven matches and finished the season in 9th place , two places and four points outside the play @-@ offs .
Chairman Kelvin Thomas stepped down during the 2012 close season , to be replaced by owner Ian Lenagan . The 2012 – 13 season was blighted by injuries and patchy form : after opening the season with three wins and briefly heading the table , United lost their next six games , a pattern of inconsistency that was to continue throughout the season . United finished outside the play @-@ offs for the third consecutive season , but manager Chris Wilder was given a further one @-@ year contract in April 2013 . Some Oxford fans were unhappy about the decision to renew Wilder 's contract , having pressed for his sacking during the second half of the 2012 – 13 season .
After another bright start , Oxford led the table several times in the first half of the 2013 – 14 season . On 25 January 2014 , with the club faltering though still in the play @-@ off places , Wilder resigned as manager to take up the reins at relegation @-@ threatened Northampton . Mickey Lewis subsequently became the caretaker manager for a second time for the club . On 22 March 2014 , Gary Waddock was appointed the head coach of the club after a lengthy interview process , leaving his job as Head of Coaching at MK Dons . Under Lewis and Waddock , Oxford slipped out of the play @-@ off places in the final few weeks of the season , finishing a disappointing eighth in the table , nine points off the last playoff place .
In July 2014 , Waddock 's contract was terminated after a change of ownership and he was replaced by Michael Appleton . Waddock 's surprise sacking ensured he had the worst record of any Oxford manager , winning only once and losing seven times in his eight games in charge of the club . After an indifferent first season under Appleton , Oxford achieved promotion to League One in his second year in charge , finishing the 2015 – 16 season in 2nd place with 86 points .
= = Stadia = =
Oxford United had no regular home until 1913 , switching between the Quarry Recreation Ground , Wootten 's Field , Sandy Lane and Britannia Field , all in Headington . In 1913 they were able to purchase Wootten 's Field on London Road , however , this was redeveloped in 1920 before a stadium could be built . Having purchased the Sandy Lane site , the club developed and played at the Manor Ground between 1925 and 2001 . The ground was originally shared with Headington Cricket Club until 1949 , when they moved to Cowley Barracks . The capacity at closure was 9 @,@ 500 , but hosted United 's record crowd of 22 @,@ 750 against Preston North End in an FA Cup sixth @-@ round match on 29 February 1964 . The four stands were named after the roads they were positioned on : The North , East , South and West stands were called Cuckoo Lane , Osler Road , London Road and Beech Road respectively . In the 1990s , the Taylor Report was published calling for the improvement of football stadiums . The Manor Ground 's terracing was becoming redundant and redeveloping the ground was too costly , so the club decided to move to a purpose @-@ built all @-@ seater stadium on the outskirts of the city , costing in the region of £ 15 million . Construction work began in the early part of 1997 , but was suspended later that year due to the club 's financial problems . Construction of the new stadium resumed in 1999 following a takeover deal and the last league match at the Manor on 1 May 2001 saw a 1 – 1 draw with Port Vale . The site was sold for £ 12 million and the stadium was later demolished . The land is now occupied by a private hospital .
Since 2001 , Oxford United have played at the Kassam Stadium . The all @-@ seater stadium has a capacity of 12 @,@ 500 and has only three stands instead of the usual four ; when first planned in 1995 it was originally going to have a 16 @,@ 000 @-@ seat capacity , but by the time the stadium opened Oxford was playing in a lower division , so the smaller capacity was deemed adequate . Construction of the fourth stand is not expected to take place for several years , although foundations have already been put in place . The record attendance is 12 @,@ 243 , which was achieved in the final game of the 2005 – 06 season , when a defeat against Leyton Orient condemned them to relegation from the Football League . The average attendance in the previous season was 7 @,@ 415 , which was the second highest in League Two and the thirty @-@ fourth highest in the whole Football League . The average attendance was highest in the Conference in two out of the four years the team spent in the division , with the average in the other two years placing second , behind Exeter City and Cambridge United respectively . The stadium has also hosted rugby union matches , a woman 's international football match ( England v Sweden ) , an Under @-@ 17 international football tournament and music concerts .
= = Crest and colours = =
The club crest depicts an ox above a representation of a ford to symbolise the location . It reflects the name and history of the city , as Oxford was originally a market town situated near to a ford on the River Isis , which was used by cattle . In 2008 , a bronze statue of an ox was unveiled outside of what would have been the west stand . It was subsequently vandalised in January 2011 , being covered in pink paint and the club used the opportunity to raise money for a breast cancer charity . The shape and design of the crest has changed numerous times since it was first produced . When playing as Headington and during the early years of Oxford United , the crest included a full ox crossing the ford , as well as the initials H.U.F.C. ( pre @-@ 1962 ) or the name Oxford United ( post name @-@ change ) . Between 1972 and 1980 , the crest became circular , showing just the ox 's head on a yellow and black background . The words ' Oxford United Football Club ' were placed around the ox . For the next 17 years , the crest was simply the ox 's head coloured blue , with various combinations of wording surrounding it . For example , in the 1987 – 88 season , the wording 25th Anniversary was placed under the crest . In 1996 , the crest had a shield shape and contained the ox 's head over the ford , on a yellow background . This version was retained until the move to the Kassam Stadium in 2001 , when club steward Rob Alderman designed the current version . It has a similar design to the preceding crest , but the ox and ford are contained in a circle with a yellow background , with the remainder of the crest being coloured blue .
While playing as Headington United , orange and blue striped shirts were worn with navy shorts and socks . The design of the shirt changed regularly , with the stripes being changed every few seasons . After joining the Southern League , the blue stripes were lost for good and a lighter shade of orange was used for the shirt . The yellow kit was first worn during the 1957 – 58 season , with black shorts and yellow socks . During the late 1970s and early 1980s , the black shorts were first replaced with yellow ones , and then with light blue shorts . Since the early 1990s , the strip has been composed of the yellow shirt and navy coloured shorts and socks . A large variety of away kits has been used over the years , ranging from red and black stripes on the shirts , to a fully white kit . The first sponsor to appear on the shirt was Sunday Journal , a local newspaper , in 1982 . Between 1983 and 1985 , there were three sponsors : BPCC , Pergamon and the Sunday People . Following those were Wang Laboratories ( 1985 to 1989 ) , Pergamon ( 1989 to 1991 ) , Unipart ( 1991 to 2000 ) , Domino ( 2000 to 2001 ) and Buildbase ( from the move to the Kassam Stadium in 2001 to 2010 ) . Following the return to the Football League , Bridle Insurance were announced as new shirt sponsors . The Bridle deal ended after the conclusion of the 2012 – 13 season . The home sponsor for the 2013 – 14 season was announced as Animalates , with the away kit being sponsored by Isinglass Consulting for that same season after winning an innovative prize draw . That one @-@ year deal with Isinglass was extended for the 2014 – 15 season , again featuring on the away kits only .
= = Supporters and rivals = =
Oxford have a number of independent supporters ' clubs and groups such as OxVox ( the Oxford United Supporters ' Trust ) with a current membership of over 400 , and the Oxford United Exiles . OxVox was formed in 2002 , to replace the disbanded FOUL group , which broke up after the immediate future of the club was secured . It was the fiftieth supporters trust created under the Supporters ' trust banner . The club itself also runs a Juniors club , aimed at younger fans and offering a number of bonuses to the club 's members such as birthday cards and a free T @-@ shirt . The official matchday programme for home games costs £ 3 and was voted best Conference Premier Programme of the Year for the 2007 – 08 season . A number of songs are sung during home games , such as " Yellow Submarine " ( with adapted lyrics ) and songs relating to the old Manor Ground .
The club have a number of celebrity supporters , including Richard Branson , Timmy Mallett , Tim Henman and Jim Rosenthal . The club 's mascot is Ollie the Ox . United were the best @-@ supported club in the Conference National before Luton Town joined the division . The home match between Oxford and Luton , which drew a crowd of 10 @,@ 600 , was used to highlight the passion for English football during the 2018 World Cup bid . In 2009 , a " 12th man fund " was set up by a group of supporters in order to provide additional transfer funds to the club . As a result , the number 12 shirt was retired at the start of the 2009 – 10 season . The fund raised over £ 40 @,@ 000 and resulted in the signings of Mehdi Kerrouche ( on loan ) and Jamie Cook , amongst others .
Oxford 's main rivals are Swindon Town , with Reading seen as the other rival team . To a lesser extent , Wycombe Wanderers and Luton Town are also seen as rivals . The rivalry with Swindon stems from the clubs ' close proximity , as well as the fact they have played each other 55 times since 1962 . Oxford ( Headington ) and Swindon met a few times in non @-@ competitive fixtures before 1962 . The earliest match on record was a friendly in the 1950 – 51 season at Headington . They also played each other in 1954 – 55 both home and away , and at Headington during 1958 – 59 . All programmes are fairly scarce , with the single sheet issued at Swindon being very rare . The 1962 – 63 game was a testimonial , with the first league meetings coming in 1965 – 66 . During the height of football hooliganism , trouble flared up between the sets of fans . In 1998 , 19 Swindon supporters were arrested during a match at the County Ground , while in 2002 there was an incident between supporters after Oxford fans returned from an away fixture . In 2011 , vandals burned the initials STFC into the Kassam Stadium 's pitch . Oxford fans use nicknames when talking about Swindon such as moonraker , in reference to the myth that they tried to rake the reflection of the moon out of a pond . The rivalry with Reading was heightened during the chairmanship of Robert Maxwell , because of his desire to merge the two clubs . This was met with strong opposition from both sets of fans , with United supporters staging a " sit @-@ in " on the pitch before a game against Wigan in protest . Despite being the second team in the city , there is less rivalry with Oxford City because of their lower position in the pyramid system ( there have been no competitive matches between the two since 1959 ) .
= = Players = =
= = = Current squad = = =
As of 20 July 2016 .
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Out on loan = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Development squad = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = Backroom staff = =
The board
Owners : Ian Lenagan and Darryl Eales
Chairman : Darryl Eales
Chief Executive : Mark Ashton
Non @-@ Executive Director : Mike O 'Leary
Non @-@ Executive Director : Frank Waterhouse
Club officials
Club Secretary : Mick Brown
Marketing Manager : Gerald Kelly
Communications Manager : Chris Williams
Coaching and medical staff
Head Coach : Michael Appleton
Assistant Head Coach : Derek Fazackerley
First Team Coach : Chris Allen
Goalkeeping Coach : Wayne Brown
Academy Manager : Les Taylor
Youth Team Coach : Andy Whing
Head of Sports Science : Scott Daly
Head Physio : Andrew Proctor
Sport Therapist : Jon Elliot
Video Analysis : Dan Bond
Head of Performance and Recruitment analysis : Mark Thomas
= = Managerial history = =
The first manager appointed was Harry Thompson in July 1949 , soon after the club turned professional . In a nine @-@ year spell he led the team to the Southern League title in 1953 , as well as the Southern League Cup in 1953 and 1954 . He was replaced by Arthur Turner in 1958 , who would become the longest @-@ serving manager in the club 's history , serving more than a decade in charge . Turner led United to back @-@ to @-@ back Southern League titles , of which the second , in 1962 , resulted in their election to the Football League . Promotion followed from the Fourth Division in 1965 , and the club were crowned Third Division champions three years later . Turner left the club nine months after this success . Over the next thirteen years , five managers took charge . Ron Saunders was in charge for only a dozen games , moving to Norwich City at the end of the 1968 – 69 season . Gerry Summers was manager for six years , before being replaced by Mick Brown . During Brown 's four @-@ year run , United were relegated back to the Third Division after spending eight years in the Second .
Jim Smith started his first spell as manager in 1981 , and led Oxford into the top tier of English football after consecutive promotions as champions in 1984 and 1985 . However , he moved to Queens Park Rangers before the 1985 – 86 season . New manager , former chief scout Maurice Evans , had immediate success winning the 1986 League Cup , beating his predecessor 's new club in the final . For the next 24 years , the only manager to guide the club to promotion was Denis Smith , who won promotion from the Second Division in 1996 . Ramón Díaz , the club 's first and only non @-@ British manager , took charge for five months between December 2004 and May 2005 . Jim Smith returned as manager in 2006 , the year that Oxford United were relegated to the Football Conference after 44 years in the Football League . Having missed out on promotion in the 2006 – 07 season , Smith resigned and Darren Patterson was promoted to the post on 9 November 2007 . Patterson was sacked over a year later and was replaced by Chris Wilder , who lead the club back into the Football League by winning the 2010 Conference playoff Final and remained with the club for five years before resigning in January 2014 . Gary Waddock was appointed head coach on 22 March 2014 , but was sacked on 4 July 2014 following a change of shareholding in the club , to be replaced by Michael Appleton .
Since turning professional , the club has had 23 full @-@ time managers , of whom three ( Jim Smith , Denis Smith and Darren Patterson ) have had more than one spell in the post , and nine periods of caretaker @-@ management .
= = Honours = =
Southern League
Premier Division Champions : 1952 – 53 , 1960 – 61 , 1961 – 62
Premier Division Runners @-@ up : 1953 – 54 , 1959 – 60
Southern League Cup
Winners : 1952 – 53 , 1953 – 54
Football League
Before the Premier League
Second Division : Champions 1984 – 85
Third Division : Champions 1967 – 68 , 1983 – 84
Fourth Division : Promoted ( 3rd ) 1964 – 65
After the formation of the Premier League
Division Two : Runners @-@ up 1995 – 96
League Two : Runners @-@ up 2015 – 16
Football Conference
Conference National Play @-@ off winners : 2009 – 10
League Cup
Winners : 1985 – 86
Football League Trophy
Runners @-@ up : 2015 – 16
= = Records = =
The largest recorded home attendance was during a match against Preston North End in the sixth round of the FA Cup , at the Manor Ground , on 29 February 1964 . The attendance was 22 @,@ 750 , which exceeded the stadium 's capacity , so scaffolding was needed in order to create temporary stands for the additional supporters . The largest attendance at the Kassam Stadium for a football match was 12 @,@ 243 during the final game of the 2005 – 06 League Two season against Leyton Orient . Oxford 's largest @-@ ever scoreline was a 9 – 1 win in the FA Cup first round versus Dorchester Town on 11 November 1995 . In the league , their largest win was 7 – 0 versus Barrow in Division Four . Their largest defeat was 7 – 0 away to Sunderland in 1998 . Their longest unbeaten run in the league was 20 matches in 1984 . John Shuker holds the record for the most league appearances with 478 between 1962 and 1977 . John Aldridge holds the record for most league goals scored in a season in the 1984 – 85 season , scoring 30 . Graham Atkinson holds the record for the most league goals with 97 , as well as most overall goals with 107 . The most capped player in internationals is Jim Magilton , with 18 caps for Northern Ireland . The largest amount of money Oxford have received by selling a player was an estimated £ 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 for Kemar Roofe 's transfer to Leeds United in July 2016 . The largest transfer fee Oxford have paid was £ 470 @,@ 000 for Dean Windass ' transfer from Aberdeen in August 1998 . Oxford are also the only team in history to be promoted consecutively from Division Three to the First Division as Champions .
= You and Me ( Lifehouse song ) =
" You and Me " is a song by American alternative rock band Lifehouse . It is the first single released from their eponymous third studio album , Lifehouse ( 2005 ) . The track was written by lead singer Jason Wade and American record producer Jude Cole . It was recorded and produced by John Alagía at his home studio in Easton , Maryland . The song was first released via digital download on January 28 , 2005 . It was then solicited to mainstream radio on March 15 , 2005 . An extended wedding version of the song was then released on July 26 , 2005 . Musically , " You and Me " is a melodic pop rock song which , by today 's standards , has a notably high emphasis on acoustics . It also contains influences of adult alternative .
The song received positive reviews from critics , who noted that the song was more mellow and stripped @-@ down than their previous singles . It became a commercial success , charting in the top five in the United States and also charting in Australia and New Zealand . On May 19 , 2005 , the song was certified Gold by the RIAA for selling more than 500 @,@ 000 units in the United States . In 2005 , it became the ninth most downloaded song , according to Nielsen SoundScan . Because of its success , it appeared as the number one song on Billboard 's list of Top 40 Adult Pop Songs from 1996 – 2011 on March 16 , 2011 . A music video for the song premiered on MTV.com on March 21 , 2005 , and features a couple as Wade sings in a train station . " You and Me " has appeared on many television shows , including Smallville , Grey 's Anatomy , The Vampire Diaries , Cold Case and Gavin & Stacey .
= = Background and release = =
The song was written by Lifehouse lead singer Jason Wade and American record producer Jude Cole . It was recorded and produced by John Alagía at his home studio in Easton , Maryland . In an interview with MTV , Wade explained his experience working with Alagía , and said , " When we walked into John 's house , we didn 't know what to expect , and we get in there and the mixing board is in the living room , the B3 [ organ ] is in the kitchen and the piano is over there . And he 's so nonchalant about all his stuff — there 'd be a triple @-@ platinum Dave Matthews Band plaque sticking out from under the bed . " " You and Me " was first released via digital download on January 28 , 2005 . It was then solicited to mainstream radio on March 15 , 2005 . An extended wedding version of the song was released on July 26 , 2005 .
= = Composition and critical reception = =
" You and Me " was described as a pop rock song with influences of adult alternative . John DiBiase of Jesus Freak Hideout described the song as " a tender acoustic love ballad " noting how the song was " noticeably more mellow and stripped @-@ down than the band 's previous singles . " Ultimate Guitar called the song " a tender love @-@ ballad " and noted how it would be " a perfect soundtrack for a wedding . " Alternative Addiction said that the song was embraced by fans in the same way " Hanging by a Moment " was when Lifehouse started as a band . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , the song is set in 6 / 8 time with a " slow " tempo of 46 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of G major with Wade 's vocal range spanning from the low @-@ note of C3 to the high @-@ note of E4 . The song has a basic chord progression of G5 – G5 / C – G5 / F ♯ – G5 / B – Em7 – Dsus4 – C.
= = Chart performance = =
" You and Me " debuted at number 92 on the Billboard Hot 100 for the week of February 12 , 2005 . It stayed on the chart for 62 non @-@ consecutive weeks , and eventually peaked at number five . On the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart , the song debuted at number 29 for the week of July 23 , 2005 . It eventually peaked at number one after it stayed on the chart for 34 non @-@ consecutive weeks . The song debuted at number 29 on the Billboard Adult Pop Songs chart for the week of February 19 , 2005 . After moving around the chart for 39 consecutive weeks , the song peaked at number one for nine non @-@ consecutive weeks . Because of its success on the chart , " You and Me " became the number one song on Billboard 's list of the Top 40 Adult Pop Songs from 1996 – 2011 on March 16 , 2011 . On the Billboard Digital Songs chart , the song debuted at number 38 for the week of April 23 , 2005 . After moving around the chart for 31 non @-@ consecutive weeks , the song eventually peaked at number three . " You and Me " debuted at number 37 on the Billboard Pop Songs chart during the week of May 21 , 2005 . It eventually peaked at number four after it spent 26 consecutive weeks on the chart . On the Billboard Radio Songs chart , the track debuted at number 74 during the week of May 21 , 2005 . It proceeded to move around the chart for 26 consecutive weeks , until it eventually peaked at number nine . According to Nielsen SoundScan , " You and Me " was the ninth top selling digital song of 2005 . On May 19 , 2005 , " You and Me " was certified Gold by the RIAA for selling more than 500 @,@ 000 units of the song .
The song also managed to achieve international success . In Australia , the song debuted at number 30 on the ARIA Charts for the week of May 29 , 2005 . That later became its peak after it spent four weeks on the chart . On the New Zealand Singles Chart , " You and Me " debuted at number 39 , which later became its peak after it spent only one week on the chart during the week of October 31 , 2005 .
= = Track listing = =
= = Television appearances = =
On April 20 , 2005 , Lifehouse made an appearance in the Smallville episode " Spirit " and performed " You and Me " among other songs . It also appeared in the The 4400 episode " Life Interrupted " on July 17 , 2005 . Several months later , " You and Me " also made an appearance in the Grey 's Anatomy 's episode " Much Too Much " that premiered on November 27 , 2005 . The song appeared in the Everwood episode " Getting to Know You " on December 8 , 2005 and in the Cold Case episode " One Night " on March 19 , 2006 . On May 13 , 2007 , the song appeared in the pilot episode of Gavin & Stacey .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
The music video , directed by Bill Yukich , premiered on MTV.com on March 21 , 2005 . It was then released on iTunes for digital download on March 30 , 2005 .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video starts with a woman exiting the taxi and going to the Los Angeles Union Station . A man exits a car and follows her . Wade then plays the first verse and first chorus in the waiting area of the L. A. Union Station . As the band plays the second verse , they are shown playing at the rooftop with Iron Mountain clearly visible . When the chorus plays again , they are shown at the roof with lights from the buildings of Los Angeles at night . When Wade sings the bridge , he is on the roof of the Roosevelt Hotel in Hollywood Boulevard . The man and the woman are also seen running in the boarding area of the Los Angeles Union Station . They later meet up and kiss in one of the boarding platforms of the station in front of a train which later starts to move . The video ends with the band sitting down in the waiting hall .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting – Jason Wade , Jude Cole
Production – John Alagía
Mixing – Jeff Juliano
Engineering – Pete Hanlon , Jeff Juliano , Nathaniel Kunkel
Source : Allmusic
= = Chart performance = =
= No. 86 Wing RAAF =
No. 86 Wing is a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) transport and air @-@ to @-@ air refuelling wing . Coming under the control of Air Mobility Group , it is headquartered at RAAF Base Amberley , Queensland . The wing comprises No. 33 Squadron , operating Airbus KC @-@ 30 tanker @-@ transports , No. 36 Squadron , operating Boeing C @-@ 17 Globemaster III heavy transports , No. 38 Squadron , operating Beech King Air 350 light transports , and the Australian Army 's 68 Ground Liaison Section . Its aircraft support Australian military and humanitarian operations worldwide .
Formed in the last year of World War II to undertake ground attack missions with de Havilland Mosquitos and Bristol Beaufighters in the South West Pacific theatre , No. 86 Wing was reorganised in 1946 as a transport formation headquartered at RAAF Station Schofields , New South Wales , flying Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas . It relocated to RAAF Base Richmond , New South Wales , in 1949 and began operating Lockheed C @-@ 130 Hercules in 1958 . Disbanded in 1964 , the wing was re @-@ established at Richmond in 1987 , flying Boeing 707 tanker @-@ transports as well as the Hercules . No. 36 Squadron converted to Globemasters in 2006 . No. 33 Squadron retired its 707s in 2008 , and did not become operational with the KC @-@ 30 until 2013 . Having previously flown de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 4 Caribous , No. 38 Squadron converted to the King Airs in 20
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cho released her fifth full @-@ length studio album , Awakening , on September 23 , 2014 on Sony Masterworks ' Portrait Records label . Evancho promoted the album with a concert tour that began in November 2014 and continued into 2016 , and a third PBS special based on the album that debuted the same month . The album consists of 12 tracks , including a mix of classical pieces , like Rachmaninoff 's " Vocalise " , the art song " Dormi Jesu " and the Vavilov version of " Ave Maria " ; classical crossover covers of more contemporary pieces like U2 's " With or Without You " , Ennio Morricone 's " Your Love " , Lara Fabian 's " Je t 'aime " and Within Temptation 's " Memories " ; and several original songs . Walmart offered a deluxe edition with six bonus holiday songs . Evancho 's cover of " My Immortal " by Evanescence was included as a bonus track exclusively on the version of the album sold in Japan .
In June 2014 , Evancho released her first single from the album , a cover of " The Rains of Castamere " from Game of Thrones . A writer for the Orlando Sentinel said of the song that Evancho 's " mature voice sounds stunning . " Evancho released a shadow @-@ art video for the single in July 2014 . She offered a second track , " Think of Me " from The Phantom of the Opera , in July 2014 . A video for the song was released , together with a feature piece on Evancho , by People , in September 2014 . The same month , Evancho released a digital download of a track called " Go Time " promoting Justice clothing stores , which displayed it on their website , made it available for free download to their shoppers , and played it in their stores on the video monitors . In September , Billboard streamed Evancho 's third single from the album , " Your Love " , which became available on the day of the album 's release . A last single and corresponding video from the album of " Ave Maria " was released in November 2014 .
Evancho began her television promotions of the album with a return to America 's Got Talent as a guest artist , singing " Think of Me " at Radio City Music Hall , in September 2014 during the show 's ninth season . Other September television performances included The Today Show , where she sang " Your Love " . Among other television and media appearances , she performed on The Queen Latifah Show and was profiled on the Oprah Winfrey Network , both in October . Evancho made a third PBS special to promote the album : Awakening : Live in Concert . The special was filmed at Longwood Gardens in Pennsylvania and began airing on PBS stations on November 29 , 2014 ; Cheyenne Jackson co @-@ hosts and sings " Say Something " as a duet with Evancho . The special includes all of the songs from Awakening , as well as " My Immortal " , and two additional songs ( " Say Something " and " O Mio Babbino Caro " ) . Evancho appeared on the Dr. Phil show in December , singing " Ave Maria " .
Her Awakening : Live in Concert tour began in November 2014 . It included stops across the U.S. and one concert in each of Costa Rica and Canada . For this tour , for the first time , Evancho usually used an ensemble of about a dozen live musicians enhancing a pre @-@ recorded soundtrack , although a few stops used a larger orchestra .
Awakening debuted at No. 17 on the Billboard 200 chart and No. 1 on the Billboard Classical Albums chart . This was Evancho 's fifth consecutive release at No. 1 on the Billboard Classical Albums chart . Markos Papadatos of Digital Journal gave Evancho 's album an A rating , calling it " stunning from start to finish thanks to her warm classical vocals . " He called her renditions of the songs " ethereal " , " crystalline " and " haunting " . On its 2014 year @-@ end charts , Billboard ranked Awakening as the No. 11 best @-@ selling Classical Album of the year , and in 2015 ranked it as the No. 3 best @-@ selling Classical Album of the year . The album remained on the Billboard Classical Albums chart for a consecutive 72 weeks .
= = = Other music performances and philanthropy = = =
2009 to 2011
Evancho performed the American national anthem at various events in 2009 and 2010 , including the September 2009 memorial ceremony for the victims of United Flight 93 , the Pittsburgh Pirates baseball team 's 2010 home opener , and the NHL Winter Classic on January 1 , 2011 , at Heinz Field in Pittsburgh . In January 2011 , she performed Nella Fantasia at the Beverly Hills Chefs for Seals event in support of efforts to end the annual Canadian seal hunt . The event was sponsored by the Humane Society of the United States , of which Evancho is the ambassador for Mission : Humane , a program that encourages children to help protect animals . In February 2011 , she performed her first full @-@ length concert as a headliner , in Houston Texas with the Houston Chamber Choir . In March , she sang at the 2011 Festival of the Arts Boca , along with young stars of the Metropolitan Opera . Evancho sang at Muhammad Ali 's " Celebrity Fight Night " charity event to battle Parkinson 's Disease , in Phoenix , Arizona , later the same month . She also sang the introduction to " Somewhere Over the Rainbow " on Oprah 's farewell special broadcast on May 25 , 2011 .
In June 2011 , Evancho performed as a guest artist at the season finale of Britain 's Got Talent . After touring over the summer , in September , she returned to America 's Got Talent as a guest artist , performing " Nessun dorma " during the finale of the sixth season . She recorded a duet with Tony Bennett of the song " When You Wish upon a Star " , which appears as a bonus track on the deluxe edition of his 2011 album Duets II and she lent her voice to a " happy birthday " tribute to Bennett as part of a 2011 Target advertisement . She also sings " Pie Jesu " on the 2011 album Hit Man Returns : David Foster & Friends ( 2011 ) . The album was recorded live in Las Vegas in October 2010 , and PBS broadcast the concert , including Evancho 's " Pie Jesu " and " O Mio Babbino Caro " , beginning in March 2011 . Her recording of " Silent Night " is included in the 2011 Sony album 30 Stars of Christmas . She sang in two David Foster & Friends concerts in October 2011 , in Tokyo , where she also appeared in several Japanese television interviews .
2012 to 2013
Evancho returned to Japan to participate in the newly reopened Bunkamura Orchard Concert Hall 's program , called " Musical meets Symphony " , and to give her own concert there with the Tokyo Philharmonic Orchestra in January 2012 . While there , she sang for the Imperial family . In February 2012 , Evancho sang at the US National Prayer Breakfast before President Obama and congressional and international leaders . In April , Evancho appeared on Dancing with the Stars . She sang " Ave Maria " and " Dark Waltz " to accompany two dance teams . She performed as a guest star on the May 2012 season finale of Canada 's Got Talent . In June , she sang in Russia at the opening ceremonies of the St. Petersburg International Economic Forum . The outdoor concert in Palace Square , billed as a " Bouquet of Opera " , also featured Dmitry Hvorostovsky and Sumi Jo .
Evancho sang in August 2012 at the annual So The World May Hear Gala to benefit the Starkey Hearing Foundation , which supplies hearing aids to people in need in the US and other countries . She sang in Hiroshima , Japan , later in August , in the " Peace for World " concert , with Christopher Cross and others . At the end of the month , Evancho performed together with Tony Bennett at the Ironstone Amphitheatre in Murphys , California , where she was accompanied by members of the Stockton Symphony . In October , she performed with the Dallas Symphony Orchestra as part of the opening celebrations for Klyde Warren Park in Dallas , Texas . In late 2012 , Evancho partnered with WhyHunger , philosophy.com and Sephora to offer a bath product , to believe , inspired by the lyrics of her song " To Believe " . All net proceeds from the product support WhyHunger 's efforts to end world hunger .
Evancho participated with over 200 Cirque du Soleil performers and others at Bellagio in Las Vegas in March 2013 in the event " One Night for One Drop on World Water Day " . Evancho 's water and aerial performances benefited the One Drop Foundation 's worldwide clean water access and education programs . Robin Leach wrote : " 12 @-@ year @-@ old superstar singer Jackie [ Evancho ] stole the night with her " Bridge Over Troubled Water " sung barefoot in the water of the giant stage alone except for the background pianist . She also dominated the fantastic finale flying in as an angel on a harness from the theater rooftop . " The following month , she sang in concert in Taiwan with José Carreras . She performed another concert with Tony Bennett in May , in Alpharetta , Georgia , with the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra . Of performing with Evancho , Bennett said : " She ’ s just wonderful ... my own reaction is , ' How the heck am I going to follow that ? ' " On July 4 , Evancho was a featured performer in the televised annual show A Capitol Fourth , singing the national anthem and ' " Can You Feel the Love Tonight " , from her album Songs from the Silver Screen .
Evancho headlined a benefit concert , called Jackie Evancho & Friends : We are Hope , at the LDS Conference Center in Salt Lake City in November 2013 , for the Muzart World Foundation 's programs to encourage the teaching of music and art in US public schools . She sang the US national anthem on Thanksgiving Day , at the Green Bay Packers vs. Detroit Lions football game , broadcast on Fox . She headlined a Christmas @-@ themed benefit concert at Carnegie Hall produced by her old mentor , Tim Janis , and featuring James Galway , in December .
2014 to present
Evancho was the performer for Susan G. Komen 's Perfect Pink Party in Palm Beach , Florida , in January 2014 , to benefit breast cancer research . In March , Evancho headlined a concert with the San Bernardino Symphony Orchestra at Citizens Business Bank Arena in Ontario , California , to benefit the Loma Linda University Children 's Hospital . She appeared in May 2014 at the annual gala to benefit Chicago 's WTTW television and WFMT radio stations and in Washington DC at the 2014 National Memorial Day Concert , broadcast by PBS . Evancho performed at the Songwriters Hall of Fame 2014 awards dinner in June singing " Over the Rainbow " . In September 2014 , Evancho performed at a David Foster Foundation concert to benefit families with children who need a major organ transplant . In November , she sang a " touching rendition " of John Lennon 's song " Imagine " at the United Nations to introduce the UNICEF # Imagine program . Also in 2014 , Evancho recorded the Leonard Cohen song " Hallelujah " with Peter Hollens for his self @-@ titled album , and the two released a video for the song . A reviewer for Mashable called it " a gift from the a cappella gods " .
In 2015 , Evancho made a video to support the Humane Society 's fight against seal hunting . In April of that year , she joined Andrea Bocelli as a guest in his concert in Thailand . The English @-@ language newspaper The Nation commented : " If there 's anything on Earth close to the sound of an angel , it must be the heavenly voice of Jackie Evancho " . In August 2015 , she participated in a " David Foster and Friends " concert in Malaysia . The same month , she released a new video and corresponding video covering Ed Sheeran 's , " All of the Stars " , supporting acceptance of LGBT people . In September , Evancho participated in a concert with David Foster and Andrea Bocelli in Forte dei Marmi , Italy , to benefit the Celebrity Fight Night Foundation . The same month , she performed at the World Meeting of Families in Philadelphia as part of the celebration of Pope Francis 's visit to that city . In October 2015 , Evancho performed at a benefit for the Global Lyme Alliance in New York City . In December , she sang the US national anthem at the Pittsburgh Steelers game against the Indianapolis Colts and released the first single on her own JE Touring label , a cover of Taylor Swift 's " Safe & Sound " . A video of the single was also released . The single is expected to be part of Evancho 's upcoming 2016 album .
In January 2016 , Evancho appeared at the Mending Broken Hearts With Hope luncheon to benefit The Shelter for Abused Women & Children in Naples , Florida . The same month , she released another single and video on JME Touring , a cover of Sam Smith 's " Writing 's on the Wall " . This was followed by another single and video in March , Skylar Grey 's " Coming Home ( Part II ) " . In April Evancho sang the national anthem at the Pittsburgh Pirates ' 2016 opening home game . She also released an original pop song by Peter Zizzo , " Apocalypse " , which is expected to be included on her upcoming 2016 album . Billboard wrote that she " has found a brand @-@ new sound . The 16 @-@ year @-@ old singer ... is taking a step outside the classical world that made her famous " , but Evancho told Billboard : " I 'm not going to get rid of my classical voice , because that 's my roots , that 's what I love the most . " She also released a video of the song and performed it on the Today show and Live ! with Kelly and Michael later in April .
Evancho provided the entertainment at the 2016 Project Sunshine benefit gala in May and returned to Washington , DC , to participate in the 2016 broadcast and live performance of A Capitol Fourth . She headlined a concert at Festa Italiana at the BMO Harris Pavilion in Milwaukee , Wisconsin , later in July 2016 . She expects to perform more concerts in the Northeast US in November .
= = = Acting and modeling = = =
Evancho had some early theatre experience performing in High School Musical with Pittsburgh Musical Theater in 2007 and musical theatre versions of A Christmas Carol and Little Red Riding Hood , in which she played the title role in 2009 . She also appeared briefly as an extra in the 2010 film She 's Out of My League . Her first featured television appearance was in the 2011 episode " Back To Max " from the Disney Channel series Wizards of Waverly Place where she sang " America the Beautiful " to work off school detention .
Evancho appears in the feature film The Company You Keep , a political thriller that premiered at film festivals in 2012 . The film played in foreign markets and in the US beginning in April 2013 . Evancho played Isabel , the eleven @-@ year @-@ old daughter of a widowed attorney turned fugitive , Jim Grant , played by Robert Redford , who also directed the film . When Grant 's true identity as a former Weather Underground militant is uncovered , he is pursued across the US by the FBI and by an ambitious journalist ( Shia LaBeouf ) . To be reunited with Isabel , Grant must clear his name . Jon Weisman wrote that Evancho " showed she 's more than a singing prodigy with her earnest sweetness as the daughter of Robert Redford 's character " . Redford cast Evancho only days before filming began . Evancho said in 2012 : " I don 't think I want to act full time . I think I might like to do something with a Disney special or make a movie once in a while that would give me enough time to sing and record , but that 's about it . "
Evancho modelled for GUESS Kids in 2012 and for Justice Girls Clothing in 2014 , and she occasionally has appeared in other product advertisements and public service announcements .
= = Reception and reputation = =
= = = Earliest assessments = = =
After Evancho 's performance of " Ave Maria " on America 's Got Talent , judge Piers Morgan said : " I have never seen an act , on this show or the British show or any of the other talent shows in the world , with more potential than Jackie Evancho . That was perfection . Perfection ! " Christopher Hahn , General Director of the Pittsburgh Opera , commented of Evancho 's performance of " O mio babbino caro " on AGT , " It 's very unusual for a young child to have a voice that sounded so rich and developed . " " I thought she was just lovely , sweetly compelling " , said Hahn . " It is quite unusual to hear a young girl with that level of warmth and roundness . " Hahn particularly praised Evancho 's phrasing .
Composer Tim Janis commented in 2010 that Evancho " takes a classical piece and makes it friendly and accessible . ... Her voice is so pure and natural , there 's no flaw in it . People say ' I can hear her potential coming , ' but no , it 's here , it 's now . " Critic Tim Page disagreed , writing of Evancho 's AGT performance of " O mio babbino caro " that Evancho " has many years of work ahead of her before she becomes any sort of musician . " Claudia Benack , Assistant Professor of musical theatre at Carnegie Mellon University , said that Evancho " has an unusually adult feel for the repertoire . ... She sings to the important part of the phrase , and then backs off . That 's instinctual . ... She takes breaths sometimes where an adult would not , but that 's just because she 's young and little . ... She sings from the healthy part of her voice . " Doctor Clark Rosen , director of the University of Pittsburgh Voice Center , commented that Evancho 's talent is made possible by how her brain coordinates her body for singing : " Very few people are gifted enough to have that naturally , or with subsequent learning , to create a voice we 'd love to hear . "
A review of Evancho 's 2011 concert with Pittsburgh Opera noted that " what was most impressive ... was how musical she was ... her focus on phrasing and an understanding of the emotion in the ... musical numbers . " The review also praised " her reverberant chest voice [ and ] her head voice , hitting the highest register with intonation and purity " and echoed Janis : " That she continues to be greeted with skepticism is unfair . ... Yes , the concert showed that Jackie is a young girl , yet one with artistry to be appreciated now without debating about what her future might hold . " Antony Walker , Pittsburgh Opera 's music director , said : " she has a very sincere way of singing . ... Her voice has a lovely quality to it . It 's very simple singing but it comes from the heart . You rarely hear someone so young with such a beautiful voice " . Nekesa Mumbi Moody , writing for Associated Press and ABC News , commented that , although " there is a youthful quality in Jackie 's voice , it 's hardly childlike : It 's a soprano that deftly traverses the musical scales " . Bob Boilen of NPR wrote , " I simply couldn 't believe my eyes and ears . Seeing Jackie Evancho sing for the first time is nearly beyond belief . " He called her voice " beyond @-@ beautiful " when she performed " for a stunned audience at the NPR Music offices . She clearly is a very happy girl with an amazing musical gift . " A review of her 2011 Sun Valley concert stated that " Evancho transported [ her audience ] with pure , joyous , unaffected notes " .
The Los Angeles Times commented in June 2011 , reviewing Dream With Me , that " her voice has matured quite a lot over the past 10 months . " The paper continued , " what makes us feel like she will survive the journey from child star to adult performer is her magnificent sense of pitch , her natural ability to shape phrases and the ease with which she performs . This is what makes her a joy to listen to . Since she 's still a kid , and we all have affectations when we 're learning , we 'll pretend we didn 't notice the Brightman arms . " In reviewing her 2011 Pittsburgh Opera concert , the Pittsburgh Tribune @-@ Review called her voice " beautifully in tune and well supported . ... Evancho 's sincerity of delivery was affecting " . A reviewer from The New York Times wrote of her 2011 Avery Fisher Hall concert that : " In the first half of the show Ms. Evancho often receded , but toward the end of the night she found purpose , delivering ' A Time for Us ' with punch , and closing out Sarah McLachlan ’ s ' Angel ' with what felt like real yearning " . The Wall Street Journal called Evancho 's 2011 performance of the song " Angel " on the Tonight Show " moving " .
= = = 2012 and later = = =
A San Francisco Chronicle review of a 2012 concert judged her singing " an impressive thing to witness , and Evancho 's technical precision and enormous range only serve to make it seem less fluky . The girl can sing " , but felt that " every selection sounded alike " . Another reviewer wrote that Evancho " displayed her famous combo of poise and articulation " , but he noted " the burden of being a kid soprano , a true phenomenon . People pay a lot to see you and orchestras line up to get you on their stage . But still folks wonder if you really comprehend your life ; if you shouldn ’ t be home ... eating ice cream instead of in Denver . ... And yet they rise to their feet , yet again , as you finish . " A Naples Daily News review stated : " Her poise . Her control . Her range . ... Her voice and her performance exhausted all of the superlatives in the dictionary . " In 2013 , a reviewer commented : " Her pure and well @-@ formed vowel sounds touched the hearts of everyone at the concert . Every year her voice seems to get better and better . " A reviewer for The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution called Evancho " awesomely talented " and " technically flawless " , commenting : " Evancho possesses the voice of an angel . " The Buffalo News reporter wrote : " there is a poignancy to the sound of this mature voice coming out of this child . Her high notes are a joy . "
In 2014 , a reviewer for Billboard magazine commented : " Evancho ’ s stratospheric vocals are of course impressive for someone her age , though pipes like this are incredible for just about anyone . " in 2015 , the reviewer for Digital Journal wrote : " The control she displays over her voice is tremendous , and she tackles the high notes ... effortlessly , showcasing her angelic vocals and piercing pipes . ... Evancho 's voice is an eighth world wonder " . Robin Leach wrote of Evancho 's January 2015 concert in Las Vegas : " She ’ s still got the voice of an angel . It ’ s remarkable , and her power is growing as she grows up . [ She ] had the audience on its feet with wild applause at the end of every song " . A review of a later 2015 concert in The Washington Post called her voice a " bell @-@ like instrument , devoid of any messy human emotions [ with ] an ethereally floating tone . ... But imagine what Evancho can achieve once she stops obsessing over just sounding pretty , and actually listens to the words she ’ s singing . " In the 2016 book , Voicing Girlhood in Popular Music : Performance , Authority , Authenticity , a chapter by Dana Gorzelany @-@ Mostak , Assistant Professor of Music at Georgia College , is devoted to analyzing Evancho 's career and influence . Gorzelany @-@ Mostak writes :
With her embodiment of both sheltered innocence ... and hyperability ... [ Evancho ] expands the fan base for classical crossover , dethrones elitist conceptions of opera , challenges conventions of the classical canon , and forges a new path for the next cohort of girl performers who have the courage to follow in her footsteps .
= = = Honors = = =
Evancho appeared on the National League of Junior Cotillions ' list of " Ten Best @-@ Mannered People of 2011 " for " demonstrating humility and politeness as a young performer . " She was honored on April 13 , 2012 by the Senator John Heinz History Center at its 20th Annual History Makers Award Dinner as one of five " distinguished Pittsburghers ... recognized for their exceptional contributions to the history of Western Pennsylvania , the nation , and the world " . Evancho was the youngest person ever to be so honored . The Kean Quest Talent Search , since 2011 , has given an annual " Jackie Evancho Award " to a contestant who " exemplifies courage and motivation and pushes through to follow their dreams . " In both 2011 and 2012 , Billboard magazine named Evancho to its list of " 21 Under 21 : Music 's Hottest Minors " .
= = Discography = =
Billboard ranked Evancho the No. 1 Classical Albums Artist of 2011 , as she released three of the top four albums on the Billboard 2011 year @-@ end Classical Albums chart . Billboard also ranked her as the No. 10 Billboard 200 Artist of 2011 , and the No. 3 Internet Albums Artist . Billboard ranked Evancho the No. 2 Classical Albums Artist of 2012 , as three of her albums ranked in the top seven albums on the Billboard 2012 year @-@ end Classical Albums chart . Billboard also ranked her as the No. 37 Billboard 200 Artist of 2012 .
Billboard ranked Evancho the No. 5 Classical Albums Artist of 2013 , even though she did not release any new albums during the year . Evancho 's 2014 album Awakening was Evancho 's fifth consecutive release at No. 1 on the Billboard Classical Albums chart . Billboard ranked Evancho the No. 7 Classical Albums Artist of 2014 and the No. 4 Classical Albums artist of 2015 , as Awakening was the No. 3 classical album of 2015 .
= Sognsvann Line =
The Sognsvann Line ( Norwegian : Sognsvannsbanen ) is a rapid transit line on the Oslo Metro of Norway . It branches from the Common Tunnel at Majorstuen and runs 6 @.@ 0 kilometers ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) to Sognsvann . After Ullevål stadion , the Ring Line branches off . The Sognsvann Line serves the northwestern and northern neighborhoods of Oslo , mostly within the borough of Nordre Aker . The line is owned and maintained by Kollektivtransportproduksjon and has nine stations . The western end of line 5 serves the entire line . Line 4 and the eastern end of line 5 serve the southern part of the line up to Ullevål stadion before branching off and continuing along the Ring Line . This gives an average five @-@ minute headway on the southern part and an average fifteen @-@ minute headway on the northern part of the line .
The line opened on 10 October 1934 as a light rail . In 1993 , it was upgraded to metro standard as the first light rail west of Oslo , with two stations being closed . The Ring Line opened in 2003 . Forskningsparken has transfer to the Oslo Tramway and serves Rikshospitalet . Forskningsparken and Blindern both serve the University of Oslo , while Ullevål stadion serves Norway 's largest football venue . North of there the line mainly serves residential areas . Sognsvann serves the Norwegian School of Sport Sciences and the recreational area Nordmarka .
= = History = =
The first plans for a light rail along the route of the Sognsvann Line were launched by Holmenkolbanen in 1904 . They called for a branch from Gaustad Station on the Holmenkoll Line to Geitmyren and onwards to Sagene . The next proposal for a line was launched in 1917 , when Aker Municipality established the company Akersbanerne . It started work planning the Østensjø Line as well as the Sognsvann Line . The neighborhoods of Sogn and Tåsen were being built , and the municipality wanted to establish a good transport system to make the areas more attractive . Holmenkolbanen stated that they should be prioritized to build the system , since they already had a line in the area , but the municipality wanted to have political control over the development of the area .
In 1920 , Holmenkolbanen applied to build a branch from Frøen via Tåsen to Nydalen and Grefsen , along what is today the Ring Line . This proposal included a branch to Sognsvann . The Ministry of Labour granted the concession to Akersbanerne , who started construction in January 1922 . However , due to a labor conflict , the work was put on hold in 1924 . In 1924 , the Røa Line ( at the time called the Smestad Line ) was taken over by Akersbanerne , but Holmenkolbanen retained the operation . After the first part of the Common Tunnel , from Majorstuen to Nationaltheatret , opened in 1928 , Holmenkolbanen was in financial distress , and in 1932 Akersbanerne took over the majority of the shares of Holmenkolbanen . At the same time , the Røa and Sognsvann Lines were merged into Holmenkolbanen .
Work commenced again in 1933 and the line opened on 10 October 1934 . At first the line was built with double track from Frøen to Østhorn and single track to Sognsvann . Between 1937 and 1939 , the upper section was converted to double track . The construction spurred a massive residential construction along the line giving a good foundation for ridership .
After the municipal merger between Oslo and Aker in 1948 , Akersbanerne was merged into Oslo Sporveier , although Holmenkolbanen remained a partially owned subsidiary . In 1973 , Oslo Sporveier bought the remaining shares , and two years later the operations were transferred to Oslo Sporveier , with Holmenkolbanen remaining a pure real estate company . The municipal take @-@ over resulted in an upgrade to both the track and the rolling stock . New overhead wires and new and heavier track were laid . From 1978 , the T1300 trains were taken into use . With the take @-@ over , the lines were numbered , and the Sognsvann Line designated 81 , although this was quickly changed to 13 .
During the 1980s , the city decided to connect the four suburban lines west of the city center with the Oslo Metro . The Sognsvann Line was selected as the first line to be upgraded , so the two systems would become compatible . The line was upgraded to metro standard by replacing the overhead wire with a third @-@ rail power supply and installing automatic train protection . All the stations were rebuilt , with platforms lengthened from fitting two @-@ car to fitting four @-@ car trains , and the platform height increased . The third rail required all level crossings to be removed , resulting in the line being rebuilt several places to allow the road to underpass or overpass . The light rail permitted passengers to cross the lines at the stations , but this was made impossible with metro standard . Because of this , underpasses or overpasses were built at the stations .
Frøen Station was rebuilt so only the trains on the Holmenkollen Line would stop there , while Nordberg Station was closed . All the stations , except Ullevål stadion , were built in the same architectural style . They are constructed in concrete with steel columns and wooden sheds and fences . All platforms have a shed ; Ullevål stadion has a larger weather cover and has a design inspired by football . The upgrade also included the installation of third @-@ rail from Majorstuen to Stortinget in the Common Tunnel . From 10 January 1993 , the Sognsvann Line re @-@ open , and from 4 April , the line started operating through the Common Tunnel and connected to the Lambertseter Line . The new service became operated with T1000 rolling stock .
Following the 1991 decision to build a new Rikshospitalet at Gaustad , it was decided to extend the Ullevål Hageby Line of the tramway there , which would pass under the Sognsvann Line . Plans called for a transfer station at Blindern , but this was later discarded in favor of a new station , Forskningsparken . It would replace Vestgrensa , which was considered too far away to be a suitable transfer point . Forskningsparken would also serve the northern part of the Blindern campus . Not until 1998 were the necessary political agreements in place to allow construction to start . The new light rail started services on 1 June 1999 , and the rapid transit station opened on 22 August . With the opening , Line 4 of the metro was extended from Blindern , via Forskningsparken , to Ullevål stadion . There were complaints from local residents that the increased traffic on the line was causing too much noise , and neighbors demanded that noise shields be built .
In 1991 , Oslo Sporveier presented plans to connect the Sognsvann Line to the Grorud Line with a new Ring Line . The company also considered building the ring as part of the tramway , and have combined operation with both tram and metro on the Sognsvann Line . This was later discarded , despite the higher investment costs with a metro , since the tramway would give higher operating costs and longer travel time . A detailed suggestion was presented by Oslo Sporveier in August 1996 . It became clear that Berg would not be served by the Ring Line . Many neighbors to the Sognsvann Line complained about the proposal , stating that they had hoped that the section from Majorstuen to Berg would have been rebuilt as a tunnel . They also argued that it was irrational that the line was running at @-@ grade in densely populated areas , while it would run in a tunnel through the then mostly unpopulated Nydalen . To compensate , Oslo Sporveier stated that they would build noise screens along the line .
The city council voted in favor of building the Ring Line on 25 June 1997 , against the votes of the Progress Party . Financing was partially ensured in December , when a political agreement was reached for Oslo Package 2 , a financing plan for investments in public transport in Oslo and Akershus between 2002 and 2011 . Construction started in June , with the Agency for Road and Transport of the municipality responsible for construction . The first section opened from Ullevål stadion via Nydalen to Storo on 20 August 2003 . With the opening , and Line 4 was extended from Ullevål stadion to Storo . On 20 August 2006 , the final section opened , from Storo via Sinsen to Carl Berners plass .
In 2002 , the Sognsvann Line was closed during the summer vacations due to improvements of the track and third rail . In 2008 , the line was closed for approximately one week , due to leaves that had covered the tracks . The operation of the line was replaced by buses that served temporary stops in Nordbergveien and Sognsveien . In 2010 , a truck was stuck under the train bridge between Holstein and Kringsjå over Carl Kjeldsens vei . The bridge was damaged , and allowed for only one @-@ way @-@ traffic for two weeks . Half the trains had to stop at Berg in the meantime .
= = Route = =
The line branches off from the Common Tunnel after Majorstuen , and heads northwards through the borough of Nordre Aker . The first two stations , Blindern and Forskningsparken , serve the Blindern campus of the University of Oslo . At Forskningsparken , there is transfer to the Ullevål Hageby Line of the Oslo Tramway , which allows connection with the two largest hospitals in the country : Rikshospitalet and Ullevål University Hospital . Ullevål stadion serves Norway 's largest sports venue , Ullevål Stadion , the home ground of Norwegian Premier League side Vålerenga and the national football team .
North of Ullevål stadion , just before reaching Berg , the Ring Line with services 3 and 4 branches off . The Ring Line serves three stations , Nydalen , Storo and Sinsen before reaching the Grorud Line . From Berg to Tåsen , the line runs parallel to the motorway Ring 3 . North of Berg , the Sognsvann Line mainly serves residential areas , including student dormitories at Sogn and Kringsjå . The Norwegian School of Sport Sciences and the National Archival Services of Norway is served by Sognsvann Station . The station also serves the recreational area Nordmarka and the lake Sognsvann .
= = Service = =
The Sognsvann Line is served by lines 4 and 5 of the Oslo Metro . Half of line 5 trains operate the full length of the Sognsvann Line , while line 4 and the other half of the line 5 trains branch off after Ullevål stadion and serve the Ring Line . All services operate with a fifteen @-@ minute headway , except during late evenings and weekend mornings . This gives the stations Blindern , Forskningsparken and Ullevål stadion an average five @-@ minute headway to the city center and all stations in the Common Tunnel , and an average ten @-@ minute headway to Nydalen and Storo . On the east side of the city , Line 5 connects with the Ring Line , and makes a full loop before it leaves Oslo on the Grorud Line . Line 4 connects with the Lambertseter Line . Travel time from Stortinget to Sognsvann is 18 minutes . The Oslo Metro is operated by Oslo T @-@ banedrift on contract with Ruter .
Transfer to the Kolsås , Røa and Holmenkollen Lines is possible at Majorstuen . Transfer to Oslo Central Station , which serves all mainline trains in Eastern Norway , is available at Jernbanetorget . Most west @-@ bound mainline trains can also be reached at Nationaltheatret . The Oslo Tramway can be reached from Majorstuen and Forskningsparken , as well as in the city center from Jernbanetorget , Stortinget and Nationaltheatret .
= Tris Speaker =
Tristram E. Speaker ( April 4 , 1888 – December 8 , 1958 ) , nicknamed " The Grey Eagle " , was an American baseball player . Considered one of the best offensive and defensive center fielders in the history of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) , he compiled a career batting average of .345 ( sixth all @-@ time ) . His 792 career doubles represent an MLB career record . His 3 @,@ 514 hits are fifth in the all @-@ time hits list . Defensively , Speaker holds career records for assists , double plays , and unassisted double plays by an outfielder . His fielding glove was known as the place " where triples go to die . "
After playing in the minor leagues in Texas and Arkansas , Speaker debuted with the Boston Red Sox in 1907 . He became the regular center fielder by 1909 and led the Red Sox to World Series championships in 1912 and 1915 . In 1915 , Speaker 's batting average dropped to .322 from .338 the previous season ; he was traded to the Cleveland Indians when he refused to take a pay cut . As player @-@ manager for Cleveland , he led the team to its first World Series title . In ten of his eleven seasons with Cleveland , he finished with a batting average greater than .350 . Speaker resigned as Cleveland 's manager in 1926 after he and Ty Cobb faced game fixing allegations ; both men were later cleared . During his managerial stint in Cleveland , Speaker introduced the platoon system in the major leagues .
Speaker played with the Washington Senators in 1927 and the Philadelphia Athletics in 1928 , then became a minor league manager and part owner . He later held several roles for the Cleveland Indians . Late in life , Speaker led a short @-@ lived indoor baseball league , ran a wholesale liquor business , worked in sales and chaired Cleveland 's boxing commission . He was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1937 . He was named 27th in the Sporting News 100 Greatest Baseball Players ( 1999 ) and was also included in the Major League Baseball All @-@ Century Team .
= = Early life = =
Speaker was born on April 4 , 1888 , in Hubbard , Texas , to Archie and Nancy Poer Speaker . As a youth , Speaker broke his arm after he fell from a horse ; the injury forced him to become left @-@ handed . In 1905 , Speaker played a year of college baseball for Fort Worth Polytechnic Institute . Newspaper reports have held that Speaker suffered a football injury and nearly had his arm amputated around this time ; biographer Timothy Gay characterizes this as " a story that the macho Speaker never disspelled [ sic ] . " He worked on a ranch before beginning his professional baseball career .
Speaker 's abilities drew the interest of Doak Roberts , owner of the Cleburne Railroaders of the Texas League , in 1906 . After losing several games as a pitcher , Speaker converted to outfielder to replace a Cleburne player who had been struck in the head with a pitch . He batted .318 for the Railroaders . Speaker 's mother opposed his participation in the major leagues , saying that they reminded her of slavery . Though she relented , for several years Mrs. Speaker questioned why her son had not stayed home and entered the cattle or oil businesses .
He performed well for the Texas League 's Houston Buffaloes in 1907 , but his mother stated that she would never allow him to go to the Boston Americans . Roberts sold the youngster to the Americans for $ 750 or $ 800 ( equal to $ 19 @,@ 047 or $ 20 @,@ 317 today ) . Speaker played in seven games for the Americans in 1907 , with three hits in 19 at bats for a .158 average . In 1908 , Boston Americans owner John I. Taylor changed the team 's name to the Boston Red Sox after the bright socks in the team 's uniform . That year , the club traded Speaker to the Little Rock Travelers of the Southern League in exchange for use of their facilities for spring training . Speaker batted .350 for the Travelers and his contract was repurchased by the Red Sox . He logged a .224 batting average in 116 at bats .
= = Major league career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Speaker became the regular starting center fielder for Boston in 1909 and light @-@ hitting Denny Sullivan was sold to the Cleveland Naps . Speaker hit .309 in 143 games as the team finished third in the pennant race . Defensively , Speaker was involved in 12 double plays , leading the league 's outfielders , and had a .973 fielding percentage , third among outfielders . In 1910 the Red Sox signed left fielder Duffy Lewis . Speaker , Lewis and Harry Hooper formed Boston 's " Million @-@ Dollar Outfield " , one of the finest outfield trios in baseball history . Speaker was the star of the Million @-@ Dollar Outfield . He ran fast enough that he could stand very close to second base , effectively giving the team a fifth infielder , but he still caught the balls hit to center field . In 1910 and 1911 , Boston finished fourth in the American League standings .
Speaker 's best season came in 1912 . He played every game and led the American League ( AL ) in doubles ( 53 ) and home runs ( 10 ) . He set career highs with 222 hits , 136 runs , 580 at @-@ bats , and 52 stolen bases . Speaker 's stolen base tally was a team record until Tommy Harper stole 54 bases in 1973 . He batted .383 and his .567 slugging percentage was the highest of his dead @-@ ball days . Speaker set a major league single @-@ season record with three hitting streaks of twenty or more games ( 30 , 23 , and 22 ) . He also became the first major leaguer to hit 50 doubles and steal 50 bases in the same season . In August , Speaker 's mother unsuccessfully attempted to convince him to quit baseball and come home . In Fenway Park 's first game , Speaker drove in the winning run in the 11th inning , giving Boston the 7 – 6 win .
The 1912 Red Sox won the AL pennant , finishing 14 games ahead of the Washington Senators and 15 games ahead of the Philadelphia Athletics . In the 1912 World Series , Speaker led the Red Sox to their second World Series title by defeating John McGraw 's New York Giants . After the second game was called on account of darkness and ended in a tie , the series went to eight games . The Red Sox won the final game after Fred Snodgrass dropped an easy fly ball and later failed to go after a Speaker pop foul . After the pop foul , Speaker tied the game with a single . The Red Sox won the game in the bottom of the tenth inning . He finished the series with a .300 batting average , nine hits and four runs scored . Speaker was named the AL Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) for 1912 . Though he did not lead the league in any offensive categories in 1913 , Speaker finished fourth in AL MVP voting .
Speaker batted .338 and tied his career high of 12 double plays as an outfielder in 1914 . He hit .322 in 1915 . The Red Sox beat the Philadelphia Phillies in the 1915 World Series . The Red Sox were led by pitcher Babe Ruth , who was playing in his first full season . Ruth won 18 games and hit a team @-@ high four home runs . Speaker got five hits , including a triple , in 17 at @-@ bats during the series . He scored twice but did not drive in any runs .
= = = Traded to the Indians = = =
After 1915 , Red Sox president Joseph Lannin wanted Speaker to take a pay cut from about $ 15 @,@ 000 ( equal to $ 350 @,@ 872 today ) to about $ 9 @,@ 000 ( equal to $ 210 @,@ 523 today ) because of the drop in his batting average ; Speaker refused and offered $ 12 @,@ 000 ( $ 280 @,@ 697 today ) . On April 8 , 1916 , Lannin traded Speaker to the Cleveland Indians . In exchange , Boston received Sad Sam Jones , Fred Thomas and $ 50 @,@ 000 ( $ 1 @,@ 087 @,@ 309 today ) . The angry Speaker held out until he received $ 10 @,@ 000 ( equal to $ 217 @,@ 462 today ) of the cash that Boston collected . With an annual salary of $ 40 @,@ 000 ( equal to $ 869 @,@ 847 today ) , Speaker was the highest paid player in baseball . Speaker hit over .350 in ten of his eleven years with Cleveland . In 1916 , he led the league in hits , doubles , batting average , slugging percentage and on @-@ base percentage . Cobb had won the previous nine consecutive AL batting titles ; Speaker outhit him with a .386 batting average compared to Cobb 's .371 .
The center field fence at Cleveland 's Dunn Field was 460 feet from home plate until it was shortened to 420 feet in 1920 . Even so , Speaker played so shallow in the outfield that he was able to execute six career unassisted double plays at second base , catching low line drives on the run and then beating baserunners to the bag . At least once he was credited as the pivot man in a routine double play . He was often shallow enough to catch pickoff throws at second base . At one point , Speaker 's signature move was to come in behind second base on a bunt and make a tag play on a baserunner who had passed the bag .
While in Cleveland , Speaker participated in diverse activities off the baseball field . Speaker enrolled in an aviator training program in 1918 . Though World War I ended less than two months after he enrolled , Speaker completed his training and served in the naval reserves for several years . He also owned a ranch in Texas and competed in roping events during the baseball offseason .
= = = Stint as player @-@ manager = = =
From the day that Speaker arrived in Cleveland , manager Lee Fohl rarely made an important move without consulting him . George Uhle recalled an incident from 1919 during his rookie year with the Indians . Speaker often signaled to Fohl when he thought that a pitcher should be brought in from the bullpen . One day , Fohl misread Speaker 's signal and brought in a different pitcher than Speaker had intended . To avoid the appearance of overruling his manager , Speaker let the change stand . Pitcher Fritz Coumbe lost the game , Fohl resigned that night and Speaker became manager . Uhle said that Speaker felt bad for contributing to Fohl 's departure .
Speaker guided the 1920 Indians to their first World Series win . In a crucial late season game against the second @-@ place White Sox , Speaker caught a hard line drive hit to deep right @-@ center field by Shoeless Joe Jackson , ending the game . On a dead run , Speaker leaped with both feet off the ground , snaring the ball before crashing into a concrete wall . As he lay unconscious from the impact , Speaker still held the baseball . In the 1920 World Series against Brooklyn , Speaker hit an RBI triple in the deciding game , which the Indians won 3 – 0 . Cleveland 's 1920 season was also significant due to the death of Ray Chapman on August 17 . Chapman died after being hit in the head by a pitch from Carl Mays . Chapman had been asked about retirement before the season , and he said that he wanted to help Speaker earn Cleveland 's first World Series victory before thinking of retirement .
During that championship season , Speaker is credited with introducing the platoon system , which attempted to match right @-@ handed batters against left @-@ handed pitchers and vice versa . Sportswriter John B. Sheridan was among the critics of the system , saying , " The specialist in baseball is no good and won 't go very far ... The whole effect of the system will be to make the players affected half men ... It is farewell , a long farewell to all that player 's chance of greatness ... It destroys young ball players by destroying their most precious quality – confidence in their ability to hit any pitcher , left or right , alive , dead , or waiting to be born . " Baseball Magazine was supportive , pointing out that Speaker had results that backed up his system .
The 1921 Indians remained in a tight pennant race all year , finishing 4 1 ⁄ 2 games behind the Yankees . The Indians did not seriously contend for the pennant from 1922 through 1925 . Speaker led the league in doubles eight times , including every year between 1920 and 1923 . He led the league 's outfielders in fielding percentage in 1921 and 1922 . On May 17 , 1925 , Speaker became the fifth member of the 3 @,@ 000 hit club when he hit a single off pitcher Tom Zachary of the Washington Senators . Only Napoleon Lajoie had previously accomplished the feat as a member of the Indians .
AL President Ban Johnson asked Speaker and Detroit manager Cobb to resign their posts after a scandal broke in 1926 . Pitcher Dutch Leonard claimed that Speaker and Cobb fixed at least one game between Cleveland and Detroit . In a newspaper column published shortly before the hearings were to begin , Billy Evans characterized the accusations as " purely a matter of personal revenge " for Leonard . The pitcher was said to be upset with Cobb and Speaker after a trade ended with Leonard in the minor leagues . When Leonard refused to appear at the January 5 , 1927 hearings to discuss his accusations , Commissioner Landis cleared both Speaker and Cobb of any wrongdoing . Both were reinstated to their original teams , but each team declared its manager free to sign elsewhere . Speaker did not return to big league managing and he finished his MLB managerial career with a 617 – 520 record .
At the time of his 1926 resignation , news reports described Speaker as permanently retiring from baseball to pursue business ventures . However , Speaker signed to play with the Washington Senators for 1927 . Cobb joined the Philadelphia Athletics . Speaker joined Cobb in Philadelphia for the 1928 season ; he played part @-@ time and finished with a .267 average . Prior to that season , Speaker had not hit for a batting average below .300 since 1908 .
Speaker 's major league playing career ended after 1928 . He retired with 792 doubles , an all @-@ time career record as of 2014 . Defensively , Speaker holds the all @-@ time career records ( as of 2013 ) for assists as an outfielder and double plays as an outfielder . He remains the last batter to hit 200 triples in a career .
= = Later life = =
In 1929 Speaker replaced Walter Johnson as the manager of the Newark Bears of the International League . In two seasons with Newark , he also appeared as a player in 59 games . When Speaker resigned during his second season , the Bears were in seventh place after a sixth @-@ place finish in 1929 . In January 1933 he became a part owner and manager of the Kansas City Blues . By May , Speaker had been replaced as manager but remained secretary of the club . By 1936 , he had sold his share of the team . In 1937 , Speaker was voted into the Baseball Hall of Fame during its second year of balloting . He was honored at the hall 's first induction ceremony in 1939 .
After his playing and managing days , Speaker was an entrepreneur and salesman . By 1937 , Speaker had opened a wholesale liquor business and worked as a state sales representative for a steel company . He chaired Cleveland 's boxing commission between 1936 and 1943 . Newspaper coverage credited Speaker with several key reforms to boxing in Cleveland , including the recruitment of new officials and protections against fight fixing . Under Speaker , fight payouts went directly to boxers rather than managers . Speaker sorted out a scheduling conflict for a 1940 boxing match in Cleveland involving former middleweight champion Teddy Yarosz . Yarosz defeated Jimmy Reeves in ten rounds and the fight attracted over 8 @,@ 300 spectators .
In 1937 , Speaker sustained a 16 @-@ foot fall while working on a flower box near a second @-@ story window at his home . Upon admission to the hospital , he underwent facial surgery . He was described as having " better than an even chance to live " and was suffering from a skull fracture , a broken arm and possible internal injuries . He ultimately recovered .
In 1939 , Speaker was president of the National Professional Indoor Baseball League . The league had teams in New York , Brooklyn , Philadelphia , Boston , Cleveland , Chicago , Cincinnati and St. Louis . The league shut down operations due to poor attendance only two months after its formation . Speaker was one of the founders of Cleveland 's Society for Crippled Children and he helped to promote the society 's rehabilitation center , Camp Cheerful . Speaker served as vice president of the society , ran fundraising campaigns and received a distinguished service award from the organization . He became seriously ill with pneumonia in 1942 . Speaker ultimately recovered , but Gay characterized Speaker 's condition as " touch @-@ and @-@ go for several days " .
In 1947 , Speaker returned to baseball as " ambassador of good will " for Bill Veeck and the Cleveland Indians . He remained in advisory , coaching or scouting roles for the Indians until his death in 1958 . In an article in the July 1952 issue of SPORT , Speaker recounted how Veeck hired him in 1947 to be a coaching consultant to Larry Doby , the first black player in the AL and the second in the major leagues . Before the Indians had signed Doby , he was the star second baseman of the Newark Eagles of the Negro Leagues . A SPORT photograph that accompanied the article shows Speaker mentoring five members of the Indians : Luke Easter , Jim Hegan , Ray Boone , Al Rosen and Doby . Speaker was inducted into the Texas Sports Hall of Fame in 1951 . Texas was the first state to establish a state sports hall of fame and Speaker was in its inaugural induction class .
= = Death = =
Speaker died of a heart attack on December 8 , 1958 , at the age of 70 , at Lake Whitney , Texas . He collapsed as he and a friend were pulling their boat into the dock after a fishing trip . It was his second heart attack in four years . Speaker was buried at Fairview Cemetery in Hubbard , Texas .
After Speaker 's death , Cobb said , " Terribly depressed . I never let him know how much I admired him when we were playing against each other ... It was only after we finally became teammates and then retired that I could tell Tris Speaker of the underlying respect I had for him . " Lajoie said , " He was one of the greatest fellows I ever knew , both as a baseball player and as a gentleman . " Former Boston teammate Duffy Lewis said , " He was a team player . As great a hitter as he was , he wasn 't looking out for his own average ... Speaker was the bell cow of our outfield . Harry Hooper and I would watch him and know how to play the hitters . "
= = Legacy = =
Immediately after Speaker 's death , the baseball field at the city park in Cleburne , Texas was renamed in honor of Speaker . In 1961 , the Tris Speaker Memorial Award was created by the Baseball Writers ' Association of America to honor players or officials who make outstanding contributions to baseball . In 1999 , he ranked number 27 on the Sporting News ' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players . He was named to the Major League Baseball All @-@ Century Team . Speaker is mentioned in the poem " Line @-@ Up for Yesterday " by Ogden Nash .
In 2008 , former baseball players ' union chief Marvin Miller , trying to defend the recently retired catcher Mike Piazza against claims that he should not be elected to the Hall of Fame because of association with the use of steroids , on the basis that the Hall of Fame has various unsavory people in it , opined that Speaker should be removed from the Hall of Fame because of alleged membership in the Ku Klux Klan . Miller said , " Some of the early people inducted in the Hall were members of the Ku Klux Klan : Tris Speaker , Cap Anson , and some people suspect Ty Cobb as well . I think that by and large , the players , and certainly the ones I knew , are good people . But the Hall is full of villains . " Miller 's comment about Anson has no basis , other than speculating that he could have been a Klansman since he was a racist during his playing career , which ended in 1897 , although he was umpiring games with black players by 1901 , including featuring the all @-@ black Columbia Giants . Miller , age 91 at the time the 2008 article appeared , is the earliest source for declaring that it is factual that Anson was a member of the Klan , based purely on an Internet search of sources that try to link Anson to the Klan . By contrast , Speaker @-@ Cobb @-@ Rogers Hornsby biographer Charles C. Alexander , a Klan expert in his general history writings , told fellow baseball author Marty Appel , apparently referring to the 1920s ( Anson died in 1922 ) , “ As I ’ ve suggested in the biographies , it ’ s possible that they [ Speaker , Cobb and Hornsby ] were briefly in the Klan , which was very strong in Texas and especially in Fort Worth and Dallas . The Klan went all out to recruit prominent people in all fields , provided they were native born , Protestant and white . ”
Baseball historian Bill James does not dispute this claim in apparently referring to Speaker and possibly Cobb , but says that the Klan had toned down its racist overtures during the 1920s and pulled in hundreds of thousands of non @-@ racist men , including Hugo Black . James adds that Speaker was a staunch supporter of Doby when he broke the American League color barrier , working long hours with the former second baseman on how to play the outfield .
= = Regular season statistics = =
= HMS Hardy ( 1936 ) =
HMS Hardy was the flotilla leader for the H @-@ class destroyers , built for the Royal Navy in the mid @-@ 1930s . During the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 1939 the ship spent considerable time in Spanish waters , enforcing the arms blockade imposed by Britain and France on both sides of the conflict . Hardy was transferred to Freetown , Sierra Leone , in October 1939 to hunt for German commerce raiders in the South Atlantic with Force K. After returning to the United Kingdom in early 1940 , the ship became flagship of the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla assigned to the Home Fleet . During the Norwegian campaign of 1940 , Hardy participated in the First Battle of Narvik where she sank one German destroyer . As the British ships were withdrawing , they were discovered by two other German destroyers that so badly damaged Hardy that she had to be run aground to stop her from sinking . The ship was lifted by a rising tide and eventually capsized .
= = Description = =
Hardy displaced 1 @,@ 455 long tons ( 1 @,@ 478 t ) at standard load and 2 @,@ 053 long tons ( 2 @,@ 086 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 337 feet ( 102 @.@ 7 m ) , a beam of 34 feet ( 10 @.@ 4 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 9 inches ( 3 @.@ 9 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 38 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 28 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Hardy carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 530 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 240 km ; 6 @,@ 360 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 175 officers and men .
The ship mounted five 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) Mark IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Hardy had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were carried originally , but this was increased to 35 shortly after the war began .
= = Service = =
Hardy was laid down by Cammell Laird and Company at Birkenhead on 30 May 1935 , launched on 7 April 1936 and commissioned on 11 December 1936 . Excluding government @-@ furnished equipment like the armament , the ship cost £ 278 @,@ 482 . The ship was assigned to the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla of the Mediterranean Fleet upon commissioning . Hardy patrolled Spanish waters from 1937 through 1939 during the Spanish Civil War enforcing the policies of the Non @-@ Intervention Committee . After the destroyer HMS Hunter struck a mine off Almeria on 13 May 1937 , Hardy stood by in case Hunter needed further assistance . Hardy was berthed in Palma , Majorca on 23 May 1937 when that port was bombed by the Spanish Republican Air Force , but was not damaged . After the end of the Spanish Civil War in 1939 , she began a refit in Devonport Dockyard between 2 June and 29 July . The ship was in Malta when World War II began in September .
In October Hardy ( pennant no . H87 ) was transferred to Freetown , Sierra Leone , to hunt for German commerce raiders in the South Atlantic with Force K. The ship and her half @-@ sisters HMS Hostile , HMS Hereward , and HMS Hasty rendezvoused with the battlecruiser HMS Renown , the aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal , and the light cruiser HMS Neptune on 17 December . They refuelled in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil before proceeding to the estuary of the River Plate in case the damaged German pocket battleship Admiral Graf Spee attempted to escape from Montevideo , Uruguay , where she had taken refuge after losing the Battle of the River Plate . She was given a brief overhaul at Devonport between 25 January and 12 February 1940 and was then transferred to Greenock , Scotland for convoy escort duties . The ship rejoined the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla of the Home Fleet in Scapa Flow on 9 March and became its flagship .
On 6 April Hardy and the rest of the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla escorted the four destroyer minelayers of the 20th Destroyer Flotilla as they sailed to implement Operation Wilfred , an operation to lay mines in the Vestfjord to prevent the shipment of Swedish iron ore from Narvik to Germany . The mines were laid on the early morning of 8 April , before the Germans began their invasion , and the destroyers then joined the battlecruiser HMS Renown and her escorts .
The Admiralty ordered Captain Warburton @-@ Lee to attack German shipping in Narvik , Norway on 9 April . The following morning Hardy led four of her half @-@ sisters down Ofotfjord in a surprise dawn attack on Narvik harbour during a blinding snowstorm . A torpedo from Hardy blew off the stern of the German flagship , Z21 Wilhelm Heidkamp , and killed the German flotilla commander , Commodore Friedrich Bonte . Heidkamp sank the next day . Another hit a merchant ship in the stern . A second salvo of four torpedoes was fired at two other German destroyers , but missed and badly damaged the ore docks . After regrouping , Captain Warburton @-@ Lee led another attack on the harbour later that morning , but inflicted little additional damage due to poor visibility .
As the British destroyers completed their second attack , they were engaged by three more German destroyers . The British destroyers attempted to withdraw to the west , but were pursued by the German ships . Two additional German destroyers crossed the T of the British ships and quickly knocked out Hardy 's forward guns . More hits to the ship 's bridge and superstructure set her on fire , mortally wounded Captain Warburton @-@ Lee and killed or wounded all of the other officers on the bridge except Paymaster Lieutenant G.H. Stanning , the Captain 's Secretary . Although badly wounded , he took command and after several more hits disabled her boilers ordered her run aground at Vidrek . The First Lieutenant , who had not been present on the bridge , assumed command and ordered the ship abandoned . Some of the crew delayed doing so until the last torpedo was fruitlessly fired at a German ship and No. 4 gun fired until it was out of ammunition .
Captain Warburton @-@ Lee was brought ashore but died after an hour from his head wounds . 139 other men managed to get ashore , although 26 were seriously wounded . Captain Warburton @-@ Lee was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross . Hardy was lifted off the beach at high tide and drifted to the head of Skjomen fjord where she capsized in shallow waters . The wreck was still visible as late as 1963 .
= Vaan =
Vaan ( ヴァン , Van ) is a fictional character in the Final Fantasy series from Square Enix . Created by Yasumi Matsuno and designed by Akihiko Yoshida , he first appeared in Itadaki Street Special and then appeared in Final Fantasy XII as the protagonist . Final Fantasy XII establishes Vaan as an orphaned teenager from Rabanastre who dreams of becoming a sky pirate . He and his best friend Penelo join Dalmasca Princess Ashe in her fight against the tyranny of the Archadian Empire . Vaan also takes a more active role in the sequel Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings and has also been featured in few Final Fantasy crossover games .
Vaan was conceptualized as the main character for Final Fantasy XII in order to contrast the older hero from Square 's previous title Vagrant Story as a result of negative feedback received by fans . Critical reception to Vaan 's character has been mixed as a result of his lack of involvement with the Final Fantasy XII 's plot although various video game publications still found him likable .
= = Appearances = =
Vaan was first introduced in the 2004 crossover board game Itadaki Street Special for the PlayStation 2 . He also appears in Itadaki Street Portable for the PlayStation Portable .
The protagonist of Final Fantasy XII , Vaan is a 17 @-@ year @-@ old orphaned street urchin who lost his parents in a plague when he was 12 years old . His only brother , Reks , died two years prior to the start of the game , during the Archadian invasion of Dalmasca . He makes a living as Migelo 's assistant , running various errands for him , while at the same time pickpocketing from Archadian soldiers while claiming to take back what is Dalmasca 's . He is a cheerful and energetic boy . Vaan dreams of someday becoming a sky pirate in command of his own airship . He trains to meet this goal by killing dire rats in the sewers of Rabanastre on a daily basis , for which Dalan gave him the nickname " Vaan Ratsbane . " Despite nominally being the protagonist , the majority of the game focuses on the events and conflicts of the world as a whole and of Ashe , rather than Vaan 's individual problems , with his character instead used as a narrative device to allow the player to follow the events as an outside observer . During the course of the game , Vaan comes to understand that he has spent his time running from his problems and blaming the Archadian empire for them , rather than moving on with his life after his brother and parents ' deaths . Vaan ends the game as a sky pirate , traveling the world along with Penelo . He also reprises his role from Final Fantasy XII in the manga adaptation by Gin Amou .
During the events of Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings , Vaan becomes captain of the Airship Galbana and uses it to travel to Lemurés , meeting old friends while making new ones . By Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift Vaan 's and Penelo 's adventures take them to the Jylland region of Ivalice , where they get caught up in events surrounding Clan Gully and a boy from another world named Luso Clemens , eventually joining up with the clan for a time .
Vaan also appears in the PlayStation Portable fighting game , Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy . His inclusion in such title met difficulties due to the fact Kouhei Takeda was busy with other works to voice him . However , following a Japanese popularity survey , the staff in charge hired Kenshō Ono to replace Takeda as fans wanted him to appear in Dissidia 012 . He is featured in his Final Fantasy XII design , while alternative ones depict him as in Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift , a new one by Yoshitaka Amano and another one featuring him as sea pirate by Akihiko Yoshida . He is also featured in the rhythm game Theatrhythm Final Fantasy as the main character representing Final Fantasy XII .
= = Concept and creation = =
Yasumi Matsuno added Vaan and Penelo to be male and female avatar characters for the player in Final Fantasy XII . They would see and learn about Ivalice in sync with the player over the course of the game but would not be deeply connected to the story . The development team explained that their previous game , Vagrant Story , which featured a " strong man in his prime " as the protagonist had been unsuccessful and unpopular ; the change regarding Final Fantasy XII from a " big and tough " protagonist to a more effeminate one was thus decided after targeting demographics were considered . Although originally conceived as more " rugged " , Vaan was changed during development of the game to be more effeminate after " taking into consideration the target demographic " . He was designed by character designer Akihiko Yoshida to look Asian . In response to criticism from Western fans regarding Vaan 's design executive producer Akitoshi Kawazu noted that while several members from the development team were not feeling Vaan was the right main character owing to his young age , it was common for Japanese RPG to start with an inexperienced characters who grow across the game . Motomu Toriyama , the writer and director of Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings , picked Vaan as his favourite character in the game .
Vaan was voiced in Final Fantasy XII by Bobby Edner in English and by Kouhei Takeda in Japanese . With the casting of Takeda for the voice acting and motion capture , Vaan became a little less feminine and more " active , upbeat bright and positive " than planned . When asked how he compares to other Final Fantasy protagonists , Hideo Minaba stated that due in part to being designed by a different character designer than before , he did not feel he could be compared to any other Final Fantasy character .
= = Reception = =
The similarities between the design of Vaan and Tetsuya Nomura 's have been criticized , which artist Akihiko Yoshida noted was likely due to the similar colours used . In the book Final Fantasy and Philosophy : The Ultimate Walkthrough , he is described by Greg Littmann as a pick pocket and , unlike many of Final Fantasy 's protagonists , lacking in a " sense of honesty and justice " . GameSpot editor Greg Kasavin described Vaan as the " token androgynous male lead " , also describing him as an " Aladdin @-@ type " . G4 TV editor Greg Orlando described him as " eminently likable " due to the game 's focus on " political intrigue " and Vaan trying to understand it all . Cyril Lachel of GamingNexus.com stated that while he was not a fan of Vaan , he was surprised by how his story turned out . 1UP.com editor Andrew Pfister stated that while everyone was expecting to hate what he describes as an " angsty teen " , this is " tempered by the presence of Balthier and Basch " , two fellow characters .
His lessened involvement with the plot compared to protagonists from preceding Final Fantasy titles was met with mixed reception . Destructoid editor Aaron Linde described him as " arguably the most uninspiring character in the game " . Play.tm editor Andrew Macarthy described Vaan as an " undescribing figure " . Eurogamer editor Rob Fahey stated that while " players may initially be somewhat dismayed to find themselves largely following around the cheerful prettyboy Vaan " , the game introduces new characters who " fill out the cast superbly " . PSX Extreme editor Cavin Smith commented that due to the game not focusing on just one character , Vaan " spends the entire game as an observer of the events unfolding in front of him " , adding that it is a " far different take on the protagonist compared to Nomura 's egocentric tendencies " . PALGN editor Phil Larsen called him a " rogue @-@ ish bad boy with a heart of gold " , adding that " while this may seem clichéd at first , Vaan is always presented as extremely young and never tries to control every situation " , citing Tidus as an example of someone who does . Worthplaying editor Agustin described the set @-@ up as being " Dragon Quest @-@ like " , and that while he acts as a vehicle for players to view the plot through , he compared him to critically acclaimed characters Crono and Link from the Chrono Trigger and The Legend of Zelda series respectively .
Bobby Edner 's portrayal of Vaan has been met with mostly positive reception . Cavin Smith praised his acting , stating that he sounds like an actual teenager without sounding whiny . Agustin praised the developers for giving Vaan a voice actor , commenting that it prevents any awkward silences from a silent protagonist . He added however that Vaan is " decidedly quiet " , owing to many of the conversations not requiring his input , which Agustin called a " brilliant interactive storytelling device " . His design change from Final Fantasy XII to Revenant Wings was criticized by RPGFan editor Patrick Gann , for going from a teenage design to what appears to be the design of a 10 @-@ year @-@ old Vaan .
= Juan Davis Bradburn =
Juan Davis Bradburn ( 1787 – April 20 , 1842 ) , born John Davis Bradburn , was a brigadier general in the Mexican Army . His actions as commandant of the garrison at Anahuac in Mexican Texas in 1831 and 1832 led to the events known as the Anahuac Disturbances .
Born and raised in the United States , Bradburn 's first career was as a merchant and slave trader . He likely first entered Mexico in 1812 as part of the Gutiérrez @-@ Magee Expedition fighting Spanish control of Texas . When the expedition was quashed , Bradburn moved to Louisiana , where he served in the Louisiana militia during the Battle of New Orleans . After his discharge , Bradburn spent several years fighting for Mexican independence . Spain relinquished its hold on Mexico in 1821 , and Bradburn became an officer in the new Mexican army . He served as a courier for Mexican emperor Agustín de Iturbide .
In 1830 , Bradburn established a new military and customs post , Anahuac , in Texas . The local settlers resented Bradburn 's efforts to withhold land titles from those who had squatted in unauthorized areas . They were further angered by his attempts to enforce customs laws which had been largely ignored . The hard feelings escalated when Bradburn , following Mexican law , refused to return runaway slaves to their owners in the United States . After receiving a hoax letter claiming that armed men were marching on Anahuac to retrieve runaway slaves , Bradburn arrested local lawyers William Barret Travis , Patrick Churchill Jack . Settlers were outraged that Travis did not receive some of the protections offered by the United States Bill of Rights , even though these rights were not guaranteed in Mexico . A large force of Texians marched on Anahuac to secure Travis 's release . The resulting confrontation forced Bradburn 's expulsion from Texas and encouraged other immigrants to take armed action against Mexican soldiers . As a result of his actions , Bradburn was " one of the most maligned men in historical accounts of " Texas in the 19th century .
= = Early years = =
John Davis Bradburn was born in 1787 in Virginia . His father was probably William C. Bradburn , and John likely had an elder brother , also named William . At some point after 1800 , the family moved to Christian County , Kentucky . As a young adult , Bradburn became a merchant in nearby Springfield , Tennessee . He trafficked in slaves and was once jailed in Natchez , Mississippi over a disputed slave sale .
It is likely that Bradburn participated in the 1812 Gutiérrez @-@ Magee Expedition , which intended to establish independent Mexican control of Spanish Texas . The rebels were initially successful , taking Nacogdoches , Goliad , and provincial capital San Antonio de Béxar . After the execution of Governor Manuel María de Salcedo , many Americans left the movement in disgust . The remaining members of the expedition were decisively defeated by royalist forces at the Battle of Medina in August 1813 ; a small number of Americans escaped to Louisiana .
By 1814 , Bradburn resided in Louisiana . Rumors abounded that British troops were preparing to invade New Orleans . After the December call for volunteers to help defend the state , Bradburn enrolled in the Eighteenth Louisiana Regiment and was elected third lieutenant . His unit arrived in New Orleans on January 24 , just after the Battle of New Orleans , and remained until martial law ended March 11 .
= = Mexican War of Independence = =
Following his discharge from the militia , Bradburn remained in New Orleans . The Mexican War of Independence was raging , and many filibusters — men planning unauthorized military expeditions — gathered in the city to plan the liberation of Texas from Spanish control . Bradburn became a sergeant major in the movement led by Juan Pablo Anaya and Henry Perry . When Perry 's forces entered Texas in early 1816 , Bradburn was initially stationed in Nacogdoches to direct recruits and supplies to the main body of the expedition . In June , Bradburn joined Perry at his headquarters , a bluff along the Trinity River which became known as Perry 's Point . Little activity occurred over the next few months .
In November 1816 , another filibuster , Francisco Javier Mina , arrived with additional men and supplies . Mina planned to invade Tampico and assist the revolutionary army in the Mexican interior . Bradburn allied himself with Mina , whose plan was better @-@ developed than Perry 's , and was soon appointed second @-@ in @-@ command of the American troops , under Colonel Gilford Young . The filibusters traveled to Fort Sombrero , an insurgent stronghold in Guanajuato province . Rebel supplies dwindled when the fort was besieged by Spanish royalist troops . Mina attempted to negotiate a surrender , but the Spanish offered safe passage only to native Mexicans ; Americans and other foreigners were required to surrender at discretion . As the filibusters pondered this development , Young was killed , leaving Bradburn in sole command of the American troops . On August 19 , he ordered a retreat . Spanish cavalrymen attacked , and less than one @-@ quarter of the Americans escaped .
Bradburn remained in Mexico and soon joined the forces led by Vicente Guerrero . Despite Guerrero 's reputation for cruelty , the two men developed a close relationship . At least once , Bradburn countermanded Guerrero 's orders , refusing to allow the execution of captured Spanish officers . His action impressed Agustín de Iturbide , the commander of the Spanish forces fighting Guerrero . In December 1820 , Bradburn left the insurgent army to join Iturbide . Most Mexican historians believe his defection was due to a weariness with the conflict ; at least one historian speculates that Bradburn joined the Spanish army as Guerrero 's spy . Within a month , Bradburn had been appointed intermediary between Iturbide and Guerrero .
Iturbide defected from the Spanish army , intending to place himself at the head of a new independent Mexico . He recruited his forces from both the Spanish and rebel armies , offering all who joined him an equal or higher rank in his new organization . Bradburn was appointed a colonel .
= = Independent Mexico = =
In August 1821 , Mexico officially received its independence from Spain . The following year Iturbide became emperor of Mexico and sent Bradburn as an envoy to the United States . Bradburn returned with news that the United States was prepared to recognize the Mexican republic as an independent country . Later that year , Iturbide arranged Bradburn 's marriage to a well @-@ connected Mexican woman , Maria Josefa Hurtado de Mendoza y Caballero de los Olivos . Her brother , Agustin Hurtado , was the 9th Count of the Valley of Orizaba . Bradburn and his wife had one son , who entered the priesthood as a young man .
Iturbide was overthrown in 1823 . The new government was based on federalist principles , and Bradburn , a staunch centralist , kept a discreet distance from politics over the next few years . He reappears in Mexican records in 1828 , when he was granted a monopoly on steamboat traffic on the Rio Grande from the Gulf of Mexico through Coahuila . His charter was revoked in 1830 when he was unable to meet its terms .
= = Texas = =
The new federalist government officially authorized immigration from the United States to Mexican Texas in 1824 . The resulting mass influx of settlers , combined with failed attempts by the United States government to purchase the territory , concerned Mexican authorities , who feared that the United States wished to forcibly take Texas . In response , on April 6 , 1830 the Mexican government enacted a series of laws restricting immigration from the United States . The laws also called for the establishment of customs houses within Texas to begin enforcing customs duties . On October 4 , 1830 , Bradburn was ordered to create the first customs post , to be located at Galveston Bay . He was chosen for the assignment partly because he was bilingual and would be able to communicate with both the immigrants from the United States and the native Mexicans and partly due to his knowledge of the area and its terrain .
Bradburn and his men arrived at Galveston Bay on October 26 and established a post atop the same 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) bluff where Bradburn had camped with Perry . As ordered , Bradburn named the fort Anahuac after the Anahuac Valley , the ancient capital of the Aztecs . The soldiers erected two large kilns to produce bricks to build a more permanent fort . When the kilns were operational , however , Bradburn sold the bricks to settlers who wished to live near the fort . The town grew quickly and by June 1 the population had reached 300 civilians and 170 military personnel . At this point , Bradburn redirected his attention to building a permanent fort . The soldiers , who had been largely idle while the kilns produced bricks for settlers , were angry that they were now expected to do significant physical labor . Their displeasure was augmented by Bradburn 's high standards ; he often forced the men to tear down and rebuild sections that did not meet his benchmark for quality . Many soldiers deserted .
Bradburn also angered the colonists . The Mexican Constitution of 1824 prohibited immigrants from settling with 26 miles ( 42 km ) of the coast , and many foreigners had established homes close to the coast . In January 1831 , a new state land commissioner , Jose Francisco Madero , arrived to grant land titles to people who had settled in the area before 1830 . Bradburn believed that only the federal government had the authority to grant titles in the area near the coast , and that as the representative of the federal government he was the only individual who could authorize surveys of the land .
Bradburn arrested Madero and his assistant , José María Jesús Carbajal . Within 10 days , Bradburn received orders from his superiors to release the men . Madero issued deeds as quickly as he could . Madero then established an official council , an ayuntamiento , for the residents in the disputed area . The new community , " Villa de la Santissima Trinidad de la Libertad " , is now known as Liberty , Texas . Although Bradburn believed that Liberty was created illegally , as the town was too close to the coast , he made no attempt to interfere with its establishment . On December 9 , however , Bradburn 's superior , commandant general Manuel Mier y Teran , ordered Bradburn to dismantle the town and establish the ayuntamiento at Anahuac .
= = = Tariffs = = =
The Mexican government had granted specific tariff exemptions to the first group of immigrants to Texas . Known as the Old Three Hundred , this initial colony had been established by empresario Stephen F. Austin . Most Texas colonists , including those who settled in Austin 's other land grants , erroneously assumed the exemption applied to all settlers . With Bradburn 's arrival , tariff collections began . After hearing complaints from ship captains , Bradburn 's influence helped the law be amended to curtail some excessive charges . Nevertheless , colonists were angry that their goods were more expensive . Many of the settlers in Austin 's colony also refused to accept that their exemption had expired and were vocal in their dislike of the tariffs and Bradburn . To keep the peace , Bradburn appointed local men to collect fees near Austin 's colony ; these men did not try to enforce the law rigidly , and tensions cooled .
In an effort to resolve the issues , Stephen F. Austin wrote Bradburn seeking help in getting the tariffs repealed throughout Texas . Bradburn promptly forwarded the letter up the chain of command . Bradburn 's commander sent Austin a sharply @-@ worded letter which , according to Bradburn 's biographer Margaret Swett Henson , " remind [ ed ] the empresario that tariff was collected by every nation in the world but that only in Brazoria did it cause rioting " . Austin blamed Bradburn for the reprimand .
= = = Anahuac Disturbances = = =
In January 1832 , Bradburn received a letter listing 10 men in his jurisdiction who favored separating Texas from Mexico . From that point on , according to Henson , " Bradburn became increasingly obsessed about the Anglo @-@ Americans and their intentions , believing that every event was part of a conspiracy to detach Texas " . Several months later , local men organized a militia , supposedly to protect the settlement from Indian attacks . Mexican law forbade residents from creating militias , so Bradburn arrested the ringleader , Patrick Jack . Although citizens were outraged , few were willing to intervene . An exception was Robert " Three @-@ Legged Willie " Williamson — his threat to kill Bradburn resulted in Jack 's release .
Bradburn was also worried about the intentions of Jack 's law partner , William Barret Travis . The previous year , Bradburn had granted asylum to two men who had escaped slavery in Louisiana . Travis represented the men 's owner in a series of failed attempts to return the former slaves to the United States . In May 1832 , Bradburn received a letter warning that 100 armed men were stationed 40 miles ( 64 km ) away , intent on reclaim
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ing the slaves . After realizing the letter was a hoax , Bradburn arrested Travis for questioning . He intended to send Travis to Matamoros for a military trial on charges of attempted insurrection . Conviction on this charge would have led to Travis 's execution . The settlers were outraged that the arrest did not require a warrant , a statement of charges , or trial by jury . Most were unfamiliar with Mexican law and assumed that the United States Bill of Rights still applied to them .
Jack threatened Bradburn , who angrily rearrested him . Colonists had reached their limit , and men began marching towards Anahuac from various Texas settlements . By early June , over 150 Texians had gathered . They elected Frank W. Johnson as commander . Without firing a shot , Johnson 's group soon captured Bradburn 's 19 cavalry officers , who had been trying to reconnoiter the Texian position . This left Bradburn with only 80 soldiers ; the rest had deserted .
On June 10 , the insurgents occupied buildings in northern Anahuac and began negotiations to peacefully end the dispute . Mexican officers agreed to release their prisoners into civilian custody if the Texians would release the captured cavalry officers and then withdraw from the town to Turtle Bayou . Although most of the rebels left Anahuac , 15 to 30 men remained scattered through the town . Bradburn believed this violated their agreement and in retaliation threatened to fire on the village within 2 hours . Most of the Texians believed that Bradburn had never intended to follow the agreement .
Fearing imminent cannon fire , the women and children of Anahuac fled . Mexican soldiers briefly engaged the men who remained , leading to the deaths of 5 Mexican soldiers and 1 Texan . After the skirmish , the remaining Texians gathered at Turtle Bayou to await the arrival of cannons that were stored at Brazoria . Taking advantage of the civil war currently engulfing the Mexican interior , the Texians drafted the Turtle Bayou Resolutions . In this document , they declared themselves federalists who supported rebellious Mexican general Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna and decried " the present dynasty " which gave them military order instead of civil authority .
While the Texians waited for their artillery , Bradburn sent messages to Colonel Piedras , stationed at Nacogdoches ( 200 miles ( 320 km ) north ) , and Colonel Elosúa at San Antonio ( 300 miles ( 480 km ) to the west ) . On June 19 , Piedras and about 100 of his men set out to reinforce Bradburn . Unsure how many Texians he actually faced , Piedras was eager to defuse the conflict without violence . At his urging , Bradburn agreed to relinquish his authority , but his chosen successor , Lieutenant Colonel Felix Maria Subarán , refused to take his place . Piedras agreed to take temporary command of the garrison . On July 2 , he transferred the prisoners to civilian authorities ; within a week they were all released with no charges filed . Piedras left for Nacogdoches on July 8 ; three days later , the bulk of the Anahuac troops declared themselves federalists . Only Bradburn and a few others remained committed to the centralist cause .
= = Later life = =
After an aborted assassination attempt — widely attributed to Travis — Bradburn resolved to leave Texas . None of the local ship captains would allow him passage . On July 13 , Subarán announced that he would not guarantee the safety of any officers who still supported the centralist government . That night , Bradburn left Anahuac on foot . Years later , Anahuac carpenter William B. Scates related that after Bradburn 's departure , locals gathered up the other centralist officers and tarred and feathered them before taking them into the water and " scour [ ing ] them with corn cobs to scrub their Bradburn sins off " .
On August 6 , Bradburn arrived in New Orleans and sought refuge with the Mexican consul . Many New Orleans residents had a highly unfavorable view of Bradburn ; ten days earlier the local paper had published a letter from Travis describing Bradburn as a " tyrant " and claiming that Travis had been jailed solely for his political opinions . Bradburn quickly booked passage to Matamoros . On arriving in Mexico , he learned that he had been officially relieved of his duties in Anahuac on June 29 , before his superiors had learned of the armed conflict .
Bradburn remained in the army , fighting for the centralist government . Acting president Anastasio Bustamante promoted Bradburn to brigadier general after his bravery in a large battle on September 18 . For the next few months , Bradburn commanded a regiment near Reynosa . In December , Bustamante and Santa Anna negotiated an end to the war . Bradburn 's forces were merged with that of the federalist general operating in the same area , Lorenzo Cortina . Cortina commanded the joint regiment , and Bradburn retired from military service . For several years , Bradburn raised vegetables near Matamoros . Henson related that " a Texas visitor noted that [ Bradburn ] had the respect of the foreign community in the city , even the Anglo merchants " .
When the Texas Revolution erupted in 1835 , Bradburn rejoined the military under General Jose de Urrea on the condition that he was not required to fight in eastern Texas . Urrea 's forces eradicated opposition along the Texas Gulf Coast , and Bradburn was left to command the small port at Copano , just north of the Nueces River . In April 1836 , Santa Anna ( now president of Mexico ) was captured at the Battle of San Jacinto and all Mexican troops were ordered to retreat beyond the Rio Grande . Bradburn remained at Copano to intercept Mexican supply vessels before they could fall into the hands of the Texians . In mid @-@ May , he was ordered to retreat south to Refugio and wait for the arrival of a specific supply ship . His force was reduced to five men . After two deserted and the remainder fell ill , Bradburn set out alone and on foot for Mexico . He reached Matamoros in ill health on June 13 .
Bradburn again served in the army during the federalist war in 1838 , but by the end of 1840 he had retired to Matamoros . He died on April 20 and was buried on his ranch , likely east of present @-@ day Mission . The property is now the home of the La Lomita Seminary , but there is no record of the location of Bradburn 's grave .
= = Legacy = =
Bradburn 's death was announced in Texas newspapers in a very neutral manner . The Telegraph and Texas Register said simply that " Gen. Bradburn , who had long been in the Mexican service , and formerly commanded the garrison of Anahuac , lately died at Matamoros " . However , the history books of the time did not speak kindly of his actions . In his 1841 book Texas and the Texans ; or , Advance of the Anglo @-@ Americans to the South @-@ West Henry Stuart Foote described Bradburn as an " evil spirit , hovering , with gloomy and malignant aspect , in the rear of Santa Anna 's army " . Henson posits that Bradburn was " one of the most maligned men in historical accounts of that period " , partially because he had no descendants to try to " preserv [ e ] his name and reputation in Texas " .
Many of Bradburn 's contemporaries appeared to share Stephen F. Austin 's belief that : " The fact is [ Bradburn ] is incompetent to such a command and is half crazy part of his time . " His actions " appeared arbitrary and authoritarian to the colonists , who were ignorant about the power traditionally exercised by the Mexican military " . Texians were further disgusted that Bradburn , who shared their American roots , often sided against American immigrants . However , according to historian J. R. Edmondson , colonists " would probably have resented any officer — Anglo or not — sent among them to initiate the collection of customs " . Few Texans in the 19th century understood that Bradburn was following orders and attempting to enforce the national laws of Mexico , and that he was no longer bound by the laws of the United States . Even as late as the 20th century , historians often described Bradburn as a " petty tyrant " .
Historian William C. Davis believes that Bradburn " overreacted and made heroes of two local malcontents whose actions their own people otherwise had not been much inclined to sanction " . The resulting Turtle Bayou Resolutions empowered other Texians to follow a similar course of action . Many communities began declaring in favor of Santa Anna , and in August Piedras and his troops were driven from Nacogdoches . Their retreat into the Mexican interior temporarily left eastern Texas free of Mexican military control , encouraging the colonists to increase their political activity . Shortly thereafter , colonists organized the Convention of 1832 , which marked the first attempt to gather Texians from each of the colonies to discuss their common goals .
Shortly after Bradburn left Texas , the garrison at Anahuac was dismantled . With no troops to purchase supplies , the civilians in the area soon dispersed . The fort was not regarrisoned until January 1835 , when Captain Antonio Tenorio arrived with 40 men . His command was no more successful than Bradburn 's ; within months Travis led a group of insurgents to overthrow Tenorio in the second of the Anahuac Disturbances .
= Hooded crow =
The hooded crow ( Corvus cornix ) ( also called hoodie ) is a Eurasian bird species in the Corvus genus . Widely distributed , it is also known locally as Scotch crow , Danish crow , and grey crow ( in Slavic languages , Ireland and Denmark ) . Found across Northern , Eastern , and Southeastern Europe , as well as parts of the Middle East , it is an ashy grey bird with black head , throat , wings , tail , and thigh feathers , as well as a black bill , eyes , and feet . Like other corvids , it is an omnivorous and opportunistic forager and feeder .
It is so similar in morphology and habits to the carrion crow ( Corvus corone ) , for many years they were considered by most authorities to be geographical races of one species . Hybridization observed where their ranges overlapped added weight to this view . However , since 2002 , the hooded crow has been elevated to full species status after closer observation ; the hybridisation was less than expected and hybrids had decreased vigour . Within the hooded crow species , four subspecies are recognized , with one , the Mesopotamian crow , possibly distinct enough to warrant species status itself .
= = Taxonomy = =
The hooded crow was one of the many species originally described by Linnaeus in his 18th @-@ century work Systema Naturae and it bears its original name of Corvus cornix . The binomial name is derived from the Latin words Corvus , " raven " , and cornix , " crow " . It was subsequently considered a subspecies of the carrion crow for many years , hence known as Corvus corone cornix , due to similarities in structure and habits .
It is locally known as a hoodie in Scotland and Northern Ireland .
= = = Subspecies = = =
Four subspecies of the hooded crow are now recognised ; previously , all were considered subspecies of Corvus corone . A fifth , C. c. sardonius ( Trischitta , 1939 ) has been listed though it has been alternately partitioned between C. c. sharpii ( most populations ) , C. c. cornix ( Corsican population ) , and the Middle Eastern C. c. pallescens .
C. c. cornix , the nominate race , occurs in the British Isles ( principally Scotland and Ireland ) and Europe , south to Corsica .
C. c. pallescens ( Madarász , 1904 ) is found in Turkey and Egypt , and is a paler form as its name suggests .
C. c. sharpii ( Oates , 1889 ) is named for English zoologist Richard Bowdler Sharpe . This is a paler grey form found from western Siberia through to the Caucasus region and Iran .
C. c. capellanus ( P.L. Sclater , 1877 ) is known as the Mesopotamian crow or Iraqi pied crow . This distinctive form occurs in Iraq and southwestern Iran . It has very pale grey plumage which looks almost white from a distance . It is possibly distinct enough to be considered a separate species .
= = = Genetic difference from carrion crows = = =
The hooded crow ( Corvus cornix ) and carrion crow ( Corvus corone ) are two closely related species whose geographical distribution across Europe is illustrated in the accompanying diagram . It is believed that this distribution might have resulted from the glaciation cycles during the Pleistocene , which caused the parent population to split into isolates which subsequently re @-@ expanded their ranges when the climate warmed causing secondary contact . Poelstra and coworkers sequenced almost the entire genomes of both species in populations at varying distances from the contact zone to find that the two species were genetically identical , both in their DNA and in its expression ( in the form of RNA ) , except for the lack of expression of a small portion ( < 0 @.@ 28 % ) of the genome ( situated on avian chromosome 18 ) in the hooded crow , which imparts the lighter plumage colouration on its torso . Thus the two species can viably hybridize , and occasionally do so at the contact zone , but the all @-@ black carrion crows on the one side of the contact zone mate almost exclusively with other all @-@ black carrion crows , while the same occurs among the hooded crows on the other side of the contact zone . It is therefore clear that it is only the outward appearance of the two species that inhibits hybridization . The authors attribute this to assortative mating ( rather than to ecological selection ) , the advantage of which is not clear , and it would lead to the rapid appearance of streams of new lineages , and possibly even species , through mutual attraction between mutants . Unnikrishnan and Akhila propose , instead , that koinophilia is a more parsimonious explanation for the resistance to hybridization across the contact zone , despite the absence of physiological , anatomical or genetic barriers to such hybridization .
= = Description = =
Except for the head , throat , wings , tail , and thigh feathers , which are black and mostly glossy , the plumage is ash @-@ grey , the dark shafts giving it a streaky appearance . The bill and legs are black ; the iris dark brown . Only one moult occurs , in autumn , as in other crow species . The male is the larger bird , otherwise the sexes are alike . Their flight is slow and heavy and usually straight . Their length varies from 48 to 52 cm ( 19 to 20 in ) . When first hatched , the young are much blacker than the parents . Juveniles have duller plumage with bluish or greyish eyes and initially a red mouth . Wingspan is 98 cm ( 39 in ) and weight is on average 510 g .
The hooded crow , with its contrasted greys and blacks , cannot be confused with either the carrion crow or rook , but the kraa call notes of the two are almost indistinguishable .
= = Distribution = =
The hooded crow breeds in northern and eastern Europe , and closely allied forms inhabit southern Europe and western Asia . Where its range overlaps with carrion crow , as in northern Britain , Germany , Denmark , northern Italy , and Siberia , their hybrids are fertile . However , the hybrids are less well @-@ adapted than purebred birds , and this is one of the reasons this species was split from the carrion crow . Little or no interbreeding occurs in some areas , such as Iran and central Russia .
In the British Isles , the hooded crow breeds regularly in Scotland , the Isle of Man , and the Scottish Islands . It also breeds widely in Ireland . In autumn , some migratory birds arrive on the east coast of Britain . In the past , this was a more common visitor .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Diet = = =
The hooded crow is omnivorous , with a diet similar to that of the carrion crow , and is a constant scavenger . It drops molluscs and crabs to break them after the manner of the carrion crow , and an old Scottish name for empty sea urchin shells was " crow 's cups " . On coastal cliffs , the eggs of gulls , cormorants , and other birds are stolen when their owners are absent , and this crow will enter the burrow of the puffin to steal eggs . It will also feed on small mammals , scraps , smaller birds , and carrion . The crow has the habit of hiding food , especially meat or nuts , in places such as rain gutters , flower pots , or in the earth under bushes , to feed on it later , sometimes on the insects that have meanwhile developed on it . Other crows often watch if another one hides food and then search this place later when the other crow has left .
= = = Nesting = = =
Nesting occurs later in colder regions : mid @-@ May to mid @-@ June in northwest Russia , Shetland , and the Faroe Islands , and late February in the Persian Gulf region . In warmer parts of the British Isles , the clutch is laid in April . The bulky , stick nest is normally placed in a tall tree , but cliff ledges , old buildings , and pylons may be used . Nests are occasionally placed on or near the ground . The nest resembles that of the carrion crow , but on the coast , seaweed is often interwoven in the structure , and animal bones and wire are also frequently incorporated . The four to six brown @-@ speckled blue eggs are 4 @.@ 3 cm × 3 @.@ 0 cm ( 1 @.@ 7 in × 1 @.@ 2 in ) in size and weigh 19 @.@ 8 g ( 0 @.@ 70 oz ) , of which 6 % is shell . The altricial young are incubated for 17 – 19 days by the female alone , that is fed by the male . They fledge after 32 to 36 days . Incubating females have been reported to obtain most of their own food and later that for their young .
The typical lifespan is unknown , but that of the carrion crow is four years . The maximum recorded age for a hooded crow is 16 years , and 9 months .
This species is a secondary host of the parasitic great spotted cuckoo , the European magpie being the preferred host . However , in areas where the latter species is absent , such as Israel and Egypt , the hooded crow becomes the normal corvid host .
This species , like its relative , is seen regularly killed by farmers and on grouse estates . In County Cork , Ireland , the county 's gun clubs shot over 23 @,@ 000 hooded crows in two years in the early 1980s .
= = Status = =
The IUCN Red List does not distinguish the hooded crow from the carrion crow , but the two species together have an extensive range , estimated at 10 million km2 ( 3 @.@ 8 million mi2 ) , and a large population , including an estimated 14 to 34 million individuals in Europe alone . They are not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List ( i.e. , declining more than 30 % in ten years or three generations ) , so are evaluated as Least Concern . The carrion crow / hooded crow hybrid zone is slowly spreading northwest , but the hooded crow has on the order of three million territories in just Europe ( excluding Russia ) .
= = Cultural significance = =
In Celtic folklore , the bird appears on the shoulder of the dying Cú Chulainn , and could also be a manifestation of the Morrígan , the wife of Tethra , or the Cailleach . This idea has persisted , and the hooded crow is associated with fairies in the Scottish highlands and Ireland ; in the 18th century , Scottish shepherds would make offerings to them to keep them from attacking sheep . In Faroese folklore , a maiden would go out on Candlemas morn and throw a stone , then a bone , then a clump of turf at a hooded crow – if it flew over the sea , her husband would be a foreigner ; if it landed on a farm or house , she would marry a man from there , but if it stayed put , she would remain unmarried .
The old name of Royston crow originates from the days when this bird was a common winter visitor to southern England , the sheep fields around Royston , Hertfordshire , providing carcasses on which the birds could feed . The local newspaper , founded in 1855 , is called The Royston Crow , and the hooded crow is also featured on the crest of the North Hertfordshire District Council .
The hooded crow is one of the 37 Norwegian birds depicted in the Bird Room of the Royal Palace in Oslo . Jethro Tull mentions the hooded crow on the song " Jack Frost and the hooded crow " as a bonus track on the digitally remastered version of Broadsword and the Beast and on their The Christmas Album .
= Booze Cruise ( The Office ) =
" Booze Cruise " is the eleventh episode of the second season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's seventeenth episode overall . Written by Greg Daniels and directed by Ken Kwapis , the episode first aired in the United States on January 5 , 2006 on NBC . The episode featured Rob Riggle and Amy Adams as guest stars .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) brings the office on a booze cruise and plans on doing some " motivational " speaking . After he learns that the captain of the boat has other plans , a power struggle emerges . Meanwhile , Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) and Roy 's ( David Denman ) previously stagnant relationship blossoms , while Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) and Katy 's ( Amy Adams ) begins to falter .
The story for " Booze Cruise " was inspired by a friend of B. J. Novak 's who had gone on a booze cruise . Novak told Daniels about the trip , and Daniels then proceeded to write an episode about it . The episode featured the third and final appearance of Katy , portrayed by Amy Adams . The filming of the episode was a departure from the norm of the series ; filming took place on an actual boat and because of this , many cast members got sea sick . " Booze Cruise " received largely positive reviews from critics . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 4 @.@ 5 in the 18 – 49 demographic and was viewed by 8 @.@ 7 million viewers .
= = Plot = =
The Dunder Mifflin crew goes on a cruise on a Lake Wallenpaupack ship Princess — in January . Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) plans to use the cruise as both a party and a leadership training exercise . However , " Captain Jack " ( Rob Riggle ) keeps preventing him from giving a business lecture .
The captain puts Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) in charge of a prop wheel , which Dwight thinks is real . Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) , who has brought his girlfriend Katy ( Amy Adams ) on the cruise with him , and Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) share an awkward moment alone on the deck away from their significant others . Michael continually tries to take charge of the event by standing next to the captain and interrupting everything he says . After Michael falsely declares that the ship is sinking , sending the passengers into a panic and causing one passenger to grab a life vest and jump off the ship , the captain temporarily detains him by zip tying him to the railing on the deck outside .
Just before Roy talks to the captain , Michael asks Jim who he would save on a sinking ship . Jim covers up in saying that he would save the customer , but makes it clear afterwards that he would save the receptionist . He approaches Pam to perhaps tell her his feelings at the same time that Roy is hearing a war story from the captain . A drunken Roy Anderson ( David Denman ) is inspired to announce a date for his wedding with Pam , just before Jim can reach her . Jim is crushed and breaks up with Katy , realizing that he does not want to be with her . He confesses to Michael his feelings for Pam , which surprises Michael , who claims he has a " radar for things like that " . As Jim is seemingly ready to give up on Pam , Michael , in an uncharacteristically serious moment , encourages him to pursue her . Jim 's facial expression indicates that Michael 's endeavors to motivate him in some way might have actually succeeded . Afterwards , Michael finally informs Dwight the wheel he has been steering is not real . It is evident in deleted scenes that Jim , in giving his toast , intended to make an emotional speech about his close relationship with Pam , but is swiftly cut off by Dwight .
= = Production = =
" Booze Cruise " was written by Greg Daniels , making it his fourth writing credit , and his second season two credit , after " Halloween " earlier in the year . The episode was directed by Ken Kwapis , making it his sixth directing credit for the series . Greg Daniels referred to this episode as " our Scranton version of James Cameron 's Titanic . " The idea came from B. J. Novak because a friend of his went on a booze cruise . Novak told Daniels about the trip , and Daniels then proceeded to write an episode about it .
" Booze Cruise " featured the third and final appearance of Katy , portrayed by Amy Adams . Adams thoroughly enjoyed her work on the show . In an interview with Advocate.com , she said , " [ The Office ] was the best work experience . I loved that show and that cast so much . I don ’ t know if they believe me , but every time I see them I ’ m like , ' Oh my gosh , I ’ ll do anything to come back . ' "
Shooting for the episode was a departure from the norm of the series , due to the fact that filming was not on the Dunder Mifflin set . Furthermore , the episode was not filmed during the day , but rather during the night , from 6pm to 6am . Principal filming took place in Long Beach Harbor , California . Because the episode took place on an actual boat , many cast members got sea sick . Rainn Wilson got especially nauseated on the second night ; Jenna Fischer and David Denman felt nauseated on the last night of shooting . During the final sound mixing for the episode , Greg Daniels recalls yelling at the shot of Jim and Pam on deck . He noted that he had " seen it many , many times , but I was yelling , ' Do it , you idiot ! Kiss her ! ' "
= = Cultural references = =
During the conference room scene , Michael asks if anyone has seen the 1997 film Titanic . Pam and Jim pretend that they 've never heard of the movie , and Pam suggests that Michael is thinking of the 1990 movie The Hunt for Red October . Upon boarding , Michael soon stands at the front of the boat and yells , " I 'm the king of the world ! " in reference to the famous scene in Titanic .
When the employees are boarding the boat , Michael sings the " Ballad of Gilligan 's Island " , the theme from the 1964 television series Gilligan 's Island . Michael assigns the following roles : Pam is Mary Ann , Jim is The Professor , Katy is Ginger , Angela is Mrs. Howell , Kelly is a " native " , Stanley is one of the Harlem Globetrotters , Michael is The Skipper , and Dwight is Gilligan .
= = Reception = =
" Booze Cruise " originally aired on NBC in the United States on January 5 , 2006 . The episode received a 4 @.@ 5 rating / 11 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 4 @.@ 5 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 11 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . At the time , this was the best 18- 49 rating that the show had had . The episode was viewed by 8 @.@ 7 million viewers . Furthermore , the series retained 87 percent of its My Name is Earl lead @-@ in audience . An encore presentation of the episode , on June 27 , 2006 , received a 1 @.@ 8 / 6 rating and was viewed by over 4 @.@ 1 million viewers .
" Booze Cruise " received largely positive reviews from critics . M. Giant of Television Without Pity graded the episode with an " A " . Michael Sciannamea of TV Squad stated " This sitcom gets better every week " and that " What made this one quite good was that they didn 't rely on Dwight too much , although the bits with him ' driving ' the boat were good . " Monique Marcil of Zap2it said that the " 28 seconds of silence between co @-@ workers Jim and Pam capture all the awkwardness and longing of unspoken love better than any words could . And it 's these private moments caught on film by the unseen documentary crew that give this otherwise tart sitcom its sweetness . " John Krasinski stated that " Booze Cruise " included two of his favorite scenes to film : Jim 's conversation with Pam , and Jim 's conversation with Michael . He later called both of the shots " beautiful " and noted that it was " nothing short of an honor " to film them with Fischer and Carell , respectively . TV Fanatic reviewed several of the episodes quotes ; Steve Marsi rated Jim 's quote , " You know what ? I would save the receptionist . Just wanted to clear that up " a 3 out of 5 . Marsi also rated Jim and Michael 's conversation about Pam a 5 out of 5 .
= Cosas del Amor ( song ) =
" Cosas del Amor " ( " Things About Love " ) is a song by American recording artist Vikki Carr and Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Ana Gabriel . It was released as the lead single from Carr 's studio album Cosas del Amor ( 1991 ) . Written by Roberto Livi and Rudy Pérez , the song portrays the relationship between two friends and confidences between both due to marital problems of one of them .
The song became commercially successful when it reached the top of the Billboard Latin Songs chart , the first for Carr and the fifth number @-@ one single for Gabriel . " Cosas del Amor " has been widely covered by several artists including Ana Bárbara , Milly Quezada , Jenni Rivera , Olga Tañón , and Yuri , among others . The accompanying music video portrays Carr and Gabriel discussing the situation described in the song and witnessing a solar eclipse . The track earned awards such as a Lo Nuestro for Best Pop Song and the Single of the Year mention by the Radio y Música journal .
= = Background = =
" Cosas del Amor " was written by Roberto Livi and Rudy Pérez , performed by American singer Vikki Carr and included on the album of the same title , Carr 's fourteenth Spanish language studio album and thirty @-@ third overall . Carr was already a well known singer in the United States and the United Kingdom when she decided to record her first Spanish language album in 1972 , Vikki Carr , En Español . Thirteen years later Carr was awarded her first Grammy Award for Simplemente Mujer , an album recorded with mariachi and produced by Pedro Ramírez . Carr recorded Cosas del Amor under the guidance of Roberto Livi in 1991 , and was released a year after her duet album with Mexican singer Vicente Fernández which gave the singer her second top ten single in the Billboard Latin Songs chart with " Dos Corazones " ( " Two Hearts " ) peaking at number ten . The first single released was recorded in a duet with Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Ana Gabriel , who was also signed on Carr 's record label Sony Music . About singing in Spanish , Carr stated : " for business I 'm very American , but my heart is totally Latin . "
= = Chart performance and awards = =
The song debuted in the Billboard Top Latin Songs chart ( formerly Hot Latin Tracks ) chart at number 21 in the week of July 27 , 1991 , climbing to the top ten the following week . " Cosas del Amor " peaked at number @-@ one in August 31 , 1991 , replacing " Todo , Todo , Todo " by Mexican singer Daniela Romo and being succeeded ten weeks later by " Por Qué Será " by Venezuelan singer @-@ songwriter Rudy La Scala . During six consecutive weeks Ana Gabriel also held the runner @-@ up position on the chart with " Ahora " , the lead single from her studio album Mi México . " Cosas del Amor " ended 1991 as the fourth best performing Latin single of the year in the United States . The song became the fifth number @-@ one single for Gabriel following " Ay Amor " ( 1988 ) , " Simplemente Amigos " ( 1989 ) , " Quién Como Tú " and " Es Demasiado Tarde " ( both 1990 ) , and the first ( and to date only ) for Carr .
" Cosas del Amor " earned a Lo Nuestro Award for Pop Song of the Year and was named Single of the Year by the journal Radio y Música . For the parent album Carr received a Grammy Award for Best Latin Performance and in Venezuela was awarded the " Album of the Year " ( the ' Grammy ' equivalent of the country ) . The album also peaked at number @-@ one in Ecuador , Colombia , Costa Rica , Puerto Rico , the Billboard Latin Pop Albums in the United States , and Venezuela .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Cosas del Amor " was filmed in Cuernavaca , Morelos on July 11 , 1991 , and presents Carr arriving at a house where Gabriel is waiting for her . Upon entering the house , Gabriel begins to discuss the situation described in the song . The video is interspersed with scenes of both singers performing the song and some scenes where they witness a solar eclipse . The video concludes with Carr comforting Gabriel for her love situation . The video received a Billboard Music Award nomination for Latin Duo or Group Video of the Year .
= = Legacy and cover versions = =
In November 1999 , " Cosas del Amor " was labeled as one of the " hottest tracks " for Sony Discos in a list including the most successful songs released by the label since the launching of the Billboard Hot Latin Tracks chart in 1986 . The song was also included in the compilation album Free to Be created by Jaime Ikeda and released by Right Stuff Records in order to create an all inclusive musical collection targeting the homosexual demographic . Only four Spanish language recorded songs were added to the album : " Tres Deseos " and " Lo Que Son Las Cosas " by Ednita Nazario , " Un Amor Como el Mío " by Lunna , and " Cosas del Amor " . Argentinean duo Pimpinela recorded the song for their album Pimpinela ' 92 . Mexican singers Yuri and Ana Bárbara included their version on Yuri 's self @-@ titled album in 2004 . The song was performed live for the first time by the singers at the " AcaFest2005 " held in Acapulco , Mexico . José Feliciano and Rudy Pérez performed a duet on Feliciano 's album , José Feliciano y Amigos .
Puerto @-@ Rican American singer Olga Tañón recorded a cover version of the track on Éxitos en 2 Tiempos ( 2007 ) , the first album by Tañon to include covers of songs previously recorded by other artists . The song was performed in a duet with Dominican singer Milly Quezada for the pop version and with American singer Jenni Rivera for the Regional / Mexican version , and upon released as a single peaked at number 40 in the Billboard Latin Songs and at number 20 in the Latin Pop Songs chart , respectively . This version was nominated for Tropical Airplay Song of the Year , Female at the 2009 Latin Billboard Music Awards. which was ultimately won by Ivy Queen and " Dime " . Margarita Vargas " La Diosa de la Cumbia " ( " The Goddess of Cumbia " ) joined Mariana Seoane on a recording of " Cosas del Amor " included on Seoane 's fourth studio album Está de Fiesta ... Atrévete ! ! ! ( 2007 ) . Mexican singers María José and Edith Márquez recorded " Cosas del Amor " for José 's studio album Amante de lo Ajeno in 2009 . Carr was awarded the Latin Recording Academy Lifetime Achievement Award at the 9th Latin Grammy Awards in 2008 . Carr attended the ceremony and performed " Cosas del Amor " with Olga Tañón and Jenni Rivera , in a presentation described as " boring " by Carlos Reyes of the magazine Club Fonograma .
= South Jordan , Utah =
South Jordan is a city in the U.S. state of Utah . The city lies in the Salt Lake Valley between the 9 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) peaks of the Oquirrh Mountains and the 12 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) peaks of the Wasatch Mountains and is part of the Salt Lake City metropolitan area . The Jordan River flows through the middle of the valley and the city has a 3 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) section of the Jordan River Parkway that contains fishing ponds , trails , parks and natural habitat . Salt Lake County fair grounds and equestrian park , 67 @-@ acre ( 27 ha ) Oquirrh Lake and 27 other parks are located inside the city . As of the 2010 Census , its population was 50 @,@ 418 .
The city was founded 18 miles ( 29 km ) south of Salt Lake City along the banks of the Jordan River in 1859 by Mormon settlers . An agrarian town for most of its history , today it is a rapidly growing bedroom community of Salt Lake City . Kennecott Land , a land development company , has recently begun construction on the master @-@ planned Daybreak Community for the entire western half of South Jordan . Daybreak could potentially double South Jordan 's population . South Jordan is the first city in the world with two temples of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints ( Jordan River Utah Temple and Oquirrh Mountain Utah Temple ) . The city has two TRAX light rail stops , as well as one commuter rail stop on the FrontRunner .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ European = = =
The first known inhabitants were members of the Desert Archaic Culture who were nomadic hunter @-@ gatherers . From 400 A.D. to around 1350 A.D. , the Fremont people settled into villages and farmed corn and squash . Changes in climatic conditions to a cooler , drier period and the movement into the area of ancestors of the Ute , Paiute , and Shoshone , led to the disappearance of the Fremont people . When European settlers arrived , there were no permanent Native American settlements in the Salt Lake Valley , but the area bordered several tribes – the territory of the Northwestern Shoshone to the north , the Timpanogots band of the Utes to the south in Utah Valley , and the Goshutes to the west in Tooele Valley .
The only recorded trapper to lead a party through the area was Étienne Provost , a French Canadian . In October 1824 , Provost 's party was lured into an Indian camp somewhere along the Jordan River north of Utah Lake . The people responsible for the attack were planning revenge against Provost 's party for an earlier unexplained incident involving other trappers . Provost escaped , but his men were caught off @-@ guard and fifteen of them were killed .
= = = Early Mormon settlement = = =
On July 22 , 1847 , an advanced party of the first Mormon pioneers entered the valley and immediately began to irrigate land and explore the area with a view to establishing new settlements . Alexander Beckstead , a blacksmith from Ontario , Canada , moved his family to the West Jordan area in 1849 , and became the first of his trade in the south Salt Lake Valley . He helped dig the first ditch to divert water from the Jordan River , powering Archibald Gardner 's flour mill . In 1859 , Beckstead became the first settler of South Jordan by moving his family along the Jordan River where they lived in a dugout cut into the west bluffs above the river . The flood plain of the Jordan was level , and could be cleared for farming if a ditch was constructed to divert river water along the base of the west bluff . Beckstead and others created the 2 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) " Beckstead Ditch " , parts of which are still in use as of 2010 .
In 1863 , the South Jordan LDS Branch was organized as a branch of the West Jordan Ward , giving South Jordan its name . The Branch consisted of just nine families . A school was built in 1864 out of adobe and also served as the LDS Meetinghouse for the South Jordan Branch . As South Jordan grew , a new and larger building was constructed in 1873 on the east side of the site of the present @-@ day cemetery . It had an upper and lower entrance with a granite foundation using left @-@ over materials brought from the granite quarry at the mouth of Little Cottonwood Canyon . The upper story was made of oversized adobe bricks . The main hall had curtains which could be pulled to section off the hall for classes . The meetinghouse also served as the " ward " school when it was held during the fall and winter months . It came to be known as the " Mud Temple " , and was in use until 1908 .
In 1876 , work was completed on the South Jordan Canal which took water out of the Jordan River in Bluffdale and brought it above the river bluffs for the first time . As a result of the new canal , most of the families moved up away from the river onto the " flats " above the river which they could now irrigate . In 1881 , the Utah and Salt Lake Canal was completed . It runs parallels to the west side of today 's Redwood Road . With the completion of the canal system , greater acreage could be farmed , which led to the area 's population increasing .
= = = Twentieth century = = =
In the late 1890s , alfalfa hay was introduced and took the place of tougher native grasses which had been used up to that point for feed for livestock . In good years , alfalfa could produce three crops that were stored for winter . Sugar beets were introduced to South Jordan around 1910 . Farmers liked sugar beets because they could be sold for cash at the Utah @-@ Idaho Sugar Company factory in West Jordan . Sugar beet farming became so integral to the region , that the region 's high school ( Jordan High School ) mascot was named the " beetdigger " .
A big celebration was held on January 14 , 1914 , to commemorate the arrival of electrical power , the addition of a water tank and supply system for indoor pumping and a new park for South Jordan . By the 1930s , the area needed a water tank to store water for residents living further west . The only way to get a federal grant was to incorporate and become a city . Citizens voted to incorporate on November 8 , 1935 , and immediately issued bonds to obtain money for the water tank . The city was initially governed by a Town Board with responsibilities over parks , water and the cemetery . In 1978 , the city moved to a mayor @-@ council form of government and assumed local supervision of police , fire , road and building inspections from Salt Lake County .
One of the worst school bus accidents in United States history occurred on December 1 , 1938 . A bus loaded with 38 students from South Jordan , Riverton , and Bluffdale crossed in front of an oncoming train that was obscured by fog and snow . The bus was broadsided killing the bus driver and 23 students . The concern about bus safety from the South Jordan accident led to changes in state and eventually federal law mandating that buses stop and open the doors before proceeding into a railroad crossing . The same railroad crossing was the site of many other crashes in the following years with the last deadly crash occurring on December 31 , 1995 , when three teens died while crossing the tracks in their car . The crossing was finally closed , but not until crashes occurred in 1997 and 2002 .
In 1950 , Salt Lake County had 489 @,@ 000 acres ( 198 @,@ 000 ha ) devoted to farming . But by 1992 , due to increasing population , land devoted to farming had decreased to 108 @,@ 000 acres ( 44 @,@ 000 ha ) . As a result of this urbanization , South Jordan 's economy went from agrarian to being a bedroom community of Salt Lake City . Kennecott Land began a development in 2004 called Daybreak , which is a 4 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 1 @,@ 600 ha ) planned community that will contain more than 20 @,@ 000 homes and includes commercial and retail space . In 1981 , the LDS Jordan River Utah Temple was completed . In 2009 , the LDS Oquirrh Mountain Utah Temple was completed and became the second temple to be built in South Jordan . South Jordan is the first city in the world to have two LDS Temples , Oquirrh Mountain Utah Temple and the Jordan River Utah Temple , the second city being Provo , Utah .
= = Geography = =
According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 22 @.@ 1 square miles ( 57 km2 ) , of which , 0 @.@ 08 square miles ( 0 @.@ 21 km2 ) , 0 @.@ 34 percent , is water . South Jordan is located in the southwestern portion of the Salt Lake Valley . The city lies between the Oquirrh Mountains to the west , West Jordan to the north , the Jordan River and Sandy to the east , Draper to the southeast , Riverton to the south , and Herriman to the southwest .
The relative flatness of South Jordan is due to lacustrine sediments of a pleistocene lake called Lake Bonneville . Lake Bonneville existed from 75 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 000 years ago and its peak some 30 @,@ 000 years ago , the lake reached an elevation of 5 @,@ 200 feet ( 1 @,@ 600 m ) above sea level and had a surface area of 19 @,@ 800 square miles ( 51 @,@ 000 km2 ) . The elevation of South Jordan ranges from approximately 4 @,@ 300 feet ( 1 @,@ 300 m ) near the Jordan River in the east and rises gently to the foothills of the Oquirrh Mountains at 5 @,@ 200 feet ( 1 @,@ 600 m ) . A notable exception is a bluff at the western edge of the Daybreak Community which is an old sandbar of Lake Bonneville .
= = Demographics = =
As of the 2010 census , there were 50 @,@ 418 people residing in 14 @,@ 333 households . The population density was 2 @,@ 278 people per square mile ( 880 / km ² ) . There were 14 @,@ 943 housing units at an average density of 675 @.@ 3 per square mile ( 260 @.@ 8 / km ² ) . The racial makeup of the city was 91 @.@ 5 % White , 0 @.@ 2 % African American , 0 @.@ 2 % Native American , 2 @.@ 6 % Asian , 0 @.@ 9 % Pacific Islander , and 2 @.@ 4 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6 @.@ 0 % of the population . The racial makeup of Salt Lake County was 81 @.@ 2 % White , 1 @.@ 6 % African American , 0 @.@ 9 % Native American , 3 @.@ 1 % Asian , 1 @.@ 4 % Pacific Islander , and 1 @.@ 9 % from two or more races . Hispanic of any race was 16 @.@ 4 % . The racial makeup of Utah was 92 @.@ 9 % White , 1 @.@ 3 % African American , 1 @.@ 4 % Native American , 3 @.@ 3 % Asian , 1 @.@ 5 % Pacific Islander , and 3 @.@ 1 % from two or more races . Hispanic of any race was 17 @.@ 1 % .
There were 14 @,@ 433 households out of which 46 @.@ 8 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 76 @.@ 5 % were married couples living together , 6 @.@ 6 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 14 @.@ 1 % were non @-@ families . 11 @.@ 0 % of all households were made up of individuals and 4 @.@ 3 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 3 @.@ 83 compared to 2 @.@ 94 for Salt Lake County and 3 @.@ 03 for Utah .
In the city , the population was spread out with 37 @.@ 8 % under the age of 20 , 6 @.@ 0 % from 20 to 24 , 25 @.@ 3 % from 25 to 44 , 21 @.@ 7 % from 45 to 64 , and 7 @.@ 1 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 29 @.@ 9 years . For every 100 females there were 100 @.@ 4 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 97 @.@ 3 males .
The median income for a household in the city was $ 91 @,@ 199 , Salt Lake County was $ 58 @,@ 004 and Utah was $ 56 @,@ 330 . Males had a median income of $ 65 @,@ 722 versus $ 41 @,@ 171 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 28 @,@ 387 . About 1 @.@ 6 % of families and 2 @.@ 7 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 2 @.@ 7 % of those under age 18 and 2 @.@ 4 % of those age 65 or over . In Salt Lake County , 10 @.@ 3 % of the population were below the poverty line and 10 @.@ 8 % of the population in Utah was below the poverty line . Of those people 25 years and older in the city , 96 @.@ 8 % were high school graduates compared to 86 @.@ 8 % in Salt Lake County and 87 @.@ 7 % in Utah . Those attaining a college degree were 36 @.@ 4 % of South Jordan 's population .
There were 22 @,@ 368 people employed over the age of 16 with 17 @,@ 258 people working in the private sector , 2 @,@ 744 in the government sector , 1 @,@ 186 self @-@ employed and 32 unpaid family workers . The mean travel time to work of 23 @.@ 8 minutes . There were 4 @,@ 153 people employed in educational services , health care and social assistance . There were 2 @,@ 862 people employed in professional , scientific , management , administrative and waste management services . There were 2 @,@ 420 people employed in finance , insurance , real estate and rental and leasing . There were 2 @,@ 316 people employed in retail trade , 1 @,@ 633 in construction and 2 @,@ 050 in manufacturing .
= = = Crime = = =
For the year 2010 , the city had 27 violent crimes reported to law enforcement , and 1 @,@ 050 reports of property crimes . The violent crime rate was 48 per 100 @,@ 000 people compared to a national average of 404 and 213 for Utah . The property crime rate was 1 @,@ 858 per 100 @,@ 000 compared to a national rate of 2 @,@ 942 and 3 @,@ 180 for the State . The Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) defines violent offenses to include forcible rape , robbery , murder , non @-@ negligent manslaughter , and aggravated assault . Property crimes are defined to include arson , motor vehicle theft , larceny , and burglary .
Statistics published by the Utah Department of Public Safety 's Bureau of Criminal Identification showed a steady trend in the South Jordan crime rate between 2000 and 2008 . The rate for index crimes , a group comprising the combined violent offenses and property crimes stated above , was 2 @,@ 269 per 100 @,@ 000 in 2000 and 2 @,@ 277 per 100 @,@ 000 in 2008 . The 2008 rate for index crimes in Salt Lake County was 5 @,@ 290 per 100 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 529 per 100 @,@ 000 for the entire State of Utah .
In 2010 , South Jordan had a total of 57 total law enforcement employees for a rate of 1 @.@ 13 employees per 1 @,@ 000 residents . City police officers made a total of 910 arrests . Total crimes reported were 3 @,@ 810 . Total crimes contain 22 categories that include everything from murder , rape and assault to drug offenses , larceny and prostitution .
= = Parks and recreation = =
The city has 27 municipal parks and playgrounds ranging in size from 0 @.@ 39 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 16 ha ) Bolton Park in the north @-@ west part of the city to the 59 @-@ acre ( 24 ha ) Riverfront Park along the Jordan River and the 80 @-@ acre ( 32 ha ) City Park along Redwood Road . City Park includes baseball and softball fields , football , soccer , and lacrosse fields , volleyball courts , tennis courts and a skate park . Riverfront Park includes two fishing ponds stocked with rainbow trout and catfish by the Division of Wildlife Resources and 22 acres ( 8 @.@ 9 ha ) of natural habitat . Other recreational facilities owned by South Jordan City include the Aquatic and Fitness center , Community Center providing the senior programs , Mulligan 's two miniature golf and two nine @-@ hole executive golf cources and an outdoor ice skating rink next to City Hall .
Two trails meander through South Jordan . The Bingham Creek Trail starts in the northwest part of the city and travels 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) North @-@ East until it reaches the West Jordan border . A 3 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) section of the Jordan River Parkway trail runs through the city from northern edge of the city all the way to the southern edge . The trail has a combined bike and jogging path , plus an equestrian path .
Salt Lake County operates the 120 @-@ acre ( 49 ha ) Equestrian Park that sits adjacent to South Jordan City Park . The park grounds contain a horse racing track , a polo and dressage field , indoor arenas and stables . The Salt Lake County Fair is held every August at the park .
The 67 @-@ acre ( 27 ha ) Oquirrh Lake sits inside 137 acres ( 55 ha ) of park and wetlands located at the Daybreak Community . Recreational opportunities include fishing , sail boating , kayaking and canoeing . The lake has been stocked with trout , bigmouth bass , channel catfish , bluegill , and fathead minnows . Of the fish they catch , anglers can only keep trout . The lake and the surrounding park land are privately owned , but open to the public , with future plans to turn it over to South Jordan City . In addition to the lake , the Daybreak community includes 22 miles ( 35 km ) of trails , community gardens , tennis courts , basketball courts , pocket parks and community @-@ only swimming pools .
Privately owned , but open to the public , Glenmoor Golf course is inside city limits . Salt Lake County @-@ owned Mountain View Golf Course is 0 @.@ 3 miles ( 0 @.@ 48 km ) north in West Jordan and Sandy @-@ owned River Oaks Golf Course borders the Jordan River in Sandy .
= = Government = =
South Jordan has a council @-@ manager form of government . The council , the city 's legislative body , consists of five members and a mayor , each serving a four @-@ year term . The council sets policy , and the city manager oversees day @-@ to @-@ day operations . The current mayor is David L. Alvord . The city council meets the first and third Tuesdays of each month at 6 : 00 PM .
Mia Love , a Republican , represents South Jordan as part of Utah 's 4th congressional district of the United States House of Representatives . Aaron Osmond , a Republican , represents South Jordan as part of the 10th Utah Senate District in the Utah Senate and has announced he will step down in December , 2015 . Rich Cunningham , a Republican , represents South Jordan as part of 50th Utah House District of the Utah House of Representatives and is hoping to replace Osmond in the Senate .
= = Education = =
South Jordan lies within Jordan School District . The district has six elementary schools , two middle schools ( South Jordan Middle and Elk Ridge Middle ) and four high schools ( Bingham High School , Herriman High School , Itineris Early College High School and Valley High ( an alternative school ) ) serving the students of South Jordan . In addition , there is Paradigm public charter high school , Early Light Academy public charter elementary and three private schools ( American Heritage , Mountain Heritage Academy and Stillwater Academy ) .
Salt Lake Community College 's Jordan Campus is located on the boundary between of South Jordan and West Jordan . The Jordan Campus offers general education classes as well as all of the college 's health science courses . Jordan School District 's Applied Technology Center and Itineris Early College High School are also located on campus . Salt Lake Community College 's Miller Campus is located in Sandy next to the border with South Jordan and is home to the college 's Culinary Institute , Miller Business Resource Center for corporate training programs , and training facilities for the Utah Department of Public Safety . The private university in South Jordan is the Roseman University of Health Sciences , which houses schools of pharmacy , dentistry , and an online accelerated nursing program .
= = Transportation = =
Interstate 15 , a twelve @-@ lane freeway , is located on the eastern edge of the city and provides two interchanges inside city limits at 10600 South and 11400 South . Bangerter Highway ( State Route 154 ) , a six @-@ lane expressway , traverses the center of the city with interchanges at 9800 South , 10400 South and 11400 South . The Mountain View Corridor , an eventual ten @-@ lane freeway , is located on the western edge of the Daybreak Community .
South Jordan is served by the Utah Transit Authority ( UTA ) bus system and UTA 's TRAX light rail Red Line . The Red Line connects the TRAX line running to downtown Salt Lake City and the University of Utah . Two TRAX stations , with park and ride lots , are located inside the Daybreak Community . The Daybreak North Station is located at approximately 10600 South and has 400 shared park and ride spaces . The Daybreak South Station is located at 11400 South and has 600 park and ride spaces . Two other stations are located inside West Jordan at the city boundary with South Jordan , the 5600 West Station and the 4800 West Station . The travel time between the Daybreak South Station to downtown Salt Lake City is approximately 60 minutes .
UTA 's FrontRunner commuter rail system has a station at South Jordan 's eastern edge at 10200 South . The FrontRunner extends north to Pleasant View and south to Provo .
= = Infrastructure = =
Electric service to South Jordan residents is provided by Rocky Mountain Power . Natural gas service is provided by Questar Corporation . Qwest Communications handles local telephone service ; long @-@ distance service is available from several providers . Comcast and Qwest both offer high @-@ speed Internet connections .
South Jordan city owns the water distribution system . Drinking water is provided by Jordan Valley Water Conservancy District . Secondary water , a non @-@ potable water used for landscaping , is provided from the canals running through the city . South Valley Sewer District owns and bills for the sewer system . South Jordan City contracts out to Allied Waste Industries for curbside pickup of household garbage ; recyclables are picked up once a week .
The Intermountain Riverton Hospital , owned by Intermountain Healthcare , is a 58 @-@ bed , full @-@ service hospital in Riverton that also includes a satellite facility for Primary Children 's Medical Center . Jordan Valley Medical Center , owned by Iasis Healthcare , is a 183 @-@ bed , full @-@ service hospital located in West Jordan .
= = Economy = =
= = = Principal employers = = =
According to South Jordan 's 2015 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report , the principal employers in the city are :
= = Notable people = =
Current resident Apolo Anton Ohno was a short track speed skating athlete . Ohno is the most decorated American Winter Olympic athlete of all time with eight medals . Current resident Edward J. Fraughton is a sculptor of western themes and inventor . Fraughton invented technology used in Automatic dependent surveillance @-@ broadcast ( ADS @-@ B ) . ADS @-@ B is used for tracking and finding aircraft positions using satellites . Nfl player Star Lotulelei also lives in south Jordan . Keven Curtis is a former resident who , as of 2010 , is a wide receiver for the NFL Kansas City Chiefs . Curtis graduated from Bingham High School where he played football and basketball . Denise Parker is a former resident who is a three time Summer Olympic competitor in Archery . Parker was the youngest member of the 1988 U.S Summer Olympic team at age 14 where she won a bronze medal . As of 2010 , Parker is Chief Executive Officer for USA Archery , the national governing body for the sport of archery .
Current resident Samantha Gordon is a girl football player whose highlight video of her football season was viewed 5 million times in just three days . She is the first female football player to make the cover of the Wheaties box . She had been interviewed on Good Morning America , ESPN 's Sports Center , Katie Couric , Conan O 'Brien , Steve Harvey , Fox and friends , and more . Sam was also in a NFL commercial and a Super Bowl commercial and was invited to the Super Bowl by NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell . In South Jordan December 18 is Sam Gordon Day .
= Subwoofer =
A subwoofer ( or sub ) is a woofer , or a complete loudspeaker , which is dedicated to the reproduction of low @-@ pitched audio frequencies known as bass . The typical frequency range for a subwoofer is about 20 – 60 Hz for consumer products , below 100 Hz for professional live sound , and below 80 Hz in THX @-@ approved systems . Subwoofers are intended to augment the low frequency range of loudspeakers covering higher frequency bands .
Subwoofers are made up of one or more woofers mounted in a loudspeaker enclosure — often made of wood — capable of withstanding air pressure while resisting deformation . Subwoofer enclosures come in a variety of designs , including bass reflex ( with a port or passive radiator in the enclosure ) , infinite baffle , horn @-@ loaded , and bandpass designs , representing unique tradeoffs with respect to efficiency , bandwidth , size and cost . Passive subwoofers have a subwoofer driver and enclosure and they are powered by an external amplifier . Active subwoofers include a built @-@ in amplifier .
The first subwoofers were developed in the 1960s to add bass response to home stereo systems . Subwoofers came into greater popular consciousness in the 1970s with the introduction of Sensurround in movies such as Earthquake , which produced loud low @-@ frequency sounds through large subwoofers . With the advent of the compact cassette and the compact disc in the 1980s , the easy reproduction of deep and loud bass was no longer limited by the ability of a phonograph record stylus to track a groove , and producers could add more low frequency content to recordings . As well , during the 1990s , DVDs were increasingly recorded with " surround sound " processes that included a Low @-@ frequency effects ( LFE ) channel , which could be heard using the subwoofer in home theater systems . During the 1990s , subwoofers also became increasingly popular in home stereo systems , custom car audio installations , and in PA systems . By the 2000s , subwoofers became almost universal in sound reinforcement systems in nightclubs and concert venues .
= = History = =
In September 1964 Raymon Dones , of El Cerrito , CA , received a US Patent ( numbered US3150739 ) which was the first for a subwoofer specifically designed to omni @-@ directionally augment the low frequency range of modern stereo systems . Able to reproduce distortion @-@ free low frequencies down to 15 cycles per second , a specific objective of Dones ’ invention was to provide portable sound enclosures which provide for high fidelity reproduction of @-@ low frequency sound waves without giving an audible indication of the portion of the room from which they emanate . Dones ' loudspeaker was marketed in the US under the trade name " The Octavium " from the early 60s to the mid @-@ 1970s . The Octavium was utilized by several recording artists of that era , most notably the Grateful Dead , bassist Monk Montgomery , bassist Nathan East , and the Pointer Sisters . The Octavium speaker and Dones ' subwoofer technology was also utilized , in a few select theaters , to reproduce low pitch frequencies for the 1974 blockbuster movie " Earthquake " . During the late 1960s Dones ’ Octavium was favorably reviewed by audiophile publications including Hi @-@ Fi News and Audio Magazine .
Another early subwoofer enclosure made for home and studio use was the separate bass speaker for the Servo Statik 1 , by New Technology Enterprises . Designed as a prototype in 1966 by physicist Arnold Nudell and airline pilot Cary Christie in Nudell 's garage , the design used a second winding around a custom Cerwin Vega 18 @-@ inch ( 45 cm ) driver to provide servo control information to the amplifier , and it was offered for sale at $ 1795 , some 40 % more expensive than any other complete loudspeaker listed at Stereo Review . In 1968 , the two found outside investment and reorganized as Infinity . The subwoofer was reviewed positively in Stereophile magazine 's Winter 1968 issue as the SS @-@ 1 by Infinity . The SS @-@ 1 was reviewed very highly in 1970 by High Fidelity magazine .
One of the first subwoofers was developed during the late 1960s by Ken Kreisel , the former president of the Miller & Kreisel Sound Corporation in Los Angeles . When Kreisel 's business partner , Jonas Miller , who owned a high @-@ end audio store in Los Angeles , told Kreisel that some purchasers of the store 's high @-@ end electrostatic speakers had complained about a lack of bass response in the electrostatics , Kreisel designed a powered woofer that would reproduce only those frequencies that were too low for the electrostatic speakers to convey . Infinity 's full range electrostatic speaker system that was developed during the 1960s also used a woofer to cover the lower frequency range that its electrostatic arrays did not handle adequately .
The first use of a subwoofer in a recording session was in 1973 for mixing the Steely Dan album Pretzel Logic when recording engineer Roger Nichols arranged for Kreisel to bring a prototype of his subwoofer to Village Recorders . Further design modifications were made by Kreisel over the next ten years , and in the 1970s and 1980s by engineer John P. D 'Arcy ; record producer Daniel Levitin served as a consultant and " golden ears " for the design of the crossover network ( used to partition the frequency spectrum so that the subwoofer would not attempt to reproduce frequencies too high for its effective range , and so that the main speakers would not need to handle frequencies too low for their effective range ) .
Subwoofers received a great deal of publicity in 1974 with the movie Earthquake which was released in Sensurround . Initially installed in 17 U.S. theaters , the Sensurround system used large subwoofers which were driven by racks of 500 watt amplifiers which were triggered by control tones printed on one of the audio tracks on the film . Four of the subwoofers were positioned in front of the audience under ( or behind ) the film screen and two more were placed together at the rear of the audience on a platform . Powerful noise energy in the range of 17 Hz to 120 Hz was generated at the level of 110 – 120 decibels of sound pressure level , abbreviated dB ( SPL ) . The new low frequency entertainment method helped the film become a box office success . More Sensurround systems were assembled and installed . By 1976 there were almost 300 Sensurround systems leapfrogging through select theaters . Other films to use the effect include the WW II naval battle epic Midway in 1976 and Rollercoaster in 1977 . Deep @-@ Bass speakers were once an exotic commodity and are now much more popular with different sizes and capabilities of sound output .
For owners of 33 rpm LPs and 45 singles , loud and deep bass was limited by the ability of the phonograph record stylus to track the groove . Some hi @-@ fi aficionados solved the problem by using reel @-@ to @-@ reel tape players which were capable of delivering accurate , naturally deep bass from acoustic sources , or synthetic bass not found in nature . With the popular introduction of the compact cassette and the CD , it became possible to add more low frequency content to recordings , and satisfy a larger number of consumers . Home subwoofers grew in popularity , as they were easy to add to existing multimedia speaker setups and they were easy to position or hide .
= = Construction and features = =
= = = Loudspeaker and enclosure design = = =
Subwoofers use speaker drivers ( woofers ) typically between 8 " ( 20 cm ) and 21 " ( 53 cm ) in diameter . Some uncommon subwoofers use larger drivers , and single prototype subwoofers as large as 60 " ( 152 cm ) have been fabricated . On the smaller end of the spectrum , subwoofer drivers as small as 4 " ( 10 cm ) may be used , depending on the design of the loudspeaker enclosure , the desired sound pressure level , the lowest frequency targeted and the level of permitted distortion . The most common subwoofer driver sizes used for sound reinforcement are 10 " , 12 " , 15 " and 18 " models ( 25 cm , 30 cm , 40 cm , and 45 cm respectively ) . The largest available sound reinforcement subwoofers , 21 " ( 53 cm ) drivers , are less commonly seen .
The efficiency of a speaker driver is given by :
<formula>
Where the variables are Thiele / Small parameters . Deep low frequency extension is a common goal for a subwoofer and small box volumes are also considered desirable . Hofmann 's Iron Law therefore mandates low efficiency under those constraints , and indeed most subwoofers require considerable power , much more than other individual drivers .
So for the example of a sealed speaker box , the box volume to achieve a given Qts is proportional to Vas :
<formula> Where : <formula>
Therefore , a decrease in box volume and the same F3 will decrease the efficiency of the sub woofer . Similarly the F3 of a speaker is proportional to Fs :
<formula>
As the efficiency is proportional to Fs3 , small improvements in low frequency extension with the same driver and box volume will result in very significant reductions in efficiency . For these reasons , subwoofers are typically very inefficient at converting electrical energy into sound energy . This combination of factors accounts for the higher power output of subwoofer amplifiers , and the requirement for greater power handling for subwoofer drivers . Enclosure variations ( e.g. , bass reflex designs ) are sometimes used for subwoofers to increase the efficiency of the driver / enclosure system , helping to reduce the amplifier power requirement .
Subwoofers have been designed using a number of enclosure approaches : bass reflex , acoustic suspension , infinite baffle , horn loaded , tapped horn , transmission line and bandpass . Each enclosure type has advantages and disadvantages in efficiency increase , bass extension , cabinet size , distortion , and cost . Subwoofers are typically constructed by mounting one or more woofers in a cabinet of medium @-@ density fibreboard ( MDF ) , oriented strand board ( OSB ) , plywood , fiberglass , aluminum or other stiff materials . Because of the high air pressure they produce in the cabinet , subwoofer enclosures often require internal bracing to distribute the resulting forces .
The smallest subwoofers are typically those designed for desktop multimedia systems . The largest common subwoofer enclosures are those used for concert sound reinforcement systems or dance club sound systems . An example of a large concert subwoofer enclosure is the 1980s @-@ era ElectroVoice MT @-@ 4 " Bass Cube " system , which used four 18 " ( 45 cm ) drivers . An example of a subwoofer that uses a bass horn is the Bassmaxx B @-@ Two , which loads an 18 " ( 45 cm ) driver onto an 11 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) long folded horn . Folded horn @-@ type subwoofers can typically produce a deeper range with greater efficiency than the same driver in an enclosure that lacks a horn . Some experimental fixed @-@ installation subwoofer horns have been constructed using brick and concrete to produce a very long horn that allows a very deep sub @-@ bass extension .
Subwoofer output level can be increased by increasing cone surface area or by increasing cone excursion . Since large drivers require undesirably large cabinets , most subwoofer drivers have large excursions . Unfortunately , high excursion , at high power levels , tends to produce more distortion from inherent mechanical and magnetic effects in electro @-@ dynamic drivers ( the most common sort ) . The conflict between assorted goals can never be fully resolved ; subwoofer designs are necessarily compromises . Hofmans 's Iron Law ( the efficiency of a woofer system is directly proportional to its cabinet volume and to the cube of its cutoff frequency ) applies to subwoofers just as to all loudspeakers .
= = = Frequency range and frequency response = = =
The frequency response specification of a speaker describes the range of frequencies or musical tones a speaker can reproduce , measured in hertz ( Hz ) . The typical frequency range for a subwoofer is between 20 – 200 Hz . Professional concert sound system subwoofers typically operate below 100 Hz , and THX @-@ approved systems operate below 80 Hz . Subwoofers vary in terms of the range of pitches that they can reproduce , depending on a number of factors such as the size of the cabinet and the construction and design of the enclosure and driver ( s ) . Specifications of frequency response depend wholly for relevance on an accompanying amplitude value — measurements taken with a wider amplitude tolerance will give any loudspeaker a wider frequency response . For example , the JBL 4688 TCB Subwoofer System , a now @-@ discontinued system which was designed for movie theaters , had a frequency response of 23 – 350 Hz when measured within a 10 @-@ decibel boundary ( 0 dB to -10 dB ) and a narrower frequency response of 28 – 120 Hz when measured within a six @-@ decibel boundary ( ± 3 dB ) .
Subwoofers also vary in regard to the sound pressure levels achievable and the distortion levels they can produce over their range . Some subwoofers , such as " The Abyss " by MartinLogan for example can reproduce pitches down to around 18 Hz ( which is about the pitch of the lowest rumbling notes on a huge pipe organ with 32 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) -16 Hz @-@ bass pipes ) to 120 Hz ( ± 3 dB ) . Nevertheless , even though the Abyss subwoofer can go down to 18 Hz , its lowest frequency and maximum SPL with a limit of 10 % distortion is 35 @.@ 5 Hz and 79 @.@ 8 dB at 2 meters . This means that a person choosing a subwoofer needs to consider more than just the lowest pitch that the sub can reproduce .
= = = Amplification = = =
'Active subwoofers ' include their own dedicated amplifiers within the cabinet . Some also include user @-@ adjustable equalization that allows boosted or reduced output at particular frequencies ; these vary from a simple " boost " switch , to fully parametric equalizers meant for detailed speaker and room correction . Some such systems are even supplied with a calibrated microphone to measure the subwoofer 's in @-@ room response , so the automatic equalizer can correct the combination of subwoofer , subwoofer location , and room response to minimize effects of room modes and improve low frequency performance .
'Passive subwoofers ' have a subwoofer driver and enclosure , but they do not include an amplifier . They sometimes incorporate internal passive crossovers , with the filter frequency determined at the factory . These are generally used with third @-@ party power amplifiers , taking their inputs from active crossovers earlier in the signal chain . Inexpensive Home Theatre in a Box packages often come with a passive subwoofer cabinet that is amplified by the multi @-@ channel amplifier . While few high @-@ end home @-@ theater systems use passive subwoofers , this format is still popular in the professional sound industry .
= = = Equalization = = =
Equalization can be used to adjust the in @-@ room response of a subwoofer system . Designers of active subwoofers sometimes include a degree of corrective equalization to compensate for known performance issues ( e.g. , a steeper than desired low end roll @-@ off rate ) . In addition , many amplifiers include an adjustable low @-@ pass filter , which prevents undesired higher frequencies from reaching the subwoofer driver . For example , if a listener 's main speakers are usable down to 80 Hz , then the subwoofer filter can be set so the subwoofer only works below 80 . Typical filters involve some overlap in frequency ranges ; a steep filter is not generally desired for subwoofers . The crossover section may also include a high @-@ pass " infrasonic " or " subsonic " filter which prevents the subwoofer driver from attempting to reproduce frequencies below its safe capabilities .
Some systems use parametric equalization in an attempt to correct for room frequency response irregularities . Equalization is often unable to achieve flat frequency response at all listening locations in part because of the resonance ( i.e. , standing wave ) patterns at low frequencies in nearly all rooms . Careful positioning of the subwoofer within the room can also help flatten the frequency response . Multiple subwoofers can manage a flatter general response since they can often be arranged to excite room modes more evenly than a single subwoofer , allowing equalization to be more effective .
= = = Phase control = = =
Changing the relative phase of the subwoofer with respect to the woofers in other speakers may or may not help to minimize unwanted destructive acoustic interference in the frequency region covered by both subwoofer and main speakers . It may not help at all frequencies , and may create further problems with frequency response , but is even so generally provided as an adjustment for subwoofer amplifiers . Phase control circuits may be a simple polarity reversal switch or a more complex continuously variable circuits .
Continuously variable phase control circuits are common in subwoofer amplifiers , and may be found in crossovers and as do @-@ it @-@ yourself electronics projects . Phase controls allow the listener to change the arrival time of the subwoofer sound waves relative to the same frequencies from the main speakers ( i.e. , at and around the crossover point to the subwoofer ) . A similar effect can be achieved with the delay control on many home theater receivers . The subwoofer phase control found on many subwoofer amplifiers is actually a polarity inversion switch . It allows users to reverse the polarity of the subwoofer relative to the audio signal it is being given . This type of control allows the subwoofer to either be in phase with the source signal , or 180 degrees out of phase .
The subwoofer phase can still be changed by moving the subwoofer closer to or further from the listening position , however this may not be always practical .
= = = Servo subwoofers = = =
Some active subwoofers use a servo feedback mechanism based on cone movement which modifies the signal sent to the voice coil . The servo feedback signal is derived from a comparison of the input signal to the amplifier versus the actual motion of the cone . The usual source of the feedback signal is a few turns of voice coil attached to the cone or a microchip @-@ based accelerometer placed on the cone itself . An advantage of a well @-@ implemented servo subwoofer design is reduced distortion making smaller enclosure sizes possible . The primary disadvantages are cost and complexity .
Servo controlled subwoofers are not the same as Servodrive subwoofers whose primary mechanism of sound reproduction avoids the normal voice coil and magnet combination in favor of a high @-@ speed belt @-@ driven servomotor . The Servodrive design increases output power , reduces harmonic distortion and virtually eliminates the loss of loudspeaker output that results from an increase in voice coil impedance due to overheating of the voice coil ( called power compression . ) This feature allows high power operation for extended periods of time . Intersonics was nominated for a TEC Award for its Servo Drive Loudspeaker ( SDL ) design in 1986 and for the Bass Tech 7 model in 1990 .
= = Applications = =
= = = Home audio = = =
The use of a subwoofer augments the bass capability of the main speakers , and allows them to be smaller without sacrificing low frequency capability . A subwoofer does not necessarily provide superior bass performance in comparison to large conventional loudspeakers on ordinary music recordings due to the typical lack of very low frequency content on such sources . However , there are recordings with substantial low frequency content that most conventional loudspeakers are ill @-@ equipped to handle without the help of a subwoofer , especially at high playback levels , such as music for pipe organs with 32 ' ( 9 @.@ 75 meter ) bass pipes ( 16 Hz ) , very large bass drums on symphony orchestra recordings and electronic music with extremely low synth bass parts , such as bass tests or bass songs .
Frequencies which are sufficiently low are not easily localized by humans , hence many stereo and multichannel audio systems feature only one subwoofer channel and a single subwoofer can be placed off @-@ center without affecting the perceived sound stage , since the sound produced will be difficult to localize . The intention in a system with a subwoofer is often to use small main speakers ( of which there are two for stereo and five or more for surround sound or movie tracks ) and to hide the subwoofer elsewhere ( e.g. behind furniture or under a table ) , or to augment an existing speaker to save it from having to handle woofer @-@ destroying low frequencies at high levels . This effect is possible only if the subwoofer is restricted to quite low frequencies , usually taken to , say , 100 Hz and below — still less localization is possible if restricted to even lower maximum frequencies . Higher upper limits for the subwoofer ( e.g. , 125 Hz ) are much more easily localized , making a single subwoofer impractical .
Some users add a subwoofer because high levels of low bass are desired , even beyond what is in the original recording , as in the case of house music enthusiasts . Thus , subwoofers may be part of a package that includes satellite speakers , may be purchased separately , or may be built into the same cabinet as a conventional speaker system . For instance , some floor standing tower speakers include a subwoofer driver in the lower portion of the same cabinet . Physical separation of subwoofer and " satellite " speakers not only allows placement in an inconspicuous location , but since sub @-@ bass frequencies are particularly sensitive to room location ( due to room resonances and reverberation ' modes ' ) , the best position for the subwoofer is not likely to be where the " satellite " speakers are located .
For greatest efficiency and best coupling to the room 's air volume , subwoofers can be placed in a corner of the room , far from large room openings , and closer to the listener . This is possible since low bass frequencies have a long wavelength ; hence there is little difference between the information reaching a listener 's left and right ears , and so they cannot be readily localized . All low frequency information is sent to the subwoofer . However , unless the sound tracks have been carefully mixed for a single subwoofer channel , it 's possible to have some cancellation of low frequencies if bass information in one channel is out of phase with another .
The physically separate subwoofer / satellite arrangement has been popularized by multimedia speaker systems such as Bose Acoustimass Home Entertainment Systems , Polk Audio RM2008 Series and Klipsch Audio Technologies ProMedia , among many others . Low @-@ cost " home theater in a box " systems advertise their integration and simplicity .
Particularly among low cost " Home Theater in a Box " systems and with " boom boxes " , however , inclusion of a subwoofer may be little more than a marketing device . It is unlikely that a small woofer in an inexpensively @-@ built compact plastic cabinet will have better bass performance than well @-@ designed conventional ( and typically larger ) speakers in a plywood or MDF cabinet . Mere use of the term " subwoofer " is no guarantee of good or extended bass performance . Many multimedia " subwoofers " might better be termed " bass drivers " as they are too small to produce deep bass .
Further , poorly designed systems often leave everything below about 120 Hz ( or even higher ) to the subwoofer , meaning that the subwoofer handles frequencies which the ear can use for sound source localization , thus introducing an undesirable subwoofer " localization effect " . This is usually due to poor crossover designs or choices ( too high crossover point or insufficient crossover slope ) used in many computer and home theater systems ; localization also comes from port noise and from typically large amounts of harmonic distortion in the subwoofer design . Home subwoofers sold individually usually include crossover circuitry to assist integration into an existing system .
= = = Car audio = = =
Automobiles are not well suited for the " hidden " subwoofer approach due to space limitations in the passenger compartments . It is not possible , in most circumstances , to fit such large drivers and enclosures into doors or dashboards , so subwoofers are installed in the trunk or back seat space . Some car audio enthusiasts compete to produce very high sound pressure levels in the confines of their vehicle 's cabin ; sometimes dangerously high . The " SPL wars " have drawn much attention to subwoofers in general , but subjective competitions in sound quality ( " SQ " ) have not gained equivalent popularity . Top SPL cars are not able to play normal music , or perhaps even to drive normally as they are designed solely for competition . Many non @-@ competition subwoofers are also capable of generating high levels in cars due to the small volume of a typical car interior . High sound levels can cause hearing loss and tinnitus if one is exposed to them for an extended period of time .
In the 2000s , several car audio manufacturers have produced subwoofers using non @-@ circular shapes from manufacturers including Boston Acoustic , Kicker , Sony , Bazooka , and X @-@ Tant . These shapes typically carry some sort of distortion penalties . In situations of limited mounting space they provide a greater cone area and assuming all other variables are constant , greater maximum output . An important factor in the " square sub vs round sub " argument is the effects of the enclosure used . In a sealed enclosure , the maximum displacement is determined by
<formula>
where
Vd stands for volume of displacement ( in m3 )
xmax to the amount of linear excursion the speaker is mechanically capable of ( in m )
Sd to the cone area of the sub woofer ( in m2 ) .
These are some of the Thiele / Small parameters which can either be measured or found with the driver specifications .
= = = Cinema sound = = =
After the introduction of Sensurround , movie theater owners began installing permanent subwoofer systems . Dolby Stereo 70 mm Six Track was a six channel film sound format introduced in 1976 that used two subwoofer channels for stereo reproduction of low frequencies . In 1981 , Altec introduced a dedicated cinema subwoofer model tuned to around 20 Hz : the 8182 . Starting in 1983 , THX certification of the cinema sound experience quantified the parameters of good audio for watching films , including requirements for subwoofer performance levels and enough isolation from outside sounds so that noise did not interfere with the listening experience . This helped provide guidelines for multiplex cinema owners who wanted to isolate each individual cinema from its neighbors , even as louder subwoofers were making isolation more difficult . Specific cinema subwoofer models appeared from JBL , Electro @-@ Voice , Eastern Acoustic Works , Kintek , Meyer Sound Laboratories and BGW Systems in the early 1990s . In 1992 , Dolby Digital 's six @-@ channel film sound format incorporated a single LFE channel , the " point one " in 5 @.@ 1 surround sound .
Tom Horral , a Boston @-@ based acoustician , blames complaints about modern movies being too loud on subwoofers . He says that before subwoofers made it possible to have loud , relatively undistorted bass , movie sound levels were limited by the distortion in less capable systems at low frequency and high levels .
= = = Sound reinforcement = = =
Professional audio subwoofers used in rock concerts in stadiums , DJ performances at EDM festivals and similar events must be capable of very high output levels with low distortion . This is reflected in the design attention given in recent years to the subwoofer applications for sound reinforcement , public address systems , dance club systems and concert systems . Consumer applications ( as in home use ) are considerably less demanding due to much smaller listening space and lower playback levels . Subwoofers are now almost universal in professional sound applications such as live concert sound , churches , nightclubs , and theme parks . Movie theatres certified to the THX standard for playback always include high capability subwoofers . Some professional applications require subwoofers designed for very high sound levels , using multiple 12 " , 15 " , 18 " or 21 " drivers ( 30 cm , 40 cm , 45 cm , 53 cm respectively ) . Drivers as small as 10 " ( 25 cm ) are occasionally used , generally in horn loaded enclosures .
The number of subwoofer enclosures used in a concert depends on a number of factors , including the size of the venue , whether it is indoors or outdoors , the amount of low @-@ frequency content in the band 's sound , the desired volume of the concert , and the design and construction of the enclosures ( e.g. , direct @-@ radiating versus horn @-@ loaded . A small bar may use a single direct @-@ radiating 15 @-@ inch ( 40 cm ) sub cabinet . A large dance club may have a row of four or five twin 18 @-@ inch ( 45 cm ) subwoofer cabinets , or more ) . In the largest stadium venues , there may be a very large number of subwoofer enclosures . For example , the 2009 – 2010 U2 360 ° Tour uses 24 Clair Brothers BT @-@ 218 subwoofers ( a double 18 " ( 45 cm ) box ) around the perimeter of the central circular stage , and 72 proprietary Clair Brothers cardioid S4 subwoofers placed underneath the ring @-@ shaped " B " stage which encircles the central main stage .
The main speakers may be ' flown ' from the ceiling of a venue on chain hoists , and ' flying points ' ( i.e. , attachment points ) are built into many professional loudspeaker enclosures . Subwoofers can be flown or stacked on the ground near the stage . There can be more than 50 double @-@ 18 @-@ inch ( 45 cm ) cabinets in a typical concert system . Just as consumer subwoofer enclosures can be made of Medium @-@ density fibreboard ( MDF ) , Oriented strand board ( OSB ) , plywood , plastic or other dense material , professional subwoofer enclosures can be built from the same materials . MDF is commonly used to construct subwoofers for permanent installations as its density is relatively high and weatherproofing is not a concern . Other permanent installation subwoofers have used very thick plywood : the Altec 8182 ( 1981 ) used 7 @-@ ply 28 mm birch @-@ faced oak plywood . Touring subwoofers are typically built from 18 – 20 mm thick void @-@ free Baltic birch ( Betula pendula or Betula pubescens ) plywood from Finland , Estonia or Russia ; such plywood affords greater strength for frequently transported enclosures . Not naturally weatherproof , Baltic birch is coated with carpet , thick paint or spray @-@ on truck bedliner to give the subwoofer enclosures greater durability .
Touring subwoofer cabinets are typically designed with features that facilitate moving the enclosure ( e.g. , wheels , a " towel bar " handle and recessed handles ) , a protective grill for the speaker ( in direct radiating @-@ style cabinets ) , metal or plastic protection for the cabinets to protect the finish as the cabinets are being slid one on top of another , and hardware to facilitate stacking the cabinets ( e.g. , interlocking corners ) and for " flying " the cabinets from stage rigging .
In the 2000s , many small @-@ to mid @-@ size subwoofers designed for bands ' live sound use and DJ applications are " powered subs " ; that is , they have an integrated power amplifier . These models typically have a built @-@ in crossover . Some models have a metal @-@ reinforced hole in which a speaker stand can be mounted for full @-@ range cabinets .
= = = = Full @-@ range system = = = =
In professional concert sound system design , subwoofers can be incorporated seamlessly with the main speakers into a stereo or mono full @-@ range system by using an active crossover . Such a system receives its signal from the main mono or stereo mixing console mix bus and amplifies all frequencies together in the desired balance . If the main sound system is stereo , the subwoofers can also be in stereo . Otherwise , a mono subwoofer channel can be derived within the crossover from a stereo mix , depending on the crossover make and model .
= = = = Aux @-@ fed subwoofers = = = =
Instead of being incorporated into a full @-@ range system , concert subwoofers can be supplied with their own signal from a separate mix bus on the mixing console ; often one of the auxiliary sends ( " aux " or " auxes " ) is used . This configuration is called " aux @-@ fed subwoofers " , and has been observed to significantly reduce low frequency " muddiness " that can build up in a concert sound system which has on stage a number of microphones each picking up low frequencies and each having different phase relationships of those low frequencies . The aux @-@ fed subs method greatly reduces the number of sources feeding the subwoofers to include only those instruments that have desired low frequency information ; sources such as kick drum , bass guitar , samplers and keys . This simplifies the signal sent to the subwoofers and makes for greater clarity and low punch . Aux @-@ fed subs can even be stereo , if desired , using two auxiliary mix buses .
= = = = Directional bass = = = =
| thumb | Cardioid dispersion pattern of two end @-@ fire subwoofers placed one in front of the other . The enclosure nearest the listener is delayed by a few milliseconds . In order to keep low frequency energy focused on the audience area and not on the stage , and to keep low frequencies from bothering people outside of the event space , a variety of techniques have been developed in concert sound to turn the naturally omnidirectional radiation of subwoofers into a more directional pattern . These techniques include setting up subwoofers in a vertical array ; using combinations of delay and polarity inversion ; and setting up a delay @-@ shaded system .
= = = = = Vertical array = = = = =
Stacking or rigging the subwoofers in a vertical array focuses the low frequencies forward to a greater or lesser extent depending on the physical length of the array . Longer arrays have a more directional effect at lower frequencies . The directionality is more pronounced in the vertical dimension , yielding a radiation pattern that is wide but not tall . This helps reduce the amount of low frequency sound bouncing off the ceiling indoors and assists in mitigating external noise complaints outdoors .
= = = = = Rear delay array = = = = =
Another cardioid subwoofer array pattern can be used horizontally , one which takes few channels of processing and no change in required physical space . This method is often called " cardioid subwoofer array " or " CSA " even though the pattern of all directional subwoofer methods is cardioid . The CSA method reverses the enclosure orientation and inverts the polarity of one out of every three subwoofers across the front of the stage , and delays those enclosures for maximum cancellation of the target frequency on stage . Polarity inversion can be implemented electronically , by reversing the wiring polarity , or by physically positioning the enclosure to face rearward . This method reduces forward output relative to a tight @-@ packed , flat @-@ fronted array of subwoofers , but can solve problems of unwanted low frequency energy coming into microphones on stage . Compared to the end @-@ fire array , this method has less on @-@ axis energy but more even pattern control throughout the audience , and more predictable cancellation rearward . The effect spans a range of slightly more than one octave .
A second method of rear delay array combines end @-@ fire topology with polarity reversal , using two subwoofers positioned front to back , the drivers spaced one @-@ quarter wavelength apart , the rear enclosure inverted in polarity and delayed by a few milliseconds for maximum cancellation on stage of the target frequency . This method has the least output power directed toward the audience , compared to other directional methods .
= = = = = End @-@ fire array = = = = =
The end @-@ fire subwoofer method , also called " forward steered arrays " , places subwoofer drivers co @-@ axially in one or more rows , using destructive interference to reduce emissions to the sides and rear . This can be done with separate subwoofer enclosures positioned front to back with a spacing between them of one @-@ quarter wavelength of the target frequency , the frequency that is least wanted on stage or most desired in the audience . Each row is delayed beyond the first row by an amount related to the speed of sound in air ; typically a few milliseconds . The arrival time of sound energy from all the subwoofers is near @-@ simultaneous from the audience 's perspective , but is canceled out to a large degree behind the subwoofers because of offset sound wave arrival times . Directionality of the target frequency can achieve as much as 25 dB rear attenuation , and the forward sound is coherently summed in line with the subwoofers . The positional technique of end @-@ fire subwoofers came into widespread use in European live concert sound in 2006 .
The end @-@ fire array trades a few decibels of output power for directionality , so it requires more enclosures for the same output power as a tight @-@ packed , flat @-@ fronted array of enclosures . Sixteen enclosures in four rows were used in 2007 at one of the stages of the Ultra Music Festival , to reduce low frequency interference to neighboring stages . Because of the physical size of the end @-@ fire array , few concert venues are able to implement it . The output pattern suffers from comb @-@ filtering off @-@ axis , but can be further shaped by adjusting the frequency response of each row of subwoofers .
= = = = = Delay @-@ shaded array = = = = =
A long line of subwoofers placed horizontally along the front edge of the stage can be delayed such that the center subs fire several milliseconds prior to the ones flanking them , which fire several milliseconds prior to their neighbors , continuing in this fashion until the last subwoofers are reached at the outside ends of the subwoofer row ( beamforming ) . This method helps to counteract the extreme narrowing of horizontal dispersion pattern seen with a horizontal subwoofer array . Such delay shading can be used to virtually reshape a loudspeaker array .
= = = = = Directional enclosure = = = = =
Some subwoofer enclosure designs rely on drivers facing to the sides or to the rear in order to achieve a degree of directionality . End @-@ fire drivers can be positioned within a single enclosure that houses more than one driver .
= = = Bass instrument amplification = = =
In rare cases , sound reinforcement subwoofer enclosures are also used for bass instrument amplification by electric bass players and synth bass players . For most bands and most small- to mid @-@ size venues ( e.g. , nightclubs and bars ) , standard bass guitar speaker enclosures or keyboard amplifiers will provide sufficient sound pressure levels for onstage monitoring . Since a regular electric bass has a low " E " ( 41 Hz ) as its lowest note , most standard bass guitar cabinets are only designed with a range that goes down to about 40 Hz . However , in some cases , performers wish to have extended sub @-@ bass response that is not available from standard instrument speaker enclosures , so they use subwoofer cabinets . Just as some electric guitarists add huge stacks of guitar cabinets mainly for show , some bassists will add immense subwoofer cabinets with 18 " woofers mainly for show , and the extension sub cabinets will be operated at a lower volume than the main bass cabinets .
Bass guitar players who may use subwoofer cabinets include performers who play with extended range basses that include a low " B " string ( about 31 Hz ) ; bassists who play in styles where a very powerful sub @-@ bass response is an important part of the sound ( e.g. , funk , Latin , gospel , R & B , etc . ) ; and / or bass players who perform in stadium @-@ size venues or large outdoor venues . Keyboard players who use subwoofers for on @-@ stage monitoring include electric organ players who use bass pedal keyboards ( which go down to a low " C " which is about 33 Hz ) and synth bass players who play rumbling sub @-@ bass parts that go as low as 18 Hz . Of all of the keyboard instruments that are amplified onstage , synthesizers can produce some of the lowest pitches , because unlike a traditional electric piano or electric organ , which have as their lowest notes a low " A " and a low " C " , respectively , a synth does not have a fixed lowest octave . A synth player can add lower octaves to a patch by pressing an " octave down " button , which can produce pitches that are at the limits of human hearing .
Several concert sound subwoofer manufacturers suggest that their subs can be used for bass instrument amplification . Meyer Sound suggests that its 650 @-@ R2 Concert Series Subwoofer , a 14 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 3 m2 ) enclosure with two 18 @-@ inch drivers ( 45 cm ) , can be used for bass instrument amplification . While performers who use concert sound subwoofers for onstage monitoring may like the powerful sub @-@ bass sound that they get onstage , sound engineers may find the use of large subwoofers ( e.g. , two 18 " drivers ( 45 cm ) ) for onstage instrument monitoring to be problematic , because it may interfere with the " Front of House " sub @-@ bass sound .
= = Bass shakers = =
Since subsonic bass is felt , sub @-@ bass can be augmented using tactile transducers . Unlike a typical subwoofer driver , which produces audible vibrations , tactile transducers produce low @-@ frequency vibrations that are designed to be felt by individuals who are touching the transducer or indirectly through a piece of furniture or a wooden floor . Tactile transducers have recently emerged as a device class , called variously " bass shakers " , " butt shakers " and " throne shakers " . They are attached to a seat , for instance a drummer 's stool ( " throne " ) or gamer 's chair , car seat or home theater seating , and the vibrations of the driver are transmitted to the body then to the ear in a manner similar to bone conduction . They connect to an amplifier like a normal subwoofer . They can be attached to a large flat surface ( for instance a floor or platform ) to create a large low frequency conduction area , although the transmission of low frequencies through the feet is not as efficient as the seat .
The advantage of tactile transducers used for low frequencies is that they allow a listening environment that is not filled with loud low frequency waves . This helps the concert drummer to monitor his or her kick drum performance without " polluting " the stage with powerful low frequency waves from a 15 " ( 40 cm ) subwoofer monitor . By not having a subwoofer monitor , a bass shaker also enables a drummer to lower the sound pressure levels that he is exposed to during a performance . For home cinema or videogame use , bass shakers help the user avoid disturbing others in nearby apartments or rooms , because even powerful sound effects such as explosion sounds in a war videogame or the simulated rumbling of an earthquake in an adventure film will not be heard by others . However , some critics argue that the felt vibrations are disconnected from the auditory experience , and they claim that that music is less satisfying with the " butt shaker " than sound effects . As well , critics have claimed that the bass shaker itself can rattle during loud sound effects , which can distract the listener .
= = World record claims = =
With varying measures upon which to base claims , several subwoofers have been said to be the world 's largest , loudest or lowest .
= = = Matterhorn = = =
The Matterhorn is a subwoofer model completed in March 2007 by Danley Sound Labs in Gainesville , Georgia after a U.S. military request for a loudspeaker that could project infrasonic waves over a distance . The Matterhorn was designed to reproduce a continuous sine wave from 15 to 20 Hz , and generate 94 dB at a distance of 250 meters ( 820 ft ) , and more than 140 dB for music playback measured at the horn mouth . It can generate a constant 15 Hz sine wave tone at 140 dB for 24 hours a day , seven days a week with extremely low harmonic distortion . The subwoofer has a flat frequency response from 15 to 80 Hz , and is down 3 dB at 12 Hz . It was built within an intermodal container 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) long and 8 by 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m × 2 @.@ 4 m ) square . The container doors swing open to reveal a tapped horn driven by 40 long @-@ throw 15 @-@ inch ( 40 cm ) MTX speaker drivers each powered by its own 1000 @-@ watt amplifier . The manufacturer claims that 53 13 @-@ ply 18 mm 4 @-@ by @-@ 8 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 2 m × 2 @.@ 4 m ) sheets of plywood were used in its construction , though one of the fabricators wrote that double @-@ thickness 26 @-@ ply sheets were used for convenience .
A diesel generator is housed within the enclosure to supply electricity when external power is unavailable . Of the constant tone output capability , designer Tom Danley wrote that the " target 94 dB at 250 meters is not the essentially fictional ' burst ' or ' peak SPL ' nonsense in pro sound , or like the ' death burp ' signal used in car sound contests . " At the annual National Systems Contractors Association ( NSCA ) convention in March 2007 , the Matterhorn was barred from making any loud demonstrations of its power because of concerns about damaging the building of the Orange County Convention Center . Instead , using only a single 20 amp electrical circuit for safety , visitors were allowed to step inside the horn of the subwoofer for an " acoustic massage " as the fractionally powered Matterhorn reproduced low level 10 – 15 Hz waves .
= = = Royal Device custom installation = = =
Another subwoofer claimed to be the world 's biggest is a custom installation in Italy made by Royal Device primarily of bricks , concrete and sound @-@ deadening material consisting of two subwoofers embedded in the foundation of a listening room . The horn @-@ loaded subwoofers each have a floor mouth that is 2 @.@ 2 square meters ( 24 sq ft ) , and a horn length that is 9 @.@ 5 meters ( 31 ft ) , in a cavity 1 meter ( 3 ft 3 in ) under the floor of the listening room . Each subwoofer is driven by eight 18 @-@ inch subwoofer drivers with 100 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) voice coils . The designers assert that the floor mouths of the horns are additionally loaded acoustically by a vertical wooden horn expansion and the room 's ceiling to create a 10 Hz " full power " wave at the listening position .
= = = Concept Design 60 @-@ inch = = =
A single 60 @-@ inch ( 1 @,@ 500 mm ) diameter subwoofer driver was designed by Richard Clark and David Navone with the help of Dr. Eugene Patronis of the Georgia Institute of Technology . The driver was intended to break sound pressure level records when mounted in a road vehicle , calculated to be able to achieve more than 180 dBSPL . It was built in 1997 , driven by DC motors connected to a rotary crankshaft somewhat like in a piston engine . The cone diameter was 54 inches ( 1 @,@ 400 mm ) and was held in place with a 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) surround . With a 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) peak @-@ to @-@ peak stroke , it created a one @-@ way air displacement of 6 @,@ 871 cubic inches ( 112 @,@ 600 cm3 ) . It was capable of generating 5 – 20 Hz sine waves at various DC motor speeds — not as a response to audio signal — it could not play music . The driver was mounted in a stepvan owned by Tim Maynor but was too powerful for the amount of applied reinforcement and damaged the vehicle . MTX 's Loyd Ivey helped underwrite the project and the driver was then called the MTX " Thunder 1000000 " ( one million ) .
Still unfinished , the vehicle was entered in an SPL competition in 1997 at which a complaint was lodged against the computer control of the DC motor . Instead of using the controller , two leads were touched together in the hope that the motor speed was set correctly . The drive shaft broke after one positive stroke which created an interior pressure wave of 162 dB . The Concept Design 60 @-@ inch was not shown in public after 1998 .
= = = MTX Jackhammer = = =
The heaviest production subwoofer intended for use in automobiles is the MTX Jackhammer by MTX Audio , which features a 22 @-@ inch ( 560 mm ) diameter cone . The Jackhammer has been known to take upwards of 6000 watts sent to a dual voice coil moving within a 900 @-@ ounce ( 26 kg ) strontium ferrite magnet . The Jackhammer weighs in at 369 pounds ( 167 kg ) and has an aluminum heat sink . The Jackhammer has been featured on the television show Pimp My Ride .
= The Boat Race 2013 =
The 159th Boat Race between crews from the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge took place on 31 March 2013 . Held annually , the event is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . The Cambridge crew featured the first rower from the Czech Republic to compete in the event . Umpired by former Olympic medallist and former Oxford rower Matthew Pinsent , Oxford won by a margin of one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 17 minutes and 27 seconds .
In the reserve race , Oxford 's Isis defeated Cambridge 's Goldie , and Oxford won the Women 's Boat Race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the disrupted 2012 race by four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths , and led overall with 81 victories to Oxford 's 76 , with one " dead heat " . The race was sponsored for the second consecutive year by BNY Mellon .
Following the disruption caused by a protestor in the previous year 's race , Royal Marines provided support to the security arrangements surrounding the race . Race director David Searle urged nobody to repeat the disruption of 2012 , saying " What I would say to anybody thinking of doing that , is that it 's unbelievably dangerous ... We had practised emergency stops and it worked " . The manner of any potential restart was modified to allow the race re @-@ commence as soon as practicable . The Metropolitan Police had made contact with the protestor , Trenton Oldfield , to assist him making a more peaceful protest should he wish to do so , but he declined the offer and did not attend the race in any capacity .
Oxford announced that they had named their boat Acer in honour of former cox Acer Nethercott who had died two months earlier from brain cancer . Nethercott , an Olympic silver medallist in Beijing , had coxed Oxford in the 2003 , 2004 and 2005 races .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 6 pounds ( 2 @.@ 7 kg ) per rower more than Cambridge . For the second consecutive year , Cambridge 's crew featured just one British rower . Cambridge was coached by Steve Trapmore for the third time , and declared " It 's the best crew I 've had in my time at Cambridge " . Oxford 's Sean Bowden who was coaching the university for an eighteenth time , was " very satisfied " with his crew . Milan Bruncvík was the first Czech rower in the history of the Boat Race . Three medallists from the 2012 Summer Olympics featured : Cambridge 's George Nash won a bronze for Great Britain in the coxless pair , Oxford 's Constantine Louloudis won bronze for Great Britain in the men 's eight and his crew @-@ mate Malcolm Howard won silver for Canada in the same event .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station . The weather conditions were adverse , with a " brisk wind " and snow flurries prior to the race . The race commenced at 4 @.@ 31 pm , and despite a good start from Cambridge , Oxford quickly moved to hold a half @-@ length lead . With blades nearly overlapping , Umpire Pinsent issued warnings to both coxes to avoid a clash , and approaching Hammersmith Bridge , Oxford 's lead extended to nearly a length . Cambridge kept in touch despite a push from Oxford , but by Barnes Bridge , Oxford were two lengths clear , and according to James Cracknell , they were " the fastest eight in the world right now . " Oxford passed the finishing post one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths clear , in a time of 17 minutes 27 seconds .
In the reserve race , Oxford 's Isis defeated Cambridge 's Goldie by one third of a length , the smallest margin of victory ever recorded in the reserves race . Oxford won the 68th Women 's Boat Race by one @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter lengths .
= = Reaction = =
Olympic gold medallist Katherine Grainger presented Oxford with the trophy . Winning cox Zorilla said " It was fun , tough but that was what we expected . We had a plan and we stuck to it ruthlessly . " His Light Blue counterpart , Fieldman , remarked : " I asked a lot of the guys and they gave it me every time . Unfortunately it wasn 't quite enough . ”
The BBC apologised for broadcasting Zorilla 's repeated swearing . A microphone in the Oxford boat picked up the " bad language " during the latter half of the race which was subsequently broadcast live on both BBC One and the BBC World News channel . Further swearing from Zorilla was broadcast as he emerged from the Thames after the customary soaking of the victorious cox .
= Effects of Hurricane Isabel in New Jersey =
The effects of Hurricane Isabel in New Jersey in 2003 were overall moderate , limited to fallen trees , two deaths , and $ 50 million in damage ( 2003 USD , $ 59 million 2008 USD ) . Hurricane Isabel formed from a tropical wave on September 6 in the tropical Atlantic Ocean . It moved northwestward , and within an environment of light wind shear and warm waters it steadily strengthened to reach peak winds of 165 mph ( 265 km / h ) on September 11 . After fluctuating in intensity for four days , Isabel gradually weakened and made landfall on the Outer Banks of North Carolina with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) on September 18 . It quickly weakened over land and became extratropical over western Pennsylvania the next day . Several days before Isabel made landfall , there existed uncertainty in where the hurricane would strike . At least one computer model predicted a landfall on New Jersey , and as a result services across the state thoroughly prepared for the hurricane .
Isabel passed 215 miles ( 350 km ) southwest of the state , though its large wind core produced tropical storm force winds across much of the state . The winds downed hundreds of trees and power lines , leaving hundreds of thousands without power . A falling tree killed one person . Hurricane Isabel produced rough waves and a moderate storm surge along the coastline . One person was killed from the rough waves , and at least 50 locations along the Jersey Shore reported beach erosion from the hurricane .
= = Preparations = =
44 hours before Hurricane Isabel made landfall on the Outer Banks of North Carolina , the National Hurricane Center issued tropical storm watch for the coastline from Little Egg Inlet southward into the Mid @-@ Atlantic . A day later , the watch was extended northward to Sandy Hook . When Isabel was 26 hours from making landfall , the watches were changed to tropical storm warnings , and 10 hours before it struck land the National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm warning for the remainder of the New Jersey coastline . The National Hurricane Center also briefly issued a hurricane watch for the New Jersey coastline . While over the western Atlantic Ocean as a Category 5 hurricane , forecasters predicted Isabel would move northwestward and within five days be at a position 170 miles ( 275 km ) south of Cape May as a 115 @-@ mph ( 185 @-@ km / h ) major hurricane . By four days before the hurricane struck land , at least one computer model predicted Isabel would strike New Jersey .
News stations were stationed with crews along the Jersey shore several days in advance of Isabel to provide breaking news and live conditions . Many residents prepared their houses by boarding windows and purchasing emergency supplies . The Sussex County chapter of the American Red Cross advised local high schools to be on stand @-@ by as potential shelters in the event evacuation occurred . Emergency coordinators in several counties were on alert , though none issued evacuations . In preparation for anticipated power outages , the Jersey Central Power and Light company arranged to receive more electrical crews from its parent company , FirstEnergy . Other utility workers from various locations as far as Canada left for the state in the event of power outages .
Several flights in and out of the state were delayed or canceled , and the Cape May @-@ Lewes Ferry canceled travel across the Delaware Bay during the duration of Isabel . In Atlantic City , casino workers prepared for coastal flooding by placing sandbags at boardwalk entrances . New Jersey Transit workers secured its buses , railways , and light rail equipment . To ensure service would remain accessible during and after the hurricane , NJ Transit prepared backup generators , pumps , and chainsaws , with workers inspecting trains and the paths of the lines . FEMA mobilized and dispatched an Urban
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Search and Rescue Task Force of 28 people to the state for possible rescue duty . Days before the storm made landfall , the Salvation Army prepared food and aid for potentially affected citizens . In anticipation for the effects of Isabel , Governor Jim McGreevey declared a state of emergency , which allowed the Federal Emergency Management Agency to deal with the situation .
= = Impact = =
Isabel produced a storm surge along the New Jersey coastline of up to 6 @.@ 5 feet ( 2 m ) in Cape May . Higher amounts occurred along the Delaware River , peaking in the state at 10 @.@ 6 feet ( 3 @.@ 2 m ) in Burlington . At its closest approach , Isabel passed within about 215 miles ( 350 km ) of the state , and as a result the outer rainbands produced light rainfall . Wildwood along the southeast coast reported 1 @.@ 3 inches ( 33 mm ) of rain , while Lincoln Park in the northern portion of the state recorded 2 @.@ 07 inches ( 52 mm ) of precipitation . The large wind field of the hurricane produced moderate winds across the state . A shoal in the Delaware Bay experienced sustained winds of 54 mph ( 87 km / h ) with gusts to 71 mph ( 114 km / h ) . Cape May reported tropical storm force winds with gusts to 61 mph ( 98 km / h ) , while Newark in the northern portion of the state experienced gusts to 44 mph ( 71 km / h ) .
Hurricane Isabel produced slightly above normal tides and rough surf along the Jersey shore , killing one surfer off of Wildwood Crest . The combination of gusty winds and the heavy surf produced moderate beach erosion along much of the coastline , primarily to beaches facing southeastward . In the Delaware Bay and River area , no significant erosion was reported , though coastal flooding from the hurricane washed out a road and destroyed the deck of a house in Baypoint . In Cape May County waves eroded the beaches by up to 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) in Ocean City and Avalon , with several cities experiencing a loss of dunes and geotubes in Whale Beach being exposed . Waves from Isabel in Atlantic County resulted in light damage , minor coastal flooding , and slight beach erosion . The beaches of southern Ocean County experienced a loss of 3 to 4 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 to 1 @.@ 2 m ) of sand , while locations further to the north experienced only minor erosion . Most coastal areas of Monmouth County reported eroded beaches by up to 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) , with Union Beach losing about 5 @,@ 000 sq. feet ( 465 sq. m ) of sand .
Moderate wind gusts throughout the state downed hundreds of trees , tree limbs , and power lines . Over 382 @,@ 000 people were without power , one of the worst power outages on record for area utilities . Downed trees and power lines closed major streets and schools in Union County . One downed tree greatly damaged a house in Middletown , and in Hudson County several trees fell onto and damaged cars . A downed tree in Englewood injured a woman when she was struck , and a woman in Independence Township was killed when a fallen tree landed on the vehicle she was driving . Strong winds from Isabel blew out the windows in an office building in East Rutherford , causing injuries to two women when they were struck . Throughout the state , damage totaled to about $ 50 million ( 2003 USD , $ 59 million 2008 USD ) .
= Decade of Aggression =
Decade of Aggression is a double live album by Slayer , released on October 22 , 1991 through Def American Records ( later renamed to American Recordings ) and produced by Rick Rubin . The album was recorded in three separate places on three separate dates . Its working title was Decade of Decadence until Mötley Crüe registered the name . Three of the album 's tracks were included in the box set Soundtrack to the Apocalypse . The album 's reception was generally positive , with Entertainment Weekly and Robert Christgau both giving the album a positive rating . The album reached number 55 in the Billboard 200 and also charted on two other charts .
= = Conception = =
While touring on the Clash of the Titans tour to promote the 1990 studio album Seasons in the Abyss , separate sections of the Decade of Aggression album were recorded on October 14 , 1990 , March 8 , 1991 , and July 13 , 1991 , however , AllMusic said that Rick Rubin 's production " seems to be in terms of shaping the live sound to make it sound like this is all one gig . " Although it had a working title of Decade of Decadence , it would be released as Decade of Aggression after Mötley Crüe copyrighted the name on their 1991 greatest hits album . It was released through Def American Recordings on October 22 , 1991 .
The release was intended to give them time to decide what their next album 's style would be . Text in the book The Great Rock Discography said that it was released after the band had gained popularity , saying " Slayer had finally made it into the metal big league and summing up the first blood @-@ soaked chapter of their career , the group duly released the live double set . " It was also released to commemorate their 10th anniversary .
The album does not feature an overdub of guitars . In The Rough Guide To Rock , it was said to be " intense " and " put studio favorites through the live shredder in a brutal and definitive manner . " Most of the tracks were a selection from South of Heaven , Reign in Blood , and Seasons in the Abyss . The album 's total duration is one hour , twenty @-@ five minutes , and twenty @-@ eight seconds ( 85 : 28 ) . Three of the album 's tracks were included in the box set Soundtrack to the Apocalypse .
The album booklet includes a photo gallery with pictures dating back to 1982 . The majority of the photos come from Kevin Estrada , who has said :
= = Reception = =
Thom Jurek , a staff writer for AllMusic , gave the album a rating of three out of five stars . Jurek gave notice to the album 's sound quality , telling readers that it does not " capture the sheer overblown intensity of the unit in a concert setting , " but that it comes closer than one may imagine . Jurek also gave note to how Rick Rubin made the two @-@ discs sound like it were recorded at one gig , writing " Producer Rick Rubin stays out of the way ; his production seems to be in terms of shaping the live sound to make it sound like this is all one gig . " Entertainment Weekly 's David Browne said that it was an " accurate aural snapshots of what it 's like to be part of a crowd craning to see the action on a stage that seems two miles away . " Browne also said that " they 're perfect examples of the sad current state of the once @-@ proud live rock album . " Robert Christgau gave the album a star ( " Honorable Mention is a worthy effort consumers attuned to its overriding aesthetic or individual vision may well like . " ) , saying , " praise the Lord--I can hardly understand a word they 're singing ( Hell Awaits ) . " Joel McIver , author of The Bloody Reign of Slayer said that it was regarded as one of the best live albums released by a heavy metal band .
The album charted on three different charts . On November 9 , 1991 , it peaked at number 55 on the Billboard 200 . On January 13 , 1992 , the album entered the Media Control Charts , where it peaked at number 77 . It maintained a number on the chart until February 2 , 1992 , giving it a total of three weeks on the chart . On December 2 , 1991 it entered the UK Album Charts , peaking at number 29 . It stayed on the chart for two weeks .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Standard edition = = =
= = = = Disc one = = = =
All songs recorded at the Lakeland Coliseum in Lakeland , Florida on July 13 , 1991 .
= = = = Disc two = = = =
Tracks 3 @-@ 6 and 8 @-@ 10 recorded at the Orange Pavilion , San Bernardino , California , March 8 , 1991 .
Tracks 1 , 2 and 7 recorded at the Wembley Arena , London , England , October 14 , 1990 .
= = = Limited edition = = =
Disc one track listing remains the same .
Disc two track listing 1 @-@ 6 remains the same .
= = Credits = =
The album 's credits and personnel can be obtained from AllMusic .
= H.M.S. Pinafore =
H.M.S. Pinafore ; or , The Lass That Loved a Sailor is a comic opera in two acts , with music by Arthur Sullivan and a libretto by W. S. Gilbert . It opened at the Opera Comique in London , on 25 May 1878 and ran for 571 performances , which was the second @-@ longest run of any musical theatre piece up to that time . H.M.S. Pinafore was Gilbert and Sullivan 's fourth operatic collaboration and their first international sensation .
The story takes place aboard the ship HMS Pinafore . The captain 's daughter , Josephine , is in love with a lower @-@ class sailor , Ralph Rackstraw , although her father intends her to marry Sir Joseph Porter , the First Lord of the Admiralty . She abides by her father 's wishes at first , but Sir Joseph 's advocacy of the equality of humankind encourages Ralph and Josephine to overturn conventional social order . They declare their love for each other and eventually plan to elope . The captain discovers this plan , but , as in many of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas , a surprise disclosure changes things dramatically near the end of the story .
Drawing on several of his earlier " Bab Ballad " poems , Gilbert imbued this plot with mirth and silliness . The opera 's humour focuses on love between members of different social classes and lampoons the British class system in general . Pinafore also pokes good @-@ natured fun at patriotism , party politics , the Royal Navy , and the rise of unqualified people to positions of authority . The title of the piece comically applies the name of a garment for girls and women , a pinafore , to the fearsome symbol of a naval warship .
Pinafore 's extraordinary popularity in Britain , America and elsewhere was followed by the similar success of a series of Gilbert and Sullivan works , including The Pirates of Penzance and The Mikado . Their works , later known as the Savoy operas , dominated the musical stage on both sides of the Atlantic for more than a decade and continue to be performed today . The structure and style of these operas , particularly Pinafore , were much copied and contributed significantly to the development of modern musical theatre .
= = Background = =
In 1875 , Richard D 'Oyly Carte , who was then managing the Royalty Theatre for Selina Dolaro , brought Gilbert and Sullivan together to write their second show , a one @-@ act opera entitled Trial by Jury . This proved a success , and in 1876 D 'Oyly Carte assembled a group of financial backers to establish the Comedy Opera Company , which was devoted to the production and promotion of family @-@ friendly English comic opera . With this theatre company , Carte finally had the financial resources , after many failed attempts , to produce a new full @-@ length Gilbert and Sullivan opera . This next opera was The Sorcerer , which opened in November 1877 . It too was successful , running for 178 performances . Sheet music from the show sold well , and street musicians played the melodies .
Instead of writing a piece for production by a theatre proprietor , as was usual in Victorian theatres , Gilbert , Sullivan and Carte produced the show with their own financial support . They were therefore able to choose their own cast of performers , rather than being obliged to use the actors already engaged at the theatre . They chose talented actors , most of whom were not well @-@ known stars and did not command high fees , and to whom they could teach a more naturalistic style of performance than was commonly used at the time . They then tailored their work to the particular abilities of these performers . The skill with which Gilbert and Sullivan used their performers had an effect on the audience ; as critic Herman Klein wrote : " we secretly marvelled at the naturalness and ease with which [ the Gilbertian quips and absurdities ] were said and done . For until then no living soul had seen upon the stage such weird , eccentric , yet intensely human beings . ... [ They ] conjured into existence a hitherto unknown comic world of sheer delight . "
The success of The Sorcerer paved the way for another collaboration by Gilbert and Sullivan . Carte agreed on terms for a new opera with the Comedy Opera Company , and Gilbert began work on H.M.S. Pinafore before the end of 1877 . Gilbert 's father had been a naval surgeon , and the nautical theme of the opera appealed to him . He drew on several of his earlier " Bab Ballad " poems ( many of which also have nautical themes ) , including " Captain Reece " ( 1868 ) and " General John " ( 1867 ) . Some of the characters also have prototypes in the ballads : Dick Deadeye is based on a character in " Woman 's Gratitude " ( 1869 ) ; an early version of Ralph Rackstraw can be seen in " Joe Go @-@ Lightly " ( 1867 ) , with its sailor madly in love with the daughter of someone who far outranks him ; and Little Buttercup is taken almost wholesale from " The Bumboat Woman 's Story " ( 1870 ) . On 27 December 1877 , while Sullivan was on holiday on the French Riviera , Gilbert sent him a plot sketch accompanied by the following note :
I have very little doubt whatever but that you will be pleased with it . ... there is a good deal of fun in it which I haven 't set down on paper . Among other things a song ( a kind of ' Judge 's Song ' ) for the First Lord – tracing his career as office @-@ boy ... clerk , traveller , junior partner and First Lord of Britain 's Navy . ... Of course there will be no personality in this – the fact that the First Lord in the Opera is a Radical of the most pronounced type will do away with any suspicion that W. H. Smith is intended .
Despite Gilbert 's disclaimer , audiences , critics and even the Prime Minister identified Sir Joseph Porter with W. H. Smith ( a politician who had recently been appointed First Lord of the Admiralty despite having neither military nor nautical experience ) . Sullivan was delighted with the sketch , and Gilbert read a first draft of the plot to Carte in mid @-@ January .
Following the example of his mentor , T. W. Robertson , Gilbert strove to ensure that the costumes and sets were as realistic as possible . When preparing the sets for H.M.S. Pinafore , Gilbert and Sullivan visited Portsmouth in April 1878 to inspect ships . Gilbert made sketches of H.M.S. Victory and H.M.S. St Vincent and created a model set for the carpenters to work from . This was far from standard procedure in Victorian drama , in which naturalism was still a relatively new concept , and in which most authors had very little influence on how their plays and libretti were staged . This attention to detail was typical of Gilbert 's stage management and would be repeated in all of his Savoy Operas . Gilbert 's focus on visual accuracy provided a " right @-@ side @-@ up for topsy @-@ turvydom " , that is , a realistic point of reference that serves to heighten the whimsicality and absurdity of the situations . Sullivan was " in the full swing " of work on the piece by the middle of April 1878 . The bright and cheerful music of Pinafore was composed during a time when Sullivan suffered from excruciating pain from a kidney stone . The cast began music rehearsals on 24 April , and at the beginning of May 1878 , the two collaborators worked closely together at Sullivan 's flat to finalise the piece .
In Pinafore , Gilbert , Sullivan and Carte used several of the principal cast members that they had assembled for The Sorcerer . As Gilbert had suggested to Sullivan in December 1877 , " Mrs. Cripps [ Little Buttercup ] will be a capital part for Everard ... Barrington will be a capital captain , and Grossmith a first @-@ rate First Lord . " However , Mrs Howard Paul , who had played Lady Sangazure in The Sorcerer , was declining vocally . She was under contract to play the role of Cousin Hebe in Pinafore . Gilbert made an effort to write an amusing part for her despite Sullivan 's reluctance to use her , but by mid @-@ May 1878 , both Gilbert and Sullivan wanted her out of the cast ; unhappy with the role , she left . With only a week to go before opening night , Carte hired concert singer Jessie Bond to play Cousin Hebe . Since Bond had little experience as an actress , Gilbert and Sullivan cut the dialogue out of the role , except for a few lines in the last scene , which they turned into recitative . Other new cast members were Emma Howson and George Power in the romantic roles , who were improvements on the romantic soprano and tenor in The Sorcerer .
Gilbert acted as stage director for his own plays and operas . He sought realism in acting , just as he strove for realistic visual elements . He deprecated self @-@ conscious interaction with the audience and insisted on a style of portrayal in which the characters were never aware of their own absurdity but were coherent internal wholes . Sullivan conducted the music rehearsals . As was to be his usual practice in his later operas , Sullivan left the overture for the last moment , sketching it out and entrusting it to the company 's music director , in this case Alfred Cellier , to complete . Pinafore opened on 25 May 1878 at the Opera Comique .
= = Roles = =
The Rt. Hon. Sir Joseph Porter , KCB , First Lord of the Admiralty ( comic baritone )
Captain Corcoran , Commander of H.M.S. Pinafore ( lyric baritone )
Ralph Rackstraw , Able Seaman ( tenor )
Dick Deadeye , Able Seaman ( bass @-@ baritone )
Bill Bobstay , Boatswain 's Mate ( baritone )
Bob Becket , Carpenter 's Mate ( bass )
Josephine , The Captain 's Daughter ( soprano )
Cousin Hebe , Sir Joseph 's First Cousin ( mezzo @-@ soprano )
Mrs. Cripps ( Little Buttercup ) , A Portsmouth Bumboat Woman ( contralto )
Chorus of First Lord 's Sisters , His Cousins , His Aunts , Sailors , Marines , etc .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Act I = = =
The British warship H.M.S. Pinafore is at anchor off Portsmouth . The sailors are on the quarterdeck , proudly " cleaning brasswork , splicing rope , etc . "
Little Buttercup , a Portsmouth " bumboat woman " ( dockside vendor ) – who is the " rosiest , roundest , and reddest beauty in all Spithead " – comes on board to sell her wares to the crew . She hints that she may be hiding a dark secret under her " gay and frivolous exterior " . Ralph Rackstraw , " the smartest lad in all the fleet " , enters , declaring his love for the Captain 's daughter , Josephine . His fellow sailors ( excepting Dick Deadeye , the grim and ugly realist of the crew ) offer their sympathies , but they can give Ralph little hope that his love will ever be returned .
The gentlemanly and popular Captain Corcoran greets his " gallant crew " and compliments them on their politeness , saying that he returns the favour by never ( " well , hardly ever " ) using bad language , such as " a big , big D " . After the sailors leave , the Captain confesses to Little Buttercup that Josephine is reluctant to consider a marriage proposal from Sir Joseph Porter , the First Lord of the Admiralty . Buttercup says that she knows how it feels to love in vain . As she leaves , the Captain remarks that she is " a plump and pleasing person " . Josephine enters and reveals to her father that she loves a humble sailor in his crew , but she assures him that she is a dutiful daughter and will never reveal her love to this sailor .
Sir Joseph comes on board , accompanied by his " admiring crowd of sisters , cousins and aunts " . He recounts how he rose from humble beginnings to be " ruler of the Queen 's Navee " through persistence , although he has no naval qualifications . He then delivers a humiliating lesson in etiquette , telling the Captain that he must always say " if you please " after giving an order ; for " A British sailor is any man 's equal " – excepting Sir Joseph 's . Sir Joseph has composed a song to illustrate that point , and he gives a copy of it to Ralph . Shortly afterwards , elated by Sir Joseph 's views on equality , Ralph decides that he will declare his love to Josephine . This delights his shipmates , except Dick Deadeye , who contends that " when people have to obey other people 's orders , equality 's out of the question " . Shocked by his words , the other sailors force Dick to listen to Sir Joseph 's song before they exit , leaving Ralph alone on deck . Josephine now enters , and Ralph confesses his love in terms surprisingly eloquent for a " common sailor " . Josephine is touched , but although she has found Sir Joseph 's attentions nauseating , she knows that it is her duty to marry Sir Joseph instead of Ralph . Disguising her true feelings , she " haughtily rejects " Ralph 's " proffered love " .
Ralph summons his shipmates ( Sir Joseph 's female relatives also arrive ) and tells them that he is bent on suicide . The crew expresses sympathy , except for Dick , who provides a stark counterpoint of dissent . Ralph puts a pistol to his head , but as he is about to pull the trigger , Josephine enters , admitting that she loves him after all . Ralph and Josephine plan to sneak ashore to elope that night . Dick Deadeye warns them to " forbear , nor carry out the scheme " , but the joyous ship 's company ignores him .
= = = Act II = = =
Later that night , under a full moon , Captain Corcoran reviews his concerns : his " kindly crew rebels " , his " daughter to a tar is partial " , his friends seem to desert him , and Sir Joseph has threatened a court @-@ martial . Little Buttercup offers sympathy . He tells her that , if it were not for the difference in their social standing , he would have returned her affection . She prophesies that things are not all as they seem and that " a change " is in store for him , but he does not understand her cryptic warning .
Sir Joseph enters and complains that Josephine has not yet agreed to marry him . The Captain speculates that she is probably dazzled by his " exalted rank " and that if Sir Joseph can persuade her that " love levels all ranks " , she will accept his proposal . They withdraw , and Josephine enters , still feeling guilty about her planned elopement with Ralph and fearful of giving up a life of luxury . When Sir Joseph makes the argument that " love levels all ranks " , a delighted Josephine says that she " will hesitate no longer " . The Captain and Sir Joseph rejoice , but Josephine is now more determined than ever to marry Ralph .
Dick Deadeye intercepts the Captain and tells him of the lovers ' plans to elope . The Captain confronts Ralph and Josephine as they try to leave the ship . The pair declare their love , justifying their actions because " He is an Englishman ! " The furious Captain is unmoved and blurts out , " Why , damme , it 's too bad ! " Sir Joseph and his relatives , who have overheard this oath , are shocked to hear swearing on board a ship , and Sir Joseph orders the Captain confined to his cabin .
When Sir Joseph asks what had provoked the usually polite officer 's outburst , Ralph replies that it was his declaration of love for Josephine . Furious in his turn at this revelation , and ignoring Josephine 's plea to spare Ralph , Sir Joseph has the sailor " loaded with chains " and taken to the ship 's dungeon . Little Buttercup now comes forward to reveal her long @-@ held secret . Many years ago , when she " practised baby @-@ farming " , she had cared for two babies , one " of low condition " , the other " a regular patrician " . She confesses that she " mixed those children up . ... The wellborn babe was Ralph ; your Captain was the other . "
Sir Joseph now realises that Ralph should have been the Captain , and the Captain should have been Ralph . He summons both , and they emerge wearing one another 's uniforms : Ralph as Captain , in command of the Pinafore , and Corcoran as a common sailor . Sir Joseph 's marriage with Josephine is now " out of the question " in his eyes : " love levels all ranks ... to a considerable extent , but it does not level them as much as that . " He hands her to Captain Rackstraw . The former Captain 's now @-@ humble social rank leaves him free to marry Buttercup . Sir Joseph settles for his cousin Hebe , and all ends in general rejoicing .
= = Musical numbers = =
Overture
Act I
1 . " We sail the ocean blue " ( Sailors )
2 . " Hail ! men @-@ o ' -war 's men " ... " I 'm called Little Buttercup " ( Buttercup )
2a . " But tell me who 's the youth " ( Buttercup and Boatswain )
3 . " The nightingale " ( Ralph and Chorus of Sailors )
3a . " A maiden fair to see " ( Ralph and Chorus of Sailors )
4 . " My gallant crew , good morning ... I am the Captain of the Pinafore " ( Captain and Chorus of Sailors )
4a . " Sir , you are sad " ( Buttercup and Captain )
5 . " Sorry her lot who loves too well " ( Josephine )
5a . Cut song : " Reflect , my child " ( Captain and Josephine )
6 . " Over the bright blue sea " ( Chorus of Female Relatives )
7 . " Sir Joseph 's barge is seen " ( Chorus of Sailors and Female Relatives )
8 . " Now give three cheers ... I am the Monarch of the sea " ( Captain , Sir Joseph , Cousin Hebe and Chorus )
9 . " When I was a lad " ( Sir Joseph and Chorus )
9a . " For I hold that on the sea " ( Sir Joseph , Cousin Hebe and Chorus )
10 . " A British tar " ( Ralph , Boatswain , Carpenter 's Mate and Chorus of Sailors )
11 . " Refrain , audacious tar " ( Josephine and Ralph )
12 . Finale , Act I ( Ensemble )
" Can I survive this overbearing ? "
" Oh joy , oh rapture unforeseen "
" Let 's give three cheers for the sailor 's bride "
" A British tar " ( reprise )
Act II
( Entr 'acte )
13 . " Fair moon , to thee I sing " ( Captain )
14 . " Things are seldom what they seem " ( Buttercup and Captain )
15 . " The hours creep on apace " ( Josephine )
16 . " Never mind the why and wherefore " ( Josephine , Captain and Sir Joseph )
17 . " Kind Captain , I 've important information " ( Captain and Dick Deadeye )
18 . " Carefully on tiptoe stealing " ( Soli and Chorus )
18a . " Pretty daughter of mine " ( Captain and Ensemble ) and " He is an Englishman " ( Boatswain and Ensemble )
19 . " Farewell , my own " ( Ralph , Josephine , Sir Joseph , Buttercup and Chorus )
20 . " A many years ago " ( Buttercup and Chorus )
20a . " Here , take her , sir " ( Sir Joseph , Josephine , Ralph , Cousin Hebe and Chorus ) 1
21 . Finale : " Oh joy , oh rapture unforeseen " ( Ensemble ) 2
1See discussion of versions , below .
2Includes reprises of several songs , concluding with " For he is an Englishman " .
= = Productions = =
Pinafore opened on 25 May 1878 at the Opera Comique , before an enthusiastic audience , with Sullivan conducting . Soon , however , the piece suffered from weak ticket sales , generally ascribed to a heat wave that made the Opera Comique particularly uncomfortable . Historian Michael Ainger questions this explanation , at least in part , stating that the heat waves in the summer of 1878 were short and transient . In any case , by mid @-@ August , Sullivan wrote to his mother that cooler weather had arrived , which was good for the show . In the meantime , the four partners of the Comedy Opera Company lost confidence in the opera 's viability and posted closing notices . Carte publicised the piece by presenting a matinee concert performance on 6 July 1878 at the enormous Crystal Palace .
In late August 1878 , Sullivan used some of the Pinafore music , arranged by his assistant Hamilton Clarke , during several successful promenade concerts at Covent Garden that generated interest and stimulated ticket sales . By September , Pinafore was playing to full houses at the Opera Comique . The piano score sold 10 @,@ 000 copies , and Carte soon sent two additional companies out to tour in the provinces .
Carte , Gilbert and Sullivan now had the financial resources to produce shows themselves , without outside backers . Carte persuaded the author and composer that a business partnership among the three would be to their advantage , and they hatched a plan to separate themselves from the directors of the Comedy Opera Company . The contract between Gilbert and Sullivan and the Comedy Opera Company gave the latter the right to present Pinafore for the duration of the initial run . The Opera Comique was obliged to close for drain and sewer repairs , and was renovated and redecorated by E. W. Bradwell , from Christmas 1878 to the end of January 1879 . Gilbert , Sullivan and Carte believed that this break ended the initial run , and , therefore , ended the company 's rights . Carte put the matter beyond doubt by taking a six @-@ month personal lease of the theatre beginning on 1 February 1879 , the date of its re @-@ opening , when Pinafore resumed . At the end of the six months , Carte planned to give notice to the Comedy Opera Company that its rights in the show and the theatre had ended .
Meanwhile , numerous versions of Pinafore , unauthorised by its creators , began playing in America with great success , beginning with a production in Boston that opened on 25 November 1878 . Pinafore became a source of popular quotations on both sides of the Atlantic , such as the exchange :
" What , never ? "
" No , never ! "
" What , never ? "
" Well , hardly ever ! "
In February 1879 , Pinafore resumed operations at the Opera Comique . The opera also resumed touring in April , with two companies crisscrossing the British provinces by June , one starring Richard Mansfield as Sir Joseph , the other W. S. Penley in the role . Hoping to join in on the profits to be made in America from Pinafore , Carte left in June for New York to make arrangements for an " authentic " production there to be rehearsed personally by the author and composer . He arranged to rent a theatre and auditioned chorus members for the American production of Pinafore and a new Gilbert and Sullivan opera to be premiered in New York , and for tours .
Sullivan , as had been arranged with Carte and Gilbert , gave notice to the partners of the Comedy Opera Company in early July 1879 that he , Gilbert and Carte would not be renewing the contract to produce Pinafore with them and that he would be withdrawing his music from the Comedy Opera Company on 31 July . In return , the Comedy Opera Company gave notice that they intended to play Pinafore at another theatre and brought a legal action against Carte and company . They offered the London and touring casts of Pinafore more money to play in their production , and although some choristers accepted their offer , only one principal player , Mr Dymott , accepted . They engaged the Imperial Theatre but had no scenery . On 31 July , they sent a group of thugs to seize the scenery and props during Act II of the evening performance at the Opera Comique . Gilbert was away , and Sullivan was recovering from an operation for kidney stones . Stagehands and cast members managed to ward off their backstage attackers and protect the scenery , although the stage manager , Richard Barker , and others , were injured . The cast went on with the show until someone shouted " Fire ! " George Grossmith , playing Sir Joseph , went before the curtain to calm the panicked audience . The police arrived to restore order , and the show continued . Gilbert sued to stop the Comedy Opera Company from staging their rival production of H.M.S. Pinafore . The court permitted the production to go on at the Imperial , beginning on 1 August 1879 , and it transferred to the Olympic Theatre in September . Pauline Rita was one of a series of Josephines . The production received good notices and initially sold well but was withdrawn in October after 91 performances . The matter was eventually settled in court , where a judge ruled in Carte 's favour about two years later .
After his return to London , Carte formed a new partnership with Gilbert and Sullivan to divide profits equally after the expenses of each of their shows . Meanwhile , Pinafore continued to play strongly . On 20 February 1880 , Pinafore completed its initial run of 571 performances . Only one other work of musical theatre in the world had ever run longer , Robert Planquette 's operetta Les cloches de Corneville .
= = = Taking Pinafore to the United States = = =
Approximately 150 unauthorised productions of Pinafore sprang up in the United States in 1878 and 1879 , and none of these paid royalties to the authors . Gilbert and Sullivan called them " pirated " , although the creators did not have any international copyright protection . The first of these productions , opening at the Boston Museum on 25 November 1878 , made such a splash that the piece was quickly produced in major cities and on tour by dozens of companies throughout the country . Boston alone saw at least a dozen productions , including a juvenile version described by Louisa May Alcott in her 1879 story , " Jimmy 's Cruise in the Pinafore " . In New York , different productions of the piece played simultaneously in eight theatres within five blocks of each other and in six theatres in Philadelphia .
These unauthorised performances took many forms , including burlesques , productions with men playing women 's roles and vice versa , spoofs , variety acts , Minstrel show versions , all @-@ black and Catholic productions , German , Yiddish and other foreign @-@ language versions , performances on boats or by church choirs , and productions starring casts of children . Few purported to play the opera as written . Sheet music arrangements were popular , there were Pinafore @-@ themed dolls and household items , and references to the opera were common in advertising , news and other media . Gilbert , Sullivan and Carte brought lawsuits in the U.S. and tried for many years to control the American performance copyrights over their operas , or at least to claim some royalties , without success . They made a special effort to claim American rights for their next work after Pinafore , The Pirates of Penzance , by giving the official premiere in New York .
Gilbert , Sullivan and Carte met by 24 April 1879 to make plans for a production of Pinafore in America . Carte travelled to New York in the summer of 1879 and made arrangements with theatre manager John T. Ford to present , at the Fifth Avenue Theatre , the first authorised American production of Pinafore . In November , he returned to America with Gilbert , Sullivan and a company of strong singers , including J. H. Ryley as Sir Joseph , Blanche Roosevelt as Josephine , Alice Barnett as Little Buttercup , Furneaux Cook as Dick Deadeye , Hugh Talbot as Ralph Rackstraw and Jessie Bond as Cousin Hebe . To these , he added some American singers , including Signor Brocolini as Captain Corcoran . Alfred Cellier came to assist Sullivan , while his brother François remained in London to conduct Pinafore there .
Pinafore opened in New York on 1 December 1879 ( with Gilbert onstage in the chorus ) and ran for the rest of December . After a reasonably strong first week , audiences quickly fell off , since most New Yorkers had already seen local productions of Pinafore . This was unexpected and forced Gilbert and Sullivan to race to complete and rehearse their new opera , The Pirates of Penzance , which premièred with much success on 31 December . Shortly thereafter , Carte sent three touring companies around the United States East Coast and Midwest , playing Pinafore alongside Pirates .
= = = Children 's production = = =
The unauthorised juvenile productions of Pinafore were so popular that Carte mounted his own children 's version , played at matinees at the Opera Comique beginning on 16 December 1879 . François Cellier , who had taken over from his brother as Carte 's music director in London , adapted the score for children 's voices . Between its two Christmas seasons in London , the children 's production went on a provincial tour from 2 August 1880 to 11 December 1880 .
Carte 's children 's production earned enthusiastic reviews from critic Clement Scott and the other London critics , as well as the audiences , including children . However , Captain Corcoran 's curse " Damme ! " was uncensored , shocking such prominent audience members as Lewis Carroll , who later wrote : " a bevy of sweet innocent @-@ looking girls sing , with bright and happy looks , the chorus ' He said , Damn me ! He said , Damn me ! ' I cannot find words to convey to the reader the pain I felt in seeing those dear children taught to utter such words to amuse ears grown callous to their ghastly meaning ... How Mr. Gilbert could have stooped to write , or Sir Arthur Sullivan could have prostituted his noble art to set to music , such vile trash , it passes my skill to understand " .
= = = Subsequent productions = = =
After the opera became successful in London , Richard D 'Oyly Carte quickly sent touring companies into the British provinces . At least one D 'Oyly Carte company , and sometimes as many as three , played Pinafore under Carte 's aegis every year between 1878 and 1888 , including its first London revival in 1887 . The opera was then given a rest , returning to the touring repertory between 1894 and 1900 and again for most of the time between 1903 and 1940 . Gilbert directed all the revivals during his lifetime , and after his death , the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company had exclusive performing rights to the Savoy operas until 1962 . It continued to hew closely to Gilbert 's directions throughout that period , as recorded in Gilbert 's prompt books , and it also required its licensees to follow them closely .
Until 1908 , revivals of the opera were given in contemporary dress , with ladies ' costumes executed by couture houses such as Redfern . After that , designers such as Percy Anderson , George Sheringham and Peter Goffin created Victorian costume designs . The 1887 set was designed by Hawes Craven . In the winter of 1940 – 41 , the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company 's scenery and costumes for Pinafore and three other operas were destroyed by German bombs during World War II . The opera was revived in London in the summer of 1947 . It was then included in the D 'Oyly Carte repertory in every season from then on , until the company 's closure in 1982 . The D 'Oyly Carte company performed Pinafore before Queen Elizabeth II and the royal family at Windsor Castle on 16 June 1977 , during the queen 's Silver Jubilee year , the first royal command performance of a Gilbert and Sullivan opera since 1891 .
The D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company did not allow any other professional company to present the Savoy operas in Britain until the copyrights expired at the end of 1961 , although it licensed many amateur and school societies to do so , beginning in the 19th century . After 1961 , other professional companies mounted productions of the opera in Britain . These have included Tyrone Guthrie 's 1960 production from Stratford , Ontario , seen on Broadway in 1960 and in London in 1962 and a New Sadler 's Wells Opera Company production first seen on 4 June 1984 at Sadler 's Wells Theatre , which was seen also in New York . Scottish Opera , Welsh National Opera and many of the other British opera companies have mounted productions , as did the reconstituted D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company between 1990 and its closure in 2003 . In recent years , the Carl Rosa Opera Company has produced Pinafore several times , including in 2009 , and Opera della Luna and other British companies continue to mount the piece .
The extraordinary initial success of Pinafore in America was seen first @-@ hand by J. C. Williamson . He soon made arrangements with D 'Oyly Carte to present the opera 's first authorised production in Australia , opening on 15 November 1879 at the Theatre Royal , Sydney . Thereafter , his opera company played frequent seasons of the work ( and the subsequent Savoy operas ) until at least 1963 . In the U.S. , the piece never lost popularity . The Internet Broadway Database links to forty productions on Broadway alone . Among the professional repertory companies continuing to present Pinafore regularly in the U.S. are Opera a la Carte , based in California , Ohio Light Opera and the New York Gilbert and Sullivan Players , which tours the opera annually and often includes it in its New York seasons . Pinafore is still performed around the world by opera companies such as the Royal Theatre , Copenhagen ; Australian Opera ( and Essgee Entertainment and others in Australia ) ; in Kassel , Germany ; and even Samarkand , Uzbekistan .
The following table shows the history of the D 'Oyly Carte productions ( excluding tours ) in Gilbert 's lifetime :
= = Reception = =
= = = Initial critical reception = = =
The early reviews were mostly favourable . The Era wrote :
Seldom indeed have we been in the company of a more joyous audience . ... [ Gilbert and Sullivan ] have on previous occasions been productive of such legitimate amusement , such novel forms of drollery , such original wit , and unexpected whimsicality , that nothing was more natural than for the audience to anticipate an evening of thorough enjoyment . The expectation was fulfilled completely . Those who believed in the power of Mr Gilbert to tickle the fancy with quaint suggestions and unexpected forms of humour were more than satisfied , and those who appreciate Mr Arthur Sullivan 's inexhaustible gift of melody were equally gratified ; while that large class of playgoers who are pleased with brilliant dresses and charming stage effects declared themselves delighted . The result , therefore , was " a hit , a palpable hit " ... there were some slight drawbacks [ such ] as the severe cold that affected Mr. Rutland Barrington [ the captain ] , and almost prevented his singing .
The Era also lavishly praised Emma Howson as Josephine . The Entr 'acte and Limelight commented that the opera was reminiscent of Trial by Jury and Sorcerer but found it diverting and called the music " very charming . To hear so @-@ called grand opera imitated through the medium of the most trifling lyrics , is funny " . The paper praised Grossmith as Sir Joseph , noting with amusement that he was made up to look like portraits of Horatio Nelson , " and his good introductory song seems levelled at " W. H. Smith . It opined , further , that " He Is an Englishman " is " an excellent satire on the proposition that a man must necessarily be virtuous to be English " . It found the piece , as a whole , well presented and predicted that it would have a long run .
Similarly , The Illustrated London News concluded that the production was a success and that the plot , though slight , served as a good vehicle for Gilbert 's " caustic humour and quaint satire " . It found that there was " much to call forth hearty laughter in the occasional satirical hits . ... Dr. Sullivan 's music is as lively as the text to which it is set , with here and there a touch of sentimental expression ... The piece is well performed throughout . " The Daily News , The Globe , The Times ( which particularly praised Grossmith , Barrington and Everard ) and The Standard concurred , the last commenting favourably on the chorus acting , which , it said , " adds to the reality of the illusion " . The Times also noted that the piece was an early attempt at the establishment of a " national musical stage " with a libretto free from risqué French " improprieties " and without the " aid " of Italian and German musical models .
The Daily Telegraph and the Athenaeum , however , greeted the opera with only mixed praise . The Musical Times complained that the ongoing collaboration between Gilbert and Sullivan was " detrimental to the art @-@ progress of either " because , although it was popular with audiences , " something higher is demanded for what is understood as ' comic opera ' " . The paper commented that Sullivan had " the true elements of an artist , which would be successfully developed were a carefully framed libretto presented to him for composition " . It concluded , however , by saying how much it enjoyed the opera : " Having thus conscientiously discharged our duties as art @-@ critics , let us at once proceed to say that H.M.S. Pinafore is an amusing piece of extravagance , and that the music floats it on merrily to the end " . The Times and several of the other papers agreed that , while the piece was entertaining , Sullivan was capable of higher art . Only The Figaro was actively hostile to the new piece . Upon the publication of the vocal score , a review by The Academy joined the chorus of regret that Sullivan had sunk so low as to compose music for Pinafore and hoped that he would turn to projects " more worthy of his great ability " . This criticism would follow Sullivan throughout his career .
The many unauthorised American productions of 1878 – 79 were of widely varying quality , and many of them were adaptations of the opera . One of the more " authentic " ones was the production by the Boston Ideal Opera Company , which was first formed to produce Pinafore . It engaged well @-@ regarded concert singers and opened on 14 April 1879 at the 3 @,@ 000 @-@ seat Boston Theatre . The critics agreed that the company fulfilled its goals of presenting an " ideal " production . The Boston Journal reported that the audience was " wrought up by the entertainment to a point of absolute approval " . The paper observed that it is a mistake to consider Pinafore a burlesque , " for while irresistibly comical it is not bouffe and requires to be handled with great care lest its delicate proportions be marred and its subtle quality of humor be lost " . The Journal described the opera as " classical " in method and wrote that its " most exquisite satire " lay in its " imitation of the absurdities " of grand opera . The company went on to become one of the most successful touring companies in America . The first children 's version in Boston became a sensation with both children and adult audiences , extending its run through the summer of 1879 . The Boston Herald wrote that " the large audience of children and their elders went fairly wild with delight ... shrieks of laughter were repeatedly heard " .
= = = Subsequent reception = = =
When Pinafore was first revived in London in 1887 , it was already treated as a classic . The Illustrated London News observed that the opera had not been updated with new dialogue , jokes and songs , but concluded that this was for the best , as the public would have missed the " time @-@ honoured jokes , such as ' Hardly Ever . ' The Savoy has once more got a brilliant success . " The Theatre concurred , stating that since the opera " has been heard in almost every part of this habitable globe and been enjoyed everywhere , there is not much occasion to descant " . It called the revival a " most brilliant " success and predicted another long run .
Reviewing the 1899 revival , The Athenaeum managed to praise the piece while joining in the musical establishment 's critique of Sullivan . On the one hand , " The Pinafore ... sounds fresher than ever . The musical world has become serious – very serious – and it is indeed refreshing to hear a merry , humorous piece , and music , unassuming in character ... it is delicately scored , and in many ways displays ability of a high order " . On the other hand , it wrote that if Sullivan had pursued the path of composing more serious music , like his symphony , " he would have produced still higher results ; in like manner Pinafore set us wondering what the composer would have accomplished with a libretto of somewhat similar kind , but one giving him larger scope for the exercise of his gifts " .
In 1911 , H. L. Mencken wrote : " No other comic opera ever written – no other stage play , indeed , of any sort – was ever so popular . ... Pinafore ... has been given , and with great success , wherever there are theaters – from Moscow to Buenos Aires , from Cape Town to Shanghai ; in Madrid , Ottawa and Melbourne ; even in Paris , Rome , Vienna and Berlin . " After the deaths of Gilbert and Sullivan , the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company retained exclusive rights to perform their operas in Great Britain until 1962 , touring throughout Britain for most of the year and , beginning in 1919 , often performing in London for a season of about four months . The Times gave the company 's 1920 London production an enthusiastic review , saying that the audience was " enraptured " , and regretting that Pinafore would be played for only two weeks . It praised the cast , singling out Leo Sheffield as the Captain , Henry Lytton as Sir Joseph , Elsie Griffin as Josephine , James Hay as Ralph , Bertha Lewis as Little Buttercup and the " splendid " choral tone . It concluded that the opera made a " rollicking climax to the season " . Two years later , it gave an even more glowing report of that season 's performances , calling Derek Oldham an " ideal hero " as Ralph , noting that Sydney Granville " fairly brought down the house " with his song , that Darrell Fancourt 's Deadeye was " an admirably sustained piece of caricature " and that it was a " great pleasure " to hear the returning principals . A 1961 review of the company 's Pinafore is much the same .
In 1879 , J. C. Williamson acquired the exclusive performing rights to Pinafore in Australia and New Zealand . His first production earned public and critical acclaim . Williamson played Sir Joseph , and his wife , Maggie Moore played Josephine . Praising the production and all the performers , the Sydney Morning Herald noted that the production though " abounding in fun " was dignified and precise , that many numbers were encored and that laughter and applause from the " immense audience ... was liberally bestowed " . Williamson 's company continued to produce Pinafore in Australia , New Zealand and on tour into the 1960s with much success . As Williamson said , " If you need money , then put on G & S " . Meanwhile , Pinafore continued to garner praise outside Britain . The 1950s Danish version in Copenhagen , for example , was revived repeatedly , playing for well over 100 performances to " packed houses " . Translations into German , Yiddish and many other languages , and professional productions in places as remote as Samarkand in Uzbekistan have been successful .
In the U.S. , where Gilbert and Sullivan 's performance copyright was never in force , Pinafore continued to be produced continuously by both professional and amateur companies . The New York Times , in a 1914 review , called a large @-@ scale production at the 6 @,@ 000 @-@ seat New York Hippodrome a " royal entertainment " that " comes up smiling " . The opera had been turned into a " mammoth spectacle " at with a chorus of hundreds and the famous Hippodrome tank providing a realistic harbour . Buttercup made her entrance to the three @-@ masted Pinafore rowing into sight , and Dick Deadeye was later thrown overboard with a real splash . The Times praised the hearty singing but noted that some subtlety is lost when the dialogue needs " fairly to be shouted " . The production took some liberties , including interpolating music from other Sullivan works . The paper concluded , " the mild satire of Pinafore is entertaining because it is universal " . The same paper deemed Winthrop Ames ' popular Broadway productions of Pinafore in the 1920s and 1930s " spectacular " . Modern productions in America continue to be generally well received . The New York Times review of The New York Gilbert and Sullivan Players ' 2008 season at New York City Center commented , " Gilbert 's themes of class inequality , overbearing nationalism and incompetent authorities remain relevant , however absurdly treated . But the lasting appeal of Pinafore and its ilk is more a matter of his unmatched linguistic genius and Sullivan 's generous supply of addictive melodies . "
With the expiry of the copyrights , companies around the world have been free to produce Gilbert and Sullivan works and to adapt them as they please for almost 50 years . Productions of Pinafore , both amateur and professional , range from the traditional , in the D 'Oyly Carte vein , to the broadly adapted , such as that of the very successful Essgee Entertainment ( formed by Simon Gallaher ) in Australia and Opera della Luna in Britain . Since its original production , H.M.S. Pinafore has remained one of Gilbert and Sullivan 's most popular comic operas . Productions continue in large numbers around the world . In 2003 alone , The D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company rented 224 sets of orchestra parts , mostly for productions of Pinafore , Pirates and Mikado . This does not take into account other rental companies and the theatre companies that borrow scores or have their own , or that use only one or two pianos instead of an orchestra . Hundreds of productions of Pinafore are presented every year worldwide .
= = Analysis = =
Theatre historian John Bush Jones wrote that Pinafore has " everything a musical theatregoer could ask for . An engaging and even relatively suspenseful story is populated with varied and well @-@ drawn characters who speak and sing witty , literate , and often outrageously funny dialogue and lyrics [ and ] has a score that ... has plenty of tunes for the audience to go away humming " . Sir George Power , the tenor who created the role of Ralph Rackstraw , opined in later life that the secret of the success of the Savoy operas is the way in which " Sullivan entered into the spirit of Gilbert 's topsy @-@ turvy humour , and was pompous when Gilbert was sprightly , or , when Gilbert 's satire was keenest and most acid , consciously wallowed in sentiment . " Another commentator has suggested that the opera 's enduring success lies in its focus on " mirth and silliness " . Even the title of the piece is silly , applying the name of a little girl 's garment , a pinafore , to the fearsome symbol of a naval warship , which usually bore names like Victory , Goliath , Audacious and Minotaur .
= = = Satiric and comic themes = = =
Biographer Jane Stedman wrote that Pinafore is " satirically far more complex " than The Sorcerer . She commented that Gilbert uses several ideas and themes from his Bab Ballads , including the idea of gentlemanly behaviour of a captain towards his crew from " Captain Reece " ( 1868 ) and the exchange of ranks due to exchange at birth from " General John " ( 1867 ) . Dick Deadeye , based on a character in " Woman 's Gratitude " ( 1869 ) , represents another of Gilbert 's favorite ( and semi @-@ autobiographical ) satiric themes : the misshapen misanthrope whose forbidding " face and form " makes him unpopular although he represents the voice of reason and common sense . Gilbert also borrows from his 1870 opera , The Gentleman in Black which includes the device of baby @-@ switching .
Historian H. M. Walbrook wrote in 1921 that Pinafore " satirizes the type of nautical drama of which Douglas Jerrold 's Black @-@ Eyed Susan is a typical instance , and the ' God 's Englishman ' sort of patriotism which consists in shouting a platitude , striking an attitude , and doing little or nothing to help one 's country " . G. K. Chesterton agreed that the satire is pointed at the selfishness of " being proud of yourself for being a citizen " of one 's country , which requires no virtuous effort of will to resist the " temptations to belong to other nations " but is merely an excuse for pride . In 2005 , Australian opera director Stuart Maunder noted the juxtaposition of satire and nationalism in the opera , saying , " they all sing ' He is an Englishman ' , and you know damn well they 're sending it up , but the music is so military ... that you can 't help but be swept up in that whole jingoism that is the British Empire . " In addition , he argued that the song ties this theme into the main satire of class distinctions in the opera : " H.M.S. Pinafore is basically a satire on ... the British love of the class system . ... [ O ] f course [ Ralph ] can marry [ the Captain 's ] daughter , because he 's British , and therefore he 's great ' " . Jacobs notes that Gilbert is lampooning the tradition of nautical melodrama in which the sailor 's " patriotism guarantees his virtue " .
One of Gilbert 's favourite comic themes is the elevation of an unqualified person to a position of high responsibility . In The Happy Land ( 1873 ) , for example , Gilbert describes a world in which government offices are awarded to the person who has the least qualification to hold each position . In particular , the one who has never heard of a ship is appointed to the cabinet post of First Lord of the Admiralty . In Pinafore , Gilbert revisits this theme in the character of Sir Joseph , who rises to the same position by " never go [ ing ] to sea " . In later Gilbert and Sullivan operas , the characters Major @-@ General Stanley in Pirates , and Ko @-@ Ko in The Mikado , are similarly appointed to high office though lacking the necessary qualifications . Gilbert also pokes fun at party politics , implying that when Sir Joseph " always voted at [ his ] party 's call " , he sacrificed his personal integrity . The " commercial middle class " ( which was Gilbert 's main audience ) is treated as satirically as are social climbers and the great unwashed . In addition , the apparent age difference between Ralph and the Captain , even though they were babies nursed together , satirises the variable age of Thaddeus in The Bohemian Girl . The Times wrote , in reviewing the 1929 production , that Pinafore was quintessentially Gilbertian in that the absurdities of a " paternal " Captain and the " ethics ... of all romanticism " are accepted " unflinchingly " and taken to their logical conclusion : " It is the reference to actuality that is essential ; without it , the absurdity will not stand starkly out " .
A theme that pervades the opera is the treatment of love across different social ranks . In the previous Gilbert and Sullivan opera , The Sorcerer , a love potion causes trouble by inducing the villagers and wedding guests to fall in love with people of different social classes . In Pinafore , the captain 's daughter , Josephine , loves and is loved by a common sailor , but she dutifully tells him , " your proffered love I haughtily reject " . He expresses his devotion to her in a poetic and moving speech that ends with " I am a British sailor , and I love you " . It finally turns out that he is of a higher rank than she . This is a parody of the Victorian " equality " drama , such as Lord Lytton 's The Lady of Lyons ( 1838 ) , where the heroine rejects a virtuous peasant who makes a similarly moving speech , ending with " I am a peasant ! " It then turns out that he has become her social superior . Furthermore , in Pinafore , Sir Joseph assures Josephine that " love levels all ranks " . In Tom Taylor 's The Serf , the heroine again loves a worthy peasant who turns out to be of high rank , and she declares happily at the end that " love levels all " . In a satire of the libertarian traditions of nautical melodrama , Sir Joseph tells the crew of the Pinafore that they are " any man 's equal " ( excepting his ) , and he writes a song for them that glorifies the British sailor . Conversely , he brings the proud captain down a notch by making him " dance a hornpipe on the cabin table " . Jones notes that the union between Ralph and Josephine " becomes acceptable only through the absurd second @-@ act revelation of Buttercup 's inadvertent switching of the infants " and concludes that Gilbert is a " conservative satirist [ who ] ultimately advocated preserving the status quo ... [ and ] set out to show [ that ] love definitely does not level all ranks " .
There is a divide among Gilbert and Sullivan scholars as to whether Gilbert is , as Jones argues , a supporter of the status quo whose focus is merely to entertain or , on the other hand , predominantly to satirise and protest " against the follies of his age " . Gilbert scholar Andrew Crowther posits that this disagreement arises from Gilbert 's " techniques of inversion – with irony and topsyturvydom " , which lead to " the surface meaning of his writings " being " the opposite of their underlying meaning " . Crowther argues that Gilbert desires to " celebrate " society 's norms while , at the same time , satirising these conventions . In Pinafore , which established many patterns for the later Savoy operas , Gilbert found a way to express his own conflict that " also had tremendous appeal to the general public " . He creates " a highly intelligent parody of nautical melodrama ... [ though ] controlled by the conventions it mocks " . While nautical melodrama exalts the common sailor , in Pinafore Gilbert makes the proponent of equality , Sir Joseph , a pompous and misguided member of the ruling class who , hypocritically , cannot apply the idea of equality to himself . The hero , Ralph , is convinced of his equality by Sir Joseph 's foolish pronouncements and declares his love for his Captain 's daughter , throwing over the accepted " fabric of social order " . At this point , Crowther suggests , the logic of Gilbert 's satiric argument should result in Ralph 's arrest . But to satisfy convention , Gilbert creates an obvious absurdity : the captain and Ralph were switched as babies . By an " accident of birth " , Ralph is suddenly an appropriate husband for Josephine , and both the social order and the desire for a romantic happy ending are satisfied at once . Crowther concludes , " We have an opera which uses all the conventions of melodrama and ridicules them ; but in the end it is difficult to see which has won out , the conventions or the ridicule . " Thus , Pinafore found broadbased success by appealing to the intellectual theatregoer seeking satire , the middle @-@ class theatre @-@ goer looking for a comfortable confirmation of the " existing social order " and the working @-@ class audience who saw a satisfying melodramatic victory for the common man .
= = = Songs and musical analysis = = =
According to musicologist Arthur Jacobs , Gilbert 's plot " admirably sparked off Sullivan 's genius " . Sullivan embraces the nautical setting ; in " We Sail the Ocean Blue " , for example , he " presents his twist on a traditional sea shanty " . In the Captain 's opening song , " I am the Captain of the Pinafore " , he admits that his gentlemanliness " never ... well , hardly ever " gives way to swearing at his men , and although he has experience at sea , he " hardly ever " suffers from seasickness . Sullivan " unerringly found the right musical setting for the key phrase ' What never ? ' ... cunningly sharpened ... through the chromatic touch on the bassoon . " Audrey Williamson argued that the music of Pinafore is quintessentially English and free of European influences throughout most of the score , from the " glee " for Ralph , the Boatswain and the Carpenter , to " For He Is an Englishman " .
The best @-@ known songs from the opera include " I 'm called Little Buttercup " , a waltz tune introducing the character , which Sullivan repeats in the entr 'acte and in the Act II finale to imprint the melody on the mind of the audience ; and " A British tar " ( a glee for three men describing the ideal sailor ) , composed by Sir Joseph " to encourage independent thought and action in the lower branches of the service , and to teach the principle that a British sailor is any man 's equal , excepting mine " . Sullivan 's voicing advances the satiric lyric , which mocks the " equality " plays while underlining the hypocrisy of Sir Joseph . Another popular number is Sir Joseph 's song " When I was a Lad " , recounting the meteoric rise of his career , which bears similarities to that of W. H. Smith , the civilian news entrepreneur who had risen to the position of First Lord of the Admiralty in 1877 .
In Pinafore , Sullivan exploits minor keys for comic effect , for instance in " Kind Captain , I 've important information " . Further , he achieves a musical surprise when he uses the subdominant minor in " Sorry her lot " . Biographer Gervase Hughes was impressed with the introduction to the opening chorus which includes " a rousing nautical tune ... in a key of no nonsense , C major ... a modulation to the mediant minor , where to our surprise a plaintive oboe gives us the first verse of " Sorry her lot " in 2 / 4 [ time ] . After this closes on the local dominant B major the violins ( still in 2 / 4 ) introduce us to Little Buttercup ... meeting her under these conditions one would hardly expect her to blossom out later as a queen of the waltz . " He continues , " the bassoon and basses ... assert vigorously who is the Captain of the Pinafore ... in the improbable key of A flat minor . ... Buttercup makes a last despairing attempt to make herself heard in D flat minor , but the others have never known that such an outlandish key existed . So in a flash they all go back to C major on a good old 6 / 4 " .
According to Jacobs , " Ralph , Captain Corcoran , Sir Joseph and Josephine all live in their interactive music ( particularly ' Never mind the why and wherefore ' ) , and almost as much musical resource is lavished on two characters parodied from opera or melodrama , Little Buttercup with ' gypsy blood in her veins ' and the heavy @-@ treading Dick Deadeye . " Jacobs also opined that the leading tone that begins " Never mind the why and wherefore " " serves to emphasize the phrase like a Johann Strauss @-@ ian grace @-@ note " . Sullivan scholar David Russell Hulme noted Sullivan 's parody of operatic styles , " particularly the Handelian recitatives and the elopement scene ( evocative of so many nocturnal operatic conspiracies ) , but best of all is the travesty of the patriotic tune in ' For he is an Englishman ! ' " Buttercup 's Act II song , in which she reveals the dark secret of the baby @-@ switching is preceded by a quote from Franz Schubert 's " The Erl @-@ King " and also parodies the opera Il Trovatore . Jacobs notes that Sullivan also adds his own humorous touches to the music by setting commonplace expressions in " Donizettian recitative " . But on the serious side , he enhances the moments of true emotional climax , as in Josephine 's Act II aria , and added musical interest to concerted numbers by " subtly shifting the rhythms and bar groupings . "
= = Revisions and cut material = =
= = = Ballad for Captain Corcoran , " Reflect , my child " = = =
During rehearsals for the original production , Gilbert added a ballad for Captain Corcoran in which he urged his daughter to forget the common sailor with whom she is in love , because " at every step , he would commit solecisms that society would never pardon . " The ballad was meant to be sung between No. 5 and No. 6 of the current score , but it was cut before opening night . The words survive in the libretto that was deposited with the Lord Chamberlain for licensing . Before 1999 , all that was known to survive of Sullivan 's setting was a copy of the leader violin part .
In April 1999 , Sullivan scholars Bruce I. Miller and Helga J. Perry announced that they had discovered a nearly complete orchestration – lacking only the second violin part – in a private collection of early band parts . These materials , with a conjectural reconstruction of the partially lost vocal lines and second violin part , were later published and professionally recorded . This piece has now been performed a number of times by amateur and professional companies , although it has not become a standard addition to the traditional scores or recordings .
= = = Dialogue for Cousin Hebe = = =
In the licensing copy of the libretto , Sir Joseph 's cousin Hebe had lines of dialogue in several scenes in Act II . In the scene that follows No. 14 ( " Things are seldom what they seem " ) , she accompanied Sir Joseph onstage and echoed the First Lord 's dissatisfaction with Josephine . After several interruptions , Sir Joseph urged her to be quiet , eliciting the response " Crushed again ! " Gilbert would later re @-@ use this passage for Lady Jane in Patience . Hebe was also assigned several lines of dialogue after No. 18 ( " Carefully on tiptoe stealing " ) and again after No. 19 ( " Farewell , my own " ) .
Late in rehearsals for the original production , Jessie Bond assumed the role of Hebe , replacing Mrs Howard Paul . Bond , who at this point in her career was known primarily as a concert singer and had little experience as an actress , did not feel capable of performing dialogue , and these passages were revised to cut Hebe 's dialogue . Hebe 's cut dialogue is occasionally restored in modern performances .
= = = Recitative preceding the Act II finale = = =
The dialogue preceding the Act II finale , starting with " Here , take her sir , and mind you treat her kindly " , was originally recitative . The music for this passage was printed in the first edition of the vocal score as No. 20a . Shortly after opening night , the recitative was dropped , and the lines thereafter were performed as spoken dialogue . In modern productions , the recitative is occasionally restored in place of the dialogue .
= = Recordings = =
There have been numerous recordings of Pinafore since 1907 . Ian Bradley counted seventeen recordings of the opera available on CD in 2005 .
The 1930 recording is notable for preserving the performances of the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company stars of the era . The 1960 D 'Oyly Carte recording , which contains all the dialogue , has been repeatedly praised by reviewers . The 1994 Mackerras recording , featuring grand opera singers in the principal roles , is musically well @-@ regarded . The 2000 D 'Oyly Carte recording also contains complete dialogue and the first recording of the " lost " ballad for Captain Corcoran , " Reflect , my child " , as a bonus track . A 1957 Danish @-@ language recording of the opera is one of the few foreign @-@ language professional recordings of Gilbert and Sullivan .
In 1939 , Pinafore was chosen by NBC as one of the earliest operas ever broadcast on American television , but no recording appears to have been saved . The 1973 D 'Oyly Carte video recording , directed by Michael Heyland , demonstrates the company 's staging of the period , but some reviewers find it dull . It is , however , one of only three video or film recordings of a Gilbert and Sullivan opera by the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company . The 1982 video of Pinafore " is widely considered one of the worst " in the Brent Walker Productions series of Gilbert and Sullivan television productions . More recent professional productions have been recorded on video by the International Gilbert and Sullivan Festival .
Selected recordings
1930 D 'Oyly Carte – London Symphony Orchestra ; Conductor : Malcolm Sargent
1958 Sargent / Glyndebourne – Pro Arte Orchestra , Glyndebourne Festival Chorus ; Conductor : Sir Malcolm Sargent
1960 D 'Oyly Carte ( with dialogue ) – New Symphony Orchestra of London ; Conductor : Isidore Godfrey
1972 G & S for All – G & S Festival Chorus & Orchestra ; Conductor : Peter Murray
1973 D 'Oyly Carte ( video ) – Conductor : Royston Nash
1981 Stratford Festival ( video ) – Conductor : Berthold Carrière ; Director : Leon Major
1987 New Sadler 's Wells Opera – Conductor : Simon Phipps
1994 Mackerras / Telarc – Orchestra and Chorus of the Welsh National Opera ; Conductor : Sir Charles Mackerras
1997 Essgee Entertainment ( video ; adapted ) – Conductor : Kevin Hocking
2000 D 'Oyly Carte ( with dialogue ) – Conductor : John Owen Edwards
= = Adaptations = =
H.M.S. Pinafore has been adapted many times . W. S. Gilbert wrote a 1909 children 's book called The Pinafore Picture Book , illustrated by Alice Woodward , which retells the story of Pinafore , in some cases giving considerable backstory that is not found in the libretto . Many other children 's books have since been written retelling the story of Pinafore or adapting characters or events from Pinafore .
Many musical theatre adaptations have been produced since the original opera . Notable examples include a 1945 Broadway musical adapted by George S. Kaufman , called Hollywood Pinafore , using Sullivan 's music . This was revived several times , including in London in 1998 . Another 1945 Broadway musical adaptation , Memphis Bound ! , was written by Don Walker and starred Bill Robinson and an all @-@ black cast . In 1940 , the American Negro Light Opera Association produced the first of several productions set in the Caribbean Sea , Tropical Pinafore . An early Yiddish adaptation of Pinafore , called Der Shirtz ( Yiddish for " apron " ) was written by Miriam Walowit in 1952 for a Brooklyn , New York Hadassah group , and they recorded 12 of the songs . In the 1970s , Al Grand was inspired by this recording and urged the Gilbert and Sullivan Long Island Light Opera Company to perform these songs . He later translated the missing songs and dialogue , with Bob Tartell , and the show has been toured widely under the name Der Yiddisher Pinafore . The group have continued to produce this adaptation for over two decades , in which " He is an Englishman " becomes " Er Iz a Guter Yid " ( " He is a good Jew " ) .
Essgee Entertainment produced an adapted version of Pinafore in 1997 in Australia and New Zealand that has been much revived . Another musical adaptation is Pinafore ! ( A Saucy , Sexy , Ship @-@ Shape New Musical ) , adapted by Mark Savage . It was first performed at the Celebration Theater in Los Angeles , California on 7 September 2001 , directed by Savage , where it ran with great success for nine months . It then played in Chicago and New York in 2003 . In this adaptation , only one character is female , and all but one of the male characters are gay . An original cast recording was issued in 2002 by Belva Records . Pinafore Swing is a musical with music arranged by Sarah Travis . It premiered at the Watermill Theatre in England in 2004 in a production directed by John Doyle . The adaptation , set in 1944 , changes the characters into members of a band entertaining the sailors on a World War II troop ship in the Atlantic . The reduced @-@ size acting cast also serve as the orchestra for the singing roles , and the music is infused with swing rhythms . Numerous productions in recent decades have been set to parody Star Trek or Star Wars .
= = Cultural impact = =
Among its other influences on popular culture , Pinafore had perhaps its most profound influence on the development of musical theatre . According to theatre historian John Kenrick , Pinafore " became an international sensation , reshaping the commercial theater in both England and the United States . " Music writer Andrew Lamb notes , " The success of H.M.S. Pinafore in 1879 established British comic opera alongside French opéra bouffe throughout the English @-@ speaking world " . Historian John Bush Jones opines that Pinafore and the other Savoy operas demonstrate that musical theatre " can address contemporary social and political issues without sacrificing entertainment value " and that Pinafore created the model for a new kind of musical theatre , the " integrated " musical , where " book , lyrics , and music combined to form an integral whole " . He adds that its " unprecedented ... popularity fostered an American audience for musical theatre , while the show itself became a model for form , content , and even intention of ... musicals ever since , especially socially relevant musicals . " Its popularity also led to the musical theatre adaptations of Pinafore described above , musicals in which the story line involves a production of Pinafore and other musicals that parody the opera or that use or adapt its music . The first such parody was a short @-@ lived burlesque presented at the Opera Comique in 1882 , called The Wreck of the Pinafore by H. Lingard and Luscombe Searelle ; the opera 's characters are shipwrecked on a desert island . It was described by The Era as " chiefly remarkable for its impudence " .
Likewise , the opera 's popularity has led to the widespread parody and pastiche of its songs in politics , literature and films , on television and in a variety of other media . Many comedians have used Pinafore songs for comic and satiric effect . For example , in his comedy album My Son , the Celebrity , Allan Sherman parodies " When I Was a Lad " from the point of view of a young man who goes to an Ivy League school and then rises to prominence in business . At the end of the song , he " thanks old Yale " , " thanks the Lord " and thanks his father , " who is chairman of the board " . Literary references to Pinafore songs include Harris 's attempt to sing " When I Was a Lad " in Jerome K. Jerome 's Three Men in a Boat . Another is found in the story " Runaround " from I , Robot by Isaac Asimov , where a robot sings part of " I 'm Called Little Buttercup " . Pinafore and its songs have been performed by rock musicians such as Todd Rundgren , Taj Mahal and Michele Gray Rundgren , who performed " Never Mind the Why and Wherefore " on Night Music ( Sunday Night ) in 1989 .
Political references include a 1996 satiric pastiche of " When I Was a Lad " aimed at Tony Blair by Virginia Bottomley , heritage secretary under John Major . Sporting references include a racehorse named " H.M.S. Pinafore " . Pinafore songs and images have been used extensively in advertising . According to Jones , " Pinafore launched the first media blitz in the United States " beginning in 1879 , and recent ads include a television campaign for Terry 's Chocolate Orange featuring a pastiche of " When I Was a Lad " . Pinafore @-@ themed merchandise includes trading cards that were created in the 1880s .
Film references In recent decades , songs from Pinafore have been used frequently to give period flavor to films . Prominent examples include the 1981 historical film Chariots of Fire , in which the protagonist , Harold Abrahams , and others from Cambridge University , sing " He Is an Englishman " . This song also features at the end of the 1983 BBC drama An Englishman Abroad . In the 2003 movie Peter Pan , the Darling family sings " When I Was a Lad " . In Wyatt Earp ( 1994 ) , the famed lawman meets his future wife when he sees her playing in an early production of Pinafore . A 1953 biopic , The Story of Gilbert and Sullivan , uses music from Pinafore .
Characters also sing songs from Pinafore in such popular films as Raiders of the Lost Ark ( 1981 ) and Star Trek : Insurrection ( 1998 ) , where Captain Picard and Lt. Commander Worf sing part of " A British Tar " to distract a malfunctioning Lt. Commander Data . Likewise , in The Good Shepherd ( 2006 ) , which depicts an all @-@ male version of Pinafore at Yale University , the Matt Damon character plays Little Buttercup , singing her song in falsetto . Judy Garland sings " I Am the Monarch of the Sea " in the 1963 film , I Could Go On Singing . The soundtrack of the 1992 thriller The Hand that Rocks the Cradle prominently features songs and music from Pinafore , and the father and daughter characters sing " I Am the Captain of the Pinafore " together . An example of a film based on ideas from Pinafore is the 1976 animated film by Ronald Searle called Dick Deadeye , or Duty Done is based on the character and songs from Pinafore . In the 1988 drama Permanent Record , a high school class performs Pinafore .
Television references Television series that include substantial Pinafore references include The West Wing , for example in the 2000 episode " And It 's Surely to Their Credit " , where " He Is an Englishman " is used throughout and quoted ( or paraphrased ) in the episode 's title . Among other notable examples of the use of songs from Pinafore on television are several popular animated shows . In the " Cape Feare " episode of The Simpsons , Bart stalls his would @-@ be killer Sideshow Bob with a " final request " that Bob sing him the entire score of Pinafore . Similarly , the 1993 " HMS Yakko " episode of Animaniacs consists of pastiches of songs from H.M.S. Pinafore and The Pirates of Penzance . In a Family Guy episode , " The Thin White Line " ( 2001 ) , Stewie sings a pastiche of " My Gallant Crew " . Stewie also sings " I Am the Monarch of the Sea " ( including the ladies ' part , in falsetto ) in " Stewie Griffin : The Untold Story " . A 1986 Mr. Belvedere episode , " The Play " , concerns a production of H.M.S. Pinafore , and several of the songs are performed . In the 2009 episode " Broken " of House , Dr. House must take a urine test and starts singing " He is an Englishman " to cover the sound . In 1955 , NBC broadcast a variety special including a 20 @-@ minute compressed jazz version , " H.M.S. Pinafore in Jazz " , produced and directed by Max Liebman , starring Perry Como , Buddy Hackett , Kitty Kallen , Bill Hayes , Pat Carroll and Herb Shriner .
= = Historical casting = =
The following tables show the most prominent cast members of significant D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company productions and tours at various times through to the company 's 1982 closure :
1 The Midshipmite , Tom Tucker , is traditionally played by a child . " Fitzaltamont " was likely a pseudonym used to protect the child 's identity , as the same name appears on programmes of several provincial touring companies . No names are listed for his role in later productions .
= AJ Ahmed =
Amjad Jahangir " AJ " Ahmed is a fictional character from the BBC soap opera EastEnders , played by Phaldut Sharma . The character made his first on @-@ screen appearance in the 4458th episode , which was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on 9 July 2012 . Sharma filmed his final scenes before Christmas 2013 and the character 's final episode was broadcast on 10 January 2014 , being the 4783th episode .
AJ is an extension to the established Masood family , the younger brother of established character Masood Ahmed ( Nitin Ganatra ) . He is disliked by Masood 's wife Zainab ( Nina Wadia ) , but brings out a previously unseen fun side to his brother . AJ is portrayed as a mechanic who is cheeky , fun @-@ loving , irresponsible , annoying and spontaneous , though he makes decisions by flipping a coin . He has received mixed comments from critics , with Ally Ross from The Sun calling him " supposedly funny " and wanting him to " piss off " , Laura White from Inside Soap saying he is " the perfect tonic for a family almost constantly dogged with crisis " , and Anthony D. Langford from AfterElton.com praising the character but wondering if the writers knew what to do with him . His storylines have since included a feud with Derek Branning ( Jamie Foreman ) , divorcing his wife Aliyah Ahmed ( Ann Wenn ) and lending support to Masood through financial problems and his breakup with Zainab .
= = Storylines = =
After his arrival in Walford , AJ 's brother Masood ( Nitin Ganatra ) makes sure he avoids his ex @-@ wife Zainab ( Nina Wadia ) , because she dislikes him . AJ proves to be a bad influence on Masood when they damage Derek Branning 's ( Jamie Foreman ) car with a shopping trolley and AJ is punched by Derek . AJ discovers that Masood and Zainab are divorced and later tells Masood he came to Walford because his wife Aliyah ( Ann Wenn ) has left him . After Masood inspires AJ with his reunion with Zainab , AJ leaves to reconcile with his own wife . He returns a few weeks later saying that he and Aliyah are divorcing . Zainab contacts Aliyah to try to get her to take AJ back , and AJ says that Aliyah had an affair . Aliyah drops off AJ 's belongings and reveals that there was no affair . AJ then explains that he left Aliyah because she wants children and he does not . AJ moves in with Masood and his family . Zainab dislikes his laziness and she becomes annoyed when he brings Roxy Mitchell ( Rita Simons ) back after a drunken evening . Roxy stays the night but makes it clear that it was a one @-@ off .
AJ gets a job from Phil Mitchell ( Steve McFadden ) as a mechanic to help the family with their financial problems . He selfishly takes money from the family to buy a motorbike , but then sells it to help pay the mortgage . When Zainab says she will stop interfering in people 's lives , AJ uses the opportunity to annoy her . AJ and Aliyah receive their decree nisi . When Zainab has a job interview , AJ tells the interviewer she has short @-@ term memory loss . However , when he apologises via a Post @-@ It note , she returns the apology . AJ supports Masood when his relationship with Zainab ends . When AJ has to look after Masood 's young son Kamil Masood ( Arian Chikhlia ) , he admits that he is not good with children , and was scared when Aliyah wanted one , because he feels he cannot look after himself properly , let alone a child . However , he bonds well with his nephew . AJ is offered a job as an assistant manager at a garage in Birmingham . Although he initially wants to turn down the position , he eventually accepts the job offer . Shortly before he leaves Walford , AJ learns that his mother has died . Masood is angry with AJ when he explains that he cannot attend their mother 's funeral . AJ then leaves for Birmingham .
= = Character creation and development = =
= = = Casting and introduction = = =
Sharma was recommended for the part of AJ by Nitin Ganatra ( Masood ) after the character was described to him , because producers wanted AJ and Masood to be funny together . The two actors had previously performed in comedy together in short film The Drop , Channel 4 's Meet the Magoons and a programme called To Eat with Your Fingers , so Ganatra thought Sharma would be perfect for the role and he was the first person he thought of . Ganatra and the producers went through ideas of how a brother would affect Masood and what their relationship would be . Ganatra explained that he thought Masood only had one brother until he was told about AJ . When Sharma and Ganatra performed a scene together at Sharma 's audition , the dialogue came so naturally to them that producers thought they were improvising , but , as Ganatra explained , they " know each other 's style [ and ] have all these shortcuts . It 's like having a real brother . " Sharma was offered the part immediately after his interview . Sharma added in March 2013 : " I 've known Nitin for years and he really lobbied for me to get the role of AJ , and as soon as I finished my audition the producers offered me the part and asked if I wanted a cup of tea , to which I replied , ' Yes please , I 've waited 20 years for that cup of tea ' , but it 's been really nice to just jump onto a set with someone I 've already bonded with — it 's like having a pre @-@ built family to bounce off . " He had also previously worked with his co @-@ stars Nina Wadia ( Zainab ) and Marc Elliott ( Syed Masood ) , so felt it was " cool " and " familiar " to work with them . Sharma revealed in an interview with Inside Soap that his own mother always thought he should play Masood 's brother after watching EastEnders for many years . The first scene Sharma filmed was with Ganatra on the set outside The Queen Victoria public house , and he found it " really surreal " .
The character and Sharma 's casting were announced on 1 June 2012 . It was reported that AJ arrives in Albert Square hoping to reconnect with Masood and build bridges with his family , then AJ gets himself and Masood in trouble , so Masood wonders if AJ is running away from something . Sharma said " I think it 's a really fun , colourful and lively part and I can 't wait to see where it goes ! " Speaking of AJ 's arrival , Ganatra said that he felt " very confident , happy and excited about having a new character to play against " , especially a new member of the family , " because the Masoods are always about family . " AJ first appears in the episode originally broadcast in the UK on 9 July 2012 , which is EastEnders ' 4458th episode .
= = = Characterisation = = =
AJ is a mechanic , who is described as a chancer who " never misses an opportunity for excitement . " He is characterised as a free @-@ spirited , fun @-@ loving and carefree rebel , who does not always realise how his spontaneity affects other people . He is described as cheeky , irresponsible , a bad influence , a joker , a charmer and a talker . It is said that he does not plan or do what people expect of him , is fun to be around and could be running away from life . A writer for the BBC said that he lives " like there 's no tomorrow " , and makes decisions based on the results of a coin flip . The coin , described as " lucky " , is inspired by the Bollywood film Sholay , in which two friends make decisions based on the flip of a coin , though one friend does not know that both sides of the coin are the same . Ganatra stated in an interview on This Morning that he did not think that the two sides of AJ 's coin were the same . Sharma described AJ as " the clown who loves to play " and " a little bit of a hippy " , saying " he 's got a real wheeler @-@ dealer , Del Boy aspect to his character . " He has twice compared AJ to a puppy dog , because he is nice but annoying , and he is fun but a nuisance . Sharma , who was brought up in Newport , said that " the charm , humour and personality " of Welsh people he knew helped him to create the character of AJ .
Laura Morgan from All About Soap called AJ " mischievous " , and the magazine also called him " bothersome " and " crazy " . Nathan Bevan from Western Mail has called him " gregarious " , an " aggro @-@ magnet " , a " trouble @-@ magnet " , " wise @-@ cracking " and " wheeler @-@ dealing " . He has also been called " flighty " , a " tearaway " , " naughty " and " good @-@ for @-@ nothing " .
= = = Role within the Masood family = = =
AJ is a member of the Pakistani Masood family , headed by Masood Ahmed , played by Ganatra . Masood is married to Wadia 's character , Zainab Masood ( though at the time of AJ 's arrival they are divorced and planning to remarry ) , and they live with their children Syed Masood ( Elliott ) , Tamwar Masood ( Himesh Patel ) and K
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its descent . After its 44th use in 1999 , the third ball was retired and placed on display at the Atlanta headquarters of Jamestown Group , owners of One Times Square .
= = = Into the new millennium ( 1999 – 2007 ) = = =
On December 28 , 1998 , during a press conference attended by New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani , organizers announced that the third ball would be retired for the arrival of the new millennium , and replaced by a new design constructed by Waterford Crystal . The year 2000 celebrations would also introduce more prominent sponsorship to the drop ; companies such as Discover Card , Korbel Champagne , and Panasonic were announced as official sponsors of the festivities in Times Square . The city also announced that Ron Silver would lead a committee known as " NYC 2000 " , to be in charge of organizing events across New York City for the year 2000 celebrations , particularly outside of Times Square .
A full day of festivities was held at Times Square to celebrate the arrival of the year 2000 , which included concerts and hourly cultural presentations with parades of puppets designed by Michael Curry , representing countries entering the new year at that hour . Organizers expected a total attendance exceeding 2 million spectators .
The fourth ball , measuring 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) in diameter and weighing 1 @,@ 070 pounds ( 490 kg ) , incorporated a total of over 600 halogen bulbs , 504 triangle @-@ shaped crystal panels provided by Waterford , 96 strobe lights , and spinning , pyramid @-@ shaped mirrors . The ball was constructed at Waterford 's factory in Ireland , and was then shipped to New York City , where the lighting system and motorized mirrors were installed . Many of the triangles were inscribed with " Hope " -themed designs changing yearly , such as " Hope for Fellowship " , " Hope for Wisdom " , " Hope for Unity " , " Hope for Courage " , " Hope for Healing " , and " Hope for Abundance " .
For 2002 , the ball 's crystals were engraved with the names of nations and organizations who were affected by the September 11 attacks .
= = = Present day ( 2008 – present ) = = =
In honor of the ball drop 's centennial anniversary , a brand new fifth design debuted for New Year 's Eve 2008 . Once again manufactured by Waterford Crystal with a diameter of 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) , but weighing 1 @,@ 212 pounds ( 550 kg ) , it used LED lamps provided by Philips ( which can produce 16 @,@ 777 @,@ 216 or 224 colors ) , with computerized lighting patterns developed by the New York City @-@ based lighting firm Focus Lighting . The ball featured 9 @,@ 576 energy @-@ efficient bulbs that consumed the same amount of electricity as only 10 toasters . The 2008 ball was only used once , and was placed on display at the Times Square Visitors Center following the event .
For 2009 , a larger version of the fifth ball was introduced — an icosahedral geodesic sphere lit by 32 @,@ 256 LED lamps . Its diameter is twice as wide as 2008 ball , at 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) , and contains 2 @,@ 688 Waterford Crystal panels , with a weight of 11 @,@ 875 pounds ( 5 @,@ 386 kg ) . It was also designed to be weatherproof , as the ball would now be displayed atop One Times Square nearly year @-@ round following the celebrations .
Yearly themes for the ball 's crystal panels continued ; from 2008 to 2013 , the ball contained crystal patterns that were part of a Waterford series known as " World of Celebration " , including themes such as " Let There Be Light " and " Let There Be Peace " . For 2014 , all the ball 's panels were replaced , marking a new theme series known as " Greatest Gifts " , beginning with " Gift of Imagination " .
The numerical sign indicating the year ( which remains atop the tower along with the ball itself ) also uses Philips LED lamps . For 2014 , the final two digits of the sign used bulbs from the company 's " Hue " line of multi @-@ color LED lamps , allowing them to also have computerized lighting cues .
= = = Weather at midnight = = =
According to the National Weather Service , from 1907 to 2011 , the average temperature at midnight in New York City was 33 @.@ 7 ° F ( 0 @.@ 9 ° C ) . The coldest event was in 1917 when the temperature was 1 ° F ( − 17 ° C ) ( − 18 ° F ( − 28 ° C ) after wind chill ) , the second coldest was 11 ° F ( − 12 ° C ) in 1962 . The warmest ball drop was 58 ° F ( 14 ° C ) in both 1965 and 1972 . It has snowed during the ball drop just seven times out of 109 events ( one being light snow ) — 1926 , 1934 , 1948 , 1952 , 1961 , 1967 , and 2009 — and it has rained multiple times .
= = Broadcasting = =
As a public event , the festivities and ball drop are broadcast as part of New Year 's Eve television specials originating from Times Square on several major U.S. television networks and cable channels . By far the most notable of these is Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve ; created , produced , and originally hosted by the entertainer Dick Clark until his death in 2012 , and currently hosted by Ryan Seacrest , Jenny McCarthy , and Fergie , the program first aired on NBC in 1972 before moving to ABC , where it has been broadcast ever since . New Year 's Rockin ' Eve has consistently been the most @-@ watched New Year 's Eve special in the U.S. , peaking at 22 @.@ 6 million viewers for its 40th edition in 2012 . Following the death of Dick Clark in April 2012 , a crystal engraved with his name was added to the 2013 ball in tribute .
Across the remaining networks , NBC broadcasts New Year 's Eve with Carson Daly , hosted from Times Square by Carson Daly of The Voice and Last Call , and Spanish @-@ language network Univision broadcasts ¡ Feliz ! , hosted from Times Square by Raúl de Molina of El Gordo y La Flaca . On cable , CNN carries coverage of the festivities , known as New Year 's Eve Live , which has been hosted by Anderson Cooper and Kathy Griffin from Times Square . Fellow news channel Fox News Channel carries All @-@ American New Year , most recently hosted by Elisabeth Hasselbeck and Bill Hemmer from Times Square .
MTV has also broadcast coverage originating from the network 's Times Square studios at One Astor Plaza . For 2011 , MTV also held its own ball drop in Seaside Heights , New Jersey , the setting of its popular reality series Jersey Shore , featuring cast member Snooki lowered inside a giant " hamster ball " . Originally , MTV planned to hold the drop within its studio in Times Square , but the network was asked by city officials to conduct the drop elsewhere .
Since 2009 , organizers have produced an official webcast of the ball drop and its associated festivities .
= = = Past broadcasts = = =
Beginning in the 1940s , NBC broadcast coverage from Times Square anchored by Ben Grauer on both radio and television . Its coverage was later incorporated into special episodes of The Tonight Show , continuing through Johnny Carson and Jay Leno 's tenures on the program . NBC would introduce a dedicated special , New Year 's Eve with Carson Daly , beginning in 2003 .
From 1956 to 1976 , CBS was well known for its television coverage of the festivities hosted by bandleader Guy Lombardo from the ballroom of the Waldorf @-@ Astoria Hotel in New York City , featuring his band 's famous rendition of " Auld Lang Syne " at midnight . After Lombardo 's death in 1977 , CBS and the Royal Canadians , now led by Victor Lombardo , attempted to continue the special . However , Guy 's absence and the growing popularity of ABC 's New Year ’ s Rockin ’ Eve prompted CBS to eventually drop the band entirely . The Royal Canadians were replaced by a new special , Happy New Year , America , which ran in various formats with different hosts ( such as Paul Anka , Donny Osmond , Andy Williams , Paul Shaffer , and Montel Williams ) until it was discontinued after 1996 . CBS , barring a special America 's Millenium broadcast for 2000 , no longer provides any national coverage from Times Square .
For 2000 , in lieu of New Year 's Rockin ' Eve , ABC News covered the festivities as part of its day @-@ long telecast , ABC 2000 Today . Hosted by Peter Jennings , the broadcast featured coverage of millennium festivities from around the world , including those in New York City . Jennings was joined by Dick Clark as a special correspondent for coverage from Times Square .
Fox previously aired New Year 's specials covering Times Square with rotating hosts and themes , primarily under the title New Year 's Eve Live . For 2015 , New Year 's Eve Live was replaced by Pitbull 's New Year 's Revolution , which is broadcast from Miami instead .
= = Major Sponsor = =
Discover Card 2000 @-@ 2007
Nivea 2008 @-@ 2014
Cosmopolitan and CoverGirl 2015
Planet Fitness 2016 @-@ Present
= K @-@ 383 ( Kansas highway ) =
K @-@ 383 is a state highway in the U.S. state of Kansas . The highway runs 74 @.@ 042 miles ( 119 @.@ 159 km ) from U.S. Route 83 ( US @-@ 83 ) and K @-@ 23 near Selden north and east to US @-@ 183 near Woodruff , just south of the Nebraska state line . K @-@ 383 runs southwest – northeast and connects Norton with Colby to the southwest and Alma , Nebraska , to the northeast via the valley of Prairie Dog Creek , a tributary of the Republican River . The highway also serves the cities of Selden in northern Sheridan County ; Dresden , Jennings , and Clayton in southeastern Decatur County ; Almena in eastern Norton County ; and Long Island in northern Phillips County . K @-@ 383 is a part of the National Highway System from its western terminus at US @-@ 83 to the eastern US @-@ 36 junction near Norton .
K @-@ 383 was assigned in 1981 over the portions of former US @-@ 383 that had not run concurrently with either US @-@ 83 or US @-@ 183 . The highway was originally designated as parts of US @-@ 36 and K @-@ 22 in the mid @-@ 1920s . The entire route became US @-@ 83 and was placed on much of its modern alignment in the early 1930s. replacing the original path that followed section lines . The route was redesignated US @-@ 383 in the mid @-@ 1940s and paved from the late 1930s to the late 1940s . The highway was relocated within Norton in the late 1930s and early 1940s . Other relocations of K @-@ 383 have included the segment near Clayton in the mid @-@ 1950s , southwest of Norton in the late 1930s and again in the early 1960s , and at both ends of the highway in the early 1990s .
= = Route description = =
K @-@ 383 begins at a four @-@ legged intersection northeast of the town of Selden in northern Sheridan County . US @-@ 83 heads west toward Selden and Colby and north toward Oberlin ; K @-@ 23 heads south and east toward Hoxie . K @-@ 383 heads northeast as a two @-@ lane road immediately parallel to the Kyle Railroad and a couple of miles south of Prairie Dog Creek . The highway enters Decatur County and intersects K @-@ 223 north of the village of Leoville and K @-@ 123 while passing through the city of Dresden . K @-@ 383 and the railroad enter the creek valley shortly before the city of Jennings , through which the road is Railroad Street . The highway separates from the railroad for several miles prior to rejoining at the city of Clayton at the Decatur – Norton county line . K @-@ 383 leaves the railroad again southwest of the village of Oronoque , heading east then curving north to cross Prairie Dog Creek at its entrance to Keith Sebelius Lake . The highway crosses over the Kyle Railroad before intersecting US @-@ 36 , with which the state highway runs concurrently east .
K @-@ 383 and US @-@ 36 intersect K @-@ 261 , a spur serving Prairie Dog State Park , before reaching the city of Norton . The highways curve northeast and back east and pass through the northern part of the city as Holme Street , a four @-@ lane undivided road . K @-@ 383 and US @-@ 36 intersect US @-@ 283 ( State Street ) north of the downtown area . The highways become a two @-@ lane road again as they leave Norton . K @-@ 383 and US @-@ 36 cross over the Kyle Railroad and begin to parallel the railroad and Prairie Dog Creek . The highways meet the southern end of K @-@ 67 , a spur serving the Norton Correctional Facility , before they diverge . US @-@ 36 continues east and K @-@ 383 heads northeast parallel to the Kyle Railroad through the hamlet of Calvert . The state highway meets the northern end of K @-@ 60 just before it crosses over the Kyle Railroad on the edge of the city of Almena . K @-@ 383 continues east parallel to the Nebraska Kansas Colorado Railway into Phillips County . After they pass through the city of Long Island , that railroad splits to the north into Nebraska . K @-@ 383 passes through the village of Woodruff shortly before it reaches its northern terminus at US @-@ 183 about one half @-@ mile south of the Nebraska state line .
= = History = =
The portion of K @-@ 383 southwest of Almena was part of the Rock Island Highway , an auto trail that paralleled the Chicago , Rock Island and Pacific Railroad northeast from Colby to Norton and then east along the northern tier of the state to St. Joseph , Missouri . When the U.S. Highway System was laid out in 1926 , the Rock Island Highway , which had become integrated into the Pikes Peak Ocean to Ocean Highway , was designated US @-@ 36 . The portion of K @-@ 383 north of the US @-@ 36 split was K @-@ 22 . By 1927 , all of the highway along the K @-@ 383 corridor followed section lines , with a great number of right @-@ angle turns , except for a small section south of Almena . US @-@ 36 and K @-@ 22 were graded throughout Norton County but were unimproved dirt roads in Decatur , Phillips , and Sheridan counties .
By 1932 , US @-@ 36 headed west from Norton toward Oberlin instead of southwest toward Selden , and all of what is K @-@ 383 became part of US @-@ 83 . The entire route from Selden to Nebraska had been straightened , mostly paralleling the railroad instead of following section lines , except for through Oronoque and Jennings . US @-@ 83 was a gravel road from Selden to the Norton – Phillips county line , east of which the highway remained a dirt road until it was graveled in 1937 . The highway was relocated straight through Jennings and to a path with fewer turns through Oronoque in 1938 ; that same year , the highway was paved with a bituminous surface along the US @-@ 36 concurrency . US @-@ 83 was paved from the US @-@ 36 split to the Nebraska state line in 1940 . The highway was paved from Selden to Dresden by 1945 and from Dresden to US @-@ 36 west of Norton in 1948 . US @-@ 383 was assigned to the entire length of the K @-@ 383 corridor and beyond in both directions by 1945 .
The first modern relocations along what is now K @-@ 383 occurred in Norton . US @-@ 36 and US @-@ 83 originally entered the city along Washington Street , turned north onto First Avenue , and turned east onto Main Street . The highway followed Main Street out of town and along a road paralleling the railroad to the present highway . The first realignment was authorized in 1936 to eliminate several right @-@ angle turns and several at @-@ grade railroad crossings . East of the intersection of First and Main , US @-@ 36 and US @-@ 83 turned north onto State Street and followed the highway to Holme Street , where the highways joined the present course . By 1941 , this change was deemed unsatisfactory due to the continued existence of right @-@ angle turns and grade crossings . Shortly thereafter , the highways were moved to their present course bypassing downtown Norton .
US @-@ 383 was relocated to K @-@ 383 's present alignment southwest of Clayton starting in 1954 . The highway was constructed along its current route near Oronoque concurrent with the construction of the Norton Reservoir ( now Keith Sebelius Lake ) on Prairie Dog Creek around 1962 . The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials approved the removal of the US @-@ 383 designation in 1979 . K @-@ 383 was assigned to the portions of former US @-@ 383 in Kansas from US @-@ 83 near Selden to a concurrency with US @-@ 183 at the Nebraska state line in 1981 . In 1990 , K @-@ 383 's western terminus was relocated to its present spot . K @-@ 383 had begun at US @-@ 83 's intersection with the first east – west section line road the latter highway intersects west of K @-@ 383 . US @-@ 83 followed the section line road to near what was then K @-@ 23 's northern terminus , then turned north along another section line road and passed under K @-@ 383 and the Kyle Railroad ; a connector ramp was used between US @-@ 83 and K @-@ 383 at the bridges , which were constructed by 1951 . US @-@ 83 was relocated to remove the grade separations and both K @-@ 383 and K @-@ 23 were given their present termini ; the east – west section line road west of K @-@ 23 was transferred to county maintenance . In 1994 , K @-@ 383 was relocated at its present eastern terminus to remove what had been a wye junction with US @-@ 183 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Confirmation bias =
Confirmation bias , also called confirmatory bias or myside bias , is the tendency to search for , interpret , favor , and recall information in a way that confirms one 's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses , while giving disproportionately less consideration to alternative possibilities . It is a type of cognitive bias and a systematic error of inductive reasoning . People display this bias when they gather or remember information selectively , or when they interpret it in a biased way . The effect is stronger for emotionally charged issues and for deeply entrenched beliefs . People also tend to interpret ambiguous evidence as supporting their existing position . Biased search , interpretation and memory have been invoked to explain attitude polarization ( when a disagreement becomes more extreme even though the different parties are exposed to the same evidence ) , belief perseverance ( when beliefs persist after the evidence for them is shown to be false ) , the irrational primacy effect ( a greater reliance on information encountered early in a series ) and illusory correlation ( when people falsely perceive an association between two events or situations ) .
A series of experiments in the 1960s suggested that people are biased toward confirming their existing beliefs . Later work re @-@ interpreted these results as a tendency to test ideas in a one @-@ sided way , focusing on one possibility and ignoring alternatives . In certain situations , this tendency can bias people 's conclusions . Explanations for the observed biases include wishful thinking and the limited human capacity to process information . Another explanation is that people show confirmation bias because they are weighing up the costs of being wrong , rather than investigating in a neutral , scientific way .
Confirmation biases contribute to overconfidence in personal beliefs and can maintain or strengthen beliefs in the face of contrary evidence . Poor decisions due to these biases have been found in political and organizational contexts .
= = Types = =
Confirmation biases are effects in information processing . They differ from what is sometimes called the behavioral confirmation effect , commonly known as self @-@ fulfilling prophecy , in which a person 's expectations influence their own behavior , bringing about the expected result .
Some psychologists restrict the term confirmation bias to selective collection of evidence that supports what one already believes while ignoring or rejecting evidence that supports a different conclusion . Other psychologists apply the term more broadly to the tendency to preserve one 's existing beliefs when searching for evidence , interpreting it , or recalling it from memory .
= = = Biased search for information = = =
Experiments have found repeatedly that people tend to test hypotheses in a one @-@ sided way , by searching for evidence consistent with their current hypothesis . Rather than searching through all the relevant evidence , they phrase questions to receive an affirmative answer that supports their hypothesis . They look for the consequences that they would expect if their hypothesis were true , rather than what would happen if it were false . For example , someone using yes / no questions to find a number he or she suspects to be the number 3 might ask , " Is it an odd number ? " People prefer this type of question , called a " positive test " , even when a negative test such as " Is it an even number ? " would yield exactly the same information . However , this does not mean that people seek tests that guarantee a positive answer . In studies where subjects could select either such pseudo @-@ tests or genuinely diagnostic ones , they favored the genuinely diagnostic .
The preference for positive tests in itself is not a bias , since positive tests can be highly informative . However , in combination with other effects , this strategy can confirm existing beliefs or assumptions , independently of whether they are true . In real @-@ world situations , evidence is often complex and mixed . For example , various contradictory ideas about someone could each be supported by concentrating on one aspect of his or her behavior . Thus any search for evidence in favor of a hypothesis is likely to succeed . One illustration of this is the way the phrasing of a question can significantly change the answer . For example , people who are asked , " Are you happy with your social life ? " report greater satisfaction than those asked , " Are you unhappy with your social life ? "
Even a small change in a question 's wording can affect how people search through available information , and hence the conclusions they reach . This was shown using a fictional child custody case . Participants read that Parent A was moderately suitable to be the guardian in multiple ways . Parent B had a mix of salient positive and negative qualities : a close relationship with the child but a job that would take him or her away for long periods of time . When asked , " Which parent should have custody of the child ? " the majority of participants chose Parent B , looking mainly for positive attributes . However , when asked , " Which parent should be denied custody of the child ? " they looked for negative attributes and the majority answered that Parent B should be denied custody , implying that Parent A should have custody .
Similar studies have demonstrated how people engage in a biased search for information , but also that this phenomenon may be limited by a preference for genuine diagnostic tests . In an initial experiment , participants rated another person on the introversion – extroversion personality dimension on the basis of an interview . They chose the interview questions from a given list . When the interviewee was introduced as an introvert , the participants chose questions that presumed introversion , such as , " What do you find unpleasant about noisy parties ? " When the interviewee was described as extroverted , almost all the questions presumed extroversion , such as , " What would you do to liven up a dull party ? " These loaded questions gave the interviewees little or no opportunity to falsify the hypothesis about them . A later version of the experiment gave the participants less presumptive questions to choose from , such as , " Do you shy away from social interactions ? " Participants preferred to ask these more diagnostic questions , showing only a weak bias towards positive tests . This pattern , of a main preference for diagnostic tests and a weaker preference for positive tests , has been replicated in other studies .
Personality traits influence and interact with biased search processes . Individuals vary in their abilities to defend their attitudes from external attacks in relation to selective exposure . Selective exposure occurs when individuals search for information that is consistent , rather than inconsistent , with their personal beliefs . An experiment examined the extent to which individuals could refute arguments that contradicted their personal beliefs . People with high confidence levels more readily seek out contradictory information to their personal position to form an argument . Individuals with low confidence levels do not seek out contradictory information and prefer information that supports their personal position . People generate and evaluate evidence in arguments that are biased towards their own beliefs and opinions . Heightened confidence levels decrease preference for information that supports individuals ' personal beliefs .
Another experiment gave participants a complex rule @-@ discovery task that involved moving objects simulated by a computer . Objects on the computer screen followed specific laws , which the participants had to figure out . So , participants could " fire " objects across the screen to test their hypotheses . Despite making many attempts over a ten @-@ hour session , none of the participants figured out the rules of the system . They typically attempted to confirm rather than falsify their hypotheses , and were reluctant to consider alternatives . Even after seeing objective evidence that refuted their working hypotheses , they frequently continued doing the same tests . Some of the participants were taught proper hypothesis @-@ testing , but these instructions had almost no effect .
= = = Biased interpretation = = =
Confirmation biases are not limited to the collection of evidence . Even if two individuals have the same information , the way they interpret it can be biased .
A team at Stanford University conducted an experiment involving participants who felt strongly about capital punishment , with half in favor and half against it . Each participant read descriptions of two studies : a comparison of U.S. states with and without the death penalty , and a comparison of murder rates in a state before and after the introduction of the death penalty . After reading a quick description of each study , the participants were asked whether their opinions had changed . Then , they read a more detailed account of each study 's procedure and had to rate whether the research was well @-@ conducted and convincing . In fact , the studies were fictional . Half the participants were told that one kind of study supported the deterrent effect and the other undermined it , while for other participants the conclusions were swapped .
The participants , whether supporters or opponents , reported shifting their attitudes slightly in the direction of the first study they read . Once they read the more detailed descriptions of the two studies , they almost all returned to their original belief regardless of the evidence provided , pointing to details that supported their viewpoint and disregarding anything contrary . Participants described studies supporting their pre @-@ existing view as superior to those that contradicted it , in detailed and specific ways . Writing about a study that seemed to undermine the deterrence effect , a death penalty proponent wrote , " The research didn 't cover a long enough period of time " , while an opponent 's comment on the same study said , " No strong evidence to contradict the researchers has been presented " . The results illustrated that people set higher standards of evidence for hypotheses that go against their current expectations . This effect , known as " disconfirmation bias " , has been supported by other experiments .
Another study of biased interpretation occurred during the 2004 U.S. presidential election and involved participants who reported having strong feelings about the candidates . They were shown apparently contradictory pairs of statements , either from Republican candidate George W. Bush , Democratic candidate John Kerry or a politically neutral public figure . They were also given further statements that made the apparent contradiction seem reasonable . From these three pieces of information , they had to decide whether or not each individual 's statements were inconsistent . There were strong differences in these evaluations , with participants much more likely to interpret statements from the candidate they opposed as contradictory .
In this experiment , the participants made their judgments while in a magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) scanner which monitored their brain activity . As participants evaluated contradictory statements by their favored candidate , emotional centers of their brains were aroused . This did not happen with the statements by the other figures . The experimenters inferred that the different responses to the statements were not due to passive reasoning errors . Instead , the participants were actively reducing the cognitive dissonance induced by reading about their favored candidate 's irrational or hypocritical behavior There were strong differences in these evaluations , with participants much more likely to interpret statements from the candidate they opposed as contradictory .
Biases in belief interpretation are persistent , regardless of intelligence level . Participants in an experiment took the SAT test ( a college admissions test used in the United States ) to assess their intelligence levels . They then read information regarding safety concerns for vehicles , and the experimenters manipulated the national origin of the car . American participants provided their opinion if the car should be banned on a six @-@ point scale , where one indicated " definitely yes " and six indicated " definitely no . " Participants firstly evaluated if they would allow a dangerous German car on American streets and a dangerous American car on German streets . Participants believed that the dangerous German car on American streets should be banned more quickly than the dangerous American car on German streets . There was no difference among intelligence levels at the rate participants would ban a car .
Biased interpretation is not restricted to emotionally significant topics . In another experiment , participants were told a story about a theft . They had to rate the evidential importance of statements arguing either for or against a particular character being responsible . When they hypothesized that character 's guilt , they rated statements supporting that hypothesis as more important than conflicting statements .
= = = Biased memory = = =
Even if people gather and interpret evidence in a neutral manner , they may still remember it selectively to reinforce their expectations . This effect is called " selective recall " , " confirmatory memory " or " access @-@ biased memory " . Psychological theories differ in their predictions about selective recall . Schema theory predicts that information matching prior expectations will be more easily stored and recalled than information that does not match . Some alternative approaches say that surprising information stands out and so is memorable . Predictions from both these theories have been confirmed in different experimental contexts , with no theory winning outright .
In one study , participants read a profile of a woman which described a mix of introverted and extroverted behaviors . They later had to recall examples of her introversion and extroversion . One group was told this was to assess the woman for a job as a librarian , while a second group were told it was for a job in real estate sales . There was a significant difference between what these two groups recalled , with the " librarian " group recalling more examples of introversion and the " sales " groups recalling more extroverted behavior . A selective memory effect has also been shown in experiments that manipulate the desirability of personality types . In one of these , a group of participants were shown evidence that extroverted people are more successful than introverts . Another group were told the opposite . In a subsequent , apparently unrelated , study , they were asked to recall events from their lives in which they had been either introverted or extroverted . Each group of participants provided more memories connecting themselves with the more desirable personality type , and recalled those memories more quickly .
Changes in emotional states can also influence memory recall . Participants rated how they felt when they had first learned that O.J. Simpson had been acquitted of murder charges . They described their emotional reactions and confidence regarding the verdict one week , two months , and one year after the trial . Results indicated that participants ' assessments for Simpson 's guilt changed over time . The more that participants ' opinion of the verdict had changed , the less stable were the participant 's memories regarding their initial emotional reactions . When participants recalled their initial emotional reactions two months and a year later , past appraisals closely resembled current appraisals of emotion . People demonstrate sizable myside bias when discussing their opinions on controversial topics . Memory recall and construction of experiences undergo revision in relation to corresponding emotional states .
Myside bias has been shown to influence the accuracy of memory recall . In an experiment , widows and widowers rated the intensity of their experienced grief six months and five years after the deaths of their spouses . Participants noted a higher experience of grief at six months rather than at five years . Yet , when the participants were asked after five years how they had felt six months after the death of their significant other , the intensity of grief participants recalled was highly correlated with their current level of grief . Individuals appear to utilize their current emotional states to analyze how they must have felt when experiencing past events . Emotional memories are reconstructed by current emotional states .
One study showed how selective memory can maintain belief in extrasensory perception ( ESP ) . Believers and disbelievers were each shown descriptions of ESP experiments . Half of each group were told that the experimental results supported the existence of ESP , while the others were told they did not . In a subsequent test , participants recalled the material accurately , apart from believers who had read the non @-@ supportive evidence . This group remembered significantly less information and some of them incorrectly remembered the results as supporting ESP .
= = Related effects = =
= = = Polarization of opinion = = =
When people with opposing views interpret new information in a biased way , their views can move even further apart . This is called " attitude polarization " . The effect was demonstrated by an experiment that involved drawing a series of red and black balls from one of two concealed " bingo baskets " . Participants knew that one basket contained 60 % black and 40 % red balls ; the other , 40 % black and 60 % red . The experimenters looked at what happened when balls of alternating color were drawn in turn , a sequence that does not favor either basket . After each ball was drawn , participants in one group were asked to state out loud their judgments of the probability that the balls were being drawn from one or the other basket . These participants tended to grow more confident with each successive draw — whether they initially thought the basket with 60 % black balls or the one with 60 % red balls was the more likely source , their estimate of the probability increased . Another group of participants were asked to state probability estimates only at the end of a sequence of drawn balls , rather than after each ball . They did not show the polarization effect , suggesting that it does not necessarily occur when people simply hold opposing positions , but rather when they openly commit to them .
A less abstract study was the Stanford biased interpretation experiment in which participants with strong opinions about the death penalty read about mixed experimental evidence . Twenty @-@ three percent of the participants reported that their views had become more extreme , and this self @-@ reported shift correlated strongly with their initial attitudes . In later experiments , participants also reported their opinions becoming more extreme in response to ambiguous information . However , comparisons of their attitudes before and after the new evidence showed no significant change , suggesting that the self @-@ reported changes might not be real . Based on these experiments , Deanna Kuhn and Joseph Lao concluded that polarization is a real phenomenon but far from inevitable , only happening in a small minority of cases . They found that it was prompted not only by considering mixed evidence , but by merely thinking about the topic .
Charles Taber and Milton Lodge argued that the Stanford team 's result had been hard to replicate because the arguments used in later experiments were too abstract or confusing to evoke an emotional response . The Taber and Lodge study used the emotionally charged topics of gun control and affirmative action . They measured the attitudes of their participants towards these issues before and after reading arguments on each side of the debate . Two groups of participants showed attitude polarization : those with strong prior opinions and those who were politically knowledgeable . In part of this study , participants chose which information sources to read , from a list prepared by the experimenters . For example , they could read the National Rifle Association 's and the Brady Anti @-@ Handgun Coalition 's arguments on gun control . Even when instructed to be even @-@ handed , participants were more likely to read arguments that supported their existing attitudes than arguments that did not . This biased search for information correlated well with the polarization effect .
The backfire effect is a name for the finding that , given evidence against their beliefs , people can reject the evidence and believe even more strongly . The phrase was first coined by Brendan Nyhan and Jason Reifler .
= = = Persistence of discredited beliefs = = =
Confirmation biases can be used to explain why some beliefs persist when the initial evidence for them is removed . This belief perseverance effect has been shown by a series of experiments using what is called the " debriefing paradigm " : participants read fake evidence for a hypothesis , their attitude change is measured , then the fakery is exposed in detail . Their attitudes are then measured once more to see if their belief returns to its previous level .
A common finding is that at least some of the initial belief remains even after a full debriefing . In one experiment , participants had to distinguish between real and fake suicide notes . The feedback was random : some were told they had done well while others were told they had performed badly . Even after being fully debriefed , participants were still influenced by the feedback . They still thought they were better or worse than average at that kind of task , depending on what they had initially been told .
In another study , participants read job performance ratings of two firefighters , along with their responses to a risk aversion test . This fictional data was arranged to show either a negative or positive association : some participants were told that a risk @-@ taking firefighter did better , while others were told they did less well than a risk @-@ averse colleague . Even if these two case studies were true , they would have been scientifically poor evidence for a conclusion about firefighters in general . However , the participants found them subjectively persuasive . When the case studies were shown to be fictional , participants ' belief in a link diminished , but around half of the original effect remained . Follow @-@ up interviews established that the participants had understood the debriefing and taken it seriously . Participants seemed to trust the debriefing , but regarded the discredited information as irrelevant to their personal belief .
The continued influence effect is the tendency to believe previously learned misinformation even after it has been corrected . Misinformation can still influence inferences one generates after a correction has occurred .
= = = Preference for early information = = =
Experiments have shown that information is weighted more strongly when it appears early in a series , even when the order is unimportant . For example , people form a more positive impression of someone described as " intelligent , industrious , impulsive , critical , stubborn , envious " than when they are given the same words in reverse order . This irrational primacy effect is independent of the primacy effect in memory in which the earlier items in a series leave a stronger memory trace . Biased interpretation offers an explanation for this effect : seeing the initial evidence , people form a working hypothesis that affects how they interpret the rest of the information .
One demonstration of irrational primacy used colored chips supposedly drawn from two urns . Participants were told the color distributions of the urns , and had to estimate the probability of a chip being drawn from one of them . In fact , the colors appeared in a pre @-@ arranged order . The first thirty draws favored one urn and the next thirty favored the other . The series as a whole was neutral , so rationally , the two urns were equally likely . However , after sixty draws , participants favored the urn suggested by the initial thirty .
Another experiment involved a slide show of a single object , seen as just a blur at first and in slightly better focus with each succeeding slide . After each slide , participants had to state their best guess of what the object was . Participants whose early guesses were wrong persisted with those guesses , even when the picture was sufficiently in focus that the object was readily recognizable to other people .
= = = Illusory association between events = = =
Illusory correlation is the tendency to see non @-@ existent correlations in a set of data . This tendency was first demonstrated in a series of experiments in the late 1960s . In one experiment , participants read a set of psychiatric case studies , including responses to the Rorschach inkblot test . The participants reported that the homosexual men in the set were more likely to report seeing buttocks , anuses or sexually ambiguous figures in the inkblots . In fact the fictional case studies had been constructed so that the homosexual men were no more likely to report this imagery or , in one version of the experiment , were less likely to report it than heterosexual men . In a survey , a group of experienced psychoanalysts reported the same set of illusory associations with homosexuality .
Another study recorded the symptoms experienced by arthritic patients , along with weather conditions over a 15 @-@ month period . Nearly all the patients reported that their pains were correlated with weather conditions , although the real correlation was zero .
This effect is a kind of biased interpretation , in that objectively neutral or unfavorable evidence is interpreted to support existing beliefs . It is also related to biases in hypothesis @-@ testing behavior . In judging whether two events , such as illness and bad weather , are correlated , people rely heavily on the number of positive @-@ positive cases : in this example , instances of both pain and bad weather . They pay relatively little attention to the other kinds of observation ( of no pain and / or good weather ) . This parallels the reliance on positive tests in hypothesis testing . It may also reflect selective recall , in that people may have a sense that two events are correlated because it is easier to recall times when they happened together .
= = Individual differences = =
Myside bias was once believed to be associated with greater intelligence ; however , studies have shown that myside bias can be more influenced by ability to rationally think as opposed to amount of intelligence . Myside bias can cause an inability to effectively and logically evaluate the opposite side of an argument . Studies have stated that myside bias is an absence of " active open @-@ mindedness , " meaning the active search for why an initial idea may be wrong . Typically , myside bias is operationalized in empirical studies as the quantity of evidence used in support of their side in comparison to the opposite side .
A study has found individual differences in myside bias . This study investigates individual differences that are acquired through learning in a cultural context and are mutable . The researcher found important individual difference in argumentation . Studies have suggested that individual differences such as deductive reasoning ability , ability to overcome belief bias , epistemological understanding , and thinking disposition are significant predictors of the reasoning and generating arguments , counterarguments , and rebuttals .
A study by Christopher Wolfe and Anne Britt also investigated how participants ' views of " what makes a good argument ? " can be a source of myside bias that influence the way a person creates their own arguments . The study investigated individual differences of argumentation schema and asked participants to write essays . The participants were randomly assigned to write essays either for or against their preferred side of an argument and were given research instructions that took either a balanced or an unrestricted approach . The balanced @-@ research instructions directed participants to create a " balanced " argument , i.e. , that included both pros and cons ; the unrestricted @-@ research instructions included nothing on how to create the argument .
Overall , the results revealed that the balanced @-@ research instructions significantly increased the incidence of opposing information in arguments . These data also reveal that personal belief is not a source of myside bias ; however , that those participants , who believe that a good argument is one that is based on facts , are more likely to exhibit myside bias than other participants . This evidence is consistent with the claims proposed in Baron 's article — that people 's opinions about what makes good thinking can influence how arguments are generated .
= = History = =
= = = Informal observation = = =
Before psychological research on confirmation bias , the phenomenon had been observed anecdotally throughout history . Beginning with the Greek historian Thucydides ( c . 460 BC – c . 395 BC ) , who wrote of misguided treason in The Peloponnesian War ; " ... for it is a habit of mankind to entrust to careless hope what they long for , and to use sovereign reason to thrust aside what they do not fancy . " Italian poet Dante Alighieri ( 1265 – 1321 ) , noted it in his famous work , the Divine Comedy , in which St. Thomas Aquinas cautions Dante upon meeting in Paradise , " opinion — hasty — often can incline to the wrong side , and then affection for one 's own opinion binds , confines the mind . " English philosopher and scientist Francis Bacon ( 1561 – 1626 ) , in the Novum Organum noted that biased assessment of evidence drove " all superstitions , whether in astrology , dreams , omens , divine judgments or the like " . He wrote :
The human understanding when it has once adopted an opinion ... draws all things else to support and agree with it . And though there be a greater number and weight of instances to be found on the other side , yet these it either neglects or despises , or else by some distinction sets aside or rejects [ . ]
In his essay " What Is Art ? " , Russian novelist Leo Tolstoy wrote ,
I know that most men — not only those considered clever , but even those who are very clever , and capable of understanding most difficult scientific , mathematical , or philosophic problems — can very seldom discern even the simplest and most obvious truth if it be such as to oblige them to admit the falsity of conclusions they have formed , perhaps with much difficulty — conclusions of which they are proud , which they have taught to others , and on which they have built their lives .
= = = Wason 's research on hypothesis @-@ testing = = =
The term " confirmation bias " was coined by English psychologist Peter Wason . For an experiment published in 1960 , he challenged participants to identify a rule applying to triples of numbers . At the outset , they were told that ( 2 @,@ 4 @,@ 6 ) fits the rule . Participants could generate their own triples and the experimenter told them whether or not each triple conformed to the rule .
While the actual rule was simply " any ascending sequence " , the participants had a great deal of difficulty in finding it , often announcing rules that were far more specific , such as " the middle number is the average of the first and last " . The participants seemed to test only positive examples — triples that obeyed their hypothesized rule . For example , if they thought the rule was , " Each number is two greater than its predecessor " , they would offer a triple that fit this rule , such as ( 11 @,@ 13 @,@ 15 ) rather than a triple that violates it , such as ( 11 @,@ 12 @,@ 19 ) .
Wason accepted falsificationism , according to which a scientific test of a hypothesis is a serious attempt to falsify it . He interpreted his results as showing a preference for confirmation over falsification , hence the term " confirmation bias " . Wason also used confirmation bias to explain the results of his selection task experiment . In this task , participants are given partial information about a set of objects , and have to specify what further information they would need to tell whether or not a conditional rule ( " If A , then B " ) applies . It has been found repeatedly that people perform badly on various forms of this test , in most cases ignoring information that could potentially refute the rule .
= = = Klayman and Ha 's critique = = =
A 1987 paper by Joshua Klayman and Young @-@ Won Ha argued that the Wason experiments had not actually demonstrated a bias towards confirmation . Instead , Klayman and Ha interpreted the results in terms of a tendency to make tests that are consistent with the working hypothesis . They called this the " positive test strategy " . This strategy is an example of a heuristic : a reasoning shortcut that is imperfect but easy to compute . Klayman and Ha used Bayesian probability and information theory as their standard of hypothesis @-@ testing , rather than the falsificationism used by Wason . According to these ideas , each answer to a question yields a different amount of information , which depends on the person 's prior beliefs . Thus a scientific test of a hypothesis is one that is expected to produce the most information . Since the information content depends on initial probabilities , a positive test can either be highly informative or uninformative . Klayman and Ha argued that when people think about realistic problems , they are looking for a specific answer with a small initial probability . In this case , positive tests are usually more informative than negative tests . However , in Wason 's rule discovery task the answer — three numbers in ascending order — is very broad , so positive tests are unlikely to yield informative answers . Klayman and Ha supported their analysis by citing an experiment that used the labels " DAX " and " MED " in place of " fits the rule " and " doesn 't fit the rule " . This avoided implying that the aim was to find a low @-@ probability rule . Participants had much more success with this version of the experiment .
In light of this and other critiques , the focus of research moved away from confirmation versus falsification to examine whether people test hypotheses in an informative way , or an uninformative but positive way . The search for " true " confirmation bias led psychologists to look at a wider range of effects in how people process information .
= = Explanations = =
Confirmation bias is often described as a result of automatic , unintentional strategies rather than deliberate deception . According to Robert Maccoun , most biased evidence processing occurs through a combination of both " cold " ( cognitive ) and " hot " ( motivated ) mechanisms .
Cognitive explanations for confirmation bias are based on limitations in people 's ability to handle complex tasks , and the shortcuts , called heuristics , that they use . For example , people may judge the reliability of evidence by using the availability heuristic — i.e. , how readily a particular idea comes to mind . It is also possible that people can only focus on one thought at a time , so find it difficult to test alternative hypotheses in parallel . Another heuristic is the positive test strategy identified by Klayman and Ha , in which people test a hypothesis by examining cases where they expect a property or event to occur . This heuristic avoids the difficult or impossible task of working out how diagnostic each possible question will be . However , it is not universally reliable , so people can overlook challenges to their existing beliefs .
Motivational explanations involve an effect of desire on belief , sometimes called " wishful thinking " . It is known that people prefer pleasant thoughts over unpleasant ones in a number of ways : this is called the " Pollyanna principle " . Applied to arguments or sources of evidence , this could explain why desired conclusions are more likely to be believed true . According to experiments that manipulate the desirability of the conclusion , people demand a high standard of evidence for unpalatable ideas and a low standard for preferred ideas . In other words , they ask , " Can I believe this ? " for some suggestions and , " Must I believe this ? " for others . Although consistency is a desirable feature of attitudes , an excessive drive for consistency is another potential source of bias because it may prevent people from neutrally evaluating new , surprising information . Social psychologist Ziva Kunda combines the cognitive and motivational theories , arguing that motivation creates the bias , but cognitive factors determine the size of the effect .
Explanations in terms of cost @-@ benefit analysis assume that people do not just test hypotheses in a disinterested way , but assess the costs of different errors . Using ideas from evolutionary psychology , James Friedrich suggests that people do not primarily aim at truth in testing hypotheses , but try to avoid the most costly errors . For example , employers might ask one @-@ sided questions in job interviews because they are focused on weeding out unsuitable candidates . Yaacov Trope and Akiva Liberman 's refinement of this theory assumes that people compare the two different kinds of error : accepting a false hypothesis or rejecting a true hypothesis . For instance , someone who underestimates a friend 's honesty might treat him or her suspiciously and so undermine the friendship . Overestimating the friend 's honesty may also be costly , but less so . In this case , it would be rational to seek , evaluate or remember evidence of their honesty in a biased way . When someone gives an initial impression of being introverted or extroverted , questions that match that impression come across as more empathic . This suggests that when talking to someone who seems to be an introvert , it is a sign of better social skills to ask , " Do you feel awkward in social situations ? " rather than , " Do you like noisy parties ? " The connection between confirmation bias and social skills was corroborated by a study of how college students get to know other people . Highly self @-@ monitoring students , who are more sensitive to their environment and to social norms , asked more matching questions when interviewing a high @-@ status staff member than when getting to know fellow students .
Psychologists Jennifer Lerner and Philip Tetlock distinguish two different kinds of thinking process . Exploratory thought neutrally considers multiple points of view and tries to anticipate all possible objections to a particular position , while confirmatory thought seeks to justify a specific point of view . Lerner and Tetlock say that when people expect to justify their position to others whose views they already know , they will tend to adopt a similar position to those people , and then use confirmatory thought to bolster their own credibility . However , if the external parties are overly aggressive or critical , people will disengage from thought altogether , and simply assert their personal opinions without justification . Lerner and Tetlock say that people only push themselves to think critically and logically when they know in advance they will need to explain themselves to others who are well @-@ informed , genuinely interested in the truth , and whose views they don 't already know . Because those conditions rarely exist , they argue , most people are using confirmatory thought most of the time .
= = Consequences = =
= = = In finance = = =
Confirmation bias can lead investors to be overconfident , ignoring evidence that their strategies will lose money . In studies of political stock markets , investors made more profit when they resisted bias . For example , participants who interpreted a candidate 's debate performance in a neutral rather than partisan way were more likely to profit . To combat the effect of confirmation bias , investors can try to adopt a contrary viewpoint " for the sake of argument " . In one technique , they imagine that their investments have collapsed and ask themselves why this might happen .
= = = In physical and mental health = = =
Raymond Nickerson , a psychologist , blames confirmation bias for the ineffective medical procedures that were used for centuries before the arrival of scientific medicine . If a patient recovered , medical authorities counted the treatment as successful , rather than looking for alternative explanations such as that the disease had run its natural course . Biased assimilation is a factor in the modern appeal of alternative medicine , whose proponents are swayed by positive anecdotal evidence but treat scientific evidence hyper @-@ critically .
Cognitive therapy was developed by Aaron T. Beck in the early 1960s and has become a popular approach . According to Beck , biased information processing is a factor in depression . His approach teaches people to treat evidence impartially , rather than selectively reinforcing negative outlooks . Phobias and hypochondria have also been shown to involve confirmation bias for threatening information .
= = = In politics and law = = =
Nickerson argues that reasoning in judicial and political contexts is sometimes subconsciously biased , favoring conclusions that judges , juries or governments have already committed to . Since the evidence in a jury trial can be complex , and jurors often reach decisions about the verdict early on , it is reasonable to expect an attitude polarization effect . The prediction that jurors will become more extreme in their views as they see more evidence has been borne out in experiments with mock trials . Both inquisitorial and adversarial criminal justice systems are affected by confirmation bias .
Confirmation bias can be a factor in creating or extending conflicts , from emotionally charged debates to wars : by interpreting the evidence in their favor , each opposing party can become overconfident that it is in the stronger position . On the other hand , confirmation bias can result in people ignoring or misinterpreting the signs of an imminent or incipient conflict . For example , psychologists Stuart Sutherland and Thomas Kida have each argued that US Admiral Husband E. Kimmel showed confirmation bias when playing down the first signs of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor .
A two @-@ decade study of political pundits by Philip E. Tetlock found that , on the whole , their predictions were not much better than chance . Tetlock divided experts into " foxes " who maintained multiple hypotheses , and " hedgehogs " who were more dogmatic . In general , the hedgehogs were much less accurate . Tetlock blamed their failure on confirmation bias — specifically , their inability to make use of new information that contradicted their existing theories .
In the 2013 murder trial of David Camm , the defense argued that Camm was charged for the murders of his wife and two children solely because of confirmation bias within the investigation . Camm was arrested three days after the murders on the basis of faulty evidence . Despite the discovery that almost every piece of evidence on the probable cause affidavit was inaccurate or unreliable , the charges were not dropped against him . A sweatshirt found at the crime was subsequently discovered to contain the DNA of a convicted felon , his prison nickname , and his department of corrections number . Investigators looked for Camm 's DNA on the sweatshirt , but failed to investigate any other pieces of evidence found on it and the foreign DNA was not run through CODIS until 5 years after the crime . When the second suspect was discovered , prosecutors charged them as co @-@ conspirators in the crime despite finding no evidence linking the two men . Camm was acquitted of the murders .
= = = In the paranormal = = =
One factor in the appeal of alleged psychic readings is that listeners apply a confirmation bias which fits the psychic 's statements to their own lives . By making a large number of ambiguous statements in each sitting , the psychic gives the client more opportunities to find a match . This is one of the techniques of cold reading , with which a psychic can deliver a subjectively impressive reading without any prior information about the client . Investigator James Randi compared the transcript of a reading to the client 's report of what the psychic had said , and found that the client showed a strong selective recall of the " hits " .
As a striking illustration of confirmation bias in the real world , Nickerson mentions numerological pyramidology : the practice of finding meaning in the proportions of the Egyptian pyramids . There are many different length measurements that can be made of , for example , the Great Pyramid of Giza and many ways to combine or manipulate them . Hence it is almost inevitable that people who look at these numbers selectively will find superficially impressive correspondences , for example with the dimensions of the Earth .
= = = In science = = =
A distinguishing feature of scientific thinking is the search for falsifying as well as confirming evidence . However , many times in the history of science , scientists have resisted new discoveries by selectively interpreting or ignoring unfavorable data . Previous research has shown that the assessment of the quality of scientific studies seems to be particularly vulnerable to confirmation bias . It has been found several times that scientists rate studies that report findings consistent with their prior beliefs more favorably than studies reporting findings inconsistent with their previous beliefs . However , assuming that the research question is relevant , the experimental design adequate and the data are clearly and comprehensively described , the found results should be of importance to the scientific community and should not be viewed prejudicially , regardless of whether they conform to current theoretical predictions .
In the context of scientific research , confirmation biases can sustain theories or research programs in the face of inadequate or even contradictory evidence ; the field of parapsychology has been particularly affected .
An experimenter 's confirmation bias can potentially affect which data are reported . Data that conflict with the experimenter 's expectations may be more readily discarded as unreliable , producing the so @-@ called file drawer effect . To combat this tendency , scientific training teaches ways to prevent bias . For example , experimental design of randomized controlled trials ( coupled with their systematic review ) aims to minimize sources of bias . The social process of peer review is thought to mitigate the effect of individual scientists ' biases , even though the peer review process itself may be susceptible to such biases . Confirmation bias may thus be especially harmful to objective evaluations regarding nonconforming results since biased individuals may regard opposing evidence to be weak in principle and give little serious thought to revising their beliefs . Scientific innovators often meet with resistance from the scientific community , and research presenting controversial results frequently receives harsh peer review .
= = = In self @-@ image = = =
Social psychologists have identified two tendencies in the way people seek or interpret information about themselves . Self @-@ verification is the drive to reinforce the existing self @-@ image and self @-@ enhancement is the drive to seek positive feedback . Both are served by confirmation biases . In experiments where people are given feedback that conflicts with their self @-@ image , they are less likely to attend to it or remember it than when given self @-@ verifying feedback . They reduce the impact of such information by interpreting it as unreliable . Similar experiments have found a preference for positive feedback , and the people who give it , over negative feedback .
= Hot chocolate =
Hot chocolate , also known as hot cocoa , drinking chocolate or just cocoa is a heated beverage consisting of shaved chocolate , melted chocolate or cocoa powder , heated milk or water , and often sugar . Hot chocolate made with melted chocolate is sometimes called drinking chocolate , characterized by less sweetness and a thicker consistency .
The first chocolate beverage is believed to have been created by the Aztecs around 2 @,@ 000 years ago , and a cocoa beverage was an essential part of Aztec culture by 1400 AD . The beverage became popular in Europe after being introduced from Mexico in the New World and has undergone multiple changes since then . Until the 19th century , hot chocolate was even used medicinally to treat ailments such as liver and stomach diseases . Today , hot chocolate is consumed throughout the world and comes in multiple variations , including the spiced chocolate para mesa of Latin America , the very thick cioccolata densa served in Italy and chocolate a la taza served in Spain , and the thinner hot cocoa consumed in the United States .
= = History = =
An early Classic period ( 460 @-@ 480 AD ) Mayan tomb from the site of Rio Azul , Guatemala , had vessels with the Maya glyph for cacao on them with residue of a chocolate drink .
To make the chocolate drink , which was served cold , the Maya ground cocoa seeds into a paste and mixed it with water , cornmeal , chili peppers , and other ingredients . They then poured the drink back and forth from a cup to a pot until a thick foam developed . Chocolate was available to Maya of all social classes , although the wealthy drank chocolate from elaborately decorated vessels .
What the Spaniards then called " chocolatl " was said to be a beverage consisting of a chocolate base flavored with vanilla and other spices that was served cold .
Because sugar was yet to come to the Americas , xocolatl was said to be an acquired taste . The drink tasted spicy and bitter as opposed to sweetened modern hot chocolate . As to when xocolatl was first served hot , sources conflict on when and by whom . However , Jose de Acosta , a Spanish Jesuit missionary who lived in Peru and then Mexico in the later 16th century , described xocolatl as :
Loathsome to such as are not acquainted with it , having a scum or froth that is very unpleasant taste . Yet it is a drink very much esteemed among the Indians , where with they feast noble men who pass through their country . The Spaniards , both men and women , that are accustomed to the country , are very greedy of this Chocolate . They say they make diverse sorts of it , some hot , some cold , and some temperate , and put therein much of that " chili " ; yea , they make paste thereof , the which they say is good for the stomach and against the catarrh .
= = = European adaptation = = =
After defeating Montezuma 's warriors and demanding that the Aztec nobles hand over their valuables , Cortés returned to Spain in 1528 , bringing cocoa beans and chocolate drink making equipment with them . At this time , chocolate still only existed in the bitter drink invented by the Mayas . Sweet hot chocolate and bar chocolate were yet to be invented .
After its introduction to Europe , the drink slowly gained popularity . The court of King Charles V soon adopted the drink , and what was then only known as " chocolate " became a fashionable drink popular with the Spanish upper class . Additionally , cocoa was given as a dowry when members of the Spanish Royal Family married other European aristocrats . At the time , chocolate was very expensive in Europe because the cocoa beans only grew in South America .
Sweet @-@ tasting hot chocolate was then invented , leading hot chocolate to become a luxury item among the European nobility by the 17th century . Even when the first Chocolate House ( an establishment similar to a modern coffee shop ) opened in 1657 , chocolate was still very expensive , costing 50 to 75 pence ( approximately 10 @-@ 15 shillings ) a pound .
In the late 17th century , Hans Sloane , president of the Royal College of Physicians , visited Jamaica . There , he tried chocolate and considered it " nauseous " , but found it became more palatable when mixed with milk . When he returned to England , he brought the recipe with him , introducing milk chocolate to England .
In 1828 , Coenraad Johannes van Houten developed the first cocoa powder producing machine in the Netherlands . The press separated the greasy cocoa butter from cacao seeds , leaving a purer chocolate powder behind . This powder , much like instant cocoa powder used today , was easier to stir into milk and water . As a result , another very important discovery was made : solid chocolate . By using cocoa powder and low amounts of cocoa butter , it was then possible to manufacture bar chocolate . The term " chocolate " then came to mean solid chocolate , rather than hot chocolate .
= = Terminology = =
A distinction is sometimes made between " hot cocoa " , made from powder made by removing most of the rich cocoa butter from the ground cacao beans , and " hot chocolate " , made directly from bar chocolate , which already contains cocoa , sugar , and cocoa butter . Thus , the major difference between the two is the cocoa butter , the absence of which makes hot cocoa significantly lower in fat than hot chocolate while still preserving all the antioxidants found in chocolate .
Hot chocolate can be made with dark , semisweet , or bittersweet chocolate chopped into small pieces and stirred into milk with the addition of sugar . American instant hot cocoa powder often includes powdered milk or other dairy ingredients so it can be made without using milk . In the United Kingdom , " hot chocolate " is a sweet chocolate drink made with hot milk or water , and powder containing chocolate , sugar , and powdered milk . " Cocoa " usually refers to a similar drink made with just hot milk and cocoa powder , then sweetened to taste with sugar ( or not sweetened at all ) .
= = Usage = =
Today , hot chocolate in the form of drinking chocolate or cocoa is considered a comfort food and is widely consumed in many parts of the world .
= = = Europe = = =
In mainland Europe ( particularly Spain and Italy ) , hot chocolate is sometimes served very thick due to the use of a thickening agent such as cornstarch . Among the multiple thick forms of hot chocolate served in Europe is the Italian cioccolata densa . German variations are also known for being very thick and heavy .
Hot chocolate with churros is the traditional working @-@ man 's breakfast in Spain . This style of hot chocolate can be extremely thick , often having the consistency of warm chocolate pudding . In the Netherlands , hot chocolate is a very popular drink , known as chocolademelk , it is often served at home or in cafes . In France , hot chocolate is often served at breakfast time ; sometimes sliced bread spread with butter , jam , honey , or Nutella is dunked into the hot chocolate . There are also brands of hot chocolate specially formulated for breakfast time , notably Banania .
Even further variations of hot chocolate exist . In some cafes in Belgium and other areas in Europe , one who orders a " warme chocolade " or " chocolat chaud " receives a cup of steaming white milk and a small bowl of bittersweet chocolate chips to dissolve in the milk . Particularly rich hot chocolate is often served in demitasse cups .
= = = North America = = =
In the United States , the drink is popular in instant form , made with hot water or milk from a packet containing mostly cocoa powder , sugar , and dry milk . This is the thinner of the two main variations . It is very sweet and may be topped with marshmallows , whipped cream , or a piece of solid chocolate . Hot chocolate was first brought to North America as early as the 17th century by the Dutch , but the first time colonists began selling hot chocolate was around 1755 . Traditionally , hot chocolate has been associated with cold weather , winter , and dessert in the United States .
In Mexico , hot chocolate remains a popular national drink . Besides the instant powder form , traditional Mexican hot chocolate includes semi @-@ sweet chocolate , cinnamon , sugar , and vanilla . Hot chocolate of this type is commonly sold in circular or hexagonal tablets which can be dissolved into hot milk , water , or cream , and then blended until the mixture develops a creamy froth . Mexican cinnamon hot chocolate is traditionally served alongside a variety of Mexican pastries known as pan dulce or with churros .
= = = South America = = =
In Colombia , a hot chocolate beverage made with milk and water using a chocolatera and molinillo is enjoyed as part of breakfast with bread and soft , fresh farmers cheese . The chocolate bars used in the preparation come with granulated sugar mixed in , and sometimes have flavors such as cinnamon , cloves and vanilla added to the chocolate .
In Peru , hot chocolate can be served with panettone at breakfast on Christmas Day , even though summer has already started in the southern hemisphere . This tradition began in Cuzco ; for this reason typical brands of chocolate bars are from this cocoa @-@ producing region . Another region which produces best @-@ quality cacao is the San Martin Region in the north Peruvian rainforest .
= = Health = =
Although hot chocolate is generally consumed for pleasure , the beverage confers several potential health benefits . A 2003 study from Cornell University found that cocoa contains large amounts of antioxidants that may help prevent cancer . Also , it has been demonstrated that the cocoa bean helps with digestion . From the 16th to 19th centuries , hot chocolate was valued as a medicine as well as a drink .
The explorer Francisco Hernández wrote that chocolate beverages helped treat fever and liver disease . Another explorer , Santiago de Valverde Turices , believed that large amounts of hot chocolate were helpful in treating chest ailments and that smaller amounts could help stomach disorders . When chocolate was introduced to the French in the 17th century , it was reportedly used " to fight against fits of anger and bad moods " , which may be attributed to chocolate 's phenylethylamine content . Today , hot chocolate is consumed for pleasure rather than medicinally , but new research suggests that there may be other health benefits attributed to the drink .
On the other hand , several negative effects can be attributed to drinking hot chocolate , as some hot chocolate recipes contain high amounts of sugar , hydrogenated oils , or fats .
= = = Benefits = = =
Research has shown that the consumption of hot chocolate can be positive to one 's health . A study conducted by Cornell University has shown that hot chocolate contains more antioxidants than wine and tea , therefore reducing the risk of heart disease . In a single serving of cocoa , the researchers found 611 milligrams of gallic acid equivalents ( GAE ) and 564 milligrams of epicatechin equivalents ( ECE ) , compared with 340 milligrams of GAE and 163 milligrams of ECE in red wine , and 165 milligrams of GAE and 47 milligrams of ECE in green tea . Chang Yong Lee , the professor and researcher at Cornell who conducted the study , revealed that larger amounts of antioxidants are released when the beverage is heated .
The flavonoids found in the cocoa that makes up hot chocolate also have a positive effect on arterial health . A particular study performed by the National Institutes of Health partially supported by Mars Chocolate company showed high amounts of improvement in blood flow after drinking a flavanol @-@ rich cocoa beverage . In the study , the subjects ( 27 people ages 18 to 72 ) drank a cocoa drink containing 900 milligrams of flavonols every day , which resulted in an improvement in blood flow and the function of endothelial cells that line blood vessels .
In further studies conducted by Dr. Norman K. Hollenberg , professor of medicine at Brigham and Women 's Hospital and Harvard Medical School found that flavonols may also help vessels dilate and help keep platelets from clustering on the blood vessel walls . Flavonoids found in hot chocolate are beneficial to health mainly because they shield the walls of blood vessels from free radical damage . Flavanols are also thought to help reduce blood platelet buildup and can balance levels of compounds called eicosanoids , which may be beneficial to cardiovascular health .
= = = Risks = = =
Several negative effects may be attributed to the drinking of hot chocolate . The types and severity of health risks vary between different styles of hot chocolate . Hot chocolate made from milk also contains the sugars naturally found in milk . Processed cocoa powder usually contains additional sugars . Some brands also contain hydrogenated oils and fats , the most common of which are coconut derivatives .
= Moons of Haumea =
The outer Solar System dwarf planet Haumea has two known moons , Hiʻiaka and Namaka , named after Hawaiian goddesses . These small moons were discovered in 2005 , from observations of Haumea made at the large telescopes of the W. M. Keck Observatory in Hawaii .
Haumea 's moons are unusual in a number of ways . They are thought to be part of its extended collisional family , which formed billions of years ago from icy debris after a large impact disrupted Haumea 's ice mantle . Hiʻiaka , the larger , outermost moon , has large amounts of pure water ice on its surface , which is rare among Kuiper belt objects . Namaka , about one tenth the mass , has an orbit with surprising dynamics : it is unusually eccentric and appears to be greatly influenced by the larger satellite .
= = History = =
Two small satellites were discovered around Haumea ( which was at that time still designated 2003 EL61 ) through observations using the W.M. Keck Observatory by a Caltech team in 2005 . The outer and larger of the two satellites was discovered January 26 , 2005 , and formally designated S / 2005 ( 2003 EL61 ) 1 , though nicknamed " Rudolph " by the Caltech team . The smaller , inner satellite of Haumea was discovered on June 30 , 2005 , formally termed S / 2005 ( 2003 EL61 ) 2 , and nicknamed " Blitzen " . On September 7 , 2006 , both satellites were numbered and admitted into the official minor planet catalogue as ( 136108 ) 2003 EL61 I and II , respectively .
The permanent names of these moons were announced , together with that of 2003 EL61 , by the International Astronomical Union on September 17 , 2008 : ( 136108 ) Haumea I Hiʻiaka and ( 136108 ) Haumea II Namaka . Each moon was named after a daughter of Haumea , the Hawaiian goddess of fertility and childbirth . Hiʻiaka is the goddess of dance and patroness of the Big Island of Hawaii , where the Mauna Kea Observatory is located . Nāmaka is the goddess of water and the sea ; she cooled her sister Pele 's lava as it flowed into the sea , turning it into new land .
In her legend , Haumea 's many children came from different parts of her body . The dwarf planet Haumea appears to be almost entirely made of rock , with only a superficial layer of ice ; most of the original icy mantle is thought to have been blasted off by the impact that spun Haumea into its current high speed of rotation , where the material formed into the small Kuiper belt objects in Haumea 's collisional family . There could therefore be additional outer moons , smaller than Namaka , that have not yet been detected . However , HST observations have confirmed that no other moons brighter than 0 @.@ 25 % of the brightness of Haumea exist within the closest tenth of the distance ( 0 @.@ 1 % of the volume ) where they could be held by Haumea 's gravitational influence ( its Hill sphere ) . This makes it unlikely that any more exist .
= = Surface properties = =
Hiʻiaka is the outer and , at roughly 350 km in diameter , the larger and brighter of the two moons . Strong absorption features observed at 1 @.@ 5 , 1 @.@ 65 and 2 µm in its infrared spectrum are consistent with nearly pure crystalline water ice covering much of its surface . The unusual spectrum , and its similarity to absorption lines in the spectrum of Haumea , led Brown and colleagues to conclude that it was unlikely that the system of moons was formed by the gravitational capture of passing Kuiper belt objects into orbit around the dwarf planet : instead , the Haumean moons must be fragments of Haumea itself .
The sizes of both moons are calculated with the assumption that they have the same infrared albedo as Haumea , which is reasonable as their spectra show them to have the same surface composition . Haumea 's albedo has been measured by the Spitzer Space Telescope : from ground @-@ based telescopes , the moons are too small and close to Haumea to be seen independently . Based on this common albedo , the inner moon , Namaka , which is a tenth the mass of Hiʻiaka , would be about 170 km in diameter .
The Hubble Space Telescope ( HST ) has adequate angular resolution to separate the light from the moons from that of Haumea . Photometry of the Haumea triple system with HST 's NICMOS camera has confirmed that the spectral line at 1 @.@ 6 µm that indicates the presence of water ice is at least as strong in the moons ' spectra as in Haumea 's spectrum .
The moons of Haumea are too faint to detect with telescopes smaller than about 2 metres in aperture , though Haumea itself has a visual magnitude of 17 @.@ 5 , making it the third brightest object in the Kuiper belt after Pluto and Makemake , and easily observable with a large amateur telescope .
= = Orbital characteristics = =
Hiʻiaka orbits Haumea nearly circularly every 49 days . Namaka orbits Haumea in 18 days in a moderately elliptical , non @-@ Keplerian orbit , and as of 2008 was inclined 13 ° with respect to Hiʻiaka , which perturbs its orbit . Because the impact that created the moons of Haumea is thought to have occurred in the early history of the Solar System , over the following billions of years it should have been tidally damped into a more circular orbit . Namaka 's orbit has likely been disturbed by orbital resonances with the more @-@ massive Hiʻiaka due to converging orbits as they moved outward from Haumea due to tidal dissipation . They may have been caught in and then escaped from orbital resonance several times ; they currently are in or at least close to an 8 : 3 resonance . This resonance strongly perturbs Namaka 's orbit , which has a current precession of its argument of periapsis by about − 6 @.@ 5 ° per year , a precession period of 55 years .
At present , the orbits of the Haumean moons appear almost exactly edge @-@ on from Earth , with Namaka having periodically occulted Haumea from 2009 to 2011 . Observation of such transits would provide precise information on the size and shape of Haumea and its moons , as happened in the late 1980s with Pluto and Charon . The tiny change in brightness of the system during these occultations will require at least a medium @-@ aperture professional telescope for detection . Hiʻiaka last occulted Haumea in 1999 , a few years before its discovery , and will not do so again for some 130 years . However , in a situation unique among regular satellites , the great torquing of Namaka 's orbit by Hiʻiaka will preserve the viewing angle of Namaka – Haumea transits for several more years .
= Kingdom of Loathing =
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Caen University was particularly hard hit , starting chemical fires that soon spread . At 22 : 50 , six squadrons of de Havilland Mosquito bombers attacked individual targets and ten minutes later the 636 guns of the assaulting divisions opened fire , with the battleship Rodney and other ships adding their support . The bombardment was intensified by the artillery of VIII Corps , against the villages north of Caen , to eliminate German strong points before the infantry assault began .
= = Battle = =
= = = 8 July = = =
At 04 : 30 on 8 July , the artillery of I and VIII Corps shifted their fire deeper into the German defensive belt , along the axes of advance of the 3rd Canadian Division and the 59th ( Staffordshire ) Infantry Division . As the infantry and armour moved off their start @-@ lines , the barrage slowly crept forward , concentrating its fire on positions in front of the Anglo @-@ Canadian troops ; four battalions and two armoured regiments advancing on a two brigade front . At 07 : 00 , 192 B @-@ 26 Marauder medium bombers arrived over the battlefield but finding it obscured by cloud only 87 aircraft were able to drop their bombs , totalling 133 long tons ( 135 t ) . Some bombs landed on the 12th SS Headquarters at Abbaye @-@ aux @-@ Dames .
Crocker launched the second phase of Operation Charnwood at 07 : 30 , although neither division had yet reached its objectives . The 26th SS Panzergrenadier Regiment was still in control of high ground around the Carpiquet airfield on the right flank of the advance . On the left , facing the relatively weak defences of the 16th Luftwaffe Field Division , the 3rd Infantry Division made good progress . They attacked Lébisey and rapidly pushed through the village , although fighting intensified as the division reached Hérouville . Concerned about the state of the Luftwaffe division , General Heinrich Eberbach , in command of Panzer Group West ordered the 21st Panzer Division to redeploy north @-@ east of Caen in support . The manoeuvre was spotted and when 21st Panzer attempted to cross the Caen Canal , a naval bombardment was directed against them . Facing the possibility of heavy losses , the move was abandoned . In the centre , the 176th Brigade of the 59th Division was encountering much stiffer resistance from the 12th SS Panzer Regiment in Galmanche and la Bijude . The 197th Brigade bypassed Galmanche and by noon had reached St @-@ Contest .
Further to the west , the 9th Infantry Brigade of the 3rd Canadian Division had been involved in heavy fighting in Buron , which was defended by 200 men from the 12th SS . With support from the 10th Armoured Regiment ( The Fort Garry Horse ) , by noon Buron had been taken , although the Canadian assault companies suffered 60 % casualties . South of Buron , a counter @-@ attack by Panzer IV and Panther tanks of the 12th SS Panzer Regiment was defeated by 17pdr SP Achilles self @-@ propelled anti @-@ tank guns and 17 @-@ pounder anti tank guns of the 245th Battery , 62nd Antitank Regiment . Thirteen German tanks were destroyed in one of the most successful antitank engagements of the campaign , for the loss of four tank destroyers and a further four damaged . Gruchy was captured with relatively less difficulty , with the 7th Canadian Infantry Brigade encountering only mortar and artillery fire in their drive to Authie . The capture of Authie facilitated the 59th Infantry Division assault on St @-@ Contest and that village fell too , clearing the way for an advance on Caen . In Phase 3 of the operation , the 7th Brigade pushed towards the former headquarters of the 12th SS Panzer Division at Ardenne Abbey , securing the position before midnight .
The British 3rd Division brushed aside 16th Luftwaffe and approached the outskirts of Caen from the north @-@ east . At 19 : 15 , Meyer and Eberbach authorised the withdrawal of the 12th SS Panzer Division heavy weapons and the remnants of the Luftwaffe division across the Orne to the southern side of Caen . In the early evening , the 12th SS fought a rearguard action against elements of the 59th and 3rd Canadian divisions , as it pulled back from positions no longer considered tenable . Reports of this withdrawal came into the Anglo @-@ Canadian command but patrols probing German positions , created a false perception that no withdrawal was taking place .
= = = 9 July = = =
British and Canadian patrols began to infiltrate the city at dawn on 9 July . The airfield at Carpiquet finally fell into Allied hands during the early morning , when the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division discovered that the 26th SS Panzergrenadier Regiment had withdrawn during the night . With the German situation north of the river becoming increasingly precarious , 21st Panzer Division battle groups and the remaining regiments of the 12th SS Panzer Division conducted a slow withdrawal across the Orne , making for the Verrières and Bourguébus Ridges . By noon the 3rd British Infantry Division had reached the Orne 's north bank , virtually destroying the elements of the 16th Luftwaffe Field Division , positioned west of the Orne , in the process . A few hours later the British and Canadians met in the centre of the city and by 18 : 00 the northern half of Caen was firmly under Allied control ; all I Corps 's objectives had been achieved . A few of Caen 's bridges were intact but these were either blocked by rubble or defended by German troops on the south bank and the 1st SS Panzer Division had by now positioned itself to oppose any further advance .
The 12th SS Panzer Division ( by the end of the battle the division 's infantry strength had been reduced to that of a battalion ) — claimed over the course of two days to have destroyed 103 British and Canadian tanks for the loss of 20 . On entering Caen the Anglo @-@ Canadian troops found it in ruins , with four @-@ fifths of the Old City reduced to rubble by the 7 July bombings . The debris that choked the streets made it almost impossible for British armour to manoeuvre through the northern half of the city , preventing Second Army from exploiting I Corps 's success . Without possession of the terrain flanking the south of the city , no further gains could be made within Caen so by mid @-@ afternoon on 9 July , Operation Charnwood was over .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Analysis = = =
The German were forced to withdraw from the north of the Orne but Allied forces were unable to push beyond the Orne . German forces were dug @-@ in on the opposite bank in position to block a move south . Montgomery called off an advance beyond the Orne as further attacks would be too costly for the gains made , which had inflicted much attrition on the defenders . For French public opinion the operation was a coup ; civilians now believed the liberation of France was under way
Antony Beevor called Operation Charnwood a partial success , because although much of Caen was taken , the British and Canadians failed to secure enough ground to expand the Allied build @-@ up ; the bulk of the First Canadian Army was still waiting in the United Kingdom for transfer to Normandy . Carlo D 'Este wrote that Charnwood did improve the Second Army 's position but without the high ground to the south , Caen was useless , the capture of the city was too little too late a hollow victory . Chester Wilmot wrote that for Montgomery to maintain a threat to German @-@ occupied Paris , Caen 's southern suburbs with their factories and communications network would have been a more significant prize . Buckley and Copp note that by the time the city was captured , the Germans — weakened by the battles of late June and early July — had already established defensive positions on the high ground to the south of the Orne , which blocked the route to the Falaise plain
Copp also wrote that the British Second Army won an important operational victory during Charnwood and the Society for Army Historical Research recorded that the attacks were a tactical and operational success . In the aftermath , the Supreme Allied Commander , General Dwight D. Eisenhower expressed his concern that a breakout was unlikely . Montgomery differed ; the tenacity of the German defence was no barometer of its longevity . Field Marshal Erwin Rommel mentioned to Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Caesar von Hofacker that the front @-@ line in France could only be held for another three weeks . Hofacker was a member of the German resistance and linked with the Hitler assassination plot and according to Trew , Rommel 's comment led to the plot timetable being decided .
The serious losses sustained in maintaining a static defence during June led to fractures in the German high command . On 1 July , Panzer Group West commander Leo Geyr von Schweppenburg had been replaced by Heinrich Eberbach , following disagreements with Hitler over how the campaign should be conducted . Gerd von Rundstedt , soon followed , that evening , in a telephone conversation with Generalfeldmarschall Wilhelm Keitel , head of OKW , von Rundstedt said " Make peace , you fools . " Taken to task over his endorsement of von Schweppenburg 's recommendation for a withdrawal , he replied " If you doubt what we 're doing , get up here and take over this shambles yourself " . The following morning , informed that perhaps his health was " no longer up to the task " , von Rundstedt resigned and was succeeded as OB West by Günther von Kluge . The costly battles in and around Caen and Saint @-@ Lô convinced both Eberbach and von Kluge that their predecessors had been correct . The Germans had suffered heavily , leading Hitler to order Army Group B to temporarily abandon big counter @-@ attacks and go over to the defensive until more reinforcements could arrive to bolster the front .
Trew contends that the capture of northern Caen had a psychological impact on the French population , convincing them the Allies were there to stay and that the liberation of France could not be far off . By Operation Charnwood 's conclusion , Allied losses since 6 June had amounted to over 30 @,@ 000 men , excluding those who had been evacuated due to sickness and those suffering from battle exhaustion . Buckley believes Charnwood to have been a good idea but one that proved better in concept than in execution , influenced as it was by the mounting political pressure on 21st Army Group to produce results . Copp wrote that the broad @-@ based assault plan across the entire front worked , preventing the Germans bringing to bear superior firepower on any one formation .
Copp wrote that Charnwood should have produced a rapid breakthrough but concedes that the battle was one of the most difficult of the campaign . Buckley singles out poor cooperation between armoured and infantry units as one of the reasons for such high Allied losses ; he is critical of the habit of tanks standing off from German positions and firing the infantry onto the objective like artillery , instead of moving forward to give close support . He further notes that from the German perspective , the Anglo @-@ Canadian forces apparently lacked the desire or ability to press home their advantages , citing Kurt Meyer 's opinion that during the battle the Allies allowed the opportunity of destroying his 12th SS Panzer Division to elude them . Buckley comments on the defensive power of the British and Canadian formations . The German practice of conducting immediate local counter @-@ attacks to retake lost ground cost them many of their best troops , losses they could ill @-@ afford . He illustrates this with a typical action during which the Germans lost 13 tanks to British self @-@ propelled anti @-@ tank guns .
With Caen north of the River Orne in Allied hands , mine @-@ clearance operations were launched , bulldozers were set to work to clear the streets and a convoy of trucks carrying supplies for the civilian population was brought in . On 10 July the French flag was raised over the city and three days later a parade was held in the Place Saint @-@ Martin during which a second flag was raised to the strains of Scottish bagpipers playing La Marseillaise .
Rommel and Eberbach consolidated defensive positions in and around southern Caen , the 12th , 1st and 9th SS Panzer Divisions turning the Bourguébus and Verrières Ridges into formidable barriers . Having committed all of his armoured reserves , Rommel transferred the remainder of his infantry divisions — the 708th , 276th , 277th and 272nd — to the Anglo @-@ Canadian front . On 8 July he released the remnants of the Panzer Lehr Division and the 2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich to the American sector . At the start of the campaign , Panzer @-@ Lehr was one of the most powerful armoured formations in the German army , by this stage it had been reduced to a number of battlegroups and was no longer operational as a division . On 17 July , Rommel 's staff car was strafed by British fighters , severely injuring the Field Marshal and confining him to hospital . Two days later he was replaced as Army Group B commander by Field Marshal Günther von Kluge . Rommel never returned to Normandy ; implicated in the 20 July plot against Hitler , on 14 October he was forced to commit suicide .
Caen 's partial capture allowed General Omar Bradley , commander of the United States First Army , to accelerate his plans for a breakout . Shortly after Charnwood the US VII Corps attacked German positions in Saint @-@ Lô , which the 2nd SS Panzer Division had been ordered to " hold at all costs " . On 18 July , after eight days of fighting during which 95 percent of the town was destroyed and VII Corps had more than 5 @,@ 000 casualties , Saint @-@ Lô fell to the Americans .
The same day , Miles Dempsey 's Second Army launched Operation Goodwood with from 1 @,@ 100 – 1 @,@ 300 tanks in the largest armoured battle in British military history . Lieutenant @-@ General Richard O 'Connor 's VIII Corps spearheaded the drive towards the Bourguébus Ridge with three armoured divisions , supported by Crocker 's I Corps . After a preliminary attack by 1 @,@ 056 heavy bombers , elements of the 11th , Guards and 7th Armoured Division assaulted the positions of LXXXVI Corps north of Bourguébus but despite early gains of around 12 @,@ 000 yards ( 11 km ) , strong resistance prevented VIII Corps taking the ridge . Simultaneously , Lieutenant General Guy Simonds 's newly activated II Canadian Corps launched an offensive on the Verrières Ridge , codenamed Operation Atlantic . II Corps ran into fierce opposition ; during the seven @-@ day battle that followed the Canadians sustained 2 @,@ 800 casualties . Verrières Ridge would remain in German hands until 8 August .
= = = Battle honours = = =
The British and Commonwealth system of battle honours recognises the battle by the award to 55 units of the honour Caen , for participation in the capture of Caen between 4 – 18 July 1944 . Awarded from 1956 to 1959 , the recognition was accompanied by honours for taking part in Operation Charnwood . For participating in the capture of Caen between 8 – 9 July three units were awarded the honour Orne , nine the honour The Orne , and two the honour The Orne ( Buron ) .
= = = Bombing = = =
Hastings wrote that the bombing came to be seen by many as " one of the most futile air attacks of the war " and Beevor called the attack a " disaster " . Reynolds judged the results of the bombing as " pathetic " and D 'Este wrote that the bombing hindered the Allied push into the city . Air Commodore E. J. Kingston @-@ McCloughry and Solly Zuckerman conducted a survey and concluded that no targets of military value had been attacked , nor were there any gun positions , tanks or German dead in the target zone . They interviewed men of the 3rd Infantry Division , who were reportedly bewildered as to why the bombers had been employed . The 3rd Division historian , wrote that in the wake of the air @-@ raid the men
... for the first time for weeks breathed freely . The full support of the Air Force gave them full hearts ... and the men were encourage .
The Canadian Official Historian , C. P. Stacey wrote that several Canadian formations reported an increase in morale . Wilmot wrote that the bombing was essential because it raised the morale of the Second Army and depressed that of the German defenders .
A 21st Army Group intelligence report , based on the interrogation of German prisoners recorded that the raid was " decisive " and had apparently destroyed the headquarters of the Luftwaffe infantry regiment based north of Caen and deprived the German troops north of the city of ammunition and rations the following morning . Gray wrote that the bombing had an effect on the morale of both sides but that this was temporary . L. F. Ellis , the British Official Historian , Trew and Badsey all wrote that the raid was intended to cut off German reinforcements from the battlefield and hinder an attempt to withdraw south of the Orne river . Stacey wrote that it was " obvious and desirable " that for maximum advantage , the Allied ground forces should have advanced on the heels of the attack . Gray concluded that no @-@ one " can [ not ] satisfactorily answer the question ' why ' " the city was bombed .
Analysis by Operational Research Section Number 2 ( ORS2 ) concluded that the bombing of the first aiming point north @-@ west of Caen was accurate , finding that the centre of the 90 percent zone ( the area where 90 percent of the bombs fell ) was 200 – 300 yards ( 180 – 270 m ) east of the aiming point , with some spillage to the south and west . Examination of the area after its capture , indicated some destruction of German equipment , including the wreckage of ten of the forty trucks believed to be in the area at the time of the raid . The 48 hours that elapsed between the bombing and the Allied occupation of the area , allowed the Germans time to recover from any shock and disorientation and to salvage some damaged equipment . Examination of the second aiming point , " Northern Caen " , failed to reveal a 90 percent zone but it was noted that the obstructive effect of bombing a suburb was significant and had caused substantial delays to vehicles of both sides , by cratering and blocking roads . ORS2 concluded that the success of Charnwood owed little to the bombing and made recommendations including changing to instantly fused bombs , dropping larger numbers of smaller anti @-@ personnel bombs and rapidly following @-@ up a bombardment with ground forces to take advantage of its main effect , which was the temporary suppression of German will to resist . In Operation Goodwood , Operation Bluecoat , Operation Cobra , Operation Totalize and Operation Tractable the 21st Army Group exploited better the effect of preparatory attacks by strategic bombers by following @-@ up the attacks immediately .
The British initially announced that around 6 @,@ 000 civilians had been killed during the air @-@ raid and a Soviet war correspondent attached to the 21st Army Group , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Kraminov , put the figure as high as 22 @,@ 000 , a claim that was used by French communists in post @-@ war anti @-@ British propaganda . It was later found that 300 – 400 civilians were killed in the raid . Caen citizens were relieved and provided their liberators with a welcome that the troops found very moving ; French accounts of the time claim that " All [ of ] Caen was in the streets to greet them " . Although Ellis called the French welcome " pathetic " , no Allied unit recorded any complaints about the reception they were given . Stacey wrote that the populace were " particularly delighted to find their city freed in part by men from Canada " . Beevor wrote that most of the population were numb from the shock and quoted a British soldier who recalled that " most ... women were crying , grief @-@ stricken and anguished " . As early as 12 June , the French Resistance had sent messengers to the British , informing them that refugees were gathering in the areas around the Abbaye @-@ aux @-@ Hommes and the Hôpital du Bon Sauveur and requested that these locations not to be bombed ; British assurances were given and these locations were nearly untouched . Gray wrote that after the war , the city population regarded itself as being martyred , which could be seen on the war memorial .
= = Subsequent operations = =
= = = Operation Jupiter = = =
On 10 July , the 43rd ( Wessex ) Infantry Division attacked the positions of the 10th SS Panzer Division to the southwest of Caen on Hill 112 . Preceded by a two @-@ day bombardment that included support from naval vessels and Hawker Typhoons , the assault was designed to threaten Caen from the west and push back the 10th SS Panzer Division . This would secure the British Second Army an avenue for future offensives . The 43rd Wessex began their assault at dawn on 10 July , supported by two armoured brigades . By 08 : 00 British tanks and infantry were engaged with 10th SS Panzer and " well up " the slopes of Hill 112 . Eterville was taken around mid @-@ morning ; as the 4th Armoured Brigade and 43rd Wessex pressed their attack , Panzer Group West commander General Eberbach insisted that " Hill 112 is the pivotal point of the whole position West of Caen , and must therefore be held " .
The 102nd SS Heavy Panzer Battalion and the 1st SS Panzer Division were committed to its defence . The 4th Armoured Brigade reached the summit but in the evening were counter @-@ attacked by remnants of the 1st and 12th SS Panzer Divisions . The British offensive resumed the following day with the support of antitank regiments from the Second Army ; these had heavy losses in a counter @-@ attack by the 102nd SS Heavy Panzer Battalion . Hill 112 was briefly taken by a battalion of the Duke of Cornwall 's Light Infantry , only to be lost to further German counter @-@ attacks in the late afternoon . By the evening of 11 July , with both sides exhausted and having suffered heavily the offensive had reached a stalemate . The 43rd ( Wessex ) Infantry Division and its supporting armour had sustained two thousand casualties in the two days of fighting .
= 2005 Qeshm earthquake =
The 2005 Qeshm earthquake occurred on November 27 at 13 : 52 IRST ( 10 : 22 UTC ) on the sparsely populated Qeshm Island off Southern Iran , killing 13 people and devastating 13 villages . It was Iran 's second major earthquake of 2005 , following that at Zarand in February . The epicenter was about 1 @,@ 500 kilometers ( 930 mi ) south of Tehran , close to Iran 's southern borders . Initial measurements showed that the earthquake registered about 6 @.@ 0 on the moment magnitude scale , although that was reduced to 5 @.@ 8 after further analysis . More than 400 minor aftershocks followed the main quake , 36 of which were greater than magnitude 2 @.@ 5 . The earthquake occurred in a remote area during the middle of the day , limiting the number of fatalities . Iranian relief efforts were effective and largely adequate , leading the country to decline offers of support from other nations and UNICEF .
Qeshm Island is part of the Simply Folded Belt , the most seismically active part of the Zagros fold and thrust belt . Similar to most earthquakes in the area , the 2005 event resulted from reverse slip faulting . Since it lies in such a seismically active area , there is a high risk of destructive earthquakes in Iran ; 1 in 3 @,@ 000 deaths are attributable to earthquakes . One geophysicist has cited the lack of strict building codes as a serious concern .
= = Background = =
Iran experiences at least one minor earthquake per day on average , and the Zagros region is particularly prone to seismic activity . During the last 100 years , Iran has been hit by more than 130 events stronger than magnitude 5 , with damaging earthquakes near Qeshm recorded in 1360 , 1703 , 1884 , 1897 , 1902 , and 1905 . The majority of Iranian quakes occur in the upper crust , close to the surface , which means that they are potentially more destructive .
In terms of earthquake protection , Iran was named the " worst offender " in 2004 by Professor Roger Bilham of the University of Colorado at Boulder . Bilham , a geophysicist who specializes in earthquake @-@ related deformation and hazards , blames construction practices for many of the deaths in Iranian earthquakes . Since the start of the 20th century 1 in 3 @,@ 000 Iranians have died in earthquake @-@ related incidents . The United Nations ' Common Country Assessment for Iran states that the greatest damage occurs in rural areas , for which no building code exists . Large cities have a building code that takes account of the seismic hazard , but it is not rigorously followed , despite the susceptibility of three quarters of Iranian major cities to damaging earthquakes . The risk posed by poor engineering is of significant concern to the populace and an impediment to economic development . The 1990 Manjil – Rudbar earthquake , with at least 42 @,@ 000 fatalities , cost Iran roughly 7 @.@ 2 percent of its Gross National Product ( GNP ) for that year , and wiped out two years of economic growth .
= = Geological setting = =
Iran lies within the complex zone of collision between the Arabian Plate and the Eurasian Plate ; near Qeshm the rate of convergence is about 25 millimeters annually . Part of this convergence is accommodated by crustal shortening and thickening within the Zagros fold and thrust belt , with the remainder occurring to the north of the Iranian Plateau . The most active part of the Zagros is the Simply Folded Belt , which is characterised by large folds formed above a layer of late Neoproterozoic to Early Cambrian Hormuz salt , which locally reaches the surface in the crests of some anticlines as salt diapirs . The sequence of sedimentary rocks above the salt layer comprises a basal Cambrian conglomerate beneath a thick sequence of limestones of Palaeozoic to late Cretaceous age , known together as the " Competent Group " owing to their relatively high mechanical strength , overlain by a sequence of weaker marls and interbedded limestones of latest Cretaceous to early Miocene age , topped by Neogene sandstones and conglomerates . There is evidence of intermediate level detachment at some of the weaker layers , which means that folds at different stratigraphic levels may have different locations , orientations , or wavelengths . Measurements of earthquake focal mechanisms and hypocentral depths show that shortening is accommodated by a mixture of high @-@ angle and low @-@ angle reverse faulting , within either the lowest part of the sedimentary cover or in the basement beneath the Hormuz salt .
The island of Qeshm is elongated WSW – ENE , parallel to the coastline and the regional trend of the main fold axes . Neogene sedimentary rocks outcrop at the surface over the whole island , apart from a diapir of older Hormuz salt that pierces through to the surface at its western end . The sediments are affected by a series of large , mainly anticlinal folds that show a variety of trends in the central part of the island . The axis of the Laft anticline runs mainly NW – SE , while the Salakh anticline trends roughly W – E and the Suza anticline and Ramkan syncline trend SW – NE . The island shows clear evidence of recent uplift in the form of marine terraces , with the highest terrace identified at 220 meters ( 720 ft ) above sea level . An uplift rate of 0 @.@ 2 millimeters annually has been estimated from uranium series dating ( 230Th / 234U ) of aragonite from corals on the terraces .
= = Characteristics = =
The earthquake was initially measured at 6 @.@ 0 on the moment magnitude scale , although later analysis suggests a slightly lower value of 5 @.@ 8 . The epicenter was near the village of Gavarzin in central Qeshm , and a hypocentral depth of 10 kilometers ( 6 mi ) was estimated . The focal mechanism derived for the earthquake indicates that it was the result of reverse faulting on a fault plane dipping either to the north at 50 ° or to the south – southeast at 40 ° . No evidence has been found of surface faulting , but a 3 @-@ kilometer @-@ long ( 2 mi ) set of bedding @-@ parallel cracks was observed on the northwestern flank of the Ramkan syncline , interpreted as representing probable slip along bedding planes , possibly due to further tightening of this fold . Other NW – SE trending tensional cracks observed further southwest along the syncline are more likely to be due to salt movement at depth .
Surface displacement during the earthquake was measured using SAR interferometry . The computed area of uplift is elongated W @-@ E , with a maximum value of about 20 centimeters ( 8 in ) centered over the eastern end of the Latif anticline . A smaller area of subsidence was observed to the south of the uplifted area , and the lack of a sharp boundary between the two suggests that the fault does not come to the surface . The pattern of displacement is consistent with a north @-@ dipping fault rupturing between about 8 kilometers ( 5 mi ) and 4 kilometers ( 2 mi ) in depth , which also provides a good match to the results of seismic modeling using body waves , although a SSE @-@ dipping plane remains possible . This depth range strongly suggests that the fault affected the lower part of the sedimentary cover , while not ruling out some basement involvement . The mismatch between the orientation of the fault planes that caused the earthquake and the observed surface folds suggests that deformation at these two levels is decoupled by the presence of a detachment , possibly within marl layers .
Most aftershocks occurred at significantly greater depths than the mainshock and are dominated by strike @-@ slip focal mechanisms . This suggests that the mainshock triggered later movement on a complex set of right and left lateral strike @-@ slip faults within the basement , together accommodating north @-@ south shortening beneath the Hormuz salt layer .
On September 10 , 2008 , there was another major earthquake on Qeshm , with a magnitude of 5 @.@ 9 and hypocentral depth of 8 kilometers ( 5 mi ) . The pattern of uplift observed for this earthquake is also consistent with rupturing within the lower sedimentary sequence , but on a fault with two segments , dipping overall to the southeast . The earthquakes of 2005 and 2008 may have ruptured adjacent segments of the same southeast @-@ dipping reverse fault . Seven deaths were reported as a result of the 2008 earthquake .
= = Damage and casualties = =
The earthquake hit at 13 : 52 : 19 IRST , or 1 : 52 pm ( 10 : 22 : 19 UTC ) , and lasted between 10 and 30 seconds . It killed 13 people and injured 100 on Qeshm Island . In Zirang ( Ziranag ) , a village on Qeshm , 80 percent of the buildings were demolished . Seven villages experienced extensive damage , and 13 villages were destroyed : Tonban , Ramekan , Gevarzin , Khaledin , Direstan , Kushe , Karavan , Turyan , Tom senati , Gorbehdan , Ziranag , Giahdan , and Gourian . There were reports of intensity III effects on the Mercalli scale from Bandar Abbas , Abu Dhabi , Ajman , Dubai , Fujairah and Ras al @-@ Khaimah ; Intensity IV ( Light ) effects occurred at Sharjah . Shaking from the earthquake was also noted in Oman . No major damage occurred directly at the epicenter ; residents of Qeshm reported that the shaking smashed windows , leading citizens to evacuate their homes fearing collapse . In total more than 2 @,@ 000 people were affected .
One major hospital damaged by the earthquake was inundated with the injured and lacked medical supplies for treatment . An airport on the epicentral island sustained damage , and power lines on the island were severed . The director of Tehran 's seismological building dismissed fears of a tsunami , saying that the Persian Gulf was not deep enough to allow for one . In one school , some people suffered broken legs when the building collapsed , but there were no fatalities . Buildings in Dubai , including the Emirates Towers , were evacuated because of concerns that the structures might collapse , but no such incidents occurred . One woman described the locals as " panicked " . Television stations throughout Iran released footage of quake damage and of injured residents being taken to hospitals .
A landslide and 36 major aftershocks of more than magnitude 2 @.@ 5 ( in total , 400 aftershocks ) followed the earthquake . A former Portuguese fortress , built by Admiral Afonso de Albuquerque in 1507 , sustained heavy damage to its eastern wall but otherwise remained intact .
If the earthquake had occurred during the early morning while residents were asleep , rather than mid @-@ afternoon ( 1 : 52 pm local time ) , it could have been deadlier as housing in the epicentral area consisted chiefly of mud and brick .
= = Relief efforts and aftermath = =
Aid workers from the domestic region began delivering supplies such as food , blankets , and tents . A dispatch of 101 relief helpers , 40 IRCS staff , and four people from the public relations department at ReliefWeb also assisted survivors . Three ambulances , 46 trucks , three helicopters , 12 vans , nine cars , two minibuses , and two sniffer dogs were also dispatched to help citizens of quake @-@ struck areas .
Injured residents were transported to Bandar Abbas by helicopter . An Iranian police official , citing concerns about possible looting , said all movement into and out of damaged houses would require prior approval from the governor 's office , the police , and the Unexpected Events Committee on the island . UNICEF offered assistance to Iran , and the official in charge of response stated : " we are preparing to respond if needed " . They elaborated that the Iranian authorities " appeared to have things under control " .
In 2007 , the Asian Centre on Seismic Risk Reduction was formed in response to the regular earthquakes experienced in south , west , and central Asia , to " encourage regional and inter @-@ regional networking and partnerships to reduce seismic damage " . Earthquakes account for 73 percent of natural disaster deaths in these locations .
= White Rabbit ( Lost ) =
" White Rabbit " is the fifth episode of the first season of Lost . The episode was directed by Kevin Hooks and written by Christian Taylor . It first aired on October 20 , 2004 , on ABC .
The episode is centered on the character of Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) , with flashbacks revealing his past , including his childhood and his trip to Australia looking for his missing father Christian Shephard . In present @-@ day events , the plane crash survivors begin to struggle as they realize they are running out of fresh water . While Jack tries to solve the conflicts , he starts seeing Christian in the jungle , and chases the hallucination of his dead father .
The episode attracted an estimated 16 @.@ 82 million live viewers . It received mostly positive reviews , and was listed as # 49 on IGN 's ranking of every episode of Lost . After the broadcast of " White Rabbit " , ABC picked up Lost for a full season , adding an additional nine episodes to the thirteen that were already scheduled .
= = Plot = =
= = = Flashbacks = = =
A young Jack Shephard ( John O 'Hara ) and a friend are being beaten up . One bully gives Jack the chance to leave , but he decides to help his friend , causing Jack to be further assaulted . When Jack 's father , Christian Shephard ( John Terry ) sees his son 's beaten face , he tells Jack he should not be a hero because he " doesn 't have what it takes . "
Many years later , Jack ( Matthew Fox ) visits his mother , ( Veronica Hamel ) who tells him that Christian has left for Australia , and asks Jack to bring his father back . Jack reluctantly agrees , and after arriving in Sydney searches the hotel at which his father was staying . The manager informs Jack that his father has not slept at the hotel for several days following an incident at a bar , and Jack finds bottles of alcohol , pills , and his father 's wallet in Christian 's room .
Jack is shown identifying his father 's corpse in a morgue , where the coroner ( Geoff Heise ) tells Jack that the death was possibly caused by an alcohol @-@ induced heart attack . Jack later argues with Oceanic Airlines ticket agent Chrissy ( Meilinda Soerjoko ) , who says the documentation to board Christian 's coffin aboard Flight 815 is incomplete . Jack , frustrated , explains that all the arrangements are set for the funeral once he arrives at LAX , and he needs to bury his father , because he needs it " to be over " .
= = = On the Island = = =
Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) rescues Boone Carlyle ( Ian Somerhalder ) in the ocean as Boone fails to swim out to save a drowning woman , Joanna . Later , as Jack is approached by Hugo " Hurley " Reyes ( Jorge Garcia ) and Charlie Pace ( Dominic Monaghan ) as they question how to deal with the diminishing water supplies of the survivors , Boone confronts Jack regarding how he saved him and not Joanna , asking who made Jack their leader . Jack again sees the man who he saw in the previous episode , " Walkabout " , and runs off after him . Once Jack catches up , he recognizes the man as his father , and the man runs away again . While chasing him , Jack trips and rolls down a mountain , just barely grabbing on to the edge of a cliff .
Back at the beach , Claire Littleton ( Emilie de Ravin ) faints due to dehydration , and Charlie is unable to find the remaining water . John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) volunteers to search for water in the jungle , and , while searching , discovers Jack hanging on the precipice . After rescuing him , the two talk , with Jack saying he does not want to be a leader because he " doesn 't have what it takes " , while Locke advises him to pursue his " hallucination " of his father , comparing it to the White Rabbit from Alice in Wonderland and explaining his belief that everything on the Island happens for a reason . At nightfall , Jack follows a sound he heard in the jungle , leading him to stumble upon a cave containing a spring of fresh water , where he finds some debris from the plane , including his father 's coffin . Jack opens it and finds the coffin empty , leading him to tear it apart in frustration .
Back on the beach , Boone gives water to an unconscious Claire . After being caught by Charlie , Boone admits that it is he who stole the water , in an attempt to take responsibility for its rationing . A fight between him and some of the other survivors begins , but Jack returns and interrupts with a speech , saying that he has found fresh water and that they must all band together if they are to survive , because " if we can 't live together , we 're going to die alone . "
= = Production = =
" White Rabbit " aired on October 20 , 2004 . The episode was directed by Kevin Hooks and written by Christian Taylor . Taylor declared the underlying message was of " a man 's journey to find out who he really is " , in how solving Jack 's conflicted relationship with his father gave him an excuse to reinvent himself and was " integrated into what Jack becomes in the context of the series " . Showrunner Damon Lindelof was enthusted in working with the episode , even if " it did not end with a big shocking twist or surprise " like predecessor " Walkabout " . Lindelof was particularly positive about " this great scene between Jack and Locke in the woods , " which still influenced the characters ' later discussions about faith , such as in the fourth season finale " There 's No Place Like Home " .
In the scene when Jack is dangling from the cliff , Matthew Fox performs the stunt himself , as he considered that relying on stunt doubles " always sort of inhibits the director 's ability to shoot it in cool ways . " Fox dangled from a thirty foot high cliff in front of a blue screen , that through digital extensions appeared to be hundreds of feet high . However , Fox 's long time stunt actor , Steve Blalock , performed Jack 's rolling down the mountain before grabbing the edge of the cliff , given Fox considered that " there are some things that I 'm not gonna be able to do " .
The episode is named after the White Rabbit from the tale Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland , who leads the story 's title character , Alice , deeper and deeper down a hole to a whimsical world called Wonderland , while meeting different characters . Just as Alice followed the White Rabbit deeper and deeper down the hole to Wonderland , Jack follows his father deeper and deeper into the jungle . Geoff Heise , who shows Jack his dead father at the morgue , is also in the Pilot episode as a survivor . It is unclear why this is so , and whether or not his portrayal of two seemingly unrelated characters has any symbolism . The episode marks the first appearance of actor John Terry , who plays Jack 's father , Christian Shephard ( the mysterious man who Jack chases in the jungle ) . In the previous episode , " Walkabout " , Christian was played by a stand @-@ in actor , as the character hadn 't been cast yet ; thus , only the back of his head was shown .
= = Reception = =
" White Rabbit " first aired in the United States on October 20 , 2004 . An estimated 16 @.@ 82 million viewers in America watched the episode on its first broadcast , and it finished second in its timeslot behind the 2004 Major League Baseball season playoffs . Among adults aged 18 to 49 , the episode earned a ratings share of 6 @.@ 3 / 16 , finishing in fourteenth place for the week . Based upon the series ' success , ABC picked up Lost for the full season soon after the broadcast of " White Rabbit " , ordering another nine episodes beyond the thirteen it had already agreed upon .
The episode received mostly positive reviews . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave the episode an A- , writing that " The structure of ' White Rabbit ' is kind of half @-@ formed , in a way that strikes me as very similar to the structure of ' Tabula Rasa ' , but I think that feeling of everything having been tossed together at the last minute suits the episode in a way it didn ’ t the earlier one . " VanDerWerff also writes , " the more I think about this episode , the more I admire it for taking away Jack ’ s agency . " IGN reviewer Chris Carabott gave the episode a 7 @.@ 9 / 10 , writing that it " features one of the best flashbacks dedicated to Jack . " Robin Pierson of The TV Critic gave " White Rabbit " a 72 / 100 , praising on how the writers did another " character heavy " episode without " trying to cram unnecessary action . " However , Pierson added that the cliff scene was clichéd , particularly as " we don ’ t really believe that he will die , so it is an action movie scene which we probably didn ’ t leave . "
Ryan McGee of Zap2it described " White Rabbit " as " a worthy successor to ' Walkabout , ' and one of the stronger Jack @-@ centric eps the show ever produced . " Lost Episode Guide for Others : An Unofficial Anthology by Robert Dougherty says the episode is a must @-@ see ; it is " our first in depth glimpse at Jack 's character " . Dan Snierson of Entertainment Weekly gave the episode a B + , complimenting the " tantalizing peek " into Jack 's dysfunctional relationship with Christian , " producing both juicy questions and eerie revelations " . IGN listed " White Rabbit " 49th on their ranking of every episode of Lost , describing the " live together , die alone " speech as iconic . A similar ranking of episodes by Todd VanDerWerff for the Los Angeles Times placed the episode at 82nd , feeling it was " more notable for the things it introduces -- like the Monster impersonating dead people " than the plot .
= The Colour Out of Space =
" The Colour Out of Space " is a short story written by American horror author H. P. Lovecraft in March 1927 . In the tale , an unnamed narrator pieces together the story of an area known by the locals as the " blasted heath " in the wild hills west of Arkham , Massachusetts . The narrator discovers that many years ago a meteorite crashed there , poisoning every living being nearby ; vegetation grows large but foul tasting , animals are driven mad and deformed into grotesque shapes , and the people go insane or die one by one .
Lovecraft began writing " The Colour Out of Space " immediately after finishing his previous short novel , The Case of Charles Dexter Ward , and in the midst of final revision on his horror fiction essay " Supernatural Horror in Literature " . Seeking to create a truly alien life form , he drew inspiration from numerous fiction and nonfiction sources . First appearing in the September 1927 edition of Hugo Gernsback 's science fiction magazine Amazing Stories , " The Colour Out of Space " became one of Lovecraft 's most popular works , and remained his personal favorite short story . It was adapted into feature film versions in 1965 , 1987 , and 2010 .
= = Synopsis = =
An unnamed surveyor from Boston telling the story in the first @-@ person perspective attempts to uncover the secrets behind a shunned place referred to by the locals of Arkham as the " blasted heath . " Unable to garner any information from the townspeople , the protagonist seeks out an old and allegedly crazy man by the name of Ammi Pierce , who relates his personal experiences with a farmer who used to live on the cursed property , Nahum Gardner . Pierce claims that the troubles began when a meteorite crashed into Gardner 's lands in June 1882 .
The meteorite never cools , but begins shrinking , and local scientists cannot discern its origins . As the stone shrinks , it leaves behind globules of colour that are referred to as such only by analogy , as they fall outside the range of anything known in the visible spectrum . These remains eventually disappear but , the following season , Gardner 's crops come in unnaturally large and abundantly . When he discovers that , despite their appearance , they are inedible , he becomes convinced the meteorite has poisoned the soil . Over the following year , the problem spreads to surrounding vegetation and local animals , altering them in unusual ways . Plant life around the farmhouse becomes " slightly luminous in the dark , " and Gardner 's wife eventually goes mad , forcing him to lock her in the attic . During this time , Gardner begins to isolate his family from the rest of the town and Pierce slowly becomes his only contact with the outside world .
Soon after Gardner 's wife becomes mad , the vegetation begins eroding into a grey powder and the water from the well becomes tainted . One of Gardner 's sons , Thaddeus , goes insane like his mother and is similarly locked in a different room in the attic . The livestock begins turning grey and dying and , like the crops , their meat is tasteless and inedible . Thaddeus eventually dies and Merwin , another of Gardner 's sons , goes missing during an excursion to retrieve water from the well . After two weeks of silence from Gardner , Pierce visits the farmstead and witnesses the tale 's eponymous horror for the first time in the attic . Gardner 's final son , Zenas , has disappeared and the " colour " has infected Nahum 's wife , whom Pierce puts out of her misery . He then flees the decaying house as the horror destroys the last surviving resident , Nahum .
Pierce returns to the farmstead shortly after with six other men , including a doctor , who begin examining Nahum 's remains . They discover Merwin and Zenas ' eroding skeletons at the bottom of the well , as well as remnants of several other creatures . As they reflect upon their discoveries in the house , a light begins to emit from the well that eventually transforms into the " colour " and begins pouring out , spreading over everything nearby . The men flee the house just as the horror blights the land and then shoots toward the sky . Pierce alone turns back after the " colour " has gone and witnesses a small part of it try to follow the rest , only to fail and return to the well . The knowledge that part of the alien still resides on earth is sufficient to alter his mental state . When some of the men return the following day , there is nothing remaining but a dead horse and acres of grey dust , and the surrounding area is quickly abandoned by all of its remaining residents .
= = Background = =
Lovecraft began writing " The Colour Out of Space " in March 1927 , immediately after completing The Case of Charles Dexter Ward . As he wrote the tale , however , he was also typing the final draft of his horror fiction essay " Supernatural Horror in Literature " . Although the author himself claimed that his inspiration was the newly constructed Scituate Reservoir in Rhode Island , Lovecraft scholar S. T. Joshi believes that the planned Quabbin Reservoir in Massachusetts must have influenced him as well . American writer and pulp fiction enthusiast Will Murray cites paranormal investigator Charles Fort , and the " thunderstones " ( lightning @-@ drawing rocks that may have fallen from the sky ) he describes in The Book of the Damned , as possible inspirations for the behavior of the meteorite .
Lovecraft was dismayed at the all @-@ too human depiction of aliens in other works of fiction , and his goal for " Colour " was to create an entity that was truly alien . In doing so , he drew inspiration from a number of sources describing colors outside of the visible spectrum . Most notably , Joshi points to Hugh Elliott 's Modern Science and Materialism , a 1919 nonfiction book that mentions the " extremely limited " senses of humans , such that of the many " aethereal waves " striking the eyes , " The majority cannot be perceived by the retina at all . " Lovecraft had used this concept previously , in his 1920 short story , " From Beyond " . Completed by the end of March , " The Colour Out of Space " first appeared in Hugo Gernsback 's science fiction magazine , Amazing Stories in September 1927 . The story was illustrated by J. M. de Aragón , an artist who produced occasional artwork for the magazine .
= = Reception and legacy = =
" The Colour Out of Space " became the only work from Amazing Stories to make Edward O 'Brien 's anthology of The Best American Short Stories , appearing in the 1928 " Roll of Honor " . Gernsback paid Lovecraft only $ 25 ( approximately $ 341 in present @-@ day terms ) and was late in doing so , leading Lovecraft to refer to the publisher as " Hugo the Rat " . He never again submitted anything to the publication . Lovecraft did not write another major short story until the following year , when he crafted " The Dunwich Horror " , although he did pen " History of the Necronomicon " and " Ibid " as minor works in @-@ between , as well as an account of a Halloween night 's dream that he called " The Very Old Folk " .
In addition to being Lovecraft 's personal favourite of his short stories , critics generally consider " The Colour Out of Space " one of his best works , and the first with his trademark blending of science fiction and horror . Lovecraft scholar Donald R. Burleson referred to the tale as " one of his stylistically and conceptually finest short stories . " Joshi praises the work as one of Lovecraft 's best and most frightening , particularly for the vagueness of the description of the story 's eponymous horror . He also lauded the work as Lovecraft 's most successful attempt to create something entirely outside of the human experience , as the creature 's motive ( if any ) is unknown and it is impossible to discern whether or not the " colour " is emotional , moral , or even conscious . His only criticism is that it is " just a little too long " . The text of " The Colour Out of Space " , like many of Lovecraft 's works , has fallen into public domain and can be accessed in several compilations of the author 's work , as well as on the Internet . It also had a strong influence on Brian Aldiss 's The Saliva Tree , which has been seen as a rewriting of Lovecraft 's tale . In 1984 , the novel The Color Out of Time by Michael Shea was published as a sequel to the original novelette .
= = = Film adaptations = = =
The 1965 film Die , Monster , Die ! , directed by Daniel Haller , is based on " The Colour Out of Space " . Nick Adams plays a scientist named Stephen Reinhart who travels to England to visit his fiancee ( played by Suzan Farmer ) at the home of her parents Nahum ( Boris Karloff ) and Letitia ( Freda Jackson ) . There he discovers that Nahum is keeping a space rock in his basement and using it to grow giant vegetation and mutated animals . The rock has driven Nahum and Letitia insane and , in the film 's climax , it transforms Nahum into a glowing monster . Lovecraft scholar Don G. Smith claims that , of the scenes that are derived from Lovecraft 's work , the " blasted heath doesn 't live up to Lovecraft 's description " and asserts that , overall , the film does not capture Lovecraft 's intent to " ... play ... with the idea of an alien life form completely different from anything humans can imagine . " Smith considers Haller 's work an imitation of Roger Corman 's Edgar Allan Poe films , rather than a serious attempt to adapt Lovecraft 's tale .
Another adaptation , 1987 's The Curse , was directed by David Keith and more closely follows the plot of Lovecraft 's work . A meteorite lands on the property of Nathan Hayes ( Claude Akins ) and local physician Alan Forbes ( Cooper Huckabee ) is unable to explain why the rock keeps shrinking . He is dissuaded from contacting the authorities by Charlie Davidson ( Steve Carlisle ) , a realtor who does not want the new arrival to discourage the Tennessee Valley Authority ( TVA ) from establishing a new reservoir in the area . As the rock disappears , a glowing colour seeps out and into the ground . Within a few weeks , the farm 's crops bloom but soon turn out to be inedible . Shortly after , local animals , as well as Nathan 's wife , begin to go mad , and a previously unknown element is discovered in the property 's well . Soon Nathan and his son Cyrus ( Malcolm Danare ) also go insane , and begin terrorizing those who come to the farm , including the other children Zack ( Wil Wheaton ) and Alice ( Amy Wheaton ) . In the film 's conclusion , they are saved by TVA representative Carl Willis ( John Schneider ) and the house collapses . Lovecraft scholar Charles P. Mitchell referred to the film as faithful to the author 's original work , but claimed that " [ t ] he last twenty minutes of the film are so disjointed that they virtually ruin the entire film " .
The 2010 film Die Farbe , directed by Huan Vu , is an adaptation set in Germany instead of in Massachusetts . It is shot mainly in black and white , the exception being the " Colour " itself . S. T. Joshi described it as " the best Lovecraft film adaptation ever made " .
= Downtown Triangle ( Jerusalem ) =
The Downtown Triangle ( Hebrew : המשולש , Ha @-@ Meshulash , lit . " The Triangle " ) is a central commercial and entertainment district in Jerusalem , Israel . Measuring 29 @,@ 000 square metres ( 310 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , the area is bounded by Jaffa Road on the north , King George Street on the west , and Ben Yehuda Street on the southeast . Its vertices are the intersections of Jaffa Road and King George Street , King George and Ben Yehuda Streets , and Ben Yehuda Street and Jaffa Road ( the latter known as Zion Square ) .
From the mid @-@ 1940s through the 1960s , the Triangle was the commercial and cultural heart of Jerusalem , with many upscale shops and restaurants operated by German @-@ Jewish immigrant businessmen that appealed to an affluent clientele . Following the reunification of Jerusalem in 1967 and the expansion of the city away from the downtown core , the commercial viability of the Triangle declined . The area was revitalized by the conversion of Ben Yehuda Street and the interior streets of the Triangle to an open @-@ air pedestrian mall in 1982 . Over the next two decades , outdoor cafes and souvenir shops moved in , cementing the reputation of the Triangle as a popular shopping and entertainment venue for tourists and young Israelis .
= = History = =
Before the British Mandatory government took over in 1917 , the main commercial district in Jerusalem was in the Old City . With an eye to the continuing development of new neighborhoods outside the Old City Walls , the British drew up a master town plan that called for the establishment of two commercial hubs in the New City . The first commercial district to be built was the Downtown Triangle , although it was intended to play a secondary role to the other planned commercial district in the Mamilla area , which was closer to the Old City . However , the Mamilla development did not garner as much interest as the Triangle .
The land used for the Downtown Triangle had been purchased by the Jewish Colonization Association from the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate , which began selling off some of its holdings in Jerusalem after World War I. The British developed the field into a triangular district ( hence its appellation , " The Triangle " ) demarcated by Jaffa Road , Ben Yehuda Street ( constructed by the British in 1922 ) and King George Street ( constructed by the British in 1924 ) . Lots were sold to large companies and cooperatives as well as private businesses . Other streets adjacent to the Triangle – Shlomzion Hamalka , Mamilla , Agron , and King David Streets – were zoned for commercial and residential use .
= = = European ambience = = =
According to Jerusalem architectural historian David Kroyanker , the heyday of the Downtown Triangle lasted from the early 1930s to the 1970s . Many stores and restaurants were opened by German Jewish immigrants who sought to recreate a European ambience in the city center . Their upscale boutiques , coffeehouses , delicatessens , and exclusive restaurants were frequented by senior Mandate officials and wealthy , English @-@ speaking tourists . Unlike Israeli stores that sold all kinds of unrelated products under one roof , the Europeans introduced boutiques that featured only one item , such as gloves or ties . Some shops offered unique extras , such as coffeehouses that included an orchestra and dance floor , and a bookstore with a second @-@ floor library .
The European immigrant @-@ owned bookstores fueled the demand for detective fiction , historical reading , and periodicals from Germany and England . Steimatzky , which opened its first bookstore on Jaffa Road in the Triangle in 1925 , identified the growing taste for imported newspapers and magazines and bought the franchises for many of them . The European immigrants also created a market for cold cuts and cheeses , with three competing delicatessens on King George and Ben Yehuda Streets . For many years , the Triangle was also the only place where Jerusalem residents could purchase clothing , shoes , furniture , and household goods .
At its peak , the district was home to 14 cinemas screening the newest Hollywood fare . Located in close proximity to one another , the cinemas would attract both adults and youth , who would afterwards patronize the coffeehouses and restaurants . The Downtown Triangle was the cultural heart of the city and the place " to see and be seen " .
= = = Architecture = = =
The cosmopolitan flavor of the Triangle extended to its buildings . The Sansur building , for example , has an " eclectic " design that combines " neo @-@ Renaissance and classicist elements " . Approximately 15 buildings in the Triangle were designed by architect Reuven Avraham Rabinowitz , who often added a row of roughly dressed stone to the facade to demarcate each story .
= = Decline and rebirth = =
Following the reunification of Jerusalem in 1967 , the city embarked on significant expansion . Large commercial centers were opened in the new , outlying neighborhoods of Talpiot , Givat Shaul , and Malha , drawing customers away from the city center . Government offices began moving out as well , precipitating the economic decline of the Downtown Triangle in the 1970s . The clientele of the upscale European boutiques had also aged , and the neighborhoods adjacent to downtown became occupied by poor and Haredi Jews who did not patronize the Triangle . The elegant shops gave way to hummus restaurants , dollar stores , and money changers . The advent of television precipitated the closure of most of the Triangle 's cinemas .
In 1982 , the city attempted to revitalize the downtown district by closing Ben Yehuda Street and the Triangle 's interior streets ( Luncz , Dorot Rishonim , Yavetz , Ben Hillel , and HaHistadrut Streets ) to traffic , and converting the entire area to an open @-@ air pedestrian mall . Though taxi companies demonstrated against the renovation and merchants claimed it would fail , the idea proved successful . Outdoor cafes , pizzerias , and fast @-@ food restaurants moved into the Triangle , together with shops selling souvenirs , Judaica , and jewelry to tourists . Street musicians , street artists , political promoters , and tables manned by Chabad and Breslov Hasidim add to the lively nature of the mall . The pedestrian mall restored the Triangle 's reputation as the " heart " of the city , although the formerly upscale , European tone was replaced by a more populist image . The introduction of the Jerusalem Light Rail in December 2011 further increased local and visitor traffic : estimates show that 36 @,@ 000 pedestrians per day visited the Triangle in April 2012 , up from 16 @,@ 000 per day in April 2004 . The mall is especially busy on Saturday nights , as eateries that have closed for Shabbat reopen and the streets are crowded with young Israelis from Jerusalem and Tel Aviv .
Beginning in the late 1990s , the pedestrian mall became noted for hosting a growing presence of at @-@ risk and homeless youth . Three youth centers – Hameshulash , Hezroni 's Squat , and The Zone – operate in the vicinity of Zion Square .
= = = Bombing attacks = = =
Due to its centrality and large concentration of visitors and entertainment venues , the Downtown Triangle has been the target of numerous bombing attacks and attempted attacks . On 22 February 1948 , three British Army trucks led by an armored car driven by Arab irregulars and British deserters exploded on Ben Yehuda Street , killing 58 Jewish civilians and injuring 140 . On 4 July 1975 , a refrigerator containing 5 kilograms ( 11 lb ) of explosives detonated in Zion Square , killing 15 and wounding 77 . On 24 March 1979 , a bomb exploded in a trash can in Zion Square , killing one and wounding 13 .
During the suicide bomber era in the late 1990s , three suicide bombers stationed at different points on Ben Yehuda Street exploded themselves almost simultaneously , causing eight deaths and 277 injuries . A similar " relay " bombing attack took place on 1 December 2001 : Police and emergency medical personnel were rushing to the scene of a double suicide bombing attack in the Triangle when a car bomb exploded ; 20 died and 150 were wounded . Earlier , in August , a Sbarro restaurant at the corner of Jaffa Road and King George Street , packed with lunchtime customers , was bombed ; 15 people died and 90 were wounded .
In February 2014 , in response to lobbying by terror victims groups , the Jerusalem municipality held a ceremony and mounted a memorial plaque at the site of the 1948 bombing on Ben Yehuda Street .
= = Landmarks = =
The tallest building in the Triangle is the seven @-@ story , 5 @,@ 000 square metres ( 54 @,@ 000 sq ft ) Hamashbir Lazarchan department store , which opened on the eastern side of Zion Square in 2011 . It is the largest department store in Israel and the flagship store of the 38 @-@ store chain . Hamashbir is intimately associated with the Downtown Triangle , as the first Hamashbir store was established across the street from its current location in 1947 , and moved to another vertex of the Triangle , at King George and Ben Yehuda Streets , from 1970 to 2010 .
Freimann and Bein ( 50 Jaffa Road ) was the first luxury shoe store in Israel . Founded by German @-@ Jewish immigrants , it imported quality leather shoes from Europe and attracted a clientele of British officers and Arab sheikhs . The store originally opened in the Generali Building further east on Jaffa Road in 1935 and moved to 50 Jaffa Road in 1947 . It closed in 2014 . Khalifa Shoes ( 44 Jaffa Road ) , founded in 1954 , is a Jewish family @-@ owned business specializing in Israeli @-@ made shoes and sandals .
The longest @-@ lasting dining establishments in the Triangle were Atara Cafe and Fink 's Bar . Atara Cafe operated at 7 Ben Yehuda Street from 1938 to 1996 . The European @-@ style coffeehouse was a favorite of Mandate officers , pre @-@ state paramilitary groups , and Israeli politicians , journalists , and bohemians . Fink 's Bar , at the corner of King George and HaHistadrut Streets , was open from 1936 to 2006 . The intimate , exclusive restaurant was one of the most prestigious dining addresses in Jerusalem . Specializing in European cuisine , the restaurant / bar made its kitchen kosher in 2003 in order to overcome several years of declining business and broaden its customer base beyond " politicians , journalists and diplomats " .
The Downtown Triangle includes two hotels . Kikar Zion Hotel ( Zion Square Hotel ) , which faces Zion Square from the south , occupies the site of the former Zion Cinema that gave the square its name . The cinema was demolished in 1972 and a high @-@ rise building containing the Kikar Zion Hotel ( on the upper floors ) and a branch of Bank Hapoalim ( on the lower floors ) was erected . As of 2016 , the hotel is being renovated for reopening as the Herbert Samuel Hotel . On the northern side of Zion Square stands the Jerusalem Hostel . This lodging opened as the Tel Aviv Hotel in 1926 and later became known as the Ron Hotel . Menachem Begin stood on one of the hotel 's balconies on 3 August 1948 , to announce the dissolution of the Irgun and the sign @-@ up of his soldiers with the Israel Defense Forces .
= Song of Innocence =
Song of Innocence is the debut album of American composer and producer David Axelrod , released in October 1968 by Capitol Records . Axelrod sought to capitalize on the experimental climate of popular music at the time and composed the album as a suite @-@ like tone poem based on Songs of Innocence , a 1789 illustrated collection of poems by William Blake . It was recorded at Capitol Studios in Los Angeles with an orchestra and a variety of studio musicians , including keyboardist and conductor Don Randi , guitarist Al Casey , bassist Carol Kaye , and drummer Earl Palmer .
Song of Innocence is an instrumental jazz fusion record that incorporates elements of classical , rock , funk , pop , and theatre music . It is arranged for bass , drums , and string instruments , written in the rock idiom with tempos centered on rock @-@ based patterns by Palmer . Axelrod used contrast in his orchestral compositions and interspersed the album 's euphoric psychedelic R & B form with dramatic , harrowing arrangements to reflect the supernatural themes found in Blake 's poems . The music 's reverent , psychedelic overtones evoke their themes of innocence and spirituality .
Although Song of Innocence was innovative for its application of rock and jazz techniques , it was not commercially successful and confounded contemporary critics , who viewed it as an ambitious curiosity piece . In the 1990s , critics reassessed the album as a classic , while leading disc jockeys in hip hop and electronica rediscovered and sampled the album 's music . " Holy Thursday " , the record 's best @-@ known song , was frequently sampled by hip hop producers . The renewed interest in Axelrod 's work prompted Stateside Records to reissue Song of Innocence in 2000 .
= = Background = =
In 1968 , David Axelrod gained national fame for his controversial mass composition Mass in F Minor , which he wrote in a contemporary rock vein for the Electric Prunes . Axelrod , who was challenged by what he described as a " new breed of record buyer ... more sophisticated in his thinking " , was one of several Los Angeles @-@ based musical eccentrics during the late 1960s who expanded on the mid @-@ 1960s studio experiments of Brian Wilson and George Martin . After his success with the Electric Prunes , he was asked to record a similar album by Capitol Records , for whom he worked as a staff producer and songwriter . Axelrod wanted to further capitalize on the experimental climate of popular music at the time and chose to adapt works by English poet William Blake on an album .
At the time , Blake musical settings were at the height of their popularity among musicians and composers . Numerous serious music composers had set his poems to music since the 1870s , and the practice was eventually adapted in other musical fields during the 20th century , including popular music , musical theatre , and the 1960s folk idiom . Axelrod , a self @-@ professed " Blake freak " , had been fascinated by Blake 's painting and poetry since his late teens and frequently read the poems as an adult . He conceived Song of Innocence after he had bought an edition of Blake 's complete poetry while working in Capitol 's art department and considered the concept for a few years before Mass in F Minor . Axelrod was not sociable with colleagues , such as record executives who could have helped him professionally , and felt that he could identify with Blake ; he considered the poet " very bad at making new friends " .
Axelrod composed Song of Innocence in one week and began recording in mid @-@ 1968 . He recorded the album at Capitol Studios in Los Angeles and enlisted his close @-@ knit group of veteran studio musicians , including keyboardist and conductor Don Randi , guitarist Al Casey , bassist Carol Kaye , and drummer Earl Palmer . He had worked with them when producing sessions for other recording artists . Axelrod did not play any instruments on Song of Innocence ; he instead wrote arrangements for his orchestra and utilized 33 players to perform his notated charts . He had learned how to read and orchestrate complex music charts from jazz musicians during the 1950s . Randi conducted the orchestra and played both piano and organ on the record . Axelrod preferred listening to a session from a recording booth like his contemporary Igor Stravinsky . " That way the sounds don 't seem to go all over the place " , he later said . " Music seems so small in a studio . " Axelrod originally wanted some of the album 's compositions to feature a large @-@ scale choir but was uncertain if he could find the appropriate ensemble , so he recorded an entirely instrumental album and included one Blake setting for each section of the score .
= = Composition = =
A jazz fusion album , Song of Innocence combines jazz elements with impressionistic musical figures and hard rock guitar solos . Its music also incorporates funk , rock , theatre , and pop styles . Music journalists categorized the record as jazz @-@ rock , baroque pop , and psychedelic R & B. John Murph of JazzTimes magazine said the music could be better characterized as art pop than jazz . Axelrod , who had produced bebop albums before working for Capitol , asserted that jazz played a crucial role in the music : " For years , all I did was jazz . When I first got in the record business , I was so into jazz that I had never heard Elvis Presley . I still probably listen to jazz more than anything else . "
Axelrod composed the album as a tone poem suite based on Blake 's illustrated 1789 collection of poems Songs of Innocence . His compositions borrowed titles from Blake 's poems , which dealt with themes such as visions , religious iniquity , rite of passage , and life experience after a person 's birth and innocence . Mary Campbell of The Baltimore Sun said the classical and Christian church music elements made the record sound " reverent , as if describing a biblical story " . Les Inrockuptibles described it as a " psyche @-@ liturgical " work dedicated to Blake . According to AllMusic 's Thom Jurek , psychedelia was implicit in the record 's musical form and feeling , which impelled Axelrod to " celebrate the wildness and folly of youth with celebration and verve " .
The album 's music was written in the rock idiom and arranged for bass , drums , and strings . As a composer , Axelrod abandoned the conventional unison approach to orchestral writing in favor of more contrasts while centering his tempos around rock @-@ based drum patterns played mostly in common time by Palmer . He utilized his instrumental ensemble as a rock orchestra , playing melodramatic strings and pronounced , echo @-@ laden breakbeats . The music was also embellished with electric piano , intricate basslines , Echoplex effects , and elements of suspense Axelrod used to reflect the supernatural themes found in Blake 's poems . According to David N. Howard , the album 's " euphorically " upbeat psychedelic R & B form was interspersed by " dramatically sparse " and " harrowing " arrangements .
Axelrod and his musicians used key musical phrases that are expanded upon throughout Song of Innocence . He was interested in György Ligeti 's 1961 piece Atmosphères and Lukas Foss ' idea of starting a piece with a sustained chord , having musicians improvise over 100 bars , and ending with another chord as they finish . " Urizen " opened with long sustained chords , sound effects , reverbed guitar stabs , and a supple bassline . On " Holy Thursday " , the rhythm section played a slow , jazzed @-@ out groove and bluesy bop piano lines , as a big band vamp was played by a large @-@ scale string section . In response to their swing style , the brass section and guitarists played dramatic , high @-@ pitched overtones built around a complex melody . The middle of the album featured more traditional jazz passages and the presence of a psychedelic harpsichord . " The Smile " was recorded with a rhythmic drum beat , offbeat bass , and a progressive string part . For the songs near the end , the musicians steadily transitioned to heady psychedelia featuring gritty guitars and disorienting organ licks . On " The Mental Traveler " , Axelrod said he tried to experiment with atonality but " chickened out " .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Song of Innocence was released in October 1968 by Capitol Records . It received radio exposure on both AM and FM stations with songs such as the title track and " Holy Thursday " , which became the album 's best @-@ known recording . The album was not a commercial success and only sold 75 @,@ 000 copies by October 1969 . Billboard magazine called it " an aesthetic mix of music and philosophy ... chock full of mysticism , creativity , and change " , believing that Axelrod 's idyllic music was interesting enough to impact the record charts . In a review for Gramophone , Alasdair Clayre said Axelrod 's impressions of Blake " reveal a depth of imagination and skill warranting attention beyond the confines of pop music " , proving he could compose innovatively for a large orchestra , which Clayre felt comprised the best of California 's studio musicians on the album . He questioned whether the " occasional guitar gobbling " reflected Axelrod 's genuine ideas or " an obligatory concession to contemporary sound " on an otherwise compelling record . The magazine 's Nigel Hunter found the record 's songs to be " of absorbing power and depth " , but complained of the electric guitar parts . Nat Freedland from Entertainment World was more critical , accusing Axelrod of " indulging himself here to little avail " . Stereo Review magazine 's Paul Kresh panned Song of Innocence as a pretentious , inadequate album dependent on movie music tricks and outdated techniques such as forced climaxes and gaudy orchestration . He said it fell severely short of the concept Axelrod aspired to and that " only the most uneducated will be taken in by the mountains of misterioso claptrap that surround these squeaking musical mice " .
Song of Innocence was one of many concept albums recorded as rock music was developing in various directions during the late 1960s , following in the wake of the Beatles ' 1967 album Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band . It was innovative for its original application of both rock and jazz techniques . According to music journalist Zaid Mudhaffer , the term " jazz fusion " was coined in a review of the record when it was released . Axelrod followed the album up in 1969 with the similarly Blake @-@ inspired Songs of Experience , which adapted Gunther Schuller 's third stream concept to baroque orchestrations and rock , pop , and R & B rhythms and melodies . Both albums established Axelrod as an unpredictable , challenging conceptual artist . His instrumental interpretations of Blake were the first in jazz , followed in 1971 by Rafał Augustyn 's Niewinnosc and Adrian Mitchell 's musical Tyger : A Celebration of William Blake with composer Mike Westbrook ; Westbrook later composed more Blake @-@ inspired works , including The Westbrook Blake : " Bright as Fire " ( 1980 ) .
During the late 1990s , Axelrod 's records were reassessed and considered innovative by critics , including Song of Innocence , which was regarded as a classic . Mojo cited it as " the heart of Axelrod 's legacy " , while NME called it " sky @-@ kissingly high and divine " , finding Axelrod versatile enough to " soar above his own pretensions " , Writing for AllMusic , John Bush said the album " sounded like nothing else from its era " , while Thom Jurek argued that it continued to sound new upon each listen due to a lack of " cynicism and hipper @-@ than @-@ thou posturing " in the music . In a four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half star retrospective review , Jurek said it was innovative in 1968 and still " withstands the test of time better than the Beatles Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band album that allegedly inspired it " . Giving it a five @-@ out @-@ of @-@ five score , Tiny Mix Tapes said it sounded engagingly magnificent and diverse , citing it as one of the most dynamic musical fusions and " one of the most unique and thought provoking musical efforts of the last several decades " .
Axelrod 's music was also rediscovered and sampled by leading disc jockeys in the 1990s including hip hop producers . When sampling in hip hop peaked during the early and mid @-@ 1990s , they searched for archived records with atmospheric beats and strings to sample . Los Angeles @-@ based disc jockey B + recalled finding a copy of Song of Innocence at a Goodwill in Culver City and said it appealed to him because of its dissonant quality , musical dynamics , and string sound : " This big sound . It was like somehow [ Axelrod ] was summoning the future , that you can project this environment , this moment into the future . " Electronica pioneers such as DJ Cam and DJ Shadow also sampled Song of Innocence . The latter producer sampled the record 's choral themes and piano motifs on his influential debut album Endtroducing ..... ( 1996 ) . " The Smile " was sampled by Pete Rock on his 1998 song " Strange Fruit " and by DJ Premier on Royce da 5 ' 9 " ' s 2009 song " Shake This " . " Holy Thursday " was frequently sampled by producers , including The Beatnuts on their 1994 song " Hit Me with That " , UNKLE on their 1998 song " Rabbit in Your Headlights " , and Swizz Beatz on Lil Wayne 's 2008 song " Dr. Carter " .
The renewed interest in Axelrod 's work prompted Stateside Records to reissue Song of Innocence in 2000 . Now wrote that after sounding odd during the 1960s , the songs had become " a sampler 's dream come true – who knew ? " David Keenan of The Wire attributed Axelrod 's sampling legacy with producers such as DJ Premier and DJ Shadow to Palmer , " the original badass drummer [ who ] played on all of these tracks " . He facetiously critiqued that the album 's songs " may reek of stale joss sticks and patchouli @-@ scented self @-@ actualisation , but in their very datedness they somehow sound very modern . " Pitchfork journalist Sean Fennessey felt Axelrod 's first two records were " essential if only as a tour guide through early 90s hip @-@ hop " , having " literally been a rap producer 's delight for years " . In a 2013 list for Complex , DJ and production duo Kon and Amir named " Holy Thursday " the greatest hip hop sample of all time .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written , arranged , and produced by David Axelrod .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Release history = =
= Game Gear =
The Game Gear ( ゲームギア , Gēmu Gia ) is an 8 @-@ bit handheld game console released by Sega on October 6 , 1990 in Japan , 1991 in North America and Europe , and Australia in 1992 . The Game Gear primarily competed with Nintendo 's Game Boy , the Atari Lynx and NEC 's TurboExpress . The handheld shares much of its hardware with the Master System and is able to play its own titles as well as those of the Master System , the latter being made possible by the use of an adapter . Containing a full @-@ color backlit screen with a landscape format , Sega positioned the Game Gear as a technologically superior handheld to the Game Boy .
Though the Game Gear was rushed to market , its unique game library and price point gave it an edge over the Atari Lynx and TurboExpress . However , due to issues with its short battery life , lack of original titles , and weak support from Sega , the Game Gear was unable to surpass the Game Boy , selling 10 @.@ 62 million units by March 1996 . The Game Gear was succeeded by the Genesis Nomad in 1995 and discontinued in 1997 . It was re @-@ released as a budget system by Majesco in 2000 , under license by Sega .
Reception of the Game Gear was mixed , with praise for its full @-@ color backlit screen and processing power for its time , criticisms over its large size and battery life , and uneven reception over the quality of its game library .
= = History = =
Developed under the name " Project Mercury " , the Game Gear was first released in Japan on October 6 , 1990 , in North America and Europe in 1991 , and in Australia in 1992 . Originally retailing at JP ¥ 19 @,@ 800 in Japan , US $ 149 @.@ 99 in North America , and GB £ 99 @.@ 99 in Europe , the Game Gear was designed to compete with the Game Boy , which Nintendo had released in 1989 . The console had been designed as a portable version of the Master System , and featured more powerful systems than the Game Boy , including a full @-@ color screen , in contrast to the monochromatic screen of its rival . In order to improve upon the design of their competition , Sega designed the Game Gear with a similar shape to a Genesis controller , with the idea being that the curved surfaces and longer length would make the Game Gear more comfortable to hold than the Game Boy . Despite the similarities the Game Gear shared with the Master System , the games of the latter were not directly playable on the Game Gear , and were only able to be played on the handheld by the use of an accessory called the Master Gear Converter . The original Game Gear pack @-@ in title was Columns , which was similar to the Tetris cartridge that Nintendo had included when it launched the Game Boy .
With a late start into the handheld gaming market , Sega rushed to get the Game Gear into stores quickly , having lagged behind Nintendo in sales without a handheld on the market . As one method of doing so , Sega based the hardware of the Game Gear on the Master System , albeit with a much larger color palette than its predecessor : the Game Gear supported 4096 colors , compared to the 64 colors supported by the Master System . Part of the intention of this move was to make Master System games easy to port to the Game Gear . Though the Game Gear was designed to be technologically superior to the Game Boy , its design came at a cost of battery life : whereas the Game Boy could run for more than 30 hours on four AA batteries , the Game Gear required six AA batteries and could only run for three to five hours . With its quick launch in Japan , the handheld sold 40 @,@ 000 units in its first two days , 90 @,@ 000 within a month , and the number of back orders for the system was over 600 @,@ 000 . According to Sega of America marketing director Robert Botch , " there is clearly a need for a quality portable system that provides features other systems have failed to deliver . This means easy @-@ to @-@ view , full @-@ colour graphics and exciting quality games that appeal to all ages . "
= = = Release and marketing = = =
Before the Game Gear 's launch in 1990 , Sega had had success marketing its 16 @-@ bit home console , the Genesis , by advertising it as a " more mature " option for gamers . In keeping with this approach , Sega positioned the Game Gear as a " grown @-@ up " option compared to the Game Boy . While Sega 's marketing in Japan did not take this perspective , instead opting for advertisements with Japanese women featuring the handheld , Sega 's worldwide advertising prominently positioned the Game Gear as the " cooler " console than the Game Boy .
In North America , marketing for the Game Gear included side @-@ by @-@ side comparisons of Sega 's new handheld with the Game Boy , and likened Game Boy players to the obese and uneducated . One Sega advertisement featured the quote , " If you were color blind and had an IQ of less than 12 , then you wouldn 't mind which portable you had . " Such advertising drew fire from Nintendo , who sought to have protests organized against Sega for insulting disabled persons . Sega responded with a statement from Sega of America president Tom Kalinske saying that Nintendo " should spend more time improving their products and marketing rather than working on behind @-@ the @-@ scenes coercive activities . " Ultimately , this debate would have little impact on sales for the Game Gear .
Europe and Australia were the last regions to receive the Game Gear . Due to the delays in receiving the new handheld , some importers paid as much as £ 200 in order to have the new system . Upon the Game Gear 's release in Europe , video game distributor Virgin Mastertronic unveiled the price of the Game Gear as £ 99 @.@ 99 , positioning it as being more expensive than the Game Boy , but less expensive than the Atari Lynx , which was also a full @-@ color system . Marketing in the United Kingdom included the use of the slogan , " To be this good takes Sega " , and also included advertisements with a biker with a Game Gear .
= = = Decline = = =
Support for the Game Gear by Sega was drastically hurt by its focus on its home console systems . In addition to the success of the Genesis , Sega was also supporting two peripherals for its home system , the Sega CD and the 32X , as well as developing its new 32 @-@ bit system , the Sega Saturn . Despite selling 10 @.@ 62 million units by March 1996 , the Game Gear was never able to match the success of its main rival , the Game Boy , which sold over ten times that number . The system 's late sales were further hurt by Nintendo 's release of the Game Boy Pocket , a smaller version of the Game Boy which could run on two AAA batteries .
Plans for a 16 @-@ bit successor to the Game Gear were made to bring Sega 's handheld gaming into the fifth generation of video games , but a new handheld system never materialized for Sega , leaving only the Genesis Nomad , a portable version of the Genesis , to take its place . Though the Nomad had been released in 1995 , Sega did not officially end support for the Game Gear until 1996 in Japan , and 1997 worldwide .
Though the system was no longer supported by Sega in 2000 , third @-@ party developer Majesco released a version of the Game Gear at US $ 30 , with games retailing at US $ 15 . New games were released , such as a port of Super Battletank . This version was also compatible with all previous Game Gear games , but was incompatible with the TV Tuner and some Master System converters . Over ten years later , on March 2 , 2011 , Nintendo announced that their 3DS Virtual Console service on the Nintendo eShop would feature games from Game Gear .
= = Technical specifications = =
A handheld game console , the Game Gear was designed to be played while being held horizontally . The console contains an 8 @-@ bit 3.5MHz Zilog Z80 chip for a central processing unit , the same as the Master System . Its screen was 3 @.@ 2 square inches in size , and is able to display up to 32 colors at a time from a total palette of 4096 colors , at a display resolution of 160 x 144 pixels , . The screen is backlit in order to allow gamers to play in low @-@ lighting situations . Powered by 6 AA batteries , the Game Gear has an approximate battery life of 3 to 5 hours . In order to lengthen this duration and to save money for consumers , Sega also released two types of external rechargeable battery packs for the Game Gear . The system contains 8kB of RAM and an additional 16kB of video RAM . Audio is supplied by the Texas Instruments SN76489 PSG , which was also used in the Master System . However , unlike the Master System , stereo sound is able to be supplied through an output for headphones . Physically , the Game Gear measures 209mm across , 111mm high , and 37mm deep .
Several accessories were created for the Game Gear during its lifespan . A TV Tuner accessory plugged into the system 's cartridge slot , and allowed one to watch TV on the Game Gear 's screen . Released at $ 105 @.@ 88 ( $ 186 in 2016 ) , the add @-@ on was expensive but unique for collectors and contributed to the system 's popularity . Another accessory , the " Super Wide Gear " , was an accessory that magnified the Game Gear screen to compensate for its relatively small size . Also released was an adaptor ( known as the Game Gear Car Adaptor ) that plugged into cars or cigarette lighters to power the system while traveling , and the " Gear @-@ to @-@ Gear Cable " , an accessory that established a data connection between two Game Gear systems using the same multiplayer game and let users play against each other .
Over the course of its lifespan , the Game Gear also received a number of variations . Later releases included several different colors for the console , including a blue " sports " variation released in North America bundled with World Series Baseball ' 95 or The Lion King . A white version was also released , sold in a bundle with a TV tuner . Other versions included a red Coca @-@ Cola themed unit , bundled with the game Coca @-@ Cola Kid , and the Kids Gear , a Japan @-@ only variation targeted toward children .
= = Game library = =
Over 300 games were released for the Game Gear , although at the time of the console 's launch , there were only six software titles available . Prices for game cartridges initially ranged from $ 24 @.@ 99 to $ 29 @.@ 99 each . The casings were molded black plastic with a rounded front to aid in removal . Some titles for the system included Sonic the Hedgehog , The GG Shinobi , Space Harrier , and Land of Illusion Starring Mickey Mouse , which was considered the best game for the system by GamesRadar . Later titles took advantage of the success of the Genesis , Sega 's 16 @-@ bit video game console , with games released from franchises originally released on the Genesis . A large part of the Game Gear 's library consists of Master System ports . Because of the landscape orientation of the Game Gear 's screen and the similarities in hardware between the handheld console and the Master System , it was easy for developers to port Master System games to the Game Gear .
Due to Nintendo 's licensing practices during the lifespan of the Game Gear , few third @-@ party developers were available to create games for Sega 's system . This was a contributing factor to the large number of Master System ports for the Game Gear . Likewise , because of this , the Game Gear library contained many games that were not available on other handhelds , pulling sales away from the Atari Lynx and NEC TurboExpress and helping to establish the Game Gear 's position in the market . While the Game Gear 's library consisted of over 300 titles , however , the Game Boy 's library contained over 1000 individual games .
Several Game Gear titles were released on the Nintendo 3DS 's Virtual Console service on the Nintendo eShop . The emulator for the Virtual Console releases was handled by M2 .
= = Reception = =
Game Gear surpassed the Atari Lynx and NEC TurboExpress , but lagged far behind the Game Boy in the handheld marketplace . Retrospective reception to the Game Gear is mixed . In 2008 , GamePro listed the Game Gear as 10th on their list of the " 10 Worst @-@ Selling Handhelds of All Time " and criticized aspects of the implementation of its technology , but also stated that the Game Gear could be considered a success for having nearly 11 million units sold . According to GamePro reviewer Blake Snow , " Unlike the Game Boy , the Game Gear rocked the landscape holding position , making it less cramped for human beings with two hands to hold . And even though the Game Gear could be considered a success , its bulky frame , relative high price , constant consumption of AA batteries , and a lack of appealing games ultimately kept Sega from releasing a true successor . "
GamesRadar offered some praise for the system and its library , stating , " With its 8 @-@ bit processor and bright color screen , it was basically the Sega Master System in your hands . How many batteries did we suck dry playing Sonic , Madden and Road Rash on the bus or in the car , or in the dark when we were supposed to be sleeping ? You couldn 't do that on a Game Boy ! " By contrast , IGN reviewer Levi Buchanan noted the Game Gear 's biggest fault was its game library when compared to the Game Boy , stating that " the software was completely lacking compared to its chief rival , which was bathed in quality games . It didn 't matter that the Game Gear was more powerful . The color screen did not reverse any fortunes . Content and innovation beat out technology , a formula that Nintendo is using right now with the continued ascendance of the DS and Wii . " Buchanan later went on to praise some parts of the Game Gear 's library , however , stating " Some of those Master System tweaks were very good games , and fun is resilient against time . " Retro Gamer praised Sega 's accomplishment in surviving against the competition of Nintendo in the handheld console market with the Game Gear , noting that " for all the handhelds that have gone up against the might of Nintendo and ultimately lost out , Sega 's Game Gear managed to last the longest , only outdone in sales by the Sony PSP . For its fans , it will remain a piece of classic gaming hardware whose legacy lives on forever . "
= British Cypriots =
The British Cypriot community in the United Kingdom consists of British people born on , or with ancestors from , the Eastern Mediterranean island of Cyprus . British Cypriot people may be of Greek- , Turkish- , Maronite- , or Armenian @-@ Cypriot descent .
Migration from Cyprus to the UK has occurred in part due to the colonial links between the countries and the internal conflict that followed Cyprus ' independence from the British Empire in 1960 . Migration peaked at the time of independence but has continued on a smaller scale . The number of Cypriot @-@ born people in the UK fell between the 1991 and 2001 censuses , but the community , including people of Cypriot ancestry , remains sizeable , and the Cypriot @-@ born population grew slightly between the 2001 and 2011 censuses . A number of famous British people are of Cypriot ancestry , including musicians George Michael and Cat Stevens , footballer Leon Osman , artist Panayiotis Kalorkoti , visual artist Tracey Emin , and politician Lord Adonis . Migration between the UK and Cyprus is currently open and free , as both countries are members of the European Union at this point in time .
= = History = =
Before the First World War , very few Cypriots migrated to the UK and the British Cypriot population at this time was around 150 , according to historian Stavros Panteli . Only a handful of marriages involving Cypriots are recorded at London 's Greek Orthodox Cathedral of Saint Sophia in the years before 1918 . During the First World War many Cypriots joined the allied forces . When the British annexed Cyprus in 1914 , Cypriots ' political status changed and they found it easier to travel .
The 1931 British Census recorded more than 1 @,@ 000 Cypriot @-@ born people , but many of these were the children of British military personnel serving in the Mediterranean . However , some Greek Cypriots did migrate to the UK in the 1920s and 1930s , often finding jobs in the catering industry in Soho . By the start of the Second World War , there were around 8 @,@ 000 Cypriots in London . More Cypriot immigrants arrived during the National Organisation of Cypriot Fighters ( EOKA ) ' s campaign for Cypriot independence from Britain and union with Greece , which started in 1955 . In the four years of conflict , an average of 4 @,@ 000 Cypriots left the island per year for the UK , because of violence on the island and the fear felt by both Greek and Turkish Cypriots in mixed villages where they formed minorities . Migration peaked following independence in 1960 , with around 25 @,@ 000 Cypriots migrating in the year that followed . Many migrants joined family already living in Britain . Further migration accompanied the Turkish invasion of the island in 1974 . Home Office figures show that roughly 10 @,@ 000 Cypriots fled to the UK , the majority of them refugees , but many of them subsequently returned to the island .
In the 1960s , Greek Cypriots in London outnumbered Turkish Cypriots by four to one . The increase in post @-@ war rents in central London had forced many Cypriot immigrants to move north within the city . The Greek and Turkish Cypriot communities tended to be geographically segregated , with Greeks settling mainly in Camden and Turks in Stoke Newington . This was due to the migrants ' reliance on social networks to find housing on their arrival . Robert Winder reports that " Haringey became the second biggest Cypriot town in the world " . Many Cypriots set up restaurants , filling a gap left by Italians , many of whom had been interned during the Second World War .
Much of the Turkish Cypriot migration to the UK occurred as a consequence of intercommunal violence in Cyprus during the 1950s and 1960s . Many Turkish Cypriots viewed the EOKA insurgency as an attempt on the part of Greek Cypriots to establish hegemony on the island with the aim of achieving union with Greece . By 1958 , there were around 8 @,@ 500 Turkish Cypriots in Britain . Between 1960 and 1962 , the inflow increased substantially because of a fear that Britain would impose immigration controls , and indeed the Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962 did reduce migration flows from Cyprus to Britain . Although the expansion of Britain 's Turkish Cypriot community took place primarily between the late 1940s and the mid @-@ 1960s , there was a further influx of around 3 @,@ 000 immigrants after partition in 1974 . Migration continued because of the political and economic situation in the 1970s and 1980s , and Turkish Cypriots have continued to migrate to the UK due to high unemployment rates in northern Cyprus . In the early 1980s , it was estimated that 160 @,@ 000 Cypriots were resident in the UK , 20 to 25 per cent of them being Turkish Cypriots . Since Cyprus joined the European Union in May 2004 , holders of Republic of Cyprus passports have been able to migrate freely to the UK under EU law .
According to the BBC , while divisions and resentment exist between Greek and Turkish Cypriots in the UK , particularly amongst those old enough to remember atrocities committed in Cyprus , " if differences of opinion exist , both sides have learnt to live together regardless " . Community relations are generally good , with Turkish Cypriot community centres welcoming Greek Cypriots and vice versa . In oral history interviews conducted by academic Nergis Canefe in the late 1990s , Turkish Cypriots in London tended to define themselves as Anglo @-@ Cypriot , particularly if they were born in the UK . Canefe notes that her interviewees were proud to be Cypriot , but also of being British and not Turkish . They had Turkish friends , but also close Greek and Greek Cypriot friends . The neighbourhoods they inhabited tended to be ethnically mixed , and often shared with Greeks and Greek Cypriots .
= = Demographics = =
= = = Population = = =
Cyprus appeared amongst the top ten non @-@ British countries of birth for the first time in the 1961 Census , which recorded 42 @,@ 000 Cypriot @-@ born people living in England and Wales . This number peaked in the 1981 Census , at 83 @,@ 000 . The 2001 Census recorded 77 @,@ 673 Cypriot @-@ born people residing in the whole of the UK . The number of Cypriot @-@ born people in Great Britain fell from 78 @,@ 191 in 1991 to 77 @,@ 156 in 2001 , one of the few country @-@ of @-@ birth groups to experience a decrease in numbers . According to the 2011 UK Census , there were 78 @,@ 795 Cypriot @-@ born residents in England , 1 @,@ 215 in Wales , 1 @,@ 941 in Scotland , and 344 in Northern Ireland . More recent estimates by the Office for National Statistics put the number of Cypriot @-@ born residents in the UK as a whole at 68 @,@ 000 in 2013 , though these estimates are subject to a forthcoming reweighting exercise to reflect the results of the most recent census .
British Cypriot people include those of Greek- , Turkish- , Maronite- , or Armenian @-@ Cypriot descent . The National Federation of Cypriots in the UK , an umbrella organisation representing the Cypriot community associations and groups across the UK with largely Greek Cypriot memberships , claims to represent more than 300 @,@ 000 people of Cypriot ancestry , although they do not state whether or not this includes non @-@ Greek Cypriots . A similar figure was given by then Minister for Europe Caroline Flint , who , giving a speech at the London School of Economics in February 2009 , stated that more than 300 @,@ 000 Greek and Turkish Cypriots were living in the UK .
One estimate states that 130 @,@ 000 nationals of the breakaway Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus ( TRNC ) currently reside in the UK , a figure also given by the Turkish consulate in London , whereas the Museum of London reports that 100 @,@ 000 Turkish Cypriots live in Britain — 20 @,@ 000 more than in Cyprus itself . Nergis Canefe suggests a figure of 190 @,@ 000 , whereas the TRNC Ministry of Foreign Affairs suggested in May 2001 that 200 @,@ 000 Turkish Cypriots were living in the United Kingdom . Evidence submitted by the Home Office to the House of Commons Home Affairs Select Committee in February 2011 suggested that there were about 300 @,@ 000 Turkish Cypriots living in the UK .
Of the 80 @,@ 010 people in England and Wales who specified their country of birth as Cyprus in the 2011 Census , 57 @.@ 5 per cent stated that they were Christian , 20 @.@ 8 per cent that they were Muslim , 13 @.@ 1 per cent responded that they had no religion , and 7 @.@ 9 per cent did not state a religion . Small numbers of Buddhists , Hindus , Jews , Sikhs and those of other religions were recorded , totaling 0 @.@ 6 per cent of the Cypriot @-@ born resident population .
= = = Population distribution = = =
Of the 80 @,@ 010 Cypriot @-@ born residents of England and Wales recorded by the 2011 Census , 43 @,@ 428 were in London and 8 @,@ 254 in South East England . Detailed analysis of data from the previous census shows that of the 77 @,@ 156 Cypriot @-@ born people living in mainland Britain , 60 per cent lived in areas of London with Turkish communities . A total of 45 @,@ 887 were resident in Greater London . Analysis of the census shows that Cypriot @-@ born people were found in large numbers in the London boroughs of Enfield , Haringey , Barnet and Hackney . The census tracts with the highest number of Cypriot @-@ born people were Southgate , Palmers Green , Upper Edmonton , Cockfosters , Lower Edmonton , Tottenham North and Tottenham South . Outside of London , concentrations are found in Borehamwood , Cheshunt , and Bristol .
= = Notable individuals = =
A number of British Cypriot people are well known in the UK and overseas . These include George Michael , who was born in London to a Greek Cypriot father ; Cat Stevens , whose father was Greek Cypriot ; entrepreneur Stelios Haji @-@ Ioannou ; Andreas Liveras , a Greek Cypriot @-@ born businessman killed in the 2008 Mumbai terrorist attacks ; Theo Paphitis , an entrepreneur and TV personality ; Greek Cypriot @-@ born artist Panayiotis Kalorkoti ; artist Tracey Emin , who has a Turkish Cypriot father ; and fashion designer Hussein Chalayan , who was born in Nicosia . Everton footballer Leon Osman has a Turkish Cypriot father . Politician Andrew Adonis 's father is a Greek Cypriot who moved to the UK aged 18 . British athlete and former world javelin champion Fatima Whitbread was born in Stoke Newington , London , to a Turkish Cypriot mother and Greek Cypriot father , though she grew up in children 's homes .
= Battle of Bathys Ryax =
The Battle of Bathys Ryax was fought in 872 or 878 between the Byzantine Empire and the Paulicians . The Paulicians were a Christian sect which — persecuted by the Byzantine state — had established a separate principality at Tephrike on Byzantium 's eastern border and collaborated with the Muslim emirates of the Thughur , the Abbasid Caliphate 's borderlands , against the Empire . The battle was a decisive Byzantine victory , resulting in the rout of the Paulician army and the death of its leader , Chrysocheir . This event destroyed the power of the Paulician state and removed a major threat to Byzantium , heralding the fall of Tephrike itself and the annexation of the Paulician principality shortly after .
= = Background = =
The Paulicians were a Christian sect whose precise origins and beliefs are somewhat obscure : Byzantine sources portray them as dualists , while Armenian sources maintain that they were an adoptionist sect . The Paulicians were fiercely iconoclastic , adhered to a very distinct Christology and rejected the authority and practices of the official Byzantine Church , following their own leaders . Consequently , they were persecuted by the Byzantine state as early as 813 , despite the emperors ' official support for iconoclasm . After the definitive end of Byzantine Iconoclasm in 843 , that persecution was intensified : in an attempt , unique in Byzantine history , to eradicate an entire " heretical " sect , orders were sent out to kill anyone who would not recant . According to the chroniclers , up to 100 @,@ 000 Paulicians were massacred , while the remnants fled from their strongholds in east @-@ central Anatolia , and found refuge among the Empire 's Muslim enemies , the Arab emirates of the Thughur , the Arab – Byzantine frontier zone along the Taurus – Antitaurus mountain ranges . With support from the emir of Melitene , Umar al @-@ Aqta , the Paulician leader Karbeas founded a separate principality at Tephrike , and for the next decades , the Paulicians campaigned alongside the Arabs against Byzantium .
The Arabs and Paulicians suffered a critical blow in 863 with the defeat and death of Umar at the Battle of Lalakaon and the death of Karbeas in the same year , but under their new leader , Chrysocheir , the Paulicians resumed their raids deep into Byzantine Anatolia , raiding as far as Nicaea and sacking Ephesus in 869 / 970 . The new Byzantine emperor , Basil I the Macedonian ( r . 867 – 886 ) , sent an embassy for negotiations to Tephrike . After the talks failed , Basil led a campaign against the Paulician state in the spring of 871 , but was defeated and only narrowly managed to escape himself .
= = Battle = =
Encouraged by this success , Chrysocheir then staged another deep raid into Anatolia , reaching Ancyra and ravaging southern Galatia . Basil reacted by sending his relative , the Domestic of the Schools Christopher , against them . The Paulicians managed to avoid a clash , and as the campaigning season drew to a close , they began retiring towards their own territory . They encamped at Agranai ( modern Muşali Kalesı ) in the theme of Charsianon , with the shadowing Byzantine army making their camp at nearby Siboron ( Σίβορον , modern Karamadara ) to the west . From there , the Paulicians marched northeast to the pass of Bathys Ryax or Bathyryax ( Βαθυρύαξ , " Deep Stream " , modern Kalınırmak pass west of Sivas in Turkey ) , a location of strategic importance , as indicated by the fact that it served as a fortified assembly point ( aplekton ) for Byzantine expeditions to the East . Christopher sent the strategoi of the themes of Armeniakon and Charsianon ahead with some four to five thousand men , to make contact with the Paulician army , shadow it as far as the pass and report on its intentions , i.e. whether it intended to double back westwards to resume raiding Byzantine territory or whether it headed back to Tephrike , in which case they would have to rejoin the Domestic 's forces .
When the two generals with their men reached the pass , night had fallen , and the Paulicians , apparently unaware that they were being followed , had made camp in the valley of the pass . The Byzantines took up position in a wooded hill called Zogoloenos that overlooked the Paulician encampment , which further concealed them from their enemy . At this point , the sources record that a dispute broke out between the men of the two thematic corps as to who was the bravest ; the two generals decided to take advantage of their troops ' high morale and impetuousness to attack , despite their orders . A picked detachment of 600 men from both divisions launched a surprise attack at dawn , while the rest of the army remained behind and made loud clamour with trumpets and drums , so as to suggest the imminent arrival of the entire Byzantine field army under Christopher . The ruse worked perfectly : the Paulicians , taken by surprise , panicked and dispersed without offering any serious resistance . The Paulician rout was completed as they fell upon the main Byzantine army while fleeing . Their remnants were pursued by the victorious Byzantines up to a distance of 50 km . Chrysocheir himself managed to escape with a small detachment of bodyguards , but he was brought at bay at Konstantinou Bounos ( probably modern Yildiz Dagı ) . In the ensuing engagement , he was wounded by Poulades , a Byzantine soldier who had been formerly a captive of the Paulicians , and fell from his horse . He was then captured and beheaded by the advancing Byzantines , and his head was sent to Emperor Basil in Constantinople .
= = Aftermath = =
The defeat at Bathys Ryax signalled the end of the Paulicians as a military power and a threat to Byzantium . Basil followed this success by a series of campaigns in the East against the Paulician strongholds and the Arab emirates . Tephrike itself was taken in 878 and razed to the ground . The remaining Paulicians were resettled in the Balkans , while a large contingent was shipped off to Southern Italy to fight for the Empire under Nikephoros Phokas the Elder .
= = Questions of chronology = =
The chronology and sequence of events regarding the battle and the fall of the Paulician state is unclear , since the Byzantine sources are contradictory : a number of scholars place the battle in 872 , others in 878 , in both cases either before or after the capture and razing of Tephrike itself by the Byzantines . Thus Alexander Vasiliev proposed a first victorious battle for the Byzantines , followed by the sack of Tephrike and the final Paulician defeat at Bathys Ryax , all in 872 . Most recent historians place the battle before the sack of the city , but disagree in the dates of the two events . Some , like Nina Garsoïan or John Haldon , place both events in 878 ; the French Byzantinist Paul Lemerle , followed by other scholars like Mark Whittow and Warren Treadgold , placed the battle in 872 and the final subjugation of Tephrike years later , in 878 ( Treadgold in 879 ) .
= Alan Partridge =
Alan Gordon Partridge is a fictional character portrayed by English actor and comedian Steve Coogan . A parody of British television personalities , Partridge is a tactless and inept television and radio presenter who often insults his guests and whose inflated sense of celebrity drives him to treachery and shameless self @-@ promotion . Coogan described Partridge as a Little Englander , with right @-@ wing values and poor taste .
Partridge was created by Coogan and Armando Iannucci for the 1991 BBC Radio 4 comedy programme On the Hour , a spoof of British current affairs broadcasting , as the show 's sports presenter . In 1992 , Partridge hosted a spin @-@ off Radio 4 spoof chat show , Knowing Me , Knowing You with Alan Partridge . On the Hour transferred to television as The Day Today in 1993 , followed by Knowing Me , Knowing You in 1994 . In 1997 , Coogan starred as Partridge in a BBC sitcom , I 'm Alan Partridge , written by Coogan , Iannucci and Peter Baynham , following Partridge 's life working for a small radio station and living in a roadside hotel . It earned two BAFTAs and was followed by a second series in 2002 .
After a hiatus , Partridge returned in 2010 with a series of shorts , Mid Morning Matters with Alan Partridge , written by Coogan and new writers Rob and Neil Gibbons , who have co @-@ written every Partridge product since . The series was followed by a bestselling spoof autobiography , I , Partridge : We Need to Talk About Alan ( 2011 ) , along with a successful feature film , Alan Partridge : Alpha Papa ( 2013 ) , several TV specials , and a second series of Mid Morning Matters ( 2016 ) .
Critics have praised Alan Partridge 's complexity , realism and pathos . Vanity Fair called him a British " national treasure " and the Guardian described him as " one of the greatest and most beloved comic creations of the last few decades " . The character has been credited with influencing " awkward " comedies such as The Inbetweeners , Nighty Night and Peep Show . According to Den of Geek , Partridge has so influenced British culture that " Partridgisms " have become part of everyday vernacular .
= = History = =
= = = Creation , Knowing Me , Knowing You and move to television = = =
Alan Partridge was created for the 1991 BBC Radio 4 comedy programme On The Hour , a spoof of British current affairs broadcasting , as the show 's hapless sports presenter , portrayed by Steve Coogan . The show 's writers Armando Iannucci , Patrick Marber , Richard Herring and Stewart Lee wrote much of Partridge 's original material , although Herring credits the creation to Coogan and Iannucci . Iannucci asked Coogan to do a voice for a generic sports reporter ; according to Iannucci , " Someone said , ' He 's an Alan ! ' and someone else said , ' He 's a Partridge ! ' Within minutes we knew where he lived , we 'd worked out his back story , what his aspirations were . " Coogan said Partridge was originally a " one @-@ note , sketchy character " and " freak show " , but became " more and more refined as sort of a dysfunctional alter ego " over the years . He had performed a similar character for a BBC college radio station at university .
Following On the Hour , Partridge presented six episodes of a spoof Radio 4 chat show , Knowing Me , Knowing You with Alan Partridge , first broadcast on 1 December 1992 . The series saw Partridge annoy and offend his guests , and coined the character 's catchphrase , " Aha ! " In 1993 , On the Hour transferred to television as The Day Today , in which Partridge reprised his role as sports reporter . In 1994 , Knowing Me , Knowing You transferred to television ; the series ends with Partridge accidentally shooting a guest and attacking a BBC commissioning editor , ending his television career . It was nominated for the 1995 BAFTA for Light Entertainment Performance . A Christmas special , Knowing Me , Knowing Yule , was broadcast in December 1995 .
= = = I 'm Alan Partridge and further appearances = = =
In 1997 , Coogan starred in a sitcom , I 'm Alan Partridge , written by Coogan , Iannucci and Peter Baynham . The sitcom follows Partridge after he has been left by his wife and dropped from the BBC ; he lives in a roadside hotel , presents a graveyard slot on local Norwich radio , and desperately pitches ideas for new television shows . Iannucci said the writers used the sitcom as " a kind of social X @-@ ray of male middle @-@ aged Middle England . " It won the 1998 BAFTA awards for Comedy Performance and Comedy Programme or Series .
In 1999 , Partridge appeared on the BBC telethon Children in Need , performing a medley of Kate Bush songs . The BBC broadcast a second series of I 'm Alan Partridge in 2002 , following Partridge 's life in a static caravan with his new Ukrainian girlfriend after recovering from a mental breakdown . In March 2003 , the BBC broadcast a mockumentary , Anglian Lives : Alan Partridge , about Partridge 's life and career . In 2008 , Coogan performed a tour titled " Steve Coogan as Alan Partridge and other Less Successful Characters " , featuring Partridge as a life coach .
= = = Mid Morning Matters , autobiography , and feature film = = =
After a hiatus , Partridge returned in 2010 in a series of YouTube shorts , Mid Morning Matters with Alan Partridge , as the host of a digital radio show with co @-@ presenter Sidekick Simon ( Tim Key ) . Coogan co @-@ wrote the shorts with brothers Neil and Rob Gibbons , who submitted scripts to his company Baby Cow Productions ; the brothers have co @-@ written every Partridge project since . According to Neil , Coogan " invited us in , our sensibilities chimed , and before we knew it , Mid Morning Matters was up and running . We wrote it as if it was our baby , and though there was a sense that we were standing on the shoulders of giants , I think we were like two pairs of fresh eyes , and Steve seemed to fall in love with the character all over again . " Coogan said they chose the web format because " it was a bit underground , a low @-@ key environment in which to test the character out again . And the response was so good , we realised there was more fuel in the tank . " The shorts were later broadcast by Sky Atlantic .
In 2011 , a spoof autobiography , I , Partridge : We Need to Talk About Alan , written by Coogan , Iannucci and the Gibbons brothers , was published in the UK . An audiobook version recorded by Coogan as Partridge was released on CD and downloadable audio formats . In October , Coogan appeared as Partridge to promote the book on The Jonathan Ross Show and BBC Radio 5 Live . It received positive reviews and became a bestseller .
On 25 June 2012 , Partridge presented a one @-@ hour Sky special , Alan Partridge : Welcome to the Places of My Life , taking the viewer on a tour of Partridge 's home county Norfolk , for which Coogan won the 2013 BAFTA for Best Male Performance in a Comedy Programme . It was followed the next week by Open Books with Martin Bryce , a mock literary programme discussing Partridge 's autobiography .
On 7 August 2013 , a feature film , Alan Partridge : Alpha Papa , written by Coogan , Iannucci , Baynham and the Gibbons brothers , was released in the UK . It was directed by Declan Lowney and co @-@ produced by StudioCanal and Baby Cow Productions , with support from BBC Films and the BFI Film Fund . The film sees Partridge enlisted as a crisis negotiator during a siege at his radio station . It received positive reviews and opened at number one at the box office in the UK and Ireland .
On 18 December 2015 , Coogan co @-@ presented a special Christmas episode of the Channel 4 chat show TFI Friday as Partridge . In February 2016 , Sky Atlantic broadcast a second series of Mid Morning Matters , in which Partridge continues his relationship with divorcee Angela , a character introduced in Alpha Papa . On May 30 , Sky Atlantic broadcast Alan Partridge 's Scissored Isle , a moralising mockumentary in which Partridge examines the British class divide . A second Alan Partridge memoir , Alan Partridge : Nomad , in which Partridge recounts a " one @-@ man walk I undertook to try to learn about who I really am " , will be published on 20 October 2016 .
= = Character = =
Alan Partridge is an incompetent and tactless television and radio presenter from Norwich , England . He is socially inept , often offending his guests , and has an inflated sense of importance and celebrity . According to the Telegraph , Partridge is " utterly convinced of his own superiority , and bewildered by the world 's inability to recognise it – qualities that placed him in the line of comedy lineage that runs directly from Hancock , Captain Mainwaring , and Basil Fawlty . " His need for public attention drives him to deceit , treachery and shameless self @-@ promotion , and sometimes violence ; in the Knowing Me , Knowing Yule Christmas special , for example , he assaults a BBC boss and a paralysed former golfer .
Partridge holds right @-@ wing views ; Coogan described him as a Little Englander , with a " myopic , slightly philistine mentality " . Earlier versions of the character were more bigoted , but the writers later found there was more humour in having him attempt to be liberal . Coogan said : " He 's aware of political correctness but he 's playing catch @-@ up . In the same way that the Daily Mail is a bit PC – it wouldn 't be openly homophobic now – Alan is the same . He tries to be modern . "
According to Forbes , Partridge has " parochial bad taste " , and Coogan described him as " on the wrong side of cool " . He is a fan of the Daily Mail newspaper , James Bond films and Lexus cars . His music taste includes Wings and Abba , naming his son Fernando and his talk show Knowing Me , Knowing You after Abba songs ; Partridge 's catchphrase , " Aha ! " , also comes from
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& Distribution at Sony Pictures Entertainment , the release was motivated by " renewed interest in Q * bert , in part due to the cameo in the recent Wreck It Ralph animated feature film " .
Q * bert Rebooted contains a port of the classic arcade game alongside a new playing mode that uses hexagonal shapes , increasing the number of possible movement directions to six . Additionally , the ' Rebooted ' mode features new enemy types , including a boxing glove that punches Q * bert off the levels and a treasure chest that tries to avoid him . The game has 5 different stage designs spread across 40 levels , which contain three rounds and a bonus round and have to be completed with 5 lives . Gems are collected to unlock different skins for the Q * bert character , and completing levels multiple times while reaching specific time and score goals is awarded with stars that enable access to more levels .
= Ralph Milne =
Ralph Milne ( 13 May 1961 – 6 September 2015 ) was a Scottish professional footballer whose clubs included Dundee United , Charlton Athletic , Bristol City and Manchester United . He played as both an attacking midfielder or a winger .
He began his career at Dundee United , helping the club to be crowned Premier Division champions in 1982 – 83 , and playing in Scottish Cup and League Cup final defeats . In recognition of his contribution to the most successful period in the club 's history , Milne has been inducted into the Dundee United Hall of Fame , alongside several of his former teammates . He made a total of 285 appearances for Dundee United in major competitions and is the club 's all @-@ time top scorer in Europe ( UEFA Cup and European Cup ) with a tally of 15 goals . Milne is often considered to be amongst some of the best Scottish footballers not to win a full senior cap .
Hampered by his heavy drinking , he hit his peak at an early age and after an unsuccessful spell at English club Charlton Athletic from January 1987 , ended the 1987 – 88 season with Third Division club Bristol City . He returned to the First Division after being signed by Alex Ferguson at Manchester United in November 1988 for a £ 170 @,@ 000 fee , but failed to restart his career . Barring a brief spell in Hong Kong with Sing Tao , Milne played his last first @-@ team game as a professional at the age of 28 .
= = Club career = =
Ralph Milne was born in Dundee , the youngest of four siblings , on 13 May 1961 . He was moved forward a year in primary school due to his remarkable academic progress . He began his football career as a youth with Dundee Celtic Boys Club , where he played initially as a striker and had a prolific goalscoring record .
= = = Dundee United = = =
= = = = Immediate success = = = =
Milne signed for Dundee United in January 1976 and after a couple of seasons in the reserves began to feature for the first team during the 1979 – 80 campaign . He scored his first goal at the age of 18 during his full debut appearance on 28 July 1979 , United 's third goal in a 3 – 0 win over Dunfermline Athletic in a Drybrough Cup tie . Milne scored his first Premier Division goal on 8 September in a 2 – 2 draw away against Celtic , netting the equaliser with a long @-@ range shot . By the end of his debut season , Milne had played 20 games , eight of which he was in the starting line @-@ up for , and scored three goals . He was named as the club 's Reserve Player of the Year and picked up a 1979 Scottish League Cup Final winners medal despite not being named in the matchday squad .
The 1980 – 81 season saw Milne become a regular in the Dundee United team , scoring 10 goals in 33 appearances . United retained the League Cup , though Milne did not feature in the final victory over their Dundee derby rivals at Dens Park . He finished the season playing in the 1981 Scottish Cup Final side , which ended in a 4 – 1 defeat to Rangers after a replay . Milne was now being described by manager Jim McLean as " potentially ... the most exciting player in Scotland " , describing Milne as a " winger with pace who can score goals " . McLean however expressed reservations about Milne 's overall attitude and ability to play through patches of poor form .
Dundee United reached another final in the 1981 – 82 season , and Milne scored the opening goal in the 1981 Scottish League Cup Final on 28 November 1981 , latching onto a pass from Paul Sturrock and striking a low powerful shot past the Rangers goalkeeper ; however Rangers went on to controversially win 2 – 1 after another goal for Dundee United , " scored " by Sturrock , had been disallowed for offside . Milne also impressed in Europe that season , scoring against AS Monaco , Borussia Mönchengladbach and Winterslag ( twice ) in the UEFA Cup .
= = = = League title and European Cup campaign = = = =
The 1982 – 83 season proved to be a seminal year for both Dundee United and 21 year @-@ old Milne . The club won the league for the first time , finishing one point ahead of Celtic and " New Firm rivals " Aberdeen in a tightly fought league campaign . Milne 's 16 goals in the league , playing wide right , were a significant contribution to United 's league win . One of the most high profile of these goals was on 20 April when he scored the winning goal in a 3 – 2 win over Celtic at Parkhead ; he controlled an Eamonn Bannon cross from the right on his chest and volleyed the ball from 20 yards out past Celtic goalkeeper Pat Bonner . On the last day of the season , 14 May 1983 , Dundee United needed a win to guarantee the league title . The day after his 22nd birthday , Milne opened the scoring against local rivals Dundee with a skilfully executed long @-@ distance chipped shot ; the match finished 2 – 1 to United . Milne achieved his peak goal tally in his career that season , scoring 21 goals in all competitions . Having turned 22 the day before the game , the goal against Dundee was to be the defining moment of his career .
Dundee United 's league success saw them take part in the European Cup in 1983 – 84 . Milne scored doubles against Hamrun Spartans and Standard Liège as United reached the semi @-@ final , losing 3 – 2 on aggregate to Roma in an ill @-@ tempered tie . Dundee United also failed to retain their league title , finishing in third place and 10 points behind champions Aberdeen . Milne 's goal tally also dropped significantly from the previous year , down to five goals in the league and a total of 12 in all competitions .
= = = = Discipline problems and decline = = = =
Milne was with Dundee United for a further three seasons and still a regular player in the team , although he scored less frequently . Milne 's increasingly fractious relationship with manager Jim McLean was also becoming common knowledge ; in December 1983 McLean publicly criticised Milne , stating " I have tried to get the message across to him that it is when he is not playing well that he needs to work hardest . It is plainly not sinking in . " Ironically some months later in August 1984 , it was Milne who scored both goals against Nottingham Forest in a pre @-@ season testimonial match for McLean . However , after the game the pair again fell out because of a brief conversation Milne had with Brian Clough which led McLean to believe the player was trying to arrange a deal away from United ; by this time Milne had grown increasingly frustrated over being frequently fined a week 's wages for breaking minor club rules and generally offending McLean 's strict sense of discipline . The financial strain this caused led to him to work as a casual labourer in order to meet his mortgage repayments . By this time his drinking had become more of a problem , resulting in a struggle to maintain fitness .
Milne featured in a further two Cup finals for United , losing 1 – 0 to Rangers in October 1984 in the Scottish League Cup Final and losing 2 – 1 to Celtic in May 1985 in the Scottish Cup Final . He aggravated a hamstring injury in the final against Rangers and was out of action for three months . In 1986 – 87 , he played in the first three rounds of the UEFA Cup run ( scoring once , against RC Lens in the first round ) which eventually saw the team beat Barcelona and Borussia Mönchengladbach on their way to the final . However Milne had left in January 1987 before these high profile games took place , sold to Charlton Athletic , having lost his place in the side to the up @-@ and @-@ coming Kevin Gallacher . He made a total of 285 appearances for Dundee United in major competitions and is the club 's all @-@ time top scorer in Europe ( UEFA Cup and European Cup ) with a tally of 15 goals .
= = = Charlton Athletic = = =
He was sold to English First Division club Charlton Athletic in January 1987 for a fee of £ 125 @,@ 000 . He played at Wembley Stadium in the final of the Full Members Cup on 29 March , which ended in a 1 – 0 defeat to Blackburn Rovers . Charlton finished the 1986 – 87 season in the relegation play @-@ off place , but retained their top @-@ flight status after beating Leeds United 2 – 1 in a replay in the play @-@ off final , following a 1 – 1 aggregate draw . Milne only played as a late substitute in the first leg at Selhurst Park , and ended the game with a broken jaw after being elbowed by Micky Adams . He dropped out of manager Lennie Lawrence 's first team plans during the 1987 – 88 season , and was allowed to leave the club .
= = = Bristol City = = =
Milne dropped down two divisions to join Bristol City for a £ 50 @,@ 000 fee in January 1988 . City ended the 1987 – 88 campaign in the play @-@ offs , but failed to gain promotion after losing 4 – 0 to Walsall in a replay of the play @-@ off final .
After a full pre @-@ season he started to play well and hit six goals in 30 Third Division games during his time at Ashton Gate . Milne 's form attracted attention elsewhere with Aberdeen among those interested , a move Milne favoured to be near his son and other family in Scotland . On being called into a meeting with manager , Joe Jordan , Milne was told by Jordan that he had no intention of letting him nor any of his other best players leave , but that he would make an exception for Manchester United .
= = = Manchester United = = =
Milne 's form at Bristol City was enough to convince Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson that he was still worth a contract with a top @-@ flight club . In November 1988 he moved to Old Trafford in a £ 170 @,@ 000 deal . Ferguson was looking to build a title winning side two years after joining United , but had seen his side finish second in the league the previous season and now they were on a winless run in the league that saw them mid @-@ table . He put Milne on the left @-@ wing as Gordon Strachan was already established on the right @-@ wing .
Milne managed three goals in 22 league appearances in 1988 – 89 . The first was a 20 @-@ yard volley on 3 December 1988 in a 3 – 0 home win over former club Charlton Athletic , which ended United 's nine @-@ match winless run ( eight draws and a defeat ) in the First Division . He also found the net on Boxing Day in a 2 – 0 win over Nottingham Forest at Old Trafford . The week after Milne played what he felt was his best game in a Manchester United jersey in a 3 – 1 New Year 's victory over rivals Liverpool . However they were unable to maintain their form and finished 11th in the league after winning only three of their last 14 league games . Milne scored his third and final United goal on 25 March 1989 in a 2 – 0 home win over Luton Town , once again in the league .
In September 1989 , Ferguson signed left @-@ winger Danny Wallace from Southampton . Wallace was not a particularly successful buy for United , and was soon himself struggling to hold down a place in the first team , but the progression of Lee Sharpe meant that Milne was forced out of the first team picture at Old Trafford in 1989 – 90 , making one substitute appearance in the league . During that season , as United struggled in the league but won the FA Cup , Milne was loaned out to Lou Macari 's West Ham United , where he made the final appearance of his career in a League Cup tie on 24 January 1990 away to Derby County at the age of 28 . His season was ended shortly afterwards after he picked up groin injury that required surgery . Despite being given a new one @-@ year contract he began missing reserve team games during the 1990 – 91 season and instead spent his time drinking .
Milne has been described as Ferguson 's and even as Manchester United 's worst signing , despite his low transfer fee . Ferguson defended the signing by pointing out Milne 's contribution to the development of Lee Sharpe , who was playing left @-@ back at the time . Ferguson remarked that Milne helped Sharpe by both dropping back to protect Sharpe and by giving him positional advice . Milne remained on United 's payroll until 30 June 1991 , when he was released .
" You know what it ’ s like ? It ’ s like being a kid watching a movie , and it ’ s a sad ending . And you start crying . If it makes a huge impression when United want to sign you , it makes a huge one when they want to get rid of you . Bang , the door ’ s closed . You ’ re finished . "
= = = Sing Tao = = =
Milne had unsuccessful trials with Turkish club MKE Ankaragücü and Danish side Esbjerg fB in 1991 . Later in the year he travelled to Hong Kong to play for Sing Tao SC . He spent a year there , helping the club to finish fourth in the First Division in 1991 – 92 , before he rejected the offer of a new contract and instead returned to Britain . He had a trial spell at Derry City before quitting football at the age of 32 .
= = International career = =
Milne made his debut for the Scotland under @-@ 21 side on 8 September 1981 at the age of 20 , when he on came as a substitute for Alan Brazil during a 4 – 0 win over Sweden in Edinburgh . He made a further two appearances for the under @-@ 21 side as an overage player in the autumn of 1983 , playing against Belgium ( 0 – 0 at Dundee ) and East Germany ( 1 – 1 at Jena , East Germany ) . He was never capped for the senior team , and has been cited as one of the best Scottish footballers not to win a full senior cap .
= = Style of play = =
Milne was naturally right @-@ footed , though trained hard with his left foot as a boy to become equally skilled with both feet . Former Dundee United teammate Paul Hegarty stated that Milne possessed great pace , as well as bravery , a good work ethic , and an ability to score important goals . Another former Dundee United teammate , Davie Dodds , said that Milne was as good a finisher as any player in Scottish football during the 1980s .
Jim McLean , Milne 's manager at Dundee United , summed up Milne 's career and footballing ability when writing his autobiography :
" If I had an outstanding failure then it was Ralph Milne . He should have been playing in World Cups . He should have won a bundle of Scotland international honours . It was a tragedy that that boy was not playing for his country all the time . He had tremendous talent – and I failed with him . He did not have the right attitude to the game and I could not instil that into him . "
= = Personal life = =
He was married to Kim from 1985 to 1988 , and the couple had a son , Bradley . He also had a son , Robert , with new partner Lee in 1990 . The relationship with Lee ended after ten years . In 2005 he began a relationship with Fiona Spence , 19 years his junior , who stayed with Milne for over eight years despite admitting that Milne regularly beat her .
= = = Struggle with alcoholism = = =
Milne had admitted to problems with alcoholism and gambling addiction during and after his playing career . He was always an enthusiastic drinker throughout his career , but he lost his passion for football after picking up an injury in 1990 and began drinking in a way which began to severely damage his health . After retiring as a player he worked at a pub in Nailsea . He appeared in court in 2010 and 2013 , but was never convicted , for allegedly attacking his partner Fiona Spence whilst highly intoxicated . Milne 's manager at Dundee United , Jim McLean , has since stated that Milne would have had greater success in his career were it not for his problems with alcohol and discipline . Milne died on 6 September 2015 , at the age of 54 , due to complications from liver problems .
= = Career statistics = =
= = Honours = =
Dundee United
Scottish League Cup : 1979
Scottish Football League Premier Division : 1982 – 83
Dundee United Hall of Fame ( inducted 2009 )
Charlton Athletic
Football League Second Division play @-@ off winner : 1987
= Deep @-@ fried butter =
Deep @-@ fried butter is a snack food comprising butter that is coated with a batter or breading and then deep @-@ fried . The dish has been served at several fairs in the United States ; among them , the State Fair of Texas in Dallas , Texas , and the Iowa State Fair in Des Moines , Iowa . It has a significant buttery flavor , which has been compared to that of French toast . Fried butter is a similar dish , for which recipes exist dating to the 17th century .
= = History = =
= = = United States = = =
Abel Gonzales Jr . , also known as " Fried Jesus " , of Dallas , Texas , invented deep @-@ fried butter , serving it at the 2009 State Fair of Texas in Dallas , Texas . Prepared using frozen , battered butter , it was awarded the " Most Creative food prize " at that time .
The debut of deep @-@ fried butter in 2010 at the Canadian National Exhibition in Toronto , Canada was attributed to a possible rise in attendance rates at the event , specifically per the presence of the dish . During the 18 @-@ day event in 2010 , the concession stand purveying the dish sold 9 @,@ 000 orders , which equated to 36 @,@ 000 individual deep @-@ fried butter balls using 800 pounds of butter . The dish was served in portions of four balls at the event , which totaled 315 calories .
A version of deep @-@ fried butter on a stick debuted at the Iowa State Fair 2011 , which was prepared using frozen butter that is dipped in a honey- and cinnamon- flavored batter , deep @-@ fried until browned , and then topped with a confectioner 's sugar glaze . This concoction on a stick was invented by Larry Fyfe , an entrepreneur and concessionaire at the fair . Versions at the Iowa State Fair have also been prepared and served formed as balls . Deep @-@ fried butter has also been served on a stick at the State Fair of Texas .
In 2011 at the Orange County Fair in Costa Mesa , California , deep @-@ fried butter was paired with chocolate @-@ covered bacon and dubbed the " coronary combo . " ABC News made a comparison regarding the pricing of this food pairing , stating , " the $ 10 @.@ 50 price rivaled some health plans ' co @-@ payments for a visit to a cardiologist . " This dish has also been served at other events and venues , such as the State Fair of Virginia and the Musikfest music festival in Bethlehem , Pennsylvania .
= = = United Kingdom = = =
In 2011 in Edinburgh , Scotland , a pub named The Fiddler 's Elbow served a dessert dish named " Braveheart Butter Bombs " that consists of deep @-@ fried butter served with ice cream infused with Irn Bru soda and coulis . Some critics in Edinburgh have referred to deep @-@ fried butter as a " coronary on a plate " , but chefs at the pub have stated that when consumed in moderation it " should be all right " . The pub also planned on offering a variation using whisky in place of Irn Bru .
= = Characteristics = =
Deep @-@ fried butter 's flavor has been compared to that of French toast , and has also been described as tasting like " the most buttery bread you 've ever had . " It has been stated that the butter mostly melts into the mix when it is cooked . It may be prepared using whipped butter , which is less dense compared to standard butter . When consumed , stray liquefied butter inside the product may ooze from the product onto one 's face and fingers .
The food has been described by ABC News as an " artery @-@ clogging snack . "
In the United States , celebrity chef Paula Deen has published a recipe for fried butter balls . The recipe uses a blend of cream cheese and butter that is frozen , coated , frozen again , and then deep @-@ fried . The cooking time in this recipe is short , for only ten to fifteen seconds , whereupon the product attains a " light golden " color .
= = Fried butter = =
Fried butter is a similar dish , for which recipes exist dating to the 17th century . The first known recipe for fried butter dates to 1615 . Fried butter was documented in the cookbook The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy in 1747 . The recipe entailed soaking butter in salted water for a few hours , placing it on a rotisserie ( " spit it " ) , covering it with breadcrumbs and nutmeg , and roasting it under a low fire while continuously covering it with egg yolks and additional bread crumbs . Oysters were recommended to accompany the dish .
= Thyrotoxic periodic paralysis =
Thyrotoxic periodic paralysis ( TPP ) is a condition featuring attacks of muscle weakness in the presence of hyperthyroidism ( overactivity of the thyroid gland ) . Hypokalemia ( a decreased potassium level in the blood ) is usually present during attacks . The condition may be life @-@ threatening if weakness of the breathing muscles leads to respiratory failure , or if the low potassium levels lead to cardiac arrhythmias ( irregularities in the heart rate ) . If untreated , it is typically recurrent in nature .
The condition has been linked with genetic mutations in genes that code for certain ion channels that transport electrolytes ( sodium and potassium ) across cell membranes . The main ones are the L @-@ type calcium channel α1 @-@ subunit and potassium inward rectifier 2 @.@ 6 ; it is therefore classified as a channelopathy . The abnormality in the channel is thought to lead to shifts of potassium into cells , under conditions of high thyroxine ( thyroid hormone ) levels , usually with an additional precipitant .
Treatment of the hypokalemia , followed by correction of the hyperthyroidism , leads to complete resolution of the attacks . It occurs predominantly in males of Chinese , Japanese , Vietnamese , Filipino , and Korean descent . TPP is one of several conditions that can cause periodic paralysis .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
An attack often begins with muscle pain , cramping , and stiffness . This is followed by weakness or paralysis that tends to develop rapidly , usually in late evening or the early hours of the morning . The weakness is usually symmetrical ; the limb muscles closer to the trunk ( proximal ) are predominantly affected , and weakness tends to start in the legs and spread to the arms . Muscles of the mouth and throat , eyes , and breathing are usually not affected , but occasionally weakness of the respiratory muscles can cause life @-@ threatening respiratory failure . Attacks typically resolve within several hours to several days , even in the absence of treatment . On neurological examination during an attack , flaccid weakness of the limbs is noted ; reflexes are usually diminished , but the sensory system is unaffected . Mental status is not affected .
Attacks may be brought on by physical exertion , drinking alcohol , or eating food high in carbohydrates or salt . This may explain why attacks are more common in summer , when more people drink sugary drinks and engage in exercise . Exercise @-@ related attacks tend to occur during a period of rest immediately after exercise ; exercise may therefore be recommended to abort an attack .
There may be symptoms of thyroid overactivity , such as weight loss , a fast heart rate , tremor , and perspiration ; but such symptoms occur in only half of all cases . The most common type of hyperthyroidism , Graves ' disease , may additionally cause eye problems ( Graves ' ophthalmopathy ) and skin changes of the legs ( pretibial myxedema ) . Thyroid disease may also cause muscle weakness in the form of thyrotoxic myopathy , but this is constant rather than episodic .
= = Causes = =
= = = Genetics = = =
Genetic mutations in the L @-@ type calcium channel α1 @-@ subunit ( Cav1.1 ) have been described in Southern Chinese with TPP . The mutations are located in a different part of the gene from those described in the related condition familial periodic paralysis . In TPP , the mutations described are single @-@ nucleotide polymorphisms located in the hormone response element responsive to thyroid hormone , implying that transcription of the gene and production of ion channels may be altered by increased thyroid hormone levels . Furthermore , mutations have been reported in the genes coding for potassium voltage @-@ gated channel , Shaw @-@ related subfamily , member 4 ( Kv3.4 ) and sodium channel protein type 4 subunit alpha ( Na41.4 ) .
Of people with TPP , 33 % from various populations were demonstrated to have mutations in KCNJ18 , the gene coding for Kir2.6 , an inward @-@ rectifier potassium ion channel . This gene , too , harbors a thyroid response element .
Certain forms of human leukocyte antigen ( HLA ) — especially B46 , DR9 , DQB1 * 0303 , A2 , Bw22 , AW19 , B17 , and DRW8 — are more common in TPP . Linkage to particular forms of HLA , which plays a central role in the immune response , might imply an immune system cause , but it is uncertain whether this directly causes TPP or whether it increases the susceptibility to Graves ' disease , a known autoimmune disease .
= = = Thyroid disease = = =
The most common underlying form of thyroid disease associated with TPP is Graves ' disease , a syndrome due to an autoimmune reaction that leads to overproduction of thyroid hormone . TPP has also been described in people with other thyroid problems such as thyroiditis , toxic nodular goiter , toxic adenoma , TSH @-@ producing pituitary adenoma , excessive ingestion of thyroxine or iodine , and amiodarone @-@ induced hyperthyroidism .
= = Mechanism = =
The muscle weakness and increased risk of irregular heart beat in TPP result from markedly reduced levels of potassium in the bloodstream . Potassium is not in fact lost from the body , but increased Na + / K + -ATPase activity ( the enzyme that moves potassium into cells and keeps sodium in the blood ) leads to shift of potassium into tissues , and depletes the circulation . In other types of potassium derangement , the acid @-@ base balance is usually disturbed , with metabolic alkalosis and metabolic acidosis often being present . In TPP , these disturbances are generally absent . Hypokalemia leads to hyperpolarization of muscle cells , making the neuromuscular junction less responsive to normal nerve impulses and leading to decreased contractility of the muscles .
It is not clear how the described genetic defects increase the Na + / K + -ATPase activity , but it is suspected that the enzyme becomes more active due to increased thyroid hormone levels . Hyperthyroidism increases the levels of catecholamines ( such as adrenaline ) in the blood , increasing Na + / K + -ATPase activity . The enzyme activity is then increased further by the precipitating causes . For instance , increased carbohydrate intake leads to increased insulin levels ; this is known to activate Na + / K + -ATPase . Once the precipitant is removed , the enzyme activity returns to normal levels . It has been postulated that male hormones increase Na + / K + -ATPase activity , and that this explains why males are at a higher risk of TPP despite thyroid disease being more common in females .
TPP is regarded as a model for related conditions , known as " channelopathies " , which have been linked with mutations in ion channels ; the majority of these conditions occurs episodically .
= = Diagnosis = =
Hypokalemia ( low blood potassium levels ) commonly occurs during attacks ; levels below 3 @.@ 0 mmol / l are typically encountered . Magnesium and phosphate levels are often found to be decreased . Creatine kinase levels are elevated in two thirds of cases , usually due to a degree of muscle injury ; severe elevations suggestive of rhabdomyolysis ( muscle tissue destruction ) are rare . Electrocardiography ( ECG / EKG ) may show tachycardia ( a fast heart rate ) due to the thyroid disease , abnormalities due to cardiac arrhythmia ( atrial fibrillation , ventricular tachycardia ) , and conduction changes associated with hypokalemia ( U waves , QRS widening , QT prolongation , and T wave flattening ) . Electromyography shows changes similar to those encountered in myopathies ( muscle diseases ) , with a reduced amplitude of the compound muscle action potentials ( CMAPs ) ; they resolve when treatment has commenced .
TPP is distinguished from other forms of periodic paralysis ( especially hypokalemic periodic paralysis ) with thyroid function tests on the blood . These are normal in the other forms , and in thyrotoxicosis the levels of thyroxine and triiodothyronine are elevated , with resultant suppression of TSH production by the pituitary gland . Various other investigations are usually performed to separate the different causes of hyperthyroidism .
= = Treatment = =
In the acute phase of an attack , administration of potassium will quickly restore muscle strength and prevent complications . However , caution is advised as the total amount of potassium in the body is not decreased , and it is possible for potassium levels to overshoot ( " rebound hyperkalemia " ) ; slow infusions of potassium chloride are therefore recommended while other treatment is commenced .
The effects of excess thyroid hormone typically respond to the administration of a non @-@ selective beta blocker , such as propranolol ( as most of the symptoms are driven by increased levels of adrenaline and its effect on the β @-@ adrenergic receptors ) . Subsequent attacks may be prevented by avoiding known precipitants , such as high salt or carbohydrate intake , until the thyroid disease has been adequately treated .
Treatment of the thyroid disease usually leads to resolution of the paralytic attacks . Depending on the nature of the disease , the treatment may consist of thyrostatics ( drugs that reduce production of thyroid hormone ) , radioiodine , or occasionally thyroid surgery .
= = Epidemiology = =
TPP occurs predominantly in males of Chinese , Japanese , Vietnamese , Filipino , and Korean descent , as well as Thais , with much lower rates in people of other ethnicities . In Chinese and Japanese people with hyperthyroidism , 1 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 9 % experience TPP . This is in contrast to North America , where studies report a rate of 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 2 % . Native Americans , who share a genetic background with East Asians , are at an increased risk .
The typical age of onset is 20 – 40 . It is unknown why males are predominantly affected , with rates in males being 17- to 70 @-@ fold those in females , despite thyroid overactivity being much more common in women .
= = History = =
After several case reports in the 18th and 19th centuries , periodic paralysis was first described in full by the German neurologist Carl Friedrich Otto Westphal ( 1833 – 1890 ) in 1885 . In 1926 the Japanese physician Tetsushiro Shinosaki , from Fukuoka , observed the high rate of thyroid disease in Japanese people with periodic paralysis . The first English @-@ language report , in 1931 , originated from Dunlap and Kepler , physicians at the Mayo Clinic ; they described the condition in a patient with features of Graves ' disease . In 1937 periodic paralysis was linked with hypokalemia , as well as precipitation of attacks with glucose and insulin . This phenomenon has been used as a diagnostic test .
In 1974 it was discovered that propranolol could prevent attacks . The concept of channelopathies and the link with specific ion channel mutations emerged at the end of the 20th century .
= Doom Bar =
The Doom Bar ( previously known as Dunbar sands , Dune @-@ bar , and similar names ) is a sandbar at the mouth of the estuary of the River Camel , where it meets the Celtic Sea on the north coast of Cornwall , England . Like two other permanent sandbanks further up the estuary , the Doom Bar is composed mainly of marine sand that is continually being carried up from the seabed . More than 60 percent of the sand is derived from marine shells , making it an important source of agricultural lime , which has been collected for hundreds of years ; an estimated 10 million tons of sand or more has been removed from the estuary since the early nineteenth century , mainly by dredging .
The estuary mouth , exposed to the Atlantic Ocean , is a highly dynamic environment , and the sands have been prone to dramatic shifts during storms . According to tradition , the Doom Bar formed in the reign of Henry VIII , damaging the prosperity of the port of Padstow a mile up the estuary .
Until the twentieth century , access to Padstow 's harbour was via a narrow channel between the Doom Bar and the cliffs at Stepper Point , a difficult passage for sailing ships to navigate especially in north @-@ westerly gales when the cliffs would cut off the wind . Many ships were wrecked on the Doom Bar , despite the installation of mooring rings and capstans on the cliffs and quarrying away part of Stepper Point to improve the wind . In the early twentieth century the main channel moved away from the cliffs , and continued dredging has made it much safer for boats , but deaths have occurred on the bar as recently as 1997 .
A Cornish folklore legend relates that a mermaid created the bar as a dying curse on the harbour after she was shot by a local man . The Doom Bar has been used in poetry to symbolise feelings of melancholy , and it has given its name to the flagship ale from Sharp 's Brewery .
= = Description = =
The Doom Bar is a sandbar at the mouth of the Camel estuary on the north coast of Cornwall . The bar is composed mostly of coarse sediment carried up from the seabed by bed load processes , and it has been shown that there is a net inflow of sediment into the estuary . This inflow is aided by wave and tidal processes , but the exact patterns of sediment transport within the estuary are complex and are not fully understood . There is only a very small sediment contribution from the River Camel itself : most of the river 's sediment is deposited much higher up the estuary .
There are three persistent sandbars in the Camel estuary : the Doom Bar ; the Town Bar at Padstow , about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) upstream ; and the Halwyn Bank just upstream of Padstow , where the estuary changes direction . All three are of similar composition ; a large proportion of their sediment is derived from marine mollusc shells , and as a consequence it includes a high level of calcium carbonate , measured in 1982 at 62 per cent . The high calcium carbonate content of the sand has meant that it has been used for hundreds of years to improve agricultural soil by liming . This use is known to date back to before 1600 . High calcium carbonate levels combined with natural sea salt made the sand valuable to farmers as an alkaline fertiliser when mixed with manure .
In a report published in 1839 , Henry De la Beche estimated that the sand from the Doom Bar accounted for between a fifth and a quarter of the sand used for agriculture in Devon and Cornwall . He also stated that around 80 men were permanently employed to dredge the area from several barges , removing an estimated 100 @,@ 000 long tons ( 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 kg ) of sand per year , which he said he had been " assured by competent persons " had caused a reduction in height of the bar of between 6 and 8 feet ( 180 and 240 cm ) in the 50 years before 1836 . Another report , published about twenty years earlier by Samuel Drew , stated , however , that although the sandbars had been " pillaged " for ages they remained undiminished . An estimated ten million tons of sediment was removed from the estuary between 1836 and 1989 , mostly for agricultural purposes and mostly from the Doom Bar . Sand is still regularly dredged from the area ; in 2009 an estimated 120 @,@ 000 tons of sand were removed from the bar and the surrounding estuary .
There is a submerged forest beneath the eastern part of the Doom Bar , off Daymer Bay . It is believed to be part of the wooded plain that existed off the current Cornwall coast before it was overcome by sand dunes and beach sand during the last significant rise in sea @-@ level , which ended around 4 @,@ 000 years ago . Exposed as they are to the Atlantic Ocean , the sands of the area have always been prone to sudden shifts : several houses were said to have been buried one night during a powerful storm . According to tradition one such shift led to the formation of the Doom Bar during the reign of Henry VIII ( 1509 – 1547 ) , causing a decline in the prosperity of Padstow . Today , the sandbank covers approximately 0 @.@ 4 square miles ( 1 @.@ 0 km2 ) , linking the beaches near Harbour Cove by sand flats , although the actual size and shape varies .
The name " Doom Bar " is a corruption of the older name Dunbar which itself derives from dune @-@ bar . Although the bar was commonly known as " Dunbar sands " before 1900 , the name " Doom Bar " was used in 1761 ( as " the Doom @-@ bar " ) , and it was also used in poetry , and in House of Commons papers in the nineteenth century .
= = Danger to shipping = =
For centuries , the Doom Bar was regarded as a significant danger to ships — to be approached with caution to avoid running aground . When sails were the main source of power , ships coming round Stepper Point would lose the wind , causing loss of steerage , leaving them to drift away from the channel . Sometimes , gusts of wind known colloquially as " flaws " blew over Stepper Point and pushed vessels towards the sandbank . Dropping anchor would not help , as it could not gain a firm hold on the sand . Richard Hellyer , the Sub @-@ Commissioner of Pilotage at Padstow , gave evidence in 1859 that the Doom Bar was regarded as so dangerous that in a storm , vessels would risk being wrecked on the coast rather than negotiate the channel to Padstow harbour .
In 1761 John Griffin published a letter in the London Chronicle recommending methods for entering the Camel estuary during rough weather , particularly while north @-@ northwest winds were blowing and described the bolts and rings he had fixed to the cliffs to assist ships trying to enter the harbour . Mooring rings were still there in 1824 , and around 1830 , three capstans at the base of the cliffs and bollards along the cliffs , by which means boats could be warped safely past the bar were installed .
In 1846 , the Plymouth and Padstow Railway company took an interest in trying to remove the Doom Bar , hoping to increase trade through the harbour at Padstow . The plan was to create a breakwater on the bar , which would stop the build @-@ up of sand , and the railway would transport sand from the nearby dunes to where it was needed for agricultural purposes elsewhere in the south west .
In the event , neither the breakwater nor the railway were built , but the issue was re @-@ examined by the 1858 British Parliamentary Select Committee on Harbours for Refuge . The select committee took evidence from many witnesses about harbours all around the country . For Padstow , evidence from Captain Claxton , RN , stated that without the removal of the sand , ships in distress could only use the harbour at high tide . The committee was told by J. D. Bryant , a port commissioner and Receiver of Wreck for Padstow , that in 1848 Padstow Harbour Association had cut down a small piece of Stepper Point , which had given ships about 50 fathoms of extra " fair wind " into the harbour . Bryant recommended further removal of the point which would allow a true wind along the whole channel past the dangerous sandbar .
The select committee report concluded the bar would return through re @-@ silting if it were dredged , and there were insufficient resources to prevent it . Several alternatives were discussed , including the construction of two guide walls to sluice water across the bar , thereby removing it . Evidence was given that the bar was made up of " hard sand " which would prove difficult to remove . During the discussions , it was indicated that whilst the sandbank could be removed by a variety of methods , it would not significantly improve access to the harbour , and that a harbour of refuge would be better on the Welsh coast .
The committee 's final report determined that along the whole of the rocky coast between Land 's End and Hartland Point , Padstow was the only potentially safe harbour for the coasting trade when the most dangerous north @-@ westerly onshore gales were blowing . It noted that Padstow 's safety was compromised by the Doom Bar and by the eddy @-@ forming effect of Stepper Point . The report recommended initial expenditure of £ 20 @,@ 000 to cut down the outer part of Stepper Point , which , in conjunction with the capstans , bollards and mooring rings , would significantly reduce the risk to shipping .
During the twentieth century the Doom Bar was regularly dredged to improve access to Padstow . By the 1930s , when Commander H.E. Turner surveyed the estuary , there were two channels round the Doom Bar , and it is thought that the main channel may have moved to the east side in 1929 . By 2010 the original channel had disappeared . The estuary is regularly dredged by Padstow Harbour Commission 's dredgers , Sandsnipe and Mannin .
= = Shipwrecks = =
The Doom Bar has accounted for more than 600 beachings , capsizes and wrecks since records began early in the nineteenth century , the majority of which are wrecks .
Larger boats entering Padstow were offered assistance , generally by pilots who would wait at Stepper Point when a ship signalled it would be entering . If a boat was foundering , salvors would step in and help . There were cases where salvors attempted to overstate the danger in court , so as to extort more money from the owners . This happened to the brig The Towan , which floundered in October 1843 but was not in significant danger . Although it did not need assistance , salvors interfered and attempted to claim a large amount in compensation from the owner .
In 1827 , the recently founded Life @-@ boat Institution helped fund a permanent lifeboat at Padstow , a 23 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) rowing boat with four oars . The lifeboat house at Hawker 's Cove was erected two years later by the Padstow Harbour Association for the Preservation of Life and Property from Shipwreck . Reverend Charles Prideaux @-@ Brune of Prideaux Place was the patron . In 1879 , four of his granddaughters and their friend were rowing on the Doom Bar and saw a craft go down . They rowed out to save the drowning sailor . As it was very unusual for women to rescue men all five girls received a Royal National Lifeboat Institution Silver Medal for their bravery .
Despite the safer eastern channel and improvements in maritime technology , the Royal National Lifeboat Institution still deals with incidents at the Doom Bar . In February 1997 , two fishermen who were not wearing lifejackets drowned after their boat capsized . Two anglers had been killed in a similar incident in 1994 . On 25 June 2007 , the Padstow lifeboat and a rescue helicopter rescued the crews of two yachts in separate incidents from the area .
= = = HMS Whiting = = =
The only warship reported wrecked on the Doom Bar was HMS Whiting , a 12 @-@ gun schooner . The Whiting was originally a cargo ship named Arrow , which travelled from the United States to France ; she was captured by the Royal Navy on 8 May 1812 and renamed . On 15 September 1816 , she ran aground on the Doom Bar as the tide was ebbing and the wind was from an unfavourable direction offering little assistance . According to court @-@ martial transcripts , an attempt to move her was made at the next high tide , but she was taking on water and it was impossible to save her .
Whiting was abandoned over the next few days and the crew salvaged whatever they could . The officer in charge , Lieutenant John Jackson , lost one year 's seniority for negligence , and three crewmen were given " 50 lashes with nine tails " for desertion . The wreck was sold to salvors and , despite correspondence requesting salvage eleven years later , the navy took no further interest . The Royal Navy attempted to survey the wreck in June 1830 , by which time the sandbank had covered most of it . In May 2010 a marine research and exploration group , ProMare , and the Nautical Archaeology Society , with the help of Padstow Primary School , mounted a search for the ship . The groups searched four sites on the Doom Bar , but have so far been unsuccessful .
= = = Antoinette = = =
The largest ship wrecked on the Doom Bar is believed to be the Antoinette , an 1874 barque of 1 @,@ 118 tonnes . On New Year 's Day 1895 , she set sail from Newport in South Wales with a cargo of coal for Brazil , but foundered near Lundy Island , losing parts of her mast . She was towed by a steam tug towards Padstow but struck the Doom Bar and the tow rope either broke , or had to be released . Her crew of fourteen and several men who had attempted to salvage her were rescued by lifeboats from Port Isaac and Padstow , following which she rapidly sank .
Attempts by three tugs from Cardiff to remove the wreck were unsuccessful , but the next spring tide carried the midsection up the estuary onto Town Bar , opposite Padstow , where it was a hazard to shipping . A miner named Pope was called in to remove it : he used gelignite without success , though the explosion was reported to have broken many windows in the town . In 2010 a wreck , identified as almost certainly the Antoinette , surfaced on Town Bar . The Royal Navy Bomb Disposal Unit failed to demolish it and it was marked with a buoy ; in March 2011 work started to demolish the remainder of it using saws .
= = In literature = =
According to local folklore , the Doom Bar was created by the Mermaid of Padstow as a dying curse after being shot . In 1906 , Enys Tregarthen wrote that a Padstow local , Tristram Bird , bought a new gun and wanted to shoot something worthy of it . He went hunting seals at Hawker 's Cove but found a young woman sitting on a rock brushing her hair . Entranced by her beauty , he offered to marry her and when she refused he shot her in retaliation , only realising afterwards that she was a mermaid . As she died she cursed the harbour with a " bar of doom " , from Hawker 's Cove to Trebetherick Bay . A terrible gale blew up that night and when it finally subsided there was the sandbar , " covered with wrecks of ships and bodies of drowned men " .
The ballad , The Mermaid of Padstow , tells a similar story of a local named Tom Yeo , who shot the mermaid mistaking her for a seal . John Betjeman , who was well @-@ acquainted with the area , wrote in 1969 that the mermaid met a local man and fell in love with him . When she could no longer bear living without him , she tried to lure him beneath the waves but he escaped by shooting her . In her rage she threw a handful of sand towards Padstow , around which the sandbank grew . In other versions of the tale , the mermaid sings from the rocks and a youth shoots at her with a crossbow , or a greedy man shoots her with a longbow . Mermaids were believed to sing to their victims so that they can lure adulterers to their death .
The mermaid legend extends beyond the creation of the Doom Bar . In 1939 Samuel Williamson declared there are mermaids comparable to Sirens who lie in the shallow waters and draw in ships to be wrecked . In addition , " the distressful cry of a woman bewailing her dead " is said to be heard after a storm where lives are lost on the sandbar .
Rosamund Watson 's " Ballad of Pentyre Town " uses the sandbank for imagery to elicit feelings of melancholy when talking of giving up everything for love . A Victorian poem by Alice E. Gillington , " The Doom @-@ Bar " , relates the story of a girl who gave an engraved ring to the man she loved before he sailed away across the Doom Bar , breaking her heart . Four years later , when the tide was lower than usual , her friends persuaded her to walk out on the sand where she found the ring inside a scallop . Realising he must have tossed it aside on the night he left , she resolved not to remain heart @-@ broken , but to sail out to sea herself .
A play , The Doom Bar , about smuggling and wrecking was written in the early 1900s by Arthur Hansen Bush . Although there was no interest in London it was well received in America , and was scheduled to tour in Chicago and New York . A series of mishaps , blamed on the legendary wrecker Cruel Coppinger , culminating in a fire at Baltimore , caused the play to be considered cursed by America 's actors ' unions and its members were banned from appearing in it .
= = Doom Bar bitter = =
Doom Bar is a bitter ( 4 @.@ 0 % abv ) brewed by Sharp 's Brewery originally at Rock , a village on the estuary opposite Padstow and in Burton @-@ upon @-@ Trent . It is the brewery 's flagship beer , accounting for 90 per cent of sales and with an output of 24 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 imperial pints ( 14 @,@ 000 kl ) in 2010 . In 2011 , sales increased by 22 per cent , making it the UK 's fastest growing ale for three years in a row . As of June 2013 , Doom Bar bitter became the number one UK cask ale , by volume and value .
= Komm , du süße Todesstunde , BWV 161 =
Komm , du süße Todesstunde ( Come , o sweet hour of death ) , BWV 161 , is a church cantata composed by Johann Sebastian Bach in Weimar for the 16th Sunday after Trinity .
Bach had taken up regular cantata composition two years before when he was promoted to concertmaster at the Weimar court , writing one cantata per month to be performed in the Schlosskirche , the court chapel in the ducal Schloss . The text of Komm , du süße Todesstunde , as of most other cantatas written in Weimar , was provided by court poet Salomon Franck . He based it on the prescribed gospel reading about the Young man from Nain . His text reflects on longing for death , seen as a transition to a life united with Jesus . The text includes as a closing chorale the fourth stanza of the hymn " Herzlich tut mich verlangen " by Christoph Knoll .
The cantata comprises six movements , which opens with a sequence of alternating arias and recitatives leading to a chorus and a concluding chorale . The chorale tune , known as " O Haupt voll Blut und Wunden " , appears already in the first movement , played by the organ , and musical motifs of the arias are derived from it , providing an overall formal unity to the composition . Bach scored the work for two vocal parts ( alto and tenor ) , a four @-@ part choir , and a Baroque chamber ensemble of recorders , strings and continuo . In the alto recitative ( movement 4 ) , accompanied by all instruments , Bach creates the images of sleep , of waking up , and of funeral bells , the latter in the recorders and pizzicato of the strings .
While the libretto was published in a collection in 1715 , Bach possibly led the first performance only a year later on 27 September 1716 , due to a period of public mourning . Bach revived the cantata in Leipzig , but not during his cantata cycles when he composed three new works for the 16th Sunday after Trinity . With minor changes , he performed Komm , du süße Todesstunde between 1737 and 1746 . He also assigning it to the occasion of Purification , a feast with a similar topic .
= = Background = =
Bach established his reputation as an outstanding organist while in his teens . He moved to Weimar in 1708 to take up position as court organist to the co @-@ reigning dukes Wilhelm Ernst and Ernst August of Saxe @-@ Weimar . He had already begun to compose cantatas at his previous posts at Arnstadt and Mühlhausen , and his reasons for moving included disappointment with the standard of singing at the churches where he had worked . He was appointed concertmaster of the Weimar court capelle on 2 March 1714 . As concertmaster , he assumed principal responsibility for composing new works . Specifically he was tasked with providing cantatas for the Schlosskirche ( palace church ) on a monthly schedule , and a complete annual cycle within four years . While Bach had composed vocal music only for special occasions until his promotion , the regular chance to compose and perform a new work resulted in a program into which Bach " threw himself wholeheartedly " , as the Bach scholar Christoph Wolff notes .
= = = Cantatas in 1716 = = =
The cantatas probably first performed in 1716 were written on texts by the Weimar court poet Salomon Franck , published in his collections Evangelisches Andachts @-@ Opffer ( 1715 ) and Evangelische Sonn- und Festtages @-@ Andachten ( 1717 ) . Fewer cantatas survived than from the years before , which could be the result of less interest , but also loss of composed works .
Bach turned again to prolific writing with the beginning of a new liturgical year with the first Sunday in Advent . He composed works for three consecutive Sundays in Advent , prompted probably by the death of the Kapellmeister Johann Samuel Drese on 1 December 1716 . When Bach 's hope to become Drese 's successor was disappointed he ceased to compose cantatas for the Weimar court .
The following table of works performed by Bach as concertmaster in 1716 is based on Wolff and the Bach scholar Alfred Dürr .
= = Readings and text = =
Bach wrote Komm , du süße Todesstunde for the 16th Sunday after Trinity . The prescribed readings for the Sunday were from the Epistle to the Ephesians , dedicated to the strengthening of faith in the congregation of Ephesus ( Ephesians 3 : 13 – 21 ) , and from the Gospel of Luke , the raising from the dead of the Young man from Nain ( Luke 7 : 11 – 17 ) . In Bach 's time the story pointed at the resurrection of the dead , expressed in words of desire to die soon .
The text for this cantata , as for many others of Bach 's Weimar period , was written by the court poet Salomon Franck , and published in his collection Evangelisches Andachts @-@ Opffer in 1715 . He included as the closing chorale the fourth stanza of the hymn " Herzlich tut mich verlangen " ( 1611 ) by Christoph Knoll . Franck wrote a libretto full of biblical references , such as a phrase in movement one , " feeding on honey from the lion 's mouth " , which is based on Judges 14 : 5 – 9 . Alfred Dürr , an authority on Bach 's cantatas , summarizes that Franck wrote " a deeply felt , personal confession of longing for Jesus " . The Bach scholar Richard D. P. Jones notes that the cantata is " one of the most richly inspired of all Bach 's Weimar cantatas " , and sees the text as a part of the inspiration , with its " mystical longing for union with Christ .
= = Performances = =
Bach led the first performance , but the date has been debated . Dürr concluded initially ( in the first edition of his book Die Kantaten von Johann Sebastian Bach of 1971 ) that the cantata was first performed on 6 October 1715 . However , as this date fell in a period of public mourning in Weimar , the first performance is now generally accepted as the same occasion the following year , 27 September 1716 , by the Bach scholar Christoph Wolff , the publisher Carus @-@ Verlag , and Dürr in the revised and translated edition of 2006 . Richard D. P. Jones notes in his book The Creative Development of Johann Sebastian Bach that " technical novelties " suggest that the cantata was also composed in 1716 , according to a recent study .
In his first year as Thomaskantor in Leipzig , Bach composed a new cantata for the 16th Sunday after Trinity , Christus , der ist mein Leben , BWV 95 . A year later he wrote a chorale cantata for his second cantata cycle , Liebster Gott , wenn werd ich sterben ? BWV 8 , and for his third cantata cycle there he composed Wer weiß , wie nahe mir mein Ende ? BWV 27 . He revived Komm , du süße Todesstunde in Leipzig , but only later , in a version dated some time between 1737 and 1746 , with minor changes to the scoring . He even performed it for a different liturgical occasion , the feast of the Purification of Mary on 2 February . The prescribed readings for the Purification included Simeon 's canticle Nunc dimittis ( Luke 2 : 22 – 32 ) , which with its line " now lettest thou thy servant depart in peace " has a similar topic .
= = Music = =
= = = Structure and scoring = = =
The cantata is structured in six movements : a series of alternating arias and recitatives leads to a chorus and a concluding chorale . As with several other cantatas on words by Franck , it is scored for a small ensemble : two vocal soloists ( alto ( A ) and tenor ( T ) ) , a four @-@ part choir and a Baroque chamber ensemble of two recorders ( Fl ) , two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) , organ ( Org ) and basso continuo ( Bc ) . The title page reads simply : " Auf den sechzenden Sontag nach Trintatis " ( For the sixteenth Sunday after Trinity ) . The duration is given as 19 minutes .
A structural element is the anticipation of the closing chorale in the first movement , where the chorale melody is used as a cantus firmus . Bach used this approach to unify a structure also in the cantatas Alles , was von Gott geboren , BWV 80a , and Barmherziges Herze der ewigen Liebe , BWV 185 , also composed at Weimar . He later used the juxtaposition of a chorale cantus firmus against vocal music later on a grand scale in his St Matthew Passion , in both the opening chorus and the movement concluding Part I. The use of recorders in Komm , du süße Todesstundeis reminiscent of the early cantata Actus tragicus , Gottes Zeit ist die allerbeste Zeit , BWV 106 .
In the Leipzig performances of the cantata , the first verse of the chorale was probably sung by a soprano , instead of an instrumental quotation of the chorale tune in the first aria . The cantata was transposed from C major to E @-@ flat major at Leipzig ) . The recorders were then possibly replaced by transverse flutes .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring and keys are given for the version performed in Weimar in 1714 . The keys and time signatures are taken from Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The instruments are shown separately for winds and strings , while the continuo , playing throughout , is not shown .
= = = Movements = = =
A Phrygian chorale melody , well @-@ known as the melody of " O Haupt voll Blut und Wunden " , provides the musical theme of the cantata , appearing in movement 1 in both its original form and the alto line derived from it . The themes of the two other arias are taken from the same melody , providing formal unity . The same melody appears five times in chorales of Bach 's St Matthew Passion .
= = = = 1 = = = =
The opening aria for alto , " Komm , du süße Todesstunde " ( " Come , o sweet hour of death " or " Come , thou sweet hour of parting " ) is accompanied by the recorders . They move in the ritornello in parallel thirds and sixths . The organ serves not only as a bass instrument but supplies the chorale melody . In Weimar , Bach seems to have expected the congregation to know the words of the first stanza of Knoll 's hymn .
Jones points out that the cantus firmus of the organ seems " objective " , in contrast to the subjective " display of personal feeling " of the voice and the complexity of the other parts .
In a later performance in Leipzig , a soprano sang the stanza with the organ .
= = = = 2 = = = =
The tenor recitative , " Welt , deine Lust ist Last " ( World , your pleasure is a burden ) , begins as a secco recitative , but ends in an arioso as the words paraphrase a biblical verse from Philippians 1 : 23 , " Ich habe Lust abzuscheiden und bei Christo zu sein " to " Ich habe Lust , bei Christo bald zu weiden . Ich habe Lust , von dieser Welt zu scheiden " ( I desire to pasture soon with Christ . I desire to depart from this world ) . Dürr notes that the development from secco to arioso is frequent in Bach 's early cantatas , and is here especially motivated to highlight the biblical paraphrase .
= = = = 3 = = = =
The aria for tenor , " Mein Verlangen ist , den Heiland zu umfangen " ( My longing is , to embrace my Savior ) , is the first movement with the strings , expressing a deep sense of longing . It returns to the hope for union with Jesus of the first movement , expressed in in an agitated way , with syncopies for " longing " and flowing motifs for " embracing " . The middle section is mostly accompanied by the continuo only , but at times interjected by the strings playing the " longing " -motifs .
= = = = 4 = = = =
The alto recitative , " Der Schluß ist schon gemacht " ( The end has already come ) , is accompanied by all instruments , creating the images of sleep ( in a downward movement , ending in long notes ) , the waking up ( in fast movement upwards ) , and funeral bells in the recorders and pizzicato of the strings . The musicologist Tadashi Isoyama notes : " In this movement the anticipation of death appears to be fulfilled , and the alto 's declamation , welcoming death and the ringing of the funeral bells , is filled with a pathos amounting almost to obsession . "
= = = = 5 = = = =
The first choral movement 5 , " Wenn es meines Gottes Wille " ( If it is my God 's will ) , is marked aria by Franck . Bach set it for four parts , using song @-@ like homophony . Wolff compares the style to Thuringian motets of around 1700 . The first part is not repeated da capo , in keeping with the last words " Dieses sei mein letztes Wort " ( May this be my last word ) . While a textual da capo is impossible , Bach composed a musical da capo , giving the movement a structure of ABB 'A ' . Dürr notes that " Arnold Schering has drawn attention to the increasing rapture " .
= = = = 6 = = = =
The closing chorale , " Der Leib zwar in der Erden " ( The body , indeed , in the earth ) , is illuminated by a fifth part of the two recorders playing a lively counterpoint in unison .
The " soaring descant " of the recorders has been interpreted as " creating the image of the flesh transfigured " .
= = = Summary = = =
Wolff summarizes : " Cantata 161 is one of the most delicate and jewel @-@ like products of Bach 's years in Weimar . The writing in up to ten parts is extraordinarily subtle . ... The recorders additionally contribute in no small way to the spiritualised emotion and positive feelings associated with the ' sweet hour of death ' " . Jones writes : " Bach 's arrival at full maturity by about the middle of his Weimar period ( 1713 – 17 ) is attested by the stylistic and technical assurance , and the consistently high standard , of his writing at that time . " He counts the cantata as one of several that reached a level of mastery unsurpassed in later years , along with the Orgelbüchlein and the cantata Ich hatte viel Bekümmernis , BWV 21 , among others .
= = Publication = =
The cantata was edited for the Bach Gesellschaft Ausgabe , the first complete edition of Bach 's works , by Franz Wüllner . The volume in question was published in 1887 . The New Bach Edition ( Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe , NBA ) published the score of both the Weimar and the Leipzig version in 1982 , edited by Helmuth Osthoff , with the critical commentary following in 1984 .
= = Later performances = =
John Eliot Gardiner performed the cantata twice in the Bach year 2000 , both on Bach 's day of death , 28 July , at Iona Abbey , and on the 16th Sunday after Trinity at the church of the Convent of San Domingos de Bonaval of Santiago de Compostela as part of the Bach Cantata Pilgrimage with the Monteverdi Choir .
= = Selected recordings = =
The table entries are excerpted from the selection on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . Choirs are roughly marked as large by red background , orchestras from large ( red ) to vocal ensembles with one voice per part ( OVPP ) and ensembles playing on period instruments in historically informed performances ( green ) .
= Pi =
The number π is a mathematical constant , the ratio of a circle 's circumference to its diameter , commonly approximated as 3 @.@ 14159 . It has been represented by the Greek letter " π " since the mid @-@ 18th century , though it is also sometimes spelled out as " pi " ( / paɪ / ) .
Being an irrational number , π cannot be expressed exactly as a fraction ( equivalently , its decimal representation never ends and never settles into a permanent repeating pattern ) . Still , fractions such as 22 / 7 and other rational numbers are commonly used to approximate π . The digits appear to be randomly distributed . In particular , the digit sequence of π is conjectured to satisfy a specific kind of statistical randomness , but to date no proof of this has been discovered . Also , π is a transcendental number – a number that is not the root of any non @-@ zero polynomial having rational coefficients . This transcendence of π implies that it is impossible to solve the ancient challenge of squaring the circle with a compass and straightedge .
Ancient civilizations needed the value of π to be computed accurately for practical reasons . It was calculated to seven digits , using geometrical techniques , in Chinese mathematics and to about five in Indian mathematics in the 5th century AD . The historically first exact formula for π , based on infinite series , was not available until a millennium later , when in the 14th century the Madhava – Leibniz series was discovered in Indian mathematics . In the 20th and 21st centuries , mathematicians and computer scientists discovered new approaches that , when combined with increasing computational power , extended the decimal representation of π to , as of 2015 , over 13 @.@ 3 trillion ( 1013 ) digits . Practically all scientific applications require no more than a few hundred digits of π , and many substantially fewer , so the primary motivation for these computations is the human desire to break records . However , the extensive calculations involved have been used to test supercomputers and high @-@ precision multiplication algorithms .
Because its definition relates to the circle , π is found in many formulae in trigonometry and geometry , especially those concerning circles , ellipses or spheres . Because of its special role as an eigenvalue , π appears in areas of mathematics and the sciences having little to do with the geometry of circles , such as number theory and statistics . It is also found in cosmology , thermodynamics , mechanics and electromagnetism . The ubiquity of π makes it one of the most widely known mathematical constants both inside and outside the scientific community : Several books devoted to it have been published , the number is celebrated on Pi Day and record @-@ setting calculations of the digits of π often result in news headlines . Attempts to memorize the value of π with increasing precision have led to records of over 70 @,@ 000 digits .
= = Fundamentals = =
= = = Name = = =
The symbol used by mathematicians to represent the ratio of a circle 's circumference to its diameter is the lowercase Greek letter π , sometimes spelled out as pi , and derived from the first letter of the Greek word perimetros , meaning circumference . In English , π is pronounced as " pie " ( / paɪ / , paɪ ) . In mathematical use , the lowercase letter π ( or π in sans @-@ serif font ) is distinguished from its capital counterpart Π , which denotes a product of a sequence .
The choice of the symbol π is discussed in the section Adoption of the symbol π .
= = = Definition = = =
π is commonly defined as the ratio of a circle 's circumference C to its diameter d :
<formula>
The ratio C / d is constant , regardless of the circle 's size . For example , if a circle has twice the diameter of another circle it will also have twice the circumference , preserving the ratio C / d . This definition of π implicitly makes use of flat ( Euclidean ) geometry ; although the notion of a circle can be extended to any curved ( non @-@ Euclidean ) geometry , these new circles will no longer satisfy the formula π
= C / d .
Here , the circumference of a circle is the arc length around the perimeter of the circle , a quantity which can be formally defined independently of geometry using limits , a concept in calculus . For example , one may compute directly the arc length of the top half of the unit circle given in Cartesian coordinates by x2 + y2 =
1 , as the integral :
<formula>
An integral such as this was adopted as the definition of π by Karl Weierstrass , who defined it directly as an integral in 1841 .
Definitions of π such as these that rely on a notion of circumference , and hence implicitly on concepts of the integral calculus , are no longer common in the literature . Remmert ( 1991 ) explains that this is because in many modern treatments of calculus , differential calculus typically precedes integral calculus in the university curriculum , so it is desirable to have a definition of π that does not rely on the latter . One such definition , due to Richard Baltzer , and popularized by Edmund Landau , is the following : π is twice the smallest positive number at which the cosine function equals 0 . The cosine can be defined independently of geometry as a power series , or as the solution of a differential equation .
In a similar spirit , π can be defined instead using properties of the complex exponential , exp ( z ) , of a complex variable z . Like the cosine , the complex exponential can be defined in one of several ways . The set of complex numbers at which exp ( z ) is equal to one is then an ( imaginary ) arithmetic progression of the form :
<formula>
and there is a unique positive real number π with this property . A more abstract variation on the same idea , making use of sophisticated mathematical concepts of topology and algebra , is the following theorem : there is a unique continuous isomorphism from the group R / Z of real numbers under addition modulo integers ( the circle group ) onto the multiplicative group of complex numbers of absolute value one . The number π is then defined as half the magnitude of the derivative of this homomorphism .
A circle encloses the largest area that can be attained within a given perimeter . Thus the number π is also characterized as the best constant in the isoperimetric inequality ( times one @-@ fourth ) . There are many other , closely related , ways in which π appears as an eigenvalue of some geometrical or physical process ; see below .
= = = Irrationality and normality = = =
π is an irrational number , meaning that it cannot be written as the ratio of two integers ( fractions such as 22 / 7 are commonly used to approximate π ; no common fraction ( ratio of whole numbers ) can be its exact value ) . Because π is irrational , it has an infinite number of digits in its decimal representation , and it does not settle into an infinitely repeating pattern of digits . There are several proofs that π is irrational ; they generally require calculus and rely on the reductio ad absurdum technique . The degree to which π can be approximated by rational numbers ( called the irrationality measure ) is not precisely known ; estimates have established that the irrationality measure is larger than the measure of e or ln ( 2 ) but smaller than the measure of Liouville numbers .
The digits of π have no apparent pattern and have passed tests for statistical randomness , including tests for normality ; a number of infinite length is called normal when all possible sequences of digits ( of any given length ) appear equally often . The conjecture that π is normal has not been proven or disproven .
Since the advent of computers , a large number of digits of π have been available on which to perform statistical analysis . Yasumasa Kanada has performed detailed statistical analyses on the decimal digits of π and found them consistent with normality ; for example , the frequency of the ten digits 0 to 9 were subjected to statistical significance tests , and no evidence of a pattern was found . Any random sequence of digits contains arbitrarily long subsequences that appear non @-@ random , by the infinite monkey theorem . Thus , because the sequence of π 's digits passes statistical tests for randomness , it contains some sequences of digits that may appear non @-@ random , such as a sequence of six consecutive 9s that begins at the 762nd decimal place of the decimal representation of π .
= = = Transcendence = = =
In addition to being irrational , more strongly π is a transcendental number , which means that it is not the solution of any non @-@ constant polynomial with rational coefficients , such as x5 / 120 − x3 / 6 + x = 0 .
The transcendence of π has two important consequences : First , π cannot be expressed using any finite combination of rational numbers and square roots or n @-@ th roots such as 3 √ 31 or √ 10 . Second , since no transcendental number can be constructed with compass and straightedge , it is not possible to " square the circle " . In other words , it is impossible to construct , using compass and straightedge alone , a square whose area is equal to the area of a given circle . Squaring a circle was one of the important geometry problems of the classical antiquity . Amateur mathematicians in modern times have sometimes attempted to square the circle and sometimes claim success despite the fact that it is impossible .
= = = Continued fractions = = =
Like all irrational numbers , π cannot be represented as a common fraction ( also known as a simple or vulgar fraction ) , by the very definition of " irrational " . But every irrational number , including π , can be represented by an infinite series of nested fractions , called a continued fraction :
<formula>
A001203
Truncating the continued fraction at any point yields a rational approximation for π ; the first four of these are 3 , 22 / 7 , 333 / 106 , and 355 / 113 . These numbers are among the most well @-@ known and widely used historical approximations of the constant . Each approximation generated in this way is a best rational approximation ; that is , each is closer to π than any other fraction with the same or a smaller denominator . Because π is known to be transcendental , it is by definition not algebraic and so cannot be a quadratic irrational . Therefore , π cannot have a periodic continued fraction . Although the simple continued fraction for π ( shown above ) also does not exhibit any other obvious pattern , mathematicians have discovered several generalized continued fractions that do , such as :
<formula>
= = = Approximate value = = =
Some approximations of pi include :
Integers : 3
Fractions : Approximate fractions include ( in order of increasing accuracy ) 22 / 7 , 333 / 106 , 355 / 113 , 52163 / 16604 , 103993 / 33102 , and 245850922 / 78256779 . ( List is selected terms from A063674 and A063673 . )
Decimal : The first 50 decimal digits are 3 @.@ 14159265358979323846264338327950288419716939937510 ... A000796
Binary : The base 2 approximation to 48 digits is 11 @.@ 001001000011111101101010100010001000010110100011 ...
Hexadecimal : The base 16 approximation to 20 digits is 3.243F6A8885A308D31319 ...
Sexagesimal : A base 60 approximation to five sexagesimal digits is 3 ; 8 @,@ 29 @,@ 44 @,@ 0 @,@ 47
= = = Complex numbers and Euler 's identity = = =
Any complex number , say z , can be expressed using a pair of real numbers . In the polar coordinate system , one number ( radius or r ) is used to represent z 's distance from the origin of the complex plane and the other ( angle or φ ) to represent a counter @-@ clockwise rotation from the positive real line as follows :
<formula>
where i is the imaginary unit satisfying i2
= − 1 . The frequent appearance of π in complex analysis can be related to the behavior of the exponential function of a complex variable , described by Euler 's formula :
<formula>
where the constant e is the base of the natural logarithm . This formula establishes a correspondence between imaginary powers of e and points on the unit circle centered at the origin of the complex plane . Setting φ =
π in Euler 's formula results in Euler 's identity , celebrated by mathematicians because it contains the five most important mathematical constants :
<formula>
There are n different complex numbers z satisfying zn = 1 , and these are called the " n @-@ th roots of unity " . They are given by this formula :
<formula>
= = = Spectral characterizations = = =
Many of the appearances of π in the formulas of mathematics and the sciences have to do with its close relationship with geometry . However , π also appears in many natural situations having apparently nothing to do with geometry .
In many applications it plays a distinguished role as an eigenvalue . For example , an idealized vibrating string can be modelled as the graph of a function f on the unit interval [ 0 @,@ 1 ] , with fixed ends f ( 0 )
= f ( 1 ) =
0 . The modes of vibration of the string are solutions of the differential equation f " ( x ) + λ2 f ( x )
= 0 . Here λ is an associated eigenvalue , which is constrained by Sturm – Liouville theory to take on only certain specific values . The value λ =
π is one such eigenvalue , as the function f ( x )
= sin ( π x ) satisfies the boundary conditions and the differential equation with λ =
π .
The value π is in fact the least such eigenvalue , and is associated with the fundamental mode of vibration of the string . One way to obtain this is by estimating the energy . The energy satisfies an inequality , Wirtinger 's inequality for functions , which states that if a function f : [ 0 , 1 ] → ℂ is given such that f ( 0 )
= f ( 1 ) =
0 and f and f ' are both square integrable , then the inequality holds :
<formula>
and the case of equality holds precisely when f is a multiple of sin ( π x ) . So π appears as an optimal constant in Wirtinger 's inequality , and from this it follows that it is the smallest such eigenvalue ( by Rayleigh quotient methods ) .
The number π serves a similar role in higher @-@ dimensional analysis , appearing as eigenvalues for other similar kinds of problems . As mentioned above , it can be characterized via its role as the best constant in the isoperimetric inequality : the area A enclosed by a plane Jordan curve of perimeter P satisfies the inequality
<formula>
and equality is clearly achieved for the circle , since in that case A
= πr2 and P =
2πr .
Ultimately as a consequence of the isoperimetric inequality , the constant π is associated with best constants of the Poincaré inequality . As a special case , π appears as the optimal smallest eigenvalue of the Dirichlet energy , in dimensions 1 and 2 , which thus characterizes the role of π in many physical phenomena as well , for example those of classical potential theory . The one @-@ dimensional case is just Wirtinger 's inequality .
The constant π also appears as a critical spectral parameter in the Fourier transform . This is the integral transform , that takes a complex @-@ valued integrable function f on the real line to the function defined as :
<formula>
There are several different conventions for the Fourier transform , all of which involve a factor of π that is placed somewhere . The appearance of π is essential in these formulas , as there is there is no possibility to remove π altogether from the Fourier transform and its inverse transform . The definition given above is the most canonical however , because it describes the unique unitary operator on L2 that is also an algebra homomorphism of L1 to L ∞ .
The Heisenberg uncertainty principle also contains the number π . The uncertainty principle gives a sharp lower bound on the extent to which it is possible to localize a function both in space and in frequency : with our conventions for the Fourier transform ,
<formula>
The physical consequence , about the uncertainty in simultaneous position and momentum observations of a quantum mechanical system , is discussed below . The appearance of π in the formulae of Fourier analysis is ultimately a consequence of the Stone – von Neumann theorem , asserting the uniqueness of the Schrödinger representation of the Heisenberg group .
= = = Gaussian integrals = = =
The fields of probability and statistics frequently use the normal distribution as a simple model for complex phenomena ; for example , scientists generally assume that the observational error in most experiments follows a normal distribution . The Gaussian function , which is the probability density function of the normal distribution with mean μ and standard deviation σ , naturally contains π :
<formula>
For this to be a probability density , the area under the graph of f needs to be equal to one . This follows from a change of variables in the Gaussian integral :
<formula>
which says that the area under the basic Bell curve in the figure is equal to the square root of π .
The central limit theorem explains the central role of normal distributions , and thus of π , in probability and statistics . This theorem is ultimately connected with the spectral characterization of π as the eigenvalue associated with the Heisenberg uncertainty principle , and the fact that equality holds in the uncertainty principle only for the Gaussian function . Equivalently , π is the unique constant making the Gaussian normal distribution e @-@ πx2 equal to its own Fourier transform . Indeed , according to Howe ( 1980 ) , the " whole business " of establishing the fundamental theorems Fourier analysis reduces to the Gaussian integral .
= = History = =
= = = Antiquity = = =
The best known approximations to π dating before the Common Era were accurate to two decimal places ; this was improved upon in Chinese mathematics in particular by the mid first millennium , to an accuracy of seven decimal places . After this , no further progress was made until the late medieval period .
Some Egyptologists have claimed that the ancient Egyptians used an approximation of π as 22 / 7 from as early as the Old Kingdom . This claim has met with skepticism .
The earliest written approximations of π are found in Egypt and Babylon , both within one percent of the true value . In Babylon , a clay tablet dated 1900 – 1600 BC has a geometrical statement that , by implication , treats π as 25 / 8 = 3 @.@ 125 . In Egypt , the Rhind Papyrus , dated around 1650 BC but copied from a document dated to 1850 BC , has a formula for the area of a circle that treats π as ( 16 / 9 ) 2 ≈ 3 @.@ 1605 .
Astronomical calculations in the Shatapatha Brahmana ( ca . 4th century BC ) use a fractional approximation of 339 / 108 ≈ 3 @.@ 139 ( an accuracy of 9 × 10 − 4 ) . Other Indian sources by about 150 BC treat π as √ 10 ≈ 3 @.@ 1622 .
= = = Polygon approximation era = = =
The first recorded algorithm for rigorously calculating the value of π was a geometrical approach using polygons , devised around 250 BC by the Greek mathematician Archimedes . This polygonal algorithm dominated for over 1 @,@ 000 years , and as a result π is sometimes referred to as " Archimedes ' constant " . Archimedes computed upper and lower bounds of π by drawing a regular hexagon inside and outside a circle , and successively doubling the number of sides until he reached a 96 @-@ sided regular polygon . By calculating the perimeters of these polygons , he proved that 223 / 71 < π < 22 / 7 ( that is 3 @.@ 1408 < π < 3 @.@ 1429 ) . Archimedes ' upper bound of 22 / 7 may have led to a widespread popular belief that π is equal to 22 / 7 . Around 150 AD , Greek @-@ Roman scientist Ptolemy , in his Almagest , gave a value for π of 3 @.@ 1416 , which he may have obtained from Archimedes or from Apollonius of Perga . Mathematicians using polygonal algorithms reached 39 digits of π in 1630 , a record only broken in 1699 when infinite series were used to reach 71 digits .
In ancient China , values for π included 3 @.@ 1547 ( around 1 AD ) , √ 10 ( 100 AD , approximately 3 @.@ 1623 ) , and 142 / 45 ( 3rd century , approximately 3 @.@ 1556 ) . Around 265 AD , the Wei Kingdom mathematician Liu Hui created a polygon @-@ based iterative algorithm and used it with a 3 @,@ 072 @-@ sided polygon to obtain a value of π of 3 @.@ 1416 . Liu later invented a faster method of calculating π and obtained a value of 3 @.@ 14 with a 96 @-@ sided polygon , by taking advantage of the fact that the differences in area of successive polygons form a geometric series with a factor of 4 . The Chinese mathematician Zu Chongzhi , around 480 AD , calculated that π ≈ 355 / 113 ( a fraction that goes by the name Milü in Chinese ) , using Liu Hui 's algorithm applied to a 12 @,@ 288 @-@ sided polygon . With a correct value for its seven first decimal digits , this value of 3 @.@ 141592920 ... remained the most accurate approximation of π available for the next 800 years .
The Indian astronomer Aryabhata used a value of 3 @.@ 1416 in his Āryabhaṭīya ( 499 AD ) . Fibonacci in c . 1220 computed 3 @.@ 1418 using a polygonal method , independent of Archimedes . Italian author Dante apparently employed the value 3 + √ 2 / 10 ≈ 3 @.@ 14142 .
The Persian astronomer Jamshīd al @-@ Kāshī produced 9 sexagesimal digits , roughly the equivalent of 16 decimal digits , in 1424 using a polygon with 3 × 228 sides , which stood as the world record for about 180 years . French mathematician François Viète in 1579 achieved 9 digits with a polygon of 3 × 217 sides . Flemish mathematician Adriaan van Roomen arrived at 15 decimal places in 1593 . In 1596 , Dutch mathematician Ludolph van Ceulen reached 20 digits , a record he later increased to 35 digits ( as a result , π was called the " Ludolphian number " in Germany until the early 20th century ) . Dutch scientist Willebrord Snellius reached 34 digits in 1621 , and Austrian astronomer Christoph Grienberger arrived at 38 digits in 1630 using 1040 sides , which remains the most accurate approximation manually achieved using polygonal algorithms .
= = = Infinite series = = =
The calculation of π was revolutionized by the development of infinite series techniques in the 16th and 17th centuries . An infinite series is the sum of the terms of an infinite sequence . Infinite series allowed mathematicians to compute π with much greater precision than Archimedes and others who used geometrical techniques . Although infinite series were exploited for π most notably by European mathematicians such as James Gregory and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz , the approach was first discovered in India sometime between 1400 and 1500 AD . The first written description of an infinite series that could be used to compute π was laid out in Sanskrit verse by Indian astronomer Nilakantha Somayaji in his Tantrasamgraha , around 1500 AD . The series are presented without proof , but proofs are presented in a later Indian work , Yuktibhāṣā , from around 1530 AD . Nilakantha attributes the series to an earlier Indian mathematician , Madhava of Sangamagrama , who lived c . 1350 – c . 1425 . Several infinite series are described , including series for sine , tangent , and cosine , which are now referred to as the Madhava series or Gregory – Leibniz series . Madhava used infinite series to estimate π to 11 digits around 1400 , but that value was improved on around 1430 by the Persian mathematician Jamshīd al @-@ Kāshī , using a polygonal algorithm .
The first infinite sequence discovered in Europe was an infinite product ( rather than an infinite sum , which are more typically used in π calculations ) found by French mathematician François Viète in 1593 :
<formula> A060294
The second infinite sequence found in Europe , by John Wallis in 1655 , was also an infinite product :
<formula>
The discovery of calculus , by English scientist Isaac Newton and German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in the 1660s , led to the development of many infinite series for approximating π . Newton himself used an arcsin series to compute a 15 digit approximation of π in 1665 or 1666 , later writing " I am ashamed to tell you to how many figures I carried these computations , having no other business at the time . "
In Europe , Madhava 's formula was rediscovered by Scottish mathematician James Gregory in 1671 , and by Leibniz in 1674 :
<formula>
This formula , the Gregory – Leibniz series , equals π / 4 when evaluated with z = 1 . In 1699 , English mathematician Abraham Sharp used the Gregory – Leibniz series for <formula> to compute π to 71 digits , breaking the previous record of 39 digits , which was set with a polygonal algorithm . The Gregory – Leibniz for <formula> series is simple , but converges very slowly ( that is , approaches the answer gradually ) , so it is not used in modern π calculations .
In 1706 John Machin used the Gregory – Leibniz series to produce an algorithm that converged much faster :
<formula>
Machin reached 100 digits of π with this formula . Other mathematicians created variants , now known as Machin @-@ like formulae , that were used to set several successive records for calculating digits of π . Machin @-@ like formulae remained the best @-@ known method for calculating π well into the age of computers , and were used to set records for 250 years , culminating in a 620 @-@ digit approximation in 1946 by Daniel Ferguson – the best approximation achieved without the aid of a calculating device .
A record was set by the calculating prodigy Zacharias Dase , who in 1844 employed a Machin @-@ like formula to calculate 200 decimals of π in his head at the behest of German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss . British mathematician William Shanks famously took 15 years to calculate π to 707 digits , but made a mistake in the 528th digit , rendering all subsequent digits incorrect .
= = = = Rate of convergence = = = =
Some infinite series for π converge faster than others . Given the choice of two infinite series for π , mathematicians will generally use the one that converges more rapidly because faster convergence reduces the amount of computation needed to calculate π to any given accuracy . A simple infinite series for π is the Gregory – Leibniz series :
<formula>
As individual terms of this infinite series are added to the sum , the total gradually gets closer to π , and – with a sufficient number of terms – can get as close to π as desired . It converges quite slowly , though – after 500 @,@ 000 terms , it produces only five correct decimal digits of π .
An infinite series for π ( published by Nilakantha in the 15th century ) that converges more rapidly than the Gregory – Leibniz series is :
<formula>
The following table compares the convergence rates of these two series :
After five terms , the sum of the Gregory – Leibniz series is within 0 @.@ 2 of the correct value of π , whereas the sum of Nilakantha 's series is within 0 @.@ 002 of the correct value of π . Nilakantha 's series converges faster and is more useful for computing digits of π . Series that converge even faster include Machin 's series and Chudnovsky 's series , the latter producing 14 correct decimal digits per term .
= = = Irrationality and transcendence = = =
Not all mathematical advances relating to π were aimed at increasing the accuracy of approximations . When Euler solved the Basel problem in 1735 , finding the exact value of the sum of the reciprocal squares , he established a connection between π and the prime numbers that later contributed to the development and study of the Riemann zeta function :
<formula>
Swiss scientist Johann Heinrich Lambert in 1761 proved that π is irrational , meaning it is not equal to the quotient of any two whole numbers . Lambert 's proof exploited a continued @-@ fraction representation of the tangent function . French mathematician Adrien @-@ Marie Legendre proved in 1794 that π2 is also irrational . In 1882 , German mathematician Ferdinand von Lindemann proved that π is transcendental , confirming a conjecture made by both Legendre and Euler . Hardy and Wright states that " the proofs were afterwards modified and simplified by Hilbert , Hurwitz , and other writers " .
= = = Adoption of the symbol π = = =
The earliest known use of the Greek letter π to represent the ratio of a circle 's circumference to its diameter was by Welsh mathematician William Jones in his 1706 work Synopsis Palmariorum Matheseos ; or , a New Introduction to the Mathematics . The Greek letter first appears there in the phrase " 1 / 2 Periphery ( π ) " in the discussion of a circle with radius one . Jones may have chosen π because it was the first letter in the Greek spelling of the word periphery . However , he writes that his equations for π are from the " ready pen of the truly ingenious Mr. John Machin " , leading to speculation that Machin may have employed the Greek letter before Jones . It had indeed been used earlier for geometric concepts . William Oughtred used π and δ , the Greek letter equivalents of p and d , to express ratios of periphery and diameter in the 1647 and later editions of Clavis Mathematicae .
After Jones introduced the Greek letter in 1706 , it was not adopted by other mathematicians until Euler started using it , beginning with his 1736 work Mechanica . Before then , mathematicians sometimes used letters such as c or p instead . Because Euler corresponded heavily with other mathematicians in Europe , the use of the Greek letter spread rapidly . In 1748 , Euler used π in his widely read work Introductio in analysin infinitorum ( he wrote : " for the sake of brevity we will write this number as π ; thus π is equal to half the circumference of a circle of radius 1 " ) and the practice was universally adopted thereafter in the Western world .
= = Modern quest for more digits = =
= = = Computer era and iterative algorithms = = =
The development of computers in the mid @-@ 20th century again revolutionized the hunt for digits of π . American mathematicians John Wrench and Levi Smith reached 1 @,@ 120 digits in 1949 using a desk calculator . Using an inverse tangent ( arctan ) infinite series , a team led by George Reitwiesner and John von Neumann that same year achieved 2 @,@ 037 digits with a calculation that took 70 hours of computer time on the ENIAC computer . The record , always relying on an arctan series , was broken repeatedly ( 7 @,@ 480 digits in 1957 ; 10 @,@ 000 digits in 1958 ; 100 @,@ 000 digits in 1961 ) until 1 million digits were reached in 1973 .
Two additional developments around 1980 once again accelerated the ability to compute π . First , the discovery of new iterative algorithms for computing π , which were much faster than the infinite series ; and second , the invention of fast multiplication algorithms that could multiply large numbers very rapidly . Such algorithms are particularly important in modern π computations , because most of the computer 's time is devoted to multiplication . They include the Karatsuba algorithm , Toom – Cook multiplication , and Fourier transform @-@ based methods .
The iterative algorithms were independently published in 1975 – 1976 by American physicist Eugene Salamin and Australian scientist Richard Brent . These avoid reliance on infinite series . An iterative algorithm repeats a specific calculation , each iteration using the outputs from prior steps as its inputs , and produces a result in each step that converges to the desired value . The approach was actually invented over 160 years earlier by Carl Friedrich Gauss , in what is now termed the arithmetic – geometric mean method ( AGM method ) or Gauss – Legendre algorithm . As modified by Salamin and Brent , it is also referred to as the Brent – Salamin algorithm .
The iterative algorithms were widely used after 1980 because they are faster than infinite series algorithms : whereas infinite series typically increase the number of correct digits additively in successive terms , iterative algorithms generally multiply the number of correct digits at each step . For example , the Brent @-@ Salamin algorithm doubles the number of digits in each iteration . In 1984 , the Canadian brothers John and Peter Borwein produced an iterative algorithm that quadruples the number of digits in each step ; and in 1987 , one that increases the number of digits five times in each step . Iterative methods were used by Japanese mathematician Yasumasa Kanada to set several records for computing π between 1995 and 2002 . This rapid convergence comes at a price : the iterative algorithms require significantly more memory than infinite series .
= = = Motivations for computing π = = =
For most numerical calculations involving π , a handful of digits provide sufficient precision . According to Jörg Arndt and Christoph Haenel , thirty @-@ nine digits are sufficient to perform most cosmological calculations , because that is the accuracy necessary to calculate the circumference of the observable universe with a precision of one atom . Despite this , people have worked strenuously to compute π to thousands and millions of digits . This effort may be partly ascribed to the human compulsion to break records , and such achievements with π often make headlines around the world . They also have practical benefits , such as testing supercomputers , testing numerical analysis algorithms ( including high @-@ precision multiplication algorithms ) ; and within pure mathematics itself , providing data for evaluating the randomness of the digits of π .
= = = Rapidly convergent series = = =
Modern π calculators do not use iterative algorithms exclusively . New infinite series were discovered in the 1980s and 1990s that are as fast as iterative algorithms , yet are simpler and less memory intensive . The fast iterative algorithms were anticipated in 1914 , when the Indian mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan published dozens of innovative new formulae for π , remarkable for their elegance , mathematical depth , and rapid convergence . One of his formulae , based on modular equations , is
<formula>
This series converges much more rapidly than most arctan series , including Machin 's formula . Bill Gosper was the first to use it for advances in the calculation of π , setting a record of 17 million digits in 1985 . Ramanujan 's formulae anticipated the modern algorithms developed by the Borwein brothers and the Chudnovsky brothers . The Chudnovsky formula developed in 1987 is
<formula>
It produces about 14 digits of π per term , and has been used for several record @-@ setting π calculations , including the first to surpass 1 billion ( 109 ) digits in 1989 by the Chudnovsky brothers , 2 @.@ 7 trillion ( 2 @.@ 7 × 1012 ) digits by Fabrice Bellard in 2009 , and 10 trillion ( 1013 ) digits in 2011 by Alexander Yee and Shigeru Kondo . For similar formulas , see also the Ramanujan – Sato series .
In 2006 , Canadian mathematician Simon Plouffe used the PSLQ integer relation algorithm to generate several new formulas for π , conforming to the following template :
<formula>
where q is eπ ( Gelfond 's constant ) , k is an odd number , and a , b , c are certain rational numbers that Plouffe computed .
= = = Monte Carlo methods = = =
Monte Carlo methods , which evaluate the results of multiple random trials , can be used to create approximations of π . Buffon 's needle is one such technique : If a needle of length ℓ is dropped n times on a surface on which parallel lines are drawn t units apart , and if x of those times it comes to rest crossing a line ( x > 0 ) , then one may approximate π based on the counts :
<formula>
Another Monte Carlo method for computing π is to draw a circle inscribed in a square , and randomly place dots in the square . The ratio of dots inside the circle to the total number of dots will approximately equal π / 4 .
Another way to calculate π using probability is to start with a random walk , generated by a sequence of ( fair ) coin tosses : independent random variables Xk such that Xk ∈ { − 1 @,@ 1 } with equal probabilities . The associated random walk is
<formula>
so that , for each n , Wn is drawn from a standard binomial distribution . As n varies Wn defines a ( discrete ) stochastic process . Then π can be calculated by
<formula>
This Monte Carlo method is independent of any relation to circles , and is a consequence of the central limit theorem , discussed above .
These Monte Carlo methods for approximating π are very slow compared to other methods , and do not provide any information on the exact number of digits that are obtained . Thus they are never used to approximate π when speed or accuracy is desired .
= = = Spigot algorithms = = =
Two algorithms were discovered in 1995 that opened up new avenues of research into π . They are called spigot algorithms because , like water dripping from a spigot , they produce single digits of π that are not reused after they are calculated . This is in contrast to infinite series or iterative algorithms , which retain and use all intermediate digits until the final result is produced .
American mathematicians Stan Wagon and Stanley Rabinowitz produced a simple spigot algorithm in 1995 . Its speed is comparable to arctan algorithms , but not as fast as iterative algorithms .
Another spigot algorithm , the BBP digit extraction algorithm , was discovered in 1995 by Simon Plouffe :
<formula>
This formula , unlike others before it , can produce any individual hexadecimal digit of π without calculating all the preceding digits . Individual binary digits may be extracted from individual hexadecimal digits , and octal digits can be extracted from one or two hexadecimal digits . Variations of the algorithm have been discovered , but no digit extraction algorithm has yet been found that rapidly produces decimal digits . An important application of digit extraction algorithms is to validate new claims of record π computations : After a new record is claimed , the decimal result is converted to hexadecimal , and then a digit extraction algorithm is used to calculate several random hexadecimal digits near the end ; if they match , this provides a measure of confidence that the entire computation is correct .
Between 1998 and 2000 , the distributed computing project PiHex used Bellard 's formula ( a modification of the BBP algorithm ) to compute the quadrillionth ( 1015th ) bit of π , which turned out to be 0 . In September 2010 , a Yahoo ! employee used the company 's Hadoop application on one thousand computers over a 23 @-@ day period to compute 256 bits of π at the two @-@ quadrillionth ( 2 × 1015th ) bit , which also happens to be zero .
= = Use = =
Because π is closely related to the circle , it is found in many formulae from the fields of geometry and trigonometry , particularly those concerning circles , spheres , or ellipses . Other branches of science , such as statistics , physics , Fourier analysis , and number theory , also include π in some of their important formulae .
= = = Geometry and trigonometry = = =
π appears in formulae for areas and volumes of geometrical shapes based on circles , such as ellipses , spheres , cones , and tori . Below are some of the more common formulae that involve π .
The circumference of a circle with radius r is 2πr .
The area of a circle with radius r is πr2 .
The volume of a sphere with radius r is 4 / 3πr3 .
The surface area of a sphere with radius r is 4πr2 .
The formulae above are special cases of the volume of the n @-@ dimensional ball and the surface area of its boundary , the ( n − 1 ) -dimensional sphere , given below .
Definite integrals that describe circumference , area , or volume of shapes generated by circles typically have values that involve π . For example , an integral that specifies half the area of a circle of radius one is given by :
<formula>
In that integral the function √ 1 − x2 represents the top half of a circle ( the square root is a consequence of the Pythagorean theorem ) , and the integral ∫ 1
− 1 computes the area between that half of a circle and the x axis .
The trigonometric functions rely on angles , and mathematicians generally use radians as units of measurement. π plays an important role in angles measured in radians , which are defined so that a complete circle spans an angle of 2π radians . The angle measure of 180 ° is equal to π radians , and 1 ° = π / 180 radians .
Common trigonometric
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purchased in 1914 that had just begun construction at the Blyth Shipbuilding Company so it could be easily modified to suit its new role .
Ark Royal was laid down on 7 November 1913 by the Blyth Shipbuilding Company in Blyth , Northumberland , as a freighter , probably intended for the coal @-@ for @-@ grain trade in the Black Sea . She was purchased in May 1914 and was launched on 5 September 1914 . The ship was commissioned on 10 December 1914 .
Extensive changes to the ship were made in converting her to a seaplane tender , with the superstructure , funnel , and propulsion machinery moved aft and a working deck occupying the forward half of the ship . The deck was not intended as a flying @-@ off deck , but for starting and running up of seaplane engines and for recovering damaged aircraft from the sea . The ship was equipped with a large aircraft hold , 150 feet ( 45 @.@ 7 m ) long , 45 feet ( 13 @.@ 7 m ) wide and 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) high along with extensive workshops . Two 3 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 3 @.@ 0 t ) steam cranes on the sides of the forecastle lifted the aircraft through the sliding hatch of the hangar onto the flight deck or into the water . She carried 4 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 18 @,@ 000 l ; 4 @,@ 800 US gal ) of petrol for her aircraft in standard commercial 2 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 9 @.@ 1 l ; 2 @.@ 4 US gal ) tins .
She could carry five floatplanes and two to four regular , wheeled aircraft . The latter would have to return to land after launch , but the seaplanes would take off and land in the water alongside the carrier , lifted on and off the ship by the cranes . Her original complement of aircraft consisted of a Short Folder , two Wight Pushers , three Sopwith Type 807 seaplanes and two to four Sopwith Tabloid wheeled aircraft .
Ark Royal had an overall length of 366 feet ( 111 @.@ 6 m ) , a beam of 50 feet 10 inches ( 15 @.@ 5 m ) , and a draught of 18 feet 9 inches ( 5 @.@ 7 m ) . She normally displaced 7 @,@ 080 long tons ( 7 @,@ 190 t ) , with a displacement of 7 @,@ 450 long tons ( 7 @,@ 570 t ) at deep load . The ship had one vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engine driving one propeller shaft . The ship 's three cylindrical boilers generated enough steam to produce 3 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 200 kW ) from the engine . The ship had a designed speed of 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) , but she made a speed of 10 @.@ 64 knots ( 19 @.@ 71 km / h ; 12 @.@ 24 mph ) during her sea trials with 2 @,@ 675 shaft horsepower ( 1 @,@ 995 kW ) in December 1914 . Ark Royal carried 500 tonnes ( 490 long tons ) of fuel oil , enough to give her a range of 3 @,@ 030 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 610 km ; 3 @,@ 490 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The ship was armed with four QF 12 @-@ pounder 12 cwt guns and two machine guns . Including 60 aviation personnel , her crew totalled 180 officers and men . " Her truly unique feature was the steadying sail on the mizzen to help keep her head to the wind ; she remains the only aircraft carrier to have been fitted with a sail . "
= = Service = =
= = = World War I = = =
The ship proved to be too slow to work with the Grand Fleet and for operations in the North Sea in general , so Ark Royal was ordered to the Mediterranean in mid @-@ January 1915 to support the Gallipoli campaign . Under the command of Commander Robert Clark @-@ Hall , the ship sailed on 1 February 1915 and arrived at the island of Tenedos on 17 February . She attempted to fly three of her seaplanes on the day of her arrival to reconnoitre the Straits , but two of them had engine troubles and the third could not take off despite the calm water . A Wight Pusher eventually managed to get into the air and discovered new fortifications down the Straits ; it dropped a single 20 @-@ pound ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) bomb on the Asiatic side of the Dardanelles and returned with seven bullet holes in its skin . Two days later , the ship 's aircraft attempted unsuccessfully to spot for the fleet as they bombarded the Ottoman fortifications defending the Straits . They conducted more aerial reconnaissance and observation missions in support of the fleet later in the month and in early March as it moved further up the Straits . Ark Royal lost her first aircraft on 5 March as the propeller of one of her Sopwiths splintered into pieces at 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) . Both of the aircraft 's crewmen were recovered by the destroyer HMS Usk .
Later in the month , the ship 's aircrew learned to spot mines from the air and were moderately successful , although they failed to detect the minefield that sank one French and two British predreadnoughts and damaged a British battlecruiser on 18 March . Later in the month , Ark Royal and her aircraft were relieved by No. 3 Squadron of the Royal Naval Air Service ( RNAS ) . In preparation for the squadron 's arrival , the ship 's crew cleared a vineyard on the island to serve as an airfield and unloaded its crated aircraft on 26 – 27 March . From 31 March to 7 April , Ark Royal and her companions made several fake landing attempts and her aircraft bombarded the port of Smyrna with little effect . When she returned to Tenedos on 8 April , she exchanged her Tabloids , which had never flown from the ship , for a pair of Sopwith Schneider single @-@ seat floatplanes . In addition , she received two Sopwith Type 860s , another Wight Pusher , and a Short Type 166 , all two @-@ seat floatplanes , as replacements . The ship had no room for all these aircraft and she used the collier Penmorvalt to store them and for additional workshop space . Her aircraft resumed reconnaissance and observation missions over the Dardanelles ; aircraft discovered a large ammunition dump on 12 April , and provided corrective data to direct gunfire from HMS Lord Nelson onto the target .
Ark Royal 's aircraft provided support to the Australian and New Zealand troops at Anzac Cove as they landed on 25 April on the Gallipoli Peninsula . Two days later , the ship was taken under fire by the Ottoman predreadnought Turgut Reis , firing across the peninsula , and she had to move in a hurry to avoid being hit . A month later , the battle on the peninsula had bogged down and the success of the German submarine U @-@ 21 in sinking two British predreadnoughts forced Ark Royal to move to a safer anchorage at Imbros at the end of May . There she became a depot ship for all the seaplanes in the area , while her own aircraft continued to support operations at Gallipoli . On occasion , aircraft were loaned out to other ships for reconnaissance or observation missions .
The ship left Imbros on 1 November for Mytilene , from where her aircraft flew aerial reconnaissance missions over Smyrna , before she continued onwards to Salonika , where she arrived on 8 November . While based there , her aircraft supported British troops fighting the Bulgarians , spotted for British ships conducting shore bombardments , and conducted anti @-@ submarine patrols . At this time , Ark Royal operated five Short 166s and a couple of Sopwith seaplanes . On 27 March 1917 , the ship was transferred to Mudros to serve as a depot ship for all the seaplanes assigned to No. 2 Wing RNAS , which controlled all RNAS aircraft in the area . By the end of 1917 , she operated a mixture of Short Type 184 and Sopwith Baby aircraft .
On the morning of 20 January 1918 , the Ottoman battlecruiser Yavûz Sultân Selîm , together with the light cruiser Midilli , ( formerly the German Goeben and Breslau , and still with German crews ) , sortied from the Dardanelles to attack British warships based at Mudros . Yavuz struck a mine shortly after they exited the mouth of the Dardanelles so they switched targets and sank two British monitors off Imbros Island . As they were returning to the Dardanelles , the two ships were attacked by two of Ark Royal 's Sopwith Babies with 65 @-@ pound ( 29 kg ) bombs . One Baby was quickly shot down and the other was forced to make an emergency landing with engine problems off Imbros ; the pilot was able to taxi the aircraft onto a beach and it was recovered several days later . Midilli struck five mines and sank on the return whilst Yavuz struck two more mines and then ran aground inside the Straits . Ark Royal 's Short 184s attempted to bomb her at dawn on the following morning , but all ten bombs missed , and an attempt to attack the ship with a Short 184 modified to carry a 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) torpedo failed when the weight of the torpedo proved to be more than the aircraft could lift .
On 3 April , the ship was transferred to the island of Syros , where she could support the seaplanes of No. 62 Wing of the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) on anti @-@ submarine patrols ; part of the former No. 2 Wing RNAS redesignated when the RNAS and the Royal Flying Corps were merged to form the RAF . Ark Royal was transferred to Piraeus in October and was still there when the Armistice of Mudros with Turkey was signed on 31 October . The ship joined the Allied fleet that occupied Constantinople after the surrender .
= = = Interwar years and World War II = = =
After the war , Ark Royal transported aircraft across the Black Sea to Batumi , where they were ferried across the Caucasus to the British naval forces supporting White Russian forces fighting the Bolsheviks in the Caspian Sea during the Russian Civil War . The ship was withdrawn from the Black Sea in late 1919 and disembarked her seaplanes at Malta to load a dozen de Havilland DH @-@ 9 bombers and 181 personnel of the supporting Z Force for transport to British Somaliland . The ship arrived in Berbera on 30 December and the squadron was unloaded to support the air and land campaign against the Mad Mullah . Ark Royal served during this campaign solely as a depot and repair ship for the RAF . She was withdrawn before its conclusion and transferred to the Black Sea to support the White Russian forces there as they began to collapse . The ship twice ferried refugees from the Caucasian coast to the Crimea and , after the second voyage , had to be fumigated at Constantinople after an outbreak of typhus among her passengers . During the summer of 1920 , Ark Royal ferried RAF aircraft and personnel to Basra . She then returned to Britain for a refit and was put into reserve at Rosyth in November .
She was recommissioned in September 1922 to transport 4 Squadron , equipped with a dozen Bristol F.2 Fighters , out to the Dardanelles during the Chanak crisis . The aircraft were ferried semi @-@ assembled and then transferred to the aircraft carrier Argus where they were fully erected . On 11 October , the F.2s flew from the carrier to an airfield at Kilya on the European side of the straits . The ship remained in the area until she was given a brief refit at Malta in early 1923 . Now equipped with Fairey IIID seaplanes , Ark Royal returned to the Dardanelles until she was transferred back to the United Kingdom late in the year . Upon her arrival , the ship was placed back in reserve and became the depot ship for the reserve of minesweepers at Sheerness until 1930 .
In 1930 , Ark Royal was recommissioned again as a training ship and an aircraft catapult was installed on her forecastle , forward of her cranes . For the next nine years , the ship conducted trials and evaluations of catapults and seaplane launch and recovery equipment and techniques . On 21 December 1934 , she was renamed HMS Pegasus to release her name for a new carrier that was then beginning construction . The ship was assigned to Home Fleet when World War II began and was mostly used to train seaplane pilots in catapult launching and shipboard recovery techniques , using the Fairey Seafox , Supermarine Walruses and Fairey Swordfish of 764 Squadron . She also served as an aircraft transport and was present in Scapa Flow , having just delivered some aircraft , on 14 October when the battleship Royal Oak was sunk by the German submarine U @-@ 47 . As the closest ship to Royal Oak , Pegasus was able to rescue some 400 survivors .
Pegasus was converted to the prototype fighter catapult ship in November 1940 , carrying three Fairey Fulmar fighters from 807 Squadron between 1 December and 10 February 1941 , which were replaced by aircraft from 804 Squadron between 10 February and 23 July . These fighters were supposed to defend convoys against attacks from Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 200 maritime patrol bombers and to prevent them from radioing location reports to U @-@ boats . If out of range of land , the fighters would have to ditch at sea and hope to be recovered by a ship from their convoy . The ship escorted nine convoys between December 1940 and July 1941 . At some point during the war , the ship 's anti @-@ aircraft armament was supplemented with a pair of Oerlikon 20 mm light anti @-@ aircraft guns mounted in the bow , the ship 's bridge was enlarged and the mast was replaced with a tripod mast bearing a Type 291 air warning radar . The ship then became a seaplane training ship again , hosting 763 Squadron aboard from 20 April 1942 to 13 February 1944 . Pegasus then became a barracks ship until May 1946 and was then listed for disposal in June .
She was sold to R. C. Ellerman on 18 October , renamed Anita I , and registered under the Panamanian flag . Under the management of the Compania de Navigation Ellanita , the ship sailed from Cardiff to Antwerp in October 1947 to begin conversion to a freighter . The work ceased in early 1948 and Anita I was seized by her creditors and auctioned off to a Dutch shipbreaking firm on 16 June 1949 . She was resold once more before the ship was purchased by the British Iron and Steel Corporation in October 1950 . Later that year , the ship was broken up for scrap at Grays , Essex .
= Juliomys anoblepas =
Juliomys anoblepas is a rodent in the genus Juliomys of the subfamily Sigmodontinae known from a single broken skull . The specimen was collected by Peter Wilhelm Lund in the caves of Lagoa Santa , Minas Gerais , Brazil , in the first half of the 19th century and described by Herluf Winge in 1887 as Calomys anoblepas . The species remained unstudied and its affinities unclear until 2011 , when it was recognized as a member of the genus Juliomys , which includes three other species from southern Brazil and nearby Argentina and Paraguay . J. anoblepas is probably a separate extinct species of the genus , which is no longer found at Lagoa Santa .
Juliomys anoblepas is similar to the other members of its genus in the configuration of its zygomatic plate ( a bony plate on the side of the skull ) . It hardly extends forward in front of the connection between the plate and the main body of the skull , and that connection is relatively low on the skull . Furthermore , the incisive foramina , openings in the front part of the palate , extend to a point between the first molars , and the palate is short , with its back margin between the third molars . The living species of Juliomys differ from J. anoblepas in various characters , including shorter incisive foramina in two species and the shape of the zygomatic arch ( cheekbone ) in J. anoblepas . The upper molar row is 4 @.@ 13 mm long , which makes J. anoblepas the largest known species of Juliomys .
= = Taxonomy = =
Between 1835 and 1849 , Danish zoologist Peter Wilhelm Lund collected abundant remains of mammals around the village of Lagoa Santa in Brazil . After his death , his fellow Dane Herluf Winge described Lund 's collections in detail , among many others publishing a monograph about the rodents of the collection in 1887 . Winge described numerous new species , many of which received little attention from systematists afterward , and among these is the species he named Calomys anoblepas . The specific name , anoblepas , derives from the Greek ἄνω ( ano ) " upwards " and βλέπω ( blepo ) " to look " and thus means " looking upward " . Although Winge did not explain the name , it most likely refers to the zygomatic plate ( a bone plate at the side of the skull ) , which is bended outward . Winge understood the genus Calomys in a sense very different from that used today , including in it the species Calomys longicaudatus ( currently Oligoryzomys nigripes ) , Calomys coronatus ( currently Euryoryzomys russatus ) , Calomys rex ( currently Sooretamys angouya ) , Calomys laticeps ( currently Cerradomys subflavus ) , Calomys saltator ( currently Hylaeamys laticeps ) , and Calomys plebejus ( currently Delomys , species uncertain ) . He wrote that C. anoblepas was the most divergent of the species of Calomys , but that it was similar to C. longicaudatus .
Winge 's concept of the genus Calomys essentially included unspecialized species with pentalophodont molars , which are characterized by the presence of a crest known as the mesoloph on the upper and mesolophid on the lower molars , and excluded species now placed in Calomys , which he classified in Hesperomys instead . Since 1898 , authors have placed Winge 's Calomys species in Oryzomys , conforming to the more conventional taxonomic arrangement ; after that , the species was referred to as Oryzomys anoblepas . Over many decades , the identity of most of Winge 's species remained uncertain , and in many cases it was not until the 1990s that the original material was restudied to provide a definitive identification of the material . In a 2002 review of the fossil sigmodontine rodents of South America , Argentinean zoologist Ulyses Pardiñas and his coworkers wrote that O. & nsbsp ; anoblepas was " possibly an Oecomys " , but this claim was based only on a cursory investigation .
In 2011 , Pardiñas and Pablo Teta published another paper on " Calomys anoblepas " after re @-@ examining the only known specimen in Copenhagen , and concluded that the animal was instead related to the living genus Juliomys , which currently includes three living species from southern Brazil and nearby Paraguay and Argentina . They recognized some features by which J. anoblepas differs from the living species , and consequently kept it as a distinct , extinct species . Juliomys is a genus of unclear relations within the subfamily Sigmodontinae , which is widespread and very diverse in South America and southern North America .
= = Description = =
Juliomys anoblepas is known only from the front half of a skull , which was found in a cave known as " Lapa da Serra das Abelhas " . Compared to other species of Juliomys , it is large and has a more robust skull and teeth . Its rostrum ( the front part ) is broad and short and the interorbital region ( between the skull ) is hourglass @-@ shaped , with squared margins . The thomasomyine rodent Rhipidomys and the oryzomyine Oecomys , both of which also occur in eastern Brazil , both have a broader interorbital region with better @-@ developed ridges at the margins . One of three living species of Juliomys , Juliomys pictipes , also has a broader interorbital region . Behind the position of the nasals ( which are missing in the only known skull ) is an interlacrymal depression , a lowered portion of the skull ; the suture ( connection ) between the two frontal bones is incompletely closed there . This interfrontal fontanelle is shared with Juliomys rimofrons , but not with Juliomys pictipes , nor with most specimens of Juliomys ossitenuis . In Wilfredomys , a Brazilian rodent with some similarities to J. anoblepas , the premaxillary bone forms a narrow projection towards the frontals , which is absent in J. anoblepas and other Juliomys species .
The zygomatic plates are almost completely vertical . As Winge already noted , the front margin of the zygomatic plate hardly extends forward before the antorbital bridge , which connects the plate to the body of the skull . This feature distinguishes J. anoblepas from Wilfredomys and many oryzomyines , but the zygomatic plate of living Juliomys species closely resembles that of J. anoblepas . In addition , the connection between the zygomatic plate and the antorbital bridge is inserted higher on the rostrum in Wilfredomys . The zygomatic arches ( cheekbones ) spread broadly . More than in other Juliomys species , the front part of the zygomatic arches is bended forward and the zygomatic plates are bended outward . Furthermore , the zygomatic notch , the notch between the zygomatic plate and arch , is deep , not shallow as in J. ossitenuis and J. rimofrons .
The incisive foramina ( openings in the palate between the incisors and the molars ) are broad and long , extending to the front margins of the first upper molar ( M1 ) . Wilfredomys has even longer incisive foramina , extending between the molars , but the foramina are shorter in J. ossitenuis and J. pictipes . The palate itself is wide and short , with its back margin between the M3s . Oryzomyines like Oecomys and Oligoryzomys have longer palates , extending beyond the third molars . Fine openings ( foramina ) are present on the palate . The back margin of the palate is squared ; J. anoblepas lacks a spine in the middle of the back margin , as is present in Rhipidomys . Wilfredomys has the back margin U @-@ shaped instead and has a longer palate , with the back margin behind the M3s .
The well @-@ developed upper incisors have orange enamel at their front surfaces and are slightly opisthodont ( with their cutting edge behind the vertical plane of the incisors ) . The molars are brachyodont ( low @-@ crowned ) and bear crests and cusps arranged in pairs opposite each other . The front cusp of M1 , the anterocone , is divided into two smaller cusps on each side of the tooth by a valley , the anteromedian flexus . Both M1 and the second molar ( M2 ) have a well @-@ developed mesoloph ( a crest near the middle of the tooth ) . Although M3 is relatively large , its back part is reduced .
The interorbital region is 4 @.@ 14 mm long and the zygomatic plate is 2 @.@ 38 mm . The diastema ( gap ) between the incisors and molars is 6 @.@ 39 mm long . The incisive foramina are 5 @.@ 25 mm long and 1 @.@ 77 mm broad . The palatal bridge ( the portion of the palate between the incisive foramina and the mesopterygoid fossa behind the back end of the palate ) is 4 @.@ 29 mm long and 2 @.@ 75 mm broad at the first molars . The upper molar row is 4 @.@ 13 mm long and M1 is 1 @.@ 19 mm broad . These measurements make J. anoblepas the largest known species of Juliomys .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Juliomys anoblepas is known only from Lagoa Santa , where the genus no longer occurs ; the nearest records are about 70 km ( 43 @.@ 5 mi ) to the southeast . It is one of several Lagoa Santa fossil rodents that no longer occur in the area . Although the precise environmental background of the Lagoa Santa fossil assemblage remains unclear , they may have been deposited in a period of climatic cooling that led to higher local diversity .
= Tropical cyclone basins =
Traditionally , areas of tropical cyclone formation are divided into seven basins . These include the north Atlantic Ocean , the eastern and western parts of the northern Pacific Ocean , the southwestern Pacific , the southwestern and southeastern Indian Oceans , and the northern Indian Ocean ( Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal ) . The western Pacific is the most active and the north Indian the least active . An average of 86 tropical cyclones of tropical storm intensity form annually worldwide , with 47 reaching hurricane / typhoon strength , and 20 becoming intense tropical cyclones ( at least of Category 3 intensity ) .
= = Overview = =
= = Northern Hemisphere = =
= = = North Atlantic Ocean = = =
This region includes the North Atlantic Ocean , the Caribbean Sea , and the Gulf of Mexico . Tropical cyclone formation here varies widely from year to year , ranging from one to over twenty @-@ five per year . Most Atlantic tropical storms and hurricanes form between June 1 and November 30 . The United States National Hurricane Center monitors the basin and issues reports , watches and warnings about tropical weather systems for the Atlantic Basin as one of the Regional Specialized Meteorological Centres for tropical cyclones as defined by the World Meteorological Organization . On average , 11 named storms ( of tropical storm or higher strength ) occur each season , with an average of 6 becoming hurricanes and 2 becoming major hurricanes . The climatological peak of activity is around September 10 each season .
The United States Atlantic coast and Gulf Coast , Mexico , Central America , the Caribbean Islands , and Bermuda are frequently affected by storms in this basin . Venezuela , the 4 provinces of Atlantic Canada , and Atlantic Macaronesian islands also are occasionally affected . Many of the more intense Atlantic storms are Cape Verde @-@ type hurricanes , which form off the west coast of Africa near the Cape Verde islands . Occasionally , a hurricane that evolves into an extratropical cyclone can reach western Europe , including Hurricane Gordon , which spread high winds across Spain and the British Isles in September 2006 . Hurricane Vince , which made landfall on the southwestern coast of Spain as a tropical depression in October 2005 , is the only known system to impact mainland Europe as a tropical cyclone ( correction / citation needed here to mention 1842 Spain hurricane ) .
= = = Eastern Pacific = = =
The Northeastern Pacific is the second most active basin and has the highest number of storms per unit area . The hurricane season runs between May 15 and November 30 each year , and encompasses the vast majority of tropical cyclone activity in the region . In the 1971 – 2005 period , there were an average of 15 – 16 tropical storms , 9 hurricanes , and 4 – 5 major hurricanes ( storms of Category 3 intensity or greater ) annually in the basin .
Storms that form here often affect western Mexico , and less commonly the Continental United States ( in particular California ) , or northern Central America . No hurricane included in the modern database has made landfall in California ; however , historical records from 1858 speak of a storm that brought San Diego winds over 75 mph ( 65 kn ; 121 km / h ) ( marginal hurricane force ) , though it is not known if the storm actually made landfall . Tropical storms in 1939 , 1976 and 1997 brought gale @-@ force winds to California .
The Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility ( AOR ) begins at the boundary with the National Hurricane Center ' AOR ( at 140 ° W ) , and ends at the International Date Line , where the Northwestern Pacific begins . The hurricane season in the North Central Pacific runs annually from June 1 to November 30 ; The Central Pacific Hurricane Center monitors the storms that develop or move into the defined area of responsibility . The CPHC previously tasked with monitoring tropical activity in the basin was originally known as the Joint Hurricane Warning Center ; today it is called the Joint Typhoon Warning Center .
Central Pacific hurricanes are rare and on average 4 to 5 storms form or move in this area annually . As there are no large contiguous landmasses in the basin , direct hits and landfalls are rare ; however , they occur occasionally , as with Hurricane Iniki in 1992 , which made landfall on Hawaii , and Hurricane Ioke in 2006 , which made a direct hit on Johnston Atoll .
= = = Northwestern Pacific Ocean = = =
The Northwest Pacific Ocean is the most active basin on the planet . Annually , an average of 25 @.@ 7 tropical cyclones in the basin acquire tropical storm strength or greater ; also , an average of 16 typhoons occurred each year during the 1968 – 1989 period . The basin occupies all the territory north of the equator and west of the International Date Line , including the South China Sea . The basin sees activity year @-@ round ; however , tropical activity is at its minimum in February and March .
Tropical storms in this region often affect China , Hong Kong , Japan , North Korea , South Korea , the Philippines , Taiwan and Vietnam , plus numerous Oceanian islands such as Guam , the Northern Marianas and Palau . Sometimes , tropical storms in this region affect Cambodia , Laos , Malaysia , Thailand and even Singapore . This is by far the most active basin , accounting for one @-@ third of all tropical cyclone activity . The coast of China sees the most landfalling tropical cyclones worldwide . The Philippines archipelago receives an average of 6 – 7 tropical cyclone landfalls per year .
= = = North Indian Ocean = = =
This basin is divided into two areas : the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea , with the Bay of Bengal dominating ( 5 to 6 times more activity ) . Still , this basin is the most inactive worldwide , with only 4 to 6 storms per year . This basin 's season has a double peak : one in April and May , before the onset of the monsoon , and another in October and November , just after . Although it is an inactive basin , the deadliest tropical cyclones in the world have formed here , including the 1970 Bhola cyclone , which killed 500 @,@ 000 people . Nations affected include India , Bangladesh , Sri Lanka , Thailand , Myanmar , and Pakistan . Rarely do tropical cyclones that form in this basin affect the Arabian Peninsula or Somalia ; however , Cyclone Gonu caused heavy damage in Oman on the peninsula in 2007 .
= = = Mediterranean Sea = = =
On rare occasions , tropical @-@ like systems , that can reach the intensity of hurricanes , occur over the Mediterranean Sea . Such a phenomenon is called a Medicane ( mediterranean @-@ hurricane ) . Although the geographical dimensions of tropical oceans and the Mediterranean Sea are clearly different , the precursor mechanisms of these perturbations , based on the air @-@ sea thermodynamic imbalance , are similar . Their origins are typically non @-@ tropical , and develop over open waters under strong , initially cold @-@ core cyclones , similar to subtropical cyclones or anomalous tropical cyclones in the Atlantic Basin , like Karl ( 1980 ) , Vince ( 2005 ) , Grace ( 2009 ) or Chris ( 2012 ) . Sea surface temperatures in late @-@ August and early @-@ September are quite high over the basin ( 24 / 28 ° C or 75 / 82 ° F ) , though research indicates water temperatures of 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) are normally required for development .
Meteorological literature document that such systems occurred in September 1947 , September 1969 , January 1982 , September 1983 , January 1995 , October 1996 , September 2006 , November 2011 and November 2014 . The 1995 system developed a well @-@ defined eye , and a ship recorded 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) winds , along with an atmospheric pressure of 975 mbar . Although it had the structure of a tropical cyclone , it occurred over 61 ° F ( 16 ° C ) water temperatures , suggesting it could have been a polar low .
= = Southern Hemisphere = =
Within the Southern Hemisphere tropical cyclones generally form on a regular basis between the African coast and the middle of the South Pacific . Tropical and Subtropical Cyclones have also been noted occurring in the Southern Atlantic Ocean at times . For various reasons including where tropical cyclones form , there are several different ways to split the area between the American and African coasts . For instance the World Meteorological Organization define three different basins for the tracking and warning of tropical cyclones . These are the South @-@ West Indian Ocean between the African Coast and 90 ° E , the Australian region between 90 ° E and 160 ° E and the South Pacific between 160 ° E and 120 ° W. The United States Joint Typhoon Warning Center also monitors the whole region , but splits it at 135 ° E into the South Pacific and the Southern Indian Ocean .
= = = South @-@ West Indian Ocean = = =
The South @-@ West Indian Ocean is located within the Southern Hemisphere between the Africa 's east coast and 90 ° E and is primarily monitored by the Meteo France 's La Reunion RSMC , while the Mauritian , Australian Indonesian , and Madagascan weather services also monitor parts of it . Until the start of the 1985 – 86 tropical cyclone season the basin only extended to 80 ° E , with the 10 degrees between 80 and 90E considered to be a part of the Australian region . On average about 9 cyclones per develop into tropical storms , while 5 of those go on to become tropical cyclones that are equivalent to a hurricane or a typhoon . The tropical cyclones that form in this area can affect some of the various Indian Ocean island nations and or various countries along Africa 's east coast .
= = = Australian region = = =
Through the middle of 1985 , this basin extended westward to 80E . Since then , its western boundary has been 90E . Tropical activity in this region affects Australia and Indonesia . According to the Australian Bureau of Meteorology , the most frequently hit portion of Australia is between Exmouth and Broome in Western Australia . The basin sees an average of about seven cyclones each year , although more can form or come in from other basins , such as the South Pacific . The tropical cyclone Cyclone Vance in 1999 produced the highest recorded speed winds in an Australian town or city at around 267 km / h ( 166 mph ) .
= = = South Pacific Ocean = = =
The South Pacific Ocean basin starts at 160 ° E and extends to 120 ° W with cyclones developing in it officially monitored by Fiji and New Zealand 's Meteorological Services . Tropical Cyclones that develop within this basin generally affect countries to the west of the dateline , though during El Nino 's cyclones have been known to develop to the east of the dateline near French Polynesia . On average the basin sees nine tropical cyclones annually with about half of them becoming severe tropical cyclones .
= = = South Atlantic Ocean = = =
Cyclones rarely form in other tropical ocean areas , which are not formally considered tropical cyclone basins . Tropical depressions and tropical storms occur occasionally in the South Atlantic , and the only full @-@ blown tropical cyclones on record were 2004 's Hurricane Catarina , which made landfall in Brazil and 2010 's Tropical Storm Anita , which formed off the coast of Rio Grande do Sul . South Atlantic ocean is not officially classified as a tropical cyclone basin by the World Meteorological Organization and do not have a designated regional specialized meteorological center ( RSMC ) . However , the Brazilian Navy Hydrographic Center has started in 2011 to assign names to tropical and subtropical systems in this basin , when they have sustained wind speeds of at least 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) .
= Lady of Quality =
Lady of Quality is the last Regency romance novel written by Georgette Heyer . It was first published in 1972 and was the last of her novels to be published during her lifetime .
The story describes the romantic relationship between Annis Wychwood , a wealthy spinster , and Oliver Carleton , a rake who cares little for society 's opinion of him . The two meet while jointly supervising Carleton 's ward , Lucilla . Heyer granted her heroine a level of independence that was rare in Regency times and rare for Heyer 's novels . Although the hero 's personality is similar to that of many of Heyer 's other heroes , in a departure from romance novel convention he experienced little personal growth in the novel ; his primary change was to accept that he would like to have a wife .
Heyer frequently highlights the heroine 's many masculine qualities , which include a fierce independence and a disregard for social mores . Modern literary critics have noted that the relationship between the protagonists is modelled on those of the latter 20th century , offering companionship and allowing both parties to retain a level of independence . The heroine 's unwillingness to conform attracts the hero , rather than repels him .
= = Background = =
British author Georgette Heyer essentially invented the Regency romance in 1935 with the publication of Regency Buck , and her early Regencies were quite successful . In 1950 she began to work on what she called " the magnum opus of my latter years " , a medieval trilogy intended to cover the House of Lancaster between 1393 and 1435 . To earn income , she periodically interrupted her research to write additional Regency romances ; Lady of Quality , published in 1972 , was the last of them , and the last of her novels to be published during her lifetime . Heyer suffered a stroke in July 1973 and was in ill health until her death the following year .
= = Plot summary = =
The novel is set in Regency England somewhere around 1818 , and events are related through third @-@ person narrative . As the story opens , a wealthy , beautiful and intelligent woman named Annis Wychwood reaches the age of majority . Now having greater control over her personal and financial affairs , Annis decides to move to Bath and live alone , to the displeasure of her brother and his family . Several years later , on the way back to Bath after a visit to her childhood home , Annis meets Lucilla Carleton and Ninian Elmore . Lucilla is running away to Bath to avoid her marriage to Ninian , a match that her guardian is very much in favour of , and Ninian is escorting her to ensure her safe arrival . Annis volunteers to chaperone Lucilla and notifies the girl 's guardian of her plans .
Lucilla 's guardian , Oliver Carleton , visits Bath to investigate her new living arrangements . Carleton is a rake – a sexually experienced man who refuses to conform to many of society 's guidelines . His biting wit has earned him the label of rudest man in England , but he and Annis soon find mutual enjoyment in lively banter . As Carleton and Annis 's friendship develops , they discover deeper feelings for each other . Carleton proposes marriage , but Annis refuses , unwilling to relinquish her independence . Using the excuse that he must find Lucilla a new guardian , Carleton returns to London .
Annis 's brother , Sir Geoffrey Wychwood , hears rumours of her developing relationship with Carleton and sends his wife and children to Bath to discourage Carleton . Soon after their arrival members of the household contract influenza , and Annis nurses them until she too becomes infected . When Carleton hears that Annis is seriously ill he returns to Bath , arriving on the first day that she is able to get out of bed . Annis agrees to marry Carleton , despite the objections of her brother .
= = Genre and themes = =
Like many of Heyer 's novels , Lady of Quality is a Regency romance , relying heavily on its setting as a plot device . As noted by literary critic Kay Mussell , Heyer 's Regency romances revolved around a " structured social ritual – the marriage market represented by the London season " where " all are in danger of ostracism for inappropriate behavior " . Heyer 's novels were known for their painstaking attention to detail , which she used to infuse the novels with the " tone of the time " .
The heroine , Annis , is one of Heyer 's more modern characters . Her wealth and spinsterhood allow her a level of freedom that is unusual in a Heyer novel , as it was in the Regency period . Many of the actions Annis takes , such as moving to a different city despite her family 's objections , were common among women living in the 1970s when the novel was written , but in a Regency setting they mark Annis as a bold and unusually independent woman .
Heyer 's hero , Carleton , is a worldly and independent man , similar to those found in many of her other novels . In a departure from her other novels however , Carleton is an " unrepentant hero " who refuses to apologise for his past misdeeds and sees no need to change aspects of his behaviour such as his temper . Although in most romance novels the hero changes throughout the course of the narrative , in Lady of Quality Carleton is essentially the same character at the novel 's conclusion that he was at its beginning . The sole difference is his realisation that he loves Annis and wishes to marry her .
In contrast to his defiance of society in matters of his own relationships , Carleton is tasked with supervising his niece Lucilla . He must ensure that she is not drawn into a scandal , ruining her prospects of marriage , a role Heyer often gives to her heroes . It is rare that her heroines are given the same responsibility , but in this novel Annis chooses to become involved in shepherding Lucilla through society . Like the hero , the heroine ignores the standards of propriety when she chooses , yet also shelters Lucilla from following her example , as Annis thinks the younger woman lacks the experience to properly judge when it is appropriate to disregard society 's mores . Annis 's age , and the life experience she has gained , give her a greater ability to manipulate the social standards of her time than a young ingenue . As in Heyer 's other novels , her word choice frequently highlights the fact that the heroine 's behavior diverges from the socially accepted feminine ideal of the Regency period . Rather than repel others , the unwillingness to conform to the expected behavioural norms endears the heroine to the hero .
= = Publication and reception = =
Exact publication figures are unavailable for this book , but a first printing of one of Heyer 's novels in the British Commonwealth often consisted of 65 @,@ 000 – 75 @,@ 000 copies , and each of her books generally sold over 500 @,@ 000 copies in paperback . As with Heyer 's other popular fiction , this book was largely ignored by contemporary critics ; only after her death did they begin to take more interest in her work .
Philippa Toomey , a literary critic for The Times , wrote a short review of Lady of Quality soon after its publication . While noting that the plots of all Heyer 's romance novels were similar , Toomey described Lady of Quality as " almost identical twins " with Heyer 's earlier work Black Sheep . Despite the formulaic nature of the plot , Toomey believed that Heyer fans would enjoy the novel , as it showcased Heyer 's skill in creating interesting characters who acted appropriately for their setting .
Lady of Quality was profiled in Pamela Regis 's 2003 book A Natural History of the Romance Novel . Regis describes the relationship between the protagonists as very modern ; both are financially independent , and neither cares overly much for the opinions of others . Literary critic Karin Westman , writing at about the same time agreed , noting that the novel provides " a vision of marriage as companionship , a union which does not require ceding independence ... thanks to a heroine who can conduct herself as a hero " .
= 1937 Fox vault fire =
The 1937 Fox vault fire was a major fire in a 20th Century Fox film storage facility in Little Ferry , New Jersey on 9 July 1937 . It was caused by the spontaneous combustion of nitrate film stored in inadequately @-@ ventilated vaults . The fire resulted in one death and two injuries , and destroyed all of the film present .
This fire was responsible for the loss of most of the silent films produced by Fox Film Corporation before 1932 . Also destroyed were Educational Pictures negatives and films of several other studios . It brought attention to the potential for decaying nitrate film to spontaneously ignite , and changed the focus of film preservation efforts to include a greater focus on fire safety .
= = Background = =
= = = Nitrate film = = =
The early motion picture industry primarily used nitrocellulose film stock , commonly called nitrate film . This film is flammable , and produces its own oxygen supply as it burns . Nitrate fires burn rapidly , and cannot typically be extinguished , capable of burning even underwater . Additionally , nitrocellulose is subject to thermal decomposition and hydrolysis , breaking down over time in the presence of high temperatures and moisture . This decaying film stock releases nitrogen oxides that themselves contribute to the decay and make the damaged film burn more easily . Under the right conditions , nitrate film can even spontaneously combust . In part because of substantial variability in the manufacturing of early film , there is considerable uncertainty about the circumstances necessary for self @-@ ignition . Sustained temperatures of 106 ° F ( 41 ° C ) or higher , large quantities of nitrate film , increased humidity , poor ventilation , and aged or decaying film have all been considered risk factors . Most such fires in film archives have taken place in heat waves during summer months , in closed facilities with limited ventilation , compounding several of these variables . Especially in confined areas , such fires can result in explosions .
Large and dangerous fires sometimes resulted . On 4 May 1897 , one of the first major fires involving nitrate film began when a Lumière projector caught fire at the Bazar de la Charité in Paris ; the resulting blaze caused 180 deaths . In the United States , a series of fires occurred at industry facilities . The Lubin Manufacturing Company 's vault in Philadelphia exploded on 13 June 1914 , followed on 9 December by a fire that destroyed Thomas Edison 's laboratory complex in West Orange , New Jersey . The New York studio of the Famous Players Film Company burned in September 1915 ; in July 1920 , the shipping facility of its corporate successor , Famous Players @-@ Lasky , was destroyed by a fire in Kansas City , Missouri , despite construction intended to minimize that risk . The United Film Ad Service vault , also in Kansas City , burned on 4 August 1928 , and a fire was reported at Pathé Exchange nine days later . In October 1929 , the Consolidated Film Industries facility was badly damaged by a nitrate fire . Spontaneous combustion was not proven to have occurred in any of these fires ; it is possible that the potential of nitrate film to self @-@ ignite was not even recognized before 1933 .
= = = Little Ferry = = =
When Little Ferry , New Jersey contractor William Fehrs was hired to construct a film storage facility in 1934 , he designed the structure to be fireproof . The building had 12 @-@ inch ( 30 cm ) outer walls and a reinforced concrete roof . Internally , it was divided into forty @-@ two individual vaults , each enclosed behind a steel door and separated with 8 @-@ inch ( 20 cm ) brick interior walls . The local fire department confirmed Fehrs 's fireproofing . Despite the potential for fire , the facility was located in a residential neighborhood , and was equipped with neither a fire sprinkler system nor mechanical ventilation .
Film processing company DeLuxe Laboratories owned the building , and rented it to 20th Century Fox to store the silent films acquired from Fox Film Corporation during the merger .
= = Fire = =
Northern New Jersey experienced a heat wave in July 1937 , with daytime temperatures of 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) and warm nights . The sustained heat contributed to nitrate decomposition in the film vaults , and the building 's ventilation was inadequate to prevent a dangerous buildup of gasses . At some time shortly after 2 : 00 a.m. on the 9th , spontaneous ignition occurred in the vault at the building 's northwest corner . Local truck driver Robert Davison observed flames coming from one of the structure 's window vents and , within five minutes , used a municipal fire alarm call box to report the fire .
Davison then attempted to awaken the residents of the surrounding houses , many of whom were already alerted to the situation by the noise and intense heat . As decomposition gasses in additional vaults ignited , bursts of fire shot over 100 feet ( 30 m ) horizontally across the ground from the windows , and a similar distance into the air from the building 's roof vents . Anna Greeves and her two sons , John and Charles , were caught in one such " sheet of flame " while attempting to flee the area . All three were seriously burned ; 13 @-@ year @-@ old Charles eventually died from his injuries on 19 July . Other area families were able to escape unharmed as the fire spread to five neighboring residences and destroyed two vehicles .
Little Ferry firefighters first arrived at 2 : 26 a.m. , followed by additional companies from Hawthorne , Ridgefield Park , River Edge , and South Hackensack . Despite 150 men employing fourteen hose streams , the fire was not extinguished until 5 : 30 a.m.
Property damage was estimated at $ 150 @,@ 000 — 200 @,@ 000 . All of the film in the facility was destroyed ; more than 40 @,@ 000 reels of negatives and film prints burned to ashes inside their film cans . Fifty @-@ seven truckloads of burned film were hauled from the site to have their silver content extracted . Each can contained about five cents worth of silver ; the salvaged metal returned $ 2 @,@ 000 .
= = Legacy = =
Although 20th Century Fox officials at the time remarked that " only old films " were destroyed , the 1937 Fox vault fire is now understood as a significant loss of American film heritage . Film historian Anthony Slide called the destruction of the Fox Film Corporation vault " the most tragic " American nitrate fire . The highest quality examples of every Fox film produced prior to 1932 were destroyed . Although copies located elsewhere allowed some of these films to survive , mostly as lower @-@ quality prints or mere fragments of film , more than 75 % of Fox 's feature films from before 1930 are completely lost . Total or near lost filmography rates occurred for Fox performers like Theda Bara , Valeska Suratt , William Farnum , George Walsh and notorious celebutante performer Evelyn Nesbit , who made less than a score of films for the Studio . The Little Ferry vaults also held works by other film studios which had contracted with Fox for distribution . Educational Pictures had more than 2 @,@ 000 negatives and prints destroyed , including the negatives of Buster Keaton 's silent films with the company . Also present was the original negative of D. W. Griffith 's Way Down East ( which Fox had purchased with the intent of remaking ) , the negative for the controversial Christie Productions sponsored film The Birth of a Baby , and films by smaller studios such as Atherton Productions , Peck 's Bad Boy Corporation , Principal Pictures , and Serial Producing . Archival material intended for the Museum of Modern Art 's Film Library was lost as well .
The destruction of the Little Ferry facility spurred an interest in fire safety as an aspect of film preservation . Unlike previous large nitrate film fires , the spontaneous combustion of decomposing film stock was determined to be responsible . Investigators suggested that the older nitrocellulose film stored in the archive was of lower quality than then @-@ current film and thus more prone to instability . The Society of Motion Picture Engineers 's Committee on Preservation of Film , three months after the vault fire , cited " recent and rather extensive film fires " as evidence that existing preservation efforts had failed to adequately address the " fire problem " . More heavily reinforced film vaults were suggested , to prevent fires in a single vault from destroying entire archival facilities . Film storage cabinets with ventilation and cooling systems were also proposed , as was further research into improving the quality of cellulose acetate film to encourage its use as a safer replacement for nitrate film .
= Battle of Nam River =
The Battle of Nam River was an engagement between United Nations ( UN ) and North Korean ( NK ) forces early in the Korean War from August 31 to September 19 , 1950 , in the vicinity of the Nam River and the Naktong River in South Korea . It was a part of the Battle of Pusan Perimeter , and was one of several large engagements fought simultaneously . The battle ended in a victory for the United Nations after large numbers of United States ( US ) and Republic of Korea ( ROK ) troops were able to repel a North Korean attack across the river .
Positioned in defense of Masan during the Battle of Masan , the US 35th Infantry Regiment , 25th Infantry Division took up positions along the Nam River , one of the many tributaries of the Naktong River on the southern flank of the Pusan Perimeter . The North Korean People 's Army 's 7th Division effected a crossing of the river on August 31 , and though the 35th Infantry was able to stem the North Korean advance , thousands of North Korean troops were able to exploit a hole in the line and surround the regiment . What followed was an intense battle in which the US and North Korean units were heavily engaged all along and behind the Kum River line . Eventually , though , the North Korean force was routed and defeated by the US troops .
During the battle , the 35th Infantry was instrumental in forcing back the North Korean division and preventing it from advancing to capture Pusan . The delay was enough for UN forces to counterattack Inchon , effectively defeating the entire North Korean army at the Pusan Perimeter . The 35th Infantry 's performance in the battle earned the regiment a Presidential Unit Citation .
= = Background = =
= = = Outbreak of war = = =
Following the June 25 , 1950 , outbreak of the Korean War after the invasion of the Republic of Korea ( South Korea ) by its northern neighbor , the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea ( North Korea ) , the United Nations decided to commit troops to the conflict on behalf of South Korea . The United States , a member of the UN , subsequently committed ground forces to the Korean peninsula with the goal of fighting back the North Korean invasion and to prevent South Korea from collapsing . However , US forces in the Far East had been steadily decreasing since the end of World War II , five years earlier , and at the time the closest forces were the 24th Infantry Division , headquartered in Japan . The division was understrength , and most of its equipment was antiquated due to reductions in military spending . Regardless , the 24th was ordered to South Korea .
The 24th Infantry Division was the first US unit sent into Korea with the mission to take the initial " shock " of North Korean advances , delaying much larger North Korean units to buy time to allow reinforcements to arrive . The division was consequently alone for several weeks as it attempted to delay the North Koreans , making time for the 1st Cavalry and the 7th and 25th Infantry Divisions , along with other US Eighth Army supporting units , to move into position . Advance elements of the 24th Infantry were badly defeated in the Battle of Osan on July 5 , the first encounter between American and North Korean forces . For the first month after the defeat of Task Force Smith , the 24th Infantry Division was repeatedly defeated and forced south by superior North Korean numbers and equipment . The regiments of the 24th Infantry were systematically pushed south in engagements around Chochiwon , Chonan , and Pyongtaek . The 24th made a final stand in the Battle of Taejon , where it was almost completely destroyed but delaying North Korean forces until July 20 . By that time , the Eighth Army 's force of combat troops was roughly equal to North Korean forces attacking the region , with new UN units arriving every day .
= = = North Korean advance = = =
With Taejon captured , North Korean forces began surrounding the Pusan Perimeter from all sides in an attempt to envelop it . The 4th and 6th North Korean Infantry Divisions advanced south in a wide flanking maneuver . The two divisions attempted to envelop the UN 's left flank , but became extremely spread out in the process . They advanced on UN positions with armor and superior numbers , repeatedly pushing back US and South Korean forces .
American forces were pushed back repeatedly before finally halting the North Korean advance in a series of engagements in the southern section of the country . Forces of the 3rd Battalion , 29th Infantry Regiment , newly arrived in the country , were wiped out at Hadong in a coordinated ambush by North Korean forces on July 27 , opening a pass to the Pusan area . Soon after , North Korean forces took Chinju to the west , pushing back the US 19th Infantry Regiment and leaving routes to the Pusan open for more North Korean attacks . US formations were subsequently able to defeat and push back the North Koreans on the flank in the Battle of the Notch on August 2 . Suffering mounting losses , the Korean People 's Army force in the west withdrew for several days to re @-@ equip and receive reinforcements . This granted both sides a reprieve to prepare for the attack on the Pusan Perimeter .
= = = Attack on Masan = = =
During the lull in fighting following the Battle of the Notch , Eighth Army commander Lieutenant General Walton Walker ordered the US 25th Infantry Division , under Major General William B. Kean , to take up defensive positions on the Pusan Perimeter southern flank west of Masan . By August 15 , the 25th Infantry Division had moved into these positions . Rough terrain west of Masan limited the choice of the positions . The mountain group west of Masan was the first readily defensible ground east of the Chinju pass . The 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) mountain ridges of Sobuk @-@ san dominated the area and protected the Komam @-@ ni @-@ Haman @-@ Chindong @-@ ni road , the only means of north @-@ south communication west of Masan .
To the north , from the Masan @-@ Chinju highway to the Nam River , were several easily defensible positions . The most favorable was the high ground near Chungam @-@ ni , which controlled an important junction connecting the Masan road with the road over the Nam River to Uiryong . It was essential for the US 25th Infantry Division 's right flank to connect with the left flank of the US 24th Infantry Division at the confluence of the Nam and the Naktong Rivers . Therefore , the 25th Infantry Division also moved to protect the Komam @-@ ni road intersection where the Chindong @-@ ni @-@ Haman road met the Masan @-@ Chinju highway .
Meanwhile , the NK 6th Division was ordered to await reinforcements before continuing the attack . From north to south , the division had its 13th , 15th , and 14th Regiments . The first replacements arrived at Chinju on about August 12 . Approximately 2 @,@ 000 unarmed South Koreans conscripted in the Seoul area joined the division by August 15 . At Chinju , the NK 6th Division issued them grenades and told the recruits they would have to pick up weapons from killed and wounded soldiers on the battlefield . Another group of 2 @,@ 500 replacements conscripted in the Seoul area joined the 6th Division on August 21 , bringing the division 's strength to approximately 8 @,@ 500 men . In the last week of August and the first week of September , 3 @,@ 000 more recruits conscripted in southwest Korea joined the division . The 6th Division used this last body of recruits in labor details and only later employed them as combat troops . As a part of the North Korean build @-@ up in the south , the untried NK 7th Division also arrived near Masan with another 10 @,@ 000 men . The 7th Division occupied key ports to protect the 6th Division against possible amphibious landings in its rear .
On August 31 , 1950 , the 25th Division held a front of almost 30 miles ( 48 km ) , beginning in the north at the Namji @-@ ri bridge over the Naktong River and extending west on the hills south of the river to the Nam 's confluence with it . It then bent southwest up the south side of the Nam to where the Sobuk @-@ san mountain mass tapered down in its northern extremity to the river . There the line turned south along rising ground to Sibidang @-@ san , crossed the saddle on its south face through which passed the Chinju @-@ Masan railroad and highway , and continued southward up to Battle Mountain and on to P 'il @-@ bong . From P 'il @-@ bong the line dropped down spur ridge lines to the southern coastal road near Chindong @-@ ni . The US 35th Infantry Regiment held the northern 26 @,@ 000 yards ( 24 @,@ 000 m ) of the division line , from the Namji @-@ ri bridge to the Chinju @-@ Masan highway . The regiment was responsible for the highway . The regiment 's weakest point was a 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) gap along the Naktong River between most of F Company on the west and its 1st Platoon to the east . This platoon guarded the Namji @-@ ri cantilever steel bridge on the division 's extreme right at the boundary with the US 2nd Infantry Division across the Naktong River . South of the highway , the US 24th Infantry Regiment held the high ground west of Haman , including Battle Mountain and P 'il @-@ bong . Colonel John L. Throckmorton 's US 5th Infantry Regimental Combat Team held the southern spur of Sobuk @-@ san to the coastal road at Chindong @-@ ni . From Chindong @-@ ni some ROK Marine Corps units continued the line to the southern coast . Kean 's 25th Division command post was at Masan , the 35th Infantry command post was on the east side of the Chirwon @-@ Chung @-@ ni road , the 24th Infantry command post was at Haman and Throckmorton 's command post was at Chindong @-@ ni . By August 31 , the division was suffering manpower shortages , and a limited number of KATUSAs were brought in to replenish its ranks .
= = Battle = =
In the southern part of its sector , where the US 25th Infantry Division held the UN line , the NK I Corps planned a strong attack , coordinating it with an attack against the US 2nd Infantry Division to the north . The North Korean 6th and 7th Divisions received their attack orders on August 20 . The North Korean operations order called for the NK I Corps to assault all along the line at 22 : 00 on August 31 . The 6th Division , farthest south on the right flank , was to attack through Haman , Masan , and Chinhae and capture Kumhae , on the west side of the Naktong River delta 15 miles ( 24 km ) from Pusan , by September 3 . The division zone of attack was to be south of the Chinju @-@ Komam @-@ ni @-@ Masan highway . The 7th Division , next in line north of the 6th Division , was to attack north of the Masan highway , wheel left to the Naktong , and wait for the 6th Division on its right and the NK 9th Division on its left to join it . Part of the 7th Division was concentrated in the Uiryong area west of the Nam River . This plan pitted the 6th Division against the US 24th Infantry Regiment and the 7th Division against the US 35th Infantry Regiment . As a part of this plan , the NK 6th Division had been engaging the 24th Infantry at Battle Mountain for several weeks prior , to a stalemate . Kean , aware of a pending offensive and distrusting the 24th Infantry 's ability , began to compile a report on the regiment 's performance to determine how to improve its capabilities . The North Korean 6th Division struck the 24th Infantry at Haman on August 31 , and pushed it back after heavy engagements . The NK 6th Division and the US 24th Infantry Regiment remained locked in a bitter fight for the next week .
= = = North Korean crossing = = =
Meanwhile , the North Korean 7th Division troops committed all of their effort into attacking the US 35th Infantry line . At 23 : 30 on August 31 , a North Korean SU @-@ 76 self @-@ propelled high @-@ velocity gun from across the Nam fired shells into the position of G Company , 35th Infantry , overlooking the river . Within a few minutes , North Korean artillery was attacking all front @-@ line rifle companies of the regiment from the Namji @-@ ri bridge west . Under cover of this fire a reinforced regiment of the NK 7th Division crossed the Nam River and attacked F and G Companies , 35th Infantry . Other North Korean soldiers crossed the Nam on an underwater bridge in front of the paddy ground north of Komam @-@ ni and near the boundary between the 2nd Battalion , led by Lieutenant Colonel John L. Wilkins , Jr . , holding the river front and Lieutenant Colonel Bernard G. Teeter 's 1st Battalion holding the hill line that stretched from the Nam River to Sibidang @-@ san and the Chinju @-@ Masan highway . The 35th Infantry , facing shortages of materiel and reinforcements , was under @-@ equipped but nonetheless prepared for an attack .
At the river ferry crossing site in the low ground between these two battalions , the regimental commander placed 300 ROK National Police , expecting them to hold there long enough to serve as a warning for the rest of the forces . Guns from the flanking hills there could cover the low ground with fire . Back at Komam @-@ ni he held the 3rd Battalion ready for use in counterattack to stop an enemy penetration should it occur . Unexpectedly , the ROK police companies near the ferry scattered at the first North Korean fire . At 00 : 30 , North Korean troops streamed through this hole in the line , some turning left to take G Company in its flank and rear , and others turned right to attack C Company , which was on a spur of ground west of the Komam @-@ ni road . Elements of C and D Companies formed a defense line along the dike at the north edge of Komam @-@ ni where US tanks joined them at dawn . The North Koreans , however , did not drive for the Komam @-@ ni road fork 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) south of the river as the US commander , Lieutenant Colonel Henry Fisher had expected ; instead , they turned east into the hills behind 2nd Battalion .
The position of B Company , 35th Infantry , on the 1 @,@ 100 feet ( 340 m ) Sibidang @-@ san , flanked the Masan road 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) west of Komam @-@ ni and gave the company a commanding view over the surrounding countryside . It was a key position in the 25th Division line , and Kean was aware the North Koreans would consider it important ground to target for attack . The North Korean preparatory barrage there lasted from 11 : 30 to midnight . Under this cover , two battalions of the NK 13th Regiment , 6th Division , moved up within 150 yards ( 140 m ) of the American foxholes . At the same time , North Korean T @-@ 34 tanks , SU @-@ 76 self @-@ propelled guns , and antitank guns moved toward Komam @-@ ni on the road at the foot of Sibidang @-@ san . An American M4A3 Sherman tank there destroyed a T @-@ 34 just after midnight , and a 3 @.@ 5 @-@ inch bazooka team destroyed a self @-@ propelled gun and several 45 mm antitank guns .
On the crest of Sibidang @-@ san , an antipersonnel minefield stopped the first North Korean infantry assault . More attacks followed in quick succession , all of which were repulsed by the US troops ' superior firepower . By 02 : 30 the B Company riflemen were so depleted of ammunition that they began stripping machine @-@ gun bullets from the ammunition belts and using them in their rifles . The 1st Platoon of C Company , at the base of the mountain behind B Company , climbed Sibidang @-@ san in 45 minutes with an ammunition resupply for the company . Just before dawn the North Korean attack subsided . Daylight revealed a vast amount of abandoned North Korean equipment scattered on the slope just below the crest , including 33 machine @-@ guns . Among the North Korean dead was the commanding officer of the NK 13th Regiment .
At daybreak on September 1 , a relief force of C Company headquarters troops , led by American tanks , cleared the road to Sibidang @-@ san and resupplied the 2nd Platoon , B Company , with ammunition just in time for it to repel another North Korean assault . This failed assault resulted in the killing of 77 and capturing of 21 North Koreans . Although the 35th Infantry held all its original positions , except that of the forward platoon of G Company , 3 @,@ 000 North Korean soldiers were behind its lines . The farthest eastern penetration reached the high ground just south of Chirwon overlooking the north @-@ south road there .
In the meantime , the NK 6th Division had made breakthroughs in the US 24th Infantry sector to the south , overwhelming the regiment and forcing it back . The 2nd Battalion , 24th Infantry , on the ridges overlooking Haman , was pushed back as its soldiers retreated without orders . Survivors from the 24th Infantry 's 1st and 2nd battalions later appeared in the 35th 's lines , and the regimental commanders found that the entire regiment had crumbled under North Korean attack . Kean ordered the 1st Battalion , 27th Infantry to move in and help restore the 24th 's position .
= = = North Korean infiltration = = =
In a counterattack after daylight , K Company and tanks had partially regained control of the ridges overlooking Haman , but not completely . Large numbers of North Koreans were behind the battle positions of the 35th Infantry as far as the Chirwon @-@ ni and Chung @-@ ni areas , 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) east of Komam @-@ ni and the front positions . The North Koreans continued to cross the Nam River after daylight on September 1 in the general area of the gap between the 1st and 2nd Battalions . UN observation aircraft spotted an estimated four companies crossing there and directed fire of the 64th Field Artillery Battalion on the crossing force , which destroyed an estimated three @-@ fourths of it . Fighter planes then strafed the survivors . Later another large group of North Koreans were spotted in the open at the river later in the day and American aircraft directed artillery fire on the column , with an estimated 200 North Korean casualties .
The NK I Corps plan of attack below the Nam River was for its 6th Division to push east along the main Chinju @-@ Komam @-@ ni @-@ Masan highway through the 1st Battalion , 35th Infantry , and at the same time for major elements of its 7th Division to swing southeast behind the 2nd Battalion , 35th Infantry , and cut the Chirwon road . This road crossed the Naktong River over the cantilever steel bridge at Namji @-@ ri from the US 2nd Infantry Division zone and ran south through Chirwon to join the main Masan highway 8 miles ( 13 km ) east of Komam @-@ ni near the village of Chung @-@ ni , 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) northwest of Masan . These two avenues of approach , the Komam @-@ ni @-@ Masan highway and the Chirwon road converging at Chung @-@ ni , formed the axes of their attack plan .
US Engineer troops counterattacking up the secondary road toward Chirwon during September 1 made slow progress , and North Koreans stopped them in the early afternoon . The 35th Infantry was now surrounded by forces of the NK 6th and 7th Divisions , with an estimated three battalions of them behind its lines . Speaking later of the situation , Fisher said , " I never intended to withdraw . There was no place to go . I planned to go into a regimental perimeter and hold . "
= = = US 2 @-@ 27th Infantry counterattack = = =
By mid @-@ afternoon , Kean felt that the situation was a severe threat to the integrity of the division 's line . He ordered the 2nd Battalion , US 27th Infantry Regiment , to attack behind the 35th Infantry , because a large part of the division 's artillery there was under direct North Korean infantry attack . During the morning hours of September 1 , when the NK 7th Division troops had attacked , the first American unit they encountered was G Company , 35th Infantry , at the north shoulder of the gap . While some North Korean units peeled off to attack G Company , others continued on and engaged E Company , 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) downstream from it , and still others attacked scattered units of F Company all the way to its 1st Platoon , which guarded the Namji @-@ ri bridge . There , at the extreme right flank of the 25th Division , this platoon drove off a North Korean force after a fierce fight . By September 2 , E Company had destroyed most of a North Korean battalion in heavy fighting .
Of all the 2nd Battalion units , G Company received the hardest blows . Before dawn of September 1 , North Korean troops had G Company platoons on separate hills under heavy assault . Shortly after 03 : 00 they overran the 3rd Platoon , Heavy Mortar Company , and drove it from its position . These mortarmen climbed Hill 179 and on its crest joined the 2nd Platoon of G Company . Meanwhile , the 3rd Platoon of G Company , on a low hill along the Nam River 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) from its juncture with the Naktong River , was also under close quarters attack . After daylight , Captain LeRoy E. Majeske , G Company commander , requested artillery concentrations and air strikes , but they were slow to come . At 11 : 45 , the North Koreans had almost reached the crest of the hill , and only a narrow space separated the two forces . A few minutes later Majeske was killed , and Second Lieutenant George Roach , commanding the 3rd Platoon , again reported the situation and asked for an air strike . The US Air Force delivered the strike on the North Korean held side of the hill , and this checked the assaults . By this time many North Korean troops had captured and occupied foxholes in the platoon position and from there threw grenades into other parts of the position . One of the grenades killed Roach early in the afternoon . Sergeant First Class Junius Poovey , a squad leader , now assumed command . By 18 : 00 , Poovey had only 12 effective troops left in the platoon , 17 of the 29 men still living were wounded . With ammunition almost gone , Poovey requested and received authority to withdraw into the main G Company position . After dark , the 29 men , three of them carried on stretchers , withdrew , covered by the arrival of US tanks . The group reached the G Company position on Hill 179 at 23 : 30 .
= = = Stalemate = = =
While G Company held its positions on Hill 179 on September 2 against North Korean attack , 2nd Battalion , 27th Infantry started an attack northwest toward it at 17 : 00 from the Chung @-@ ni area . The battalion made slow progress against formidable North Korean forces . The night was extremely dark and the terrain along the Kuhe @-@ ri ferry road was mountainous . After fighting throughout the night , the battalion reached a position south of the original defensive positions of G Company , 35th Infantry the next day at 15 : 00 . A coordinated attack by US armor , artillery , air , and infantry got under way and by 18 : 00 the battalion had re @-@ established the battle line . In this attack the 2nd Battalion , 27th Infantry , killed 275 North Koreans and recovered a large part of the equipment G Company had lost earlier .
The 2nd Battalion , 27th Infantry remained on the regained positions during the night of September 3 . At 08 : 00 the next morning , G Company , 35th Infantry , relieved it on the regained positions and started its attack back up the supply road . While this was in progress , word came that the North Koreans had again driven G Company from its newly reestablished position . The 2 @-@ 27th Infantry turned around , attacked , and once more restored the G Company positions . By 12 : 00 September 4 , the 2 @-@ 27th Infantry again turned over these positions to G Company and resumed its attack to the rear along the road in the gap between the 1st and 2nd Battalions , 35th Infantry . Almost immediately it was in contact with North Korean forces . Soon North Korean machine @-@ guns were firing on the US troops from three directions . Torrential rains fell and observation became poor . By this time , the 2 @-@ 27th Infantry was running short of ammunition . The commander ordered the battalion to withdraw 500 yards ( 460 m ) to favorable terrain so that it could resupply .
Resupply proved to be a difficult task . The battalion had cleared the supply route two days previously in its attack to the G Company position but now it was closed again . The battalion commander requested air supply and the next morning , September 5 , eight transport planes accomplished the resupply and the 2nd Battalion , 27th Infantry , was ready to resume its attack to the rear . By evening it had cleared the supply road and adjacent terrain of North Korean penetration for a distance of 8 @,@ 000 yards ( 7 @,@ 300 m ) to the rear of G Company 's front @-@ line positions . There the 2 @-@ 27th Infantry received orders to halt and prepare to attack northeast to link up with the 1st Battalion , 27th Infantry .
= = = US 3 @-@ 27th Infantry moves up = = =
After 2 @-@ 27th Infantry had left the Chung @-@ ni area on September 2 in its attack toward G Company , the North Koreans attacked the 24th Infantry command post and several artillery positions . To meet this new situation , General Kean ordered the remaining battalion of the 27th Infantry , commanded by Lieutenant Colonel George H. DeChow , to attack and destroy the North Koreans operating there .
After an early morning struggle on September 3 against several hundred North Koreans in the vicinity of the artillery positions , DeChow 's battalion launched its attack at 15 : 00 over the high , rugged terrain west of the " Horseshoe , " as the deep curve in the Masan road was called , 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) east of Komam @-@ ni . Its mission was to seize and secure the high ground dominating the Horseshoe , and then relieve the pressure on the 24th Infantry 's rear . Initially only one artillery piece was in position to support the attack . After the battalion advanced some distance , a North Korean force , estimated to number more than 1 @,@ 000 men , counterattacked it and inflicted heavy casualties , which included 13 officers . Additional US tanks moved up to help secure the exposed right flank and rear , and air strikes helped to contain the North Korean force . The battalion finally succeeded in taking the high ground .
The next morning , September 4 , instead of continuing the attack toward the 24th Infantry command post , 3rd Battalion , 27th Infantry was ordered to attack into the Komam @-@ ni area where North Korean troops were fighting in the US artillery positions . This attack got under way at 09 : 00 in the face of heavy small arms fire . In the afternoon , heavy rains slowed the attack , but after an all @-@ day battle , I and K Companies , with the help of numerous air strikes , captured the high ground dominating the Komam @-@ ni crossroads . Numerous casualties in the battalion had led Kean to attach C Company , 65th Engineer Combat Battalion , to it . The next day , September 5 , the 3rd Battalion , 27th Infantry turned its attack across rugged terrain toward Haman and drove through to the vicinity of the 24th Infantry command post . In its attack , the 3rd Battalion counted more than 300 North Korean dead in the area it traversed .
= = = Artillery attacked = = =
The series of events that caused Kean to change the direction of DeChow 's attack toward Komam @-@ ni began at 01 : 00 , September 3 . The 1st Battalion , 35th Infantry , protruded farther westward at this time than any other unit of the UN forces in Korea . Behind its positions on Sibidang @-@ san the main supply route and rear areas were in North Korean hands , and only in daylight and under escort could vehicles travel the road . On Sibidang @-@ san the battalion had held its original positions after the heavy fighting of September 1 , completely surrounded by barbed wire , booby traps , and flares , with all supporting weapons inside its tight perimeters . The battalion had the advantage of calling for protective artillery fire covering all approaches . An hour after midnight a North Korean assault struck the battalion . The fight there continued until dawn September 3 , when the 1st Battalion , 35th Infantry , counted 143 North Korean dead in front of its positions , and on that basis estimated that the total North Korean casualties must have been about 500 men . The 35th units also had the advantage of well @-@ constructed strong points throughout the battle which the North Koreans could not penetrate .
In this night battle the 64th Field Artillery Battalion , supporting the 1st Battalion , became directly involved in the fighting . About 50 North Koreans infiltrated before dawn to A Battery 's position and assaulted it . North Koreans employing submachine guns overran two artillery @-@ machine @-@ gun perimeter positions , penetrating to the artillery pieces at 03 : 00 . There , Captain Andrew C. Anderson and his men fought hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat with the North Koreans . Some of the guns fell temporarily into North Korean hands but the artillerymen repulsed the attack , aided by the concentrations of fire from C Battery , 90th Field Artillery Battalion nearby , which cut off the North Koreans from reinforcements . In defending its guns in this night battle , A Battery lost seven men killed and 12 wounded .
Fighting in support of the Nam River front in the northern part of the 25th Division sector were five batteries of the 159th and 64th Field Artillery Battalions , firing 105 mm howitzers , and one battery of the 90th Field Artillery Battalion which fired 155 mm howitzers , for a total of 36 guns . One 155 mm howitzer fired from Komam @-@ ni to the area north of Chungam @-@ ni , the route for the NK 6th Division 's supplies . Another forward artillery piece kept the Iryong @-@ ni bridge over the Nam under fire . The 25th Division artillery estimated it killed approximately 1 @,@ 825 North Korean soldiers during the first three days of September . In this critical time , the US Fifth Air Force added its firepower to that of the division artillery in support of the ground force . Walker attributed the UN victory in this sector directly to the extensive air support his division received in the battle .
= = = North Koreans repulsed = = =
Bitter , confused fighting continued behind the 35th Infantry 's line for the next week . Battalions , companies , and platoons , cut off and isolated , fought independently of higher control and help except for airdrops which supplied many of them . Airdrops also supplied relief forces trying to reach the front @-@ line units . Tanks and armored cars drove to the isolated units with supplies of food and ammunition and carried back critically wounded on the return trips . In general , the 35th Infantry fought in its original battle line positions , while at first one battalion , and later two battalions , of the 27th Infantry fought toward it through the estimated 3 @,@ 000 North Koreans operating to its rear .
Although the 25th Division generally was under less pressure from North Korean units after September 5 , there were still severe local attacks . On September 6 , 1st Battalion , 27th Infantry , moved north from the Haman area to join 2nd Battalion in the cleanup of North Korean troops behind the 35th Infantry and below the Nam River . Caught between the 35th Infantry on its hill positions along the river and the attacking 27th Infantry units , large numbers of North Koreans were killed . Sixteen different groups reportedly were dispersed with heavy casualties during the day . By morning of September 7 there was clear evidence that survivors of the NK 7th Division were trying to escape across the Nam River . However the North Koreans launched another attack against the 35th Infantry , which it quickly repulsed . The 25th Infantry Division buried more than 2 @,@ 000 North Korean dead , killed between September 1 and 7 behind its lines . This number did not include those killed in front of its positions .
Heavy rains caused the Nam and Naktong Rivers to rise on September 8 and 9 , reducing the danger of new crossings . On September 8 , after the 35th Infantry had been guarding it for a week , American F @-@ 82 Twin Mustangs mistakenly bombed the Namji @-@ ri bridge over the Naktong and with one 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bomb destroyed the 80 feet ( 24 m ) center span . Only the bridges north of the junction of the Nam with the Naktong were supposed to be under aerial attack at this time . Some of the local commanders thought that had the North Koreans bypassed this bridge and crossed the Naktong farther east there would have been nothing between them and Pusan . However , North Korean attacks against 2nd Battalion , 35th Infantry occurred nightly . The approaches to the bridge on the north side were mined . At one time there were about 100 North Korean dead lying in that area . From September 9 to 16 , there were limited attacks on the 35th Infantry 's front but most of the North Koreans ' momentum had been broken and they could not muster strong attacks against the regiment again .
= = = North Korean withdrawal = = =
The UN counterattack at Inchon collapsed the North Korean line and forced them back on all fronts . On September 16 , however , 25th Infantry Division was still fighting North Korean forces behind its lines , and North Korean strong points existed on the heights of Battle Mountain , P 'il @-@ bong , and Sobuk @-@ san . Kean felt that the division could advance along the roads toward Chinju only when the mountainous center of the division front was clear . He therefore believed that the key to the advance of the 25th Division lay in its center where the North Koreans held the heights and kept the 24th Infantry Regiment under daily attack . The 27th Infantry on the left and the 35th Infantry on the right , astride the roads between Chinju and Masan held their positions and could not advance until the situation in front of the 24th Infantry improved .
On September 19 the UN discovered the North Koreans had abandoned of Battle Mountain during the night , and the 1st Battalion , 24th Infantry , moved up and occupied it . On the right , the 35th Infantry began moving forward . There was only light resistance until it reached the high ground in front of Chungam @-@ ni where hidden North Korean soldiers in spider holes shot at 1st Battalion soldiers from the rear . The next day the 1st Battalion captured Chungam @-@ ni , and the 2nd Battalion captured the long ridge line running northwest from it to the Nam River . Meanwhile , the North Koreans still held strongly against the division left where the 27th Infantry had heavy fighting in trying to move forward .
The North Koreans withdrew from the Masan area the night of September 18 – 19 . The NK 7th Division withdrew from south of the Nam River while the 6th Division sideslipped elements to cover the entire front . Covered by the 6th Division , the 7th had crossed to the north side of the Nam River by the morning of September 19 . Then the NK 6th Division had withdrawn from its positions on Sobuk @-@ san . The US units rapidly pursued them north , passing over the Battle Mountain positions , which were no longer of strategic importance .
= = Aftermath = =
The 35th Infantry suffered 154 killed , 381 wounded , and two missing during the battle . The 27th Infantry lost a total of 118 killed , 382 wounded , and one captured during the Battle of Pusan Perimeter , however this included five killed and 54 wounded at the Battle of the Bowling Alley and around 150 casualties at the First Battle of Naktong Bulge . In support of the Nam River operations , the 64th Field Artillery Battalion suffered 16 killed , 27 wounded , one captured and five missing , the 159th Field Artillery Battalion lost 18 killed and 41 wounded , and the 90th Field Artillery Battalion 15 killed , 54 wounded and one missing . The regiment had performed so well in repulsing the North Koreans that Kean nominated it for a Presidential Unit Citation .
The North Korean troops suffered heavily in the fight , most becoming casualties in the attack . By mid @-@ September , the NK 7th Division was reduced to just 4 @,@ 000 men , a loss of 6 @,@ 000 from when it was committed to the perimeter . Only 2 @,@ 000 from the NK 6th Division returned to North Korea , a loss of 80 percent of its strength . Large groups of troops from the divisions were captured as they attempted to return to North Korea , including up to 3 @,@ 000 troops . The attacking force of over 20 @,@ 000 had been reduced to only 6 @,@ 000 by the end of the fights at Masan .
The fight at Masan remained a bitter stalemate during the entire six weeks of the Battle of Pusan Perimeter . Each side attempted several offensives on the other in an attempt to force a withdrawal , but the North Koreans were unable to pierce the UN perimeter , and the UN troops were unable to overwhelm the North Koreans to the point they were forced to withdraw . The battle itself was a tactical tie , since neither side could decisively defeat the other , however the UN units achieved their strategic goal of preventing the North Koreans from advancing further east and threatening Pusan . Instead , they were able to hold the line against repeated attacks until the Inchon attack , and were thus successful in defeating the North Korean army in subsequent engagements .
= Sikh diaspora =
The Sikh diaspora is the modern Punjabi Sikh migration from the traditional area of the Punjab region . Sikhism is ( de facto ) an ethnic religion but welcomes converts , the Punjab region being the historic homeland of Sikhism . The Sikh diaspora is largely a subset of the Punjabi diaspora .
The starting point of the diaspora is commonly accepted to have begun after the fall of the Sikh Empire in 1849 and the Empire 's subsequent annexation into the British Raj . The most famous personification of the Sikh diaspora was the first , Maharajah Duleep Singh , the last Emperor of the Sikhs who was coerced into a lifetime exile by the British Raj . Since Duleep Singh 's exile , the rate of Sikh migration from the Punjab has remained high ; however the destination for Punjabi Sikh migrants has changed during the ensuing 150 years . The development of the Punjabi Sikh diaspora concept has given diaspora Sikhs a conscious political and cultural identity , which forms a reference point for their ' Sikhism ' .
= = The Sikhs = =
With approximately 20 million worldwide , the Sikhs are adherents to the fifth largest organized religion in the world , Sikhism . The Sikhs make up 0 @.@ 39 % of the world population of which approximately 83 % live in India . Of the Indian Sikh community 19 @.@ 6 million , i.e. 76 % of all Indian Sikhs , live in the northern Indian State of Punjab ( India ) , where they form a majority 65 % of the population . Substantial communities of Sikhs , i.e. greater than 200 @,@ 000 , live in the Indian States / Union territories of Haryana , Rajasthan , Uttar Pradesh , Delhi , Himachal Pradesh , Maharashtra , Uttarakhand and Jammu and Kashmir .
= = Historical migration patterns = =
The Sikhs as a political entity , distinct from other Indian traditions , can be said to have begun with the martyrdom of the fifth Sikh Guru , Guru Arjan Dev Ji in 1606 , Sikh distinction was further enhanced by the establishment of the Sikh ' Pure ' brotherhood or Khalsa ( ਖ ਼ ਾਲਸਾ ) , by Guru Gobind Singh Ji in 1699 . This gives the Sikhs , as an organized political grouping , a relatively recent history of around 400 years . Migrations of Sikhs during the era of the Gurus were limited to the boundaries of modern @-@ day India and Pakistan , and in particular restricted to the Sikh tribal heartland of the Punjab Region . The development of the Sikh Confederacy and the development of the Sikh Empire ( 1716 – 1849 ) , led to Sikhs migrating to conquered parts of their empire such as Ladakh and Peshawar . However these migrations were limited , transitory and unsustained , depending on the Empire 's fluctuating boundaries . During the time of the Sikh Empire , there was a net cultural immigration , with Napoleonic and British influences vying for the ' ear ' of the then Sikh Maharajah Ranjit Singh . With respect to the Sikh diaspora , the most important political aspect of this period was the historical establishment of a Sikh homeland ; the idea of a powerful Sikh state was a reality .
= = Annexation of the Punjab = =
Sikh migration from the Punjab began in earnest in the second half of the 19th century when the British Raj had successfully completed its annexation of the Punjab . The pivotal action in the British annexation was the lifetime exile of the then eleven @-@ year @-@ old Maharaja , Duleep Singh , thus making Singh the first ( although unwilling ) member of the Sikh diaspora .
Although a largely secular figure who did little for the Sikh body politic , Axel ( 2001 ) argues that Duleep Singh 's exile has had a major impact on the Sikh diaspora psyche . Axel ( 2001 ) says that Duleep Singh is the archetypal ' tragic hero ' figure in Sikh culture , " a King without a Kingdom , a Sikh separated from his people " ; the contrast between Duleep Singh and his strong ruler father , Maharaja Ranjit Singh Ji , makes Duleep 's exile even more ' galling ' for the Sikhs and results in a strong sense of communal injustice , which is a later trait in the diaspora 's development .
Having annexed the Sikh Kingdom , the British Raj preferentially recruited Sikhs in the Indian Civil Service and , in particular , the British Indian Army , which led to migration of Sikhs to different parts of British India and the British Empire . Semiskilled artisans were transported from the Punjab to British East Africa to help in the building of railways , while many Sikhs found themselves in Australia working as Ghans , or cameleers and as labourers on cane plantations .
= = 20th century = =
The Sikhs made tremendous contributions to Punjab from 1857 to 1947 . Sikhs founded the city of Rawalpindi . Sikh agricultural and entrepreneurial skills brought prosperity to Sheikhupura , Sialkot , Jhelum , Multan , Sargodha , Gujrat , Ludhiana , Amritsar , Jullundar . Lahore , the capital of undivided Punjab , had thriving Sikh neighborhoods .
The era of peace and prosperity turned into a nightmare in 1947 . The partition of Punjab between India and Pakistan was a seminal tragedy for Sikhs . The Sikh communities were practically wiped out from Lahore , Rawalpindi , Multan , Sialkot , Lyallpur , Jhelum , Gujrat , Sargodha , Sheikhupura and other districts of West Punjab . The birthplace of Sikhism , Nankana Sahib , was split away in West Punjab . Millions of Sikhs fled to freedom and safety in East Punjab in India . On the other hand , in East Punjab many Sikhs took revenge and slaughtered a great number of the Muslim population of Amritsar , Ludhiana , and Qadian in just three months . Other cities such as Gurdaspur , Faridkot , Ambala , Moga , Jalandhar , and Batala had large casualties against Muslims . Most of the Muslims in East Punjab were wiped out in the middle of 1948 , but some converted just to stay alive . Such intense violence in East Punjab had caused many villages and cities to go through construction .
In 1960s and beyond many Sikhs migrated to the UK and North America in search of economic opportunities . Some of the Sikhs who had settled in eastern Africa were expelled by Ugandan leader Idi Amin in 1972 . Sikhs are primarily an agrarian community and with the pressures of having only a limited amount of land , high birth rates and the desire to make a better living , the male offspring of Sikh farmers were encouraged to migrate to foreign countries . Subsequently the main ' push ' factor for Sikh migration has been economic with significant Sikh communities now being found in Canada , the United Kingdom , the United States , Malaysia , East Africa , Australia and Thailand .
= = Agitation for a homeland = =
Axel ( 2001 ) argues that the Sikh diaspora community , having established themselves in foreign countries , begin to fetishize the past and nurture idealized designs for their ' lost and imaginary ' Sikh empire . This comes into fruition to a certain degree with the establishment of Indian Punjab in 1966 as a Sikh majority state . However , Tatla ( 1998 ) argues that the marginalization and sense of grievance that Indian Sikhs were facing due to Indira Gandhi 's heavy @-@ handed tactics were amplified in the Sikh diaspora . Subsequently , the Sikh diaspora , especially in Canada and the UK become willing suppliers of logistical and financial support when the organic agitation for a separate Sikh nation , Khalistan , began in the late 1970s . The actions taken by the Indian government to counter the Sikh separatist movement , via 1984 's Operation Blue Star , had a seismic effect on the Sikh diaspora . Axel ( 2001 ) argues that the desecration of the Sikh 's holiest shrine , Harimandir Sahib , and the following Sikh Genocide in which thousands of Sikhs were massacred ; led to a resurgence in Sikh religiosity and a strengthening of ties with their Sikh brethren in Punjab . Diaspora Sikhs felt betrayed by India , and the events of 1984 defined their Sikhism and underlined a distinct commonality shared with other diaspora Sikhs . Mark Tully describes 1984 's Operation Blue Star as the Sikh 's ' 9 / 11 ' , this was certainly the case for diaspora Sikhs , who in the main could only watch on in horror as the events of 1984 played out on TV .
In 1971 Dr Jagit Singh Chohan , an ex @-@ minister in a short @-@ lived government of Akali dissidents , saw an alignment of like @-@ minded Sikhs . Chohan placed a half @-@ page advertisement in The New York Times of 12 October 1971 , making several claims about Punjab as a Sikh homeland . However , Chohan won little sympathy from ordinary Sikhs .
Tatla summarises the change in Sikh diaspora community leaders post 1984 a being a " painful transition from a self @-@ confident community with haughty discourse , to the self @-@ defensive strategies of a vulnerable minority " . Organisations such as the International Sikh Youth Federation ( ISYF ) , the Babbar Khalsa and the Council of Khalistan emerged within the diaspora , and these agencies rallied against " Hindu imperialism " or " Indian nationalism " and lobbied to join the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization UNPO aligning the Sikh cause with other ethnic groups seeking freedom , citing cases of Jews , Palestinians , Kurds , Balochis , Kashmiris and Sri Lankan Tamils .
Axel ( 2001 ) argues that the history of the Sikh diaspora , its psyche of grievance and the violence inflicted on it , means that the notion of the Sikh diaspora as a community today inevitably converges on the notion of Khalistan . In addition to this , Axel points out the ' nightmare ' scenario facing the Sikh diaspora ; the Indian state ' demands ' the ' Unity @-@ in @-@ Diversity ' model of ' rashtriya ekta ' ( national integration ) which Axel contends is signified by " the denial of difference through surrender , assimilation and integration " .
Since the formation of the Khalsa , the Sikhs have defined themselves though their ' separateness ' and have differentiated themselves philosophically and physically from other Indian religious communities , thus the process of ' rashtriya ekta ' is a threat to Sikhi itself . Any ' weakening ' or ' dilution ' Sikhi in the Punjab , is doubly painful for the Sikh diaspora for it means a corresponding weakness in Khalistan , which , both real and imaginary , epitomizes the Sikh diasporic place today .
= = Sikh identity today = =
Whilst the rate of Sikh migration from the Punjab has remained high , traditional patterns of Sikh migration that favored English speaking countries , particularly the United Kingdom , has changed in the past decade due to factors such as stricter immigration procedures . Moliner ( 2006 ) states that as a consequence of the ' fact ' that Sikh migration to the UK had " become virtually impossible since the late 1970s " , Sikh migration patterns altered to continental Europe . Italy has now emerged as a fast @-@ growing area for Sikh migration , with Reggio Emilia and the Vicenza province being areas of significant Sikh population clusters . The Italian Sikhs are generally involved in the areas of agriculture , agro @-@ processing , machine tools and horticulture . Canada has maintained a liberal immigration policy , and the Sikh community there is the second largest in proportion to the country 's population after only India , and about 2 @.@ 5 times the size of the American Sikh community . The largest North American Sikh community is thought to be located in South Vancouver , British Columbia and nearby Surrey , British Columbia , while Brampton , Ontario also has a large Sikh population . The Sikh migration to Australasia has also increased to a large extent in the first decade of the 21st century .
In the post @-@ 9 / 11 era , the Sikh diaspora in Europe and North America stand out as a visible minority often confused with radical Islamic groups because of their turbans . There have been numerous hate crimes targeted at Sikhs . France banned turban @-@ wearing Sikh students from publicly funded schools as part of a broader policy originally intended to restric Muslim head @-@ scarves . Western security think @-@ tanks quote the Air India bombing to justify profiling of Sikh travellers at airports . The soft influences of popular culture and the need for fitting in with peers are driving many young Sikhs to shed Khalsa symbols such as the turban and beard . Some second @-@ generation Sikhs growing up in the West do not have proficiency in the Punjabi language . On the other hand , small groups of Westerners have converted to Sikhism . There are now Sikh Gurduwaras ( equilvalent of churches and temples ) scattered across Europe , North America , Australia and Malaysia . The combination of these factors creates a new and more complex Sikh identity that may slowly emerge in the 21st century .
As globalisation progresses and India and the Punjab 's economies continue to expand , the question is whether the Sikh diaspora 's focus will shift from inward @-@ looking identity and Khalistan issues to outword @-@ looking global trade and homeland investment like the successful Jewish and Chinese diasporas .
= 2010 Nobel Peace Prize =
The 2010 Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to imprisoned Chinese human rights activist Liu Xiaobo " for his long and non @-@ violent struggle for fundamental human rights in China " . The laureate , once an eminent scholar , was reportedly little @-@ known inside the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) at the time of the award due to official censorship ; he is a veteran of the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 , and a co @-@ author of the Charter 08 manifesto for which he was sentenced to 11 years in prison on 25 December 2009 . Liu , who was backed by Václav Havel and Desmond Tutu , received the award among a record field of more than 200 nominees .
The decision , while widely praised by foreign intellectuals and politicians , was attacked by the Chinese government and the state media . A number of countries , including Saudi Arabia and Russia , also denounced the award and what they regarded as interference in China 's domestic affairs . Following the announcement , official censorship was applied within China — on the Internet , television , and in print media . The government strongly denounced the award , and summoned the Norwegian ambassador in Beijing to make a formal protest . The Chinese authorities arrested citizens who attempted to celebrate . Liu 's wife was put under house @-@ arrest before the decision of the Nobel Committee was announced .
Chinese diplomats moved to pressure other countries not to attend the award ceremony , which was scheduled for 10 December . Western missions in Oslo received warning letters from their Chinese counterparts ; the deputy foreign minister also warned countries of " the consequences " . In December , the Chinese foreign ministry continued the rhetorical assault , claiming " more than 100 countries and international organisations [ had ] expressed explicit support of China 's position " . In the end , 46 countries attended of the 65 invited ( People 's Republic of China and 19 other nations declined invitations ) . China 's official news agency , Xinhua , attacked the West for its " Cold @-@ War or even colonial mentality " , and for daring to " regard themselves as the judge , the teacher [ who ] assume that they can forever distort the fact and block the truth by using political maneuvers . " Strong rhetoric and denunciations of the West continued from official sources until after the ceremony .
Liu is the first person of Chinese nationality to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize , and the first to be awarded a Nobel Prize of any kind while residing in China . Liu is the third person to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize while in prison or detention after Germany 's Carl von Ossietzky ( 1935 ) and Burma 's Aung San Suu Kyi ( 1991 ) . As the laureate was absent , Liu 's place on the podium was unoccupied ; Norwegian actress Liv Ullmann read I Have No Enemies , an essay that Liu had written for his trial in December 2009 , in place of the acceptance speech .
= = Nomination and announcement = =
The Nobel Committee disclosed there were a record number of nominations in 2010 – a total of 237 , of which 38 were organisations . Although the committee has a policy of keeping nominations confidential for 50 years , some nominators made announcements . Among the nominees were Russian human rights activist Svetlana Gannushkina , the International Space Station , the Internet and its three founders Larry Roberts , Vint Cerf and Tim Berners @-@ Lee . Also on the list were Chinese dissidents Liu Xiaobo , Hu Jia , Gao Zhisheng , Chen Guangcheng , Bao Tong , and Rebiya Kadeer .
Liu was nominated by International PEN , the worldwide association of writers . Interested in Western philosophy , Liu made his reputation as a literary critic with a treatise on the state of modern Chinese literature : an article he published in 1986 that criticised Chinese writers for their dependence on the state , and their deficit in free @-@ thinking , caused a stir in the Chinese literary world . His challenging ideas caught the attention of the intellectuals ; he lectured all over China and abroad . He was in New York when the 1989 pro @-@ democracy movement erupted in China ; he returned immediately to China and spent most of his time amongst the protesters in Tiananmen Square . This , and his subsequent leadership role in the Charter 08 pro @-@ democracy manifesto for China , led the Chinese authorities to censor his views as subversive . Liu was jailed for 11 years on 25 December 2009 , for " inciting subversion of state power . " A Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesman said " It would be completely wrong for the Nobel Prize committee to award the prize to [ Liu ] " . In January 2010 , Václav Havel and others — including the 14th Dalai Lama , André Glucksmann , Vartan Gregorian , New Zealand politician Mike Moore , Karel Schwarzenberg , Desmond Tutu and Grigory Yavlinsky — published an article endorsing Liu . A professor at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences , Xu Youyu , and others , addressed an open letter " to the European People " in support of Liu , while 14 exiled dissidents urged the Nobel Committee to pass over Liu 's nomination , arguing that Liu had maligned other dissidents , forsaken the oppressed Falun Gong and that his stance against the Chinese leadership had become too " soft " .
Agence France @-@ Presse reported that at a June meeting convened by the Chinese embassy in Oslo , Vice Foreign Minister Fu Ying warned the Nobel Institute director and secretary of the Nobel Committee , Geir Lundestad , that giving the prize to Liu Xiaobo would be seen as an " unfriendly gesture " that would have negative consequences for relations between Oslo and Beijing .
On 7 October 2010 , Norwegian television networks reported that Liu Xiaobo was the front @-@ running candidate for the Prize . Irish bookmaker Paddy Power paid out two days before the announcement following an increase in bets . Shortly before the announcement , Liu 's wife , Liu Xia , declined telephone interviews , saying the police were at her home . Her telephone went unanswered once the announcement was made . Nobel Committee chairman Thorbjørn Jagland made the announcement on 8 October 2010 in Oslo , mentioning that the choice of Liu had become clear early in the process . The monetary component of the prize would be 10 million Swedish kronor ( US $ 1 @.@ 5 million ) .
The Norwegian Nobel Committee has decided to award the Nobel Peace Prize for 2010 to Liu Xiaobo for his long and non @-@ violent struggle for fundamental human rights in China . The Norwegian Nobel Committee has long believed that there is a close connection between human rights and peace . Such rights are a prerequisite for the ' fraternity between nations ' of which Alfred Nobel wrote in his will ... The campaign to establish universal human rights also in China is being waged by many Chinese , both in China itself and abroad . Through the severe punishment meted out to him , Liu has become the foremost symbol of this wide @-@ ranging struggle for human rights in China .
At 2 pm on the day of announcement , a crowd of about 100 journalists , supporters , and friends who had gathered outside the main entrance to the Beijing housing estate where the Lius resided were denied entry . The South China Morning Post reported that policemen stationed inside their apartment at the time of the announcement prevented Liu Xia from meeting with journalists and other well @-@ wishers . It was not immediately clear whether Liu Xiaobo was aware of the award . By that time , Liu Xia said she had been told she would be taken to Liaoning to see her husband in prison . Meetings and gatherings to celebrate in several cities were prevented or abruptly broken up by police ; one such celebration dinner in Beijing , attended by 20 people , was broken up by police , and the attendees were detained .
= = Reactions inside China = =
= = = Chinese media = = =
The Chinese media avoided the story of Liu 's Peace Prize , in marked contrast with their previous announcements of other recipients of Nobel Prizes . The official Xinhua News Agency downplayed all but the literature prize , and most other mainland news portals followed the Xinhua lead ; popular internet portals such as Sina.com and NetEase deleted pages dedicated to stories related to all five Nobel Prizes . According to a well @-@ informed Twitter user , cited by the China Media Project at the University of Hong Kong , the Information Office of the State Council issued a directive immediately after the announcement that " Liu Xiaobo " and " Peace Prize " would be prohibited search terms for microblog services across the country ; fora , blogs and other interactive media were forbidden from releasing any information . At 6 pm , the source said that although the official news release had been issued , all media were ordered by the Central Propaganda Department not to publish it .
Major domestic newspapers in China had coverage on their inner pages . Guangming Daily , Economic Daily , Beijing Daily , Beijing News , and Shanghai 's Wen Hui Bao published the Xinhua @-@ sanctioned report the following day . China Central Television 's main evening news programme , Xinwen Lianbo , did not report on it . Chinese journalists and dissidents said the Central Propaganda Department had instructed media to censor or otherwise under @-@ report on Liu Xiaobo and the peace prize award .
The Chinese government ordered the deletion of all print and broadcast stories on the topic ; In an editorial , the Communist Party – run Global Times attacked the Nobel Peace Prize as a " political tool of Western interests " that was being used to foment " endless political strife in Chinese society , causing a Soviet @-@ style breakup . " Another Global Times article said the award was " another expression of this prejudice , and behind it lies an extraordinary terror of China 's rise and the Chinese model " . It said the award was a concerted ideologically motivated attack on China 's economic interests by developed nations and foreign business interests who " even hope that China will one day collapse under the West 's ideological crusade . "
Foreign broadcast coverage , such as from the BBC and CNN , was blacked out whenever Liu was mentioned . In Guangdong , signal carriers for Hong Kong TVB were interrupted for approximately eight minutes during the 6 pm evening news programme , blocking the news item for the Nobel Peace Prize .
After a week of denunciation in China 's English @-@ language media , with most journals silent about the award except for perfunctory quotes from the foreign ministry , the country 's Chinese @-@ language media launched a concerted assault on Liu and the award , accompanied by renewed attacks in the English @-@ language media . Xinhua argued on 17 October that the Communist Party had made " unremitting efforts to promote and safeguard human rights " , and questioned how Liu 's actions had contributed to human rights progress for the Chinese people . The agency cited a journal from Saudi Arabia , and one from Russia , that had denounced the award ; it quoted the Pakistani Foreign Office as saying , " the politicization of the Nobel Peace Prize for the purposes of interference in the domestic affairs of states is not only contrary to the recognized principles of inter @-@ State conduct , but also a negation of the underlying spirit conceived by the founder of the Prize . " In what was described by Chinese media – watchers as a surprise because of its historical professionalism , China Youth Daily published an article containing Beijing students ' expressions of anger and disbelief over the decision to award the Nobel Peace Prize to Liu . The journal employed the traditional hard @-@ liner phrase " people with ulterior motives " ( 别有用心的人 ) — directed to at least one student . It further denounced the " farcical " Nobel decision to use the award as " a tool ... in their relentless effort to undermine China and frustrate its development " .
On 18 October , the Global Times published the results of a telephone poll of 866 Beijing , Shanghai , and Guangzhou residents , who , the journal said , were chosen at random : 507 of the respondents felt the committee owed the Chinese people an apology and should cancel the award to Liu ; more than half agreed Liu should remain incarcerated until he is paroled . The survey also showed " a low recognition of Liu among the public in China , as more than 75 percent of respondents had no idea who the winner of the Nobel Peace Prize was . " The Beijing Daily published an editorial on the day of the award ceremony entitled " Why not give the peace prize to Julian Assange ? " . It suggested that Assange , the head of WikiLeaks , was not awarded the prize because he could not " become a tool for Western forces in attacking countries with different ideologies ... even if this tool is serving out a prison sentence for violating the law . "
= = = Central government = = =
Following the announcement on 8 October 2010 , Xinhua relayed the Russian state @-@ owned news agency 's denunciation of the prize . China summoned the Norwegian ambassador in Beijing " to officially share their opinion , their disagreement and their protest . " A PRC foreign ministry spokesman accused politicians from " some countries " for using the award to further their own political agendas : " This is not only disrespect for China 's judicial system but also puts a big question mark on their true intention . " The ministry 's statement , labelling the decision " a blasphemy " , was carried on Chinese state television .
The Nobel Peace Prize should be awarded to people who contribute to national harmony , country @-@ to @-@ country friendship , advancing disarmament , and convening and propagandizing peace conferences . Liu was a criminal sentenced by the Chinese judicial authorities for violating Chinese law ... The Nobel committee 's decision to award such a person the peace prize runs contrary to and desecrates the prize .
China protested to Norway , saying that China – Norway relations had been damaged . A planned meeting in Beijing between Norwegian Fisheries Minister Lisbeth Berg @-@ Hansen and Chinese food control authorities was cancelled at the last minute , ostensibly because their counterparts had " other engagements " ; Norwegian officials said that a meeting , due to be held the same day between Berg @-@ Hansen and the Chinese vice @-@ minister for fisheries , had been cancelled in reaction to the award . Elsewhere , performances of a Norwegian musical starring Alexander Rybak scheduled for the following month also fell victim to the diplomatic fallout , according to the composer . In early December , Norway said its bilateral trade talks with China had been delayed indefinitely . Haakon Hjelde , Norway 's negotiator , reported that the postponement was not directly linked to the award , but Henning Kristofferson , director of international relations of the BI Norwegian School of Management , said it was fairly obvious that the PRC government would " never hold a high @-@ level meeting with Norway shortly before or after the award ceremony " , having made it plain that the award to Liu was " a big mistake . "
= = = Law enforcement = = =
In the days immediately preceding the award ceremony , foreign media reported that Liu 's home was under tight security . By what a correspondent for The Guardian called " a peculiar coincidence " , construction barriers were erected on both sides of the road at the southern entrance of the residential complex which obscured the estate . Police cars were positioned on every nearby street corner ; uniformed and plain @-@ clothes police officers patrolled outside the apartment block , and a radio surveillance vehicle was stationed at the entrance to the compound . Neighbouring businesses were affected : the owner of a nearby restaurant was quoted as saying government officials had told him to close the business temporarily .
Liu Xia was under house @-@ arrest almost immediately after the announcement , and was escorted to Liaoning to visit her imprisoned husband . She reported that she was denied visitors , her telephones were repeatedly down , and complained that even her elderly mother had not been able to get through to her . Visitors were denied entrance to her residential compound , including Norwegian diplomats who had tried to visit her on 12 October ; she was able to send out a few messages through Twitter . Chinese police stationed there cordoned off the area . Thus , journalists and well @-@ wishers were kept at bay for several hours after the announcement ; as she was being taken away to see her husband , Reuters heard her say " they are forcing me to leave Beijing " . Dissident groups reported on 18 October that numerous supporters and associates of Liu may have been detained by police — that Tiananmen Mother Ding Zilin , and her husband Jiang Peikun , had not been seen or heard of for four days , and that their phones were cut off . Writer Jiang Qisheng went missing just days after the Nobel announcement .
As exiled prominent activists and former activists were reportedly preparing to attend the award ceremony , some prominent individuals and activists inside China experienced travel problems . Economist Mao Yushi ( who had signed Charter 08 ) , Ai Weiwei , and the human @-@ rights lawyer Liu Xiaoyuan were all barred from outbound travel at Beijing 's airport , ostensibly because their departure from China could " endanger state security " . Liu 's lawyer , Mo Shaoping , and Peking University law professor He Weifang were stopped from boarding their flight to London in November . The South China Morning Post reported that even the spouses and children of some outspoken intellectuals experienced outbound travel restrictions . Ai speculated that the refusal to let him board a flight for Korea may have been directly connected with the following week 's prize @-@ giving ceremony . Chinese Human Rights Defenders also believed that " officials are increasing their efforts to bar prominent members of Chinese civil society from travelling internationally as the Nobel Peace Prize ceremony approaches . " The BBC , citing the UN , said there was information that China had detained at least 20 activists prior to the ceremony ; it reported sources saying that 120 more activists were subjected to house arrest , travel restrictions , forced relocations , or " other acts of intimidation " ahead of the ceremony ; external Chinese sources put the figure of people so restricted at approximately 270 .
= = = Liu Xia and Liu Xiaobo = = =
Liu Xia expressed her gratitude to the Nobel Committee , Liu 's proposers , and those who have been supporting him since 1989 , including the Tiananmen Mothers — family members or representatives of those who were killed , or had disappeared , in the military crackdown of the protests of 4 June 1989 . She said , " The prize should belong to all who signed Charter 08 and were jailed due to their support " .
Liu Xia informed the laureate of his award during a visit to Jinzhou Prison on 9 October 2010 , one day after the official announcement . She reported that Liu wept and dedicated the award to those who suffered as a result of the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 , saying : " The award is first and foremost for the Tiananmen martyrs " After Ms. Liu returned home , she was put under house arrest and was watched by armed guards . She expressed the desire to attend the prize @-@ giving in Norway in December , but was sceptical of her chances of being allowed to do so . Liu Xia wrote an open letter to 143 prominent figures , encouraging them to attend the award ceremony in Oslo .
= = = Intellectuals = = =
John Pomfret of The Washington Post said a wide spectrum of Chinese and foreigners believed that Liu 's award " could actually resonate more deeply within China than any similar act in years " . The open letter by Xu Youyu et al , which described Liu as " a splendid choice " because of his advancement of human rights causes and the peaceful fight against social injustice , amassed signatures from about 200 mainland intellectuals and activists ; it was posted in Chinese , English , French and Japanese on websites hosted outside China . Artist and critic Ai Weiwei said that , although the regime ought to feel the most ashamed , " intellectuals who had drifted away from their public responsibilities " should bear some of that burden for betraying values they once strove for . Ai said that the Prize was a message from the international community to the Chinese government to respect universal human values , notwithstanding China 's economic performance . Writer Liao Yiwu , a close friend of Liu , described it as " a big moment in Chinese history " . Another writer , Yu Jie , said he spent the night awake with tears streaming down his face – " Twenty years ago Liu Xiaobo said that China needed someone with moral clarity about what China needs . Now he has become just that person , that he himself was looking for " , he said . Former Chinese diplomat Yang Hengjun described it as a strong signal to the Chinese government to speed up political reform " or you will have a lot of enemies around you and within you . "
Exiled 1989 student leader Wang Dan said he was " ecstatic " . Human rights lawyer Li Heping called the award " huge encouragement for the Chinese people ... an affirmation that there are people around the world who really care about human rights and the legal system in China , that the world hasn 't forgotten us . " He added that others , such as Gao Zhisheng , Chen Guangcheng , and Hu Jia , also deserved the prize . The Globe and Mail said that while many activists agreed he was worthy of the award , some radical reformers within Chinese democracy movement , such as Wei Jingsheng , see the moderate Liu as the wrong choice due to his advocacy of a gradual path to constitutional democracy in China .
Renmin University professor Zhang Ming felt the award would not have much direct impact . However , economist Mao Yushi believed that there were many factors affecting political reform in China . He stated that the prize was an impetus from the international community for the process of reform that was already under way , and that the impact of the award to Liu would be felt by the current generation of leaders , and beyond .
= = = Internet community = = =
Liu was once an eminent scholar , but was reportedly little @-@ known inside the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) at the time of the award due to official censorship . Those who had heard about Liu had mixed views about him . Some clearly supported the government position , whereas one university student was quoted as saying " George Orwell probably had no idea that what he wrote would end up being the reality of China now . " " Liu Xiaobo " and " Nobel Peace Prize " became the most searched terms among internet users in China . However , some time after the release of the official response from the Chinese Foreign Ministry , government censors screened the news item , and there were reports of searches in China using Chinese search engines returning error pages . Web searches using Chinese search engines for " Liu Xiaobo " in Chinese without attaching the words " Peace Prize , " gave information about Liu . Yet most sites found " Liu " plus " Peace Prize " yield only the official foreign ministry response . CNN reported that any mention of " Nobel Prize " on microblogging sites was censored . One person claimed that his SIM card was deactivated after he sent a text message to a relative about the Nobel Peace Prize . Accustomed to circumventing Chinese internet censorship , bloggers and forum @-@ users used variants of Liu 's name and posted subtle or cryptic messages to express their elation about the award or sarcasm towards the state . The statement on 8 October by renowned blogger Han Han consisted of only a pair of double quote marks .
Less than three weeks after the announcement of the award to Liu , the Nobel Peace Prize website came under a cyber attack . There was an attempt to hack into the computer of the secretary of the Nobel Committee , Geir Lundestad by a forged email on 3 November . A number of individuals received an email containing a trojan horse purportedly disguised as a pdf @-@ file invitation to the award ceremony from the Oslo Freedom Forum . Investigators traced both the attack and the email to an intermediate server reportedly in a Taiwanese university . Experts say the address had been falsified , and the exact origin was unknown ; it was emphasised that no link to any party in mainland China could be established . After activists posted photographs of a symbolic empty chair on Internet fora and noticeboards , censors responded by removing the images and making " empty chair " a banned search term .
= = = Hong Kong = = =
Many political groups — including the Democratic Party and the Hong Kong Journalists Association — welcomed the decision and congratulated Liu . The Journalists Association expressed their gratitude and encouragement for Liu 's award , and their hope for the early unconditional release of Liu . Hong Kong 's Chief Executive , Donald Tsang , and government ministers Leung Chun @-@ ying , and Gregory So , all declined to comment to the press .
The South China Morning Post in Hong Kong said Liu 's courage to stand up for the rights of all people — for the fourth time since the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests — made him worthy of joining the company of other similarly persecuted peace prize recipients such as Nelson Mandela : " Liu is just one of a long line of like @-@ minded Chinese citizens to be silenced . The award will be seen in many quarters as acknowledging their sacrifice for the values it upholds . " Hong Kong @-@ based Phoenix Television , which transmits throughout China by satellite , limited its report to the foreign ministry 's statement denouncing the honour .
About twenty activists held a celebration in front of the central government liaison office . Their celebration was broken up and the activists were arrested for assault after a guard was accidentally sprayed with champagne . A human rights monitor , and a Democratic Party legislator , denounced the " absurd " reaction of the police . The loyalist Speaker of Hong Kong 's legislature turned down an adjournment motion on 15 October submitted by Leung Kwok @-@ hung that called for the release of Liu on grounds that such debate " lacked urgency and would not produce irreversible consequences " . On 17 October , thirty supporters of the Hong Kong Alliance in Support of Patriotic Democratic Movements in China — organisers of the annual commemoration of the 1989 Tiananmen protests — held a march to the central government liaison office , calling on the central government to release Liu and allow him to attend the prize @-@ giving in December . A candlelight ceremony was held in the city 's central business district to coincide with the award ceremony ; organisers said 1 @,@ 000 people attended .
The Chinese @-@ language press reported on rumours that Chinese officials had approached high @-@ level executives at TVB and CableTV , asking them not to broadcast the ceremony live on their channels ; executives affirmed their plans to broadcast — scheduling for the event was immutable . TVB News and now TV executives categorically denied having been contacted by Chinese authorities to pull the plug on coverage . An editorial in the South China Morning Post said : " this heavy @-@ handed reaction [ to Liu 's award ] is counterproductive to [ China 's ] image and the respect it wants as a peaceful superpower . Liu 's award did pose a dilemma , but having made its point at the outset Beijing had little further to gain . Attempts to meddle in the process did nothing to dignify its stand . "
= = = Taiwan = = =
One day after the award announcement , President Ma Ying @-@ jeou 's office urged China to exercise greater tolerance of dissidents ; the president himself pleaded for the release of Liu , to " solve major human rights incidents with honesty and confidence . " Forty @-@ eight non @-@ governmental organisations jointly issued a two @-@ page statement expressing optimism for political change in China . The statement said that the world " stands in solidarity with [ the ] Chinese people who share Liu 's vision for a strong , prosperous and above all , democratic , China . "
The Taipei Times said the award suggested strong support for China 's democracy movement , and predicted the inevitability of change . " The CCP needs to decide whether to attempt to obstruct democracy or facilitate its development . If it chooses the former then history will pass it by , just as it did the Communist Party of the Soviet Union . If , however , the CCP decides to embrace change then it could ... remain a political force " like the Kuomintang in Taiwan .
= = International reaction = =
= = = Norway = = =
In advance of an official Chinese response to the Nobel Committee 's decision , Norwegian foreign minister Jonas Gahr Støre said that a Chinese complaint to the Norwegian government would be in vain , since the committee is independent of the Norwegian government , even though it is appointed by the Parliament of Norway . This official position was reiterated to the People 's Republic of China by their Norwegian ambassador . After the announcement , Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg said the decision " directs a spotlight on the human rights situation in China , and underscores the links between development , democracy and universal human rights . " Norway summoned the Chinese ambassador to Norway to express its regret at China 's reaction , to urge for the release of Liu , and to remove restrictions on his wife . The Norwegian newspaper Aftenposten revealed that Foreign Minister Støre had a pre @-@ emptive meeting with Nobel Committee chairman Thorbjørn Jagland , about Liu as the expected recipient , two weeks before the announcement . According to anonymous sources within both the Foreign Ministry and the Nobel Committee itself , Støre is said to have raised certain " concerns " . The Norwegian press quoted Jagland as saying that this enquiry was of such a peculiar kind that he would have to present the Nobel Committee with the minutes of the meeting . Former Nobel Committee chairman Ole Danbolt Mjøs and a number of Norwegian researchers and politicians criticised Støre for breaching protocol and meddling in the work of the Committee .
Norwegian peace activist and author , Fredrik S. Heffermehl criticised the Nobel Committee for failing to follow Alfred Nobel 's dying wish to promote disarmament , by giving the award to Liu . Heffermehl said that less than 50 percent of the awards made after World War II had been made in accordance with Nobel 's will .
= = = Governments and politicians = = =
While the Cuban and Venezuelan governments were notably critical , leading politicians in the Western world welcomed the news and called for the release of Liu . Non @-@ aligned and developing countries such as Russia , Brazil and India , many Asian and Middle Eastern countries were silent . UN Secretary @-@ General Ban Ki @-@ moon recognised China 's " remarkable economic advances [ that have ] lifted millions out of poverty " , and said he hoped " any differences on this decision will not detract from advancement of the human rights agenda globally or the high prestige and inspirational power of the award " . President of the United States Barack Obama lauded Liu 's eloquence and courage , while his government called for his immediate release .
The European Union and member governments praised the decision , and also called on China to release Liu . European Commission President José Manuel Barroso stated that " the decision of the Nobel Peace Prize Committee is a strong message of support to all those around the world who , sometimes with great personal sacrifice , are struggling for freedom and human rights . " The Polish foreign ministry said it was appreciative of the decision to award Liu . Japan greeted the award and emphasised the need for respect of human rights , but did not call for Liu 's release ; Premier Naoto Kan told a parliamentary committee Liu 's release was " desirable " . The Australian prime minister , Julia Gillard , said Australia was strongly against Liu 's imprisonment , and " welcome [ d ] the fact that his work has been recognised internationally now with the Nobel Peace Prize " , while the Australian Greens leader Bob Brown described the decision as " inspiring " . Brown contrasted Norway 's courage with the " sheer ignorance and gutlessness of most of Australia 's politicians on the plight of campaigning democrats in China " . The Canadian prime minister Stephen Harper expressed his delight , and said he hoped the award " would cause our friends in the Chinese government to look seriously at that issue of his release from prison . "
However , Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez sided with China , saying the award should be given to those who " have done the most for fraternity between nations , the abolition or reduction of standing armies and promotion of peace congresses " . Pakistan and Cuba denounced the choice , saying Liu was exactly " the type of ' dissident ' that the United States has been designing for decades to use ... as fifth columns in those countries that they disagree with because those countries dissent from [ American ] hegemony . " The United Arab Emirates expressed regret over the " politically motivated " decision to award Liu , which it said was " against the UAE 's fundamental belief in respecting other nations ' sovereignty and non @-@ interference . "
On 8 December , the United States House of Representatives voted by 402 to 1 to congratulate Liu and honour his " promotion of democratic reform in China , and the courage with which he has borne repeated imprisonment ... and [ call ] on the government of China to cease censoring media and internet reporting of the award of the Nobel Peace Prize to Liu Xiaobo and to cease its campaign of defamation against Liu Xiaobo . " The Chinese Foreign Ministry responded by accusing US lawmakers of possessing an " arrogant and unreasonable attitude " and " lacking respect for China 's judicial sovereignty . " Ahead of the award ceremony , Barack Obama said " Mr Liu Xiaobo is far more deserving of this award than I was ... [ He ] reminds us that human dignity also depends upon the advance of democracy , open society , and the rule of law ... The values he espouses are universal , his struggle is peaceful , and he should be released as soon as possible . "
= = = Human rights groups and academics = = =
The Dalai Lama expressed confidence that China would one day enjoy responsible governance through the efforts of Liu and others calling for democracy and freedom . He praised the award as " the international community 's recognition of the increasing voices among the Chinese people in pushing China towards political , legal and constitutional reforms . " Former Polish president Lech Wałęsa said he was " very satisfied " , describing the award as " a challenge for China and the entire world , [ which ] must declare whether it is ready to help China enter a zone where there is respect for the principles and values " .
However , Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov , who were awarded the 2010 Nobel Prize in Physics , attacked the Nobel committee as " retired Norwegian politicians who have spent all their careers in a safe environment , in an oil @-@ rich modern country . They try to extend their views of the world , how the world should work and how democracy works in another country . " They also felt that China should be given due credit for undisputed improvements in human rights and the economy over the last 10 years . Novoselov questioned : " What is a dictatorship ? It is not as if people are being constantly killed there , " The pair were rebutted by 2010 Nobel literature laureate Mario Vargas Llosa , who said it was a timely reminder that China was still a dictatorship and quite monolithic regarding politics , and that the award was " a tribute to all Chinese dissidents and all Chinese who want not just economic but also political growth and progress in China . "
Human Rights Watch said the 2010 award honours " all those in China who struggle daily to make the government more accountable " and " shatter [ s ] the myth where the Communist Party presents itself as the voice of the Chinese people " . Canadian academic Professor Josephine Chiu @-@ Duke believed that many Communist Party members were " hoping that China can be free , democratic and civilized " , and hoped that the award would " encourag [ e ] more Chinese to speak up . " Former British diplomat in Beijing , Kerry Brown , lamented that , economically powerful though China is , its sole Nobel laureate languished in prison .
The Secretary General of Amnesty International , said : " the Chinese government might see this is as a victory , but they would be mistaken ... Because , while the other chairs in the packed hall on the day of the awards ceremony will each hold only one person , Liu 's empty chair will hold ... the thousands of political prisoners and prisoners of conscience [ who were ] victims of prosecution and persecution simply for having the courage to voice their views . " On the other hand , in an article appearing in China Daily , David Gosset of the China Europe International Business School said the award was " a sad paradox , a prize without any real winner , which generates mistrust and perplexity when understanding and clarity are most needed " . Gosset believed that only citizens were able to define the exact terms and pace of democratisation in their own country , and lamented the " fallacy " of implicitly associating the PRC with German Nazism or South African apartheid , and emphasised that China , a developing country with a per capita GDP of $ 3 @,@ 700 , could hardly adopt the socio @-@ political standards of the developed world without attenuating its development . He also argued that the choice of Liu was divisive in view of China 's memory of Western imperialism , and of Alfred Nobel 's dying wish to reward a person " who shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations " . Professor Sidney Rittenberg said : " One does not have to approve of Mr Liu 's imprisonment in order to disapprove of his choice as a Nobel laureate ... Not only have courageous , intelligent individuals like Mr Liu made no tangible contribution to China 's advance , not only have their activities and his choice for a Nobel Prize made life more difficult for China 's dissidents — but the main point is that his advocacy of a multiparty system for the China of today would almost certainly lead to disaster , if carried out
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Portuguese railway system . It is expected the station will be replaced by a new facility located at the border with Portugal with high @-@ speed services run by the Southwest – Portuguese corridor and the Madrid – Lisbon line .
Badajoz Airport , ( Spanish : Aeropuerto de Badajoz ) ( IATA : BJZ , ICAO : LEBZ ) , is located 13 km ( 8 mi ) east of the city centre . The civilian airport shares a runway and control tower with Talavera la Real Air Base ( Spanish : Base Aérea de Talavera la Real ) operated by the Spanish Air Force , named after the nearby municipality of Talavera la Real . The two aircraft reception facilities utilize a 2 @,@ 852 metre ( 9 @,@ 257 ft ) asphalt runway . The airport currently caters for two civil routes , one to Barcelona and the other to Madrid , both operated by Air Europa .
= = Healthcare = =
The first hospital founded in Badajoz in 1694 , was the Hospital de San Sebastián was founded .
Badajoz falls under the healthcare region of Área de Salud de Badajoz , which also includes the municipalities of Alburquerque , Alconchel , Barcarrota , Gévora , Jerez de los Caballeros , La Roca de la Sierra , Montijo , Oliva de la Frontera , Olivenza , Pueblonuevo del Guadiana , San Vicente de Alcántara , Santa Marta , Talavera la Real and Villanueva del Fresno , divided into 17 zones , seven of which are in Badajoz itself . The hospitals in Badajoz are Hospital Infanta Cristina , Hospital Perpetuo Socorro , Hospital Materno Infantil , while clinics include Clínica " Clideba " de Capio , Clínica " Caser " de Capio , and Clínica Extremeña de Salud . Hospital Infanta Crisitina lies beyond Puente Real on the left side of the river , next to the University of Extremadura .
= = Notable people = =
Manuel de Godoy , the Duke of Alcudia ( 1767 – 1851 )
Luis de Morales – painter
Pedro de Alvarado ( c . 1495 – 1541 ) – conquistador
Cristóbal Oudrid ( 1825 – 1877 ) , one of the founding fathers of Spanish musical nationalism
Rosa Morena – flamenco @-@ pop singer who was popular in the 1970s .
Francisco de Zurbaran Baroque Artist renowned for his powerful and realistic interpretation of monastic life in 17th @-@ century Spain .
= = Town twinning = =
= William Robinson Brown =
William Robinson " W. R. " Brown ( January 17 , 1875 – August 4 , 1955 ) was an American corporate officer of the Brown Company of Berlin , New Hampshire . He was also an influential Arabian horse breeder , the founder and owner of the Maynesboro Stud , and an authority on Arabian horses .
After graduating from Williams College , Brown joined the family corporation , then known as the Berlin Mills Company , and became manager of the Woods Products Division , overseeing the company 's woodlands and logging operations . He became an early advocate for sustainable forest management practices , was a member of the New Hampshire Forestry Commission from 1909 until 1952 , and served on the boards of several forestry organizations . As chair of the Forestry Commission , Brown helped send sawmills to Europe during World War I to assist the war effort . He was influenced by the Progressive movement , instituting employee benefits such as company @-@ sponsored care for injured workers that predated modern workers ' compensation laws . As a Republican , he served as a presidential elector for New Hampshire in 1924 .
Brown founded the Maynesboro Stud in 1912 with foundation bloodstock from some of the most notable American breeders of Arabian horses . He looked abroad for additional horses , particularly from the Crabbet Arabian Stud , and imported Arabian horses from England , France and Egypt . At its peak , Maynesboro was the largest Arabian horse breeding operation in the United States . In 1929 , he wrote The Horse of the Desert , still considered an authoritative work on the Arabian breed . He served as President of the Arabian Horse Club of America from 1918 until 1939 . Brown was a remount agent and had a special interest in promoting the use of Arabian horses by the U.S. Army Remount Service . To prove the abilities of Arabians , he organized and participated in a number of endurance races of up to 300 miles ( 480 km ) , which his horses won three times , retiring the U.S. Mounted Service Cup . This accomplishment occurred even though The Jockey Club donated $ 50 @,@ 000 to the U.S. Army to buy Thoroughbreds that tried but failed to beat the Arabians . Brown 's legacy as a horse breeder was significant . Today , the term " CMK " , meaning " Crabbet / Maynesboro / Kellogg " is a label for specific lines of " Domestic " or " American @-@ bred " Arabian horses , many of which descend from Brown 's breeding program . In 2012 , the Berlin and Coös County Historical Society held a 100th anniversary celebration of the stud 's founding .
Although Brown family members sold personal assets to keep the Brown Company afloat during the Great Depression , including Brown 's dispersal of his herd of Arabian horses in 1933 , the business went into receivership in 1934 . Brown remained in charge of the Woods Division through the company 's second bankruptcy filing in 1941 . He retired from the company in 1943 and died of cancer in 1955 . His final book , Our Forest Heritage , was published posthumously , and his innovations in forest management became industry standards .
= = Personal life = =
W. R. Brown was born in Portland , Maine , in 1875 to Emily Jenkins Brown and William Wentworth " W. W. " Brown . He was the youngest of the couple 's three sons , all of whom were avid horsemen . He also had two younger half @-@ brothers . He attended Phillips Andover Academy and Williams College , graduating from the latter in 1897 . He was a Kappa Alpha fraternity member who also managed the football and baseball teams at Williams . In 1915 , he married Hildreth Burton Smith , the granddaughter of former governor of Georgia , U.S. Senator and Confederate general John B. Gordon . The couple had five children : Fielding , Newell , Brenton , Nancy , and Frances . Brown lived in New Hampshire for the remainder of his life , in Berlin until 1946 and then Dublin . After a long illness , he died of cancer on August 4 , 1955 , and was buried at the Dublin cemetery . He was survived by his wife , his five grown children , and 15 grandchildren .
Brown 's family was strongly affiliated with Williams College ; W. R. and his two older brothers Herbert ( " H. J. " ) and Orton ( " O. B. " ) all attended Williams , as did sons Fielding and Brenton . Fielding also earned a Ph.D. at Princeton University and returned to Williams as the Charles L. MacMillan Professor of Physics before retiring to become an artist and sculptor . Daughter Frances married Nobel Prize – winning physicist Charles H. Townes and wrote a book , Misadventures of a Scientist 's Wife , about her life . Newell attended Princeton and served as the Federal Wages and Hours Administrator for the United States Department of Labor during the Eisenhower administration . Politically aligned with the Republican party , W. R. Brown was a presidential elector for New Hampshire in the 1924 election , voting for Calvin Coolidge .
= = Brown Company career = =
H. Winslow & Company , later called the Berlin Mills Company , was founded about 1853 , and W. W. Brown purchased an interest in 1868 . In 1881 , the company expanded from lumber into pulp and paper manufacturing . W. W. Brown obtained a controlling interest in the company by 1888 , becoming , along with his older two sons , the sole owners by 1907 . The corporation 's name was changed to the Brown Company in 1917 , removing the word " Berlin " because of the conflict with Germany in World War I.
W. R. Brown went to work for the company in 1897 after finishing college . His father , declaring he " wanted no kittens that couldn 't catch mice , " made W. R. find a job without family help . As a result , Brown started out selling the company 's lumber in Portland , Maine , earning nine dollars a week . He was promoted , returned to Berlin , and after a second promotion became the sawmill 's night superintendent . In that position , he developed a method of using exhaust steam to heat a pond that thawed and cleaned logs , speeding up mill production during the winter . Promoted to day superintendent , he organized a successful event on September 8 , 1900 to break the world 's record for lumber cut by the crew of a " one head rig " in an 11 @-@ hour shift , producing 221 @,@ 319 board feet , a record that still stood 85 years later . After this event , he declared that he " qualified with Father as one of the ' kittens ' . " His father , who had been out of town on the day of the record attempt , reviewed the results , inquired as to the amount of cut lumber that was actually shipped to customers , and then commented , " Hum , that was good . " His father promoted Brown to full general manager of the Woods Division in 1902 . He was an officer of the corporation , and managed the company 's timberlands as director of woods operations until 1943 . When Brown began his career , the company owned 400 @,@ 000 acres ( 160 @,@ 000 ha ) of land . At its peak , the company owned , and Brown supervised , 3 @,@ 750 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 520 @,@ 000 ha ) , as many as 40 logging camps , plus an inland fleet of more than 30 boats . The loggers used at least 2500 horses to haul logs , and the company @-@ owned railroad had more than 800 freight cars .
The Brown family was later described as " progressive and ... ahead of their times " , and had innovative ideas about wood products manufacturing and scientific forest management . During Brown 's tenure , the company was one of the first to initiate modern forest management practices and to attempt to conserve the forest for future industry use . He was particularly critical of the damage done by portable sawmills . Brown understood that the pulp mills of his time were dependent on locally accessible timber , and concluded that sustainable practices were important to the industry . He built upon the sustainable forestry practices advocated by company forester Austin Cary , who had been recruited from the U.S. Forest Service . In 1919 , Brown set up a tree nursery on the north shore of Cupsuptic Lake that researched sustained yield practices and at its peak was the largest tree nursery in the United States . His innovations in forest management became industry standards ; researchers at Plymouth State College concluded that he " led the Brown company to international prominence as a source for scientific research and development . "
Brown was influenced by the Progressive movement as applied to business . He paid his workers above the prevailing wage , instituted safety programs , hired a doctor to care for loggers in the camps , and , prior to modern workers ' compensation laws , had the company pay for hospitalization of injured workers . He also attempted to improve camp conditions for the workers by banning card games and requiring the loggers to take showers , but those particular reform efforts " were not well received . " The Brown family took considerable interest in the city of Berlin . Various family members started a public kindergarten , built a community club with a gym , swimming pool , and bowling alley , provided soup to the sick , and gave Christmas presents to local children . Brown himself helped found a number of civic and business self @-@ help organizations including the Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests , established in 1901 ; the New Hampshire Timberlands Owners Association , a fire @-@ protection group established in 1910 ; and similar fire @-@ protection groups in Maine and Vermont . He set up a series of effective forest @-@ fire lookout towers , possibly the first in the nation , and by 1917 had helped establish a forest @-@ fire insurance company . In 1909 , after helping draft the legislation creating New Hampshire 's State Forestry Department , he became a member of the New Hampshire Forestry Commission ; and its chair from 1910 until 1952 , playing a significant role in shaping the forestry practices and laws of the state . Brown also served on the boards of several industry groups , including the American Forestry Association , Society of American Foresters , Canadian Pulp and Paper Association , and the Forest Research Council . He represented the U.S. at the first World Forestry Congress held in Rome in 1926 .
During World War I , in his capacity as chair of the New England Forestry Commission , Brown worked with the War Industries Board to send 10 sawmills abroad . The equipment went to Scotland to meet Britain 's need for lumber . When the war effort in France subsequently required more than 73 million board feet of lumber per month , Brown was commissioned as a major to oversee sawmill operations there , but ultimately was not allowed to serve in France because of his poor vision , as he was partially blind in one eye .
The Great Depression had a significant impact on the Brown Company . Berlin at that time had a population of about 20 @,@ 000 people , most of whom either worked for the company or provided services to the families of company employees . The Brown family had borrowed heavily during the 1920s to fund expansion , and , as stated by a company employee , had become " complacent and overly optimistic . " The family 's nepotism may also have become a disadvantage . Reduced demand for the company 's products forced it to take out short @-@ term loans to provide operating capital , and by 1931 the international financial situation led to major losses in the value of the company 's bonds . As a result , in the winter of 1931 – 32 the Brown Company could not obtain the necessary financing for its logging operations , when it normally needed to employ 4 @,@ 000 to 5 @,@ 000 loggers to cut timber each winter . Family members sold off personal holdings to try to keep the company solvent , and W. R. Brown dispersed his entire herd of Arabian horses . In 1933 , he negotiated a cooperative financing plan with the City of Berlin and the State of New Hampshire , ratified by the state legislature , to fund the woods operations , keeping Berlin 's local residents employed . The company was nevertheless forced to file for bankruptcy in 1935 , after having gone into receivership the previous year . A court @-@ appointed president took over , but Brown continued as head of the Woods Division . Brown 's agreement with the City of Berlin lasted until 1941 , when the company again filed for bankruptcy . Ultimately the Brown family ceased to have a significant role on the board of directors and the company was sold to outside investors . Brown officially retired from the company in 1943 , but his brother O. B. remained on the board of directors until 1960 .
= = Arabian horse breeder = =
Brown bought his first Arabian horses in 1910 and founded the Maynesboro Stud near Berlin in 1912 . The farm was named after the original settlement in the area , Maynesborough , located in the White Mountains in an area also known as the Great North Woods Region . The main stallion barn , although moved from its original location , has been preserved and restored by the Berlin and Coös County Historical Society , which is also restoring the work horse barns of the Brown Company . On September 15 , 2012 , the society celebrated the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Maynesboro Stud .
At its peak , Maynesboro was the largest Arabian stud farm in the United States . In 1919 , Brown had 88 horses , some at his main farm in New Hampshire , and others at farms he owned in Decorah , Iowa , and Cody , Wyoming . He is credited as the breeder of 194 horses , and became known as one of the most knowledgeable breeders and authorities on Arabians . He served as President of the Arabian Horse Club of America , now part of the Arabian Horse Association , from 1918 until 1939 .
= = = Foundation stock = = =
As he built Maynesboro , Brown studied the pedigrees of almost every purebred Arabian in the USA at the time . He believed the Arabian was actually a separate subspecies of horse , a once @-@ popular but now discredited theory . He found that , even though developed in the desert , Arabians adapted well to the severe winter weather of his New England farm .
When he started Maynesboro , Brown obtained his original foundation bloodstock from his oldest brother , Herbert , who had purchased * Abu Zeyd , a stallion bred by the Crabbet Arabian Stud in England . * Abu Zeyd was considered the best son of his famous sire , Mesaoud . Herbert Brown obtained the stallion from the estate of Homer Davenport following Davenport 's death in 1912 . The Maynesboro stud also acquired 10 mares from the Davenport estate . Brown considered * Abu Zeyd an ideal representative of the Arabian breed , and when the stallion died , Brown donated the skeleton to the American Museum of Natural History . His other American purchases included most of the horses owned by Spencer Borden 's Interlachen Farms in Massachusetts , following Borden 's decision to disperse his herd . These horses included animals descended from the breeding program of Randolph Huntington , one of the first people in the United States to breed purebred Arabians . Brown also obtained Borden 's extensive collection of literary works on horsemanship , Arab culture , and the Arabian horse , which included 8th @-@ century Furusiyya manuscripts . Following this start , he looked abroad for additional bloodstock , eventually importing 33 horses into the United States .
= = = International purchases = = =
Many American breeders had purchased horses from the Crabbet Stud , which at the time Brown founded Maynesboro was owned by Lady Anne Blunt and Wilfrid Scawen Blunt . American breeders obtained some of Crabbet 's best Arabians during the early 1900s owing to the turmoil within the Blunt family . The couple separated in 1906 , and following Lady Anne 's death in 1917 , Blunt 's daughter Judith , Lady Wentworth , became involved in a rancorous and expensive estate battle with Wilfrid over the Crabbet lands and horses . Wilfrid , needing to appease creditors , sold many of the stud 's best horses to international buyers for low prices . Through an agent , Brown purchased 20 Crabbet horses in 1918 , although for reasons unknown , only 17 actually made it to Maynesboro ; he paid only £ 2727 for the entire lot . The most significant animal purchased was the well @-@ known stallion * Berk , who died in America after siring only four foals , much to the dismay of Lady Wentworth , who was trying to buy back the best breeding stock lost to Crabbet because of her father 's actions . Brown bought two additional Crabbet @-@ bred horses from England in 1923 , although not directly from Lady Wentworth .
One of the most notable Crabbet @-@ bred stallions Brown eventually kept at Maynesboro was * Astraled , who had come to America in 1909 . This horse had been sold by Wilfrid Blunt to an American buyer from Massachusetts , but after siring only two purebred foals in New England , was sold to the remount , shipped west , and lived in obscurity in Oregon , where he sired no purebred Arabian offspring . * Astraled was ultimately obtained by Brown in 1923 , who shipped the aged horse by rail from Idaho to New Hampshire . * Astraled only sired one foal crop at Maynesboro , but that group of foals included his most notable American @-@ bred son , Gulastra .
Brown traveled to Europe with the U.S. Army Remount Service in 1921 , visiting a number of major European studs in Austria , France , and Hungary . He met Lady Wentworth at Crabbet on the way home , but did not purchase any of her horses . He imported several Arabian mares from France in 1921 and 1922 , in part owing to France 's reputation for producing excellent cavalry horses .
In 1929 , Brown traveled to Egypt and Syria with Arabian expert Carl Raswan in search of desertbred horses . According to Brown 's wife , the two apparently did not get along well , and the five horses purchased during their journey somehow never made it to America . Following that trip , Brown wrote The Horse of the Desert , still considered to be one of the best works written about the Arabian horse .
In 1932 , Brown sent his stud manager Jack Humphrey to Egypt , where acting for Brown he bought two stallions and four mares from Prince Mohammed Ali . The Prince was known as a horseman and scholar , publishing a two @-@ volume treatise on the breeding of Arabian horses . Two of the mares purchased were daughters of Mahroussa , whom Brown described as " the most beautiful mare he ever saw " . The stallions were * Nasr , a successful race horse , and * Zarife .
= = = Endurance testing and remounts = = =
Brown was a remount agent , who served on the U.S. Remount Board , and his interest in improving the quality of horses used by the U.S. Cavalry may have been his motivation to breed Arabians . Spencer Borden shared Brown 's interest in Arabians as remount bloodstock . Seeking to prove the superior endurance and durability of Arabian horses to the U.S. Army Remount Service , Brown actively encouraged the participation of Arabians in endurance races . He had most of his horses trained to ride and drive . Many were used in endurance races , others shown , and at least one was a polo pony .
In 1918 , Brown set up a test ride in which he had two of his horses travel from Berlin to Bethel , Maine , a distance of 162 miles ( 261 km ) . They completed the ride in just over 31 hours including breaks ; each horse carried a rider and equipment weighing 200 pounds ( 91 kg ) in poor weather and on muddy roads . The horses were Kheyra , a purebred seven @-@ year @-@ old mare who weighed 900 pounds ( 410 kg ) , and Rustem Bey , a half @-@ Arab by Khaled out of a Standardbred mare of the Clay Trotting Horses line . Rustem Bey was taller and heavier than Kheyra . Both horses were examined by a veterinarian , assessed as being sound and fit to continue at the end of the ride , and showed no evidence of soreness 24 hours later . A third Arabian , Herbert Brown 's * Crabbet , was ridden by a military officer supervising the test , and that pair covered 95 miles ( 153 km ) in seventeen hours . The results of the test were reported in The New York Times .
Following the 1918 test , Brown helped organize the first U.S. Official Cavalry Endurance Ride in 1919 , which was won by his mare Ramla , who carried 200 pounds ( 91 kg ) . The race covered 306 miles ( 492 km ) in five days . The U.S. Remount Service requested the weight horses carried in 1920 be raised to 245 pounds ( 111 kg ) , and required horses to travel for about 60 miles ( 97 km ) a day for five days . Arabians won the highest average points of any breed , and although an Arabian horse did not win first place that year , Rustem Bey was second . In 1921 , with a weight requirement of 225 pounds ( 102 kg ) , again covering 300 miles ( 480 km ) in five days , Brown 's gelding * Crabbet won the race and Rustem Bey placed third , despite a donation of $ 50 @,@ 000 from The Jockey Club to the Army to buy the best Thoroughbreds possible in a failed attempt to beat the Arabians . Brown won again in 1923 with an Anglo @-@ Arabian named Gouya , thus retiring the U.S. Mounted Service Cup .
Brown used Arabian stallions owned by the remount service as breeding animals , and over time he also provided 32 of his own stallions to sire remounts . He advocated crossbreeding Arabians to improve other breeds . He concluded , however , that attempting to breed purebred Arabians for increased size resulted in a sacrifice in quality and Arabian type .
= = = Dispersal = = =
Brown sold all his horses in 1933 in an attempt to raise funds to keep the Brown Company solvent . They were bought by the Kellogg Ranch , Roger Selby , William Randolph Hearst 's San Simeon Stud , and " General " J. M. Dickinson of Traveler 's Rest Stud , who acquired most of the horses from Brown 's 1932 importation from Egypt . Dickinson in turn sold * Zarife to Wayne Van Vleet of Colorado in 1939 , and Azkar , the last foal bred by Brown , to a ranch in Texas . There Azkar was left to fend for himself on the open range as a herd stallion , but , a testament to the hardiness of Brown 's Arabians , he survived and was returned to the Arabian breeding world by Henry Babson . Dickinson sold the mare * Aziza to Alice Payne , who later owned * Raffles .
= = Legacy = =
Brown believed it was important to preserve the scenic value of New Hampshire 's forests . Between 1903 and 1911 , he helped with efforts to establish White Mountain National Forest . Among his many civic activities , Brown promoted early legislative efforts to protect public riding trails . He also helped New Hampshire acquire Franconia Notch and Crawford Notch as public lands , and established a river conservation group in Quebec .
A scholar of the Arabian horse , he collected a significant library of works on the breed , one of the largest collections in the United States . His papers are now kept by the Arabian Horse Owners Foundation ( AHOF ) . Today , the term " CMK " , meaning " Crabbet / Maynesboro / Kellogg " , is a label for specific lines of " Domestic " or " American @-@ bred " Arabian horses . It describes the descendants of horses imported to America from the desert or from Crabbet Park Stud in the late 1800s and early 1900s and then bred on in the US by the Hamidie Society , Huntington , Borden , Davenport , Brown , W. K. Kellogg , Hearst , or Dickinson .
= Hans Freeman =
Hans Charles Freeman AM FAA ( 26 May 1929 – 9 November 2008 ) was a German @-@ born Australian bioinorganic chemist , protein crystallographer , and Professor of Inorganic Chemistry who spent most of his career at the University of Sydney . His best known contributions to chemistry were his work explaining the unusual structural , electrochemical , and spectroscopic properties of blue copper proteins , particularly plastocyanin . He also introduced protein crystallography to Australia and was a strong advocate for programs to ensure Australian scientists have good access to " big science " facilities . Freeman has received numerous honours , including being elected a Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science ( FAA ) and appointed a Member of the Order of Australia ( AM ) by the Australian Government . He was a charismatic lecturer who voluntarily continued teaching well into his formal retirement and imbued his students with a love of science .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years and education = = =
Hans Charles Freeman was born in Breslau in Germany in 1929 , the first and only son of Karl and Lotte Freeman . In 1938 , following a tip @-@ off from a Nazi party member , Karl decided to relocate his Jewish family to Australia . Karl brought his knowledge of detergents ( a novelty in Australia at the time ) to his new homeland , applying it to the problem of cleaning blood @-@ stained blankets that would otherwise be wasted . After the war , he founded K. H. Freeman Pty Ltd , a detergent and soap manufacturing company ; Hans spent many weekends working in the factory , gaining a practical insight into chemistry .
Hans adapted well to his new environment , quickly mastering his new language and demonstrating his outstanding scholastic ability . He was dux of his primary school , dux of Sydney Boys High in 1945 , and took his Bachelor 's degree with the university medal in chemistry in 1949 . He was one of the ten chemistry students in his class at Sydney Boys High to go on to become Professors of Chemistry . After receiving his MSc in 1952 under the supervision of Raymond Le Fevre FRS , Freeman attended Caltech on a Rotary Foundation Fellowship where , at the urging of Linus Pauling , he learned the fundamentals of crystallography . He received a PhD in 1957 for his work on the structure of biuret hydrate , where he completed most of the calculations for the crystal structure by hand .
= = = Personal life = = =
Freeman came to Australia with his parents and his sister , Eva . Following the death of his father in 1958 , he became a Director of K. H. Freeman Pty Ltd , which continues to operate today . He met Edith Siou in 1964 and they married in 1966 . They have two children , Maeva and Philip .
= = = Career = = =
Freeman was appointed to the faculty of the University of Sydney in 1954 as a Lecturer , working his way up until he was made the inaugural Professor of Inorganic Chemistry in 1971 . Freeman pioneered the use of computers in crystallography in Australia , working on SILLIAC ( the Australian cousin of the University of Illinois ' ILLIAC machine and Australia 's second computer ) after its installation in 1956 . His research group extended its interests beyond purely organic compounds and on to metal complexes ( such as copper biuret , one of the first bioinorganic substances to be structurally determined ) and went on to determine the structures of numerous metal complexes of amino acids and peptides .
In 1970 , the focus of Freeman 's research became protein crystallography and he turned his attention to the blue copper proteins ( cupredoxins ) and particularly the electron transport protein plastocyanin . The intensely blue colour of plastocyanin and its unusual redox properties had frustrated all attempts to synthesise a small molecule mimic . It was not until 1977 that his group finally determined the structure of plastocyanin crystallised from the poplar tree ( see diagram at right ) ; this was the first protein crystal structure determined in the southern hemisphere . Together with subsequent work in collaboration with Ed Solomon , this work led to understanding of the unusual geometry of the copper metal site ( see diagram at left ) as well as the spectroscopic and electrochemical properties characteristic of blue copper proteins .
Later in his career , Freeman developed an interest in the applications of EXAFS spectroscopy to metalloprotein structure , collaborating with both James Penner @-@ Hahn and Keith Hodgson . Working together , the Freeman and Hodgson groups were , in 1988 , the first to determine a new crystal structure of a protein using the multiple wavelength anomalous dispersion ( MAD ) method .
Throughout his career , Freeman was concerned about the influence of the tyranny of distance on the development of Australian science . For this reason , in 1972 Freeman and Alexander Boden AO , FAA , founded the Foundation for Inorganic Chemistry at the university to bring international scholars to the department to deliver a course for graduate students and give seminars for faculty . The inaugural Foundation scholar was nobel laureate Linus Pauling and the Foundation has brought many other eminent research chemists to Australia . The Foundation has thus functioned to increase Australian awareness of state of the art international research , increased international recognition of Australian research , and allowed graduate students to interact with leading chemists based in institutions far from Australia . Many of the students have gone on to post @-@ graduate or post @-@ doctoral positions with a Foundation scholar .
Freeman also provided advice to the Australian Government on the problem of access to " big science " facilities . This included making major contributions to the report Small Country - Big Science in his work for the Australian Science and Technology Council . The report emphasised the need for Australian researchers to have access to facilities such as synchrotron X @-@ ray and high intensity neutron sources , and led directly to the formation of the Australian Synchrotron Research Programme ( ASRP ) to fund access to such facilities . Freeman served as a board member of the ASRP until its functions were subsumed under the newly commissioned Australian Synchrotron in 2008 . The Australian expertise developed as a consequence of ASRP @-@ supported research led to the Australian Synchrotron being built a decade sooner than would have otherwise been the case .
Freeman retired from his Chair in 1997 , and was succeeded by Len Lindoy FAA . Nevertheless , he continued working in research and became Emeritus Professor of Chemistry and Emeritus Professor of Molecular and Microbial Biosciences . He also voluntarily continued teaching at first @-@ year level . His lecturing was described as " charismatic " and " teaching was a love and a privilege and never an obligation " for him .
= = Legacy = =
Freeman was principally responsible for the establishment of structural biology as a discipline in Australia . He founded the first protein crystallography laboratory in Australia ; today , there are more than 15 active research groups carrying out protein crystallography in Australia and New Zealand . Many former members of the Freeman research group have moved on to join one of these other groups . The groups interact through the Society of Crystallographers of Australia and New Zealand ( SCANZ ) ; Freeman was the Foundation President of then Society of Crystallographers of Australia , an organisation he was instrumental in forming in 1976 . Working as a crystallographer , Freeman 's major legacies are the understanding of plastocyanin and other blue copper proteins , and development of the MAD method as an extension of EXAFS spectroscopy . Freeman 's work in ensuring Australian scientists have access to " big science " facilities will continue to assist researchers into the future . His teaching also leaves a legacy of " generations of students imbued with a love of science " .
= = Honours and awards = =
Freeman was recognised for his professional achievements with Fellowships in the Royal Australian Chemical Institute ( RACI ) in 1968 , the Royal Society of Chemistry in 1984 , and the Australian Academy of Science in 1984 . Freeman 's contributions were also recognised by the Australian Government with a Centenary Medal in 2001 for " service to Australian society and science in chemistry " and with his appointment as a Member of the Order of Australia in June 2005 for " service to science and scientific research in the field of bio @-@ inorganic chemistry , particularly through the establishment and development of the discipline of crystallography in Australia " .
Freeman received numerous awards over his long career . In 1980 , Freeman received the Burrows Award , the premier award of the Inorganic Chemistry Division of the RACI . He was also awarded the 1999 Leighton Memorial Medal which is " the RACI 's most prestigious medal and is awarded in recognition of eminent services to chemistry in Australia in the broadest sense . " In 2007 , he received both the Australian Academy of Science 's Craig Medal and an RACI Distinguished Fellowship .
= = Most cited publications = =
The number of citations indicated for each of the following papers are from Web of Science data as at 22 June 2013 :
X @-@ Ray crystal @-@ structure analysis of plastocyanin at 2 @.@ 7 Å resolution --- 707 citations
Guss , J. M. ; Freeman , H. C. ( 1983 ) . " Structure of oxidised poplar plastocyanin at 1 @.@ 6 Å resolution " . J. Mol . Biol . 169 ( 2 ) : 521 – 563 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1016 / S0022 @-@ 2836 ( 83 ) 80064 @-@ 3 . PMID 6620385 . --- 642 citations
Guss , J. M. ; Harrowell , P. R. ; Murata , M. ; Norris , V. A. ; Freeman , H. C. ( 1986 ) . " Crystal structure analyses of reduced ( CuI ) poplar plastocyanin at 6 pH values " . J. Mol . Biol . 192 ( 2 ) : 361 – 387 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1016 / 0022 @-@ 2836 ( 86 ) 90371 @-@ 2 . --- 388 citations
Guss , J. M. ; Bartunik , H. D. ; Freeman , H. C. ( 1992 ) . " Accuracy and precision in protein @-@ structure analysis : restrained least @-@ squares refinement of the structure of poplar plastocyanin at 1 @.@ 33 Å resolution " . Acta Crystallogr . B 48 ( 6 ) : 790 – 811 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1107 / S0108768192004270 . PMID 1492962 . --- 257 citations
Kumar , V. ; Dooley , D. M. ; Freeman , H. C. ; Guss , J. M. ; Harvey , I. ; McGuirl , M. A. ; Wilce , M. C. J. ; Zubak , V. M. ( 1996 ) . " Crystal structure of a eukaryotic ( pea seedling ) copper @-@ containing amine oxidase at 2 @.@ 2 Å resolution " . Structure 4 ( 8 ) : 943 – 955 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1016 / S0969 @-@ 2126 ( 96 ) 00101 @-@ 3 . --- 209 citations
= Russian submarine AG @-@ 22 =
The Russian submarine AG @-@ 22 was an AG @-@ class submarine , designed by the American Holland Torpedo Boat Company / Electric Boat Company , built for the Imperial Russian Navy during World War I. The submarine was fabricated in Canada , shipped to Russia and reassembled for service with the Black Sea Fleet . Her reassembly was completed in 1919 by the White Movement during the Russian Civil War , and she joined Wrangel 's fleet as it evacuated the Crimea in 1920 and was interned in Bizerte , Tunisia in 1921 . AG @-@ 22 was abandoned there and subsequently scrapped .
= = Description = =
AG @-@ 22 was a single @-@ hulled submarine , with a pressure hull divided into five watertight compartments . The submarine had a length of 150 feet 3 inches ( 45 @.@ 8 m ) overall , a beam of 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) and a draft of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She displaced 355 long tons ( 361 t ) on the surface and 433 long tons ( 440 t ) submerged . The AG @-@ class submarines had a diving depth of 164 feet ( 50 @.@ 0 m ) and a crew of 30 officers and enlisted men .
The submarine had two three @-@ bladed propellers , each of which was driven by a 480 @-@ horsepower ( 360 kW ) diesel engine as well as a 640 @-@ horsepower ( 477 kW ) electric motors . This arrangement gave AG @-@ 22 a maximum speed of 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) while surfaced and 10 @.@ 5 knots ( 19 @.@ 4 km / h ; 12 @.@ 1 mph ) submerged . She had a range of 1 @,@ 750 nmi ( 3 @,@ 240 km ; 2 @,@ 010 mi ) at 7 knots ( 13 km / h ; 8 @.@ 1 mph ) while on the surface and 25 nmi ( 46 km ; 29 mi ) at 3 knots ( 5 @.@ 6 km / h ; 3 @.@ 5 mph ) while submerged . Her fuel capacity was 16 @.@ 5 long tons ( 16 @.@ 8 t ) of fuel oil .
The AG @-@ class submarines were equipped with four 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) torpedo tubes in the bow and carried eight torpedoes . For surface combat they had one 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) deck gun .
= = Construction and service = =
The Holland 602 design was widely exported during World War I and the Imperial Russian Navy ordered a total of 17 , in three batches , of a version known as the American Holland @-@ class ( AG in Russian for Amerikansky Golland ( American Holland ) ) . The submarines were to be built in Canada as knock @-@ down kits for assembly in Russia .
Steel for the first three submarines ( AG @-@ 21 , AG @-@ 22 , and AG @-@ 23 ) of the second batch ordered by the Russians was assembled in Saint John , New Brunswick by May 1916 . Five months later , they were sent to Vancouver by rail in sections where they were loaded into ships and shipped to Vladivostok . There they were loaded onto the Trans @-@ Siberian Railroad and transported to Nikolaev where they were assembled by the Russud Shipyard . Assembly was delayed by the unrest caused by the Russian Revolution and the subsequent Russian Civil War and was not completed until 1919 . By this time , Nikolaev was controlled by the Whites and they took AG @-@ 22 with them when they evacuated the Crimea in late 1920 as part of what came to be called Wrangel 's Fleet . They ultimately were granted asylum in Bizerte in February 1921 . AG @-@ 22 was abandoned there in November 1923 and subsequently scrapped .
= Comet Hale – Bopp =
Comet Hale – Bopp ( formally designated C / 1995 O1 ) is a comet that was perhaps the most widely observed of the 20th century and one of the brightest seen for many decades . It was visible to the naked eye for a record 18 months , twice as long as the previous record holder , the Great Comet of 1811 .
Hale – Bopp was discovered on July 23 , 1995 , at a great distance from the Sun , raising expectations that the comet would brighten considerably by the time it passed close to Earth . Although predicting the brightness of comets with any degree of accuracy is very difficult , Hale – Bopp met or exceeded most predictions when it passed perihelion on April 1 , 1997 . The comet was dubbed the Great Comet of 1997 .
= = Discovery = =
The comet was discovered independently on July 23 , 1995 by two observers , Alan Hale and Thomas Bopp , both in the United States .
Hale had spent many hundreds of hours searching for comets without success , and was tracking known comets from his driveway in New Mexico when he chanced upon Hale – Bopp just after midnight . The comet had an apparent magnitude of 10 @.@ 5 and lay near the globular cluster M70 in the constellation of Sagittarius . Hale first established that there was no other deep @-@ sky object near M70 , and then consulted a directory of known comets , finding that none were known to be in this area of the sky . Once he had established that the object was moving relative to the background stars , he emailed the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams , the clearing house for astronomical discoveries .
Bopp did not own a telescope . He was out with friends near Stanfield , Arizona observing star clusters and galaxies when he chanced across the comet while at the eyepiece of his friend 's telescope . He realized he might have spotted something new when , like Hale , he checked his star maps to determine if any other deep @-@ sky objects were known to be near M70 , and found that there were none . He alerted the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams through a Western Union telegram . Brian G. Marsden , who had run the bureau since 1968 , laughed , " Nobody sends telegrams anymore . I mean , by the time that telegram got here , Alan Hale had already e @-@ mailed us three times with updated coordinates . "
The following morning , it was confirmed that this was a new comet , and it was given the designation C / 1995 O1 . The discovery was announced in International Astronomical Union circular 6187 .
The comet may have been observed by ancient Egyptians during the reign of pharaoh Pepi I ( 2332 – 2283 BC ) . In Pepi 's pyramid in Saqqara is a text referring to an " nhh @-@ star " as a companion of the pharaoh in the heavens , where " nhh " is the hieroglyph for long hair .
= = Early observation = =
Hale – Bopp 's orbital position was calculated as 7 @.@ 2 astronomical units ( AU ) from the Sun , placing it between Jupiter and Saturn and by far the greatest distance from Earth at which a comet had been discovered by amateurs . Most comets at this distance are extremely faint , and show no discernible activity , but Hale – Bopp already had an observable coma . An image taken at the Anglo @-@ Australian Telescope in 1993 was found to show the then @-@ unnoticed comet some 13 AU from the Sun , a distance at which most comets are essentially unobservable . ( Halley 's Comet was more than 100 times fainter at the same distance from the Sun . ) Analysis indicated later that its comet nucleus was 60 ± 20 kilometres in diameter , approximately six times the size of Halley .
Its great distance and surprising activity indicated that comet Hale – Bopp might become very bright indeed when it reached perihelion in 1997 . However , comet scientists were wary – comets can be extremely unpredictable , and many have large outbursts at great distance only to diminish in brightness later . Comet Kohoutek in 1973 had been touted as a ' comet of the century ' and turned out to be unspectacular .
= = Perihelion = =
Hale – Bopp became visible to the naked eye in May 1996 , and although its rate of brightening slowed considerably during the latter half of that year , scientists were still cautiously optimistic that it would become very bright . It was too closely aligned with the Sun to be observable during December 1996 , but when it reappeared in January 1997 it was already bright enough to be seen by anyone who looked for it , even from large cities with light @-@ polluted skies .
The Internet was a growing phenomenon at the time , and numerous websites that tracked the comet 's progress and provided daily images from around the world became extremely popular . The Internet played a large role in encouraging the unprecedented public interest in comet Hale – Bopp .
As the comet approached the Sun , it continued to brighten , shining at 2nd magnitude in February , and showing a growing pair of tails , the blue gas tail pointing straight away from the Sun and the yellowish dust tail curving away along its orbit . On March 9 , a solar eclipse in China , Mongolia and eastern Siberia allowed observers there to see the comet in the daytime . Hale – Bopp had its closest approach to Earth on March 22 , 1997 at a distance of 1 @.@ 315 AU .
As it passed perihelion on April 1 , 1997 the comet developed into a spectacular sight . It shone brighter than any star in the sky except Sirius , and its dust tail stretched 40 – 45 degrees across the sky . The comet was visible well before the sky got fully dark each night , and while many great comets are very close to the Sun as they pass perihelion , comet Hale – Bopp was visible all night to northern hemisphere observers .
= = After perihelion = =
After its perihelion passage , the comet moved into the southern celestial hemisphere . The comet was much less impressive to southern hemisphere observers than it had been in the northern hemisphere , but southerners were able to see the comet gradually fade from view during the second half of 1997 . The last naked @-@ eye observations were reported in December 1997 , which meant that the comet had remained visible without aid for 569 days , or about 18 and a half months . The previous record had been set by the Great Comet of 1811 , which was visible to the naked eye for about 9 months .
The comet continued to fade as it receded , but is still being tracked by astronomers . In October 2007 , 10 years after the perihelion and at distance of 25 @.@ 7 AU from Sun , the comet was still active as indicated by the detection of the CO @-@ driven coma . Herschel Space Observatory images taken in 2010 suggest comet Hale – Bopp is covered in a fresh frost layer . Hale – Bopp was again detected in December 2010 when it was 30 @.@ 7 AU away from the Sun , and on August 7 , 2012 at a 33 @.@ 2 AU distance from the Sun . Astronomers expect that the comet will remain observable with large telescopes until perhaps 2020 , by which time it will be nearing 30th magnitude . By this time it will become very difficult to distinguish the comet from the large numbers of distant galaxies of similar brightness .
= = Orbital changes = =
The comet likely made its previous perihelion 4 @,@ 200 years ago . The comet 's orbit is almost perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic , which ensures that close approaches to planets are rare . However , in April 1996 the comet passed within 0 @.@ 77 AU of Jupiter , close enough for its orbit to be measurably affected by the planet 's gravity . The comet 's orbit was shortened considerably to a period of roughly 2 @,@ 533 years , and it will next return to the inner Solar System around the year 4385 . Its greatest distance from the Sun ( aphelion ) will be about 370 AU , reduced from about 525 AU .
Over many orbits , the cumulative effect of gravitational perturbations on comets with high orbital inclinations and small perihelion distances is generally to reduce the perihelion distance to very small values . Hale – Bopp has about a 15 % chance of eventually becoming a sungrazing comet through this process .
It has been calculated that the previous visit by Hale – Bopp occurred in July 2215 BC . The comet may have presented a similar sight to people then , as the estimated closest approach to Earth was 1 @.@ 4 AU , but no records of it have survived . Hale – Bopp may have had a near collision with Jupiter in early June 2215 BC , which probably caused a dramatic change in its orbit , and 2215 BC may have been its first passage through the inner Solar System .
The estimated probability of Hale @-@ Bopp 's striking Earth in future passages through the inner Solar System is remote , about 2 @.@ 5 × 10 − 9 per orbit . However , given that the comet nucleus is around 60 km in diameter , the consequences of such an impact would be apocalyptic . Weissman conservatively estimates the diameter at 35 km ; an estimated density of 0 @.@ 6 g / cm3 then gives a cometary mass of 1 @.@ 3 × 1019 g . At a probable impact velocity of 52 @.@ 5 km / s , impact energy can be calculated as 1 @.@ 9 × 1032 ergs , or 4 @.@ 4 × 109 megatons , about 44 times the estimated energy of the K @-@ T impact event .
= = Scientific results = =
Comet Hale – Bopp was observed intensively by astronomers during its perihelion passage , and several important advances in cometary science resulted from these observations . The dust production rate of the comet was very high ( up to 2 @.@ 0 × 106 kg / s ) , which may have made the inner coma optically thick . Based on the properties of the dust grains — high temperature , high albedo and strong 10 μm silicate emission feature — the astronomers concluded the dust grains are smaller than observed in any other comet .
Hale – Bopp showed the highest ever linear polarization detected for any comet . Such polarization is the result of solar radiation getting scattered by the dust particles in the coma of the comet and depends on the nature of the grains . It further confirms that the dust grains in the coma of comet Hale – Bopp were smaller than inferred in any other comet .
= = = Sodium tail = = =
One of the most remarkable discoveries was that the comet had a third type of tail . In addition to the well @-@ known gas and dust tails , Hale – Bopp also exhibited a faint sodium tail , only visible with powerful instruments with dedicated filters . Sodium emission had been previously observed in other comets , but had not been shown to come from a tail . Hale – Bopp 's sodium tail consisted of neutral atoms ( not ions ) , and extended to some 50 million kilometres in length .
The source of the sodium appeared to be the inner coma , although not necessarily the nucleus . There are several possible mechanisms for generating a source of sodium atoms , including collisions between dust grains surrounding the nucleus , and ' sputtering ' of sodium from dust grains by ultraviolet light . It is not yet established which mechanism is primarily responsible for creating Hale – Bopp 's sodium tail , and the narrow and diffuse components of the tail may have different origins .
While the comet 's dust tail roughly followed the path of the comet 's orbit and the gas tail pointed almost directly away from the Sun , the sodium tail appeared to lie between the two . This implies that the sodium atoms are driven away from the comet 's head by radiation pressure .
= = = Deuterium abundance = = =
The abundance of deuterium in comet Hale – Bopp in the form of heavy water was found to be about twice that of Earth 's oceans . If Hale – Bopp 's deuterium abundance is typical of all comets , this implies that although cometary impacts are thought to be the source of a significant amount of the water on Earth , they cannot be the only source .
Deuterium was also detected in many other hydrogen compounds in the comet . The ratio of deuterium to normal hydrogen was found to vary from compound to compound , which astronomers believe suggests that cometary ices were formed in interstellar clouds , rather than in the solar nebula . Theoretical modelling of ice formation in interstellar clouds suggests that comet Hale – Bopp formed at temperatures of around 25 – 45 Kelvin .
= = = Organics = = =
Spectroscopic observations of Hale – Bopp revealed the presence of many organic chemicals , several of which had never been detected in comets before . These complex molecules may exist within the cometary nucleus , or might be synthesised by reactions in the comet .
= = = Detection of argon = = =
Hale – Bopp was the first comet where the noble gas argon was detected . Noble gases are chemically inert and highly volatile , and since different noble elements have different sublimation temperatures , they can be used for probing the temperature histories of the cometary ices . Krypton has a sublimation temperature of 16 – 20 K and was found to be depleted more than 25 times relative to the solar abundance , while argon with its higher sublimation temperature was enriched relative to the solar abundance . Together these observations indicate that the interior of Hale – Bopp has always been colder than 35 – 40 K , but has at some point been warmer than 20 K. Unless the solar nebula was much colder and richer in argon than generally believed , this suggests that the comet formed beyond Neptune in the Kuiper belt region and then migrated outward to the Oort cloud .
= = = Rotation = = =
Comet Hale – Bopp 's activity and outgassing were not spread uniformly over its nucleus , but instead came from several specific jets . Observations of the material streaming away from these jets allowed astronomers to measure the rotation period of the comet , which was found to be about 11 hours 46 minutes .
= = = Binary nucleus question = = =
In 1997 a paper was published that hypothesised the existence of a binary nucleus to fully explain the observed pattern of comet Hale – Bopp 's dust emission observed in October 1995 . The paper was based on theoretical analysis , and did not claim an observational detection of the proposed satellite nucleus , but estimated that it would have a diameter of about 30 km , with the main nucleus being about 70 km across , and would orbit in about three days at a distance of about 180 km . This analysis was confirmed by observations in 1996 using Wide @-@ Field Planetary Camera 2 of the Hubble Space Telescope which had taken images of the comet that revealed the satellite .
Although observations using adaptive optics in late 1997 and early 1998 showed a double peak in the brightness of the nucleus , controversy still exists over whether such observations can only be explained by a binary nucleus . The discovery of the satellite was not confirmed by other observations . Also , while comets have been observed to break up before , no case has previously been found of a stable binary nucleus . Given the very small mass of this comet , the orbit of the binary nucleus would be easily disrupted by the gravity of the Sun and planets .
= = UFO claims = =
In November 1996 amateur astronomer Chuck Shramek of Houston , Texas took a CCD image of the comet , which showed a fuzzy , slightly elongated object nearby . When his computer sky @-@ viewing program did not identify the star , Shramek called the Art Bell radio program Coast to Coast AM to announce that he had discovered a " Saturn @-@ like object " following Hale – Bopp . UFO enthusiasts , such as remote viewing proponent Courtney Brown , soon concluded that there was an alien spacecraft following the comet .
Several astronomers , including Alan Hale , claimed the object was simply an 8 @.@ 5 @-@ magnitude star , SAO141894 , which did not appear on Shramek 's computer program because the user preferences were set incorrectly . Later , Art Bell even claimed to have obtained an image of the object from an anonymous astrophysicist who was about to confirm its discovery . However , astronomers Olivier Hainaut and David J. Tholen of the University of Hawaii stated that the alleged photo was an altered copy of one of their own comet images .
A few months later , in March 1997 , 39 members of the cult Heaven 's Gate committed mass suicide with the intention of teleporting to a spaceship they believed was flying behind the comet .
Nancy Lieder , a self @-@ proclaimed contactee who claims to receive messages from aliens through an implant in her brain , stated that Hale – Bopp was a fiction designed to distract the population from the coming arrival of " Nibiru " or " Planet X " , a giant planet whose close passage would disrupt the Earth 's rotation , causing global cataclysm . Although Lieder 's original date for the apocalypse , May 2003 , passed without incident , predictions of the imminent arrival of Nibiru continued by various conspiracy websites , most of whom tied it to the 2012 phenomenon .
= = Legacy = =
Its lengthy period of visibility and extensive coverage in the media meant that Hale – Bopp was probably the most @-@ observed comet in history , making a far greater impact on the general public than the return of Halley 's Comet in 1986 , and certainly seen by a greater number of people than witnessed any of Halley 's previous appearances . For instance , 69 % of Americans had seen Hale – Bopp by April 9 , 1997 .
Hale – Bopp was a record @-@ breaking comet — the farthest comet from the Sun discovered by amateurs , with the largest well @-@ measured cometary nucleus known after 95P / Chiron , and it was visible to the naked eye for twice as long as the previous record @-@ holder . It was also brighter than magnitude 0 for eight weeks , longer than any other recorded comet .
= Ben 's Chili Bowl =
Ben 's Chili Bowl is a landmark restaurant in Washington , D.C. , located at 1213 U Street , next to Lincoln Theatre , in the Shaw neighborhood of northwest D.C. It is known locally for its chili dogs , half @-@ smokes , and milkshakes , and has been an integral part of the neighborhood 's history since its founding in 1958 . It was frequented by both police and protesters during the 1968 Washington , D.C. riots , and is regularly visited by celebrities , such as Bill Cosby and Chris Tucker .
In January 2009 , Washington , D.C. Mayor Adrian Fenty took then @-@ President @-@ elect Barack Obama to eat at Ben 's as part of his welcome to the city .
= = History = =
Ben 's Chili Bowl was founded on August 22 , 1958 by Ben Ali , a Trinidadian @-@ born immigrant who had studied dentistry at nearby Howard University , and his fiancee , Virginian @-@ born Virginia Rollins . The two were married seven weeks after opening the restaurant . The building they chose was that of Washington 's first silent movie house , the Minnehaha , which was established in 1911 . The building is a contributing property to the Greater U Street Historic District . Most of the furniture in the restaurant is original to the 1950s . At the time , Washington was officially segregated , and U Street was known as " Black Broadway " . Many jazz greats of the day , such as Duke Ellington , Miles Davis , and Nat King Cole , would stop by the restaurant when they performed at U Street clubs .
The U Street corridor was devastated by the 1968 riots that followed the assassination of Martin Luther King , Jr . During the riots , black activist Stokely Carmichael , leader of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee , asked Ben to keep his restaurant open and the Alis obtained permission to stay open past curfew . The restaurant fed both the police officers and firemen working to impose order on the neighborhood , as well as the black activists . The violence and arson reached such an extent that Ben wrote " Soul Brother " in soap on the front window in the hopes that it would stop the angry mobs .
The destruction of so many businesses led to the flight of residents towards the suburbs and the economic decline of the neighborhood through the mid @-@ 1970s to mid @-@ 1980s . As the area became known for its drug addicts , Ben 's Chili Bowl reduced its staff to one employee . Ben and Virginia 's son Kamal recalled , " We stayed and had a following , because the Chili Bowl was like the neighborhood barbershop . People would sit here and chat . There was always a family presence and the locals protected us . " The restaurant stopped serving pies and cakes , which attracted addicts , while police conducted surveillance on drug dealers from an upstairs window of the building .
The extensive construction of the U Street Metro station across the street from the restaurant , completed in 1991 , forced still more U Street businesses to close , but Ben 's Chili Bowl stayed open to feed the construction workers . The Washington Post commented that Ben 's Chili Bowl is " probably the only business on this strip that survived both the 1968 riots and the construction phase of the Metro Green Line " . The Metro and lower crime rates helped the gradual revitalization and gentrification of the neighborhood . From the early 1990s , business revenues grew by 10 % annually , to $ 1 @.@ 5 million in 2005 , and the number of employees at the restaurant grew as well , to a staff of 20 .
In the summer of 2007 , the owners of Ben 's led a coalition of ten small local businesses to broker a deal with a local energy company to convert operations to 100 % wind energy . The New York Post quoted Nizam Ali as saying , “ We see this as part of being involved in what is good for the neighborhood , what ’ s good for the city .... It ’ s a good idea that helps the environment and , it turns out , makes economic sense for all of us . "
In 2008 , Ben 's Chili Bowl opened a second location in the newly built Nationals Park , though it has a more limited selection than the original restaurant .
On October 7 , 2009 , Ben died at the age of 82 . He and his wife , Virginia , had retired from the restaurant business , having passed daily operations of Ben 's Chili Bowl to their sons , Kamal and Nizam . Ali 's death was mourned in many ways throughout the city , including a written statement by Mayor Adrian Fenty , which read in part : " I am deeply saddened to hear of the passing of the founder and namesake of Ben ’ s Chili Bowl , one of the greatest treasures in the District of Columbia . Ben Ali was a man who invested his life in a small business that weathered many storms and became the soul of a neighborhood and the pride of our city . "
In 2009 , Ben 's sons , Nizam and Kamal , opened an upscale restaurant and bar , Ben 's Next Door , at 1211 U St , NW , adjacent to the original building . Featuring alcohol ( something not available in Ben 's ) , the restaurant 's goal is to " complement " Ben 's , according to Nizam , who says that the goal is to stay " true to ourselves " . The restaurant offers everything on the Ben 's Chili Bowl menu from 11am to closing , in addition to its own lunch , dinner , and late night menu .
= = Menu = =
Ben 's menu features the " original chili half @-@ smoke " as its " signature dish " . It is a one @-@ quarter pound half @-@ pork and half @-@ beef smoked sausage on " a warm steamed bun , " topped with mustard , onions and spicy homemade chili sauce . In addition to the pork @-@ beef half @-@ smokes and all pork or all beef hot dogs , the menu also features " healthy choice " items such as turkey burgers and turkey hot dogs ( " turkey dogs " ) , and vegetarian chili , burgers ( " veggie burgers " ) , and hot dogs ( " veggie dogs " ) . Chili ( both the beef variety and the all @-@ vegetarian variety ) is also available in various sizes . In addition to serving food for customers who eat inside or order for take @-@ out , the restaurant ships food nationwide .
Today , many of the restaurant 's sausages are produced in Baltimore , Maryland by the Manger Packing Corporation .
= = Customers and recognition = =
The Boston Globe described Ben 's diverse customers as " punk @-@ looking kids and fashionable business people and everyone in between " . In 2001 , Ben and Virginia 's son , Kamal , commented on the changes of what types of people were eating at the establishment : " You hear comments . Even the white customers . They want to think they 're the only whites who 'd been hip enough to go to the Chili Bowl . Now they look around and there are a lot of other whites and they are not so happy about it . "
The most famous regular customer is comedian Bill Cosby , who took his future wife to Ben 's when they were dating . He recalls that he first became a frequent visitor while serving in the Navy and stationed in Bethesda , Maryland in 1958 , and frequently visited the U Street jazz clubs . Cosby recalls that during some of his visits with Camille , who was then a student at the University of Maryland , he would " eat as many as six half @-@ smokes at a time . " Cosby returned to Ben 's in 1985 to hold a press conference in the restaurant to celebrate the success of his television series , The Cosby Show . He continues to stop by Ben 's while in town for servings of half @-@ smokes . A sign posted in the restaurant proclaimed that Bill Cosby is the only person who eats for free at Ben 's Chili Bowl . On November 3 , 2008 , a new sign was posted to add " the Obama family " .
Many other celebrities , including Chris Tucker and Bono , have visited over the years . When journalist Ted Koppel stopped hosting news program Nightline , he held his 2005 farewell party at the restaurant . Then @-@ President @-@ elect Barack Obama ate at Ben 's on January 10 , 2009 .
The Washington Post asserts , " By the late 1990s , no D.C. politician would dream of running for office without dropping into Ben 's . " Anthony A. Williams appeared at Ben 's immediately after his successful mayoral election .
However , celebrities at Ben 's are not limited to American citizens . In 1998 , former DC mayor Marion Barry described having traveled to Ghana and meeting the Mayor of Accra , an alumnus of Howard University , whose greeting was , " Glad to have you in Accra . Is Ben 's Chili Bowl still there ? " And when French President Nicolas Sarkozy and his wife Carla Bruni @-@ Sarkozy visited Washington , D.C. in March 2010 , they reportedly each had two of Ben 's half smokes during their visit to the restaurant .
Scenes from films including The Pelican Brief and State of Play have been filmed in the restaurant , and it has been in " dozens of TV shows . " The short film , Breakfast At Ben 's was filmed almost entirely in the restaurant . Additionally , it has been used in novels as the setting for fictional meetings — especially meetings that involve individuals from " different sides of the law " — as it was in George Pelecanos 's King Suckerman .
Ben and Virginia Ali were inducted into the D.C. Hall of Fame , and in 1999 , the alley adjacent to the restaurant was renamed " Ben Ali Way " . On the occasion of Ben Ali 's 2009 death , D.C. mayor Adrian Fenty released a statement calling the restaurant " one of the greatest treasures in the District of Columbia " .
The restaurant 's founders have been inducted into the D.C. Hall of Fame .
= = = In popular culture = = =
A Washington @-@ based episode of the Travel Channel 's Man v. Food ( S02E12 ) , which first aired in the summer of 2009 , featured Ben 's Chili Bowl as one of the stops . The host , Adam Richman , helped Nizam Ali prepare his chili before trying out a chili Half @-@ Smoke ; Richman sat in the same seat that President Barack Obama had sat in earlier in the year .
In the 2009 movie State of Play , reporter Cal McAffrey ( Russell Crowe ) visits Ben 's Chili Bowl and appears to be a regular customer . He orders his " regular " : Chili Cheese Burger , Chili Cheese Fry and a Chili Half @-@ Smoke . The scene features the sign : " List of who eats free at Ben 's : Bill Cosby , NO ONE ELSE " .
= = = Reviews = = =
In 2004 , the James Beard Foundation named Ben 's one of the " down @-@ home eateries that have carved out a special place on the American culinary landscape " . Michael Stern , a writer specializing in U.S. regional foods , penned a 2008 review raving " The half @-@ smoke is sensational ! " and " Ben 's serves one of the best sweet potato pies anywhere " , and describing the chili as " sensational stuff : thick , peppery , full @-@ flavored and positively addictive " . In January 2009 , food magazine Bon Appétit named Ben 's one of the country 's ten " Best Chili Spots " , asserting , " No reasonable discussion of great chili joints can take place without mention of this U Street institution . " In a 2016 Washington Post restaurant review , Ben 's received one star and the food was described as " awful . "
= Chai Trong @-@ rong =
Chai Trong @-@ rong ( Chinese : 蔡同榮 ; pinyin : Cài Tóngróng ; Wade – Giles : Tsài Tóngróng ; Pe ̍ h @-@ ōe @-@ jī : Chhòa Tông @-@ êng ; 13 June 1935 – 11 January 2014 ) , sometimes known in English as Trong Chai , was a Taiwanese politician . He was a member of the Legislative Yuan , the national legislative body of the Republic of China ( Taiwan ) .
Born in Taiwan , Chai earned his master 's and doctorate degrees in the United States . He was a pro @-@ democracy advocate and founded the Association for a Plebiscite and Formosa TV .
A member of the Democratic Progressive Party ( DPP ) , Chai was elected a national @-@ level legislator multiple times . He took part in three of the DPP chairmanship elections . However , he lost all three of the elections .
= = Early life and education = =
Chai Trong @-@ rong was born on 13 June 1935 , in modern @-@ day Budai , Chiayi County , Taiwan . At the time , Taiwan was still part of the Empire of Japan . After the Second World War , his father served as Chiayi County council member for two terms .
After his graduation from the National Tainan First Senior High School , Chai attended the National Taiwan University ( NTU ) studying political science . He later switched his major to law and graduated from the NTU College of Law in 1958 . He was then conscripted and served in the Republic of China ( Taiwan ) Army for sixteen months .
In 1960 , Chai went to the United States and studied at the University of Tennessee , where he earned his master 's degree in political science . As a result of participating in the independence movement of Taiwan , Chai was placed on the Kuomintang 's black list and was unable to return to Taiwan . He continued studying and attended the University of Southern California , earning his doctorate in 1969 . In 1986 , Chai became a professor of political science at the City University of New York .
= = Entry into politics = =
Chai established the World United Formosans for Independence ( WUFI ) in 1970 and became its first president . Then in 1982 , he founded the Formosan Association for Public Affairs ( FAPA ) , serving as its first president as well .
Chai returned to Taiwan to in the name of attending a funeral in June 1990 . He was issued a new passport and joined the Democratic Progressive Party ( DPP ) shortly after his arrival . He founded the Association for a Plebiscite ( traditional Chinese : 公民投票促進會 ; simplified Chinese : 公民投票促进会 ; pinyin : Gōngmín Tóupiaò Cùjìnhùi ) in November . The goal of the association was to reform through the will of the people .
= = Legislative career = =
Chai was elected a legislator representing Chiayi City in 1992 . Although he was not reelected in 1995 running against Vincent Siew of the Kuomintang , he was elected into the Legislative Yuan again in the 1997 by @-@ election and reelected in 1998 , 2001 and 2004 . During these terms , Chai was involved in the National Defense , Overseas Compatriot Affairs , and Foreign Affairs Committees .
He supported the localization policies of the Chen Shui @-@ bian administration . In 2005 , he urged the Ministry of Education to get rid of contexts of " aboveboard Chinese " ( Chinese : 堂堂正正的中國人 ; a Chinese nationalistic term imposed by the Chiang Kai @-@ shek regime after World War II ) from the back cover of elementary school workbooks . In response to the Anti @-@ Secession Law of the People 's Republic of China , Chai and legislator Chuang He @-@ chi proposed draft for an " Anti @-@ Annexation Law . "
= = = Chairmanship campaigns = = =
Despite the fact that Chai was endorsed by renowned pharmacologist Chen @-@ Yuan Lee , he lost the DPP chairmanship election in 1996 . However , the resignation of Su Tseng @-@ chang as DPP chairperson in 2005 led to Chai 's decision to run again . He was the first in the party to register his candidacy .
Chai was one of the three candidates who registered . He was endorsed by vice president Annette Lu and foreign minister Mark Chen . The election was held in January 2006 . Former Secretary @-@ General of the Presidential Office Yu Shyi @-@ kun won with over 54 % of the votes while Chai received 36 % .
In 2008 , after the defeat of Frank Hsieh in the presidential election , DPP candidate Hsieh resigned as chairman and announced the date for the chairmanship election . Chai declared his candidacy on April 14 .
Although the DPP passed a resolution to ban all factions within the party in 2006 , the dissent between former members of different factions was still present and was thought to be one of the factors that led to DPP 's loss in the presidential election . Chai , along with Koo Kwang @-@ ming emphasized the importance of consolidating the party 's policy on independence , while Tsai Ing @-@ wen focused on the cooperation of former factions and expansion of the party 's support base .
Chai was supported by Tainan City mayor Hsu Tain @-@ tsair , but decided to withdraw from the race in May and gave his support to another candidate Koo Kwang @-@ ming . However , it was too late to officially withdraw from the election , and Chai received 5 percent of the votes .
= = Death = =
Chai died on 11 January 2014 due to a stroke .
= Flytoget =
Flytoget , the Airport Express Train ( Norwegian : Flytoget ) is a Norwegian high @-@ speed airport rail link connecting Oslo Airport , Gardermoen to Oslo Central Station in nineteen minutes . Run by Flytoget AS ( formerly NSB Gardermobanen AS ) , it operates on the high @-@ speed Gardermoen Line using sixteen GMB Class 71 electric trains . Normal service frequency is once every ten minutes , with four of the services each hour continuing westwards beyond Oslo Central . The extended services serve nine stops within Greater Oslo and take up to 60 minutes .
Flytoget transported 5 @.@ 4 million passengers in 2007 , a 34 @-@ percent market share of airport ground transport . The service , which has a top speed of 210 kilometres per hour ( 130 mph ) , is the only high @-@ speed rail service in Norway . Construction started in 1994 and high @-@ speed trains began serving Gardermoen Airport from the date of its opening on 8 October 1998 , although full operation using the 14 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 9 @.@ 0 mi ) Romerike Tunnel had to wait another ten and a half months after severe leaks caused by the tunnel 's construction led to the partial depletion of two lakes .
Formed in 1992 as a subsidiary of Norwegian State Railways , the company has been owned since 2001 by the Norwegian Ministry of Trade and Industry .
= = History = =
= = = Decisision for a new airport connection = = =
When the Parliament of Norway on 8 October 1992 decided to build a new central airport for Eastern Norway , they also decided that the main mode of ground transport should be by rail . While the previous airport , Oslo Airport , Fornebu , was located just outside the city limits , the new airport , Oslo Airport , Gardermoen , would be located 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) north of the city , outside the reach of existing public transport . The principle of the airport construction was that it was not to be footed by the tax payers ; the entire airport would be built with borrowed money through Oslo Lufthavn AS , a subsidiary of the Norwegian Airport Administration . The same principle was chosen for the airport rail link — the Norwegian State Railways ( NSB ) creating the limited company subsidiary NSB Gardermobanen AS , founded on 24 November 1992 , to perform the construction of the line . It would be able to charge train operators using the line , channeling the payments to cover down payments and interest of the debt used to build the railway . Profit margin was estimated to 7 @.@ 5 % .
= = = Construction = = =
Oslo Airport , Gardermoen , is not on the Trunk Line that runs north from Oslo . With heavy traffic and many small stops until Lillestrøm , and continuing north as single track , the Trunk Line would have to be supplemented by a parallel double track from Oslo , with a new route north of Kløfta to Eidsvoll ; the 16 kilometres ( 10 mi ) north of the airport allowing trains operating on the Dovre Line to Lillehammer and Trondheim to access the airport . The 64 @-@ kilometre ( 40 mi ) line was named the Gardermo Line .
The Gardermo Line was the second attempt to build high @-@ speed rail in Norway , after the 35 @-@ kilometre ( 22 mi ) line from Ski to Moss on the Østfold Line . But no operation speeds exceeding 160 kilometres per hour ( 99 mph ) are achieved there due to short distances and limitations to rolling stock , making Gardermobanen the first real high @-@ speed railway line in Norway . Due to the domination of single track in Norway , the opening of the Gardermo Line increased the total length of double track in the kingdom by two @-@ thirds .
Construction started in 1994 . An agreement for purchase of sixteen three @-@ car electric multiple units was signed with Adtranz on 23 February 1995 . Parliament decided on 1 October 1996 that the construction company would also operate the new train service . The trains were delivered between 19 September 1997 and 30 January 1998 , costing NOK 1 @.@ 4 billion .
= = = Challenges = = =
The greatest challenge was the need to build the 14 @,@ 580 @-@ metre ( 47 @,@ 830 ft ) Romerike railway tunnel – Norway 's longest – beneath the geologically highly unstable Østmarka area between Etterstad , close to Oslo Central Station , and Lillestrøm . During construction , in 1997 , the water level in some lakes above the tunnel , including Lutvann and Nordre Puttjern , sank dramatically . After the leaks were discovered on 3 February 1997 , sanctions were imposed by the Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate requiring the elimination of all leakages . At its worst , the tunnel was leaking 3 @,@ 000 litres ( 660 imp gal ) of water per minute .
Rhoca @-@ Gil sealant was used in an attempt to fix the leaks , but failed to work properly . Not only did it not polymerize , and therefore failed to staunch the leaks , but it also poisoned its surroundings with acrylamide . Manual fixing with concrete became necessary ; the fixing and cleaning up of the toxin delayed the building of the tunnel by one year . Further complications arose due to conflicts between NSB Gardermobanen and the construction company , Scandinavian Rock Group , with the latter at one instance stopping work for three weeks while the parties quarrelled in court .
Reports have shown a lack of inspection and reporting procedures during incidents that should have been addressed – but were never taken seriously – in 1995 . Construction of the tunnel caused damage to around sixty houses and an evaluation by the Ministry of Transport and Communications showed that NOK 500 million was spent on fixing the leaks and claimed that this was to a large extent an unnecessary expenditure which more efficient engineering procedures would have avoided . The report also criticized the administrative planning and organization of the overall construction of the railway .
Airport Express Trains began operating as soon as the new airport ( and the Lillestrøm to Gardermoen stretch of the new high @-@ speed line ) opened on 8 October 1998 ; however , for more than ten months they had to use the old Hovedbane ( Trunk Line ) between Oslo S and Lillestrøm , which restricted their frequency to just two trains per hour . Regular operations at full capacity , using the Romerike Tunnel , did not commence until 22 August 1999 .
= = = Reorganization = = =
Estimates for the project costs were NOK 4 @.@ 3 billion , ± 20 % , but by completion they had ended at NOK 7 @.@ 7 billion , of which NOK 1 @.@ 3 billion were related to the leakages . The rest of the line had a cost exceedings of NOK 0 @.@ 4 billion . The company had acquired financial costs of NOK 0 @.@ 9 billion , so the company owed NOK 10 @.@ 0 billion by 1999 , including money spent on the new trains .
The first steps of organizational restructure were taken 29 June 2000 , when the CEO of NSB , Osmund Ueland , was fired due to several incidents related to the operations of NSB — not just the Gardermo Line . Einar Enger took over as new CEO on 26 February 2001 .
The debt in NSB Gardermobanen had become unmanageable , and in April 2000 parliament accepted that it would not be possible to make the Gardermo Line — with the current structure — the profitable venture predicted in 1992 . From 1 January 2001 , the company changed name to Flytoget AS , retaining ownership of the trains and operations and kept as a subsidiary of NSB . The tracks and infrastructure were transferred to the Norwegian National Rail Administration ( Jernbaneverket ) , who owns the rest of the Norwegian railway network . All debt was restored and covered by the state , and a vehicle excise duty was implemented on the Gardermo Line to cover the management and maintenance of the line , to be paid by all users .
On 9 December 2002 , parliament decided that Flytoget AS would become a separate railway company from 1 January 2003 , owned directly by the Ministry of Transport and Communications . One year later the ownership was transferred to the Ministry of Trade and Industry as part of a cleanup of political overhaul between the departments . As part of the process , a new CEO , Thomas Havnegjerde , was appointed in June 2002 , and in January 2003 the new Chair , Endre Skjørestad — who took over the position form NSB 's director Einar Enger . Havnegjerde announced on 6 August 2008 that he would retire from his job before the end of the year . He was replaced by Linda Bernander Silseth on 10 November 2008 . On 30 August 2009 , two of three services to Asker were extended to Drammen . This followed upgrades to the Drammen Line , including the Lieråsen Tunnel , and a new parking lot at Drammen Station , in total costing NOK 20 million .
= = Operations = =
Departures operate every ten minutes from Oslo Central Station ( Oslo S ) to the airport - i.e. six trains pr. hour . Half of the trains originate in Drammen , making five intermediate stops before Oslo S , and again at Lillestrøm . Two start from Oslo S and go directly to Gardermoen without intermediate stops . One starts from Stabekk and calls at Lysaker , Skøyen , Nationaltheateret and Oslo S. On Saturdays , Sunday mornings and in most of July , Flytoget does not operate the direct trains from Oslo S or Stabekk — only the 20 @-@ minute headway all @-@ stop trains . While the services northeast from Oslo S to the airport use the high @-@ speed Gardermo Line , those westwards towards Asker use the Drammen Line built in 1870 – 72 and the Asker Line ; so while the 48 kilometres ( 30 mi ) from Oslo S to the airport can be done in 19 minutes , the 24 kilometres ( 15 mi ) from Asker to Oslo S takes 26 minutes . The latter does however include stops at five stations : Nationaltheatret , Skøyen , Lysaker , Sandvika and Asker .
Competition is offered from other means of ground transport and by NSB who operate trains from Oslo to the airport . This includes one hourly departure with line 450 of the Oslo Commuter Rail north to Eidsvoll and south to Oslo , Drammen and Kongsberg ; one regional train hourly north to Hamar and Lillehammer and south to Vestfold ; and four daily express trains to Trondheim calling Oslo Airport Station , including one night train ( although the express trains to Trondheim do not accept passengers only travelling between Oslo and Gardermoen ) .
The price of a ticket to Oslo is NOK 180 , though higher if departing from Sandvika , Asker and Drammen . Reduced fares with 50 % discount are offered to senior citizens , children , youth under 21 years , students , benefit recipients and military personnel . Flytoget tickets are not valid on NSB trains , and vice versa . NSB tickets are generally cheaper , though not for some groups with reduced fare ; for instance students are granted a greater discount with Flytoget than with NSB . Ticket can either be bought at vending machines or as e @-@ tickets ; there is no seat reservation .
Flytoget transported 5 @.@ 4 million passengers in 2007 , a 34 % market share of airport ground transport . Flytoget boasts a high service quality , with 96 % of departures arriving within 3 minutes of schedule and only 0 @.@ 4 % of departures canceled . Part of this is due to the airport express trains receiving priority over other trains in the limited capacity around Oslo . Flytoget was announced to have the most satisfied , and the fourth most loyal customers of all Norwegian companies in 2008 , by the customer satisfaction survey conducted by the Norwegian School of Management . The same year Flytoget was declared the best place of work in Norway by Great Place to Work . During the 2007 recruitment half of the newly educated train divers chose Flytoget over NSB , mostly due to higher wages .
= = = Stations = = =
= = = Incidents = = =
Several deaths have taken place on the route , but only one due to an accident . In 1999 , an employee of the National Rail Administration was killed by a train because it was operating at 160 kilometres per hour ( 99 mph ) instead of the temporarily reduced limit of 80 kilometres per hour ( 50 mph ) ; Flytoget was fined for not informing the engineer of the speed limit reduction
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Muslim saint , Sheikh el @-@ Amud ( " Saint of the Pillar " ) , but further claims that the association is ' only a modern invention of the Mohammedans ' . A book published in 1894 , also questions the existence of a tomb to Rabbi Joseph of Nablus , calling it ' a Mohammedan legend , imposed upon inquisitive travellers by unscrupulous guides ' since ' the present Samaritans known of no Joseph 's tomb but the generally accepted one ' .
By the 1860s , many Jews and Muslims had come to see the limestone structure as housing the tomb of the biblical Joseph , and it was referred to in Arabic as " Qabr en @-@ Nabi Yūsuf " ( " Tomb of the Prophet Joseph " ) . A decorative cloth photographed in 1917 , draped over the tomb itself , asserted this perception . Palestinians are also said to regard the site as the burial place of Yūsuf Dawiqat , an Islamic sheikh . It has been claimed that this tradition is an innovation in response to Israeli control of the site since the 1970s .
= = = After 1967 = = =
Before 1967 , the tomb was still located in a field in the village of Balata on the outskirts of Nablus . Local residents apparently believed the structure entombed a 19th @-@ century cleric who was reputed to have healed the sick by reciting Koranic verses . Although the building did not function as a mosque , it was used by childless couples who would pray there for children , and young boys would take their first ritual haircut inside . After the capture of Nablus and the rest of the Palestinian territories in the 1967 war , Jewish settlers began to frequent the site , and by 1975 , Muslims were prohibited from visiting the site . After a settler was stabbed in Nablus in 1983 , other settlers demonstrated by taking over Joseph 's tomb for three days in a bid to force the government 's hand into using an iron fist . In the mid @-@ 1980s a yeshiva named Od Yosef Chai , ( Joseph Still Lives ) , affiliated with some of the more militant Jewish settlements , and headed by Yitzhak Ginsburg , was built at the site beside an Israel Defense Forces ( IDF ) military outpost , apparently on the model of settler success in establishing a presence at the Tomb of the Patriarchs in Hebron . All Muslims including those living nearby were forcefully denied access . An initial attempt in 1994 to transform the site into a Jewish religious centre failed . Shulamit Aloni , minister for culture and education in the Rabin government , outraged religious activists at the time by asserting , on the basis of archeological evidence , that the site was only 200 years old , and the tomb that of Sheikh Yūsuf ( Dawiqat ) , a Sufi holy man who died in the 18th century . Her views were challenged by Benny Katzover who replied that she had been misled by archeologists , and he had experts to back the traditional ascription . In 1997 Torah scrolls were brought in , the prayer niche facing Mecca was covered , and the site was declared a synagogue and yeshiva . Attaching the religious tradition surrounding the story of Joseph to the site , the settlers received protection from the IDF to transform this place of Muslim worship into one of their own . A curfew lasting 24 hours was once imposed by the IDF on Nablus 's 120 @,@ 000 inhabitants to allow a group of settlers and 2 Likud Knesset members to pray at the site . On the traditional anniversary of Joseph 's death on the 27th of Tammuz , hundreds of Jews would arrive at the site .
On December 12 , 1995 , in accordance with the Oslo Accords , jurisdiction of Nablus was handed over to the Palestinian National Authority , though Israel retained control of several religious sites , one of which was Joseph ’ s Tomb , thus sanctioning the fraught situation . Settler apprehensions that the area might be returned to Palestinians worked to enhance the status of Joseph 's tomb as a centre of pilgrimage . The Interim Agreement stipulated that : ' Both sides shall respect and protect the religious rights of Jews , Christians , Muslims and Samaritans concerning the protection and free access to the holy sites as well as freedom of worship and practice . ' The tomb , resembling a fortified military post with a small functioning yeshiva , became a frequent flash point . On September 24 , 1996 ( Also called Sukkut 1996 events part of the Western wall riots ( 1996 ) ) , after the opening of an exit for the Hasmonean Tunnel under the Ummariya madrasah , which Palestinians interpreted as a signal Benjamin Netanyahu was sending that Israel was to be the sole sovereign of Jerusalem , the PNA called for a general strike and a wave of protests broke out throughout the West Bank . In clashes , 7 Palestinians were killed and 253 wounded in the West Bank while six Israeli soldiers were killed at the tomb , and parts of the adjacent yeshiva were ransacked . Jews continued to worship at the site under limited protection of the Israel Defense Forces ( IDF ) , often dressed as civilians easily mistaken for settlers . During , The site had been attacked by gun fire , and hundreds of Palestinian stormed the compound , Israeli border control took control over the compound but Palestinian security services requested to take control over the positions and the control was passed to Palestinian security services. in the following hours the mob put cars outside the compound ablaze entered the tomb and removed the Morus tree , the last known image of the Morus tree [ 1 ] was taken during 2006 .
Over the year and a half between 1999 and 2000 , the IDF , seconded by the Shin Bet and the Israeli Border Police , had asked the government to evacuate the tomb . In September 2000 , in the wake of Ariel Sharon ’ s controversial visit to the Temple Mount , the Al @-@ Aqsa Intifada broke out , and Nablus turned into conflict zone , in part after its governor ’ s son was shot dead during a clash with Israeli soldiers . The Palestinians targeted the site , reportedly on the grounds that it was better for the shrine to belong to no one than to be appropriated by just one religion , burning the yeshiva to the ground , incinerating its books and painting the dome green , an act which led to retaliation with Jewish vandalism of three mosques in Tiberias and Jaffa . After the death of an Israeli border policeman the head of the IDF ’ s southern command , Brigadier @-@ General Yom @-@ Tov Samia , threatened to resign if the government kept control of the tomb , since retaining control of it was ‘ patently illegal . ’ Prime Minister Ehud Barak eventually complied with the request and the site was handed over to the Palestinian police on October 7 , 2000 . Israeli newspapers framed the return of the site as a humiliating defeat for the nation . The tomb was pillaged and torched by Palestinian protesters hours after its evacuation . The next morning , the bullet @-@ riddled body of rabbi Hillel Lieberman of Elon Moreh , a cousin of Senator Joseph Lieberman , was found on the outskirts of Nablus , where he had gone to check damage to the tomb . Joseph ’ s Tomb embodied a key Zionist theme : the return from exile to one ’ s homeland , and the Palestinian assault has been interpreted as challenging the credibility of claims to the site . The PA began to repair it the next day . Palestinian spokesperson Hanan Ashrawi claimed that Judaism 's connection with the tomb was ' fabricated ' . The mayor of Nablus Ghassan Shakaa was reported as saying Jewish worshippers would not be permitted to pray there until an international organization or third party determines whether the site is holy to Moslems or Jews .
Israeli military officials said the Palestinians intended to build a mosque on the ruins of the site . The statement came after workers repairing the tomb painted the site 's dome green , the colour of Islam . A Palestinian Authority spokesman denied the allegations and said that Arafat had ordered the renovations and for the synagogue to be rebuilt . Ghassan Shakaa , the mayor , claimed that city officials simply wanted to return the building to the way it looked before it came into Israeli hands in the 1967 Mideast war . Under intense U.S. and international pressure the dome was repainted white .
= = = Since 2000 = = =
After the events of October 2000 , the IDF prohibited Israeli access to the tomb . As a result of Operation Defensive Shield , Nablus was reoccupied by the IDF in April 2002 , with severe damage to the historic core of the city , where 64 heritage buildings suffered serious damage or were destroyed . Some Breslov hasidim and others began to take advantage of the new circumstances to visit the site clandestinely under the cover of darkness , evading army and police checkpoints . Eventually Joseph ’ s tomb was once more open to visits . In May 2002 , Israeli soldiers mistakenly opened fire on a convoy of settlers taking advantage of an ongoing incursion in Nablus to visit the tomb . Seven settlers were arrested by the army for illegally entering a combat zone . As a result of Operation Defensive Shield , the tomb was retaken by the IDF and shortly afterwards , in response to numerous requests , they renewed guarded tours of the tomb . One day every month at midnight as many as 800 visitors were allowed to pray at the gravesite . These visits were designed to prevent unauthorized and unprotected clandestine visits , mainly by Breslav Hassidim . However , in October , citing security reasons , Israel re @-@ imposed a ban on Jewish pilgrims obtaining special permits and travelling to the tomb .
In February 2003 it was reported in the Jerusalem Post that the grave had been pounded with hammers and that the tree at its entrance had been broken ; car parts and trash littered the tomb which had a " huge hole in its dome . " Bratslav leader Aaron Klieger notified and lobbied government ministers about the desecration , but the IDF said it had no plans to secure or guard the site , claiming such action would be too costly .
In February 2007 , thirty five Knesset members ( MKs ) wrote to the army asking them to open Joseph 's Tomb to Jewish visitors for prayer . In May 2007 , Breslov hasidim visited the site for the first time in two years and later on that year , a group of hasidim found that the gravesite had been cleaned up by the Palestinians . In the past few years the site had suffered from neglect and its appearance had deteriorated , with garbage being dumped and tires being burned there .
In early 2008 , a group of MKs wrote a letter to the Prime Minister asking that the tomb be renovated : " The tombstone is completely shattered , and the holy site is desecrated in an appalling manner , the likes of which we have not seen in Israel or anywhere else in the world . " In February , it was reported that Israel would officially ask the Palestinian Authority to carry out repairs at the tomb , but in response , vandals set tires on fire inside the tomb . In December 2008 , Jewish workers funded by anonymous donors painted the blackened walls and re @-@ built the shattered stone marker covering the grave .
As of 2009 , monthly visits to the tomb in bullet @-@ proof vehicles under heavy IDF protection are organised by the Yitzhar based organization Shechem Ehad . In late April 2009 , a group of Jewish worshipers found the headstone smashed and swastikas painted on the walls , as well as boot prints on the grave itself .
In August 2010 , it was reported that the IDF and the Palestinian Authority reached an agreement on renovating the site . Israel 's chief rabbis , Yona Metzger and Shlomo Amar , visited and prayed at the tomb along with 500 other worshippers , the first such visit by a high @-@ ranking Israeli delegation in 10 years .
On 24 April 2011 , Palestinian Authority police officers opened fire on three cars of Israeli worshipers after they finished praying at Joseph 's tomb . An Israeli citizen was killed and three others were wounded . The fatality was identified as Ben @-@ Joseph Livnat , 25 , the nephew of Culture Minister Limor Livnat . Both the Israel Defense Forces and Palestinian Authority ordered investigations into the incident . According to an initial investigation , three cars full of Israelis entered the compound of Joseph 's tomb without coordination with the Israeli military or Palestinian security forces and then tried to break through a Palestinian Authority police checkpoint . The IDF investigation concluded that the Palestinian police officers had acted " maliciously " and with the intent to harm the Jewish worshipers . IDF Chief of Staff Benny Gantz added that they fired " without justification and with no immediate threat to their lives . "
On 7 July 2014 , Palestinians tried to burn down Joseph 's tomb while protesting . Palestinian Authority security forces were able to stop the protesters before they were able to burn it down . On December 22 , 2014 , Jews who were visiting the tomb to light candles for the Jewish holiday of Hanukkah discovered that the site had been vandalized . Lights were broken and electrical wiring had been cut . It was the first time Jews were allowed to visit the tomb in over a month .
On 16 October 2015 , amid a wave of violence between Palestinians and Israelis , dozens of Palestinians overran the tomb and a group of them set it on fire with petrol bombs . Palestinian security forces dispersed them and extinguished the flames ; and although the tomb itself was not apparently damaged , the women 's section was reported to be heavily damaged . Israeli security forces later arrived at the scene . According to a Palestinian official , the Palestinians had attempted to set up barricades in the area to prevent home demolitions by the Israeli Army , but a group of them proceeded to attack the tomb .
At 2 a.m. on the night of 18 October 2015 , a group of 30 Jews , on instruction from Rabbi Eliezer Berland , went to the tomb without permits , in contravention of a standing IDF order , to clean and paint the compound that was burned three days before . As they were attacked by local Palestinians , six of them were bruised by beatings , and one of their vehicles was burnt . They claimed that the Palestinian police , who had detained them , had also beaten them , before they were handed over to the Israeli army , which had been called to extract the others .
= 26th Battalion ( Australia ) =
The 26th Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army . Originally raised in April 1915 for service in World War I as part of the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) , it was assigned to the 7th Brigade and consisted of personnel recruited from the states of Queensland and Tasmania . The battalion fought at Gallipoli in the latter stages of that campaign before being withdrawn to Egypt in late 1915 . In mid @-@ 1916 , it was sent to Europe where it served in the trenches of the Western Front in France and Belgium for the rest of the war , fighting in most of the battles that the Australians took part in between 1916 and 1918 . At the end of the war it was disbanded in May 1919 as part of the demobilisation of the AIF .
During the inter @-@ war years , the 26th Battalion was re @-@ raised as a part @-@ time unit of the Citizens Forces , known as the 26th Battalion ( Logan and Albert Regiment ) , based in Queensland . In 1934 , the 26th was merged with another Queensland @-@ based infantry battalion , the 15th Battalion , to become the 15th / 26th Battalion . The two units were subsequently delinked in 1939 when the new 26th Australian Infantry Battalion was raised in Queensland as Australia mobilised for war .
The battalion was assigned to the 11th Brigade at this time and used in various garrison roles in the early part of World War II before a detachment was sent to the Dutch East Indies as part of Merauke Force in 1943 . Later in the war , the entire 26th Battalion , along with the rest of the 11th Brigade , was committed to the Bougainville campaign where they saw action against the Japanese from late 1944 until the end of hostilities in August 1945 . After the war , the 26th Battalion was used to guard Japanese prisoners on Rabaul , remaining there until March 1946 , before returning to Australia for demobilisation . It was subsequently disbanded in August 1946 .
= = History = =
= = = World War I = = =
The 26th Battalion was originally raised in April 1915 as part of the all volunteer Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) . Drawing recruits from Tasmania and Queensland , the battalion concentrated at Enoggera , Queensland , where it formed part of the 7th Brigade , which was attached to the 2nd Division . The battalion 's first commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel George Ferguson . With an authorised strength of 1 @,@ 023 men , after a short period of basic training , the battalion 's first draft – consisting of two companies of Queenslanders – embarked for overseas in May . They were followed by the two Tasmanian companies in late June . Further training was undertaken in Egypt , after which the battalion was sent to Gallipoli when the 2nd Division was despatched to the peninsula to reinforce the troops that had been fighting there since April . The 26th Battalion landed on 12 September . By that time , the campaign had become a costly stalemate and shortly after their arrival , as winter came and conditions worsened , the decision was made to evacuate the peninsula . As a result , the battalion did not take part in any major actions , and fulfilled only a defensive role , defending positions such as " Courtney 's Post " , " Steel 's Post " and " Russell 's Top " , before it was withdrawn from the peninsula on 12 December . Casualties during this first campaign amounted to 26 killed and 96 wounded . In addition , over 500 personnel were evacuated as sick with about half returning to duty .
After the evacuation , the 26th Battalion returned to Egypt where the AIF was reorganised and expanded before being sent to Europe . The 26th arrived in France in March 1916 , taking its place in the trenches along the Western Front the following month . In early June , alongside the 28th Battalion , they took part in the first raid undertaken by Australians in France , attacking German trenches around Bois Grenier . Their first major battle came around Pozières between July and August , after which the battalion was sent along with the entire 2nd Division to a quieter sector in Belgium having suffered over 650 casualties . After this , in November they were moved south to the Somme Valley and throughout the month the 26th participated in two attacks around a position known as " The Maze " , a salient to the east of Flers . Both of these attacks ultimately proved fruitless , grinding to a halt in the muddy conditions , and resulting in over 300 casualties . At the end of November , Lieutenant Colonel Reginald Travers took command of the battalion .
The harsh winter of 1916 – 17 was spent occupying defensive positions along the front and training behind the lines . Christmas was spent in the trenches around Amiens , but in early January 1917 , the 26th Battalion was transferred to the Ancre Valley and then to Le Sars later in the month . As the German Army withdrew towards the Hindenburg Line , the 26th was involved in a number of actions at Warlencourt and Lagnicourt in March . During the fighting around Lagnicourt , Captain Percy Cherry led his company into the village , capturing several positions before helping to hold off several German counterattacks ; he was later awarded the Victoria Cross posthumously . Later , in May they joined the Second Battle of Bullecourt , where they were used mainly in a support role during the initial attack , being held back as part of the 2nd Division 's reserve . During the attack , a company from the 26th was detached to help bolster the 5th Brigade , and later it was thrust into the line to help defend the gains after a German counterattack fell on the 6th Brigade 's left flank . After Bullecourt , the battalion was moved to Belgium again , where they joined the battles at Menin Road and Brooseinde Ridge in September and October . During the first attack , the 26th was in support of the 28th Battalion , but later it led the 7th Brigade 's follow up attack on the second line of defences around Broodseinde . Combined casualties for the two battles were over 400 killed or wounded .
In early 1918 , after the fighting on the Eastern Front ended following the collapse of Tsarist Russia , the Germans transferred a large number of divisions to the Western Front and subsequently launched a major offensive that became known as the Spring Offensive . In April 1918 , after the Allies had been pushed steadily back , the 26th Battalion was transferred from the Messines sector south to the Somme and committed to the fighting along with other Australian units . The 26th undertook defensive tasks throughout April and May in various locations including Baizieux , Camon and Ribemont , during which time over a 100 casualties were suffered before the German offensive was eventually halted . After this , throughout June and July the battalion launched a number of " peaceful penetration " operations to take small amounts of the German front line during the lull that followed prior to the final Allied offensive of the war . The first came around Morlancourt on 10 June , while another was undertaken around Monument Wood , near Villers @-@ Bretonneux , on 17 July 1918 . It was during this raid that Lieutenant Albert Borella earned the battalion 's second Victoria Cross of the war . The battalion was also credited with capturing the first German tank taken by Allied forces – " Mephisto " – during a similar operation a few days earlier . A few months later , in August , the Allies launched their Hundred Days Offensive , which ultimately brought an end to the war . On the opening day of the offensive , the 26th led the 7th Brigade 's attack around Villers @-@ Bretonneux . After a period in reserve , in late August they advanced on the brigade 's left during an attack at Biaches which saw the Allies push towards the Somme River . The following month they took part in the attack on Mont St Quentin , during which they experienced heavy machine @-@ gun fire .
After the Somme was crossed , the 26th joined an attack around Grandcourt and Lormisset on 3 October 1918 , part of the " Beaurevoir Line " , which was the third and final line of the Hindenburg Line defences . During the attack , the 26th followed up the initial gains made in the 7th Brigade 's sector by the 25th Battalion , and attacked the second line of German defences around Grandcourt , suffering 123 casualties , including 21 killed . Shortly after this , the 26th received a batch of reinforcements from the 25th Battalion , which was subsequently disbanded . Nevertheless , the fighting along the Beaurevoir Line was the 26th Battalion 's last contribution to the war and they were withdrawn to Berteaucort for a rest shortly afterwards . They did not return to the front line before the armistice was declared in November and were subsequently disbanded on 31 May 1919 . The battalion 's last commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel William Davis , who took command of the battalion in mid @-@ October 1918 and remained in command until it was disbanded .
During the course of the 26th Battalion 's involvement in the war it lost 877 men killed and 2 @,@ 745 men wounded . Members of the battalion received the following decorations : two Victoria Crosses ( VCs ) , one Member of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) , four Distinguished Service Orders ( DSOs ) including one Bar , 25 Distinguished Conduct Medals ( DCMs ) , 26 Military Crosses ( MCs ) including three Bars , 96 Military Medals ( MMs ) including four Bars , four Meritorious Service Medals ( MSMs ) , and 37 Mentions in Despatches ( MIDs ) .
= = = Inter @-@ war years = = =
In 1921 , following the completion of the demobilisation process , the AIF was disbanded and the Citizens Forces , Australia 's part @-@ time military force which was responsible for the defence of Australia , was reorganised to perpetuate the battle honours and traditions of the AIF by renumbering the units of the Citizens Force to adopt the numerical designations of their related AIF units . This process had partially commenced in late 1918 , with the introduction of a regimental system within the Citizen Forces , but was adjusted in 1921 when the Citizens Force was reorganised to replicate the AIF 's divisional structure resulting in the formation of single battalions from each regiment . Upon formation during the war , the units of the AIF had been raised from men drawn from the recruitment territory of already established Citizens Force units and as a consequence many AIF units retained links to Citizens Force units from where they drew the majority of the initial intake of personnel . As a result of the reorganisation in 1921 , the 26th Battalion was re @-@ raised as a part @-@ time unit of the Citizens Force , drawing personnel from several battalions of the 26th Infantry Regiment , which traced its history back through the 9th ( Logan and Albert ) Infantry , which had been formed in 1912 . In 1927 , territorial titles were adopted by the units of the Citizens Force , and the battalion adopted the title of the " Logan and Albert Regiment " . It also adopted the motto , Nunquam non Paratus , meaning " Never Unprepared " .
Initially , the Citizens Forces was maintained using a mixture of voluntary and compulsory service . In 1929 , following the election of the Scullin Labor government , the compulsory training scheme was abolished and replaced with an all volunteer force known as the " Militia " . The decision to suspend compulsory training , coupled with the economic downturn of the Great Depression meant that the manpower of many Militia units dropped considerably and the decision was made to amalgamate a number of units . The 26th Battalion was not initially affected , but in 1934 it was merged with the 15th Battalion to form the 15th / 26th Battalion . These two battalions remained linked until just prior to World War II , when on 16 June 1939 , they were split and a new 26th Battalion was raised in Queensland , near Hughenden , within the 1st Military District . Upon re @-@ forming , the battalion was placed under the command of one of the Australian Army 's most decorated soldiers , Lieutenant Colonel Harry Murray , a World War I Victoria Cross recipient . The battalion 's second @-@ in @-@ command was another Victoria Cross recipient , Major Edgar Towner .
= = = World War II = = =
Following the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 , the 26th Battalion undertook a series of training camps around northern Queensland as it began to re @-@ establish its numbers . Between September and November , it was based around Kissing Point , Queensland , before moving to Townsville in February 1940 , and then south of Bowen the following month . At this time , it was placed under the command of the 11th Brigade , along with the 31st and 51st Battalions , both of which were Queensland @-@ based Militia battalions . In mid @-@ 1940 , the battalion 's strength fluctuated as compulsory service was reintroduced and drafts of national servicemen marched in for short periods of training , while volunteers were released to join the Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) and other services . Many of the initial recruits came from Italian @-@ Australian families from north Queensland , but as the battalion grew , reinforcements from other Australian states arrived during 1942 and early 1943 .
Throughout 1941 and 1942 , the battalion undertook defensive duties in various locations around Queensland , including Charters Towers , Bohle River , and Alligator Falls . On 17 August 1942 , Murray relinquished command and was replaced by Lieutenant Colonel John Abbott . In October , the 26th moved to Kuranda , near Barron Falls , and as reinforcements arrived , began training to prepare for deployment overseas . In May 1943 , the battalion moved to Cairns where they embarked on the transport Katoomba and sailed to Horn Island . ' A ' Company was detached at this time to Merauke Force in the Dutch East Indies , becoming the first Militia unit to serve outside of Australian territory . Several other platoons were dispatched to other islands around the Torres Strait . Between August 1943 and November , defensive duties were undertaken on the mainland around the Cape York Peninsula , before the battalion returned to Horn Island .
In July 1944 , the 26th Battalion was withdrawn to Australia on board the transport Taroona , and after leave reconstituted at Strathpine , Queensland , and began training for further operations . Gazetted as an AIF unit , which meant it could be deployed outside Australian territory , during December 1944 the battalion deployed to Bougainville as Australian troops from the 3rd Division relieved American forces around Torokina . The Australians subsequently launched three drives on the island in the northern , southern and central areas . Initially , the 26th Battalion was committed to the fighting in the central sector of the island conducting patrolling operations around Numa Numa before being withdrawn to Torokina at the end of January 1945 . In February that year , Lieutenant Colonel Bernard Callinan assumed command , taking over from Abbott .
The 26th was then deployed to the Soraken Plantation area , using a series of amphibious landings to clear the area before a brief rest after which they began clearing north towards Ratsua and Ruri Bay , taking over from the 55th / 53rd Battalion . Determined Japanese resistance along the Ratsua front resulted in an amphibious landing by a company from the 31st / 51st Battalion around Porton Plantation , in an effort to outflank Ratsua . Following a series of mishaps , the company that landed around Porton became heavily engaged , and while efforts were made to evacuate them , the 26th Battalion and the rest of the 31st / 51st Battalion attempted to break through from Ratsua . They were unable to penetrate the Japanese lines , however , as they came up against Japanese defenders that were determined to resist because they were unable to withdraw any further along the peninsula . In late June , the 26th Battalion was relieved by the 27th Battalion and sent back to Torokina for rest . Hostilities ceased in August , and the following month the 26th Battalion was sent to Rabaul for garrison duty . In December , Lieutenant Colonel Allan Cameron took command of the battalion .
In March 1946 , the 26th Battalion returned to Australia . After this , the battalion experienced a high turn @-@ over of personnel , with over 2 @,@ 500 men passing through the battalion at this time , as men were discharged or transferred to other units . Command of the battalion also changed a couple of times , with Lieutenant Colonel Peter Webster taking over on 22 March , before he handed over to Lieutenant Colonel Eric Barnes . The battalion was finally disbanded on 28 August 1946 , but ' A ' Company remained in existence as a holding company until 25 September 1946 when the last member marched out .
During the course of the battalion 's involvement in the war , it lost 40 men killed in action or died on active service and 110 wounded . Members of the battalion received the following decorations : one DSO , two MBEs , one George Medal , one British Empire Medal , five MCs , eight MMs , and 14 MIDs .
= = Alliances = =
The 26th Battalion held the following alliances :
United Kingdom – Cameronians ( Scottish Rifles ) ( 1928 – 51 ) ;
Canada – The Perth Regiment ( 1932 – 53 ) ;
New Zealand – The Otago Regiment ( 1932 – 54 ) ;
South Africa – Witwatersrand Rifles ( 1932 – 53 ) .
= = Commanding Officers = =
The following officers commanded the 26th Battalion :
World War I
Lieutenant Colonel George Andrew Ferguson ;
Lieutenant Colonel Reginald John Albert Travers ;
Lieutenant Colonel William MacIntyre Davis .
World War II
Lieutenant Colonel Henry William ( Harry ) Murray ;
Lieutenant Colonel John Noel Abbott ;
Lieutenant Colonel Bernard James Callinan ;
Lieutenant Colonel Allan Gordon Cameron ;
Lieutenant Colonel Peter Glyn Clifton Webster ;
Lieutenant Colonel Eric Barnes .
= = Battle honours = =
The 26th Battalion was awarded the following battle honours :
World War I : Somme 1916 , ' 18 ; Pozières ; Bullecourt ; Ypres 1917 ; Menin Road ; Polygon Wood ; Broodseinde ; Poelcappelle ; Passchendaele ; Amiens ; Albert 1918 ; Mont St Quentin ; Hindenburg Line ; Beaurevoir ; France and Flanders 1916 – 18 ; Gallipoli 1915 ; Egypt 1915 – 16 .
World War II : Bonis – Porton ; South @-@ West Pacific 1943 – 45 ; Liberation of Australian New Guinea .
In 1961 , the battalion – although no longer on the Australian Army 's order of battle – was entrusted with the three battle honours awarded to the 2 / 26th Battalion for its service with the 2nd AIF during World War II . The honours it inherited at this time were : Malaya 1941 – 42 ; Johore ; and Singapore Island .
= Yellowstone fires of 1988 =
The Yellowstone fires of 1988 together formed the largest wildfire in the recorded history of Yellowstone National Park in the United States . Starting as many smaller individual fires , the flames quickly spread out of control with increasing winds and drought and combined into one large conflagration , which burned for several months . The fires almost destroyed two major visitor destinations and , on September 8 , 1988 , the entire park was closed to all non @-@ emergency personnel for the first time in its history . Only the arrival of cool and moist weather in the late autumn brought the fires to an end . A total of 793 @,@ 880 acres ( 3 @,@ 213 km2 ) , or 36 percent of the park was affected by the wildfires .
Thousands of firefighters fought the fires , assisted by dozens of helicopters and fixed @-@ wing aircraft which were used for water and fire retardant drops . At the peak of the effort , over 9 @,@ 000 firefighters were assigned to the park . With fires raging throughout the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem and other areas in the western United States , the staffing levels of the National Park Service and other land management agencies were inadequate for the situation ; over 4 @,@ 000 U.S. military personnel were soon brought in to assist in fire suppression efforts . The firefighting effort cost $ 120 million ( $ 240 million in 2016 ) . No firefighters died while fighting Yellowstone fires , though there were two fire @-@ related deaths outside the park .
Before the late 1960s , fires were generally believed to be detrimental for parks and forests , and management policies were aimed at suppressing fires as quickly as possible . However , as the beneficial ecological role of fire became better understood in the decades before 1988 , a policy was adopted of allowing natural fires to burn under controlled conditions , which proved highly successful in reducing the area lost annually to wildfires .
In contrast , in 1988 , Yellowstone was overdue for a large fire , and , in the exceptionally dry summer , the many smaller " controlled " fires combined . The fires burned discontinuously , leaping from one patch to another , leaving intervening areas untouched . Large firestorms swept through some regions , burning everything in their paths . Tens of millions of trees and countless plants were killed by the wildfires , and some regions were left looking blackened and dead . However , more than half of the affected areas were burned by ground fires , which did less damage to hardier tree species . Not long after the fires ended , plant and tree species quickly reestablished themselves , and natural plant regeneration has been highly successful .
The Yellowstone fires of 1988 were unprecedented in the history of the National Park Service , and many questioned existing fire management policies . Media accounts of mismanagement were often sensational and inaccurate , sometimes wrongly reporting or implying that most of the park was being destroyed . While there were temporary declines in air quality during the fires , no adverse long @-@ term health effects have been recorded in the ecosystem and contrary to initial reports , few large mammals were killed by the fires , though there has been a reduction in the number of moose which has yet to rebound . Losses to structures were minimized by concentrating firefighting efforts near major visitor areas , keeping property damage down to $ 3 million ( $ 6 million as of 2016 ) .
= = Fire management policy development in the United States = =
In the eastern United States , with its significant rainfall , wildfires are relatively small and have rarely posed great risk to life and property . As white settlements moved further west into drier areas , the first large scale fires were encountered . Range fires on the Great Plains and forest fires in the Rocky Mountains were far larger and more destructive than what had ever been seen in the east . A number of catastrophic fire events over the years greatly influenced fire management policies .
The worst loss of life in United States history due to a wildfire occurred in 1871 when the Peshtigo Fire swept through Wisconsin , killing more than 1500 people . The Santiago Canyon Fire of 1889 in California and especially the Great Fire of 1910 in Montana and Idaho contributed to the philosophy that fire was a danger that needed to be suppressed . The Great Fire of 1910 had burned 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 12 @,@ 000 km2 ) , destroyed a number of communities and killed 86 people , and this event prompted various land management agencies to emphasize wildfire suppression . U.S. Government land agencies , including the National Park Service , generally followed the fire management policies established by the U.S. Forest Service , which oversees the majority of the nation 's forestlands .
Before the middle of the 20th century , most forest managers believed that fires should be suppressed at all times . By 1935 , the U.S. Forest Service 's fire management policy stipulated that all wildfires were to be suppressed by 10 A.M. the morning after they were first spotted . Firefighting crews were established throughout public lands , and generally staffed by young men during fire seasons . By 1940 , firefighters known as smokejumpers would parachute out of airplanes to extinguish flames in remote locations . By the beginning of World War II , over 8 @,@ 000 fire lookout towers had been constructed in the United States . Though many have been torn down due to increased use of airplanes for fire spotting , three are still used each year in Yellowstone . Firefighting efforts were highly successful , with the area burned by wildfires reduced from an annual average of 30 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 120 @,@ 000 km2 ) during the 1930s , to between 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 8 @,@ 100 km2 ) and 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 20 @,@ 000 km2 ) by the 1960s . The need for lumber during World War II was high and fires that destroyed timberland were deemed unacceptable . In 1944 , the U.S. Forest Service developed an ad campaign to help educate the public that all fires were detrimental , using a cartoon black bear named Smokey Bear . This iconic firefighting bear can still be seen on posters with the catchphrase " Only you can prevent forest fires " . Early posters of Smokey Bear misled the public into believing that western wildfires were predominantly human @-@ caused . In Yellowstone , human @-@ caused fires average between 6 and 10 annually , while 35 wildfires are ignited by lightning .
Some researchers , as well as some timber companies and private citizens , understood that fire was a natural state of affairs in many ecosystems . Fire would help clean out the understory and dead plant matter , allowing economically important tree species to grow with less competition for nutrients . Native Americans would often burn woodlands to reduce overgrowth and increase grasslands for large prey animals such as bison and elk . As early as 1924 , environmentalist Aldo Leopold argued that wildfires were beneficial to ecosystems , and were necessary for the natural propagation of numerous tree and plant species . Over the next 40 years , increasing numbers of foresters and ecologists concurred about the benefits of wildfire to ecosystems . In 1963 , a group of ecologists consulted by the National Park Service released a report recommending that wildfires should be allowed to periodically burn to restore the environmental balance in parks . The Wilderness Act of 1964 helped to address the role of fire as a natural part of ecosystems . By 1968 , the National Park Service had adjusted its fire management policies to reflect changing attitudes . The service determined that fires that started naturally ( by lightning ) would be permitted to burn if they posed little risk to human life and property . The service also decreed that under prescribed conditions , controlled burns would be deliberately set to restore balance to ecosystems . Fire ecology became better understood after many forests had aged to maturity and were overdue for a large scale burn .
From 1972 , the National Park Service began allowing natural fires in Yellowstone to burn under controlled conditions . Fires of this type were referred to as prescribed natural fires . Between 1972 and 1987 , a total of 235 prescribed natural fires burned a relatively small 33 @,@ 759 acres ( 137 km2 ) under the directives of the new policy . Of these , only 15 spread to more than 100 acres ( 0 @.@ 4 km2 ) . The five years prior to 1988 were much wetter than normal and this may have reduced the area of the fires during that period . The prescribed natural fire policy appeared to be an effective way to manage fires , especially in the Yellowstone region .
= = Contributing factors to the fires = =
Formal fire recordkeeping in Yellowstone began in 1931 , when the Heart Lake Fire burned 18 @,@ 000 acres ( 73 km2 ) . Despite its small extent , it was the largest fire in the period from when the park was created until 1988 . Research indicates that only two or three large fires occur on the Yellowstone Plateau every 1 @,@ 000 years . The previous major Yellowstone fire was in the early to mid @-@ 18th century , well before the arrival of white explorers .
Yellowstone forests are dominated by the lodgepole pine and are eventually replaced by other tree species after 80 to 100 years as a forest matures . In Yellowstone , a very short growing season due to high altitude and relatively poor soils allows the lodgepole pine to reach ages approaching three hundred years before other trees such as Engelmann spruce and subalpine fir become established . The lodgepole pines found throughout the Yellowstone Plateau high country grow in uninterrupted dense stands averaging similar ages in various groupings . Though trees normally found in more mature forests do occur , they are not found in large stands as in other forests in the Rocky Mountains . By the 1980s much of the lodgepole pine forests in Yellowstone were between 200 and 250 years old and approaching the end of their lifecycle .
The mountain pine beetle killed a number of trees in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem from the late 1960s through the mid @-@ 1980s . This created a heterogeneous forest in which old surviving trees were mixed with younger trees of various ages . This mixed stand structure may have provided ladder fuels that contributed to the fires . In addition , the winter season of 1987 – 1988 was drier than usual , with the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem receiving only 31 % of the normal snowpack . However , April and May 1988 were very wet and the abundant moisture greatly aided grass and understory development . By June , the rainfall stopped and little was recorded in the entire Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem for the next four months . By July , the worst drought in the history of Yellowstone National Park began . Grasses and plants which grew well in the early summer soon turned to dry tinder . Relative humidity levels fell further , desiccating the forest . Fuel moisture content in dead and fallen timber was recorded as low as 5 % . By mid @-@ August , humidity levels were averaging below 20 % and were recorded as low as 6 % on one occasion . To compound the lack of rainfall , the majority of Yellowstone 's soils are rhyolitic volcanic rocks and soils which have poor moisture retention . A series of strong but dry storm fronts also led to the rapid spread of a number of the largest fires .
Accumulated fuel , old forests , and unabated and exceptionally dry conditions spelled trouble for Yellowstone . However , foresters and fire ecologists predicted a normal fire season for the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem and anticipated normal rainfall for July . History provided little evidence to suggest that 1988 would be any different from the previous 100 plus years the park had existed . But , as major fires started to break out throughout the Rocky Mountain region , the media began to take notice . Twenty small fires started in Yellowstone by July and of those , eleven went out on their own . The remainder were closely monitored in accordance with the prescribed natural fire policies . By July 15 fires throughout the entire Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem had burned 8 @,@ 500 acres ( 34 km2 ) and though this was not out of the ordinary , media focus on fires raging throughout the American west influenced the decision by the park officials to initiate fire suppression efforts on July 15 . Within a week after suppression efforts commenced , the fires had spread to include almost 100 @,@ 000 acres ( 400 km2 ) on the parkland alone .
= = Major fires in Yellowstone in 1988 = =
Almost 250 different fires started in Yellowstone and the surrounding National Forests between June and August . Seven of them were responsible for 95 % of the total burned area . At the end of July , the National Park Service and other agencies had fully mobilized available personnel , and yet the fires continued to expand . Smaller fires burned into each other , propelled by dry storms which brought howling winds and dry lightning strikes but no rain . On August 20 , the single worst day of the fires and later dubbed " Black Saturday " , more than 150 @,@ 000 acres ( 610 km2 ) were consumed during one of many firestorms . Ash from the firestorms throughout the park drifted as far away as Billings , Montana , 60 miles ( 97 km ) to the northeast . The wind driven flames jumped roads and firelines , and burning embers started new fires a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) or more ahead of the main fires . Ground fires raced the fuel ladder to the forest canopy and became crown fires with flames over 200 feet ( 61 m ) high . On that single day , more Yellowstone land burned than in all other fires combined since the establishment of the park . Throughout the summer , fires made huge advances of 5 to 10 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 to 16 @.@ 1 km ) a day , and there were even occasions when more than 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) in one hour were recorded .
One large group of fires was known as the Snake River Complex . These fires were in the southern section of the park , in the headwaters region of the Yellowstone and Snake Rivers . The largest fire in the group was the Shoshone fire which was started by lightning on June 23 . The prescribed natural burn policy was still in effect , and at first no efforts were made to suppress this fire . It smoldered with little movement for several weeks , then rapidly started expanding towards the northeast on July 20 .
The Red fire started near Lewis Lake on July 1 and like the Shoshone fire , advanced little for several weeks . The fire then moved northeast on July 19 and combined with the Shoshone fire in August . As these two fires advanced towards the Grant Village area , evacuations were ordered so fire fighting crews could concentrate on structure protection . In the midst of a large lodgepole pine forest , the Grant Village complex was the first major tourist area impacted that season . A number of small structures and some of the campground complex were destroyed . After the Red and Shoshone fires combined , they were referred to as the Shoshone fire , since it was much larger .
The Mink fire started in Bridger @-@ Teton National Forest from lightning on July 11 , and burned north following the Yellowstone River valley , after firefighters forced the fire away from private lands . The Mink fire eventually burned sections inside the park after July 23 , but was deemed to be a low risk since it was in a very remote section of the park .
The third largest fire was the Huck fire , which started after a tree fell on a power line on August 20 near Flagg Ranch . This fire burned primarily in the John D. Rockefeller , Jr . Memorial Parkway , crossing Yellowstone 's southern border on August 30 . The Snake River Complex of fires burned more than 140 @,@ 000 acres ( 567 km2 ) before they were extinguished by wet weather in the fall . One of the most striking events of this fire complex occurred on August 23 when firestorms swept across the Lewis River Canyon , propelled by winds of 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) and gusting to 80 miles per hour ( 130 km / h ) .
The Mist fire started on July 9 in the eastern section of the park in the Absaroka Mountains . Two days later , the Clover fire started in the same region and both fires combined and were renamed as the Clover Mist fire on July 20 . Burning in rugged terrain , this fire was very difficult to fight and on August 20 , the fire advanced from the south towards the small town of Cooke City , Montana and continued to threaten the town for several more weeks . The Clover Mist fire eventually consumed more than 140 @,@ 000 acres ( 567 km2 ) .
The Storm Creek fire started on June 14 well north of the park in the Absaroka @-@ Beartooth Wilderness , and for almost two months seemed to pose little threat to Yellowstone . Then , on August 20 , the fire moved rapidly to the south also threatening the town of Cooke City , this time from the north . An effort to bulldoze a wide fire break and set backfires to try to starve the fires of combustibles almost led to disaster when an unexpected change in wind direction brought the fires to within a hundred yards of parts of the town , forcing evacuations on September 6 .
The other major fire located in the northern section of the park was the Hellroaring fire . Started in Gallatin National Forest on August 15 from embers from an unattended campfire , the fire initially moved north , but then turned around a few days later and moved south , threatening the area near Tower Junction .
In the northwest , the Fan fire started on June 25 and was originally considered a threat to the town of Gardiner , Montana , just outside the park 's north entrance . It was the most successfully fought of all the 1988 fires . Though the fire was not contained for a couple of months , by mid @-@ August it was no longer considered a threat to lives and property .
The largest fire in the park was the North Fork fire , both in terms of damage to structures and of area burned . The fire started on July 22 when a man cutting timber dropped his cigarette in Caribou @-@ Targhee National Forest just outside the park 's western border . The North Fork fire was the only major fire that was fought from the beginning since it started after the prescribed fire policy was halted on July 15 . The fire spread towards the northeast and by the end of the first week of August was threatening Madison Junction and nearby campground facilities . The fire then raced towards Norris Junction on August 20 . Firefighters there used water and foam to keep the structures from being consumed by the blaze . The fire continued its westward advance along the Yellowstone Plateau and on August 25 reached visitor facilities at Canyon , where land management agencies and the U.S. military put forth enormous efforts to protect structures . The eastern flank of the fire calmed down for several days , then down @-@ sloping winds off the Yellowstone Plateau forced flames along the west side of the fire towards the town of West Yellowstone , Montana . There , private citizens assisted assigned personnel in soaking hundreds of acres of forestland to protect both the town and an electrical power substation . The fire burned a substantial section of forest along the Madison River valley .
Between September 5 and 7 , a dry front pushed flames along the southern section of the North Fork fire towards the large Old Faithful visitor complex adjacent to the Upper Geyser Basin . All non @-@ emergency personnel were ordered to be evacuated ; however , political issues influenced National Park Service management directives and the complex was not completely closed to incoming tourists , with some visitors still arriving at Old Faithful not long before the main firestorm hit by mid afternoon . An all out aerial bombardment with air tankers dropping fire retardant failed . Firefighters concentrated on structure protection , especially those of historical significance such as the Old Faithful Inn , using fire engines and portable water pumping systems to keep the roofs and other surfaces of the structures wet . 1 @,@ 200 firefighters including 120 military personnel dug fire lines and cleared away brush near structures . Winds crested up to 80 miles per hour ( 130 km / h ) as the fire approached from the west .
The fires spread to forested sections near to , but generally away from major structures , but 19 small structures were destroyed and there was also extensive damage to an old dormitory . The fire was so intense that vehicles left near the fire had their wheels melted , windshields shattered and paint scorched . Though most of the Old Faithful complex had been spared , the park service decided that for the first time , the entire park would be closed to non @-@ emergency personnel on September 8 . The night of the 9th and the morning of the 10th of September , the North Fork fire jumped a fireline along its northeastern flank and approached Mammoth Hot Springs where a large concentration of historical structures as well as the Park Headquarters is located . Rain and snow arrived in time to slow the fires before they threatened the complex . By the time the North Fork fire finally died down , it was responsible for 60 % of the burned area within the park ; more than 400 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 600 km2 ) .
Colder weather , bringing with it rain and snow on September 11 calmed the fires down substantially throughout the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem . Though the fires continued to burn well into the middle of November , they never again posed an immediate risk to life or property . Many fire crews were sent home , but additional manpower continued to arrive at Yellowstone to rehabilitate areas that had been affected by the firefighting efforts . Hundreds of miles of firelines , helicopter landing zones and fire camps needed to be restored to a more natural state , and thousands of hazardous dead trees needed to be cut down to protect roads and buildings . Finally , on November 18 , all fires in Yellowstone were officially declared out .
= = Fighting the fires = =
1988 was a big year for wildfires in the western United States , with more than 72 @,@ 000 fires reported during the year , including 300 rated as major . Firefighting employees and equipment were stretched to the limit , and consequently , over 6 @,@ 000 U.S. Military personnel assisted in the fire fighting efforts nationwide , with more than 600 assigned to Yellowstone . At the height of the fires , over 9 @,@ 000 firefighters and support personnel were assigned to Yellowstone at one time , and by the time the fires finally went out , more than 25 @,@ 000 had been involved in the fire suppression efforts . Crews would normally work for 2 to 3 weeks , be sent home , and then return for one or two more tours of duty . The normal workday was as long as 14 hours . Assignments included digging firelines , watering down buildings , clearing undergrowth near structures , and installing water pumps . Hundreds of firefighters were assigned to engine crews , as much of the firefighting effort was aimed at protecting structures . No firefighters died in the park as a result of the fires , but one firefighter and an aircraft pilot died in separate incidents outside the park . A number of firefighters were treated for various injuries with the more common complaints being fatigue , headaches , and smoke inhalation . A few firefighters were exposed to noxious fumes from sulfur emissions from a geothermal area .
Firefighters created 655 miles ( 1 @,@ 054 km ) of fireline by hand and 137 miles ( 220 km ) with mechanized equipment such as bulldozers . Most of the bulldozer work was done on the North Fork fire . Some other fires were too remote or in too steep terrain for the safe operation of heavy equipment , and bulldozers were prohibited from many areas because of the impact they have on surface features . Additionally , the thin , unstable ground near the park 's geothermal features could not be trusted to support the weight of heavy equipment . Bulldozers are rarely used on fires in U.S. National Parks .
Some 120 helicopters and fixed @-@ wing aircraft were used to combat the inferno . Aircraft logged over 18 @,@ 000 hours of flight time and dropped 1 @.@ 4 million U.S. gallons ( 5 @.@ 3 ML ) of fire retardant and 10 million U.S. gallons ( 38 ML ) of water on the fires .
More than 100 fire engines were assigned to the fire . Structural fire engines were used in building complexes , where a number are stationed permanently as in urban settings . Smaller wildland fire engines suitable for movement over rough terrain were deployed throughout the park .
$ 120 million was spent fighting the fires , while structure loss was estimated at $ 3 million . Later analysis has shown that , aside from concentrated fire suppression efforts near major tourist facilities , the firefighting work failed to stop what was likely an unstoppable force .
= = Impacts on the park = =
= = = Vegetation and wildlife = = =
The fires in Yellowstone left a mosaic of areas greatly affected and others less so . Inside fire perimeters , large expanses of forest were completely untouched . There were three major types of burning . From an aesthetic viewpoint , the most destructive fires were the canopy crown fires that in many places obliterated entire forests . Crown fires accounted for about 41 percent of all the area that burned . Mixed fires burned both the canopy and vegetation on the ground , or burned one or the other as they spread through the forest . Ground fires spread slowly along the ground , consuming smaller plants and dead plant material ; some ground fires burned for longer duration and intensity , contributing to the loss of many trees whose canopies were never directly burned .
The recovery from the fires began almost immediately , with plants such as fireweed appearing in a matter of days after a fire had passed . While surrounding national forests did some replanting and even dispersed grass seed by airplane , the regeneration in Yellowstone was generally so complete that no replanting was even attempted . Though some small plants did not immediately reassume their pre @-@ fire habitats , most did , and the vast majority of plants regrew from existing sprouts which survived the heat from the fires . There was a profusion of wildflowers in burned areas , especially between two and five years after the fires .
Seeds had little distance to travel , even in severely burned areas . Much of the most badly burned forest was within 160 to 650 feet ( 49 to 198 m ) of less affected areas . Still , most regeneration of the plants and trees came from immediate sources , either above or below ground . Lodgepole pines generally do not disperse their seeds more than 200 feet ( 61 m ) , so seed dispersal from less burned parts apparently had little effect on more severely burned areas . In regions that did experience complete burnouts , the average depth of charred soil was only about half an inch ( 14 mm ) , so few roots , even of grasses , were killed by the fire . This allowed rapid regeneration throughout the ecosystem .
The predominant tree in Yellowstone , the lodgepole pine , fared poorly from the fires , except in areas where the heat and flames were very mild . The lodgepole pine is serotinous and often produces pine cones that remain closed and will not disperse seeds unless subjected to fire . Research of test plots established after the fires indicated that the best seed dispersal occurred in areas which had experienced severe ground fires , and that seed dispersal was lowest in areas which had only minor surface burns . Regions with crown fires sometimes had the highest rates of regeneration of lodgepole pine after 5 years . However , the rate of lodgepole regeneration was not uniform , with some areas seeing extremely high densities of new growth while other areas had less . Stands of dead lodgepole killed by the fires may persist for decades , rising above new growth and providing habitat for birds and other wildlife .
Aspen became more widespread after the fires , occupying areas that had been dominated by conifers . It had long been believed that aspen regenerated by sprouting from existing roots rather than by seed dispersal . However , aspen sprouts appeared two years after the fires as far as 9 miles ( 14 km ) from the nearest known aspen trees . Aspen is a preferred grazing food for elk and many of the newer aspen are consequently small , except in areas that are harder for elk to get to . The resurgence of aspen after the fires was a contrast to pre @-@ fire events , as aspen had been increasingly scarce in the park . This might be a temporary event as conifers continue to grow and eventually crowd out other tree species .
Contrary to media reports and speculation at the time , the fires killed very few park animals — surveys indicated that only about 345 elk ( of an estimated 40 @,@ 000 – 50 @,@ 000 ) , 36 mule deer , 12 moose , 6 black bears , and 9 bison had perished . Of 21 grizzlies that were radio @-@ collared and had home ranges where the fires happened , only one was believed to have been lost . Grizzlies were observed in burned areas more often than unburned areas the following year , feeding on the proliferation of roots and foliage as well as on ants which thrived due to all the dead wood . Moose had been declining in the northern sections of the park since the 1960s , but the decline became more obvious after the fires . Unlike elk , which are primarily grazers and tend to eat grasses , moose are more likely to be browsers , consuming primarily woody food sources , particularly willow and subalpine fir , which were temporarily reduced by the fires . All ungulates experienced a high initial mortality the winter after the fires , but this has been attributed to a severe winter more than the fires themselves . However , moose populations , unlike other ungulates , have not rebounded in subsequent years . Rodents likely experienced the highest mortality of all mammals due not only to heat and smoke they could not easily escape , but also because of the reduction in forest cover , allowing would @-@ be predators less difficulty in spotting them .
Approximately 100 dead fish were reported in two streams after fire retardant was accidentally dropped on them . Aside from a temporary decrease in a few species of aquatic insects , no long @-@ term impact has been observed on aquatic life in any of Yellowstone 's rivers or lakes .
The Recovery of Yellowstone National Park ( burned areas are red )
= = = Air and water = = =
The smoke and airborne particulates from the fires posed a threat to local communities on several occasions . Smoke and particulates were especially high in Gardiner , Montana . There , monitoring stations maintained by the Montana Department of Health and Environmental Sciences and the park recorded 19 days where recommended allowable particulate concentrations were exceeded . This was also the case near fires , and on 7 occasions at Mammoth , Montana , the location of the park headquarters . In no other surrounding communities were particulates found to be above acceptable levels . Smoke and haze made driving difficult and sometimes even dangerous . A number of fire fighters were treated at clinics for smoke and dust inhalation and a few for inadvertently inhaling fumes from a sulfur ignition near one of the geothermal areas .
In the aftermath of the fires , erosion was a particular concern , especially as the rains were heavy the following year . Helicopters dropped millions of gallons of water on the fires , and water retrieval from a few small creeks actually dropped the water level temporarily . Stream flow was also affected by water @-@ pumping operations . The more than a million gallons of ammonium phosphate based fire @-@ retardant material polluted some streams , but this too was transient and had no long term ill effects on water quality . Fire fighting foams used on wildfires differ from those used for other situations such as fuel fires . They are very low in toxicity and were believed to have completely dispersed by the spring of 1989 .
= = = Structure damage = = =
The park service gave priority to life and property in their efforts to suppress the fires . Of the more than 1 @,@ 000 structures located in the park , only 67 were destroyed . There were 400 structures in the Old Faithful complex and only 19 of these were destroyed , 12 of which were concessionaire housing units and relatively inexpensive to replace . Major tourist locations in the park such as the one at Old Faithful were heavily staffed by fire fighting crews and equipment , especially at times of immediate danger . Fire fighters used a variety of methods to establish safe zones in and near these complexes , yet every single visitor complex was evacuated by non @-@ critical personnel at least once during the fires .
Of the 38 backcountry patrol cabins used by park rangers and park staff , the only one lost to the fires was at Sportsman Lake , and it was rebuilt the following summer . However , fires did a lot of damage to numerous campgrounds , backcountry bridges , and 10 miles ( 16 km ) of power lines and 300 utility poles . Some of the boardwalks used to keep tourists elevated above geothermal areas were also destroyed , but were quickly replaced .
= = Media coverage = =
Since Yellowstone is one of the most famous national parks in the world , news coverage was extensive and sometimes sensational . Federal officials sometimes had only limited information to present to the media . The National Park Service received some 3 @,@ 000 media requests , not all of which the two park public information officers were able to grant , even with the assistance of a staff of over 40 employees . 16 more park personnel were assigned the role of liaisons with the media where fire fighting manpower was concentrated . By the time the fires were under control in mid @-@ November , the park was still receiving 40 to 70 media requests daily . Media coverage of the fires brought the National Park Service more national attention than it had ever received , and the 1988 fire season has been called one of the most important events in the history of that agency .
Lack of understanding of wildfire management by the media led to some sensationalist reporting and inaccuracies . Some news agencies gave the impression that most of the park was being destroyed . On August 30 , an ABC News interview with Stanley Mott , apparently a tourist , incorrectly identified him as the Director of the National Park Service ( William Mott ) . In another story , The New York Times stated that the Park Service policy was to allow natural fires to burn themselves out , whereas that of the U.S. Forest Service was to suppress all such fires — a mischaracterization of the policies of both agencies . The media also had some difficulty distinguishing between these two completely separate agencies . Sources quoted by The Washington Post , USA Today , and the Chicago Tribune later stated that comments attributed to them were fabricated , and one source commented that a September 8 , 1988 report by the Chicago Tribune had more errors than facts . On the same day , The Washington Post associated the smoke and presence of military vehicles and helicopters overhead with the 1968 events in Da Nang , Vietnam , giving the impression of catastrophe . The fires had been very active in late July . In early August , fire managers reached a conclusion that the fires would not likely expand much further , due to a lack of fuel , and the Director of the National Park Service declared on August 11 that the fires were contained . When this optimistic announcement was followed by Black Saturday on August 20 , and the firestorm that threatened the Old Faithful complex in early September , the media were again highly critical of the park service and their policies .
= = Fire management since 1988 = =
As a result of research conducted after the fires , a new fire management plan for Yellowstone was implemented in 1992 . The plan observed stricter guidelines for managing natural fires , increased the staffing levels of fire monitors and related occupations , and allocated greater funding for fire management . By 2004 , further amendments to the wildland fire management plan were added . According to the 2004 plan , natural wildfires are allowed to burn , so long as parameters regarding fire size , weather , and potential danger are not exceeded . Those fires that do exceed the standards , as well as all human @-@ caused fires , are to be suppressed . These changes are primarily updates of the 1972 fire management plan and continue to emphasize the role of fire in maintaining a natural ecosystem , but apply stricter guidelines and lower levels of tolerance .
Increased fire monitoring through ground based and aerial reconnaissance has been implemented to quickly determine how a particular fire will be managed . Fire monitors first determine whether a fire is human @-@ caused or natural . All human @-@ caused fires are suppressed since they are unnatural , while natural fires are monitored . Fire monitors map the fire perimeter , record local weather , and examine the types of fuels burning and the amount of fuel available . Additionally , they investigate the rate of spread , flame lengths , fuel moisture content , and other characteristics of each fire . Monitors relay the information they gather to fire managers who then make determinations on future actions .
Land management employees remove dead and hazardous fuels from areas as prioritized by the Hazard Fuels Reduction Plan . This is to ensure fires have less opportunity to threaten lives , historical structures , and visitor facilities . As of 2007 , fuel is reduced within 400 feet ( 120 m ) of structures and other high @-@ priority locations .
Foresters and ecologists argue that large controlled burns in Yellowstone prior to the fires would not have greatly reduced the area that was consumed in 1988 . Controlled burns would quickly become uncontrolled if they were allowed to burn with the intensity that many tree and plant communities need for proper regeneration . Consequently , natural fires , rather than controlled burns , are the park 's primary maintenance tool . Since the late 1970s , some 300 natural fires have been allowed to burn themselves out . In rare circumstances , natural fires are supplemented by controlled burns that are deliberately started to remove dead timber under conditions which allow fire fighters an opportunity to carefully control where and how much wood fuel is consumed .
Greater cooperation between federal and state agencies on a national level has been coordinated through the National Interagency Fire Center . Though primarily a collaborative effort between federal agencies to develop a national level fire policy , the center also aids local and state governments in addressing their fire management issues . Universally accepted priorities include management directives which allow natural fires to burn unhindered under prescribed conditions . As in the 1988 fires , protection of lives and property continue to take precedence in all fire fighting efforts .
The most important lesson learned is that a number of ecosystems , including the one that contains Yellowstone , are specially adapted to large and intense wildfires . This was widely thought to be the case well before 1988 , and the wildfires of that year drove the conclusion home . While large destructive fires are unacceptable in regions with extensive encroachment by communities , they are mandatory in a region such as the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem , if it is to be maintained in a natural manner .
= Washington State Route 230 =
State Route 230 ( SR 230 ) is a legislated , but unconstructed , state highway to be located in Adams and Whitman counties in the U.S. state of Washington . The highway would begin at a junction with concurrent highways Interstate 90 ( I @-@ 90 ) and U.S. Route 395 ( US 395 ) in Ritzville and travel east to an intersection with SR 23 in Ewan . Plans for the first highway first emerged in 1945 , to be studied after the conclusion of World War II , however no action has been taken on construction of the highway .
= = Route description = =
The highway is legislated to begin in Ritzville at a junction with concurrent highways I @-@ 90 and US 395 and travel east through a mixture of farm and desert landscapes , crossing over the Adams – Whitman county line in the process . A junction with SR 23 near Ewan is to be the eastern terminus of the highway . Currently travelers wishing to travel between the two communities take the freeway to Sprague , then head southeast along SR 23 .
= = History = =
The highway was first proposed in 1945 , with the support of the Ritzville Chamber of Commerce and senator Elmer C. Huntley of Colfax . An earmark of just over $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( equivalent to $ 51 @.@ 3 million in 2015 ) was set aside for the project to be used after the war . The proposed highway 's designation was changed to the current designator , SR 230 , after the 1964 state highway renumbering . The legal definition of SR 23 , the highway 's proposed eastern terminus , was changed during the 1987 legislative session to remove a reference of a junction with SR 230 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Koala =
The koala ( Phascolarctos cinereus , or , inaccurately , koala bear ) is an arboreal herbivorous marsupial native to Australia . It is the only extant representative of the family Phascolarctidae and its closest living relatives are the wombats . The koala is found in coastal areas of the mainland 's eastern and southern regions , inhabiting Queensland , New South Wales , Victoria , and South Australia . It is easily recognisable by its stout , tailless body and large head with round , fluffy ears and large , spoon @-@ shaped nose . The koala has a body length of 60 – 85 cm ( 24 – 33 in ) and weighs 4 – 15 kg ( 9 – 33 lb ) . Pelage colour ranges from silver grey to chocolate brown . Koalas from the northern populations are typically smaller and lighter in colour than their counterparts further south . These populations possibly are separate subspecies , but this is disputed .
Koalas typically inhabit open eucalypt woodlands , and the leaves of these trees make up most of their diet . Because this eucalypt diet has limited nutritional and caloric content , koalas are largely sedentary and sleep up to 20 hours a day . They are asocial animals , and bonding exists only between mothers and dependent offspring . Adult males communicate with loud bellows that intimidate rivals and attract mates . Males mark their presence with secretions from scent glands located on their chests . Being marsupials , koalas give birth to underdeveloped young that crawl into their mothers ' pouches , where they stay for the first six to seven months of their lives . These young koalas , known as joeys , are fully weaned around a year old . Koalas have few natural predators and parasites , but are threatened by various pathogens , such as Chlamydiaceae bacteria and the koala retrovirus , as well as by bushfires and droughts .
Koalas were hunted by indigenous Australians and depicted in myths and cave art for millennia . The first recorded encounter between a European and a koala was in 1798 , and an image of the animal was published in 1810 by naturalist George Perry . Botanist Robert Brown wrote the first detailed scientific description of the koala in 1814 , although his work remained unpublished for 180 years . Popular artist John Gould illustrated and described the koala , introducing the species to the general British public . Further details about the animal 's biology were revealed in the 19th century by several English scientists . Because of its distinctive appearance , the koala is recognised worldwide as a symbol of Australia . Koalas are listed as of Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature . The Australian government lists populations in Queensland and New South Wales as Vulnerable . The animal was hunted heavily in the early 20th century for its fur , and large @-@ scale cullings in Queensland resulted in a public outcry that initiated a movement to protect the species . Sanctuaries were established , and translocation efforts moved to new regions koalas whose habitat had become fragmented or reduced . The biggest threat to their existence is habitat destruction caused by agriculture and urbanisation .
= = Etymology = =
The word koala comes from the Dharug gula . Although the vowel ' u ' was originally written in the English orthography as " oo " ( in spellings such as coola or koolah ) , it was changed to " oa " , possibly in error . The word is mistakenly said to mean " doesn 't drink " . Because of the koala 's resemblance to a bear , it was often miscalled the koala bear , particularly by early settlers . Other names like monkey bear , native bear , and tree @-@ bear have also been used . Indigenous names include cullawine , koolawong , colah , karbor , colo , coolbun , boorabee , burroor , bangaroo , pucawan , banjorah , and burrenbong ; many of these mean " no drink " . The generic name , Phascolarctos , is derived from the Greek words phaskolos " pouch " and arktos " bear " . The specific name , cinereus , is Latin for " ash coloured " .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
The koala was given its generic name Phascolarctos in 1816 by French zoologist Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville , who would not give it a specific name until further review . In 1819 , German zoologist Georg August Goldfuss gave it the binomial Lipurus cinereus . Because Phascolarctos was published first , according to the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature , it has priority as the official name of the genus . French naturalist Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest proposed the name Phascolartos fuscus in 1820 , suggesting that the brown @-@ coloured versions were a different species than the grey ones . Other names suggested by European authors included Marodactylus cinereus by Goldfuss in 1820 , P. flindersii by René Primevère Lesson in 1827 , and P. koala by John Edward Gray in 1827 .
The koala is classified with wombats ( family Vombatidae ) and several extinct families ( including marsupial tapirs , marsupial lions and giant wombats ) in the suborder Vombatiformes within the order Diprotodontia . The Vombatiformes are a sister group to a clade that includes macropods ( kangaroos and wallabies ) and possums . The ancestors of vombatiforms were likely arboreal , and the koala 's lineage was possibly the first to branch off around 40 million years ago during the Eocene .
The modern koala is the only extant member of Phascolarctidae , a family that once included several genera and species . During the Oligocene and Miocene , koalas lived in rainforests and had less specialised diets . Some species , such as the Riversleigh rainforest koala ( Nimiokoala greystanesi ) and some species of Perikoala , were around the same size as the modern koala , while others , such as species of Litokoala , were one @-@ half to two @-@ thirds its size . Like the modern species , prehistoric koalas had well developed ear structures which suggests that long @-@ distance vocalising and sedentism developed early . During the Miocene , the Australian continent began drying out , leading to the decline of rainforests and the spread of open Eucalyptus woodlands . The genus Phascolarctos split from Litokoala in the late Miocene and had several adaptations that allowed it to live on a specialised eucalyptus diet : a shifting of the palate towards the front of the skull ; larger molars and premolars ; smaller pterygoid fossa ; and a larger gap between the molar and the incisor teeth .
During the Pliocene and Pleistocene , when Australia experienced changes in climate and vegetation , koala species grew larger . P. cinereus may have emerged as a dwarf form of the giant koala ( P. stirtoni ) . The reduction in the size of large mammals has been seen as a common phenomenon worldwide during the late Pleistocene , and several Australian mammals , such as the agile wallaby , are traditionally believed to have resulted from this dwarfing . A 2008 study questions this hypothesis , noting that P. cinereus and P. stirtoni were sympatric during the middle to late Pleistocene , and possibly as early as the Pliocene . The fossil record of the modern koala extends back at least to the middle Pleistocene .
= = = Genetics and variations = = =
Traditionally , three distinct subspecies have been recognised : the Queensland koala ( P. c. adustus , Thomas 1923 ) , the New South Wales koala ( P. c. cinereus , Goldfuss 1817 ) , and the Victorian koala ( P. c. victor , Troughton 1835 ) . These forms are distinguished by pelage colour and thickness , body size , and skull shape . The Queensland koala is the smallest of the three , with shorter , silver fur and a shorter skull . The Victorian koala is the largest , with shaggier , brown fur and a wider skull . The boundaries of these variations are based on state borders , and their status as subspecies is disputed . A 1999 genetic study suggests that the variations represent differentiated populations with limited gene flow between them , and that the three subspecies comprise a single evolutionarily significant unit . Other studies have found that koala populations have high levels of inbreeding and low genetic variation . Such low genetic diversity may have been a characteristic of koala populations since the late Pleistocene . Rivers and roads have been shown to limit gene flow and contribute to the genetic differentiation of southeast Queensland populations . In April 2013 , scientists from the Australian Museum and Queensland University of Technology announced they had fully sequenced the koala genome .
= = Description = =
The koala is a stocky animal with a large head and vestigial or non @-@ existent tail . It has a body length of 60 – 85 cm ( 24 – 33 in ) and a weight of 4 – 15 kg ( 9 – 33 lb ) , making it among the largest arboreal marsupials . Koalas from Victoria are twice as heavy as those from Queensland . The species is sexually dimorphic , with males 50 % larger than females . Males are further distinguished from females by their more curved noses and the presence of chest glands , which are visible as hairless patches . As in most marsupials , the male koala has a bifurcated penis , and the female has two lateral vaginas and two separate uteri . The male 's penile sheath contains naturally occurring bacteria that play an important role in fertilisation . The female 's pouch opening is tightened by a sphincter that keeps the young from falling out .
The pelage of the koala is thicker and longer on the back , and shorter on the belly . The ears have thick fur on both the inside and outside . The back fur colour varies from light grey to chocolate brown . The belly fur is whitish ; on the rump it is dappled whitish , and darker at the back . The koala has the most effective insulating back fur of any marsupial and is highly resilient to wind and rain , while the belly fur can reflect solar radiation . The koala 's curved , sharp claws are well adapted for climbing trees . The large forepaws have two opposable digits ( the first and second , which are opposable to the other three ) that allow them to grasp small branches . On the hindpaws , the second and third digits are fused , a typical condition for members of the Diprotodontia , and the attached claws ( which are still separate ) are used for grooming . As in humans and other primates , koalas have friction ridges on their paws . The animal has a sturdy skeleton and a short , muscular upper body with proportionately long upper limbs that contribute to its climbing and grasping abilities . Additional climbing strength is achieved with thigh muscles that attach to the shinbone lower than other animals . The koala has a cartilaginous pad at the end of the spine that may make it more comfortable when it perches in the fork of a tree .
The koala has one of the smallest brains in proportion to body weight of any mammal , being 60 % smaller than that of a typical diprotodont , weighing only 19 @.@ 2 g ( 0 @.@ 68 oz ) . The brain 's surface is fairly smooth , typical for a " primitive " animal . It occupies only 61 % of the cranial cavity and is pressed against the inside surface by cerebrospinal fluid . The function of this relatively large amount of fluid is not known , although one possibility is that it acts as a shock absorber , cushioning the brain if the animal falls from a tree . The koala 's small brain size may be an adaptation to the energy restrictions imposed by its diet , which is insufficient to sustain a larger brain . Because of its small brain , the koala has a limited ability to perform complex , unfamiliar behaviours . For example , when presented with plucked leaves on a flat surface , the animal cannot adapt to the change in its normal feeding routine and will not eat the leaves . The koala 's olfactory senses are normal , and it is known to sniff the oils of individual branchlets to assess their edibility . Its nose is fairly large and covered in leathery skin . Its round ears provide it with good hearing , and it has a well @-@ developed middle ear . A koala 's vision is not well developed , and its relatively small eyes are unusual among marsupials in that the pupils have vertical slits . Koalas make use of a novel vocal organ to produce low @-@ pitched sounds ( see social spacing , below ) . Unlike typical mammalian vocal cords , which are folds in the larynx , these organs are placed in the velum ( soft palate ) and are called velar vocal cords .
The koala has several adaptations for its eucalypt diet , which is of low nutritive value , of high toxicity , and high in dietary fibre . The animal 's dentition consists of the incisors and cheek teeth ( a single premolar and four molars on each jaw ) , which are separated by a large gap ( a characteristic feature of herbivorous mammals ) . The incisors are used for grasping leaves , which are then passed to the premolars to be snipped at the petiole before being passed to the highly cusped molars , where they are shredded into small pieces . Koalas may also store food in their cheek pouches before it is ready to be chewed . The partially worn molars of middle @-@ aged koalas are optimal for breaking the leaves into small particles , resulting in more efficient stomach digestion and nutrient absorption in the small intestine , which digests the eucalyptus leaves to provide most of the animal 's energy . A koala sometimes regurgitates the food into the mouth to be chewed a second time .
Unlike kangaroos and eucalyptus @-@ eating possums , koalas are hindgut fermenters , and their digestive retention can last for up to 100 hours in the wild , or up to 200 hours in captivity . This is made possible by the extraordinary length of their caecum — 200 cm ( 80 in ) long and 10 cm ( 4 in ) in diameter — the largest proportionally of any animal . Koalas can select which food particles to retain for longer fermentation and which to pass through . Large particles typically pass through more quickly , as they would take more time to digest . While the hindgut is proportionally larger in the koala than in other herbivores , only 10 % of the animal 's energy is obtained from fermentation . Since the koala gains a low amount of energy from its diet , its metabolic rate is half that of a typical mammal , although this can vary between seasons and sexes . The koala conserves water by passing relatively dry faecal pellets high in undigested fibre , and by storing water in the caecum .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
The koala 's geographic range covers roughly 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km2 ( 390 @,@ 000 sq mi ) , and 30 ecoregions . It extends throughout eastern and southeastern Australia , encompassing northeastern , central and southeastern Queensland , eastern New South Wales , Victoria , and southeastern South Australia . The koala was introduced near Adelaide and on several islands , including Kangaroo Island and French Island . The population on Magnetic Island represents the northern limit of its range . Fossil evidence shows that the koala 's range stretched as far west as southwestern Western Australia during the late Pleistocene . They were likely driven to extinction in these areas by environmental changes and hunting by indigenous Australians .
In Queensland , koalas are unevenly distributed and uncommon except in the southeast , where they are numerous . In New South Wales , they are abundant only in Pilliga , while in Victoria they are common nearly everywhere . In South Australia , koalas were extirpated by 1920 and subsequently reintroduced . Koalas can be found in habitats ranging from relatively open forests to woodlands , and in climates ranging from tropical to cool temperate . In semi @-@ arid climates , they prefer riparian habitats , where nearby streams and creeks provide refuge during times of drought and extreme heat .
= = = Foraging and activities = = =
Koalas are herbivorous , and while most of their diet consists of eucalypt leaves , they can be found in trees of other genera , such as Acacia , Allocasuarina , Callitris , Leptospermum , and Melaleuca . Although the foliage of over 600 species of Eucalyptus is available , the koala shows a strong preference for around 30 . They tend to choose species that have a high protein content and low proportions of fibre and lignin . The most favoured species are Eucalyptus microcorys , E. tereticornis , and E. camaldulensis , which , on average , make up more than 20 % of their diet . Despite its reputation as a fussy eater , the koala is more generalist than some other marsupial species , such as the greater glider . Since eucalypt leaves have a high water content , the koala does not need to drink often ; its daily water turnover rate ranges from 71 to 91 ml / kg of body weight . Although females can meet their water requirements from eating leaves , larger males require additional water found on the ground or in tree hollows . When feeding , a koala holds onto a branch with hindpaws and one forepaw while the other forepaw grasps foliage . Small koalas can move close to the end of a branch , but larger ones stay near the thicker bases . Koalas consume up to 400 grams ( 14 oz ) of leaves a day , spread over four to six feeding sessions . Despite their adaptations to a low @-@ energy lifestyle , they have meagre fat reserves and need to feed often .
Because they get so little energy from their diet , koalas must limit their energy use and sleep 20 hours a day ; only 4 hours a day are spent in active movement . They are predominantly active at night and spend most of their waking hours feeding . They typically eat and sleep in the same tree , possibly for as long as a day . On very hot days , a koala may climb down to the coolest part of the tree which is cooler than the surrounding air . The koala hugs the tree to lose heat without panting . On warm days , a koala may rest with its back against a branch or lie on its stomach or back with its limbs dangling . During cold , wet periods , it curls itself into a tight ball to conserve energy . On windy days , a koala finds a lower , thicker branch on which to rest . While it spends most of the time in the tree , the animal descends to the ground to move to another tree , walking on all fours . The koala usually grooms itself with its hindpaws , but sometimes uses its forepaws or mouth .
= = = Social spacing = = =
Koalas are asocial animals and spend just 15 minutes a day on social behaviours . In Victoria , home ranges are small and have extensive overlap , while in central Queensland they are larger and overlap less . Koala society appears to consist of " residents " and " transients " , the former being mostly adult females and the latter males . Resident males appear to be territorial and dominate others with their larger body size . Alpha males tend to establish their territories close to breeding females , while younger males are subordinate until they mature and reach full size . Adult males occasionally venture outside their home ranges ; when they do so , dominant ones retain their status . When a male enters a new tree , he marks it by rubbing his chest gland against the trunk or a branch ; males have occasionally been observed to dribble urine on the trunk . This scent @-@ marking behaviour probably serves as communication , and individuals are known to sniff the base of a tree before climbing . Scent marking is common during aggressive encounters . Chest gland secretions are complex chemical mixtures — about 40 compounds were identified in one analysis — that vary in composition and concentration with the season and the age of the individual .
Adult males communicate with loud bellows — low pitched sounds that consist of snore @-@ like inhalations and resonant exhalations that sound like growls . These sounds are thought to be generated by unique vocal organs found in koalas . Because of their low frequency , these bellows can travel far through air and vegetation . Koalas may bellow at any time of the year , particularly during the breeding season , when it serves to attract females and possibly intimidate other males . They also bellow to advertise their presence to their neighbours when they enter a new tree . These sounds signal the male 's actual body size , as well as exaggerate it ; females pay more attention to bellows that originate from larger males . Female koalas bellow , though more softly , in addition to making snarls , wails , and screams . These calls are produced when in distress and when making defensive threats . Young koalas squeak when in distress . As they get older , the squeak develops into a " squawk " produced both when in distress and to show aggression . When another individual climbs over it , a koala makes a low grunt with its mouth closed . Koalas make numerous facial expressions . When snarling , wailing , or squawking , the animal curls the upper lip and points its ears forward . During screams , the lips retract and the ears are drawn back . Females bring their lips forward and raise their ears when agitated .
Agonistic behaviour typically consists of squabbles between individuals climbing over or passing each other . This occasionally involves biting . Males that are strangers may wrestle , chase , and bite each other . In extreme situations , a male may try to displace a smaller rival from a tree . This involves the larger aggressor climbing up and attempting to corner the victim , which tries either to rush past him and climb down or to move to the end of a branch . The aggressor attacks by grasping the target by the shoulders and repeatedly biting him . Once the weaker individual is driven away , the victor bellows and marks the tree . Pregnant and lactating females are particularly aggressive and attack individuals that come too close . In general , however , koalas tend to avoid energy @-@ wasting aggressive behaviour .
= = = Reproduction and development = = =
Koalas are seasonal breeders , and births take place from the middle of spring through the summer to early autumn , from October to May . Females in oestrus tend to hold their heads further back than usual and commonly display tremors and spasms . However , males do not appear to recognise these signs , and have been observed to mount non @-@ oestrous females . Because of his much larger size , a male can usually force himself on a female , mounting her from behind , and in extreme cases , the male may pull the female out of the tree . A female may scream and vigorously fight off her suitors , but will submit to one that is dominant or is more familiar . The bellows and screams that accompany matings can attract other males to the scene , obliging the incumbent to delay mating and fight off the intruders . These fights may allow the female to assess which is dominant . Older males usually have accumulated scratches , scars , and cuts on the exposed parts of their noses and on their eyelids .
The koala 's gestation period lasts 33 – 35 days , and a female gives birth to a single joey ( although twins occur on occasion ) . As with all marsupials , the young are born while at the embryonic stage , weighing only 0 @.@ 5 g ( 0 @.@ 02 oz ) . However , they have relatively well @-@ developed lips , forelimbs , and shoulders , as well as functioning respiratory , digestive , and urinary systems . The joey crawls into its mother 's pouch to continue the rest of its development . Unlike most other marsupials , the koala does not clean her pouch .
A female koala has two teats ; the joey attaches itself to one of them and suckles for the rest of its pouch life . The koala has one of the lowest milk energy production rates in relation to body size of any mammal . The female makes up for this by lactating for as long as 12 months . At seven weeks of age , the joey 's head grows longer and becomes proportionally large , pigmentation begins to develop , and its sex can be determined ( the scrotum appears in males and the pouch begins to develop in females ) . At 13 weeks , the joey weighs around 50 g ( 1 @.@ 8 oz ) and its head has doubled in size . The eyes begin to open and fine fur grows on the forehead , nape , shoulders , and arms . At 26 weeks , the fully furred animal resembles an adult , and begins to poke its head out of the pouch .
As the young koala approaches six months , the mother begins to prepare it for its eucalyptus diet by predigesting the leaves , producing a faecal pap that the joey eats from her cloacum . The pap is quite different in composition from regular faeces , resembling instead the contents of the caecum , which has a high concentration of bacteria . Eaten for about a month , the pap provides a supplementary source of protein at a transition time from a milk to a leaf diet . The joey fully emerges from the pouch for the first time at six or seven months of age , when it weighs 300 – 500 g ( 11 – 18 oz ) . It explores its new surroundings cautiously , clinging to its mother
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for support . By nine months , it weighs over 1 kg ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) and develops its adult fur colour . Having permanently left the pouch , it rides on its mother 's back for transportation , learning to climb by grasping branches . Gradually , it spends more time away from its mother , and at 12 months it is fully weaned , weighing around 2 @.@ 5 kg ( 5 @.@ 5 lb ) . When the mother becomes pregnant again , her bond with her previous offspring is permanently severed . Newly weaned young are encouraged to disperse by their mothers ' aggressive behaviour towards them .
Females become sexually mature at about three years of age and can then become pregnant ; in comparison , males reach sexual maturity when they are about four years old , although they can produce sperm as early as two years . While the chest glands can be functional as early as 18 months of age , males do not begin scent @-@ marking behaviours until they reach sexual maturity . Because the offspring have a long dependent period , female koalas usually breed in alternate years . Favourable environmental factors , such as a plentiful supply of high @-@ quality food trees , allow them to reproduce every year .
= = = Health and mortality = = =
Koalas may live from 13 to 18 years in the wild . While female koalas usually live this long , males may die sooner because of their more hazardous lives . Koalas usually survive falls from trees and immediately climb back up , but injuries and deaths from falls do occur , particularly in inexperienced young and fighting males . Around six years of age , the koala 's chewing teeth begin to wear down and their chewing efficiency decreases . Eventually , the cusps disappear completely and the animal will die of starvation .
Koalas have few predators ; dingos and large pythons may prey on them , while birds of prey ( such as powerful owls and wedge @-@ tailed eagles ) are threats to young . They are generally not subject to external parasites , other than ticks in coastal areas . Koalas may also suffer mange from the mite Sarcoptes scabiei , and skin ulcers from the bacterium Mycobacterium ulcerans , but neither is common . Internal parasites are few and largely harmless . These include the tapeworm Bertiella obesa , commonly found in the intestine , and the nematodes Marsupostrongylus longilarvatus and Durikainema phascolarcti , which are infrequently found in the lungs . In a three @-@ year study of almost 600 koalas admitted to the Australian Zoo Wildlife Hospital in Queensland , 73 @.@ 8 % of the animals were infected with at least one species of the parasitic protozoal genus Trypanosoma , the most common of which was T. irwini .
Koalas can be subject to pathogens such as Chlamydiaceae bacteria , which can cause keratoconjunctivitis , urinary tract infection , and reproductive tract infection . Such infections are widespread on the mainland , but absent in some island populations . The koala retrovirus ( KoRV ) may cause koala immune deficiency syndrome ( KIDS ) which is similar to AIDS in humans . Prevalence of KoRV in koala populations suggests a trend spreading from the north to the south of Australia . Northern populations are completely infected , while some southern populations ( including Kangaroo Island ) are free .
The animals are vulnerable to bushfires due to their slow movements and the flammability of eucalypt trees . The koala instinctively seeks refuge in the higher branches , where it is vulnerable to intense heat and flames . Bushfires also fragment the animal 's habitat , which restricts their movement and leads to population decline and loss of genetic diversity . Dehydration and overheating can also prove fatal . Consequently , the koala is vulnerable to the effects of climate change . Models of climate change in Australia predict warmer and drier climates , suggesting that the koala 's range will shrink in the east and south to more mesic habitats . Droughts also affect the koala 's well @-@ being . For example , a severe drought in 1980 caused many Eucalyptus trees to lose their leaves . Subsequently , 63 % of the population in southwestern Queensland died , especially young animals that were excluded from prime feeding sites by older , dominant koalas , and recovery of the population was slow . Later , this population declined from an estimated mean population of 59 @,@ 000 in 1995 to 11 @,@ 600 in 2009 , a reduction attributed largely to hotter and drier conditions resulting from droughts in most years between 2002 and 2007 . Another predicted negative outcome of climate change is the effect of elevations in atmospheric CO2 levels on the koala 's food supply : increases in CO2 cause Eucalyptus trees to reduce protein and increase tannin concentrations in their leaves , reducing the quality of the food source .
= = Human relations = =
= = = History = = =
The first written reference of the koala was recorded by John Price , servant of John Hunter , the Governor of New South Wales . Price encountered the " cullawine " on 26 January 1798 , during an expedition to the Blue Mountains , although his account was not published until nearly a century later in Historical Records of Australia . In 1802 , French @-@ born explorer Francis Louis Barrallier encountered the animal when his two Aboriginal guides , returning from a hunt , brought back two koala feet they were intending to eat . Barrallier preserved the appendages and sent them and his notes to Hunter 's successor , Philip Gidley King , who forwarded them to Joseph Banks . Similar to Price , Barrallier 's notes were not published until 1897 . Reports of the first capture of a live " koolah " appeared in The Sydney Gazette in August 1803 . Within a few weeks Flinders ' astronomer , James Inman , purchased a specimen pair for live shipment to Joseph Banks in England . They were described as ' somewhat larger than the Waumbut ( Wombat ) ' . These encounters helped provide the impetus for King to commission the artist John Lewin to paint watercolours of the animal . Lewin painted three pictures , one of which was subsequently made into a print that was reproduced in Georges Cuvier 's The Animal Kingdom ( first published in 1827 ) and several European works on natural history .
Botanist Robert Brown was the first to write a detailed scientific description of the koala in 1814 , based on a female specimen captured near what is now Mount Kembla in the Illawarra region of New South Wales . Austrian botanical illustrator Ferdinand Bauer drew the animal 's skull , throat , feet , and paws . Brown 's work remained unpublished and largely unnoticed , however , as his field books and notes remained in his possession until his death , when they were bequeathed to the British Museum ( Natural History ) in London . They were not identified until 1994 , while Bauer 's koala watercolours were not published until 1989 . British surgeon Everard Home included details of the koala based on eyewitness accounts of William Paterson , who had befriended Brown and Bauer during their stay in New South Wales . Home , who in 1808 published his report in the journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society , gave the animal the scientific name Didelphis coola .
The first published image of the koala appeared in George Perry 's ( 1810 ) natural history work Arcana . Perry called it the " New Holland Sloth " on account of its perceived similarities to the Central and South American tree @-@ living mammals of genus Bradypus . His disdain for the koala , evident in his description of the animal , was typical of the prevailing early 19th @-@ century British attitude about the primitiveness and oddity of Australian fauna :
" ... the eye is placed like that of the Sloth , very close to the mouth and nose , which gives it a clumsy awkward appearance , and void of elegance in the combination ... they have little either in their character or appearance to interest the Naturalist or Philosopher . As Nature however provides nothing in vain , we may suppose that even these torpid , senseless creatures are wisely intended to fill up one of the great links of the chain of animated nature ... " .
Naturalist and popular artist John Gould illustrated and described the koala in his three @-@ volume work The Mammals of Australia ( 1845 – 63 ) and introduced the species , as well as other members of Australia 's little @-@ known faunal community , to the general British public . Comparative anatomist Richard Owen , in a series of publications on the physiology and anatomy of Australian mammals , presented a paper on the anatomy of the koala to the Zoological Society of London . In this widely cited publication , he provided the first careful description of its internal anatomy , and noted its general structural similarity to the wombat . English naturalist George Robert Waterhouse , curator of the Zoological Society of London , was the first to correctly classify the koala as a marsupial in the 1840s . He identified similarities between it and its fossil relatives Diprotodon and Nototherium , which had been discovered just a few years before . Similarly , Gerard Krefft , curator of the Australian Museum in Sydney , noted evolutionary mechanisms at work when comparing the koala to its ancestral relatives in his 1871 The Mammals of Australia .
The first living koala in Britain arrived in 1881 , purchased by the Zoological Society of London . As related by prosecutor to the society , William Alexander Forbes , the animal suffered an accidental demise when the heavy lid of a washstand fell on it and it was unable to free itself . Forbes used the opportunity to dissect the fresh female specimen , thus was able to provide explicit anatomical details on the female reproductive system , the brain , and the liver — parts not previously described by Owen , who had access only to preserved specimens . Scottish embryologist William Caldwell — well known in scientific circles for determining the reproductive mechanism of the platypus — described the uterine development of the koala in 1884 , and used the new information to convincingly place the koala and the monotremes into an evolutionary time frame .
Prince Henry , Duke of Gloucester , visited the Koala Park Sanctuary in Sydney in 1934 and was " intensely interested in the bears " . His photograph , with Noel Burnet , the founder of the park , and a koala , appeared in The Sydney Morning Herald . After World War II , when tourism to Australia increased and the animals were exported to zoos overseas , the koala 's international popularity rose . Several political leaders and members of royal families had their pictures taken with koalas , including Queen Elizabeth II , Prince Harry , Crown Prince Naruhito , Crown Princess Masako , Pope John Paul II , US President Bill Clinton , Soviet premier Mikhail Gorbachev , South African President Nelson Mandela , Prime Minister Tony Abbott , and Russian President Vladimir Putin .
= = = Cultural significance = = =
The koala is well known worldwide and is a major draw for Australian zoos and wildlife parks . It has been featured in advertisements , games , cartoons , and as soft toys . It benefited the national tourism industry by over an estimated billion Australian dollars in 1998 , a figure that has since grown . In 1997 , half of visitors to Australia , especially those from Korea , Japan , and Taiwan , sought out zoos and wildlife parks ; about 75 % of European and Japanese tourists placed the koala at the top of their list of animals to see . According to biologist Stephen Jackson : " If you were to take a straw poll of the animal most closely associated with Australia , it 's a fair bet that the koala would come out marginally in front of the kangaroo " . Factors that contribute to the koala 's enduring popularity include its childlike body proportions and teddy bear @-@ like face .
The koala is featured in the Dreamtime stories and mythology of indigenous Australians . The Tharawal people believed that the animal helped row the boat that brought them to the continent . Another myth tells of how a tribe killed a koala and used its long intestines to create a bridge for people from other parts of the world . This narrative highlights the koala 's status as a game animal and the length of its intestines . Several stories tell of how the koala lost its tail . In one , a kangaroo cuts it off to punish the koala for being lazy and greedy . Tribes in both Queensland and Victoria regarded the koala as a wise animal and sought its advice . Bidjara @-@ speaking people credited the koala for turning barren lands into lush forests . The animal is also depicted in rock carvings , though not as much as some other species .
Early European settlers in Australia considered the koala to be a prowling sloth @-@ like animal with a " fierce and menacing look " . At the beginning of the 20th century , the koala 's reputation took a more positive turn , largely due to its growing popularity and depiction in several widely circulated children 's stories . It is featured in Ethel Pedley 's 1899 book Dot and the Kangaroo , in which it is portrayed as the " funny native bear " . Artist Norman Lindsay depicted a more anthropomorphic koala in The Bulletin cartoons , starting in 1904 . This character also appeared as Bunyip Bluegum in Lindsay 's 1918 book The Magic Pudding . Perhaps the most famous fictional koala is Blinky Bill . Created by Dorothy Wall in 1933 , the character appeared in several books and has been the subject of films , TV series , merchandise , and a 1986 environmental song by John Williamson . The first Australian stamp featuring a koala was issued by the Commonwealth in 1930 . A television ad campaign for Australia 's national airline Qantas , starting in 1967 and running for several decades , featured a live koala ( voiced by Howard Morris ) , who complained that too many tourists were coming to Australia and concluded " I hate Qantas " . The series has been ranked among the greatest commercials of all time .
The song " Ode to a Koala Bear " appears on the B @-@ side of the 1983 Paul McCartney / Michael Jackson duet album Say Say Say . A koala is the main character in Hanna @-@ Barbera 's The Kwicky Koala Show and Nippon Animation 's Noozles , both of which were animated cartoons of the early 1980s . Food products shaped like the koala include the Caramello Koala chocolate bar and the bite @-@ sized cookie snack Koala 's March . Dadswells Bridge in Victoria features a tourist complex shaped like a giant koala , and the Queensland Reds rugby team has a koala as its mascot . The Platinum Koala coin features the animal on the reverse and Elizabeth II on the obverse .
= = = Conservation issues = = =
In 2008 , the International Union for Conservation of Nature listed the koala under Least Concern for the following reasons : " Its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category " . Australian policy makers declined a 2009 proposal to include the koala in the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 . In 2012 , the Australian government listed koala populations in Queensland and New South Wales as Vulnerable , because of a 40 % population decline in the former and a 33 % decline in the latter . Populations in Victoria and South Australia appear to be abundant ; however , the Australian Koala Foundation argues that the exclusion of Victorian populations from protective measures is based on a misconception that the total koala population is 200 @,@ 000 , whereas they believe it is probably less than 100 @,@ 000 .
Koalas were hunted for food by Aboriginals . A common technique used to capture the animals was to attach a loop of ropey bark to the end of a long , thin pole , so as to form a noose . This would be used to snare an animal high in a tree , beyond the reach of a climbing hunter ; an animal brought down this way would then be killed with a stone hand axe or hunting stick ( waddy ) . According to the customs of some tribes , it was considered taboo to skin the animal , while other tribes thought the animal 's head had a special status , and saved them for burial .
The koala was heavily hunted by European settlers in the early 20th century , largely for its thick , soft fur . More than two million pelts are estimated to have left Australia by 1924 . Pelts were in demand for use in rugs , coat linings , muffs , and as trimming on women 's garments . Extensive cullings occurred in Queensland in 1915 , 1917 , and again in 1919 , when over one million koalas were killed with guns , poisons , and nooses . The public outcry over these cullings was probably the first wide @-@ scale environmental issue that rallied Australians . Novelist and social critic Vance Palmer , writing in a letter to the The Courier @-@ Mail , expressed the popular sentiment :
" The shooting of our harmless and lovable native bear is nothing less than barbarous ... No one has ever accused him of spoiling the farmer 's wheat , eating the squatter 's grass , or even the spreading of the prickly pear . There is no social vice that can be put down to his account ... He affords no sport to the gun @-@ man ... And he has been almost blotted out already from some areas . "
Despite the growing movement to protect native species , the poverty brought about by the drought of 1926 – 28 led to the killing of another 600 @,@ 000 koalas during a one @-@ month open season in August 1927 . In 1934 , Frederick Lewis , the Chief Inspector of Game in Victoria , said that the once @-@ abundant animal had been brought to near extinction in that state , suggesting that only 500 – 1000 remained .
The first successful efforts at conserving the species were initiated by the establishment of Brisbane 's Lone Pine Koala Sanctuary and Sydney 's Koala Park Sanctuary in the 1920s and 1930s . The owner of the latter park , Noel Burnet , became the first to successfully breed koalas and earned a reputation as the foremost contemporary authority on the marsupial . In 1934 , David Fleay , curator of Australian mammals at the Melbourne Zoo , established the first Australian faunal enclosure at an Australian zoo , and featured the koala . This arrangement allowed him to undertake a detailed study of its diet in captivity . Fleay later continued his conservation efforts at Healesville Sanctuary and the David Fleay Wildlife Park .
Since 1870 , koalas have been introduced to several coastal and offshore islands , including Kangaroo Island and French Island . Their numbers have significantly increased , and since the islands are not large enough to sustain such high koala numbers , overbrowsing has become a problem . In the 1920s , Lewis initiated a program of large @-@ scale relocation and rehabilitation programs to transfer koalas whose habitat had become fragmented or reduced to new regions , with the intent of eventually returning them to their former range . For example , in 1930 – 31 , 165 koalas were translocated to Quail Island . After a period of population growth , and subsequent overbrowsing of gum trees on the island , about 1 @,@ 300 animals were released into mainland areas in 1944 . The practice of translocating koalas became commonplace ; Victorian State manager Peter Menkorst estimated that from 1923 to 2006 , about 25 @,@ 000 animals were translocated to more than 250 release sites across Victoria . Since the 1990s , government agencies have tried to control their numbers by culling , but public and international outcry has forced the use of translocation and sterilisation , instead .
One of the biggest anthropogenic threats to the koala is habitat destruction and fragmentation . In coastal areas , the main cause of this is urbanisation , while in rural areas , habitat is cleared for agriculture . Native forest trees are also taken down to be made into wood products . In 2000 , Australia ranked fifth in the world by deforestation rates , having cleared 564 @,@ 800 hectares ( 1 @,@ 396 @,@ 000 acres ) . The distribution of the koala has shrunk by more than 50 % since European arrival , largely due to fragmentation of habitat in Queensland . The koala 's " vulnerable " status in Queensland and New South Wales means that developers in these states must consider the impacts on this species when making building applications . In addition , koalas live in many protected areas .
While urbanisation can pose a threat to koala populations , the animals can survive in urban areas provided enough trees are present . Urban populations have distinct vulnerabilities : collisions with vehicles and attacks by domestic dogs kill about 4 @,@ 000 animals every year . Injured koalas are often taken to wildlife hospitals and rehabilitation centres . In a 30 @-@ year retrospective study performed at a New South Wales koala rehabilitation centre , trauma ( usually resulting from a motor vehicle accident or dog attack ) was found to be the most frequent cause of admission , followed by symptoms of Chlamydia infection . Wildlife caretakers are issued special permits , but must release the animals back into the wild when they are either well enough or , in the case of joeys , old enough . As with most native animals , the koala cannot legally be kept as a pet in Australia or anywhere else .
= = = Urban myth = = =
The drop bear is an imaginary creature in contemporary Australian folklore featuring a predatory , carnivorous version of the koala . This hoax animal is commonly spoken about in tall tales designed to scare tourists . While koalas are typically docile herbivores , drop bears are described as unusually large and vicious marsupials that inhabit treetops and attack unsuspecting people ( or other prey ) that walk beneath them by dropping onto their heads from above .
= Millie Knight =
Millie Knight ( born 15 January 1999 ) is a Paralympic athlete and student who competes at international level for ParalympicsGB in alpine skiing in the slalom and giant slalom events with a sighted guide , currently Jennifer Kehoe . When Knight was one year old , she contracted toxocariasis , diagnosed at age three , and which resulted in the loss of most of her vision by the age of six . She joined the Great Britain paralympic skiing team in 2012 , and progressed to compete at international @-@ level events . Knight and Ferrier have competed together since February 2013 , winning several times . Knight was the flagbearer at the 2014 Winter Paralympics opening ceremony , her debut Paralympics , in Sochi where , at the age of 15 , she was the youngest person ever to compete for ParalympicsGB at the Winter Paralympic games .
= = Early life and education = =
Knight was born on 15 January 1999 in Canterbury , Kent . She lived on a farm with many animals , and at the age of one , she contracted the disease toxocariasis . When Knight was three , doctors examaining her eyes noticed scars on her right retina . A few trips to Great Ormond Street resulted in a diagnosis of toxocariasis , a condition developed when humans , most often young children , inadvertently consume the eggs of Toxocara , a roundworm parasite found in cat and dog faeces , which can in turn contaminate soil . The parasites , in rare circumstances such as Knight 's , migrate into the eyes , leading to vision problems . Her retina was treated with steroids and regular antibiotics . The disease was dormant until she was six , when she lost much of her vision , resulting in her being only partially sighted ; in her left eye she has 10 @-@ 20 % peripheral vision , and in her right eye she has 5 % .
As of 2014 Knight is studying for her GCSEs in tandem with her sporting career . She is enrolled at King 's School in Canterbury ; her first year studying there was 2013 @-@ 14 . The school allowed Knight two months away to compete at the Sochi Paralympics .
= = Skiing career = =
In 2006 at the age of seven , shortly before Knight lost the majority of her sight , she had been to France on a skiing holiday and was encouraged to try the sport by her mother . Her mother was Knight 's first sighted guide until late January 2013 for financial reasons . The pair competed together in visually impaired ( VI ) races .
In November 2012 , at age 13 , Knight began training with Great Britain 's Paralympic development squad . She raced at the Europa Cup in slalom and giant slalom. in spring 2013 . Her sighted guide at the Games , Rachael Ferrier , joined Knight in 2013 . Ferrier , who was 18 when she competed at Sochi , was a Glasgow Ski Instructor and racer who had been skiing since the age of seven prior to meeting Knight . Together the pair won two silver medals that year in the International Paralympic Committee Alpine Ski races at Landgraaf . In December 2013 , the pair won a medal at Pitztal , and then went on to win two gold medals at the annual International Paralympic Committee Alpine Skiing event , the RollRinn in Innsbruck , Austria , in January 2014 .
Knight competes in class B2 due to her lack of complete vision , a classification between being blind and visually impaired . She has been coached by Euan Bennet since 2011 , but is also assisted by national coach Tony McAllister . Knight is sponsored by SportsAid , and featured in their " I Will " advertising campaign .
= = = 2014 Paralympics = = =
Knight 's debut Paralympics was the 2014 Winter Paralympics in Sochi ; competing at the age of 15 made her the youngest ParalympicsGB competitor at any Winter Paralympics . She was the flag bearer at the opening ceremony for ParalympicsGB , carryinging the flag at the Fisht Olympic Stadium , an honour Knight described as " a surprise " . She competed for ParalympicsGB in the slalom on 14 March , completing both of her runs , and finishing fifth , and competed in the giant slalom on 16 March , again finishing fifth . There was not any significant expectation on Knight at the 2014 Paralympics , as her target is the 2018 Winter Paralympics in Pyeongchang .
Following the Sochi games , it was announced in April 2014 that Knight would participate in the Queen 's Baton Relay on 5 June 2014 , carrying the Baton in Kent .
The following year Knight travelled to Canada to compete at the 2015 IPC Alpine Skiing World Championships in Panorama Mountain Village in British Columbia . Her sighted guide from Sochi , Ferrier , had by this time enrolled at university and had left the sport allowing Knight to be reunited with her previous guide Jennifer Kehoe . Prior to the Championships Knight had won two gold medals on the World Cup tour and hopes were high that she may medal in the absence of British Paralympic champion Kelly Gallagher . At Panorama Knight took part in the two technical events , the slalom and giant slalom , as she was still too young to compete in the speed events . In her first event , the giant slalom , Knight took the lead in the first run with a time of 1 : 12 @.@ 90 , but despite bettering this time in her second run with 1 : 11 @.@ 49 , she was beaten into silver medal place by a third of a second by Russia 's Aleksandra Frantseva . Two days later Knight took part in the slalom , winning bronze , Britain 's only two medals of the games .
= Louis Lipsett =
Major General Louis James Lipsett CB , CMG ( 14 June 1874 – 14 October 1918 ) , was a senior officer in the British Army and Canadian Expeditionary Force during the First World War . He commanded the 3rd Canadian Division during some of the bitterest battles of the war , taking over in 1915 after his predecessor was killed . He himself was killed in action less than a month before the end of the war during a reconnaissance mission observing German positions along the River Selle .
A highly experienced officer , Lipsett had previously seen action in the Tirah Campaign and the Second Boer War with the British Army , serving as an officer with the Royal Irish Regiment . He was later instrumental in developing military training and education throughout Canada and expanding the shore defences of British Columbia in response to the threat of the German East Asian Cruiser Squadron under von Spee . An experienced and capable officer , Lipsett was popular with both his men and his superiors and his death was considered " a deplorable loss to the Division " .
= = Early military career = =
Born in Ballyshannon , County Donegal , Ireland , to Richard and Etty Lipsett in June 1874 , Lipsett was raised in Merthyr Tydfil , Wales , and Bedford , England , following his father 's death in 1887 . He was educated at Bedford School and took the Sandhurst entrance examination against the wishes of his tutors , entering the college and graduating 35th from his class of 120 . In 1894 , Lipsett was commissioned a second lieutenant in the Royal Irish Regiment , and took ship to India where he served for the next five years on the Northwest Frontier , participating in the Tirah Campaign against the Afridi . During these campaigns he conducted himself with distinction , being promoted to lieutenant but also contracting a near @-@ fatal bout of cholera .
In 1899 he and his regiment were ordered to South Africa for service in the Second Boer War . Although he did not serve in any significant actions Lipsett performed his duties well , in 1901 was promoted to captain and on his return to England in 1903 was recommended to the Staff College , Camberley . In 1905 he returned to South Africa as a staff officer ( Deputy @-@ Assistant Adjutant and Quartermaster @-@ General ) , to aid in the reconstitution of colonial government , a task he performed until 1907 , when he was posted back to his regiment . Based at Aldershot , Lipsett conducted both regimental business and operated as an aide @-@ de @-@ camp to the commander of the 2nd Division , Theodore Edward Stephenson .
In 1911 , Lipsett responded to the call from the Colonial Office for young staff officers to operate in colonial military academies , as military education had been standardised throughout the British Empire in 1909 . Lipsett was sent to Canada and promoted to major ( in 1913 ) , working hard to improve training in the Dominion . He instigated numerous new training courses and special schools , establishing close ties with the Canadian military establishment and personally training most of the next generation of Canadian staff officers and generals .
= = First World War = =
At the outbreak of the First World War Lipsett was dispatched to British Columbia , the Pacific coastline of which was largely undefended and was believed to be at risk from the German East Asian Cruiser Squadron under Maximilian von Spee , which had embarked on a raiding campaign in the Pacific Ocean that would culminate in the Battle of Coronel and the Battle of the Falkland Islands . Lipsett recognised that there was no immediate threat to the Canadian coast and calmed fears whilst simultaneously organising the local militia forces and deploying the two submarines purchased by provincial Premier Richard McBride . His task completed in British Columbia , Lipsett took over command and training of the 8th Battalion of the Canadian Expeditionary Force . A friend recalled that as a commanding officer he was " always accessible and charming in manner , yet there was that about him which made him respected and no one ever presumed on his kindness , except the few old soldiers , who with their war ribbons up , and uncanny intuition , never failed to touch a soft spot in his heart . "
In 1915 the 8th Battalion joined the British Army in France as part of the 3rd Canadian Division . At the Second Battle of Ypres his troops faced the brunt of the German assault , involving the first use of poison gas in modern warfare . Lipsett is credited with issuing the first order to counteract the effects of poison gas , when he ordered his men to urinate on strips of cloth and tie them to their faces to neutralise the chlorine . Lipsett 's battalion was instrumental in holding the line during the action and he was consequently rewarded by being made a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George , promoted to acting brigadier @-@ general and given command of the Canadian 2nd Brigade , which he trained during the spring of 1916 to conduct major trench raids on German lines .
= = = 3rd Canadian Division = = =
On 2 June 1916 , Lipsett 's commanding officer Malcolm Mercer was killed by enemy shellfire at Mount Sorrel in Belgium and Lipsett was given an acting promotion to replace him in command of the 3rd Canadian Division , and a brevet promotion to Lieutenant @-@ Colonel . The Canadian Minister of Militia and Defence Minister Sir Sam Hughes attempted to have him removed from the division in favour of Hughes ' son Garnet , but Lipsett was so highly regarded in the Canadian military establishment that General Byng overruled Hughes . Lipsett led his division through the worst of the campaigns in 1916 , including extensive operations during the Battle of the Somme . He received promotion to substantive Lieutenant @-@ Colonel in February 1917 , and in April 1917 Lipsett 's division was instrumental in the Canadian success at the Battle of Vimy Ridge . The following September however the division took heavy casualties in bitter fighting at the Battle of Passchendaele . After each of these battles , Lipsett was forced to reconstitute and retrain his units with fresh drafts , so severe were the casualties the division took . In August , 1918 he was involved in the planning and execution of an assault on German positions by the entire Canadian Corps which is known as the Battle of Amiens which was completely successful and for which he was made a Companion of the Order of the Bath . Through the rest of the month he was engaged in combat with the division , but at the start of September Arthur Currie and Douglas Haig arranged his transfer to the command of the British 4th Division in order that the Canadian Corps be entirely officered by Canadians .
= = = Death = = =
Although Lipsett was unhappy about the transfer , he acquiesced and took energetic command of the division during the Hundred Days Offensive . On 14 October 1918 , whilst planning an assault at Saulzoir in France he was crawling along a bank overlooking the River Selle with several officers of his own staff and some of the 49th Division , when at about 3 : 15 in the afternoon the party was spotted and a German machine gun opened fire from across the river . The party went to ground but a single bullet struck Lipsett in the face . He was able to stagger back to his own lines but there collapsed from massive blood loss and never regained consciousness . He was the last British general to be killed during the First World War . Lipsett was buried the following day in Quéant Communal Cemetery at a funeral attended by dozens of officers from the British and Canadian armies in France . The burial party was provided by the 8th Battalion , C.E.F. and amongst the mourners was the Prince of Wales . After the war he was posthumously awarded the Croix d 'officier de la Legion d 'honneur and the Croix de Guerre by the French government .
Lipsett is remembered in the Dictionary of Canadian Biography as " arguably the best " Canadian officer of the Great War , " a shrewd and thoughtful tactician whose pre @-@ war professional dedication paid off under fire from Ypres to Amiens " and who " set an example of fearlessness and disregard of danger to those under him at all times and in all places ; in fact to lead and not to follow was the ideal which he set for himself and lived up to the end . "
= Attachment theory =
Attachment theory is a psychological model that attempts to describe the dynamics of long @-@ term and short @-@ term interpersonal relationships between humans . However , " attachment theory is not formulated as a general theory of relationships . It addresses only a specific facet " ( Waters et al . 2005 : 81 ) : how human beings respond within relationships when hurt , separated from loved ones , or perceiving a threat . Essentially all infants become attached if provided any caregiver , but there are individual differences in the quality of the relationships . In infants , attachment as a motivational and behavioral system directs the child to seek proximity with a familiar caregiver when they are alarmed , with the expectation that they will receive protection and emotional support . John Bowlby believed that the tendency for primate infants to develop attachments to familiar caregivers was the result of evolutionary pressures , since attachment behavior would facilitate the infant 's survival in the face of dangers such as predation or exposure to the elements .
The most important tenet of attachment theory is that an infant needs to develop a relationship with at least one primary caregiver for the child 's successful social and emotional development , and in particular for learning how to effectively regulate their feelings . Fathers or any other individuals , are equally likely to become principal attachment figures if they provide most of the child care and related social interaction . In the presence of a sensitive and responsive caregiver , the infant will use the caregiver as a " safe base " from which to explore . It should be recognized that " even sensitive caregivers get it right only about 50 percent of the time . Their communications are either out of synch , or mismatched . There are times when parents feel tired or distracted . The telephone rings or there is breakfast to prepare . In other words , attuned interactions rupture quite frequently . But the hallmark of a sensitive caregiver is that the ruptures are managed and repaired . "
Attachments between infants and caregivers form even if this caregiver is not sensitive and responsive in social interactions with them . This has important implications . Infants cannot exit unpredictable or insensitive caregiving relationships . Instead they must manage themselves as best they can within such relationships . Based on her established Strange Situation Protocol , research by developmental psychologist Mary Ainsworth in the 1960s and 1970s found that children will have different patterns of attachment depending primarily on how they experienced their early caregiving environment . Early patterns of attachment , in turn , shape — but do not determine — the individual 's expectations in later relationships . Four different attachment classifications have been identified in children : secure attachment , anxious @-@ ambivalent attachment , anxious @-@ avoidant attachment , and disorganized attachment . Attachment theory has become the dominant theory used today in the study of infant and toddler behavior and in the fields of infant mental health , treatment of children , and related fields . Secure attachment is when children feel they can rely on their caregivers to attend to their needs of proximity , emotional support and protection . It is considered to be the best attachment style . Separation anxiety is what infants feel when they are separated from their caregivers . Anxious @-@ ambivalent attachment is when the infant feels separation anxiety when separated from the caregiver and does not feel reassured when the caregiver returns to the infant . Anxious @-@ avoidant attachment is when the infant avoids their parents . Disorganized attachment is when there is a lack of attachment behavior . In the 1980s , the theory was extended to attachment in adults . Attachment applies to adults when adults feel close attachment to their parents and their romantic partners .
= = Infant attachment = =
Within attachment theory , attachment means " a biological instinct in which proximity to an attachment figure is sought when the child senses or perceives threat or discomfort . Attachment behaviour anticipates a response by the attachment figure which will remove threat or discomfort " . Such bonds may be reciprocal between two adults , but between a child and a caregiver these bonds are based on the child 's need for safety , security and protection , paramount in infancy and childhood . John Bowlby begins by noting that organisms at different levels of the phylogenetic scale regulate instinctive behavior in distinct ways , ranging from primitive reflex @-@ like " fixed action patterns " to complex plan hierarchies with subgoals and strong learning components . In the most complex organisms , instinctive behaviors may be " goal @-@ corrected " with continual on @-@ course adjustments ( such as a bird of prey adjusting its flight to the movements of the prey ) . The concept of cybernetically controlled behavioral systems organized as plan hierarchies ( Miller , Galanter , and Pribram , 1960 ) thus came to replace Freud 's concept of drive and instinct . Such systems regulate behaviors in ways that need not be rigidly innate , but — depending on the organism — can adapt in greater or lesser degrees to changes in environmental circumstances , provided that these do not deviate too much from the organism 's environment of evolutionary adaptedness . Such flexible organisms pay a price , however , because adaptable behavioral systems can more easily be subverted from their optimal path of development . For humans , Bowlby speculates , the environment of evolutionary adaptedness probably resembles that of present @-@ day hunter @-@ gatherer societies for the purpose of survival , and , ultimately , genetic replication . Attachment theory is not an exhaustive description of human relationships , nor is it synonymous with love and affection , although these may indicate that bonds exist . Some infants direct attachment behaviour ( proximity seeking ) toward more than one attachment figure almost as soon as they start to show discrimination between caregivers ; most come to do so during their second year . These figures are arranged hierarchically , with the principal attachment figure at the top . The set @-@ goal of the attachment behavioural system is to maintain the accessibility and availability of the attachment figure . " Alarm " is the term used for activation of the attachment behavioural system caused by fear of danger . " Anxiety " is the anticipation or fear of being cut off from the attachment figure . If the figure is unavailable or unresponsive , separation distress occurs . In infants , physical separation can cause anxiety and anger , followed by sadness and despair . By age three or four , physical separation is no longer such a threat to the child 's bond with the attachment figure . Threats to security in older children and adults arise from prolonged absence , breakdowns in communication , emotional unavailability , or signs of rejection or abandonment .
= = = Behaviours = = =
The attachment behavioural system serves to achieve or maintain proximity to the attachment figure . Pre @-@ attachment behaviours occur in the first six months of life . During the first phase ( the first eight weeks ) , infants smile , babble , and cry to attract the attention of potential caregivers . Although infants of this age learn to discriminate between caregivers , these behaviours are directed at anyone in the vicinity . During the second phase ( two to six months ) , the infant increasingly discriminates between familiar and unfamiliar adults , becoming more responsive toward the caregiver ; following and clinging are added to the range of behaviours . Clear @-@ cut attachment develops in the third phase , between the ages of six months and two years . The infant 's behaviour toward the caregiver becomes organized on a goal @-@ directed basis to achieve the conditions that make it feel secure . By the end of the first year , the infant is able to display a range of attachment behaviours designed to maintain proximity . These manifest as protesting the caregiver 's departure , greeting the caregiver 's return , clinging when frightened , and following when able . With the development of locomotion , the infant begins to use the caregiver or caregivers as a " safe base " from which to explore . Infant exploration is greater when the caregiver is present because the infant 's attachment system is relaxed and it is free to explore . If the caregiver is inaccessible or unresponsive , attachment behaviour is more strongly exhibited . Anxiety , fear , illness , and fatigue will cause a child to increase attachment behaviours .
After the second year , as the child begins to see the caregiver as an independent person , a more complex and goal @-@ corrected partnership is formed . Children begin to notice others ' goals and feelings and plan their actions accordingly . For example , whereas babies cry because of pain , two @-@ year @-@ olds cry to summon their caregiver , and if that does not work , cry louder , shout , or follow .
= = = Tenets = = =
Common attachment behaviours and emotions , displayed in most social primates including humans , are adaptive . The long @-@ term evolution of these species has involved selection for social behaviors that make individual or group survival more likely . The commonly observed attachment behaviour of toddlers staying near familiar people would have had safety advantages in the environment of early adaptation , and has similar advantages today . Bowlby saw the environment of early adaptation as similar to current hunter @-@ gatherer societies . There is a survival advantage in the capacity to sense possibly dangerous conditions such as unfamiliarity , being alone , or rapid approach . According to Bowlby , proximity @-@ seeking to the attachment figure in the face of threat is the " set @-@ goal " of the attachment behavioural system .
Bowlby 's original account of a sensitivity period during which attachments can form of between six months and two to three years has been modified by later researchers . These researchers have shown that there is indeed a sensitive period during which attachments will form if possible , but the time frame is broader and the effect less fixed and irreversible than first proposed . With further research , authors discussing attachment theory have come to appreciate that social development is affected by later as well as earlier relationships . Early steps in attachment take place most easily if the infant has one caregiver , or the occasional care of a small number of other people . According to Bowlby , almost from the first many children have more than one figure toward whom they direct attachment behaviour . These figures are not treated alike ; there is a strong bias for a child to direct attachment behaviour mainly toward one particular person . Bowlby used the term " monotropy " to describe this bias . Researchers and theorists have abandoned this concept insofar as it may be taken to mean that the relationship with the special figure differs qualitatively from that of other figures . Rather , current thinking postulates definite hierarchies of relationships .
Early experiences with caregivers gradually give rise to a system of thoughts , memories , beliefs , expectations , emotions , and behaviours about the self and others . This system , called the " internal working model of social relationships " , continues to develop with time and experience . Internal models regulate , interpret , and predict attachment @-@ related behaviour in the self and the attachment figure . As they develop in line with environmental and developmental changes , they incorporate the capacity to reflect and communicate about past and future attachment relationships . They enable the child to handle new types of social interactions ; knowing , for example , that an infant should be treated differently from an older child , or that interactions with teachers and parents share characteristics . This internal working model continues to develop through adulthood , helping cope with friendships , marriage , and parenthood , all of which involve different behaviours and feelings . The development of attachment is a transactional process . Specific attachment behaviours begin with predictable , apparently innate , behaviours in infancy . They change with age in ways that are determined partly by experiences and partly by situational factors . As attachment behaviours change with age , they do so in ways shaped by relationships . A child 's behaviour when reunited with a caregiver is determined not only by how the caregiver has treated the child before , but on the history of effects the child has had on the caregiver .
= = Attachment classification in children : The Strange Situation Protocol = =
The most common and empirically supported method for assessing attachment in infants ( 11 months @-@ 17 months ) is the Strange Situation Protocol , developed by Mary Ainsworth as a result of her careful in @-@ depth observations of infants with their mothers in Baltimore , USA ( see below ) . The Strange Situation Protocol is a research tool that was not intended for diagnostic purposes . While the procedure may be used to supplement clinical impressions , the resulting classifications should not be confused with the psychiatric diagnosis ' Reactive Attachment Disorder ( RAD ) ' . The clinical concept of RAD differs in a number of fundamental ways from the theory and research driven attachment classifications based on the Strange Situation Procedure . The idea that insecure attachments are synonymous with RAD is , in fact , not accurate and leads to ambiguity when formally discussing attachment theory as it has evolved in the research literature . This is not to suggest that the concept of RAD is without merit , but rather that the clinical and research conceptualizations of insecure attachment and attachment disorder are not synonymous .
The ' Strange Situation ' is a laboratory procedure used to assess infants ' pattern of attachment to their caregiver by introducing an unexpected threat , two brief separations from the mother followed by reunion . In the procedure , the mother and infant are placed in an unfamiliar playroom equipped with toys while a researcher films the procedure through a one @-@ way mirror . The procedure consists of eight sequential episodes in which the infant experiences both separation from and reunion with the mother as well as the presence of an unfamiliar person ( the Stranger ) . The protocol is conducted in the following format unless modifications are otherwise noted by a particular researcher :
Episode 1 : Mother ( or other familiar caregiver ) , Baby , Experimenter ( 30 seconds )
Episode 2 : Mother , Baby ( 3 mins )
Episode 3 : Mother , Baby , Stranger ( 3 mins )
Episode 4 : Stranger , Baby ( 3 mins or less )
Episode 5 : Mother , Baby ( 3 mins )
Episode 6 : Baby Alone ( 3 mins or less )
Episode 7 : Stranger , Baby ( 3 mins or less )
Episode 8 : Mother , Baby ( 3 mins )
Mainly on the basis of their reunion behaviour ( although other behaviors are taken into account ) in the Strange Situation Paradigm ( Ainsworth et al . , 1978 ; see below ) , infants can be categorized into three ' organized ' attachment categories : Group B ( later called ' secure ' ) , Group A ( later called ' anxious avoidant ' ) , and Group C ( later called ' anxious ambivalent ' ) . There are subclassifications for each group ( see below ) .
Beginning in 1970 , a series of expansions were added to Ainsworth ’ s original patterns . They include the following : B4 ( 1970 ) , A / C ( 1985 ) D / disorganized ( 1986 ) , B5 ( 1988 , 1992 ) A + , C + , & Depressed ( 1992 , 2010 ) . At later ages , additional categories have been described . Each of these patterns reflects a different kind of attachment relationship of the infant with the mother / caregiver . An infant may have a different pattern of attachment to each parent as well as to alternate caregivers . Pattern of attachment is thus not a part of the infant , but is characteristic of the protective and comforting quality of a specific relationship . These attachment patterns are associated with behavioral patterns and can help further predict a child 's future personality .
= = Attachment patterns = =
" The strength of a child 's attachment behaviour in a given circumstance does not indicate the ' strength ' of the attachment bond . Some insecure children will routinely display very pronounced attachment behaviours , while many secure children find that there is no great need to engage in either intense or frequent shows of attachment behaviour . "
= = = Secure attachment = = =
A toddler who is securely attached to his or her parent ( or other familiar caregiver ) will explore freely while the caregiver is present , typically engages with strangers , is often visibly upset when the caregiver departs , and is generally happy to see the caregiver return . The extent of exploration and of distress are affected , however , by the child 's temperamental make @-@ up and by situational factors as well as by attachment status . A child 's attachment is largely influenced by their primary caregiver 's sensitivity to their needs . Parents who consistently ( or almost always ) respond to their child 's needs will create securely attached children . Such children are certain that their parents will be responsive to their needs and communications .
In the traditional Ainsworth et al . ( 1978 ) coding of the Strange Situation , secure infants are denoted as " Group B " infants and they are further subclassified as B1 , B2 , B3 , and B4 . Although these subgroupings refer to different stylistic responses to the comings and goings of the caregiver , they were not given specific labels by Ainsworth and colleagues , although their descriptive behaviors led others ( including students of Ainsworth ) to devise a relatively ' loose ' terminology for these subgroups . B1 's have been referred to as ' secure @-@ reserved ' , B2 's as ' secure @-@ inhibited ' , B3 's as ' secure @-@ balanced ' , and B4 's as ' secure @-@ reactive ' . In academic publications however , the classification of infants ( if subgroups are denoted ) is typically simply " B1 " or " B2 " although more theoretical and review @-@ oriented papers surrounding attachment theory may use the above terminology .
Securely attached children are best able to explore when they have the knowledge of a secure base ( their caregiver ) to return to in times of need . When assistance is given , this bolsters the sense of security and also , assuming the parent 's assistance is helpful , educates the child in how to cope with the same problem in the future . Therefore , secure attachment can be seen as the most adaptive attachment style . According to some psychological researchers , a child becomes securely attached when the parent is available and able to meet the needs of the child in a responsive and appropriate manner . At infancy and early childhood , if parents are caring and attentive towards their children , those children will be more prone to secure attachment .
= = = Anxious @-@ ambivalent attachment = = =
Anxious @-@ ambivalent attachment is also misnamed as ' resistant attachment ' . In general , a child with an anxious @-@ ambivalent pattern of attachment will typically explore little ( in the Strange Situation ) and is often wary of strangers , even when the parent is present . When the mother departs , the child is often highly distressed . The child is generally ambivalent when she returns . The anxious @-@ ambivalent strategy is a response to unpredictably responsive caregiving , and the displays of anger ( ambivalent resistant ) or helplessness ( ambivalent passive ) towards the caregiver on reunion can be regarded as a conditional strategy for maintaining the availability of the caregiver by preemptively taking control of the interaction .
The C1 ( ambivalent resistant ) subtype is coded when :
" ... resistant behavior is particularly conspicuous . The mixture of seeking and yet resisting contact and interaction has an unmistakably angry quality and indeed an angry tone may characterize behavior in the preseparation episodes ... "
The C2 ( ambivalent passive ) subtype is coded when :
" Perhaps the most conspicuous characteristic of C2 infants is their passivity . Their exploratory behavior is limited throughout the SS and their interactive behaviors are relatively lacking in active initiation . Nevertheless , in the reunion episodes they obviously want proximity to and contact with their mothers , even though they tend to use signalling rather than active approach , and protest against being put down rather than actively resisting release ... In general the C2 baby is not as conspicuously angry as the C1 baby . "
Research done by McCarthy and Taylor ( 1999 ) , found that children with abusive childhood experiences were more likely to develop ambivalent attachments . The study also found that children with ambivalent attachments were more likely to experience difficulties in maintaining intimate relationships as adults .
= = = Anxious @-@ avoidant attachment = = =
An infant with an anxious @-@ avoidant pattern of attachment will avoid or ignore the caregiver — showing little emotion when the caregiver departs or returns . The infant will not explore very much regardless of who is there . Infants classified as anxious @-@ avoidant ( A ) represented a puzzle in the early 1970s . They did not exhibit distress on separation , and either ignored the caregiver on their return ( A1 subtype ) or showed some tendency to approach together with some tendency to ignore or turn away from the caregiver ( A2 subtype ) . Ainsworth and Bell theorised that the apparently unruffled behaviour of the avoidant infants was in fact a mask for distress , a hypothesis later evidenced through studies of the heart @-@ rate of avoidant infants .
Infants are depicted as anxious @-@ avoidant when there is :
" ... conspicuous avoidance of the mother in the reunion episodes which is likely to consist of ignoring her altogether , although there may be some pointed looking away , turning away , or moving away ... If there is a greeting when the mother enters , it tends to be a mere look or a smile ... Either the baby does not approach his mother upon reunion , or they approach in ' abortive ' fashions with the baby going past the mother , or it tends to only occur after much coaxing ... If picked up , the baby shows little or no contact @-@ maintaining behavior ; he tends not to cuddle in ; he looks away and he may squirm to get down . "
Ainsworth 's narrative records showed that infants avoided the caregiver in the stressful Strange Situation Procedure when they had a history of experiencing rebuff of attachment behaviour . The infant 's needs were frequently not met and the infant had come to believe that communication of emotional needs had no influence on the caregiver . Ainsworth 's student Mary Main theorised that avoidant behaviour in the Strange Situational Procedure should be regarded as " a conditional strategy , which paradoxically permits whatever proximity is possible under conditions of maternal rejection " by de @-@ emphasising attachment needs . Main proposed that avoidance has two functions for an infant whose caregiver is consistently unresponsive to their needs . Firstly , avoidant behaviour allows the infant to maintain a conditional proximity with the caregiver : close enough to maintain protection , but distant enough to avoid rebuff . Secondly , the cognitive processes organising avoidant behaviour could help direct attention away from the unfulfilled desire for closeness with the caregiver — avoiding a situation in which the child is overwhelmed with emotion ( ' disorganised distress ' ) , and therefore unable to maintain control of themselves and achieve even conditional proximity .
= = = Disorganized / disoriented attachment = = =
Ainsworth herself was the first to find difficulties in fitting all infant behaviour into the three classifications used in her Baltimore study . Ainsworth and colleagues sometimes observed " tense movements such as hunching the shoulders , putting the hands behind the neck and tensely cocking the head , and so on . It was our clear impression that such tension movements signified stress , both because they tended to occur chiefly in the separation episodes and because they tended to be prodromal to crying . Indeed , our hypothesis is that they occur when a child is attempting to control crying , for they tend to vanish if and when crying breaks through . " Such observations also appeared in the doctoral theses of Ainsworth 's students . Crittenden , for example , noted that one abused infant in her doctoral sample was classed as secure ( B ) by her undergraduate coders because her strange situation behavior was " without either avoidance or ambivalence , she did show stress @-@ related stereotypic headcocking throughout the strange situation . This pervasive behavior , however , was the only clue to the extent of her stress . " . Beginning in 1983 , Crittenden offered A / C and other new organized classifications ( see below ) . Drawing on records of behaviours discrepant with the A , B and C classifications , a fourth classification was added by Ainsworth 's colleague Mary Main . In the Strange Situation , the attachment system is expected to be activated by the departure and return of the caregiver . If the behaviour of the infant does not appear to the observer to be coordinated in a smooth way across episodes to achieve either proximity or some relative proximity with the caregiver , then it is considered ' disorganised ' as it indicates a disruption or flooding of the attachment system ( e.g. by fear ) . Infant behaviours in the Strange Situation Protocol coded as disorganised / disoriented include overt displays of fear ; contradictory behaviours or affects occurring simultaneously or sequentially ; stereotypic , asymmetric , misdirected or jerky movements ; or freezing and apparent dissociation . Lyons @-@ Ruth has urged , however , that it should be more widely " recognized that 52 % of disorganized infants continue to approach the caregiver , seek comfort , and cease their distress without clear ambivalent or avoidant behavior . "
There is rapidly growing interest in disorganized attachment from clinicians and policy @-@ makers as well as researchers . However , the disorganized / disoriented attachment ( D ) classification has been criticised by some for being too encompassing , including Ainsworth herself . In 1990 , Ainsworth put in print her blessing for the new ' D ' classification , though she urged that the addition be regarded as " open @-@ ended , in the sense that subcategories may be distinguished " , as she worried that too many different forms of behaviour might be treated as if they were the same thing . Indeed , the D classification puts together infants who use a somewhat disrupted secure ( B ) strategy with those who seem hopeless and show little attachment behaviour ; it also puts together infants who run to hide when they see their caregiver in the same classification as those who show an avoidant ( A ) strategy on the first reunion and then an ambivalent @-@ resistant ( C ) strategy on the second reunion . Perhaps responding to such concerns , George and Solomon have divided among indices of disorganized / disoriented attachment ( D ) in the Strange Situation , treating some of the behaviours as a ' strategy of desperation ' and others as evidence that the attachment system has been flooded ( e.g. by fear , or anger ) . Moreover , Crittenden argues that some behaviour classified as Disorganized / disoriented can be regarded as more ' emergency ' versions of the avoidant and / or ambivalent / resistant strategies , and function to maintain the protective availability of the caregiver to some degree . Sroufe et al. have agreed that " even disorganised attachment behaviour ( simultaneous approach @-@ avoidance ; freezing , etc . ) enables a degree of proximity in the face of a frightening or unfathomable parent . " However , " the presumption that many indices of ' disorganisation ' are aspects of organised patterns does not preclude acceptance of the notion of disorganisation , especially in cases where the complexity and dangerousness of the threat are beyond children 's capacity for response . " For example , " Children placed in care , especially more than once , often have intrusions . In videos of the Strange Situation Procedure , they tend to occur when a rejected / neglected child approaches the stranger in an intrusion of desire for comfort , then loses muscular control and falls to the floor , overwhelmed by the intruding fear of the unknown , potentially dangerous , strange person . "
Main and Hesse found that most of the mothers of these children had suffered major losses or other trauma shortly before or after the birth of the infant and had reacted by becoming severely depressed . In fact , 56 % of mothers who had lost a parent by death before they completed high school subsequently had children with disorganized attachments . Subsequent studies , whilst emphasising the potential importance of unresolved loss , have qualified these findings . For example , Solomon and George found that unresolved loss in the mother tended to be associated with disorganised attachment in their infant primarily when they had also experienced an unresolved trauma in their life prior to the loss .
= = = Later patterns and the dynamic @-@ maturational model = = =
Techniques have been developed to allow verbal ascertainment of the child 's state of mind with respect to attachment . An example is the " stem story " , in which a child is given the beginning of a story that raises attachment issues and asked to complete it . For older children , adolescents and adults , semi @-@ structured interviews are used in which the manner of relaying content may be as significant as the content itself . However , there are no substantially validated measures of attachment for middle childhood or early adolescence ( approximately 7 to 13 years of age ) . Some studies of older children have identified further attachment classifications . Main and Cassidy observed that disorganized behavior in infancy can develop into a child using caregiving @-@ controlling or punitive behaviour in order to manage a helpless or dangerously unpredictable caregiver . In these cases , the child 's behaviour is organised , but the behaviour is treated by researchers as a form of ' disorganization ' ( D ) since the hierarchy in the family is no longer organised according to parenting authority .
Patricia McKinsey Crittenden has elaborated classifications of further forms of avoidant and ambivalent attachment behaviour . These include the caregiving and punitive behaviours also identified by Main and Cassidy ( termed A3 and C3 respectively ) , but also other patterns such as compulsive compliance with the wishes of a threatening parent ( A4 ) .
Crittenden 's ideas developed from Bowlby 's proposal that " given certain adverse circumstances during childhood , the selective exclusion of information of certain sorts may be adaptive . Yet , when during adolescence and adulthood the situation changes , the persistent exclusion of the same forms of information may become maladaptive " .
Crittenden proposed that the basic components of human experience of danger are two kinds of information :
1 . ' Affective information ' – the emotions provoked by the potential for danger , such as anger or fear . Crittenden terms this " affective information " . In childhood this information would include emotions provoked by the unexplained absence of an attachment figure . Where an infant is faced with insensitive or rejecting parenting , one strategy for maintaining the availability of their attachment figure is to try to exclude from consciousness or from expressed behaviour any emotional information that might result in rejection .
2 . Causal or other sequentially @-@ ordered knowledge about the potential for safety or danger . In childhood this would include knowledge regarding the behaviours that indicate an attachment figure 's availability as a secure haven . If knowledge regarding the behaviours that indicate an attachment figure 's availability as a secure haven is subject to segregation , then the infant can try to keep the attention of their caregiver through clingy or aggressive behaviour , or alternating combinations of the two . Such behaviour may increase the availability of an attachment figure who otherwise displays inconsistent or misleading responses to the infant 's attachment behaviours , suggesting the unreliability of protection and safety .
Crittenden proposes that both kinds of information can be split off from consciousness or behavioural expression as a ' strategy ' to maintain the availability of an attachment figure ( See section above on Disorganized / disoriented attachment for distinction of " Types " ) : " Type A strategies were hypothesized to be based on reducing perception of threat to reduce the disposition to respond . Type C was hypothesized to be based on heightening perception of threat to increase the disposition to respond . " Type A strategies split off emotional information about feeling threatened and type C strategies split off temporally @-@ sequenced knowledge about how and why the attachment figure is available . By contrast , type B strategies effectively utilise both kinds of information without much distortion . For example : a toddler may have come to depend upon a type C strategy of tantrums in working to maintain the availability of an attachment figure whose inconsistent availability has led the child to distrust or distort causal information about their apparent behaviour . This may lead their attachment figure to get a clearer grasp on their needs and the appropriate response to their attachment behaviours . Experiencing more reliable and predictable information about the availability of their attachment figure , the toddler then no longer needs to use coercive behaviours with the goal of maintaining their caregiver 's availability and can develop a secure attachment to their caregiver since they trust that their needs and communications will be heeded .
= = = Significance of patterns = = =
Research based on data from longitudinal studies , such as the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and the Minnesota Study of Risk and Adaption from Birth to Adulthood , and from cross @-@ sectional studies , consistently shows associations between early attachment classifications and peer relationships as to both quantity and quality . Lyons @-@ Ruth , for example , found that " for each additional withdrawing behavior displayed by mothers in relation to their infant 's attachment cues in the Strange Situation Procedure , the likelihood of clinical referral by service providers was increased by 50 % . " There is an extensive body of research demonstrating a significant association between attachment organizations and children 's functioning across multiple domains . Early insecure attachment does not necessarily predict difficulties , but it is a liability for the child , particularly if similar parental behaviours continue throughout childhood . Compared to that of securely attached children , the adjustment of insecure children in many spheres of life is not as soundly based , putting their future relationships in jeopardy . Although the link is not fully established by research and there are other influences besides attachment , secure infants are more likely to become socially competent than their insecure peers . Relationships formed with peers influence the acquisition of social skills , intellectual development and the formation of social identity . Classification of children 's peer status ( popular , neglected or rejected ) has been found to predict subsequent adjustment . Insecure children , particularly avoidant children , are especially vulnerable to family risk . Their social and behavioural problems increase or decline with deterioration or improvement in parenting . However , an early secure attachment appears to have a lasting protective function . As with attachment to parental figures , subsequent experiences may alter the course of development . Studies have suggested that infants with a high @-@ risk for Autism Spectrum Disorders ( ASD ) may express attachment security differently from infants with a low @-@ risk for ASD . Behavioral problems and social competence in insecure children increase or decline with deterioration or improvement in quality of parenting and the degree of risk in the family environment . Some authors have questioned the idea that a taxonomy of categories representing a qualitative difference in attachment relationships can be developed . Examination of data from 1 @,@ 139 15 @-@ month @-@ olds showed that variation in attachment patterns was continuous rather than grouped . This criticism introduces important questions for attachment typologies and the mechanisms behind apparent types . However , it has relatively little relevance for attachment theory itself , which " neither requires nor predicts discrete patterns of attachment . " There is some evidence that gender differences in attachment patterns of adaptive significance begin to emerge in middle childhood . Insecure attachment and early psychosocial stress indicate the presence of environmental risk ( for example poverty , mental illness , instability , minority status , violence ) . Environmental risk can cause insecure attachment , while also favouring the development of strategies for earlier reproduction . Different reproductive strategies have different adaptive values for males and females : Insecure males tend to adopt avoidant strategies , whereas insecure females tend to adopt anxious / ambivalent strategies , unless they are in a very high risk environment . Adrenarche is proposed as the endocrine mechanism underlying the reorganization of insecure attachment in middle childhood .
= = Changes in attachment during childhood and adolescence = =
Childhood and adolescence allows the development of an internal working model useful for forming attachments . This internal working model is related to the individual 's state of mind which develops with respect to attachment generally and explores how attachment functions in relationship dynamics based on childhood and adolescent experience . The organization of an internal working model is generally seen as leading to more stable attachments in those who develop such a model , rather than those who rely more on the individual 's state of mind alone in forming new attachments .
Age , cognitive growth , and continued social experience advance the development and complexity of the internal working model . Attachment @-@ related behaviours lose some characteristics typical of the infant @-@ toddler period and take on age @-@ related tendencies . The preschool period involves the use of negotiation and bargaining . For example , four @-@ year @-@ olds are not distressed by separation if they and their caregiver have already negotiated a shared plan for the separation and reunion .
Ideally , these social skills become incorporated into the internal working model to be used with other children and later with adult peers . As children move into the school years at about six years old , most develop a goal @-@ corrected partnership with parents , in which each partner is willing to compromise in order to maintain a gratifying relationship . By middle childhood , the goal of the attachment behavioural system has changed from proximity to the attachment figure to availability . Generally , a child is content with longer separations , provided contact — or the possibility of physically reuniting , if needed — is available . Attachment behaviours such as clinging and following decline and self @-@ reliance increases . By middle childhood ( ages 7 – 11 ) , there may be a shift toward mutual coregulation of secure @-@ base contact in which caregiver and child negotiate methods of maintaining communication and supervision as the child moves toward a greater degree of independence .
= = Attachment in adults = =
Attachment theory was extended to adult romantic relationships in the late 1980s by Cindy Hazan and Phillip Shaver . Four styles of attachment have been identified in adults : secure , anxious @-@ preoccupied , dismissive @-@ avoidant and fearful @-@ avoidant . These roughly correspond to infant classifications : secure , insecure @-@ ambivalent , insecure @-@ avoidant and disorganized / disoriented .
Securely attached adults tend to have positive views of themselves , their partners and their relationships . They feel comfortable with intimacy and independence , balancing the two . Anxious @-@ preoccupied adults seek high levels of intimacy , approval and responsiveness from partners , becoming overly dependent . They tend to be less trusting , have less positive views about themselves and their partners , and may exhibit high levels of emotional expressiveness , worry and impulsiveness in their relationships . Dismissive @-@ avoidant adults desire a high level of independence , often appearing to avoid attachment altogether . They view themselves as self @-@ sufficient , invulnerable to attachment feelings and not needing close relationships . They tend to suppress their feelings , dealing with rejection by distancing themselves from partners of whom they often have a poor opinion . Fearful @-@ avoidant adults have mixed feelings about close relationships , both desiring and feeling uncomfortable with emotional closeness . They tend to mistrust their partners and view themselves as unworthy . Like dismissive @-@ avoidant adults , fearful @-@ avoidant adults tend to seek less intimacy , suppressing their feelings .
Two main aspects of adult attachment have been studied . The organization and stability of the mental working models that underlie the attachment styles is explored by social psychologists interested in romantic attachment . Developmental psychologists interested in the individual 's state of mind with respect to attachment generally explore how attachment functions in relationship dynamics and impacts relationship outcomes . The organisation of mental working models is more stable while the individual 's state of mind with respect to attachment fluctuates more . Some authors have suggested that adults do not hold a single set of working models . Instead , on one level they have a set of rules and assumptions about attachment relationships in general . On another level they hold information about specific relationships or relationship events . Information at different levels need not be consistent . Individuals can therefore hold different internal working models for different relationships .
There are a number of different measures of adult attachment , the most common being self @-@ report questionnaires and coded interviews based on the Adult Attachment Interview . The various measures were developed primarily as research tools , for different purposes and addressing different domains , for example romantic relationships , parental relationships or peer relationships . Some classify an adult 's state of mind with respect to attachment and attachment patterns by reference to childhood experiences , while others assess relationship behaviours and security regarding parents and peers .
= = History = =
= = = Maternal deprivation = = =
The early thinking of the object relations school of psychoanalysis , particularly Melanie Klein , influenced Bowlby . However , he profoundly disagreed with the prevalent psychoanalytic belief that infants ' responses relate to their internal fantasy life rather than real @-@ life events . As Bowlby formulated his concepts , he was influenced by case studies on disturbed and delinquent children , such as those of William Goldfarb published in 1943 and 1945 .
Bowlby 's contemporary René Spitz observed separated children 's grief , proposing that " psychotoxic " results were brought about by inappropriate experiences of early care . A strong influence was the work of social worker and psychoanalyst James Robertson who filmed the effects of separation on children in hospital . He and Bowlby collaborated in making the 1952 documentary film A Two @-@ Year Old Goes to the Hospital which was instrumental in a campaign to alter hospital restrictions on visits by parents .
In his 1951 monograph for the World Health Organisation , Maternal Care and Mental Health , Bowlby put forward the hypothesis that " the infant and young child should experience a warm , intimate , and continuous relationship with his mother in which both find satisfaction and enjoyment " , the lack of which may have significant and irreversible mental health consequences . This was also published as Child Care and the Growth of Love for public consumption . The central proposition was influential but highly controversial . At the time there was limited empirical data and no comprehensive theory to account for such a conclusion . Nevertheless , Bowlby 's theory sparked considerable interest in the nature of early relationships , giving a strong impetus to , ( in the words of Mary Ainsworth ) , a " great body of research " in an extremely difficult , complex area . Bowlby 's work ( and Robertson 's films ) caused a virtual revolution in hospital visiting by parents , hospital provision for children 's play , educational and social needs and the use of residential nurseries . Over time , orphanages were abandoned in favour of foster care or family @-@ style homes in most developed countries .
Following the publication of Maternal Care and Mental Health , Bowlby sought new understanding from the fields of evolutionary biology , ethology , developmental psychology , cognitive science and control systems theory . He formulated the innovative proposition that mechanisms underlying an infant 's emotional tie to the caregiver ( s ) emerged as a result of evolutionary pressure . He set out to develop a theory of motivation and behaviour control built on science rather than Freud 's psychic energy model . Bowlby argued that with attachment theory he had made good the " deficiencies of the data and the lack of theory to link alleged cause and effect " of Maternal Care and Mental Health .
= = = = Ethology = = = =
Bowlby 's attention was first drawn to ethology when he read Konrad Lorenz 's 1952 publication in draft form ( although Lorenz had published earlier work ) . Other important influences were ethologists Nikolaas Tinbergen and Robert Hinde . Bowlby subsequently collaborated with Hinde . In 1953 Bowlby stated " the time is ripe for a unification of psychoanalytic concepts with those of ethology , and to pursue the rich vein of research which this union suggests . " Konrad Lorenz had examined the phenomenon of " imprinting " , a behaviour characteristic of some birds and mammals which involves rapid learning of recognition by the young , of a conspecific or comparable object . After recognition comes a tendency to follow .
Certain types of learning are possible , respective to each applicable type of learning , only within a limited age range known as a critical period . Bowlby 's concepts included the idea that attachment involved learning from experience during a limited age period , influenced by adult behaviour . He did not apply the imprinting concept in its entirety to human attachment . However , he considered that attachment behaviour was best explained as instinctive , combined with the effect of experience , stressing the readiness the child brings to social interactions . Over time it became apparent there were more differences than similarities between attachment theory and imprinting so the analogy was dropped . Ethologists expressed concern about the adequacy of some research on which attachment theory was based , particularly the generalisation to humans from animal studies . Schur , discussing Bowlby 's use of ethological concepts ( pre @-@ 1960 ) commented that concepts used in attachment theory had not kept up with changes in ethology itself . Ethologists and others writing in the 1960s and 1970s questioned and expanded the types of behaviour used as indications of attachment . Observational studies of young children in natural settings provided other behaviours that might indicate attachment ; for example , staying within a predictable distance of the mother without effort on her part and picking up small objects , bringing them to the mother but not to others . Although ethologists tended to be in agreement with Bowlby , they pressed for more data , objecting to psychologists writing as if there were an " entity which is ' attachment ' , existing over and above the observable measures . " Robert Hinde considered " attachment behaviour system " to be an appropriate term which did not offer the same problems " because it refers to postulated control systems that determine the relations between different kinds of behaviour . "
= = = = Psychoanalysis = = = =
Psychoanalytic concepts influenced Bowlby 's view of attachment , in particular , the observations by Anna Freud and Dorothy Burlingham of young children separated from familiar caregivers during World War II . However , Bowlby rejected psychoanalytical explanations for early infant bonds including " drive theory " in which the motivation for attachment derives from gratification of hunger and libidinal drives . He called this the " cupboard @-@ love " theory of relationships . In his view it failed to see attachment as a psychological bond in its own right rather than an instinct derived from feeding or sexuality . Based on ideas of primary attachment and Neo @-@ Darwinism , Bowlby identified what he saw as fundamental flaws in psychoanalysis : the overemphasis of internal dangers rather than external threat , and the view of the development of personality via linear phases with regression to fixed points accounting for psychological distress . Bowlby instead posited that several lines of development were possible , the outcome of which depended on the interaction between the organism and the environment . In attachment this would mean that although a developing child has a propensity to form attachments , the nature of those attachments depends on the environment to which the child is exposed .
From early in the development of attachment theory there was criticism of the theory 's lack of congruence with various branches of psychoanalysis . Bowlby 's decisions left him open to criticism from well @-@ established thinkers working on similar problems .
= = = = Internal working model = = = =
The philosopher Kenneth Craik had noted the ability of thought to predict events . He stressed the survival value of and natural selection for this ability . This internal working model allows a person to try out alternatives mentally , using knowledge of the past while responding to the present and future . Bowlby applied Craik 's ideas to attachment , when other psychologists were applying these concepts to adult perception and cognition .
An infant 's internal working model is developed in response to the infant 's experience of the outcomes of his or her proximity @-@ seeking behaviors . If the caregiver is accepting of these proximity @-@ seeking behaviors and grants access , the infant develops a secure organization ; if the caregiver consistently denies the infant access , an avoidant organization develops ; and if the caregiver inconsistently grants access , an ambivalent organization develops .
A parent 's internal working model that is operative in the attachment relationship with her infant can be accessed by examining the parent 's mental representations . Recent research has demonstrated that the quality of maternal attributions as markers of maternal mental representations can be associated with particular forms of maternal psychopathology and can be altered in a relative short time @-@ period by targeted psychotherapeutic intervention .
= = = = Developments = = = =
In the 1970s , problems with viewing attachment as a trait ( stable characteristic of an individual ) rather than as a type of behaviour with organising functions and outcomes , led some authors to the conclusion that attachment behaviours were best understood in terms of their functions in the child 's life . This way of thinking saw the secure base concept as central to attachment theory 's logic , coherence , and status as an organizational construct . Following this argument , the assumption that attachment is expressed identically in all humans cross @-@ culturally was examined . The research showed that though there were cultural differences , the three basic patterns , secure , avoidant and ambivalent , can be found in every culture in which studies have been undertaken , even where communal sleeping arrangements are the norm .
Selection of the secure pattern is found in the majority of children across cultures studied . This follows logically from the fact that attachment theory provides for infants to adapt to changes in the environment , selecting optimal behavioural strategies . How attachment is expressed shows cultural variations which need to be ascertained before studies can be undertaken ; for example Gusii infants are greeted with a handshake rather than a hug . Securely attached Gusii infants anticipate and seek this contact . There are also differences in the distribution of insecure patterns based on cultural differences in child @-@ rearing practices . The scholar Michael Rutter in 1974 studied the importance of distinguishing between the consequences of attachment deprivation upon intellectual retardation in children and lack of development in the emotional growth in children . Rutter 's conclusion was that a careful delineation of maternal attributes needed to be identified and differentiated for progress in the field to continue .
The biggest challenge to the notion of the universality of attachment theory came from studies conducted in Japan where the concept of amae plays a prominent role in describing family relationships . Arguments revolved around the appropriateness of the use of the Strange Situation procedure where amae is practiced . Ultimately research tended to confirm the universality hypothesis of attachment theory . Most recently a 2007 study conducted in Sapporo in Japan found attachment distributions consistent with global norms using the six @-@ year Main and Cassidy scoring system for attachment classification .
Critics in the 1990s such as J. R. Harris , Steven Pinker and Jerome Kagan were generally concerned with the concept of infant determinism ( nature versus nurture ) , stressing the effects of later experience on personality . Building on the work on temperament of Stella Chess , Kagan rejected almost every assumption on which attachment theory etiology was based . Kagan argued that heredity was far more important than the transient developmental effects of early environment . For example , a child with an inherently difficult temperament would not elicit sensitive behavioural responses from a caregiver . The debate spawned considerable research and analysis of data from the growing number of longitudinal studies . Subsequent research has not borne out Kagan 's argument , possibly suggesting that it is the caregiver 's behaviours that form the child 's attachment style , although how this style is expressed may differ with the child 's temperament . Harris and Pinker put forward the notion that the influence of parents had been much exaggerated , arguing that socialisation took place primarily in peer groups . H. Rudolph Schaffer concluded that parents and peers had different functions , fulfilling distinctive roles in children 's development . Psychoanalyst / psychologists Peter Fonagy and Mary Target have attempted to bring attachment theory and psychoanalysis into a closer relationship through cognitive science as mentalization . Mentalization , or theory of mind , is the capacity of human beings to guess with some accuracy what thoughts , emotions and intentions lie behind behaviours as subtle as facial expression . It has been speculated that this connection between theory of mind and the internal working model may open new areas of study , leading to alterations in attachment theory . Since the late 1980s , there has been a developing rapprochement between attachment theory and psychoanalysis , based on common ground as elaborated by attachment theorists and researchers , and a change in what psychoanalysts consider to be central to psychoanalysis . Object relations models which emphasise the autonomous need for a relationship have become dominant and are linked to a growing recognition within psychoanalysis of the importance of infant development in the context of relationships and internalised representations . Psychoanalysis has recognised the formative nature of a child 's early environment including the issue of childhood trauma . A psychoanalytically based exploration of the attachment system and an accompanying clinical approach has emerged together with a recognition of the need for measurement of outcomes of interventions .
One focus of attachment research has been the difficulties of children whose attachment history was poor , including those with extensive non @-@ parental child care experiences . Concern with the effects of child care was intense during the so @-@ called " day care wars " of the late 20th century , during which some authors stressed the deleterious effects of day care . As a result of this controversy , training of child care professionals has come to stress attachment issues , including the need for relationship @-@ building by the assignment of a child to a specific care @-@ giver . Although only high @-@ quality child care settings are likely to provide this , more infants in child care receive attachment @-@ friendly care than in the past . A natural experiment permitted extensive study of attachment issues as researchers followed thousands of Romanian orphans adopted into Western families after the end of the Nicolae Ceauşescu regime . The English and Romanian Adoptees Study Team , led by Michael Rutter , followed some of the children into their teens , attempting to unravel the effects of poor attachment , adoption , new relationships , physical problems and medical issues associated with their early lives . Studies of these adoptees , whose initial conditions were shocking , yielded reason for optimism as many of the children developed quite well . Researchers noted that separation from familiar people is only one of many factors that help to determine the quality of development . Although higher rates of atypical insecure attachment patterns were found compared to native @-@ born or early @-@ adopted samples , 70 % of later @-@ adopted children exhibited no marked or severe attachment disorder behaviours .
Authors considering attachment in non @-@ Western cultures have noted the connection of attachment theory with Western family and child care patterns characteristic of Bowlby 's time . As children 's experience of care changes , so may attachment @-@ related experiences . For example , changes in attitudes toward female sexuality have greatly increased the numbers of children living with their never @-@ married mothers or being cared for outside the home while the mothers work . This social change has made it more difficult for childless people to adopt infants in their own countries . There has been an increase in the number of older @-@ child adoptions and adoptions from third @-@ world sources in first @-@ world countries . Adoptions and births to same @-@ sex couples have increased in number and gained legal protection , compared to their status in Bowlby 's time . Issues have been raised to the effect that the dyadic model characteristic of attachment theory cannot address the complexity of real @-@ life social experiences , as infants often have multiple relationships within the family and in child care settings . It is suggested these multiple relationships influence one another reciprocally , at least within a family .
Principles of attachment theory have been used to explain adult social behaviours , including mating , social dominance and hierarchical power structures , in @-@ group identification , group coalitions , and negotiation of reciprocity and justice . Those explanations have been used to design parental care training , and have been particularly successful in the design of child abuse prevention programmes .
While a wide variety of studies have upheld the basic tenets of attachment theory , research has been inconclusive as to whether self @-@ reported early attachment and later depression are demonstrably related .
= = Biology of attachment = =
In addition to longitudinal studies , there has been psychophysiological research on the biology of attachment . Research has begun to include neural development , behaviour genetics and temperament concepts . Generally , temperament and attachment constitute separate developmental domains , but aspects of both contribute to a range of interpersonal and intrapersonal developmental outcomes . Some types of temperament may make some individuals susceptible to the stress of unpredictable or hostile relationships with caregivers in the early years . In the absence of available and responsive caregivers it appears that some children are particularly vulnerable to developing attachment disorders .
In psychophysiological research on attachment , the two main areas studied have been autonomic responses , such as heart rate or respiration , and the activity of the hypothalamic – pituitary – adrenal axis . Infants ' physiological responses have been measured during the Strange Situation procedure looking at individual differences in infant temperament and the extent to which attachment acts as a moderator . There is some evidence that the quality of caregiving shapes the development of the neurological systems which regulate stress .
Another issue is the role of inherited genetic factors in shaping attachments : for example one type of polymorphism of the gene coding for the D2 dopamine receptor has been linked to anxious attachment and another in the gene for the 5 @-@ HT2A serotonin receptor with avoidant attachment . This suggests that the influence of maternal care on attachment security is not the same for all children . One theoretical basis for this is that it makes biological sense for children to vary in their susceptibility to rearing influence .
= = Practical applications = =
As a theory of socioemotional development , attachment theory has implications and practical applications in social policy , decisions about the care and welfare of children and mental health .
= = = Child care policies = = =
Social policies concerning the care of children were the driving force in Bowlby 's development of attachment theory . The difficulty lies in applying attachment concepts to policy and practice . In 2008 C.H. Zeanah and colleagues stated , " Supporting early child @-@ parent relationships is an increasingly prominent goal of mental health practitioners , community @-@ based service providers and policy makers ... Attachment theory and research have generated important findings concerning early child development and spurred the creation of programs to support early child @-@ parent relationships . "
Historically , attachment theory had significant policy implications for hospitalised or institutionalised children , and those in poor quality daycare . Controversy remains over whether non @-@ maternal care , particularly in group settings , has deleterious effects on social development . It is plain from research that poor quality care carries risks but that those who experience good quality alternative care cope well although it is difficult to provide good quality , individualised care in group settings .
Attachment theory has implications in residence and contact disputes , and applications by foster parents to adopt foster children . In the past , particularly in North America , the main theoretical framework was psychoanalysis . Increasingly attachment theory has replaced it , thus focusing on the quality and continuity of caregiver relationships rather than economic well @-@ being or automatic precedence of any one party , such as the biological mother . Rutter noted that in the UK , since 1980 , family courts have shifted considerably to recognize the complications of attachment relationships . Children tend to have attachment relationships with both parents and often grandparents or other relatives . Judgements need to take this into account along with the impact of step @-@ families . Attachment theory has been crucial in highlighting the importance of social relationships in dynamic rather than fixed terms .
Attachment theory can also inform decisions made in social work , especially in humanistic social work ( Petru Stefaroi ) , and court processes about foster care or other placements . Considering the child 's attachment needs can help determine the level of risk posed by placement options . Within adoption , the shift from " closed " to " open " adoptions and the importance of the search for biological parents would be expected on the basis of attachment theory . Many researchers in the field were strongly influenced by it .
= = = Clinical practice in children = = =
Although attachment theory has become a major scientific theory of socioemotional development with one of the widest research lines in modern psychology , it has , until recently , been less used in clinical practice .
This may be partly due to lack of attention paid to clinical application by Bowlby himself and partly due to broader meanings of the word ' attachment ' used amongst practitioners . It may also be partly due to the mistaken association of attachment theory with the pseudoscientific interventions misleadingly known as " attachment therapy " .
= = = = Prevention and treatment = = = =
In 1988 , Bowlby published a series of lectures indicating how attachment theory and research could be used in understanding and treating child and family disorders . His focus for bringing about change was the parents ' internal working models , parenting behaviours and the parents ' relationship with the therapeutic intervenor . Ongoing research has led to a number of individual treatments and prevention and intervention programmes . They range from individual therapy to public health programmes to interventions designed for foster caregivers . For infants and younger children , the focus is on increasing the responsiveness and sensitivity of the caregiver , or if that is not possible , placing the child with a different caregiver . An assessment of the attachment status or caregiving responses of the caregiver is invariably included , as attachment is a two @-@ way process involving attachment behaviour and caregiver response . Some programmes are aimed at foster carers because the attachment behaviours of infants or children with attachment difficulties often do not elicit appropriate caregiver responses . Modern prevention and intervention programmes have proven successful .
= = = = Reactive attachment disorder and attachment disorder = = = =
One atypical attachment pattern is considered to be an actual disorder , known as reactive attachment disorder or RAD , which is a recognised psychiatric diagnosis ( ICD @-@ 10 F94.1 / 2 and DSM @-@ IV @-@ TR 313 @.@ 89 ) . Against common misconception , this is not the same as ' disorganised attachment ' . The essential feature of reactive attachment disorder is markedly disturbed and developmentally inappropriate social relatedness in most contexts that begins before age five years , associated with gross pathological care . There are two subtypes , one reflecting a disinhibited attachment pattern , the other an inhibited pattern . RAD is not a description of insecure attachment styles , however problematic those styles may be ; instead , it denotes a lack of age @-@ appropriate attachment behaviours that may appear to resemble a clinical disorder . Although the term " reactive attachment disorder " is now popularly applied to perceived behavioural difficulties that fall outside the DSM or ICD criteria , particularly on the Web and in connection with the pseudo @-@ scientific attachment therapy , " true " RAD is thought to be rare .
" Attachment disorder " is an ambiguous term , which may be used to refer to reactive attachment disorder or to the more problematical insecure attachment styles ( although none of these are clinical disorders ) . It may also be used to refer to proposed new classification systems put forward by theorists in the field , and is used within attachment therapy as a form of unvalidated diagnosis . One of the proposed new classifications , " secure base distortion " has been found to be associated with caregiver traumatization .
= = = Clinical practice in adults and families = = =
As attachment theory offers a broad , far @-@ reaching view of human functioning , it can enrich a therapist 's understanding of patients and the therapeutic relationship rather than dictate a particular form of treatment . Some forms of psychoanalysis @-@ based therapy for adults — within relational psychoanalysis and other approaches — also incorporate attachment theory and patterns . In the first decade of the 21st century , key concepts of attachment were incorporated into existing models of behavioural couple therapy , multidimensional family therapy and couple and family therapy . Specifically attachment @-@ centred interventions have been developed , such as attachment @-@ based family therapy and emotionally focused therapy .
Attachment theory and research laid the foundation for the development of the understanding of " mentalization " or reflective functioning and its presence , absence or distortion in psychopathology . The dynamics of an individual 's attachment organization and their capacity for mentalization or conceptualization can play a crucial role in the capacity to be helped by treatment .
= Forensic chemistry =
Forensic chemistry is the application of chemistry and its subfield , forensic toxicology , in a legal setting . A forensic chemist can assist in the identification of unknown materials found at a crime scene . Forensic specialists in this field have a wide array of different methods and instruments to help identify unknown substances . Specific methods common to the field include high @-@ performance liquid chromatography , gas chromatography @-@ mass spectrometry , atomic absorption spectroscopy , Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy , and thin layer chromatography . The range of different methods is important due to the destructive nature of some instruments and the number of possible unknown substances that can be found at a scene . If possible , nondestructive methods should always be attempted first to preserve evidence and to determine the best protocol for when a destructive method is used .
Along with other forensic specialists , forensic chemists commonly testify in court as expert witnesses regarding their findings . The work performed by forensic chemists is bound by a set of standards that have been proposed by various agencies and governing bodies , including the Scientific Working Group on the Analysis of Seized Drugs . In addition to the standard operating procedures proposed by the group , specific agencies have their own standards regarding the quality assurance and quality control of their results and their instruments . In order to ensure the accuracy of what they are reporting , forensic chemists routinely check and verify that their instruments are working correctly and are still able to detect and measure various quantities of different substances .
= = Role in investigations = =
Forensic chemists ' investigations can provide directions for investigators to look in , and they can confirm or refute investigators ' suspicions . In cases where an unknown material is found at the scene , the identification of the substance can tell investigators what to look for during their search . For example , during fire investigations , forensic chemists can determine if an accelerant such as gasoline or kerosene was used ; if so , this suggests that the fire was intentionally set . Forensic chemists can also narrow down the suspect list to people who would have access to the substance used in a crime . For example , in explosive investigations , the identification of RDX or C @-@ 4 would indicate a military connection as those substances are military grade explosives . On the other hand , the identification of TNT would create a wider suspect list , since it is used in both the military and by demolition companies . During poisoning investigations , the detection of specific poisons can give detectives an idea of what to look for when they are interviewing potential suspects . For example , a death caused by ricin would tell investigators to look for the precursors to ricin , the seeds of the castor oil plant , while a death from strychnine would tell investigators to look for a strychnine tree or online purchases of the seeds .
Forensic chemists also help to confirm or refute investigators ' suspicions in drug or alcohol cases . Since the instruments used by forensic chemists can detect substances down to a very low level , the quantity of that substance is relevant to the investigation . This can be important in crimes such as driving under the influence as there is a specific blood alcohol content cutoff where penalties begin or increase . In suspected overdose cases , the quantity of the drug found in the person 's system can confirm or rule out overdose as the cause of death .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Throughout history , the availability of poisons allowed individuals to commit murder with relative ease . Arsenic , nightshade , hemlock , strychnine , and curare were all historically used poisons . With no method to accurately determine if a particular chemical was present , poisoners were frequently never punished for their crimes . It was not until the early 19th century that chemists were able to effectively detect poisons for the first time . In 1836 , one of the first major contributions to forensic chemistry was introduced by James Marsh . He created the Marsh test for arsenic detection which was subsequently used successfully in a murder trial . It was also during this time that forensic toxicology began to be recognized as a distinct field . Mathieu Orfila , the " father of toxicology " , made great advancements to the field during the early 19th century . He helped develop tests that could determine the presence of blood and was one of the first to use microscopy in the analysis of blood and semen . Orfila was also the first chemist to successfully classify different chemicals into categories such as corrosives , narcotics , and astringents .
The next advancement in the detection of poisons came in 1850 when a valid method for detecting vegetable alkaloids in human tissue was created by chemist Jean Stas . Stas ' method was quickly adopted and used successfully in court to convict Count Hippolyte Visart de Bocarmé of murdering his brother @-@ in @-@ law by nicotine poisoning . Stas was able to successfully isolate the alkaloid from the organs of the victim proving Count Bocarmé murdered his brother @-@ in @-@ law . Stas 's protocol was subsequently altered to incorporate tests for caffeine , quinine , morphine , strychnine , atropine , and opium .
The wide range of instrumentation for forensic chemical analysis also started during this time period . In 1859 , chemist Robert Bunsen and physicist Gustav Kirchhoff invented the first spectroscope . Their experiments with spectroscopy showed that specific substances created a unique spectrum when exposed to a specific wavelength of light . Using spectroscopy , the two scientists were able to identify substances based on their spectrum , providing a method of identification for unknown materials . Another crucial advancement in the field was invented in 1906 by botanist Mikhail Tsvet : he developed paper chromatography , an early predecessor to thin layer chromatography , in order to separate and examine the plant proteins that make up chlorophyll . The ability to separate mixtures into their individual components allows forensic chemists to examine the parts of an unknown material against a database of known products . By matching the retention factors for the separated components with known values , materials can be identified . Over time , chromatography techniques have become more sophisticated with the introduction of liquid and gas chromatography .
= = = Modernization = = =
Modern forensic chemists rely on numerous instruments in order to identify unknown materials found at a crime scene . The 20th century saw many advancements in technology that allowed chemists to detect smaller amounts of material more accurately . The first major advancement in this century came during 1930s with the invention of a spectrometer that could measure the signal produced with infrared ( IR ) light . Early IR spectrometers used a monochromator and could only measure light absorption in a very narrow wavelength band . It was not until the coupling of an interferometer with an IR spectrometer in 1949 by Peter Fellgett that the complete infrared spectrum could be measured at once . Fellgett also used the Fourier transform , a mathematical method that can break down a signal into the individual frequencies that make it up , to make sense of the enormous amount of data received from the complete infrared analysis of a material . Since then , Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy ( FTIR ) instruments have become critical in the forensic analysis of unknown material because they are nondestructive and extremely quick to use . Spectroscopy was further advanced in 1955 with the invention of the modern atomic absorption ( AA ) spectrophotometer by Alan Walsh . AA analysis can detect specific elements that make up a sample along with their concentrations , allowing for the easy detection of heavy metals such as arsenic and cadmium .
Advancements in the field of chromatography arrived in 1953 with the invention of the gas chromatograph by Anthony T. James and Archer John Porter Martin , allowing for the separation of volatile liquid mixtures with components which have similar boiling points . Nonvolatile liquid mixtures could be separated with liquid chromatography ; however substances with similar retention times could not be resolved until the invention of high @-@ performance liquid chromatography ( HPLC ) by Csaba Horváth in 1970 . Modern HPLC instruments are capable of detecting and resolving substances whose concentrations are as low as parts per trillion .
One of the most important advancements in forensic chemistry came in 1955 with the invention of the gas chromatography @-@ mass spectrometry ( GC @-@ MS ) by Fred McLafferty and Roland Gohlke . The coupling of a gas chromatograph with a mass spectrometer allowed for the identification of a wide range of substances . GC @-@ MS analysis is widely considered the " gold standard " for forensic analysis due to its sensitivity and versatility along with its ability to quantify the amount of substance present .
= = Methods = =
Forensic chemists rely on a multitude of instruments in order to identify unknown substances found at a scene . Different methods can be used to determine the identity of the same substance , and it is up to the examiner to determine which method will produce the best results . Certain aspects that forensic chemists must be aware of when performing an examination are the length of time a specific instrument will take to examine a substance and the destructive nature of that instrument . If possible , nondestructive methods should always be attempted first in order to preserve the evidence for further examination . Nondestructive techniques can also be used to narrow down the possibilities , making it more likely that the correct method will be used the first time when a destructive method is used .
= = = Spectroscopy = = =
The two main standalone spectroscopy techniques for forensic chemistry are FTIR and AA spectroscopy . FTIR is a nondestructive process that uses infrared light to identify a substance . The attenuated total reflectance sampling technique eliminates the need for substances to be prepared before analysis . The combination of nondestructiveness and zero preparation makes ATR FTIR analysis a quick and easy first step in the analysis of unknown substances . To facilitate the positive identification of the substance , FTIR instruments are loaded with databases that can be searched for known spectra that match the unknown 's spectra . However , FTIR analysis of mixtures , while not impossible , presents specific difficulties due to the cumulative nature of the response . When analyzing an unknown that contains more than one substance , the resulting spectra will be a combination of the individual spectra of each component . While common mixtures have known spectra on file , novel mixtures can be difficult to resolve , making FTIR an unacceptable means of identification . However , the instrument can be used to determine the general chemical structures present , allowing forensic chemists to determine the best method for analysis with other instruments . For example , a stretch of alkyl groups will result in a peak between 2 @,@ 950 and 2 @,@ 850 wavenumbers ( cm − 1 ) .
Atomic absorption spectroscopy ( AAS ) is a destructive technique that is able to determine the elements that make up the analyzed sample . AAS performs this analysis by subjecting the sample to an extremely high heat source , breaking the atomic bonds of the substance , leaving free atoms . Once atomized , radiation in the form of light is passed through the sample forcing the atoms to jump to a higher energy state . Forensic chemists can test for each element by using a corresponding wavelength of light that forces that element 's atoms to a higher energy state during the analysis . For this reason , and due to the destructive nature of this method , AAS should be used as a confirmatory technique after earlier , preliminary , tests have indicated the presence of a specific element in the sample . The concentration of the element in the sample is proportional to the amount of light absorbed when compared to a blank sample . AAS is useful in cases of suspected heavy metal poisoning such as with arsenic , lead , mercury , and cadmium . Determining the concentration of the substance in the sample can determine if heavy metals were the cause of death .
= = = Chromatography = = =
Spectroscopy techniques are useful when the sample being tested is pure , or a very common mixture . When an unknown mixture is being analyzed it must be broken down into its individual parts . Chromatography techniques can be used to break apart mixtures into their components allowing for each part to be analyzed separately . Thin layer chromatography ( TLC ) is a quick alternative to more complex chromatography methods . TLC can be used to analyze inks and dyes by extracting the individual components . This can be used to investigate notes or fibers left at the scene since each company 's product is slightly different and those differences can be seen with TLC . The only limiting factor with TLC analysis is the necessity for the components to be soluble in whatever solution is used to carry the components up the analysis plate . This solution is called the mobile phase . The forensic chemist can compare unknowns with known standards by looking at the distance each component traveled . This distance , when compared to the starting point , is known as the retention factor ( Rf ) for each extracted component . If each Rf value matches a known sample , that is an indication of the unknown 's identity .
High @-@ performance liquid chromatography can be used to extract individual components from a mixture dissolved in a solution . HPLC is used for nonvolatile mixtures that would not be suitable for gas chromatography . This is useful in drug analysis where the pharmaceutical is a combination drug since the components would separate , or elute , at different times allowing for the verification of each component . The eluates from the HPLC column are then fed into various detectors that can further analyze the substances . The most common type of detector is an ultraviolet @-@ visible spectrometer while the most discerning detector is a mass spectrometer . The choice of which detector a lab uses depends on its funding and the precision needed for the type of work it performs .
Gas chromatography ( GC ) performs the same function as liquid chromatography , but it is used for volatile mixtures . In forensic chemistry , the most common GC instruments use mass spectrometry as their detector . GC @-@ MS can be used in investigations of arson , poisoning , and explosions in order to determine exactly what was used . In theory , GC @-@ MS instruments can detect substances whose concentrations are in the femtogram ( 10 − 15 ) range . However , in practice , due to signal @-@ to @-@ noise ratios and other limiting factors , such as the age of the individual parts of the instrument , the practical detection limit for GC @-@ MS is in the picogram ( 10 − 12 ) range . GC @-@ MS is also capable of quantifying substances which can be used by forensic chemists to determine the effect the substance would have on an individual . GC @-@ MS instruments need around 1 @,@ 000 times more of the substance to quantify the amount than they need simply to detect it ; the limit of quantification is typically in the nanogram ( 10 − 9 ) range .
= = Forensic toxicology = =
Forensic toxicology is the study of the pharmacodynamics , or what a substance does to the body , and pharmacokinetics , or what the body does to the substance . In order to accurately determine the effect a particular drug has on the human body , forensic toxicologists must be aware of various levels of tolerance that an individual can build up as well as the therapeutic index for various pharmaceuticals . Toxicologists are tasked with determining whether any toxin found in a body was the cause of an incident , contributed to the incident , or was at too low a level to have had an effect . While the determination of the specific toxin can be time consuming due to the number of different substances that can cause injury or death , certain clues can narrow down the possibilities . For example , carbon monoxide poisoning would result in bright red blood while death from hydrogen sulfide would cause the brain to have a green hue .
Toxicologists are also aware of the different metabolites that a specific drug could break down into inside the body . For example , a toxicologist can confirm that a person took heroin by the presence in a sample of 6 @-@ monoacetylmorphine , which only comes from the breakdown of heroin . The constant creation of new drugs , both legal and illicit , forces toxicologists to keep themselves apprised of new research and methods to test for these novel substances . The stream of new formulations means that a negative test result does not necessarily rule out drugs . In order to avoid detection , illicit drug manufacturers frequently change the chemicals ' structure slightly . These compounds still have the same effect on the body but are not picked up with an instrumentation database search . As new compounds are discovered , tests are created and entered into the instrument 's library . For this reason , toxicologists study the different symptoms specific drug classes can have on a person . Even if the test comes back negative , symptoms can present cause for a further search . Substances , and their residues , found during this search can be tested and compared to the original sample , creating a new method to be stored for later use .
= = Standards = =
In order to maintain a high level of professionalism within the forensic fields , guidelines have been set up by various governing bodies regarding the standards that should be followed by practicing forensic scientists . For forensic chemists , the Scientific Working Group for the Analysis of Seized Drugs ( SWGDRUG ) presents recommendations for the quality assurance and quality control of tested materials . In the identification of unknown samples , protocols have been grouped into three categories based on the possibility for a false positives . Instruments and protocols in category A are considered the best for uniquely identifying an unknown material , followed by categories B and then C. In order to ensure the accuracy of identifications SWGDRUG recommends that multiple tests using different instruments be performed on each sample , and that one category A technique and at least one other technique be used . If a category A technique is not available , or the forensic chemist decides not to use one , SWGDRUG recommends that at least three techniques be used , two of which must be from category B. Combination instruments , such as GC @-@ MS , are considered two separate tests as long as the results are compared to known values individually . For example , the GC elution times would be compared to known values along with the MS spectra . If both of those match a known substance , no further tests are needed .
Standards and controls are necessary in the quality control of the various instruments used to test samples . Due to the nature of their work in the legal system , chemists must ensure that their instruments are working accurately . To do this , known controls are tested consecutively with unknown samples . By comparing the readouts of the controls with their profiles the instrument can be confirmed to have been working properly at the time the unknowns were tested . Standards are also used to validate the instrument 's limit of detection and quantification for various common substances . Calculated quantities must fall within the range tested by the standards in order to be confirmed . If they fall outside of this range the instrument must be tested to ensure that it can accurately measure that quantity .
= William Beverley =
William Beverley ( 1696 – 1756 ) was an 18th century legislator , civil servant , planter and landowner in the Colony of Virginia . Born in Virginia , Beverley — the son of planter and historian Robert Beverley , Jr . ( c . 1667 – 1722 ) and his wife , Ursula Byrd Beverley ( 1681 – 1698 ) — was the scion of two prominent Virginia families . He was the nephew of Peter Beverley ( 1668 – 1728 ) , Speaker of the Virginia House of Burgesses , and the grandson of wealthy Virginia planter William Byrd I ( 1652 – 1704 ) of Westover Plantation . Beverley 's mother died shortly before her 17th birthday ( when he was a toddler ) , and he was sent to England .
After his education in England he began a career in public service as the Clerk of Court for Essex County ( 1716 – 1745 ) and in the Virginia House of Burgesses , representing Orange ( 1736 – 1738 ) and Essex Counties ( 1742 – 1749 ) . Beverley also served on the Virginia Governor 's Council in 1750 .
He inherited a large estate after his father 's death in 1722 , amassing significant landholdings throughout Virginia from which he received revenue from tobacco production and rent from 119 tenants . His development of the 118 @,@ 941 @-@ acre ( 481 @.@ 34 km2 ) Beverley Manor tract in present @-@ day Augusta County encouraged further settlement west of the Blue Ridge Mountains . Beverley was commissioned by Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron , for an expedition with Peter Jefferson to establish the Fairfax Line of the Northern Neck Proprietary .
= = Early life and education = =
Beverley was born in 1696 , the only child of Robert Beverley , Jr . ( c . 1667 – 1722 ) and his wife , Ursula Byrd Beverley ( 1681 – 1698 ) . Robert Beverley , Jr . , of the Beverley Park plantation in King and Queen County , was a wealthy planter who participated in the Knights of the Golden Horseshoe Expedition and was the first native @-@ born historian of colonial Virginia ; he wrote the History of the Present State of Virginia in 1705 , the first known history of Virginia . William Beverley 's uncle , Peter ( 1668 – 1728 ) , was Speaker of the Virginia House of Burgesses . His mother , the daughter of William Byrd I ( 1652 – 1704 ) and Maria Horsmanden Byrd of Westover Plantation , was affectionately known as " Little Nutty " by her family . She died on October 31 , 1698 , shortly before her 17th birthday , and was buried in Jamestown . Through his paternal grandmother , Margaret Boyd Beverley , William Beverley was a great @-@ grandson of Scottish noble James Boyd , 9th Lord Boyd ( died 1654 ) . After his mother 's death Beverley was sent to England , where he was educated .
= = Political career = =
After his education was completed , Beverley returned to Virginia and began a career in public service . He was the Clerk of Court for Essex County for 29 years ( 1716 – 1745 ) , when the first Essex County courthouse was on Beverley 's Blandfield estate . Beverley was also an Essex County judge from 1720 to 1740 . He was a member of the Virginia House of Burgesses in Williamsburg , elected to represent Orange ( 1736 – 1738 ) and Essex Counties ( 1742 – 1749 ) . During his first term as Orange County burgess , Beverley served with Robert Green . He represented Essex County with James Ganett until 1747 , after which he served with William Daingerfield until 1749 . Beverley 's appointment as county lieutenant and commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the militias of Augusta and Orange Counties in 1741 was confirmed in the Orange County Court on November 3 , 1741 . In 1750 he was appointed to the Virginia Governor 's Council , the upper house of Virginia 's colonial legislature , replacing John Custis IV ( father @-@ in @-@ law of Martha Dandridge Custis ) . Beverley 's appointment to the Governor 's Council fulfilled an ambition which his father was unable to achieve .
= = Agricultural pursuits and landholdings = =
Beverley inherited a large estate after his father 's death in 1722 , and continued speculating in land . He received income from tobacco production and rent from tenant farmers . Although by 1745 Beverley 's estate produced 57 hogsheads ( about 26 @,@ 000 kg ) of tobacco , the income from his 119 tenants in Caroline , Culpeper , Orange and King and Queen Counties was far more lucrative .
After his marriage to Elizabeth Bland about 1725 Beverley lived at Blandfield , a 3 @,@ 450 @-@ acre ( 14 @.@ 0 km2 ) estate along the Rappahannock River in Saint Anne 's Parish of Essex County which he named for his wife 's family . Blandfield was granted by patent to his grandfather , Robert Beverley , Sr. , in 1683 as part of a 100 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 400 km2 ) tract . Construction of Beverley 's first , Georgian @-@ style mansion at Blandfield ( which is no longer standing ) probably began around 1750 . Blandfield had wharves on the Rappahannock from which the plantation 's tobacco was shipped across the Atlantic .
In addition to agriculture and land tenancy , Beverley received additional revenue from land sales in western Virginia . The easing of restrictive land laws by the Virginia colonial government allowed him to establish his own terms with settlers on his lands , and he initially sold parcels in the Shenandoah Valley . On September 6 , 1736 , Beverley , John and Richard Randolph and John Robinson were deeded a land patent by Sir William Gooch , 1st Baronet on behalf of the crown for a 118 @,@ 941 @-@ acre ( 481 @.@ 34 km2 ) tract at the headwaters of the South Fork Shenandoah River in present @-@ day Augusta County . On September 16 the Randolphs and Robinson transferred sole ownership of the tract to Beverley , who planned to survey and sell it ; the tract , which became known as Beverley Manor , encouraged further settlement west of the Blue Ridge Mountains . He commissioned James Patton , a ship captain from Ulster , to recruit Irish and Scotch @-@ Irish immigrants to purchase and settle his Augusta County land . On August 8 , 1737 , Beverley wrote to Patton , " I should be very glad if you could import families enough to take the whole off from our hands at a reasonable price and tho ' the order mentions families from Pensilvania [ sic ] , yet families from Ireland will do as well " . In 1738 he authorized John Lewis of northern Ireland , the father of Thomas Lewis , to show and sell his land in Augusta County and donated a lot in Staunton for the construction of the Augusta County Courthouse ten years later .
By 1743 Beverley wished to receive a land grant of 20 @,@ 000 acres ( 81 km2 ) in the Northern Neck Proprietary on the Shenandoah and the South Branch Potomac rivers from Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron , planning to raise horses and cattle and divide the Northern Neck land for tenants . He and others , including John Robinson and his father ( also named John ) , purchased 100 @,@ 000 acres ( 400 km2 ) on the Greenbrier River in 1745 for speculation and settlement . Beverley 's land sales totaled 42 @,@ 119 acres ( 170 @.@ 45 km2 ) by 1744 , and by his death in 1756 he had sold 80 @,@ 455 acres ( 325 @.@ 59 km2 ) and made a profit of £ 2 @,@ 647 .
According to his 1756 will , Beverley owned land in Essex , Isle of Wight , King and Queen and Prince William Counties ; 14 @,@ 174 acres ( 57 @.@ 36 km2 ) in Caroline County , including the Pewmazeno and Beverley Chace properties and land lots in Port Royal ; a land tract of 4 @,@ 000 acres ( 16 km2 ) , known as Elkwood , in Culpeper County , and lots in the towns of Falmouth and Fredericksburg . According to historian Turk McCleskey , the land grants to Beverley from the Governor 's Council on behalf of the crown " reflected the Council 's recognition both of his elite connections and of his demonstrated leadership abilities " .
= = Business pursuits = =
Beverley owned and operated a tavern at Caroline Court House in Caroline County , and participated in trade with the West Indies . He wrote to a Barbadian merchant in 1739 , " I am very conveniently situated for the sale of Negroes , rum , sugar & Mollasses [ sic ] " . Beverley sold Barbadian salt in Virginia and shipped Virginia maize to Barbados . A partial inventory of his estate in 1745 listed 65 slaves on four plantations , cattle , hogs , sheep and horses . In 1763 Beverley 's son , Robert , reported that his father 's estate earned " about £ 1800 Currency , all plantation expenses deducted " .
= = Fairfax Line expedition = =
In 1746 Beverley was commissioned by Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron , to represent him in an expedition with Peter Jefferson ( father of Thomas Jefferson ) through western Virginia to mark the Fairfax Line of the Northern Neck Proprietary , supervising the work of Jefferson and the other surveyors . The following year , he and the other participants in the Fairfax Line expedition reconvened at Jefferson 's Tuckahoe plantation to draft a map ( which became known as the Fry @-@ Jefferson Map ) of the Northern Neck Proprietary .
= = Personal life and family = =
Beverley married Elizabeth Bland ( born May 26 , 1706 ) around 1725 . Elizabeth was the daughter of Richard Bland and Elizabeth Randolph Bland of Jordan 's Point , and the sister of statesman Richard Bland . Beverley and his wife had four children : one son and three daughters — Robert Beverley ( 1740 – 1800 ) , Elizabeth Beverley Mills , Ursula Beverley Fitzhugh and Anna Beverley . Beverley took an active role in his children 's education , traveling to England in 1750 to enroll his son , his nephew Robert Munford III and another young man at Wakefield Grammar School .
Three of Beverley 's children married into prominent Virginia families . Robert married Maria Carter , daughter of Landon Carter and Maria Byrd Carter of Sabine Hall , Richmond County . Elizabeth married James Mills , a merchant in Hobbs Hole , and Ursula married William Fitzhugh . Anna was unmarried at Beverley 's death in 1756 .
Beverley , an Anglican , had a close relationship with Anglican minister and parson Robert Rose of Saint Anne 's Parish . Blandfield was in the parish , and his family attended Anglican ( and later Episcopal ) services at a church near the estate . On April 3 , 1750 Beverley provided a lot in Staunton for the Anglican Augusta Parish Church , which was completed in 1763 and succeeded by the present Trinity Episcopal Church .
= = Death and legacy = =
After Beverley 's death in 1756 , his son Robert was his designated heir at law . His wife Elizabeth inherited his plantations in Essex County , including the Blandfield estate and his " slaves , cattle , horses , hogs , and sheep " on the plantations . Beverley divided a large part of his fortune among his children and their spouses , bequeathing £ 500 to his daughter Elizabeth and leaving her husband , James Mills , " Money & slaves " valued at £ 1 @,@ 000 . Ursula also received £ 500 and her husband , William Fitzhugh , £ 1 @,@ 000 . Anna was unmarried at the time of Beverley 's death ; his will instructed Robert to maintain his sister until her marriage or her twenty @-@ first birthday , when she would receive her inheritance . Robert inherited the remainder of the plantations and other lands , including the Beverley Manor tract in Augusta County and lots in the town of Staunton . Beverley Manor , an Augusta County magisterial district south of Staunton , is a namesake of the Beverley Manor patent . After his mother 's death Robert also inherited Beverley 's Essex County properties , including Blandfield ( where he built the present Georgian mansion on the site of his father 's residence between 1769 and 1773 ) . Blandfield was owned by Beverley 's descendants until its 1983 sale .
= Turtle Rock Studios =
Turtle Rock Studios is an American video game developer founded in March 2002 by Michael Booth . It was acquired by Valve Corporation in 2008 , but was re @-@ founded in 2011 as an independent company by Phil Robb and Chris Ashton . Turtle Rock Studios is involved in the creation of original titles as well as the provision of consulting services to the digital entertainment industry .
The company 's most notable games are the first Left 4 Dead , which was published by Valve , and Evolve , which was originally set to be published by THQ but was later published by 2K Games . The founder of the company had worked for Westwood Pacific , and assisted in the development of the Counter @-@ Strike series . The company expanded from six employees to more than seventy staff members in 2011 to 2014 , and opened a subsidiary company called Turtle Rock Garage in 2011 , which specialized in developing casual games .
= = History = =
= = = Prior to founding = = =
Turtle Rock Studios was initially founded by Michael Booth . Prior to the company 's establishment , Booth , Phil Robb and Chris Ashton worked for Westwood Pacific and participated in the development of real @-@ time strategy games like Command & Conquer : Red Alert . Ashton , who had also worked for Presto Studios , was impressed by Counter @-@ Strike , which was a popular mod of Half @-@ Life , and decided to join the mod team as a texture artist . Eventually , Seattle @-@ based Valve Corporation , the publisher of Half @-@ Life , purchased the mod , and Ashton left Westwood to join Valve . Robb and Booth remained at Westwood Studios and worked on Command & Conquer : Yuri 's Revenge and Command & Conquer : Generals , but left the company after it was acquired by Electronic Arts , as Robb considered EA 's acquisition of Westwood had resulted in the studio losing all its personality .
= = = Turtle Rock 1 @.@ 0 = = =
Turtle Rock Studios was officially founded in 2002 . The team of about six people had limited resources so set up work space in Booth 's garage . The name " Turtle Rock " derived from the name of a neighbourhood where Booth lived . The team eventually expanded the studio and rented an office , and continued the development of Condition Zero . The game was officially released in 2004 . Satisfied with the work done by Turtle Rock , Valve continued to contract them to work on the Xbox version of Counter @-@ Strike , as well as the next installment of the series , Counter @-@ Strike : Source , and Half @-@ Life 2 : Deathmatch . Upon the release of Source , the company wanted to work on a new game , and gained support from Valve . The team later chose to design a first @-@ person wizard combat game .
As the team had developed only competitive multiplayer games before , they wanted to design a game that encouraged and supported co @-@ operative gameplay between players ; a game that would allow family and friends to play together instead of against each other , citing Secret of Mana as an example . The team decided to use source code from Counter @-@ Strike to develop a mod called Terror @-@ Strike , which is a scenario where players fight against bots , which are equipped only with knives and act like zombies . They also changed the texture of the game to create a gritty , dark atmosphere . It was not conceived as a full @-@ budget project at that time . Meanwhile , the wizard combat game was scrapped as the team considered the project over @-@ complicated and " geeky " ; they decided to use the cancelled project as a prototype to work on the zombie game . The idea of developing a zombie game grew after the team watched 28 Days Later , a critically acclaimed zombie film . The film helped the team brainstorm ideas for their zombie game . After that , the team decided to remove all the Counter @-@ Strike content and started developing the zombie game , in which players have to plant zombie bait and kill all the zombies present in the level . The focus later shifted to evacuating and surviving in a zombie @-@ infested area . The project was later presented to Valve , which helped the game 's funding and publishing . The project 's name was Left 4 Dead , and its development began in 2005 . The title was officially announced on November 20 , 2006 , and was released in November 2008 for Microsoft Windows and the Xbox 360 .
= = = Valve South = = =
On January 10 , 2008 , before the release of Left 4 Dead , Valve Corporation announced that it had purchased Turtle Rock in an effort to expand the company 's console market . Gabe Newell , founder and president of Valve Corporation , added that it was an easy decision for the company to make , as they had high expectations for Left 4 Dead and considered themselves having a long @-@ term relationship with Turtle Rock . After being acquired by Valve , Turtle Rock served as Valve 's in @-@ house satellite development team , and was renamed Valve South .
With the establishment of Valve South , nine to eleven employees moved to work at Valve 's headquarters in Seattle . After their departure , Valve felt that the size of the team at Valve South was too small to allow it to operate as a triple A studio , and that coordination between the two studios was difficult as they were physically far apart from each other . Meanwhile , Turtle Rock felt that the team 's communication with Valve was lacking , and they were dissatisfied with " Valve Time " and the slow progression of projects . As a result , Newell proposed that Turtle Rock to be split from Valve , and that Valve South be shut down after the shipment of Left 4 Dead . Valve retained the rights to the Left 4 Dead franchise , while allowing the name " Turtle Rock " and its logo to be used again by the original team . This news was later confirmed by Doug Lombardi of Valve on June 3 , 2009 .
= = = Turtle Rock 2 @.@ 0 = = =
After being formally closed , the remaining team members including Ashton , and Robb decided to restart Turtle Rock as an independent company on March 17 , 2010 . On the same day , Turtle Rock Studios put up a new website announcing they had reformed and were once again working on video games . They released an iPhone automotive maintenance app named Garage Buddy and began hiring for a full @-@ scale project . Upon the company 's reestablishment , Booth left the company , and Robb and Ashton were requested to share the position of studio head . Ashton initially declined it , but eventually accepted and partnered with Robb to lead the studio . Both of them considered themselves developers not managers , and they found the task of running Turtle Rock a tough challenge . At that time , there were about 13 staff members in the studio . The team later rented a warehouse and re @-@ designed it to accommodate them .
Despite being shut down by Valve , Turtle Rock still maintained a relatively close working relationship with it . The studio was contracted by Valve to work on the post @-@ launch content for Left 4 Dead and its sequel Left 4 Dead 2 , which was developed in @-@ house by Valve , and worked on Counter @-@ Strike : Global Offensive during its early phase of development . Eventually , the studio decided to split away from the two franchises to work on something new . On June 2 , 2010 , Turtle Rock Studios announced the formation of a new division within Turtle Rock called Turtle Rock Garage , a small division based solely on casual games . On September 22 , 2010 , Digital Development Management announced they were representing Turtle Rock Studios to find publishers for their games .
The concept of their next project had begun prior to the development of Left 4 Dead . Inspired by the asymmetrical mode of Left 4 Dead , and hunting games like Cabela 's Big Game Hunter , the team wanted to create a game where prey could strike back at hunters . The concept eventually became Evolve , and was the company 's next full @-@ scale project . Turtle Rock pitched the game to multiple publishers including Valve . Most of them were not supportive of the idea of an asymmetrical multiplayer video game ; Valve was also not interested in the project . These companies thought that Turtle Rock was too small to handle a Triple @-@ A project . Publisher THQ decided to accept the game and help with its funding . THQ 's then president Danny Bilson , and Jason Rubin , were very enthusiastic about the idea of having an asym
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in Germany for the first time directing Edward Bond 's Lear , set in an " industrial landscape strewn with piles of slag , with Lear as a Baron Krupp in evening dress and top hat " . He commented on the " macabre " production : " Just as some people feed on hope , I feed on despair . For me it is a spur to action . " Also in 1975 , his directorial debut film was the thriller La Chair de l 'orchidée , based on James Hadley Chase 's 1948 novel The Flesh of the Orchid , sequel to No Orchids for Miss Blandish ( 1939 ) . The film assembled a starry cast including Edwige Feuillère , Simone Signoret , Alida Valli and Charlotte Rampling " in the [ Miss Blandish ] role giving a performance of extraordinary intensity . It was an almost operatic version of the misunderstood 1948 British film . "
= = = 1976 : Bayreuth = = =
In 1976 , Chéreau staged Wagner 's Der Ring des Nibelungen at the Bayreuth Festival to celebrate the festival 's centenary , termed the Jahrhundertring . The production , celebrating 100 years after Wagner 's work had been performed for the first time as a cycle at the first Bayreuth Festival , became known as the Jahrhundertring ( Centenary Ring ) . Chéreau collaborated with conductor Pierre Boulez , who had recommended him to the festival direction . The French team revolutionised the understanding of Wagner in Germany , as music critic Eleonore Büning wrote in her obituary in the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung . Chéreau set the scene in the time of the composition , with a critical view of the time 's capitalism , industrialism and spiritual background . As Büning and others pointed out , the staging left a standard for productions of the Ring Cycle to follow . Gerhard R. Koch mentioned in his obituary that the unity of direction , scene and light was new for Bayreuth and suggested a critical view on capitalism heading towards fascism .
In 1977 , when heldentenor René Kollo had broken his leg , Chereau acted the role of Siegfried on stage while Kollo sang from the wings .
The Ring production , filmed for television in 1980 , initially provoked controversy , but was celebrated after its final performance in 1980 with a 45 @-@ minute standing ovation . Chéreau disliked grand opera , but said : " After Bayreuth , I felt the need to work on a theatrical project of some breadth ... I have never put on little things . I am interested only in spectacles that rise above themselves " . He first considered Goethe 's Faust but then directed in 1981 Henrik Ibsen 's Peer Gynt for Villeurbane and Paris , aiming at " an incandescence of theatrical experience , a global spectacle " .
= = = 1979 : Paris = = =
Chéreau directed the first performance of the three @-@ act version of Alban Berg 's Lulu , completed by Friedrich Cerha , at the Paris Opera on 24 February 1979 , again conducted by Boulez and with sets by Peduzzi , with Teresa Stratas singing the title role . The scene is set in the time of the composition , around 1930 . Koch observes frequent topics of hunt , and love colder than death ( Verfolger und Verfolgte , und Liebe ... kälter als der Tod ) . Dr. Schön , a powerful newspaper manager , is reminiscent of supporters of Hitler .
= = = 1982 : Amandiers = = =
From 1982 , Chéreau was director of " his own stage " at the Théâtre Nanterre @-@ Amandiers at Nanterre . In 1981 already he staged there Ibsen 's Peer Gynt . He was the first to show several plays by Bernard @-@ Marie Koltès , including Combat de nègre et de chiens and Quai Ouest ( 1985 ) , Dans la solitude des champs de coton ( 1986 ) and Le Retour au désert ( 1988 ) . He directed Marivaux ' La Fausse suivante in 1985 and Shakespeare 's Hamlet in 1989 , also works by Jean Genet , Heiner Müller and Jean Racine . He staged Mozart 's Lucio Silla in 1984 , for Amandiers , but also for La Monnaie and La Scala .
At the Odéon he staged in 1992 Le Temps et la Chambre by Botho Strauss . He directed Dans la solitude des champs de coton again in 1995 , shown at Ivry , the Wiener Festwochen and the Brooklyn Academy of Music . He staged in 2011 Jon Fosse 's Je suis le vent in an English version , I Am the Wind , by Simon Stephens at the Young Vic Theatre , with Tom Brooke and Jack Laskey .
= = = 1983 : more films = = =
In 1983 , Chéreau directed the film The Wounded Man ( L 'Homme Blessé ) , a more personal project for him . He and his co @-@ writer , Hervé Guibert , worked for six years on the scenario , which tells of a love affair between an older man involved in prostitution and a teenage boy , a dark view in the context of HIV / AIDS . His 1994 film was La Reine Margot , based on the 1845 historical novel of the same name by Alexandre Dumas . It won the Jury Prize and Best Actress Award ( Virna Lisi ) at Cannes , as well as five César Awards . Set in the 16th @-@ century , depicting the conflict between Catholics and Protestants in France , it shows battles and the St Bartholomew 's day massacre . A scene of the queen with the head of her lover is reminiscent of the opera Salome , uniting cult and obsession ( " Einheit von Kult und Obsession " ) , as Koch remarks . The film was Chéreau 's longest , most expensive production , and his greatest financial success . " [ I ] t was erotic and violent , and offers poured in from Hollywood , " but , he said , " I was always being offered films based in the Renaissance and involving a massacre . I even had an offer from the UK to do a film about Guy Fawkes . " He refused similar offers : " It 's useless to repeat something you already did . "
= = = 1993 : opera internationally = = =
Chéreau 's staging of Berg 's Wozzeck was shown from 1993 to 1999 at the Théâtre du Châtelet and the Staatsoper Berlin , conducted by Daniel Barenboim , with Franz Grundheber in the title role and Waltraud Meier as Marie . It was filmed in 1994 . A review notes the " presentation of even the smallest roles as deeply @-@ considered characters " . His staging of Mozart 's Don Giovanni was shown from 1994 to 1996 at the Salzburg Festival .
In 1998 , he directed the film Those Who Love Me Can Take the Train , a " melodramatic , sentimental and emptily wordy ... about the interplay of assorted characters on their way to the funeral of a misanthropic , bisexual minor painter ( Jean @-@ Louis Trintignant ) . " The final scene reflects the cemetery of Limoges to the music of Mahler 's Tenth Symphony . Chéreau 's only English @-@ language film , Intimacy ( 2001 ) , based on short stories by Hanif Kureishi ( who also wrote a novel of the same title in 1998 ) , was played by English actors , including Timothy Spall and Marianne Faithfull , and deals with " the possessiveness of a musician from London who regularly meets a woman for sexual encounters " . It " was a tale of sexual obsession which sparked a debate about unsimulated sex on screen . But , Chéreau said , ' It is not like a porno film , not at all erotic sometimes , but it is beautiful because it is life . ' " In 2003 , he directed His Brother ( Son frère ) , centred " on the relationship between two estranged brothers , one gay , the other straight . They come together when the latter suffers from a potentially fatal blood disease . The hospital processes are shot unflinchingly , without sentimentality , which makes this meditation on mortality even more moving . " Koch notes the similarity of a scene when the moribund is shaved for a last futile surgery he lies on a table similar to Mantegna 's Dead Christ . In 2003 Chéreau served at Cannes as president of the jury .
His staging of Mozart 's Così fan tutte was shown in 2005 and 2006 in Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence , the Opéra National de Paris and the Wiener Festwochen . In 2007 , he staged Wagner 's Tristan und Isolde at La Scala , conducted by Daniel Barenboim . He had stayed away from the opera because he regarded it as " predominantly a musical rather than a theatrical work " , but his " sombre , subtle direction – with Waltraud Meier an acutely vulnerable Isolde – was intensely moving " .
He directed Leoš Janáček 's From the House of the Dead , again conducted by Boulez , first shown at the Vienna Festival in 2007 , and later at the Holland Festival , the Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence Festival , the Metropolitan Opera ( his debut there in 2009 ) and La Scala . Chéreau 's last film was Persécution ( 2009 ) , " a gloomy , episodic film " about a man who is " haunted by a love @-@ hate relationship with his girlfriend " . His last production was Elektra by Richard Strauss , conducted by Esa @-@ Pekka Salonen , shown at the Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence Festival in July 2013 and scheduled for the MET 's 2015 – 16 season . A review noted : " The clichés of Fascist brutality and expressionist exaggeration are astutely avoided : this is a situation that involves human beings , not caricatures , in a visually neutral environment of bare walls , windows and doors ( designed by Richard Peduzzi ) which is also blackly portentous in atmosphere . "
= = Life and death = =
Chéreau was in a long @-@ term relationship with his lover and favorite actor Pascal Greggory . He was not interested in gay topics , saying : " I never wanted to specialise in gay stories , and gay newspapers have criticised me for that . Everywhere love stories are exactly the same . The game of desire , and how you live with desire , are the same . "
Chéreau died in Paris on 7 October 2013 from lung cancer . He was 68 years old .
= = Europe Theatre Prize = =
Chéreau was awarded the Europe Theatre Prize in 2008 , in the Edition XII of the prize . The " Reason for award " noted :
A natural @-@ born artist with a clear calling , Patrice Chéreau is one of those rare examples of a person who manages to succeed in all the expressive arts . ... Patrice Chéreau is an actor himself with the indispensable support of a team of creative collaborators , including the great set designer Richard Peduzzi , costume designer Jacques Schmidt and lighting designer André Diot . Drawn through his analysis of Brecht towards a correct naturalism , Chéreau has discovered and revived a number of little known texts , not least thanks to the many languages he has mastered . His extraordinary critical interpretation of Marivaux broke through the playwright ’ s sunny surface to reveal him as a forward @-@ looking , harsh social critic . ... Meanwhile , Chéreau shifted from theatre to opera , ... a scandalous reinterpretation of Wagner ’ s Ring at Bayreuth ... He reached the height of his career during his many years at the Théâtre des Amandiers in Nanterre , where he developed a new model of expression , discovered and launched one of the great dramatists of our time , Bernard Marie Koltès , whose major works he directed , including Combat de nègre et de chiens and Solitude des champs de coton , as well as Shakespeare , Peer Gynt , Heiner Müller , and the historic revival of Les paravents by Genet . Chéreau eventually turned to cinema , which he found more expressive of the truth of life that he so values .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Director = = =
= = = Producer = = =
( for his company " Azor Films " )
= = = Actor = = =
= = = Film awards and nominations = = =
Main sources :
Patrice Chéreau . Awards at the Internet Movie Database .
Patrice Chéreau . Awards at Allmovie .
= Navajo weaving =
Navajo rugs and blankets ( Navajo : diyogí ) are textiles produced by Navajo people of the Four Corners area of the United States . Navajo textiles are highly regarded and have been sought after as trade items for over 150 years . Commercial production of handwoven blankets and rugs has been an important element of the Navajo economy . As one expert expresses it , " Classic Navajo serapes at their finest equal the delicacy and sophistication of any pre @-@ mechanical loom @-@ woven textile in the world . "
Navajo textiles were originally utilitarian blankets for use as cloaks , dresses , saddle blankets , and similar purposes . Toward the end of the 19th century , weavers began to make rugs for tourism and export . Typical Navajo textiles have strong geometric patterns . They are a flat tapestry @-@ woven textile produced in a fashion similar to kilims of Eastern Europe and Western Asia , but with some notable differences . In Navajo weaving , the slit weave technique common in kilims is not used , and the warp is one continuous length of yarn , not extending beyond the weaving as fringe . Traders from the late 19th and early 20th century encouraged adoption of some kilim motifs into Navajo designs .
= = Purpose = =
The original function of Navajo weaving was to produce clothing : " shoulder robes , rectangular panel or wrap @-@ around @-@ dresses , semi @-@ tailored shirts , breechcloths , and a variety of belts , shoulder robes , sashes , hair ties , and garters . " The production of weaving flourished after the mid 1800s for trade with the white settlers .
= = History = =
= = = Pueblo influence = = =
The Navajo may have learned to weave from their Pueblo Indian neighbors when they moved into the Four Corners region during the year 1000 A.D. Some experts contend that the Navajo were not weavers until after the 17th century . The Navajo obtained cotton through local trade routes before the arrival of the Spanish , after which time they began to use wool . The Pueblo and Navajo were not generally on friendly terms due to frequent Navajo raids on Pueblo settlements , yet many Pueblo sought refuge with their Navajo neighbors in the late 17th century to evade the conquistadors in the aftermath of the Pueblo Revolt . This social interchange is the probable origin of the distinctive Navajo weaving tradition . Spanish records show that Navajo people began to herd sheep and weave wool blankets from that time onward .
The extent of Pueblo influence on Navajo weaving is uncertain . As Wolfgang Haberland notes , " Prehistoric Puebloan textiles were much more elaborate than historic ones , as can be seen in the few remnants recovered archaeologically and in costumed figures in pre @-@ contact kiva murals . " Haberland suggests that the absence of surviving colonial @-@ era Pueblo textile examples make it impossible to do more than conjecture about whether the creative origins of Navajo weaving arose from Navajo culture or were borrowed from the neighboring people .
= = = Early records = = =
Written records establish the Navajo as fine weavers for at least the last 300 years , beginning with Spanish colonial descriptions of the early 18th century . By 1812 , Pedro Piño called the Navajo the best weavers in the province . Few remnants of 18th @-@ century Navajo weaving survive ; the most important surviving examples of early Navajo weaving come from Massacre Cave at Canyon de Chelly , Arizona . In 1804 , a group of Navajo were shot and killed there , where they were seeking refuge from Spanish soldiers . For a hundred years the cave remained untouched due to Navajo taboos until a local trader named Sam Day entered it and retrieved the textiles . Day separated the collection and sold it to various museums . The majority of Massacre Cave blankets feature plain stripes , yet some exhibit the terraces and diamonds characteristic of later Navajo weaving .
= = = Wider commerce = = =
Commerce expanded after the Santa Fe Trail opened in 1822 , and greater numbers of examples survive . Until 1880 , all such textiles were blankets as opposed to rugs . In 1850 , these highly prized trade items sold for $ 50 in gold , a huge sum at that time .
Railroad service reached Navajo lands in the early 1880s and resulted in considerable expansion of the market for Navajo woven goods . According to Kathy M 'Closkey of the University of Windsor in Ontario , Canada , " wool production more than doubled between 1890 and 1910 , yet textile production escalated more than 800 % " . Purchases of manufactured yarn compensated for the deficit in wool production . Federal government reports affirmed that this weaving , which was performed almost exclusively by women , was the most profitable Navajo industry during that era . Quality declined in some regards as the weavers attempted to keep up with demand . However , in today society an average price of a rug goes for about $ 800 @.@ 00 .
Several European @-@ American merchants influenced Navajo weaving during the next decades . The first to advertise Navajo textiles in a catalog was C. N. Cotton in 1894 . Cotton encouraged professional production and marketing among his peers and the weavers whose work they handled . Another trader named John . B. Moore , who settled in the Chuska Mountains in 1897 attempted to improve the quality of textiles he traded . He attempted to regulate the cleaning and dyeing process of artisans who did business with him , and shipped wool intended for higher grade weaving outside the region for factory cleaning . He limited the range of dyes in textiles he traded and refused to deal fabric that had included certain commercially produced yarns . Moore 's catalogs identified individual textile pieces rather than illustrating representative styles . He appears to have been instrumental in introducing new motifs to Navajo weaving . Carpets from the Caucasus region were popular among Anglo @-@ Americans at that time . Both the Navajo and the Caucasus weavers worked under similar conditions and in similar styles , so it was relatively simple for them to incorporate Caucasus patterns such as an octagonal motif known as a gul .
Traders encouraged the locals to weave blankets and rugs into distinct styles . They included " Two Gray Hills " ( predominantly black and white , with traditional patterns ) , " Teec Nos Pos " ( colorful , with very extensive patterns ) , " Ganado " ( founded by Don Lorenzo Hubbell ) , red dominated patterns with black and white , " Crystal " ( founded by J. B. Moore ) , Oriental and Persian styles ( almost always with natural dyes ) , " Wide Ruins , " " Chinle , " banded geometric patterns , " Klagetoh " , diamond type patterns , " Red Mesa " and bold diamond patterns . Many of these patterns exhibit a fourfold symmetry , which is thought by Professor Gary Witherspoon to embody traditional ideas about harmony or Hozh .
= = = Recent developments = = =
Large numbers of Navajo continue to weave commercially . Contemporary weavers are more likely to learn the craft from a community college course , as opposed to family . A Navajo woman struggles and sacrifices , but for some this is their only source of income . Contemporary Navajo textiles have suffered commercially from two sets of pressures : extensive investment in pre @-@ 1950 examples and price competition from foreign imitations . Modern Navajo rugs are indeed notable for their high prices .
= = Construction = =
= = = Wool and yarn = = =
In the late 17th century , the Navajo acquired the Iberian Churra , a breed of sheep from Spanish explorers . These animals were developed into a unique breed by the Navajo , today called the Navajo @-@ Churro . These sheep were well @-@ suited to the climate in Navajo lands , and that produced a useful long @-@ staple wool . Hand @-@ spun wool from these animals was the main source of yarn for Navajo blankets until the 1860s , when the United States government forced the Navajo people to relocate at Bosque Redondo and seized their livestock . The 1869 peace treaty that allowed the Navajo to return to their traditional lands included a $ 30 @,@ 000 settlement to replace their livestock . The tribe purchased 14 @,@ 000 sheep and 1 @,@ 000 goats .
Mid @-@ 19th century Navajo rugs often used a three @-@ ply yarn called Saxony , which refers to high @-@ quality , naturally dyed , silky yarns . Red tones in Navajo rugs of this period come either from Saxony or from a raveled cloth known in Spanish as bayeta , which was a woolen manufactured in England . With the arrival of the railroad in the early 1880s , another machine @-@ produced yarn came into use in Navajo weaving : four @-@ ply aniline dyed yarn known as Germantown because the yarn was manufactured in Pennsylvania .
Among the locally produced yarns for Navajo textile , indiscriminate breeding from 1870 @-@ 1890 caused a steady decline in wool quality . Increasing proportions of brittle kemp can be found in well @-@ preserved examples from the period . In 1903 , federal agents attempted to address the problem by introducing Rambouillet rams into the breeding population . The Rambouillet is a French breed that produces good meat and heavy , fine @-@ wool fleeces . The Rambouillet stock , were well adapted to the Southwestern climate , but their wool was less suitable to hand spinning . Short @-@ stapled Rambouillet wool has a tight crimp , which makes hand spinning difficult . The higher lanolin content of its wool necessitated significantly more scouring with scarce water before it could be dyed effectively . From 1920 to 1940 , when Rambouillet bloodlines dominated the tribe 's stock , Navajo rugs have a characteristically curly wool and sometimes a knotted or lumpy appearance .
In 1935 , the United States Department of the Interior created the Southwestern Range and Sheep Breeding Laboratory to address the problems Rambouillet stock had caused for the Navajo economy . Located at Fort Wingate , New Mexico , the program 's aim was to develop a new sheep bloodline that simulated the wool characteristics of the 19th @-@ century Navajo @-@ Churro stock and would also supply adequate meat . The Fort Wingate researchers collected old Navajo @-@ Churro stock from remote parts of the reservation and hired a weaver to test their experimental wool . Offspring of these experiments were distributed among the Navajo people . World War II interrupted the greater part of this effort when military work resumed at Fort Wingate .
= = = Coloration = = =
Prior to the mid @-@ 19th century , Navajo weaving coloration was mostly natural brown , white , and indigo . Indigo dye was obtained through trade and purchased in lumps .
By the middle of the century , the palette had expanded to include red , black , green , yellow , and gray which signifies different aspects of the earth as defined by different locations of the reservation . Navajo used indigo to obtain shades from pale blue to near black and mixed it with indigenous yellow dyes such as the rabbit brush plant to obtain bright green effects . Red was the most difficult dye to obtain locally . Early Navajo textiles use cochineal , an extract from a Mesoamerican beetle , which often made a circuitous trade route through Spain and England on its way to the Navajo . Reds used in Navajo weaving tended to be raveled from imported textiles . The Navajo obtained black dye through piñon pitch and ashes .
After railroad service began in the early 1880s , aniline dyes became available in bright shades of red , orange , green , purple , and yellow . Gaudy " eyedazzler " weaves dominated the final years of the 19th century . Navajo weaving aesthetics underwent rapid change as artisans experimented with the new palette and a new clientele entered the region whose tastes differed from earlier purchasers . During the later years of the 19th century , the Navajo continued to produce earlier styles for traditional customers while they adopted new techniques for a second market .
= = = Weaving = = =
Traditional Navajo weaving used upright looms with no moving parts . Support poles were traditionally constructed of wood ; steel pipe is more common today . The artisan sits on the floor during weaving and wraps the finished portion of fabric underneath the loom as it grows . The average weaver takes anywhere from 2 months to many years to finish a single rug . The size greatly determines the amount of time spent weaving a rug . The ratio of weft to warp threads had a fine count before the Bosque Redondo internment and declined in the following decades , then rose somewhat to a midrange ratio of five to one for the period 1920 @-@ 1940 . 19th @-@ century warps were colored handspun wool or cotton string , then switched to white handspun wool in the early decades of the 20th century .
= = Cultural perspectives = =
Weaving plays a role in the creation myth of Navajo cosmology , which articulates social relationships and continues to play a role in Navajo culture . According to one aspect of this tradition , a spiritual being called " Spider Woman " instructed the women of the Navajo how to build the first loom from exotic materials including sky , earth , sunrays , rock crystal , and sheet lightning . Then " Spider Woman " taught the Navajo how to weave on it .
Use of traditional motifs sometimes leads to the mistaken notion that these textiles serve a purpose in Navajo religion . Actually these items have no use as prayer rugs or any other ceremonial function , and controversy has existed among the Navajo about the appropriateness of including religious symbolism in items designed for commercial sale . The financial success of purported ceremonial rugs led to their continued production .
= = = Schools of Thought = = =
Ganado Red
Two Grey Hills
Red Mesa
Tec Nos Pos
Klagetoh
Chinle
Crystal
Burntwater
= = Critical study = =
Until recently , anthropologists have dominated the study of Navajo textiles . Most historic examples of these works belong to ethnological collections rather than fine art collections , which mean items have been exhibited and analyzed with an eye toward normative or average works rather than emphasizing technical or artistic excellence . These priorities have artificially inflated the market value for items of inferior craftsmanship . In general , this tendency has affected most non @-@ European art to some degree .
Other factors that have hindered art criticism of Navajo textiles include the common distinction between fine art and applied art and the scholarly theory among some archaeologists and art historians that pure artistic expression cannot exist among non @-@ literate peoples .
= Vestgrensa ( station ) =
Vestgrensa ( originally Ullevål Haveby ) was a light rail station on the Sognsvann Line of the Oslo Metro in Norway . It opened on 10 October 1934 , and was located between Blindern and Ullevål stadion stations . The station was rebuilt when the Sognsvann Line was upgraded from light rail to metro standard in the early 1990s . It was closed on 22 August 1999 , when it was replaced by the new station Forskningsparken .
= = History = =
Ullevål Haveby station opened on 10 October 1934 , when Akersbanerne had built a light rail line from Majorstuen to Sognsvann . The line was double @-@ tracked from Majorstuen to Korsvoll ( now Østhorn ) , and single @-@ tracked from there to Sognsvann . On 21 February 1939 , the section from Korsvoll to Sognsvann was upgraded to double tracks , and the station Korsvoll had its name changed to Østhorn . Ullevål Haveby station changed also name , to Vestgrensa , to avoid confusion with the northbound Ullevål stadion station .
Vestgrensa was part of Holmenkolbanen 's operating network until 1975 , when the municipality of Oslo bought all the company 's stock . In the early 1990s , the stations on the Sognsvann Line were upgraded to metro standard , which involved a heightening and lengthening of the platforms , and installation of a third rail power supply and a new signaling system . The electrified third rail made it impossible for passengers to cross at track level , and under- or overpasses had to be built at all stations .
In 1992 , the transport authorities of Oslo decided to close Nordberg and Frøen stations , on the grounds that these stations were too expensive to maintain . The platforms at Vestgrensa were moved a few metres to adjust to the metro trains . Seven years later , on 22 August 1999 , Vestgrensa was closed and replaced with the newly opened Forskningsparken Station .
= = Location = =
Vestgrensa was located in the Ullevål Hageby neighbourhood in Oslo , between the Oslo Innovation Center ( Norwegian : Forskningsparken ) and the football stadium Ullevaal Stadion . The station was positioned on an elevated embankment , some metres from a bridge over a pedestrian walkway also named Vestgrensa . The station served the residential area in Ullevål Hageby , as well as the University of Oslo at Blindern . A scout hut was in many years located close to the station .
= Burger King products =
When the predecessor of international fast food restaurant chain Burger King ( BK ) first opened in 1953 , its menu predominantly consisted of hamburgers , French fries , soft drinks , milkshakes , and desserts . After being acquired by its Miami , Florida franchisees and renamed in 1954 , BK began expanding its menu by adding the Whopper sandwich in 1957 , and has since added non @-@ beef items such as chicken , fish , and vegetarian offerings , including salads and meatless sandwiches . Other additions include a breakfast menu and beverages such as Icees , juices , and bottled waters . As the company expanded both inside and outside the United States , it introduced localized versions of its products that conform to regional tastes and cultural or religious beliefs . To generate additional sales , BK occasionally introduces limited @-@ time offers of special versions of its products , or brings out completely new products intended for either long- or short @-@ term sales . Not all of these products and services have been successful ; in 1992 , Burger King introduced limited table service featuring special dinner platters , but this concept failed to generate interest and was discontinued .
The company introduced the first iteration of its breakfast menu , along with the company 's " Specialty Sandwich " product line , in a 1978 menu expansion . The products were some of the first designed by a fast food restaurant chain that were intended to capture the adult market , members of which would be willing to spend more on a higher @-@ quality product . The expanded Burger King menu was part of a plan by then @-@ company president Donald N. Smith to reach the broadest possible demographic market to better compete with McDonald 's , and to fend off then newcomer Wendy 's , who had a growing market share . The plan was successful : the company 's sales increased by 15 percent . Despite another menu expansion in 1985 , the company 's market gains diminished due to neglect of the brand at the hands of then @-@ parent Pillsbury and its successors , Grand Metropolitan and Diageo . When the company was sold to a group led by TPG Capital in 2004 , the trend of targeting an expanded audience was renewed under a plan by its then @-@ CEO Brad Blum . During Blum 's tenure , the company added several products that featured higher @-@ quality ingredients and other menu fare that again attempted to appeal to the adult palate and demographic . As in the past , not all of these products met corporate sales expectations , or in the case of several of its larger offerings , resulted in negative publicity due to nutritional concerns . With the purchase of the company in 2010 by 3G Capital , the company again began another revamp of its product line by phasing out some products , introducing new ones and redesigning others including its flagship Whopper sandwich .
Like its menu , the equipment the company cooks its hamburgers with has also evolved as the company grew . The burgers have always been broiled mechanically ; the original unit , called an Insta @-@ Broiler , was one of two pieces of equipment the founders of Insta @-@ Burger King purchased before opening their new restaurant . The Insta @-@ Broiler worked by cooking 12 burger patties in a wire basket , allowing the patties to be cooked from both sides simultaneously . With the acquisition of the chain by its Miami franchisees came an improved unit dubbed a " Flame Broiler " . Designed by the new owners , it featured stationary burners that cooked the meat on a moving chain . The unit broke down less often , while maintaining a similar cooking rate . The cooking format remained for the next 40 years until Burger King developed a new , variable speed broiler that could handle multiple items with different cooking rates and times . These new unit began testing in 1999 and eventually evolved into the two models the company deployed system @-@ wide in 2008 – 2009 . Accompanying these new broilers was new food @-@ holding equipment and a computer @-@ based product monitoring system for its cooked products . The new system allows for more concise tracking of product quality , while giving its users a method to streamline costs by more precisely projecting sales and product usage .
= = History = =
= = = Sandwiches and entrées = = =
When the predecessor to the modern Burger King , Insta @-@ Burger King , opened in 1953 in Jacksonville , Florida , the company 's menu consisted predominantly of hamburgers , French fries , soft drinks , and desserts . Insta @-@ Burger King was acquired in 1954 by two of its franchisees , James McLamore and David Edgerton , who renamed it Burger King . Under its new ownership , the company continued to develop its core menu , cooking techniques , and equipment . In 1957 McLamore and Edgerton created BK 's signature item , the Whopper , as a way to differentiate BK from other burger outlets at the time . The Whopper is a 4 oz ( 110 g ) hamburger with lettuce , tomato , mayonnaise , pickle , and ketchup , that was priced at 29 ¢ . The sandwich was designed to give the customer a larger product with better value than competitors , who were selling burgers with an average price of 15 ¢ . As Burger King 's flagship product , the Whopper has been expanded beyond the original sandwich into a line of sandwiches all made with the same ingredients . The Whopper sandwich has undergone several modifications in its recipe over the years , with a change from a plain bun to a sesame seed roll in the early 1970s and a change in patty size in the mid @-@ 1980s being two of the most notable . Since its inception , the Whopper has become synonymous with Burger King and become the focus of much of its advertising . The company has even named its kiosk @-@ style restaurants " Whopper Bars " .
In 1978 , Donald N. Smith was hired from McDonald 's to help restructure the corporate operations of Burger King to better compete against his former company as well as the then up @-@ and @-@ coming chain , Wendy 's . As part of an operational overhaul he dubbed " Operation Phoenix " , one of his first changes to the company 's menu was to add the Burger King specialty sandwich line in 1979 . This line — with many non @-@ hamburger sandwiches , including chicken and fish — significantly expanded the breadth of the BK menu . It was one of the first attempts by a major fast food chain to target a specific demographic , in this case adults aged between 18 and 34 years , members of which were presumably willing to spend more on a higher quality product . The new products were successful , and the company 's sales increased by 15 percent . While most of the line has since been discontinued , the company 's Original Chicken Sandwich is still offered in all of its global markets , and the ham and cheese sandwich is a regional offering .
BK Chicken Tenders made their debut in a menu revision and expansion in 1985 to address the absence of a chicken @-@ based finger product akin to McDonald 's Chicken McNuggets . The product had to be temporarily withdrawn because of limited availability of chicken meat ; it was re @-@ introduced about six months later . Originally made with sliced fillets of chicken , the product was changed to a formed chopped @-@ chicken product several years later . In 1987 , BK rolled out the Burger Bundles , a pack of six mini burger sliders , similar to White Castle was brought back later as the " Burger Buddy " . Fish Tenders were introduced to complement Chicken Tenders during a menu expansion in 1989 . The new fish product , sold in the same style of container as the Chicken Tenders , was an order of fish sticks with Tartar sauce for dipping . Portion sizes were similar to those of the Chicken Tenders . Fish Tenders were discontinued in 1990 .
The company introduced its first broiled chicken sandwich , the BK Broiler , in 1990 . The sandwich included a dill @-@ ranch mayonnaise and was served on an oat @-@ bran roll . In 1998 , BK reformulated the BK Broiler into a larger , more male @-@ oriented sandwich : a larger chicken patty with mayonnaise served on a Whopper bun . In 2002 , BK changed the name of the sandwich to Chicken Whopper and added a smaller Chicken Whopper Jr. sandwich . The company replaced the Chicken Whopper line with another broiled sandwich line in 2003 , the BK Baguette line . The chicken sandwich , served on a fresh cooked baguette roll , and came in several varieties , all of which were topped with a series of ingredients that were low in fat . They were sold in the United States at one time , but are now sold only in the European market . The failed Baguette line was replaced in North America with the current grilled chicken iteration , the TenderGrill sandwich .
Although Wendy 's was the first to have a value menu in 1989 , Burger King decided to offer its own value menu in 1998 . This menu featured seven products : the Whopper Jr . , a five @-@ piece Chicken Tenders , a bacon cheeseburger , medium @-@ sized French fries , medium soft drink , medium onion rings , and a small milkshake – all priced at 99 ¢ ( USD ) . In 2002 and 2006 , BK revamped its value menu by adding and removing several products such as chili and the Rodeo Cheeseburger . Many of these items , such as Chili , tacos , the Sourdough burger ( a product similar to the Whopper Jr . , but with sourdough bread ) , and Chicken Tender sandwiches have since been discontinued , modified , or relegated to regional menu options .
Returning to the practice of targeting the adult demographic as it had in 1978 , BK introduced several new products to its menu in 2003 . The new products included new or revamped chicken sandwiches , a new salad line , and its BK Joe brand of coffee . The first of these items was the TenderCrisp chicken sandwich , an entirely new sandwich which featured a fried 5 @.@ 2 oz ( 150 g ) whole @-@ muscle chicken breast on a corn @-@ dusted roll . The sandwich was part of then @-@ CEO Greg Brenneman 's plans to bolster the company 's revived " Have it your way " advertising program , which was designed to draw younger people to its stores . Some items , including the Enormous Omelet Sandwich line and the BK Stacker line , brought negative attention due the large portion size , amounts of unhealthy fats , and the presence of trans @-@ fats . At the time , many of the products featured higher @-@ quality ingredients like whole chicken breast , Angus beef , Cheddar cheese , and pepper jack cheese . Not all the products new products introduced under Blum 's tenure met corporate sales expectations , the Baguette Chicken sandwiches being an example . Others products , such as Burger King 's line of " indulgent " burgers originally called the Angus Burger , have undergone multiple reformulations . The Angus Steak burger was originally based around a 5 oz ( 140 g ) frozen patty ; despite high expectations from the company , the sandwich fared poorly . After a reformulating program , it was relaunched in 2008 as the 5 oz ( 140 g ) Angus Steakhouse burger . With the introduction of a new multifunction broiler capable of cooking a more diverse set of products , Burger King replaced the Angus Steakhouse burger with the 7 oz ( 200 g ) Steakhouse XT burger in 2009 . In 2011 , the company discontinued selling the product in the North American market , replacing it with the Chef 's Choice Burger . The Chef 's Choice Burger was removed in 2012 . 2014 saw the introduction of the newest attempt at introducing a premium burger to the company 's portfolio with the introduction of the A.1. Ultimate Cheeseburger in North America .
The Burger Bundles returned in 2011 with beef and chicken patty options .
= = = Ancillaries = = =
During 1997 , BK revamped its French fries in North America . The improved fries were coated with a layer of potato @-@ based starch , giving the fries a crisp shell that maintained its texture longer . The company introduced them in a series of advertisements that claimed the new fries tasted better than McDonald 's fries in consumer taste comparisons . Other ads featured Mr. Potato Head in a series of demographically @-@ targeted commercials . The fries were in research and development for over two years and already had been available in several markets when the advertising campaign began . In Europe , BK also sells potato wedges , a type of French fry that is thick @-@ cut and wedge @-@ shaped . In 1991 , the company introduced Twister fries , spiral @-@ cut fries with a spicy coating , as part of a promotional push . Part of the product 's appeal was they were served in a paper drink cup as opposed to the normal fry carton . The product was designed as a short @-@ term promotion that would be periodically reintroduced .
In 2002 , Burger King offered " Shake ' em up Fries " , which included a bag of fries and a packet of spices . The customer would add the spices to the fries and then shake the bag until the fries were coated .
Beyond French fries , the company has introduced several other side products over the course of its existence . Onion rings have been part of the menu for the majority of BK history . Originally made from whole , sliced onions , they were reformulated into a formed product made from onion paste in 2001 as part of a menu revamp . In the same 2001 menu revamp , the company added an onion ring @-@ specific dipping sauce , and emphasized it again during its 99 ¢ BK Value Menu introduction in 2002 . As part of its BK Cravers value menu introduction in 2005 , the company briefly sold jalapeño poppers accompanied by a side of ranch dressing as part of its national menu . The same menu added mozzarella sticks with a side of marinara sauce ; the mozzarella sticks have since been relegated to a regional menu item in the United States , but are sold on the national menu in Canada .
= = = Breakfast = = =
One of Smith 's significant contributions to the menu was the addition of a breakfast product line as part of the 1978 product line expansion . Up until that point , breakfast was not a market Burger King had served . Other than the addition of the Croissan 'Wich in 1983 , the breakfast menu remained almost identical to the McDonald 's offerings until a menu revamp in 1986 . This expansion introduced BK 's A.M. Express product line , which included French toast sticks and mini @-@ muffins . The new breakfast line was designed to be portable , because studies had shown that an increasing percent of consumers were eating breakfast on the go . Shortly after the introduction of the French toast stick products , BK partnered with Lender 's Bagels to introduce a bagel breakfast sandwich . The new product was designed to drive sales in the morning by piquing customer 's curiosity with a new taste . The product was tested for several months in BK 's original home territory of Miami before a national roll @-@ out .
In the late 1990s , BK co @-@ branded several of its breakfast products with former parent Pillsbury ; Pillsbury produced a fresh @-@ baked biscuit product for the chain in 1996 and miniature cinnamon rolls called Cini @-@ Minis in 1998 . As part of the cachet built into the products , Burger King advertises that products are cooked fresh in the restaurant each morning .
With the effects of the late @-@ 2000s recession reducing breakfast traffic to the stores , Burger King announced that it was making the first wholesale changes to its breakfast line @-@ up in many years . In early 2010 , Burger King tested a new group of breakfast products under its new BK Brunch product line ; a reintroduced English muffin sandwich , a sandwich featuring ciabatta bread , a pair of breakfast bowls , and a non @-@ alcoholic mimosa . In September , a slightly modified variation of the menu was taken national during one of the largest menu expansions in the company 's history . Chief Marketing Officer Mike Kappitt said breakfast produced 12 percent of the company 's income , but that was only half of what McDonald 's made . Part of the expansion was a major advertising campaign that encouraged people to change their minds about skipping breakfast at a time of high unemployment . 3G Capital has continued the expansion of the breakfast program with the introduction of Quaker Oats Company oatmeal to its menu in late 2011 . Oatmeal has been shown to be a popular addition to breakfast menus industry @-@ wide due to its low cost , ease in preparation and perception as a healthy , whole @-@ grain option . Analysts from industry analytic firm Technomic stated that it was a good move for Burger King to add a winning product to its menu , but that it should have tried to be more creative by adding other , similar products such as grits .
= = Regionalization = =
As the company expanded both inside and outside the United States , it introduced localized versions of its products that conform to regional tastes and cultural or religious beliefs . In countries with predominantly Islamic populations , such as Saudi Arabia , pork is not served due to Muslim dietary laws . In Muslim countries , meat is slaughtered using the halal method and labeled as such . Similar adaptations also occurred in Israel , where kosher dietary laws forbid the mixture of meat and dairy products . Before the company exited the country in 2010 , many of its locations in Israel were fully kosher .
In many international markets , BK offers products or condiments that fit local tastes . For example , in Canada , BK offers poutine gravy and vinegar for its French fries , and peri @-@ peri sauce is available as a sandwich topping in the United Kingdom . Hungry Jack 's , Burger King 's Australian franchise , offers the " Aussie burger " with fried egg , beetroot , and other Australian flavors . In Asian markets , dark @-@ meat chicken is preferred over white meat , and poultry products sold in these markets often are advertised as such . One of the more regionally differentiated lines of products is the company 's dessert offerings . In the United States , BK offers several desserts , including Otis Spunkmeyer chocolate @-@ chip cookies , apple pie slices , Hershey 's Sundae pie slices ( a type of chocolate creme pie ) , and a rotating pie as part of its dessert menu . Internationally the company sells turnovers , tortas , Cini @-@ Minis , muffins , brownies , and vanilla soft @-@ serve ice cream in cones and sundaes . In most markets where BK sells ice cream , it also sells a mix @-@ in dessert under various names . Some of these international dessert products differ from the domestic products in terms of preparation ; an example is the pies sold in Asian countries that are fried , turnover @-@ style , instead of the deep @-@ dish tart style associated with American sweet @-@ filled pies .
= = Preparation methods = =
Burger King cooks its foods in one of four ways : broiling , deep frying , baking , or microwaving . As noted in its mottos and advertisements , BK cooks its burgers and grilled chicken on an automated grill , while its other chicken products , fish , sides , and breakfast sausage are deep @-@ fried in vegetable oil . BK prepares its biscuits , cinnamon rolls , and cookies by baking in a convection oven and microwaves its BK Veggie burger patty .
= = = Broiling = = =
The predecessor to Burger King , Insta @-@ Burger King , began deploying the original broiling device in 1952 when its owners , Matthew Burns and Kieth Kramer , acquired the rights to George Read 's Inst @-@ Shake and Insta @-@ Broiler machines . The Insta @-@ Broiler cooked the burgers in a wire basket between two broilers , allowing the burgers to be cooked on both sides simultaneously . The machine was capable of cooking over 400 patties per hour , which allowed the company to grow rapidly . When McLamore and Edgarton opened their first Insta @-@ Burger King location in Miami , they revamped the unit into what they called a " flame broiler " – the forerunner of the modern unit used by Burger King today . After the acquisition of Insta @-@ Burger King in 1954 , the pair contracted the construction of the newly designed flame broilers to the SaniServ company of Indianapolis , Indiana , for the initial run of broilers . Eventually , the company moved the manufacturing contract for the broiler units to Nieco Automatic Broilers of Windsor , California , who manufactured all subsequent units until the start of the 2000s .
When the time came for the company to develop a new broiler , it turned to its equipment manufacturer , Nieco , and St. Louis , Missouri @-@ based Duke Manufacturing . Burger King 's goal was to maintain the company 's trademark flame broiling method while allowing more product options on a flexible cooking platform . The solutions that Nieco and Duke devised met that goal by using control features during cooking . The cooking methods employed by the two manufacturing companies vary in their methods ; Nieco employed two chains , one that maintained a single speed and cooking temperature , and another that had a flexible speed setting and variable temperature control . Duke 's solution utilizes an oven that cooks according to preset parameters for time and temperature , one heterogeneous product batch at a time . The first batch @-@ style broiler was introduced in April 1999 and was tested in @-@ store in central Wisconsin during the summer of 1999 .
Beyond the flexibility of the new broilers , the new equipment has several features intended to decrease operational costs . A more efficient design of the burners in the Nieco units produces a 30 percent reduction in energy consumption . The Duke units produce a $ 4 @,@ 000 - $ 5 @,@ 000 annual savings on energy compared to the original units , which ran approximately at full capacity all day . The units are so fuel @-@ efficient that in many US states , the company and its franchises qualify for energy @-@ efficiency rebates . However , and issue arose in September 2011 when the state of Washington department of health warned Burger King of issues with the Duke units . In multiple incidents in seven counties throughout the state , the Duke units were found to have cracked heat spreaders which resulted in under cooked products . Additionally , there was foreign material contamination caused by loose insulation resulting from the cracks as well as other issues . Upon notification , Burger King released a statement that the company has notified franchisees and corporate @-@ owned stores operating the Duke units with orders to repair the problem immediately . Additional training for operators was also ordered .
= = = Kitchen equipment = = =
Before any products are sold , the company pre @-@ cooks the ingredients and holds them in a heated holding cabinet . To ensure that product consistency is maintained and to reduce the amount of products discarded as waste , Burger King utilizes a computerized monitoring system created by Integrated Control Corp , or ICC . The system , called Kitchen Minder , monitors time and temperature in the cabinets and notifies staff and managers when to prepare more food and discard older products . Initially developed from 1998 to 2000 , the system is designed to work with a holding cabinet system that was developed by Duke . The initial test designs were time @-@ consuming to program because each bay in the holding units had to be programmed manually . This meant several minutes were required for each product , which added up to several hours to program up to six units with eight bays each . When BK finally deployed the system in 2001 , the updated units utilized a Palm Pilot to configure the units using a custom program designed to easily configure the units via Infrared or serial port . A kitchen flow software system that helps centralize information about the system was deployed in 2007 ; combined with the new equipment , it helped further reduce costs for the company and its franchises by calculating projected sales and actual usage . Along with the holding system , Burger King deployed newer high @-@ speed toasters to decrease make times ; the new toasters , while faster , require more maintenance , which increases overall labor costs .
= = = Sandwich preparation = = =
During periods of high @-@ volume sales , BK will pre @-@ prepare high @-@ demand items such as hamburgers and cheeseburgers ; during slower periods all sandwiches are made to order . The Whopper sandwiches , premium sandwiches and BK Veggies are all made when ordered .
= = Demographic targeting = =
= = = Value = = =
BK targets " value @-@ oriented " customers with its BK Value Menu . In the United States , this menu contains products that are usually priced in the $ 1 @.@ 00 to $ 1 @.@ 49 range . In non @-@ US markets , the BK Value Menu typically takes on a different name , with prices set to reflect the approximate value of one US dollar . Internationally , the company is standardizing its value menu under the King Deals banners that features items for sale at € 1 @.@ 00 in the EU and one dirham in Dubai . In all the markets , the value menu usually includes smaller sandwiches and entrées , small @-@ sized side orders , small @-@ sized drinks , and desserts . In the United States , the value menu has a breakfast offering in the same format as the lunch / dinner value menu .
= = = Children = = =
As with all major fast food vendors , BK has a menu that specifically targets children . The company introduced its child @-@ oriented product line in North America during the summer of 1990 with an advertising program called the Burger King Kid 's Club . In the United States , the meal is called the Kids Club Meal and it is primarily positioned against the popular Happy Meal from McDonald 's . The meal includes an entrée , a side order , beverage , and a toy . The toy is usually a product tie @-@ in with a movie or popular television show . The entrée and side offerings differ from market to market , as does portion size .
In the North American market , BK further divides its children 's menu into three segments : toddler , kids , and " tween " . The only difference between the first two groups is the prize offering ; the toddler will receive an age @-@ appropriate toy . The toys were originally designed by Kentwood , Michigan @-@ based Sassy Inc . , and were introduced in 2000 as a supplement to the company 's existing children 's line . Burger King changed its toddler toy designer to Hudson , Ohio @-@ based Little Tikes in 2003 .
The tween offering , introduced in 1999 , is called the Big Kids Meal . The Big Kids Meals consist of a double hamburger , a double cheeseburger , or a six @-@ piece serving of Chicken Tenders plus a small order of fries , and a 16 US fl oz ( 470 ml ) drink , and a toy . Further additions to the line included a six @-@ piece serving of the company 's Chicken Fries product . The introduction of the Big Kids Meal was not without controversy . McDonald 's challenged Burger King 's use of the name in a federal suit that claimed McDonald 's had used the name first . According to the filing , McDonald 's stated the company had used the term in a limited manner in Michigan in 1998 as part of a promotion in Detroit . The suit was judged to be without merit and dismissed in a summary judgment .
= = = Adult = = =
To appeal to the adult market , BK offers several sandwiches and other products made with higher @-@ quality ingredients such as whole @-@ breast chicken fillets , Angus beef , and other " premium " ingredients . These sandwiches are usually served on a better @-@ quality roll , such as baguettes or corn @-@ dusted potato rolls . Through 2009 and 2010 , the company added other higher @-@ end product such as barbecued ribs , grilled fish , an improved grilled chicken sandwich , kebabs , and an extra @-@ thick burger called the Steakhouse XT . Several industry publications claimed that these new offerings disrupt the differentiation between the fast @-@ food and casual @-@ dining markets with a combination of taste , competitive pricing , speed of service , and convenience . The adult @-@ oriented products of Burger King and it competitors have been criticized by restaurant industry commentators as a temporary blip . The " indulgent " products are seen as blurring the lines between the fast @-@ food and casual @-@ dining market segments and , while they draw in newer customers looking for value , the effect may only be temporary . Once the economic instabilities of the late @-@ 2000s recession fade , customers may return to such casual chains as Chili 's and leave the fast food chains back where they started in terms of customer numbers and profits .
BK targets specific sub @-@ groups within the adult market . Products like the BK Stacker and BK XXL are aimed at late teen to young adult males ; health @-@ conscious individuals are offered products such as salads , grilled chicken , and veggie burgers . Products such as the BK Veggie , a meatless burger initially introduced in 2002 , target the female and health @-@ oriented demographic using a co @-@ branded marketing program and a patty produced by the Kellogg Company 's Morningstar Farms division . Another sub @-@ market in this group is on @-@ the @-@ go parents and commuters ; The company 's BK Chicken Fries — French @-@ fry cut pieces of breaded chicken — is specifically targeted to this segment . First introduced in 2005 , the product was successful enough that Burger King expanded the marketing of chicken fries to the children 's demographic with a kid 's meal version of the product in 2007 . The meal was launched with a cross @-@ promotion in conjunction with Nickelodeon 's SpongeBob SquarePants . The series of commercials raised the ire of the American Family Association due to perceived nudity concerns .
= = = The " Superfan " = = =
One particular market target that was of importance to the company was identified as the " Superfan " . The superfan was a demographic group that included individuals that are 18 to 49 years old , primarily male , who would visit a fast @-@ food restaurant five times a month and eat fast food 16 times a month . Burger King and their competitors hope to attract this group because of the large sums of money that they represent ; an increase in sales to this group could drive an increase in global sales . While superfans accounted for less than 20 percent of Burger King 's customer base , they accounted for nearly 50 percent of the company 's business . By focusing on this demographic group , the company could increase sales more readily ; it was easier to generate more repeat visits by this demographic than it was to coax new customers to switch from other chains . The company has used advertising featuring its mascot , the Burger King , in tandem with new product rollouts such as its BK Wrapper product to help generate an increased number of visits by this client segment .
With the slowing of the global economy due to the financial crisis of 2007 @-@ 2010 , the company experienced a downside of focusing so much on this demographic group . The high unemployment of the recession , coupled with healthier eating habits , drove many customers away from fast food towards the fast @-@ casual segment or forced them to stop eating out . Analysts have stated that by focusing its marketing and advertising programs on men , BK alienated women and children . Morgan Stanley analyst John Glass stated , " Maybe catering to the super fan was the correct strategy to kick @-@ start the business , but maybe they relied on that for too long ... "
To help counter the perceived male bias of its superfan target group , the company expanded the definition in early 2010 to cover individuals of both sexes , all ages , and households who frequent fast food within the stated time frame . Throughout 2010 , the company added newer calorie @-@ conscious " Positive Steps " combo meals that were advertised in female @-@ oriented media , as well as a continuing cross @-@ promotional tie @-@ in with the female @-@ oriented Twilight film series . 3G Capital 's new management team eliminated the focus on the superfan after its acquisition the company in 2010 , concentrating on a more broad demographic base that includes women and more health conscious customers .
= = Nutrition = =
One of the company 's first forays into healthier products was in 1983 with introduction of its salad bar . The salad bar met with light to moderate success , but the company 's franchise holders complained of high operating costs and a poor return on investment . Part of the product , a pita salad , was quickly dropped from the salad bar , as were plans to use the bar unit to boost breakfast sales . In 1987 the company augmented its salad bar with a test line of prepackaged salads , including chef and garden salads . The salad bar was eventually eliminated in favor of packaged salads . In 1990 , BK introduced a new salad line accompanied by a licensing agreement with Paul Newman 's Newman 's Own , Inc . , whose salad dressings accompanied the products . Burger King revamped its salad line again in 2004 , with the introduction of its Fire Grilled Salad products . Burger King sought to differentiate this line of salads by packaging the warm meat toppings — a choice of grilled shrimp or broiled chicken — separately from the cold salad ; this added the appearance of an additional layer of freshness . Currently in the United States , the salads are pre @-@ made off @-@ site . They are sold with two toppings and Ken 's Foods Ken 's Steakhouse brand salad dressing . Internationally , the salads vary in composition and style from market to market . In all markets , salads are one of the items targeted at female and health @-@ conscious consumers . In parts of Europe , salads are sold under the " King Delight " or " LA Range " banner .
As a response to recent obesity trends in the United States and other nations , Burger King modified its menu and food preparation practices . In addition to offering lower @-@ fat menu item such as salads , the company has updated its nutrition guides to include dietary guidelines and other nutritional data . One of its reactions to the concerns over trans @-@ fats was to initiate a program in January 2008 to phase out added trans @-@ fat in its products , and to switch to pure vegetable oils that are free of hydrogenated fats . The program ended in early 2009 with a complete changeover to the new oils . Most , but not all , of the products contain no added trans @-@ fats ; some products , such as the beef used in the hamburgers , still contain naturally @-@ occurring trans @-@ fats .
To address concerns over the increase in childhood obesity in Western nations and accusations of unhealthy offerings for children by groups such as the Center for Science in the Public Interest , the company created a nutritional program called " BK Positive Steps " that is aimed at children and their families . The program began with the introduction of products such as broiled Chicken Tenders , Kraft Macaroni and Cheese , and apple " fries " , which are French cut apples served in a fry box that are featured in a new low @-@ fat Kid 's Club Meal . According to a statement by Burger King , the new Kid 's Club meals contain no more than 560 calories per meal , less than 30 percent of calories from fat , less than 10 percent of calories from saturated fat , no added trans fats , and no more than 10 percent of calories from added sugars . Additional changes to its menu were announced in May 2009 , including the reduction of sodium levels in its Chicken Tenders product by approximately 33 percent ; a switch to non @-@ fat milk products in the U.S. ; and adding calcium @-@ fortified apple juice to its beverage line @-@ up . The broiled Chicken Tenders product is only sold in the UK / Ireland market . The product line has been expanded to include a boiled mini chicken sandwich for the kid 's meals in this region .
The company has adapted its menu to accommodate different dietary lifestyles by adding several vegetarian options , including salads , the BK Veggie sandwich , and its deep @-@ fried spicy bean burger that is sold in Burger King 's international locations . The majority of these products do not qualify as vegan due to the presence of egg or dairy products ; an example is the BK Veggie , which is approved by the British Vegetarian Society . Society guidelines do not require their approved products to be vegan , and allow ovo @-@ lacto @-@ vegetarian ingredients . The Veggie Burger is widely sold in other countries , sometimes under different names ( for example , it is called a " Country Burger " in Germany ) . Burger King added low @-@ carb variants of several of its products in 2004 that are in accordance with low @-@ carb diets such as the Atkins diet and the South Beach Diet . Low @-@ carbohydrate preparation consists of eliminating the bread and serving the product in a bowl with silverware .
In January 2010 , BK began to publish a list of which of their products that contain gluten and added menu options designed to help those afflicted with Celiac disease as part of its " Positive Steps " nutrition program . A company representative stated that it understands that its guests have individual dietary needs , and as part of its " Have It Your Way " promise , Burger King offers menu items for individuals with gluten sensitivity . BK food is prepared with several known food allergens , including wheat , milk , soy , and eggs .
= = Products = =
The range of products sold usually depends on the time of day . Lunch items such as hamburgers and fries are traditionally not served during breakfast time . However , some BK stores do sell food under their " Burgers for Breakfast " program . While for several years the company dictated hours to its franchisees in the United States , that changed with the sale of the company in 2010 . The new owners relaxed the mandated hours for stores to be open from 6 am to midnight Monday through Saturday and 7 am to midnight on Sundays ; franchises were encouraged to stay open later or for 24 hours in markets that could support the business .
= = = Packaging = = =
Burger King 's product packaging has undergone many changes over the years . Unlike McDonald 's , the company never used the clamshell style box made of Styrofoam , so when the environmental concerns over Styrofoam came to a head in the late 1980s , the company touted its use of paperboard boxes for its sandwiches . When McDonald 's moved to eliminate its styrofoam packaging , Burger King ran several sarcastically @-@ worded ads in national newspapers stating that it had always wrapped its sandwiches in waxed paper ; they welcomed McDonald 's " to the club " . To cut back on the amount of paper that the company used , the paperboard box was mostly eliminated in 1991 ; it was replaced with waxed paper . Paperboard boxes are still used for its " finger food " products like Chicken Tenders and Fries , French toast sticks , and desserts .
In 2004 , the company committed itself to a redesign of its entire packaging line that tied the packaging into its irreverent advertising campaign created by Crispin , Porter + Bogusky . Each product 's packaging included a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek commentary about the product itself . Alex Bogusky , partner and executive creative director of CP + B , stated that BK decided " to create a dialogue with the consumer " by utilizing the large areas of white space found on its packaging at the time . All of its sandwich wrappers , cartons , tray liners , bags , breakfast platters , chili cups , condiments , and regional product packaging received what was described as " quirky ad copy " specifically targeting the 18 – 34 @-@ year @-@ old male demographic segment . Besides the humorous commentary , the company also created sniglet @-@ type names for things that would appear in its products , such as a " ringer " – a single onion ring that had been accidentally included in an order of fries .
Starting with the introduction of its BK Chicken Fries product in 2005 , BK began adapting some of its product packaging so that it could be placed in an automotive cup holder . The BK Chicken Fry box , while square in shape , will sit comfortably in the cup holder and its top , when opened , forms a small tray that is designed to hold dipping sauce . Burger King credits the design of this box with helping to make its Chicken Fries the most popular adult @-@ oriented chicken product in the United States . It has since added a trademarked and patented round French fry container which it calls the " FryPod " , which is a paper cup made from 50 percent recycled materials that is designed to fit in an automotive cup holder . The package design won an honorable mention at a packaging industry design competition . BK 's large and King sized beverage containers are made from molded HDPE plastic with a funnel @-@ like shaped bottom that allows the oversized cups to fit in cup holders .
Union Packaging , a minority @-@ owned , Philadelphia @-@ based paper products company , has supplied much of the packaging for Burger King 's North American operations since winning its first contract in 2000 . The original $ 15 million contract was for paperboard " clamshell " containers and covered 1 @,@ 250 BK locations in the United States . Union was instrumental in the development of the FryPod carton , and its efforts earned the company a supplier of the year award from Burger King in 2007 .
= = = Reformulations = = =
Over time , the company reformulates various products in an attempt to boost sales of the product or to improve the taste , appearance , or physical consistency of the product . One such example of this is the BK Big Fish , the company 's fish sandwich offering in North America . Burger King 's original fish sandwich , introduced as early as the late 1960s in some markets , was called the Whaler ; it was a smaller fish sandwich made with tartar sauce and lettuce served on the small sesame seed roll BK used for their hamburgers . When Burger King introduced its broiled chicken sandwich in 1990 , the BK Broiler , it changed the fish sandwich 's breading to a panko style , began serving it on an oatmeal @-@ dusted roll that was used for the broiled chicken sandwich , and renamed the product the Ocean Catch sandwich . When BK reformulated the BK Broiler , the company also reformulated the Ocean Catch as the BK Big Fish in its current configuration . The sandwich was again briefly reformulated after the phase @-@ out of the Baguette sandwiches , and was reintroduced as the Big Fish in 2005 .
One of the company 's larger product reformulations came in March 2011 . The company updated the recipe of its 25 + year @-@ old Chicken Tender product line by reformulating the breading and spice mixture while updating the shape . The new formulation was described by the company as being " more broadly appealing " to the palate of its customers according to statement released by the company . Nation 's Restaurant News analyst John Barone stated that the change may also be due to an industry wide move to chicken @-@ based product as a result of raising commodity prices , forcing restaurants to turn towards chicken @-@ based offerings due to the elevated pork and beef prices occurring during the previous year . He added that chicken breast costs have been down or flat during the same period , making it a more appealing choice to companies . The new product push was accompanied with a product tie @-@ in with the movie Hop aimed at the youth market , an adult @-@ oriented advertising campaign pushing convenience and product customization and a nationwide coupon mailing in the United States . Online advertising was emphasized with the release a Facebook gaming application it called the " Tender 8 " .
= = = Limited time offers = = =
To generate additional sales , BK will occasionally introduce limited time offers ( LTO ) that are versions of its core products or new products intended for either long- or short @-@ term sales . Many of these LTO products focus on core menu products such as the Whopper , which has featured variations such as the Texas Double Whopper with added jalapeños , bacon , and pepperjack cheese . Other LTOs include all @-@ new sandwiches like the Chick 'n Crisp sandwich ( now a permanent item in many regions ) and test products such as the company 's Great American Burger , which was an attempt at a premium sandwich in 2003 . It was made with a Whopper patty and several new ingredients , including a bakery @-@ style bun ; peppered bacon ; whole @-@ leaf , as opposed to shredded , lettuce ; seasoned mustard ; and a special sauce . The burger was served with American cheese , mayonnaise , tomato , and onions . A similar burger was tested in Wisconsin in 1999 . That Great American burger featured a single 8 oz ( 230 g ) burger patty and different toppings . It was designed to be cooked on a forerunner of the current batch broiler .
Other LTO products sought to expand existing product lines with new base ingredients . The company 's 1992 offering , a Meatloaf Specialty Sandwich , was introduced as part of a push into limited table service . Other LTO variants in its Specialty Sandwich line included an Italian sausage sandwich served in one of three ways : with onions and peppers ; parmigiana @-@ style with mozzarella cheese and marinara sauce ; or with all four ingredients . Steak sandwiches were made from steak fillets or later , restructured beef . Other offerings were a ham and cheese sandwich with mayonnaise , lettuce , and tomato , and a veal parmigiana sandwich .
= = = Trends = = =
The company is not above following trends within the fast food and fast casual industry ; two of examples of this can be seen in some of its former products . The company 's first wrap product , called a BK Wrapper , was introduced in North America as a breakfast option in April 2008 , with a lunch / dinner version offered in September 2008 . These products were in response to industry trends towards products that are easier to consume on the go , and to trends that began in 2007 regarding smaller foods . Originally a limited time offer , the lunch / dinner version of this product was sold as a regional item through late 2009 , when they were eliminated due to weakening sales . The 2009 introduction of BK Burger Shots , Burger King 's version of sliders , was part of a wider trend in the restaurant industry for this type of sandwich . European locations sell them as the BK Six Pack . The variation sold in the UK and Ireland is called the Angus 6 Pack ; it is six small burgers that are attached together . In the United States they are based on the Burger Bundles / Burger Buddies products of the 1980s , which were originally inspired by the similar products sold at White Castle and Krystal ,
= = = Licensed products = = =
In 2007 , Burger King began licensing its logo and items to outside companies for non @-@ Burger King products . A licensed products company , Broad Street Licensing Group , and its manufacturing partner , the Inventure Group , introduced the first products in the fall of that year : flavored potato crisps in two flavors , flame @-@ broiled burger and French fries with ketchup . Inventure added a third flavor , onion rings , in 2008 . A second licensed product , the company 's child @-@ oriented BK Fresh Apple Fries , was licensed for sale in supermarkets in 2009 to the Cruch Pak company . The company stated that while the products are important in providing brand identity , they will not be concentrating their resources on them , and will be investing the licensing fees into the company 's marketing fund . Industry pundits have criticized the company for this scheme , with Rob Frankel , author of the book The Revenge of Brand X , stating " just because you can do something does not mean you should . "
The licensing deals have proven successful . Broad Street has expanded the product line to seventeen countries across the globe while increasing selection to more than a half dozen products designed to mimic the flavors of some of Burger King 's core menu products . The success of the product line and licensing deals garnered the companies an award for " Brand Extension of the Year " from License ! Global magazine , and earned them a nomination for " Best Corporate License of the Year " from the Licensing Industry Merchandisers Association .
ConAgra Foods entered into a licensing agreement with Burger King in 2009 for a new line of microwavable French fry products . The new products are King Krinkz , which are seasoned crinkle @-@ cut fries ; King Kolossalz , an extra @-@ large package of fries ; and King Wedgez , seasoned potato wedges . The products were slated to be released in September 2009 . The packaging is designed to resemble BK 's FryPod fry container .
= = = Failed products = = =
Burger King has introduced several new products that performed well in testing , but did not catch on with the public . The failure of the BK Baguette line of sandwiches is an example a product that did not meet corporate expectations ; another earlier failure was the Bull 's @-@ eye Barbecue Burger . The sandwich consisted of two side @-@ by @-@ side hamburger patties , American cheese , and bacon , with Bull 's @-@ eye Barbecue brand barbecue sauce . The sandwich was served on the same 7 in ( 18 cm ) roll as the Specialty Sandwiches . Later it was sold as a traditional @-@ style double cheeseburger .
In 1992 , during its time under the ownership of Britain @-@ based Grand Metropolitan , Burger King experimented with table service . After 4 pm , customers would place their order at the counter , and their order would be brought to them at their table . Customers were given complimentary popcorn to eat while waiting for their meal . To coincide with the offering , a series of meals called the Dinner baskets were introduced . The dinner baskets included the Whopper Dinner Basket , Steak Sandwich Dinner Basket , Fried Chicken Dinner Basket , and Shrimp Dinner Basket . In the New England region of the United States , BK sold a Fried clam Basket . The dinner came with two sides , including a choice of a side salad , cole slaw , French fries , or baked potato . Lasting approximately a year , the sit @-@ down restaurant concept was abandoned in 1994 in favor of the original quick @-@ service formula .
Another failed product , this time under Grand Metropolitan 's successor Diageo , was the BK Back Porch Grillers line of burgers that featured a spiced and flavored patty served on a bakery @-@ style roll . There were two varieties : The Regular served with mayonnaise , whole leaf iceberg lettuce , tomato and grilled onions , and the Bacon Cheddar , with bacon and smoked cheddar cheese . There was one LTO variety , the Black Stack Griller , made with Black Strap Barbecue sauce ( a strong molasses @-@ flavored sauce ) , bacon , lettuce , and tomato , to promote Men in Black II . The Griller patty was flavored so that it had a taste similar to a hamburger that had been grilled over a charcoal @-@ fired grill .
One of its international failures was the BK Crown Jewels line of sandwiches , originally sold in New Zealand . These larger , adult @-@ oriented sandwiches were made with fried and grilled chicken or a Whopper patty and a variety of toppings and served on a Kaiser roll . Toppings included a mango lime sauce , avocado , aioli , a Cajun spiced sauce , and relish . Originally successful , the sandwiches piqued the interest of Burger King 's corporate offices and were being considered for a potential global rollout . However , interest in the product faded and they were discontinued .
Introduced as a direct challenge of corporate rival McDonald 's , the Big King was Burger King 's response to the Big Mac and had a similar style and taste . The sandwich was originally introduced in 1993 under the name Double Supreme during its testing stage . The name was switched to Big King when it was introduced nationally in 1997 , and again to the King Supreme when reintroduced in 2002 . The sandwich was discontinued in the North American market in the mid @-@ 2000s . In November 2013 , Burger King brought the Big King back to the North American market as a permanent menu item . The Big King sandwich 's recipe is exactly the same as the original 1990s recipe , including a three @-@ piece roll . The Big King sandwich is also sold in many of the company 's international markets in several forms .
= = Suppliers and purchasing = =
= = = Purchasing guidelines for meat = = =
Like many of its competitors , BK has been targeted by various animal welfare groups , such as PETA , over the treatment of the animals it uses in the manufacture of its ingredients . In a concession to these groups , BK agreed to adopt a series of policies for its suppliers for several of its raw animal products . The company has established a preference for purchasing eggs and pork @-@ based products from those suppliers that use cage @-@ free production methods .
= = = = 2001 Guidelines = = = =
As part of its 2001 guidelines , Burger King stated that it would begin conducting announced and unannounced inspections of the slaughterhouses for all of its meat suppliers and take action against facilities that fail those inspections . It would establish animal @-@ handling verification guidelines for all the slaughterhouses of its suppliers . The company would require its suppliers to confine no more than five hens in each battery cage , that the birds be able to stand fully upright , and require the presence of two water drinkers per cage . It would stop purchasing from suppliers who engage in the forced molting of hens , develop auditing procedures for the handling of " broiler " chickens , and institute humane handling procedures for chickens at slaughterhouses . It would begin purchasing pork from farms that do not confine sows to stalls .
Per the conditions of its agreement with the groups , the company filed a petition in 2002 with the Food and Drug Administration requesting the United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) step up enforcement of the Humane Slaughter Act of 1958 . The USDA agreed with the request , stating " it is granting your petition and is developing a proposed rule that addresses the issue of humane handling . " The USDA failed to indicate when it intended to publish the proposal in the Federal Register and solicit public comment , which would be the first step before the agency drafts a final rule .
= = = = 2008 Guidelines = = = =
The company amended its purchasing guidelines in 2008 . It announced that it would expand its pork purchasing guidelines by requiring 10 % of its pork products be purchased from suppliers who do not use gestation crates , metal enclosures that confine sows and restrict the animal 's movement , and double that amount by the end of the year . It would also immediately begin purchasing 2 % of its eggs from producers whose hens are not confined to small wire battery cages , and double that amount by the end of that year . It agreed with PETA that the company would issue a statement that it would be give purchasing preference to egg suppliers that do not use battery cages and to those poultry suppliers that utilize or upgrade to controlled atmosphere killing , which is considered to be a more humane method of chicken and turkey slaughter .
= = = = 2012 Guidelines = = = =
A third round of guidelines was issued in April 2012 when the company announced that it would begin phasing in a plan to stop purchasing poultry and pork products from suppliers that caged animals . With this announcement , Burger King became the first American Fast food company to promise to purchase 100 % of its eggs from companies that did not utilize wire battery cages and pork from suppliers that did not use gestational cages for sows . This is an increase of the percentage of cage free products from 9 % of egg purchases and 20 % of pork purchases the company made in 2008 . The plan should be completed by 2017 .
= = = Food = = =
= = = = Condiments = = = =
The H.J. Heinz Company is a significant supplier of condiments to Burger King . The relationship between the two companies dates back into the twentieth century , and they have worked together on several programs such as the 2001 promotional tie @-@ in with the movie Shrek . Heinz provided an LTO Blastin ' Green EZ Squirt colored ketchup and an apple flavored " ooze " dipping sauce for distribution with the Shrek @-@ branded kid 's meals . Heinz has become a primary supplier of ketchup in the United States , Mexico , and Great Britain , while supplying various sauces in several European countries .
Kraft foods has supplied many of its products to BK over the years . Several of its condiment lines have found their way into BK menu items . Two Kraft products were involved in direct tie @-@ ins : the Bull 's @-@ Eye BBQ Burger in 2005 and the A @-@ 1 Steakhouse XT sandwich in 2010 . In both cases , Burger King prominently used the names of the Kraft products , A1 Steak Sauce and Bull 's @-@ Eye Barbecue Sauce , in the names of the sandwiches . Kraft has supplied several of Burger King 's children 's products , including a Jell @-@ O brand dessert during BK 's Teletubbies promotion in 1999 , and the Kraft macaroni and cheese used in its lower @-@ fat kid 's meals introduced in 2009 .
= = = = Proteins = = = =
During the late 1960s , Tyson Foods was devising new methods to broaden their market , including introducing smaller consumer packaging and landing military contracts . The company expanded its commercial division by offering new products to McDonald 's and Burger King . Tyson 's McDonald 's product eventually evolved into Chicken McNuggets while Burger King 's product became the basis of its chicken sandwiches . For their 2010 rib promotion , Tyson was Burger King 's pork supplier . Despite a production @-@ significant lead time , the estimated four @-@ month product supply lasted Burger king less than three months .
A 1996 E. Coli outbreak at one of Burger King 's largest beef providers , Hudson Foods , gave Tyson Foods one of its largest business coups . Hudson was one of the largest poultry providers in the United States and one of Tyson 's largest competitors when they moved into beef processing at the behest of Burger King . Once it had secured a contract with Burger King , Hudson opened a beef processing plant in Nebraska . When the plant was identified as the source of an E. Coli breakout in 1996 , Burger King abandoned the company as a supplier .
Lopez Foods , Inc. of Oklahoma City is a supplier of beef to the Burger King . While Lopez 's primary customer is McDonald 's , the company supplies BK as well .
= = = = Sides and desserts = = = =
McCain Foods became a supplier of potato products to the company in 1998 , shortly after an agreement with farmers in Maine to supply potatoes for use in the fast food market .
Edwards Baking provides Burger King with prepackaged pies and pie @-@ style desserts while providing oversight and assistance with the chain 's dessert products . BK is one of Edwards ' major national contracts , where the company provides Burger King with assistance in marketing programs , point @-@ of @-@ purchase advertising materials , market research , and other resources . Edwards has a full @-@ time staff assigned to Burger King 's headquarters in Miami . Before Edwards became Burger King 's primary baked goods supplier , the chain had a contract with Awrey Bakeries of Livonia , Michigan , for its line of pre @-@ packaged breakfast products . Burger King sold a line of Awrey products including danish , doughnuts , and birthday cakes .
= = = Beverages = = =
= = = = Soft drinks = = = =
Traditionally Burger King has sold soft drinks from the Coca @-@ Cola Company in its home market . In 1983 , PepsiCo garnered the $ 444 million beverage supplier contract from its rival , and , in the midst of extreme market debate over the future of the contract , had it renewed for a second term in 1987 . The company won the contract by strengthening the marketing and advertising program ties between Burger King and itself . The contract lasted three more years when , partially based upon Pepsi 's growth as a restaurant operator with its Tricon Restaurants division , Burger King moved its beverage contract back to Coca @-@ Cola .
Since 1990 , Burger King has continued using Coca @-@ Cola as its beverage supplier , renewing its contract in several times . The Coca @-@ Cola contract is not without its problems ; the 1999 contract called for the Coca @-@ Cola branded Icee products to be made a permanent menu item in all American locations . After the rollout , it was discovered that Coca @-@ Cola employees had faked product test information to bolster prospective sales numbers in an effort to entice franchisees to enroll in a summertime advertising push . Several Coke employees were terminated , and Coca @-@ Cola changed the in @-@ store promotional materials to emphasize the Icee name . The 2003 contract officially extended the relationship between the two companies so that Coca @-@ Cola was the exclusive supplier of soft drinks for the company . Before this , individual international franchises would negotiate their own contracts with their company of choice . The 2003 contract gave Coca @-@ Cola new access to the 3 @,@ 000 operating or planned restaurants on the Asia @-@ Pacific rim , in Europe , and in South and Central America . The purchase of Burger King by 3G Capital lead to a change in the beverage contract for the Caribbean and Latin America markets . 3G , which owns AmBev and is the producer and distributor of PepsiCo products in the region , started cross @-@ licensing between its two companies in April 2011 and switched to Pepsi in these markets .
In 1999 , Burger King added a second soft drink supplier contract with the Dr Pepper Snapple Group to include Dr Pepper to its beverage line up in North American restaurants .
Burger King 's supply contracts for non @-@ carbonated beverages are separate from the ones for its sodas . When the company first chose to introduce a bottled water product , it chose Nestlé 's Poland Spring brand over Coke 's Dasani . When the contract expired in 2003 , BK moved to Pepsi 's Aquafina , the top @-@ selling brand at the time . In 2008 Burger King renewed its relationship with Nestlé by entering into an agreement to sell Pure Life bottled water products . BK moved away from Pepsi 's Tropicana brand juices in 2001 when it went with Coca @-@ Cola 's Minute Maid brands for the North America market . With the introduction of its Positive Steps nutrition program for children , the company turned to the Hershey Company to provide Hershey 's branded low @-@ fat milk in its North American stores . BK is utilizing a popular brand name to promote its products in a move to draw customers ' attention to itself and its meal programs .
= = = = Coffee = = = =
Produced by Sara Lee 's Douwe Egberts brand , BK Joe was Burger King 's coffee line that was first introduced in 2001 in North America and later in parts of Europe . Advertised as being made from Arabica coffee , the product was made using Douwe 's Cafitesse system , a platform that eschews coffee brewed from ground beans in favor of a beverage made from a coffee concentrate with hot water added . Sara Lee claims the advantage of the system is that each cup of coffee is made at the time of order with minimal waste and labor . The product was not designed to compete with products from companies such as Starbucks , but was intended to appeal to customers who seek a consistent cup of coffee .
Despite the investment in the Douwe Egbert product , Burger King announced it would be phasing out the Cafitesse system in the United States in the summer of 2010 in favor of Starbucks ' Seattle 's Best brand of coffee . Throughout the summer of 2010 , BK added several new coffee @-@ based products to the new coffee line in an initial effort to bring in more customers during the morning sales period . The new coffee products , including flavored coffees and iced coffee drinks , are available all day to compete with McDonald 's McCafé coffee line . Every Friday during November 2010 , Burger King gave away free 12 US fl oz ( 350 ml ) cups of Seattle 's Best Coffee to encourage people to try its breakfast and coffee lines . The company predicted the number of free cups of coffee would number between two and four million .
= = = = Alcoholic drinks = = = =
For many years Burger King has sold beer in several of its international locations , such as Germany , but not in its home territory . The company began to sell beer at its BK Whopper Bar limited service concept restaurants in Miami , New York , and Los Angeles in 2010 . The company is selling products from SABMiller and Anheuser @-@ Busch , including Budweiser , Bud Lite , and Miller Lite in aluminum bottles designed to maintain temperature . The move , designed to target the important 30 @-@ and @-@ under demographic , has been called risky by industry analysts because the company is known as a fast food purveyor and not as an alcoholic beverages seller . Other industry consultants have disagreed with the assessment , believing that the move is timely because the company is growing with its aging customer base .
= = = Distributors = = =
For many years Burger King owned and operated its own distribution system , known originally as Distron . Distron , founded shortly after establishment of Burger King , primarily served the company @-@ owned stores and 50 – 60 percent of franchised stores . Franchise groups were free to purchase supplies from one of seventeen independent distribution systems , often operated by larger franchise groups such as Carrols Restaurant Group . The Distron setup remained relatively stable until BK was purchased from Pillsbury by Grand Metropolitan . Grand Met originally planned to sell it after the purchase , but ended up reorganizing the division into two separate groups for procurement ( Burger King Purchasing [ BKP ] ) and distribution ( Burger King Distribution Services [ BKDS ] ) . The move resulted in the layoff of over a hundred staff members .
In 1992 , Burger King and its franchises formed Restaurant Services Inc . ( RSI ) , an independent purchasing cooperative , which covered 100 percent of BK stores in the United States . The creation of RSI was based on a proposal by then @-@ CEO Barry Gibbons create an organization that would be autonomous from BK corporate operations , provide full financial disclosure to participants on pricing issues and revenues , and enjoy the participation of the entire chain to maximize the benefits of volume purchasing . The format of RSI was based on the system employed by KFC for its distribution system and was operated in a similar manner . Two weeks after the formation of the co @-@ operative , Grand Met sold the physical assets of BKDS to Canadian @-@ based buyout firm Onex Corporation and folded BKP into RSI .
Currently the company utilizes independent distributors such as Maines Paper and Food Service and Sysco for supplying North American stores with food and paper products .
= 1953 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1953 Atlantic hurricane season was the first time an organized list of female names was used to name Atlantic storms . It officially began on June 15 , and lasted until November 15 , although activity occurred both before and after the season 's limits . The season was active with fourteen total storms , six of which developed into hurricanes ; four of the hurricanes attained major hurricane status , or a Category 3 or greater on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale .
The strongest hurricane of the season was Carol , although by the time it struck Atlantic Canada it was much weaker . Both hurricanes Barbara and Florence struck the United States ; the former crossed the Outer Banks and impacted much of the east coast , and Florence struck a sparsely populated region of the Florida Panhandle without causing much damage . Bermuda was threatened by three hurricanes within two weeks . In addition to the hurricanes , Tropical Storm Alice developed in late May and left several fatalities in Cuba . The final named storm of the season , Hazel , produced additional rainfall in Florida after previous flooding conditions . There were several unnamed storms , the last of which dissipated on December 9 .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm Alice = = =
A tropical storm developed east of Nicaragua on May 25 , executing a counterclockwise loop over Central America . After weakening over land , Alice re @-@ intensified over the western Caribbean , moving over western Cuba on May 21 with winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . On June 1 , it entered the Gulf of Mexico , and later executed another loop off the northwest coast of Cuba . Alice quickly weakened due to a cold front , and advisories were discontinued by June 3 . While near Cuba , Alice produced drought @-@ breaking rainfall that caused flooding and several unofficial drowning deaths .
After passing near Cuba , Alice turned to the north and restrengthened to peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) ( in fact , it is possible Alice briefly reached hurricane intensity but data was inconclusive ) . It again weakened before making landfall near Panama City Beach on June 6 as a minimal tropical storm , and Alice dissipated shortly thereafter . Alice brought heavy rainfall to Florida , peaking at 13 @.@ 48 inches ( 342 mm ) in Lake Placid . Near where it made landfall , the storm dropped light rainfall , and there were no reports of damage in the state . Alice was the first North Atlantic tropical cyclone to have a female name . It was also one of 22 tropical or subtropical cyclones on record in the month of May .
= = = Tropical Storm Two = = =
= = = Hurricane Barbara = = =
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Storm Barbara over the Bahamas on August 11 . It intensified as it moved north @-@ northwestward , becoming a hurricane by the next day , and reaching peak winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) just south of Cape Hatteras on August 13 . Barbara moved over the Outer Banks , passing between Morehead City and Ocracoke , and it turned and accelerated to the northeast . Steadily weakening and losing tropical characteristics , the hurricane transitioned into an extratropical cyclone late on August 15 . It turned northward , crossing eastern Nova Scotia and dissipating over Labrador on August 16 .
Before Barbara struck the Outer Banks , officials ordered evacuations for a few islands , and several thousand tourists voluntarily left the region . Wind gusts reached 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) at Hatteras and Nags Head . Torrential rainfall fell across the state and extended northward into Virginia , peaking at 11 @.@ 1 in ( 280 mm ) near Onley along the Eastern Shore of Virginia . Across the region , the hurricane left flooding and downed trees , some of which survived the Great Atlantic Hurricane of 1944 . Monetary damage from Barbara was estimated around $ 1 @.@ 3 million ( 1953 USD , $ 11 @.@ 5 million 2016 USD ) , mostly from the crop damage . Newspaper reports indicated there were seven deaths in the country ; two additional deaths occurred offshore Atlantic Canada when a dory sunk .
= = = Hurricane Carol = = =
On August 28 , a tropical wave developed into a tropical depression near Cape Verde . After moving west @-@ southwestward , it turned to the northwest , intensifying into a tropical storm on August 31 and into a hurricane on September 2 . Passing northeast of the Lesser Antilles , Carol rapidly intensified to Category 5 intensity , reaching peak winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) on September 3 , making it the strongest hurricane of the season . It gradually weakened , bypassing Bermuda on September 6 and producing high waves . Carol later turned to the north @-@ northeast , brushing Cape Cod and causing boating accidents across New England . Four people were killed in the region . Fishing losses totaled around $ 1 million ( 1953 USD , $ 8 @.@ 84 million 2016 USD ) .
After bypassing New England , Carol brushed western Nova Scotia before moving ashore near Saint John , New Brunswick as a minimal hurricane . As it moved ashore , it produced hurricane conditions in eastern Maine , one of only six Atlantic hurricanes to do so . In Nova Scotia , several boats were wrecked or washed ashore , with one drowning death reported . High seas caused coastal flooding , while strong winds downed large areas of trees . Heavy losses to the apple crop occurred in Annapolis Valley , totaling $ 1 million ( 1950 CAD , $ 9 @.@ 15 million 2016 USD ) . Carol later dissipated southwest of Greenland on September 9 .
= = = Tropical Storm Five = = =
On August 29 , a tropical storm developed near Isla de la Juventud , south of the western tip of Cuba . It moved erratically , first quickly northwestward through Cuba , followed by a turn to the east across southern Florida . While moving through the state , the storm dropped heavy rainfall , reaching 4 @.@ 67 in ( 119 mm ) at Fort Lauderdale Beach ; similar rainfall was observed in the northern Bahamas . Although one Weather Bureau forecaster described the system as " wide and flat " , the storm gradually organized over the western Atlantic Ocean . On August 31 , after turning to the northwest , the storm reached peak winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) , although it weakened to a tropical depression before moving ashore near Savannah , Georgia on September 1 . It turned to the north over land , and dissipated over Kentucky on September 3 .
= = = Hurricane Dolly = = =
The origins of Dolly were from a tropical wave that moved through the eastern Caribbean Sea , producing 10 in ( 250 mm ) in Saint Thomas in the U.S. Virgin Islands . The rains closed schools and government buildings around San Juan , Puerto Rico , and flooding was reported in Guayama , Yabucoa , and Patillas . On September 8 , a tropical storm developed north of Puerto Rico , which moved slowly west @-@ southwestward before turning to the north . It quickly intensified , and after Hurricane Hunters reported an eye , Dolly reached hurricane status on September 9 . At that time , hurricane warnings were issued in the Bahamas , although the storm turned away from the archipelago . It intensified to peak winds of 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) on September 10 , as reported by aircraft .
Dolly weakened as it accelerated northeastward , although it still threatened to strike Bermuda with strong winds . As a result , the United States Air Force ordered all of the planes on the island to fly to the mainland . After continued weakening , Dolly passed over the island on September 11 , producing only gale @-@ force winds , rains , and little to no damage . It deteriorated into a tropical storm on September 12 and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone later that day . The remnants of Dolly later turned eastward , dissipating just west of Portugal on September 17 .
= = = Hurricane Edna = = =
Shortly behind Dolly , another tropical wave spawned a tropical depression over the Lesser Antilles on September 15 . As it moved through the region , it produced unsettled conditions across the northeast Caribbean . Dolly quickly intensified as it tracked northwestward , attaining hurricane status on September 15 and peak winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) the next day . After peaking , the hurricane turned to the northeast and maintained most of its intensity for a few days . It passed just north of Bermuda early on September 18 with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) , before beginning a steady weakening trend as it accelerated . By September 19 , Edna completed the transition into an extratropical cyclone , lasting another day before dissipating west of Ireland .
Before Edna struck Bermuda , the islanders were well @-@ prepared due to being previously impacted by hurricanes Carol and Dolly , and they boarded up their homes . The hurricane caused " considerable damage " , with wind gusts reaching 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) . The winds downed trees , blocking roads , and also caused disruptions to the power and water services . During its passage , Edna produced heavy rainfall and also damaged several roofs . There were three injuries on the island .
= = = Tropical Storm Eight = = =
A tropical depression formed in the western Gulf of Mexico on September 14 and moved eastward . The storm produced heavy seas across the region , which damaged two small boats . After turning to the northeast , the storm reached peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) , followed by executing a clockwise loop from September 16 through September 18 . After maintaining peak winds for about five days , the storm weakened , by which time it curved to the northeast . On September 20 , it moved ashore in Taylor County , Florida and later crossed the state . The storm dissipated on September 21 just off the Georgia coast .
= = = Hurricane Florence = = =
Florence developed on September 23 near Jamaica from a tropical wave . While passing that island , it produced heavy rainfall that blocked roads . It intensified to hurricane status on September 24 while passing through the Yucatán Channel , and while doing so left heavy damage in western Cuba . After turning north and entering the Gulf of Mexico , Florence quickly intensified to peak winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . It gradually weakened before making landfall on September 26 as a minimal hurricane in a sparsely populated region of the Florida Panhandle .
Before Florence hit the United States Gulf Coast , about 10 @,@ 000 people evacuated Panama City , Florida , and the Weather Bureau issued timely warnings that was credited in preventing any deaths or major injuries . Winds reached 84 mph ( 135 km / h ) at Eglin Air Force Base , and the heaviest rainfall was 14 @.@ 71 in ( 374 mm ) in Lockhart , Alabama . The combination of winds and heavy rainfall left crop damage in the Florida panhandle and southeastern Alabama , although coastal damage was not severe . Overall , 421 houses were damaged and another three were destroyed , with monetary damage estimated around $ 200 @,@ 000 ( 1953 USD , $ 1 @.@ 77 million 2016 USD ) . After landfall , Florence quickly transitioned into an extratropical cyclone , and as it continued across the southeastern United States it produced moderately heavy rainfall . It dissipated on September 28 southeast of New England .
= = = Hurricane Gail = = =
On October 2 , a tropical wave spawned a tropical depression about 815 mi ( 1310 km ) west @-@ southwest of the Cape Verde islands . The depression quickly intensified into Tropical Storm Gail , and the next day , a ship encountered the storm , reporting a minimum pressure of 986 mbar ( 29 @.@ 12 inHg ) . As the ship crossed through the center , it reported winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , indicating Gail attained hurricane status . Initially believed to have dissipated and reformed as a new unnamed storm on October 5 , in reality Gail continued northwest and then meandered around the central Atlantic before being absorbed by a front on October 12 .
= = = Tropical Storm Eleven = = =
On October 3 , a tropical storm developed near the southern coast of Cuba . It moved northwestward , crossing the island before turning to the northeast . Early on October 5 , the storm brushed southeastern Florida , producing gusty winds and rainfall . The threat of the storm prompted small craft warnings from the Florida Keys through South Carolina . As it accelerated northeastward , the storm strengthened slightly to maximum sustained winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) , before becoming extratropical on October 6 . Two days later , the remnants moved over Atlantic Canada with winds of 70 mph ( 120 km / h ) , producing flooding rainfall that washed out several roads . The storm caused two deaths after it wrecked a boat in Broad Cove , Nova Scotia . Later , the cyclone passed south of Greenland before dissipating southwest of Iceland on October 10 .
= = = Hurricane Hazel = = =
The twelfth tropical storm and the final named storm of the season formed in the Yucatán Channel on October 7 . Given the name Hazel , the storm tracked north @-@ northeastward , then northeastward through the Gulf of Mexico while gradually intensifying . On October 9 , Hazel strengthened into a hurricane made landfall just north of Fort Myers , Florida at its peak intensity of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Peak wind gusts were 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , with a minimum pressure of 987 @.@ 0 mb ( 29 @.@ 15 inHg ) reported in Okeechobee City . The storm crossed the state in about six hours , during which it weakened slightly back to a tropical storm . Over the western Atlantic Ocean , Hazel re @-@ intensified to its peak winds , although by late on October 10 it transitioned into an extratropical storm between North Carolina and Bermuda . The remnants continued northeastward , dissipating southeast of Newfoundland on October 12 . On Sable Island , the storm produced heavy winds and rain .
Due to the fairly light winds across Florida , damage from Hazel was minor , estimated around $ 250 @,@ 000 ( 1953 USD , $ 2 @.@ 21 million 2016 USD ) . During its passage , the storm spawned a tornado in St. James City that destroyed several homes , and there were indications of another tornado in Okeechobee City . The primary impact from Hazel was from its rainfall , peaking at 10 @.@ 53 inches ( 267 mm ) in Daytona Beach . The rains added to previous flooding conditions across the state , causing a record flood stage along the St. Johns River that flooded 6 mi ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) of highway . Overall flooding damage was estimated up to $ 10 million ( 1953 USD , $ 88 @.@ 4 million 2016 USD ) , but it was impossible to determine how much was due to Hazel .
= = = Tropical Storm Thirteen = = =
A tropical storm developed on November 23 about 460 mi ( 740 km ) northeast of Barbuda in the Lesser Antilles . It moved northeastward , strengthening to peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) on November 24 . It later turned sharply to the west as it began a weakening trend , followed by a curve to the north . The cyclone dissipated on November 26 about 450 mi ( 725 km ) east @-@ northeast of Bermuda , without ever affecting land .
= = = Tropical Storm Irene = = =
The final tropical cyclone of the season developed on December 7 about 705 mi ( 1735 km ) east @-@ northeast of the Lesser Antilles as a tropical depression . It tracked generally westward , briefly intensifying into a tropical storm on December 8 . The next day it dissipated about 270 mi ( 435 km ) north of the Lesser Antilles .
= = Storm names = =
These names were used to name storms during the 1953 season . The list was the same for the 1954 season as well . Initially , all female names were used ; it was not until the 1979 season that male and female names were used in alternating order . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray . All storm names were named for the first time . No names were retired .
= I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) =
" I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " is a song written by composer Alan Menken and lyricist David Zippel for Walt Disney Pictures ' 35th animated feature film Hercules ( 1997 ) . Included on the film 's soundtrack , the song is performed by American actress and singer Susan Egan in her role as the film 's heroine Meg , while singers Cheryl Freeman , Lillias White , Vaneese Y. Thomas , LaChanze and Roz Ryan provide girl group @-@ style backup vocals as the Muses . However , only Egan and Freeman are credited as vocalists on the track .
" I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " is a mid @-@ tempo R & B and doo @-@ wop ballad reminiscent of the 1950s that incorporates both Motown and teen pop influences . Stylistically similar to the songs of American girl groups The Ronettes and The Supremes , its lyrics are about denying having romantic feelings for someone and parody those of traditional love songs . In the film 's musical sequence , Meg realizes that she has reluctantly begun to fall in love with Hercules but constantly refuses to admit this , while the Muses insist that she stop denying her true feelings for him and embrace them . " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " was written to replace a slower ballad Menken had originally penned for Meg , entitled " I Can 't Believe My Heart " ; the song was abandoned because Meg 's animator Ken Duncan felt that it was not appropriate for her personality . Menken based " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " on songs he had written for his musical Little Shop of Horrors .
" I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " has been positively received by both film and music critics , who enjoyed its girl group @-@ inspired arrangement , as well as Egan 's sultry delivery and the song 's refreshing difference from traditional Disney ballads ; some critics even dubbed it the film 's best song . While not one of Disney 's most popular songs , " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " has since developed a reputation as one of the studio 's most underrated . American singer Belinda Carlisle recorded a pop rock version of " I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " for the film 's soundtrack . American girl group The Cheetah Girls eventually covered the song in 2005 .
= = Background and context = =
" I Won 't Say ( I 'm in Love ) " was written by composer Alan Menken and lyricist David Zippel . Menken had originally composed a " soaring " ballad entitled " I Can 't Believe My Heart " for Meg to perform , which would have served as a solo for the heroine intended to depict her falling in love with Hercules . However , Meg
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he stole his TARDIS from his own people back in the day . Meanwhile , Christina accidentally awakens several stingrays that had caused the ship to crash in the first place , costing the life of the two Tritovores . Captain Magambo , who has also worked out that the earth is threatened , and that the wormhole is growing in size , orders Malcolm to close the wormhole but he refuses even at gunpoint to sacrifice the Doctor .
The Doctor throws away the crystal and attaches the clamps to the bus 's wheels and steering wheel . He finds the systems are incompatible and convinces Christina to let him use gold from the chalice of Æthelstan to connect the bus to the spaceship technology . The Doctor reveals that the clamps are anti @-@ gravity clamps . This allows the bus to fly through the wormhole , with the stingrays in hot pursuit . Taylor closes the wormhole but three of the stingrays manage to pass through it . After UNIT shoots down the stingrays and the passengers have been debriefed , Christina pleads with the Doctor to let her travel with him , but he refuses because he has no wish to lose another companion .
The characters part ways again . The Doctor recommends that UNIT hire Barclay and Nathan . Christina is arrested by the police for the theft and Carmen has a premonition that visibly unnerves the Doctor :
You be careful , because your song is ending , sir . It is returning , it is returning through the dark . And then Doctor ... oh , but then ... he will knock four times .
As a final act of kindness , the Doctor uses his sonic screwdriver to release Christina from her handcuffs , allowing her to escape in the bus . The pair part on good terms as she flies away and the Doctor leaves in his TARDIS .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and casting = = =
Russell T Davies co @-@ wrote the episode with Gareth Roberts , the first writing partnership for the show since its 2005 revival . " Planet of the Dead " was a departure from Roberts ' usual stories — Roberts had previously only written pseudo @-@ historical stories — and instead consisted of wild science fiction elements from his literary career and teenage imagination . The episode had no clear concept — such as Shakespeare and witches in " The Shakespeare Code " or Agatha Christie and a murder mystery in " The Unicorn and the Wasp " — and instead was a deliberate " clash [ of concepts ] with many disparate elements " . Roberts explained he was cautious to ensure that each element had to " feel precise and defined ... like we meant that " , citing the serial Arc of Infinity as an example where such control was not enforced . The episode includes a common feature of Davies ' writing in that there is no clear antagonist : the Tritovore are eventually sympathetic to the protagonists and the stingrays are only following their biological imperative .
Unlike the Christmas specials , the theme of Easter was not emphasised in the story ; the episode only contained a " fleeting mention " of the holiday instead of " robot bunnies carrying baskets full of deadly egg bombs " . The episode 's tone word — " joyous " — was influenced by Davies ' realisation that " every story since ' The Fires of Pompeii ' [ had ] a bittersweet quality " and his subsequent desire to avoid the recurring theme . The starting point for the story was Roberts ' first novel The Highest Science . Davies liked the image of a train on a desert planet and rewrote the train as a bus . Davies nevertheless emphasised it was not an " adaptation as such " because tangential elements were constantly being conceived and added .
Michelle Ryan 's casting as Lady Christina de Souza was confirmed by the BBC on 23 January 2009 and attracted media attention owing to Ryan 's recent relatively high @-@ profile roles in EastEnders , Jekyll , Bionic Woman and Merlin . Ryan stated that she is " a huge fan of Doctor Who and [ was ] very excited to be joining David Tennant and the Doctor Who team . " Davies commented that " Michelle is one of the most sought after young actors in the country " and that they were " delighted to announce that she [ would ] be joining the team . " Ryan described her casting as a " real honour " , noting that she " love [ s ] the character " .
Ryan was rumoured to be in line for a role as full @-@ time companion to the incoming Eleventh Doctor ( Matt Smith ) and her casting in " Planet of the Dead " , combined with her previous working history with incoming Executive Producer Steven Moffat - the two working together on Jekyll , fuelled speculation that she might return to Doctor Who accompanying the Eleventh Doctor in Series 5 . Ryan herself has said that she is open for a return to the character , however , stating that she is a commitment phobe at the moment and with regards to her character she views her as " someone who is around for this one @-@ time adventure " . " It had been reported that Ryan auditioned to replace Billie Piper in the companion role when her character , Rose Tyler , left in 2006 , but was unsuccessful . Ryan subsequently stated that this was false .
Ryan was interviewed by BBC News about her role as Lady Christina . Ryan praised her colleagues and the " family atmosphere " on set and described Doctor Who as " really something special to do " . On 9 April 2009 , Ryan guested on Steve Wright in the Afternoon on BBC Radio 2 and on The Justin Lee Collins Show on ITV2 to promote " Planet of the Dead " . After a showing of a trailer for the episode on The Justin Lee Collins Show , Ryan described the " fantastic " time she had filming in Cardiff and in Dubai .
Ryan 's character Lady Christina de Souza is an adrenaline junkie and thief . Christina is a typical Doctor Who companion , Davies electing to draw parallels from the Time Lady Romana rather than new series companion Rose Tyler . Roberts described her as an " adventuress " who is " upper class and glam , suited and booted , and extremely intelligent " which the Doctor could relate to because they both rejected their heritages . The episode 's director James Strong described the character as reverting to a traditional romantic @-@ based companionship — rather than the platonic companionship of Donna Noble ( Catherine Tate ) in the fourth series — while still being a unique companion :
It 's back to basics : she 's probably more of a traditional , romantic kind of Thomas Crown Affair kind of heroine , if you like . [ ... ] It echoes to me of Rose , in that there may be a good old fashioned romantic connection between them . She 's young , she 's beautiful , she 's sexy , but whereas Rose was a very ordinary , normal girl , Lady Christina is a lady , she comes from a very privileged , very elite background . She 's different to any of the companions we 've ever had in that she doesn 't particularly want to get caught up with the Doctor . She 's got her own thing going on , so she 's very much a match for the Doctor and very much an equal . Often in an adventure the Doctor will take control and everyone will do what he says . She 's very much in control – the two of them are in a sparring way , battling against each other to get through this adventure .
Comedian Lee Evans plays Professor Malcolm Taylor , a UNIT scientist devoted to his predecessor , the Doctor . Davies created Evans ' character to serve as a foil for Noma Dumezweni 's pragmatic character Captain Erisa Magambo , who previously appeared in the episode " Turn Left " . Roberts noted after writing the episode that Evans ' character had unintentionally become a " loving " caricature of Doctor Who fandom .
The episode was influenced by several works : Davies described " Planet of the Dead " as " a great big adventure , a little bit Indiana Jones , a little bit Flight of the Phoenix , a little bit Pitch Black . " ; the relationship between the Doctor and Christina was influenced by 1960s films such as Charade and Topkapi , which included Cary Grant and Audrey Hepburn " being witty and sophisticated together , and then running for their lives " ; and the Tritovore were influenced by 1950s and 1970s science fiction B @-@ movies such as The Fly and Davies ' habit of including aliens that were recognisable to the audience as animals from Earth , such as the Judoon . Carmen 's warning evoked memories of the Ood 's warning to the Doctor and Donna in the fourth series episode " Planet of the Ood " . Tennant explained the prophecy meant that the Doctor 's " card [ had become ] marked " and the three specials would thus be darker — characterising " Planet of the Dead " as the " last time the Doctor gets to have any fun " — and that the subject of the prophecy was not the obvious answer :
David Tennant
Really , from this moment on , the Doctor 's card is marked . Because when we come back in " The Waters of Mars " , it 's all become a little bit darker .
Julie Gardner
And as we know , David , he really does knock four times .
Tennant
Yeah , absolutely , and if you think you 've figured out what that means , you 're wrong !
Gardner
But when you do figure it out , it 's a sad day .
= = = Filming = = =
Pre @-@ production on the four specials started on 20 November 2008 — four days before scheduled — because the episode 's overseas filming in Dubai required the extra planning time . Two weeks later , the production team was on a recce for the special and the final draft of the script was completed . The production team examined overseas locations to film the episode because they wanted the scenery to feel " real " and thought that they would be unable to film on a Welsh beach in winter . After examining countries such as Morocco and Tunisia , the production team decided to film in Dubai because the area was more amicable to the filming industry and viable filming locations were nearer to urban areas than other locations .
Production began on 19 January in Wales . The special was the first Doctor Who episode to be filmed in high @-@ definition television resolution . The move to HD had previously been resisted for two major reasons : when the show was revived in 2005 , high @-@ definition television had not been adopted by an adequate portion of the audience to be financially viable ; and special effects were considerably more expensive to create in high @-@ definition than in standard @-@ definition . " Planet of the Dead " was used as a switch to HD because of the show 's reduced schedule in 2009 and because the filming crew had become experienced with the equipment while they were filming Torchwood .
Filming began at the National Museum Cardiff , which doubled for the history museum depicted in the episode 's first scene . To portray the tunnel the bus travelled into , the Queen 's Gate Tunnel of the A4232 road in Butetown was closed for four nights to accommodate filming . The last major piece of filming in Wales took place in the closed Mir ( formerly Alphasteel ) steelworks in Newport , which doubled almost unaltered for the Tritovore spaceship . Scenes set in London 's Oxford Street were filmed at St Mary Street , Cardiff . Filming took place at the peak of the February 2009 Great Britain snowfall , where the sub @-@ zero temperatures slowed filming and had a visible effect on the cast . To accommodate for the adverse conditions , Davies included a line in the script that specified that the Tritovore spaceship cooled as external temperatures increase .
Filming in Dubai took place in mid @-@ February 2009 . Two weeks previously , one of the two 1980 Bristol VR double @-@ decker buses bought for filming had been substantially damaged when a crane accidentally dropped a container in Dubai City Port . After an emergency discussion by the production team , they agreed that the damage was unintentionally artistic and decided to include the damaged bus in the episode ; instead of shipping the spare bus from Cardiff — which would have delayed the already hurried filming schedule — the production team decided to partially reconstruct the bus in Dubai , damage the spare bus in Cardiff to match the bus in Dubai , and rewrite part of the script to accommodate and mention the damage to the bus . James Strong recalled the reaction of the production team to the damage to the bus in an issue of Doctor Who Magazine :
One morning in the first week of February , I was leaving my flat when Julie Gardner phoned . She said , " there 's been a little accident with the bus [ ... ] it 's a disaster ; the bus is fucked . " When I got into the office , I was handed a photograph — and my initial reaction was absolute horror . We called an emergency meeting . Russell came in [ ... ] and we discussed our options . We had bought an identical London bus to film on in Cardiff , so could we send that out to Dubai ? We could have got it out in time if it 'd left Cardiff , literally , the next day , but we 'd have had to find a third bus , an exact replica , to film on in Cardiff a week later . It had taken us a month to find the one we had . It was even mooted that we 'd have to forget Dubai and opt for a beach in the UK . But Russell 's response was " Okay , let 's embrace it . Let 's say that the bus was damaged on its way to the alien planet . [ ... ] He wove it into the narrative . We 're not trying to hide the damage at all . In fact , we show it off , enhancing it with special effects , smoke and sparks . It works rather marvellously . That London bus , damaged and smoking , in the middle of the desert — yeah , it looks incredible , especially in gorgeous hi @-@ def .
The damaged bus was not the only problem to filming in Dubai : the first of the three days was afflicted by a sandstorm which left most of the footage shot unusable . The production team then struggled to complete three days of filming in two days ; the last day was compared to " filming Lawrence of Arabia " . To complete the episode 's filming , interior scenes in the bus were filmed in a studio in Wales . To disguise the fact they were using a translite , a 360 @-@ degree background image , Strong utilised often @-@ avoided techniques such as muddied windows and lens flares ; the latter also served to create a warmer environment for the viewer . After filming ended , editing and post @-@ processing took place until two days before transmission , leaving the BBC to resort to using an unfinished copy to market the episode .
= = = 200th story = = =
" Planet of the Dead " was advertised as Doctor Who 's 200th story . Writer Russell T Davies admitted that the designation was arbitrary and debatable , based upon how fans counted the unfinished serial Shada , the season @-@ long fourteen @-@ part serial The Trial of a Time Lord , and the third series finale consisting of " Utopia " , " The Sound of Drums " and " Last of the Time Lords " . Davies personally disagreed about counting The Trial of a Time Lord as one serial — arguing that it " felt like four stories " to him — and grouping " Utopia " with its following episodes , but agreed that it was only an opinion which did not override any others . Gareth Roberts inserted a reference to the landmark — specifically , the bus number is 200 — and Davies emailed the show 's publicity team to advertise the special as such . Doctor Who Magazine 's editor Tom Spilsbury acknowledged the controversy in the magazine 's 407th issue , which ran a reader survey of all 200 stories .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
Overnight figures estimated that the special was watched by 8 @.@ 41 million people , a 39 @.@ 6 % share of the audience . An additional 184 @,@ 000 watched the programme on BBC HD , the channel 's highest rating at that time . The initial showing had an Appreciation Index of 88 : considered excellent . A BBC One repeat , two days later , gained an overnight figure of 1 @.@ 8 million viewers . The special was therefore the second most watched programme of the day , beaten only by the premiere of the new series of Britain 's Got Talent . The final viewing figure for the initial broadcast was 9 @.@ 54 million viewers on BBC One and 200 @,@ 000 viewers on BBC HD , making it the fifth most watched programme of the week and the most watched programme aired on BBC HD at that time . Including repeats in the following week and viewings on the BBC iPlayer , 13 @.@ 89 million viewers watched the episode in total .
The episode received average critical reviews . Simon Brew of science fiction blog Den of Geek said the episode was " by turns ambitious and predictable " but " still quite entertaining " . The first part of the review mentioned an objection from his wife that the bus trapped in the sand " [ looked ] really fake " , despite the episode being actually filmed in Dubai , and then mentioned Brew 's appreciation of the concept of people stranded in the desert and concluded that " made a fair fist of it " . Brew positively reviewed Michelle Ryan 's performance — comparing her performance to be on par to her role in Bionic Woman rather than her role as Zoe Slater in EastEnders — and Lee Evans ' performance as Malcolm Taylor , calling him the highlight of the episode because of his dialogue . He closed his review by saying that " ' Planet of the Dead ' was passable enough " : he thought it " never really gelled " for him ; but he thought it was overall entertaining and was excited for the remaining three specials as a result of Carmen 's prophecy .
Charlie Jane Anders of io9 " mostly loved ' Planet Of The Dead ' " , commenting that it was a standard Russell T Davies script :
POTD was pretty much everything you 've come to expect from Russell T. Davies ' Who : crazy adventures , slightly cartoony characters , clever dialogue , moments of sheer silly fun , a childlike solemnity , a miraculous save , bombastic music , and one woman who 's held up as being the most special person ever .
It didn 't hurt that POTD had all the elements of a cracking good story : The Doctor and friends trapped on an alien planet , on the other side of the universe , with no easy way to get home . Alien creatures who might be hostile . A deadly swarm coming to tear our heroes apart . And UNIT on the other side of the wormhole , trying to come to grips with this almost unimaginable threat .
She compared it to two previous episodes , " The Impossible Planet " and " Midnight " , both of which she enjoyed . She criticised three aspects of the episode : Lady Christina , who was the " first [ Russell T Davies ] heroine who actually filled [ her ] with revulsion " , leaving her hoping that the character would be killed off @-@ screen , Malcolm 's reluctance to close the wormhole and the implausibility of only three stingrays travelling through it . She thought that the episode was " a pretty solid adventure with a cool set of monsters " .
Ben Rawson @-@ Jones of entertainment website Digital Spy gave the episode two stars out of five . He characterised the episode as being " as hollow as a big chocolate Easter egg " because it was " lacking in the enthralling drama and compelling characterisation that has been the lynchpin of the Russell T Davies era " . His main criticism was towards Ryan 's character , describing the romantic tension between Christina and the Doctor as " feeling forced " and arguing that Ryan was " utterly unconvincing " as Christina . Conversely , he was appreciative of Strong 's direction and the UNIT subplot . Specifically , he approved of Evans ' performance , noting that " the fact that Malcolm names a unit of measurement after himself is both inspired and hilarious " . His review ended by describing the episode as " lifeless for much of the hour " and expressing his hope that the ambiguous entity from Carmen 's premonition would " hurry up " .
Orlando Parfitt of IGN gave the episode a 7 @.@ 1 ( Good ) rating out of ten . Parfitt called it a " straightforward story " that did not elevate to the level of excitement typically seen in Doctor Who until the episode 's climax , instead describing the majority of the story as being " taken up with Tennant and Ryan standing in the desert , swapping flirtatious banter in between proclaiming how dire their situation is " , and criticised the writing of the part of the episode where the bus was on San Helios , claiming that plot devices such as the Tritovore or Taylor being held at gunpoint and ordered to close the wormhole as " feel [ ing ] forced and unnaturally shoe @-@ horned into the script " . His praise of the episode went to Ryan and Evans : although he thought of Christina as a " shameless Lara Croft ripoff " , he said that the character " still proves a sexy and wise @-@ cracking counterpart to the Doctor " ; and Evans ' acting alongside Dumezweni highlighted his " undeniably great comic acting " as opposed to his " love @-@ it @-@ or @-@ hate @-@ it " stand @-@ up comedy . The last paragraph of his review focused on the climax , which he thought was " a cracker [ that ] just @-@ about makes up for the previously plodding plot " , and described the entire episode as having " enough enjoyable moments " to entertain fans before the transmission of " The Waters of Mars " .
" Planet of the Dead " was nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form , but lost to " The Waters of Mars " .
= = = International broadcast = = =
The special aired in Canada in July on Space , and in the US on BBC America on 26 July 2009 . In Australia , the Special aired 31 May 2009 , on ABC1 . In South Africa , the Special aired on 18 October 2010 , on BBC Entertainment .
= = Soundtrack = =
Selected pieces of score from this special , as composed by Murray Gold , were included in the specials soundtrack on 4 October 2010 , released by Silva Screen Records .
= = = Filming locations = = =
= Tropical Storm Haishen ( 2008 ) =
Tropical Storm Haishen was the twentieth officially recognized tropical storm of the 2008 Pacific typhoon season . The tropical depression that was to become Tropical Storm Haishen formed late on November 14 , as a minor tropical depression to the south of the Ogasawara Islands , however the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) did not start issuing advisories on it until early the next day . As the JMA were starting to issue advisories on the minor tropical depression , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) reported that it was not expected to become a significant tropical cyclone within 24 hours as they anaylised the depression as subtropical . During that afternoon the JMA upgraded the depression to a full tropical depression while the JTWC issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert on the developing depression as it had become Tropical . That evening , the JMA reported that the depression had become a tropical storm and named it as Haishen while the JTWC designated Haishen as Tropical Depression 25W . Early on November 16 , the JTWC upgraded the depression to a tropical storm and then both the JMA and the JTWC declared it had reached its peak intensity with winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) . At this time , the JTWC reported that there were signs in satellite imagery that Haishen had started its extratropical transition and then issued their final advisory 12 hours later . The JMA continued to issue advisories on Haishen for another 24 hours , when they declared that Haishen had become an extratropical low . The extratropical low then raced across the Pacific Ocean and crossed the International Dateline later that day . There were no casualties or Impact reported from Haishen as it remained out to sea throughout its life .
= = Meteorological history = =
On November 14 , the JMA reported that a minor tropical depression had formed 490 km ( 300 mi ) to the southeast of Iwo To , despite the JTWC noting the tropical cyclone formation was unlikely within the next 24 hours due to lack of deep convection . Later that day , the JMA designated the low as a full tropical depression while later that afternoon as deep convection persisted along the eastern portion of a low level circulation center , indicating the storm developed a fully warm tropical core . Despite increased vertical wind shear , the JTWC issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert on the system . During that evening the JMA upgraded the depression to a tropical storm and named it Haishen whilst , the JTWC designated Haishen as Tropical Depression 25W while it was located 900 km ( 560 mi ) to the east of Iwo To . Early on November 16 , Haishen attained its peak intensity of 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) . Traveling along the north portion of a subtropical ridge to the southeast of the system , dry air began to take toll on the system . The JTWC then issued their final warning later that day as they thought that Haishen was rapidly taking on extratropical characteristics as it had lost most of its deep convection . However , the JMA kept issuing advisories on Haishen for another 24 hours before following suit . The extratropical low of Haishen accelerated towards the International Dateline and crossed into the central Pacific later that day . As an extratropical low , the system briefly reintensified .
= = Preparations , impact and naming = =
As Haishen remained out over open waters for the duration of its existence , there was no impact on any land @-@ masses .
The name Haishen was submitted to the World Meteorological Organisation 's Typhoon Committee by the People 's Republic of China and was one of the original names submitted for use from January 1 , 2000 . The name Haishen is Chinese for the God of the sea and was last used in the 2002 Pacific typhoon season .
= Louis Riel ( comics ) =
Louis Riel is a historical biography in comics by Canadian cartoonist Chester Brown , published as a book in 2003 after serializion in 1999 – 2003 . The story deals with Métis rebel leader Louis Riel 's antagonistic relationship with the newly established Canadian government . It begins shortly before the 1869 Red River Rebellion , and ends with Riel 's 1885 hanging for high treason . The book explores Riel 's possible schizophrenia — he believed God had named him Prophet of the New World , destined to lead the Métis people to freedom .
The work is noted for its emotional disengagement , its intentionally flat dialogue , and a minimalist drawing style inspired by that of Harold Gray 's comic strip Little Orphan Annie . Unusual for comics of the time , it includes a full scholarly apparatus : a foreword , index , bibliography , and end notes . The lengthy , hand @-@ lettered appendix provides insight into Brown 's creative process and biases and highlights where he changed historical facts to create a more engaging story , such as incorporating a conspiracy theory not widely accepted by historians . Brown became interested in the issue of property rights while researching the book , which led to a public change in his politics from anarchism to libertarianism .
Although Brown intended it to be published only in book form , his publisher had him first serialize Louis Riel as a comic book , which lasted ten issues . The series was the first comic book to receive a grant from the Canada Council for the Arts . It won a favourable critical reception and three Harvey Awards . The serialization sold poorly , but the book version was a surprise bestseller . Its success played a major part in gaining shelf space for serious graphic novels in mainstream North American bookstores .
= = Overview = =
Subtitled " A Comic @-@ Strip Biography " , Louis Riel looks at Métis rebel leader Louis Riel and his leadership in the Red River and North @-@ West rebellions . It does not attempt a complete retelling of Riel 's life — it omits long periods and ignores many aspects of his personality . Instead the focus is on his " antagonistic relationship with the Canadian government " from 1869 to 1885 . The story comprises 241 pages of the 271 @-@ page book , and is supplemented with a complete scholarly apparatus : a foreword , bibliography , index , map section and extensive end notes . It has strong historiographical elements , detailing in the appendix the research done and choices made by the author in developing a story .
Brown grew up in the Canadian province of Quebec , where the majority speaks French , and where Riel is often considered a martyr . However Brown , who grew up speaking only English , said he was largely ignorant of Riel 's story until he read Maggie Siggins ' 1994 biography Louis Riel : A Life of Revolution . Many of Brown 's favourite topics are entwined in Louis Riel : anti @-@ authoritarianism , outsider religion , insanity , and accuracy and objectivity in nonfiction . A central incident in the book is an eight @-@ panel sequence in which Riel has a revelatory experience on a hilltop in Washington , D.C. He experiences visions and talks to God , who declares him Prophet of the New World and instructs him to lead his people to freedom . On the cover of the book , however , we see Riel standing alone in the wilderness , staring into the sky , leaving open the question of whether what he witnessed was real .
= = Background = =
In 1995 , Brown published the anti @-@ psychiatry comics essay " My Mom was a Schizophrenic " , in which he examines society 's role in mental illness , and questions the medical profession 's accepted beliefs about it . The six @-@ page strip came with two pages of end notes gathered from his research . Brown enjoyed this project and thought he would like to take on another in which he could " cram a lot of research into a comic strip " . When he came across Siggins ' biography of Riel , he had been working on the experimental Underwater series , a project on which he felt he had lost his way . His father died in late 1997 , and he decided he did not " want to waste [ his ] time with projects that weren 't working out " . In 1998 , he turned his attention to Riel , putting the unpopular Underwater series on hold .
While researching , Brown came across two books by political scientist Tom Flanagan : Louis " David " Riel : " Prophet of the New World " ( 1996 ) and Louis Riel and the Rebellion : 1885 Reconsidered ( 2000 ) . Brown found " Prophet of the New World " particularly intriguing as it dealt with Riel 's religious ideas while reevaluating his alleged diagnosis of mental illness , two topics Brown had especial interest in , as he had previously made " eccentric " adaptations of the Gospel , and comics dealing with his mother 's schizophrenia . He also came across books by researcher Don McLean and historian Douglas N. Sprague that advanced the conspiracy theory that the 1885 North @-@ West Rebellion was deliberately provoked by Prime Minister John A. Macdonald to gain support for the building of the transcontinental railway .
Brown had gained a reputation for improvised storytelling by the time he began work on Louis Riel . With Underwater , he had intended to write a script , but in the end chose to improvise . He found the results unsatisfactory , and decided to write a full script beforehand for his next project . The script for Louis Riel came to over 200 pages .
Brown 's was not the first depiction of the Métis leader in comics . James Simpkins , a Canadian cartoonist best known for Jasper the Bear , made a mildly anti @-@ Riel two @-@ page strip in 1967 , and Pierre Dupuis produced a French @-@ language two @-@ page summary in 1979 . A 23 @-@ page pro @-@ Riel strip appeared in Canadian History Comic Book No. 2 : Rebellion in 1972 . In 1980 , Italian artist Hugo Pratt created a character called Jesuit Joe who was supposed to have descended from Riel . Publishing house Les Éditions des Plaines published two books on Riel : Robert Freynet 's 58 @-@ page Louis Riel en bande dessinée ( " Louis Riel in Comics " ) in 1990 , and Zoran and Toufik 's Louis Riel , le père du Manitoba ( " Louis Riel , the Father of Manitoba " ) in 1996 , both in French . Riel also played a secondary role in the 1995 comic album Le crépuscule des Bois @-@ Brûlés ( " The Twilight of Bois @-@ Brûlés " ) .
= = Plot = =
The government of the new Dominion of Canada ( established 1867 ) , under Prime Minister John A. Macdonald , has made a deal with the Hudson 's Bay Company to purchase Rupert 's Land — vast tracts of land in northern North America . The French @-@ speaking Métis — people who are half Native , half white , and inhabit parts of Rupert 's Land — dispute that their land can be sold to the Canadians without their consent . In the Red River settlement , the Métis , led by Louis Riel , dodge political manoeuverings on the part of Lieutenant Governor William McDougall and some of the English @-@ speaking settlers , while seizing Fort Garry . After an armed standoff at English @-@ speaking settler John Schultz 's home , the Métis declare a provisional government and vote Riel their president , with an even number of French and English representatives . Schultz escapes from prison and rounds up a number of men with the intention of freeing the prisoners from Fort Garry , but when Riel lets the prisoners go , Schultz 's men set out for home . On the way , a number of them pass Fort Garry , where they are captured and imprisoned . One of the prisoners , Thomas Scott , relentlessly quarrels with the guards , showering them with racial epithets . Eventually , the provisional government convicts him of treason and executes him by firing squad . The remaining prisoners are released , and the provisional government enters into negotiations with Ottawa , which results in the founding of the province of Manitoba . They are unable to get an amnesty for the execution of Scott , however . The Canadian army arrives , ostensibly to keep the peace . Riel flees to the U.S. , and the anglophone population assumes governance .
Schultz takes control of Manitoba , and the government of Ontario offers a cash reward for Riel 's capture , dead or alive . Macdonald secretly sends Riel money to disappear , as his death would lose him votes in Quebec but allowing him to live would cost him votes in English Canada . Riel flees from town to town in the U.S. as bounty hunters try to track him down . In 1873 , he returns to the Manitoba and wins a seat in the federal Parliament in a by @-@ election . He fears actually sitting in parliament because there is still a bounty on his head , and continues to live in hiding . In 1874 , he wins his seat again . Schultz wins a seat in the settlement as well , however , and Alexander Mackenzie has become Prime Minister , running on promises not to grant the rebels an amnesty . Riel is expelled from Parliament for failing to sit , but wins his seat again in the next by @-@ election . The frustrated government finally extends an amnesty to the rebels — all except Riel , whose amnesty is conditional on a five @-@ year banishment from Canada . During his exile , he has a visionary experience on a hilltop in Washington , D.C. , in which God names him David , the Prophet of the New World , and tells him to lead the Métis to freedom . In 1876 , Riel is secretly committed by a friend to a lunatic asylum near Montréal under a false name .
Over the next several years , the Métis , unhappy with the Canadian government 's handling of their land rights , move farther west across the Prairies . There as well , they see their petitions to the government repeatedly ignored and their rights trampled on . Finally , after being ignored for too long , the Métis search for Riel in Montana , in the hope that his return will force the Canadians to take their claims seriously . He is reluctant at first , as he has started a family and settled down as a schoolmaster . In the hopes that he will get money from the Canadian government for his tenure administering the Red River settlement ( by this time known as Winnipeg ) , he moves his family to Batoche ( now in Saskatchewan ) in mid @-@ 1884 . Macdonald has returned to the prime ministership and conspires with George Stephen , president of the financially burdened Canadian Pacific Railway , to use the situation to gain support for finishing the railway . By inciting a violent revolt amongst the Métis , the government can justify funding the railway to move troops to the Prairies . The Métis under Riel respond with arms as intended . Riel declares " Rome has fallen ! " and breaks from the Catholic Church . He breathes the Holy Spirit into his followers , thereafter known as the Exovedate . Tensions build until the bloodshed at the Battle of Duck Lake , where Riel and his followers drive back the North @-@ West Mounted Police . Macdonald takes this as a cue to send two thousand troops to the area . At the Battle of Fish Creek , the outnumbered Métis manage to drive back the Canadians , but at the Battle of Batoche , while Riel is increasingly immersed in religious activities , the Métis finally suffer defeat . In the hope that his trial will provide an opportunity to get the Métis ' story to the public , Riel surrenders instead of fleeing .
In July 1885 , Riel is put on trial in Regina for his role as leader in the North @-@ West Rebellion . Against his will , Riel 's lawyer tries unsuccessfully to defend him on grounds of insanity . He is found guilty of high treason . Though the jury pleads for mercy , he is sentenced to hang . In response to the pleas of Quebeckers to pardon Riel , Macdonald responds , " He shall hang though every dog in Quebec bark in his favour " . After reconciling himself with the Church , Riel is hanged in Regina on 16 November 1885 . In the aftermath , the remaining rebels receive a pardon , Macdonald and Stephen continue in their success , and Riel 's wife dies .
= = Primary characters = =
= = = Louis Riel = = =
Riel ( 1844 – 85 ) was a French @-@ speaking Métis politician from a devoutly Catholic background . He founded and named the Province of Manitoba ( a Cree word meaning " the god that speaks " ) . He led the two Métis rebellions against the Canadian government : the Red River Rebellion of 1869 – 70 and the North @-@ West Rebellion of 1885 . Following the latter , he was hanged for high treason . Riel remains an ambiguous and controversial figure in Canadian history , and Brown 's depiction maintains that ambiguity .
Riel is depicted as charismatic . He is Montréal @-@ educated and speaks English , which makes him a natural leader to the Métis , though his leadership is flawed — he ignores the military advice of his peers in battle , placing his faith in God that the Métis will defeat the Canadians . Brown depicts him as having a messianic complex and possibly having schizophrenia . He is unsure of himself , averse to bloodshed , and easily convinced to flee to the U.S. to avoid capture .
= = = John A. Macdonald = = =
Macdonald ( 1815 – 91 ) was the first Prime Minister of Canada , in office 1867 – 73 , and again 1878 – 91 . Brown depicts the Prime Minister in the role of scheming villain and caricatures his features in an absurd manner , giving him an extremely oversized nose and showing him as a drunk . He is a man of ambitions and will not let anyone stand in the way of his legacy . In the appendix , however , Brown discloses that he does not see Macdonald as the villain he has portrayed in the book . Brown 's distrust of big government leads him to push the conspiracy theory side of the story to Macdonald 's detriment , but , in the end , he states that he " would rather have lived in a state run by John A. Macdonald than one run by Louis Riel " .
= = Style = =
" My ... one goal was to make the artwork look as much as the artwork in Little Orphan Annie as possible , I was trying to draw like Harold Gray "
Louis Riel is noted for its emotional restraint , and intentionally flat and expository dialogue . To critic Rich Kreiner the book " has been rigorously scrubbed of staged drama and crowd @-@ pleasing effects " . It avoids manipulation of the reader by invoking sympathy or sentiment . Brown takes a distanced approach and relies faithfully on his source material — he focuses on the concrete and corporeal and eschews techniques of speculation such as thought balloons . This includes his presentation of Riel 's mystical experiences , which Brown presents plainly and without interpretation of its reality or lack thereof .
The book makes frequent deliberate use of silent panels , focused on imagery with the narrative moved forward by the characters ' actions . Riel 's " despairs over the decisions he makes " are expressed through pictures , as Brown had come to believe that historical comics had been too " narration @-@ heavy " . He wanted Louis Riel " to show what the medium is capable of " , and made use of greater panel @-@ to @-@ panel continuity . While the grid of panels gives a feeling of page symmetry , the pages are not composed as a unit — scenes change anywhere on the page with little regard to page layout .
Printed on yellowish paper , each page conforms strictly to a rhythmic six @-@ panel grid , in contrast to the free placement of panels that characterized Brown 's autobiographical period . Tone and mood are set by the composition of the panels , as during Riel 's trial when all tonal variation is dropped , and the white figures are placed against a heavy black background , which emphasizes the claustrophobic atmosphere .
Brown makes the language barriers that separate the characters visual by having Riel drop the letter " h " in his dialogue ( e.g. " over t 'e last several days " ) and by putting French @-@ language dialogue in ⟨ chevron brackets ⟩ and Cree language dialogue in ⟨ ⟨ double @-@ chevrons ⟩ ⟩ . He shows Riel , who was an educated and sophisticated speaker of French , struggling with English . These touches emphasize that English was not yet a dominant language in the regions in which the story unfolds . Brown uses consistent semantics in his speech balloons ; the size and weight of the dialogue varies according to speech patterns , and sound effects vary according to how close they are to the reader .
Brown 's drawing style had always changed from project to project . He frequently cited Harold Gray of Little Orphan Annie as the primary influence on the drawing style of Louis Riel — restrained artwork which avoids extreme closeups , and blank @-@ eyed characters with large bodies , small heads , and oversized noses . Gray 's drawing and compositional style was well suited to the subject of Louis Riel . Gray often used his strip as a public platform for politics , and Louis Riel was also very public and outward @-@ looking . This approach is in great contrast to the inward @-@ looking comics Brown had previously been known for — notably his autobiographical work . His cross @-@ hatching style was reminiscent of the editorial cartoonists of Riel 's time . Gray 's outdoor scenes were inspired by the Illinois plains of Gray 's youth , terrain similar to that of Manitoba and Saskatchewan .
Brown also acknowledges significant debts to Jack Jackson 's historical comics , Hergé 's The Adventures of Tintin , and the extremely exaggerated style of Larry Gonick 's Cartoon History of the Universe . He says he referred to Jack Hamm 's How to Draw Animals when drawing the horses that appear frequently throughout the book , which were rendered running with their legs splayed , as an artist may have depicted them in the days before the influence of Eadweard Muybridge 's photographs of bodies in motion . Brown drew each of the 1325 panels separately on watercolour paper on a block of wood he placed on his lap in lieu of a drawing table , which allowed him seamlessly to rearrange , insert , and delete panels as he saw fit . The drawings were finished using both a thin ink brush ( no larger than size 0 ) and dip pen with a Hunt 102 nib and black ink .
= = = Appendices = = =
When he began Louis Riel , Brown had increasingly been making use of notes and appendices in his work , beginning with his researching and annotating the 1994 comics essay , " My Mom was a Schizophrenic " . He added appendices to the 1998 collection of short strips , The Little Man , and the 2002 reprinting of I Never Liked You . In Louis Riel , the appendix totalled 23 pages , along with a bibliography and an index . Alan Moore 's use of extensive end notes in his and Eddie Campbell 's From Hell , another fictional reconstruction of a historical event , influenced Brown 's appendices . In the comics essay " Dance of the Gull Catchers " which closes the From Hell appendices , Moore metaphorically reveals to the reader the myriad choices he could have made from the available historical evidence when putting together his version of the Jack the Ripper story .
Allowing him to " tell the best story and tell the truth " , Brown 's notes were self @-@ reflexive , and drew attention to the artistic choices he made when putting together the book . Brown makes explicit the inaccuracies in the book , as when he realized his drawings of William McDougall did not match up with descriptions of him by biographers as a " portly " and " heavily built man " . Brown chose not to redraw McDougall 's scenes , deciding he " could live with that level of inaccuracy " . He also admits that he deliberately changed some of the historical details , as when he has Prime Minister Macdonald in talks with the Hudson 's Bay Company in London — Macdonald was not in London at that time and did not directly participate in the negotiations . In other instances , Brown noted where he paid special care to historical details : the dialogue of Riel 's trial comes directly from court transcripts . Brown makes clear in his notes the amount of research undertaken for the book , emphasizing both its authenticity and his desire to show the different aspects of Riel 's ambiguous story . Many of his changes were made for space considerations , as he intended to limit the book to about two hundred pages .
The notes range from nearly insignificant details to major discrepancies and deliberate distortions . They have a self @-@ deprecatory tone that is common in North American comics , tracing its roots to the awkwardly self @-@ aware underground comix of the 1960s and 1970s . They also reveal Brown 's process in shaping the story from conflicting sources . He acknowledges some of the more capricious details . He explains he was not committed to the conspiracy theory he presented , but included it in order to present Macdonald in a certain light : " [ V ] illains are fun in a story " , he said , and he was " trying to tell this tale in an engaging manner " . He also included a " Major @-@ General Thomas Bland Strange " in an 1885 meeting at which the general was not actually present . Brown explains that he included Strange because he was amused by the Major @-@ General 's name .
= = Publication history = =
Brown originally meant Louis Riel to be published in book form , but his publisher , Chris Oliveros , convinced him to serialize it first . Drawn and Quarterly published the ten comic @-@ book instalments from 1999 until 2003 . Brown was granted CA $ 6000 by the Canadian Council for the Arts in 2001 to assist in its completion . The full volume appeared in hardcover in 2003 and softcover in 2006 . The book sold out its first printing in two months , went through multiple printings , and had sold fifty thousand copies by the beginning of 2011 . The original serialization sold poorly , which made the book 's success a surprise .
The comic book and the collection both came with an extensive appendix , and the collection came with a bibliography and an index , all hand @-@ lettered by Brown . The collection 's appendix came to 22 pages .
In the original serialization , as the series progressed the influence of Harold Gray became stronger . The characters ' heads became smaller while their bodies and hands grew larger , with Riel appearing " like the Hulk in a wool suit " after his hilltop religious revelation . Brown redrew many of the earlier drawings to make them consistent with the later ones in the collected edition . He added backgrounds , redrew , added or deleted panels to improve page rhythms or make chapter divisions cleaner , and reshaped or relettered word ballons . Dialogue remained intact for the most part , although the slur " frog " for the French @-@ speaking Métis was replaced with " half @-@ breed " .
In 2012 , Drawn and Quarterly first began offering comics in e @-@ book format , prompted in part by Brown . His Louis Riel and Paying for It were the first two books made available , though Brown is a print @-@ lover who professes little interest in e @-@ books , or computers in general . The non @-@ exclusive deal was made with Toronto @-@ based Kobo Inc . A tenth @-@ anniversary edition in 2013 included sketches and other supplemental material .
French and Italian editions appeared in 2004 — the Italian from Coconino Press and the French from the Belgian publisher Casterman . To appeal to francophones in Europe , where Riel is not well known , Casterman had the book titled Louis Riel : l 'insurgé ( " Louis Riel : Rebel " ) . The Montreal @-@ based publisher La Pastèque obtained the rights to the book and re @-@ released it as Louis Riel with a different cover in 2012 .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Though not the first work of biography in comics , Louis Riel was the first completed of its length and depth . The book sold well , and became the first graphic novel to reach Canada 's non @-@ fiction bestseller list . A critical and commercial success , it was especially popular with libraries and schools . Comics academic Jeet Heer states that it has perhaps sold more copies in Canada than any other graphic novel . Publishers Weekly called it " a strong contender for the best graphic novel ever " , Time magazine included it in its annual Best Comix list in 2003 , and , in 2009 , the Toronto Star placed it on its list of the ten best books of " The Century So Far " . It is regularly cited as being at the forefront of a trend in historical graphic novels , along with Art Spiegelman 's Maus and Marjane Satrapi 's Persepolis .
Especially in Canada , Louis Riel brought Brown out of the fringes into the mainstream , and also attracted more serious attention to graphic novels . It was the first work of comics to receive a grant from the Canada Council for the Arts ( although Brown 's libertarian politics have led him to condemn the government for handing out grants ) , and helped pave the way for the Council 's special category for graphic novels . The book was optioned for a movie by Bruce McDonald and another film director , though the project never started filming .
Researching Riel had a significant impact on Brown 's thinking . When he started the book , he considered himself an anarchist . His intention was to write an anti @-@ government book , and had a bias in Riel 's favour — despite what Brown considered Riel 's own political conservatism — as Riel opposed the government . Over the course of drawing the book , he came to sympathize more with Macdonald . His reading led him in 1998 to The Noblest Triumph : Property and Prosperity Through the Ages by Tom Bethell , which led him change his own politics to favour libertarianism . He later ran for parliament as representative of the Libertarian Party of Canada , to the dismay of his friends . At one point , after Brown had started drawing the book , he tried to rewrite the script to reflect his changed perspective , but found it too difficult and stayed with the original script . He revealed his new beliefs only in the appendix .
Reviewer Dennis Duffy commended Brown 's research , but stated Brown " often cheats " in assigning forethought to Macdonalds action unattested in historical documents . Critic Rich Kreiner found that Brown 's disengaged approach to Louis Riel invited a reader @-@ response approach to reading it . As an example , it was the impetus for an in @-@ depth , three @-@ part interview conducted by Dave Sim in the pages of his comic book Cerebus , which Sim uses as an opportunity to apply his own indiosyncratic views to an interpretation of events in Brown 's book .
= = Adaptations = =
The Montreal @-@ based RustWerk ReFinery using puppetry adaptated the book as Louis Riel : A Comic @-@ Strip Stage Play . It was set to début in early 2016 .
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= Threes =
Threes ! is an indie puzzle video game by Sirvo , an independent development team consisting of game designer Asher Vollmer , illustrator Greg Wohlwend , and composer Jimmy Hinson . The game was released on February 6 , 2014 , for iOS devices and later ported to Android , Xbox One , and Windows Phone . In Threes , the player slides numbered tiles on a grid to combine addends and multiples of three . The game ends when there are no moves left on the grid and the tiles are counted for a final score .
The basic game was prototyped in a single night , but the team spent over half a year iterating through variations on the idea with visual themes such as sushi and chess . By the end of the game 's 14 @-@ month development , the team returned to the game 's simple principles and numbers theme .
The game received what video game review score aggregator Metacritic described as " universal acclaim " . Reviewers found the game " charming " and " addictive " and compared it to Drop7 , Stickets , and Triple Town . Eurogamer and TouchArcade awarded the game perfect scores , with the latter calling Threes " about as close as it gets to a perfect mobile game " . Other developers released similar games and clones within weeks of the game 's launch . Apple Inc. named Threes the best iPhone game of 2014 .
= = Gameplay = =
The player slides numbered tiles on a four @-@ by @-@ four grid to combine addends and multiples of three . For example , ones and twos merge to become a single " three " tile , two threes merge into " six " , and two sixes merge into " 12 " . Swiping the screen up , down , left , or right moves all of the tiles on the grid in that direction and adds a new tile to the grid in the same direction . The color of the incoming tile is shown onscreen . Players can preview moves by sliding the grid without letting go . Each kind of number tile has its own personality , and new kinds of number tiles are introduced with a screen full of confetti when first unlocked .
Games of Threes typically last several minutes and end when no moves remain on the grid ( usually when gridlocked with a single high number tile and many low number tiles ) . When a game is finished , there is no " game over " screen , but players receive a final score based on the rarity of the tiles ( rather than the tile number values ) . The object of the game is to earn a high score . Outside of the game , players can review their scores and set Game Center challenges .
= = Development = =
Threes was conceived by game designer Asher Vollmer , who worked on the game with artist Greg Wohlwend and composer Jimmy Hinson . The three , as Sirvo LLC , had previously collaborated on the 2012 iOS word game Puzzlejuice . Wohlwend had worked on games including Ridiculous Fishing and Hundreds . Threes development began before Ridiculous Fishing 's March 2013 release . Vollmer presented an idea similar to the final product in its simplicity : pair tiles as multiples of three . Vollmer considered Drop7 an inspiration for the game , and played it for two years before making his game . The first Threes prototype was written in a single night . With Wohlwend , the two @-@ man development team spent at least half a year of the game 's 14 @-@ month development iterating on this main idea .
Some of the iterations included new numberless visual themes and new game mechanics such as a monster who ate tiles and a wall that blocked certain movements . Early Threes designs had no inclination towards minimalism : the pair felt that the game needed to appear more complex so as to interest players . Wohlwend sent Vollmer designs including sushi @-@ themed tiles that paired fish and rice , a chess theme that paired chess pieces , themes about animals , broccoli and cheese soup , military insignia , hydrogen atoms , and textile patterns . Their test audiences were confused by the close to two dozen themes tested in total . Vollmer commented that these ideas made the game feel " unwieldy and unnatural " and that he always preferred the game when the changes were reverted . They received a " wake @-@ up call " from fellow game designer Zach Gage , who encouraged them to return from their foray into complexity . The final game returned to its original theme of numbers . Speaking in retrospect , Wohlwend said the game " always wanted to be simple " . He noted that players " think math " upon seeing the game 's numbers , though the game is more about " spatial relationships " and just happens to have a " number theme " .
When returning to the fundamental and original game concept — pairing tiles as multiples of three — the developers felt their experiments informed their final game development decisions . The theme of individual tile personalities extended to the final version , as tiles have faces and express emotions when paired . For example , the 384 tile has a pirate personality with a large tooth and a pirate eyepatch . Wohlwend has said that the number tiles grow in character with their size . The idea for character faces beneath the cards remained from previous theme iterations , and the character voices were provided by indie game developers . Of the development process , Wohlwend called it " tough and frustrating and sometimes hard to see if it was worth it " . Vollmer credited thatgamecompany for teaching him applicable lessons of restraint during his time there .
The game was released by Sirvo for iOS on February 6 , 2014 , and ported by indie developer Hidden Variable Studios for Android on March 12 , 2014 . The team chose to release for iOS first due to the small team 's difficulty testing across Android platforms . Hidden Variable also developed an Xbox One version , which was originally announced at Microsoft 's E3 2014 press conference , and released on December 5 , 2014 . The release supports the console 's " snap mode " ( to play in the corner of the screen while the player watches something else ) as well as online leaderboards and a " night mode " darker palette option . A free Windows Phone version was released on April 27 , 2015 , and a free web browser version in December 2015 . The browser release does not include advertisements , unlike the free smartphone releases . In a post @-@ release infographic , Sirvo wrote that the average game length was 20 minutes , even though they designed the game 's sessions to not last longer than 10 minutes . They also reported that 93 percent of players in China used unlicensed copies of the game .
= = Reception = =
The game received what video game review score aggregator Metacritic described as " universal acclaim " , with a 92 % rating based on 19 reviews . Eurogamer and TouchArcade awarded the game perfect scores , with the latter calling Threes " about as close as it gets to a perfect mobile game " . It was an honorable mention in the 2014 Independent Games Festival 's Excellence in Design category . The game reached the top of the Apple App Store paid app sales chart shortly after its release . Re / code reported that it " dominated " the chart in the following weeks and became one of the 25 highest grossing apps on the App Store . It later won a 2014 Apple Design Award and was named Apple 's best iPhone game of 2014 . Reviewers found the game " charming " and " addictive " . They compared the game with the luck of Drop7 , the challenge of Stickets , and the " match @-@ by @-@ combining " mechanics in Triple Town . Reviewers also praised the simplicity of the tutorial and noted how their attention on combining large number tiles contrasted with their need to watch the board 's movements as a whole .
Ben Kuchera of Polygon wrote that the game was " a brilliant little puzzler " and commented on the difficulty of designing such an accessible minimalist game . Dan Ryckert of Game Informer noted that the game had all of the qualities of a successful mobile game : accessibility of short game sessions , easy to learn and tough to master gameplay , room to make and try strategies , and gameplay mechanics suited for touchscreens . He added that his progressive play strategy adaptations for higher scores made the game joyful . Ars Technica 's Kyle Orland wrote that he expects the game to join Drop7 and Super Hexagon on his phone for the rest of his life and Crypt of the Necrodancer designer Ryan Clark called Threes the best iOS game he had ever played .
Mark Sorrell of Eurogamer compared the game 's " profoundly and offensively banal " aesthetic to a " hipster restaurant " with good food but a smug ambiance , citing the soundtrack 's " whimsy " and the art style 's similarity to iOS game Letterpress . He praised the game 's mechanics . TouchArcade compared the game 's scaffolding mechanics to the turn @-@ based roguelike Hoplite , and The Verge 's Andrew Webster compared the game 's addictive mechanics to Sudoku and its style to Letterpress and Spelltower . Nick Statt of CNET thought the game had Tetris 's beauty and Dots 's visual appeal . He cited the game as an example of " flow " design principles at work , where the game is designed for players to enter a state of focus and self @-@ awareness . Re / code 's Eric Johnson called the game a descendant of Sudoku , Dots , and Rush Hour . Pocket Gamer 's Mark Brown thought the game 's randomness kept its gameplay interesting and MAME creator Nicola Salmoria wrote an artificial intelligence to play the game .
Edge wrote that the game " can feel a little insubstantial " in its lack of gameplay variety , though its " charm and craft " will make players return . They wrote that the soundtrack is cheerful and memorable with an " indie romcom feel " . TouchArcade added that the soundtrack " fits the game perfectly " and recommended playing the game with sound activated so as to hear the tiles ' personalities . CNET thought the music became repetitive , but that the tile voices were " a little creepy " without the soundtrack . Garrett Martin of Paste wrote that he heard the influence of Jon Brion and alluded to Paul Thomas Anderson 's early films . Comparing Threes to Hundreds as the " quirky American cousin " to Hundreds 's " European art film " , Martin found Threes more whimsical in nature and extended Ian Bogost 's statements in The Atlantic about video games as " haute couture ... design objects " to Threes .
= = Legacy = =
Outside developers released clones of Threes within weeks of its release , including a browser @-@ based version , an " unofficial sort @-@ of @-@ knockoff " Android app ( Fives ) , and another iPhone game , 1024 , which advertised itself as " No need to pay for Threes " and was later ported to a browser version . A later clone of 1024 , the fast @-@ paced browser game 2048 , became popular online and spawned " dozens of parodies " . Journalists , including those at the Los Angeles Times , did not acknowledge the game 's connection to Threes . The Threes team was " puzzled " by the popularity of these releases , especially those that did not credit their game for the idea . They criticized 2048 's game design and compared the game as the Commander Keen to their Super Mario Bros. in a 45 @,@ 000 @-@ word post outlining their full 14 @-@ month development process . Gamasutra 's Leigh Alexander described the situation as a " unique tragedy " .
= Bungie =
Bungie , Inc. is an American video game developer located in Bellevue , Washington , United States . The company was established in May 1991 as Bungie Software Products Corporation by University of Chicago undergraduate student Alex Seropian , who later brought in programmer Jason Jones after publishing Jones ' game Minotaur : The Labyrinths of Crete . Originally based in Chicago , Illinois , the company concentrated primarily on Macintosh games during its early years and created two very successful video game franchises called Marathon and Myth . A West Coast offshoot produced the PC and console title Oni .
Microsoft acquired Bungie in 2000 ; the project it was working on was repurposed into a launch title for Microsoft 's Xbox console , called Halo : Combat Evolved . Halo became the Xbox 's " killer application " , selling millions of copies and spawning a billion dollar franchise . On October 5 , 2007 , Bungie announced that it had split from Microsoft and become a privately held independent company , Bungie LLC ( Microsoft retained ownership of the Halo franchise IP ) .
Among Bungie 's side projects are Bungie.net , the company 's official website , which includes company information , forums , and statistics @-@ tracking and integration with many of its games . Bungie.net also serves as the platform from which Bungie sells company @-@ related merchandise out of the Bungie Store and runs other projects , including Bungie Aerospace , its charitable organization , the Bungie Foundation , a podcast , and online publications about game topics . The company is known for its informal and dedicated workplace culture , and recently signed a ten @-@ year publishing deal with Activision . Their first project together was the 2014 first @-@ person shooter , Destiny .
= = History = =
= = = Founding = = =
In the early 1990s , Alex Seropian was pursuing a mathematics degree at the University of Chicago , as the university did not offer undergraduate degrees in computer science . Seropian 's first video game was a Pong clone called Gnop ! ( Pong spelled backwards ) . Seropian released Gnop ! free of charge , though a few players paid Seropian for the source code . Living at home shortly before graduation , his father 's wishes for him to get a job convinced Seropian to start his own game company instead . Seropian founded Bungie in 1991 to publish Operation : Desert Storm . Seropian culled funding from friends and family , assembling the game boxes and writing the disks himself . Operation : Desert Storm sold 2 @,@ 500 copies , and Seropian looked for another game to publish .
Seropian met programmer Jason Jones in an artificial intelligence course at the University of Chicago . Jones was a longtime programmer who was porting a game he wrote , called Minotaur , from an Apple II to the Apple Macintosh platform . Jones recalled , " I didn 't really know [ Alex ] in the class . I think he actually thought I was a dick because I had a fancy computer . " Seropian and Jones partnered to release the role @-@ playing video game as Minotaur : The Labyrinths of Crete in 1992 ; while Jones finished the coding , Seropian handled design and publicity . The game relied on a then @-@ uncommon internet modems and AppleTalk connections for play and sold around 2 @,@ 500 copies , but it developed a devoted following .
The team focused on the Macintosh platform , not Windows @-@ based personal computers , because the Mac market was more open and Jones had been raised on the platform . While Jones was responsible for many of the creative and technical aspects , Seropian was a businessman and marketer . " What I liked about [ Seropian ] was that he never wasted any money , " Jones recalled . With no money to hire other personnel , the two assembled Minotaur boxes by hand in Seropian 's apartment . While the pair remained low on funds — Seropian 's wife was largely supporting him — the modest success of Minotaur gave the duo enough money to develop another project .
Inspired by the shooter game Wolfenstein 3D , Jones wrote a 3D game engine for the Mac . Bungie 's next game was intended to be a 3D port of Minotaur , but Jones and Seropian found that Minotaur 's top @-@ down perspective gameplay did not translate well to the 3D perspective , and did not want to rely on modems . Instead , they developed a new storyline for the first @-@ person shooter that became Pathways into Darkness , released in 1993 . Jones did all the coding , with his friend Colin Brent creating the game 's art . The game was a critical and commercial success , winning awards including Inside Mac Games ' " Adventure Game of the Year " and Macworld 's " Best Role @-@ Playing Game . "
Pathways beat sales expectations and became Bungie 's first commercial success . Bungie moved from a one @-@ bedroom apartment to a studio in Chicago 's South Side on South Halsted Street ; Seropian and Jones 's first full @-@ time employee , Doug Zartman , joined in May 1994 to provide support for Pathways , but became Bungie 's public relations person , honing Bungie 's often sophomoric sense of humor and irreverence . Bungie composer Martin O 'Donnell remembered that the studio 's location , a former girl 's school next to a crack house , " smelled like a frat house after a really long weekend " and reminded staff of a locale from the Silent Hill horror video games .
= = = Marathon , Myth and Oni = = =
Bungie 's next project began as a sequel to Pathways into Darkness , but evolved into a futuristic first person shooter called Marathon . Not only did it introduce the rocket jumping mechanic to gamers for the first time ( then known as " hopping " ) , it was the first control system where players could use the mouse to look up and down as well as pan side @-@ to @-@ side . Pathways had taught Bungie the importance of story in a game , and Marathon featured computer terminals where players could choose to learn more about the game 's fiction . The studio became what one employee termed " your stereotypical vision of a small computer @-@ game company — eating a lot of pizza , drinking a lot of Coke " while the development team worked 14 hours every day for nearly six months .
After showing the game at the Macworld Expo , Bungie was mobbed with interest and orders for the game . The game was not finished until December 14 , 1994 ; Jones and a few other employees spent a day at a warehouse assembling boxes so that some of the orders could be filled before Christmas . The game was a critical and commercial success , and is regarded as a relatively unknown but important part of gaming history . It served as the Mac alternative to DOS PC @-@ only games like Doom and System Shock . The game 's volume of orders was unprecedented for the studio , who found that its old method of mail or phone orders could not scale to the demand and hired another company to handle the tens of thousands of orders . Marathon also brought Bungie attention from press outside the small Mac gaming market .
The first game 's success led to a sequel , Marathon 2 : Durandal . The series introduced several elements , including cooperative mode , which made their way to later Bungie games . The game was released November 24 , 1995 , and outsold its predecessor . When Bungie announced its intention to port the game to the Windows 95 operating system , however , many Mac players felt betrayed , and Bungie received a flood of negative mail . Seropian saw the value of moving into new markets and partnering with larger supply chains , although he lamented the difficult terms and " sucky " contracts distributors provided . The game released on Windows 95 in September 1996 .
Marathon Infinity was released the following year .
After Marathon , Bungie moved away from first @-@ person shooters to release a strategy game , Myth : The Fallen Lords . The games stressed tactical unit management as opposed to the resource gathering model of other combat strategy titles . The Myth games won several awards and spawned a large and active online community . Myth : The Fallen Lords was the first Bungie game to be released simultaneously for both Mac and Windows platforms .
The success of Myth enabled Bungie to change Chicago offices and establish a San Jose , California based branch of the studio , Bungie West , in 1997 . Bungie West 's first and only game would be Oni , an action title for the Mac , PC and PlayStation 2 .
= = = Halo and buyout = = =
In 1999 , Bungie announced its next product , Halo , originally intended to be a third @-@ person shooter game for Windows and Macintosh . Halo 's public unveiling occurred at the Macworld Expo 1999 keynote address by Apple 's then @-@ interim @-@ CEO Steve Jobs ( after a closed @-@ door screening at E3 in 1999 ) .
On June 19 , 2000 , soon after Halo 's preview at Electronic Entertainment Expo 2000 , Microsoft announced that it had acquired Bungie Software and that Bungie would become a part of the Microsoft Game Division under the name Bungie Studios . Halo would be developed as an exclusive , first @-@ person shooter title for the Xbox . The reasons for Bungie accepting Microsoft 's offer were varied . Jones stated that " I don 't remember the details exactly , it was all a blur . We 'd been talking to people for years and years — before we even published Marathon , Activision made a serious offer . But the chance to work on Xbox — the chance to work with a company that took the games seriously . Before that we worried that we 'd get bought by someone who just wanted Mac ports or didn 't have a clue . " Martin O 'Donnell , who had joined Bungie as an employee only ten days before the merger was announced , remembers that the stability of the Xbox as a development platform was not the only benefit . Around the same time , it was discovered that Asian versions of Myth II could entirely erase a player 's hard drive ; the glitch led to a massive recall of the games right before they shipped , which cost Bungie nearly one million dollars . O 'Donnell stated in a Bungie podcast that this recall created some financial uncertainty , although accepting the offer was not something " Bungie had to do . " Seropian and Jones had refused to accept Microsoft 's offer until the entire studio agreed to the buyout .
As a result of the buyout , the rights to Myth and Oni were transferred to Take @-@ Two Interactive as part of the three @-@ way deal between Microsoft , Bungie and Take @-@ Two ; most of the original Oni developers were able to continue working on Oni until its release in 2001 . Halo : Combat Evolved , meanwhile , went on to become a critically acclaimed hit , selling more than 6 @.@ 5 million copies , and becoming the Xbox 's flagship franchise .
Halo 's success led to Bungie creating two sequels . Halo 2 was released on November 9 , 2004 , making more than $ 125 million on release day and setting a record in the entertainment industry . Halo 3 , the final installment in the original Halo trilogy , was released on September 25 , 2007 and surpassed Halo 2 's records , making $ 170 million in its first twenty @-@ four hours of release .
= = = Independent company = = =
On October 1 , 2007 , Microsoft and Bungie announced that Bungie was splitting off from its parent and becoming a privately held limited liability company named Bungie , LLC . As outlined in a deal between the two , Microsoft would retain a minority stake and continue to partner with Bungie on publishing and marketing both Halo and future projects , with the Halo intellectual property belonging to Microsoft .
While Bungie planned on revealing a new game at E3 2008 , Bungie studio head Harold Ryan announced that the unveiling was canceled . Almost three months later , Bungie announced that the new game was a prequel and expansion to Halo 3 titled Halo 3 : Recon . The next month , Bungie changed game 's title from Halo 3 : Recon to Halo 3 : ODST . At E3 2009 , Bungie and Microsoft revealed the company was developing another Halo @-@ related game , Halo : Reach , for release in 2010 . Reach was the last game in the Halo franchise to be developed by Bungie .
Bungie continued expanding , though it did not commit to details about new projects and ship dates . The company grew from roughly 120 employees in May 2008 to 165 in June 2009 , outgrowing the studio Microsoft developed . Ryan helped redesign a former multiplex movie theater in Bellevue into new Bungie offices , with 80 @,@ 000 square feet ( 7 @,@ 400 m2 ) replacing the 41 @,@ 000 square feet ( 3 @,@ 800 m2 ) the company occupied previously .
On April 29 , 2010 , Bungie announced that it was entering into a 10 @-@ year publishing agreement with publisher Activision Blizzard . Under Bungie 's agreement with Activision , new intellectual property developed by Bungie will be owned by Bungie , not Activision , in a deal similar to the EA ( Electronic Arts ) Partners Program .
On June 30 , 2011 , Bungie announced the " Bungie Aerospace " project ( Slogan " Per audacia ad astra " meaning " Boldly to the stars " . ) The project is intended to provide independent game developers with publishing , resources , and support , including access to the Bungie.net platform . On November 18 , 2011 , Bungie Aerospace published its first game , Crimson : Steam Pirates , for iOS , developed by startup video game developer Harebrained Schemes . In addition to publishing and distributing Crimson , Bungie Aerospace also provided players with statistical support and a dedicated discussion forum on Bungie.net.
On February 17 , 2013 , Bungie announced Destiny , which launched for the PlayStation 3 , PlayStation 4 , Xbox 360 , and Xbox One platforms on September 9 , 2014 .
On January 27 , 2016 , Ryan stepped down as president and Pete Parsons , who had been the company 's chief operating officer and executive producer since 2002 , became its chief executive officer .
= = Bungie.net = =
Bungie.net serves as the main official portal for interaction between company staff and the community surrounding Bungie 's games . When Bungie was bought by Microsoft , the site was originally seen as in competition with Microsoft 's own Xbox.com site , but community management eventually won out as the bigger concern . The site has been redesigned several times .
During Bungie 's involvement with the Halo franchise , the site recorded statistics for each game played . This information included statistics on each player in the game , and a map of the game level showing where kills occurred , called " heatmaps . " On January 31 , 2012 , Bungie announced that , as of March 31 , 2012 , Bungie.net would no longer update Halo game statistics and Halo player service records , host new user @-@ generated Halo content , or operate Halo 's " Bungie Pro " service . Bungie 's cessation of these services on March 31 completed the transition process of all data for Halo games being managed by 343 Industries . Currently , Bungie.net records player 's statistics for their game franchise Destiny . In addition to the collection of data and the management of Destiny player 's accounts , the website serves as a form of communication between Bungie and the community .
While Bungie had long provided places for fans to congregate and talk about games , as well as releasing new information and screenshots over Bungie.net , it historically had made less effort and been less successful at providing access to the inside workings of Bungie and its staff . As part of a move to become more familiar with fans , Bungie recruited recognized and respected voices from the fan community , including writers Luke Smith , Eric Osborne , and others . The developer hosts a podcast where staff members are interviewed in a round @-@ table , informal atmosphere .
Bungie also has an iOS and Google Play application that allows stat @-@ tracking for their game Destiny on the go .
= = Culture = =
Martin O 'Donnell described Bungie 's workplace culture as " a slightly irreverent attitude , and not corporate , bureaucratic or business @-@ focused " ; artist Shi Kai Wang noted that when he walked into Bungie for an interview , " I realized that I was the one who was over @-@ dressed , [ and ] I knew this was the place I wanted to work . " Frank O 'Connor comically noted that at a Gamestop conference , the Bungie team was told to wear business casual , to which O 'Connor replied " We [ Bungie ] don 't do business casual . "
This informal , creative culture was one of the reasons Microsoft was interested in acquiring Bungie , although game designer Jordan Weisman said that Microsoft came close to destroying the company 's development culture , as it had with the now @-@ defunct FASA Studio . Studio head Harold Ryan emphasized that even when Bungie was bought by Microsoft , the team was still independent :
One of the first things [ Microsoft ] tried after acquiring Bungie , after first attempting to fully assimilate them , was to move Bungie into a standard Microsoft building with the rest of the game group . But unlike the rest of the teams they 'd brought in previously , Bungie didn 't move into Microsoft corporate offices – we tore all of the walls out of that section of the building and sat in a big open environment . Luckily Alex and Jason [ Seropian and Jones , Bungie 's founders ] were pretty steadfast at the time about staying somewhat separate and isolated .
Microsoft eventually moved the studio to Kirkland , Washington . Despite the move , financial analyst Roger Ehrenberg declared the Bungie @-@ Microsoft marriage " doomed to fail " due to these fundamental differences . Bungie also pointed out that it was tired of new intellectual property being cast aside to work on the Halo franchise . Edge described the typical Bungie employee as " simultaneously irreverent and passionately loyal ; fiercely self @-@ critical ; full of excitement at the company 's achievements , no matter how obscure ; [ and ] recruited from its devoted fanbase . "
The Bungie workplace is highly informal , with new and old staff willing to challenge each other on topics , such as fundamental game elements . Staff are able to publicly criticize their own games and each other . Fostering studio cooperation and competition , Bungie holds events such as the " Bungie Pentathlon " , in which staff square off in teams playing games such as Halo , Pictionary , Dance Dance Revolution , and Rock Band . Bungie also faced off against professional eSports teams and other game studios in Halo during " Humpdays " , with the results of the multiplayer matches being posted on Bungie.net.
Bungie 's staff and fans , known as the " Seventh Column , " have banded together for charity and other causes . After Hurricane Katrina , Bungie was one of several game companies to announce its intention to help those affected by the hurricane , with Bungie donating the proceeds of special T @-@ shirts to the American Red Cross ; after the 2010 Haiti earthquake , Bungie sold " Be a Hero " T @-@ shirts and donated money to the Red Cross for every Halo 3 or ODST player on Xbox Live who wore a special heart @-@ shaped emblem . Other charity work Bungie has done included auctioning off a painting of " Mister Chief " by Frank O 'Connor , a Halo 2 soda machine from Bungie 's offices , and collaborating with Child 's Play auctions . In 2011 , Bungie formed a nonprofit organization , named Bungie Foundation .
= = Developed games = =
= = Related companies = =
Many of Bungie 's employees have left the company to form their own studios . Double Aught was a short @-@ lived company composed of several former Bungie team members , founded by Greg Kirkpatrick . Seropian left to form Wideload Games , creator of Stubbs the Zombie in " Rebel Without a Pulse " . Other companies include Giant Bite , founded by Hamilton Chu ( former lead producer of Bungie Studios ) and Michal Evans ( former Bungie programmer ) , and Certain Affinity , founded by Max Hoberman ( the multiplayer design lead for Halo 2 and Halo 3 ) ; Certain Affinity 's team included former Bungie employees David Bowman and Chad Armstrong ( who later returned to Bungie ) . The company collaborated with Bungie in releasing the last two downloadable maps for Halo 2 and the downloadable Defiant Map Pack for Halo : Reach . 343 Industries , a game studio formed by Microsoft to manage the Halo series following the launch of Halo : Reach , also includes a few former Bungie employees , including former Community Manager Frank O 'Connor . In 2015 , long time ex @-@ Bungie employee Marty O 'Donnell started a new game studio known as Highwire Games .
= 1987 Giro d 'Italia =
The 1987 Giro d 'Italia was a cycling competition and the 70th edition of the race , one of cycling 's Grand Tours . It began on 21 May with a 4 km ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) prologue in San Remo , and concluded on 13 June with a 32 km ( 19 @.@ 9 mi ) individual time trial in Saint @-@ Vincent . A total of 180 riders from 20 teams entered the 22 @-@ stage , 3 @,@ 915 km ( 2 @,@ 433 mi ) -long race , which was won by Irishman Stephen Roche of the Carrera Jeans – Vagabond team . Second and third places were taken by British rider Robert Millar and Dutchman Erik Breukink , respectively . It was the second time in the history of the Giro that the podium was occupied solely by non @-@ Italian riders . Roche 's victory in the 1987 Giro was his first step in completing the Triple Crown of Cycling – winning the Giro d 'Italia , the Tour de France , and the World Championship road race in one calendar year – becoming the second rider ever to do so .
Roche 's teammate and defending champion Roberto Visentini took the first race leader 's maglia rosa ( English : pink jersey ) after winning the opening prologue , only to lose it to Breukink the following stage . Roche took the overall lead after his team , Carrera Jeans – Vagabond , won the stage three team time trial . Visentini regained the lead for a two @-@ day period after the stage 13 individual time trial . The fifteenth stage of the 1987 Giro has been recognized as an iconic event in the history of the race because Roche rode ahead of teammate Visentini , despite orders from the team management , and took the race lead . Roche successfully defended the overall lead from attacks by Visentini and other general classification contenders until the event 's finish in Saint @-@ Vincent .
Stephen Roche became the first Irishman to win the Giro d 'Italia . In addition to the general classification , Roche also won the combination classification . In the other race classifications , Johan van der Velde of Gis Gelati – Jollyscarpe won the points classification , Robert Millar of Panasonic – Isostar took the mountains classification green jersey , and Selca – Conti 's Roberto Conti completed the Giro as the best neo @-@ professional in the general classification , finishing fifteenth overall . Panasonic – Isostar finished as the winners of the team classification , which ranks each of the twenty teams contesting the race by lowest cumulative time .
= = Teams = =
A total of 20 teams were invited to participate in the 1987 Giro d 'Italia . Each team sent a squad of nine riders , which meant that the race started with a peloton of 180 cyclists . The presentation of the teams – where each team 's roster and manager are introduced in front of the media and local dignitaries – took place on 20 May , outside the Casino of San Remo . From the riders that began this edition , 133 completed the race .
The teams entering the race were :
= = Pre @-@ race favorites = =
Reigning champion Roberto Visentini returned to the race in 1987 to defend his crown , despite not winning many races in his spring campaign . Francesco Moser , who won in 1984 and finished in the top three in 1985 and 1986 , did not participate because of a head trauma and bruises sustained in a crash in the weeks prior to the race . Spanish sports newspaper El Mundo Deportivo and Gian Paolo Ormezzano from Italy 's La Stampa named several other riders as contenders for the overall classification , such as Giuseppe Saronni , then @-@ world champion Moreno Argentin , Stephen Roche , and Robert Millar . Since Toshiba – Look team leader Greg LeMond did not participate in the race due to injuries sustained in a hunting accident , El Mundo Deportivo believed Jean @-@ François Bernard to be a dark horse . L 'Unità writer Gino Sala believed Roche , Saronni , and Visentini were the top three challengers for the overall crown , while Ormezzano considered that Argentin , Guido Bontempi , Urs Freuler , and Paolo Rosola all had a great chance to win a stage in the race . Mario Fossati of La Repubblica also thought that Bernard , Bontempi , and Phil Anderson could take a stage win .
There was a strong belief that the race would be a battle between Carrera Jeans – Vagabond teammates Visentini and Roche . El Mundo Deportivo stated that Visentini had the edge in the time trial discipline and sprinting , while Roche had the advantage in climbing mountains . However , unlike Visentini , Roche came into the race in great shape after winning the Tour de Romandie and placing second in the Liège – Bastogne – Liège and the Critérium International . Cycling expert and author Bill McGann thought that the race would be disputed between Visentini and Gianbattista Baronchelli .
= = Route and stages = =
The route for the 1987 edition of the Giro d 'Italia was revealed to the public on television by head organizer Vincenzo Torriani on 21 February 1987 . Covering a total of 3 @,@ 915 km ( 2 @,@ 433 mi ) , it included five time trials ( four individual and one for teams ) , and thirteen stages with categorized climbs that awarded mountains classification points . Five of these thirteen stages had summit finishes : stage 1a , to San Romolo ; stage 6 , to Monte Terminillo ; stage 15 , to Sappada ; stage 19 , to Madesimo ; and stage 21 , to Pila . Another stage with a mountain @-@ top finish was stage 13 , which consisted of a climbing time trial to San Marino . The organizers chose to include one rest day between stages 10 and 11 . When compared to the previous edition , the race had the same amount of stages – although one stage consisted of two half @-@ stages – but was 56 @.@ 4 km ( 35 mi ) longer and contained an additional individual time trial . The sixteenth stage , which ran from Sappada to Canazei , was named the queen stage for its five categorized climbs .
Race director Torriani was happy with the success the 1985 Giro d 'Italia had when passing through the Aosta Valley and chose to include this mountainous region , which lies adjacent to the Rhône @-@ Alpes , in the 1987 route . With the Giro 's return to the valley , La Stampa and the regional cycling federation director , Maggiorino Ferrero , speculated that the stages taking place in this region would be critical in deciding the general classification . Carlo Champvillair , a climbing champion of Aosta Valley , believed it to be a well @-@ constructed , technical race route . The time trial in San Marino , the sixth stage with the finish atop Monte Terminillo , and the stages including the Dolomites were seen by L 'Unità writer Gino Sala as stages that would heavily influence the general classification . In addition , he said that the route was suited to well @-@ rounded , strong , and durable riders .
= = Race overview = =
The Giro began with a 4 km ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) prologue through the streets of San Remo . The returning winner of the Giro , Roberto Visentini , won the prologue by two tenths of a second over the Canadian rider Steve Bauer . The next race day held two stages : a 31 km ( 19 @.@ 3 mi ) stage with a summit finish , followed by a downhill individual time trial . Panasonic – Isostar 's Erik Breukink took the climbing half @-@ stage win with a solo attack . His performance earned him the race leader 's maglia rosa ( English : pink jersey ) , which he kept until the third stage . Stephen Roche won the time trial half @-@ stage with a three @-@ second margin over Del Tongo 's Lech Piasecki . Johan van der Velde formed a lead group with about 30 km ( 18 @.@ 6 mi ) to go in the second stage , but as he posed a threat to the race lead , he was not given a large advantage and was subsequently caught by the chasing peloton 7 km ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) from the finish . The main field remained intact for the remaining kilometers and the race geared up for a sprint finish won by Moreno Argentin .
The third stage was a lengthy team time trial that stretched for 43 km ( 26 @.@ 7 mi ) between Lerici and Camaiore . Carrera Jeans – Vagabond beat out the Del Tongo squad by fifty @-@ four seconds to win the leg . In addition to the stage victory , Carrera Jeans – Vagabond 's Roche took the overall lead . As the leading group approached the fourth stage finish line , Argentin sprinted away with 800 m ( 2 @,@ 625 ft ) to go and created a two @-@ second gap between himself and the rider in second place that was enough to earn him a second stage win . The fifth stage was relatively flat and was used to set up the race to enter the Apennine Mountains the following day . The leg culminated in a mass sprint that was won by Panasonic – Isostar 's Belgian rider Eddy Planckaert , after overcoming Paolo Rosola in the closing meters .
Roche defended his race lead until stage thirteen , a 46 km ( 28 @.@ 6 mi ) climbing individual time trial to Monte Titano in San Marino , where he lost the pink jersey to his teammate and stage winner Visentini . Roche claimed his performance in the stage was hampered due to injuries sustained from a crash in the tenth stage . At 260 km ( 161 @.@ 6 mi ) , the fourteenth stage was the longest of the race . It was won in a mass sprint by Remac Fanini 's Paolo Cimini , who overtook Rosola in the final meters .
The fifteenth stage saw the race enter the Dolomites and traverse three major climbs within the mountain chain . On the descent of the Monte Rest , Roche formed a leading group with two other riders after speeding away from the race leader 's group . Despite orders from his team management , Roche continued with the move . The Carrera Jeans @-@ Vagabond pack chased after the Roche group to protect the advantage of Roche 's teammate and race leader Visentini . Roche crossed the finish line in twelfth place , fifty @-@ six seconds after the stage winner van der Velde , which allowed him to don again the pink jersey by five seconds over Tony Rominger . Roche 's actions , taking the race lead away from Visentini and disobeying team commands , gained him the hatred of the Italian cyclings fans .
The sixteenth leg of the race included five categorized climbs before concluding in the municipality of Canazei . On the descent of the Pordoi Pass , van der Velde broke away and caught up to the leader on the road before winning his second consecutive stage . Meanwhile , behind van der Velde , Visentini tried several times to attack Roche on the slopes of the Passo Fedaia ; however , Roche marked all of his moves and the two raced to the finish in the same group . Stage 17 , the race 's final day in the Dolomites , was marred by poor weather . A breakaway group of three was given a significant gap as the main general classification contenders rode behind in a collective group . Atala Ofmega 's Italian rider Marco Vitali out @-@ sprinted his two fellow breakaway members to win his first Grand Tour stage win .
As the eighteenth stage began , the peloton felt they deserved a rest day after three difficult stages in the Dolomites and collectively rode at a non @-@ aggressive pace for over three @-@ quarters of the stage . Riders began to attack and form breakaway groups with about 30 km ( 18 @.@ 6 mi ) to go ; however , the sprinters ' teams reeled in all attacks and prepared for a sprint finish that was eventually won by Giuseppe Calcaterra , making it the second consecutive stage win for Atala @-@ Ofmega . During the nineteenth stage , Jean @-@ François Bernard launched an attack after the leading group finished the climb of the San Marco Pass . Three riders joined Bernard before the start of the final climb in Madesimo , but Bernard dropped them early on in the climb and rode the final 18 km ( 11 @.@ 2 mi ) alone to win the stage . Millar and Marino Lejarreta managed to gain over thirty seconds on Roche after they attacked on the final climb . Despite a crash within the final kilometer of stage twenty , the main field managed to hold a bunch sprint that was won by Rosola .
In the twenty @-@ first leg , the general classification contenders were a part of the same leading group until the final climb to the summit finish in Pila . Lejarreta attacked 12 km ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) from the finish and only seven other riders were able to mark , including Millar and Roche . Over 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) later , the Spaniard attacked again and only Roche and Millar remained with him . Despite further attacks by Lejarreta , the group rode together up to the finish . With over 300 m ( 984 @.@ 3 ft ) to go , Millar unleashed a sprint that won him the stage . Millar 's performance on the stay brought him to second place overall . The final stage of the 1987 Giro d 'Italia was a 32 km ( 19 @.@ 9 mi ) individual time trial . Visentini , who had crashed in the previous stage , did not start and abandoned the race . Roche beat out the second @-@ place finisher , Dietrich Thurau , by fourteen seconds to win the day and the overall race itself . In doing so , Roche became the first Irishman to win the Giro d 'Italia . The other podium positions were filled by non @-@ Italian riders for the second time in the history of the race .
Four riders achieved multiple stage victories : Argentin ( stages 2 , 4 , and 7 ) , Rosola ( stages 8 , 10 , and 20 ) , Visentini ( prologue and stage 13 ) , and Roche ( stages 1b and 22 ) . Stage wins were achieved by seven of the twenty competing squads , five of which won multiple stages . Gewiss @-@ Bianchi collected a total of six stage wins through two riders , Argentin and Rosola . Carrera Jeans @-@ Vagabond achieved the same feat with individual stage wins from Bontempi ( stage 12 ) , Roche and Visentini ( two wins each ) , and a team time trial win ( stage 3 ) . Panasonic – Isostar amassed a total of three stage victories through Breukink ( stage 1a ) , Planckaert ( stage 5 ) , and Millar ( stage 21 ) . Atala @-@ Ofmega also secured three stage wins , through Freuler ( stage 9 ) , Vitali ( stage 17 ) , and Calcaterra ( stage 18 ) . Gis Gelati – Jollyscarpe won two stages with van der Velde ( stages 15 and 16 ) . Fagor – MBK also collected two stage successes , with Jean @-@ Claude Bagot ( stage 6 ) and Robert Forest ( stage 11 ) . Remac – Fanini and Toshiba – Look both won a single stage at the Giro , the first through Cimini ( stage 14 ) , and the second through Bernard ( stage 19 ) .
= = Classification leadership = =
Four different jerseys were worn during the 1987 Giro d 'Italia . The leader of the general classification – calculated by adding the stage finish times of each rider , and allowing time bonuses for the first three finishers on mass @-@ start stages – wore a pink jersey . The time bonuses for the 1987 Giro were twenty seconds for the first place , fifteen seconds for the second place , ten seconds for the third place , and five seconds for the fourth place on the stage . This classification is the most important of the race , and its winner is considered to be the winner of the Giro .
For the points classification , which awarded a purple ( or cyclamen ) jersey to its leader , cyclists were given points for finishing a stage in the top 15 ; additional points could also be won in intermediate sprints . The green jersey was awarded to the mountains classification leader . In this ranking , points were won by reaching the summit of a climb ahead of other cyclists . Each climb was ranked as either first , second or third category , with more points available for higher category climbs . The Cima Coppi , the race 's highest point of elevation , awarded more points than the other first category climbs . The Cima Coppi for this edition of the Giro was the Passo Pordoi , and the first rider to cross it was Fagor – MBK 's Jean @-@ Claude Bagot . The white jersey was worn by the leader of young rider classification , a ranking decided the same way as the general classification , but considering only neo @-@ professional cyclists ( in their first three years of professional racing ) . Although no jersey was awarded , there was also one classification for the teams , in which the stage finish times of the best three cyclists per team were added ; the leading team was the one with the lowest total time .
= = Final standings = =
= = = General classification = = =
= = Aftermath = =
Upon completing the final stage , Roche told the media that by winning the final time trial he felt he silenced any critics who doubted whether he should have won the race . In addition , Roche announced his intention to compete in the Tour de France in July . He won the Tour with a margin of forty seconds over the second @-@ place finisher and thus became the fifth rider to win the Giro and Tour in the same year . In September , Roche won the men 's road race at the 1987 UCI Road World Championships and became the second rider to achieve the Triple Crown of Cycling , which consists of winning two Grand Tour races and the men 's road race at the UCI Road World Championships in a calendar year . For his career successes in the Giro d 'Italia , Roche was inducted into the race 's Hall of Fame in 2014 . After dropping out of the 1987 edition of the Giro , Visentini did not win any further stages or classifications in major races , and retired from cycling in 1990 , at the age of 33 .
La Repubblica stated that the Italian riders had the second worst performance in the history of the Giro after 1972 , since none finished inside the top four and many famous Italian cyclists failed to complete the race . Mario Fossati , of La Repubblica , thought that van der Velde and Bernard performed very strongly , along with Argentin , whom he said was operating on " alternating current " . Fossati also said that Cimini and Calcaterra could have promising careers , based on their efforts during the race .
The 1987 Giro has become famous for the series of events involving teammates Roche and Visentini . Many writers highlight the fifteenth stage as the defining moment of the race . The Corriere delle Alpi and cycling book author Bill McGann even named it as one of the most famous in the Giro d 'Italia and cycling history . On that day , Roche – who was second in the general classification and over two minutes behind race leader Visentini – attacked the lead , despite orders from his team to stop . Upon completing the stage , Visentini told the press that either Roche or himself would not start the following day , while Roche independently held a press conference from his hotel and answered questions . Carrera Jeans @-@ Vagabond manager David Boifava ordered Roche and Visentini to stay silent . The following day , many Italian newspapers called Roche a betrayer or cheat for his actions . Despite Visentini 's statement , both riders started the sixteenth stage after receiving orders from Carrera company boss Tito Tachella . In the days that followed , Italian fans threw things and spat at Roche , which led him to receive police protection until the race 's conclusion . Looking back on the incident , Roche claimed that he just descended the mountain quicker than Visentini and did nothing wrong , while Visentini maintained that Roche attacked him when he should have been aiding him . Visentini accused Roche of dashing the team 's morale and strategy , but some critics believed that Roche 's actions were acceptable because he was the stronger rider .
= Hurricane Allison ( 1995 ) =
Hurricane Allison was the first named storm and first hurricane of the 1995 Atlantic hurricane season . It was an early season hurricane that delivered heavy rains and caused minor damage , primarily across Cuba , Florida and Georgia .
The storm developed on June 2 , less than 48 hours after the official start of the hurricane season . It strengthened into a tropical storm early on June 3 and into a hurricane on June 4 in the Gulf of Mexico . It would make landfall in the Big Bend area of Florida on June 5 before tracking northward as an extratropical system . One death was reported in Cuba . Allison 's early formation heralded the start of what would eventually become a very active 1995 hurricane season .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of the system can be traced to a tropical wave that moved across the eastern Caribbean Sea in the last week of May . The wave gradually organized itself as it entered the western Caribbean Sea on June 1 . The circulation continued to close up on June 2 and that evening it was declared Tropical Depression One while east of Honduras .
The depression was in an unusually low @-@ shear environment for early June as it began tracking northward , which allowed the system to strengthen into Tropical Storm Allison on the morning of June 3 as it tracked into the Yucatan Channel . Despite the fact that westerly wind shear began to increase , the warm water allowed Allison to gradually strengthen more that afternoon and evening . Late that evening , while between the Yucatan Peninsula and Cuba , Allison developed a circular central dense overcast and became a high @-@ end tropical storm . As the storm emerged into the Gulf of Mexico , the warm waters allowed Allison to strengthen further and it was upgraded to a hurricane on the morning of June 4 while travelling almost due north .
Allison remained somewhat disorganized , as no eye was ever visible , even when Reconnaissance flights confirmed that it was at hurricane intensity . The storm maintained itself as a minimal hurricane throughout the day on June 4 before it began to turn to the northeast , in response to southwesterly shear . Late that evening , the storm began to weaken , dropping back to tropical storm intensity as it approached the Florida Big Bend area . The intensity leveled off on June 5 until it made landfall that morning . Allison made its first landfall at about 10 : 00 am EDT ( 1400 UTC ) near Alligator Point , Florida as a high @-@ end tropical storm with 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) winds . It briefly re @-@ emerged over Apalachee Bay and made another landfall near St. Marks , Florida about one hour later with 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) winds . Operationally , Allison was considered a hurricane until it made landfall , and was considered the earliest hurricane landfall in the United States for a while .
After making its final Florida landfall , Allison rapidly weakened . Tropical storm force winds continued over the eastern Florida Panhandle until late that afternoon , as the storm moved northward into Georgia . It weakened to a tropical depression on the evening of June 5 over southern Georgia . Early on June 6 , Allison began to transition into an extratropical storm as it interacted with a warm front to the northeast while tracking across the Carolinas . The remnant low emerged into the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Cape Hatteras that evening . It then raced across the western Atlantic , crossing the easternmost part of Nova Scotia on June 8 and Newfoundland on June 9 . It continued northward across the Labrador Sea , dissipating on June 11 .
= = Impact = =
Winds to tropical storm @-@ force were reported throughout the western part of Cuba , with a peak gust of 64 mph ( 102 km / h ) in Havana . Heavy rainfall of up to 18 inches ( 450 mm ) was also reported in the area . 32 houses were damaged or destroyed due to flooding that resulted . One person was killed in western Cuba and three others were injured . The overall economic loss as a result of the storm was reported to have fairly minor .
In Florida , Allison 's winds knocked down power lines , leaving 48 @,@ 000 residents without power or telephone services . Along the 150 @-@ mile ( 240 km ) stretch of Florida 's Big Bend , 65 seaside homes were flooded and there was extensive beach erosion as a result of the storm surge . Three hotels and a restaurant were damaged . In Apalachicola , three fishing boats were swamped ; the storm closed a bridge linking Apalachicola with St. George Island . The highest storm surge in Florida was about 6 to 8 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 5 m ) in Wakulla and Dixie Counties , and 2 to 6 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 to 1 @.@ 8 m ) to the east . A tornado spawned by Allison touched down at Jacksonville Beach , causing minor damage when it downed power lines and flipped over vehicles . Minor crop damage was also reported . There were no deaths reported as a result of Allison in Florida . Damage was estimated at $ 860 @,@ 000 ( 1995 USD ) in Florida , primarily as a result of the storm surge .
Most of the damage in Georgia was as a result of several tornadoes related to Allison . The most significant of the tornadoes touched down in the town of St. Marys . An elementary school was destroyed and significant damage was also reported to several buildings at the Kings Bay Naval Submarine Base . Several other tornadoes also touched down but damage from them was minimal . Damage from the tornado was estimated at $ 800 @,@ 000 ( 1995 USD ) .
= Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu =
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu ( English : The Jasmine Vine in Seethamma 's Courtyard ) is a 2013 Indian Telugu @-@ language drama film written and directed by Srikanth Addala . It was produced by Dil Raju 's Sri Venkateswara Creations , and features Daggubati Venkatesh , Mahesh Babu , Anjali and Samantha Ruth Prabhu in the lead roles , while Prakash Raj , Jayasudha , Rao Ramesh , Tanikella Bharani and Rohini Hattangadi play supporting roles .
The film focuses on a simple , middle @-@ class family in the village of Relangi whose head is a Good Samaritan with a positive outlook on life . Although his two sons have completed their education , they are unemployed . Their cousin , Seetha , lives with the family and loves the elder son . The younger son falls in love with Geetha , the daughter of Seetha 's paternal uncle . Amid a conflict between the elder son and Geetha 's father , the Good Samaritan teaches his sons and Geetha 's father the value of spreading love in life ; this is the film 's centrepiece .
In addition to directing the film , Addala worked on the script for three years after the release of his directorial debut , Kotha Bangaru Lokam ( 2008 ) . He wrote the screenplay , and Ganesh Patro wrote the film 's dialogue . Mickey J Meyer and Mani Sharma composed the soundtrack and score , respectively . Marthand K. Venkatesh edited the film and K. V. Guhan was its cinematographer . Production began on 6 October 2011 in Hyderabad ; principal photography began on 18 January 2012 in Vishakhapatnam , and finished on 24 December . In addition to Hyderabad , scenes were filmed in coastal Andhra Pradesh , Tamil Nadu and Kerala .
Considered the first star @-@ studded Telugu film in the last twenty or thirty years , Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu was released worldwide on 11 January 2013 to critical praise . The film was commercially successful , earning a distributor share of ₹ 550 million on a budget of ₹ 500 million , and was the second @-@ highest @-@ grossing Telugu film of the year ( after Attarintiki Daredi ) . It was dubbed in Tamil as Anandam Anandame by Viji Creations in 2013 . The film was one of twenty Telugu entries at the 61st National Film Awards . It received seven nominations at the 61st Filmfare Awards South and eleven nominations at the 3rd South Indian International Movie Awards , winning two awards at each : Best Actor Male — Telugu ( Mahesh ) and Best Playback Singer Female — Telugu ( Chithra ) .
= = Plot = =
A kindhearted man , known as " Relangi mavayya " ( " Relangi Uncle " ) by his family , lives in the village of the same name . His middle @-@ class family consists of his wife , mother , niece Seetha and three children : two sons ( Peddodu , " the elder " and Chinnodu , " the younger " ) and a daughter , Chinni . Peddodu is an introvert , who lives life on his own terms and is unsociable . Although Seetha wants to marry him , her love is apparently unrequited . Chinnodu is extrovert , who falls in love with Geetha , the daughter of Seetha 's paternal uncle who is jealous of Chinnodu 's father and denigrates his family 's economic status . Although the family is close @-@ knit , the brothers do not communicate well with each other .
Geetha 's sister recommends a marriage for Chinni to a relative of her in @-@ laws . At the wedding , Peddodu and Geetha 's father argue in the backyard about the latter 's sarcasm , increasing tensions further . Several days later , the brothers plan to leave for Hyderabad to find work . Geetha invites Chinnodu for lunch without informing him that her whole family will be there . Chinnodu and Geetha 's father argue , again over the latter 's sarcasm . When Geetha tries to calm the former , Peddodu is upset after knowing about their love affair . He abruptly leaves Relangi and Chinnodu , dejected , stays behind . This affects his relationship with Geetha , whose father has found her a husband . Although Seetha is also pressured to marry a man suggested by Geetha 's father , Peddodu and distant relative Kondala Rao convince the bridegroom to reject the proposal .
Relangi Uncle is injured in an accident in an attempt to save a young man . His condition stabilises , and the young man turns out to be the son of Peddodu 's former boss ' brother . The former employer apologises for his past misbehaviour , and offers Peddodu another job ; the gulf between the brothers widens .
Peddodu , Chinnodu and their family visit Bhadrachalam Temple for Rama Navami , the annual kalyana of Rama and Sita , and meet Geetha 's family there . The guest of honour , an MLA , asks Relangi Uncle to participate in the procession . Geetha 's father is surprised by this , and an electrical problem then arises . With help from volunteers and the police the brothers save the day , setting aside their differences and rescuing Geetha 's family . Relangi Uncle praises the brothers for their courage , telling them about them the importance of family , love and brotherhood . This changes their attitude and that of Geetha 's father , who is eavesdropping on the conversation .
Seetha is overjoyed to see the brothers reunited , and for the first time , Peddodu calls her by name instead of " Hey ! " and " Oy ! " . They are married , and Chinnodu and Geetha 's wedding is planned after her father reconciles with Relangi Uncle 's family . The brothers send gold bangles to their grandmother , evidence that they have found work .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
After the release of his directorial debut , Kotha Bangaru Lokam ( 2008 ) , Srikanth Addala worked for three years on Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu 's script . After Vedam 's release , in June 2010 Dil Raju began planning a film directed by Addala and featuring Daggubati Venkatesh and Pawan Kalyan as the male leads . Scripting began , and the film 's title was announced in September . When the project stalled , Addala approached Mahesh Babu with its script in June 2011 .
Mahesh agreed to act in the film after Addala met him to read the script during pre @-@ production for Dookudu ( 2011 ) . He and Venkatesh cited the script 's emotional depth and realistic approach as the reason they signed for the film . Addala approached Ganesh Patro in Chennai to write the film 's dialogue . Patro used the dialect spoken in the Godavari region of Andhra Pradesh , edited by Addala . It was his final project as a dialogue writer before his death in January 2015 . K. V. Guhan , who worked on the previous Mahesh films Athadu and Dookudu , was signed as Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu 's cinematographer .
Mickey J Meyer , who worked with Addala on the director 's debut , composed the film 's soundtrack and Mani Sharma composed its score . Sharma had composed the score for Raju 's 2011 production , Oh My Friend , whose soundtrack was composed by Rahul Raj . Although production began in Hyderabad on the eve of Vijayadasami ( 6 October 2011 ) with a launch ceremony , Venkatesh and Mahesh did not attend due to previous film commitments . " Simple but beautiful " was announced as the film 's advertising slogan in June 2012 .
= = = Casting = = =
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu is considered the first Telugu star @-@ studded film in the last two or three decades . After listening to Addala 's narration , Venkatesh felt that they could work more on the film 's script and the director agreed . The actor agreed to the film because he considered it a safe bet which would appeal to a family audience . Raju was interested in casting Mahesh as the lead for two reasons : the film , revolving around two brothers , required two popular actors as the leads and the producer again wanted to work with the actor after Murari ( 2001 ) , Takkari Donga ( 2002 ) , Okkadu ( 2003 ) and Athadu ( 2005 ) . Guhan told The Hindu that Venkatesh 's and Mahesh 's unnamed characters would simply be called Peddodu and Chinnodu , respectively .
Samantha Ruth Prabhu was signed to play Mahesh 's love interest in the film , and Raju asked her to allow 40 days for shooting . After Trisha Krishnan , Sneha , Bhumika Chawla and Anushka Shetty were considered for the other female lead , Amala Paul was signed in mid @-@ December 2011 . After a photo shoot and the beginning of principal photography , Paul left the project in late January 2012 and Raju replaced her with Anjali .
Prakash Raj was cast in a principal role as the brothers ' father . When he failed to join the film unit in Kutralam , it was rumoured that he had walked out of the film due to differences with Raju but Raju denied the reports . Jayasudha and Rohini Hattangadi were signed for supporting roles , and Hattangadi said that she would play the brothers ' grandmother . Rao Ramesh played Samantha 's father in the film .
Miss Dabur Gulabari 2011 second runner @-@ up Tejaswi Madivada was signed for a supporting role in her acting debut , and Abhinaya was cast as Mahesh 's sister in the film . Ramaprabha , Tanikella Bharani , Kota Srinivasa Rao , Brahmanandam and Ahuti Prasad later joined the film 's supporting cast . Traditional and formal costumes were supplied by the clothing chain Kalamandir .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began on 18 January 2012 in Vishakhapatnam , where several of Venkatesh 's scenes were filmed near the Andhra University campus and on the Ramakrishna Mission Beach . The next shooting schedule began in Kutralam , Tamil Nadu , on 6 February 2012 and filming continued in Hyderabad during March . In Sanathnagar a crowd disrupted shooting , and the film 's crew chose an undisclosed location to resume . Samantha joined the film unit on 28 March . After shooting was disrupted three times in Hyderabad by crowds , Mahesh suggested that Raju move production to Chennai ( where several wedding scenes were filmed at a coconut plantation ) . Rain increased production costs .
Part of the song " Yem Cheddaam " was shot at the Sabarmati Riverfront in mid @-@ April , the riverfront 's first appearance in a Telugu film . In addition to the riverfront , scenes were filmed over a fifteen @-@ day schedule in shopping malls and gardens around Ahmedabad . Addala chose the city for its developing infrastructure , friendly people and climatic similarity to Hyderabad . On 31 May 2012 , Raju told the media that 35 percent of Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu 's filming was completed and the next shooting schedule would begin at Ramoji Film City . A house set worth ₹ 10 million was built at the studio under the supervision of A. S. Prakash . Venkatesh and Anjali began a four @-@ day shooting schedule at Ahobilam on 4 July . After several key scenes were filmed in Relangi , near Tanuku , a new schedule began in Bhadrachalam on 16 July .
Filming was delayed when Samantha became ill , resuming on 19 August after her recovery . By mid @-@ September , the producers had filmed for nearly 80 working days . Wedding and other crucial scenes were filmed in Chennai . By then the shooting of five songs was completed , with work on two more songs and detail work pending . Raju planned two shooting schedules : one from 28 September to 12 October , and the other from 15 November to the end of the month . Filming continued on 2 October 2012 at Ramanaidu Studios . The film 's climactic scenes were shot in mid @-@ November 2012 on a custom @-@ built Bhadrachalam Temple set at Ramoji Film City , and the dialogue was wrapped up on 17 November .
A song featuring Mahesh and Samantha was shot in Magarpatta , Pune , in early December , and scenes following Chinni 's wedding were filmed in Dwaraka Tirumala . Another song featuring Venkatesh and Anjali was shot in Kerala under the supervision of Prem Rakshith ; its completion marked the end of principal photography on 24 December .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
On 6 October 2012 , a pooja commemorated the beginning of the film 's dubbing . Post @-@ production was planned simultaneously for a December 2012 release . On 23 October , Samantha began dubbing her role in the film . This was the first time she dubbed for herself in a Telugu film ; her roles had previously been dubbed by the singer Chinmayi . Mahesh began dubbing his role on 10 December ; Venkatesh had completed most of his dubbing work by then , with only a few reels remaining .
In mid @-@ December , Samantha said that she had dubbed 40 percent of her role and the producers would decide if her voice would be retained ; Chinmayi and Dubbing Janaki were later chosen to dub for Prabhu and Hattangadi . Mahesh finished dubbing his role by early January 2013 , and post @-@ production ended on 3 January . The first copy of the film was sent to the Central Board of Film Certification on 7 January , and it received a U certificate the following day .
= = Themes = =
Raju said in early October 2011 that Seeth
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amma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu would be a family drama ; its title focuses on the family system in India , a part of the Indian ideology of one world family . According to Addala , " Seethamma " stands for the goddess Sita , " Vakitlo " for India and " Sirimalle Chettu " for the Indian family . The mentality of a person who does not smile at a fellow human but preaches the need for change in society and improvement in human relations was the basis of the film 's script . The director tells the story of two brothers of different ages who are not expressive , showing them safeguarding their identities but having a deep love and respect for each other .
Addala travelled to Yanam and other places in East Godavari district to study the mentality and behaviour of the local people . He noticed that about 80 percent of the families had good fathers , and their sons ( who were struggling to find jobs and establish themselves ) reconciled easily after small disagreements . Addala decided to convey in the film that life would be easier if small problems can be corrected . Most of the characters , except Seetha , are drawn from real life ; Mahesh 's character represents youth , and Venkatesh and Prakash Raj 's characters exemplify an elder brother and a middle @-@ class father .
= = Soundtrack = =
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu 's soundtrack was composed by Mickey J Meyer , with lyrics by Anantha Sreeram and Sirivennela Sitaramasastri . Aditya Music acquired its marketing rights in early August 2012 , and the soundtrack was released at an event at Ramanaidu Studios in Nanakramguda , Hyderabad , on 16 December . A critical and commercial success , it was certified triple platinum at a 20 January 2013 ceremony at Shilpakala Vedika in Hyderabad .
= = Release = =
In late April 2012 the producers planned a worldwide release on 28 September , three weeks before the release of Cameraman Gangatho Rambabu . Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu 's release was expected to be postponed because of a filming delay after Samantha had an adverse drug reaction . Raju later announced that the film would be released on 21 December for Christmas , but due to production delays its release was postponed to 11 January 2013 for the three @-@ day Sankranthi holiday . At Mahesh 's suggestion a statewide premiere was planned a day before the general theatrical release , with the producers hoping to earn ₹ 10 million from the premiere .
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu was released on 101 screens ( considered a record ) in the United States and on eight screens in Canada . The film was released in New York , New Jersey , the San Francisco Bay Area and Los Angeles . Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu was the first South Indian film to be released in Manhattan , premiering on 10 January 2013 at the Times Square AMC Empire 25 theatre . The film opened worldwide on 1 @,@ 500 screens . In Hyderabad and Secunderabad , it was released on 85 screens and the cities ' eight multiplexes scheduled 100 shows per day ; tickets for the first week sold out in one day . Raju scheduled screenings for women only on 14 , 15 and 16 January .
A Tamil remake proved cost @-@ prohibitive , leading to an announcement of the Tamil @-@ dubbed version Anandam Anandame in early October 2013 . Viji Creations acquired the dubbing rights and P. Rajarajan wrote the dialogue for the dubbed version .
= = = Marketing = = =
The film 's first @-@ look teaser was released on 31 May 2012 . Within a day of its release the teaser attracted 227 @,@ 319 views on YouTube , and 9 @,@ 416 members shared it on Facebook . First @-@ look posters saying " Happy birthday to my brother Mahesh Babu " , signed by Venkatesh , were released on 8 August . Publicist B. A. Raju announced that another teaser would be released on 12 December , the day before Venkatesh 's birthday , since the producers of Businessman ( 2012 ) had released a first @-@ look poster featuring Mahesh on 11 November 2011 . The film 's theatrical trailer was released on 13 December . Red Label and Mega Mart entered into a co @-@ branding partnership for the film .
= = = Pre @-@ release revenue = = =
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu 's television broadcast rights were sold for ₹ 85 million to an undisclosed channel in early June 2012 . Theatrical distribution rights for Krishna district were sold for ₹ 27 @.@ 5 million in late October 2012 . Vintage Creations and Srinikethan Films acquired the theatrical distribution rights for East Godavari and Nellore districts for ₹ 28 @.@ 3 million and ₹ 18 @.@ 5 million , respectively . 14 Reels Entertainment , in association with FICUS , acquired the film 's overseas theatrical distribution rights in late November 2012 .
= = = Home media = = =
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu 's Indian VCD , DVD and Blu @-@ ray discs were marketed by Aditya Videos . Overseas DVD and Blu @-@ ray discs were released in June 2013 by Bhavani Videos , and global television broadcast rights were acquired by MAA TV . After its global television premiere , Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu registered a TRP rating of 20 @.@ 00 , the second highest rating ever for a Telugu film after Magadheera ( 2009 ) which registered 22 @.@ 00 . It retained that spot until the global television premiere of Baahubali : The Beginning ( 2015 ) and Srimanthudu ( 2015 ) . They registered the TRP ratings of 21 @.@ 84 and 21 @.@ 24 respectively , pushing Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu to the fourth spot .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu received generally @-@ positive reviews . Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of The Hindu called the film a " delightful family drama with its celebration of family bonds , love and marriage laced with laughter " , and Addala " wants to leave his audience with a thought , wants them to reflect on their relationships and overlook skirmishes that can sour family bonds " . Dundoo cited Guhan 's cinematography as one of the film 's highlights , and praised its performances . Mahalakshmi Prabhakaran of Daily News and Analysis called the film a " heartwarming watch that has its emotions and underlying message in the right place " . Calling Guhan 's cinematography and its music wonderful , Prabhakaran also praised the film 's cast .
According to IANS , " It is very unlikely to point out a single dull moment in this crowd @-@ pleasing , tear @-@ jerking healthy family entertainer that presents a story akin to every household " . The reviewer added that the film " may or may not inspire one and all , but it will definitely send everybody back home with a smile " . Shekhar of Oneindia Entertainment called the film a " good family entertainer " , adding that the audience would immerse themselves in the film and " feel like they are watching some real life sequences from in and around their house " . IndiaGlitz called the film a " heart @-@ tugging family entertainer " : " If Mahesh Babu seems to be the most important star , be it in terms of the screen time or the number of lines he gets to speak , it is Venkatesh who takes a lion 's share in SVSC 's story . It is around Peddodu that Srikanth Addala weaves a drama full of modest emotional highs and lilting moments " .
Karthik Pasupulate of The Times of India gave Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu 3 @.@ 5 out of five stars , calling it a " good old fashioned family drama sans the usual masala " and adding that it is " pleasant , well intended , and has some tender moments as well , but does it pack enough entertainment value " . Pasupulate praised the performances , calling them understated like the rest of the film . Sify gave the film 3 @.@ 25 out of five stars : " Seethamma Vaakitlo Sirimalle Chettu definitely makes you moist @-@ eyed as you walk out from the theatre but it runs on a flimsy story . It is a film that reinforces the great Indian family values and is also a manipulative film like most Sooraj Barjatya 's films . " The reviewer praised the film 's climax , adding that Mahesh 's performance , the score , cinematography and its later scenes overshadowed its flaws .
Radhika Rajamani of Rediff gave the film three out of five stars : " While it cruises along smoothly , delving into relationships within the family , without too many conflicts or twists and turns , one feels an emotional disconnect sometimes because society has changed so much from what is portrayed on screen " . She added , " The storyline is realistic , in that it is all about the happenings in a middle class home , but it 's more about situations and doesn 't develop as a story . So if you want to see a non @-@ violent , family values kind of film , this one is for you . It 's just that it seems a little out of date . " B. V. S. Prakash of Deccan Chronicle gave the film 2 @.@ 5 out of five stars , calling it a " dampener " and its scenes repetitive and tedious . Prakash praised the performances , however , especially those of Venkatesh and Mahesh .
= = = Box office = = =
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu earned ₹ 98 @.@ 1 million on its first day at the AP @-@ Nizam box office — according to trade analyst Trinath , probably the best @-@ ever opening for a star @-@ studded Telugu film . Taran Adarsh called the film 's opening " mindblowing " as it earned US $ 205 @,@ 347 ( ₹ 11 @.@ 3 million ) at 62 locations on its Thursday previews in the United States . It earned $ 338 @,@ 228 on Friday , bringing its two @-@ day total to $ 552 @,@ 041 — the most successful opening for a Telugu film in the U.S. Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu netted ₹ 250 @.@ 1 million in four days at the global box office , the most successful opening in Mahesh and Venkatesh 's careers . The film grossed $ 1 @,@ 262 @,@ 100 ( ₹ 68 @.@ 7 million ) from reported screens in its first four @-@ day weekend in the United States , affecting other films ( such as Naayak and Matru Ki Bijlee Ka Mandola ) and surpassing the US lifetime earnings of Gabbar Singh ( 2012 ) . The film 's earnings declined 25 percent on its fifth day , and its five @-@ day total nett was ₹ 286 @.@ 6 million . Earning about ₹ 350 million in its first week , Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu broke box @-@ office records in several parts of the world . The film 's earnings declined 50 percent over its second weekend , with a ten @-@ day global box @-@ office nett of ₹ 450 million . In its second U.S. weekend the film earned $ 203 @,@ 160 ( ₹ 10 @.@ 9 million ) , bringing its ten @-@ day U.S. total to $ 1 @,@ 548 @,@ 709 ( ₹ 83 @.@ 1 million ) and setting a record for a Telugu film in that country .
By the end of its second week , Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu netted ₹ 510 million at the global box office . In the film 's third weekend it was affected by Viswaroopam , earning about ₹ 1 @.@ 93 million from 20 screens in the United States . It completed its 50 @-@ day run on 3 March in 25 theatres . Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu netted ₹ 387 @.@ 5 million at the AP / Nizam box office during its run , earning a distributor share of ₹ 550 million at the global box office and declared a commercial success . It was the second @-@ highest @-@ grossing Telugu film of the year , after Attarintiki Daredi .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu was one of twenty Telugu film entries for the 61st National Film Awards . The film received seven nominations at the 61st Filmfare Awards South , including Best Telugu film , Best Director — Telugu and Best Actor — Telugu . It won two awards : Best Actor — Telugu ( Mahesh ) and Best Female Playback Singer — Telugu ( Chithra for " Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu " ) .
The film received eleven nominations at the 3rd South Indian International Movie Awards , where Venkatesh and Babu were nominated for Best Actor — Telugu and Anjali and Jayasudha were nominated for Best Supporting Actor Female — Telugu . It won two awards , again for Best Actor — Telugu ( Mahesh ) and Best Female Playback Singer — Telugu ( Chithra for " Seethamma Vakitlo Sirimalle Chettu " ) . Mahesh also received the " Best Actor for the Year 2013 " award at the 2015 TSR – TV9 National Film Awards .
= Third Test , 1948 Ashes series =
The Third Test of the 1948 Ashes series was one of five Tests in a cricket series between teams representing Australia and England . The match was played at Old Trafford in Manchester from 8 – 13 July , with a rest day on 11 July . The match was drawn after the whole of the fourth day and the first half of the fifth day was washed out due to rain ; England had the upper hand before the weather intervened . The draw maintained Australia 's 2 – 0 lead in the series , which was established through victories in the first two Tests . As Australia were the holders of The Ashes , the draw meant that England could do no better than level the series 2 – 2 by winning the last two Tests , and thus Australia retained The Ashes .
The Test started amid controversy following the omission of leading England batsman Len Hutton for performing poorly in the previous match . Having largely failed — apart from brief periods — to challenge Australia in the first two Tests , the hosts had made four changes to their team in an attempt to find a combination that could threaten the visitors ' supremacy . Australia made their first change for the series , ending the Test career of veteran batsman Bill Brown after two poor matches . England captain Norman Yardley won the toss and elected to bat , but his team were quickly in trouble , with Denis Compton forced from the field after being bloodied in the head by a Ray Lindwall bouncer . At this stage , the hosts were at 33 / 2 with an injured player , and they batted defensively for a period to try and regroup . Having received treatment , Compton returned with England in difficulty at 119 / 5 midway through the day and proceeded to score 145 not out , aided by several dropped catches , helping England to recover to 363 all out on the second afternoon . England could have been in an even stronger position , but Compton and seamer Alec Bedser were involved in a mix @-@ up , resulting in the latter being run out and ending a 121 @-@ run partnership . Lindwall was the most successful bowler , taking 4 / 99 . During the England innings , Australian opener Sid Barnes , who had gained much attention throughout the season for fielding at point @-@ blank range in front of the batsman on strike , was hit in the ribs by a Dick Pollard pull shot and had to be carried from the ground and hospitalised . In reply , Australia batted steadily to be 126 / 3 by the end of the second day , but then fell to be 172 / 6 — effectively seven wickets down with Barnes unable to bat after collapsing again — before evading the follow on by reaching 221 . Australia scored slowly through the innings , finding the hosts ' bowlers difficult to negotiate ; Bedser took 4 / 81 and Pollard 3 / 53 .
England began their second innings and were strongly placed on 174 / 3 at the end of the third day , an overall lead of 316 with seven wickets in hand . They had been aided by several dropped chances against Cyril Washbrook , who reached 85 by the close of play . However , rain meant that no play was possible on the fourth day and England did not have the opportunity to capitalise on their favourable position and set Australia a high runchase . Yardley declared on the final morning , but play did not start until mid @-@ afternoon due to continuing inclement weather . The Australian batsman thereafter played for a draw ; they batted slowly and reached 92 / 1 when stumps were drawn , not making an attempt to chase the 317 for victory . Arthur Morris made 54 not out , his second half @-@ century of the match to go with his 51 in the first innings , registering Australia 's top @-@ score on both occasions . Despite the fact that 30 % of the playing time was lost to rain , the match still managed to set a record for the highest attendance at a Test match in England , surpassing the mark set in the previous Test .
= = Background = =
Led by Donald Bradman , Australia had proceeded through the first two months of their 1948 England tour undefeated . After winning 10 of the 12 games before the Tests , eight of these by an innings , they won the First Test by eight wickets . Before the Second Test , they defeated Northamptonshire by an innings before drawing with Yorkshire . Bradman 's men then crushed England by 409 runs in the Second Test at Lord 's . Between Tests , they defeated Surrey by ten wickets and crushed Gloucestershire by an innings and 363 runs , having amassed 774 / 7 declared , their highest score of the season , and the second highest ever by an Australian team in England .
When the teams reconvened at Old Trafford for the Third Test , leading English batsman Len Hutton had been dropped . The reason was said to be Hutton 's struggles with Lindwall 's short @-@ pitched bowling in the previous Test , during which he scored 20 and 13 . Observers noticed Hutton backing away from the fast bowlers . The English selectors believed such a sight would have a negative effect on the rest of the side — which was not in good batting form — as it was a poor example from a key player . According to journalist and retired Australian Test leg spinner Bill O 'Reilly , Hutton 's second innings at Lord 's had been the worst of his career and gave the impression he had been scared of the Australian pace attack . The omission generated considerable controversy , and pleased the Australians , who felt Hutton was England 's best batsman , and thought he had been treated poorly by the selectors . Former Australian batsman Jack Fingleton pointed out that while Hutton had batted erratically and appeared uncomfortable in the previous Test , he also had a strong track record against the tourists , having made 52 and 64 for the Marylebone Cricket Club against Australia in the lead @-@ up matches , and 94 , 76 and 122 retired ill in his last three Test innings during the previous Ashes series of 1946 – 47 . O 'Reilly regarded Hutton 's omission as punitive and vindictive . He said if Hutton needed to be shielded from the new ball attack , then England should have reshuffled their batting order to place their beleaguered opener down the order . O 'Reilly said that as Hutton had a large range of attacking strokes , he was not a stereotypical , defensive opener who was mainly used to wear down the opening bowlers , and could be used in the middle order as an aggressor .
Hutton 's opening position was taken by debutant George Emmett , who made 43 and nine for Gloucestershire in Australia 's preceding tour match . In that match , two of Australia 's leading pacemen , Keith Miller and Bill Johnston , did not bowl . Despite scoring 76 and 92 in the preceding match against Warwickshire , Emmett was not having a prolific season ; he ended the summer with an average of 36 @.@ 11 .
England made three further changes . Spinner Jack Young and paceman Dick Pollard replaced the spin pair of Doug Wright and Jim Laker in the bowling department , meaning England would only play one slow bowler . Wright and Laker had struggled to penetrate the Australian batting lineup in the Second Test , taking match figures of 2 / 123 and 2 / 128 respectively . In contrast , Pollard had taken match figures of 4 / 85 for Lancashire in a match against Australia earlier in the season , and had taken 27 wickets in four county matches in the past fortnight . The selection was seen as being influenced by the fact the Test was being staged at Lancashire 's home ground , where Pollard was familiar with the conditions , and the Australians had a high regard for him . In the month since being dropped for the Second Test in favour of Wright , after taking 1 / 107 in the First Test , Young had returned to play for Middlesex , taking 27 wickets in five matches . Alec Coxon , the Yorkshire allrounder who made his Test debut in the previous match at Lord 's and opened the bowling , taking match figures of 3 / 172 and scoring 19 and a duck , was replaced by Jack Crapp , a debutant batsman . Crapp had scored 100 not out and 32 for Gloucestershire in the preceding match against the tourists . It was only the third century scored against Australia during the tour , and was part of a season in which Crapp had made four centuries and six half @-@ centuries in 16 matches thus far . Coxon 's omission was believed to have been caused more by off @-@ field events than sporting merit . There was a story that he punched Denis Compton — whom he disliked and considered self @-@ important — in the dressing room , but Coxon always denied this . However , there was certainly an altercation and Coxon was never selected again . O 'Reilly interpreted the omission of the Yorkshiremen Hutton and Coxon at the expense of the Gloucestershire pair of Crapp and Emmett as symptoms of a regional bias in the English selection panel . He pointed out that only one of the four selectors — England captain Norman Yardley , who was also from Yorkshire — was from the north of the country .
Australia dropped Bill Brown , who had scored 73 runs at a batting average of 24 @.@ 33 in three Test innings during the season . Brown was Australia 's reserve opener , but Bradman opted to play him out of position in the middle @-@ order , instead of using a specialist . Brown had also struggled in his unfamiliar position in the matches against Worcestershire and the Marylebone Cricket Club , scoring 25 and 26 . According to O 'Reilly , Brown had appeared out of place in the middle @-@ order because he was used to the opener 's classical role of defending against and wearing down the opening bowlers , rather than attacking . He was replaced by the all rounder Sam Loxton , who had hammered an unbeaten 159 — including several sixes — against Gloucestershire , and that innings was particularly noted for his quick footwork , which he used to charge and attack the off spin of Tom Goddard .
= = Scorecard = =
= = = England innings = = =
= = = Australia innings = = =
= = 8 July : Day One = =
The match started amid clear weather , a far cry from the previous Ashes Test at the ground in 1938 , which was abandoned without a ball being bowled due to continuous rain for several days . The outfield was also smooth and green , a contrast to its state during World War II , when it was left cratered by German bombing raids . Yardley won the toss and elected to bat .
The change in England 's opening pair did not result in an improvement on the scoreboard . A run out was narrowly avoided following a mix @-@ up on the first ball , and Cyril Washbrook and Emmett appeared to be uncomfortable on a surface that offered early assistance to the bowlers . The Australians themselves started with Ray Lindwall and Bill Johnston taking the new ball , but Bradman had misjudged the breeze and had to swap his bowlers ' ends . For this purpose , Loxton bowled a solitary over . He was erratic in his length and bowled three long hops outside leg stump at the debutant Emmett , who ignored the opportunity to attack and let the balls pass . At the other end , Washbrook also played watchfully and avoided any horizontal bat shots , apart from a missed cut against Johnston 's bowling . Overall however , the English openers appeared comfortable in the first half hour of play .
With 22 runs on the board after half an hour of play , Washbrook played around a yorker from Johnston and was bowled , much to the disappointment of his Lancashire home crowd . Johnston had been bowling from over the wicket , and his left @-@ arm deliveries had generally been swinging back into the right @-@ handed Washbrook . However , the opening batsman did not detect Johnston 's variation ball , which was released from wide of the crease and angled across more sharply without curling back in . Washbrook played inside the line of the ball , which hit his stumps . Australia nearly had two wickets in the same over as the new batsman Bill Edrich struggled . He played loosely outside the off stump to the first ball but did not get an edge , and on the third delivery he faced from Johnston , Edrich survived again . Receiving a ball on middle and leg stump , he tried to defend it straight back down the pitch , rather than the conventional stroke to the leg side , and managed to edge the ball past the slips for four .
Six runs after the fall of Washbrook , the diminutive Emmett fended a rising ball from Lindwall to Sid Barnes at short leg , leaving England 28 / 2 . Surprised by Lindwall 's bouncer , Emmett took his eyes from the ball and fended with one hand on the horizontally @-@ held bat , while ducking his head down below his arms . The ball bounced slowly off the pitch and after hitting Emmett 's bat , rebounded gently up in the air for Barnes to collect . In Australia 's match against Gloucestershire immediately preceding the Test , Lindwall bowled a bouncer to Emmett , who hesitantly parried it away for a single . Lindwall did not deliver any more bouncers to Emmett during the match , and O 'Reilly thought the paceman was quietly waiting until the Tests to expose his opponent 's weakness against the short ball . O 'Reilly concluded that Australia 's pace duo " had again disposed of the English opening batsmen with the minimum amount of effort " .
Edrich eschewed attacking strokeplay as he and Denis Compton attempted to establish themselves . He was hurried by the pace of Lindwall and Johnston , making many last @-@ moment movements to either hit the ball or withdraw from a shot .
Lindwall bowled a series of short balls . One hit Compton on the arm and the batsman attempted to hook another bouncer , but edged it into his face . Upon hearing the umpire 's call of no ball while the ball was travelling towards him , and knowing he was immune from dismissal , Compton decided to change his stroke . Having initially positioned himself to deflect the ball into the leg side , he then attempted to hook the ball , but could not readjust quickly enough . The velocity of the ball was such that it rebounded from his head and flew more than halfway to the boundary before landing . This forced Compton to leave the field with a bloodied eyebrow with the score at 33 / 2 . After a ten @-@ minute delay , Crapp strode to the centre for his debut innings , and he got off the mark from his first ball , gliding Lindwall past gully for a single . Lindwall then struck Edrich on the hand with another short ball , provoking angry heckling from spectators who compared him to Harold Larwood , a 1930s paceman who targeted batsmen with Bodyline , a strategy of intimidatory bowling . Edrich and Crapp then engaged in grim defensive play , resulting in one 25 @-@ minute period during which only one run was added , as England reached lunch with their total on 57 / 2 . Edrich had made 14 from 90 minutes of batting , while Crapp had made 11 in 60 minutes . One of the motives of batting slowly without taking risks was to ensure the innings lasted long enough that it would still be in progress by the time Compton recovered from his concussion , so he could resume batting . Edrich appeared to be lacking in confidence due to his recent run of low scores , and thus hesitant to play with any attacking intent , whereas Crapp was usually circumspect . For a series of accurate overs from Ernie Toshack , Crapp repeatedly defended a sequence of deliveries to Arthur Morris at silly point . Toshack 's first five overs were all maidens .
Upon the resumption , Crapp began to accelerate , hitting a six — which flew directly back over the bowler 's head and over the sightscreen — and three driven boundaries from the off spin of Ian Johnson . This was a stark contrast to Johnson 's first ten overs before lunch , which had yielded only seven runs . Crapp was eager to use his feet to get to the pitch of Johnson 's deliveries , and subsequently dealt with the spin fairly comfortably , whereas many of his compatriots stood in their crease and found matters much more difficult . He then hit Toshack to Barnes at short leg , but the catch was dropped . However , Crapp did not capitalise as Toshack conceded only eight runs in a sequence of eight overs . Australia took the new ball with the score at 87 and Lindwall trapped Crapp — who did not offer a shot — leg before wicket for 37 ; the batsman misjudged the line of a straight ball and thought it had pitched and struck his leg outside off stump . Tom Dollery came in and took a single to get off the mark but then missed a Johnston yorker and was bowled . This dismissal mirrored that of Washbrook 's in that Dollery failed to detect Johnston 's variation ball , and thus played for swing when there was none . England had lost two wickets for one run to be 97 / 4 . Captain Norman Yardley came in and played the fast bowling of Lindwall and Johnston with relative ease , retreating onto the back foot to allow himself more time to play his shots . Edrich was struck on the hand and Yardley edged to Keith Miller in the slips cordon on the half @-@ volley .
After 170 minutes of slow batting , Edrich gloved a rising Lindwall delivery and was caught behind by wicket @-@ keeper Don Tallon . At 119 / 5 , Compton returned to the field , his head wound having been stitched to stop the bleeding . He and Yardley played carefully until the tea break , and only the England captain offered a chance ; Barnes was unable to complete the reflex catch at short leg from the bowling of Toshack . After the resumption of play , Yardley on @-@ drove Lindwall for a four , but lofted Ernie Toshack , who had been bowling leg theory , into the packed on @-@ side where he was caught by Johnson at forward square leg . Toshack 's defensive bowling had caused the English skipper to lose patience and his departure for 22 left the score on 141 / 6 .
This brought wicket @-@ keeper Godfrey Evans to the crease and exposed the hosts ' lower @-@ order . The last of the specialist batsmen , Compton nearly departed soon after when he leaned forward to a leg @-@ side delivery from Johnson 's off spin . He overbalanced and stumbled forwards , and Tallon removed the bails . There were no television replays to assist the umpires in those days , and although the attempted stumping appeared close to the naked eye , the benefit of the doubt was given to the batsman and the appeal rejected . Compton made use of this and attacked Toshack successfully , forcing Bradman to make a bowling change . In fading light , Compton combined with the gloveman to add 75 runs for the seventh wicket in 70 minutes , before Lindwall removed Evans — who attempted a wild slash — to leave England 216 / 7 . Compton reached stumps on 64 , accompanied by Alec Bedser , who was on four , as England ended the day at 231 / 7 . Compton had been dropped one @-@ handed on 50 by Tallon , before being missed on 64 by the wicket @-@ keeper from the bowling of Johnston just before stumps .
= = 9 July : Day Two = =
England resumed on the second day at 231 / 7 amid dark skies and the threat of rain ; Australia was unable to break through despite taking the new ball . Bedser stubbornly defied the Australians , playing with a straight bat and stretching forward onto the front foot to block the ball . Tallon dropped Compton for the third time , off the bowling of Johnston when the batsman was on 73 . Lindwall bowled well below his top pace in the morning session and the batsmen slowly accumulated their runs . Bedser was the more defensive of the two Englishmen , and Compton drove Toshack past mid on for a four to register his second century of the series , after 235 minutes of batting . Lindwall then beat Compton in each of his last three overs before lunch , but the Englishman survived . England reached lunch at 323 / 7 having added 92 runs without losing a wicket . Compton was on 123 and Bedser on 37 , having brought up their century partnership . Five minutes were lost in the morning session when a stray dog invaded the playing arena and evaded policemen and a number of Australian fielders who attempted to catch it .
Immediately subsequent to the resumption , Compton took two boundaries from Lindwall 's first over and another from Johnston 's subsequent over . He then hit a ball into the covers and Bradman and Loxton collided in an attempt to prevent a run . Compton called Bedser through for a run on the misfield , but Loxton recovered and threw the ball to the wicket @-@ keeper 's end with Bedser a long way short of the crease . It ended an innings of 145 minutes , in which Bedser scored 37 and featured in a 121 @-@ run partnership with Compton . According to O 'Reilly , it was the only mistake Compton made in his innings . The stand fell five runs short of England 's highest Test partnership for the eighth wicket against Australia , a mark set by Patsy Hendren and Harold Larwood .
Pollard came to the crease and soon pulled a ball from Johnson into the ribs of Barnes , who was standing at short leg . Barnes stood closer than virtually all in that position , with one foot on the edge of the cut strip and he was unable to evade the ball . Barnes " dropped like a fallen tree " , and had to be carried from the ground by four policemen and taken to hospital for an examination . Throughout the season , Barnes had received a mixed reception for his tactics ; it was agreed they had a negative effect on the batsman , and there was a debate as to whether it was in the spirit of the rules . Compton hit two fours and Bradman responded by putting all of his men on the boundary to offer Compton a single so Pollard would be on strike and could be attacked . The Australia skipper then brought his men in close during the latter part of the over to prevent Compton from taking a single and regaining the strike for the following over . Compton was unable to farm the strike as he desired .
Toshack then bowled Pollard and Bradman caught Young from Johnston 's bowling as England were dismissed for 363 . Compton was unbeaten on 145 after 324 minutes of batting , having struck 16 fours . Lindwall took 4 / 99 and Johnston 3 / 67 . Miller did not bowl , so the four remaining frontline bowlers sent down no less than 38 overs each .
Australia came out to bat halfway through the middle session . Having dropped Brown , Barnes 's injury left Australia with only Arthur Morris as a specialist opener . Johnson was thus deployed as Australia 's makeshift second opener . He had never opened at Test level , but had once batted at No. 3 when used as a nightwatchman after the fall of the first wicket late on a day 's play . He was unable to make an impact — Bedser removed him for one , caught by Evans at chest height off the inside edge from a ball that reared from the pitch . It was a difficult catch as Evans was standing up to the stumps and he had little time to react to the ball 's change of direction . O 'Reilly criticised the use of Johnson as an opener , as vice @-@ captain Lindsay Hassett had transformed himself into a defensive batsman with little backlift and a guarded approach . Johnson 's dismissal brought Bradman in to face the new ball . The Australian captain thus had to face Bedser , who had already dismissed him three times in the Tests with a new ball , and Pollard , who had troubled him in the match against Lancashire . Pollard then trapped Bradman lbw with an off cutter that struck the Australian captain on the back foot for seven to leave Australia in trouble at 13 / 2 . This provoked a strong cheer from the crowd in support of Pollard , the Lancashire local . Australia were pinned down as Pollard bowled 17 consecutive overs from his long run , aiming for leg stump to stifle the scoring . He was partnered by Bedser , who bowled unchanged for 90 minutes .
Morris and vice @-@ captain Lindsay Hassett rebuilt the innings , adding 69 for the third wicket in 101 minutes . They played sedately without trying to take risks . Hassett fell after being beaten in flight by Young . Aiming to break Young 's restrictive leg side bowling , Hassett charged down the pitch and lofted a drive for four . However , in attempting a similar lofted drive over cover , he mishit the ball , which was caught by Washbrook at wide mid @-@ off . Miller joined Morris and they took the score to 126 / 3 at stumps , with their personal tallies on 23 and 48 respectively . The run rate picked up in the last 50 minutes of the day as the pair added 44 runs ; Miller was the more attacking of the Australian duo during this time .
= = 10 July : Day Three = =
On the third morning , the players were greeted by sunshine , and a large Saturday crowd had arrived from afar to watch proceedings ; as a result , the gates were closed by 9 : 00 in the morning with the ground already filled . The large gallery again encroached on the playing arena , which was not fenced . In the first hour , Australia struggled against the new ball . Miller was beaten three times in one over by Bedser before Pollard trapped him for 31 , after Australia had added only nine runs in the first hour . Four runs later , Bedser removed Morris for 51 , leaving Australia 139 / 5 . It had been a slow morning for Morris , who took 21 minutes to add to his overnight total and reached his half @-@ century 45 minutes into the day 's play , having added only four runs to his overnight score . At the same time , Barnes had come out to bat upon Miller 's dismissal , despite having collapsed while practising in the nets due to the aftereffects of his rib injury . He batted after refusing to stay in hospital and returning to the ground in spite of his bruised and discoloured ribs . He made a painful single in 25 minutes of batting before the injury became too much and he had to be taken from the ground with the assistance of Bradman among others , before being sent to hospital to be put under observation . Barnes would eventually miss two and a half weeks of cricket . Tallon and Loxton added a further 33 before the former was caught behind from Edrich with the score at 172 / 6 . Lindwall came into bat with Australia facing the prospect of the follow on . He received five consecutive bouncers from Edrich , one of which hit him in the hand and caused visible pain , evoking cheers from the home crowd . Loxton and Lindwall added a further 36 before the former was bowled by Pollard , leaving Australia 208 / 7 , still five runs behind the follow @-@ on mark . Johnston helped Lindwall advance Australia beyond the follow @-@ on before Bedser removed both . Johnston was reprieved in his brief innings when he edged a delivery from Pollard in the direction of Edrich at first slip , but Evans dived across , trying to catch the ball in his right hand . The wicket @-@ keeper could not hold on to the ball at full stretch , and the resulting deflection further to the right wrong @-@ footed Edrich , who was moving the other way , and it went past him . From second slip , Crapp dived left behind Edrich but the ball landed a few centimetres beyond his fingers . However , in the next over Bedser , Johnston edged the ball in the same manner and Crapp caught the ball easily . Lindwall was the last man out for 23 , while Toshack was unbeaten without scoring . Australia were thus bowled out for 221 , giving England a lead of 142 runs . Bedser and Pollard were the most successful bowlers , taking 4 / 81 and 3 / 53 respectively .
At the start of England 's second innings , Washbrook took a single from Lindwall , who then removed Emmett for a duck . The paceman pitched an outswinger on the off stump and Emmett edged it to wicket @-@ keeper Tallon , who took it in his right hand while taking a dive .
Emmett 's departure brought Lindwall 's tormentor Edrich to the crease . Bradman advised his speedster not to bowl any bouncers at Edrich , fearing such actions would be interpreted as retaliation and provoke a negative media and crowd reaction . After not bowling in the first innings , Miller came on and immediately broke through Washbrook 's defences , only to see the ball graze the stumps without dislodging the bails . Washbrook then drove Lindwall for four before Miller bounced him in the next over . After two Miller outswingers had evaded the outside edge of Washbrook , the batsman appeared unsettled . One bouncer was hit over square leg in an uncontrolled manner for a four , and another flew in the air , narrowly evading Loxton at fine leg . Lindwall followed Miller 's lead towards Washbrook and was no balled by umpire Davies for dragging his foot beyond the line . Following a disagreement , Davies threw Lindwall his jumper , but the matter faded away and the bowler was not no balled again after discussing the matter with Bradman .
Lindwall then bounced Washbrook again and this time the England opener went for the hook shot . The ball flew high in the air straight towards Hassett at fine leg , who dropped the catch on his third juggled attempt . Having received a life on 21 , Washbrook settled down as Loxton replaced Lindwall , while Johnson replaced Miller . Washbrook scored on both sides of the wicket and reached 50 in only 70 minutes as England proceeded to 80 / 1 . Lindwall returned for a new spell and almost hit Washbrook in the head . After tea , Edrich hit Miller for four . Although Lindwall did not retaliate for the bouncers he received in the first innings , Miller did so with four consecutive short balls , earning the ire of the crowd . Miller struck Edrich on the body before Bradman intervened , ordered him to stop , and apologised to Edrich . Edrich and Washbrook settled and put together a 124 @-@ run partnership in only 138 minutes , England 's largest of the series to that point . Edrich hit a four to long on , followed by a lofted off drive for six from the bowling of Toshack , generating momentum in their favour . However , Washbrook called Edrich through for a quick single soon after . The batsmen hesitated and after both Englishmen had paused in the middle of their run , Morris threw down Edrich 's stumps from cover , ending the partnership at 125 / 2 . Edrich had struck eight boundaries and a six in his 53 .
Toshack then removed Compton for a duck , caught in the slips by Miller , leaving England three wickets down with the score still on 125 . Crapp joined Washbrook and helped see off the new ball , stopping Australia 's fightback as England reached 174 by the close without further loss . Washbrook was unbeaten on 85 and Crapp 19 . England were 316 runs in front with two days of play remaining and seven wickets in hand . Their position was aided by the Australian fielders , who dropped Washbrook twice more . The Lancastrian was on 78 when he again hooked Lindwall to long leg and was again dropped by Hassett . The Australian vice @-@ captain responded by borrowing a helmet from a nearby policeman to signify his need for protection from the ball , much to the amusement of the crowd . After adding two more runs , Washbrook was dropped in the slips cordon by Johnson from the bowling of Toshack . At the end of the day 's play , Washbrook purchased a drink for Hassett in gratitude for the dropped catches .
= = 13 July : Day Five = =
The rest day was followed by the fourth day , which was abandoned due to persistent rain . Despite this , 21 @,@ 000 spectators came in anticipation of the weather clearing so that some play would be possible . However , a northeasterly depression from the Faroe Islands brought ongoing precipitation and prevented any play .
Yardley declared at the start of the fifth day after a pitch inspection , leaving Australia a victory target of 317 , but the rain kept falling and the entire first session was abandoned . The umpires had decided to start play half an hour later than normal , but this was not possible and they helped the ground staff to clean up the wet surface . Bradman chose to use the light roller and play was supposed to begin as soon as the lunch break ended .
Further delay meant play began after the tea break , and the pitch played very slowly because of the excess moisture , which also caused there to be little bounce in the surface . With Australia not looking to chase the runs because the time available was not reasonable , Yardley often had seven men in close catching positions . In the first half hour , Australia showed little attacking intent and scored only six runs . Young replaced Pollard and Johnson immediately swept him for four , before edging the next ball to Crapp , who completed the catch . Johnson fell for six to leave Australia at 10 / 1 .
Bradman came in and played his first 11 balls from Young without scoring , while Morris hit two streaky shots for four from Bedser . Yardley used the spin of Young and Compton for an hour , while Morris and Bradman made little effort to score . For 105 minutes , Morris stayed at one end and Bradman at the other ; neither looked to rotate the strike with singles . Bradman only played eight balls from Morris 's main end , and at one point was so startled by his partner 's desire for a single that he sent him back . The tourists thereafter batted in an unhurried and defensive manner to ensure a draw , which was sealed by a series of periodic rain interruptions . They ended on 92 / 1 from 61 overs , a run rate of 1 @.@ 50 , with 35 maidens . It was the slowest innings run rate to date in the series . Morris finished unbeaten on 54 , his fourth consecutive half @-@ century of the series . O 'Reilly criticised the approach taken by the Australians in the closing stages of the match , attributing it to Bradman 's orders . He said the pitch was made so tame by the heavy rain that they could have played in a natural and attractive manner to entertain the spectators , rather than defending carefully . He said Bradman 's " unwillingness to take a risk or to accept the challenging call of some particular phase of the game is one of the greatest flaws " in his leadership .
The attendance of 133 @,@ 740 exceeded the previous record for a Test in England , which was set in the preceding match at Lord 's even though more than 30 % of the playing time had been lost .
= = Aftermath = =
After being aided by rain while in a disadvantageous position during the Third Test , the Australians had only one tour match — a victory over Middlesex — to prepare for the next Test at Headingley . Barnes was unable to recover from his injury in this short space of time , and was replaced by Neil Harvey . Instead of opting to use reserve opener Brown to replace Barnes , Australia played Hassett out of position to partner Morris , while Harvey took a middle @-@ order slot .
For England 's part , Washbrook 's second innings half @-@ century at Old Trafford , aided by multiple dropped catches , was regarded as a major factor in his retention for the Headingley match , having scored only 63 runs in the first five innings of the series . He was reunited with Hutton , whose controversial exile lasted only one Test before Emmett was dropped . Dollery , who had made only 38 in three innings in the Second and Third Tests , was replaced by all @-@ rounder Ken Cranston . Despite being productive in domestic matches during the season , Cranston had struggled in his previous outings against the tourists . In two matches against Australia , he had managed only 47 runs in three innings and a total of 2 / 109 .
Washbrook and Hutton put on 168 for the first wicket , the first time England had put on more than 42 for opening stand , as the hosts went on to make 496 , their highest score for the series . Despite this , Australia 's batsmen set a world record by chasing down 404 on the final day to win by seven wickets and take a series @-@ winning 3 – 0 lead .
Following the historic win at Headingley , Australia had five tour matches before the final Test . They won three while two ended in rain @-@ curtailed draws . During this period , Barnes returned to action after recuperating from his rib injury . Australia then completed the series in style with a convincing innings victory in the Fifth Test at The Oval to complete a 4 – 0 result . The Fifth Test was the last international match , and the tourists only had seven further matches to negotiate in order to fulfil Bradman 's aim of going through the tour undefeated . Apart from two matches against the South of England and Leveson @-@ Gower 's XI , which were washed out after Australia had secured first innings leads of more than 200 , Bradman 's men had little difficulty , winning the remaining five fixtures by an innings . They thus became the first touring Test team to complete an English season undefeated , earning themselves the sobriquet The Invincibles .
= Architecture of Norway =
The architecture of Norway has evolved in response to changing economic conditions , technological advances , demographic fluctuations and cultural shifts . While outside architectural influences are apparent in much of Norwegian architecture , they have often been adapted to meet Norwegian climatic conditions , including : harsh winters , high winds and , in coastal areas , salt spray .
Norway 's architectural trends are also seen to parallel political and societal changes in Norway over the centuries . Prior to the Viking Age , wooden structures developed into a sophisticated craft evident in the elegant and effective construction of the Viking longships . Following that , the ascent of Christianity introduced Romanesque architecture in cathedrals and churches , with characteristically slightly pointed arches , barrel vaults , cruciform piers supporting vaults , and groin vaults ; in large part as a result of religious influence from England .
During the Middle Ages , the geography dictated a dispersed economy and population . As a result , the traditional Norwegian farm culture remained strong , and Norway differed from most European countries in never adopting feudalism . This , combined with the ready availability of wood as a building material , ensured that relatively few examples of the Baroque , Renaissance , and Rococo architecture styles so often built by the ruling classes elsewhere in Europe , were constructed in Norway .
Instead , these factors resulted in distinctive traditions in Norwegian vernacular architecture , which have been preserved in existing farms in the many Norwegian open @-@ air museums that showcase buildings from the Middle Ages through to the 19th century ; prominent examples include the Norsk Folkemuseum in Oslo and Maihaugen in Lillehammer , as well as extant buildings still in service on farms such as those in the Heidal valley .
In the 20th century , Norwegian architecture has been characterized by its connection with Norwegian social policy on the one hand , and innovation on the other . Norwegian architects have been recognized for their work , both within Norway — where architecture has been considered an expression of social policy — and outside Norway , in several innovative projects .
= = History = =
Construction in Norway has always been characterized by the need to shelter people , animals , and property from harsh weather , including predictably cold winters and frost , heavy precipitation in certain areas , wind and storms ; and to make the most of scarce building resources . Until modern times , transportation infrastructure was also primitive , and builders largely had to rely on locally available materials .
= = = Pre @-@ historic times = = =
The earliest traces of human habitation in Norway are dated to about 9000 BC , in mountainous regions near Store Myrvatn in contemporary Rogaland , where excavations have found portable dwellings most likely kept by nomadic reindeer hunters . Traces of such tents have also been found other places along the western coast ; at Fosenstraumen near Radøy in Hordaland archeological evidence indicates that tents in use at about 6500 BC were of similar design to those still in use by the Sami nomads
Over time , such tents became semi @-@ permanent through the introduction of a simple foundation . Traces of these can be found at the Vega archipelago , an area that is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site .
The first permanent dwellings were probably built between 3000 and 2000 BC , with the introduction of agriculture to Norway . Available evidence indicates that wood was the most used building material for these structures . Iron Age dwellings typically combined shelter for animals and humans in long houses in order to preserve heat . Remains of structures from the Stone Age through the Bronze Age and the Iron Age have been excavated at Forsand in Ryfylke , near Stavanger and several other locations . Most prehistoric long houses had pairs of roof @-@ bearing posts dividing the interior into three naves , and walls of palisades , wattle and daub or turf . Similar buildings have been excavated all over Northwestern Europe .
= = = Viking and medieval eras = = =
Two distinctive timber building traditions found their confluence in Norwegian architecture . One was the practice of log building with horizontal logs notched at the corners , a technique thought to have been imported from the peoples to the east of Scandinavia . The other was the stave building tradition ( typically found in stave churches ) , possibly based on improvements on the prehistoric long houses that had roof @-@ bearing posts dug into the ground . Although there is scant archaeological evidence of actual buildings from the earliest permanent structures , finds of Viking ships ( e.g. , the Oseberg ship ) suggest significant mastery of woodworking and engineering . In the Lofoten archipelago in Northern Norway , a Viking chieftain 's holding has been reconstructed at the Lofotr Viking Museum .
Not counting the 28 remaining stave churches , at least 250 wooden houses predating the Black Death in 1350 are preserved more or less intact in Norway . Most of these are log houses , some with added stave @-@ built galleries or porches .
As the political power in Norway was consolidated and had to contend with external threats , larger structures were built in accordance with military technology at the time . Fortresses , bridges , and ultimately churches and manors were built with stone and masonry . These structures followed the European styles of their time .
= = = = Stave churches = = = =
Possibly more than 1000 stave churches were built in Norway during the Middle Ages , most of them during the 12th and 13th centuries . Until the beginning of the 19th century , as many as 150 stave churches still existed . Many were destroyed as part of a religious movement that favored simple , puritan lines , and today only 28 remain , though a large number were documented and recorded by measured drawings before they were demolished .
The stave churches owe their longevity to architectural innovations that protected these large , complex wooden structures against water rot , precipitation , wind , and extreme temperatures . Most important was the introduction of massive sills underneath the staves ( posts ) to prevent them from rotting . Over the two centuries of stave church construction , this building type evolved to an advanced art and science . After the Reformation , however , no new stave churches were built . New churches were mainly of stone or horizontal log buildings with notched corners . Most old stave churches disappeared because of redundancy , neglect or deterioration , or because they were too small to accommodate larger congregations , and too impractical according to later standards .
= = = = Romanesque architecture = = = =
The first stone churches in Norway were Romanesque , built under the influence of Anglo @-@ Saxon missionaries , particularly bishop Nicholas Breakspear . Later churches were influenced by Continental architecture . Examples include the churches at Ringsaker , Kviteseid , and elsewhere . Many of these churches have either been lost or rebuilt in the Gothic style , but numerous examples still exist , notably the Trondenes Churchat Trondenesin Troms .
= = = = Gothic architecture = = = =
Several churches that were originally built as Romanesque structures were modified or extended during the Gothic period . Among these are the cathedral of Hamar , now in ruins , the Stavanger Cathedral , and the renowned Nidaros Cathedral , one of the most important pilgrim destinations in medieval Europe .
= = = Under Danish rule = = =
In the late Middle Ages , the Norwegian state was severely weakened . In 1389 Norway entered into a personal union with Denmark and Sweden in the Kalmar Union . As the kings resided in Denmark , Norway was gradually reduced to a provincial status , and after the Reformation most of its separate institutions were abolished . The Danish government in Copenhagen regarded Norway as a backward province to be exploited , but not worthy of investment in monumental architecture . Hence , ambitious Renaissance architecture is unusual in Norway compared to other European countries .
Fortresses , such as Akershus in Oslo , Vardøhus in Vardø , Tønsberghus in Tønsberg , the Kongsgården in Trondheim and Bergenhus with the Rosenkrantz Tower in Bergen were built in stone in accordance with standards for defensive fortifications of their time . Many of these were modernized and rebuilt through the years .
The Hanseatic League also built unique commercial buildings at Bryggen in Bergen , starting in the 16th century . They were log buildings combining native and German traditions .
= = = = Renaissance architecture = = = =
After the Black Death , monumental construction in Norway came to a standstill , except for vernacular building , only to be resumed in the 16th and 17th centuries under Danish administration . There are few examples of Renaissance architecture in Norway , the most prominent being the Rosenkrantz Tower in Bergen , Barony Rosendal in Hardanger , and the contemporary Austråt manor near Trondheim , and parts of Akershus Fortress .
Christian IV undertook a number of projects in Norway that were largely based on Renaissance architecture He established mining operations in Kongsberg and Røros , now a World Heritage Site . After a devastating fire in 1624 , the town of Oslo was moved to a new location and rebuilt as a fortified city with an orthogonal layout surrounded by ramparts , and renamed Christiania . King Christian also founded the trading city of Kristiansand , naming it after himself .
= = = = Baroque architecture = = = =
As Norway became a strategic part of the Danish @-@ Norwegian kingdom , Danish kings built fortifications along borders and the seacoast . Over time , many of the fortifications at border areas and ports were modernized in line with Baroque military practice .
Although most residences were built according to local vernacular traditions , some manors ( such as Austråt and Rosendal ) exhibit the influence of Baroque architecture . Only the city of Christiania ( Oslo ) had a building code that prohibited wooden houses , and a number of large town houses modeled after Continental building types were constructed . Some large churches were constructed with brick walls , notably in Bergen , Christiania , Røros and Kongsberg .
Probably the most famous Baroque structure in Norway is Stiftsgården , the Royal residence in Trondheim , a residential building that is one of the largest wooden structure in Northern Europe .
= = = = Rococo architecture = = = =
Rococo provided a brief but significant interlude in Norway , appearing primarily in the decorative arts , and mainly in interiors , furniture and luxury articles such as table silver , glass and stoneware . In some country districts folk artists produced the distinctly Norwegian craft of decorative painting , rosemaling , and related wood carving style . In polite architecture , a few wooden town houses and manors show rococo influence , notably in Trondheim and Bergen , Damsgård Manor in Bergen being the most significant .
In towns and central country districts during the 18th century , log walls were increasingly covered by weatherboards , a fashion made possible by sawmill technology . These buildings were better insulated and better protected against the harsh climate . But the main reason for the rapid adoption of this custom was the more fashionable appearance of boarded walls , which were more suitable than bare log walls as a background to details and ornaments borrowed from classical architecture .
= = = 19th century = = =
The Napoleonic Wars led to the separation of Norway and Denmark . Norway was restored in 1814 as an autonomous kingdom in a personal union with Sweden . The two states had separate institutions , except for the king and the foreign service . Regained statehood required new public buildings , mainly in the capital of Christiania . During the following century , the country experienced an impressive growth in wealth and population , resulting in a need for new infrastructure and buildings .
= = = = Neo @-@ classicism = = = =
At the dawn of the 19th century , less than a handful of academically trained architects were active in Norway , most of them military officers having studied civil engineering . The market for architects was limited in a sparsely inhabited country with no capital city , no court and no important government institutions . Architecture was of interest mainly to a limited group of wealthy merchants and landowners . However , toward the close of the previous century , this group saw a remarkable increase in prosperity . Large fortunes were made by a few , who then sought to surround themselves with buildings and gardens appropriate to their social position . Well connected internationally , these people were acquainted with the latest trends in architecture . Neoclassical structures were much in demand .
Architect Carl Frederik Stanley ( 1769 – 1805 ) , educated in Copenhagen , spent some years in Norway around the turn of the 19th century . He did minor works for wealthy patrons in and around Oslo , but his major achievement was the renovation of the only seat of higher education in Christiania , the Oslo Katedralskole , completed in 1800 . He added a classical portico to the front of an older structure , and a semi @-@ circular auditorium that was sequestered by Parliament in 1814 as a temporary place to assemble , now preserved at Norsk Folkemuseum as a national monument .
Christian Collett ( 1771 – 1833 ) , a graduate of the Mining Academy at Kongsberg , designed the splendid Ulefoss manor , built between 1802 and 1807 by sawmill owner Niels Aall . This is one of the few brick houses in Norway , boasting a palladian layout , a central cupola , and a classical colonnade . Collett designed several other manors and town houses .
The same period saw the erection of a large number of splendid neo @-@ classisist houses in and around all towns along the coast , notably in Halden , Oslo , Drammen , Arendal , Bergen and Trondheim , mainly wooden buildings dressed up as stone architecture . By far the largest private house in Norway is the Jarlsberg manor , renovated 1812 @-@ 1814 by the Danish architect Løser for count Herman Wedel @-@ Jarlsberg .
Christiania , promoted to the status of a capital city in 1814 , had practically no buildings suitable for the many new government institutions . An ambitious building program was initiated , but realised very slowly because of a strained economy . The first major undertaking was the Royal Palace , designed by Hans Linstow and built between 1824 and 1848 . Linstow also planned Karl Johans gate , the avenue connecting the Palace and the city , with a monumental square halfway to be surrounded by buildings for the University , the Parliament ( Storting ) and other institutions . But only the University buildings were realised according to this plan . Christian Heinrich Grosch , one of the first fully educated architects in Norway , designed the original building for the Oslo Stock Exchange ( 1826 – 1828 ) , the local branch of the Bank of Norway ( 1828 ) , Christiania Theatre ( 1836 – 1837 ) , and the first campus for the University of Oslo ( 1841 – 1856 ) . For the University buildings , he sought the assistance of the renowned German architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel .
The German architectural influence persisted in Norway , and many wooden buildings followed the principles of Neoclassicism .
= = = = Romanticism and historicism = = = =
Norwegian romantic nationalism also had an influence on Norwegian architecture from around 1840 . Following the German lead , many classicist architects designed red @-@ brick buildings in a revival of medieval styles . Romanesque and Gothic examples were considered eminently suitable for churches , public institutions and factories . Linstow was the first Norwegian architect to be inspired by the Middle Ages in his proposal of 1837 for a square to be surrounded by public building , bisected by an avenue between Christiania and the new Royal Palace . On the north side , planned buildings for the University were to be " composed in some Medieval or Florentine style " , with exposed brick @-@ work . His classicist colleague Grosch was the first to convert to historicism and realize a number of red @-@ brick buildings , after his 1838 visit to Berlin , where he met the famous architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel . The first major historicist work by Grosch was the neo @-@ romanesque Bazaars and the adjacent firestation near the Oslo Cathedral , begun in 1840 and extended in several stages until 1859 . Other architects followed , notably Heinrich Ernst Schirmer with the Botsfengselet ( penitentiary ) ( 1844 – 1851 ) , the Gaustad Hospital ( 1844 – 1855 ) and the Railway Station ( 1854 ) ( with von Hanno ) . Also in Oslo , the German architect Alexis de Chateauneuf ( 1799 @-@ 1853 ) designed Trefoldighetskirken , the first neo @-@ gothic church , completed by von Hanno in 1858 .
Most urban apartment buildings and villas continued to be built in the classical tradition , with plastered brick walls . The repertoire of historic styles was expanded in Homansbyen , Oslo 's first residential development of detached villas , planned by Georg Andreas Bull . He designed most of the early villas built from 1858 until 1862 in a variety of styles , ranging from medieval to classicist and exotic .
From around 1840 , architects started to design wooden buildings in a new style , the so @-@ called Swiss chalet style . The style and its name originated in Germany , where Swiss popular culture was much admired by the romanticists . Elements such as projecting roofs , verandas and emphasis on gables were inspired from Alpine vernacular buildings . But the style may more correctly be termed historicism in wood , a term introduced by Jens Christian Eldal . A number of residential , institutional , and commercial buildings were built in this style , characterized by ornate , projecting details . Railway stations and churches , designed by trained architects , were distributed all in rural districts and helped to make this style popular and to keep it alive in the vernacular tradition long after it went out of fashion among architects .
The Swiss chalet style evolved into a Scandinavian variation , known in Norway as the " dragon style ” , which combined motifs from Viking and medieval art with vernacular elements from the more recent past . The most renowned practitioner of this style was the architect Holm Hansen Munthe , who designed a number of tourist resorts , exhibition pavilions and churches in the 1880s and 1890s . These caught the eye of the German emperor Wilhelm II , who visited Norway annually . He commissioned Munthe to design his " Matrosenstation " near Potsdam and a hunting lodge with at " stave church " in Rominten in East Prussia . These last buildings were destroyed during World War II .
Architects abandoned both the " Swiss " and the " dragon " styles shortly after 1900 , but elements of the " Swiss style " survived in vernacular buildings for some decades . In the recent past , producers of pre @-@ fabricated family homes have increasingly reintroduced motifs from the " Swiss " style in their repertoire .
= = = Vernacular Architecture = = =
Until the 20th century , most Norwegians lived and worked in buildings that were designed and built according to vernacular building traditions , what in Norwegian is known as byggeskikk . These practices varied somewhat by region and climatic conditions and evolved over time , but were largely based on use of wood and other locally available resources .
Since the Middle Ages , most dwellings were log houses with notched corners , carefully crafted to ensure protection against the elements . Centrally placed open @-@ hearth fires with smoke vents in the roofs gave way to stone stoves and chimneys in early modern times . Specialized buildings became commonplace , organized around farmyards or gårdstun . The introduction of exterior boarding ( weatherboarding ) in the 18th century improved housing standards considerably and gave rise to larger houses .
Building practices along the coast also included boathouses , fishing cottages , piers , etc . Here , houses for livestock and people were typically built up from the actual shoreline . A typical medium @-@ sized farm in the inland of Norway would include a dwelling house ( våningshus ) , hay barn ( låve ) , livestock barn ( fjøs ) , one or more food storage houses ( stabbur ) , a stable , and occasionally separate houses for poultry , pigs , etc . Houses that had separate heat sources , e.g. , washing houses ( eldhus ) and smithies were usually kept separate from the other houses to prevent fires . Outhouses were typically separate , small structures . If the farm housed craftsmen , there would also be separate houses for carpentry , wheel making , shoemaking , etc .
In Eastern inland Norway and Trøndelag , the houses around a tun were typically organized in a square ( firkanttun ) ; in Gudbrandsdal , there was a distinction between inntun ( inner tun ) and uttun ( outer tun ) . The configuration of houses also depended on whether the farm was situated on a hill or in flatter terrain .
Depending upon the size and economic well @-@ being of the farm , there might also be a feast hall ( oppstue ) , a house for the retired farmers ( føderådstue ) , farm hands ' dormitory ( drengstue ) , carriage house ( vognskjul ) , and even distillery ( brenneskur ) . Smaller , poorer farms might combine barns and dwelling houses , have simpler storage areas , and use the facilities of other farms for activities they could not afford to build houses for .
Building traditions varied by region and type of structure . Food storage houses - stabbur - were usually built on stilts in ways that made it difficult for mice and rats , but not cats , to get in . Exterior cladding varied by region , often to take into account local climate conditions . Roofs were often covered with birch bark and sod .
Many places in Norway farms also maintained mountain farms ( seter / støl ) , where cows , goats , and sheep would put out to pasture during the summer months . These would typically include a small dwelling house and a dairy for making and storing cheese , sour cream , etc .
Modern Norwegian farms often maintain many building traditions but no longer need the many and varied buildings of the past . However , many of the traditions have been carried on in more recently built vacation cabins in the mountains and along the coast .
= = = 20th @-@ century architecture = = =
The German influence brought into Norway by neo @-@ classicism abated when Norway gained full independence in 1905 . A new generation of Norwegian architects educated in Sweden took the lead in developing a distinctly national architecture , endeavouring to break the German historicist tradition . However , German modernism and town planning continued to influence early 20th @-@ century architecture . As the Norwegian Institute of Technology was founded in 1910 and began to teach architecture in Trondheim , there also emerged a distinctly Norwegian collegium of architects that has contributed to a Norwegian regional architecture , discussed by the art historian Sigfried Giedeon .
= = = = Art nouveau architecture = = = =
The Jugendstil , a variant of Art Nouveau , had a certain influence on much of the new construction in Norway around the turn of the 20th century . The city of Ålesund , after burning to the ground in 1904 , was rebuilt almost entirely in this style and continues to be a prominent example , along with Riga and Brussels . Trondheim also has numerous art nouveau buildings . In the capital Oslo , few art nouveau buildings were erected , due to a local economic crisis and a stagnant building trade during the first decade of the century . However , some public buildings were constructed in this style , such as the Historical Museum and the Government office building . In Bergen , the main theatre Den Nationale Scene is a monumental example .
= = = = Mass residential architecture = = = =
Changing demographics and a growing social awareness led to increased political and architectural interest in providing cost @-@ effective , sanitary , and comfortable residential space to the growing urban population in general and the working class in particular . This was known as boligsaken ( " the housing cause " ) in Norwegian popular culture and continues to play a role to this day .
Architecture became a tool for and manifestation of social policy , with architects and politicians determining just what features were adequate for the intended residents of housing projects . As late as in 1922 , there were many who felt that working @-@ class families had no need for their own bath ; apartments and small houses only included a small kitchen and one or two rooms .
Before World War II , a number of cooperative investment projects known as " egne hjem " ( roughly " our own homes " ) resulted in a handful of developments , but after the war these gave way to cooperative organizations that were formed to finance and build large @-@ scale residential complexes . The largest-- Oslo Bolig og Sparelag , known as OBOS — built its first complex Etterstad in Oslo , but there were similar initiatives throughout the country . These co @-@ ops set standards for housing , hired architects to design solutions , and contracted to have them built . Entire sections , known as drabantbyer - or " satellite cities " - were built in the outskirts of major cities . The first of these - Lambertseter - introduced an entirely new phenomenon in the eastern areas of Oslo such as in Groruddalen , but similar areas also emerged in Bergen , Trondheim , and other cities . The apex of this trend was reached in 1966 with the massive buildings in Ammerudlia .
This era — which had spent most of its force by the mid @-@ 1970s — led to an increased awareness of the physical and emotional needs of city dwellers . Some of the issues under debate were .
Kitchen - traditional Norwegian homes combined the family room and kitchen , but in early apartment buildings , small , so @-@ called " laboratory kitchens " were popular . Over time , eat @-@ in @-@ kitchens took their place .
Natural light--large apartment buildings were oriented to provide sunlight to the residents , ideally orienting the kitchen toward the east to get the morning light and the living room to the west for evening light .
Privacy--providing separate sleeping quarters for parents and children , and among children led to larger apartments over time . Similarly , most buildings had a limited number of apartments adjoining each staircase .
Alienation - monolithic , homogenous apartment complexes reinforced what some characterized as " social democracy 's hell . "
The perceived shortcomings of the mass housing movement led to efforts to create cost @-@ effective housing solutions that were more varied , more integrated with natural surroundings , and above all more customized to families ' needs . In 1973 , the Parliament of Norway recommended a shift toward small residential houses rather than large apartment buildings . The Norwegian State Housing Bank ( Husbanken ) provided citizens with the ability to fund construction of their homes , and an entire construction industry formed to build these needs .
As a result of the pioneering efforts by Olav Selvaag and others , archaic and otherwise unnecessary restrictions were relaxed , improving opportunities for more Norwegians to build housing to suit their individual needs and preferences . Norwegians often undertake home improvement projects on their own , and many have built most of their own homes .
= = = = Functionalism = = = =
In the late 1920s , Modernism ( or the International style ) was taken up by Scandinavian architects . In Scandinavia this architectural trend was called Functionalism ( or colloquially in Sweden and Norway " funkis " ) . Modernism found many adherents among young architects , especially in Norway . Its definite breakthrough was the Stockholm Exhibition in 1930 , after which the majority of architects all over Scandinavia converted to the modern movement . Nowhere else did Modernism become so firmly established as the mainstream trend in architecture . It maintained its dominant position until about 1940 .
A number of landmark structures , particularly in Oslo , were built in the functionalist style , the first one being the Skansen restaurant ( 1925 – 1927 ) by Lars Backer , demolished in 1970 . Backer also designed the restaurant at Ekeberg , opened in 1929 . The art gallery Kunstnernes Hus by Gudolf Blakstad and Herman Munthe @-@ Kaas ( 1930 ) still shows influence from the preceding classicist trend of the 1920s . Hvalstrand bath ( 1934 ) is one of several public seaside bath facilities in Norway , by André Peters . A year before , Ingierstrand Bad was designed by Ole Lind Schistad ( 1891 @-@ 1979 ) and Eivind Moestue ( 1893 -1977 ) . Other great names of Norwegian functionalist architecture are Ove Bang , Fridtjof Reppen , Nicolai Beer ( 1885 @-@ 1950 ) and Per Grieg ( 1897 @-@ 1962 ) .
= = = = Reconstruction architecture = = = =
Following the scorched earth tactics of retreating Wehrmacht troops , large areas in Northern Norway needed to be rebuilt . In 1945 , there was an overwhelming need for housing . An architectural competition produced several designs for simple , cost @-@ effective , and rapidly assembled housing . The resulting houses were Spartan and broke with building standards , but met an immediate need for shelter .
The Museum of Reconstruction in Hammerfest is dedicated to the reconstruction .
= = = = Government @-@ sponsored architecture = = = =
As Norway gained full independence in 1905 , the national government determined to establish institutions consistent with the newly formed state 's ambitions as a modern society . The first prime minister made it a priority to modernize the Royal Palace in Oslo , building among other things , some of the country 's first water toilets , providing hot and cold water , and granting the Royal Family 's wish of providing a common apartment for the king , queen , and their son .
In the early years , such public works were limited to structures needed for the national government 's own administrative needs , but an increasing number of large @-@ scale projects were conceived , designed , and completed since 1905 to meet various needs , such as :
Public health and welfare , including :
Hospital complexes and polyclinical facilities , e.g. , Rikshospitalet , Haukeland University Hospital , Gaustad Hospital , etc .
Orphanages , later vacated in favor of other solutions that in turn required their own architecture .
Sanatoria , also vacated as the public health problem of tuberculosis was solved
Temporary and provisional housing for the indigent , asylum seekers , and homeless .
Sports and recreation facilities . Social policy in Norway both at the national and local level has emphasized the connection between athletics at the mass and elite levels , and athletic centers have typically been built both to accommodate spectators , participants , and training . As an example , the Holmenkollen ski jump has been rebuilt several times , the Bislett Stadion was rebuilt in 2004 @-@ 2005 , and virtually every municipality has built year @-@ round facilities .
Centers for cultural expression . Some of the most ambitious and controversial structures have been those dedicated to performing arts , art museums , and any combination of such activities . Since many of these have been built in cities with an architectural legacy , their designs have sought — more or less successfully — to complement the urban landscape by giving it a modern element . Examples include the Henie @-@ Onstad Art Centre ( by Jon Eikvar and Sven Erik Engebretsen ) , Chateau Neuf by Lund & Slaatto , the " barn " at Hedmarkmuseet by Sverre Fehn , and the Grieg Hall ( by Knud Munk ) .
Churches . The Norwegian State Church , holding the legacy of nearly one thousand years of Norwegian church architecture , commissioned new churches that covered a wide range of architectural styles , including entirely new designs ( e.g. the Arctic Cathedral by Jan Inge Hovig ) to new casts of traditional designs ( e.g. , Veldre church , by Roar Jacobsen and Ulf Zettersten . )
Transportation infrastructure , including bridges , tunnels , and most notably transit centers for rail , sea , and air transportation . Oslo airport ( by the Aviaplan consortium at Gardermoen ) was Norway 's largest construction project ever .
The architectural designs of these projects have reflected not only the style currents of their time , but the societal debate over the purpose they were intended to serve . Nationalistic ambitions early on gave way to austere designs based on functionalism , and then to designs that emphasized human and ecological needs . To a great extent , Norwegian architects have found the opportunity to develop their signature styles through these projects , and thereby also a Norwegian architectural dialect .
Many of the projects have been controversial , and the resulting creative tension has probably served to advance the state of architectural arts in Norway . National and local governments and governmental institutions will continue to be among the largest customers of architects in coming years .
= = Contemporary themes = =
A number of trends influence contemporary architecture in Norway , among them :
Growing public and private affluence . Buildings have a wider range of purpose , and are expected to meet increasingly complex demands . For example , the new opera building ( designed by Snøhetta ) in Oslo reflects an ambition not just to build a vibrant cultural center , but also to create a new architectural icon in the Oslofjord .
Aesthetics as a factor of well @-@ being . From the early austere principle that form should strictly follow function , there is a growing sensibility that aesthetics affect the physical and emotional health of those who use a building or structure . Norwegian laws concerning occupational health have for several decades emphasized access to daylight and fresh air , and it may also be that harsh climatic conditions create an added imperative for uplifting aesthetics .
Environmental concerns . In addition to concerns about air and water pollution , Norwegian architectural design has also emphasized integration with the natural landscape . More recently , architects have also worked with engineers to make the most out of scarce resources , e.g. , energy , water , etc .
Demographic diversity . Norwegian demographics have undergone significant changes the last few decades , resulting in new religious buildings
Norwegian building traditions . While it may be too much to speak of a renaissance in traditional Norwegian architecture , more and more urban planning is affected by the need to preserve or restore these traditions . Examples include plans to renew the center of Oppdal and recent work at the Oslo neighborhood of Grünerløkka .
A number of architectural prizes are awarded in Norway , including Houens fonds diplom , Treprisen , Statens byggeskikkpris , Sundts premie , Betongelementprisen , Betongtavlen , Glassprisen , Murverksprisen , Stenprisen , and Stålkonstruksjonsprisen .
= = = Books = = =
Gunnarsjaa , Arne ( 2006 ) . Norges arkitekturhistorie ( in Norwegian Bokmål ) . Oslo : Abstrakt . ISBN 978 @-@ 82 @-@ 7935 @-@ 127 @-@ 6 .
Grønvold , Ulf ( 2005 ) . Hundre års nasjonsbygging - arkitektur og samfunn , 1905 @-@ 2005 ( in Norwegian ) . Oslo : Pax forlag . ISBN 82 @-@ 530 @-@ 2758 @-@ 3 .
Brekke , Nils Georg ; Per Jonas Nordhagen ; Siri Skjold Lexau ( 2003 ) . Norsk arkitekturhistorie - frå steinalder og bronsealder til 21 @.@ hundreåret ( in Norwegian Nynorsk ) . Oslo : Det Norske Samlaget . ISBN 82 @-@ 521 @-@ 5748 @-@ 3 .
( Norwegian ) Brochmann , Odd ( 1979 ) . Bygget i Norge . En arkitekturhistorisk beretning ( in Norwegian Bokmål ) . Oslo : Gyldendal . ISBN 82 @-@ 05 @-@ 12328 @-@ 4 .
Bjørn Myhre , Bjarne Stoklund , Per Gjærder : Vestnordisk byggeskikk gjennom 2000 år . Tradisjon og forandring fra romertiden til 19 @.@ århundre . AmS skrifter nummer 7 , Stavanger
Eilert Sundt : Om bygningsskikken på landet i Norge . 1862 .
Christian Norberg @-@ Schulz : Modern Norwegian Architecture . 1986 . Oslo . Scandinavian University Press . ISBN 82 @-@ 00 @-@ 07696 @-@ 2
Christian Norberg @-@ Schulz : Stedskunst . 1995 . Oslo . Gyldendal . ISBN 82 @-@ 05 @-@ 23502 @-@ 3
Ole Daniel Bruun : Arkitektur i Oslo . 1999 . Oslo . Kunnskapsforlaget . ISBN 978 @-@ 82 @-@ 573 @-@ 0948 @-@ 0
= Toronto Raptors =
The Toronto Raptors are a Canadian professional basketball team based in Toronto , Ontario . The Raptors compete in the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) , as a member of the league 's Eastern Conference Atlantic Division . The team was established in 1995 , along with the Vancouver Grizzlies , as part of the NBA 's expansion into Canada . When the Grizzlies relocated to Memphis , Tennessee to become the Memphis Grizzlies in 2001 , the Raptors became the only Canadian @-@ based team in the NBA . They originally played their home games at the SkyDome ( since renamed Rogers Centre in 2005 ) , before moving eastward along Bremner Boulevard to the Air Canada Centre in 1999 .
Like most expansion teams , the Raptors struggled in their early years , but after the acquisition of Vince Carter through a draft day trade in 1998 , the team set league @-@ attendance records and made the NBA playoffs in 2000 , 2001 , and 2002 . Carter was instrumental in leading the team to a then @-@ franchise high 47 wins and their first playoff series win in 2001 , where they advanced to the Eastern Conference semifinals . During the 2002 – 03 and 2003 – 04 seasons , they failed to make significant progress and he was traded in 2004 to the New Jersey Nets .
After Carter left , Chris Bosh emerged as the team leader . In 2006 – 07 , Bryan Colangelo 's first full season as President and General Manager , a combination of Bosh , 2006 first overall NBA draft pick Andrea Bargnani and a revamp of the roster helped the Raptors qualify for their first playoff berth in five years , capturing the Atlantic Division title with 47 wins . In the 2007 – 08 season , they advanced to the playoffs again , but failed to make the playoffs in each of the next five seasons . In a bid to persuade Bosh to stay , Colangelo overhauled the team roster for the 2009 – 10 season , but Bosh signed with the Miami Heat in July 2010 , ushering in yet another era of rebuilding for the Raptors .
After Masai Ujiri was brought in as the new General Manager in 2013 , he traded Bargnani to the New York Knicks . With a backcourt led by Kyle Lowry and DeMar DeRozan , the Raptors returned to the playoffs , won their second Atlantic Division title , and won a then @-@ franchise record 48 games in the 2013 – 14 season . However , they failed for a fourth consecutive time to advance beyond the first round of the playoffs . In the 2014 – 15 season , they won a then @-@ franchise record 49 games , but failed for a second consecutive year to advance past the first round of the playoffs , getting swept by the Washington Wizards , 4 – 0 . In the 2015 – 16 season , they won a franchise record 56 games , finishing in second place in the conference for the first time in franchise history . In the playoffs , they won their first playoff series since 2001 by defeating both the Indiana Pacers and Miami Heat , advancing to the Conference Finals for the first time against the Cleveland Cavaliers , only for the Raptors to lose to the eventual NBA champions in six games .
= = Franchise history = =
= = = Creation = = =
The Toronto Raptors were established on November 4 , 1993 , when the NBA , as part of its expansion into Canada , awarded its 28th franchise to a group headed by Toronto businessman John Bitove for a then @-@ record expansion fee of $ 125 million US . Bitove and Allan Slaight of Slaight Communications each owned 44 % , with the Bank of Nova Scotia ( 10 % ) , David Peterson ( 1 % ) , and Phil Granovsky ( 1 % ) being minority partners . Wagering on NBA games in Ontario nearly cost Toronto the expansion franchise , due to strict league rules at the time that prohibited gambling . However , an agreement was reached whereby the provincial lottery corporation agreed to stop offering wagering on all NBA games in exchange for a donation by the Raptors of $ 5 million in its first three years and $ 1 million annually afterwards to its charitable foundation to compensate the provincial lottery corporation for its loss of revenue . The Raptors , along with the Vancouver Grizzlies , played their first game in 1995 , and were the first NBA teams based in Canada since the 1946 – 47 Toronto Huskies , though the Buffalo Braves had played a total of 16 regular season games at Maple Leaf Gardens in Toronto from 1971 to 1975 .
Initial sentiment was in favour of reviving the Huskies nickname , but team management realized it would be nearly impossible to design a logo that did not substantially resemble that of the Minnesota Timberwolves . As a result , a nationwide contest was held to help name the team and develop their colours and logo . Over 2 @,@ 000 entries were narrowed down to ten prospects : Beavers , Bobcats , Dragons , Grizzlies , Hogs , Raptors , Scorpions , T @-@ Rex , Tarantulas , and Terriers . The final selection — Toronto Raptors — was unveiled on Canadian national television on May 15 , 1994 : the choice was influenced by the popularity of the 1993 film adaption of the 1990 science fiction novel Jurassic Park by Michael Crichton . The name " Raptor " is a common informal name for the velociraptor , a swift medium @-@ sized dromaeosaurid theropod dinosaur . On May 24 , 1994 , the team 's logo and first General Manager , Isiah Thomas were revealed at a press conference . As part of the deal , Thomas received an option to purchase part of the team , reportedly for under market value . He would purchase 4 @.@ 5 % in May 1995 and a further 4 @.@ 5 % in December 1995 , half each from Bitove and Slaight , decreasing their share to 39 @.@ 5 % . The team 's colours of bright red , purple , black , and silver were also revealed ; " Naismith " silver was chosen as an ode to Canadian James Naismith , the inventor of basketball . The team originally competed in the Central Division , and before the inaugural season began , sales of Raptors merchandise ranked seventh in the league , marking a successful return of professional basketball to Canada .
As General Manager , Isiah Thomas quickly staffed the management positions with his own personnel , naming long @-@ time Detroit Pistons assistant Brendan Malone as the Raptors ' head coach . The team 's roster was then filled as a result of an expansion draft in 1995 . Following a coin flip , Toronto was given first choice and selected Chicago Bulls point guard and three @-@ point specialist B. J. Armstrong . Armstrong refused to report for training and Thomas promptly traded him to the Golden State Warriors for power forwards Carlos Rogers and Victor Alexander . Thomas then selected a wide range of players in the expansion draft , including veterans Jerome Kersey , Willie Anderson and his former Pistons teammate John Salley .
Subsequent to the expansion draft , the Raptors landed the seventh pick in the NBA draft lottery , behind their fellow 1995 expansion club , the Vancouver Grizzlies . Thomas selected Damon Stoudamire , a point guard out of Arizona , around whom the franchise would seek to construct its near future . Yet , the selection of Stoudamire was met with boos from fans at the 1995 NBA draft at SkyDome in Toronto , many of whom wanted Ed O 'Bannon of UCLA , an NCAA Final Four Most Valuable Player .
= = = 1995 – 99 : Struggles of a new franchise = = =
In the team 's first official NBA game , Alvin Robertson scored the first NBA points in Raptors history , while Stoudamire recorded 10 points and 10 assists in a 94 – 79 victory over the New Jersey Nets . The Raptors concluded their inaugural season with a 21 – 61 win – loss record , although they were one of the few teams to defeat the Chicago Bulls , who set a then all @-@ time NBA best 72 – 10 win – loss regular season record . With averages of 19 @.@ 0 points and 9 @.@ 3 assists per game , Stoudamire also won the 1995 – 96 Rookie of the Year Award .
In November of the 1996 – 97 season , Bitove sold his ownership interest in the team to Slaight for $ 65 million after Slaight had activated a shotgun clause in their partnership agreement , giving Slaight 79 % control of the team , and remaining minority partner of the Bank of Nova Scotia ( 10 % ) , Thomas ( 9 % ) Peterson ( 1 % ) and Granovsky ( 1 % ) . Slaight subsequently acquired the 1 % which had been owned by both Peterson and Granovsky , who had died a year earlier . The team improved on its win record by nine games . They selected centre Marcus Camby with the second overall pick in the 1996 NBA draft . By the end of the season , Camby earned a berth on the NBA 's All @-@ Rookie Team while Stoudamire continued to play well , averaging 20 @.@ 2 points and 8 @.@ 8 assists per game . As in the previous season , the Raptors were one of only 11 teams to topple the eventual 1997 Champions , the Chicago Bulls . The Raptors also defeated the Houston Rockets , Utah Jazz and Miami Heat , all of whom were eventual Conference finalists . However , the Raptors struggled against teams who were not of championship calibre , including three losses to the 15 – 67 Boston Celtics .
In the 1997 – 98 season , the team suffered numerous injuries and slid into a 17 @-@ game losing streak . After Thomas ' attempts to execute a letter of intent with Slaight to purchase the team failed , he resigned his position with the team in November and sold his 9 % stake in the team to Slaight . This left Slaight with 90 % and the Bank of Nova Scotia with 10 % . Thomas was replaced by Glen Grunwald as GM . With Thomas gone , Stoudamire immediately sought a trade . On February 13 , 1998 , he was shipped to the Portland Trail Blazers along with Walt Williams and Carlos Rogers for Kenny Anderson , Alvin Williams , Gary Trent , two first @-@ round draft choices , a second @-@ round draft choice and cash . Anderson refused to report to Toronto and was traded to the Celtics with Žan Tabak and Popeye Jones for Chauncey Billups , Dee Brown , Roy Rogers and John Thomas . When the trading deadline was over , the Raptors became the youngest team in the league with an average age of 24 @.@ 6 . They had five rookies on their roster , including the 18 @-@ year @-@ old Tracy McGrady , who at the time was the youngest player in the NBA . The inexperienced Raptors struggled throughout the season and their regular season record regressed to 16 – 66 .
On February 12 , 1998 , Maple Leaf Gardens Ltd . , the owners of the Toronto Maple Leafs , purchased 100 % of the Raptors and the arena the team was building , Air Canada Centre , from Slaight and the Bank of Nova Scotia . MLSE paid a reported $ 467 million , made up of $ 179 million for the team and $ 288 million for the arena . During the 1998 NBA draft , in what became a defining move for the franchise , Grunwald traded the team 's 4th overall pick Antawn Jamison to the Golden State Warriors for Vince Carter , who was selected 5th overall . To bring further credibility to the Raptors , Grunwald traded Marcus Camby to the New York Knicks for Charles Oakley , a veteran with playoff experience . Kevin Willis , another veteran acquired from the trade , solidified the centre position , while the coaching staff temporarily rotated Brown , Williams and Doug Christie to play point guard . Both Christie and Williams became talented players in their own right ; Christie developed into one of the elite defenders in the NBA , while Williams improved his play on the offensive end . New coach Butch Carter was also credited with much of the team 's turnaround during the lockout shortened 1998 – 99 season . Although the team did not make the playoffs , many were optimistic with the impressive performances of Rookie of the Year Carter and a much improved McGrady .
= = = 1999 – 2002 : The Vince Carter era = = =
During the 1999 NBA draft , believing that the Raptors still lacked a strong frontcourt presence , Grunwald traded first @-@ round draft pick Jonathan Bender for power forward Antonio Davis of the Indiana Pacers . Davis quickly entered the Raptors starting lineup and he would develop into an All @-@ Star in the coming years . Conversely , Bender would only play 9 seasons and would be out of the league by age 29 . In the backcourt , Carter , Christie and Dell Curry played at the shooting guard position and Alvin Williams and Muggsy Bogues at point guard . The rotation of Davis , Oakley and Willis in the frontcourt and Carter 's and McGrady 's improvement helped the team make its first ever playoff appearance , fulfilling a promise Carter had made to fans in the previous season . Lacking significant post @-@ season experience , Toronto was defeated 3 – 0 by the New York Knicks in the first round . Nonetheless , team improvements and the rise of Carter — who emphatically won the 2000 NBA Slam Dunk Contest — attracted many fans around Toronto , many of whom were previously not basketball fans . The season was also the first full year played at the Air Canada Centre , after having played four years at the cavernous SkyDome , which was better suited to baseball and Canadian football . Overall , the Raptors concluded the season with a 45 – 37 record .
Still , playoff failures and Butch Carter 's media altercations surrounding Camby led Grunwald to replace Carter prior to the 2000 – 01 season with Lenny Wilkens , a Hall of Fame coach and player with more than 30 years of coaching experience . The team roster was also largely revamped , including the signing of veteran playmaker Mark Jackson on a four @-@ year contract . When Alvin Williams later emerged as a clutch performer , Jackson was traded to allow Williams more playing time . In the 2000 off @-@ season , free agent McGrady opted to leave the Raptors in a sign @-@ and @-@ trade deal worth $ 67 @.@ 5 million over six years , while giving a conditional draft pick as part of the agreement to the Orlando Magic , for a first @-@ round draft pick .
As predicted by analysts , the team easily secured a berth in the 2001 NBA playoffs with a franchise high 47 wins . The Raptors won their first ever playoff series as they defeated New York 3 – 2 , advancing to the Eastern Conference Semifinals for the first time in franchise history . Wilkens was praised for having Williams defend shooting guard Allan Houston and Carter defend small forward Latrell Sprewell , the two major Knicks offensive threats . The series with Philadelphia 76ers was a landmark for the Raptors in terms of performance and entertainment value . The Sixers relied on Allen Iverson and Dikembe Mutombo for their respective offensive and defensive abilities , along with steady help from Aaron McKie . Toronto was the more balanced team with Carter , Alvin Williams and Davis providing much of the offensive game and Chris Childs and Jerome Williams on defence . The series came down to the last few seconds of Game 7 , when Carter 's potential series @-@ winning shot rolled off the rim . Carter was later widely criticized for attending his graduation ceremony at the University of North Carolina on the morning of Game 7 , as he scored only 20 points on 6 @-@ for @-@ 18 shooting , after a 39 @-@ point performance in Game 6 . Despite the loss , the season is generally considered a watermark for the franchise , given the Raptors ' franchise high of 47 wins and advancing beyond the first round of the playoffs .
The relocation of the Vancouver Grizzlies to Memphis , Tennessee in 2001 , as the Memphis Grizzlies , left Toronto as the NBA 's only Canadian team . In the summer of 2001 , long @-@ term contracts were given to Alvin Williams , Jerome Williams and Davis , while former NBA MVP centre Hakeem Olajuwon was signed to provide Carter with good support . The Raptors appeared to be on their way to another competitive season , with a 29 – 21 record going into the All @-@ Star break and with Carter the top vote @-@ getter for the All @-@ Star game for the third consecutive year . Carter then suffered a bout of patellar tendinitis ( also known as " jumper 's knee " ) forcing him to miss the All @-@ Star game and the rest of the season , and without their franchise player , Toronto lost 13 consecutive games . However , they were able to win 12 of their last 14 games , clinching a playoff spot on the last day of the regular season . The comeback featured some of the Raptors ' best defence of the season , along with inspired performances by Davis and Keon Clark .
Despite Toronto 's improved defensive performances , Carter 's offence was sorely missed in the first @-@ round series against the second @-@ seeded Detroit Pistons . In the first game , Detroit overwhelmed Toronto 83 – 65 , largely due to Ben Wallace 's strong performance of 19 points , 20 rebounds , 3 blocks and 3 steals . Detroit also won Game 2 , but Toronto won the next two games at home to force a deciding and tightly contested Game 5 in Detroit . With 10 @.@ 7 seconds left in the game , and the Raptors down 85 – 82 with possession of the ball , Childs raced down the court and shot a three @-@ pointer that missed badly , apparently trying to draw a foul on the play , instead of passing to a wide @-@ open Curry . In a post @-@ game locker room interview , Childs repeatedly insisted that the Raptors had been down four points , not three . The Raptors ' late @-@ season surge was thus marred by a disappointing playoff exit ; the Olajuwon experiment was also a bust , with the 39 @-@ year @-@ old averaging career lows in minutes , points and rebounds . Furthermore , Childs , Clark , and Curry left the team , ensuring a new @-@ look team for the next season .
= = = 2002 – 06 : Another period of struggle = = =
The 2002 – 03 season began with the same optimism that the Raptors exhibited in three consecutive playoff seasons , although it faded early . Carter , while voted as a starter in the 2003 All @-@ Star Game , suffered a knee injury , while Davis expressed disinterest in Toronto , and Wilkens ' laissez @-@ faire attitude created a team that lacked the motivation and spirit of the previous years ' teams . The team was ravaged with injuries , losing an NBA record number of player games due to injury . Furthermore , the Raptors recorded the dubious honour of being the only team in NBA history to not dress 12 players for a single game in a season . Wilkens was criticized heavily by the Toronto media for his inability to clamp down on his players when necessary , especially given this was the year that Wilkens overtook Bill Fitch for the most losses by an NBA coach , with his loss total getting dangerously close to his win total . The Raptors ended the season with a 24 – 58 record and Wilkens was fired . This turned out to be a blessing in disguise , when the Raptors were given the 4th overall pick in the 2003 NBA draft and brought another star to Toronto in Chris Bosh .
Canadian country singer Shania Twain helped launch the new red Raptors alternate road uniform at the start of the 2003 – 04 season , and the jerseys made their debut in a 90 – 87 season @-@ opening victory on October 29 , 2003 against the defending Conference Champion New Jersey Nets . Davis and Jerome Williams were traded early in the season for Jalen Rose and Donyell Marshall . After 50 games , Toronto was 25 – 25 and in a position to make the playoffs , but injuries to key players sent the Raptors plummeting down the standings . Rose , Carter , and Alvin Williams all suffered injuries as the Raptors struggled to a record of 8 – 24 in their remaining games . The notable individual season performances were Carter 's 22 @.@ 5 ppg , Marshall 's 10 @.@ 7 rpg and rookie Bosh , a 6 – 10 forward @-@ centre who averaged 11 @.@ 5 ppg and 7 @.@ 4 rpg and was named to the NBA All @-@ Rookie Team . Williams ' knee injury turned out to be career @-@ ending .
For the 2004 – 05 season , the team moved into the Atlantic Division and the Raptors decided to revamp the team . Raptors President and CEO of Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment Richard Peddie fired Grunwald on April 1 , 2004 , after the team ended the season three games short of the eighth and final playoff spot in the previous season . Head coach Kevin O 'Neill and his four assistant coaches were also dismissed immediately after Grunwald 's termination . Toronto interim manager Jack McCloskey said : " While the blame for that certainly does not rest on O 'Neill and his staff alone , we need a change . " Rob Babcock was named General Manager on June 7 , 2004 , alongside the appointments of Wayne Embry as senior advisor and Alex English as director of player development . Sam Mitchell , a former NBA forward and assistant coach of the Milwaukee Bucks was hired as new head coach of the Raptors .
Babcock 's first move as GM was drafting centre Rafael Araújo — selected eighth overall — in the 2004 NBA draft , in a move that was criticized by fans and analysts , considering highly touted swingman Andre Iguodala was drafted with the next pick . Babcock signed point guard Rafer Alston to a five @-@ year deal . After Vince Carter 's annual charity game , Babcock implicitly revealed to the media that Carter 's agent had asked for a trade confirming Carter was discontent . The Toronto Sun reported that Carter felt he was being misled by the Raptors ' hierarchy during the General Manager search and had concluded that as long as the managerial structure at Maple Leaf Sports and Entertainment Ltd. remained intact , the Raptors would never be an elite team . Carter was finally traded mid @-@ season , ending his six @-@ year tenure . Toronto received Alonzo Mourning , forwards Eric Williams and Aaron Williams and two mid @-@ to @-@ late future first round picks from the New Jersey Nets . Mourning chose not to report to Toronto , forcing Babcock to buy out the remainder of his contract at a reported $ 10 million , leaving him free to sign with the Miami Heat . Eric and Aaron Williams were supposed to add defensive toughness and rebounding , but were generally under @-@ utilized for the entire season . Analysts had predicted Babcock got the bad end of the deal , and the trade eventually cost him his job .
Carter 's departure heralded a new era for Toronto . Bosh stepped up to the role of franchise player and performed well in his sophomore campaign , ranking tenth in the league in defensive rebounds . In contrast to Bosh 's emergence , Araújo struggled to keep a spot in the line @-@ up , and became unpopular with fans and local media . Although the ACC was often well @-@ attended due to the Raptors ' 22 – 19 home record , their inability to win on the road ( 11 – 30 ) and poor defensive record made Mitchell 's first year as head coach unimpressive . Additionally , Mitchell had problems dealing with Alston , who openly expressed his unhappiness with Mitchell in a post @-@ game interview . Later in the season , Alston was suspended two games for " conduct detrimental to the team " for reportedly walking out of a scrimmage during practice . Notwithstanding the unrest , in their first season competing in the Atlantic Division , Toronto maintained the same regular season record of 33 – 49 as the previous season .
The Raptors continued to rebuild during the 2005 NBA draft , selecting Charlie Villanueva , Joey Graham , Roko Ukić and Uroš Slokar , with Villanueva 's selection being very controversial amongst basketball pundits and Raptors fans alike . The Raptors started their training camp by trading Alston to the Houston Rockets for Mike James , and signing free agent José Calderón as a back @-@ up for James . Despite the infusion of new players , Toronto 's overall 2005 – 06 season was a disappointment ; they set a franchise record by losing their first nine games and 15 out of their first 16 games . With losses mounting and media scrutiny intensifying , the Raptors hired ex @-@ Purdue coach Gene Keady as an assistant off the bench to help develop the young Raptors team , as well as establish a defensive persona for the team . On January 15 , 2006 , the Raptors set a franchise points record in a 129 – 103 win over the Knicks when Villanueva hit a three @-@ pointer late in the game , but less than a week later , the Raptors gave up an 18 @-@ point lead against the Los Angeles Lakers , and allowed Lakers star Kobe Bryant to score 81 points , the second highest single @-@ game total in NBA history . With media scrutiny intensifying once more and the Raptors entrenched at the bottom of the league in defensive field goal percentage , Toronto fired Babcock .
The 2005 – 06 season was not a total disaster . Villanueva 's play impressed both fans and former critics as he came in second in NBA Rookie of the Year and recorded 48 points in an overtime loss to Milwaukee Bucks , the most points scored by any rookie in franchise history and the most by a rookie in the NBA since 1997 . Bosh was also named a reserve forward for the Eastern All @-@ Star Team in the 2006 game , becoming the third Raptor after Vince Carter and Antonio Davis to appear in an All @-@ Star Game . On February 27 , 2006 , the team named Bryan Colangelo , the 2004 – 05 NBA Executive of the Year , the President and General Manager of the Raptors . Known for his success in transforming a lottery Phoenix team into a 62 @-@ win offensive juggernaut , his hiring gave hope to many fans . Still , Toronto ended the season weakly when Bosh suffered a season @-@ ending thumb injury . The Raptors lost ten in a row after Bosh 's injury and finished the season with the fifth worst record ( 27 – 55 ) in the NBA .
= = = 2006 – 10 : The rise of Chris Bosh = = =
The 2006 – 07 season represented a watershed year for the Raptors franchise . The roster was overhauled , including the selection of 2006 NBA draft number one pick Andrea Bargnani , the acquisition of point guard T. J. Ford in exchange for Villanueva , and the signing of shooting guard Anthony Parker and small forward Jorge Garbajosa . Bosh was given a three @-@ year contract extension , while Maurizio Gherardini of Benetton Treviso was hired as the club 's vice @-@ president and assistant general manager .
The first half of the season produced mixed results as Toronto struggled towards the .500 mark . After the All @-@ Star break , Bargnani continued to work on his defence and shooting ( averaging 14 @.@ 3 points per game ( ppg ) and 3 @.@ 9 rebounds per game ( rpg ) in 12 games for the month of February 2007 ) , and he was selected as the Eastern Conference Rookie of the Month for the second straight time on March 1 , 2007 . Bargnani became the third Raptor ever to win the award twice , joining Vince Carter and Damon Stoudamire . Toronto ended the regular season with a 47 – 35 record , securing the third seed in the Eastern Conference for the 2007 NBA Playoffs along with the Atlantic Division title , as well as homecourt advantage for the first time in franchise history . Bosh was voted to start in the 2007 NBA All @-@ Star Game . The Raptors were also praised for their improved defence , ball @-@ sharing and tremendous team chemistry . Colangelo , Gherardini and Mitchell were credited with Toronto 's turnaround this season , which was one of the best in NBA history in terms of league standing and defensive ranking . Mitchell was subsequently named the 2006 – 07 NBA Coach of the Year , the first coach in Raptors history to receive the honour , while Colangelo was named 2006 – 07 Executive of the Year . On April 24 , 2007 , the Raptors won their first playoff game in five seasons , with an 89 – 83 victory over the New Jersey Nets , but lost the series 4 – 2 . The series was notable for pitting ex @-@ Raptor Vince Carter against his former team . The Nets took home court advantage in Game 1 , holding off a late Raptors rally in the fourth quarter . The Raptors pulled away in another tight game to even the series at one game apiece . When the series shifted to New Jersey , the Nets took charge of the series , winning games 3 and 4 in routs . New Jersey had a chance to win the series in game 5 in Toronto , but the Raptors took a 20 @-@ point lead after one quarter . Still , New Jersey managed to chip away , and had a chance to win the game , but Boštjan Nachbar 's three @-@ pointer missed at the buzzer . Needing to win in New Jersey to force a game 7 , Toronto held a one @-@ point lead with under a minute to play in game 6 , but Richard Jefferson hit a layup with eight seconds left to play . Toronto attempted to try for the game @-@ winning shot , but Jefferson intercepted a pass to seal the series for the Nets .
Several changes to the roster were made before the 2007 – 08 campaign as Toronto sought to reproduce the same form as the previous campaign . Most notably , the Raptors acquired Carlos Delfino in a trade with Detroit for two second round draft picks , and signed Jamario Moon and three @-@ point specialist Jason Kapono as free agents . On the other hand , veteran swingman Morris Peterson joined the New Orleans Hornets . Despite being defending division champions , the Raptors were widely tipped as outside contenders for the division and conference titles . However , Toronto quickly fell behind Boston in the division , as Bargnani 's inability to play well consistently , along with injuries to Garbajosa ( 75 games ) , Bosh ( 15 games ) and Ford ( 31 games ) , derailed the possibility of a smooth campaign as the Raptors finished 41 @-@ 41 , six fewer wins than the previous season , but still good enough for a playoff spot as the 6th seed . They were pitted against Dwight Howard and the resurgent Orlando Magic . In Game 1 , Dwight Howard gave the Magic their first playoff win since 2003 as they practically led the entire game . Howard would put up a 29 – 20 in Game 2 , as Hedo Türkoğlu scored the final four go @-@ ahead points to give the Magic a 2 – 0 lead . The Raptors would respond with a strong Game 3 victory keyed by great point guard play from Ford and José Calderon . However , Jameer Nelson , Rashard Lewis and Keith Bogans keyed strong three point shooting in Game 4 and overcame Bosh 's 39 points and 15 rebounds to bring the Magic out of Toronto with a 3 – 1 lead . Howard would finish off the series in Game 5 as impressively as he started – 21 points , 21 rebounds , 3 blocks . Whereas the preceding season was considered a success , the 2007 – 08 campaign was considered a disappointment . Weaknesses in Toronto 's game — rebounding , defence , and a lack of a swingman — were brought into sharp focus during the playoffs , and changes were expected to be made to the roster .
As it turned out , a blockbuster trade was agreed in principle before the 2008 – 09 campaign : six @-@ time All @-@ Star Jermaine O 'Neal was acquired from the Indiana Pacers in exchange for Ford ( who had become expendable with the emergence of Calderón ) , Rasho Nesterović , Maceo Baston , and Roy Hibbert , the 17th pick in the 2008 NBA draft , giving the Raptors a potential boost in the frontcourt . Meanwhile , Bargnani , who had spent the summer working on his interior game , was projected to come off the bench . The Raptors also introduced a black alternate road jersey for the season similar to the earlier purple design that was dropped a few seasons ago . It had a maple leaf featured on the back neck of the jersey , symbolizing the Raptors as " Canada 's team " . Despite the introduction of O 'Neal , who brought home the rebounds and the blocks , and a much improved Bargnani , the Raptors were too inconsistent . Following an 8 – 9 start to the season , Mitchell was fired and replaced by long @-@ time assistant Jay Triano . Triano tweaked with the starting line @-@ up to no avail as the Raptors fell to 21 – 34 prior to the All @-@ Star break . O 'Neal and Moon were then traded to Miami for Shawn Marion and Marcus Banks , but with the losses mounting , the Raptors soon fell out of the playoffs picture , and were eliminated from contention with seven games of the regular season remaining . The Raptors eventually finished with a 33 – 49 record and headed into the next season with a potential overhaul of the core : Marion could become a free agent ; Bosh could become one after 2009 – 10 ; Parker would soon turn 35 ; and Bargnani had his breakthrough season . On May 12 , 2009 , Triano was given a three @-@ year term for the position of head coach .
The inevitable roster shakeup for the 2009 – 10 season began when Kapono was traded to the Philadelphia 76ers for the aggressive veteran forward Reggie Evans . Toronto then drafted DeMar DeRozan with the ninth pick , enabling them to fill a spot on the wings . This was followed by the signing of free agent Hedo Türkoğlu , which in turn led to a sign @-@ and @-@ trade agreement involving four teams , with Toronto landing wing players Devean George ( later traded for Marco Belinelli ) and Antoine Wright , while releasing Marion , Kris Humphries and Nathan Jawai . Around the same time , Parker headed for the Cleveland Cavaliers , while Indiana point guard Jarrett Jack was added and Nesterovič brought back to provide cover for the big men . Finally , Delfino and Ukić were moved to the Milwaukee Bucks for Amir Johnson and Sonny Weems . It became increasingly clear that Colangelo , in securing a credible nucleus for the future , was doing this to persuade Bosh to stay beyond 2010 . While the Raptors were off to a sluggish start , they picked up the pace around the All @-@ Star break , reaching a season @-@ high seven games above .500 and standing fifth in the Eastern Conference . Bosh was recording career @-@ highs in ppg and rpg . However , a season @-@ ending injury to Bosh after the break coincided with Toronto 's descent down the standings from the fifth seed to the eighth , and they ultimately relinquished their spot to Chicago a few games before the regular season ended .
= = = 2010 – 13 : Rebuilding = = =
Before the 2010 – 11 season began , there was much anticipation around the league over the fates of an elite pack of free agents , featuring the likes of Bosh , Dwyane Wade , LeBron James , and Amar 'e Stoudemire . Bosh and James eventually chose to converge in Miami with Wade , and the sign @-@ and @-@ trade transaction that ensued resulted in the Raptors receiving two first @-@ round draft picks and a trade exception from Miami . Prior to this , Toronto had drafted Ed Davis , also a left @-@ handed power forward like Bosh . After Bosh left , Colangelo sought to trade Calderón , Evans and the disenchanted Türkoğlu for Tyson Chandler , Leandro Barbosa , and Boris Diaw , but the trade involving Chandler collapsed at the last minute , as Chandler was traded to the Dallas Mavericks instead . Belinelli was then traded to New Orleans Hornets for Julian Wright , and 13 games into the season , Jack , David Andersen , and Marcus Banks to New Orleans for Peja Stojaković and Jerryd Bayless . Bosh 's first return to Toronto was received to a chorus of boos , but not as nearly as harsh as what former Raptors Tracy McGrady and Vince Carter received upon their respective returns . Without Bosh , Toronto as a team regressed and were only able to secure 22 wins in the regular season .
Dwane Casey , an assistant coach with the Mavericks , was hired as the new head coach of Toronto before the 2011 – 12 season . The Raptors used their number five pick to select Jonas Valančiūnas , a centre from Lithuania in the 2011 NBA draft . The season was shortened by 16 regular season games due to the 2011 NBA lockout , and the Raptors finished the season with a 23 – 43 record . During the 2012 off @-@ season , Colangelo tried to lure Canadian free agent and two @-@ time MVP Steve Nash , who had become a free agent after playing for the Phoenix Suns , to play for the Raptors . When Nash joined the Los Angeles Lakers instead , the Raptors acquired point guard Kyle Lowry from the Houston Rockets for a future first round pick . Lowry , combined with Valančiūnas and the 8th pick in the 2012 draft Terrence Ross , represented the next phase of the re @-@ building process . On January 30 , 2013 , the Raptors acquired Memphis Grizzlies star Rudy Gay and centre Hamed Haddadi as well as Pistons player Austin Daye in a three @-@ way deal that sent Calderón to the Detroit Pistons and Davis , along with Pistons veteran Tayshaun Prince and a 2nd round pick to the Grizzlies . Haddadi was later traded , along with a second round pick , to Phoenix in exchange for guard Sebastian Telfair . The 2012 – 13 season was the first season since 2009 – 10 that the Raptors finished the season with a winning home record ( 21 – 20 ) , despite their overall losing record ( 34 – 48 ) .
= = = 2013 – present : DeRozan and Lowry era = = =
During the 2013 off @-@ season , new General Manager Masai Ujiri traded Bargnani to the New York Knicks for Marcus Camby , Steve Novak , Quentin Richardson , a future first round draft pick , and two future second round picks ; Camby and Richardson were both waived shortly after the trade . The Raptors also added Tyler Hansbrough , D. J. Augustin , Dwight Buycks , and Austin Daye via free agency . On December 9 , 2013 , the Raptors traded Rudy Gay , Quincy Acy , and Aaron Gray to the Sacramento Kings for John Salmons , Greivis Vásquez , Patrick Patterson , and Chuck Hayes , and waived Augustin . During the 2013 – 14 season , the Raptors were 6 – 12 before the Rudy Gay trade ; after the trade , they went on a 10 – 3 run as they maintained their lead in the division , and rose above the .500 mark for the first time in almost three years .
The Raptors entered the All @-@ Star break with a 28 – 24 record , and DeRozan was also selected to play in the All @-@ Star game , being only the fourth ever Raptor to do so . On March 28 , 2014 , the Raptors clinched a playoff berth for the first time since 2008 after beating the Boston Celtics 105 – 103 . On April 11 , 2014 , the Raptors lost to the New York Knicks 108 – 100 , but since division rival Brooklyn lost to the Atlanta Hawks the same night , the Raptors became Atlantic Division champions for the first time since 2007 . They finished the regular season with a franchise @-@ high 48 wins ( .585 ) , going 42 – 22 ( .656 ) after the Rudy Gay trade , the third @-@ best record in the Eastern Conference . The Raptors faced the Brooklyn Nets in the first round of the playoffs for the first time since 2007 , when the Nets where located in New Jersey . Toronto nearly advanced to the next round , but Paul Pierce blocked a potential game @-@ winner by Lowry in Game 7 .
During the 2014 – 15 season , the Raptors were off to their best start in franchise history : a then @-@ Eastern Conference leading 24 – 8 record by the end of 2014 . On March 27 , 2015 , the Raptors clinched the Atlantic division title with a 94 – 83 win over the Los Angeles Lakers . This was the second consecutive year that the Raptors clinched the Atlantic Division title . On April 11 , 2015 , the Raptors beat the Miami Heat , Toronto 's first road win over the Heat since November 19 , 2008 , ending a ten @-@ game slide on Miami 's home floor . The win was Toronto 's 48th of the season and 22nd on the road , both tying franchise records . Four days later , the Toronto Raptors broke their franchise record with their 49th win of the season . After the 2014 – 15 season , Louis Williams won the NBA Sixth Man of the Year Award , becoming the first ever Raptor to do so . The Raptors faced the Washington Wizards in the first round of the 2015 playoffs , and lost four straight games as the Wizards swept the Raptors .
On June 25 , 2015 , the Raptors selected Delon Wright with their first round pick in the 2015 NBA draft , along with Norman Powell in the second round . On June 29 , the Raptors announced their new NBA D @-@ League team , the Mississauga @-@ based Raptors 905 , which began play in the 2015 – 2016 season . The Raptors added DeMarre Carroll , Cory Joseph , Bismack Biyombo , and Luis Scola via free agency .
The Raptors opened a new practice facility , the BioSteel Centre in Exhibition Place , on February 10 , 2016 . The Raptors hosted the 2016 NBA All @-@ Star Game on February 14 , 2016 and its associated weekend for the first time in its history . With a 105 – 97 win at home against the Atlanta Hawks on March 30 , 2016 , the Raptors attained their first ever 50 @-@ win season . The following day the Raptors clinched the Atlantic Division title for the third consecutive season as a result of a Boston Celtics loss against the Portland Trail Blazers . The 56 – 26 record became the best Raptors regular season ever , fourth overall in the league and second only to the Cleveland Cavaliers in the Eastern Conference . Entering the 2016 playoffs as the East 's second seed , the Raptors were pushed to seven games by the Indiana Pacers , but managed to win their first playoff series in 15 years . Another seven @-@ game series against the Miami Heat ensued , which Toronto also won . The Raptors , who were one of the four teams that never reached the NBA Conference Finals in their histories , appeared in the third round for the first time in their twenty @-@ first season , facing the Cleveland Cavaliers , in which they ultimately lost the series 4 – 2 . The Cavaliers would then advance to the NBA Finals and became champions .
= = Logos and uniforms = =
= = = Logos = = =
On December 19 , 2014 , the Toronto Raptors unveiled a new primary logo , which the team described as " a circular shield with a ball torn by the unmistakable attack of a Raptor " .
= = = Uniforms = = =
Occasionally , the Raptors would wear the Toronto Huskies throwback jersey during retro nights , given that the Huskies are the unofficial predecessor of the Raptors and the Raptors are among the newest NBA teams .
= = = = 2015 redesign = = = =
On August 3 , 2015 , the Toronto Raptors unveiled four new uniforms . The uniforms were released in partnership with 2K Sports ' NBA 2K16 video game . The team said in a press release the new uniform designs were intended to pay tribute to the city of Toronto and to Canada as a whole , noting that the Raptors were the sole Canadian club in the NBA . The main colours would remain centred on Canada 's national colours of red and white , whereas black and silver will continue to be used for trim on the home white and red road uniform . The uniforms themselves underwent changes . Most notably , the chevrons on the side panels now point up , which the team said aligns with its current slogan of " We The North " . Since being introduced as a uniform accent in 1999 , the chevrons had pointed downward , the team said . In addition , at the waist @-@ level hem of the jersey is an upside @-@ down tag with the team 's " We The North " slogan . The team said the slogan on the tag will be visible to players when they tuck in their jersey . Additionally , the shorts now feature a maple leaf logo on the front of the waistband , and the letter " T " is now on the sides of the shorts , with the Raptors ' basketball claw logo below it . This is a reference to the city of Toronto 's " T @-@ Dot " nickname .
= = Arenas = =
BioSteel Centre ( Practice facility : 2016 – present )
= = Personnel = =
= = = Current roster = = =
= = = Retained draft rights = = =
The Raptors hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA . A drafted player , either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed by the team that drafted him , is allowed to sign with any non @-@ NBA team . In this case , the team retains the player 's draft rights in the NBA until one year after the player 's contract with the non @-@ NBA team ends . This list includes draft rights that were acquired from trades with other teams .
= = = Management = = =
General managers
1995 – March 1998 : Isiah Thomas
March 1998 – April 2004 : Glen Grunwald
April 2004 – June 2004 ( Interim ) : Jack McCloskey
June 2004 – January 2006 : Rob Babcock
January 2006 – February 2006 ( Interim ) : Wayne Embry
February 2006 – May 2013 : Bryan Colangelo
May 2013 – present : Masai Ujiri
Owners
1995 – 1998 : John Bitove , Allan Slaight , Isiah Thomas
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us in 2014 after molecular phylogenetics demonstrated that S. amygdalinus was in a lineage distinct from Boletus .
In Latin , amygdaline means relating to or resembling an almond .
= = Description = =
Suillellus amygdalinus is a large solid mushroom with a convex to somewhat flattened , irregular cap that can reach diameters of 6 to 10 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 9 in ) at maturity . The surface of the cap is dry , and matted with fibers ; the cap color of young specimens is red , but the mushrooms typically change to more brownish tones as they mature . The margin of the cap starts out curved inwards ( incurved ) and gradually becomes curved downwards ( decurved ) with age . The pores on the underside of the cap are 0 @.@ 5 to 1 mm ( 0 @.@ 02 to 0 @.@ 04 in ) wide , angular , and red or red @-@ orange , while the tubes are 1 to 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 0 @.@ 6 in ) deep .
The stipe lacks a netted pattern ( reticulation ) and is yellow in color but is often covered by red hairs , especially near the base . The stipe is either equal in width throughout , or thicker in the middle ; it reaches dimensions of 5 – 9 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 5 in ) long by 1 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick . The base of the stipe is typically bent . The flesh is 1 to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick , and yellow in color , but like all parts of the mushroom , will stain blue immediately upon bruising or cutting . Both the odor and taste of the fruit bodies are mild .
Although the edibility of S. amygdalinus is not known with certainty , authorities often recommend to avoid consuming blue @-@ staining , red @-@ pored boletes , as several are poisonous . The species was implicated in one group of poisonings in California in 1996 – 97 , but because of the nature of the symptoms experienced , there was probably more than one type of mushroom consumed .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
Suillellus amygdalinus produces a dark olive @-@ brown spore print . The spores are thick @-@ walled , smooth , and ellipsoid to somewhat spindle @-@ shaped , with dimensions of 11 @.@ 2 – 16 by 5 @.@ 2 – 8 µm . They become dark ochraceous when stained with Melzer 's reagent , and , because of the occasional presence of two large vacuoles , may appear as if they are two @-@ celled . The basidia ( the spore @-@ bearing cells ) are club @-@ shaped , contain numerous vacuoles , and measure 30 – 35 by 9 – 11 µm . Cystidia are present on sides of the tubes , and they measure 45 – 54 by 10 – 12 µm . Clamp connections are not present in the hyphae of S. amygdalinus .
Various chemical color tests can be used to help identify fruit bodies suspected to be S. amygdalinus . A drop of dilute potassium hydroxide ( KOH ) will turn the cap flesh dingy orange , while it turns the cap cuticle red , or darker . Ammonia ( as ammonium hydroxide , NH4OH ) produces a dingy yellow on the flesh , and brown on the cap . Iron sulphate ( FeSO4 ) produces either no change to a pale grey color with both the flesh and the cuticle . Hydrochloric acid ( HCl ) causes the flesh to turn orange or pink , but has no color reaction with the cuticle .
= = = Similar species = = =
There are several other red @-@ pored , bluing boletes that could be confused with S. amygdalinus . The poisonous European species Rubroboletus satanas and its North American counterpart R. eastwoodiae have lighter colored caps and a reticulate pattern on the stipe . B. subvelutipes is a highly variable species from eastern North America that includes red in its range of cap colors , and has a fuzzy coating of hairs near the base of its stipe ; it may represent a group of species . Another similar species is B. luridiformis , found in North America and Northern Europe under both broadleaf trees and conifers . Unlike S. amygdalinus , however , B. luridiformis has a dark brown to nearly blackish @-@ brown cap , and a yellow stipe with a dense covering of red pruina ( dots ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Suillellus amygdalinus mushrooms grow on the ground in groups , or scattered about . The fungus has been reported from low @-@ elevation hardwood forests composed of live oak , manzanita and madrone in California , and Oregon . Fruiting occurs after the onset of autumn rains , usually between the October and January . The mushroom can be difficult to spot , as its cap is similar in coloring to the leaves of the madrone tree with which it is associated , and because the mushroom is frequently buried under leaves .
= Mario Balotelli =
Mario Balotelli Barwuah ( Italian pronunciation : [ ˈmaːrjo baloˈtɛlli ] ; born Mario Barwuah ; 12 August 1990 ) is an Italian professional footballer who plays as a striker for Premier League club Liverpool and the Italy national team .
He started his professional football career at Lumezzane and played for the first team twice before having an unsuccessful trial at Barcelona , and subsequently joining Internazionale in 2007 . Inter manager Roberto Mancini brought Balotelli into the first team , but when Mancini left , Balotelli 's disciplinary record fell away . He had a strained relationship with new manager José Mourinho and was suspended from Inter 's first team in January 2009 after a number of disciplinary problems .
With doubts over his career at Inter , former coach Roberto Mancini had since moved to Manchester City and decided to give Balotelli a fresh chance at a new club . He joined Manchester City in August 2010 , where his performances and off @-@ field activities continued to be enigmatic and unpredictable . Balotelli eventually fell out of favour with Mancini after a " training ground bust up " between the two in January 2013 . His departure from City and return to Italy with A.C. Milan followed several weeks later . After 18 months at Milan , he returned to the Premier League with Liverpool , going back on loan after an unsuccessful season .
Balotelli earned his first cap for Italy in a friendly match against the Ivory Coast on 10 August 2010 . He has since amassed over 30 caps and represented his country at UEFA Euro 2012 , the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup , and the 2014 FIFA World Cup ; he helped the national side reach the final of Euro 2012 , and also won a bronze medal at the Confederations Cup . Along with Antonio Cassano , he is Italy 's top @-@ scorer in the UEFA European Championships , with 3 goals . He is also Italy 's top scorer in the FIFA Confederations Cup , alongside Giuseppe Rossi and Daniele De Rossi , with 2 goals .
= = Early life = =
Mario Balotelli was born in Palermo , Sicily as the son of Ghanaian immigrants . The family moved to Bagnolo Mella in the province of Brescia , Lombardy , when he was two .
In 1993 , when he was three , Balotelli was placed in foster care to the Balotelli family when his own family was unable to pay for his health care needs . His foster parents are Silvia , the Jewish daughter of Holocaust survivors , and Francesco Balotelli . They lived in the town of Concesio , Brescia , in northern Italy .
At first , he stayed at the Balotellis during the weekdays , and returned to his biological parents on weekends . He later was permanently fostered by the Balotellis full @-@ time , and adopted their surname . In June 2012 , he dedicated his goals that put Italy in the final of the Euro 2012 football championships to his foster mother Silvia . Balotelli had to wait until his 18th birthday to request Italian citizenship , as his foster family had not adopted him . He officially gained citizenship in Concesio on 13 August 2008 . After the ceremony he released the following statement :
I am Italian , I feel Italian , I will forever play with the Italian national team .
Mario Balotelli
Mario has three biological siblings : Abigail , Enoch , and Angel Barwuah . Enoch Barwuah , two years younger than Balotelli , is also a professional footballer .
= = Club career = =
= = = Lumezzane = = =
Balotelli began his career at Lumezzane . At the age of 15 he was promoted to the first team , making his first team debut in a Serie C1 league match against Padova on 2 April 2006 .
= = = Internazionale = = =
Having had an unsuccessful trial with Barcelona at the age of 15 , Balotelli was signed by Internazionale in 2006 on loan with a pre @-@ set price of € 150 @,@ 000 to co @-@ own the player . In June 2007 Inter exercised the option and purchased another half for additional € 190 @,@ 000 . On 8 November 2007 , as part of Sheffield F.C. ' s 150th anniversary celebrations , Balotelli featured in a friendly between the two sides at Sheffield United 's Bramall Lane . The game finished 5 – 2 to Inter , with Balotelli scoring twice . He made his first team and Serie A debut on 16 December 2007 , replacing David Suazo in a 2 – 0 win against Cagliari . Three days later he was featured in the starting lineup in a Coppa Italia match against Reggina , scoring two goals in a 4 – 1 win . Balotelli gained national attention after he scored two goals against Juventus in the return leg of the Coppa Italia quarter @-@ finals , being instrumental in a 3 – 2 away win for Inter . His first Serie A goal then came in April 2008 in a 2 – 0 away win against Atalanta . Inter went on to win the 2007 – 08 Serie A. Balotelli was a substitute in the 2008 Supercoppa Italiana final against Roma . He came on as a replacement for Luís Figo , scoring in the 83rd minute . Inter went on to win the final 6 – 5 on penalties after the match ended 2 – 2 .
In November 2008 , Balotelli became the youngest Inter player ( at 18 years and 85 days ) to score in the Champions League when he scored a goal in a 3 – 3 draw against Cypriot side Anorthosis Famagusta , beating the previous record set by Obafemi Martins ( at 18 years and 145 days ) . In an April 2009 match with Juventus where he scored Inter 's only goal in a 1 – 1 draw , Balotelli was racially abused by Juventus fans throughout the game . This led Inter owner Massimo Moratti to say that he would have pulled the team off the pitch had he been present . The racist chants were also condemned by Juventus chairman Giovanni Cobolli Gigli and Juventus were given a one @-@ game home @-@ fan ban because of the incident . Inter won Serie A for the fourth time in a row .
In his second season with Inter , Balotelli had a number of disciplinary problems , most notably involving head coach José Mourinho who excluded him from the first team in the second half of January 2009 . Earlier that season Mourinho had accused Balotelli of showing a lack of effort in training , stating " as far as I 'm concerned , a young boy like him cannot allow himself to train less than people like Figo , Córdoba , and Zanetti . " Balotelli continued to be the subject of racist chants throughout the season , becoming the focus of Juventus fans even during games not involving Inter , leading to Juventus being fined twice and the club ultimately punished with a partial stadium closure .
Balotelli 's disciplinary problems , and his difficult relationship with Mourinho , continued in the 2009 – 10 season . In November Inter drew 1 – 1 against Roma and Mourinho criticized his players , even going as far as saying that Balotelli " came close to a zero rating " . Balotelli had another negative encounter with Juventus fans in the heated Derby d 'Italia encounter in an away match against Juventus on 5 December 2009 , which Inter lost 2 – 1 . When he was elbowed by Juventus midfielder Felipe Melo in the shoulder , Balotelli fell theatrically onto the pitch , for which he was booked , while Melo was sent off for a second yellow card . The incident sparked an altercation between Balotelli 's teammate Thiago Motta and Juventus goalkeeper Gianluigi Buffon . The tension between Balotelli and Mourinho reached its peak on the eve of the UEFA Champions League second leg against Chelsea after the young striker was not called @-@ up , following an altercation with his manager . Despite Inter 's 1 – 0 win at Stamford Bridge , London , Balotelli was criticized by several senior players including captain Javier Zanetti and veteran defender Marco Materazzi , as well as by his own agent . In March 2010 he came under heavy criticism from fans after he publicly sported an A.C. Milan ( Inter 's cross @-@ town rivals ) jersey on the Italian show Striscia la Notizia .
Balotelli released a statement of apology in Inter 's's official website that read :
" I am sorry for the situation that has been created recently . I am the first person who has suffered because I adore football and I want to play , and now I am waiting in silence so I can return to being useful to my team . I want to put the past behind me , look to the future and concentrate on the upcoming commitments and make myself ready . "
Mario Balotelli
After a falling @-@ out with Mourinho , Balotelli was recalled for Inter 's April 2010 match against Bologna , and he marked his return with a goal in their 3 – 0 win . He again caused controversy in the Champions League semi @-@ final against Barcelona on 20 April 2010 as he threw his jersey on the ground after the final whistle , in response to Inter fans who had booed him for his poor performance . He admitted three years later that the incident was the only regret in his life . Disgruntled fans confronted and tried to attack Balotelli after the game . His behavior on the pitch brought disapproval from his teammates , with Zanetti publicly saying " Mario needs to focus on doing what he can do on the pitch , he can 't allow himself to behave like this . " Amid these controversies with his club and manager , many Premier League teams , including Manchester United and Manchester City , indicated that they were interested in signing Balotelli in July 2010 .
= = = Manchester City = = =
= = = = 2010 – 11 = = = =
After weeks of speculation , Inter reached an agreement for Balotelli 's transfer to Manchester City on 12 August 2010 for € 21 @.@ 8 million . At Manchester City Balotelli reunited with his former boss , Roberto Mancini , who said , " His style of play will suit the Premier League , and because he is still so young there is a big chance for him to improve . He is a strong and exciting player , and City fans will enjoy watching him . " Balotelli exchanged squad number with teammate Greg Cunningham so that he could continue to wear the number 45 shirt .
On 19 August 2010 Balotelli came on as a substitute to score in his debut against Politehnica Timișoara in a 1 – 0 away win in the Europa League , but during the match injured the lateral meniscus in his right knee and on 8 September underwent surgery that sidelined him until October . Balotelli eventually made his Premier League debut on 24 October as a substitute in a 3 – 0 home defeat to Arsenal and made his first Premier League on 30 October in a 2 – 1 away defeat to Wolverhampton Wanderers . Balotelli scored his first and second Premier League goals on 7 November in a 2 – 0 away win to West Brom . In the same game Balotelli received a red card for violent conduct as the result of a clash with Youssuf Mulumbu , which his manager Roberto Mancini described as unfair . Balotelli scored the first two of City 's three goals in the 3 – 0 win over FC Red Bull Salzburg in Manchester City 's Europa League group stage match .
On 21 December 2010 Balotelli won the Golden Boy Award , saying that only one of the past winners was slightly better than he was – Lionel Messi . He also claimed not to know of Arsenal 's Jack Wilshere , the player he narrowly beat to the award . On 28 December 2010 Balotelli scored his first Premier League hat @-@ trick in a 4 – 0 win over Aston Villa . Despite this success Balotelli still had disciplinary problems , and in March 2011 he was sent off in the second @-@ leg of Manchester City 's Europa League draw with Dynamo Kyiv . On 14 May 2011 Balotelli was man of the match in the 2011 FA Cup Final as Manchester City defeated Stoke City 1 – 0 to win their first trophy in thirty @-@ five years .
= = = = 2011 – 12 = = = =
Balotelli scored his first goal of the 2011 – 12 campaign in a 2 – 0 League Cup win against Birmingham City . He followed this up with the opening goal against Everton three days later . On 1 October 2011 he scored his third goal in as many games in a 4 – 0 win away to Blackburn Rovers . Balotelli scored the opening two goals and forced the dismissal of Jonny Evans as City beat Manchester United 6 – 1 at Old Trafford on 23 October 2011 in what would prove to be a decisive game in helping win Manchester City the league title . Balotelli made his Champions League debut for City on 2 November 2011 , in the second leg against Villarreal . He scored on a penalty shot near the end of the first half , his first Champions League goal for City and his seventh goal overall in the season . On 27 November , Balotelli came on as a 65th @-@ minute substitute against Liverpool and was sent off after receiving two yellow cards . Balotelli scored using his right shoulder in City 's 5 – 1 win over Norwich City on 3 December . He put City 1 – 0 up against Chelsea at Stamford Bridge after just two minutes on 12 December , although Chelsea rallied to win 2 – 1 .
On 22 January 2012 , Balotelli came on as a substitute during a match against Tottenham Hotspur . He appeared to stamp on Scott Parker during the match against Tottenham , but , already booked , did not get a second yellow from referee Howard Webb , who did not see the incident . Balotelli subsequently scored his first goal of 2012 , an injury @-@ time penalty which secured a 3 – 2 win for City . He was charged for violent conduct for the kick against Scott Parker and was suspended for four matches , three for violent conduct and one for his second sending off . On 25 February , he scored his tenth league goal of the season in a 3 – 0 home win against Blackburn Rovers . He scored again the following game in a 2 – 0 win against Bolton Wanderers . On 31 March , Balotelli scored twice as City drew 3 – 3 at home against Sunderland . However , Balotelli was criticized for his actions in the match after squabbling with Aleksandar Kolarov over a free kick . Roberto Mancini claimed after the game that he had considered substituting Balotelli just five minutes into the match . On 8 April 2012 , Balotelli received his fourth red card of the season , after receiving his second yellow card during the match for a tackle against Bacary Sagna during City 's 1 – 0 loss to Arsenal in April 2012 . He was banned for three games ( one for the two yellow cards and two for the previous two red cards in the same season ) . After the Arsenal match , Mancini appeared to have finally lost his patience with Balotelli , suggesting that Balotelli would not play any part in the remainder of City 's season and be sold by the club . Despite this , Balotelli did make an appearance as a late substitute in the last game of the season , a title @-@ deciding match against Queens Park Rangers . Balotelli provided the assist to striker Sergio Agüero , who scored in the 94th minute to give City their first league title since 1968 .
= = = = 2012 – 13 = = = =
In December 2012 , Balotelli decided to fight against Manchester City 's decision to fine him two weeks ' wages for his poor disciplinary record the previous season by taking his club to a Premier League tribunal . Balotelli missed 11 games domestically and in Europe last season because of suspensions . With less than a day remaining to the start of the hearing , Balotelli dropped his tribunal action and accepted the fine .
= = = A.C. Milan = = =
= = = = 2012 – 13 = = = =
On 29 January 2013 , A.C. Milan 's organising director Umberto Gandini announced that the team had agreed a deal to sign Balotelli from Manchester City on a four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half year deal rumoured to be worth € 20 million plus bonuses and add @-@ ons . Manchester City 's then manager Roberto Mancini suggested he had sanctioned Balotelli 's sale to Milan for the good of the player , describing the forward as " like another one of my children " and saying Balotelli could become one of the best players in the world when restored to Serie A. On 31 January 2013 , the Serie A giants completed the signing , and Balotelli was awarded the number 45 shirt , the same number he wore for Inter Milan and Manchester City . Milan 's vice @-@ president , Adriano Galliani , said " Balotelli in Rossoneri is a dream that has been realized . It is a transfer that everyone wanted : club , president and fans . " Balotelli received a warm reception when he returned to Milan . His arrival saw some fans scuffling with police and one policeman was taken to hospital with head injuries . It was stated that Silvio Berlusconi 's signing of Balotelli would help him gain extra votes in the 2013 Italian general election .
On 3 February 2013 , Balotelli made his debut for Milan and scored two goals , including a last minute penalty to earn a 2 – 1 victory over Udinese . The win lifted Milan to fourth in the table , ahead of Inter Milan on goal difference . In the next two matches , Balotelli scored two goals , including 30 yards ( 27 m ) free @-@ kick against Parma . With that goal , he equaled Oliver Bierhoff 's record of four goals in first three matches for Milan . In his fifth appearance Balotelli appeared as a substitute against Genoa and scored his fifth goal for his new club . In the match against Palermo , Balotelli continued his impressive scoring streak with two more goals , one from a penalty and another from an M 'Baye Niang cross .
On the final day of the season , Balotelli scored his twelfth goal in thirteen games for Milan as the team beat Siena to qualify for the 2013 – 14 Champions League .
= = = = 2013 – 14 = = = =
On 22 September 2013 , Balotelli missed a penalty in a competitive match for the first time in 22 attempts as a professional ; the kick was saved by Pepe Reina as Milan lost 2 – 1 to Napoli . During a match against Catania on 1 December , Balotelli accused opponent Nicolás Spolli of racially abusing him , but there was insufficient evidence for any action to be taken . The following week , Balotelli scored two goals in a 2 – 2 draw with Livorno , including a sensational 30 @-@ yard direct free kick that was clocked at a speed of 109 km / h .
= = = Liverpool = = =
= = = = 2014 – 15 = = = =
In August 2014 , Balotelli joined Liverpool for a fee of £ 16 million , to replace the outbound Luis Suárez . He made his Liverpool debut in a league game away to Tottenham Hotspur on the 31st of August , a game Liverpool won 3 – 0 . Balotelli scored his first Liverpool goal on 16 September , opening a 2 – 1 Anfield victory against Ludogorets Razgrad in the group stage of the UEFA Champions League . In a match in the same competition on 22 October against Real Madrid , Balotelli was criticised by manager Brendan Rodgers for swapping shirts with opponent Pepe at half time , saying " It 's something that doesn 't happen here and shouldn 't happen here . "
On 18 December 2014 , he was suspended for one match and fined £ 25 @,@ 000 for posting an image on social media which appeared to contain anti @-@ Semitic and racist references .
Balotelli 's first Premier League goal for Liverpool came on his 13th appearance , on 10 February 2015 , an 83rd @-@ minute winner in a 3 – 2 victory over Tottenham Hotspur at Anfield , nine minutes after replacing Daniel Sturridge . He scored just 4 goals in 28 appearances and at season 's end he was adjudged by many to be among the worst signings of the season .
= = = = Return to Milan ( loan ) = = = =
On 27 August 2015 , Balotelli returned to A.C. Milan on season @-@ long loan deal . On 22 September 2015 , Balotelli scored his first goal after returning to Milan on his third appearance to open the scoring in the 5th minute from a free kick at 25 yards out against Udinese in a 3 – 2 away win . However , a week later he suffered a groin injury in a 1 – 0 defeat to Genoa on 27 September , requiring surgery and ruling him out for three months . He returned to action , coming on as a substitute on 17 January 2016 in a 2 – 0 home win over Fiorentina ; before scoring the lone goal from the penalty spot nine days later during the first semi final leg of the Coppa Italia against Alessandria , as he helped Milan reach the final of the tournament . On 1 May , he had his penalty saved in a 3 – 3 home draw against Frosinone , for which he was mocked by opponent Mirko Gori . Balotelli finished the season with only one goal in 20 league appearances , as Milan finished the season in seventh place , once again failing to qualify for Europe following their 1 – 0 defeat to Juventus in the 2016 Coppa Italia final .
= = International career = =
Balotelli was unable to answer call @-@ ups to the Italian national under @-@ 15 and under @-@ 17 teams as he was still considered to be a Ghanaian immigrant .
On 7 August 2007 , five days before his seventeenth birthday , Balotelli received his first senior International call @-@ up for Ghana from their coach Claude Le Roy for a friendly against Senegal at the New Den stadium in London , England , on 21 August 2007 . He declined the offer citing once again his willingness to play for Italy when he became eligible . He also stated his willingness to represent Italy at international level once he acquired an Italian passport .
Italy U @-@ 21 coach Pierluigi Casiraghi stated his intention to call up Balotelli once he obtained Italian citizenship . On 13 August 2008 Balotelli was finally given Italian citizenship .
This is even more exciting than making my debut in Serie A. The best birthday present I could receive now would be a call to join the Italy squad , although I 'd be happy to play for the Under 21 team .
Mario Balotelli
Casiraghi called him to join the Italy national under @-@ 21 football team Azzurrini on 29 August for the matches against Greece and Croatia . In his debut on 5 September 2008 he scored his first international goal in a 1 – 1 draw with the Greek U @-@ 21 's .
Balotelli was named in the final 23 @-@ man squad for the 2009 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Football Championships and scored the opening goal against the hosts Sweden in the 23rd minute . Barely 15 minutes later he was shown a red card for retaliating against a Swedish midfielder Pontus Wernbloom . Italy were eliminated by eventual champions Germany in the semi @-@ finals , following a 1 @-@ 0 defeat .
On 10 August 2010 , Balotelli made his first appearance for the Italian senior team , as part of the squad announced by new head coach Cesare Prandelli , in a friendly match against Côte d 'Ivoire – Italy 's first match after the 2010 World Cup . In that match he started alongside debutant Amauri and striker Antonio Cassano in a 1 – 0 loss . On 11 November 2011 , Balotelli scored his first senior international goal in a 2 – 0 win against Poland at Stadion Miejski in Wrocław , Poland , also setting up Italy 's second goal of the match .
= = = UEFA Euro 2012 = = =
Before the tournament in Poland and Ukraine , Balotelli was interviewed by a newspaper about racism amongst fans in the host countries . During the interview , Balotelli reiterated his threat to walk off the pitch if any of the opposition fans racially abused him in any way , and said that he would ' kill ' anyone that threw a banana at him . He spoke about his increasing fears that black players would be targeted by racists and that he refused to accept racism in any form , talking of his past experience of racism in football notably during his time playing in Serie A for Inter Milan . During the build @-@ up to the competition Manchester City 's manager Roberto Mancini had repeatedly defended Balotelli , but he and footballer Daniele De Rossi believed that Mario would need to grow up and mature if he was going to become the centrepiece of future Italian success .
On 10 June 2012 , Balotelli also became the first black player to appear for Italy in a major tournament ( Euro or World Cup ) in a 1 – 1 draw against Spain , Italy 's first match of Euro 2012 . Italy and Spain later played each other for the second time in the tournament in the Ukraine 's capital city of Kiev . During the 1 – 1 draw Balotelli failed to make an impact , he was substituted off during the 56th minute after missing multiple chances ; specifically a one on one with Spanish goalkeeper and captain Iker Casillas just minutes before being subbed off . His replacement was Antonio Di Natale . The 34 @-@ year @-@ old managed to secure his 11th international goal and put Italy ahead within his time on the pitch . With Balotelli continuing his run of poor form for his nation , fans and critics began calling for Di Natale to replace the " immature and unpredictable striker . "
Later in the tournament , on 18 June 2012 , Mario Balotelli scored his first goal in a major international tournament in a 2 – 0 victory against the Republic of Ireland . When he attempted to celebrate this goal , he was immediately halted by teammate Leonardo Bonucci , who covered Balotelli 's mouth with his hand for fear that the striker would say something to " get in trouble . " Balotelli had been dropped to the bench by Cesare Prandelli prior to the game due to his lack of ability shown in his previous group games , so when he was subbed on against Ireland fans didn 't expect him to have much of an impact , and his celebration of his goal may have originally been directed towards the naysayers who believe he is bad for the team . Balotelli went on to start against England in the quarter @-@ finals , his performance was described as wasteful but his effort was rated highly in a game where he missed multiple chances . He scored the first penalty taken in the shootout against his Manchester City teammate Joe Hart . On 28 June , Balotelli scored twice within the first 40 minutes in Italy 's semi @-@ final clash with Germany , as the Azzurri won 2 – 1 and progressed to the Euro 2012 final against European and World champions Spain . After scoring the second goal in that semi @-@ final , he ripped off his shirt and stood motionless as he flexed his muscles , developing a famous celebration . Going into the final Balotelli said that , Manchester City 's title success meant that failure in the Euros would not signal a personal failure this season . He also said that he was unfazed by the pressure he supposedly has on his shoulders going into the final , with new high expectations of him from his home supporters after his amazing performance against Germany .
During the tournament , Balotelli was subject to a case of racial abuse during the game against Croatia , which led UEFA to fine the Croatian Football Federation € 80 @,@ 000 . Italy were defeated 4 – 0 in the final by defending champions Spain . Despite the heavy defeat , Balotelli was named as part of the Euro 2012 Team of the Tournament due to his performances . With 3 goals , Balotelli finished the tournament as the joint top scorer along with 5 other players , although the Golden Boot ultimately went to Fernando Torres , due to his assist in the Euro 2012 final .
= = = 2014 FIFA World Cup qualifying = = =
After establishing himself in the side at Euro 2012 , Balotelli remained the first choice striker for Italy 's 2014 World Cup qualifying campaign .
On 21 March 2013 , he scored a long range equaliser in a friendly match against Brazil at the Stade de Genève . Five days later he scored both goals as Italy defeated Malta in a World Cup qualifier , continuing his prolific scoring streak for both club and country since signing for A.C. Milan .
On 7 June 2013 , Balotelli was sent @-@ off in a 0 – 0 draw with the Czech Republic in Prague . On 10 September 2013 , Balotelli scored the winning goal in a World Cup qualifying match against the Czech Republic in Turin , which allowed Italy to clinch the first place spot in their qualifying group , and ultimately achieve their objective of qualifying for the 2014 World Cup . Balotelli finished the 2014 World Cup qualifying campaign as Italy 's top scorer , with 5 goals , and he was also the top scorer of his qualifying group , helping Italy to win their group undefeated and qualify for the upcoming World Cup .
= = = 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup = = =
On 3 June 2013 , he was named in Italy 's squad for the 2013 Confederations Cup . In Italy 's opening match on 16 June , Balotelli scored a late @-@ winner , helping Italy to beat Mexico 2 – 1 . In Italy 's next group match with Japan , Balotelli scored a penalty to make it 3 – 2 after being 2 – 0 down in the first half . Italy went on to win the match 4 – 3 , which allowed them to participate in the semi @-@ finals of the Confederations Cup for the first time in their history . In Italy 's final group match against hosts and eventual champions Brazil , Balotelli set up Emanuele Giaccherini 's equaliser with a back @-@ heel , although Italy eventually lost the match 4 – 2 . Prior to the semi @-@ final , Balotelli suffered a thigh injury , preventing him from playing in the remainder of the tournament . Italy finished the tournament in third place after defeating Uruguay in a play @-@ off .
= = = 2014 FIFA World Cup = = =
On 1 June 2014 , Balotelli was selected in Italy 's squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup . In Italy 's opening match of the tournament , he scored the team 's winning goal in a 2 – 1 defeat of England on 14 June . After the match against England , Balotelli says playing in the World Cup for the first time was " a wonderful sensation to experience " and dedicated the goal to his future wife . Italy lost their next two matches , however , and were eliminated in the first round , finishing third in their group , while Prandelli stepped down from his position as Italy 's manager .
= = = Conte era = = =
Under Italy 's new manager Antonio Conte , Balotelli only received one call @-@ up in November 2014 , but was unable to make a single appearance for Italy due to injury . After a negative season with Milan , he was left out of Conte 's 23 @-@ man squad for UEFA Euro 2016 .
= = Style of play = =
Agile , quick and powerful , Balotelli is credited with pace , strength , and technical ability , but criticized for a perceived poor and immature attitude at times . Balotelli is also a set @-@ piece specialist due to his powerful shot , and is regarded by teammates and the media as a promising but undisciplined player . He is regarded as one of the best penalty kick takers in world football , a view backed by his former Manchester City goalkeeping team @-@ mate Joe Hart . Balotelli missed his first competitive penalty against Napoli on 22 September 2013 when it was saved by Pepe Reina .
In his two years at Manchester City , he received four red cards – against West Bromwich Albion ( November 2010 ) , Dynamo Kyiv ( March 2011 ) , Liverpool ( November 2011 ) and Arsenal ( April 2012 ) . He also in this time served suspensions for other incidents such as the supposed stamp on Scott Parker .
= = Personality and public image = =
Balotelli is nicknamed Super Mario after the Italian video game character Mario from the iconic Nintendo series .
Balotelli has been given a reputation by the media for being a difficult character and taking part in questionable and often amusing activities . He was once described by Jose Mourinho as " unmanageable . " In June 2010 , Balotelli and a group of friends fired air pistols in the open in Milan 's Piazza della Repubblica . Although denying that he is " crazy " as his mentor Roberto Mancini frequently claims , Balotelli has admitted that he " sometimes does strange things " . In 2010 , he was photographed in the company of two noted Mafia mobsters . Since joining Manchester City , Balotelli has gained a cult following . Manchester City supporters regularly sang a song with lyrics which made reference to his activities . Musician Tinchy Stryder recorded a song in Balotelli 's honour , Mario Balotelli .
Balotelli has been the subject of numerous newspaper stories since joining Manchester City ; some have been confirmed as true while others have turned out to be erroneous . Within days of joining Manchester City , Balotelli was involved in a car crash . It was reported that Balotelli was carrying £ 5 @,@ 000 cash at the time – and that when a police officer asked why he had such a large sum of cash Balotelli replied : " Because I am rich " . Off @-@ field activities involving Balotelli have included driving into a women 's prison in Italy to " have a look round " , and throwing darts at a youth team player during a training ground ' prank ' – all of which have been confirmed to be true . Balotelli has also been subjected to tabloid rumours about him confronting a bully in a school after querying why a young Manchester City fan was not attending classes , and giving £ 1 @,@ 000 to a homeless man on the streets of Manchester . Both of these reports turned out to be false .
Video footage before City 's Europa League clash with Dynamo Kiev in March 2011 showed Balotelli requiring assistance to put on a training bib , an incident which teammate Edin Džeko was seen mimicking the following week in the warm up before City 's game at Chelsea . In September 2011 , Balotelli was reportedly seen using his iPad whilst on the substitutes ' bench for Italy during their game with the Faroe Islands , although he denied this on a visit to a prison later that week .
Balotelli celebrated his goal against Manchester United in October 2011 by unveiling a shirt with the words : " Why always me ? " on it – a celebration which seemingly disputes the accuracy of newspaper reports . The day before the match , Balotelli and his friends set Balotelli 's house on fire when a firework was let off in it , and later that week Balotelli was unveiled as Greater Manchester 's ambassador for firework safety . On 5 November 2011 , at the annual fireworks display at Edenbridge , Kent , a 12 metre tall bonfire effigy of Balotelli was unveiled – complete with a Super Mario hat , and a house in the right hand and a ' Giant TNT ' firework in his left , which were reference to his recent incident . In December 2011 , Balotelli broke a 48 @-@ hour curfew before City 's game against Chelsea to go to a curry house , although he " was not drinking alcohol , signed autographs , posed for pictures with fellow diners and was involved in a mock sword @-@ fight using rolling pins " . The club launched an internal investigation . In March 2012 , when Inter Milan ( Balotelli 's former club ) held a press conference for their new manager Andrea Stramaccioni , Balotelli gatecrashed the event . In December 2012 , Balotelli was due to take Manchester City to a Premier League tribunal to protest against a fine of two weeks ' wages over his poor disciplinary record , but eventually dropped his tribunal action a day before the hearing .
On 1 December 2014 , Balotelli was accused of racism and antisemitism for posting an image on Instagram of the video game character Mario . The image promoted anti @-@ racism by telling others to be like the character , attributing him qualities stereotypically associated with different ethnicities , ending the idea that he " jumps like a black man and grabs coins like a jew " . In response to criticisms , he wrote : " My Mom is jewish so all of u shut up please " .
= = Personal life = =
In 2012 , Balotelli featured in GQ where he and British musician Tinie Tempah were named as the best and second @-@ best dressed men in the world respectively . Balotelli also appeared on the cover of the November 2012 edition of Time Magazine .
Balotelli is a fan of mixed martial arts , as he has stated in the past that he would love to compete in the sport professionally if he were not a footballer .
Balotelli owns several cars , including a Range Rover Evoque , Ferrari 458 Spider , Bentley Continental GT , Maserati GT , and Audi R8 V10 .
In January 2013 , Balotelli 's net worth was estimated to be US $ 40 million , up from US $ 25 million in January 2012 . Balotelli bought a £ 3 million mansion in the United Kingdom .
Balotelli no longer drinks alcohol .
In July 2012 , Balotelli 's former girlfriend Raffaella Fico claimed that she was pregnant with his child , while Balotelli responded by claiming that he would only assume paternal responsibilities upon a positive paternity test . Fico 's daughter Pia was born on 5 December 2012 . Later in December 2012 , Fico accused Balotelli of being " irresponsible " and " not interested " in her newborn daughter . In response , Balotelli threatened to take legal action against Fico to defend his reputation against what he considered false accusations . In February 2014 , Balotelli finally acknowledged paternity of his daughter Pia following a positive DNA test .
In March 2013 , Balotelli became engaged to wed his Belgian girlfriend , Fanny Neguesha . They split in September 2014 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of match played on 21 May 2016
= = = International = = =
As of match played on 24 June 2014 .
= = = = International goals = = = =
Scores and results list Italy 's goal tally first .
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Internazionale
Serie A ( 3 ) : 2007 – 08 , 2008 – 09 , 2009 – 10
Coppa Italia ( 1 ) : 2009 – 10
Supercoppa Italiana ( 1 ) : 2008
UEFA Champions League ( 1 ) : 2009 – 10
Manchester City
Premier League ( 1 ) : 2011 – 12
FA Cup ( 1 ) : 2010 – 11
FA Community Shield ( 1 ) : 2012
= = = International = = =
UEFA European Football Championship Runner up : 2012
FIFA Confederations Cup Third place : 2013
= = = Individual = = =
Coppa Italia Top Goalscorer ( 1 ) : 2007 – 08
Golden Boy Award ( 1 ) : 2010
FA Cup Final Man of the Match ( 1 ) : 2011
UEFA Euro Team of the Tournament ( 1 ) : 2012
UEFA European Championship Co @-@ Top Goalscorer ( 1 ) : 2012
Serie A Team of the Year ( 1 ) : 2012 – 13
= Ninian Edwards =
Ninian Edwards ( March 17 , 1775 – July 20 , 1833 ) was a founding political figure of the state of Illinois . He served as the only governor of the Illinois Territory from 1809 to 1818 , as one of the first two United States Senators from Illinois from 1818 to 1824 , and as the third Governor of Illinois from 1826 to 1830 . In a time and place where personal coalitions were more influential than parties , Edwards led one of the two main factions in frontier Illinois politics .
Born in Maryland , Edwards began his political career in Kentucky , where he served as a legislator and judge . He rose to the position of Chief Justice of the Kentucky Court of Appeals in 1808 , at the time Kentucky 's highest court . In 1809 , U.S. President James Madison appointed him to govern the newly created Illinois Territory . He held that post for three terms , overseeing the territory 's transition first to democratic " second grade " government , and then to statehood in 1818 . On its second day in session , the Illinois General Assembly elected Edwards to the U.S. Senate , where conflict with rivals damaged him politically .
Edwards won an unlikely 1826 election to become Governor of Illinois . Conflict with the legislature over state bank regulations marked Edwards ' administration , as did the pursuit of Indian removal . As governor or territorial governor he twice sent Illinois militia against Native Americans , in the War of 1812 and the Winnebago War , and signed treaties for the cession of Native American land . Edwards returned to private life when his term ended in 1830 and died of cholera two years later .
= = Early life = =
Ninian Edwards was born in 1775 to the prominent Edwards family in Montgomery County , Maryland . His mother , Margaret Beall Edwards , was from another prominent local family . His father Benjamin Edwards served in the Maryland House of Delegates , in Maryland 's state ratifying convention for the U.S. Constitution , and in the United States House of Representatives , filling a vacant seat for two months . Ninian was educated by private tutors , one of whom was the future U.S. Attorney General William Wirt . He attended Dickinson College from 1790 to 1792 but did not graduate , leaving college to study law . His son Ninian Wirt Edwards wrote later that Edwards spent some of his time at Dickinson reading medicine , a field to which he devoted considerable time in his later years .
In 1794 , at the age of 19 , Edwards moved to Nelson County , Kentucky to manage some family land . He showed a great aptitude for business and leadership and was soon elected to a seat in the Kentucky House of Representatives , before he was even eligible to vote . In 1802 he was awarded the rank of major in the militia . In 1803 he moved to Russellville , Kentucky , and won a succession of public offices : circuit court judge in 1803 , presidential elector in 1804 ( voting for Thomas Jefferson ) , and judge and finally chief justice of the Kentucky Court of Appeals , which at the time was Kentucky 's highest court . He joined the high court in 1806 and won the leadership position in 1808 .
A well @-@ educated landowning aristocrat , Edwards deliberately cultivated the image of the natural leader . Thomas Ford writes that he continued to dress like an 18th @-@ century gentleman long after such fashions had gone out of style , and that his public speaking was marked by showy eloquence . Edwards consciously positioned himself in the select class of men who dominated Kentucky and , later , Illinois politics . In 1803 in Russellville , Edwards married Elvira Lane , a relative from Maryland .
= = Territorial governorship = =
The Illinois Territory was created in 1809 . It included all of what today is the state of Wisconsin , as well as parts of Minnesota and Michigan . Its population was almost entirely concentrated in the south , in the region later known as Egypt . President James Madison first appointed Kentucky politician John Boyle as its governor . Boyle collected his salary for the position for 21 days but then resigned to take Edwards ' job as Kentucky Chief Justice , while friends in Washington helped secure Edwards ' appointment as territorial governor . In the meantime , Territorial Secretary Nathaniel Pope , a cousin of Edwards , had to assume the powers of acting governor , creating Illinois ' first counties and appointing officials to form the new government . Only 34 years old at the time of his appointment , Ninian Edwards is the youngest man ever to govern Illinois as either a state or a territory .
Edwards settled in the American Bottom on land he received as a grant upon his appointment as governor . He named his new farm Elvirade , after his wife . Along with his family , Edwards brought a number of slaves , whom he did not free even though the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 had made slavery illegal in the territory . An 1803 " Law Concerning Servants " had been promulgated for the Indiana Territory by then @-@ Governor William Henry Harrison that maintained the status of people brought into the territory " under contract to serve another in any trade or occupation . " The law , which remained in force in the Illinois territory , permitted slavery to persist for decades under the guise of indentured servitude . Most of Illinois ' early governors were slaveowners , and Edwards was no exception . Later , he may have made extra income by renting some of his " indentured servants " out for labor in Missouri .
The new territorial governor was sworn in on June 11 , 1809 . At first Edwards tried to avoid partisanship but soon found that faction was an inevitable result of his power to appoint officials and distribute government jobs . Although the First Party System continued to define national politics , the Federalist and Republican Parties never took hold in frontier Illinois . Rather , factional loyalties were created by personality , personal bonds such as kinship and militia service , and especially the distribution of patronage . In the early territorial years , two rival factions grew up around Edwards and Judge Jesse B. Thomas . These two factions formed Illinois ' political landscape during its time as a territory and for its first several years of statehood .
= = = Democratic government = = =
Throughout Edwards ' three terms as governor , he showed a willingness to surrender his own considerable powers in order to expand participatory government in the Illinois Territory . Before 1812 , while Illinois had a first @-@ grade territorial status , Edwards had vast powers to appoint county and local officials ; however , he made it his practice to consider local opinion as much as he could when making appointments , often giving weight to petitions signed by local residents . He attempted to do the same for militia officers for a time , letting the men of a unit elect their leaders , but he soon abandoned this policy as impractical .
In 1812 , Edwards successfully persuaded Congress to modify a provision of the 1787 Ordinance limiting voting rights to freeholders of 50 acres ( 20 ha ) of land . Due to long @-@ running disputes over fraudulently sold lands , very few Illinois frontiersmen could qualify . At Edwards ' urging , Congress granted the Illinois Territory universal white male suffrage , making it the most democratic U.S. territory at the time . In April , Edwards held a referendum on moving to second @-@ grade government , allowing the people of Illinois to elect a legislature and a non @-@ voting delegate to Congress . The referendum passed , and elections were held in October that sent Shadrach Bond to Washington as Illinois ' first congressional delegate .
= = = War of 1812 = = =
Edwards had not been governor long when Illinois became the scene of fighting during the War of 1812 . Relations between Illinois settlers and Native Americans worsened throughout the territory during 1810 and 1811 . By June 1811 , Governor Edwards ordered the construction of a series of blockhouses and called out three companies of militia .
The declaration of war and the Battle of Fort Dearborn in 1812 convinced Edwards that Potawatomi and Kickapoo in the territory were preparing to launch a major attack on the southern settlements . In his capacity as commander in chief , Edwards gathered 350 mounted rangers and volunteers near Edwardsville and personally led an expedition north to Peoria . After burning two Kickapoo villages on the Sangamon River along the way , the militia advanced on Peoria itself . All told , the short campaign burned several villages and inflicted dozens of casualties before returning . The attack angered both the Peoria villagers and the U.S. government because it had been carried out against Native Americans loyal to Black Partridge and Gomo , two leaders who had not joined Tecumseh 's War and were considered friendly to U.S. interests . A second attack under Captain Thomas Craig killed a large number of French settlers from Peoria as well as Potawatomi . In 1813 , Illinois and Missouri militia joined a force of United States infantry under Benjamin Howard to drive all Native American villagers away from Peoria and establish Fort Clark .
Edwards ' actions alienated those Native Americans friendly to the U.S. in the region . Ninian Edwards , having lost the confidence of the Madison administration , waited out the war in Kentucky . However , he was reappointed to a second and then a third term as territorial governor in 1812 and 1815 , and he was also named one of the three U.S. negotiators of the Treaties of Portage des Sioux in 1815 .
= = = Second and third terms = = =
During his nine years as territorial governor , Edwards made a good deal of money through several profitable ventures , including farming , land speculation , and investment in sawmills , grist mills , and stores .
Edwards ' political rivalry with Jesse B. Thomas continued for the rest of his time as governor . Edwards , along with much of the legislature , criticized the territory 's judges for their inactivity . Among their complaints were that the judges did not hold court often enough and spent too much time absent from the territory . The legislature passed a bill in 1814 to reform the territory 's judicial system . The judges refused to acknowledge the act , claiming that they were outside the jurisdiction of the legislature . In 1815 the issue was resolved by Congress , which passed a law supporting Edwards and the legislature .
In December 1817 , Edwards , responding to a movement for statehood led by his ally Daniel Pope Cook , recommended to the legislature that Illinois apply for admission to the Union . He also recommended that a census first be taken of the territory , a standard practice , but the legislature rejected this . Legislators , particularly those opposed to slavery , feared that any delay would allow Missouri to apply for statehood before Illinois , and that since Missouri was a slave state , this would cause so much turmoil in Congress that it would delay Illinois ' admission even longer .
In order to emphasize to Congress that Illinois would be a free state , the legislature passed in January 1818 a bill that would both abolish Illinois ' " indentured servant " system of de facto slavery , and prohibit Illinois ' future Constitution from reinstating it . Governor Edwards issued his only veto to send the bill back to the legislature , and it was never revised . He made his objections on constitutional grounds , but he also had a conflict of interest as the owner of several slaves himself .
During Edwards ' terms as territorial governor , Illinois ' population more than tripled , from 12 @,@ 282 in 1810 to 40 @,@ 258 in 1818 ( a census was finally conducted later that year ) . The population did not meet the 60 @,@ 000 threshold the Northwest Ordinance required for a new state , but both Illinoisans and Congress expected continued growth .
= = Senate career = =
Illinois quickly proceeded along the steps to statehood . Its constitution was finished in August 1818 ; elections were held in September ; and in October , the first General Assembly met in Kaskaskia . On October 6 , Ninian Edwards stepped down , and Shadrach Bond was inaugurated as Illinois ' first governor . The following day the new state legislature voted for Illinois ' two members of the U.S. Senate . Edwards was quickly chosen on the first ballot ; his rival Thomas was only elected after the fourth . Edwards and Thomas then drew straws to determine their respective terms : Thomas was placed in Class II of the Senate and could serve until 1823 , while Edwards was placed in Class III and had to face reelection in February 1819 . Edwards and Thomas still had to wait for Congress to formally ratify Illinois ' constitution and admission to the Union , which it did on November 25 . On December 3 the two Senators were finally seated , leaving Edwards with a mere three months in his first term .
Edwards ' re @-@ election was more difficult . In four months he had lost the temporary support of Thomas ' allies in the General Assembly who had voted for him in 1818 . He narrowly defeated Thomas partisan Michael Jones by a vote of 23 – 19 . This may have been due to the influence of the powerful Secretary of State Elias Kane , a Thomas ally .
Like most members of Congress during the Era of Good Feelings , Senator Edwards sat as a member of the Democratic @-@ Republican Party . As his second term drew on , he joined the Adams @-@ Clay faction that would develop into the National Republicans after Edwards left office . Edwards voted for the Missouri Compromise in 1820 , a bill that Thomas sponsored . He voted against a law reducing prices for federal land , which made both Edwards and Representative Daniel Pope Cook targets of criticism at home . On May 6 , 1821 , Cook married Edwards ' daughter Julia .
Ninian Edwards caused trouble for himself when he wrote several articles in the Washington Republican under the pseudonym " A.B. " that attacked U.S. Treasury Secretary William H. Crawford . Edwards alleged that Crawford had known of the impending failure of Illinois ' Bank of Edwardsville in 1821 , but had not withdrawn federal money from it . Edwards found that none of Crawford 's rivals were willing to support his charges , and he was unable to produce corroborating evidence . He resigned his Senate seat on March 4 , 1824 , to take a job he wanted as the first United States Minister to Mexico . While en route to his new position , Edwards was called back to Washington to testify before a special House committee concerning the " A.B. Plot " . Unable to substantiate his claims , Edwards resigned his diplomatic post , to be replaced by Joel Roberts Poinsett .
Back in Illinois , Edwards settled in Belleville , a town whose site he had once owned before selling off its lots at a profit .
= = State governorship = =
= = = Election of 1826 = = =
When he returned to Illinois , Edwards appeared to be a discredited politician . He no longer had a loyal coalition in the General Assembly to re @-@ elect him to the U.S. Senate . His actions in the " A.B. Plot " had made him lose favor with President Adams ; therefore he could not expect another federal appointment . In addition , supporters of Andrew Jackson were becoming a force in Illinois politics . Illinois frontier voters so admired Jackson that soon , for the first time , they would give their support to a national party , the Democrats . Ninian Edwards never criticized Jackson , but as an Adams @-@ Clay Republican Senator he was not part of Jackson 's growing coalition . Jacksonians deeply resented Edwards ' ally Cook , who had voted against Jackson when the presidential election of 1824 was decided in the House of Representatives .
However , when he ran for governor in 1826 , Edwards had the good fortune to enter a three @-@ way race that split the Jacksonians between state Senator Thomas Sloo and Lieutenant Governor Adolphus Hubbard . As a campaign issue , Edwards focused on Illinois ' dire financial situation , blaming Sloo and Hubbard and other legislators for it . Edwards won 49 @.@ 5 percent of the vote to Sloo 's 46 percent , with the rest going to Hubbard .
= = = Administration = = =
Edwards ' gubernatorial term was another period of rapid growth for Illinois . In the decade from 1820 to 1830 , the population again nearly tripled from 55 @,@ 211 to 157 @,@ 445 . During this era , Illinois was the fastest @-@ growing territory in the world .
Edwards ' administration was hampered by his conflict with the legislature , primarily over the struggling Bank of Illinois . The bank had been established in 1821 , and from the beginning it had been underfunded , its notes had badly depreciated , and it had helped put the state deeply in debt . In his inaugural address Edwards undiplomatically attacked bank officials and politicians alike , accusing them of fraud and perjury . From that point , Edwards had a poor relationship with the General Assembly . During his term the Assembly did eventually pass a bank regulation bill , but it also passed a measure to relieve debtors despite Edwards ' objections that the state could not afford it .
In 1827 Illinois established its first penitentiary , at Alton . That same year , the state received a federal land grant to build the Illinois and Michigan Canal , though work did not begin for several years .
Also in 1827 , Edwards ordered the Illinois militia to join another war against Native Americans in northern Illinois . The Winnebago War , fought between white settlers and members of the Ho @-@ Chunk tribe , broke out in Wisconsin ( then part of the Michigan Territory ) but spread to the lead @-@ mining region around Galena . Edwards dispatched the militia and ordered 600 more men to be recruited in Sangamon County . The show of force convinced the Ho @-@ Chunk to surrender .
After the war , Edwards urged the federal government to remove the remaining Native Americans from northern Illinois , claiming that their presence violated " the rights of a sovereign and independent state " , and hinting that he might dispatch the militia again to force them out . The federal government applied diplomatic pressure , and on July 29 , 1829 , the Potawatomi , Ottawa , and Ojibwe ceded 3 @,@ 000 square miles ( 7 @,@ 800 km2 ) of northern land to the State of Illinois ; the Winnebago made a cession in August .
= = Later life = =
Under the 1818 constitution , governors were limited to a single term . When Edwards ' ended on December 6 , 1830 , he returned to private life . He ran for the U.S. House of Representatives in 1832 and lost . Edwards devoted himself to charitable medical work in Belleville , giving free care to local residents . A cholera epidemic came through the area in 1833 , carried by Winfield Scott 's troops during the Black Hawk War . Edwards stayed in the town to care for his patients and caught the disease , dying on July 20 . Ninian Edwards was interred in Belleville , but he was later moved to Springfield 's Oak Ridge Cemetery .
= = Family = =
Three of Edwards ' sons and one son @-@ in @-@ law followed him into politics . Ninian Wirt Edwards ( 1809 – 1889 ) , named for his father and his father 's childhood tutor William Wirt , served as Illinois Attorney General , in the General Assembly , and as Illinois ' first Superintendent of Public Instruction . He was married to Elizabeth Porter Todd , a sister of Mary Todd Lincoln . Their daughter Julia Cook Edwards married Edward Lewis Baker , editor of the Illinois State Journal and son of Congressman David Jewett Baker .
Another son , Albert Gallatin Edwards ( 1812 – 1892 ) , was an assistant secretary of the U.S. Treasury under President Abraham Lincoln . In 1887 he founded the brokerage firm A. G. Edwards in Saint Louis , Missouri . A third son , Benjamin S. Edwards ( 1818 – 1886 ) , established a successful law practice in Springfield , Illinois and served as a judge in Illinois ' Thirteenth Circuit . Ninian Edwards ' daughter , Julia Edwards Cook , married Congressman Daniel Pope Cook . Their son , John Pope Cook , was a mayor of Springfield and a general in the Union Army during the American Civil War .
= = Legacy = =
Edwards County , Illinois was named for him , as is the St. Louis , Missouri Metro @-@ East area city of Edwardsville , Illinois . Both were named for him during his time as territorial governor . The territorial legislature named Edwards County , while Edwardsville was named by its founder , Thomas Kirkpatrick . The Edwards Trace , pioneer Central Illinois trail , was named for Ninian Edwards and his War of 1812 campaign .
= Getty Foundation =
The Getty Foundation , based in Los Angeles , California at the Getty Center , awards grants for " the understanding and preservation of the visual arts " . In the past , it funded the Getty Leadership Institute for " current and future museum leaders " , which is now at Claremont Graduate University . Its budget for 2006 @-@ 07 was $ 27 @.@ 8 million . It is part of the J. Paul Getty Trust .
= = Grants = =
The Foundation was originally called the " Getty Grant Program , " which began in 1984 under the direction of Deborah Marrow . The J. Paul Getty Trust can spend up to 0 @.@ 75 % of its endowment on gifts and grants ; by 1990 the Getty Grant Program ( then based in Santa Monica ) had made 530 grants totaling $ 20 million to " art historians , conservators and art museums in 18 countries " . Among notable grants of the Program were grants to partially fund the publication of books , for example to " provide for additional illustrations or allow a book 's purchase price to be lowered " . Some books " published with the assistance of the Getty Grant Program " were :
Hamburger , Jeffrey F. The Rothschild canticles : art and mysticism in Flanders and the Rhineland circa 1300 . New Haven : Yale University Press , 1990 . ISBN 0 @-@ 300 @-@ 04308 @-@ 2
Nesbit , Molly , and Eugène Atget . Atget 's seven albums . New Haven : Yale University Press , 1992 . ISBN 0 @-@ 300 @-@ 03580 @-@ 2
Jones , Amelia , and Laura Cottingham . Sexual politics : Judy Chicago 's Dinner Party in feminist art history . [ Los Angeles , CA ] : UCLA at the Armand Hammer Museum of Art and Cultural Center in association with University of California Press , Berkeley , 1996 . ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 20565 @-@ 0
In 1998 , the Program granted $ 750 @,@ 000 for electronic cataloging to art museums in the Los Angeles area . The program awarded $ 180 @,@ 000 in 1999 to the National Gallery in Prague to digitize images of works of art in its collections . In 2005 , the program awarded the University of California , Los Angeles and to the Museum of Fine Arts , Houston almost $ 400 @,@ 000 to " support the documentation and preservation of Latino and Latin American art " .
The name of the Getty Grant Program was changed to " Getty Foundation " in 2005 to " better reflect [ ] the expanded scope of the Getty 's grant @-@ making over the past two decades and reaffirm [ ] its commitment to philanthropy going forward " . Grants made by the Foundation include funding the Multicultural Undergraduate Internship Program , begun in 1993 , " seeks to increase staff diversity within visual arts organizations " in Los Angeles County . Between 2002 and 2007 , the Foundation expended over $ 13 @.@ 5 million to fund " plans to care for , maintain , and preserve ... historic resources " at 86 United States colleges and universities . In 2006 , the Foundation committed $ 3 @.@ 5 million to restore an 80 by 100 foot " America Tropical " mural on Olvera Street in Los Angeles that was painted by David Alfaro Siqueiros . In 2006 , in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina , the Foundation announced a $ 2 million fund " to aid New Orleans 's visual arts organizations " .
As of June 2008 , the Foundation has four priorities for grants :
" Strengthening art history as a global discipline "
" Promoting the interdisciplinary practice of conservation "
" Increasing access to museum and archival collections "
" Developing current and future professionals and leaders "
In the summer of 2011 , the foundation is funding Multicultural Undergraduate Internships at 70 Los Angeles @-@ area museums and visual arts organizations . The internships seek to attract into museum and visual arts organizations students from historically underrepresented groups : people of African American , Asian , Latino / Hispanic , Native American , and Pacific Islander descent .
A major Getty initiative for 2011 @-@ 12 is Pacific Standard Time : Art in LA 1945 @-@ 1980 , is an unprecedented collaboration that brings together more than sixty cultural institutions from across Southern California for six months beginning October 2011 to tell the story of the birth of the L.A. art scene .
= = Getty Leadership Institute at Claremont Graduate University = =
The Foundation also sponsors the Getty Leadership Institute ( GLI ) . The major GLI program is the Museum Leadership Institute ( MLI ) , formerly known as the Museum Management Institute , which " has served close to 1 @,@ 000 museum professionals from the United States and 30 countries worldwide " . It offers a three @-@ week curriculum for " museum directors and senior executive team members " , with instruction in areas such as " strategy , marketing , management and finance " . Most of the attendees work in art museums ; among the executives who attended the MLI were the directors of the Frick Collection , San Francisco Museum of Modern Art , Van Gogh Museum , and Winnipeg Art Gallery .
In addition to the MLI , GLI offers other professional development programs , convenes meetings involving non @-@ profit agencies , and hosts an online forum . The GLI began in 1979 with a headquarters in New York City and classes taught at the University of California Berkeley . From 1999 to 2009 , the program was headquartered at the Getty Center in Los Angeles , California , and in 2004 , classes moved from Berkeley to the Getty Center . In 2010 , the GLI affiliated with Claremont Graduate University in Claremont , California and was renamed The Getty Leadership Institute at Claremont Graduate University . After the transfer , the foundation supports the GLI with a three @-@ year , $ 2 @.@ 2 million grant , but the program is headquartered on the Claremont campus . Claremont is funding GLI 's indirect costs . Although the transfer took effect on January 2 , 2010 , the 2010 MLI was held at the Getty Center . The 2011 MLI will be held on the Claremont campus .
= = Senior staff = =
The Foundation 's senior staff includes :
Joan Weinstein , Interim Director
Associate Director , Grants Administration : Rebecca Martin
Program Officer : Angie Kim
Senior Program Officer : Nancy Micklewright
Program Officer : Antoine M. Wilmering
Head , Leadership Institute : Philip M. Nowlen
Principal Project Specialist : Kathleen Johnson
Deborah Marrow , who was Foundation Director , now serves as interim president and CEO of the J. Paul Getty Trust .
= = Employees and budget = =
During the period July 2006 - June 2007 , the Foundation had approximately 30 full @-@ time and part @-@ time employees , and a budget of $ 27 @.@ 8 million .
= = Foundation with similar name = =
The Getty Foundation should not be confused with the " Ann and Gordon Getty Foundation , " which is based in San Francisco , California , and which awards grants largely " to promote the fields of music , the opera , and the symphony " .
= Jokhang =
The Jokhang ( Tibetan : ཇོ ་ ཁང ། , Chinese : 大昭寺 ) , also known as the Qoikang Monastery , Jokang , Jokhang Temple , Jokhang Monastery and Zuglagkang ( Tibetan : གཙུག ་ ལག ་ ཁང ༌ ། , Wylie : gtsug @-@ lag @-@ khang , ZYPY : Zuglagkang or Tsuklakang ) , is a Buddhist temple in Barkhor Square in Lhasa , the capital city of Tibet . Tibetans , in general , consider this temple as the most sacred and important temple in Tibet . The temple is currently maintained by the Gelug school , but they accept worshipers from all sects of Buddhism . The temple 's architectural style is a mixture of Indian vihara design , Tibetan and Nepalese design .
The Jokhang was founded during the reign of King Songtsen Gampo . According to tradition , the temple was built for the king 's two brides : Princess Wencheng of the Chinese Tang dynasty and Princess Bhrikuti of Nepal . Both are said to have brought important Buddhist statues and images from China and Nepal to Tibet , which were housed here , as part of their dowries . The oldest part of the temple was built in 652 . In the next 900 years the temple was enlarged several times with the last renovation done in 1610 by the Fifth Dalai Lama . Following the death of Gampo , the image in Ramcho Lake temple was moved to the Jokhang temple for security reasons . When King Tresang Detsan ruled from 755 to 797 , the Buddha image of the Jokhang temple was hidden , as the king 's minister was hostile to the spread of Buddhism in Tibet . During the late ninth and early tenth centuries , the Jokhang and Ramoche temples were said to have been used as stables . In 1049 Atisha , a renowned teacher of Buddhism from Bengal taught in Jokhang .
Around the 14th century , the temple was associated with the Vajrasana in India . In the 18th century the Qianlong Emperor of the Qing dynasty , following the Gorkha @-@ Tibetan war in 1792 , did not allow the Nepalese to visit this temple and it became an exclusive place of worship for the Tibetans . During the Chinese development of Lhasa , the Barkhor Square in front of the temple was encroached . During the Cultural Revolution , Red Guards attacked the Jokhang temple in 1966 and for a decade there was no worship . Renovation of the Jokhang took place from 1972 to 1980 . In 2000 , the Jokhang became a UNESCO World Heritage Site as an extension of the Potala Palace ( a World Heritage Site since 1994 ) . Many Nepalese artists have worked on the temple 's design and construction .
= = Location = =
The temple , considered the " spiritual heart of the city " and the most sacred in Tibet , is at the center of an ancient network of Buddhist temples in Lhasa . It is the focal point of commercial activity in the city , with a maze of streets radiating from it . The Jokhang is 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) east of the Potala Palace . Barkhor , the market square in central Lhasa , has a walkway for pilgrims to walk around the temple ( which takes about 20 minutes ) . Barkhor Square is marked by four stone sankang ( incense burners ) , two of which are in front of the temple and two in the rear .
= = Etymology = =
Rasa Thrulnag Tsuklakang ( " House of Mysteries " or " House of Religious Science " ) was the Jokhang 's ancient name . When King Songtsen built the temple his capital city was known as Rasa ( " Goats " ) , since goats were used to move earth during its construction . After the king 's death , Rasa became known as Lhasa ( Place of the Gods ) ; the temple was called Jokhang — " Temple of the Lord " — derived from Jowo Shakyamuni Buddha , its primary image . The Jokhnag 's Chinese name is Dazhao ; it is also known as Zuglagkang , Qoikang Monastery and Tsuglhakhange .
= = History = =
Tibetans viewed their country as a living entity controlled by srin ma ( pronounced " sinma " ) , a wild demoness who opposed the propagation of Buddhism in the country . To thwart her evil intentions , King Songtsen Gampo ( the first king of a unified Tibet ) developed a plan to build twelve temples across the country . The temples were built in three stages . In the first stage central Tibet was covered with four temples , known as the " four horns " ( ru bzhi ) . Four more temples , ( mtha 'dul ) , were built in the outer areas in the second stage ; the last four , the yang 'dul , were built on the country 's frontiers . The Jokhag temple was finally built in the heart of the srin ma , ensuring her subjugation .
To forge ties with neighboring Nepal , Songtsen Gampo sent envoys to King Amsuvarman seeking his daughter 's hand in marriage and the king accepted . His daughter , Bhrikuti , came to Tibet as the king 's Nepalese wife ( tritsun ; belsa in Tibetan ) . The image of Akshobhya Buddha ( or Mikyoba ) , which she had brought as part of her dowry , was deified in a temple in the middle of a lake known as Ramoche .
Gampo , wishing to obtain a second wife from China , sent his ambassador to Emperor Taizong ( 627 – 650 ) of the Tang dynasty for one of his daughters . Taizong rejected the king 's proposal , considering Tibetans " barbarians " , and announced the marriage of one of his daughters to the king of Duyu , a Hun . This infuriated Gampo , who mounted attacks on tribal areas affiliated with the Tang dynasty and then attacked the Tang city of Songzhou . Telling the emperor that he would escalate his aggression unless the emperor agreed to his proposal , Gampo sent a conciliatory gift of a gold @-@ studded " suit of armour " with another request for marriage . Taizong conceded , giving Princess Wencheng to the Tibetan king . When Wencheng went to Tibet in 640 as the Chinese wife of the king ( known as Gyasa in Tibet ) , she brought an image of Sakyamuni Buddha as a young prince . The image was deified in a temple originally named Trulnang , which became the Jokhang . The temple became the holiest shrine in Tibet and the image , known as Jowo Rinpoche , has become the country 's most @-@ revered idol .
The oldest part of the temple was built in 652 by Songtsen Gampo . To find a location for the temple , the king reportedly tossed his hat ( a ring in another version ) ahead of him with a promise to build a temple where the hat landed . It landed in a lake , where a white stupa ( memorial monument ) suddenly emerged over which the temple was built . In another version of the legend , Queen Bhrikuti founded the temple to install the statue she had brought and Queen Wencheng selected the site according to Chinese geomancy and feng shui . The lake was filled , leaving a small pond now visible as a well fed by the ancient lake , and a temple was built on the filled area . Over the next nine centuries , the temple was enlarged ; its last renovation was carried out in 1610 by the Fifth Dalai Lama .
The temple 's design and construction are attributed to Nepalese craftsmen . After Songtsen Gampo 's death , Queen Wencheng reportedly moved the statue of Jowo from the Ramoche temple to the Jokhang temple to secure it from Chinese attack . The part of the temple known as the Chapel was the hiding place of the Jowo Sakyamuni .
During the reign of King Tresang Detsan from 755 to 797 , Buddhists were persecuted because the king 's minister , Marshang Zongbagyi ( a devotee of Bon ) , was hostile to Buddhism . During this time the image of Akshobya Buddha in the Jokhang temple was hidden underground , reportedly 200 people failed to locate it . The images in the Jokhang and Ramoche temples were moved to Jizong in Ngari , and the monks were persecuted and driven from Jokhang . During the anti @-@ Buddhist activity of the late ninth and early tenth centuries , the Jokhang and Ramoche temples were said to be used as stables . In 1049 Atisha , a renowned teacher of Buddhism from Bengal who taught in Jokhang and died in 1054 , found the " Royal Testament of the Pillar " ( Bka ' chems ka khol ma ) in a pillar at Jokhang ; the document was said to be the testament of Songtsen Gampo .
Beginning in about the 14th century , the temple was associated with the Vajrasana in India . It is said that the image of Buddha deified in the Jokhang is the 12 @-@ year @-@ old Buddha earlier located in the Bodh Gaya Temple in India , indicating " historical and ritual " links between India and Tibet . Tibetans call Jokhang the " Vajrasana of Tibet " ( Bod yul gyi rDo rje gdani ) , the " second Vajrasana " ( rDo rje gdan pal } and " Vajrasan , the navel of the land of snow " ( Gangs can sa yi lte ba rDo rje gdani ) .
After the occupation of Nepal by the Gorkhas in 1769 , during the Gorkha @-@ Tibetan war in 1792 the Qianlong Emperor of the Qing dynasty drove the Gorkhas from Tibet and the Tibetans were isolated from their neighbors . The period , lasting for more than a century , has been called " the Dark Age of Tibet " . Pilgrimages outside the country were forbidden for Tibetans , and the Qianlong Emperor suggested that it would be equally effective to worship the Jowo Buddha at the Jokhang .
In Chinese development of Lhasa , Barkhor Square was encroached when the walkway around the temple was destroyed . An inner walkway was converted into a plaza , leaving only a short walkway as a pilgrimage route . In the square , religious objects related to the pilgrimage are sold .
During the Cultural Revolution , Red Guards attacked the Jokhang in 1966 and for a decade there was no worship in Tibetan monasteries . Renovation of the Jokhang began in 1972 , and was mostly complete by 1980 . After this and the end of persecution , the temple was re @-@ consecrated . It is now visited by a large number of Tibetans , who come to worship Jowo in the temple 's inner sanctum . During the Revolution , the temple was spared destruction and was reportedly boarded up until 1979 . At that time , portions of the Jokhang reportedly housed pigs , a slaughterhouse and Chinese army barracks . Soldiers burned historic Tibetan scriptures . For a time , it was a hotel .
Two flagstone doring ( inscribed pillars ) outside the temple , flanking its north and south entrances , are worshiped by Tibetans . The first monument , a March 1794 edict known as the " Forever Following Tablet " in Chinese , records advice on hygiene to prevent smallpox ; some has been chiseled out by Tibetans who believed that the stone itself had curative powers . The second , far older , pillar is 5 @.@ 5 metres ( 18 ft ) high with a crown in the shape of a palace and an inscription dated 821 or 822 . The tablet has a number of names ; " Number One Tablet in Asia " , " Lhasa Alliance Tablet " , " Changing Alliance Tablet " , " Uncle and Nephew Alliance Tablet " and the " Tang Dynasty @-@ Tubo Peace Alliance Tablet " . ) Its inscription , in Tibetan and Chinese , is a treaty between the Tibetan king Ralpachen and the Chinese emperor delineating the boundary between their countries . Both inscriptions were enclosed by brick walls when Barkhor Square was developed in 1985 . The Sino @-@ Tibetan treaty reads , " Tibet and China shall abide by the frontiers of which they are now in occupation . All to the east is the country of Great China ; and all to the west is , without question , the country of Great Tibet . Henceforth on neither side shall there be waging of war nor seizing of territory . If any person incurs suspicion he shall be arrested ; his business shall be inquired into and he shall be escorted back " .
According to the Dalai Lama , among the many images in the temple was an image of Chenrizi , made of clay in the temple , within which the small wooden statue of the Buddha brought from Nepal was hidden . The image was in the temple for 1300 years , and when Songtsen Gampo died his soul was believed to have entered the small wooden statue . During the Cultural Revolution , the clay image was smashed and the smaller Buddha was given by a Tibetan to the Dalai Lama .
In 2000 , the Jokhang became a UNESCO World Heritage Site as an extension of the Potala Palace ( a World Heritage Site since 1994 ) to facilitate conservation efforts . The temple is listed in the first group of State Cultural Protection Relic Units , and has been categorized as a 4A @-@ level tourist site .
= = Architecture = =
The Jokhang temple covers an area of 2 @.@ 51 hectares ( 6 @.@ 2 acres ) . When it was built during the seventh century , it had eight rooms on two floors to house scriptures and sculptures of the Buddha . The temple had brick @-@ lined floors , columns and door frames and carvings made of wood . During the Tubo period , there was conflict between followers of Buddhism and the indigenous Bon religion . Changes in dynastic rule affected the Jokhang Monastery ; after 1409 , during the Ming dynasty , many improvements were made to the temple . The second and third floors of the Buddha Hall and the annex buildings were built during the 11th century . The main hall is the four @-@ story Buddha Hall .
The temple has an east @-@ west orientation , facing Nepal to the west in honour of Princess Bhrikuti . Additionally , the monastery 's main gate faces west . The Jokhang is aligned along an axis , beginning with an arch gate and followed by the Buddha Hall , an enclosed passage , a cloister , atriums and a hostel for the lamas ( monks ) . Inside the entrance are four " Guardian Kings " ( Chokyong ) , two on each side . The main shrine is on the ground floor . On the first floor are murals , residences for the monks and a private room for the Dalai Lama , and there are residences for the monks and chapels on all four sides of the shrine . The temple is made of wood and stone . Its architecture features the Tibetan Buddhist style , with influences from China , Indian vihara design and Nepal . The roof is covered with gilded bronze tiles , figurines and decorated pavilions .
The central Buddha Hall is tall , with a large , paved courtyard . A porch leads to the open courtyard , which is two concentric circles with two temples : one in the outer circle and another in the inner circle . The outer circle has a circular path , with a number of large prayer wheels ( nangkhor ) ; this path leads to the main shrine , which is surrounded by chapels . Only one of the temple murals remains , depicting the arrival of Queen Wencheng and an image of the Buddha . The image , brought by the king 's Nepalese wife and initially kept at Ramoche , was moved to Jokhang and kept in the rear center of the inner temple . This Buddha has remained on a platform since the eighth century ; on a number of occasions , it was moved for safekeeping . The image , amidst those of the king and his two consorts , has been gilded several times . In the main hall on the ground floor is a gilded bronze statue of Jowo Sakyamuni , 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 ft 11 in ) tall , representing the Buddha at age twelve . The image has a bejeweled crown , cover around its shoulder , a diamond on its forehead and wears a pearl @-@ studded garment . The Buddha is seated in a lotus position on a three @-@ tiered lotus throne , with his left hand on his lap and his right hand touching the earth . A number of chapels surround the Jowo Sakayamuni , dedicated to gods and bodhisattvas . The most important bodhisattva here is the Avalokiteshwara , the patron saint of Tibet , with a thousand eyes and a thousand arms . Flanking the main hall are halls for Amitabha ( the Buddha of the past ) and Qamba ( the Buddha of the future ) . Incarnations of Sakyamuni are enshrined on either side of a central axis , and the Buddha 's warrior guard is in the middle of the halls on the left side .
In addition to the main hall and its adjoining halls , on both sides of the Buddha Hall are dozens of 20 @-@ square @-@ metre ( 220 sq ft ) chapels . The Prince of Dharma chapel is on the third floor , including sculptures of Songtsen Gampo , Princess Wencheng , Princess Bhrikuti , Gar Tongtsan ( the Tabo minister ) and Thonmi Sambhota , the inventor of Tibetan script . The halls are surrounded by enclosed walkways .
Decorations of winged apsaras , human and animal figurines , flowers and grasses are carved on the superstructure . Images of sphinxes with a variety of expressions are carved below the roof .
The temple complex has more than 3 @,@ 000 images of the Buddha and other deities ( including an 85 @-@ foot ( 26 m ) image of the Buddha ) and historical figures , in addition to manuscripts and other objects . The temple walls are decorated with religious and historical murals .
On the rooftop and roof ridges are iconic statues of golden deer flanking a Dharma wheel , victory flags and monstrous fish . The temple interior is a dark labyrinth of chapels , illuminated by votive candles and filled with incense . Although portions of the temple has been rebuilt , original elements remain . The wooden beams and rafters have been shown by carbon dating to be original , and the Newari door frames , columns and finials dating to the seventh and eighth centuries were brought from the Kathmandu Valley of Nepal .
In addition to walking around the temple and spinning prayer wheels , pilgrims prostrate themselves before approaching the main deity ; some crawl a considerable distance to the main shrine . The prayer chanted during this worship is " Om mani padme hum " ( Hail to the jewel in the lotus ) . Pilgrims queue on both sides of the platform to place a ceremonial scarf ( katak ) around the Buddha 's neck or touch the image 's knee . A walled enclosure in front of the Jokhang , near the Tang Dynasty @-@ Tubo Peace Alliance Tablet , contains the stump of a willow known as the " Tang Dynstay Willow " or the " Princess Willow " . The willow was reportedly planted by Princess Wencheng .
= = Buddhist scriptures and sculptures = =
The Jokhang has a sizable , significant collection of cultural artifacts , including Tang @-@ dynasty bronze sculptures and finely @-@ sculpted figures in different shapes from the Ming dynasty . Among hundreds of thangkas , two notable paintings of Chakrasamvara and Yamanataka date to the reign of the Yongle Emperor ; both are embroidered on silk and well @-@ preserved . The collection also has 54 boxes of Tripiṭaka printed in red , 108 carved sandalwood boxes with sutras and a vase ( a gift from the Qianlong Emperor ) used to select the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama .
= Christmas in the post @-@ war United States =
Christmas in the United States during the post @-@ War years ( 1946 – 1964 ) reflected a period of peace , productivity , and prosperity . Americans staged sumptuous Christmases and enjoyed a variety of holiday foods unknown to previous generations . Several films , foods , toys , and television programs of the era have become American Christmas traditions .
Once reliant upon Germany for its ornaments , toys , and even its Christmas customs , America became self @-@ sufficient in the post @-@ War years with Christmas ornaments and toys being manufactured in the United States that were considerably less expensive than their German counterparts . American Christmas customs and traditions such as visits to department store Santas and letter writing to Santa at the North Pole remained intact during America 's post @-@ War years , but the era generated contributions that have endured to become traditions .
NORAD 's tracking of Santa 's sleigh on Christmas Eve , for example , was initiated in 1955 and has become an annual tradition . The stop motion animated film , Rudolph the Red @-@ Nosed Reindeer remains an annual telecast on American television — almost fifty years after its debut , and Dr. Seuss 's The Grinch Who Stole Christmas of 1957 has become a literary Christmas classic .
Several Christmas firsts mark the post @-@ War era that include the first White House Christmas card , the first Christmas postage stamp , the first opera composed for television ( Amahl and the Night Visitors ) , the first Christmas Day basketball game , and the first Elvis Presley Christmas album . The era saw the production and manufacture of toys that have become classics such as Candy Land , Mr. Potato Head , and Barbie .
= = Christmas trees = =
= = = Types = = =
During the post @-@ War years , Americans could select their Christmas trees from a variety of offerings . Natural trees had become the preferred choice in America when Christmas tree farms began supplying them to large metropolitan areas in the 1920s . Artificial trees of bristles , aluminum trees , and flocked trees became alternatives to real trees during the post @-@ War period .
= = = = Natural = = = =
In 1900 , only one in five American families had a [ Christmas tree ] . While America never lacked for real trees , the time and expense of retrieving them from the wild was significant . Early in the twentieth century , however , Christmas tree farms began supplying large metropolitan areas with real trees . In the 1920s , real trees became commonplace , supplanting artificial trees in American homes .
= = = = Artificial = = = =
Artificial trees made of goose feathers were in use in American homes since the 1880s . In the 1930s , however , The Addis Brush Company , an American toilet bowl brush manufacturer , began making artificial trees of green @-@ dyed bristles and then supplied the British ( who suffered a dearth of wild trees ) with thousands of artificial trees in the post @-@ War years . Americans took little interest in the Addis artificial trees and remained loyal to real trees .
= = = = Aluminum = = = =
In 1950 , the Addis Brush Company patented an aluminum Christmas tree , the Silver Pine , that came with a floodlight and a rotating color wheel . Modern Coatings , Inc. of Chicago manufactured aluminum trees in 1958 , and The Aluminum Specialty Company of Manitowoc , Wisconsin manufactured more than a million aluminum trees between 1959 and 1969 . The trees , including the company 's flagship product the " Evergleam " , retailed for $ 25 .
The aluminum tree spectacle could be enhanced with a rotating Christmas tree stand . The futuristic , Space Age look of the trees made them especially suited to the streamlined home decor of the period . Sales of aluminum trees declined after being treated satirically in the 1965 animated Christmas television special , A Charlie Brown Christmas .
= = = = Flocked = = = =
In the 1960s , flocked Christmas trees in purple , gold , pink , and even black became popular . The trees ' branches were coated in a chemically @-@ created , flame retardant substance resembling snow . Sophisticated style mavens suggested developing a new Christmas tree theme every year and buying color coordinated ornaments . Natural trees would return to favor in the 1970s when country arts and crafts became popular .
= = = Decorations = = =
The post @-@ War period saw changes in the production of Christmas tree ornaments . Shiny Brite and other ornament companies began mass @-@ producing inexpensive glass ornaments . Bubble lights were introduced during the period , and inexpensive , lit @-@ from @-@ within tree toppers were another option for the tree .
= = = = Toppers and stands = = = =
In the post @-@ War years , translucent , molded plastic , electrified , lit @-@ from @-@ within tree toppers in the shape of angels and stars became popular . Although Santa Claus and other Christmas icons were introduced as electrified toppers , the star and the angel of the Victorian era remained the preferred motif . Glass spire ornaments were also popular as toppers .
The first decorated water reservoir tree stands appeared on the American market in the 1940s . Tin Christmas tree stands decorated with lithographed holiday icons manufactured by National Outfit Manufacturers Association were produced in the 1950s and have become collectibles of the era .
= = = = Lights = = = =
Bubble lights , a type of incandescent novelty light , were invented by Carl Otis in 1935 , who then sold the patents to the NOMA ( National Outfit Manufacturer 's Association ) Electric Corporation . NOMA launched the novelty lights on the Christmas market in 1946 when war shortages ended . Bubble lights became hugely popular . Their main feature was a sealed glass tube with a colored bubbling liquid inside .
Other companies followed with their own bubble light versions and other lighting novelties . In 1946 , Sylvania introduced fluorescent pastel lights . In 1955 , NOMA manufactured flashing lights . In 1958 , GE launched Lighted Ice Bulbs , blue bulbs covered with ' ice ' crystals . Fairy Lights were imported from Europe in 1950 and eventually morphed into the inexpensive mini @-@ lights popular in the last decades of the 20th century .
= = = = Ornaments = = = =
German glass ornaments were introduced to America by Frank Woolworth in the 1880s but such ornaments were produced under labor @-@ intensive conditions and were expensive , with few Americans being able to afford more than one or two ornaments per year . On the eve of World War II , however , American companies began manufacturing inexpensive , mass @-@ produced ornaments that made it possible for almost any American to have an extensive collection of
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73 ) . By the end of the decade however , prices dropped so quickly that an 8 @-@ transistor radio could be had for less than $ 10 .
Another gift in demand was the streamlined , oval @-@ shaped Princess telephone introduced in the early 1960s . The phone came in a variety of colors , including pink , turquoise , and cream . When one of Mattel 's Barbie doll outfits included a Princess phone as an accessory , a fashion trend was born . By 1963 , many Baby Boomers had reached driver 's license age and , for the first time , middle @-@ class families splurged on cars for their offspring .
= = = Films and music = = =
Twentieth Century Fox 's 1956 Christmas offering was The Girl Can 't Help It , a musical film originally intended as a vehicle for sex symbol Jayne Mansfield , with the subplot being a satire of teenagers and rock ‘ n ’ roll music . The unintended result was the " most potent " celebration of rock music ever captured on film .
In December 1961 , Disney Studios released Babes in Toyland , a film version of Victor Herbert 's 1903 operetta starring teen heartthrobs Annette Funicello and Tommy Sands . Though new songs with jazzy tempi were incorporated into the film and one critic was delighted with the film 's colorful numbers , Babes in Toyland was neither a success nor a complete box office flop . Its gigantic toy soldiers became members of the Disneyland and Walt Disney World Christmas Parades .
Two rockabilly / rock and roll style songs of the late 1950s became hugely popular . " Jingle Bell Rock " , written by Joe Beal and Jim Boothe , was recorded by Bobby Helms in 1957 . The song is regarded as the first rock and roll Christmas song , and has hit the Billboard charts a record six times since its original release . It is second in popularity only to " White Christmas , " with 120 million copies sold . " Jingle Bell Rock " hit # 6 in its first year , despite having been released only two days before Christmas .
" Rockin ' Around the Christmas Tree " , written by Johnny Marks and recorded by Brenda Lee in 1958 for Decca Records , was another rockabilly / rock and roll flavored Christmas tune . While it was neglected in its first two seasons , the song hit # 16 on the Billboard pop chart during the Christmas season of 1960 . Eight million copies were sold over thirty years .
= = Music = =
Elvis ' Christmas Album was released in October 1957 , the first of only two Christmas albums Elvis recorded . The album featured eight Christmas songs , and four gospel songs . " Santa Claus Is Back In Town " and " Santa Bring My Baby Back ( to Me ) " were both commissioned expressly for the album . Elvis ' reading of Ernest Tubb 's 1949 hit , " Blue Christmas " made the tune a holiday staple .
His version of " White Christmas " brought calls from the song 's composer Irving Berlin to have the song , and the entire album , banned from radio airplay . Berlin thought Elvis 's rendition a " profane parody of his cherished yuletide standard " . Most US radio stations ignored Berlin 's request , though at least one DJ was fired for playing a tune from the album . As of 2007 , Elvis ' Christmas Album is the top @-@ selling holiday release of all time with 9 million in sales , according to the RIAA .
" Rudolph the Red @-@ Nosed Reindeer " was composed in 1948 by Johnny Marks after a 1939 poem by Robert L. May who created Rudolph as part of his employment with Montgomery Ward . The song tells the story of a reindeer whose shiny red nose guides Santa 's sleigh through the fog on Christmas Eve . Gene Autry 's 1949 recording remained at # 1 for a week and brought the song widespread fame . Only " White Christmas " has sold more copies .
Autry had another hit in 1950 with " Frosty the Snowman " , written by Jack Rollins and Steve Nelson as a direct attempt to create a success in the vein of " Rudolph The Red @-@ Nosed Reindeer " . The song tells the story of a magical snowman who has playful adventures with children . In 1963 , " Frosty " hit its highest position ever at # 13 in a version by The Ronettes .
Spike Jones 's rendition of " All I Want for Christmas Is My Two Front Teeth " hit # 1 on the pop charts in 1951 . The tune was composed in December 1944 by elementary school music teacher Don Gardner when he noticed most of his students were missing their front " baby " teeth . Inspired , he dashed off the song in thirty minutes . In Spike Jones ' original hit recording , a grownup pretends to be a lisping kid who cannot whistle . Nat King Cole also covered the tune .
" The Little Drummer Boy " , based on an ancient Czech folksong , was written by Katherine K. Davis in 1957 . The song tells the apocryphal story of a poor young boy who , unable to afford a gift for the infant Jesus , plays his drum with Mary 's approval . The baby smiles at the boy in gratitude . The 1958 version by the Harry Simeone Chorale is the standard , and hit the unparalleled record of placing in the Top 40 for five straight Christmases in a row . Simeone recorded the song in a Greenwich Village cathedral to give it a hushed respect . Its highest position on both the US and UK charts was # 13 .
" Silver Bells " was composed by Jay Livingston and Ray Evans , introduced by Bob Hope and Marilyn Maxwell in the film , The Lemon Drop Kid and recorded by Bing Crosby and Carol Richards in 1952 . The song was inspired by Salvation Army bellringers and is one of the very few songs about Christmas in the city . The song was originally called " Tinkle Bell " , but Livingston 's wife reminded him that " tinkle " had another association . " It was something you did in the bathroom , " Evans recalled years after the song 's composition , " but that 's a woman 's word and I 'd never thought of it . " " Silver Bells " ranks # 13 on ASCAP 's list of most @-@ played holiday songs .
" I Saw Mommy Kissing Santa Claus " was written and composed by Tommie Connor in 1952 and originally recorded by thirteen @-@ year @-@ old Jimmy Boyd . The song reached # 1 on the Billboard charts in 1952 , and on the Cash Box Magazine chart at the beginning of the following year . Boyd 's record was condemned by the Roman Catholic Church in Boston on the grounds it mixed sex with Christmas . Boyd was widely photographed meeting with the Archdiocese to explain the song .
" Santa Baby " was written by Joan Javits and Philip Springer in 1953 . The song is a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek look at a Christmas list of a woman who wants the most extravagant gifts for the holiday . " Santa Baby " was originally sung and recorded by Eartha Kitt and became a huge hit at # 4 in 1953 .
Jackson 5 Christmas Album was the only holiday album released by Motown family quintet The Jackson 5 . Released in October 1970 , the album showcased the brothers ' harmonies and vocals . Lead singer Michael Jackson is prominently featured on the album tracks . Included on the Christmas Album is the Jackson 5 's hit single version of " Santa Claus Is Coming to Town " . Rendered with a pop @-@ soul feel , the Jackson 5 's versions of " I Saw Mommy Kissing Santa Claus " and " Santa Claus Is Coming to Town " remain frequent radio requests during the holiday season .
The album spent all four weeks at the number one position on Billboard magazine 's special Christmas Albums chart that the magazine published in December 1970 , making it the best @-@ selling holiday album of that year . It has sold over 3 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide . [ 2 ] In 2003 , Universal Motown re @-@ released the album with " Little Christmas Tree " ( from A Motown Christmas ) . In 2009 , this configuration was released as Ultimate Christmas Collection with Christmas messages , remixes , and a Christmas medley , and again as Merry Christmas Jackson 's. http : / / www.allmusic.com / album / r9998 [ edit ]
= = Literature = =
In 1957 , Dr. Seuss 's How the Grinch Stole Christmas ! was published by Random House . The tale 's rhyming verse accompanies illustrations by the author , and follows a disagreeable character called the Grinch and his attempts to thwart the arrival of Christmas by stealing the gifts , trims , and other trappings of the holiday from the happy Whos of Whoville . In spite of his attempts , Christmas arrives all the same .
The Grinch realizes then that Christmas is something more than its trappings . The book criticizes the commercialization of Christmas and satirizes those who exploit the holiday . The tale was adapted into a 1966 short animated film for television with a screenplay by Seuss and narration by Boris Karloff . Later adaptations include a Broadway musical and a feature film in 2000 starring Jim Carrey .
At 100 years of age in 1960 , Grandma Moses illustrated Clement Clark Moore 's Christmas poem , A Visit from Saint Nicholas as The Night Before Christmas for Random House . The book was published after her death in 1961 .
= = Film = =
The years immediately following WWII saw the release of two of the most popular Christmas films in US history : It 's a Wonderful Life ( 1946 ) and Miracle on 34th Street ( 1947 ) . Moviefone listed the two movies as number two and three respectively in their " 25 Best Christmas Movies of All Time " . The Times of London , in a similar ranking , had the two in tenth and eight respectively , while placing fourth 1942 's Holiday Inn , the movie that launched Bing Crosby 's White Christmas . Particularly Frank Capra 's It 's a Wonderful Life , starring James Stewart has been called " a testament to the family values of small @-@ town America just after WWII . "
Santa Claus Conquers the Martians ( 1964 ) regularly appears on lists of the worst films ever made . Paul Jacobson , the film 's producer and a former unit manager for the television program , Howdy Doody , described his film as a " Yuletide science fiction fantasy " , and with the best of intentions , hoped to bring something to movie theaters at a time of the year when there was a paucity of children 's entertainment other than the annual Disney feature .
In Jacobson 's film , Martians kidnap Santa Claus in a plan to bring fun to their listless , TV @-@ obsessed children . Once on Mars , Santa mass @-@ produces toys using a computerized machine , foils a sourpuss saboteur , and generates fun for all . Santa Claus Conquers the Martians has been novelized , adapted to musical stagings , and has taken its place as a holiday cult classic . Child actress Pia Zadora played one of the Martian children and years later commented , " It was very well done , considering it was shot twenty years ago - gimme a break - and really is very entertaining . It 's become a Christmas classic , really . "
= = Television = =
Christmas television is predominantly secular and focuses on the ethical message of generosity through gift giving and Santa Claus , or the psychological message of home , nostalgia and childhood , or both . The theological message of the holiday — the Incarnation — is rarely encountered in Christmas television . Such a message would be inaccessible to many Americans .
In 1949 , Gian Carlo Menotti was commissioned by NBC 's Opera Theatre to write an opera for television . After a year and a half of delay , he set to work , completing Amahl and the Night Visitors five days before its scheduled airing on Christmas Eve 1951 at 9 : 30 to 10 : 30 p.m .. Menotti 's work was inspired by Hieronymous Bosch 's painting , The Adoration of the Magi . The composer himself appeared on @-@ screen to introduce the opera and give the background of the events leading up to its composition . He also brought director Kirk Browning and conductor Thomas Schippers on @-@ camera to thank them .
An estimated five million viewers tuned in — to this day , the largest audience for a televised opera in America . Skeptic Olin Downes declared in a New York Times front page review that " television , operatically speaking , has come of age " and Newsweek called the telecast , " the best production of opera yet seen on TV . "
The opera 's appeal lay not only in its story about a crippled shepherd boy healed on the first Christmas Eve but in its wedding of opera and the limitations of television . The broad effects of theater were eschewed and instead an intimacy appropriate to the television studio and home viewing was cultivated . The production starred Chet Allen as Amahl and Rosemary Kuhlmann as his mother . Kuhlmann reprised her role annually for many years .
In 1953 , Amahl was colorcast . The opera claims the distinctions of being the first opera written for television , the first presentation of the teleseries Hallmark Hall of Fame , and the first Christmas television special to become an annual tradition . The opera was telecast on NBC from 1951 to 1966 with many of the original cast and crew participating .
On December 18 , 1962 , NBC aired the first animated Christmas special created specifically for television , Mister Magoo 's Christmas Carol . Based on Dickens ' novelette , A Christmas Carol , the animated special featured a score by Broadway duo Jule Styne and Bob Merrill .
On December 6 , 1964 , NBC aired Rudolph the Red – Nosed Reindeer , a stop motion animated special produced by Rankin / Bass . The special was based on a 1949 song by Johnny Marks , which was based in turn on a 1939 poem by Robert L. May . The program has aired every year since 1964 , making it the longest @-@ running Christmas television special .
= = Christmas clubs = =
Christmas clubs were savings programs first offered by banks in 1909 . The concept was simple : bank customers deposited a set amount of money each week into a special savings account , and received the money at a later date for Christmas shopping .
One radio program episode used Christmas clubs as a background . The December 23 , 1949 episode of Life of Riley saw the show 's protagonist Chester Riley attempting to withdraw his US $ 2 Christmas club money but discovering his account has accumulated a variety of fees including one for the passbook , another for early withdrawal , and yet another for the bank 's mailed reminders . The luckless Riley owes the bank 25 cents .
= Josef Wurmheller =
Josef " Sepp " Wurmheller ( 4 May 1917 – 22 June 1944 ) was a German Luftwaffe pilot during World War II , a fighter ace credited with 102 enemy aircraft shot down in over 300 combat missions . He claimed the majority of his aerial victories over the Western Front , and nine over the Eastern Front . Of his 93 victories over the Western Allies , at least 18 – 20 were four @-@ engined bombers and 56 were against Supermarine Spitfire fighters .
Born in Hausham , Wurmheller was a glider pilot in his youth , and volunteered for military service in the Luftwaffe of the Third Reich in 1937 . Following flight training he was posted to Jagdgeschwader 53 ( JG 53 — 53rd Fighter Wing ) in 1939 . He claimed his first aerial victory on the Western Front on 30 September 1939 , a phase of World War II dubbed the Phoney War . He then served as a flight instructor before returning to JG 53 for the Battle of Britain . In June 1941 he participated in Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the Soviet Union . He was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross on 4 September 1941 after 32 victories . Following another tour as fighter pilot instructor , he was posted to Jagdgeschwader 2 " Richthofen " ( JG 2 — 2nd Fighter Wing ) operating on the Channel Front . Wurmheller claimed seven aerial victories during the Dieppe Raid on 19 August 1942 and after his 67th victory was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves on 1 October 1942 .
In April 1943 , Wurmheller was appointed Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) of 9 . Staffel ( 9th squadron ) of JG 2 " Richthofen " . On 8 June 1944 , two days after the Allied Invasion of Normandy , he was given command of III . Gruppe ( 3rd group ) of JG 2 " Richthofen " . He and his wingman were killed in a mid @-@ air collision during combat near Alençon , France on 22 June 1944 . Wurmheller was posthumously promoted to Major ( major ) and was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords on 24 October 1944 .
= = Early life and career = =
Wurmheller was born on 4 May 1917 in Hausham in the Kingdom of Bavaria , a federated state of the German Empire . After growing up on his uncle 's farm at Schliersee , he spent four years working as a miner like his father . He was also an enthusiastic glider pilot and in 1937 he volunteered for military service in the Luftwaffe . Following training as a fighter pilot , Wurmheller , holding the rank of Unteroffizier ( sergeant ) , was posted to 2 . Staffel ( 2nd squadron ) of Jagdgeschwader 53 ( JG 53 — 53rd Fighter Wing ) in 1939 .
= = World War II = =
World War II in Europe began on Friday , 1 September 1939 , when German forces invaded Poland . On 30 September , elements of I. Gruppe ( 1st group ) of JG 53 encountered a formation of five Royal Air Force ( RAF ) Fairey Battle single @-@ engined bombers in the vicinity of Saarbrücken during the early Phoney War period . Wurmheller claimed his first victory during this encounter . The Fairey Battle K9283 , of No. 150 Squadron flown by Squadron Leader William MacDonald , was on an aerial reconnaissance mission in the area from Metzing to Saarbrücken and crash @-@ landed at Écury @-@ sur @-@ Coole . For this victory , Wurmheller received the Iron Cross 2nd Class ( Eisernes Kreuz 2 . Klasse ) on 19 October 1939 . He was posted to the Jagdfliegerschule ( fighter pilot school ) at Werneuchen as an instructor in November 1939 .
= = = Battle of Britain and Eastern Front = = =
Following a tour as an instructor at the Luftwaffe fighter pilot school , Wurmheller returned to 5 . Staffel of JG 53 in June 1940 . During the Battle of Britain , he flew combat missions as a fighter pilot and as a fighter @-@ bomber pilot . He claimed four further victories in this campaign and was awarded the Iron Cross 1st Class ( Eisernes Kreuz 1 . Klasse ) on 16 October 1940 . He was shot down three times himself by RAF fighters and each time had to bail out . On the third occasion , he was shot down in Messerschmitt Bf 109 E @-@ 4 ( Werknummer 5242 — factory number ) at approximately 5 : 10 pm on 23 November over the English Channel and had to swim for four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours before he was rescued by a Schnellboot ( E @-@ boat ) of the Kriegsmarine ( Navy ) . Hospitalized until March 1941 , he returned to combat duty and claimed two Supermarine Spitfires shot down on 7 May 1941 , his 9th and 10th victories .
Wurmheller 's unit was subsequently transferred to the Eastern Front in preparation for Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the Soviet Union , which began on 22 June 1941 . During Barbarossa he was deployed in the southern sector of the German advance . He added nine victories — eight bombers and one Polikarpov I @-@ 16 " Rata " fighter — in this theater of operations . His last victory on the Eastern Front , his 19th overall , was claimed on 15 July 1941 .
= = = Channel Front = = =
Wurmheller was transferred back to the Channel Front on 20 July 1941 . He was assigned to the Stab ( headquarters unit ) of II . Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 2 " Richthofen " ( JG 2 — 2nd Fighter Wing ) , named after the World War I fighter ace Manfred von Richthofen . He claimed his 20th aerial victory on 24 July 1941 and over a period of four weeks claimed a further 12 victories , all over Spitfires , including five in one day , making him an " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " .
On 30 August 1941 , Wurmheller was awarded the Honor Goblet of the Luftwaffe ( Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe ) , and on 4 September he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) for 32 aerial victories . His former unit , 5 . Staffel of JG 53 , had nominated him for the Knight 's Cross , but the nomination was not approved until he was assigned to JG 2 " Richthofen " . On the same day , his fellow II . Gruppe pilot Oberfeldwebel Kurt Bühligen also received the Knight 's Cross . At the time , Wurmheller flew a Bf 109 F @-@ 2 from the airbase at St Pol @-@ Bryas .
Following a minor injury , Wurmheller was again posted to the fighter pilot school in Werneuchen as an instructor . Upon his return to front line duty in May 1942 , he was posted to 1 . Staffel and claimed 10 victories during May 1942 and a further 12 victories the following month . Among these claims were four Spitfires shot down on 31 May and five on 5 June 1942 . Most of these missions were flown with Rudolf Pflanz as his wingman .
Wurmheller 's most successful day as a fighter pilot was during the Dieppe Raid on 19 August 1942 . On that day , the Allies unsuccessfully attacked the German @-@ occupied port of Dieppe . Over 6 @,@ 000 infantrymen , predominantly Canadian , were supported by a Canadian armored regiment and a strong force of Royal Marines and smaller RAF landing contingents . Wurmheller , whose right foot was plastered in an orthopedic cast , claimed seven victories during the course of four combat missions that day , six Spitfires and a Bristol Blenheim bomber . The Blenheim most likely was a misidentified Martin Baltimore . He had to abort his first mission due to engine trouble , suffering a minor concussion in the forced landing . He returned from his second mission claiming two Spitfires and a Blenheim shot down . His third mission resulted in the destruction of three more Spitfires , his 56th to 58th victories . Wurmheller claimed another Spitfire shout down on his fourth combat mission . The next day , 20 August , he claimed his 60th aerial victory , which earned him the German Cross in Gold ( Deutsches Kreuz in Gold ) ; it was awarded on 21 August .
Wurmheller was promoted to Leutnant ( second lieutenant ) for bravery in the face of the enemy on 1 October 1942 . Following his 67th aerial victory , achieved in about 150 combat missions , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub ) on 14 November 1942 . He was the 146th officer or soldier of the Wehrmacht so honored .
The United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) , in particular the Eighth Air Force , began regular combat when the VIII Bomber Command attacked the Rouen – Sotteville marshalling yards in France on 17 August 1942 . Wurmheller claimed four Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress bombers shot down on 3 January 1943 . On 1 April 1943 he was appointed Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) of 9 . Staffel of JG 2 " Richthofen " , succeeding Hauptmann ( Captain ) Siegfried Schnell , who was transferred to III . Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 54 ( JG 54 — 54th Fighter Wing ) . Wurmheller claimed his 70th victory on 17 May , when he shot down a B @-@ 17 .
On 23 September , Wurmheller was wounded by bomb splinters while making an emergency landing in his Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 A @-@ 6 during a bombing raid at Vannes – Meucon . " Sepp " , as he was named by his comrades , was promoted to Oberleutnant ( first lieutenant ) on 1 August 1943 and to Hauptmann on 1 November 1943 . He claimed his first heavy bomber in the Defense of the Reich campaign on 8 February 1944 in the vicinity of Le Tréport . On 8 March 1944 , he claimed his 90th victory overall .
= = = Group commander and death = = =
Wurmheller claimed further aerial victories following the Allied invasion of Normandy on 6 June 1944 . He was appointed Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) of III . Gruppe of JG 2 " Richthofen " on 8 June , succeeding Hauptmann Herbert Huppertz who was killed in action near Caen earlier that day . Wurmheller claimed the last three victories of his total of 102 on 16 June 1944 . He was the 80th Luftwaffe pilot to achieve the century mark .
Wurmheller was killed in his Fw 190 A @-@ 8 ( Werknummer 171 053 ) on 22 June 1944 , when he collided with his wingman , Feldwebel ( Staff Sergeant ) Kurt Franzke , during aerial combat with USAAF Republic P @-@ 47 Thunderbolt and Royal Canadian Air Force ( RCAF ) Spitfire fighters near Alençon . He was posthumously awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub und Schwertern ) and promoted to the rank of Major ( major ) on 24 October 1944 , which was back @-@ dated to 1 June 1944 . Wurmheller and Franzke were buried side by side at the War Cemetery Champigny @-@ St. André , near Saint @-@ André @-@ de @-@ l 'Eure , in plot 9 , graves 1704 and 1705 respectively .
= = Awards = =
Wound Badge in Black
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe in Gold with Pennant " 400 "
Combined Pilots @-@ Observation Badge
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 19 October 1939 )
1st Class ( 16 October 1940 )
Honor Goblet of the Luftwaffe ( 30 August 1941 )
German Cross in Gold on 21 August 1942 as Oberfeldwebel in the I. / Jagdgeschwader 2
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords
Knight 's Cross on 4 September 1941 as Oberfeldwebel and pilot in the 9 . / Jagdgeschwader 2 " Richthofen "
146th Oak Leaves on 13 November 1942 as Leutnant ( war officer ) and pilot in the 7 . / Jagdgeschwader 2 " Richthofen "
108th Swords on 24 October 1944 ( posthumously ) as Hauptmann ( war officer ) and Gruppenkommandeur of the III . / Jagdgeschwader 2 " Richthofen "
= What Lies Below =
" What Lies Below " is the 13th episode of the second season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe . Set in a quarantined Boston office building , the episode revolves around a thousands @-@ year @-@ old virus that infects and then influences its victims to attempt to spread the contagion outside of the building .
It was the third Fringe episode to be written by supervising producer Jeff Vlaming , while it was director Deran Sarafian 's only credit for the series to date . After his character becomes infected , actor Joshua Jackson commented during shooting to " just imagine the worst hangover I 've ever had and multiply it by ten " .
" What Lies Below " first aired in the United States on January 21 , 2010 on the Fox network . An estimated 6 @.@ 90 million viewers watched the episode , and it received mixed reviews from critics , with one calling it average and predictable .
= = Plot = =
In Boston , a visibly sick man from the Netherlands arrives at an office building , only to collapse and die . The veins in his body erupt with blood , spraying surrounding witnesses . The Fringe team arrive on site , and while interviewing the witnesses , another man also becomes sick . The sick man attempts to leave the building , only to be stopped by Walter ( John Noble ) , who sees the man spray out blood and realizes there is a contagion . The building is quarantined with Walter 's son Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) , FBI agent Olivia ( Anna Torv ) , and the rest of the witnesses still inside .
The CDC arrives and soon clash with Walter , who wants some blood samples to take back to his lab at Harvard . As another witness , the receptionist , falls ill , the rest begin panicking that the virus is an airborne contagion . Olivia discovers that the Dutch man was an oil consultant who arrived to meet with Mr. Ames , one of the other office workers trapped in the building .
Walter explains that viruses have forms of " personalities , " that influence their hosts to act in certain ways . He posits that the virus is not airborne after all , but needs more samples for further tests . Meanwhile the infected receptionist is influenced by the virus , jumps out a window , and also scares Peter into falling into an infected pool of blood . The woman is sprayed with decontaminate spray , as Peter quickly rinses himself off . Knowing he is likely infected , Peter searches through the Dutch man 's pockets , leading to the discovery of a briefcase infected by the virus .
Walter continues his theory that the virus wants to escape the building , hence the multiple escape attempts by the infected . The virus was found on a sample taken 10 miles below the earth , and may be 75 @,@ 000 years old and responsible for wiping out the Ice Age mammals . As a bio @-@ hazard team enters the building to test people for the virus , a CDC official orders the army to prepare for a " level six eradication " , because they still do not know how to contain it .
Peter manages to fake the test and hide his infection . He and Olivia begin leading a team of healthy people outside the building , but before Peter is able to leave , his nose bleeds , clearly revealing that he is infected . While the virus overtakes Peter 's health and sanity , Walter becomes increasingly distressed as he fears losing his son again , and accidentally blurts out that he " can 't let Peter die again " to Astrid ( Jasika Nicole ) . Despite the threat of eradication and death , he and Astrid remain in the building to run further tests on the Dutch man . Walter realizes that sulfuric ash killed the virus thousands of years ago , and successfully finds a cure with some horseradish he found in the office break room .
The CDC agrees to allow Olivia to enter the building and use the air ventilation system to spread some fentanyl gas , which will gain them time while the cure is synthesized . While inside , Peter attacks her , but Olivia is able to turn the air on , successfully knocking out the building 's occupants . Peter and everyone else are successfully cured . Astrid later approaches Walter and asks what he meant when he said he couldn 't let Peter die again , to which he responds by saying " some things are meant to be left alone . "
= = Production = =
Supervising producer Jeff Vlaming wrote " What Lies Below " , his second episode of the season . Filmmaker Deran Sarafian served as the director , his first and only Fringe directional credit . The episode featured one @-@ time guest appearances by actors Demore Barnes , Geoff Pierson , Conrad Coates , Natassia Malthe , and David Richmond @-@ Peck . Actor Joshua Jackson , who plays an infected Peter Bishop in the episode , noted during shooting that he found inspiration from " imagin [ ing ] the worst hangover I 've ever had and multiply it by ten " .
Actress Jasika Nicole was pleased that the writers decided to let her character discover Walter 's secret , commenting " Astrid finds out in a really emotional way because Walter lets it slip to her accidentally . I think that it was really nice for them to invite Astrid into the importance of that instead of keeping her in the dark . At least she knows that she 's a part of this family and this affects her . I think she serves as a really important character in these later episodes because Astrid is kind of the only person that isn 't directly involved with everything that is still on his side . She has to step up to the plate and be that comfort for him because if he doesn 't have anyone there , he 's basically going to regress and go back to the place , I think mentally , that he was in when he was in the mental institution . And of course we don 't want that . "
One of the episode 's scenes involves an infected woman jumping out of the building onto a van in an attempt to spread the virus further . To simulate her 160 @-@ feet fall , stuntwoman Angela Uyeda was placed in a crane 10 to 15 feet above the van and asked to jump onto the van below . The crew removed the roof structure on the van , and carefully rigged it to cave @-@ in upon impact but also make it as painless as possible for Uyeda . To achieve this , they modified the ribs that supported the roof by placing them on pins that would snap , and also added a three @-@ millimeter glass plate that would snap between two sheets of black hard nylon @-@ type plastic to further emphasize the distance she jumped .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The first airing of " What Lies Below " was watched by an estimated 6 @.@ 90 million viewers in the United States , with a 2 @.@ 6 / 7 rating for those aged 18 – 49 . SFScope writer Sarah Stegall considered these numbers to be " steady but stagnant ratings " , as they were " not much different " from the previous week .
= = = Reviews = = =
" What Lies Below " received mixed reviews from television critics . The A.V. Club contributor Todd VanDerWerff graded the episode with a B- , explaining that despite some nice moments , it was " an episode of the show that started out utterly predictably , continued along an utterly predictable path and yet somehow got fairly enjoyable by the end just through sheer force of will on the part of the cast . " IGN 's Ramsey Isler also found the episode average and predictable , as it lacked " much of the quintessential storytelling elements that , once upon a time , made this one of the best shows on TV . " Like many other critics , Isler thought the episode was too similar to The X @-@ Files , and gave it 7 @.@ 0 / 10 . TV Squad columnist Jane Boursaw thought Walter discovering a cure was a little far @-@ fetched , and wished Broyles was a greater part of the show . Television Without Pity gave the episode a B + .
Andrew Hanson from the Los Angeles Times thought it was a really good episode , and even wished it could have been turned into a movie , were Fringe to get into filmmaking . Josh Wigler of MTV thought it was a " pretty cool " mystery @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week , and " while not quite as strong as when the mythology is in full gear , ' What Lies Below ' was nonetheless a compelling hour of television . " He was however bothered that there was no further information about the parallel universe . UGO Networks writer Alex Zalben compared " What Lies Below " to the similarly @-@ plotted The X @-@ Files episode " Ice " . Zalben concluded , " Though both episodes are very good , ' Ice ' is one of the best X @-@ Files hours ever , perfectly channeling – but not ripping off – John Carpenter 's The Thing . "
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Director Deran Sarafian submitted " What Lies Below " for consideration in the Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series category at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards . He did not receive a nomination .
= Flitch of bacon custom =
The awarding of a flitch of bacon to married couples who can swear to not having regretted their marriage for a year and a day is an old tradition , the remnants of which still survive in some pockets in England . The tradition was maintained at Wychnoure until at least the eighteenth century but now remains only as a carving over the fireplace . At Little Dunmow in Essex a similar ceremony also survived into the eighteenth century . The tradition can be traced back to at least the fourteenth century at both sites and the Dunmow flitch is referred to in Chaucer . The awarding of a flitch at both sites seems to have been an exceedingly rare event .
The Dunmow tradition was revived in Victorian times , largely inspired by a book ( The Flitch of Bacon ) by William Harrison Ainsworth . Flitch trials are still held in modern times at Great Dunmow . A counsel is employed to cross @-@ examine the nominated couples and attempt to show they are undeserving of the award .
There is evidence that the flitch of bacon tradition existed outside Britain in mainland Europe and some would push its origins back as far as Saxon times . Historian Hélène Adeline Guerber associates the origins of the flitch of bacon ceremony with the Yule feast of Norse tradition in which boar meat is eaten in honour of the god Freyr .
= = Whichnoure = =
The manor of Whichnoure ( now Wychnor Hall ) near Lichfield , Staffordshire was granted to Sir Philip de Somerville in the 10th year of the reign of Edward III ( 1336 ) from the Earl of Lancaster for a small fee but also on condition that he kept ready " arrayed at all times of the year but Lent , one bacon @-@ flyke hanging in his hall at Whichnoure , to be given to every man or woman who demanded it a year and a day after the marriage , upon their swearing they would not have changed for none other " .
The couple are required to produce two of their neighbours to witness that the oath is true . The oath that was to be sworn by the couple reads ,
Hear ye , Sir Philip de Somervile , lord of Whichenoure , maintainer and giver of this Bacon , that I , ( husband ) , syth I wedded ( wife ) , my wyfe , and syth I had her in my kepyng and at wylle , by a Yere and a Day after our Marryage , I would not have changed for none other , farer ne fowler , richer ne powrer , ne for none other descended of gretter lynage , sleeping ne waking , at noo time ; and if the said ( wife ) were sole , and I sole , I would take her to be my wyfe before all the wymen of the worlde , of what condytions soevere they be , good or evyle , as helpe me God , and his Seyntys , and this flesh , and all fleshes .
The winning couple are escorted away in a grand ceremony with " trompets , tabourets , and other manoir of mynstralcie " . Although this is a valuable prize , it does not seem to have been claimed very often . Horace Walpole , who visited Whichnoure in 1760 , reported that the flitch had not been claimed for thirty years and that a real flitch of bacon was no longer kept ready at the manor . A replacement , carved in wood , was now displayed over the mantle of the fireplace in the main hall , presumably in order to continue to meet the conditions of the original land grant .
Walpole is quite taken by this tradition and mentions it in several letters to his friends . In a letter to the Countess of Ailesbury ( Lady Caroline Campbell , daughter of John Campbell , 4th Duke of Argyll and widow of Charles Bruce , 4th Earl of Elgin and 3rd Earl of Ailesbury but by this stage married to Hon. H. S. Conway ) , Walpole with tongue firmly in cheek berates her for not having come to Whichnoure to claim the flitch : " Are you not ashamed , Madam , never to have put in your claim ? It is above a year and a day that you have been married , and I never once heard either of you mention a journey to Whichnoure . " Describing the location and explaining why the flitch no longer gets claimed , he writes " ... it is a little paradise , and the more like an antique one , as , by all I have said , the married couples seem to be driven out of it . " Walpole concludes , " If you love a prospect , or bacon , you will certainly come hither . "
An anonymous humorous piece appeared in Joseph Addison 's Spectator in 1714 purporting to explain the rarity of the flitch being awarded in terms of the poor quality of the applicants . The writer claims that the source is the Register of Whichenovre @-@ hall but the truth is that the piece is almost certainly entirely fictitious . The first couple to claim , according to this account , were at first successful , but then had the flitch taken away from them after they began to argue about how it should be dressed . Another couple failed when the husband , who had only reluctantly attended , had his ears boxed by his wife during the questioning . A couple who applied after only their honeymoon had finished passed the questioning but since insufficient time had elapsed were awarded just one rasher . One of only two couples to be successful in the first century of the tradition was a ship 's captain and his wife who had not actually seen one another for over a year since their marriage .
As well as to married couples , a flitch of bacon was also given at Whichnoure to men in the religious profession one year and a day following their retirement .
= = Dunmow = =
A rather better @-@ known example of the awarding of a flitch of bacon to married couples occurred at Little Dunmow Priory in Essex . It is generally held to have been instituted by the family of Robert Fitzwalter in the 13th century . According to Rev. W. W. Skeat in his notes to the fourteenth @-@ century The Vision of William Concerning Piers the Plowman ,
In the present passage we have the earliest known allusion to the singular custom known as that of " the Dunmow flitch of Bacon . " The custom was — " that if any pair could , after a twelvemonth of matrimony , come forward , and make oath at Dunmow [ co . Essex ] that , during the whole time , they had never had a quarrel , never regretted their marriage , and , if again open to an engagement , would make exactly that they had made , they should be rewarded with a flitch of Bacon . "
It is referred to in Chaucer ( 1343 – 1400 ) in a way that makes clear the reference would already be well known to the reader . It continued to be awarded until the middle of the 18th century , the last successful claim being made on 20 June 1751 . The ceremony of this last flitch award was recorded by the artist David Ogborne who was present at the time to make sketches and , later , engravings . His images were later used as source material by Ainsworth for his novel , The Flitch of Bacon . Ainsworth 's 1854 novel proved so popular that it revived the custom which has continued in one form or another down to the present day and is now held every leap year .
The oath to be taken was very similar to the one at Whichnoure , that " neither of them in a year and a day , neither sleeping or waking , repented of their marriage " . The couple are required to kneel on sharp stones in the churchyard while taking the oath and a verse was chanted ;
Following the taking of the oath , the couple are then paraded around the town with their bacon in a noisy ceremony , much as at Whichnoure .
The historical Dunmow flitch is known to have been successfully claimed only a total of six times , although there may have been more that are unknown ( among the possible ones there are Montagu Burgoyne and his wife Elizabeth ) . Three are known prior to the dissolution of the monasteries from the records of the house of Sir Richard St George , and a further three awards are known from the records of the manor court at Dunmow now in the British Museum . There was a long gap after the dissolution but the tradition was revived by Sir Thomas May in 1701 when he became the owner of the Priory .
There was an attempt made to claim the flitch on 12 June 1772 by John and Susan Gilder . The couple had given due notice of their claim and were accompanied by a large crowd of onlookers . However , the lord of the manor had ordered that the ceremony should not take place and the gates of the priory were nailed shut to prevent it . By 1809 the tradition was definitely abolished . A further attempt to claim the flitch was made in 1832 by Josiah Vine , a retired cheesemaker , who travelled with his wife from Reading to make his claim . He too was refused a trial by a very unsympathetic Steward of Little Dunmow . John Bull on 8 October 1837 reported that it had been revived by the Saffron Walden and Dunmow Agricultural Society . Apparently however , this flitch was merely distributed at the annual society dinner . In 1851 a couple from Felstead were also refused a trial at the Priory , but obtained a flitch from the people of nearby Great Dunmow who felt that they deserved it .
= = = Modern flitch trials = = =
The flitch trials were revived in the Victorian era after the publication of Ainsworth 's novel in 1854 which proved to be tremendously popular . Ainsworth aided the reinstitution by himself donating two flitches for the first of the revived ceremonies in 1855 . They have been held ever since in one form or another except for a gap caused by the World Wars . The first ceremony after World War II was held in 1949 , despite rationing still being in force . The modern trials are held every fourth year on leap years , the next one is planned for 2016 . The event is organised by the Dunmow Flitch Trials Committee who employ a counsel to cross @-@ examine the applicants in an attempt to save the bacon for the sponsors who donated it . The trial is decided by a jury .
When first revived the original stones on which the couple knelt had been removed and the chair on which they were carried if successful is kept permanently in Little Dunmow Priory . However , replacements for both of these have been provided for the modern ceremony . The modern trials are held in the town of Great Dunmow rather than the location of the original custom at Little Dunmow , a smaller nearby village .
Dunmow claims to be the only location to have continued the flitch of bacon custom into the 21st century .
= = Older traditions = =
Although the flitch ceremony at Dunmow is generally held to have originated with the Fitzwalters in the 13th century there are some who would date it to earlier Norman or Saxon times , one suggested date being 1104 , the founding of the Little Dunmow Priory . This is partly because the flitch of Dunmow seems to have already been common knowledge in very early works such as the prologue to Chaucer 's " Wife of Bath " and also in the Visions of Pierce Plowman by William Langland . Some would also read passages in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle as alluding to the Dunmow flitch .
It is possible that the flitch of bacon custom was at one time quite widespread . There was a flitch of bacon tradition at the Abbey of St Melaine , Rennes , Brittany , where the bacon is said to have hung for six centuries without being claimed . In Vienna , there was a similar tradition in which the prize was a ham of bacon rather than a flitch . The ham was hung over the city gate , from where the winner was expected to climb up and remove it himself . One such winner had the prize revoked after winning it , after he inadvertently let slip that his wife would rebuke him for staining his coat while bringing down the ham .
Historian Hélène Adeline Guerber theorizes that the tradition traces back to an ancient Norse custom connected with the Yule feast , a Germanic pagan festival that in modern times has inextricably been absorbed into Christmas . Guerber theorizes that Yule is primarily dedicated to the god Thor , but is also important for the god Freyr ( who rides a wild boar , Gullinbursti ) . A boar is eaten at Yule in Freyr 's honour and the boar can only be carved by a man of unstained reputation . Guerber says that Freyr was the patron of gladness and harmony and was often invoked by married couples who wished for the same , and that this led to the custom of married couples who actually succeeded in living in harmony for a given period being rewarded with a piece of boar meat . Guerber states that it is this tradition that became the flitch of bacon custom after converting boar meat into bacon .
= = In the arts and culture = =
The flitch of bacon , subtitled The custom of Dunmow : a tale of English home is a novel by William Harrison Ainsworth first published in 1854 . The central plot of the story is the flitch at Dunmow and the scheming by the leading character to be awarded it by marrying a succession of women in an attempt to find the right one . The description of the ceremony in the book is partly based on the art of David Ogborne , an eyewitness to the last ceremony in 1751 .
The Flitch of Bacon public house , of which the protagonist of Ainsworth 's novel is the publican , still exists in Little Dunmow .
The Flitch of Bacon is a comic opera from 1779 by William Shield and Sir Henry Bate Dudley .
Made in Heaven is a 1952 film starring David Tomlinson and Petula Clark about a married couple attempting to win the Dunmow flitch .
= Third Battle of Gaza =
The Third Battle of Gaza was fought on the night of 1 / 2 November 1917 between British and Ottoman forces during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of World War I , and came after the Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) victory at the Battle of Beersheba had ended the Stalemate in Southern Palestine . The fighting occurred at the beginning of the Southern Palestine Offensive , and together with attacks on Hareira and Sheria on 6 – 7 November and the continuing Battle of Tel el Khuweilfe which had been launched by General Edmund Allenby on 1 November , it eventually broke the Gaza to Beersheba line defended by the Yildirim Army Group . Despite having held this line since March 1917 , the Ottoman Army was forced to evacuate Gaza and Tel el Khuweilfe during the night of 6 / 7 November . Only Sheria held out for most of the 7 November before it too was captured .
Following British defeats at the First and Second Battles of Gaza in March and April 1917 , Lieutenant General Philip Chetwode commanding the EEF 's Eastern Force and Kress von Kressenstein 's Ottoman Empire force had each adopted a defensive posture and a stalemate had developed in Southern Palestine . Entrenched defences approximately on the lines held at the end of the second battle were strengthened , and both sides undertook regular mounted reconnaissances into the open eastern flank . In late June , Allenby replaced General Archibald Murray as commander of the EEF , which he quickly reorganised . At about the same time , the Ottoman Fourth Army was also restructured . As the stalemate continued in terrible conditions through the summer , reinforcements began to arrive to replace the large number of casualties suffered by the EEF during the previous fighting for Gaza , while several additional divisions also arrived . The Ottoman defenders were also reinforced at this time , and both sides carried out training while manning the front lines and monitoring the open eastern flank . By mid @-@ October , as the Battle of Passchendaele continued on the Western Front , the last of the British reinforcements arrived as Allenby 's preparations to commence a campaign of manoeuvre neared completion .
Prior to the Second Battle of Gaza , the town had been developed into a strong modern fortress , with entrenchments , wire entanglements and a glacis on its south and south – eastern edges . A series of field works , mutually supported by artillery , machine guns and rifles , extended from Gaza eastwards to within 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) of Beersheba . Beginning on 27 October , the EEF began a heavy and almost continuous bombardment of Gaza . During this time , the EEF 's XXI Corps , holding the Gaza section of the line , had been mostly passive until the night of 1 / 2 November , when a series determined night @-@ time assaults were mounted against the Gaza defences . Yet these attacks were only partially successful due to the strength of the garrison . The bombardment of Gaza intensified on 6 November and during the night of 6 / 7 November successful attacks were launched on several trench systems . On the morning of 7 November , Gaza was found to have been evacuated during the night . The Gaza to Beersheba line subsequently collapsed and the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies were forced into retreat . Following several battles during the pursuit , the EEF captured Jerusalem on 9 December 1917 .
= = Background = =
Gaza was " a strong modern fortress , well entrenched and wired , with good observation and a glacis on its southern and south – eastern face . " These defences which were too strong for a daytime attack were extended eastwards by a series of " field works " to four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) from Beersheba . These fortifications were between 1 @,@ 500 to 2 @,@ 000 yards ( 1 @,@ 400 to 1 @,@ 800 m ) apart , each mutually supported by fire from artillery , machine guns and rifles .
As the troops of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) began to concentrate in preparation for their attacks , they left their camps standing to deceive German and Ottoman aerial reconnaissances . The EEF assumed their opponents thought there were still six infantry divisions in the Gaza area and one in the eastern sector towards Beersheba . However , according to Falls , " [ t ] here is evidence that the [ Yildirim Army Group ] were fairly accurately informed of the British dispositions . " On 28 October , they knew the camps at Khan Yunis and Rafa were empty and accurately placed three infantry divisions east of the Wadi Ghuzzee with a fourth , the 10th ( Irish ) Division approaching the wadi . They estimated more cavalry at Asluj and Khalasa than was actually there .
The loss of Beersheba on 31 October stunned the Yildirim Army Group commander and staff . The Beersheba garrison withdrew either to the Ottoman defences around Tel es Sheria or northwards to Tel el Khuweilfe to defend the Hebron road . Here a considerable force , including all available reserve units , was deployed in the Kuweilfeh area to stop a threatened advance up the Hebron road to Jerusalem about fifty miles ( 80 km ) to the north . According to Powles , " ... the Turkish line had been thrown back on its left , but not broken . " The remainder of the Ottoman line stretching westward to the Mediterranean coast continued to be strongly defended , particularly at Hareira , Sharia and Gaza , but the loss of Beersheba had placed EEF mounted units across the Beersheba to Hebron and Jerusalem road , and three Eighth Army infantry battalions were sent by the German General Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein to reinforce the Ottoman troops fighting at Khuweilfe to protect the road . They established a new defensive line north of Beersheba , and the 19th Division was sent from the XXII Corps defending Gaza to reinforce the new line at Ebuhof . However , the objective of the EEF advance north of Beersheba was to separate the Ottoman forces supplied by the roads and railways from Ramleh on the maritime plain from those supplied by the motor road from Jerusalem north of Beersheba . Such an advance would also place the EEF infantry corps in a position to begin to " roll up " the Ottoman flank .
= = Prelude = =
The EEF controlled the coastal sea lanes , and the Intelligence Service spread rumours about possible sea landings in the rear of Gaza . Ships were seen taking soundings off the coast and a fleet of small boats was located near Deir el Belah . During the late afternoon of 1 November , an embarkation of members of the Egyptian Labour Corps onto motor launches , trawlers and tugs at Deir el Belah was staged as a feint , giving the appearance of continuing into the night . The next morning , two trawlers appeared off the mouth of the Wadi el Hesi north of Gaza . To add to the confusion , between the Battle of Beersheba on 31 October and the main attacks at the Battle of Hareira and Sheria beginning on 6 November , the Ottoman left flank north of Beersheba was being fiercely contested during the Battle of Tel el Khuweilfe for control of the road to Hebron and Jerusalem . According to Wavell , " an assault on a portion of the Gaza defences was to be made by the XXI Corps . " The date of this attack , which was primarily a feint , was scheduled for between 24 and 48 hours before the attack on Sheria .
Meanwhile , preparations for the main attacks on the Gaza line at Hareira and Sharia , began on 1 November when the 53rd ( Welsh ) Division , with the Imperial Camel Brigade on the right , advanced northwards to occupy a line 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) to the west without opposition . This placed the infantry in a position from which they could cover the right flank of the proposed attack by the XX Corps on Hareira and Sheria .
= = = Defenders = = =
After the second battle for Gaza in April 1917 , Kress von Kressenstein — commander of the victorious 3rd , 16th and 53rd Divisions — was reinforced by the 7th and 54th Divisions . The 7th Infantry Division ( later part of the Eighth Army ) had experienced four months of strategic movement , similar to that of the 54th Division . Having arrived at Jerusalem , in early May the 20th Infantry Regiment began company @-@ level training . After moving to Beersheba where they remained in reserve , they participated in theatre @-@ specific training until late June , when they went into the front line . Training in fortification , reconnaissance , and counter – reconnaissance continued . The 21st Infantry Regiment received similar training , and on 6 August the regimental colours of the 20th and 21st Infantry Regiments were awarded military medals for service in the Gallipoli Campaign . At Beersheba on 28 June , the 7th Infantry Division inactivated the fourth company of each infantry battalion , before activating a machine gun company armed with light machine guns , in every infantry battalion on 10 August . Every Ottoman infantry division in Palestine repeated this reorganisation , with one quarter of their rifle strength being replaced by light machine guns , considerably increasing their fire power and strengthening their offensive and defensive capabilities . Following orders from von Kressenstein commanding the Gaza to Beersheba line defences , assault detachments equivalent to the German Stosstruppen ( Stormtroopers ) were formed . The 7th Division activated an assault detachment of fifty men on 17 July 1917 .
The Yildirim Army Group under the command of Field Marshal Erich von Falkenhayn was responsible for the defence of Palestine . On the western flank the Ottoman Eighth Army was composed of the XXII Corps ' 3rd and 53rd Divisions defending Gaza and the XX Corps ' 26th and 54th Divisions defending the line stretching to the east of Gaza , under the command of von Kressenstein . The defence of Gaza was the responsibility of XXII Corps , which had two divisions in the front line ( 53rd , 3rd from west to east ) and two in reserve ( 7th and 19th ) . The XXII Corps ' four regiments had 4 @,@ 500 rifles , which were reinforced by two divisions to bring the total to 8 @,@ 000 defenders , deployed thus :
53rd Division holding from the Mediterranean shore to the eastern side of Gaza ( veteran of the Second Battle of Gaza ) ,
3rd Division on their left ( veteran of the First and Second Battles of Gaza ) , and the
7th Division in reserve close behind .
These three divisions were supported by the 116 guns of the Ottoman XXII Corps artillery , six large naval guns and several batteries of 150 mm howitzers .
On the left of the XX Corps the Ottoman Seventh Army defended Beersheba , under the command of Fevzi Pasa .
= = = Attackers = = =
The EEF comprised 200 @,@ 000 men including Arab workers , 46 @,@ 000 horses , 20 @,@ 000 camels , more than 15 @,@ 000 mules and donkeys , and hundreds of artillery pieces . The fighting strength of the EEF was 100 @,@ 189 :
Desert Mounted Corps commanded by Lieutenant General Harry Chauvel had 745 officers , 17 @,@ 935 other ranks in the Anzac , Australian and Yeomanry Mounted Divisions ;
XX Corps commanded by Lieutenant General Philip Chetwode had 1 @,@ 435 officers , 44 @,@ 171 other ranks in the 10th , 53rd , 60th and 74th ( Yeomanry ) Divisions ; and
XXI Corps commanded by Lieutenant General Edward Bulfin had 1 @,@ 154 officers and 34 @,@ 759 other ranks in three infantry divisions . By 30 October there were 35 @,@ 000 rifles in the XXI Corps deployed to attack Gaza . They were :
52nd ( Lowland ) Division ( veteran of the First and Second Battles of Gaza )
54th ( East Anglian ) Division ( veteran of the First and Second Battles of Gaza )
75th Division
Composite Force of almost a division , consisting of the 25th Indian Infantry Brigade , a West Indian battalion , the French Détachement français de Palestine and the Italian Distaccamento italiano di Palestina , was camped east of the 75th Division .
Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade 1 @,@ 000 sabres
XXI Corps Cavalry Regiment , also known as the Composite Regiment , consisted of one squadron each from the Royal Glasgow Yeomanry , the Duke of Lancaster Yeomanry , and the 1 / 1st Hertfordshire Yeomanry .
The majority of General Edmund Allenby 's infantry were Territorial divisions , mobilised at the outbreak of the war . Most had fought the Ottoman Army before . During the Gallipoli Campaign , the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division fought at Cape Helles , the 53rd ( Welsh ) Division and the 54th ( East Anglian ) Division fought at Suvla Bay , while the 60th ( London ) Division had served on the Western Front and on the Salonika Front . The recently formed 74th ( Yeomanry ) Division was raised from eighteen under @-@ strength yeomanry regiments , all of which had fought dismounted at Gallipoli . The 10th ( Irish ) Division was a New Army ( K1 ) division , and had also fought at Suvla Bay and at Salonika . All three of the brigades of the Anzac Mounted Division and the two light horse brigades of the Australian Mounted Division had also fought at Gallipoli .
Army Wing aircraft were assigned to carry out strategic reconnaissances , to report on Ottoman reserves well behind their lines , to carry out daily photography , and to conduct air raids . Fighter and bombing squadrons were established for these purposes while the Corps Squadrons were attached to the two infantry corps carried out artillery and contact patrols , along with tactical reconnaissance .
= = = = Sherifial Forces = = = =
In July , Allenby was hopeful that T. E. Lawrence and the Sherifial Arab force could support a September attack by the EEF , recognising that harvests were being collected before that time , and that after the end of September they normally moved to camel @-@ grazing lands in the Syrian desert . He wrote , " They , naturally , won 't and can 't do much unless I move ; and it is not much use their destroying the Turks ' communications unless I take immediate advantage of such destruction ... If I bring them into the fight and do not make progress myself , this will also expose them to retaliation — which to some tribes , such as the Druzes , S. of Damascus , may mean annihilation . " The EEF encouraged the Bedouin to defect :
The Arab rebellion is spreading well , and the Turkish communications will be difficult to guard against their raids . The enclosed photograph of the Shereef of Mecca , and the proclamation by him , is one of the means we have of inducing the Arabs to desert the Turks . We drop these papers and packets of cigarettes over the Turkish lines from aeroplanes . The proclamation is an appeal from the Shereef to the Arabs to leave the Turks and join in the war against them for the freedom and independence of Arabia . A good many come in , as a result of our propaganda .
= = Battle = =
Four EEF infantry brigades of 10 @,@ 000 rifles attacked four Ottoman regiments of 4 @,@ 500 rifles — which were reinforced by two divisions to over 8 @,@ 000 . Both sides suffered heavy losses . The attacks were to be carried out by well @-@ prepared troops , with overwhelming artillery support and six Mark IV tanks . These attacks were designed to keep the Gaza garrison of 8 @,@ 000 riflemen supported by 116 guns in place after the capture of Beersheba and during preparations for the main EEF attacks on Hareira and Sheria .
= = = Preliminary raids on Outpost Hill = = =
On 26 October , units of the 75th Division raided Outpost Hill . Then , just hours after the capture of Beersheba , on 1 November , a second raid by five officers and 220 riflemen of the 3 / 3rd Gurkhas Rifles ( 233rd Brigade 75th Division ) was carried out against Outpost Hill . At 03 : 00 , under cover of an intense bombardment , they entered the Ottoman defences on the hill ; two Gurkhas were killed and twenty @-@ three wounded . During the fighting , they killed twenty @-@ eight Ottoman soldiers and captured sixteen , before returning to their lines . The division was to make another attack during the next night , ( 1 / 2 November ) towards Atawineh Redoubt , on the Gaza to Beersheba road .
= = = Bombardment = = =
On 27 October , the XXI Corps artillery began the bombardment of Gaza , which gradually grew more intense with the support of British and French Navy 's guns from 29 October . They included the fourteen inches ( 360 mm ) guns on HMS Raglan , the Monitors M15 9 @.@ 2 inches ( 230 mm ) guns , the M29 , the M31 , and the M32 with 6 inches ( 150 mm ) guns , the cruiser Grafton , and the destroyers Staunch and Comet . French vessels included the Requin , Arbalète , Voltigeur , Coutelas , Fauconneau and Hache . There were also two river gunboats Ladybird and Aphis , and three seaplane bombers . This flotilla was in action — although not altogether to allow for return to Port Said for refuelling — until the attack on Gaza was launched . The flotilla was targeted by hostile aircraft , while a shell from an Ottoman shore battery hit the mess deck of the Requin , causing 38 casualties .
The land based artillery of Bulfin 's XXI Corps ' heavy artillery consisted of 68 medium and heavy guns and howitzers , which were directed on to the Ottoman batteries during the battle . In addition two 6 @-@ inch guns made a surprise attack on the Ottoman railhead at Beit Hanun at a range of nine miles ( 14 km ) , supported by balloon observation . Between 27 October and the attack on Gaza , 15 @,@ 000 rounds were fired by the heavy artillery ; three hundred rounds were allocated for the destruction of each Ottoman battery which had been located . The anti – battery bombardments between 29 – 31 October also fired gas shells , which apparently had little or no effect . Together with the corps ' three divisional artilleries , the guns produced the heaviest bombardment of World War I outside European theatres . The sixth night 's bombardment from onshore and offshore guns produced " an even heavier concentration of fire on a small area than had been put in on the first day of the Battle of the Somme . " The six @-@ day bombardment program was arranged " so that the whole of the front of our group is plastered all day and every day . "
= = = 1 / 2 November night attacks = = =
The XXI Corps attacks were focused on a five thousand yards ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) stretch of sandhills stretching from Umbrella Hill about two thousand yards ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) south @-@ west of Gaza to the Mediterranean Sea . They were timed for the night because the strength of the Ottoman machine guns in defensive positions made day @-@ time attacks impossible . On the right flank , the final objective of the attack was only 500 yards ( 460 m ) behind the Ottoman front line , but on the left it was 2 @,@ 500 yards ( 2 @,@ 300 m ) away .
The first phase was the attack at Umbrella Hill by the 1 / 7th Battalion Scottish Rifles with one company of 1 / 8th Battalion , Scottish Rifles ( 156th Brigade , 52nd Division ) . The second phase was the capture on a broad front of El Arish Redoubt to the Sea Post on the shore by the 1 / 4th Battalion , Royal Scots and one company of 1 / 8th Battalion , Scottish Rifles ( 156th Brigade ) . The third phase was to be conducted by the 161st Brigade ( less one battalion ) and the 163rd Brigade ( 54th Division ) against Gaza 's south @-@ western defences , while the fourth phase by the 162nd Brigade was to capture Gun Hill and Sheikh Hasan 3 @,@ 500 yards ( 3 @,@ 200 m ) behind the front line at Sheikh Ajlin . On 1 and 2 November , the Ottoman 7th and 53rd Divisions continued to defend most of their front line , carrying out locally successful counterattacks .
= = = = Phase one : Umbrella Hill = = = =
On 1 November , the assault of Umbrella Hill — a sand dune two thousand yards ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) south – west of Gaza to the west of the Rafa to Gaza road overlooking the main objectives — was to begin at 23 : 00 . The defending garrison was " assumed to be about 350 strong " . However , at 10 : 50 a preliminary move into No Man 's Land was observed by Ottoman soldiers in Fisher 's Orchard , who gave the alarm and began firing machine guns and rifles from the Ottoman trenches on Umbrella Hill . At 23 : 00 , an intense EEF bombardment began enabling a tape to be laid , along which the attacking troops formed up to launch their attack ten minutes later . Under cover of the intense ten @-@ minute bombardment , the 1 / 7th Battalion , Scottish Rifles with one company of 1 / 8th Battalion , Scottish Rifles ( 156th Brigade , 52nd ( Lowland ) Division ) attacked Umbrella Hill . After killing many of the defenders , they quickly captured the hill , three officers , fifty @-@ five Ottoman soldiers , three Lewis guns and numerous bombs . The attackers suffered light casualties ; however the sand dune was difficult to defend because the Ottoman trenches — without revetments — had virtually disappeared during the previous bombardments . The following Ottoman bombardment of Umbrella Hill caused 103 casualties to the 1 / 7th Battalion Scottish Rifles during the next twenty @-@ four hours . However , with the hill captured by the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division , the main attack could begin .
= = = = Phase two : El Arish redoubt = = = =
The second phase began at 03 : 00 on 2 November when the 156th Brigade of the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division launched the first attack on the El Arish Redoubt . This attack was aimed at breaking the line of defensive fortifications consisting of three groups of trench complexes and redoubts . These were the El Arish , Rafa , and Cricket redoubts , which were connected by a " series of trench lines several layers thick , and backed by other trenches and strong points " stretching two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) along the seaward defences to the west of Umbrella Hill . The attack on El Arish redoubt was to be supported by two of the six available tanks of the Palestine Tank Detachment 's eight tanks .
The 1 / 4th Battalion , Royal Scots ( 156th Brigade ) assault on El Arish Redoubt was carried out in waves through the Ottoman trenches , during which six Ottoman mines exploded , causing EEF casualties . The Ottoman artillery , which had become active as a result of the first attack , had stopped shortly before the second attack began at 06 : 00 with an intense , ten @-@ minute bombardment . At 06 : 30 , a heavy Ottoman counterattack drove back the leading company of Royal Scots , causing a number of casualties . A platoon from another company helped rally the remnants of the leading company , which was reinforced by the 1 / 4th Battalion Royal Scots and 1 / 8th Battalion Scottish Rifles when the position was consolidated . Two tanks passed through El Arish Redoubt , but shortly afterwards one was abandoned and the other hit , while a third tank moved along the front line rolling out wire from Sea Post on the coast to Beach Post .
A man who obviously had been able to get more than his allowance [ of rum ] started singing loudly , and was removed . We then set off in a long line , and passed through our front line trenches into " No – Man 's – Land . " I saw a man breaking the ranks , and dodging back towards our lines , obviously his nerves having given way . An NCO dashed out , got hold of him , and took him away . I was with Hq. sigs . [ headquarters signals ] in the " fourth wave . " Four parallel lines of white tape , had been laid out , and I and the others spaced ourselves out along the fourth tape , and lay down , facing the enemy lines , to await the signal to advance . Two tanks came rumbling up from behind , and a few of us had to jump up and get out of the way to let them pass ... Our shelling increased in volume , and at 03 : 00 the 4th RS [ Royal Scots ] advanced in four lines on a front of 300 yards ( 270 m ) towards the El Arish Redoubt . Two Turkish contact mines exploded as our " first wave " approached the redoubt , blowing many of the men to pieces . We were not , of course , aware of this at the time . As I got near the Turkish trenches the enemy shell and machine – gun fire became so intense , with shells bursting all around , that I and several others decided to stop in a large shell or mine crater for a few minutes till the shelling eased somewhat . When the barrage moved forward we resumed our advance .
= = = = Phase three : coastal defences = = = =
When the Royal Scots had entered the eastern section of the El Arish Redoubt during the second phase of the attack , the western half was still held by Ottoman defenders . These defences became the objectives of the attacks by the 161st and 163rd Brigades of the 54th ( East Anglian ) Division , supported by four tanks — including the two which had passed through the El Arish redoubt . On the right of the 163rd Brigade 's advance , the 1 / 5th Battalion , The Suffolk Regiment moved towards the Ottoman trenches following a creeping barrage to attack and over – run the western El Arish trenches during hand – to – hand fighting when the 1 / 5th Battalion , The Suffolk Regiment suffered light casualties . Although they had captured the third line , part of this captured territory had to be abandoned because it was exposed to hostile fire , so they consolidated their position along the second line . Half of the 1 / 8th Battalion , Hampshire Regiment attacked Burj Trench while the other half attacked Triangle Trench , although it was not their objective . This caused some confusion , and the 1 / 4th and 1 / 5th Battalions , The Norfolk Regiment lost direction in the dust and smoke of the cloudy , hazy night . As a result , only small numbers reached Gibraltar and Crested Rock , from where they were quickly forced to withdraw .
On the left , the attacks by the 161st Brigade were similarly weakened by loss of direction when the 1 / 5th Battalion , The Essex Regiment attacked Rafa Redoubt instead of Zowaiid trench . However , the 1 / 6th Battalion , The Essex Regiment attacked and captured Beach and Sea Posts before attacking the Rafa Redoubt and trench systems , suffering light casualties . In support , a tank rolled out wire as it drove along the front line from Sea Post to Beach Post . Cricket Redoubt was captured with the help of the tank from Beach Post ; although the tank was temporarily disabled in the process . After being repaired , the tank was transporting some engineers ' stores to Sheikh Hasan when it was hit and disabled again . Two reserve tanks were ordered forward carrying engineers ' stores — including sandbags which were set on fire by hostile fire .
On the morning of the 2nd , Bulfin put in an attack , by the 54th and part of the 52nd Division , on the S.W. of Gaza . He got all his objectives , with the exception of a few yards of trench here and there ... The navy have given us great help . They are making splendid practice on the Gaza defences , and the railway bridge and junction at Deir Sineid . This is the result of careful preliminary work and close collaboration between land and sea .
= = = = Phase four : 2 November = = = =
On their right , the 1 / 10th Battalion , London Regiment ( 161st Brigade ) finished capturing and consolidating the Rafa redoubt , which had only been partly captured by the 1 / 6th Battalion , The Essex Regiment . Without the assistance of tanks which had been put out of action , this battalion lost contact with the barrage and suffered heavy losses . Nevertheless , they captured Gun Hill and by 06 : 00 on 2 November they were preparing to attack Sheikh Hasan , which they captured fifteen minutes later along with 182 prisoners .
Lion Trench , .75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) north @-@ east of Sheikh Hasan , was attacked at 07 : 30 by the 1 / 4th Battalion , Northamptonshire Regiment ( 162nd Brigade ) with the objective of clearing a gap through which the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade could advance . However , 20 minutes after their successful attack , the Northamptonshire without artillery support were almost surrounded and forced to retreat to Sheikh Hasan on the coast . Here a strong counterattack was threatened by two regiments of reinforcements from the Ottoman 7th Division , which were advancing from Deir Sneid to the north and north @-@ east . ( See Falls Map 6 Coastal sector ) These Ottoman reinforcements were stopped by accurate shelling by the Corps Heavy Artillery , which fired on a three thousand yards ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) line previously registered and by shelling from the monitors off the coast . A planned repeat of the Lion Trench attack was postponed when the 1 / 4th Battalion , Northamptonshire Regiment attacked Yunis Trench instead . Although they captured the trench they were driven back by a counterattack . Throughout the remainder of the day , Ottoman heavy batteries shelled Sheikh Hasan , before the batteries were withdrawn during the night to the north @-@ east of Gaza . During the night of 2 / 3 November , Ottoman troops strengthened their defences on Turtle Hill , facing Sheikh Hasan .
The Third Battle of Gaza was never intended to capture the town , but to keep the garrison in place after the capture of Beersheba . Only the first line of Ottoman trenches had been the objectives of the XXI Corps , which used new infantry tactics , tanks and massed artillery organised in accordance with Western Front standards . Although all objectives had not been won , the operations had forced two regiments of the Ottoman 7th Division reserve to move away from Hareira and Sheria , forward to strengthen the Ottoman defences between Gaza and the sea . According to the British official historian , " The attack on the western defences of Gaza ... had fulfilled the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief 's object . " The EEF had also inflicted severe losses on the Ottoman defenders ; more than one thousand of whom the EEF buried in the captured trenches . The EEF captured twenty @-@ eight officers , 418 soldiers , twenty @-@ nine machine guns and seven trench mortars . During the fighting , the corps infantry had advanced about two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) on a five thousand yards ( 4 @.@ 6 km ) front , and held their gains against repeated Ottoman counterattacks , although the attempt to create a gap for the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade to ride through was not successful . The front line defensive system on the south – west side of Gaza had been captured and the infantry occupied a position from which they could threaten " Ali Muntar and the rest of the defences in front of the town . " The XXI Corps suffered 350 killed , 350 missing and two thousand wounded during this fighting . Many casualties were blamed on loss of direction and crowding in the captured trenches , which were too shallow .
This morning , at 3 o 'clock , I attacked the SW front of the Gaza defences . We took them ; on a front of some 6000 yards , and to a depth of some 1000 to 1500 yards . We now overlook Gaza ; and my left is on the sea coast , NE of the town . The Navy cooperated with fire from the sea ; and shot well . We 've taken some 300 prisoners and some machine guns , so far .
= = = Air raids = = =
Air raids by the EEF were carried out during the night of 1 / 2 November , with twelve bombs being dropped on Gaza , and on 3 and 4 November , with air raids over the hills north of Beersheba .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = 3 – 6 November = = =
During a Khamsin on 3 November while the bombardment of Gaza resumed , the 1 / 4th Battalion The Essex Regiment ( 161st Brigade , 54th Division , XXI Corps ) attacked and captured Yunis trench at 04 : 30 . However , they were heavily counterattacked and forced to withdraw . The following night , several strong Ottoman counterattacks were made on the 75th Division 's position at Sheikh Abbas on the eastern side of Gaza , which were all stopped by machine gun and rifle fire . Meanwhile , the newly won position at Sheikh Hasan on the Ottoman right flank was consolidated .
By 5 November 1917 , the Ottoman XXII Corps commander in charge of the defence of Gaza , Colonel Refet Bele , was continuing to maintain the " integrity of the Gaza fortress " , despite the Gaza garrison 's artillery batteries having only about 300 shells left . These batteries had also been suffering from effective counter @-@ battery fire from the EEF Heavy Artillery Groups . Refet had been warned the day before that evacuation may be necessary because of the loss of Beersheba , so plans were prepared for the complete withdrawal from the town during the night of 6 / 7 November , to a new defensive line on the Wadi Hesi . Falkenhayn commanding Yildirim Army Group realised that the Ottoman forces could not hold the EEF any longer , and he ordered the Eighth and Seventh Armies to withdraw about 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) . The first indications of the withdrawal were seen by EEF aerial reconnaissance , which reported Ottoman hospitals being moved back towards Mejdel . At midnight on 6 / 7 November , XXI Corps infantry patrols found Gaza had been evacuated by the Ottoman defenders . Until 6 November , German aircraft had rarely been seen over the Gaza lines , but that afternoon two R.E.8s and two B.E.12.as from No. 1 Squadron AFC patrolling and taking photographs were attacked and badly damaged by four Albatros aircraft .
Meanwhile , the heavy EEF bombardment of the Ottoman line in the XXI Corps area at Gaza , which had resumed on 3 November , grew in intensity with the naval guns joining in on 5 and 6 November , and it reached its maximum intensity on 6 November . During the night of 6 / 7 November the XXI Corps was to launch an attack on Outpost Hill and the Yunus and Belah trench systems , after the main EEF attack on Hareira and Sheria began . This attack on the Wadi esh Sheria was to be " carried out in the most favourable circumstances " against only two Ottoman regiments holding the 6 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 10 @.@ 5 km ) line .
After launching the successful attack on 6 November against Hareira , the Sheria trenches were also attacked late in the day . These attacks were supported by renewed attacks in the Tel el Khuweilfe area at the eastern extremity of the Ottoman front line . During these attacks , the whole of the Kawukah trenches and part of the Rushdi system which protected Hareira Redoubt , were captured and the Ottoman defenders were forced to withdraw to the Hareira Redoubt . Late in the day a large part of the Sheria defences were also captured after Hareira was bypassed . Only Tel esh Sheria blocked the British advance and Allenby ordered the next day 's attacks to continue on Tel esh Sheria , and to be renewed at Gaza . While these attacks took place on 6 November , EEF aircraft bombed Gaza , the main Ottoman positions behind the Kauwukah defences near Um Ameidat , and positions west of Sheria . Three air combats were also fought against three hostile aircraft during the day . Mejdel was also bombed by EEF aircraft . Allenby wrote :
We 've had a successful day . We attacked the left of the Turkish positions , from N. of Beersheba , and have rolled them up as far as Sharia . The Turks fought well but have been badly defeated . Now , at 6 p.m. , I am sending out orders to press in pursuit tomorrow . Gaza was not attacked ; but I should not be surprised if this affected seriously her defenders . I am putting a lot of shell into them , and the Navy are still pounding them effectively .
= = = 7 November = = =
= = = = Occupation of Gaza = = = =
The EEF 's occupation of Gaza was not strongly resisted and a general advance during the morning of 7 November found the town abandoned . Orders for an attack at 04 : 50 by the 75th Division on Outpost Hill on the eastern side of Gaza had been issued ; these were expanded to include Middlesex Hill and a 54th ( East Anglian ) Division attack on the Belah and Yunis trenches , and Turtle Hill in the coastal sector . However , by 04 : 35 , two battalions each from the 161st and the 162nd Brigades ( 54th Division ) supported by artillery had already advanced to occupy Lion and Tiger Trenches and Sheikh Redwan in the coastal sector to the north @-@ north @-@ west of Gaza . The advance by the 162nd Brigade took them through " the gardens and fields of Gaza to the main road northwards " , when patrols sent into the city found it deserted . British artillery had destroyed all the homes , of the 40 @,@ 000 people who had lived in Gaza before the war . The 54th ( East Anglian ) Division subsequently took up a line stretching from the Jaffa road north of Sheikh Redwan to the Mediterranean sea .
When the Ottoman withdrawal became apparent on 7 November , the Royal Flying Corps — which had been mainly involved in strategic reconnaissance for the 40th ( Army ) Wing , artillery registration and tactical photography for the 5th ( Corps ) Wing — began bombing and machine gun air raids . For seven days , they also made numerous air attacks on Ottoman infrastructure including aerodromes , transport , artillery , and retreating columns .
= = = = Mounted breakthrough = = = =
The 75th Division ( XXI Corps ) with the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade attached had been ordered to attack Outpost Hill on the eastern side of Gaza , and exploit any potential breakthrough . By 01 : 00 on 7 November , the 233rd Brigade ( 75th Division ) had already occupied Outpost Hill , and as the brigade moved forward to occupy Green Hill and the Labyrinth at 05 : 00 , they were only opposed by individual riflemen . By 07 : 00 , the 233rd Brigade had patrols on Ali Muntar ridge , while on their right , the 234th Brigade found that the Beer trenches and Road Redoubt defending the Gaza to Beersheba road were still held in strength with machine guns . Throughout the day the Ottoman rearguards in Tank and Atawineh Redoubts continued to fire their artillery at the increasing numbers of EEF troops advancing behind both these Ottoman rearguard 's flanks . However , by nightfall , the Beer trenches , and the Road and Tank Redoubts had been captured .
The Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade , which had been carrying out patrolling duties based at Tel el Jemmi , was ready to exploit a breakthrough at Gaza , and the Anzac and Australian Mounted Divisions were also prepared for a pursuit through a breach in the line at Sheria . At 09 : 00 , the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade rode through the ruins of Gaza to reach Beit Hanun at 13 : 00 , where they encountered part of the Gaza garrison defending a strong rearguard position on a ridge 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) south @-@ east of Beit Hanun .
The Hyderabad and Mysore Lancers had advanced through Jebaliya to link with the Glasgow , Lancashire , and Hertfordshire squadrons of the XXI Corps Cavalry Regiment , holding the high ground at Beit Lahl five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) north of Gaza , where they threatened the Ottoman flank . While the Corps Cavalry Regiment captured Beit Lahia , the Hyderabad Lancers advanced at 15 : 00 to capture the ridge west of Beit Hanun at Sheikh Munam , but the village was strongly defended by numerous Ottoman machine gun detachments . Early in the afternoon , a regiment of the 4th Light Horse Brigade rode across to the north @-@ west to link with the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade , which had been out of contact with the XX Corps and the Desert Mounted Corps . The 12th Light Horse Regiment ( 4th Light Horse Brigade ) met up with the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) east of Beit Hanun at 14 : 45 . Here they delivered orders for the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade to attack the Ottoman rearguard on the Wadi el Hesi near Tumra to the north of Beit Hanun . ( See sketch map showing the advance by the Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade and the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division on 7 November 1917 ) . By 16 : 55 , the rearguard was reported to still be holding Beit Hanun , with concentrations of Ottoman forces at Al Majdal ( also known as el Mejdel and Ashkelon ) and Beit Duras .
The lancers advanced from the east onto the ridge overlooking Beit Hanun , and despite meeting considerable resistance , captured the position . In the process , they secured twenty @-@ three prisoners , some artillery pieces and a large quantity of ammunition . They also captured the town 's water pumping machinery intact , but were forced to withdraw back to Jebaliye for water as the equipment ran on gas made from charcoal , which had to be converted before it could be used .
= = = = Infantry pursuit = = = =
While the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division was ordered by the XXI Corps to take up a line from the Jaffa road north of Sheikh Radwan to the sea on the northern outskirts of Gaza , the 157th Brigade ( 52nd Division ) began the infantry pursuit by advancing along the shore , reaching Sheikh Hasan by 12 : 15 . By 16 : 00 , these troops were seen marching along the coast towards the mouth of the Wadi Hesi — the nearest likely defensive line north of Gaza . By dusk , the 157th Brigade had reached and crossed the Wadi el Hesi near its mouth seven miles ( 11 km ) north of Gaza while the remainder of the XXI Corps occupied Gaza . Although dumps of rations , ammunition and engineer stores had been formed in concealed positions in the XXI Corps area before the battle , the corps was not in a position to move any distance . Almost all of their transport except ammunition tractors had been transferred to the XX Corps and the Desert Mounted Corps for their attack at the Battle of Beersheba .
= = = 8 November = = =
By the evening of 8 November , all the Ottoman positions of the Gaza to Beersheba line had been captured and the Eighth Army was in full retreat . In conjunction with the captures in the centre of the line at Sheria , the occupation of Gaza enabled a swift direct advance northwards , preventing a strong consolidation of the Wadi Hesi rearguard position . However , the Ottoman XXII Corps was not defeated at Gaza , but conducted a skillful , tactical retreat from the town , demonstrating both operational and tactical mobility . Late in the afternoon of 8 November , twenty @-@ eight British and Australian aircraft flew over Huj , the headquarters of the Ottoman force , targeting German and Ottoman aerodromes , railway junctions , dumps , and troops in close formation with bombs and machine guns . Arak el Menshiye was raided twice during the day with two hundred bombs dropped , forty @-@ eight hit ten hostile aircraft still on the ground . The next day , Et Tine was bombed , with at least nine hostile aircraft damaged . Virtually continual aerial attacks were made on railway stations , troops on the march and transport , while a German aircraft was shot down in flames near the Wadi Hesi .
= She ( Tyler , the Creator song ) =
" She " is a song by American hip hop artist and OFWGKTA member Tyler , The Creator from his album Goblin . It was released May 10 , 2011 as the third single from the album . It features another OFWGKTA member Frank Ocean , and serves as his debut single as an artist . The song was written by both Tyler and Ocean , with the production handled by Tyler . The song is written from the perspective of an obsessive lover who stalks and watches a woman while she sleeps . Lyrically , the song explored dark themes of necrophilia , stalking and obsession . The song received positive reviews from critics who praised Ocean 's hook , though the subject matter was often noted as questionable in nature and content .
A music video for the single was released June 3 , 2011 on the OFWGKTA YouTube channel . It was directed by Tyler himself and features Ocean . The video contains black humor and was noted for approaching its subject matter in a satirical , tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek manner . Both Tyler and Ocean would often perform the song together during their various tours and was notably performed at the April 2011 Coachella Musical Festival .
= = Production and composition = =
Rapper Tyler , the Creator , who is often known for his controversial nature , and R & B singer and occasional rapper Frank Ocean , who joined hip @-@ hop collective Odd Future , had quickly bonded and became friends , collaborating on several tracks such as " Analog 2 " , " Window " and " She . " Ocean appears on the track " She " providing a rapping verse , and the hook , while Tyler raps and covers the production .
" She " has been described as " the closest thing to a slow jam on Goblin , where " Tyler genuinely wrestles with lust . " The song features Tyler , the Creator pining " for a gorgeous girl " while " crooner Frank Ocean chimes in with a vocal hook " . The track is " delivered with sweetly juvenile expressions of desire , except that Tyler peppers the track with a single @-@ word epithet that would earn him a kick in the groin from any self @-@ respecting woman . " HipHopDX 's Sean Ryon mused that " even the more subdued songs like " She " with Frank Ocean " embody " Tyler ’ s middle @-@ fingers @-@ up attitude , as he twists perverted tales of stalking girls and “ stabbing Bruno Mars in his goddamn esophagus ” into anathematic odes to unbridled individualism . "
Though it was noted that even " She " has " passing moments of lyrical humanity to go with the pliant music ( " When I 'm with my friends I just put on a front / But in the back of my top I 'm writing songs about ' we ' " ) . It 's almost like there 's boyish innocence lurking underneath all that bile . " The Village Voice 's Eric Harvey mused that the " sinuous Frank Ocean feature " She " ramps up the voyeurism " and noted that he " keeps things within a Rear Window framework . He admits he 's going through the dating motions strictly to get laid , but he also says that his violent front is just a show for his boys . "
The song was featured on Tyler 's second studio album titled Goblin , in which " She " was released as the fourth single from that album .
= = Reception = =
" She " received positive reviews from most music critics . Pitchfork Media 's Scott Plagenhoef commented that while Goblin " could have used an editor " , " the highs are very high : " She " work as standalones away from the album as a whole . " Source writer Kazeem commented " Tyler links up with fellow breakout star of the OFWGKTA , Frank Ocean , where the in demand crooner spits a couple of better @-@ than @-@ it has @-@ any @-@ right @-@ being 16 bars , while seamlessly weaving into a haunting hook . " Craig Jenkin 's Prefix Magazine mused that the " jazzy chord progression and syrupy vocals from Odd Future associate Frank Ocean sneakily conceal its stalker vibe and crass lyrical conceit . " AbsolutePunk 's Ian Walker praised Ocean on the track , writing : " his verse and chorus showcase both sides of his expertise , as he can write both hip @-@ hop and R & B influenced vocals with ease . While “ She ” tends to get lost in the midst of heavier tracks like “ Yonkers ” and “ Transylvania , ” it deserves a ton of recognition for leaning a bit more towards a mainstream sound Odd Future isn 't known for while staying true to their original vision . "
NME 's Louis Pattison described the track as a " curdled take on silky ’ 70s rare groove legend Roy Ayers " and stated that it was " actually rather gorgeous " . Tiny Mix Tapes commented however that Tyler 's " flow is painful to listen to on slower tracks such as " She " though [ it ] was saved by his ambition [ in ] production " . Max Feldman of PopMatters noted that Tyler " also does a lot of thinking through the medium of his own genitals , as evidenced on lusty R & B crooner " She " where he lets his perverse side free . "
= = Promotion = =
The music video for " She " was shot in Los Angeles . Ocean posted several behind the scene photos of the video shoot onto his own personal tumblr account , including pictures " with a pretty young thing as his leading lady . " Ocean plays " double duty as a cop and the man of the house , almost unrecognizable in a white wig and drab attire . In one of the more chilling images , Tyler stares into the camera as a gun is pointed at his head , wearing the same black contacts he sported in his viral sensation “ Yonkers ” video . "
The video opens with Odd Future 's R & B crooner Frank Ocean in bed with the unnamed " she " of the video , and the singer stops when he sees a masked Tyler staring outside of her bedroom window . The rapper eventually enters the room as the girl falls asleep , caressing her and writing a note on her mirror while spitting the song 's first verse ;
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Niagara Falls before crossing the Niagara River on the Queenston @-@ Lewiston Bridge into Ontario . On the Canadian side of the border , the freeway continues as Highway 405 , a short spur that connects with the Queen Elizabeth Way ( QEW ) , which in turn provides a freeway connection to Toronto , Canada 's largest city . The 28 @.@ 34 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 45 @.@ 61 km ) route also provides access to the Peace Bridge between Buffalo and Fort Erie , Ontario .
Officially , I @-@ 190 from I @-@ 90 north to New York State Route 384 ( NY 384 ) is named the Niagara Thruway and is part of the New York State Thruway system . The remainder , from NY 384 to Lewiston , is known as the Niagara Expressway and is maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation . I @-@ 190 is the only three @-@ digit Interstate Highway to reach the Canada – US border , and one of only two to connect to an international border , the other being Interstate 110 in Texas .
Parts of the highway were built along the former rights @-@ of @-@ way of the Lehigh Valley Railroad and the Erie Canal . The entire route was built as part of the New York State Thruway in the late 1950s and early 1960s , and was completed in 1964 . In 2006 , the tolls along the freeway were removed , although the Grand Island ones remain in place .
= = Route description = =
I @-@ 190 begins at an interchange with the New York State Thruway ( I @-@ 90 ) in Cheektowaga in Erie County , just north of the West Seneca town line and east of the Buffalo city line . I @-@ 190 heads west into Buffalo , passing the former location of the City Line toll barrier ahead of an interchange with South Ogden Street ( exit 1 ) . Farther west , I @-@ 190 meets NY 354 ( exit 2 ) , NY 16 ( exit 3 ) , and several local streets before entering downtown Buffalo . Within the downtown area , I @-@ 190 passes between First Niagara Center and Coca @-@ Cola Field near an interchange with NY 5 ( exit 7 ) on the shores of Lake Erie . At NY 5 , I @-@ 190 turns northward to follow the path of the Niagara River . Shortly after meeting NY 266 ( exit 8 ) immediately northwest of downtown , I @-@ 190 interchanges with Porter Avenue ( exit 9 ) , a local roadway connecting I @-@ 190 to the Peace Bridge and , thus , the Queen Elizabeth Way in Canada .
North of downtown Buffalo , I @-@ 190 follows the eastern edge of the Black Rock Canal ( and passes the site of the former Black Rock toll barrier ) before rejoining the banks of the Niagara near an exit with the Scajaquada Expressway ( NY 198 , exit 11 ) . I @-@ 190 continues north through the northern extents of Buffalo , meeting multiple streets before separating from the Niagara and interchanging with NY 266 and NY 324 ( exits 15 and 16 ) in quick succession . At exit 16 , NY 324 joins I @-@ 190 northward through western Tonawanda . The two routes then meet I @-@ 290 and NY 266 a second time prior to crossing the Niagara River on the South Grand Island Bridge . NY 324 leaves the expressway shortly after arriving on Grand Island at exit 18 .
I @-@ 190 and NY 324 follow parallel routings across Grand Island , with both roads passing on opposite sides of Martin 's Fantasy Island , a local amusement park , near the center of the island . At the northern edge of the island , NY 324 , as signed , terminates at exit 20 ; however , officially , NY 324 rejoins I @-@ 190 across the Niagara River once again via the North Grand Island Bridge . Now in Niagara Falls , Niagara County , NY 324 ends at a complex interchange featuring NY 384 , the Niagara Scenic Parkway , and the LaSalle Expressway on the eastern bank of the river . Farther north , I @-@ 190 meets U.S. Route 62 ( US 62 ) at exit 22 and NY 182 at exit 23 .
Past NY 182 , I @-@ 190 turns to the northwest , skirting the northeastern edge of Niagara Falls and roughly paralleling NY 265 to the east . In Lewiston , the expressway meets NY 31 at exit 24 southwest of the large Robert Moses Niagara Power Plant reservoir . I @-@ 190 continues onward , crossing the canal between the reservoir and the power plant on a small dam also used by NY 265 . The freeway then interchanges with NY 265 , the Niagara Scenic Parkway , and NY 104 at the expansive exit 25 before curving to the west and terminating at the approach to the Lewiston – Queenston Bridge . Across the bridge in Queenston , Ontario , the roadway becomes Highway 405 .
= = History = =
The portion of modern I @-@ 190 south of NY 384 in Niagara Falls was originally built by the New York State Thruway Authority as part of the New York State Thruway system . Construction on two segments of the highway — from South Ogden Street to Porter Avenue in downtown Buffalo and from Beaver Island Parkway to West River Road on Grand Island — began in 1953 . On Grand Island , construction began to connect the two existing two lane bridges on July 16 , 1954 . By 1955 , construction had begun on the remainder of the Niagara Thruway . On July 30 , 1959 , the Thruway was opened from the Tri @-@ Level Interchange at I @-@ 90 to Porter Avenue , and from Sheridan Drive to the southern Grand Island bridge . The remainder of the highway , with the exception of the twinned Grand Island bridges , was completed by 1964 .
On August 14 , 1957 , the routing of what is now I @-@ 190 ( including the then @-@ partially complete Niagara Thruway ) was originally designated as I @-@ 90N , as intercity routes were assigned before three @-@ digit Interstate numbers were applied to the shorter intracity routes . I @-@ 90N was renumbered to I @-@ 190 on February 24 , 1959 . Construction on the portion of I @-@ 190 north of NY 384 began c . 1962 and was completed by 1964 .
In 1991 , maintenance of I @-@ 84 in downstate New York was transferred from the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) to the New York State Thruway Authority ( NYSTA ) . The monies for that purpose came from tolls levied on I @-@ 190 in downtown Buffalo . Under the laws authorizing the Thruway construction , the tolls were to be removed once the original bonds used to pay for the construction were paid off , which occurred in 1996 ; however , the tolls would remain for ten more years . Attorney Carl Paladino brought a lawsuit against the state in 2006 to force the removal of the tolls . On October 30 , 2006 , the Thruway Authority voted to both begin the process of returning maintenance of I @-@ 84 to NYSDOT and to remove the tolls on I @-@ 190 in Buffalo . Collection of the tolls stopped that day . Both major candidates in the 2006 New York gubernatorial election , Democrat Eliot Spitzer and Republican John Faso , had pledged to remove the tolls on I @-@ 190 if elected . While the toll barriers in Buffalo have since been demolished , the tolls further north on the two Grand Island bridges still remain .
= = Exit list = =
= Everytime =
" Everytime " is a song by American recording artist Britney Spears , taken from her fourth studio album , In the Zone ( 2003 ) . It was released on May 10 , 2004 by Jive Records as the third single from the album . After her relationship with American singer Justin Timberlake ended in 2002 , she made friends with her backing vocalist Annet Artani . They started writing songs together at Spears 's house in Los Angeles , and then traveled to Lombardy , Italy , where " Everytime " was written . Spears composed the music and she developed the lyrics with Artani . According to Artani , the song was written as a response to Timberlake 's 2002 song " Cry Me a River " . Spears has neither confirmed nor denied these allegations .
" Everytime " is considered a pop ballad with breathy vocals . Its lyrics are a plea for forgiveness for inadvertently hurting a former lover . Music critics mostly complimented its lyrical content , deeming the song " organic " in comparison with most of the tracks on its host album . Spears ' maturity in the production and her songwriting abilities were also complimented . " Everytime " peaked inside the top five in several countries , while reaching the top of the charts in Australia , Hungary , Ireland and the United Kingdom . In the U.S. it was a top 20 single , peaking at number 15 on Billboard Hot 100 . Spears performed " Everytime " in a series of live appearances such as television shows Saturday Night Live and Top of the Pops . She has also performed the song on piano in a flowered @-@ themed setting at The Onyx Hotel Tour ( 2004 ) , while suspended on a giant umbrella at The Circus Starring Britney Spears ( 2009 ) and in an angel costume at Britney : Piece of Me ( 2013 ) . " Everytime " has been covered by artists such as Glen Hansard and Kelly Clarkson , and was used in the film Spring Breakers ( 2013 ) .
Inspired by the cinematography of Leaving Las Vegas , the music video for " Everytime " portrays Spears as a star hounded by paparazzi , who drowns in her bathtub when she starts bleeding from a wound in her head . In the hospital , doctors fail to resuscitate her while a child is born in the next room , implying she has been reincarnated . The original treatment would have had Spears killing herself from a drug overdose , but the plot was removed after it received criticism by organizations such as Kidscape , who perceived it as a glamorization of suicide . Critics noted the video for its religious references to The Passion of the Christ , Kabbalah and stigmata , and for predicting Spears 's future struggles with fame .
= = Background and writing = =
Spears 's relationship of three years with pop singer Justin Timberlake ended in 2002 after months of speculation . In November 2002 , Timberlake released the song " Cry Me a River " as the second single from his solo debut album . The music video featured a Spears look @-@ alike and fueled the rumors that she had been unfaithful to him . " Cry Me a River " is often credited as being the song that propelled the album into the charts . In September 2001 , Annet Artani accepted to become a backing vocalist for Spears 's 2001 – 2002 Dream Within a Dream Tour . Her interactions with Spears during most of the tour were limited to small conversations at the gym and vocal warm ups . Artani had begun a relationship with the show 's musical director during 2002 ; however , it was not working out well by the end of the tour . Before the last date in Mexico City , Spears called her and asked about the relationship . Artani told her they were going to break up , to which Spears responded , " Don 't worry about it , you 're going to hang out with me " . Following the end of the tour , Spears and Artani began to forge a friendship . Spears invited Artani to her house in Los Angeles , California . According to Artani , their relationship grew out of their shared romantic experiences at the time . She explained , " Basically , we commiserated because she , at that time , had broken up with Justin [ Timberlake ] . Maybe like nine months before , but of course it was really fresh in the media . I was just breaking up with this guy , so we kind of like — I think we kind of needed each other . " Artani stayed at Spears 's house for a few weeks , in which they started writing songs at the piano . Shortly after , they traveled to Lake Como in Lombardy , Italy . Artani added , " It was me and her , her stylist and Felicia , and we had this humongous house to ourselves , and they had a piano there as well " .
According to Artani , " Everytime " was written in large part as a response to " Cry Me a River " as well as various radio interviews . Artani explained , " He was getting personal . Here , she had a different type of image , and he was really exposing some stuff that she probably didn 't want out there , and in front of her little sister ... I remember her sister being mortified and her being mortified . I 'm sure that that really hurt her . " The song was also speculated to be a reply to Timberlake 's " Never Again " , a ballad which appeared on his debut solo album Justified . " Everytime " was recorded at Conway Studios in Los Angeles and mixed at Frou Frou Central in London , United Kingdom . During an interview with Hip Online , Spears commented about the recording sessions , saying ,
" ... Like with ' Everytime ' I wrote the whole thing from scratch on the piano . Musically there was no track or anything . I was just at my house and I did the whole thing by myself . And then I went and I played it for [ Guy Sigsworth ] and I just basically told him exactly how I wanted the song to sound . And he was so amazing because there 's a lot of producers you tell them things and they don 't get it . And you 're like oh , that 's not the right way . He got it just right . He was amazing . And so that song specifically , you know , I did everything . "
" Everytime " was one of the first songs finished for In the Zone , previewed on May 30 , 2003 , to Quddus Philippe of MTV at Battery Studios in New York City . It was registered with the U.S. Copyright Office on April 26 , 2003 under the title of " Everytime I Try " and SRU000530591 registration number with a given recording year of 2002 . Spears named it the most personal song of the album along with " Touch of My Hand " , explaining , " It 's one of the songs that when you hear , it 's like the kind of song when you go to heaven . It kind of takes you away . You know , it takes you in to a very cool consciousness I think . "
= = Composition = =
" Everytime " is a pop ballad . It begins with a music box introduction accompanying Spears 's breathy vocals , which build from soft to strong through the song . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Universal Music Publishing Group , " Everytime " is composed in the key of E ♭ major , with a tempo of 110 beats per minute . Spears 's vocal range spans from the low @-@ tone of A ♭ 3 to the high @-@ tone of E ♭ 5 . " Everytime " lyrics are a plea for forgiveness for inadvertently hurting a former lover . In the song , the singer explains she feels unable to continue in lines such as " Everytime I try to fly I fall / Without my wings I feel so small " . Jennifer Vineyard of MTV compared the song lyrically to another ballad from In the Zone , " Shadow " , since they both speak " about how reminders of a lover can still linger after he 's gone . " During an interview with Jennifer Vineyard of MTV , Spears said about " Everytime " , " It 's about heartbreak , it 's about your first love , your first true love . That 's something all people can relate to , because you all have that first love that you think you 're going to be with the rest of your life . " When asked if " Everytime " was about Timberlake during an interview with Diane Sawyer in PrimeTime , she responded " I 'll let the song speak for itself . "
= = Critical response = =
Gavin Mueller of Stylus Magazine deemed " Everytime " as the best track of In the Zone , explaining " it is just a spare piano ballad , simple yet effectively fragile " . Ali Fenwick of The Johns Hopkins News @-@ Letter complimented Spears 's songwriting and added the song " shows a glimmer of the talent that hides behind the robotic , synthed @-@ out vocals on the rest of the album . " Christy Lemire of msnbc.com called it " actually a pretty tune " and named it the best ballad in Greatest Hits : My Prerogative . Jason Shawhan of About.com said " Everytime " " screams Single ! " .
Spence D. of IGN said the song " continues to mine the Zone turf and unleashes what is ostensibly Britney 's first mature ballad , at least in terms of being musically staid and stripped of any danceteria sweat and gloss . " Linda McGee of RTÉ.ie said that along with In the Zone 's " Brave New Girl " , they were " individually impressive " , but disrupted the direction of the album . David Browne of Entertainment Weekly commented , " With its dainty piano , ' Everytime ' plays like a forlorn postmortem on her Justin Timberlake era . " Sterling Clover of The Village Voice called it " a weeper in the best ' Time After Time ' ( 1984 ) tradition . " William Shaw of Blender said that while " Everytime " was not her greatest ballad , the lyrics were " certainly heartfelt " . A reviewer from the Huddersfield Daily Examiner stated , " [ the ] breathy ballad [ has ] got a stage musical feel to it , but Britney 's no Elaine Paige " . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine named it along with " Shadow " " two sappy ballads " .
= = Commercial performance = =
On May 22 , 2004 , " Everytime " debuted at number 61 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 , becoming the " Highest Debut " of the week . On July 3 , 2004 , it peaked at number 15 and stayed in the position for four weeks . The song also peaked at number four on Billboard 's Pop Songs and at number 17 and number 25 on the Hot Dance Club Songs and Adult Pop Songs charts , respectively . On November 18 , 2004 , " Everytime " was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) selling 500 @,@ 000 copies . As of July 2010 , " Everytime " has sold 469 @,@ 000 paid digital downloads in the United States .
In Canada , the song peaked at number two on the Canadian Singles Chart .
In Australia , " Everytime " debuted at the top of the ARIA Singles Chart on the week of June 28 , 2004 , becoming the " Highest Debut " . It received a gold certification by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments over 35 @,@ 000 units .
In the United Kingdom , the single debuted at the top of the UK Singles Chart on June 20 , 2004 ― for the week ending date June 26 , 2004 ― becoming her second consecutive number one single in Britain from In the Zone , following Toxic in March 2004 . According to The Official Charts Company , the song has sold 270 @,@ 000 copies in Britain .
" Everytime " was also successful elsewhere in Europe , reaching the top of the charts in Hungary and Ireland , peaking at number two in France , number three in Sweden and reaching top five positions in Austria , Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia ) , Czech Republic , Denmark , Germany , Norway and the Netherlands .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development and release = = =
On March 9 , 2004 , the treatment of the music video for " Everytime " was released online . It portrayed Spears as a star hounded by photographers , who eventually kills herself by taking prescription drugs and drowning in a bathtub . The suicide scene was perceived to be Spears 's response to the rumors that suggested she suffered from a mental disorder . After news of the concept broke , it was criticized by a number of organizations in the United Kingdom and the United States . Director of child protection charity Kidscape , Michele Elliott , said , " This is absolutely outrageous , totally irresponsible , completely stupid . If even one child follows her lead she will surely be held responsible . What is she thinking of ? " . She also commented the release of the music video could cause an increase in suicide rates , comparing it to the death of actress Marilyn Monroe in August 1962 . MTV News ' " You Tell Us " also received numerous letters from upset viewers , who criticized Spears saying they perceived the ending was a glamorization of suicide . On March 12 , 2004 , Spears announced through Jive Records she had removed the concept , " due to the potential for a fictional accidental occurrence to be misinterpreted as a suicide " . She also clarified it was not her intent to present suicide in any sort of positive light .
The video was directed by David LaChapelle and shot on March 13 and 14 , 2004 , in Los Angeles . The lighting was described as " saturated , but low and naturalistic " to give the video a cinematic feel , referencing the 1995 film Leaving Las Vegas . It premiered on TRL on April 12 , 2004 . Spears called the show and explained the video explored reincarnation . She added , " It 's more like a movie . It 's different than anything I 've ever done . It 's dark , and it shows me in a different light . Of course , I 'm going to go back and do dance videos , but I wanted to be inspired and challenged . " An alternate version of the video which features Spears singing in the white hallway scenes was released on the 2004 DVD Greatest Hits : My Prerogative .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video begins with an aerial shot of Las Vegas , Nevada , showing the Palms Casino Resort and continues with a shot of a marquee hotel that reads " Britney Spears Live From Miami The Onyx Hotel Tour Las Vegas " , with a picture of Spears holding a leather strap and referencing her Showtime concert special from Miami . Christian author Eva Marie Everson compared the image to " Madonna doing her own impersonation of Marilyn Monroe . " Spears and her boyfriend ( played by Stephen Dorff ) are arriving to the hotel inside a limousine . They sit apart from each other , staring out separate windows . Spears wears a Birmingham Barons cap in these scenes . The boyfriend is talking on his cell phone , and when she attempts to touch him , he pushes her away . The entrance is full of fans and paparazzi taking pictures . When they leave the car , fans and paparazzi alike act in an extreme way and fights break in the crowd . While her bodyguards try to protect her , her boyfriend throws magazines at the paparazzi . Stephanie Zacharek of The New York Times compared the shots of the paparazzi with the Jews in the 2004 film The Passion of the Christ . During this scene , she gets hit in the head with a camera , and unknowingly gets a wound on her head , but keeps walking .
Inside their hotel room , Spears and her boyfriend start screaming at each other . He throws a vase at the wall while Spears goes into the bathroom , hurling something at the mirror . She begins to fill the bathtub and remove her clothes . After this , the video includes intercut scenes of a close @-@ up of Spears singing in a white shirt in front of a bright white light . As she lies in the bathtub , a red string , a custom associated with Kabbalah is seen in her wrist . She touches her head and looks at her hand , realizing she is bleeding from the wound . According to Jennifer Vineyard of MTV , the blood in her hand is stigmata . She loses consciousness in the bathtub and drowns . Shortly after , her boyfriend finds her and tries to resuscitate her . Meanwhile , it is revealed that in the close @-@ up scenes Spears is actually inside a hospital hallway . The video continues with scenes of her being carried into an ambulance and surrounded by photographers , as well as scenes of her being resuscitated by doctors in a hospital bed . The ghost of Spears in a white shirt , watches herself in the bed and walks into the next room , where a baby girl is born . Spears is then seen running away from the camera into the light . The music video ends with her rising from under the water , resting her head and smiling , suggesting the whole scene of her death was a dream or a morbid fantasy .
= = = Reception = = =
Eva Marie Everson wrote that the music video showed the reality " behind the glitz and the glamour " . Dominic Fox commented , " Even in its bowdlerised form , the ' Everytime ' video presents a moment of existential indecision , a fugue of suicidal ideation in which the singer fantasises about her own death " . While reviewing the music video for her 2009 single " If U Seek Amy " , James Montgomery of MTV called the music video for " Everytime " " underrated " . Rolling Stone in their 2009 article " Britney Spears : The Complete Video Guide " , called it " horribly prophetic and depressing " and added that the clip foreshadowed Spears 's struggles with fame and mental instability during 2007 and 2008 .
= = Live performances = =
On October 18 , 2003 , " Everytime " was performed by Spears during the twenty @-@ ninth season of the American comedy show Saturday Night Live . She also performed it at Britney Spears : In the Zone , a concert special that aired in ABC on November 17 , 2003 . " Everytime " was also performed by Spears at 2004 's The Onyx Hotel Tour . Before the tour began , Spears said that it was one of the songs she was looking most forward to perform , explaining , " I really think I 'm talking to everyone when I perform ' Everytime ' " . It was the first song of the third act , titled " Mystic Garden " . It began with a video interlude in which Spears walked into a garden wearing a rainbow @-@ colored dress and sat in a flower @-@ covered piano . As the video ended , it was revealed that she was sitting onstage in a similar setting . She started the performance talking to the audience about the media coverage of her personal life . She played the piano and sang until the second verse , where she stood up and walked to the center of the stage to continue the performance . Neil Strauss of The New York Times commented , " It was the only song that she appeared to sing unaccompanied by backing tapes " . Kelefa Sanneh of Blender called it the best performance of the show .
" Everytime " was also performed by Spears at the British music chart show Top of the Pops on August 5 , 2004 . Spears also performed the song at 2009 's The Circus Starring Britney Spears . " Everytime " was the only song that was not included in the released setlist , and was added as a surprise . It was the sixth and last song of the second act , titled " House of Fun ( Anything Goes ) " . After a Bollywood @-@ inspired performance of " Me Against the Music " from In the Zone , Spears sat on a giant umbrella in the middle of the stage and briefly talked to the audience . She performed " Everytime " while the umbrella was lifted into the air . Spears included " Everytime " on the setlist for her Las Vegas residency , Britney : Piece of Me . After a brief interlude , descended from the ceilling as a " giant , white @-@ winged angel " . After a snow shower of confetti , the song transitioned into " ... Baby One More Time " .
= = Cover versions = =
" Everytime " was covered by Glen Hansard of Irish band The Frames . It was recorded during a live show at Today FM and released in the 2004 covers compilation , Even Better than the Real Thing Vol . 2 . It was also covered in Mandarin by Taiwanese girl group S.H.E and released on their studio album Encore ( 2004 ) . Their version was retitled " Bié Shuō Duìbùqǐ " ( 別說對不起 " Don 't Say Sorry " ) . American pop rock singer Sally Maer also covered " Everytime " to release it on her studio album Bed of Roses ( 2008 ) . " Everytime " was used during the 2009 Irish production of the 1896 play The Seagull . Jackie Evancho covered the song for her debut album Prelude to a Dream ( 2009 ) . On August 19 , 2010 , her version debuted at number three on Billboard 's Classical Digital Songs chart . British singer Cher Lloyd covered the song live on The X Factor in the United Kingdom in 2010 . On July 27 , 2012 , Kelly Clarkson covered the song during the Las Vegas stop of her summer tour , as an audience request . Clarkson had a harpist accompany her during the performance , and told the audience , " This song is one of my favourite songs . [ ... ] I actually prefer [ Spears 's ] version better , because it just sounds really sad , but I 'm going to try and do it . " Spears approved of Clarkson 's cover via her Twitter account , calling it " beautiful " . " Everytime " was also covered on the American series Glee episode " Britney 2 @.@ 0 " by the character Marley Rose ( played by Melissa Benoist ) ; her rendition was rated a B by TVLine 's Michael Slezak . In July 2016 , the song was covered by YouTube personality Trisha Paytas .
" Everytime " was also used in the 2013 American film Spring Breakers , directed by Harmony Korine . The scene begins with the characters of Candy ( Vanessa Hudgens ) , Brittany ( Ashley Benson ) and Cotty ( Rachel Korine ) standing in the backyard of the character of Alien ( James Franco ) , who sits at a white grand piano . The girls are wearing My Little Pony ski masks , sparkly pink tiger bathing suits , sweatpants with " DTF " on the rear and shotguns in their hands . They ask Alien to " Play us something sweet . Something uplifting , Something fucking inspiring , " to which he responds " One of the greatest singers of all time , and an angel if there ever was one on this earth " , before starting to sing " Everytime " . As the song transitions from Alien 's vocals to Spears 's original version we are shown a montage of the girls and Alien robbing other spring breakers at gunpoint . Harmony Korine said about the song ,
" I like her music ! I think it ’ s like perfect pop music . That song " Everytime " — I was always taken by that song . It has this real kind of beauty and airlessness and this haunting kind of morose lullaby effect and underneath it there ’ s some type of hardcore aggression and menace that was really connected to the film in the way that the film deals with the culture of surfaces , this candy @-@ coated neon haze reality . Underneath it , there ’ s this subtext and feeling of this kind of darkness . It was a connection I felt . "
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Britney Spears – lead vocals , songwriting , production
Annet Artani – songwriting
Guy Sigsworth – co @-@ production , all instruments
Sean McGhee – mixing , engineering , editing
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= The Book Job =
" The Book Job " is the sixth episode of the twenty @-@ third season of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 20 , 2011 . In the episode , Lisa is shocked to discover that all popular young @-@ adult novels are conceived by book publishing executives through use of market research and ghostwriters to make money . When Homer hears this , he decides to get rich by starting work on a fantasy novel about trolls together with Bart , Principal Skinner , Patty , Moe , Professor Frink , and author Neil Gaiman . Lisa , who does not think writing should be about money , decides to write a novel on her own . However , she is constantly distracted by other things and fails to make any progress on it . After selling their novel to a book publishing executive , the group members later discover that the executive has replaced the trolls with vampires because vampires are more popular . In an attempt to replace this new version with the old before the novel goes into print , they break into the book publishing company 's headquarters .
The episode was written by freelancer Dan Vebber , though The Simpsons executive producer Matt Selman received the idea for it . His inspiration came from a magazine article he had read about the book packaging company Alloy Entertainment and its use of ghostwriters . In addition , the episode was inspired by the Ocean 's Trilogy , a film series about a group of criminals that heist casinos , and features many elements from it . Actor Andy García , who appears in that series as a casino owner , guest starred in " The Book Job " as the book publishing executive . It also contains several references to and parodies of the Harry Potter and Twilight series , aimed at young adults . The episode was seen by approximately 5 @.@ 77 million people during its original airing and since then it has received positive reviews from television critics , particularly for its satire of the book publishing industry and for its references to the Ocean 's Trilogy . Gaiman , who provided his voice for the episode , has also been praised for his performance .
= = Plot = =
After watching a dinosaur show at an arena in Springfield , Lisa discovers one of her favorite authors , T. R. Francis , working there in a dinosaur costume . The woman reveals to a shocked Lisa that she is just an actress the book publishing company used for the jacket photos , and that T. R. Francis is a complete fabrication . She further reveals that all popular young @-@ adult book series are conceived by book publishing executives through market research and the use of multiple ghostwriters , just to make more money . When Homer finds out about this , he decides to get rich by group @-@ writing a fantasy novel . He recruits a team consisting of Bart , Principal Skinner , Patty Bouvier , Moe Szyslak , and Professor Frink , all of whom have personal attributes or experiences that will help with writing the book : Skinner knows what teens like , Patty is a fantasy fiction fan , Moe has already published some children 's books , and Frink has a computer . Lisa is shocked to find that they are group @-@ writing a book , as she knows the only reason one would do that is to gain money . To show that what they are doing is wrong , she decides to write a novel on her own with a personal story that readers will connect with .
For their novel , the group members decide to take the typical elements from already popular young @-@ adult series . Homer initially suggest that they write about vampires , but Patty notes the fact that there are already so many popular novels out there in that genre . They therefore decide to write about an orphan troll who goes to a magic school located under the Brooklyn Bridge . Fantasy author Neil Gaiman overhears the team talking and offers his help writing the novel ; although they allow him to join , he is only given the task of bringing food for them while they are writing . The group members quickly finish the novel , which they name The Troll Twins of Underbridge Academy , and meet up with a book publishing executive for TweenLit Inc. at a book fair . Although he likes the novel , he dismisses it because it lacks a fake author with an inspirational back story . Meanwhile , Lisa is having a hard time making progress on her book because of constant distractions and quickly becomes saddened after realizing that she will never have her name on a novel . However , Homer approaches her and offers her to be the fake author of The Troll Twins of Underbridge Academy . Lisa admits defeat and takes the offer . They and the rest of the crew then approach the book publishing executive again , and he decides to buy the novel for a million dollars . As the team is celebrating at Moe 's Tavern , they receive an advance copy . They are shocked to discover that the publisher has replaced the troll @-@ aspects of the story with vampires , renaming the novel The Vampire Twins of Transylvania Prep , because market testing showed that vampires are more popular than trolls .
The team breaks into TweenLit Inc . ' s headquarters , planning to replace the new novel with their old version before the mass printing begins . However , when they reach the printing room , the book publishing executive shows up with a group of armed men . He reveals that someone tipped him off about their plan , just as Lisa appears letting them know it was her because she wants her name on a book that will actually be popular . The executive types in the password in the printing machine and gives Lisa the honor of inserting the USB flash drive with the novel on it . Later , when the saddened members of the group @-@ writing team are walking away from the headquarters , they pass a book store and discover that The Troll Twins of Underbridge Academy is being put on the stands . Lisa shows up again , letting them know that she only pretended to betray them so that the publisher would type in the password . When Lisa gave Bart a hug , she replaced the executive 's flash drive with Bart 's flash drive that contained the troll novel . As a result , she was able to put the original version into print . Lisa is happy to know that her name is finally on a book ; however , when she opens a copy , she discovers that Gaiman is listed as the author , not her . It turns out that there were three flash drives and that Gaiman heisted his way to the best @-@ seller list " once again " despite being illiterate . During the credits , it is revealed that Moe was aware of Gaiman 's scheme , and was in fact allied with him from the start . The two celebrate with a toast at Shelbyville Beach , but Gaiman double @-@ crosses Moe and poisons his drink .
= = Production = =
Freelance writer Dan Vebber , who is known for his work on the animated series Futurama , wrote " The Book Job " with contributions from the staff writers on The Simpsons . Matt Selman , an executive producer and writer on The Simpsons , was the one who conceived of the idea behind the episode . He was inspired by an article in The New Yorker about the book packaging company Alloy Entertainment — the publisher of series such as Gossip Girl and Vampire Diaries — and the company 's use of ghostwriters . According to Selman , the article " was all about how these executives take market research and come up with the ideas for these books and farms them out and slaps the name of fake writers on them and fabricates backgrounds for these authors who don ’ t exist . We took that trend and kind of blew it up and shoved it in the face of Lisa " .
Selman told the Los Angeles Times that the episode praises collaborative writing , and answers the question of whether or not writing in a group is as valuable as writing alone . He commented : " I 've been with The Simpsons for 15 years and everyday [ sic ] it 's been pretty much writing as a team . We ’ re proud of what we 've done even if it 's not the traditional idea of one writer sitting down with a passion and a vision . In a strange way this episode ends up as a defense of writing in a group and celebrating the way it makes you feel connected to the work and to the people in that group in ways you didn 't expect . It 's all about a writers room ... and you know , in the story , Homer 's cynical heist team does end up being incredibly productive . " The episode features several references to literature and parodies several popular young @-@ adult book series , particularly Twilight , a vampire @-@ themed fantasy book series by Stephenie Meyer that has received much popularity . While chasing T. R. Francis through the stadium where the dinosaur show took place , Lisa passes a bathroom in which a group of dinosaurs are smoking in reference to a Far Side comic of dinosaurs smoking . The dinosaur show itself , Sitting with Dinosaurs , is based on the live Walking with Dinosaurs show .
In addition to literature , the episode spoofs the Ocean 's Trilogy , a film series about a group of criminals that heist casinos . Selman revealed to Entertainment Weekly in January 2011 that the episode is essentially about " Homer and some people in Springfield hav [ ing ] to perpetrate an Ocean 's Eleven – style heist in the non @-@ Ocean 's Eleven world of children ’ s fantasy book publishing . " Throughout the episode as the story progresses , title cards with titles such as " The Crew " , " The Setup " , " The Heist " , and " The Payday " appear . During these title cards , which last for about three to four seconds each , a version of the song " Gritty Shaker " by David Holmes is heard . This song was played for approximately three minutes during a scene in Ocean 's Eleven . On his blog , The Simpsons music editor Chris Ledesma wrote that Selman wanted " Gritty Shaker " to be played repeatedly throughout " The Book Job " because he erroneously thought that was how it was done in film . During the heist of TweenLit Inc . ' s headquarters , the screen splits in several ways , showing the different team members making their way to the printing room . According to Selman , " the set @-@ up and feel [ of the episode ] is a real creative departure for us . It 's sort of a heist movie where the heist is writing a book but when that kicks in , there 's a giant stylistic leap . It 's also a little sillier , a little more stylistic than most episodes . We 're coming up on 500 episodes , but really , this is the kind of episode a show would only do if hadn 't already had a couple hundred episodes . " Cuban American actor Andy García , who appeared in the Ocean 's Trilogy as casino owner Terry Benedict , guest starred in " The Book Job " as the book publishing executive . At the end of January 2011 , the recording of his performance took place .
English fantasy author Neil Gaiman guest starred in the episode as himself , helping Homer and the others write the book . He recorded his lines in January 2011 in Los Angeles , California under the direction of Selman . Gaiman has said that when he first agreed to guest star , he assumed he would only be getting a brief appearance , popping up for a few seconds . He told the press that " when they actually sent me the script and I started to read it and discovered that I was in it all the way through and was actually having to act and that stuff happened , it was enormously fun . " Gaiman also noted that he does not think the episode gives an entirely accurate portrayal of him , commenting : " Truthfully , the real @-@ life me almost never hangs around in Barnes & Noble @-@ like bookstores waiting to find groups of local townsfolk who 've decided to write pseudonymous young adult fantasy series , offering my services . And even if I did , I probably wouldn 't be doing the catering . " On his official Tumblr page , Gaiman noted that while he did not have much input on the story , he got to improvise while recording and gave suggestions on how to make his dialogue sound as close to something he might actually say in real life .
= = Release and reception = =
" The Book Job " originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 20 , 2011 . It was watched by approximately 5 @.@ 77 million people during this broadcast . In the demographic for adults aged 18 – 49 , the episode received a 2 @.@ 7 Nielsen rating ( down twenty @-@ one percent from the previous episode ) and a seven percent share . The Simpsons became the second highest @-@ rated program in Fox 's Animation Domination lineup that night in terms of total viewers and in the 18 – 49 demographic , finishing with a higher rating than Allen Gregory and American Dad ! , but a lower rating than Family Guy .
Since airing , " The Book Job " has received positive reviews from critics . Josh Harrison of Ology named it one the season 's strongest episodes so far , praising it for featuring " a brilliant appearance by author [ ... ] Neil Gaiman and a slick Ocean 's Eleven aesthetic " . AOL TV 's Jason Hughes applauded the uncommon structuring of the episode , writing : " So why was this episode so much more fun than usual ? We think it has to do with the format and the playfulness in the presentation . After two decades , it pays to shake things up and give us a completely fresh look at the show . Even the team created some new combinations from the massive Springfield citizenry . Maybe they should consider doing that more often . " Hayden Childs of The A.V. Club praised the episode as " entertaining and successful " , commenting that " element of surprise is the key here , and The Simpsons did something quite surprising tonight , combining a parody of heist movies with a sharp satirical look at book mill publishing . With the successful guest appearances by both Neil Gaiman and Andy García , this episode delivered an increasingly rare treat for Simpsons fans : a well @-@ written and well @-@ acted half @-@ hour that gets better and funnier as it goes . " Childs did , however , criticize the " split screens of various heist @-@ style shenanigans " as the " least amusing part of the episode . " He noted that while " the rest of the gags have some thrust to them , [ these ] cross the line into cute pandering to the audience . Fortunately , they are over in about ten seconds . "
Michael Cavna of The Washington Post wrote positively about the episode , commenting that from " the one @-@ liners of the episode ’ s dinosaur @-@ show opening ( reminding that a prime @-@ time ' fossil ' like The Simpsons still has sharp comedic bicuspids ) to the final trick up ' Neil Gaiman ’ s ' dark sleeve , ' The Book Job ' is worthy of the show ’ s DVD wall of fame . " Cavna particularly praised the episode for being based on real @-@ life publishing , noting how Selman drew inspiration from the article on Alloy Entertainment . He also commended the parodies of the Ocean 's Trilogy and Far Side , and Gaimain 's guest appearance . Cavna wrote that " Gaiman ’ s role is so much more than mere walk @-@ on . Like the show ’ s very best guest voice performances , here Gaiman is called upon to lend true dimension to the episode . " Similarly , Cyriaque Lamar of io9 wrote that the episode " did justice to Gaiman 's guest appearance ... in that it made the author look like a total nutcase . " He added that " Gaiman gamely depicts himself as a goony spaniel . Sure , Andy García guest @-@ starred too , but Gaiman stole the show . " In addition , Lamar praised the episode for several of its gags , including the Far Side reference and the disclosures of Patty being able to speak fluent Dothraki and Twilight originally revolving around golems .
= Jon Weber ( baseball ) =
Jonathan Brian Weber ( born January 20 , 1978 in Lakewood , California ) is a professional baseball player . An outfielder , Weber bats and throws left @-@ handed . Considered a journeyman , Weber has played professionally in minor league baseball since 1999 , without playing in Major League Baseball .
Weber played collegiately for Los Angeles Harbor College and Texas Tech University before embarking on his professional career in 1999 . As a professional , he played in the minor league organizations of the Cincinnati Reds , Oakland Athletics , Los Angeles Dodgers , Arizona Diamondbacks , Tampa Bay Rays , New York Yankees , and Detroit Tigers . He has also played independent league baseball in the unaffiliated Frontier League , Northern League , and American Association of Independent Professional Baseball . Weber has competed for the United States national baseball team , winning the gold medal at the 2009 Baseball World Cup .
= = Amateur career = =
Weber was born in Lakewood , California . He attended Lakewood High School in Lakewood , California . There , he played for the school 's baseball team , known as the Lancers , graduating in 1996 .
Out of high school , Weber was selected by the Oakland Athletics in the thirty @-@ first round of the 1997 Major League Baseball Draft . However , he chose not to sign with the Athletics , opting to attend college . He began his college baseball career at Los Angeles Harbor College ( LAHC ) of the National Junior College Athletic Association ( NJCAA ) in 1997 . At LAHC , Weber was a NJCAA All @-@ America selection .
In 1999 , Weber transferred to Texas Tech University to compete in the National Collegiate Athletic Association 's ( NCAA ) Division I during his junior year . At Texas Tech , he played college baseball for the Texas Tech Red Raiders baseball team in the Big 12 Conference . Weber led the conference with eight triples , setting a Red Raiders team record in the process . He was named the Collegiate Baseball National Player of the Week and Big 12 Baseball Player / Pitcher of the Week for the week of February 1 , 1999 . Weber became the fourth player in Texas Tech history to hit for the cycle .
= = Professional career = =
= = = 1999 – 2004 = = =
Weber signed his first professional contract with the Cincinnati Reds as a non @-@ drafted free agent in August 1999 . He made his professional debut that summer with the Rookie @-@ level Billings Mustangs of the Pioneer League , recording a .238 batting average , .365 on @-@ base percentage ( OBP ) and .500 slugging percentage ( SLG ) with five home runs and 17 runs batted in ( RBI ) in 22 games . The next year , he hit .221 with a .333 OBP and .333 SLG with six home runs and 34 RBIs in 108 games for the Single @-@ A Clinton LumberKings of the Midwest League . However , Weber was released by the Reds after the season . He felt the Reds " treated [ him ] like a non @-@ prospect " .
In 2001 , Weber played independent league baseball for the Canton Crocodiles of the Frontier League . He batted .307 with a .382 OBP , .559 SLG , 18 home runs and 69 RBI in 84 games , being named to the Frontier League post @-@ season All @-@ Star team . He led the Frontier League in home runs and triples . Canton sold Weber to the Fargo @-@ Moorhead Redhawks of the independent Northern League in 2002 , where he hit .296 with a .351 OBP , .501 SLG , and 30 doubles for Fargo @-@ Morehead , placing fourth in the league in doubles . Back with Fargo @-@ Moorhead to open 2003 , he batted .309 with a .408 OBP and .520 SLG through 52 games , as the team went on to win the Northern League championship .
However , in July 2003 , the Oakland Athletics organization purchased Weber 's contract from Fargo @-@ Moorhead . With the Athletics organization , Weber hit .361 with a .394 OBP , .626 SLG , seven home runs and 48 RBIs in 35 games with the Single @-@ A Advanced Modesto A 's of the California League for the remainder of that year . In 2004 , he hit .280 with a .356 OBP , .458 SLG , 15 home runs and 68 RBI in 111 games with the Double @-@ A Midland RockHounds of the Texas League , and hit .341 with a .383 OBP , .568 SLG , two home runs and 12 RBI in 12 games with the Triple @-@ A Sacramento River Cats of the Pacific Coast League ( PCL ) , helping the River Cats win the PCL championship .
= = = 2005 – 2009 = = =
Weber signed with the Los Angeles Dodgers after the 2004 season as a free agent . In 2005 he hit .300 with a .369 OBP , .456 SLG , 11 home runs and 68 RBIs in 117 games with the Double @-@ A Jacksonville Suns of the Southern League . He was ninth in the league in batting average and led the league 's outfielders in assists ( 19 ) and double plays ( 7 ) . With Weber , Jacksonville won the Southern League championship , his third year in a row as a member of a championship @-@ winning team . During the season , Weber received a 15 @-@ game suspension for violating minor league baseball 's drug policy . Weber , who failed a drug test administered in August 2004 , said he had taken thermogin , a supplement that contained the banned substance ephedrine , and denied taking steroids .
After starting the 2006 season with the Triple @-@ A Las Vegas Stars of the PCL , where he hit .258 with a .338 OBP , .352 SLG , 2 home runs and 31 RBI in 82 games , he was released . He signed with the Arizona Diamondbacks , where he played for the Triple @-@ A Tucson Sidewinders of the PCL , hitting .321 with a .374 OBP , .518 SLG , 5 home runs and 27 RBI in 46 games . The Sidewinders won the PCL championship , Weber 's fourth consecutive league championship .
Weber was released by the Diamondbacks during 2007 spring training . He signed with Fargo @-@ Moorhead . After 16 games there , batting .283 with a .371 OBP and .417 SLG , his contract was sold to the Texas Rangers on June 4 , 2007 . The Rangers assigned him to the Single @-@ A Advanced Bakersfield Blaze of the California League , where he hit .356 with a .416 OBP , .550 SLG , five home runs , 14 doubles , 25 RBI , and 34 runs scored in 37 games . After spending a month with the Rangers organization , on July 16 , the Tampa Bay Rays purchased his contract from the Rangers and assigned him to the Triple @-@ A Durham Bulls of the International League . There , he hit .265 with three home runs and 21 RBIs in 39 games . Weber re @-@ signed with the Rays on a minor league contract after the 2007 season , and batted .265 with a .334 OBP , .447 SLG , 13 home runs for the Bulls in 2008 .
Weber returned to the Rays ' organization in 2009 , almost making the Rays ' opening day roster until Matt Joyce recovered from an injury . Weber returned to Durham , where he hit .302 with 14 home runs in 117 games , and led the 2009 International League with 46 doubles and finished ninth in batting average . He was named to the International League post @-@ season All @-@ Star team .
= = = 2010 – present = = =
After the 2009 season , Weber signed with the New York Yankees organization and was invited to spring training for the 2010 season . Weber signed with the Yankees because they gave him an opportunity to compete for a job in the major leagues , while other teams told him they viewed him exclusively as a minor leaguer . In spring training , Weber led the Yankees with a .483 batting average and was presented with the James P. Dawson Award , given annually to the best rookie in the Yankees ' camp . Manager Joe Girardi indicated that Weber could beat out Marcus Thames and Rule 5 draft pick Jamie Hoffmann for the fifth outfielder position on the Yankees 25 man roster , but ultimately the Yankees chose Thames , as the Yankees preferred a right @-@ handed batter to complement their left @-@ handed hitting outfielders , and assigned Weber to the Triple @-@ A Scranton Wilkes @-@ Barre Yankees . He hit .258 with no home runs in 47 games with Scranton / Wilkes @-@ Barre before being released by the Yankees on June 3 . He signed with the Detroit Tigers , reporting to the Triple @-@ A Toledo Mud Hens of the International League . He hit .256 with a .310 OBP and .372 SLG in 21 games for Toledo . He announced his retirement on July 15 , 2010 .
On July 19 , 2010 , Major League Baseball announced Weber 's 100 @-@ game suspension for having failed a drug test for the third time . The drug was identified as a " drug of abuse " rather than a performance @-@ enhancing drug .
Despite announcing his retirement earlier in the year , Weber continued his career in leagues unaffiliated with MLB . He played winter league baseball in the winter of 2010 @-@ 11 in the Dominican Republic , then signed with the Winnipeg Goldeyes of the American Association of Independent Professional Baseball in June when they had an injury to outfielder Jonathan Wyatt . Weber was named the team 's most valuable player . Weber returned to Winnipeg for the 2012 season . After batting .281 in 78 games , the Goldeyes waived Weber , giving him his unconditional release .
= = International career = =
Weber joined the United States national baseball team for the 2009 Baseball World Cup held in Nettuno , Italy in September 2009 , helping the United States win the gold medal . Weber made the Cup 's All @-@ Tournament Team .
Weber has routinely played winter league baseball . Following the 2006 season , Weber played for the Naranjeros de Hermosillo of the Mexican Pacific League ( MPL ) , appearing in the 2006 Caribbean Series . He played for the Cañeros de Los Mochis of the MPL after the 2007 season . With the Venados de Mazatlán of the MPL after the 2008 season , Weber reached the 2009 Caribbean Series . In the 2011 @-@ 12 offseason , he played for the Gigantes del Cibao of the Dominican Winter League .
= = Personal life = =
Weber is married . He and his wife have two children . Weber works in construction during his time away from baseball to help make ends meet .
= Rose and Bernard Nadler =
Rose and Bernard Nadler are fictional characters on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) television series Lost , played by L. Scott Caldwell and Sam Anderson respectively . Rose and Bernard visit a faith healer on their honeymoon in Australia , in the hope of healing Rose 's cancer . When Bernard visits the restroom during the return flight , the plane splits in half , with the two halves crashing on different parts of an island in the South Pacific . The couple reunite midway through season two , and Rose reveals the Island has healed her . After time traveling in season five they separate from the remaining survivors and build a cabin near the ocean to live in .
Originally , the story of a woman separated from her husband when the plane crashes was going to be used for Kate , but when Kate 's role in the series changed the producers kept that story for Rose . Much of the couple 's story prior to the plane crash was based on the events of Caldwell 's life ; she married her husband even though he was dying . Due to Caldwell and Anderson having other acting commitments , the writers found it difficult finding time when both actors could appear together in the show , resulting in neither character featuring in most of season three . Critics reacted positively to the couple , often hoping they would appear more frequently , and both actors were praised for their work .
= = Arc = =
Most of the couple 's backstory is told in flashbacks during " S.O.S. " . Rose Henderson , an office manager , meets dentist Bernard Nadler when her car becomes stuck in a snowbank one night . After dating for five months , Bernard proposes to her , which prompts Rose to reveal she has cancer that had gone into remission but has now returned ; she only has a year left to live . The two marry regardless , and on their honeymoon in Australia , Bernard takes Rose to a faith healer named Isaac ( Wayne Pygram ) . Despite her initial protests , she agrees to see him . Isaac is unable to heal her , but Rose tells Bernard that he was able to , in order to stop him from wasting any more of the time that they have left together . During a flashback in " Pilot : Part 1 " , Rose is seated alone across from Jack Shepherd on Oceanic Flight 815 , after Bernard leaves to use one of the restrooms , when the plane suddenly hits turbulence . It splits apart in midair , with the fuselage and tail @-@ section landing at opposite ends of an island .
Upon impact , Rose lies unconscious on the beach with the fuselage survivors , but is eventually revived by Jack ( Matthew Fox ) . During the first few days on the Island , Rose is in shock , and keeps herself away from the other survivors , attracting the attention of Jack . While Jack believes that Bernard is dead , Rose is adamant that he is still alive . After Claire ( Emilie de Ravin ) is kidnapped by the Island 's inhabitants ( known to the survivors as the Others ) , Rose comforts Charlie ( Dominic Monaghan ) , who believes it is not his fault and encourages him not to lose hope and prays for him .
During season two it is shown that Bernard lands with the tail @-@ section survivors on the other side of the Island . After the Others invade their camp , Bernard finds himself as one of the few remaining survivors . They move inland , and discover an abandoned research station , where they find an assortment of items , including a radio . Bernard uses the radio , and makes contact with Boone ( Ian Somerhalder ) , one of the fuselage survivors , but Ana Lucia ( Michelle Rodriguez ) switches it off , dismissing it as a trick by the Others . After three of the fuselage survivors , Michael ( Harold Perrineau ) , Jin ( Daniel Dae Kim ) and Sawyer ( Josh Holloway ) meet the tail @-@ section survivors , they reassure Bernard that Rose is alive and well . They all set off to migrate with the fuselage survivors . Near the fuselage survivors ' beach camp , Ana Lucia accidentally kills one of the fuselage survivors , Shannon ( Maggie Grace ) , she refuses to allow anyone to go any further , but they eventually press on without her ; Bernard is then reunited with Rose . In " S.O.S. " , Bernard concocts a plan to create a giant S.O.S. sign on the beach , but Rose discourages him from spreading false hope among the survivors , and refuses to take part . She confesses that she was not healed in Australia , but has now been healed by the Island , so fears that her illness will return should she leave the Island .
In the twenty @-@ first episode of season three , " Greatest Hits " , Jack announces his plan to rig their tents with dynamite to prevent the Others from kidnapping anyone else , so Rose and Bernard assist by tying lengths of wire together . Rose grows concerned when Bernard volunteers to stay behind and detonate the dynamite . She reluctantly allows him to take part , but grows angry at Jack when the plan backfires later that night , and Bernard is captured by the Others . He is soon rescued by Sawyer , Hurley ( Jorge Garcia ) and Juliet ( Elizabeth Mitchell ) , who kill the Others holding him hostage . Rose watches on as Jack contacts a nearby freighter that he believes has come to rescue them . In the season four premiere " The Beginning of the End " , the survivors reunite in the jungle , where Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) proposes they hide from the freighter crew , as he believes them to be dangerous . Bernard allows Rose to decide whether to follow Jack or Locke , and she chooses Jack . When the people who arrived from the freighter use morse code to contact the boat , Bernard , who also knows morse code , reveals that they are lying about the message and that there is in fact no one coming to rescue them . Jack falls ill and needs his appendix removed , so Rose and Bernard help with the operation : Rose prepares the table and Bernard helps to knock him out , but Rose is confused to why Jack fell ill when the island normally heals sickness .
After Ben ( Michael Emerson ) , the leader of the Others , causes the Island to move , Rose and Bernard are amongst the survivors who begin to jump to different periods of time , but they eventually lose the others . After three years , Sawyer , Juliet and Kate ( Evangeline Lilly ) encounter Rose and Bernard , and the couple explains they have built a cabin and retired , purposely avoiding contact with the remaining survivors because they wish to live their remaining days in peace . Later , they rescue Desmond ( Henry Ian Cusick ) from a well , and are threatened by the Man in Black ( Terry O 'Quinn ) . Desmond and the Man in Black reach an agreement and leave Rose and Bernard alone . In season six , the afterlife experienced by the characters is shown , in which Rose is the supervisor at a temp agency while Bernard is once again working as a dentist . In the series finale , Rose and Bernard reunite with the other survivors from the plane in a church , where they prepare to " move on " together .
= = Development = =
In the initial plans for the series , Jack was going to die midway through the first episode , and then Kate would emerge as the leader of the survivors . Kate 's original backstory was that her husband went to the bathroom shortly before the plane split in mid @-@ air , and on the Island she would remain adamant that he was alive . However the Lost producers changed their minds about Jack 's death ; they decided he would become the leader and created a new backstory for Kate . They still liked Kate 's original backstory , so they used it for Rose . As Rose is black , the producers thought the audience would expect Rose 's husband to also be black , and decided to make Bernard a white character to surprise the audience . They expected the audience to assume Mr. Eko ( Adewale Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje ) , the only black man in the tail @-@ section survivors , was Bernard . L. Scott Caldwell , Rose 's portrayer , was unaware of their plans and had been picturing her own husband , a tall black man , when playing the scenes . When she found out Bernard was white she was surprised , but not shocked . Sam Anderson was unaware of which character he would be playing when he was cast in Lost . During his audition he performed a scene where a man from the plane crash was informed his daughter was still alive , which he noted covered a similar emotion to the scene in which Bernard is told Rose is still alive . Anderson and Caldwell were given a rough idea of how much they would appear at the start of the seasons .
Caldwell and Anderson deliberately did not meet before their reunion scene in " Collision " as they wanted it to be as authentic as possible . In the following episode , Hurley comments that he did not expect Rose 's husband to be white , before Jack quickly changes the subject . The producers felt it was important to address that they are an interracial couple , and that Hurley was saying what the audience would be thinking . Caldwell agreed with them and thought it would be odd if the issue was not addressed . Anderson also was glad that Hurley brought up the issue , and liked that Jack did not pay any attention .
The couple 's backstory was originally planned to be told during season three ; however during season two , the Lost writers wanted to tell the story of one of the background characters of the show . As Rose and Bernard are the most prominent of these characters , and fans were keen to learn their backstory , they decided to do an episode focusing on the couple . Caldwell 's husband was going through health problems during the shooting of the first season , which was the inspiration for Rose 's flashbacks in " S.O.S. " . Following this episode , Caldwell did not think Rose 's healing had anything to do with the Island and stated " If she is cured , it 's because she 's willed it herself " .
Other than reused footage from " Pilot : Part 1 " in " Exposé " , Rose and Bernard do not feature in season three until the twenty @-@ first episode " Greatest Hits " . The writers cited Caldwell and Anderson 's other projects as a reason for their absence . Additionally , it was feared that fans would complain if the couple appeared when many actors with star billing had received limited screentime in the early third season . The writers did not want to have the couple on the show to just stand in the background ; they wanted to have Rose and Bernard in the show with interesting storylines . Anderson found that although he normally had more fun portraying villains , playing Bernard was " one of the greatest rides of [ his ] life " .
= = Reception = =
Throughout the series Rose and Bernard have been well received . Chris Carabott from IGN found the conversation where Rose insists Bernard is alive " touching " . TV Guide 's Matt Roush called Caldwell " terrific " , and hoped the producers would use her again in the future . Entertainment Weekly 's Michael Slezak was surprised when he discovered Bernard is white , although he was unsure why . Mac Slocum , senior editor of Filmfodder.com , thought it was " super @-@ emotional " when Bernard asked the survivors if Rose was still alive . C. K. Sample III , of AOL 's TV Squad , liked " S.O.S. " because it showed " two characters ' back stories which we 've all been longing to see " , and noted the couple represent the theme of dichotomy within the show . Lost producer Leonard Dick called Rose and Bernard " much @-@ beloved characters " , and thought they did an " excellent job " in " S.O.S. " . Jen Chaney from The Washington Post thought it was " touching " and " poignant " that the couple 's backstory was based on Caldwell 's real life . Noel Murray of The A.V. Club conceded that whilst learning Rose and Bernard 's backstory was entertaining , it wasted time and slowed down the pace of the storytelling .
Rick Porter from Zap2it was pleased when Rose and Bernard returned in " Greatest Hits " . After this reappearance , Patrick Day from the Los Angeles Times hoped they would be featured more often , saying " If they brought these two back ... just to kill them , it will be anti @-@ climactic " . Entertainment Weekly 's Jeff Jensen called their return a " sight @-@ for @-@ sore @-@ eyes " . Maureen Ryan from the Chicago Tribune thought Rose was speaking for the fans when she said " If you say ' live together , die alone ' to me , Jack , I 'm going to punch you in your face " , and hoped Rose and Bernard would feature more often in future episodes . The couple were ranked twelfth in IGN 's list of the top fifteen characters from the first three seasons . The critics from IGN also liked Rose 's " live together , die alone " line , which they called " both surprising comic relief and the stuff of solid character development ; characters like Rose remember and evolve , even if they spend most of their time on the sidelines " . The couple were called " the unofficial heart of the show " by the critics , who noted every appearance made by them was a welcome one . Erin Martell from TV Squad thought Rose 's role in " Something Nice Back Home " was " awesome " , because she asked all the questions fans have been asking .
Variety 's Cynthia Littleton " loved seeing Bernard in Grizzly Adams mode " in the season five finale , while Ryan McGee from Zap2it compared Bernard 's appearance to both Moses and the Gorton 's Fisherman . McGee said " It ’ s a gorgeous , gorgeous scene , even if it stands as a meta @-@ criticism of the angst and turmoil of the show ’ s major characters " . Alan Sepinwall from The Star @-@ Ledger called it " one of the best , most moving scenes of the finale " . Noel Murray from The A.V. Club thought the scene was useful as it allowed the characters to leave the show , but also it caused him to question whether opting out was the right or wrong thing to do . The Huffington Post 's Jay Glatfelter thought their decision not to participate " all but solidified them as the ' Adam and Eve ' [ skeletons ] from the caves " , although this was shown not to be the case in season six . Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune listed the pair amongst her favourite characters of the series , commenting " Few things made [ her ] happier than seeing them comfortably ensconced in their retirement cabin with Walt 's dog , Vincent . They had the good sense to give up the whole island rat race , and their optimistic , straightforward attitudes and down @-@ to @-@ earth humor grounded Lost and gave us a window into normalcy , which , goodness knows , we needed sometimes " .
= Banksia speciosa =
Banksia speciosa , commonly known as the showy banksia , is a species of large shrub or small tree in the family Proteaceae . It occurs on the south coast of Western Australia between Hopetoun ( 33 ° 57 ′ S ) and the Great Australian Bight ( approximately 33 ° S 130 ° E ) , growing on white or grey sand in shrubland . Reaching up to 8 m ( 26 ft ) in height , it is a single @-@ stemmed plant that has thin leaves with prominent triangular " teeth " along each margin , which are 20 – 45 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 – 17 @.@ 7 in ) long and 2 – 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) wide . The prominent cream @-@ yellow flower spikes known as inflorescences appear throughout the year . As they age they develop up to 20 follicles each that store seeds until opened by fire . Banksia speciosa . Though widely occurring , it is highly sensitive to dieback and large populations of plants have succumbed to the disease .
Collected and described by Robert Brown in the early 19th century , Banksia speciosa is classified in the series Banksia within the genus . Its closest relative is B. baxteri . Banksia speciosa plants are killed by bushfire , and regenerate from seed . The flowers attract nectar- and insect @-@ feeding birds , particularly honeyeaters , and a variety of insects . In cultivation , Banksia speciosa grows well in a sunny location on well @-@ drained soil in areas with dry summers . It cannot be grown in areas with humid summers , though it has been grafted onto Banksia serrata or B. integrifolia .
= = Description = =
Banksia speciosa grows as a shrub or small tree anywhere from 1 to 6 or rarely 8 m ( 4 – 26 ft ) high . It has an open many @-@ branched habit , arising from a single stem or trunk with smooth grey bark . Unlike many banksias , it does not have a lignotuber . The plant puts on new growth , which is covered in rusty @-@ coloured fur , in summer . The long thin leaves are linear , 20 – 45 cm ( 8 – 18 in ) long and 2 – 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) wide . They are bordered with 20 to 42 prominent triangular lobes that have a zigzag pattern . The lobes are 1 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) long and 1 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 in ) wide , while the V @-@ shaped sinuses between intrude almost to the midrib of the leaf . The leaf margins are slightly recurved . On the underside of each lobe , there are 3 – 10 nerves converging on the lobe apex . The midrib is raised on the leaf undersurface ; it is covered with white hair when new but brownish hair when mature .
The cream to yellow flower spikes , known as inflorescences , can appear at any time of year . They arise on the ends of one- or two @-@ year @-@ old stems and are roughly cylindrical in shape with a domed apex , measuring 4 – 12 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) high and 9 – 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) wide at anthesis . Each is a compound flowering structure , with a large number of individual flowers arising out of a central woody axis . A field study on the southern sandplains revealed an average count of 1369 ± 79 on each spike . The perianth is grey @-@ cream in bud , maturing to a more yellow or cream . The style is cream and the tip of the pollen @-@ presenter maroon . Ageing spikes are grey , with old flowers remaining on them , and develop up
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to 20 large red follicles each . Roughly oval and jutting out prominently from the spike , each follicle is 3 @.@ 5 – 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) long by 2 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 in ) wide and 2 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 in ) high and is covered in dense fur , red @-@ brown initially before aging to grey . It remains closed until opened by bushfire , and contains one or two viable seeds .
The seed is 3 @.@ 7 – 4 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 8 in ) long and fairly flattened , and is composed of the seed body proper , measuring 1 – 1 @.@ 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 6 in ) long and 0 @.@ 9 – 1 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 5 in ) wide , and a papery wing . One side , termed the outer surface , is grey and the other is dark brown ; on this side the seed body protrudes and is covered with tiny filaments . The seeds are separated by a dark brown seed separator that is roughly the same shape as the seeds with a depression where the seed body sits adjacent to it in the follicle . It measures 3 @.@ 7 – 4 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 – 2 in ) long and 2 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 in ) wide . The dull green cotyledons of seedlings are wider than they are long , measuring 1 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) across and 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) long , described by Alex George as " broadly obovate " . Each cotyledon has a 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 08 in ) auricle at its base and has three faint nerve @-@ like markings on its lower half . The hypocotyl is smooth and red . The seedling leaves emerge in an opposite arrangement and are deeply serrated into three triangular lobes on each side . The seedling stem is covered in white hair .
A variant from the Gibson area has an upright habit and leaves . Otherwise , Banksia speciosa shows little variation across its range . Combined with its vigour and prominence in its habitat , this has led George to speculate that it is a recent development among its relatives .
Banksia baxteri resembles B. speciosa and co @-@ occurs with it at the western edge of its range , but has shorter , wider leaves with larger lobes , shorter flower spikes and is a smaller , more open shrub .
= = Taxonomy = =
The first botanical collection of this species may well have been Claude Riche , naturalist to Bruni d 'Entrecasteaux 's 1791 expedition in search of the lost ships of Jean @-@ François de Galaup , comte de La Pérouse . During a visit to Esperance Bay , Riche explored an area in which B. speciosa is extremely common . However , he got lost and was forced to abandon his collections . The species was eventually collected by Robert Brown in 1802 , and published by him in 1810 . Alex George selected an 1802 specimen collected at Lucky Bay to be the lectotype in 1981 . An early common name was handsome banksia . Common names include showy banksia and ricrac banksia , from the zigzag shape of its long thin leaves .
Robert Brown recorded 31 species of Banksia in his 1810 work Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen , and in his taxonomic arrangement , placed the taxon in the subgenus Banksia verae , the " True Banksias " , because the inflorescence is a typical Banksia flower spike . By the time Carl Meissner published his 1856 arrangement of the genus , there were 58 described Banksia species . Meissner divided Brown 's Banksia verae , which had been renamed Eubanksia by Stephan Endlicher in 1847 , into four series based on leaf properties . He placed B. speciosa in the series Dryandroideae .
George Bentham published a thorough revision of Banksia in his landmark publication Flora Australiensis in 1870 . In Bentham 's arrangement , the number of recognised Banksia species was reduced from 60 to 46 . Bentham defined four sections based on leaf , style and pollen @-@ presenter characters . Banksia speciosa was placed in section Orthostylis .
In 1891 , German botanist Otto Kuntze challenged the generic name Banksia L.f. , on the grounds that the name Banksia had previously been published in 1775 as Banksia J.R.Forst & G.Forst , referring to the genus now known as Pimelea . Kuntze proposed Sirmuellera as an alternative , republishing B. speciosa as Sirmuellera speciosa . The challenge failed , and Banksia L.f. was formally conserved .
= = = Current placement = = =
Alex George published a new taxonomic arrangement of Banksia in his classic 1981 monograph The genus Banksia L.f. ( Proteaceae ) . Endlicher 's Eubanksia became B. subg . Banksia , and was divided into three sections . B. speciosa was placed in B. sect . Banksia , and this was further divided into nine series , with B. speciosa placed in B. ser . Banksia . He thought its closest relative was clearly Banksia baxteri based on their similar appearance , noting the two overlapped in their distribution .
Kevin Thiele and Pauline Ladiges published a new arrangement for the genus in 1996 ; their morphological cladistic analysis yielded a cladogram significantly different from George 's arrangement . Thiele and Ladiges ' arrangement retained B. speciosa in series Banksia , placing it in B. subser . Cratistylis along with B. baxteri as its sister taxon and seven other Western Australian species . This arrangement stood until 1999 , when George effectively reverted to his 1981 arrangement in his monograph for the Flora of Australia series . B. speciosa 's placement within Banksia according to Flora of Australia is as follows :
Genus Banksia
Subgenus Banksia
Section Banksia
Series Banksia
B. serrata
B. aemula
B. ornata
B. baxteri
B. speciosa
B. menziesii
B. candolleana
B. sceptrum
In 2002 , a molecular study by Austin Mast again showed Banksia speciosa and B. baxteri to be each other 's closest relatives , but they were only distantly related to other members of the series Banksia . Instead , their next closest relative turned out to be the distinctive Banksia coccinea .
Mast , Eric Jones and Shawn Havery published the results of their cladistic analyses of DNA sequence data for Banksia in 2005 . They inferred a phylogeny greatly different from the accepted taxonomic arrangement , including finding Banksia to be paraphyletic with respect to Dryandra . A new taxonomic arrangement was not published at the time , but early in 2007 Mast and Thiele initiated a rearrangement by transferring Dryandra to Banksia , and publishing B. subg . Spathulatae for the species having spoon @-@ shaped cotyledons ; in this way they also redefined the autonym B. subg . Banksia . They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete . In the meantime , if Mast and Thiele 's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement , then B. speciosa is placed in B. subg . Banksia .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Banksia speciosa occurs on coastal dunes and sandplains in the Esperance Plains and Mallee biogeographic regions on the south coast of Western Australia , from East Mount Barren in the Fitzgerald River National Park and the vicinity of Hopetoun eastwards to Israelite Bay , generally within 50 km ( 31 mi ) of the coast . The range extends inland to Mount Ragged and 25 km ( 16 mi ) southwest of Grass Patch . There is an outlying population to the east at Point Culver on the Great Australian Bight .
Banksia speciosa grows on flat or gently sloping ground on deep white or grey sand . It is often the dominant shrub in shrubland , commonly found with such species as Lambertia inermis , Banksia pulchella , and B. petiolaris .
= = Ecology = =
The prominent flower spikes are visited by many birds and insects . Honeyeaters are common visitors , particularly the New Holland honeyeater , as well as the fuscous honeyeater , western wattlebird and western spinebill . Other birds recorded foraging include the grey butcherbird and species of thornbill . Insects recorded include ants , bees , wasps , butterflies , moths , flies and beetles . The short @-@ billed black cockatoo breaks off old cones with follicles to eat the seed , often doing so before the seed is ripe .
Banksia speciosa is serotinous , that is , it has an aerial seed bank in its canopy in the form of the follicles of the old flower spikes . These are opened by fire and release seed in large numbers , which germinate and grow after rain . Seed can last for many years ; old spikes 11 to 12 years old have been found to have 50 % viable seed . Flower spikes appear to have similar numbers of follicles regardless of the age of the parent plant . Young plants begin flowering three years after regenerating from bushfire and store progressively larger numbers of old flowerheads ( and hence seed ) in the canopy . In one study , decade @-@ old plants averaged around 3 @.@ 5 old cones , whereas 21 @-@ year @-@ old plants had 105 , and were calculated as having over 900 viable seeds per plant . Plants appear to have a life span of at least 40 years , as healthy and vigorous individuals of this age are known . An experimental burn and monitoring of resultant seedling germination and growth showed B. speciosa seeds , though numerous , had poor rates of establishment but that seedlings were able to access water more easily and had higher rates of survival after two years than co @-@ occurring Banksia species . Though this suggested B. speciosa might outcompete its conspecifics , the authors of the study noted that there could be other factors not accounted for in its natural environment .
Banksia speciosa is extremely sensitive to dieback caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi and numbers in Cape Le Grand and Cape Arid National Parks have been drastically reduced as whole populations of plants have perished after exposure . It is an indicator species for the presence of the disease . Nursery plants in Italy perished from root and basal stem rot from the pathogen Phytophthora taxon niederhauserii .
The tiny sac fungus Phyllachora banksiae subspecies westraliensis has been described from the leaves of B. speciosa , its sole host . This fungus manifests as round flat cream @-@ coloured spots around 1 – 3 mm in diameter on the upper leaf surface . The surrounding leaf tissue is sometimes discoloured orange . One or two shiny black fruit bodies measuring around 0 @.@ 25 – 0 @.@ 75 by 0 @.@ 25 – 1 mm appear in the centre of the spots .
= = Cultivation = =
A fast @-@ growing and attractive plant , Banksia speciosa grows readily in a sunny location in dry climates on well @-@ drained soil , but does poorly in areas of humid summer climate , such as Australia 's east coast . It has been grafted successfully onto Banksia serrata and B. integrifolia to enable cultivation in these areas . Seeds do not require any treatment , and take 27 to 41 days to germinate . A specimen flowered in a greenhouse in the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh in 1830 . Banksia speciosa is an important cut flower crop . It was one of several species considered for commercial cropping in Tenerife , and trials showed that seedlings were moderately tolerant to salinity .
= Blackburn Firebrand =
The Blackburn Firebrand was a British single @-@ engine strike fighter for the Fleet Air Arm of the Royal Navy designed during World War II by Blackburn Aircraft . Originally intended to serve as a pure fighter , its unimpressive performance and the allocation of its Napier Sabre piston engine by the Ministry of Aircraft Production for the Hawker Typhoon caused it to be redesigned as a strike fighter to take advantage of its load @-@ carrying capability . Development was slow and the first production aircraft was not delivered until after the end of the war . Only a few hundred were built before it was withdrawn from front @-@ line service in 1953 .
= = Development = =
In general , the Fleet Air Arm had required fighters that were capable of navigating long ranges over sea and speed differential over attackers was not critical . However , while defence of British naval bases was a RAF commitment , provision had not been made for this and so the Admiralty accepted that it would have to take on the duty . For this it needed an interceptor fighter . Experience in the Norwegian Campaign of early 1940 had also shown a high @-@ performance , carrier @-@ based , single @-@ seat fighter would be an advantage . Blackburn tendered their B @-@ 37 design using the Napier Sabre 24 @-@ cylinder H @-@ type engine , and this was accepted by June 1940 with a proposal to order " off the drawing board " ( meaning without prototypes ) . Air Ministry Specification N.11 / 40 — stating a minimum top speed of 350 knots ( 650 km / h ; 400 mph ) — was raised to cover this design and an order placed in January 1941 for three prototypes .
The B @-@ 37 , given the service name " Firebrand " on 11 July 1941 , was a low @-@ winged , all @-@ metal monoplane . Aft of the cockpit the fuselage was an oval @-@ shaped stressed @-@ skin semi @-@ monocoque , but forward it had a circular @-@ section , tubular @-@ steel frame that housed the 169 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 770 l ; 203 US gal ) main fuel tank and the 71 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 320 l ; 85 US gal ) auxiliary fuel tank behind the engine . The radiators for the neatly cowled Sabre engine were housed in wing @-@ root extensions . The large wing consisted of a two @-@ spar centre section with manually folded outer panels ( with 5 degrees of dihedral ) to allow more compact storage in the hangar decks of aircraft carriers . To increase lift and reduce landing speed the wing was fitted with large , hydraulically powered Fowler flaps that extended to the edges of the Frise ailerons . The fixed armament of four 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) Hispano autocannon was fitted in the outer wing panels with 200 rounds per gun . The vertical stabilizer and rudder were positioned forward of the horizontal stabilizer to ensure spin recovery and that the rudder would retain its effectiveness . The mainwheels of the conventional landing gear were mounted at the ends of the centre wing section and retracted inwards . The Firebrand was unusual in that there was an airspeed gauge mounted outside of the cockpit so that during landing the pilot would not have to look down into the cockpit to take instrument readings , presaging the development of the modern heads @-@ up display .
The unarmed first prototype first flew on 27 February 1942 using the Sabre II , the first of two armed prototypes following on 15 July . The initial flight trials were a disappointment as the aircraft could only reach 32 mph ( 51 km / h ) below Blackburn 's estimated maximum speed of 390 mph . Replacement of the Sabre II with a Sabre III ( an engine built specifically for the Firebrand ) improved its top speed to 358 mph ( 576 km / h ) . The second prototype , DD810 , conducted deck @-@ landing trials , with Commander Dennis Cambell at the controls , aboard the fleet carrier HMS Illustrious in February 1943 . The Sabre engine was also used in the Hawker Typhoon , a fighter already in production , and the Ministry of Air Production ( MAP ) decided that the Typhoon had priority for the Sabre . The Sabre was also experiencing production problems and so a new engine was needed , along with the necessary airframe improvements to accommodate it ; rather than abandon the time and effort invested in the design , the MAP decided to convert the Firebrand into an interim strike fighter to meet the Fleet Air Arm 's requirement for a single @-@ seat torpedo bomber capable of carrying bombs and rockets as well as engaging in air @-@ to @-@ air combat . Nine production F. Mk I aircraft were built to the original specifications and all were retained for trials and development work .
After it was badly damaged during an emergency landing , DD810 was converted into a prototype of the first strike variant , the Firebrand T.F. Mk II ( with the company designation B @-@ 45 ) , that flew on 31 March 1943 . It was an adaptation of the Mk I with the wing centre section widened by 1 foot 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 39 @.@ 4 cm ) to make room for the torpedo on the centreline between the mainwheels . Like the Mk I , the TF Mk II only saw a very limited production run of 12 aircraft and they were also allocated for development work , including those assigned to 708 Naval Air Squadron , a shore @-@ based trials unit . Blackburn proposed several versions of the Sabre @-@ powered aircraft including one for the RAF as the B @-@ 41 , a version with a high @-@ lift wing as the B @-@ 42 , and the B @-@ 43 floatplane , none of which were accepted for further development .
A new specification was issued as S.8 / 43 to cover the development of the Firebrand T.F. Mk III ( B @-@ 45 ) with the 2 @,@ 400 @-@ horsepower ( 1 @,@ 800 kW ) Bristol Centaurus VII radial engine . Two prototypes were converted from incomplete F Mk Is and 27 additional aircraft were delivered , completing the first batch of 50 aircraft . The first prototype flew on 21 December 1943 , but construction of the new aircraft was very slow with the first flight not being made until November 1944 . Most changes were related to the installation of the larger @-@ diameter Centaurus engine , including air intakes for the carburetor and oil cooler in the wing @-@ root extensions that formerly housed the engine 's radiators . Spring @-@ loaded trim tabs were also fitted to all control surfaces . Production aircraft after the first 10 were fitted with the improved Centaurus IX engine . The Mk III was found to be unsuitable for carrier operations for a variety of reasons . The new engine produced more torque than the Sabre , and rudder control was insufficient on takeoff with the full flaps needed for carrier use . Visibility while landing was very poor , the tailhook attachment to the airframe was too weak , and the aircraft had a tendency to drop a wing at the stall while landing , so development continued to rectify these issues .
The T.F. Mk IV ( B @-@ 46 ) , as the new development was designated , featured larger tail surfaces for better low @-@ speed control . The enlarged rudder was horn balanced and the vertical stabilizer was offset three degrees to port to counteract the four @-@ bladed Rotol propeller 's torque . The wings now featured hydraulically operated dive brakes on both upper and lower surfaces . The aircraft 's wings were now stressed to carry one 2 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 910 kg ) bomb under each wing or a 45 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 200 l ; 54 US gal ) drop tank or eight RP @-@ 3 rockets . The frame that held the torpedo was connected to the undercarriage so that it pivoted nose @-@ downward to increase ground clearance with the landing gear extended and pivoted upward to reduce drag while in flight . A 100 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 450 l ; 120 US gal ) fuel tank could be fitted on the centreline in lieu of the torpedo . The Mk IV first flew on 17 May 1945 , and was the first version of the Firebrand to enter mass production , with 170 built , although 50 more aircraft were cancelled .
The later Firebrand T.F. Mk 5 featured minor aerodynamic improvements and 123 were converted from Mk IVs . The final version was the Firebrand T.F. Mk 5A with hydraulically boosted ailerons to increase the aircraft 's rate of roll . Two Mk 5s and five Mk IVs were converted to Mk 5A standard .
= = Operational history = =
The Firebrand did not see action in World War II , as TF 4s were not issued to 813 Naval Air Squadron until 1 September 1945 . The squadron was disbanded 30 September 1946 without ever deploying to sea . It was reformed with TF 5s on 1 May 1947 and flew them from the carrier HMS Implacable , later HMS Indomitable , until it was reequipped with turboprop Westland Wyvern attack aircraft in February 1953 . 827 Naval Air Squadron received their TF 5 and 5As on 13 December 1950 and flew them primarily off the carrier HMS Eagle until it disbanded on 19 November 1952 . A variety of second @-@ line squadrons were issued Firebrands of various marks for training or trials at one time or another .
In test pilot and naval aviator Captain Eric Brown 's opinion the aircraft was " short of performance , sadly lacking in manoeuvrability , especially in rate of roll " . Furthermore , the positioning of the cockpit even with the trailing edge of the wing gave the pilot a very poor view over the nose and inhibited his ability to view his target and to land his aircraft aboard a carrier , enough so that Brown called it " a disaster as a deck @-@ landing aircraft " .
= = Variants = =
Blackburn B @-@ 37
Three prototypes ordered to meet Specification N.11 / 40 , named Firebrand on 11 July 1941 . Second prototype re @-@ built as T.F. II prototype .
Firebrand F. I
Production variant of the Blackburn B.37 with an order for 50 aircraft to be built at Brough , most completed as T.F. II and T.F. III variants , first nine completed as F. Is .
Firebrand T.F. II
Improved variant , 12 built from original production branch .
Firebrand T.F. III
Blackburn B @-@ 45 , a Centarus VII powered @-@ variant , two prototypes to S.8 / 43 and 27 production aircraft for original production batch .
Firebrand T.F. IV
Blackburn B @-@ 46 , improved variant with 2 @,@ 520 bhp Centaurus IX or Centaurus 57 , 250 ordered , but only 170 were completed , of which 124 were converted to T.F. 5 standard , some before delivery . Six were modified and designated as T.F. IV ( mod ) .
Firebrand T.F. 5
Improved variant , 124 modified from T.F. IV , two conversions to T.F. 5A .
Firebrand T.F. 5A
One prototype modified from a T.F. 5 and six conversions from either T.F. IV or Vs .
= = Operators = =
United Kingdom
Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm
813 Naval Air Squadron
827 Naval Air Squadron
= = Specifications ( Firebrand T.F. Mk IV ) = =
Data from The Firebrand ... Blackburn 's Baby ' Battleship'
General characteristics
Crew : 1
Length : 38 ft 9 in ( 11 @.@ 81 m )
Wingspan : 51 ft 3 @.@ 5 in ( 15 @.@ 634 m )
Height : 13 ft 3 in ( 4 @.@ 04 m )
Wing area : 383 sq ft ( 35 @.@ 6 m2 )
Empty weight : 11 @,@ 457 lb ( 5 @,@ 197 kg )
Gross weight : 16 @,@ 700 lb ( 7 @,@ 575 kg )
Fuel capacity : 239 imp gal ( 1 @,@ 090 l ; 287 US gal )
Powerplant : 1 × Bristol Centaurus IX 18 @-@ cylinder radial engine , 2 @,@ 520 hp ( 1 @,@ 880 kW )
Propellers : 4 @-@ bladed Rotol , 13 ft 3 in ( 4 @.@ 04 m ) diameter
Performance
Maximum speed : 342 mph ( 550 km / h ; 297 kn )
Cruise speed : 256 mph ( 222 kn ; 412 km / h )
Range : 745 mi ( 647 nmi ; 1 @,@ 199 km )
Rate of climb : 2 @,@ 600 ft / min ( 13 m / s )
Armament
Guns : 4 × 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) Hispano autocannon
Rockets : 16 × RP @-@ 3
Bombs : 1 × 1 @,@ 850 lb ( 840 kg ) torpedo or 2 × 2 @,@ 000 lb ( 910 kg ) bombs
= Alexander Stoddart =
Alexander " Sandy " Stoddart ( born 1959 ) is a Scottish sculptor , who , since 2008 , has been the Queen 's Sculptor in Ordinary in Scotland . He works primarily on figurative sculpture in clay within the neoclassical tradition . Stoddart is best known for his civic monuments , including 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) bronze statues of David Hume and Adam Smith , philosophers during the Scottish Enlightenment , on the Royal Mile in Edinburgh , and others of James Clerk Maxwell and John Witherspoon . Stoddart says of his own motivation , " My great ambition is to do sculpture for Scotland " , primarily through large civic monuments to figures from the country 's past .
Stoddart was born in Edinburgh and raised in Renfrewshire , where he developed an early interest in the arts and music , and later trained in fine art at the Glasgow School of Art ( 1976 – 1980 ) and read the History of Art at the University of Glasgow . During this time he became increasingly critical of contemporary trends in art , such as pop art , and concentrated on creating figurine pieces in clay . Stoddart associates the lack of form in modern art with social decay ; in contrast , his works include many classical allusions .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Stoddart 's grandfather was an evangelical Baptist preacher , and his parents met through that church . He was born in Edinburgh , though his father , also an artist , moved the family to the village of Elderslie in Renfrewshire , where the young Stoddart immediately noticed the monument there at William Wallace 's purported birthplace . Today , Stoddart lives and works in nearby Paisley . At school Stoddart became interested in music ( and remains so ) but decided he was not good enough to become a professional .
= = = Education = = =
Stoddart went , aged seventeen , to train in fine art at the Glasgow School of Art where he studied from 1976 to 1980 . There he settled on sculpture and initially worked within the modernist vogue . Stoddart has recalled an epiphany moment several times : when , after finishing a riveted metal pop @-@ art sculpture ( praised by his tutors ) he found a bust of the Apollo Belvedere , " I thought my pop @-@ riveted thing was rubbish by comparison . It 's extraordinarily easy to pop @-@ rivet two bits of metal together and extraordinarily difficult to make a figure like the Apollo , but I thought I had to try . "
Stoddart wrote his undergraduate thesis on the life and work of John Mossman , an English sculptor who worked in Scotland for fifty years . His work remains an influence on Stoddart . Stoddart graduated in 1980 with a Bachelor of Arts degree , first class , though he was demoralised by his peers ' ignorance of the art history : " the name Raphael meant nothing to them " . He went on to read History of Art at the University of Glasgow . Afterwards , he worked for six " difficult " years in the studio of Ian Hamilton Finlay . Although Hamilton Finlay is considered one of the most important Scottish artists of the 20th century , Stoddart profoundly disagrees with his working methods : " Finlay was the godfather of a problem that 's rampant everywhere today . He called the people who made his work ' collaborators ' . What we call them nowadays is ' fabricators ' . They 're talented people who are plastically capable , but they never meet their ' artist ' . They 're grateful , desperate and thwarted . "
He is an Honorary Professor at the University of the West of Scotland . On 30 December 2008 , it was announced that Stoddart had been appointed Her Majesty 's Sculptor in Ordinary in Scotland .
= = Aesthetic viewpoint = =
Stoddart is deeply critical of modernism and contemporary art , and scornful of " public art " , a phrase which makes him search for " a glass of whisky and a revolver " . He has repeatedly criticised winners of the Turner Prize , such as Damien Hirst " there 's plenty of them " , and Tracey Emin , whom he calls " the high priestess of societal decline " . Stoddart said of his own repeated public denouncements , " Somebody will be exhibiting a bunch of bananas in a gallery , and they 'll [ radio producers ] get me on to talk dirty about it " . Stoddart has characterised modern art as dominated by left @-@ wing politics , to the extent that " certain artistic forms likewise became suspect : the tune ; the rhyme ; the moulding ; the plinth " as coercive and overly traditional . He argued that an equestrian statue of the Mariner King , William IV should be placed on the fourth plinth in Trafalgar Square , as originally intended .
He developed an interest in music at school , where he learned to play the piano , which he still does daily . He called his own medium , sculpture " an art inferior to the super @-@ art of music " and nominated Wagner as the greatest composer . Stoddart developed his theme on the quietism of monumental art and its relation to Schopenhaurian resignation in a lecture to the Wagner Society of Scotland on 2 March 2008 .
Stoddart works within the neo @-@ classical tradition of art , and believes that greatness and respect for posterity are important considerations . In 2010 he rebuffed a query about his interest in sculpting a memorial to Bill McLaren , a rugby union broadcaster : " I do not do sportsmen and I certainly do not do sports commentators . I do artists , philosophers and poets " , he said , warning that memorials are often hastily erected . Advocates of the memorial described the remarks as insensitive , and said that " To have Bill looking down on the fans at Murrayfield , microphone in hand , would bring a huge smile to so many faces . "
Despite their idiomatic differences , Raymond McKenzie argues that the works of both Ian Hamilton Finlay and Stoddart combine formal and intellectual elegance with sharp , sometimes satirical critiques of contemporary society .
Stoddart himself outspoken about Modernism , and its contemporary failures and historical misunderstandings , without hesitation , makes clear that his work stems from a Modernism born in neo @-@ classicism , " And yet , after having said all this about Modernism , I consider myself a Modernist – but in the context of a vast application of the term extending miles beyond the pokey wee official area to which usually it is confined . For in truth there are really two kinds of Modernism to be uncovered in the space of the last two and a half centuries , and it is to the first and largest of these that I belong and to which , in my small way , I contribute . This is the Modernism that was born in neo @-@ classicism and has , as its great central titan , the mighty Richard Wagner . "
= = Works = =
= = = Civic monuments = = =
In his own work , Stoddart has developed " heroic @-@ realist " neo @-@ classical representations of historical figures . Stoddart works as a civic @-@ monumentalist for Scotland , and described the need his work fills thus : " We need serious monuments which don 't have the Braveheart touch . If we 're to be a nation , we need that . Fletcher of Saltoun is absolutely urgent if we 're to show we mean business . We don 't do it with a stupid Parliament building that looks like a Barcelona @-@ inspired cafeteria . It 's a bloody outrage . "
He has made sculptures of David Hume and Adam Smith , philosophers of the Scottish Enlightenment , which stand in the Royal Mile in Edinburgh . Hume is depicted in a philosopher 's toga , representing the timelessness of philosophical thought , a decision which was criticised as atavistic after the unveiling in 1996 , though Stoddart remained stoic , " So here I discovered that the right thing , done in public , will often earn one great disapproval : a lesson for life – in the modern age at least . " Local philosophy students soon began a tradition of rubbing the statue 's toe to absorb some of his knowledge . Though Stoddart placed the foot over the edge of the plinth to encourage such engagement , the irony of the practice given Hume 's critiques of superstition has been remarked upon .
Smith , a philosopher who forged the new discipline of economics , is , by contrast , depicted in contemporary attire , showing his concern for the practical matters of economic activity , a gown draped over his shoulder retains the connection to philosophy and academia . Smith 's economic ideas are also encoded into the statue : the plough behind him represents the agrarian economics he supplanted , the beehive before , is a symbol of the industry he predicted would come . His hand , resting on a globe , is obscured by the gown : a literal presentation of Smith 's famous metaphor of the invisible hand . The life @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half size statue of Smith , is cast in bronze from a plaster model by the sculptor and was unveiled in 2008 . It was funded by private subscriptions organised by the Adam Smith Institute .
Stoddart 's statue of James Clerk Maxwell , a physicist , stands in George Street in Edinburgh and a memorial to Robert Louis Stevenson , a novelist , is on Corstorphine Road . His monument to John Witherspoon stands in Paisley , with a copy outside Princeton University .
There are several pieces by Stoddart in Glasgow 's Merchant City quarter . Italia , a 2 @.@ 6 metre , glass re @-@ in @-@ forced polymer statue on top of Ingram Street represents the contribution of Italian traders to the area . Classical in style , the female form is swathed in a chiton and carries symbols of ancient Italy : a palm branch in her right hand and an inverted cornucopia in her left . On John Street , a trio of figures , Mercury , Mercurius and Mercurial form a triangle . The first two , identical figures , sit above the John St. façade of the Italian centre ; their English and Roman names signify the two different manifestations of the deity in Roman mythology . Here , they embody a " dialogue " between ancient lore and modern city life . Opposite , on a plinth on the street , stands Mercurial , cast in bronze and with the adjectival form of the name , it complements the duality of the other two with an underlying unity .
Putative projects include a monument to Willie Gallacher , the Paisley @-@ born Communist MP , championed by Tony Benn and funded by a public appeal and " Oscar " , an amphitheatre carved into the rock on the Scottish coast dedicated to Ossian , the mythical Scot bard .
= = = Busts , cabinet displays and architectural sculpture = = =
During 2000 to 2002 the Queen 's Gallery at Buckingham Palace was renovated in the neo @-@ classical style under the direction of John Simpson , envisioned as " building visible history " . For the walls in the two @-@ storied entrance hall , Stoddart made architectural friezes which interpret Homeric themes in twentieth century Britain . For the Sackler Library in Oxford University , he made a 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) by 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) bronze frieze , depicting an allegory of traditionalist and modernist values . Stoddart has also worked on busts of living figures whom he admires , often fellow @-@ classicists including Roger Scruton , a philosopher , Robert Adam and John Simpson , architects , the architectural historian David Watkin , and Tony Benn , the politician .
= ANAK Society =
The ANAK Society is the oldest known secret society and honor society at the Georgia Institute of Technology ( Georgia Tech ) in Atlanta , Georgia , United States . Founded in 1908 , ANAK 's purpose is " to honor outstanding juniors and seniors who have shown both exemplary leadership and a true love for Georgia Tech " . The society is named after Anak , a biblical figure said to be the forefather of a race of giants .
ANAK comprises at least 1 @,@ 100 Georgia Tech graduates , faculty members , and honorary members . Although not founded as a secret society , it has kept its activities and membership rosters confidential since 1961 . Membership is made public upon a student 's graduation or a faculty member 's retirement . Notable members include Jimmy Carter ( honorary ) , Bobby Dodd ( honorary ) , Ivan Allen Jr . , Bobby Jones , and most of Georgia Tech 's presidents . Membership in the ANAK Society has long been considered the highest honor a Georgia Tech student can receive , although the society 's activities have been the object of suspicion and controversy in recent years .
The society has been influential in the history of Georgia Tech . ANAK played a major role in establishing several of Georgia Tech 's most active student organizations – including its yearbook , the Blueprint ; its student newspaper , the Technique ; and its Student Government Association – as well as several lasting Georgia Tech traditions . The society also claims involvement in a number of civil rights projects , most notably in peacefully integrating Georgia Tech 's first African American students and preventing the Ku Klux Klan from setting up a student chapter at Georgia Tech . These claims have yet to be substantiated by independent sources .
A philanthropic organization , the ANAK Society annually awards two undergraduate student scholarships , the George Wingfield Semmes Memorial Scholarship and the Merri Gaye Hitt Memorial Scholarship . Additionally , the society annually recognizes distinguished Georgia Tech alumni with the Joseph M. Pettit Distinguished Service Award . The society 's ANAK Award , granted annually to an outstanding Georgia Tech faculty member , is considered the most prestigious award of its kind . The society has also donated a number of gifts to Georgia Tech in honor of its members and notable alumni .
= = Name and symbology = =
The ANAK Society explained its name as originating from a passage in the Book of Numbers , one of the books of the Hebrew Bible . The passage , attributed to Numbers 13 : 33 , reads , " And there were the Nephilin [ sic ] , the sons of ANAK , who came of the giants : and we were in our own sight as grasshoppers , and so we were in their sight . " Anak was a biblical figure said to be the forefather of the Nephilim , a race of giants . For unknown reasons , the society 's name has sustained minor alterations over the years , from Anak in the 1908 Blue Print , the first edition of Georgia Tech 's yearbook , to ANAK in recent editions of The Technique , Georgia Tech 's student newspaper .
The ANAK Society has adopted a number of symbols over the years , although it has never offered any official explanation as to their meaning . From its founding in 1908 to 1927 , the society identified itself only by the name " Anak " or " Anak Society " . In 1928 and 1929 , the society adopted a bend sinister gules , a type of diagonal red line borrowed from heraldry . The bend was dropped after 1930 , following the introduction of a crest bearing the face of a cyclops and the Hebrew inscription ענק , meaning Anak , both affixed to a capital letter T. This loosely drawn crest was replaced with a more professionally illustrated version in 1940 ( see right image ) . In later decades , the society adopted a simple lidless eye to represent itself ; this symbol appeared on red ribbon armbands worn at ANAK " tapping " rituals and a plaque outside the Paul G. Mayer Memorial Garden on Georgia Tech 's campus . Most recently , ANAK published a modernized version of its crest , a lidless eye affixed to a capital letter T , in The Technique in January 2008 to commemorate its centennial .
= = History = =
= = = Founding = = =
The ANAK Society was founded on January 1 , 1908 by four Georgia Tech seniors : George Wyman McCarty , Jr . ( President ) , Harry Read Vaughan ( Vice President ) , Lewis Edward Goodier , Jr . ( Secretary ) and Charles Atwater Sweet , Jr . ( Treasurer ) . The " guiding spirit " behind these students was said to be William Henry Emerson , a professor of chemistry . Officer titles were named after famous cyclopes in Greek mythology : the president was Polyphemus ; the vice president , Brontes ; the treasurer , Stereopes ; and the secretary , Arges . Other charter members ( all seniors ) were G. A. Hendrie , C. A. Adamson , S. J. Hargrove , J. E. Davenport , L. W. Robert , W. R. Snyder , C. L. Emerson ( son of William Henry Emerson ) and G. W. Holmes Cheney . Additional members have been initiated each subsequent year , but following the tradition set by the society 's founders , no more than 12 members may be initiated per year .
In the 1909 Blue Print , the society described its purpose as follows : " [ The ANAK Society ] is composed of men from the Senior Class of Georgia Tech who have shown themselves zealous in the development of college spirit . This organization is not here , primarily , as a social club or honorary society , but to do all it can to develop a better morale among the student body and improve all phases of college life . "
As the society 's membership base grew , its influence and prestige likewise increased . By 1940 , the ANAK Society was referred to as " the oldest honorary organization on the Tech campus " and membership as " the highest local honor a Tech student may obtain " . These claims would generally go unchallenged throughout the rest of the century . Faculty recognition by the society , first initiated with the ANAK Award in 1942 , would reach an equivalent level of prestige by the end of the century .
= = = Transition to a secret society = = =
For many years following the ANAK Society 's founding , membership was not confidential . ANAK members would select new initiates by " tapping " them ( tapping them on the shoulder ) or presenting them with red ribbon armbands at Georgia Tech 's semi @-@ annual Interfraternity Council ( IFC ) dance . The ritual was dropped in 1961 when ANAK elected to become a secret society . From this point forward , ANAK membership was made public only upon a student 's graduation , via a list of graduating ANAK members published in the Blueprint and the Technique each year and the ANAK Society 's home page . A similar policy applies to faculty and honorary members , whose involvement with the society is only made known upon their retirement from Georgia Tech .
The specific reasons for ANAK 's transition to secrecy remain unclear . One reason , cited in several editions of the Blueprint , offers that the society changed its policies to protect its members from fallout associated with ANAK 's civil rights activities at the time . According to Gary S. May , the society 's faculty advisor , ANAK membership is confidential because " the members don 't want to exert undue influence on processes or people because of their status as a member " . In contrast , critics of the society suggest that the society acts in secret to shirk accountability for any negative consequences of its activities .
= = = Modern organization = = =
By the 21st century , ANAK comprised at least 1 @,@ 100 graduates , faculty members and honorary members . Among current Georgia Tech students , only upperclassmen ( junior and senior undergraduates ) are eligible for regular membership . Honorary memberships for faculty members and distinguished alumni are also available . The society apparently selects members based on " leadership ability , personal achievement , strong character , and love for Georgia Tech " . Membership is unrestricted by race or gender , and academic achievement is not considered in the selection criteria . The society admitted its first female member , Carol A. Burtz , in 1976 , 23 years after Georgia Tech began admitting women .
As the ANAK Society is ostensibly a student organization at Georgia Tech , it is subject to the same rules and regulations as other student organizations . The society files paperwork with Georgia Tech administration and the Student Government Association , holds elections for each of its four mandatory officer positions ( president , vice president , treasurer , and secretary ) and is formally advised by a Georgia Tech faculty member . The president 's name must be kept on file in the Office of Leadership and Civic Engagement , available to any student who seeks it . As of 2007 , the society 's current faculty advisor is Gary S. May , the dean of the College of Engineering and an ANAK member since 1985 .
= = Influence = =
= = = Student organizations = = =
The ANAK Society played a major role in establishing several of Georgia Tech 's most active student organizations , including two student publications and the student government . The society 's existence was formally announced in the first edition of the Blue Print in 1908 . Four ANAK charter members served on the first Blue Print editorial board . By 1911 , ANAK admitted four more 1908 Blue Print editors into the society , including Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief John G. Chapman . These close relationships enabled the society to assert a great deal of control over the yearbook 's direction in future decades . Along with several other clubs and societies , ANAK listed its membership roster and provided a group photograph in the yearbook .
ANAK and three Georgia Tech faculty members appointed the first staff of the Technique , Georgia Tech 's student newspaper . Eugene A. Turner , secretary of the Georgia Tech YMCA , and Albert Blohm , an adjunct professor of English , served as the newspaper 's first editors , while W. G. Perry , a junior professor of English , acted as the Technique 's first faculty advisor . The Technique published its first edition on November 11 , 1911 , and has been in continuous weekly publication since that time , with a modern circulation of 10 @,@ 000 .
In the absence of an official student government during the first few decades at Georgia Tech , the ANAK society acted as an unofficial student government and proposed an Honor Code , modeled on that of West Point 's , in 1908 . ANAK worked to set up a more formal organization , the Student Council ( later the Student Government Association ) , in 1922 , at which point it relinquished any decision @-@ making privileges it had over the student body .
Other student organizations ANAK claims to have established include a chapter of the YMCA in 1910 and the Ramblin ' Reck Club in 1930 . The former claim , however , contradicts evidence of a YMCA chapter existing before 1908 , and possibly as early as 1901 . In 1912 , ANAK additionally formed the Koseme Society , a comparable honor society geared towards sophomores and juniors at Georgia Tech .
= = = Traditions = = =
The ANAK Society is credited with beginning a number of lasting Georgia Tech traditions . ANAK created the " Rat Cap " , a gold baseball cap still distributed to new Georgia Tech students , in 1915 in response to distinctive freshman headgear popularized at other educational institutions at the time . ANAK organized the first homecoming celebration combined with an alumni reunion around 1920 , a tradition that continues to this day .
= = = Civil rights = = =
Beginning in the early 1920s , the ANAK Society involved itself in a number of civil rights activities . In 1921 , ANAK spearheaded an effort to prevent the white supremacist Ku Klux Klan from setting up a chapter at Georgia Tech . The effort was successful .
Around 1960 , ANAK held a series of secret dinner meetings with the families of Ford Greene , Ralph A. Long , Jr. and Lawrence Michael Williams , Georgia Tech 's first three African American students . The goal of these meetings , facilitated through the Georgia Tech YMCA , was to discuss the range of potential situations that could arise when the three students enrolled at Georgia Tech the following year , as well as appropriate reactions to each of these situations . When Greene , Long , and Williams enrolled in the fall semester of 1961 , ANAK members discreetly kept a close watch on the three students for the first two weeks to ensure their safety . As a result of ANAK 's efforts and those of other Institute and city organizations , none of the students was involved in any serious incident , paving the way for continued peaceful racial integration .
= = Philanthropy = =
A philanthropic organization , the ANAK Society annually awards two undergraduate student scholarships , the George Wingfield Semmes Memorial Scholarship and the Merri Gaye Hitt Memorial Scholarship . Semmes and Hitt were both Georgia Tech alumni and ANAK members ; Semmes , the Class of 1910 and Hitt , the Class of 1977 . Additionally , the society annually recognizes distinguished Georgia Tech alumni with the Joseph M. Pettit Distinguished Service Award ( formerly the ANAK Service Award ) . Finally , since 1942 ( annually since 1947 ) , the society has presented the ANAK Award to an outstanding Georgia Tech faculty member . This award is considered " the highest honor the undergraduate student body can bestow on a Georgia Tech faculty member " . For example , upon his retirement in 1999 , Georgia Tech professor David J. McGill recalled winning the ANAK Award in 1990 as the highlight of his teaching career , despite having also won two Outstanding Teaching Awards ( in 1974 and 1986 ) and being named the Carnegie Foundation 's Professor of the Year for the state of Georgia in 1996 .
The ANAK Society has donated a number of gifts to Georgia Tech . In 1921 , the society donated a staircase connecting Tech Tower to the D. P. Savant Building . The staircase bears a plaque naming ANAK as the benefactor , one of very few conspicuous declarations of the society 's existence on the Georgia Tech campus . On September 26 , 1947 , ANAK presented a life @-@ size bronze bust of Georgia Tech football head coach William A. Alexander to the Georgia Tech Athletic Association to commemorate the society 's 40th anniversary . The bust was sculpted by Julian H. Harris , a noted sculptor , architect , and Georgia Tech professor from 1936 to 1972 . Along with the Class of 1924 , ANAK gifted a portrait of William Henry Emerson , Georgia Tech 's first dean , to Georgia Tech in 1924 . The portrait was painted by noted Atlanta artist Kate Edwards . After being lost some time in the 1980s , the portrait was found and restored in the early 1990s . It has hung in the atrium of the Lyman Hall Building since October 15 , 1992 . Along with the Omicron Delta Kappa honor society , ANAK was involved in the dedication of the Paul G. Mayer Memorial Garden on May 30 , 1987 . The garden , located between the Georgia Tech Library and the William Vernon Skiles Classroom Building , features a plaque bearing the lidless eye symbol of the ANAK Society .
In 2002 , the ANAK Society donated a collection of its records from 1948 to 1983 to Georgia Tech . The records are publicly available through the Georgia Tech Library 's Archives and Records Management Department and include constitutions , anniversary dinner invitations , and member directories .
= = Controversy = =
In recent years , ANAK 's influence and status as a secret society has raised suspicion and controversy among Georgia Tech students . In particular , the society had " fallen under heavy scrutiny " during a series of student government election scandals in the late 1990s .
In 1998 , Marc D. Galindo , a Georgia Tech student and ANAK member , defeated competitor Vikas Chinnan in Student Government Association runoff elections after Chinnan was disqualified for repeated campaign violations . The disqualification , however , was eventually overturned by the Undergraduate Judiciary Cabinet ( the judiciary branch of student government ) . Although Galindo had committed a similar ( but not identical nor a repeated ) campaign violation , the Elections Committee did not disqualify him . Galindo had used his staff account to distribute campaign information while Chinnan had repeatedly used academic email distribution lists not available to the general public . Allegations of corruption erupted when two members of the Elections Committee turned out to be Galindo 's fellow ANAK members ; however , no proof of wrongdoing was ever uncovered . Chinnan , at the time of the election , was dating Anu Khurana , the then @-@ president of the ANAK Society . Chinnan had agreed with and acknowledged that Galindo had not wanted him to be " disqualified on a technicality " .
A similar incident occurred at Georgia Tech the following year . During Student Government Association elections in 1999 , rumors circulated that Wendy Horowitz , a candidate for Student Body President , was a member of ANAK . " Conspiracy theories " and " intense debate " ensued among students regarding the society 's intentions , benevolent or otherwise . Horowitz lost the election , a result widely attributed to her purported ANAK affiliation . It was later revealed that Horowitz , in fact , had served as president of the ANAK Society for the 1999 – 2000 term .
As a result of these controversies , a general feeling of distrust towards the ANAK society propagated throughout the Georgia Tech campus , epitomized by an anonymous email circulated in 1999 that accused ANAK of " being the ' lapdog of President Clough ' [ and ] improperly influencing elections , scholarships , and the press , among other things " . Critics expressed concern that ANAK members were shirking accountability for " their mistakes , their bad ideas , and their bad decisions " under the guise of eschewing " praise for their accomplishments " . The Student Government Association 's policy towards secret societies was called into question , resulting in a Joint Campus Organizations Committee ( JCOC ) resolution to consider the issue of accountability among student organization leaders . The controversial JCOC resolution , strongly opposed by ANAK representatives , would " require candidates for officer positions to recognize all campus affiliations including position and duration of involvement " . The resolution failed , ensuring that ANAK membership rosters and meetings would continue to remain confidential .
= = Notable members = =
The ANAK Society has granted honorary membership to a host of notable individuals associated with Georgia Tech , including former United States senator Sam Nunn , former Georgia Tech football head coach Bobby Dodd , former Georgia Tech basketball head coach Bobby Cremins , sportscaster Al Ciraldo , former United States president Jimmy Carter ( inducted 1946 ) , and most of Georgia Tech 's presidents . Notable ANAK members who were active in the society as Georgia Tech students include former Atlanta mayor Ivan Allen , Jr . ( inducted 1933 ) , Scientific Atlanta founder Glen P. Robinson , former United States astronaut John W. Young ( inducted 1952 ) and former Georgia Tech football head coach William A. Alexander ( inducted 1912 ) , and Lucius Sanford and Reggie Wilkes , former Georgia Tech and NFL football players ( inducted 1978 ) . George P. Burdell , Georgia Tech 's most famous fictional student , has been a member of the ANAK Society since 1930 .
= Ready to Die =
Ready to Die is the debut studio album by American rapper The Notorious B.I.G. ; it was released on September 13 , 1994 , by Bad Boy Records . The label 's first release , the album features production by Bad Boy founder Sean " Puffy " Combs , Easy Mo Bee , Chucky Thompson , DJ Premier and Lord Finesse , among others . Recording for the album took place during 1993 to 1994 at The Hit Factory and D & D Studios in New York City . The partly autobiographical album tells the story of B.I.G. ' s experiences as a young criminal . Ready to Die is his only studio album released during his lifetime , as he was murdered just days prior to the release of his second album , Life After Death ( 1997 ) .
Ready to Die was released to critical acclaim and became a commercial success , achieving gold certification . In 1995 , after the release , the album became a certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , and the album has reached a certified quadruple platinum with sales . It was significant for revitalizing the East Coast hip hop scene , amid West Coast hip hop 's commercial dominance . The album 's second single , " Big Poppa " , was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Rap Solo Performance at the 1996 Grammy Awards . Ready to Die has been regarded by many music critics as one of the greatest hip @-@ hop albums of all time . In 2003 , it was ranked number 133 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time , making it the third highest hip hop album on the list after It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back and Raising Hell . In 2006 , Time included it on their list of the 100 greatest albums of all time .
= = Background and recording = =
The album was recorded in New York City ( mainly in The Hit Factory recording studio ) in two stages between 1993 and 1994 . In 1994 , Biggie was only 21 going through 22 @-@ years old , when he recorded the album . In 1993 , Biggie was signed to the Uptown Records label by A & R Sean " Puffy " Combs . Biggie started recording his debut album in New York , after making a numerous guest appearances on among his label @-@ mates ' singles during the previous year . The first tracks recorded include the album 's darker , less radio @-@ friendly content ( including " Ready to Die , " " Gimme the Loot " and " Things Done Changed " ) . In these sessions , XXL magazine describe an " inexperienced , higher @-@ pitched " Biggie sounding " hungry and paranoid " .
When executive producer Sean " Puffy " Combs was fired from Uptown , Biggie 's career hung in limbo , as the album was only partially completed . After a brief period dealing drugs in North Carolina , Biggie returned to the studio the following year on Combs ' new Bad Boy Records label possessing " a smoother , more confident vocal tone " and completed the album . In this stage , the more commercial @-@ sounding tracks of the album were recorded , including the album 's singles . Between the two stages , XXL writes that Biggie moved from writing his lyrics in notebooks to freestyling them from memory .
The album was released with a cover depicting an infant resembling the artist , though sporting an afro , which pertains to the album 's concept of the artist 's life from birth to his death . It has been listed as among the best album covers in hip hop .
= = = Lawsuits and sample removal = = =
On March 24 , 2006 , Bridgeport Music and Westbound Records won a federal lawsuit against Bad Boy Records for copyright infringement , with a jury deciding that Combs and Bad Boy had illegally used samples for the production of the songs " Ready to Die " , " Machine Gun Funk " , and " Gimme the Loot " . The jury awarded $ 4 @.@ 2 million in punitive and direct damages to the two plaintiffs , and federal judge Todd Campbell enacted an immediate sales ban on the album and tracks in question . On appeal , the Sixth Circuit found the damages unconstitutionally high and in violation of due process and remanded the case , at which point Campbell reduced them by $ 2 @.@ 8 million ; however , the verdict was upheld . All versions of the album released since the lawsuit are without the disputed samples .
Although a fair use issue , Combs and Bad Boy never raised the legal concept of the fair use doctrine in their defense . This decision was questioned by some legal experts : Anthony Falzone of the Fair Use Project at Stanford Law School criticized Combs and Bad Boy for not defending the legality of sampling and suggested that they might have refused to raise such a defense because they feared it could later imperil their control over their own music .
On April 2 , 2014 , Lee Hutson of The Impressions filed a multimillion @-@ dollar copyright infringement suit against Combs , Bad Boy Records , and the estate of the late Notorious B.I.G. for copyright infringement , alleging that his song " Can 't Say Enough About Mom " was illegally sampled in the production of the song " The What " . The estate countersued in turn , claiming the sample as used was short , adapted , and supplemented , and thus subject to fair use , a legal tactic not pursued previously .
= = Composition = =
= = = Production = = =
The production on the album was mainly handled by Easy Mo Bee and The Hitmen . Cheo H. Coker of Rolling Stone depicted the beats as " heavy bottomed and slick , but B.I.G. ' s rhymes are the showstoppers . The tracks only enhance them , whether it 's the live bass driving a menacing undercurrent or [ the ] use of bluesy guitar and wah @-@ wah feedback " and that the production is used to " push the rapper to new heights . " The production is mainly sample @-@ based with the samples varying from the percussion of funk tracks to the vocals of hip hop songs . Steve Huey presented some criticism over the beats , stating that the " deliberate beats do get a little samey , but it hardly matters : this is Biggie 's show " .
= = = Lyrical themes = = =
The Notorious B.I.G. ' s lyrics on the album were generally praised by critics . Many critics applauded his story @-@ telling ability such as Allmusic writer Steve Huey , who stated " His raps are easy to understand , but his skills are hardly lacking — he has a loose , easy flow and a talent for piling multiple rhymes on top of one another in quick succession " . He also went on to mention that his lyrics are " firmly rooted in reality , but play like [ a ] scene from a movie " . Touré , writing for The New York Times , referred to The Notorious B.I.G. , proclaiming that he stood out from other rappers because " his lyrics mix autobiographical details about crime and violence with emotional honesty , telling how he felt while making a living as a drug dealer " . The album is also noted for its dark tone and sinister sense of depression . In the original Rolling Stone review , Cheo H Coker declared that he " maintains a consistent level of tension by juxtaposing emotional highs and lows " . " Things Done Changed " was also one of the few hip hop songs in The Norton Anthology of African American Literature .
The lyrics on Ready to Die tend to deal with violence , drug dealing , women , alcohol and marijuana use , and other elements of Notorious B.I.G. ' s environment . He rapped about these topics in " clear , sparse terms , allowing the lyrics to hit the first time you hear them " . The album contains a loose concept starting out with an intro that details his birth , his early childhood , his adolescence and his life at the point of the album 's release . Songs on the album range from homicide narratives ( " Warning " ) to braggadocios battle raps ( " The What , " " Unbelievable " ) . The final song was " Suicidal Thoughts " , a song where The Notorious B.I.G. contemplates and finally commits suicide .
= = Singles = =
Three singles were released from the album : " Juicy " , " Big Poppa " , " One More Chance " and a promotional track of Biggie : " Warning " . According to XXL the more commercial sound of the singles compared to the rest of the album was a result of encouragement by Combs during the later recording sessions in which they were recorded .
" Juicy " was released as the lead single on August 8 , 1994 . It peaked at number 27 on the Billboard Hot 100 , number 14 on Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles & Tracks and reached number 3 on the Hot Rap Singles . It shipped 500 @,@ 000 copies in the United States and the RIAA certified it Gold on November 8 , 1994 . Produced by Combs , it features a prominent sample of " Juicy Fruit " as performed by James Mtume . Allmusic 's Steve Huey stated that , along with the other singles , it was an " upbeat , commercial moment " , calling it a " rags @-@ to @-@ riches chronicle " . Andrew Kameka , of HipHopDX.com , stated that the song was one of his " greatest and most @-@ revealing songs " and went on to say it was a " Part @-@ autobiography , part @-@ declaration @-@ of @-@ success . It document [ s ] the star 's transition from Brooklyn knucklehead to magazine cover story . " Producer Pete Rock , who was commissioned to remix the track , alleged that Puffy stole the idea for the original song 's beat after hearing it from him during a visit . Rock explained this in an interview with Wax Poetics :
I did the original version , didn 't get credit for it . They came to my house , heard the beat going on the drum machine , it 's the same story . You come downstairs at my crib , you hear music . He heard that shit and the next thing you know it comes out . They had me do a remix , but I tell people , and I will fight it to the end , that I did the original version of that . I 'm not mad at anybody , I just want the correct credit .
" Big Poppa " was released as the second single on February 20 , 1995 and like the previous single , it was a hit on multiple charts . It reached number six on the Billboard Hot 100 , number four on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles & Tracks and number one on Hot Rap Singles . It sold over a million units and the RIAA certified it Platinum on May 23 , 1995 . Featuring production by Combs and Chucky Thompson of The Hitmen , it samples " Between the Sheets " by The Isley Brothers . The song was nominated at the 1996 Grammy Awards for Best Rap Solo Performance , but lost to Coolio 's " Gangsta 's Paradise " . Steve Huey named it an " overweight @-@ lover anthem " .
" One More Chance " was released as the third single on June 9 , 1995 . The single was a remix of the album track . It was produced by Combs and featured a sample from DeBarge 's " Stay With Me " . It peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 and reached number one on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles & Tracks and Hot Rap Singles . It sold over a million copies and the RIAA certified it Platinum on July 31 , 1995 . Steve Huey labeled it a " graphic sex rap " . Rolling Stone writer Cheo H. Coker had a similar view of the song , noting that it was " one of the bawdiest sex raps since Kool G Rap 's classic , " Talk Like Sex " and continued , stating it " proves hilarious simply because of B.I.G. ' s Dolemitelike vulgarity . "
= = Commercial success = =
The album shipped 57 @,@ 000 units in its first week of release . However , it was then certified gold by the RIAA only two months after its release on November 16 , 1994 , and was certified double platinum on October 16 , 1995 , only a year and one month after its release . Ready to Die was then certified triple platinum on August 26 , 1998 and was later certified 4x platinum by the RIAA on October 19 , 1999
= = Critical reception = =
Ready to Die received critical acclaim from music critics . In his review for Rolling Stone , Cheo H. Cocker stated " Ready to Die is the strongest solo rap debut since Ice Cube 's Amerikkka 's Most Wanted . From the breathtakingly visual moments of his birth to his Cobainesque end in " Suicidal Thoughts , " B.I.G. proves a captivating listen . It 's difficult to get him out of your head once you sample what he has to offer " . Robert Christgau from The Village Voice commented " His sex raps are erotic , his jokes are funny , and his music makes the thug life sound scary rather than luxuriously laid back . When he considers suicide , I not only take him at his word , I actively hope he finds another way " . The New York Times wrote " Though drug dealing carries tremendous heroic value with some young urban dwellers , he sacrifices the figure 's romantic potential . His raps acknowledge both the excitement of drug dealing and the stress caused by the threat from other dealers , robbers , the police and parents , sometimes one 's own . In presenting the downside of that life , Ready to Die offers perhaps the most balanced and honest portrait of the dealer 's life of any in hip @-@ hop " .
Q magazine gave Ready to Die three out of five stars , and stated " the natural rapping , clever use of sound effects and acted dialogue , and concept element ( from a baby being born at the start to the fading heartbeat at the end ) set this well apart from the average gangsta bragging " . In their original review for Ready to Die , The Source gave it four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five ' mics ' , stating " Big weaves tales like a cinematographer , each song is like another scene in his lifestyle . Overall , this package is complete : ridiculous beats , harmonizing honeys , ill sound effects , criminal scenarios , and familiar hooks " . In 1996 , acclaimed singer @-@ songwriter Randy Newman enthused " It 's one of the best records ever made . It 's a strange album in that the first cut says , ' Oh , back in the old days was everybody was shootin ' everybody … ' and ' Let 's stop killing each other ' , and then the rest of the record is all about people killing each other . It 's the damnedest thing ; I don 't know what the hell he had in mind … It 's like when Public Enemy would put out a record and it was noticeably classier than all the other rap stuff at the time . "
= = = Retrospect = = =
In retrospect , Ready to Die has been highly acclaimed . In 1998 , The Source included it on their 100 Best Rap Albums of All Time list , and in 2002 , they re @-@ rated it to the maximum five ' mics ' . Rolling Stone has also given acclaim to Ready to Die over the years . In 2003 , they ranked it number 133 on their 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list , and one year later , they re @-@ rated it to five stars . In 2011 , Rolling Stone also placed it at number eight on their 100 Best Albums of the Nineties list , and described it as " mapping out the sound of ' '90 's cool " . Kilian Murphy from Stylus Magazine wrote favorably of the album in a retrospective review , and concluded " Sweet , hypocritical , sensitive , violent , depressed and jubilant ; these words could all fittingly describe Big at various points on Ready to Die . "
Steve Huey from AllMusic gave it five stars , stating " The album that reinvented East Coast rap for the gangsta age , Ready to Die made the Notorious B.I.G. a star . Today it 's recognized as one of the greatest hardcore rap albums ever recorded , and that 's mostly due to Biggie 's skill as a storyteller " . In 2006 , Time magazine included it on their 100 Greatest Albums of All Time list , and stated " On Ready to Die , Wallace took his street corner experiences and filtered them through his considerable charm . The result was a record that mixed long stretches of menace with romance and lots of humor . No rapper ever made multi @-@ syllabic rhymes sound as smooth " . The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .
= = = Accolades = = =
The information regarding accolades is adapted from Acclaimedmusic.net , except for lists that are sourced otherwise .
( * ) signifies unordered lists
= = Track listing = =
= = = Samples = = =
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= SMS Árpád =
SMS Árpád was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in the early 20th century . She was launched on 11 September 1901 as the second of three Habsburg @-@ class battleships . Along with her sister ships , she participated at the bombardment of Ancona during World War I. Due to a shortage of coal , she was soon decommissioned after the bombardment of Ancona and used as harbor defense ship for the remainder of the war . After the war , all of the Habsburg @-@ class battleships were ceded to Great Britain as war prizes . She was scrapped in Italy in 1921 .
= = Construction and layout = =
Árpád was the second of three battleships of her class . Her hull was laid down on 10 June 1899 at the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino shipyard in Trieste . Following more than two years of construction , she was launched on 11 September 1901 . After final fitting @-@ out work was finished , Árpád was fully ready for service and commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 15 June 1903 .
Like all ships of her class , Árpád was 113 @.@ 11 m ( 371 ft 1 in ) long at the waterline and was 114 @.@ 55 m ( 375 ft 10 in ) in overall length . She had a beam of 19 @.@ 8 m ( 65 ft 0 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 5 m ( 24 ft 7 in ) . Freeboard was approximately 5 @.@ 8 m ( 19 ft ) forward and about 5 @.@ 5 m ( 18 ft ) aft . She also displaced 8 @,@ 364 metric tons ( 8 @,@ 232 long tons ) . Once construction on her had finished and she was commissioned into the Navy , Árpád had a crew of 638 officers and enlisted men .
Árpád was powered by 2 @-@ shaft , 4 @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion engines , which were supplied with steam by 16 Belleville boilers . Árpád 's power output was rated at 14 @,@ 307 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 669 kW ) , which produced a top speed of 19 @.@ 65 knots ( 36 @.@ 39 km / h ; 22 @.@ 61 mph ) .
The hull for the ship was constructed from longitudinal and transverse steel frames , over which the outer hull plates were riveted into place . The hull incorporated a double bottom that ran for 63 % of the ship 's length . A series of watertight bulkheads also extended from the keel to the gun deck . All in all , there was a total of 174 watertight compartments in the ship . Árpád had a metacentric height of between .82 m ( 2 @.@ 7 ft ) and 1 @.@ 02 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) . Bilge keels were mounted on either side of the hull to reduce rolling and prevent her from capsizing . Árpád had a flush main deck that was planked with wood , while the upper decks were covered with linoleum or corticine .
Árpád had three 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) L / 40 guns , two mounted in a twin turret forward and one mounted in a single turret aft of the main superstructure . The C 97 @-@ type guns were manufactured by Krupp in Germany . The main guns fired at a rate of between three and four 215 kg ( 474 lb ) armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) shells per minute . Her secondary armament consisted of twelve 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 40 guns in casemates . These guns could fire at 4 – 5 shells per minute . She was built with face @-@ hardened chrome @-@ nickel steel . The main armored belt was 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) in the central portion of the ship , where the ammunition magazines , machinery spaces , and other critical areas were located . The belt tapered slightly to 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) on either end of the central section .
= = Service history = =
= = = Peacetime = = =
Árpád took part in her first fleet maneuvers in mid @-@ 1903 with her sister ship Habsburg . The third sister , Babenberg , was commissioned in Summer 1904 , and participated in successive fleet drills . Following a series of simulated war games pitting Árpád and her sister ships against the three Monarch @-@ class battleships , Árpád and the other two Habsburg @-@ class ships became the I Battleship Division . This new division was active in the Mediterranean region . When Habsburg underwent a training cruise with the three Monarch @-@ class battleships in January 1903 , Árpád joined her the next year in a voyage around the Mediterranean Sea . With the commissioning of the Erzherzog Karl @-@ class battleships in 1906 and 1907 , the Habsburg @-@ class ships were transferred from the I to the II Battleship Division , and the three Monarch @-@ class battleships were moved from the II to the III Battleship Division . In 1910 – 1911 , Árpád had one of her superstructure decks removed to reduce weight .
= = = World War I = = =
Early in World War I , Árpád was transferred to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy 's IV Division after the first new Tegetthoff @-@ class battleships came into service . At around the same time , Árpád , her sister ships Habsburg and Babenberg and the remainder of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy were mobilized to support the flight of SMS Goeben and Breslau from 28 July to 10 August 1914 . The two German ships were stationed in the Mediterranean and were attempting to break out of the strait of Messina , which was surrounded by British vessels . After breaking out , the German ships planned to steam to Turkey . After the Germans successfully broke out of Messina , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy was recalled . The fleet had by that time advanced as far south as Brindisi in southeastern coast of Italy . After Italy entered the war on the side of France and Great Britain , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy bombarded several Italian port cities along the Adriatic coast . Árpád took part in the Bombardment of Ancona on 23 May 1915 .
Due to a coal shortage , Árpád was later decommissioned and re @-@ purposed as a harbor defense ship for the latter half of the war . Árpád 's crew was transferred to man the new U @-@ boats and aircraft . Following the war , Árpád , along with her sister ships , were awarded to Great Britain as war prizes . They were sold to Italy and broken up for scrap in 1921 .
= History of the United States Navy =
The history of the United States Navy divides into two major periods : the " Old Navy " , a small but respected force of sailing ships that was also notable for innovation in the use of ironclads during the American Civil War , and the " New Navy " , the result of a modernization effort that began in the 1880s and made it the largest in the world by the 1920s .
The United States Navy claims 13 October 1775 as the date of its official establishment , when the Second Continental Congress passed a resolution creating the Continental Navy . With the end of the American Revolutionary War , the Continental Navy was disbanded . Under President George Washington threats to American merchant shipping by Barbary pirates from 4 north African Muslim States , in the Mediterranean , led to the Naval Act of 1794 , which created a permanent standing U.S. Navy . The original six frigates were authorized as part of the Act . Over the next 20 years , the Navy fought the French Navy in the Quasi @-@ War ( 1798 – 99 ) , Barbary states in the First and Second Barbary Wars , and the British in the War of 1812 . After the War of 1812 , the U.S. Navy was at peace until the Mexican – American War in 1846 , and served to combat piracy in the Mediterranean and Caribbean seas , as well fighting the slave trade . In 1845 , the Naval Academy was founded . In 1861 , the American Civil War began and the U.S. Navy fought the small Confederate Navy with both sailing ships and ironclad ships while forming a blockade that shut down the Confederacy 's civilian shipping . After the Civil war , most of the its ships were laid up in reserve , and by 1878 , the Navy was just 6 @,@ 000 men .
In 1882 , the U.S. Navy consisted of many outdated ship designs . Over the next decade , Congress approved building multiple modern armored cruisers and battleships , and by around the start of the 20th century had moved from twelfth place in 1870 to fifth place in terms of numbers of ships . After winning two major battles during the 1898 Spanish – American War , the Navy continued to build more ships , and by the end of World War I had more men and women in uniform than the Royal Navy . The Washington Naval Conference recognized the Navy as equal in capital ship size to the Royal Navy , and during the 1920s and 1930s , the Navy built several aircraft carriers and battleships . The Navy was drawn into World War II after the Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 , and over the next four years fought many historic battles including the Battle of the Coral Sea , the Battle of Midway , multiple naval battles during the Guadalcanal Campaign , and the largest naval battle in history , the Battle of Leyte Gulf . Much of the Navy 's activity concerned the support of landings , not only with the " island @-@ hopping " campaign in the Pacific , but also with the European landings . When the Japanese surrendered , a large flotilla entered Tokyo Bay to witness the formal ceremony conducted on the battleship Missouri , on which officials from the Japanese government signed the Japanese Instrument of Surrender . By the end of the war , the Navy had over 1 @,@ 600 warships .
After World War II ended , the U.S. Navy entered the Cold War and participated in the Korean War , the Vietnam War , the Persian Gulf War , and the Iraq War . Following the collapse of the Soviet Union , the Soviet Navy fell apart , which made the United States the world 's undisputed naval superpower . Nuclear power and ballistic missile technology led to new ship propulsion and weapon systems , which were used in the Nimitz @-@ class aircraft carriers and Ohio @-@ class submarines . By 1978 , the number of ships had dwindled to less than 400 , many of which were from World War II , which prompted Ronald Reagan to institute a program for a modern , 600 @-@ ship Navy . Today , the United States is the world 's undisputed naval superpower , with the ability to engage and project power in two simultaneous limited wars along separate fronts . In March 2007 , the U.S. Navy reached its smallest fleet size , with 274 ships , since World War I. Former U.S. Navy admirals who head the U.S. Naval Institute have raised concerns about what they see as the ability to respond to ' aggressive moves by Iran and China.'
= = Foundations of the " Old Navy " = =
= = = Continental Navy ( 1775 – 1785 ) = = =
The Navy was rooted in the American seafaring tradition , which produced a large community of sailors , captains and shipbuilders in the colonial era . During the Revolution , several states operated their own navies . On 12 June 1775 , the Rhode Island General Assembly passed a resolution creating a navy for the colony of Rhode Island . The same day , Governor Nicholas Cooke signed orders addressed to Captain Abraham Whipple , commander of the sloop Katy , and commodore of the armed vessels employed by the government .
The first formal movement for the creation of a Continental navy came from Rhode Island , because its merchants ' widespread smuggling activities had been severely harassed by British frigates . On 26 August 1775 , Rhode Island passed a resolution that there be a single Continental fleet funded by the Continental Congress . The resolution was introduced in the Continental Congress on 3 October 1775 , but was tabled . In the meantime , George Washington had begun to acquire ships , starting with the schooner USS Hannah which was paid for out of Washington 's own pocket . Hannah was commissioned and launched on 5 September 1775 , from the port of Marblehead , Massachusetts .
The US Navy recognizes 13 October 1775 as the date of its official establishment — the date of the passage of the resolution of the Continental Congress at Philadelphia , Pennsylvania that created the Continental Navy . On this day , Congress authorized the purchase of two vessels to be armed for a cruise against British merchant ships . Congress on 13 December 1775 , authorized the building of thirteen frigates within the next three months , five ships of 32 guns , five with 28 guns and three with 24 guns .
On Lake Champlain , Benedict Arnold ordered the construction of 12 Navy vessels to slow down the British fleet that was invading New York from Canada . The British fleet did destroy Arnold 's fleet , but the U.S. fleet managed to slow down the British after a two @-@ day battle , known as the Battle of Valcour Island , and managed to slow the progression of the British Army . By mid @-@ 1776 , a number of ships , ranging up to and including the thirteen frigates approved by Congress , were under construction , but their effectiveness was limited ; they were completely outmatched by the mighty Royal Navy , and nearly all were captured or sunk by 1781 .
Privateers had some success , with 1 @,@ 697 letters of marque being issued by Congress . Individual states , American agents in Europe and in the Caribbean also issued commissions ; taking duplications into account more than 2 @,@ 000 commissions were issued by the various authorities . Over 2 @,@ 200 British ships were taken by Yankee privateers , amounting to almost $ 66 million , a significant sum at the time .
One particularly notable American naval hero of the Revolution was John Paul Jones , who in his famous voyage around the British Isles defeated the British ship Serapis ( 1779 ) in the Battle of Flamborough Head . Partway through the battle , with the rigging of the two ships entangled , and several guns of Jones ' ship Bonhomme Richard ( 1765 ) out of action , the captain of Serapis asked Jones if he had struck his colors , to which Jones has been quoted as replying , " I have not yet begun to fight ! "
France officially entered the war on 17 June 1778 , and the ships of the French Navy sent to the Western Hemisphere spent most of the year in the West Indies , and only sailed near the Thirteen Colonies during the Caribbean hurricane season from July until November . The first French fleet attempted landings in New York and Rhode Island , but ultimately failed to engage British forces during 1778 . In 1779 , a fleet commanded by Vice Admiral Charles Henri , comte d 'Estaing assisted American forces attempting to recapture Savvanah , Georgia .
In 1780 , a fleet with 6 @,@ 000 troops commanded by Lieutenant General Jean @-@ Baptiste , comte de Rochambeau landed at Newport , Rhode Island , and shortly afterwards the fleet was blockaded by the British . In early 1781 , Washington and de Rochambeau planned an attack against the British in the Chesapeake Bay area to coordinate with the arrival of a large fleet commanded by Vice Admiral François , comte de Grasse . Successfully deceiving the British that an attack was planned in New York , Washington and de Rochambeau marched to Virginia , and de Grasse began landing forces near Yorktown , Virginia . On 5 September 1781 a major naval action was fought by de Grasse and the British at the Battle of the Virginia Capes , ending with the French fleet in control of the Chesapeake Bay . The U.S. Navy continued to interdict British supply ships until peace was finally declared in late 1783 .
= = = Disarmament ( 1785 – 1794 ) = = =
The Revolutionary War was ended by the Treaty of Paris in 1783 , and by 1785 the Continental Navy was disbanded and the remaining ships were sold . The frigate Alliance , which had fired the last shots of the American Revolutionary War , was also the last ship in the Navy . A faction within Congress wanted to keep the ship , but the new nation did not have the funds to keep her in service . Other than a general lack of money , other factors for the disarmament of the navy were the loose confederation of the states , a change of goals from war to peace , and more domestic and fewer foreign interests .
After the American Revolutionary War the brand @-@ new United States struggled to stay financially afloat . National income was desperately needed and most came from tariffs on imported goods . Because of rampant smuggling , the need was immediate for strong enforcement of tariff laws . On 4 August 1790 the United States Congress , urged on by Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton , created the Revenue @-@ Marine , the forerunner for the United States Coast Guard , to enforce the tariff and all other maritime laws . Ten cutters were initially ordered . Between 1790 and 1797 when the Navy Department was created , the Revenue @-@ Marine was the only armed maritime service for the United States .
American merchant shipping had been protected by the British Navy , and as a consequence of the Treaty of Paris and the disarmament of the Continental Navy , the United States no longer had any protection for its ships from pirates . The fledgling nation did not have the funds to pay annual tribute to the Barbary states , so their ships were vulnerable for capture after 1785 . By 1789 , the new Constitution of the United States authorized Congress to create a navy , but during George Washington 's first term ( 1787 – 1793 ) little was done to rearm the navy . In 1793 , the French Revolutionary Wars between Great Britain and France began , and a truce negotiated between Portugal and Algiers ended Portugal 's blockade of the Strait of Gibraltar which had kept the Barbary pirates in the Mediterranean . Soon after , the pirates sailed into the Atlantic , and captured 11 American merchant ships and more than a hundred seamen .
In reaction to the seizure of the American vessels , Congress debated and approved the Naval Act of 1794 , which authorized the building of six frigates , four of 44 guns and two of 36 guns . Supporters were mostly from the northern states and the coastal regions , who argued the Navy would result in savings in insurance and ransom payments , while opponents from southern states and inland regions thought a navy was not worth the expense and would drive the United States into more costly wars .
= = = Establishment ( 1794 – 1812 ) = = =
After the passage of the Naval Act of 1794 , work began on the construction of the six frigates : USS United States , President , Constellation , Chesapeake , Congress , and Constitution . Constitution , launched in 1797 and the most famous of the six , was nicknamed " Old Ironsides " ( like the earlier HMS Britannia ) and , thanks to the efforts of Oliver Wendell Holmes , Sr. , is still in existence today , anchored in Boston harbor . Soon after the bill was passed , Congress authorized $ 800 @,@ 000 to obtain a treaty with the Algerians and ransom the captives , triggering an amendment of the Act which would halt the construction of ships if peace was declared . After considerable debate , three of the six frigates were authorized to be completed : United States , Constitution and Constellation . However , the first naval vessel to sail was USS Ganges , on 24 May 1798 .
At the same time , tensions between the U.S. and France developed into the Quasi @-@ War , which originated from the Treaty of Alliance ( 1778 ) that had brought the French into the Revolutionary War . The United States preferred to take a position of neutrality in the conflicts between France and Britain , but this put the nation at odds with both Britain and France . After the Jay Treaty was authorized with Britain in 1794 , France began to side against the United States and by 1797 they had seized over 300 American vessels . The newly inaugurated President John Adams took steps to deal with the crisis , working with Congress to finish the three almost @-@ completed frigates , approving funds to build the other three , and attempting to negotiate an agreement similar to the Jay Treaty with France . The XYZ Affair originated with a report distributed by Adams where alleged French agents were identified by the letters X , Y , and Z who informed the delegation a bribe must be paid before the diplomats could meet with the foreign minister , and the resulting scandal increased popular support in the country for a war with France . Concerns about the War Department 's ability to manage a navy led to the creation of the Department of the Navy , which was established on 30 April 1798 .
The war with France was fought almost entirely at sea , mostly between privateers and merchant ships . The first victory for the United States Navy was on 7 July 1798 when USS Delaware captured the French privateer Le Croyable , and the first victory over an enemy warship was on 9 February 1799 when the frigate Constellation captured the French frigate L 'Insurgente . By the end of 1800 , peace with France had been declared , and in 1801 , to prevent a second disarmament of the Navy , the outgoing Federalist administration rushed through Congress an act authorizing a peacetime navy for the first time , which limited the navy to six active frigates and seven in ordinary , as well as 45 officers and 150 midshipmen . The remainder of the ships in service were sold and the dismissed officers were given four months pay .
The problems with the Barbary states had never gone away , and on 10 May 1801 the Tripolitans declared war on the United States by chopping down the flag in front of the American Embassy , which began the First Barbary War . USS Philadelphia was captured by the Moors , but then set on fire in an American raid led by Stephen Decatur . The Marines invaded the " shores of Tripoli " in 1805 , capturing the city of Derna , the first time the U.S. flag ever flew over a foreign conquest . This act was enough to induce the Barbary rulers to sign peace treaties . Subsequently the Navy was greatly reduced for reasons of economy , and instead of regular ships , many gunboats were built , intended for coastal use only . This policy proved completely ineffective within a decade .
President Thomas Jefferson and his Republican party opposed a strong navy , arguing that small gunboats in the major harbors were all the nation needed to defend itself . They proved useless in wartime .
The Royal Navy continued to illegally press American sailors into the Royal Navy ; an estimated 10 @,@ 000 sailors between 1799 and 1812 . In 1807 , in the Chesapeake @-@ Leopard Affair , HMS Leopard demanded that USS Chesapeake submit to an inspection , ostensibly looking for British citizens but in reality looking for any suitable sailors to press into the Royal Navy . Leopard severely damaged Chesapeake when she refused . The most violent of many such encounters , the affair further fueled the tensions and in June 1812 the U.S. declared war on Britain .
= = = War of 1812 ( 1812 – 1815 ) = = =
Much of the war was expected to be fought at sea ; and within an hour of the announcement of war , the diminutive American navy set forth to do battle with an opponent outnumbering it 50 @-@ to @-@ 1 . After two months , USS Constitution sank HMS Guerriere ; Guerriere 's crew were most dismayed to see their cannonballs bouncing off the Constitution 's unusually strong live oak hull , giving her the enduring nickname of " Old Ironsides " . On 29 December 1812 Constitution defeated HMS Java off the coast of Brazil and Java was burned after the Americans determined she could not be salvaged . On 25 October 1812 , USS United States captured HMS Macedonian ; after the battle Macedonian was captured and entered into American service . In 1813 , USS Essex commenced a very fruitful raiding venture into the South Pacific , preying upon the British merchant and whaling industry . The Essex was already known for her capture of HMS Alert and a British transport the previous year , and gained further success capturing 15 British merchantmen / whalers . The British finally took action , dispatching HMS Cherub and HMS Phoebe to stop the Essex . After violating Chile 's neutrality , the British captured the Essex in the Battle of Valparaíso .
The capture of the three British frigates led the British to deploy more vessels on the American seaboard to tighten the blockade . On 1 June 1813 , off Boston Harbor , the frigate USS Chesapeake , commanded by Captain James Lawrence , was captured by the British frigate HMS Shannon under Captain Sir Philip Broke . Lawrence was mortally wounded and famously cried out , " Don 't give up the ship ! " . Despite their earlier successes , by 1814 many of the Navy 's best ships were blockaded in port and unable to prevent British incursions on land via the sea .
During the summer of 1814 , the British fought the Chesapeake Campaign , which was climaxed by amphibious assaults against Washington and Baltimore . The capital fell to the British almost without a fight , and several ships were burned at the Washington Navy Yard , including the 44 @-@ gun frigate USS Columbia . At Baltimore , the bombardment by Fort McHenry inspired Francis Scott Key to write " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " , and the hulks blocking the channel prevented the fleet from entering the harbor ; the army reembarked on the ships , ending the battle .
The American naval victories at the Battle of Lake Champlain and Battle of Lake Erie halted the final British offensive in the north and helped to deny the British exclusive rights to the Great Lakes in the Treaty of Ghent . Shortly before the treaty was signed , USS President was captured by 4 British frigates . Three days after the treaty was signed , the Constitution captured HMS Levant and Cyane . The final naval action of the war occurred almost 5 months after the treaty on 30 June 1815 when the sloop USS Peacock captured the East India Company brig Nautilus , the last enemy ship captured by the U.S. Navy until World War II .
= = = Continental Expansion ( 1815 – 1861 ) = = =
After the war , the Navy 's accomplishments paid off in the form of better funding , and it embarked on the construction of many new ships . However , the expense of the larger ships was prohibitive , and many of them stayed in shipyards half @-@ completed , in readiness for another war , until the Age of Sail had almost completely passed . The main force of the Navy continued to be large sailing frigates with a number of smaller sloops during the three decades of peace . By the 1840s , the Navy began to adopt steam power and shell guns , but they lagged behind the French and British in adopting the new technologies .
Enlisted sailors during this time included many foreign @-@ born men , and native @-@ born Americans were usually social outcasts who had few other employment options or they were trying to escape punishment for crimes . In 1835 , almost 3 @,@ 000 men sailed with merchant ships out of Boston harbor , but only 90 men were recruited by the Navy . It was unlawful for black men to serve in the Navy , but the shortage of men was so acute this law was frequently ignored .
Discipline followed the customs of the Royal Navy but punishment was much milder than typical in European navies . Sodomy was rarely prosecuted . The Army abolished flogging as a punishment in 1812 , but the Navy kept it until 1850 .
During the War of 1812 , the Barbary states took advantage of the weakness of the United States Navy to again capture American merchant ships and sailors . After the Treaty of Ghent was signed , the United States looked at ending the piracy in the Mediterranean which had plagued American merchants for two decades . On 3 March 1815 , the U.S. Congress authorized deployment of naval power against Algiers , beginning the Second Barbary War . Two powerful squadrons under the command of Commodores Stephen Decatur , Jr. and William Bainbridge , including the 74 @-@ gun ships of the line Washington , Independence , and Franklin , were dispatched to the Mediterranean . Shortly after departing Gibraltar en route to Algiers , Decatur 's squadron encountered the Algerian flagship Meshuda , and , in the Action of 17 June 1815 , captured it . Not long afterward , the American squadron likewise captured the Algerian brig Estedio in the Battle off Cape Palos . By June , the squadrons had reached Algiers and peace was negotiated with the Dey , including a return of captured vessels and men , a guarantee of no further tributes and a right to trade in the region .
Piracy in the Caribbean sea was also a major problem , and between 1815 and 1822 an estimated 3 @,@ 000 ships were captured by pirates . In 1819 , Congress authorized President James Madison to deal with this threat , and since many of the pirates were privateers of the newly independent states of Latin America , he decided to embark on a strategy of diplomacy backed up by the guns of the Navy . An agreement with Venezuela was reached in 1819 , but ships were still regularly captured until a military campaign by the West India Squadron , under the command of David Porter , used a combination of large frigates escorting merchant ships backed by many small craft searching small coves and islands , and capturing pirate vessels . During this campaign USS Sea Gull became the first steam @-@ powered ship to see combat action . Although isolated instances of piracy continued into the 1830s , by 1826 the frequent attacks had ended and the region was declared free for commerce .
Another international problem was the slave trade , and the African squadron was formed in 1820 to deal with this threat . Politically , the suppression of the slave trade was unpopular , and the squadron was withdrawn in 1823 ostensibly to deal with piracy in the Caribbean , and did not return to the African coast until the passage of the Webster – Ashburton treaty with Britain in 1842 . After the treaty was passed , the United States used fewer ships than the treaty required , ordered the ships based far from the coast of Africa , and used ships that were too large to operate close to shore . Between 1845 and 1850 , the United States Navy captured only 10 slave vessels , while the British captured 423 vessels carrying 27 @,@ 000 captives .
Congress formally authorized the establishment of the United States Military Academy in 1802 , but it took almost 50 years to approve a similar school for naval officers . During the long period of peace between 1815 and 1846 , midshipmen had few opportunities for promotion , and their warrants were often obtained via patronage . The poor quality of officer training in the U.S. Navy became visible after the Somers Affair , an alleged mutiny aboard the training ship USS Somers in 1842 , and the subsequent execution of midshipman Philip Spencer . George Bancroft , appointed Secretary of the Navy in 1845 , decided to work outside of congressional approval and create a new academy for officers . He formed a council led by Commodore Perry to create a new system for training officers , and turned the old Fort Severn at Annapolis into a new institution in 1845 which would be designated as the United States Naval Academy by Congress in 1851 .
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Consulting Board headed by Thomas Edison to obtain the advice and expertise of leading scientists , engineers , and industrialists . It popularized technology , naval expansion , and military preparedness , and was well covered in the media . Daniels and Benson rejected proposals to send observers to Europe , leaving the Navy in the dark about the success of the German submarine campaign . Admiral William Sims charged after the war that in April , 1917 , only ten percent of the Navy 's warships were fully manned ; the rest lacked 43 % of their seamen . Only a third of the ships were fully ready . Light antisubmarine ships were few in number , as if no one had noticed the u @-@ boat factor that had been the focus of foreign policy for two years . The Navy 's only warfighting plan , the " Black Plan " assumed the Royal Navy did not exist and that German battleships were moving freely about the Atlantic and the Caribbean and threatening the Panama Canal . His most recent biographer concludes that , " it is true that Daniels had not prepared the navy for the war it would have to fight . "
= = = = Fighting a world war , 1917 – 18 = = = =
America entered the war in April 1917 and the Navy 's role was mostly limited to convoy escort and troop transport and the laying of a minefield across the North Sea . The United States Navy sent a battleship group to Scapa Flow to join with the British Grand Fleet , destroyers to Queenstown , Ireland and submarines to help guard convoys . Several regiments of Marines were also dispatched to France . The first victory for the Navy in the war occurred on 17 November 1917 when USS Fanning and USS Nicholson sank the German U @-@ boat U @-@ 58 . During World War I , the Navy was the first branch of the United States armed forces to allow enlistment by women in a non @-@ nursing capacity , as Yeoman ( F ) . The first woman to enlist in the U.S. Navy was Loretta Perfectus Walsh on 17 March 1917 .
The Navy 's vast wartime expansion was overseen by civilian officials , especially Assistant Secretary Franklin D. Roosevelt . In peacetime , the Navy confined all munitions that lacked civilian uses , including warships , naval guns , and shells to Navy yards . The Navy yards expanded enormously , and subcontracted the shells and explosives to chemical companies like DuPont and Hercules . Items available on the civilian market , such as food and uniforms were always purchased from civilian contractors . Armor plate and airplanes were purchased on the market .
= = = Inter @-@ war entrenchment and expansion ( 1918 – 1941 ) = = =
At the end of World War I , the United States Navy had almost 500 @,@ 000 officers and enlisted men and women and in terms of personnel was the largest in the world . Younger officers were enthusiastic about the potential of land @-@ based naval aviation as well as the potential roles of aircraft carriers . Chief of Naval Operations Benson was not among them . He tried to abolish aviation in 1919 because he could not " conceive of any use the fleet will ever have for aviation . " However Roosevelt listened to the visionaries and reversed Benson 's decision .
After a short period of demobilization , the major naval nations of the globe began programmes for increasing the size and number of their capital ships . Wilson 's plan for a world @-@ leading set of capital ships led to a Japanese counter @-@ programme , and a plan by the British to build sufficient ships to maintain a navy superior to either . American isolationist feeling and the economic concerns of the others led to the Washington Naval Conference of 1921 . The outcome of the conference included the Washington Naval Treaty ( also known as the Five @-@ Power treaty ) , and limitations on the use of submarines . The Treaty prescribed a ratio of 5 : 5 : 3 : 1 : 1 for capital ships between treaty nations . The treaty recognized the U.S. Navy as being equal to the Royal Navy with 525 @,@ 000 tons of capital ships and 135 @,@ 000 tons of aircraft carriers , and the Japanese as the third power . Many older ships were scrapped by the five nations to meet the treaty limitations , and new building of capital ships limited .
One consequence was to encourage the development of light cruisers and aircraft carriers . The United States 's first carrier , a converted collier named USS Langley was commissioned in 1922 , and soon joined by USS Lexington and USS Saratoga , which had been designed as battlecruisers until the treaty forbade it . Organizationally , the Bureau of Aeronautics was formed in 1921 ; naval aviators would become referred to as members of the United States Naval Air Corps .
Army airman Billy Mitchell challenged the Navy by trying to demonstrate that warships could be destroyed by land @-@ based bombers . He destroyed his career in 1925 by publicly attacking senior leaders in the Army and Navy for incompetence for their " almost treasonable administration of the national defense . "
The Vinson @-@ Trammell Act of 1934 set up a regular program of ship building and modernization to bring the Navy to the maximum size allowed by treaty . The Navy 's preparation was helped along by another Navy assistant secretary turned president , Franklin D. Roosevelt . The naval limitation treaties also applied to bases , but Congress only approved building seaplane bases on Wake Island , Midway Island and Dutch Harbor and rejected any additional funds for bases on Guam and the Philippines . Navy ships were designed with greater endurance and range which allowed them to operate further from bases and between refits .
The Navy had a presence in the Far East with a naval base in the US @-@ owned Philippines and river gunboats in China on the Yangtze River . The gunboat USS Panay was bombed and machine @-@ gunned by Japanese airplanes . Washington quickly accepted Japan 's apologies and compensation .
African @-@ Americans were enlisted during World War I , but this was halted in 1919 and they were mustered out of the Navy . Starting in the 1930s a few were recruited to serve as stewards in the officers mess . African @-@ Americans were recruited in larger numbers only after Roosevelt insisted in 1942 .
The Naval Act of 1936 authorized the first new battleship since 1921 , and USS North Carolina , was laid down in October 1937 . The Second Vinson Act authorized a 20 % increase in the size of the Navy , and in June 1940 the Two @-@ Ocean Navy Act authorized an 11 % expansion in the Navy . Chief of Naval Operations Harold Rainsford Stark asked for another 70 % increase , amounting to about 200 additional ships , which was authorized by Congress in less than a month . In September 1940 , the Destroyers for Bases Agreement gave Britain much @-@ needed destroyers — of WWI vintage — in exchange for United States use of British bases .
In 1941 , the Atlantic Fleet was reactivated . The Navy 's first shot in anger came on 9 April , when the destroyer USS Niblack dropped depth charges on a U @-@ boat detected while Niblack was rescuing survivors from a torpedoed Dutch freighter . In October , the destroyers Kearny and Reuben James were torpedoed , and Reuben James was lost .
= = = = Submarines = = = =
Submarines were the " silent service " — in terms of operating characteristics and the closed @-@ mouth preferences of the submariners . Strategists had , however , been looking into this new type of warship , influenced in large part by Germany 's nearly successful U @-@ boat campaign . As early as 1912 , Lieutenant Chester Nimitz had argued for long @-@ range submarines to accompany the fleet to scout the enemy 's location . The new head of the Submarine Section in 1919 was Captain Thomas Hart , who argued that submarines could win the next war : " There is no quicker or more effective method of defeating Japan than the cutting of her sea communications . " However Hart was astonished to discover how backward American submarines were compared to captured German U @-@ boats , and how unready they were for their mission . The public supported submarines for their coastal protection mission ; they would presumably intercept enemy fleets approaching San Francisco or New York . The Navy realized it was a mission that isolationists in Congress would fund , but it was not actually serious . Old @-@ line admirals said the mission of the subs ought to be as eyes of the battle fleet , and as assistants in battle . That was unfeasible since even on the surface submarines could not move faster than 20 knots , far slower than the 30 knot main warships . The young commanders were organized into a " Submarine Officers ' Conference " in 1926 . They argued they were best suited for the commerce raiding that had been the forte of the U @-@ boats . They therefore redesigned their new boats along German lines , and added the new requirement that they be capable of sailing alone for 7 @,@ 500 miles on a 75 @-@ day mission . Unrestricted submarine warfare had led to war with Germany in 1917 , and was still vigorously condemned both by public opinion and by treaties , including the London Treaty of 1930 . Nevertheless , the submariners planned a role in unrestricted warfare against Japanese merchant ships , transports and oil tankers . The Navy kept its plans secret from civilians . It was an admiral , not President Roosevelt , who within hours of the Pearl Harbor attack , ordered unrestricted warfare against any enemy ship anywhere in the Pacific .
The submariners had won over Navy strategists , but their equipment was not yet capable of handling their secret mission . The challenge of designing appropriate new boats became a high priority by 1934 , and was solved in 1936 as the first new long @-@ range , all welded submarines were launched . Even better were the S @-@ class Salmon class ( launched in 1937 ) , and its successors the T @-@ class or Tambor submarines of 1939 and the Gato class of 1940 . The new models cost about $ 5 – 6 million each . At 300 feet in length and 1500 tons , they were twice as big as the German U @-@ boats , but still highly maneuverable . In only 35 seconds they could crash dive to 60 feet . The superb Mark 3 TDC Torpedo Data Computer ( an analog computer ) took data from periscope or sonar readings on the target 's bearing , range and angle on the bow , and continuously set the course and proper gyroscope angle for a salvo of torpedoes until the moment of firing . Six forward tubes and 4 aft were ready for the 24 Mk @-@ 14 " fish " the subs carried . Cruising on the surface at 20 knots ( using 4 diesel engines ) or maneuvering underwater at 8 @-@ 10 knots ( using battery @-@ powered electric motors ) they could circle around slow @-@ moving merchant ships . New steels and welding techniques strengthened the hull , enabling the subs to dive as deep as 400 feet in order to avoid depth charges . Expecting long cruises the 65 crewmen enjoyed good living conditions , complete with frozen steaks and air conditioning to handle the hot waters of the Pacific . The new subs could remain at sea for 75 days , and cover 10 @,@ 000 miles , without resupply . The submariners thought they were ready — but they had two hidden flaws . The penny @-@ pinching atmosphere of the 1930s produced hypercautious commanders and defective torpedoes . Both would have to be replaced in World War II .
= = Modern era = =
= = = World War II ( 1941 – 1945 ) = = =
= = = = Command structure = = = =
After the disaster at Pearl Harbor Roosevelt turned to the most aggressive sailor available , Admiral Ernest J. King ( 1878 @-@ 1956 ) . Experienced in big guns , aviation and submarines , King had a broad knowledge and a total dedication to victory . He was perhaps the most dominating admiral in American naval history ; he was hated but obeyed , for he made all the decisions from his command post in the Washington , and avoided telling anyone . The civilian Secretary of the Navy was a cipher whom King kept in the dark ; that only changed when the Secretary died in 1944 and Roosevelt brought in his tough @-@ minded aide James Forrestal . Despite the decision of the Joint Chiefs of Staff under Admiral William D. Leahy to concentrate first against Germany , King made the defeat of Japan his highest priority . For example , King insisted on fighting for Guadalcanal despite strong Army objections . His main strike force was built around carriers based at Pearl Harbor under the command of Chester Nimitz . Nimitz had one main battle fleet , with the same ships and sailors but two command systems that rotated every few months between Admiral Bull Halsey and Admiral Raymond A. Spruance . The Navy had a major advantage : it had broken the Japanese code . It deduced that Hawaii was the target in June 1942 , and that Yamamoto ’ s fleet would strike at Midway Island . King only had four carriers in operation ; he sent them all to Midway where in a miraculous few minutes they sank the Japanese carriers . This gave the Americans the advantage in firepower that grew rapidly as new American warships came on line much faster than Japan could build them . King paid special attention to submarines to use against the overextended Japanese logistics system . They were built for long @-@ range missions in tropical waters , and set out to sink the freighters , troop transports and oil tankers that held the Japanese domains together . The Southwest Pacific theatre , based in Australia , was under the control of Army General Douglas MacArthur ; King assigned him a fleet of his own without any big carriers .
= = = = Carrier warfare = = = =
On 7 December 1941 , Japan 's carriers launched the Attack on Pearl Harbor , sinking or disabling the entire battleship fleet . The stupendous defeat forced Admiral King to develop a new strategy based on carriers . Although the sunken battleships were raised , and many new ones were built , battleships played a secondary role in the war , limited chiefly to bombardment of islands scheduled for amphibious landings . The " Big Gun " club that had dominated the Navy since the Civil War lost its clout .
The U.S. was helpless in the next six months as the Japanese swept through the Western Pacific and into the Indian Ocean , rolling up the Philippines as well as the main British base at Singapore . After reeling from these defeats the Navy stabilized its lines in summer 1942 .
At the start of the war , the United States and Japan were well matched in aircraft carriers , in terms of numbers and quality . Both sides had nine , but the Mitsubishi A6M Zero carrier fighter plane was superior in terms of range and maneuverability to its American counterpart , the F4F Wildcat . By reverse engineering a captured Zero , the American engineers identified its weaknesses , such as inadequate protection for the pilot and the fuel tanks , and built the Hellcat as a superior weapon system . In late 1943 the Grumman F6F Hellcats entered combat . Powered by the same 2 @,@ 000 horsepower Pratt and Whitney 18 @-@ cylinder radial engine as used by the F4U Corsair already in service with the Marine Corps and the UK 's allied Fleet Air Arm , the F6Fs were faster ( at 400 mph ) than the Zeros , quicker to climb ( at 3 @,@ 000 feet per minute ) , more nimble at high altitudes , better at diving , had more armor , more firepower ( 6 machine guns fired 120 bullets per second ) than the Zero 's two machine guns and pair of 20 mm autocannon , carried more ammunition , and used a gunsight designed for deflection shooting at an angle . Although the Hellcat was heavier and had a shorter range than the Zero , on the whole it proved a far superior weapon . Japan 's carrier and pilot losses at Midway crippled its offensive capability , but America 's overwhelming offensive capability came from shipyards that increasingly out produced Japan 's , from the refineries that produced high @-@ octane gasoline , and from the training fields that produced much better trained pilots . In 1942 Japan commissioned 6 new carriers but lost 6 ; in 1943 it commissioned 3 and lost 1 . The turning point came in 1944 when it added 8 and lost 13 . At war 's end Japan had 5 carriers tied up in port ; all have been damaged , all lacked fuel and all lacked warplanes . Meanwhile , the US launched 13 small carriers in 1942 and one large one ; and in 1943 added 15 large and 50 escort carriers , and more came in 1944 and 1945 . The new American carriers were much better designed , with far more antiaircraft guns , and powerful radar .
Both sides were overextended in the exhaustive sea , air and land battles for Guadalcanal . The Japanese were better at night combat ( because they American destroyers had only trained for attacks on battleships ) . However , the Japanese could not feed its soldiers so the Americans eventually won because of superior logistics . The Navy built up its forces in 1942 @-@ 43 , and developed a strategy of " island @-@ hopping , that is to skip over most of the heavily defended Japanese islands and instead go further on and select islands to seize for forward air bases .
In the Atlantic , the Allies waged a long battle with German submarines which was termed the Battle of the Atlantic . Navy aircraft flew from bases in Greenland and Iceland to hunt submarines , and hundreds of escort carriers and destroyer escorts were built which were specifically designed to protect merchant convoys . In the Pacific , in an ironic twist , the U.S. submarines fought against Japanese shipping in a mirror image of the Atlantic , with U.S. submarines hunting Japanese merchant ships . At the end of the war the U.S. had 260 submarines in commission . It had lost 52 submarines during the war , 36 in actions in the Pacific . Submarines effectively destroyed the Japanese merchant fleet by January 1945 and choked off Japan 's oil supply .
In the summer of 1943 , the U.S. began the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign to retake the Gilbert and Marshall Islands . After this success , the Americans went on to the Mariana and Palau Islands in summer 1944 . Following their defeat at the Battle of Saipan , the Imperial Japanese Navy 's Combined Fleet , with 5 aircraft carriers , sortied to attack the Navy 's Fifth Fleet during the Battle of the Philippine Sea , which was the largest aircraft carrier battle in history . The battle was so one @-@ sided that it became known as the " Marianas turkey shoot " ; the U.S. lost 130 aircraft and no ships while the Japanese lost 411 planes and 3 carriers . Following victory in the Marianas , the U.S. began the reconquest of the Philippines at Leyte in October 1944 . The Japanese fleet sortied to attack the invasion fleet , resulting in the four @-@ day Battle of Leyte Gulf , one of the largest naval battles in history . The first kamikaze missions are flown during the battle , sinking USS St. Lo and damaging several other U.S. ships ; these attacks were the most effective anti @-@ ship weapon of the war .
The Battle of Okinawa became the last major battle between U.S. and Japanese ground units . Okinawa was to become a staging area for the eventual invasion of Japan since it was just 350 miles ( 560 km ) south of the Japanese mainland . Marines and soldiers landed unopposed on 1 April 1945 , to begin an 82 @-@ day campaign which became the largest land @-@ sea @-@ air battle in history and was noted for the ferocity of the fighting and the high civilian casualties with over 150 @,@ 000 Okinawans losing their lives . Japanese kamikaze pilots inflicted the largest loss of ships in U.S. naval history with the sinking of 36 and the damaging of another 243 . Total U.S. casualties were over 12 @,@ 500 dead and 38 @,@ 000 wounded , while the Japanese lost over 110 @,@ 000 men , making Okinawa one of the bloodiest battles in history .
The fierce fighting on Okinawa is said to have played a part in President Truman ’ s decision to use the atomic bomb and to forsake an invasion of Japan . When the Japanese surrendered , a flotilla of 374 ships entered Tokyo Bay to witness the ceremony conducted on the battleship USS Missouri . By the end of the war the US Navy had over 1200 warships .
= = = Cold War ( 1945 – 1991 ) = = =
The immediate postwar fate of the Navy was the scrapping and mothballing of ships on a large scale ; by 1948 only 267 ships were active in the Navy .
Another important postwar development for the Navy was that in 1948 the Women 's Armed Services Integration Act gave women permanent status in the Regular and Reserve forces of the Navy .
The Navy gradually developed a reputation for having the most highly developed technology of all the U.S. services . The 1950s saw the development of nuclear power for ships , under the leadership of Admiral Hyman G. Rickover , the development of missiles and jets for Navy use and the construction of supercarriers . The USS Enterprise was the world 's first nuclear @-@ powered aircraft carrier and was followed by the Nimitz @-@ class supercarriers . Ballistic missile submarines grew ever more deadly and quiet , culminating in the Ohio @-@ class submarines .
Tension with the Soviet Union came to a head in the Korean War , and it became clear that the peacetime Navy would have to be much larger than ever imagined . Fleets were assigned to geographic areas around the world , and ships were sent to hot spots as a standard part of the response to the periodic crises . However , because the North Korean navy was not large , the Korean War featured few naval battles ; the combatant navies served mostly as naval artillery for their in @-@ country armies . A large amphibious landing at Inchon succeeded in driving the North Koreans back across the 38th parallel . The Battle of Chosin Reservoir ended with the evacuation of almost 105 @,@ 000 UN troops from the port of Hungnam .
The U.S. Navy 's 1956 shipbuilding program was significant because it included authorization for the construction of eight submarines , the largest such order since World War II . This FY @-@ 56 program included five nuclear @-@ powered submarines – Triton , the guided missile submarine Halibut , the lead ship for the Skipjack class , and the final two Skate @-@ class attack submarines , Sargo and Seadragon . It also included the three diesel @-@ electric Barbel class , the last diesel @-@ electric submarines to be built by the U.S. Navy .
An unlikely combination of Navy ships fought in the Vietnam War ; aircraft carriers offshore launched thousands of air strikes , while small gunboats of the " Brown @-@ water navy " patrolled the rivers . Despite the naval activity , new construction was curtailed by Presidents Johnson and Nixon to save money , and many of the carriers on Yankee Station dated from World War II . By 1978 the fleet had dwindled to 217 surface ships and 119 submarines .
Meanwhile , the Soviet fleet had been growing , and outnumbered the U.S. fleet in every type except carriers , and the Navy calculated they probably would be defeated by the Soviet Navy in a major conflict . This concern led the Reagan administration to set a goal for a 600 @-@ ship Navy , and by 1988 the fleet was at 588 , although it declined again in subsequent years . The Iowa @-@ class battleships Iowa , New Jersey , Missouri , and Wisconsin were reactivated after 40 years in storage , modernized , and made showy appearances off the shores of Lebanon and elsewhere . In 1987 and 1988 , the United States Navy conducted various combat operations in the Persian Gulf against Iran , most notably Operation Praying Mantis , the largest surface @-@ air naval battle since World War II .
= = = Post – Cold War ( 1991 – present ) = = =
When a crisis confronts the nation , the first question often asked by policymakers is : ' What naval forces are available and how fast can they be on station ? '
Following the collapse of the Soviet Union , the Soviet Navy fell apart , without sufficient personnel to man many of its ships or the money to maintain them — indeed , many of them were sold to foreign nations . This left the United States as the world 's undisputed naval superpower . U.S. naval forces did undergo a decline in absolute terms but relative to the rest of the world , however , United States dwarfs other nations ' naval power as evinced by its 11 aircraft supercarriers and their supporting battle groups . During the 1990s , the United States naval strategy was based on the overall military strategy of the United States which emphasized the ability of the United States to engage in two simultaneous limited wars along separate fronts .
The ships of the Navy participated in a number of conflicts after the end of the Cold War . After diplomatic efforts failed , the Navy was instrumental in the opening phases of the 1991 Gulf War with Iraq ; the ships of the navy launched hundreds of Tomahawk II cruise missiles and naval aircraft flew sorties from six carriers in the Persian Gulf and Red Sea . The battleships Missouri and Wisconsin fired their 16 @-@ inch guns for the first time since the Korean war on several targets in Kuwait in early February . In 1999 , hundreds of Navy and Marine Corps aircraft flew thousands of sorties from bases in Italy and carriers in the Adriatic against targets in Serbia and Kosovo to try to stop the ethnic cleansing in Kosovo . After a 78 @-@ day campaign Serbia capitulated to NATO 's demands .
As a result of a large number of command officers being fired for failing to do their job properly , in 2012 the Chief of Naval Operations ( CNO ) ordered a new method of selecting command officers across the Navy .
In March 2007 , the U.S. Navy reached its smallest fleet size , with 274 ships , since World War I. Since the end of the Cold War , the Navy has shifted its focus from preparations for large @-@ scale war with the Soviet Union to special operations and strike missions in regional conflicts . The Navy participated in Operation Enduring Freedom , Operation Iraqi Freedom , and is a major participant in the ongoing War on Terror , largely in this capacity . Development continues on new ships and weapons , including the Gerald R. Ford @-@ class aircraft carrier and the Littoral combat ship . One hundred and three U.S. Navy personnel died in the Iraq War . U.S. Navy warships launched cruise missiles into military targets in Libya during Operation Odyssey Dawn to enforce a UN resolution .
Former U.S. Navy admirals who head the U.S. Naval Institute have raised concerns about what they see as the ability to respond to " aggressive moves by Iran and China " . As part of the pivot to the Pacific , Defense Secretary Leon E. Panetta said that the Navy would switch from a 50 / 50 split between the Pacific and the Atlantic to a 60 / 40 percent split that favored the Pacific , but the Chief of Naval Operations , Admiral Jonathan Greenert , and the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , General Martin Dempsey , have said that this would not mean " a big influx of troops or ships in the Western Pacific " . This pivot is a continuation of the trend towards the Pacific that first saw the Cold War 's focus against the Soviet Union with 60 percent of the American submarine fleet stationed in the Atlantic shift towards an even split between the coasts and then in 2006 , 60 percent of the submarines stationed on the Pacific side to counter China . The pivot is not entirely about numbers as some of the most advanced platforms will now have a Pacific focus , where their capabilities are most needed . However even a single incident can make a big dent in a fleet of modest size with global missions .
On January 12 , 2016 , Iranian armed forces captured United States Navy personnel when their boats entered Iranian territorial waters off the coast of Farsi Island in the Persian Gulf . They were released the next day following diplomatic discussions between the USA and Iran .
= = = Historiography = = =
Hackemer , Kurt H. " The US Navy , 1860 – 1920 . " in James C. Bradford A Companion to American Military History ( 2 vol 2009 ) 1 : 388 – 98
Holwitt , Joel I. " Review Essay : Reappraising the Interwar U.S. Navy , " Journal of Military History ( 2012 ) 76 # 1 193 – 210
McKee , Christopher . " The US Navy , 1794 – 1860 : Men , Ships , and Governance . " in James C. Bradford A Companion to American Military History ( 2 vol 2009 ) 1 : 378 @-@ 87 .
Winkler , David F. " The US Navy since 1920 . " in James C. Bradford A Companion to American Military History ( 2 vol 2009 ) 1 : 399 – 410 .
= All God 's Children Need Traveling Shoes =
All God 's Children Need Traveling Shoes , published in 1986 , is the fifth book in African @-@ American writer and poet Maya Angelou 's seven @-@ volume autobiography series . Set between 1962 and 1965 , the book begins when Angelou is 33 years old , and recounts the years she lived in Accra , Ghana . The book , deriving its title from a Negro spiritual , begins where Angelou 's previous memoir , The Heart of a Woman , ends — with the traumatic car accident involving her son Guy — and closes with Angelou returning to America .
As she had started to do in her first autobiography , I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings , and continued throughout her series , Angelou upholds the long tradition of African @-@ American autobiography . At the same time she makes a deliberate attempt to challenge the usual structure of the autobiography by critiquing , changing , and expanding the genre . Angelou had matured as a writer by the time she wrote Traveling Shoes , to the point that she was able to play with the form and structure of the work . As in her previous books , it consists of a series of anecdotes connected by theme . She depicts her struggle with being the mother of a grown son , and with her place in her new home .
Angelou examines many of the same subjects and themes that her previous autobiographies covered . Although motherhood is an important theme in this book , it does not overwhelm the text as it does in some of her other works . At the end of the book , she ties up the mother / son plot when she leaves her son in Ghana and returns to America . According to scholar Mary Jane Lupton , " Angelou 's exploration of her African and African @-@ American identities " is an important theme in Traveling Shoes . By the end of the book , Angelou comes to term with what scholar Dolly McPherson calls her " double @-@ consciousness " , the parallels and connections between the African and American parts of her history and character . Racism continues to be an important theme as she learns more about it and about herself . Journey and a sense of home is another important theme in this book ; Angelou upholds the African @-@ American tradition of the slave narrative and of her own series of autobiographies . This time she focuses on " trying to get home " , or on becoming assimilated in African culture , which she finds unattainable .
All God 's Children Need Traveling Shoes received a mixed reception from critics , but most of their reviews were positive .
= = Background = =
All God 's Children Need Traveling Shoes , published in 1986 , is the fifth installment of Maya Angelou 's series of seven autobiographies . The success of Angelou 's previous autobiographies and the publication of four volumes of poetry had brought Angelou a considerable amount of fame by 1986 . And Still I Rise , published in 1978 , reinforced Angelou 's success as a writer . Her first volume of poetry , Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ' fore I Diiie ( 1971 ) was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize .
As writer Hilton Als states , Angelou was one of the first African @-@ American female writers to publicly discuss her personal life , and one of the first to use herself as a central character in her books , something she continues in Traveling Shoes . Writer Julian Mayfield , who calls her first autobiography I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings " a work of art that eludes description " , states that Angelou 's work sets a precedent not only for other Black women writers , but for the genre of autobiography as a whole .
Als called Angelou one of the " pioneers of self @-@ exposure " , willing to focus honestly on the more negative aspects of her personality and choices . For example , while Angelou was composing her second autobiography , Gather Together in My Name , she was concerned about how her readers would react to her disclosure that she had been a prostitute . Her husband Paul Du Feu talked her into publishing the book by encouraging her to " tell the truth as a writer " and " be honest about it " . Through the writing of her life stories Angelou has become recognized and highly respected as a spokesperson for Blacks and women . It made her , as scholar Joanne Braxton has stated , " without a doubt , ... America 's most visible black woman autobiographer " .
According to McPherson , Traveling Shoes is " a mixture of Maya Angelou 's personal recollection and a historical document of the time in which it is set " , the early 1960s . This was the first time that many Black Americans , due to the independence of Ghana and other African states , as well as the emergence of African leaders such as Kwame Nkrumah , were able to view Africa in a positive way . Ghana was " the center of an African cultural renaissance " and of Pan @-@ Africanism during this time .
= = Title = =
According to Angelou , the title of Traveling Shoes comes from a spiritual . African @-@ American scholar Lyman B. Hagen reports that the title comes from the spiritual " All God 's Chillun Got Wings " , Angelou 's " clever reference " to her ongoing search for a home while being aware of " our ultimate home " . The title demonstrates Angelou 's love of African @-@ American spirituals and deep sense of religion that appears in all of her works . Critic Mary Jane Lupton finds the appearance of the word " traveling " purposeful , since it emphasizes the journey theme , one of Angelou 's most important themes of the book . Like Angelou 's previous volumes in her series , the title contributes to its plot and thematic impact .
= = Plot summary = =
All God 's Children Need Traveling Shoes begins as Angelou 's previous book , The Heart of a Woman , ends : with her depiction of a serious automobile accident involving her son Guy . After spending two years in Cairo , they come to Accra to enroll Guy in the University of Ghana , and the accident occurs three days after they arrive . Following Guy 's long convalescence , they remain in Ghana , Angelou for four years , from 1962 to 1965 . Angelou describes Guy 's recovery , including her deep depression . She is confronted by her friend Julian Mayfield , who introduces her to writer and actor Efua Sutherland , the Director of the National Theatre of Ghana . Sutherland becomes Angelou 's " sister @-@ friend " and allows her to cry out all her pain and bitterness .
Angelou finds a job at the University of Ghana and " falls in love " with the country and with its people , who remind her of African Americans she knew in Arkansas and California . As the parent of an adult , she experiences new freedoms , respects Guy 's choices , and consciously stops making her son the center of her life . She creates new friendships with her roommates and native Africans , both male and female . She becomes part of a group of American expatriates whom she calls the " Revolutionist Returnees " , people such as Mayfield and his wife Ana Livia , who share her struggles .
Angelou strengthens her ties with Africa while traveling through eastern Ghanaian villages , and through her relationships with several Africans . She describes a few romantic prospects , one of which is with a man who proposes that she become his " second wife " and accept West African customs . She also becomes a supporter of Ghana president Kwame Nkrumah and close friends with tribal leader Nana Nketsia and poet Kwesi Brew . During one of her travels through West Africa , a woman identifies her as a member of the Bambara tribe based solely upon her appearance and behavior , which helps Angelou discover the similarities between her American traditions and those of her West African ancestors .
Although Angelou is disillusioned with the nonviolent strategies of Martin Luther King , Jr . , she and her friends commemorate his 1963 march on Washington by organizing a parallel demonstration in Ghana . The demonstration becomes a tribute to African @-@ American W.E.B. Du Bois , who has died the previous evening . A few pages later , she allies herself with Malcolm X , who visits Ghana in 1964 to elicit the support of Black world leaders . He encourages Angelou to return to America to help him coordinate his efforts , as she had done for King in The Heart of a Woman . While driving Malcolm X to the airport , he chastises her for her bitterness about Du Bois ' wife Shirley Graham 's lack of support for the civil rights movement .
Angelou and her roommates reluctantly hire a village boy named Kojo to do housework for them . He reminds her of her brother Bailey , and he serves as a substitute for her son Guy . She accepts a maternal role with Kojo , helping him with his schoolwork and welcoming the thanks of his family . Traveling Shoes , like Angelou 's previous autobiographies , is full of conflicts with Guy , especially surrounding his independence , his separation from his mother , and his choices . When she learns that he is dating a woman older than her , she reacts with anger and threatens to strike him , but he patronizes her , calls her his " little mother " , and insists upon his autonomy from her .
The African narrative in Traveling Shoes is interrupted by " a journey within a journey " when she decides to join a theatrical company in a revival of The Blacks , a play by French writer Jean Genet . As she had done in New York and described in her previous autobiography The Heart of a Woman , she plays the White Queen and tours Berlin and Venice with the company , which include Cicely Tyson , James Earl Jones , Lou Gossett , Jr. and Roscoe Lee Brown . While in Berlin , she accepts a breakfast invitation with a racist , wealthy German family .
The book ends with Angelou 's decision to return to America . At the airport , a group of her friends and associates , including Guy , are present to wish her farewell as she leaves . She metaphorically connects her departure from the African continent with the forced enslavement of her ancestors and her departure from Guy .
= = Genre = =
All seven of Angelou 's installments of her life story continue the long tradition of African @-@ American autobiography . Starting with I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings , Angelou made a deliberate attempt while writing her books to challenge the usual structure of the autobiography by critiquing , changing , and expanding the genre . Her use of fiction @-@ writing techniques such as dialogue , characterization , and thematic development has often led reviewers to categorize her books as autobiographical fiction . Angelou expressed in a 1989 interview her opinion that she was the only " serious " writer to choose the genre to express herself . Angelou reports not one person 's story , but the collective 's . She represents the convention in African @-@ American autobiography , which serves as a public gesture that speaks for an entire group of people . As Angelou had done in her previous autobiographies , she uses elements of the African @-@ American slave narrative , including as Lupton puts it , " the journey , the quest for freedom ; [ and ] empathy for the horrors suffered by slaves " .
All of Angelou 's autobiographies conform to the genre 's standard structure : they are written by a single author , they are chronological , and they contain elements of character , technique , and theme . Although Angelou referred to her books as autobiographies in 1983 interview with African @-@ American literature critic Claudia Tate , she acknowledged that there are fictional aspects to all her books , with the tendency to " diverge from the conventional notion of autobiography as truth " . When speaking of her unique use of the genre , Angelou acknowledges that she follows the slave narrative tradition of " speaking in the first @-@ person singular talking about the first @-@ person plural , always saying I meaning ' we ' " . McPherson states that Angelou is a master of this autobiographical form , especially the " confrontation of the Black self within a society that threatens to destroy it " , but departs from it in Traveling Shoes by taking the action to Africa . Lupton , referring to the journey motif in the book , insists that its narrative point of view is " again sustained through the first @-@ person autobiographer in motion " .
Angelou recognizes that there are fictional aspects to all her books , although there is less fictionalization in Traveling Shoes than in her previous autobiographies . Her approach parallels the conventions of many African @-@ American autobiographies written during the abolitionist period in the US , when truth was often censored for purposes of self @-@ protection . Hagen places Angelou in the long tradition of African @-@ American autobiography , but insists that Angelou has created a unique interpretation of the autobiographical form . Journalist George Plimpton asked her in a 1998 interview if she changed the truth to improve her story ; she stated , " Sometimes I make a diameter from a composite of three or four people , because the essence in only one person is not sufficiently strong to be written about " . Although Angelou has never admitted to changing the facts in her stories , she fictionalizes them to make an impact and to enhance her readers ' interest . Angelou 's long @-@ time editor , Robert Loomis stated that she could have rewritten any of her books by changing the order of her facts to make a different impact on the reader .
= = Style = =
For the first and only time in Angelou 's series , she repeats the same episode in detail — her son 's automobile accident — at the end of her fourth autobiography The Heart of a Woman and the beginning of this one , a technique that both centralizes each installment and connects each book in the series with each other . Additionally , each volume " ends with abrupt suspense " . It also creates a strong and emotional link between the two autobiographies . Angelou has said that she used this technique so that each book would stand alone and to establish the setting in Traveling Shoes — " who she was and what she was doing in Africa " .
In Traveling Shoes , Angelou has matured as a writer to the point that she can experiment with form . For the first time , instead of using traditional numbered chapters , the book consists of anecdotes separated with a few inches of white space . Lupton calls these segments " short stories or vignettes " , a technique that Angelou had used before , to portray dynamic characters such as Malcolm X. Angelou 's stories are told within the context of her entire life story , but each vignette can be read or analyzed individually , without harming the text 's consistency . Most of Angelou 's anecdotes no longer focus on the famous or her family , but on Ghanaians ; for example , according to Lupton , her description of her houseboy Kojo is her most delightful character sketch in the book .
In Traveling Shoes , Angelou continues to demonstrate her strengths as an autobiographer , especially her ability to connect emotionally with her audience , which Lupton calls her " superb use of language in recording moments of emotional intensity " . As in her previous books , Angelou uses inventive metaphors and personifications of abstract objects and concepts . Even her descriptions exhibit the style , developed after years of maturity as a writer , of " displaying vivid and captivating sentences and phrases " . Angelou 's self @-@ portrait of a Black woman and her ability to communicate her misfortunes destroys stereotypes and demonstrates " the trials , rejections , and endurances which so many Black women share " . Hagen calls this book " reflective " and its writer " introspective and deeply moved " .
Even though Traveling Shoes can be read on its own , Angelou connects the events in this book with her previous volumes , as she had done throughout her series . As McPherson states , " Everyday experiences serve as links to Angelou 's past and thus embody powerful meanings " . Events that occur in this book and Angelou 's responses to them evoke earlier moments in her previous books ; for example , Angelou responds to her son 's accident with muteness , as she had responded to her rape in Caged Bird . As is customary in autobiography in general , she uses the literary convention of flashbacks in order to tie this book to its predecessors . She uses humor , another convention she has used before , both to criticize racism and to balance her weighty insights . She also uses quotes from literary sources , especially the Bible , which demonstrates that she has not lost contact with her family roots as she searches for a home and for her identity .
Traveling Shoes is " more tightly controlled " than Angelou 's previous books , most likely due to the dominance of the travel motif . Setting , always an important element for Angelou , becomes even more important in this book . Unlike her previous books , most of this book 's action occurs in one setting , Accra , which contributes to and is tightly connected with her personal development . Angelou 's feelings towards living in Ghana are ambivalent , which provides Traveling Shoes with richness and depth . Many feel that Angelou 's inclusion of her tour with The Blacks to Berlin and Venice as a digression that detracts from the African setting , but Lupton sees it as a contribution to her character development and provides the book with a " universal quality " as Angelou reaches beyond the confines of her personal life and encounters racism in Germany . During this trip , she comes to see her fellow African @-@ Americans differently , as more spirited than the Africans she has met in Ghana .
= = Themes = =
= = = Motherhood = = =
A major theme in Traveling Shoes , one that many critics overlook , is Angelou 's love for her son . The theme of motherhood is one of Angelou 's most consistent themes throughout her series of autobiographies , although it does not overwhelm this book as it does in Gather Together in My Name and Singin ' and Swingin ' and Gettin ' Merry Like Christmas . Motherhood is present in many of the book 's subthemes — her relationship with her houseboy Kojo , her delight in being called " Auntie " by many African children , and her feelings toward " Mother Africa " . Traveling Shoes begins with Guy 's accident , his long recovery , and his mother 's reaction to it , thus universalizing the fear of every parent — the death of a child . The main character is a mother of a grown son , so liberation from the daily responsibilities of motherhood is emphasized , but it is complicated by the recognition that part of motherhood is letting go , something Angelou struggles with . Confrontations between Angelou and Guy are minimal , consisting of their conflict over his choice of dating a much @-@ older woman and of his demands for autonomy after she returns from the Genet tour . Angelou seems to vacillate between wanting to supervise him and wanting to let go throughout this book . In this way , as Lupton says , the motherhood theme , like the identity theme , is " dual in nature " .
Like many of her previous books , Angelou is conflicted about her feelings towards Guy , and is skilled at expressing it in this book . One way she expresses her conflict is through her reluctant relationship with Kojo . She compares her feelings for Kojo with the pain of childbirth , and he serves as substitute for Guy . At the end of the book Angelou leaves Guy in Africa to continue his education , suggesting , as Lupton puts it , the " apparent end of the mother / son plot " . Lupton also reports that some reviewers have criticized Angelou for " the willful cutting of the maternal ties that she established throughout the series " , but Angelou implies in Traveling Shoes that motherhood is never over .
= = = Race / Identity = = =
Angelou 's exploration of her African and African @-@ American identities is an important theme in Traveling Shoes . The alliances and relationships with those she meets in Ghana contribute to Angelou 's identity and growth . Her experiences in Ghana helped her come to terms with her personal and historical past , and by the end of the book she is ready to return to America with a deeper understanding of both the African and American parts of her character . McPherson calls Angelou 's parallels and connections between Africa and America her " double @-@ consciousness " , which contribute to her understanding of herself .
Angelou is able to recognize similarities between African and African @-@ American culture ; as Lupton puts it , the " blue songs , shouts , and gospels " she has grown up with in America " echo the rhythms of West Africa " . She recognizes the connections between African and American Black cultures , including the children 's games , the folklore , the spoken and non @-@ verbal languages , the food , sensibilities , and behavior . She connects the behavior of many African mother figures , especially their generosity , with her grandmother 's behaviors . In one of the most significant sections of Traveling Shoes , Angelou recounts an encounter with a West African woman who recognizes her , on the basis of her appearance , as a member of the Bambara group of West Africa . As Lupton states , these and other experiences in Ghana demonstrate her maturity , as a mother who is able to let go of her adult son , as a woman who is no longer dependent upon a man , and as an American who is able to " perceive the roots of her identity " and how they affect her personality .
Angelou comes to terms with her difficult past , both as a descendant of Africans taken forcibly to America as slaves and as an African @-@ American who has experienced racism . As she tells interviewer Connie Martinson , she brought her son to Ghana to protect him from the negative effects of racism because she did not think he had the tools to withstand them . She remains in Accra after his accident because it was traumatic for her as well — so traumatic it reduces her to silence , similar to her muteness after she was raped as a child in Caged Bird . Her friend Julian Mayfield introduces her to Efua Sutherland , who becomes Angelou 's " Sister friend " and allows her to cry out her pain , grief , and fear , something Angelou later admitted went against her American upbringing of emotional restraint .
Racism , an important theme in all of Angelou 's autobiographies , continues to be important in this book , but she has matured in the way she deals with it in Traveling Shoes . For the first time in Angelou 's life , she " does not feel threatened by racial hate " in Ghana . She finds a strong support system there , and as Hagen states , she " has come far from the mute , shy little girl of Stamps , Arkansas " . As Hagen states , Angelou " is not yet ready to toss off the stings of prejudice , but tolerance and even a certain understanding can be glimpsed " . This is demonstrated in Angelou 's treatment of the " genocidal involvement of Africans in slave @-@ trading " , something that is often overlooked or misrepresented by other Black writers . Angelou is taught an important lesson about combating racism by Malcolm X , who compares it to a mountain in which everyone 's efforts , even the efforts of Shirley Graham DuBois , whom Angelou resents , is needed .
Angelou learns lessons about herself and about racism throughout Traveling Shoes , even during her brief tour of Venice and Berlin for The Blacks revival . She revives her passion for African @-@ American culture as she associates with other African @-@ Americans for the first time since moving to Ghana . She compares her experiences of American racism with Germany 's history of racial prejudice and military aggression . The verbal violence of the folk tales shared during her luncheon with her German hosts and Israeli friend is as significant to Angelou as physical violence , to the point that she becomes ill . Angelou 's first @-@ hand experience with fascism , as well as the racist sensibilities of the German family she visits , " help shape and broaden her constantly changing vision " regarding racial prejudice .
= = = Journey / Home = = =
I never agreed , even as a young person , with the Thomas Wolfe title You Can 't Go Home Again . Instinctively I didn ’ t . But the truth is , you can never leave home . You take it with you ; it ’ s under your fingernails ; it ’ s in the hair follicles ; it ’ s in the way you smile ; it ’ s in the ride of your hips , in the passage of your breasts ; it ’ s all there , no matter where you go . You can take on the affectations and the postures of other places and even learn to speak their ways . But the truth is , home is between your teeth .
--Maya Angelou , 1990
The journey , or travel , is a common theme in American autobiography as a whole ; as McPherson states , it is something of a national myth to Americans as a people . This is also the case for African @-@ American autobiography , which has its roots in the slave narrative . Like those narratives that focus on the writers ' search for freedom from bondage , modern African @-@ American autobiographers such as Angelou seek to develop " an authentic self " and the freedom to find it in their community . McPherson states , " The journey to a distant goal , the return home , and the quest which involves the voyage out , achievement , and return are typical patterns in Black autobiography " .
The travel motif is seen throughout Angelou 's series of autobiographies , emphasizing what Lupton describes as Angelou 's " continuing journey of the self " . Angelou continues the travel motif in Traveling Shoes , as evidenced in the book 's title , but her primary motivation in living in Africa , as she told interviewer George Plimpton , was " trying to get home " . Angelou not only relates her own journey of an African @-@ American woman searching for a home , but the journeys of other Black expatriates at the time , whom McPherson compares to the descriptions of white expatriates in Europe in the 1920s by Ernest Hemingway and Henry James .
Angelou was one of over two hundred Black American expatriates living in Accra at the time . She was able to find a small group of expatriates , humorously dubbed " the Revolutionary Returnees " , who became her main source of support as she struggled with her place in African culture — " the conflicting feelings of being ' home ' yet simultaneously being ' homeless , ' cut off from America without tangible roots in their adopted black nation " . For many Black Americans , it was the first time they were able to positively identify with Africa . Angelou describes the group of Black American expatriates as " a little group of Black folks , looking for a home " . Reviewer Jackie Gropman has stated that Angelou presents her readers with " a wealth of information and penetrating impressions of the proud , optimistic new country of Ghana " . Angelou also presents a " romanticized " view of Africa . She " falls in love " with Ghana and wishes to settle into her new home " as a baby nuzzles in a mother 's arms " .
Angelou soon discovers that her fellow Black expatriates " share similar delusions " and that their feelings towards Ghana and its people are not reciprocated . Lupton states , " Angelou 's alliance with the African @-@ American community often focuses on their indignation over the Ghanaians ' refusal to fully welcome them " . Angelou uses the parallel demonstration to King 's 1963 March on Washington to demonstrate both her and her fellow expatriates ' tenuous relationship with Africa and her desire for full citizenship and assimilation , an " unattainable goal that falls outside of her desire for assimilation " and something she can never acquire in Ghana . Not only is Angelou a Black American , whether she likes it or not , " she is a Black American in exile " . Houston A. Baker , Jr . , in his review of Traveling Shoes , states that Angelou is unable to experience a connection with what Angelou calls the " soul " of Africa , and that Angelou speculates that only the American Black , forcibly displaced and taken from the home of her ancestors , can truly understand " that home is the place where one is created " .
Angelou 's issues are resolved at the end of Traveling Shoes when she decides to leave Guy to continue his education in Accra and return to America . The final scene of the book is at the Accra airport , with Angelou surrounded by Guy and her friends as they wish her farewell . Even though she " forsakes her new embraced alliance with Mother Africa , " she claims she is " not sad " to be leaving . She calls her departure a " second leave @-@ taking " , and compares it to the last time she left her son , with his grandmother in Singin ' and Swingin ' and Gettin ' Merry Like Christmas when he was a child , and to the forced departure from Africa by her ancestors . As Lupton states , " Angelou 's journey from Africa back to America is in certain ways a restatement of the historical phase known as mid @-@ passage , when slaves were brutally transported in ships from West Africa to the so @-@ called New World " .
= = Critical reception = =
All God 's Children Need Traveling Shoes was greeted with both praise and disappointment , although reviews of the book were generally positive . According to the Poetry Foundation , " Most critics have judged Angelou ’ s subsequent autobiographies in light of her first , and I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings remains the most highly praised " . Hagen states that Traveling Shoes , as in her previous books , demonstrated Angelou 's " broad appeal " to both her readers and her critics . The book 's accuracy was verified by her close friend and fellow expatriate Julian Mayfield .
Even though Traveling Shoes is Angelou 's fifth book in her series of autobiographies , it is able to stand on its own . Houston A. Baker , Jr . , in his review of the book , called Angelou " one of the geniuses of Afro @-@ American serial autobiography " . Interviewer Connie Martinson told Angelou , " You make me , the reader ... live through it with you " . Scholar Eugenia Collier , writing when the possibility of the publication of consequent autobiographies in Angelou 's series was uncertain , considered Traveling Shoes " the apex toward which the other autobiographies have pointed " . Hagen considered Traveling Shoes " another professional , rich , full , journeyman text " , and saw a higher @-@ quality of writing , especially her " often lyrical and soaring " prose , than in her previous books . Other reviewers agree . Reviewer Janet A. Blundell found the book " absorbing reading " , and reviewer Jackie Gropman stated that the " prose sings " .
Some critics were less favorable in their views of All God 's Children Need Traveling Shoes . Even though the book left interviewer Russell Harris with " a haunting feeling " , he found the book more " pedantic " than her previous books , and thought that it contained fewer fictional aspects compared to Angelou 's other autobiographies . Scholar John C. Gruesser found the conflicts in the book unresolved and the ending " too easily manufactured at the last minute to resolve the problem of the book " . Reviewer Deborah E. McDowell agreed , and found the resolution of the plot to be " stereotyped and unauthentic " .
= Bad Timing ( Adventure Time ) =
" Bad Timing " is the forty @-@ ninth episode from the fifth season of Adventure Time , an animated television series . It was written by Pendleton Ward , who created the show , and Kent Osborne , its head of story . In the episode , Lumpy Space Princess falls in love with a former mate ( Mark Proksch ) from secondary school . When she suspects she has lost her date to Princess Bubblegum , she attempts to wield time travel to win back his affections .
Visually unique to this episode , it comprises two frames : a circular inner frame holds the main story , while the outer margins carry small creatures . The writers likened the story to revisiting a former high school peer who was , at the time , unnoticeable . Originally aired on 3 March 2014 , this broadcast was seen by more than one million viewers . Writers of entertainment @-@ related publications praised the episode for its depth of mood and visuals . The New Yorker critic Emily Nussbaum , in particular , saw it as establishing Lumpy 's intricacy as a character , and Eric Kohn in IndieWire called the episode the pièce de résistance of the show .
= = Background = =
Adventure Time follows the adventures of principal characters Finn the Human , aged 16 , and Jake the Dog . Recurring characters featured in " Bad Timing " include Princess Bubblegum and Lumpy Space Princess . As she governs her kingdom of candy people , Bubblegum works as a scientist on varying experiments . Meanwhile , Lumpy ( Pendleton Ward ) , portrayed as a valley girl , is the source of drama due to her arrogant personality and shallow relationships with others .
= = Plot = =
Princess Bubblegum demonstrates to company a device capable of time travel . Lumpy Space Princess comes in and demands Bubblegum transport Lumpy back to when she and her ex were still in love . Bubblegum explains that the machine is only capable of logging molecules of a given entity . Lumpy attacks her , and Bubblegum forces her to leave .
Lamenting at a bar , she meets Johnnie ( Mark Proksch ) , a former mate at their secondary school . Johnnie confesses his anxiety regarding a scheduled interview with Bubblegum for a business venture . Lumpy advises that he fix his posture as to appear more confident . Johnnie thanks Lumpy for her advice and invites her to his complex . There , the two fall in love and share good nights . When Lumpy finds Johnnie absent in the morning , she suspects that he , like her ex , has abandoned her . Much to her relief , she finds him cooking breakfast in his kitchen . When he returns from the interview , he reveals he has been invited to a separate meeting with Bubblegum at her castle . Lumpy asks that she appear with him , but Johnnie says the meeting is private . Supposing Bubblegum has stolen his heart , Lumpy leaves in a fit of rage .
Delivering a monologue on the passion necessary for love , Lumpy hurls a Molotov cocktail at the castle . Bubblegum considers its impact an attack on her kingdom and tells Johnnie to hide at the foot of their desk . When Lumpy finds Johnnie , she uses the device on him , attempting to revert him to when he loved her . Johnnie disappears ; when Bubblegum figures out what has happened , she informs Lumpy that by failing to log his molecules , he no longer exists as part of their universe . To avoid having to grieve , Lumpy asks Bubblegum to use the device , properly , on her . Erased of her memory past her attacking Bubblegum , Lumpy storms out . Bubblegum pours herself a drink .
= = Production = =
This episode is the forty @-@ ninth from the fifth season of Adventure Time . Visually , the episode is framed having the important events of the story occur in its center , bordered circularly . Small polygonal creatures appear in the margins of the outer frame . Film and television critic Eric Kohn , in IndieWire , dubbed the inner frame a time bubble , absorbing the creatures Bubblegum experiments on with the time travel device . Following Lumpy having her memory erased in the episode , Johnnie appears in the outer frame .
" Bad Timing " was written by Pendleton Ward and Kent Osborne . They previously collaborated with Jack Pendarvis and Adam Muto to come up with the idea for the episode , with the former duo adapting that to a storyboard . The creator of Adventure Time , Ward resigned from his occupation as its runner during production of the season . Osborne is the head of story . Alluding to the episode , for Hulu , Muto and Osborne summarized it as Lumpy confounding the concept of time travel . The writers related the episode to " one of those situations where you run into someone from high school and you 're like , ' Woah , why didn 't I ever notice you before ? ' " Alluded to in this episode , the one it precedes involves time travel as well .
= = Release and reception = =
Cartoon Network originally aired " Bad Timing " on 3 March 2014 . Over a million and a half people saw the episode live on broadcast . Television critic Emily Nussbaum gave this episode praise in The New Yorker , comparing it to a fairy tale characterized by laughter and sorrow . Kohn called its mood happy yet miserable the same , evoking more emotions as a whole than even the preceding episode . The A.V. Club writer Oliver Sava gave it an A grade , finding it , like Kohn , emotionally intense . Kohn praised the episode for supplying Lumpy , a usually arrogant character , with a tragic circumstance . Sava saw the character as more explored that way . Nussbaum , who considered the episode proof of her intricacy as a character , wrote that Lumpy appropriately shows pathos .
Sava specifically lauded the monologue delivered by Lumpy for showing her consistent strength that makes her so admirable . He further praised how the episode was capable of condensing mature topics for children the show is aimed at in a humorous way . Kohn opined the episode helms the " waters of eroticism " responsibly . In the Adventure Time – dedicated podcast Conversation Parade , hosted by John Moe and Open Mike Eagle , Moe found Johnnie written so " incredibly complicated , whimsy , and sad " that he performed – with the direction of guest Osborne – some of his lines on the podcast .
Kohn regarded its visuals as the pinnacle of the show . Sava wrote that the notion of time being a flat circle could have inspired the circular shape of the inner frame . He noted the use of color beyond the circle as a way to convey the many emotions evoked for the whole of the episode . Ignoring this device , Sava saw its use as humorous diversions while it contributed to the splendor . Nussbaum described the creatures appearing in the outer frame as annotative and a mute chorus , suggesting they live in a parallel universe of both connection and isolation . The episode was later released on DVD twice , first in the year of that broadcast , as part of the Princess Day box set , and later in 2015 , as part of a box set for the complete fifth season . Home video critic Justin Remer called " Bad Timing " " surprisingly devastating " in DVD Talk . Kohn summed up the episode 's climax as the pièce de résistance of Adventure Time .
= Hurricane John ( 2006 ) =
Hurricane John was the eleventh named storm , seventh hurricane , and fifth major hurricane of the 2006 Pacific hurricane season . Hurricane John developed on August 28 from a tropical wave to the south of Mexico . Favorable conditions allowed the storm to intensify quickly , and it attained peak winds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) on August 30 . Eyewall replacement cycles and land interaction with western Mexico weakened the hurricane , and John made landfall on southeastern Baja California Sur with winds of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) on September 1 . It slowly weakened as it moved northwestward through the Baja California peninsula , and dissipated on September 4 . Moisture from the remnants of the storm entered the southwest United States .
The hurricane threatened large portions of the western coastline of Mexico , resulting in the evacuation of tens of thousands of people . In coastal portions of western Mexico , strong winds downed trees , while heavy rain resulted in mudslides . Hurricane John caused moderate damage on the Baja California peninsula , including the destruction of more than 200 houses and thousands of flimsy shacks . The hurricane killed five people in Mexico , and damage totaled $ 663 million ( 2006 MXN , $ 60 @.@ 8 million 2006 USD ) . In the southwest United States , moisture from the remnants of John produced heavy rainfall . The rainfall aided drought conditions in portions of northern Texas , although it was detrimental in locations that had received above @-@ normal rainfall throughout the year .
= = Meteorological history = =
The tropical wave that would become John moved off the coast of Africa on August 17 . It entered the eastern Pacific Ocean on August 24 , and quickly showed signs of organization . That night , Dvorak classifications were initiated on the system while it was just west of Costa Rica , and it moved west @-@ northwestward at 10 – 15 mph ( 15 – 25 km / h ) . Conditions appeared favorable for further development , and convection increased late on August 26 over the area of low pressure . Early on August 27 , the system became much better organized about 250 miles ( 400 km ) south @-@ southwest of Guatemala , although convection remained minimal . Early on August 28 , banding increased within its organizing convection , and the system developed into Tropical Depression Eleven @-@ E.
Due to low amounts of vertical shear , very warm waters , and abundant moisture , steady intensification was forecast , and the depression strengthened to Tropical Storm John later on August 28 . Deep convection continued to develop over the storm , while an eye feature developed within the expanding central dense overcast . The storm continued to intensify , and John attained hurricane status on August 29 while 190 miles ( 305 km ) south @-@ southeast of Acapulco . Banding features continued to increase as the hurricane moved west @-@ northwestward around the southwest periphery of a mid- to upper @-@ level ridge over northern Mexico . The hurricane underwent rapid intensification , and John attained major hurricane status 12 hours after becoming a hurricane . Shortly thereafter , the eye became obscured , and the intensity remained at 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) due to an eyewall replacement cycle . Another eye formed , and based on Reconnaissance data , the hurricane attained Category 4 status on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale on August 30 about 160 miles ( 260 km ) west of Acapulco , or 95 miles ( 155 km ) south of Lázaro Cárdenas , Michoacán . Hours later , the hurricane underwent another eyewall replacement cycle , and subsequently weakened to Category 3 status as it paralleled the Mexican coastline a short distance offshore .
Due to land interaction and its eyewall replacement cycle , Hurricane John weakened to a 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) hurricane by late on August 31 , but restrengthened to a major hurricane shortly after as its eye became better defined . After completing another eyewall replacement cycle , the hurricane again weakened to Category 2 status , and on September 1 it made landfall on Cabo del Este on the southern tip of Baja California Sur with winds of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) . John passed near La Paz as a weakening Category 1 hurricane on September 2 , and weakened to a tropical storm shortly thereafter over land . John continued to weaken , and late on September 3 the system deteriorated to a tropical depression while still over land . By September 4 , most of the convection decoupled from the circulation towards mainland Mexico , and a clear circulation had not been discernible for 24 hours . Based on the disorganization of the system , the National Hurricane Center issued its last advisory on the system .
= = Preparations = =
The Mexican army and emergency services were stationed near the coast , while classes at public schools in and around Acapulco were canceled . Officials in Acapulco advised residents in low @-@ lying areas to be on alert , and also urged fishermen to return to harbor . Authorities in the twin resort cities of Ixtapa and Zihuatanejo closed the port to small ocean craft . Government officials in the state of Jalisco declared a mandatory evacuation for 8 @,@ 000 citizens in low @-@ lying areas to 900 temporary shelters . Temporary shelters were also set up near Acapulco . The state of Michoacán was on a yellow alert , the middle of a five @-@ level alert system . Carnival Cruise Lines diverted the path of one cruise ship traveling along the Pacific waters off Mexico .
On August 31 , the Baja California Sur state government ordered the evacuation of more than 10 @,@ 000 residents . Those who refused to follow the evacuation order would have been forced to evacuate by the army . Shelters were set up to allow local residents and tourists to ride out the storm . Just weeks after a major flood in the area , officials evacuated hundreds of citizens in Las Presas in northern Mexico area near a dam . All public schools in the area were closed , as well .
The United States ' National Weather Service issued flood watches and warnings for portions of Texas and the southern two @-@ thirds of New Mexico .
= = Impact = =
= = = Mexico = = =
The powerful winds of Hurricane John produced heavy surf and downed trees near Acapulco . The hurricane produced a 10 foot ( 3 m ) storm surge in Acapulco that flooded coastal roads . In addition , John caused heavy rainfall along the western coast of Mexico , peaking at 12 @.@ 5 inches ( 317 @.@ 5 mm ) in Los Planes , Jalisco . The rainfall resulted in mudslides in the Costa Chica region of Guerrero , leaving around 70 communities isolated .
In La Paz , capital of Baja California Sur , the hurricane downed 40 power poles . Authorities cut off the power supply to the city to prevent electrocutions from downed wires . Strong winds downed trees and destroyed many advertisement signs . Heavy rainfall totaling more than 20 inches ( 500 mm ) in isolated areas resulted in ankle @-@ deep flooding , closing many roads in addition to the airport in La Paz . In La Paz , 300 families received damage to their homes , with another 200 families left homeless after their houses were destroyed . The combination of winds and rain destroyed thousands of flimsy houses across the region . The rainfall also destroyed large areas of crops , and also killed many livestock . The rainfall caused the Iguagil dam in Comondú to overflow , isolating 15 towns due to 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) floodwaters . In the coastal city of Mulegé , flash flooding caused widespread damage throughout the town and the death of a United States citizen . More than 250 homes were damaged or destroyed in the town , leaving many people homeless . Severe flooding blocked portions of Federal Highway 1 , and damaged an aqueduct in the region .
In all , Hurricane John destroyed hundreds of houses and blew off the roofs of 160 houses on the Baja California peninsula . Five people were killed , and damage in Mexico amounted to $ 663 million ( 2006 MXN , $ 60 @.@ 8 million 2006 USD ) .
In Ciudad Juárez , Chihuahua , across the U.S. border from El Paso , Texas , rainfall from the storm 's remnants flooded 20 neighborhoods , downed power lines , and resulted in several traffic accidents . Rainfall from John , combined with continual precipitation during the two weeks before the storm , left thousands of people homeless .
= = = United States = = =
Moisture from the remnants of John combined with an approaching cold front to produce moderate amounts of rainfall across the southwest United States , including a total of 8 inches ( 200 mm ) in Whitharral and more than 3 inches ( 75 mm ) in El Paso , Texas . The rainfall flooded many roads in southwestern Texas , including a ½ mile ( 800 m ) portion of Interstate 10 in El Paso . A slick runway at El Paso International Airport delayed a Continental Airlines jet when its tires were stuck in mud . Rainfall from John in El Paso , combined with an unusually wet year , resulted in twice the normal annual rainfall , and caused 2006 to be the ninth wettest year on record by September . Damage totaled about $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 2006 USD ) in the El Paso area from the precipitation . In northern Texas , the rainfall alleviated a severe drought , caused the Double Mountain Fork Brazos River to swell and Lake Alan Henry to overflow . The Texas Department of Transportation closed numerous roads due to flooding from the precipitation , including a portion of U.S. Route 385 near Levelland . Several other roads were washed out .
Moisture derived from John also produced rainfall across southern New Mexico , peaking at 5 @.@ 25 inches ( 133 mm ) at Ruidoso . The rainfall overflowed rivers , forcing people to evacuate along the Rio Ruidoso . The rainfall also caused isolated road flooding . Rainfall in New Mexico canceled an annual wine festival in Las Cruces and caused muddy conditions at the All American Futurity at the Ruidoso Downs , the biggest day of horse racing in New Mexico . Flooding was severe in Mesquite , Hatch , and Rincon , where many homes experienced 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) of flooding and mud . Some homeowners lost all they owned . Tropical moisture from the storm also produced rainfall in Arizona and Southern California . In California , the rainfall produced eight separate mudslides , trapping 19 vehicles , but caused no injuries .
= = Aftermath = =
Branches of the Mexican Red Cross in Guerrero , Oaxaca and Michoacán were put on alert . The organization 's national emergency response team was on stand @-@ by to assist the most affected areas . Navy helicopters delivered food and water to remote areas of the Baja California peninsula . The Mexican Red Cross dispatched 2 @,@ 000 food parcels to the southern tip of Baja California Sur . In the city of Mulegé , gas supply , which was necessary to run generators , was low , drinking water was gone , and the airstrip was covered with mud . Many homeless residents initially stayed with friends or in government @-@ run shelters . Throughout the Baja California peninsula , thousands remained without water or electricity two days after the storm , although a pilot from Phoenix prepared to fly to the disaster area with 100 gallons ( 380 litres ) of water . Other pilots were expected to execute similar flights , as well . The office of Baja California Sur Tourism stated that minimal damage occurred to the tourism infrastructure , with only minimal delays to airports , roads , and maritime facilities . The Episcopal Relief and Development delivered food , clothing , medicine , and transportation to about 100 families , and gave mattresses to about 80 families .
Many residents in Tucson , including more than 50 students , delivered supplies to flood victims in New Mexico , including clothing and other donations .
= Fort Manoel =
Fort Manoel ( Maltese : Forti Manoel or Fortizza Manoel ) is a star fort on Manoel Island in Gżira , Malta . It was built in the 18th century by the Order of Saint John , during the reign of Grand Master António Manoel de Vilhena , after whom it is named . The British military took over the fort in 1800 and it remained in use by them until 1964 . The fort was severely damaged in World War II , but it was restored and it is now in good condition .
Fort Manoel is located to the north west of Valletta , and commands Marsamxett Harbour and the anchorage of Sliema Creek . The fort is an example of Baroque architecture , and it was designed with both functionality and aesthetics in mind .
Fort Manoel has been on Malta 's tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites since 1998 , as part of the Knights ' Fortifications around the Harbours of Malta .
= = History = =
= = = Background and failed proposals = = =
In the 16th century , the Marsamxett Harbour was one of the two major harbours in the Maltese city of Valletta . In the centre of the harbour was an island , originally known as l 'Isolotto and now known as Manoel Island after the fort , which overlooked the city . Shortly after Valletta 's construction , the Order of Saint John realised this was a potential vulnerability in the city 's defences . As early as 1569 , it was proposed that a small fort with a cavalier be built on the Isolotto to prevent the enemy from taking the island and building batteries on it . The threat was again highlighted by the Spanish military engineer Scipione Campi in 1577 , and by Giovanni Battista in 1582 .
The next proposal to build a fortification on the island was made by the Italian military engineer Antonio Maurizio Valperga in 1670 . He proposed a roughly hexagonal fort with a hornwork , in the Dutch style of fortification . The proposal was criticized by the Order 's engineers , and a third proposal was drawn up by the Flemish military engineer Carlos de Grunenbergh in 1687 . Grunenburgh 's proposal consisted of a fort with four bastions and a ravelin , surrounded by a ditch , covertway and faussebraye .
Other proposals were made in 1715 , this time by the knight René Jacob de Tigné and a team of French engineers . There were several different plans , including building a coastal battery and a redoubt . Other plans included building a four @-@ bastioned fort , or combining all three ( fort , battery and redoubt ) for the defence of the island .
= = = Construction = = =
Eventually , the final design was agreed in 1723 , and it incorporated the work of de Tigné as well as Charles François de Mondion , the Order 's military engineer . The new fort was to be square in shape , with four bastions and two cavaliers . The fort was financed by , and named after , the Portuguese Grand Master , António Manoel de Vilhena . He also set up the Manoel Foundation , a fund responsible for the maintenance and garrison of Fort Manoel and its outworks .
The first stone was laid by de Vilhena on 14 September 1723 , and work progressed rapidly . By 1727 , the enceinte , cavaliers and gateway were complete . The ditch had been excavated by 1732 , while the chapel , barracks , magazines and countermines were completed in around 1733 . The fort was an active military establishment by 1734 . When Mondion died in 1733 , he was buried in the crypt under the fort 's chapel .
In 1757 , Lembi Battery was added near Tigné Point , Sliema . The battery was funded by the Manoel Foundation and it was considered to be an outwork of Fort Manoel , since it was intended to prevent an enemy from bombarding the fort 's northern flank . It was decommissioned following the construction of Fort Tigné in 1795 . The construction of the latter fort was also partially funded by the Manoel Foundation .
= = = French occupation = = =
The fort first saw use during the French invasion of Malta in June 1798 , in the French Revolutionary Wars . At the time , it was commanded by the Portuguese knight Gourgeau , and it was garrisoned by the Cacciatori , who were a volunteer chasseur light infantry regiment , as well as a few men from the Birchircara militia . The fort surrendered after Grand Master Hompesch officially capitulated to Napoleon .
A French garrison of a few hundred men took over the fort on 12 June . During the subsequent Maltese uprising and insurrection against the French , Maltese insurgents built Għargħar and Sqaq Cappara batteries to bombard Fort Manoel . The Maltese attacked the fort on a number of occasions , and the French retaliated with their own bombardment at least once . On 12 September 1799 , a company of French troops from Fort Manoel attempted to silence an insurgent gun position in San Ġwann , but were repelled by the Maltese insurgents .
= = = British rule = = =
When Malta became a British protectorate in 1800 , Fort Manoel was officially taken over by the British military that September . In the late 19th century , the echaugettes on the bastions facing Valletta were dismantled to make way for gun emplacements . Later on , significant alterations were made to St. Anthony Bastion , when its gunpowder magazine was demolished to make way for a battery of three QF 12 @-@ pounder guns .
The British military finally decommissioned the fort 's guns in 1906 , although it remained a military establishment . It was included on the Antiquities List of 1925 . The fort saw use again during World War II , when a battery of 3 @.@ 7 @-@ inch heavy anti @-@ aircraft guns was deployed there . The guns were mounted in concrete gun emplacements and deployed in a semicircle in and around the fort . The fort suffered considerable damage to its ramparts , barracks and chapel as a result of aerial bombing during the war . The fort was eventually decommissioned in 1964 .
= = = Recent history = = =
After being decommissioned , Fort Manoel was abandoned and fell into a state of disrepair . Parts of it were also vandalized . In 1970 , the Royal Malta Yacht Club acquired part of the fort as its club house , and the yacht club remained there until it acquired new premises in Ta ' Xbiex in 2008 .
In August 2001 , the development company MIDI plc began restoration work on the fort . Phase One of the project , which included the restoration of the piazza and the reconstruction of the ruined chapel , was completed in 2009 . The second phase , including the restoration of the outer fortifications and glacis , was approved by the Malta Environment and Planning Authority in 2012 . The restoration of Fort Manoel together with that of the nearby Fort Tigné cost a total of € 30 million .
= = Layout = =
Fort Manoel is built in the shape of a square , with a pentagonal bastion on each corner , giving it the shape of a star fort . The four bastions are called St. Helen , St. Anthony , St. John and Notre Dame Bastions .
St. Helen and St. Anthony Bastions are located on the seaward side , facing Valletta . They originally had echaugettes and gunpowder magazines , but the echaugettes on both bastions were dismantled in the 19th century , and the magazine on St. Anthony Bastion was demolished to make way for three QF 12 @-@ pounder gun emplacements . The magazine on St. Helen Bastion is still intact . The curtain wall linking these two bastions contains the main gate , which is protected by a lunette known as the Couvre Porte .
St. John and Notre Dame Bastions are located along the landward side of the fort . Each bastion is protected by a low cavalier . The curtain wall between the two bastions is further protected by a pentagonal ravelin , which is largely rock hewn .
A Piazza is located inside the fort , and it contains the rebuilt Chapel of St. Anthony of Padua , several barrack blocks , an armoury and other buildings . A statue of Grand Master Vilhena once stood in the square but it was removed in the 19th century and relocated to Valletta . It was later relocated once again and it is now in Floriana .
= = Ghost story = =
The fort is supposedly haunted by the Black Knight , who wears the armour and regalia of the Order of St. John , and resembles Grand Master de Vilhena . In the 1940s , the knight began to appear out of thin air near the ruins of the Chapel of St. Anthony of Padua , which had just been bombed in World War II . The apparition was reportedly seen by Maltese and English men within the fort . When the rubble from the ruined chapel began to be cleared , the workmen reported that the knight was supervising their work . When the crypt beneath the chapel was opened , it was found that it had been vandalized , and the remains of knights which had been buried there were scattered around . After the crypt was restored and the bones were reburied , the Black Knight stopped appearing . In 1980 , the crypt was vandalized for a second time , and the Black Knight reportedly began to appear again .
= = In popular culture = =
Fort Manoel is featured in the 2007 fiction book Il @-@ Misteru tal @-@ Forti Manoel ( The Mystery of Fort Manoel ) by Charles Zarb .
The fort served as a location for the shooting of the climactic scene of Baelor , the ninth episode of the TV series Game of Thrones , in 2011 .
The fort was also used in the filming of the 2016 films Risen and Assassin 's Creed .
The fort is also visible in the 2016 film 13 Hours : The Secret Soldiers of Benghazi .
= Graudenz @-@ class cruiser =
The Graudenz class of light cruisers was a class of two ships built for the German Imperial Navy . The class comprised SMS Graudenz and SMS Regensburg . The ships both were laid down in 1912 , launched in October 1913 and April 1914 and commissioned in August 1914 and January 1915 , respectively . They were armed with a main battery of twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm guns , though over the course of their careers , they were rearmed with seven more powerful 15 cm guns . They displaced 6 @,@ 382 t ( 6 @,@ 281 long tons ) at full load and were rated at a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph )
Both ships saw extensive service during World War I , primarily in the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet . They participated in several raids on the British coast , screening for the battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group . Regensburg saw heavy combat at the Battle of Jutland , the largest naval battle of the war ; Graudenz had been damaged by a mine and was in dock for repairs at the time of the battle . Both were involved in the Wilhelmshaven mutiny at the end of the war . Following Germany 's defeat , Graudenz was ceded to Italy and served as Ancona until 1937 , when she was sold for scrap . Regensburg was transferred to France , where she served as Strasbourg until 1936 , when she was converted into a barracks ship . She was ultimately scuttled in Lorient to protect the German U @-@ boat pens there .
= = Design = =
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
The ships of the Graudenz class were 139 meters ( 456 ft ) long at the waterline and 142 @.@ 70 m ( 468 @.@ 2 ft ) long overall . They had a beam of 13 @.@ 80 m ( 45 @.@ 3 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 75 m ( 18 @.@ 9 ft ) forward and 6 @.@ 08 m ( 19 @.@ 9 ft ) aft . They displaced 4 @,@ 912 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 834 long tons ) at designed displacement and 6 @,@ 382 t ( 6 @,@ 281 long tons ) at full combat load . The ships ' hulls were constructed with longitudinal steel frames and contained seventeen watertight compartments and a double bottom that extended for forty @-@ seven percent of the length of the keel .
The two vessels each had a standard crew of twenty @-@ one officers and 364 enlisted men . While serving as a second command flagship or a flotilla leader , they had an additional three officers and fourteen enlisted men for the commander 's staff . They carried a number of smaller boats , including one picket boat , one barge , one cutter , two yawls , and two dinghies . The German Navy regarded the ships as good sea boats , with slight weather helm and gentle motion in a swell . The cruisers were maneuverable , but were slow going into a turn . Steering was controlled by a single large rudder . They lost speed only slightly in a head sea , but lost up to sixty percent in hard turns . They had a transverse metacentric height of .79 m ( 2 ft 7 in ) .
The ships ' propulsion system consisted of two sets of Marine @-@ type steam turbines , each of which drove a three @-@ bladed screw 3 @.@ 50 m ( 11 ft 6 in ) in diameter . Each turbine was divided into its own engine room . They were designed to give 26 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 000 kW ) . These were powered by ten coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers and two oil @-@ fired double @-@ ended boilers , divided into four boiler rooms on the centerline . These gave the ship a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) . The ships carried 1 @,@ 280 t ( 1 @,@ 260 long tons ) of coal , and an additional 375 t ( 369 long tons ) of oil that gave them a range of approximately 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . At 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) , the range fell considerably , to 1 @,@ 000 nmi ( 1 @,@ 900 km ; 1 @,@ 200 mi ) . Each ship had two turbo generators and one diesel generator with a combined output of 260 kilowatts ( 350 hp ) at 220 Volts .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
The ships were armed with twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , eight were located amidships , four on either side , and two in a superfiring pair aft . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 12 @,@ 700 m ( 41 @,@ 700 ft ) . These were replaced with seven 15 cm SK L / 45 guns and two 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns in 1916 for Graudenz and 1917 for Regensburg . They were also equipped with a pair of 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes submerged in the hull on the broadside . Two deck @-@ mounted launchers were added for Graudenz when the gun armament was upgraded ; Regensburg had her submerged tubes removed and four deck mounted launchers installed . Both ships could also carry 120 mines .
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@ 182 was continuity : each song develops lyrically like chapters in a book , and songs segue into one another to present a cohesive feel instead of a regular collection of tracks . In addition to the side @-@ projects , the music of the album was inspired by the September 11 attacks and the onset of the Iraq War . The mood was unsettling for DeLonge , whose brother is a Navy officer : " It was so weird because we 'd all be glued to the TV , watching these bombs explode over another country . So I 'd see all this and wonder where he was at , and then we 'd have to go into the next room and sing or finish writing lyrics . I think it affected our moods throughout the day . " In addition , it was just inspired by socializing : " We would just hang out for hours talking . It was really cool , " said DeLonge .
= = = Lyrics = = =
Music critics agreed that this album represents a more " mature " Blink @-@ 182 than seen in the past , noticeable by the absence of songs with toilet humour or jokes for which the band had been known . Mark Hoppus , the bassist in the band , said in an interview with MTV Album Launch that the desired effect of the album was for people to listen to it and say , " Wait a minute ... that 's Blink @-@ 182 ? " The themes for the album include growing up and dealing with the realities of adulthood including relationship woes , daily pressures and unexpected hardships . The album is lyrically consumed with sorrow and uncertainty about the world . Entertainment Weekly described the album as a concept album based on a dying relationship , a " self @-@ meditation on romantic decay . " " I think at this point in our career , we are better musicians and we 've evolved our way of thinking as far as songwriting , " DeLonge told Billboard in reference to the band 's more mature lyricism . Hoppus , in his interview with the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel , described the lyrics as the most personal he had written up to that point . While past recordings tended to meditate on feelings from high school , the band felt it was akin to safety net and desired to write about " what 's going on [ … ] right now . " Lyrics continued to be autobiographical , but the band took more time than usual on their writing . DeLonge would routinely rewrite his sections upwards of four times .
= = Songs = =
The record opens with " Feeling This " , which features flanged drums and an unconventional " syncopated Latin @-@ flavored backbeat and a harmony @-@ rich chorus " following a series of " half @-@ barked " vocals . " Feeling This " was the first song written for the album , and illustrates a scenario of lust , ambivalence and regret , with the protagonist of the song reflecting over his romance 's dimming flame in the chorus : " Fate fell short this time / Your smile fades in the summer . " Hoppus and DeLonge wrote the song in two different rooms and upon meeting to discuss the song , the two realized they had both written about sex : the passionate , lustful side ( reflected in the verses ) and the romantic side ( the choruses ) . It segues into " Obvious " , which explores the Wall of Sound technique and features a brooding , heavy intro combined with cascading guitar riffs . " Obvious " equates broken hearts with global violence . " I Miss You " is an all @-@ acoustic affair , featuring a melancholy piano , cello , upright acoustic bass , and a " brushstroked hip @-@ hop groove . " The song features references to Tim Burton 's 1993 animated film The Nightmare Before Christmas , with " We can live like Jack and Sally " and " We 'll have Halloween on Christmas " . In interviews and the liner notes for Blink @-@ 182 , Barker reveals that the line was directed towards his then girlfriend , Shanna Moakler . " Violence " flicks between " bizarre , spoken jazzy verses and anthemic punk rock choruses . "
" Stockholm Syndrome " has been described as " the most obvious examples of Blink @-@ 182 's experimentation " , was recorded using a microphone dating back to the 1950s , and the reverb on the vocals was achieved by playing the recordings into a shower . The drum fills for the song were recorded separately than the rest of the tracks , with the tape machines " sped up and super compressed " , then played back at normal speed , to sound really " deep and gigantic " , according to Hoppus in the liner notes for Blink @-@ 182 . It features an interlude before it in which Joanne Whalley reads letters Hoppus ' grandfather wrote to his grandmother during World War II . DeLonge explained the letters as " Real sincere , genuine letters from the worst war in history . " " Down " continues the theme of longing , set to a rain @-@ drenched soundscape . The original version of " Down " ran over six minutes long , and contained a drum and bass breakdown from Barker . " The Fallen Interlude " , which functions as an outro to " Down " , finds Barker showcasing different percussive techniques over a funk @-@ tinged jazz sound . It is a near @-@ instrumental recorded with Sick Jacken of hip @-@ hop band Psycho Realm . " Go " is the record 's only straight punk rock song , and precedes " Asthenia " , in which real NASA transmissions from the Apollo 9 space flight are used . " Asthenia " is centered on a fictional astronaut stranded in space , floating in an Apollo capsule , and contemplating whether or not returning to his home planet . It is also the only song in Blink 182 's catalog that to feature a 3 / 4 time signature ( during the bridge ) . The song was inspired by DeLonge ’ s self @-@ admitted " paranoia " regarding the future and how war and famine could effect it .
" Always " features an uptempo backbeat combined with a New Romantic @-@ era keyboard , and pulls from new wave influences ; the band often jokingly called the track the " ' 80s song . " It contains a riff reminiscent of The Only Ones ' " Another Girl , Another Planet " . " Easy Target " and " All of This " were based on a story from producer Jerry Finn 's middle school years . Finn was in love with a female classmate , Holly , who invited him over , only for have her and her friend drench him with a hose ; humiliated , he rode home on his bicycle . " All of This " is a gothic @-@ tinged pop song that uses strings and guitar effects to create a moody atmosphere . The track " Here 's Your Letter " , according to Hoppus in the liner notes for Blink @-@ 182 , is about " people 's inability to communicate with one another and how words and explanations only confuse the issues . " " I 'm Lost Without You " mixes an industrial loop with piano . The latter track took many months to create , and took " over 50 " different tracks , including two drum sets combined during the last minute of the song . Barker described the idea for the percussion combination as " something we always wanted to do , but never got around to , " and believed the song sounded like Pink Floyd or Failure .
The UK edition of the record features B @-@ side " Not Now " , originally recorded during the sessions . " Not Now " features a church organ in its verses and guitar riffs reminiscent of the Descendents ; its subject matter continues the theme of complicated miscommunication and fading love .
= = Packaging and title = =
Due to some contradicting sources , the title of the album ( or lack thereof ) is debated . Travis Barker , in his memoir Can I Say , writes that " Some people think it ’ s a self @-@ titled album , called Blink @-@ 182 , but Mark [ Hoppus ] has always insisted it was actually untitled . " A 2003 interview and article from MTV News discussing the naming of the pending album repeatedly refers to the release as the " untitled album , " while a press release from that time period confirms the same . Despite this , several critics have used the terms " eponymous " and " self @-@ titled " in describing the album . In a 2009 MTV News article , James Montgomery refers to the album as self @-@ titled , joking , " Or Untitled … It 's never really been clear . " The title for the album was originally rumored to be Use Your Erection I & II , a parody of the Guns N ' Roses albums Use Your Illusion I and II , but was revealed to be a joke Barker made to " get a rise out of people . " DeLonge , in reference to previous joke album titles ( such as Enema of the State ) , stated , " We didn 't want to label it with a joke title that people might expect . " As such , a Billboard article from the week of the album 's release lists three rejected joke titles : Diarrhea de Janeiro , Vasectomy , Vasect @-@ a @-@ you and " Our Pet Sounds " .
To support the new album , Blink @-@ 182 created an entirely new logo , a " smiley face " with X 's for each eye and five arrows on the left side of its face . According to Barker , the Blink @-@ 182 logo originated at his clothing line , Famous Stars and Straps . Barker wanted to brand an icon for the band : " It just had to be a cool kind of happy face but I wanted arrows . You know , like The Jam were my favorite band , they always had arrows in their logos and stuff . It was just kind of inspired by pop @-@ art . " Hoppus seconded this sentiment : " He spearheaded all the artwork for the record . There were smiley @-@ face stickers and posters all over Los Angeles , and that was his idea . " Barker invited his tattoo artist , Mister Cartoon , to create artwork for the record , and his good friend Estevan Oriol to handle photography . " His style , incorporated into Blink ’ s , didn ’ t make us too gangster : it just gave us a bit of an edge . It was cool to feel like Blink had a dangerous side , " Barker later remembered . The logo was later changed to have six arrows around the time that they released " Neighborhoods " . Their reunion record .
musicOMH described the album booklet as " ... Meticulously put together and resembling a Warholian pastiche . " Each song includes small notes detailing the lyrical inspiration for each song , what it means to each band member , and the recording techniques used . The band originally wanted each CD booklet to be made from canvas material . Geffen gave the band a choice between the custom artwork or keeping the sale price down to US $ 12 , and the band chose the latter , as they felt it was more important that young listeners obtain the record for less money .
= = Promotion and singles = =
Blink @-@ 182 was the band 's first release on Geffen , which absorbed sister label MCA Records in 2003 . Prior to it dissolving , MCA had attempted to penalize the band for breaking stipulations in their contract that they would have an album out by a specific quarter . MCA had previously rushed the band into recording Take Off Your Pants and Jacket , but the band had much more freedom with Geffen . " Geffen came down and heard three songs and they said , ' This is the best record you 've ever done , this is the record of your career , take as much time as you want , call us when it 's done . ' It just completely outlined the perspective of putting accounting before creative , and when you 're in the entertainment business , you 've got to put creative first . It 's an art , you 've got to look at it like an art , treat it like an art , and then you 'll get the best product in the long run . "
Promotion for the record included a " golden ticket " contest – the prize being a private Blink @-@ 182 show for the winner . MTV 's website streamed the full album a week before its release , beginning on November 10 . As promotion for the album and single release [ s ] , the band performed " Feeling This " on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! on a week after the release of the album on November 26 , 2003 , and " Down " on Late Show with David Letterman on May 27 , 2004 . Performances of " I Miss You " and " The Rock Show " on The WB 's Pepsi Smash concert series from June 10 , 2004 , were released on the Australian Tour edition of the album , as well as the " Always " single .
The band picked " Feeling This " as the first single because it was representative of the transition the band had undergone since Take Off Your Pants and Jacket . A slightly different version of the song had been released previously as part of the soundtrack for the video game Madden NFL 2004 under the erroneous title " Action " . Barker explained in an interview that " ' Action ' just sounded kind of dorky to us . Like we would always call it ' Feeling This ' and then someone at our label , I think , like wrote it as ' Action ' one time and sent out singles to people . And it was always supposed to be ' Feeling This ' . " The video for " Feeling This " was recorded shortly before the release of the album in October 2003 . The track peaked high at number 2 on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart , hovering at that position for three weeks . " I Miss You " was commissioned as the record 's second single in December 2003 , when the band recorded a music video for it . " I Miss You " became arguably the most successful single from the album , becoming Blink @-@ 182 's second number 1 hit on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart during the week of April 3 , 2004 , until dethroned by Hoobastank 's " The Reason " two weeks later .
Despite briefly considering " Easy Target " to be released as the album 's third single , " Down " was released instead . The video for " Down " , which features real @-@ life ex @-@ gang members , made its television premiere in June 2004 . The single was a mixed success , peaking at number 10 on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart during the week of July 31 , 2004 , but quickly falling off afterward . " Always " was announced as the fourth and final single from Blink @-@ 182 in August 2004 . " It 's gonna change people 's lives and might actually change the world forever , " DeLonge jokingly predicted . After deciding on the video concept , the clip was recorded and released in November 2004 , and continued success all the way into January 2005 . A fifth single from the album ( " All of This " ) was discussed ; however , plans were dropped following the band 's declaration of an ' indefinite hiatus ' in February 2005 . In response to the idea of " All of This " becoming a possible single , DeLonge joked " We would love it because it 's a bad @-@ ass song , and The Cure 's Robert Smith sings on it , and that makes us cooler than everybody else . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial performance = = =
The album debuted at number three on the US Billboard 200 chart , with first @-@ week sales of 313 @,@ 000 copies . In comparison , Take Off Your Pants and Jacket debuted at number one and sold more than 350 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . The album charted at number three , below fellow new album In the Zone by Britney Spears ( number one ) and above remix album Let It Be ... Naked by The Beatles ( number five ) . Blink @-@ 182 charted highest in Canada , where it debuted at number one . The album was also successful in other countries , debuting in the top ten in Australia and New Zealand .
The album was certified by the RIAA as platinum for shipments of over one million copies in 2004 , although it has since sold over 2 @.@ 2 million copies in the US and 7 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide. and the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) and Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) as double platinum , respectively . The album has also reached platinum certifications in the United Kingdom .
= = = Critical response = = =
The album received generally favorable reviews by music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 71 , based on 12 reviews . Jenny Eliscu of Rolling Stone , while giving the album four stars , wrote that " ... their lyrics are still unsophisticated and lovelorn , but even the poppiest tunes prove artful " . Her review regards Blink @-@ 182 as " more experimental and harder @-@ hitting than anything else [ the band ] has done " . It was subsequently included in the Top 50 Best of 2003 end of the year list by Rolling Stone . The album was given four stars by Allmusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine , who called Blink @-@ 182 " an unexpected and welcome maturation from a band that just an album ago seemed permanently stuck in juvenilia . " Blender 's Jonah Weiner praised DeLonge 's vocals , describing them as a " lean , thrilling ride through adolescent hopelessness . " Many critics expressed surprise at the newfound maturity of the band , and lauded the surprise appearance of The Cure vocalist Robert Smith on the track " All of This " .
The band 's decision in favor of more mature material was received positively by many critics ; Tim Newbound of Soul Shine Magazine wrote that " Blink show that they can retain their infectious and endearing qualities while recording music of a more thoughtful calibre . " Spin described the record as emotionally intense , and best experienced through headphones . USA Today 's Edna Gundersen felt that " Blink @-@ 182 bravely adheres to a single sober theme — a disintegrating romance — through 14 songs that adhere to its pop @-@ punk principles without recycling cartoonish accessories . Blink @-@ 182 is growing up , not growing stale . " Nick Catucci of The Village Voice called the album " brilliant " and compared Blink @-@ 182 to fellow pop punk band Green Day 's 2000 effort , Warning , writing , " Let it be noted , however , that Warning searches for subject matter where Blink @-@ 182 searches for meaning . " Greg Kot of Entertainment Weekly wrote that " Despite their newfound earnestness , [ the band ] seem incapable of pretension . And in a career littered with songs about awkward moments , their latest is a dork classic . " Scott Shelter of Slant gave the album four stars , stating " Giving up the fart jokes is risky business for Blink — but Blink @-@ 182 might just be the band 's best album to date . " Among the more negative reviews , Jason Arnopp of Q felt the majority of material forgettable , but commended it as " some of their most imaginatively constructed work . " The A.V. Club 's Stephen Thompson believed " The disc [ does ] meander in spots , and its most achingly sincere love songs become cloying . "
= = Touring = =
Blink @-@ 182 announced their first tour in support of Blink @-@ 182 on October 17 , 2003 , named the DollaBill Tour . The all @-@ ages club tour featured support acts Bubba Sparxxx and The Kinison , and , as the name suggests , tickets were sold for $ 1 . DeLonge explained the first return to small venues in several years in the initial press release for the tour : " For years we played in small clubs and that 's where you can really connect with your fans . " The tour ended shortly after the release of Blink @-@ 182 on November 21 , 2003 , at local San Diego venue SOMA . An additional concert at the Phoenix Concert Theatre on December 2 , 2003 , was held in Toronto , Canada with My Chemical Romance as the opener .
A performance at KWOD 's Twisted X @-@ Mas show shortly before Christmas 2003 became the final show of the year , and a European tour followed during in mid @-@ February 2004 . During an Australian tour in March 2004 , Barker injured his foot and the band was forced to cancel tour dates in Japan for the rest of the month . A U.S. tour took place from late April to May 2004 , and a highly publicized tour featuring Blink @-@ 182 and No Doubt was performed during June 2004 , in support of Blink @-@ 182 and No Doubt 's The Singles 1992 – 2003 . The cancelled Australian tour dates were rescheduled and performed in August and September 2004 . The band appeared on September 17 , 2004 , at the MTV Icon tribute to The Cure , performing a cover of " A Letter to Elise " and " All of This " , which was recorded and later broadcast on October 31 , 2004 . The band headed to Europe for a two @-@ week tour near the end of the year , which culminated at their final show on December 16 , 2004 , at the Point Theatre in Dublin , Ireland .
Although the band had planned for a U.S. tour in support of " Always " , tensions within the band had risen on the final European tour and the band announced an ' indefinite hiatus ' on February 22 , 2005 , as breakup rumors swirled . After touring through 2004 , the three essentially stopped communicating with one another . Hoppus had initially had difficulty accepting the group 's new direction . After some tragic events involving the band and its entourage , Blink @-@ 182 reunited in February 2009 .
= = Legacy = =
The Los Angeles Times referred to Blink @-@ 182 as the band 's " underrated masterwork , " writing that the record is generally considered by " fans , critics and band members alike as its best work , Blink ’ s answer to Pet Sounds or Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band . " The band themselves have regarded it as a " huge turning point " in their career , marking a change in the way to write and record music , as well as view themselves . In his memoir Can I Say , Barker writes : " It had a little bit of everything : we ventured far enough outside our genre to make ourselves happy , but not so far that we offended our fan base . It was a perfect happy medium , and it ’ s the Blink album that Mark , Tom , and I are most proud of . "
The band celebrated the tenth anniversary of the album by performing it in full in November 2013 . After a pair of Hollywood Palladium shows sold out in a record 32 seconds , the band added three additional dates at The Wiltern in Los Angeles , which also sold out . MTV News called it " a fitting tribute to an album that , in the decade since it was first released , has become a bit of a touchstone — a defining moment not just for the band , but for the genre of punk , in all its permutations . " Jon Blistein of Radio.com called the album " an unquestionable masterpiece " in the site 's " Not Fade Away " series , which examines " some of the greatest albums of the past few decades . " In it , he writes on the album 's influence : " Blink @-@ 182 was the band ’ s most concise break from the pop @-@ punk formula and a catalyst for the wave of pierced @-@ hearts @-@ stuck @-@ to @-@ sleeves @-@ with @-@ tears @-@ and @-@ guyliner " emo " outfits that rose to popularity in its wake ( sans the potty humor , of course ) , including but not limited to Fall Out Boy , My Chemical Romance and Panic ! at the Disco . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Mark Hoppus , Tom DeLonge , and Travis Barker , except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Chart procession and succession = = =
= = Certifications = =
= 2003 North Indian Ocean cyclone season =
The 2003 North Indian Ocean cyclone season was mostly focused in the Bay of Bengal , where six of the seven depressions developed . The remaining system was a tropical cyclone that developed in the Arabian Sea in November , which was also the only system that did not affect land . There were three cyclonic storms , which is below the average of 5 @.@ 4 . Only one storm formed before the start of the monsoon season in June , although it was also the most notable . On May 10 , a depression formed in the central Bay of Bengal , and within a few days became a very severe cyclonic storm . After it stalled , it drew moisture from the southwest to produce severe flooding across Sri Lanka , killing 254 people and becoming the worst floods there since 1947 . Damage on the island totaled $ 135 million ( 2003 USD ) . The storm eventually made landfall in Myanmar on May 19 . It is possible that the storm contributed to a deadly heat wave in India due to shifting air currents .
In late July , a monsoon depression moved across much of India , and another monsoon disturbance persisted off the coast of Pakistan . The interaction between the two systems resulted in heavy rainfall across the region , flooding dozens of villages . Monsoonal rainfall killed 285 people between Pakistan and India in the summer of 2003 . In late August , another monsoon depression moved across northeastern India . A depression that struck Andhra Pradesh in India killed 21 people in early October . Later that month , a tropical depression crossed Thailand from the western Pacific Ocean , contributing to ongoing flooding that killed 19 . Once in the Indian Ocean , this system struck southeastern India without causing much damage . The last system of the year was a cyclonic storm that struck southeastern India in December , killing 81 people and causing $ 28 million in damage ( 2003 USD ) .
= = Season summary = =
There were seven depressions throughout the season , of which three attained cyclonic storm status . One of the cyclonic storms formed before the start of the monsoon season , two depressions formed during the monsoon season from June to September , and the remaining systems formed after September . The number of depressions was similar or greater than that of the previous three years . However , the total of 3 cyclonic storms was below the average of 5 @.@ 4 .
In May 2004 , seven of the eight members of the World Meteorological Organization panel on tropical cyclones for the North Indian Ocean met in Colombo , Sri Lanka to review the season . During the meeting , the panel announced the first list of tropical cyclone names to be used in the basin for the following season . The panel noted the increasing frequency of deadly natural disasters in the region , such as the floods that affected Sri Lanka in May 2003 from a cyclone . One of the panel 's goals was increased coordination between the countries in the region . The India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) in New Delhi served as the official Regional Specialized Meteorological Center , although the Joint Typhoon Warning Center also issued warnings for the region in an unofficial capacity . The IMD utilized satellite data from EUMETSAT to track cyclones , as well as radars from Bangladesh , Sri Lanka , and India .
There were several other monsoon disturbances that affected various countries in the region , including Bangladesh , Pakistan , and Oman . On July 27 , during the monsoon season , an area of convection exited from the coast of Pakistan . On the next day , the thunderstorms organized around the center , prompting the Pakistan Meteorological Department to classify the system as a monsoon depression . The IMD operationally classified the system as a depression on July 29 , although it was dropped during the agency 's annual report . The system weakened into a remnant low on July 30 . The system drew moisture from another depression that had moved across India from the Bay of Bengal , bringing three days of heavy rainfall to Karachi , Pakistan . Badin in southeastern Pakistan recorded 292 mm ( 11 @.@ 5 in ) of rainfall in 24 hours . The rainfall extended into northwestern India , and in Gujarat , a station received more than its annual rainfall during the deluge . Flooding from the heavy rainfall destroyed widespread crops and flooded dozens of villages , and ongoing rains persisted throughout the summer , killing 285 people in the two countries .
= = Storms = =
= = = Very Severe Cyclonic Storm BOB 01 ( 01B ) = = =
The first storm of the season originated from the monsoon trough , developing into a depression on May 10 in the Bay of Bengal . Initially favorable conditions allowed the system to steadily intensify while moving northwestward , reaching peak maximum sustained winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) on May 13 . This made it a very severe cyclonic storm according to the IMD . The storm later drifted northward and later to the east in the central Bay of Bengal , although increased wind shear induced weakening into a deep depression . The system eventually began a steady northeast track , bringing it ashore in western Myanmar on May 19 as a re @-@ intensified cyclonic storm . It dissipated shortly thereafter over land , and was no longer observable on satellite imagery by May 20 .
Early and later in its duration , the storm brought rainfall to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands . Although the storm never passed within 700 km ( 430 mi ) of the island , the cyclone produced torrential rainfall across southwest Sri Lanka after it stalled in the central Bay of Bengal . The storm drew moisture from the southwest that coalesced in the mountainous portion of the island . A station at Ratnapura recorded 366 @.@ 1 millimetres ( 14 @.@ 41 in ) of rainfall in 18 hours on May 17 , including 99 @.@ 8 mm ( 3 @.@ 93 in ) in one hour . This followed a period of regular rainfall in the first 15 days of May across the region . The rains caused flooding and landslides in southwestern Sri Lanka that destroyed 24 @,@ 750 homes and damaged 32 @,@ 426 others , leaving about 800 @,@ 000 people homeless . Overall damage totaled about $ 29 million ( 2003 USD ) , mostly to roads and buildings , and there were 254 deaths . This made it the worst floods on the island since 1947 . The storm also drew moisture away from India , which possibly contributed to a heat wave that killed 1 @,@ 200 people , and dropped heavy rainfall in Myanmar .
= = = Deep Depression BOB 02 = = =
A low pressure area persisted over the northern Bay of Bengal on July 22 , eventually organizing into a depression on July 25 about 160 km ( 100 mi ) south of Kolkata . Moving northwestward , the system quickly intensified into a deep depression , with peak winds estimated at 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) . Late on July 25 , the system made landfall north of Balasore in Odisha state . It progressed inland across India , weakening to depression status but remaining a distinct system . On July 28 , the depression degenerated into a remnant low over Rajasthan in northwestern India , later merging with a heat low . Rainfall associated with the system mostly occurred in the southwestern periphery , with a peak of 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) at Kendrapara ; there was little damage . Rainfall also spread into Bangladesh .
= = = Depression BOB 03 = = =
On August 27 , a low pressure area concentrated into a depression about 230 km ( 145 mi ) south of Kolkata . The system largely consisted of a circulation without much organized convection . It moved to the west @-@ northwest and failed to intensify , moving ashore near Chandabali , Odisha on August 28 . Once over land , the depression stalled until dissipating on August 29 . Rainfall from the storm peaked at 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) at Kantamal in Odisha , and there were no reports of damage . The system was largely connected with the monsoon , resulting in an increase in rainfall over northeastern India .
= = = Depression BOB 04 = = =
A low pressure area persisted on October 4 in the western Bay of Bengal , off the east coast of Tamil Nadu . Two days later , the system organized into a depression and moved northward . Early on October 7 , the depression made landfall at Kalingapatnam , Andhra Pradesh . After moving slowly northwestward over land , the system turned to the northeast , degenerating into a remnant low on October 10 over West Bengal . The depression dropped heavy rainfall along its path , peaking at 380 mm ( 15 in ) in Chandabali , Odisha . Kolkata received 267 mm ( 10 @.@ 5 in ) , and rainfall spread as far northeast as Assam . The rains caused widespread flooding across southeastern India , inundating 20 villages and covering 16 @,@ 000 hectares ( 39 @,@ 000 acres ) of rice paddies . A tornado spawned by the depression injured 11 people and damaged several houses in Murshidabad . Across its track , the depression killed 13 people in West Bengal and another eight in Andhra Pradesh .
= = = Deep Depression BOB 05 ( 23W ) = = =
On October 21 , an area of convection formed in the Gulf of Thailand in the western Pacific Ocean . With low wind shear , the thunderstorms organized around the circulation , prompting the JTWC to initiate advisories on Tropical Depression 23W . While drifting northward , the system failed to organize further . Later , a ridge steered the depression to the west , bringing it ashore Thailand on October 24 near Hua Hin District . The next day , the circulation entered the Bay of Bengal after weakening over land , passing near the Andaman and Nicobar Islands . On October 26 , the IMD began classifying the system as a depression . The convection gradually reorganized as the system turned to the northwest , prompting the JTWC to upgrade it to a minimal tropical storm on October 27 . On the same day , the IMD upgraded it to deep depression status . The system made landfall between Visakhapatnam and Kalingapatnam in Andhra Pradesh on October 28 , and dissipated the next day .
While crossing Thailand , the depression produced heavy rainfall reaching 127 @.@ 7 mm ( 5 @.@ 03 in ) at Hua Hin over a 24 ‑ hour period . Ongoing monsoonal flooding in the country forced thousands of people to evacuate their houses . About 22 @,@ 000 cattle were killed , and large areas of farmlands were inundated . Officials opened the Kaeng Krajan Dam to prevent it from being destroyed by the floods . Damage from the depression alone was estimated at ฿ 1 billion baht ( $ 25 million 2003 USD ) . The monsoonal rains in October and November 2003 in the country killed 19 people . In India , the depression dropped locally heavy rainfall , reaching 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) in Dummugudem . There was little damage in the country .
= = = Severe Cyclonic Storm ARB 06 ( 02A ) = = =
The lone system in the Arabian Sea in the season originated from a trough . On November 10 , an area of convection formed off the western coast of India . With little wind shear , the system organized further as it moved west @-@ southwestward due to a ridge to the north . On November 12 , the system developed into a depression and quickly intensified into a deep depression . That day , the JTWC classified the system as Tropical Cyclone 02A , and it intensified into a cyclonic storm on November 13 . The storm was located at an unusually low latitude of 6 ° N. After an eye developed in the center of the convection , the JTWC upgraded the storm to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane , estimating peak winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) on November 14 . By contrast , the IMD estimated peak winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) , making the system a severe cyclonic storm . Subsequently , drier air weakened the storm , causing the convection to decrease . By November 15 , the storm had weakened to depression status while approaching Somalia . That day , the JTWC discontinued advisories while the storm was about 520 km ( 320 mi ) east of the Somalia coastline . On November 16 , the depression degenerated into a remnant low , and subsequently dissipated .
= = = Severe Cyclonic Storm BOB 07 ( 03B ) = = =
On December 10 , an area of convection with an associated circulation persisted about 740 km ( 460 mi ) west of the northern tip of Sumatra , as part of a trough in the region and enhanced by the monsoon . A steady decline in the wind shear allowed the thunderstorms to organize , and a depression formed on December 11 . On the next day , the JTWC initiated advisories on Tropical Cyclone 03B . The storm moved generally northwestward , steered by a ridge to the north . The IMD upgraded the system to a deep depression and later cyclonic storm on December 13 , and further to a severe cyclonic storm a day later . The agency estimated peak winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) , noting spiral convection organizing around the beginnings of an eye feature . The storm also developed well @-@ defined outflow due to an approaching trough from the west . At around 14 : 30 UTC on December 15 , the storm made landfall near False Divi Point in southeastern India , along the coast of Andhra Pradesh . After turning to the northeast over land , the system rapidly weakened , degenerating into a remnant low on December 16 .
Before the storm made landfall , officials evacuated about 20 @,@ 000 people . As the storm moved ashore in India , it produced heavy rainfall that reached 190 mm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) at Repalle , Andhra Pradesh . Light rains fell in neighboring Tamil Nadu . The rains deluged 61 @,@ 898 @.@ 5 ha ( 152 @,@ 955 acres ) of fields in Andhra Pradesh . The storm damaged or destroyed 9 @,@ 090 houses , and downed several trees and power lines . Local news reports indicated that the storm produced 10 m ( 33 ft ) waves as it moved ashore , which damaged a ship and forced its crew to be rescued by the Indian Coast Guard . In Andhra Pradesh , the storm killed 83 people and resulted in $ 28 million ( 2003 USD ) in damage . After the storm , the government provided ₹ 50 @,@ 000 rupees ( $ 1 @,@ 111 USD ) to the family of every storm victim .
= Political Animals and Animal Politics =
Political Animals and Animal Politics is a 2014 edited collection published by Palgrave Macmillan and edited by the green political theorists Marcel Wissenburg and David Schlosberg . The volume addresses the emergence of academic animal ethics informed by political philosophy ( as opposed to moral philosophy ) , and was the first edited collection to be published on the topic , as well as the first book @-@ length attempt to explore the limits of the literature . As well as a substantial introduction by the editors , it features ten sole @-@ authored chapters split over three parts , with contributions from Wissenburg , Schlosberg , Manuel Arias @-@ Maldonado , Chad Flanders , Christie Smith , Clemens Driessen , Simon Otjes , Kurtis Boyer , Per @-@ Anders Svärd and Mihnea Tanasescu .
In part , Political Animals and Animal Politics arose from a workshop Wissenburg and Schlosberg had organised at the 2012 European Consortium for Political Research Joint Sessions conference , though not all attendees contributed to the volume and not all contributors presented at the workshop . Political Animals and Animal Politics was published as part of the Palgrave Macmillan Animal Ethics Series , edited by Andrew Linzey and Priscilla Cohn . Reviewers praised the volume for its trailblazing nature , picking out the contributions from Driessen , Wissenburg , Flanders and Boyer , but challenged its inclusion of environmentally @-@ focused contributions and criticised it for its failure to include contributions from the key voices in the politically @-@ focused animal ethics literature , such as Robert Garner , Sue Donaldson and Will Kymlicka , Alasdair Cochrane , Kimberly Smith or Siobhan O 'Sullivan .
= = Production and release = =
Marcel Wissenburg and David Schlosberg organised a workshop entitled " Political Animals and Animal Politics " at the 2012 European Consortium for Political Research Joint Sessions conference , which was held at the University of Antwerp , Belgium , between 10 – 15 April 2012 . The two had been talking for around a year about organising a conference broadly on the theme of " nature , animals and political theory " . The workshop aimed to fill a gap in the political literature on the status of nonhuman animals , something previously considered only at the margins of work otherwise about the environment / resource management , or else by those more primarily interested in moral issues . Both Wissenburg and Schlosberg presented papers , and , in addition , papers were presented by Manuel Arias @-@ Maldonado ( University of Granada ) , Susan Boonman @-@ Berson ( Wageningen University and Research Centre ) , Kurtis Boyer ( Lund University ) , Clemens Driessen ( Utrecht University ) , Chad Flanders ( Saint Louis University ) , Robert Garner ( University of Leicester ) , Margareta Hanes ( Vrije Universiteit Brussel ) , Paul Lucardie ( University of Groningen ) , Christopher Neff ( University of Sydney ) , Kaspar Ossenblok ( Ghent University ) , Simon Otjes ( Leiden University ) , Christie Smith ( University of Exeter ) , Mihnea Tanasescu ( Vrije Universiteit Brussel ) and Catherine Zwetkoff ( University of Liège ) .
The workshop also featured a lecture by Michel Vandenbosch , of the Belgian organisation Global Action in the Interest of Animals . On the workshop 's second day , those involved were joined by Niko Koffeman of the Dutch Party for the Animals and Karen Soeters of that party 's Pierson Foundation think tank . Footage from that day of the workshop , shot by Joost de Haas , was included in the documentary film De Haas in de Marathon ( The Hare in the Marathon , 2012 ) . For Schlosberg , the workshop , and the wide range of papers presented , illustrated the " coming @-@ of @-@ age of animal politics as a sub field of political theory " .
This workshop formed the basis of Political Animals and Animal Politics , a collection edited by Wissenburg and Schlosberg , with earlier versions of many of the volume 's chapters having being presented at that time . Originally , the editors had intended to have discussion of political theory , of movements for animals and of real @-@ world politics , but the final volume was somewhat more theory @-@ based than this . Political Animals and Animal Politics was published in 2014 by Palgrave Macmillan in hardback format ; it is part of the Palgrave Macmillan Animal Ethics Series , which is edited by Andrew Linzey and Priscilla Cohn . This interdisciplinary series aims to explore the practical and conceptual challenges posed by animal ethics .
Political Animals and Animal Politics was the first edited collection devoted to the " political turn in animal ethics " , and the first " book @-@ length attempt at seeking to define the contours " of this literature . The book engages with what the editors call " animal political philosophy " , which they identify as an academic literature at the meeting point of animal ethics , political philosophy and real @-@ world but theory @-@ driven politics . Wissenburg and Schlosberg posit that this literature , though at one time only a small part of more morally @-@ focused animal ethics , has developed into a separate field of enquiry in its own right . They single out two key texts : Robert Garner 's 2013 A Theory of Justice for Animals ( Oxford University Press ) and Sue Donaldson and Will Kymlicka 's 2011 Zoopolis ( Oxford University Press ) . Recognising the editors ' identification of the political turn in animal ethics , Garner , writing with Siobhan O 'Sullivan and Alasdair Cochrane , argues that the literature is both made distinct and unified by its focus on justice ; contributions to this literature , these authors argue , " imagine how political institutions , structures and processes might be transformed so as to secure justice for both human and nonhuman animals . Put simply , the essential feature of the political turn is this constructive focus on justice . "
= = Synopsis = =
Political Animals and Animal Politics has three key aims , and , correspondingly , its chapters are split into three sections . These aims are the analysis of three key " innovations " that the editors identify in the book 's introduction . The first of these is the move , in animal ethics , from thinking about personal change to thinking about the implementation of rules or norms of conduct at the societal level . The second of these is a possible rapprochement between animal ethics and ecologism ( environmental ethics and green political theory ) . The third is the increased presence of animal protection laws for the benefit of nonhuman animals themselves . Aside from the introduction , the book features ten single @-@ authored chapters , with three in Part I : The Politicization of the Animal Advocacy Discourse , three in Part II : The Rapprochement between Animal Ethics and Ecologism , and four in Part III : The Introduction of Laws and Institutions for the Benefit of Animals .
= = Contributions = =
" Rethinking the Human @-@ Animal Divide in the Anthropocene " , Manuel Arias @-@ Maldonado
Arias @-@ Maldonado argues that traditional appeals to the value of nonhuman animals have failed to be sufficiently motivating , and that , instead , human / nonhuman relationships are appropriately grounded upon the ideas of human exceptionalism and human domination . These notions , he claims , can be the basis of political transformation for nonhuman animals . He argues that once these ideas are properly understood , they can ground an idea of human sympathy for nonhuman animals , which is just one part of a caring and sustainable Anthropocene . Even if an alternative politics might ultimately be preferable , Arias @-@ Maldonado argues , a change to a focus on sympathy might be useful and realistic as a political strategy .
" An Agenda for Animal Political Theory " , Marcel Wissenburg
For the purposes of his contribution , Wissenburg takes many standard contentions in animal ethics for granted . However , he challenges mainstream animal ethicists ' tendency to adopt the language of liberalism , which he suggests misconstrues nonhuman animals as individuals and posits false dichotomies about their status . This adoption of liberal ideas can come in Tom Regan 's " old " form or Donaldson and Kymlicka 's " new " form . Wissenburg challenges Donaldson and Kymlicka 's extension of citizenship to nonhuman animals , and instead sketches the outline of an alternative proposal which pays attention to individual animals ' modes of being . This he labels , paraphrasing Robert Nozick , " liberalism for humans and feudalism for animals " .
" Public Reason and Animal Rights " , Chad Flanders
Flanders argues that nonhuman animals could be " below " politics , in that they do not have politically @-@ considerable interests , or " above " politics , in that they have rights which trump political decision @-@ making processes . Flanders argues that if animals are excluded from basic justice , as John Rawls held , they can be defended on metaphysical grounds ( what Rawls refers to as on the basis of comprehensive doctrines , as opposed to the public reasons which must be used for arguments in the political realm ) . This is potentially liberating for animal advocates . Nonetheless , Flanders argues , animal issues may be matters of basic justice insofar as they affect humans or the animals themselves have rights . Alternatively , the wrongness of animal cruelty may be a " fixed point " in our political reasoning . Flanders concludes that Rawlsianism provides a good starting point for the inclusion of animals in political decision @-@ making .
" Articulating Ecological Injustices of Recognition " , Christie Smith
Smith argues that Val Plumwood is incorrect to declare the resituation of animals into ethical terms as supererogatory as opposed to the necessary resituation of humans into ecological terms , as the two tasks are linked . Smith rejects the culture / nature dichotomy , and suggests that a politics of recognition is an appropriate way to think about relationships . She draws upon feminist and ecofeminist literature to conceive of recognition theory beyond intersubjective self / other relations , allowing recognition beyond a human self , a concept which she challenges . Smith seeks to show that recognition theories should not be considered " soft " or " naive " as accounts of justice , and instead that they offer an appropriate mode for thinking about ecological and animal injustices .
" Ecological Justice for the Anthropocene " , David Schlosberg
Schlosberg 's contribution , is , in many ways , a response to challenges made to his Defining Environmental Justice ( 2007 ) . Schlosberg aims to step beyond previous accounts of animal rights or environmentalism as requirements of justice by deploying a mixed capabilities / deliberation approach applicable to both ecosystems and nonhuman animals . Schlosberg challenges criticisms of his capabilities approach ( specifically , a capabilities approach which moves beyond humans ) grounded in the existence of conflicts of capabilities , claiming that a form of deliberative democracy can overcome the problem posed by these conflicts . His mixed account , he claims , provide a form of justice appropriate for thinking about human and nonhuman individuals and collectives in the Anthropocene .
" Animal Deliberation " , Clemens Driessen
Driessen explores ways in which nonhuman animals might be understood to be engaging in political deliberation . His claim is empirical rather than normative , as he presents nonhuman animals as already being in political dialogue with humans ; rather than arguing that rights should be extended to animals , he calls for a recognition of how interactions with animals have always been political . This is particularly noticeable , he argues , when humans are involved in the development of new technologies , analysing the example ( following Bruno Latour ) of Gaston Lagaffe building a door in dialogue with his boss and the office cat , and of farmers and cows using milking robots . He argues that a recognition of this animal deliberation can lead to more thoughtful forms of both environmentalism and democracy .
" Animal Party Politics in Parliament " , Simon Otjes
Otjes 's approach is more empirical than that of many contributors to Political Animals and Animal Politics . He examines the Dutch Party for the Animals ( PvdD ) , which , in 2006 , won two seats in the House of Representatives . Otjes explores whether the PvdD 's presence has changed the amount of time more established parties spent on animal issues by examining both parliamentary speeches and motions before and after the introduction of the PvdD members . He finds that established parties began to talk more about animal issues in 2006 , and that this could be attributed to conflict between the PvdD and the established parties . Though Otjes allows that his study 's relevance may seem limited , he concludes that smaller parties can affect government agenda by remaining focused on their own primary concern .
" The Limits of Species Advocacy " , Kurtis Boyer
Boyer observes the distinction between how nonhuman animals can receive political protection as individuals and as species . He argues that the latter form of protection is motivated by a desire to preserve human experience of the species rather than the experiences of the nonhuman animals themselves . Politically @-@ motivated species advocacy , Boyer argues , is highly anthropocentric , as advocates present these animals as sharing in particular revered virtues ; as a result , the likes of habitat and genetic health are the focus of advocates , rather than nonhuman animals themselves . Using the example of polar bear preservation , Boyer illustrates how species advocacy becomes tied up with broader political goals concerning humans and competing visions of the value of animals . He concludes that the advancement of species advocacy can limit the achievement of animal welfare / rights goals .
" Slaughter and Animal Welfarism in Sweden 1900 – 1944 " , Per @-@ Anders Svärd
Svärd , taking a more empirical approach than many other contributors , explores laws surrounding animal welfare in early 20th century Sweden . He seeks to offer an empirical grounding for the argument that animal welfarism is problematic for animals , entrenching harmful use and speciesism . He analyses all official documentation from the Riksdag from 1900 – 1944 on the subject of animal slaughter and welfare drawing upon Foucauldian policy analysis and poststructuralist discourse analysis . He conceives of the debates as a political problematisation in which ( drawing upon Lacanian psychoanalysis ) animal cruelty was blamed on certain " other " groups ( such as Jews and Sami ) . He argues that animal welfarism was not the natural continuation of an old anti @-@ cruelty discourse , but that Sweden 's 1937 regulation of slaughter and 1944 animal protection laws served to reconstitute , reaffirm and expand speciesist relations , paving the way for animal exploitation 's expansion .
" The Rights of Nature : Theory and Practice " , Mihnea Tanasescu
Tanasescu explores the idea of rights for nature , an idea which , though unorthodox , has seen success in implementation . He first introduces the concept , with a focus on the differences between moral and legal rights , before examining the particular case of Ecuador 's entrenchment of rights for nature in its 2008 constitution , which is compared with other real @-@ world cases . He finally addresses what can be learnt from these theoretical and practical considerations . He concludes that much work on the topic is left to be done , but the key lesson to be learnt is the significance of innovation ; environmental politics , he claims , should remain both inventive and optimistic .
= = Academic reception = =
Political Animals and Animal Politics was reviewed by Garner for Environmental Values and the British philosopher Josh Milburn for the Political Studies Review . Garner lamented the absence of many of the key voices in the political theory literature on animal ethics — such as Cochrane , Donaldson and Kymlicka , O 'Sullivan , Tony Milligan , Kimberly Smith or Garner himself — in the book , meaning that Political Animals and Animal Politics " takes on the role of an observer of this debate rather than directly contributing to it in a leading sense " . In addition , he felt that the book offered little consideration of the details of the work of these leading theorists , identifying the absence of discussion of Cochrane 's interest @-@ based rights approach , a superficial consideration of Regan 's account of animal rights , an oversimplification of his own position and a lack of context to understand the respective work of Kimberly Smith and O 'Sullivan . He considered Wisseburg 's chapter to be the only one which engages with the debate about the political turn in general , but notes that Wissenburg 's approach is a negative one ; Garner considers this unsurprising , given that Wissenburg is a green political theorist with little sympathy for " animal political theory " .
Milburn questioned the success of the volume in achieving its second stated goal , concerning rapprochement between animal and environmental ethics ; he considered the contributions respectively of Christie Smith , Schlosberg , and Tanasescu to be more clearly in the domain of environmental ethics than animal ethics , questioning the extent to which they belong in a volume about " animal politics " . He felt that the opening chapters ( and introduction ) did well to establish the volume , and was happy with the inclusion of the more empirical contributions , given their potential theoretical significance . Milburn picked out the chapters by Driessen , Boyer and Wissenburg respectively as highlights , suggesting that the contributions of Driessen and Boyer seemed to challenge the volume 's second stated goal , and noting that , though it was strong , he disagreed with the claims of Wissenburg 's chapter . Garner highlighted the contributions of Flanders and Driessen . He commended the editors for putting together the book , and , though he claimed that it was likely to be superseded , concluded that Political Animals and Animal Politics should be " welcomed for its trailblazing " .
= St Cristiolus 's Church , Llangristiolus =
St Cristiolus 's Church , Llangristiolus is a medieval church near the village of Llangristiolus , in Anglesey , north Wales . The village , about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the building , takes its name from the church . Reputedly founded by St Cristiolus in 610 , the present building dates from the 12th and 13th centuries . Alterations were made in the 16th century , when the large east window in Perpendicular style was added to the chancel – a window which has been described by one guide to the buildings of north Wales as " almost too big to fit " in the wall . Some restoration work took place in the mid @-@ 19th century , when further windows were added and the chancel largely rebuilt .
The church is still in use for weekly Sunday services ( in Welsh and English ) , as part of the Church in Wales , and is one of four churches in a combined parish . It is a Grade II * listed building , a national designation given to " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " , in particular because of its age and the east window . The church contains a decorated font from the 12th century , as well as memorials from the 18th , 19th and 20th centuries . Richard Owen , a 19th @-@ century Calvinistic Methodist minister from Llangristiolus , is buried in the graveyard .
= = History and location = =
St Cristiolus 's Church is in central Anglesey , north Wales . It is situated just to the south of the A5 and A55 roads , on raised ground above Malltraeth Marsh . The modern village of Llangristiolus is about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the west of the church . The village takes its name from the church : the Welsh word llan originally meant " enclosure " and then " church " , and " -gristiolus " is a modified form of the saint 's name .
The date of foundation of the first building on this site is unknown . Geraint Jones , in a 2006 guide to Anglesey churches , wrote that it is thought that St Cristiolus established a church here in 610 . Cristiolus , a 7th @-@ century saint about whom little detail is known , was a follower of St Cadfan , a Breton saint associated with the Christian community on Bardsey Island in Wales . Cristiolus is also credited with the foundation of the church in Eglwyswrw in modern @-@ day Pembrokeshire , south Wales . He was the brother of St Rhystud , who established the church at Llanrhystud in mid @-@ Wales .
The present building dates from the 12th century ; it is the only medieval building in the parish . During the 13th century , the chancel was extended , and the older part of the church may have been rebuilt using the previous stones at this time . By 1535 , the position of rector of the parish was held by the person holding the position of Archdeacon of Anglesey , as part of the remuneration for that office ; this is no longer the case . Further structural changes to the church were made in the early 16th century when some windows were added to the chancel . In 1852 , restoration work took place to the nave and chancel under Henry Kennedy , architect of the Diocese of Bangor . The chancel was rebuilt , although the east wall and window were retained , and further windows were added in the church .
St Cristiolus 's Church is still in regular use and belongs to the Church in Wales . It is one of six churches in the combined benefice of Plwyf Seintiau Braint a Chefni . The other churches in the benefice are St Michael 's , Gaerwen ; St Ffinan 's , Llanffinan ; St Caffo 's , Llangaffo ; St Edwen 's , Llanedwen ; and St Mary 's , Llanfairpwll . It is within the deanery of Malltraeth , the archdeaconry of Bangor and the Diocese of Bangor . The current incumbent ( as of 2013 ) , Emlyn Williams , was appointed as vicar of St Cristiolus 's Church in 2007 ; before that , the position had been vacant for 20 years despite many attempts by the Church in Wales to fill it . He is assisted by one associate priest and two associate curates . Services are held every Sunday morning , alternating between a bilingual service of Holy Communion and a service of Morning Prayer ; there are no midweek services .
People associated with the church include Henry Maurice ( elected Lady Margaret Professor of Divinity at the University of Oxford shortly before his death in 1691 ; his father , Thomas , was the perpetual curate of the church ) and the 19th @-@ century writer and priest Owen Wynne Jones ( who was the curate for a time in the early 1860s ) . The 19th @-@ century Calvinistic Methodist preacher Richard Owen was born in the parish , and is buried in the graveyard that surrounds the church .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
The church is built from rubble masonry ( mainly gritstone ) and dressed with freestone . The nave measures 44 feet 9 inches long by 15 feet 6 inches wide ( 13 @.@ 6 by 4 @.@ 7 m ) and the chancel measures 32 feet 9 inches long by 20 feet 6 inches ( 10 by 6 @.@ 25 m ) wide . The nave has three bays , and the chancel at the east end of the nave has two bays ; it is slightly wider than the nave . The nave and the chancel have external buttresses .
Internally , the chancel arch dates from the 13th century . It is 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) wide and 19 feet ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) from the floor to the top of the arch ; the supporting pillars are 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) tall . There are windows from the early 16th century in the chancel , with the large east window in Perpendicular style ( in contrast to the rest of the church , which is mainly in Decorated style ) . It has five ogee @-@ headed lights separated by vertical tracery , and measures 10 feet 10 inches ( 3 @.@ 3 m ) at its widest point by 14 feet 2 inches ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) at its tallest . Unlike most of the other windows in the church , it contains coloured glass . A smaller window in the north wall also dates from this time , and has a square frame containing two lights ; a matching window was added in the 19th century in the opposite wall . The other windows in the church are from the 19th century in various designs . One window , in the north wall of the nave , has had stained glass added as a memorial to two local residents who died in the 1990s .
The entrance is through a porch ( probably dating from the 16th century ) on the south side of the building , at the west end of the nave . At the west end of the roof , which is made of slate , there is an ornate bellcote for one bell ( added by Kennedy ) . There are plain iron crosses on top of the porch and the chancel . Inside , the rafters and trusses of the roof are exposed . The pews and choir stalls were added in the 19th century . The nave has a brass memorial to a former Chancellor of Bangor Cathedral , William Morgan ( died 1713 ) , his wife and son . There are other memorials inside the church , including one for those from the parish who died during the First World War .
The gritstone circular font , at the west end , dates from the 12th century , and has six decorative panels . It is one of a group of fonts in north @-@ west Wales using interlace ( a medieval decorative style ) showing links to Irish and Norse artistic traditions ; other similar fonts in Anglesey are found at St Ceinwen 's , Cerrigceinwen , St Peter 's , Newborough and St Beuno 's , Trefdraeth . One author says that the patterns on the fonts at Llangristiolus and St Beuno 's Church , Pistyll ( in the nearby county of Gwynedd ) seem " closely linked " to patterns on one of the stone crosses at St Seiriol 's Church , Penmon .
= = Churchyard = =
The churchyard contains six Commonwealth war graves : in the east part of the ground are buried two British Army soldiers of World War I and north @-@ north @-@ west of the church are buried three soldiers and an airman of World War II .
= = Assessment = =
The church has national recognition and statutory protection from alteration as it has been designated as a Grade II * listed building – the second @-@ highest ( of three ) grade of listing , designating " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " . It was given this status on 30 January 1968 , and has been listed because it is a medieval church that , unusually for Anglesey , dates substantially from the 12th and 13th centuries . Cadw ( the Welsh Assembly Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales and the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists ) also notes the " fine 16th @-@ century rebuilding of the chancel " and the chancel window . The chancel arch has been described ( in a 2009 guide to the buildings of north @-@ west Wales ) as the best such arch in the region , and the " fine " east window as " almost too big to fit " in the wall .
The 19th @-@ century antiquarian Angharad Llwyd described the church as " a spacious structure , exhibiting some excellent architectural details , and decorated with an east window , of good design , enriched with tracery . " Writing in 1846 ( before Kennedy 's restoration work in 1852 ) , the clergyman and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones noted a wooden gallery at the west end , above the font , inscribed RICHARDUS DE GREY FECIT 1778 . LAUS DEO . He described the chancel arch as displaying " workmanship of good character . "
The Welsh politician and church historian Sir Stephen Glynne visited the church in 1849 . He wrote that it was a " fair specimen of the better sort of Anglesey village church " . The nave and chancel were " of good proportions " , with the chancel " properly distinguished and developed " . He also said that the chancel arch was " of considerable elegance , unusual in North Wales , having excellent moulding and clustered shafts which have a Middle Pointed character . "
= Scottish Parliament Building =
The Scottish Parliament Building ( Scottish Gaelic : Pàrlamaid na h @-@ Alba , Scots : Scots Pairlament Biggin ) is the home of the Scottish Parliament at Holyrood , within the UNESCO World Heritage Site in central Edinburgh . Construction of the building commenced in June 1999 and the Members of the Scottish Parliament ( MSPs ) held their first debate in the new building on 7 September 2004 . The formal opening by Queen Elizabeth II took place on 9 October 2004 . Enric Miralles , the Spanish Catalan architect who designed the building , died before its completion .
From 1999 until the opening of the new building in 2004 , committee rooms and the debating chamber of the Scottish Parliament were housed in the General Assembly Hall of the Church of Scotland located on The Mound in Edinburgh . Office and administrative accommodation in support of the Parliament were provided in buildings leased from the City of Edinburgh Council . The new Scottish Parliament Building brought together these different elements into one purpose @-@ built parliamentary complex , housing 129 MSPs and more than 1 @,@ 000 staff and civil servants .
From the outset , the building and its construction have been controversial . The choices of location , architect , design , and construction company were all criticised by politicians , the media and the Scottish public . Scheduled to open in 2001 , it did so in 2004 , more than three years late with an estimated final cost of £ 414 million , many times higher than initial estimates of between £ 10m and £ 40m . A major public inquiry into the handling of the construction , chaired by the former Lord Advocate , Peter Fraser , was established in 2003 . The inquiry concluded in September 2004 and criticised the management of the whole project from the realisation of cost increases down to the way in which major design changes were implemented . Despite these criticisms and a mixed public reaction , the building was welcomed by architectural academics and critics . The building aimed to achieve a poetic union between the Scottish landscape , its people , its culture , and the city of Edinburgh . The parliament building won numerous awards including the 2005 Stirling Prize and has been described by landscape architect Charles Jencks as " a tour de force of arts and crafts and quality without parallel in the last 100 years of British architecture " .
= = Location = =
Comprising an area of 1 @.@ 6 ha ( 4 acres ) , with a perimeter of 480 m ( 1570 ft ) , the Scottish Parliament building is located 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) east of Edinburgh city centre on the edge of the Old Town . The large site previously housed the headquarters of the Scottish and Newcastle brewery which were demolished to make way for the building . The boundary of the site is marked by the Canongate stretch of the Royal Mile on its northern side , Horse Wynd on its eastern side , where the public entrance to the building is , and Reid 's Close on its western side . Reid 's Close connects the Canongate and Holyrood Road on the southwestern side of the complex . The south eastern side of the complex is bounded by the Our Dynamic Earth visitor attraction which opened in July 1999 , and Queen 's Drive which fringes the slopes of the Salisbury Crags .
In the immediate vicinity of the building is the Palace of Holyroodhouse , which is bordered by the broad expanse of Holyrood Park . To the south of the parliamentary complex are the steep slopes of the Salisbury Crags and Arthur 's Seat . The Holyrood and Dumbiedykes areas , to the west of the site , have been extensively redeveloped since 1998 , with new retail , hotel and office developments , including Barclay House , the new offices of The Scotsman Publications Ltd .
= = Project history = =
Before 1707 , the Kingdom of Scotland was a sovereign independent state which had its own legislature — the Parliament of Scotland — which met , latterly , at Parliament House on the Royal Mile in Edinburgh . The Treaty of Union , signed in 1707 , created an incorporating political union between the Kingdom of Scots and the Kingdom of England . The two previous Acts of Union ( one for the British Parliament and one for the Parliament of Scotland ) had dissolved the previous parliaments . The Treaty of Union created the Parliament of Great Britain which was housed in the Palace of Westminster in London . As a consequence , Scotland was directly governed from London for the next 292 years without a legislature or a Parliament building of its own .
Pressure for an independent parliament grew in the 1970s with the growth of the Scottish National Party and monies were invested into the conversion of the former Royal High School on Calton Hill into an official parliament . Whilst much of this conversion was completed ( including creation of the main debating hall ) and the building was renamed New Parliament House it was determined that the facility was too small for its stated purpose ( as and when that purpose arose ) . Following the April 1992 election , when a weakened John Major was re @-@ elected , a campaign group set up adjacent to the Royal High School at the foot of the access road to Calton Hill . Starting informally this became a permanently manned " vigil " to keep the concept in the public mind . This led to the Royal High School being the " popular " choice of site in the public ( and particularly SNP ) mindset .
A referendum of the Scottish electorate , held on 11 September 1997 , approved the establishment of a directly @-@ elected Scottish Parliament to legislate on most domestic affairs . Following this , the Scottish Office , led by the then Secretary of State for Scotland , Donald Dewar , decided that a new purpose @-@ built facility would be constructed in Edinburgh , to house the Scottish Parliament .
Initially , three sites in and around Edinburgh were considered as possible locations for the building , including St Andrew 's House / New Parliament House ( better known as the imposing former Royal High School on Calton Hill ) St Andrews House being the home of the Scottish Office — later the Scottish Government ; Victoria Quay at Leith docks ( adjacent to the major Scottish Office building there ) and Haymarket on the vacant railway goods yard , in the west end of the city . The Holyrood site was not entered into the picture until after the official closure date of the competition between the three sites . The date for announcing the winner overran and on the date of the expected announcement instead it was announced that they were going to " rethink their decision " ( inferring that indeed a decision had been made ) and add the Holyrood Brewery site into the running ( which had only just closed ) . However negotiations with the brewing company Scottish and Newcastle , who owned the land , resulted in the company indicating that they would be able to vacate the site in early 1999 . As a consequence , the Secretary of State for Scotland agreed that the Holyrood site merited inclusion on the shortlist of proposed locations . The Scottish Office commissioned feasibility studies of the specified areas in late 1997 and in January 1998 , the Holyrood site was selected from the shortlist .
Following on from the site selection , the Scottish Office announced that an international competition would be held to find a designer for a new building to house the Parliament . A design committee was appointed under the chairmanship of Dewar , and was tasked with choosing from a shortlist of designs . Proposals were submitted from internationally renowned architects such as Rafael Viñoly , Michael Wilford and Richard Meier . Twelve designs were selected in March 1998 , which were whittled down to five by the following May . The five final designs were put on public display throughout Scotland in June 1998 . Feedback from the public displays showed that the designs of the Spanish architect Enric Miralles were amongst the most popular . The design team took account of public opinion on the designs and invited all five shortlisted entrants to make presentations on their proposed designs before announcing a winner .
On 6 July 1998 , it was declared that the design of Enric Miralles was chosen , with work being awarded to EMBT / RMJM ( Scotland ) Ltd , a Spanish @-@ Scottish joint venture design company , specifically created for the project . Construction , which was undertaken by Bovis , commenced in June 1999 , with the demolition of the Scottish and Newcastle brewery and the beginning of foundation work to support the structure of the building . MSPs began to move into the building complex in the Summer of 2004 , with the official opening by the Queen taking place in October of the same year .
= = Parliamentary complex = =
We don 't want to forget that the Scottish Parliament will be in Edinburgh , but will belong to Scotland , to the Scottish land . The Parliament should be able to reflect the land it represents . The building should arise from the sloping base of Arthur 's Seat and arrive into the city almost surging out of the rock .
Miralles sought to design a parliament building that could represent and present a national identity . This intractably difficult question was tackled by displacing the question of identity into the landscape of Scotland . In a characteristically poetic approach he talked about slotting the building into the land " in the form of a gathering situation : an amphitheatre , coming out from Arthur 's Seat . " where the building would reflect a dialogue between the landscape and the act of people sitting . So an early goal of the design was to open the building and its public spaces , not just to Edinburgh but to a more general concept of the Scottish landscape . Miralles intended to use the parliament to help build the end of Canongate — " not just another building on the street ... it should reinforce the existing qualities of the site and its surroundings . In a subtle game of cross views and political implications . "
The result was a non @-@ hierarchical , organic collection of low @-@ lying buildings intended to allow views of , and blend in with , the surrounding rugged scenery and symbolise the connection between nature and the Scottish people . As a consequence the building has many features connected to nature and land , such as the leaf shaped motifs of the roof in the Garden Lobby of the building , and the large windows of the debating chamber , committee rooms and the Tower Buildings which face the broad expanse of Holyrood Park , Arthur
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's Seat and the Salisbury Crags . Inside the buildings , the connection to the land is reinforced by the use of Scottish rock such as gneiss and granite in the flooring and walls , and the use of oak and sycamore in the construction of the furniture .
The Parliament is actually a campus of several buildings , reflecting different architectural styles , with a total floor area of 31 @,@ 000 square metres ( 312 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , providing accommodation for MSPs , their researchers and parliamentary staff . The buildings have a variety of features , with the most distinctive external characterisation being the roof of the Tower Buildings , said to be reminiscent of upturned boats on the shoreline . The inspiration had come from Edwin Lutyens ' sheds , made from upturned herring busses ( boats ) which Miralles saw on a visit to Lindisfarne in Northumberland . It is said that in the first design meeting , Miralles , armed with some twigs and leaves , thrust them onto a table and declared " This is the Scottish Parliament " reinforcing the unique and abstract nature of the parliamentary campus .
The north @-@ western boundaries of the site , the MSPs ' building , Queensberry House and the Canongate Building reinforce the existing medieval street patterns " expressing intimacy with the city and its citizens " . The south @-@ eastern aspect of the complex is extensively landscaped . Concrete " branches " , covered in turf and wild grass extend from the parliamentary buildings , and provide members of the public with somewhere to sit and relax . Indigenous Scottish wildflowers and plants cover much of the area , blending the Parliament 's grounds with the nearby Holyrood Park and Salisbury Crags . Oak , Rowan , Lime and Cherry trees have also been planted in the grounds . Adjacent to the landscaped area of the complex , where it meets Horse Wynd , there is an open plan piazza , with bike racks , seating and external lighting shaped like rocks incorporated into concrete paving . Three distinctive water features provide the centrepiece for this area .
References to Scottish culture are also reflected in the building and particularly on some of the building 's elevations . There are a series of " trigger panels " , constructed out of timber or granite . Not to everyone 's taste , these have been said to represent anvils , hairdryers , guns , question marks or even the hammer and sickle . Shortly after the official opening of the building , Enric Miralles ' widow , Benedetta Tagliabue , revealed that the design is simply that of a window curtain pulled back . Her late husband however , enjoying the use of ambiguous forms with multiple meanings , had previously said he would love the profile to evoke an icon of Scottish culture , the painting of Reverend Walker skating on ice . The architectural critic Charles Jencks finds this a particularly apt metaphor for balanced movement and democratic debate and also notes the irony that Miralles too was skating on ice with his designs for the building . Elsewhere , in the public area beneath the debating chamber , the curved concrete vaults carry various stylised Saltires . Here the architect intends another metaphor ; by setting the debating chamber directly above the public area , he seeks to remind MSPs whilst sitting in the chamber that their power derives from the people below them .
The Scottish Parliament Building is open to visitors all year round . On non @-@ sitting days , normally Mondays , Fridays and weekends as well as during parliamentary recess periods , visitors are able to view the Main Hall of the building and can access the public galleries of the debating chamber and main committee rooms . Guided tours are also available on non @-@ sitting days and these allow visitors access to the floor of the chamber , the Garden Lobby , Queensberry House and committee rooms in the company of a parliamentary guide . On sitting days , members of the public must purchase tickets for the public galleries of both the chamber and committee rooms .
= = = Sustainability = = =
The Scottish Parliament Building was designed with a number of sustainability features in mind . The decision to build the Parliament on a brownfield site and its proximity to hubs of public transport are seen as sustainable , environmentally friendly features . All of the electricity purchased for the building comes from renewable sources and solar panels on the Canongate Building are used for heating water in the complex .
A high level of insulation was used to keep the building warm during the winter months . This approach , however , brings with it the potential problem of overheating during the summer due to solar heat gains through the glazing , body heat and the use of computers and electric lighting . Standard solutions to the problem usually involve using energy intensive HVAC systems . The Scottish Parliament Building , however , reduces the requirements for such systems to only 20 % of the accommodation by a variety of strategies . Natural ventilation is used wherever possible . A computerised management system senses the temperature in different parts of the Parliament and automatically opens windows to keep the building cool . During summer months , the building opens the windows during the night time when it is unoccupied and permits the heavy concrete floors and structure to cool and rid themselves of heat absorbed during the day.This then helps to keep the building temperature down during the day by absorbing the excess heat from the glazing , occupants and electrical equipment . Some of the concrete floors are further cooled by water from 25 metres ( 80 ft ) deep bore holes beneath the parliamentary campus which also provide water for the toilet facilities . The building achieves the highest rating in the Building Research Establishment 's Environmental Assessment Method ( BREEAM ) .
= = = Debating chamber = = =
The debating chamber contains a shallow elliptical horseshoe of seating for the MSPs , with the governing party or parties sitting in the middle of the semicircle and opposition parties on either side , similar to other European legislatures . Such a layout is intended to blur political divisions and principally reflects the desire to encourage consensus amongst elected members . This is in contrast to the " adversarial " layout reminiscent of other Westminster style national legislatures , including the House of Commons , where government and opposition sit apart and facing one another . There are 131 desks and chairs on the floor of the chamber for all the elected members of the Scottish Parliament and members of the Scottish Government . The desks are constructed out of oak and sycamore and are fitted with a lectern , a microphone and in @-@ built speakers as well as the electronic voting equipment used by MSPs . Galleries above the main floor can accommodate a total of 255 members of the public , 18 guests and 34 members of the press .
The most notable feature of the chamber is the roof . The roof is supported by a structure of laminated oak beams joined with a total of 112 stainless steel connectors ( each slightly different ) , which in turn are suspended on steel rods from the walls . The connecting nodes were fabricated by welders for Scotland 's oil industry . Such a structure enables the debating chamber to span over 30 metres ( 100 ft ) without any supporting columns . In entering the chamber , MSPs pass under a stone lintel — the Arniston Stone — that was once part of the pre @-@ 1707 Parliament building , Parliament House . The use of the Arniston Stone in the structure of the debating chamber symbolises the connection between the historical Parliament of Scotland and the present day Scottish Parliament .
Cut into the western wall of the debating chamber are laminated glass panels , of different shapes , intended to give a human dimension to the chamber . At night , light is shone through the glass panels and is projected onto the MSPs ' desks to create the impression that the chamber is never unoccupied . Natural light diffuses into the chamber and is provided by " glass fins " which run down from light spaces in the ceiling . Glimpses out of the chamber are given to the landscape and city beyond , intentionally , to visually connect the MSPs to Scotland . The necessities of a modern parliament , banks of light , cameras , electronic voting and the MSPs ' console have all been transformed into works of craft and art , displaying the sweeping curves and leaf motifs that inform the rest of the building . Such is the level of craftsmanship , a result of the union of Miralles ' inventive designs , superb detailing by RMJM and excellent craftsmanship in execution , that Jencks was prompted to state that the [ Parliament ] is " an arts and crafts building , designed with high @-@ tech flair . You really have to go back to the Houses of Parliament in London to get interior design of such a high creative level — in fact , it is more creative " .
On 2 March 2006 , a beam in the roof of the debating chamber swung loose from its hinges during a debate , resulting in the evacuation of the debating chamber and the suspension of parliamentary business . Parliament moved to other premises while the whole roof structure was inspected and remedial works were carried out . The structural engineers , Arup , stated that the problem with the collapsed beam was entirely due to the failure of one bolt and the absence of another . There was no design fault . The engineers concluded , in a report to MSPs , that the damage is likely to have been done during construction work on the chamber roof , in the latter phases of the project . The report also indicated that whilst one of the bolts was missing , the other was broken and had damaged threads commensurate with being overtightened or jammed , which twisted the head off , or came close to doing so .
= = = Garden Lobby = = =
The Garden Lobby is at the centre of the parliamentary complex and connects the debating chamber , committee rooms and administrative offices of the Tower Buildings , with Queensberry House and the MSP building . The Garden Lobby is the place where official events as well as television interviews normally take place and it is used as an open social space for MSPs and parliamentary staff . The main feature of the Garden Lobby are the rooflights , which when viewed from above resemble leaves or the early Christian " vesica " shape and allow natural light into the building . The rooflights are made from stainless steel and the glasswork is covered by a lattice of solid oak struts . The route through the Garden Lobby up the main staircase to the debating chamber has been described as " one of the great processional routes in contemporary architecture . "
= = = MSP building = = =
The MSP building is connected to the Tower Buildings by way of the Garden Lobby and stands at the western end of the parliamentary complex , adjoining Reid 's Close . The block contains offices for each MSP and two members of staff , fitted out with custom @-@ designed furniture . The building is between four and six storeys in height , and is clad in granite . MSPs occupy 108 of the total 114 rooms in the building . Each office is divided into two parts — one for the MSP , with a floor space of 15 square metres ( 160 sq ft ) and another part for their staff , which has a floor space of 12 square metres ( 130 sq ft ) . The most distinctive feature of the MSP block are the unusual windows which project out from the building onto the western elevation of the parliamentary complex , inspired by a combination of the repeated leaf motif and the traditional Scottish stepped gable . In each office , these bay windows have a seat and shelving and are intended as " contemplation spaces " . Constructed from stainless steel and framed in oak , with oak lattices covering the glass , the windows are designed to provide MSPs with privacy and shade from the sun . Criticism has been levelled at the design of the windows by some MSPs who claim that the design blocks out natural light from their offices . To remove the uniformity from the western side of the building , the windows jut out at different widths and angles . At its north end , the building is six storeys high ( ground floor plus five ) stepping down to four storeys ( ground floor plus three ) at the south end .
= = = Other buildings = = =
Four tower buildings fan out along the front , or eastern edge , of the parliamentary complex and are notable for the curvature of their roofs . The Tower Buildings are home to the public entrance of the Scottish Parliament and to the Main Hall which is located on the eastern side of the parliamentary complex , beneath the debating chamber . A stone vaulted ceiling is the principal feature of the Main Hall , which has cross like representations carved into it , reminiscent of the Saltire — the national flag of Scotland . The main hall contains permanent exhibitions on the role of the Scottish Parliament , as well as public seating , a visitor information desk , a shop , lockers and a creche . Like much of the parliamentary complex , the materials used to construct the Main Hall and its vaulted ceiling include Kemnay Granite from Aberdeenshire in north east Scotland and Caithness stone which is used in much of the flooring in the buildings . Connected to the Tower Buildings in the eastern portion of the complex are the Media and Canongate Buildings , which house the IT and procurement departments of the Parliament , as well as media offices and the Scottish Parliament Information Centre ( SPICe ) . The centrepiece of the Canongate Building is a two @-@ storey cantilever structure , with the building connected at one end by reinforced concrete and 18 metres ( 60 ft ) of the building suspended above ground and protruding outwards unsupported by any columns .
Originally dating from 1667 , Queensberry House is an example of a seventeenth century Edinburgh townhouse and contrasts with the modern architecture of the rest of the parliamentary complex . From c.1800 , Queensberry House has been used as a hospital , army barracks , a refuge and a geriatric hospital . In 1996 , the geriatric hospital closed and the building was incorporated into the Scottish and Newcastle brewery , who owned the surrounding site . The building has been extensively refurbished , and returned to its original height of three storeys to provide facilities for the Presiding Officer , Deputy Presiding Officers , the Chief Executive of the Scottish Parliament and various parliamentary support staff . Internally and externally the building has been strengthened with reinforced steel and concrete . The original timber flooring has been replaced throughout with a mixture of carpet , vinyl , oak and Caithness stone . Queensberry House also contains the Donald Dewar Room , dedicated to the founding First Minister of Scotland who died in October 2000 . The room hosts the personal collection of books and other memorabilia donated to the Parliament by the family of Donald Dewar after his death .
= = = Artwork and features = = =
The Scottish Parliament holds a wide variety of artwork and sculpture ranging from specially commissioned pieces to official gifts from overseas parliamentary delegations . The intention of including artwork and sculptures in the building reinforces the desire of Miralles that the project should reflect the nature of Scotland , particularly its land and people . In order to facilitate the incorporation of art into the building , a consultative steering group was established by the Scottish Parliamentary Corporate Body ( SPCB ) under the chairmanship of Jamie Stone MSP with the remit of deciding which artworks should be chosen . Some pieces of artwork are on public display in the building . As well as artwork and sculptures , quotations , furniture and photography have been commissioned as part of the art strategy . A range of quotations have been inscribed onto the stonework in and around the parliamentary complex . Beneath the Canongate Building façade is the Canongate Wall , constructed from a variety of indigenous Scottish rocks such as Lewisian gneiss , Torridonian sandstone and Easdale slate . The stones are set into large concrete casts , each one inscribed with a quotation . The Canongate Wall contains a total of 24 quotations . Etched along the lower stretch of the wall is a pictorial representation of the Old Town of Edinburgh @-@ based around a sketch by Enric Miralles showing the view of the Old Town from his bedroom window in the Balmoral Hotel .
The Main Hall of the Parliament contains a number of distinctive features and sculptures , including the gold @-@ plated Honours of Scotland sculpture . Presented by the Queen upon the opening of the Parliament building , the sculpture is modelled on the actual Honours of Scotland , the crown , sceptre and the sword of the state , and combines these three separate elements into one composition . During meetings of the original Parliament of Scotland , the actual Honours were always present but since 1819 they have been permanently housed in Edinburgh Castle . The 11 m ( 36 ft ) long Visitor Information Desk also stands in the Main Hall . Commissioned by the art strategy group , the desk combines a unique design constructed from oak and sycamore and functions as a workstation for six members of parliamentary staff . At a cost of £ 88 @,@ 000 the desk has been criticised by some over its price and functionality .
Another feature gifted to the Scottish Parliament by the Queen , following its inauguration in July 1999 , is the parliamentary mace . The mace is housed in a glass case in the debating chamber and has a formal , ceremonial role during meetings of the Parliament . The mace sits in front of the Presiding Officers ' desk and is made from silver and inlaid with gold panned from Scottish rivers and inscribed with the words : Wisdom , Compassion , Justice and Integrity . The words - There shall be a Scottish Parliament ( which are the first words of the Scotland Act 1998 ) , are inscribed around the head of the mace . At the beginning of each session in the chamber , the case is removed to symbolise that a full meeting of the Parliament is taking place .
= = Critical response = =
Public reaction to the design of the building has been mixed . In the first 6 months of the building being open to the public , 250 @,@ 000 people visited it , which Presiding Officer George Reid has said showed the public were " voting with their feet " . Critics of the building , such as Margo MacDonald MSP , have pointed out that the high number of visitors does not prove that all of them like the building . As well as cost , criticisms of the building stem primarily from the modernist and abstract architecture , the quality of the building work and the location of the building .
The mixed public reaction contrasts sharply with the response from architectural critics . Its rampant complexity , iconography and layering of meaning and metaphor are widely regarded as producing a building which is " quite a meal " . This prompted Catherine Slessor , writing in the Architectural Review , to describe it as " A Celtic @-@ Spanish cocktail to blow both minds and budgets , it doesn 't play safe , energetically mining a new seam of National Romanticism refined and reinterpreted for the twenty @-@ first century . " Jencks attempted to dampen criticism of the cost overruns by questioning how ' value for money ' might be judged . For him , the building is not just a functional or economic enterprise , it is an exploration of national identity and in comparing it to other comparable assemblies , not least the Palace of Westminster , he argues the cost is comparable . The conception of the building has been singled out for praise , particularly in the way it re @-@ establishes Scotland 's traditional focus towards mainland Europe and its values by means of the layout of the non @-@ adversarial debating chamber and the creation of the public spaces in front of the building , " where people can meet and express themselves as a force " . In an era of the Bilbao effect and the iconic building , Jencks is impressed that rather than being a monumental building , as is usual for capital landmarks , the building creates a complex union of nature and culture that nestles itself into the landscape .
The building has also won a number of awards , including an award at the VIII Biennial of Spanish Architecture , the RIAS Andrew Doolan Award for Architecture , and the 2005 Stirling Prize , the UK 's most prestigious architecture award . The inclusion of the Scottish Parliament Building on the shortlist for the Stirling Prize in 2004 , led the judges to describe the building as " a statement of sparkling excellence " . In October 2005 the building was identified as Scotland 's 4th greatest modern building by readers of Prospect magazine .
= = Problems = =
= = = Timeline of cost increases = = =
The construction of the Scottish Parliament Building has generated controversy in several respects . Rising costs and the use of public money to fund the project generated most controversy . Initial estimates for constructing a new building were projected to be between £ 10m and £ 40m in 1997 . By early 2004 , the estimated final cost of the project was set at £ 430m , some ten times greater .
= = = Controversy = = =
Notwithstanding the level of controversy surrounding cost , the Scottish Parliament Building proved controversial in a number of other respects : the decision to construct a new building , the choice of site , the selection of a non @-@ Scottish architect , and the selection of Bovis as construction manager after having earlier been excluded from the shortlist . In 1997 , the initial cost of constructing a new Parliament building was given as £ 40 million , a figure produced by the Scottish Office , prior to the September 1997 devolution referendum , and subsequently revealed to be the figure for housing MSPs . Further controversy surrounding the project sprang from the selection of the Holyrood site , which was a late entrant onto the list of sites to be considered , and the rejection of the Royal High School on Calton Hill , long thought to be the home of any future devolved Scottish Parliament . After a formal visit to the Royal High School by Dewar and his aides on 30 May 1997 , it was rejected as unsuitable on the grounds of size and location .
Control of the building project passed from the Scottish Office to the cross @-@ party Scottish Parliamentary Corporate Body ( SPCB ) on 1 June 1999 , headed by the Parliament 's then Presiding Officer , Sir David Steel , at a time of increasing costs . Rising costs sprang from the need for a formal entrance and the need to accommodate parliamentary staff in light of better knowledge of how Parliament was working at its primary location on the Royal Mile , where it was clear there were staff overcrowding problems . With the cost increases in mind , and heightened media interest in the Holyrood Project , the Members of the Scottish Parliament held a debate on whether to continue with construction on 17 June 1999 voting by a majority of 66 to 57 in favour to complete the project .
In August 1999 , the architect informed the project group that the Parliament would need to be further increased in size by 4 @,@ 000 square metres ( 43 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . A subsequent costing revealed that taking into account the increased floorspace net construction costs had risen to £ 115m by September 1999 . Early in 2000 , the SPCB commissioned an independent report by the architect John Spencely . The report concluded that savings of 20 % could be made on the current project and that scrapping the project completely at that stage or moving to another site would entail additional costs of £ 30m . Spencely also cited poor communication between the SPCB and construction officials as increasingly costly . Given the outcomes of the Spencely report , MSPs voted to continue with the construction project on the Holyrood site in a debate in the Scottish Parliament on 5 April 2000 .
The project was also complicated by the deaths of Miralles in July 2000 , of Dewar the following October and the existence of a multi @-@ headed client consisting of the SPCB , the Presiding Officer and an architectural advisor . The client took over the running of the project from the Scottish Executive ( formerly the Scottish Office ) while it was already under construction . Subsequently , the events of 9 / 11 led to further design changes , especially with regard to security , which again resulted in rising costs . However , it was later rejected that the re @-@ designs required to incorporate greater security into the building structure were the " single biggest " factor affecting the increased costs of the project .
By March 2004 the cost had reached the sum of £ 430m ( compared to an original budget of £ 55m in July 1998 when the architects were appointed ) . This equates to £ 85 for each of the 5 @.@ 1 million people in Scotland . A report published by the Auditor General for Scotland in July 2004 specifically identified elements that contributed to both increasing costs and the delay in completing the project . His report criticised the overall management of the project and stated that had the management and construction process been executed better , costs could have been reduced . The report attempted to identify the reasons why there had been an acceleration in cost from £ 195m in September 2000 to £ 431m in February 2004 and concluded that over 2000 design changes to the project were a major factor . The building was finally certified for occupation in the Summer of 2004 , with the official opening in October of the same year , three years behind schedule .
= = Fraser Inquiry = =
In May 2003 the First Minister , Jack McConnell , announced a major public inquiry into the handling of the building project . The inquiry ( known as the Holyrood Inquiry , or the Fraser Inquiry ) was headed by Lord Fraser of Carmyllie and held at the Scottish Land Court in Edinburgh . The inquiry took evidence from architects , civil servants , politicians and the building companies . Evidence was taken over the course of 49 hearings and the final report ran to 300 pages .
= = = Criticisms = = =
Presenting his report in September 2004 , Lord Fraser told how he was " astonished " that year after year the ministers who were in charge were kept so much in the dark over the increases in cost estimates . He also stated that a Parliament building of sufficient scale could never have been built for less than £ 50m , and was " amazed " that the belief that it could be was perpetuated for so long . He believed that from at least April 2000 , when MSPs commissioned the Spencely Report to decide whether the building should continue , it should have been realised that the building was bound to cost in excess of £ 200m . Furthermore , £ 150m of the final cost was wasted as a result of design delays , over @-@ optimistic programming and uncertain authority .
Despite having only an outline design , the designers RMJM / EMBT ( Scotland ) Ltd stated without foundation that the building could be completed within a £ 50m budget . Nevertheless , these estimates were believed by officials . The two architectural practices in the RMJM and EMBT joint venture operated dysfunctionally and failed to communicate effectively with each other and the project manager . The death of Miralles also gave rise to a substantial period of disharmony . The Brief emphasised the importance of design and quality over cost , and was not updated despite considerable evolution of the design . Ministers were not informed of grave concerns within the Scottish Office over the cost of the project and officials failed to take the advice of the cost consultants .
The Scottish Office decided to procure the construction work under a " construction management contract " , rather than under a Private Finance Initiative , in order to speed construction , but without properly evaluating the financial risks of doing so , and - in a decision that Fraser stated " beggars belief " - without asking Ministers to approve it . This was one of the two most flawed decisions which the report singled out , the other was the insistence on a rigid programme . Officials decided that rapid delivery of the new building was to be the priority , but that quality should be maintained . It was therefore inevitable that the cost would suffer . The client was obsessed with early completion and failed to understand the impact on cost and the completion date if high @-@ quality work and a complex building were required . In attempting to achieve early completion , the management contractor produced optimistic programmes , to which the architects were unwise to commit . The main causes of the slippage were delays in designing a challenging project that was to be delivered against a tight timetable using an unusual procurement route .
The inquiry was widely seen as clearing Donald Dewar for the initial mishandling of the project . This came after speculation suggesting that Dewar was aware that the initial costs of a new Parliament Building , circulated to the public , were too low . However , in his report , Lord Fraser stated " there was no evidence whatsoever , that he [ Dewar ] deliberately or knowingly misled MSPs . He relied on cost figures given to him by senior civil servants . " The inquiry also resisted the temptation to " lay all of the blame at the door of a deceased wayward architectural genius [ Miralles ] ..... costs rose because the client wanted increases and changes or at least approved of them in one manifestation or other . "
= = = Reaction and recommendations = = =
In his report , Lord Fraser set out a number of recommendations stemming from the inquiry . Primarily , in terms of design selection and when using an international architect linking with a Scottish @-@ based firm , the report advised that a full analysis of the compatibility of different working cultures and practices needs to be made .
Lord Fraser advocated that when " construction management " contracts were used , civil servants or local government officials should evaluate the risks of such a contract and set out the advantages and disadvantages of embarking upon such a route before their political superiors . Alongside that recommendation , Lord Fraser stated that independent advisors should be retained and have the ability to communicate their advice to ministers , without those views being " filtered " by public officials . Similarly , where civil servants are part of large project management contracts , clear guidelines of governance should be set out and be as rigorous as standards applied in the private sector .
Following publication of the report , Jack McConnell stated that the Fraser recommendations would be fully implemented , and that fundamental reform of the civil service was already under way , with trained professionals being recruited to handle such projects . The First Minister emphasised that he was keen to see an increase in the specialist skills of civil servants , in order for them to be able to administer projects of such magnitude in the future . John Elvidge , the most senior civil servant in Scotland , admitted that best practice had not been followed and apologised for the way the project had been handled . He did not rule out the possibility of taking disciplinary action against civil service staff , although subsequent Scottish Government investigations resulted in no action being taken against individual public officials involved with the project .
= = Demonstrations = =
In 2015 , the pro @-@ independence group People 's Voice established a demonstration camp on the grounds of the Scottish parliament demanding independence. this camp was objected to as it risked infringing on the political neutrality of the parliamentary estate and prevented others from using the grounds . Sheriff officers have issued the campers with a notice ordering them to leave , however the campers have refused .
= James D. Black =
James Dixon Black ( September 24 , 1849 – August 5 , 1938 ) was the 39th Governor of Kentucky , serving for seven months in 1919 . He ascended to the office when Governor Augustus O. Stanley was elected to the U.S. Senate .
Black graduated from Tusculum College in 1872 and taught school while studying law . He was admitted to the bar in 1874 and opened his legal practice in Barbourville , Kentucky . Eventually , his son , Pitzer Dixon , and his son @-@ in @-@ law , Hiram H. Owens , became partners in his practice , called Black , Black and Owens . Deeply interested in education , he served as superintendent of the Knox County public schools for two years , and was instrumental in the founding of Union College in Barbourville . He served as president of the college from 1910 to 1912 .
Black was chosen as the Democratic nominee for lieutenant governor in 1915 , despite having only meager previous political experience . He was elected on a ticket with Augustus O. Stanley and was elevated to governor when Stanley resigned to take a seat in the U.S. Senate . Much of his seven months as governor were spent on his re @-@ election campaign . He was unable to satisfactorily answer charges of corruption made against the Stanley administration by his opponent , Edwin P. Morrow . Morrow won the election by more than 40 @,@ 000 votes . Black returned to his legal practice in Barbourville and served as president of a bank founded by his older brother . He was campaign manager for Alben Barkley 's senatorial campaign when he died of pneumonia on August 5 , 1938 .
= = Early life and family = =
James Dixon Black was born on September 24 , 1849 nine miles from Barbourville on Richland Creek in Knox County , Kentucky . He was the youngest of twelve children born to John Craig and Clarissa " Cassie " ( Jones ) Black . Black 's older brother , Isaac Jones Black ( August 5 , 1828 - October 22 , 1866 ) , was captain of the 49th Kentucky Mounted Infantry in the Union Army during the Civil War .
Black was educated in the rural and subscription schools in and around Barbourville . In 1872 , he graduated from Tusculum College near Greeneville , Tennessee with a Bachelor of Arts degree . After college , Black returned to Knox County where he taught in the public schools for two years . Concurrently , he studied law , and was admitted to the bar in August 1874 . He opened his legal practice in Barbourville .
Black married Mary Jeanette " Nettie " Pitzer on December 2 , 1875 in Barbourville . The couple had three children : Pitzer Dixon , Gertrude Dawn , and Georgia Clarice . All were members of the Methodist Episcopal Church . All three children graduated from what is now Centre College in Danville , Kentucky . Pitzer then went on to study law at the University of Virginia . After being admitted to the bar , he became a partner in his father 's law firm . Georgia Black married Hiram Hercules Owens , who also became a partner in the Barbourville firm of Black , Black , and Owens .
= = Educational career = =
Black was elected to represent Knox and Whitley counties in the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1876 . A Democrat representing a district with a majority of Republican voters , he served a single , one @-@ year term .
In 1879 , Black and other citizens of Barbourville purchased stock to fund the start up of a new college in Barbourville . Black insisted that the college be named Union College , because he hoped the college would unify the community . He continued to be involved in the development of the college , serving as its attorney and as a fund @-@ raiser . Deeply interested in education , he also served as superintendent of the Knox County public schools in 1884 and 1885 , but returned to his law practice thereafter .
A long @-@ time Freemason , Black served as master of his local lodge on seven different occasions , was twice high priest of the Barbourville Chapter of the Royal Arch Masons , and was chosen Grand Master of Kentucky in 1888 . In 1893 , he was chosen by Kentucky governor John Y. Brown as a commissioner to the Chicago World 's Columbian Exposition , representing Kentucky 's forestry and mineral departments .
On September 10 , 1910 , Black was named the eighth president of Union College . The following year , his alma mater awarded him an honorary Doctor of Laws degree . He served as president of Union College until 1912 .
= = Political career = =
Black returned to politics in 1912 when he became Kentucky 's first assistant attorney general . In 1915 , he was chosen as the Democratic nominee for lieutenant governor . Black was pro @-@ temperance , and was chosen to balance the ticket with Augustus O. Stanley , who opposed prohibition . While Black defeated his opponent , Lewis L. Walker , by more than 8 @,@ 000 votes , Stanley bested Republican Edwin P. Morrow by only 421 votes , the closest gubernatorial election in the state 's history .
Though Stanley and Black won the election , they never became political allies . At the time of their election and service , the Kentucky Constitution prescribed that the lieutenant governor would act as governor any time the governor left the state . Consequently , Stanley refused to travel out of state on vacation because he feared he would not approve of anyone Black would appoint to any unfilled governmental offices while he was gone .
Black ascended to the governorship on May 19 , 1919 when Governor Stanley resigned to assume a seat in the U.S. Senate . His pro @-@ temperance stand cost him many of Stanley 's supporters , while his association with Stanley , a prohibition opponent , caused his support to wane among prohibitionists . There was no legislative session of the General Assembly during Black 's term , so potential conflicts with the legislature were avoided .
Black immediately faced accusations of poor appointments by Stanley . The School Textbook Commission was singled out for particular criticism . The Kentucky Court of Appeals had ruled that the Commission acted illegally in selecting textbooks submitted in dummy form . Black called on the commissioners to resign , but when they refused , he claimed he had no power to remove them except for fraud or corruption . The Louisville Courier @-@ Journal pointed out that Black could replace any Stanley appointees that had not yet been confirmed by the Senate , but Black refused to do so . Some believed that Black had agreed to retain Stanley 's appointees in exchange for Stanley 's support of Black 's re @-@ election campaign .
The settlement of state inheritance taxes on two estates also plagued Black . In the first case , Governor Stanley had made a compromise settlement of back taxes with L. V. Harkness before his death . The compromise was criticized , and although Black asked the attorney general to investigate , the case was not decided during Black 's tenure as governor . In the second case , Stanley had appointed three special attorneys to collect inheritance taxes from the estate of Mrs. Robert Worth Bingham . Black wanted the attorneys to resign and save the state their large fees , but refused to remove them outright . This action was made more damning because one of the attorneys was a member of Black 's campaign staff .
In 1919 , Black was chosen as the Democratic gubernatorial nominee over John D. Carroll , chief justice of the Kentucky Court of Appeals , by more than 20 @,@ 000 votes . The Republicans again nominated Edwin P. Morrow , who implored voters to " Right the Wrong of 1915 " . Since Black had very little record as governor in his own right , Morrow campaigned against him by attacking Stanley 's administration as corrupt . Morrow cited as evidence the tax cases of Mr. Harkness and Mrs. Bingham and Black 's inaction against the State Textbook Commission .
Black tried to remain positive in his race , and focused on national issues rather than defending Stanley 's administration . He touted his support of President Woodrow Wilson and declared his support for the United States ' admission into the League of Nations . His support of Wilson hurt him with German American voters , and Wilson 's handling of recent coal strikes hurt Black with the traditionally Democratic labor vote .
Days before the election , Morrow exposed a contract approved by the state Board of Control to purchase cloth from a man named A. S. J. Armstrong at twice its normal price . Black responded to the allegation by temporarily suspending his campaign and ordering an investigation . The investigation revealed that Armstrong was a plumber who was bidding on behalf of his brother @-@ in @-@ law , a former prison official in the Stanley administration . Despite this revelation , Black refused to remove members of the Board of Control . This issue finally sank Black 's candidacy ; Morrow won the election by more than 40 @,@ 000 votes .
In his final days in office , Black considered many requests for executive clemency . On December 1 , 1919 , he issued a pardon for Henry Youtsey , a recent parolee who had served eighteen years for conspiracy in the assassination of Governor William Goebel .
In 1918 , while still serving as lieutenant governor , Black had assumed the presidency of the John A. Black National Bank of Barbourville , named for and founded by his older brother . He became chief prohibition inspector for Kentucky in 1920 . Later , he served as director of the Barbourville Cemetery Company . While working as Ninth Congressional District campaign manager for Senator Alben Barkley in 1938 , Black developed pneumonia and died on August 5 , 1938 . He is entombed in a mausoleum at Barbourville Cemetery .
= John de Breton =
John de Breton ( sometimes John le Breton , John Breton , John Bretun or John Brito ; died c . 12 May 1275 ) was a medieval Bishop of Hereford . He served as a royal justice and sheriff before being nominated to Hereford . He is sometimes credited with the legal treatise Britton ; but in its current form Breton cannot be the author as the work refers to laws written 15 years after the bishop 's death .
= = Life = =
Breton was the son of William le Breton , a royal justice . The elder Breton , who is sometimes styled William Brito in records , came from a family who often served as justices and other legal officials . Occasionally the younger Breton appears in the records as John Bretun or John Brito . He served as Sheriff of Herefordshire from 1254 to 1257 , and then as constable and bailiff of Abergavenny around 1257 . In October 1259 he was sent abroad on matters pertaining to King Henry III of England , and Henry 's son , the future Edward I. He then served Edward as keeper of the prince 's wardrobe and then after November 1261 as the prince 's steward .
In late 1261 Breton is noted as owing £ 120 in the royal records . A notation next to the debt implies that he was a canon of Hereford Cathedral at this point , but the Fasti Ecclesiae Anglicanae 1066 – 1300 does not identify him as such . Breton does not appear in the records from this point until after the Battle of Evesham in 1265 , when he is noted as holding a grant of royal safeguarding .
Breton served as a royal justice from 1266 , first in the Court of Common Pleas , and then at the King 's Bench from 1268 . He was elected to the see of Hereford around 6 January 1269 . He was consecrated on 2 June 1269 at Waverley by Nicholas of Ely who was Bishop of Winchester . After his election and consecration , he no longer served as a royal justice .
Breton was given leave to go to the continent to meet Edward when he returned from Crusade , in 1273 , but the bishop did not attend Edward 's coronation .
= = Death and legacy = =
Breton died on or before 12 May 1275 , when the custodian of the bishopric was given orders to seize Breton 's estate because of debts owed to the king . These debts dated back over 20 years , to his time as sheriff . A Thomas le Breton , presumably a relative , was a canon at Hereford Cathedral from 1273 , and probably owed his office to John .
A number of chronicles that mention Breton 's death also note that he was the author of a legal treatise entitled le Bretoun , but this cannot be the surviving work called Britton , at least not in the current form , as that work discusses laws composed 15 years after Breton 's death . It is unclear why he was credited with the work , and whether this attribution is just a confusion of Breton with the real author or if he did in fact author the work , which was later revised . The fact that the Britton is written in French , not Latin , and that it contains little information about the theory of law , being mostly concerned with the practical application of laws , points rather strongly to an author who was a royal justice , which Breton was .
= River Trym =
The River Trym is a short river , some 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) in length , which rises in Filton , South Gloucestershire , England . The upper reaches are culverted , some underground , through mostly urban landscapes , but once it emerges into the open it flows through a nature reserve and city parks before joining the tidal River Avon at Sea Mills . 18th @-@ century water mills near the mouth gave the area its name .
Portus Abonae was a Roman port at the mouth which provided an embarkation point for journeys across the River Severn to South Wales . In the 18th century there were short lived attempts at creating a port and a whale fishery here . The name Trym appears to have Anglo @-@ Saxon roots . In recent years silting problems , caused by urban development have caused some difficulties , but alleviation works have helped reduce the problem .
= = Course = =
The Trym rises near Filton in South Gloucestershire , in the area of Filton Golf Club. and much of its upper course is culverted underneath 20th century housing . It surfaces in the Bristol suburb of Southmead , then flows open through Badock 's Wood nature reserve . Just south of here is Henleaze Swimming Lake , a former quarry fed by springs , the overflow running into the Trym . The river is culverted through Westbury @-@ on @-@ Trym village . A sluice here is used to divert water into a storm drain in times of high rainfall to save the village centre from flooding .
The Trym then disappears into culverts , re @-@ emerging at Henbury Golf Club before entering the Blaise Castle estate where it is joined on the right bank by the Hazel Brook above Coombe Dingle . The remains of Coombe Mill , which was fed by both the Hazel Brook and the Trym can be seen here . Passing under Dingle Road bridge , the river then flows through Sea Mills river park , passing under the Portway and the Severn Beach railway line before joining the river Avon . A weir under the Portway prevents flooding upstream , except during the highest spring tides .
= = Natural history = =
Badock 's Wood in Southmead is a nature reserve managed by Bristol City Council . Areas of beech , oak and ash woodland support a range of other bushes and shrubs , including hazel , maple , hawthorn and blackthorn . Badock 's Meadow , a former prefab housing estate has been reseeded with native meadow plants including oxeye daisies , yellow rattle , wild carrot and knapweed . Wildlife includes native woodland birds including woodpeckers and owls , also pipistrelle bats .
The Blaise Castle estate contains a variety of trees and plant life , also providing cover for birds and small mammals . Further downstream , just above Sea Mills , Himalayan Balsam and Japanese Knotweed , both invasive riverside plants have established themselves . Ducks and moorhen can be found along many stretches of the river , with gulls and estuary birds near the mouth .
A pollution incident by Wessex Water which allowed sewage to flow into the Trym in 2001 , killing eels , sticklebacks and invertebrates , resulted in a fine following prosecution by the Environment Agency . Other pollution incidents have followed .
= = History = =
At the confluence of the Trym with the Avon was the Roman port and small town of Portus Abonae , which took its name from the main river Avon which simply means ' river ' in British Celtic . Abona was a staging point for the Roman invasion of Wales and was at the western end of the Roman road from Silchester .
In the 15th century there were tide mills at Millpill , near the mouth . An attempt was made in 1712 by the entrepreneur Joshua Franklyn to open a commercial dock at the mouth of the Trym , on the Roman site , but the venture foundered after a few decades . A whale fishery enterprise set up in 1752 was equally short lived . Parts of the dock walls can still be seen .
= = Etymology = =
Linguistics sources indicate that the name Trym may derive from the Anglo @-@ Saxon , meaning ' firm ' or ' strong ' one ' .
= = Hydrology = =
The flow of the river has decreased in power in recent years , partly because of surface run @-@ off in the upper catchment of the Hazel Brook , especially from the large retail centre at Cribbs Causeway , which sends a good deal of silt into the system , slowing the flow and creating a risk of flooding downstream . This problem has now been partially alleviated by the construction of the Catbrain attenuation reservoir near Cribbs Causeway . Measurements of pollution by the city council show the water to be relatively clean .
= Natasha Williams ( Neighbours ) =
Natasha " Tash " Williams is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Neighbours , played by Valentina Novakovic . The role of Natasha is Novakovic 's first acting job and she relocated from Sydney to Melbourne for filming . Natasha was introduced to Neighbours along with her father , Michael Williams ( Sandy Winton ) and she made her debut screen appearance during the episode broadcast on 5 May 2010 . In November 2012 , Novakovic confirmed that she would be leaving Neighbours and she filmed her final scenes in December . Natasha departed on 29 March 2013 .
Natasha has been described as spirited , rebellious and having a burning desire to rule the school . She likes to have all the attention on her and often chooses to rebel so people will notice her . She can also be quite manipulative . Executive producer , Susan Bower said Natasha loves to gossip and wants to be a famous model . She often clashes with Summer Hoyland ( Jordy Lucas ) , who is a feminist and quite the opposite to her . Novakovic stated that Natasha and Summer are " frenemies . " The actress also explained that she finds playing Natasha challenging , as her persona is quite different from her own . Novakovic has said that she would like to see Natasha grow up , become nicer and turn over a new leaf . She expressed her desire to portray Natasha 's softer and funnier side during an interview with Digital Spy .
Natasha 's storylines have mainly focused on her relationship with Andrew Robinson ( Jordan Smith ) . Novakovic named this storyline as one of her favourites and said that Natasha and Andrew belong together as they bring out the worst in each other . Their relationship led to a complex love triangle involving Summer and later saw Natasha faking a pregnancy to keep Andrew . Natasha casually dates Ivan DeMarco ( Ben Knight ) and in a bid to appear more mature , she sends him naked photos of herself . They are leaked , causing a scandal amongst Natasha 's school friends . Other storylines have seen Natasha trying to achieve her dream of becoming a model , making sure she remains popular at school , coping with her father 's relationships and discovering the truth about her mother 's death .
= = Storylines = =
Natasha models for a PirateNet advertising campaign , where she meets Andrew Robinson and Summer Hoyland . Natasha gets into trouble with her father , Michael ( Sandy Winton ) , after he finds out she lied by saying she was eighteen on the consent form . He threatens to sue the station owner and Andrew 's father , Paul Robinson ( Stefan Dennis ) . Natasha and Andrew work together to change the posters , so they are no longer revealing . They then attend a concert together and kiss at the end of the night . Natasha clashes with Summer and starts a rumour that her boyfriend , Chris Pappas ( James Mason ) , bought the baskestball team captaincy . Her relationship with her father is strained further when he learns she started the rumour . The schools English teacher , Libby Kennedy ( Kym Valentine ) , discovers Natasha is hiding her maths skills and makes her join the Mathletes as a punishment . Natasha wonders if Andrew is only with her because of her looks and she becomes insecure about their relationship .
Natasha and Andrew break up and Natasha briefly dates Kyle Canning . Natasha discovers that a student in her class is gay and tries to out them , the resulting rumours lead Chris to reveal he is gay . Michael starts dating Ruby Rogers ( Yesse Spence ) and Natasha tries to sabotage the relationship . She reveals that she does not want to see Michael get hurt . Natasha becomes head of the school social committee and she bullies the other members , in particular Sophie Ramsay ( Kaiya Jones ) , into voting for the things she wants . Natasha notices that Andrew is spending time with Summer and she steals the social money , causing the event to be cancelled . Natasha convinces Andrew to throw a party and they get back together . Michael discovers Natasha took the money and suspends her . Natasha later warns Summer to stay away from Andrew . When she notices Summer 's house is on fire , Natasha runs in to rescue her . Michael finds Natasha and they , along with Summer and Andrew , are rescued by firefighters .
Natasha sustains a burn on her neck and she becomes insecure about it . Natasha sees Andrew and Summer kissing , which leaves her devastated . To stop Andrew from breaking up with her , Natasha tells him she is pregnant . Michael , though initially angry , tells his daughter that he will support her . Andrew books Natasha in for an ultrasound scan and after trying to get out of it , Natasha buys fake ultrasound images over the internet . She convinces Andrew not to come into the doctor 's office with her and she gives him the fake pictures . Summer reveals the images are fake and Natasha explains that she lied because Andrew cheated on her . Michael tells Natasha that he no longer trusts her and she becomes ostracised at school . Natasha is thrown off the Mathletes team and Lisa Devine ( Sophie Tilson ) takes her place as the most popular girl in the school . Chris befriends Natasha and she and Summer apologise to each other for their actions . Chris and Natasha try to get Summer and Andrew back together and Natasha successfully challenges Lisa for the Mathletes captaincy .
Feeling lonely , Natasha goes out clubbing and meets Ivan DeMarco ( Ben Knight ) , an older man . Michael discovers the relationship and bans Natasha from seeing Ivan . However , Natasha continues to see him in secret and when Ivan asks her for some naked pictures , she sends him some . Natasha learns Ivan has been showing the pictures to his friends and that they are on the internet . She initially lies to Michael about who took the photos , but Michael learns the truth from Ivan . Natasha becomes desperate to win her father 's favour back and she sprays the street with derogatory graffiti about herself . However , Michael discovers she was responsible for the graffiti and he disowns her . After she is taunted about her appearance , Natasha decides to get rhinoplasty and uses Michael 's credit card to pay the deposit . Natasha then sells some of her father 's records to raise the money and Michael decides to send her to a boarding school . He changes his mind after Natasha nearly drowns in the pool at Number 30 and their relationship begins to improve .
Natasha begins looking for information about her mother , Helena , and learns that her aunt Emilia lives in Australia . Without revealing her identity , Natasha meets Emilia at a fashion shoot . Emilia works out Natasha is her niece and comes to Erinsborough to talk to her . Natasha learns her mother drowned and she demands the truth about her death . Michael reveals that Helena was not a strong swimmer , but she went into the sea to save Natasha . When he became aware of what was happening , he could only save one of them . Michael reassures Natasha that Helena 's death was not her fault . Michael collapses and undergoes surgery for a perforated stomach ulcer , causing Natasha to blame herself for his condition . However , she learns that Michael caught Summer cheating on her exam the day he collapsed and falls out with her friends , as they let her blame herself for what happened . After receiving her exam results , Natasha decides to study Contemporary Arts at university .
Michael and Emilia reveal that they are dating and Natasha accepts their relationship . However , when she learns that they were having affair at the time Helena died , Natasha takes Michael 's panel van and sets it on fire . Natasha remains angry with her father and after asking him to leave her alone , she learns he has gone to Serbia with Emilia . Natasha throws a house party , but it gets out of control and the street is trashed . When Natasha is fined by the police , she is forced to seek employment to earn some money . She competes with Kate Ramsay ( Ashleigh Brewer ) for a job at Charlie 's and Celeste McIntyre ( Cassandra Magrath ) gives them both a two @-@ week trial . When Michael informs her that he is selling the house , Natasha tries to put off potential buyers and decides to sabotage Kate 's chances of getting the job at Charlie 's . Natasha becomes upset when Mason Reeves ( Carter Doyle ) tries to ask her out , revealing that he saw her pictures online . Jade Mitchell ( Gemma Pranita ) comforts Natasha and opens up to her about an abusive relationship that she was once in .
Celeste gives Natasha the waitressing job at Charlie 's and she moves in with Summer and Karl Kennedy ( Alan Fletcher ) , after her house is sold . Natasha also decides to drop out of her university course , upon realising that it is not right for her . Natasha meets Ed Lee ( Sebastian Gregory ) at Charlie 's and offers to help him solve a maths equation , but he dismisses her . When she solves the problem , he invites her to a maths club . Natasha later transfers to his calculus course and Ed helps her with conditional probability , which they use to predict the outcome of a game of cards . They decide to play a game of Blackjack with a group of guys at Charlie 's , but are forced to stop when a couple of police officers walks in . Natasha convinces Ed to hold a game at the Men 's Shed , so they can continue to test the theory and make some money . Andrew comes up with an idea to use the theory to make an odds calculator mobile app . When Natasha goes to asks Ed about the idea , he introduces her to the hobby of LARPing , before agreeing to sign Andrew 's contract .
Natasha spends more time with Ed and attends a comic swap with him . Shortly before a press conference for the app , Ed finds an error and he and Natasha work together to fix it . While they are celebrating , Natasha and Ed almost kiss . Andrew asks Natasha to talk to a blogger about the app without Ed , which she thinks is wrong . When Ed learns what has happened , he accuses Natasha and Andrew of using him . Natasha tries to apologise , but Ed insists that she and Andrew pay him for his help and then they can go their separate ways . Ed and Natasha eventually make up and she asks him out on a date . Andrew reveals that an offer as been made for the app , but Natasha refuses to sell it . During a car journey to the city with her friends , Natasha learns that Andrew faked her signature to sell the app behind her back and an argument breaks out . Andrew tries to stop Natasha from calling the police and he bumps Chris ' arm , causing him to lose control of the car and crash . Natasha frees herself from the car , before pulling Ed from the wreckage .
At the hospital , Natasha blames Andrew for the crash . She learns Ed has a fractured collarbone and sits with him until he wakes up . When he does , Natasha kisses him . They begin dating , but Natasha worries that they do not have much in common . Natasha helps organise a ball for the university and takes an immediate dislike to Ed 's vintage suit . She spills coffee on it and then lends Ed a nicer one that she found . Ed realises what she has done and they fight . After apologising to each other , Natasha decides to break up with Ed , as they are too different . When Natasha finds Andrew having a fit in Charlie 's , she learns that he has epilepsy . She agrees to keep it a secret . After he collapses , Natasha encourages Andrew to go to the hospital for tests . Before he can leave , he suffers a fit in front of Paul . Andrew initially blames Natasha for causing the fit when Paul takes Charlie 's away from him . She then helps him to convince Paul to change his mind . Natasha and Andrew begin dating again in secret . They later decide to tell everyone and Summer reveals that she already knew and does not mind . Natasha later finds an old email from Andrew proclaiming his love for Summer and she begins to worry about her relationship with him . However , Andrew reassures her that he loves her and their relationship is different this time around . Natasha asks Andrew to take a month of celibacy , but they end up breaking it early . Natasha quits university and tells Andrew that she is leaving Erinsborough to travel around Europe . She asks Andrew to come with her and he agrees . They leave the following day with Paul 's blessing .
= = Casting = =
In early 2010 , it was announced that three new characters ; Doug Harris ( Mahesh Jadu ) , Michael Williams ( Sandy Winton ) and Natasha Williams were to join Neighbours in the following months . Novakovic , a performing arts college graduate , was cast in the role of Natasha . The actress had been studying architecture at university , before she chose to move into acting . Shortly after her casting was announced , Novakovic revealed that the role of Natasha was her first acting job and that while she would always be interested in architecture , she really wanted to enjoy the experience on Neighbours . Novakovic moved from Sydney to Melbourne , where Neighbours is filmed , for the role . She is three years older than the character she portrays . In 2011 , Novakovic revealed she is still happy with the career choice she made , stating " I enjoy what I 'm doing now a lot more than studying , because this is where I want to be . [ ... ] The best thing for me is that I enjoy going to work every day and have some great friends there , including the crew . It 's awesome to do something you love every single day . "
= = Development = =
= = = Characterisation = = =
Before she entered Neighbours , Natasha was described as being " spirited , rebellious and conniving " . Channel Five 's Holy Soap website described her as being a " teen rebel " . After she entered the show , Network Ten described Natasha as having a " major attitude " and a " burning desire to rule the school . " They also go on to explain that Natasha never misses an opportunity to be the centre of attention and does whatever it takes to be noticed . However , Natasha really wants to get her father 's attention and she chooses to rebel , so that he notices her . TV Soap called Natasha a vixen and Novakovic describes Natasha as being " manipulative " and knowing what she wants .
During an interview , executive producer Susan Bower explained that Natasha is " a teenage troublemaker who is actually really , really clever " . Natasha wants to be a famous model , she loves to gossip and she knows how to get the boy 's attentions . Bower also added that Natasha and Summer Hoyland ( Jordy Lucas ) clash because Summer is a feminist who fights for causes , while Natasha is the opposite . Novakovic is fond of the love @-@ hate relationship Natasha shares with Summer and said that they were " frenemies . " She further explained , " They 're in the same social group at school , and despite the fact that they have so many differences , they 're similar in a lot of ways . And Summer is Natasha 's only female friend , don 't forget . "
Natasha 's personality began to change and in October 2010 , Novakovic said " When she arrived she was full @-@ on , and that was all a part of getting the attention she loves . It 's all about knowing that she 's liked . But she 's more settled now " . Novakovic also explained that it is " quite challenging " to play someone so different from herself , but it is fun . She also hoped that she is not as irritating as Natasha in real life and added " I 'm not a manipulative teenage girl who 's forever wanting everything her own way . " In March 2011 , Novakovic revealed that she would like to see Natasha become a nicer person , grow up and turn over a new leaf . She said " There are glimpses of the nice girl in Tash . " She later said that as she has played the villain for over a year , she would like to show Natasha 's " softer , funnier side . " Novakovic also hoped that her future storylines could see Natasha 's background and her relationship with her mother explored and developed .
In November 2012 , Novakovic proclaimed that Natasha was still herself , despite how much she had grown . She explained " It 's so much fun to playing such a free spirited character . I like that she 's matured and thinks a little clearer now that she is older , but I don 't think Tash could ever become boring , no matter how much she matures . "
= = = Family = = =
In order to form the father @-@ daughter bond needed for their respective roles , both Novakovic and Winton introduced each other to their families . The actors spent a lot of time together , to ensure they were comfortable together on and off screen . Natasha 's father , Michael , is a widower and she is his only child . Bower revealed Natasha has her father wrapped around her finger . Michael dotes upon Natasha and Bower opined Natasha causes havoc because he is not strict with her . Winton said he thinks Michael is not handling things with Natasha " too poorly " , but she does make things difficult for him . During a 2011 interview with Channel 5 , Winton said that Michael and Natasha 's relationship had become tortured . Winton stated that Michael wishes Natasha would stop lying to him and hoped she would get her act together , so they could have some semblance of a father / daughter relationship . Winton wanted Michael to build a better relationship with Natasha in the future as he loves her , despite the things she has done .
Following an incident in which Natasha sprays graffiti around Ramsay Street , Michael disowns his daughter and ignores her attempts to get back in his good books . Natasha finds the situation weird and she is hurt by her father 's actions . Novakovic said Natasha is disappointed in herself for hurting Michael so much . Natasha responds by taking advantage of her new independence to try to get Michael 's attention . She also tries to get back on her father 's good side , by doing some housekeeping , but Michael brushes it all aside . Of how Natasha feels about this , Novakovic said " She knows how much her father loves her which is why this is even more jarring , as she realises it must be killing her father to act this way . " Natasha and Michael eventually make amends , but it is not an easy journey and they have a lot to work through . Novakovic told Daniel Kilkelly of Digital Spy that the storyline would change Natasha and she would become more sensitive and less self @-@ absorbed .
Bower later teased an upcoming storyline which shows the beginning of Natasha wanting to find out more about her late mother . Bower told Kilkelly that the secret would be revealed in three parts , which would change Natasha and Michael 's lives forever . " In July 2011 , it was announced Natasha 's long lost aunt , Emilia ( played by Freya Stafford ) , would be introduced . The Neighbours official website said Emilia 's arrival would dig up a lot of secrets and she plays a " pivotol role in Natasha 's teenage angst . " Novakovic revealed Natasha and Emilia had met before , but Natasha was a toddler and does not remember her . The actress said Natasha and Emilia begin meeting each other in secret and get along well . Novakovic added " Although when Tash mentions her mother , Emilia 's reaction is quite strange . But there is so much coming up between these two that all this could change ! "
= = = Relationship with Andrew Robinson = = =
Natasha starts dating Andrew Robinson ( Jordan Smith ) and she believes that they are perfect for each other . Novakovic said that they " bring out the worst in each other " and added " I don 't think she could find a guy that would tolerate her like Andrew does . She thinks he 's the only guy she could possibly be with . " Natasha thinks that school and studying is not cool and is happy that Andrew feels the same , until Summer Hoyland joins their class and Andrew becomes interested in his studies . Natasha fears that she could lose her control over Andrew . Summer later asks Natasha if there is anything else , other than the physical aspect , to her relationship with Andrew . Novakovic says that " Natasha is furious , but it does make her stop and think about what she is doing . " Natasha does begin to have her doubts about the relationship and she decides to test Andrew , by telling him she wants their relationship to have to be about communicating and understanding each other . Andrew does not take the new direction of the relationship well . Novakovic said that Natasha believes the relationship between her neighbours , Susan ( Jackie Woodburne ) and Karl Kennedy ( Alan Fletcher ) , is something to be inspired by . She added " That 's what she wants to look forward to , but she 's getting way ahead of herself . Andrew likes her but he isn 't as serious as she is . " Novakovic opined that Andrew and Natasha " bring out the worst in each other " and that Natasha 's relationship with Andrew had been one of her favourite storylines .
Andrew and Natasha briefly split and she starts dating Kyle Canning ( Chris Milligan ) . Natasha decides to break off the relationship , but Kyle dumps her first . TV Soap said " She 's usually the one calling the shots and doing the dumping , but young Natasha is about to find out what it 's like on the other side of the fence " . They add that Natasha rarely thinks before dropping one guy and moving onto another . Natasha grows bored of Kyle 's company , but Kyle also becomes bored with his younger girlfriend and he ends their relationship . Natasha is embarrassed and she lies to Andrew about who ended the relationship first . Natasha and Andrew eventually get back together and Adelaide Now said that thrills Natasha " as she 's completely obsessed " with Andrew .
A love triangle between Natasha , Andrew and Summer is formed . Natasha 's feelings for Andrew grow when they organise a party together , but she notices Andrew 's concern for Summer when she collapses and warns Summer away from Andrew . Natasha later asks Andrew if he loves her , but he does not reply . In December 2010 , Summer and Andrew give into their feelings for each other and have sex . Novakovic said Natasha would be " devastated " if she knew what had happened and that she would not let Andrew and Summer off lightly . Andrew tells Natasha that he is going to business meeting , but he meets Summer instead . While they are together in Summer 's house , a fire breaks out . Natasha sees the smoke and calls her father and the emergency services before entering the house to rescue Summer , unaware Andrew is also there . Novakovic explained Natasha 's ordeal : " Natasha is pulled from the fire by her dad , Michael . Andrew and Summer are rescued separately , and Natasha has no idea of the reason why Andrew was in the house - he was cheating on her with Summer ! " After the rescue , Natasha has to come to terms with the fact she will be scarred from a burn she sustains on her neck . Novakovic said that it is a " big deal " for Natasha , as she aspires to be a model and this could ruin her chances . Novakovic also opines that Summer wants nothing more than to be with Andrew , but how can she take him when Natasha tried to save her ? Novakovic believed Natasha was blasé to their feelings adding " Deep down , I think Natasha knows that there 's something going on , but she doesn 't want to admit it to herself . But sooner or later , I reckon she 'll have to face the inevitable . "
= = = Fake pregnancy = = =
A couple of months later , Natasha discovers Andrew is cheating on her with Summer . Natasha is hurt and angry and she lies to Andrew about being pregnant . Of Natasha 's rash decision , Novakovic explained " She is hurt and the whole cheating thing has really crushed her . She feels like the fool , no one goes behind her back . And she feels they are pitying her because of her injury [ the burn she sustained in the fire ] and [ she ] really hates that . " Natasha wants Andrew and Summer to feel guilty about betraying her and she wants Andrew for herself . Andrew believes Natasha is pregnant and instead of being with Summer , he decides to stick by Natasha and their baby . Novakovic said that the new storyline is " very exciting " and she could not wait to discover the new developments . Novakovic insisted that Natasha is making the plan up as she goes along . She has not thought it out or how the whole situation might end . Her main goal is to keep Andrew and Summer apart because they betrayed and hurt her . Natasha and Andrew attend a pre @-@ natal class together and they get on quite well . During an interview with Digital Spy , Novakovic explained that Natasha is reminded of why she fell for Andrew in the first place , especially when she sees his gentle side . Because Natasha is getting along well Andrew , there are times when she feels guilty for what she is doing . Natasha does not have any sort of plan to admit the truth as she knows Andrew will be angry .
Novakovic enjoyed filming the storyline because there was so much drama . When she was asked if she had any sympathy for Natasha during filming , she told Digital Spy that she had to because she needed to understand how her character is feeling . Novakovic also hoped viewers would have sympathy for Natasha too . The lie starts to grow out of control and Natasha is forced to make up stories about why she does not want to go to the doctor . She later buys fake ultrasound scan photos over the internet , but Summer becomes suspicious about them and discovers they are from overseas and are fake . Summer realises that Natasha has been lying about being pregnant and reveals the truth in front of Andrew and Natasha 's father , shocking Natasha . Andrew does not take the news well and Michael blames himself for his daughter 's actions . Novakovic hoped the experience would change Natasha and she would start to grow up . The actress added that Natasha cannot cope by herself and if she continues lying to everyone , they may turn against her .
= = = Photo scandal = = =
In June 2011 , Inside Soap reported that Natasha would " hook up " with Ivan DeMarco ( Ben Knight ) , an older man she meets while out clubbing . A source told the magazine : " Tash sets her sights on somebody who isn 't necessarily good for her . " They added that Natasha is in a reckless frame of mind , which leads to more conflict with her father . In an attempt to impress Ivan and to show how mature she is , Natasha sends him " raunchy photos " of herself . The Daily Star reported that Ivan would then betray Natasha by showing the pictures to his friends . Natasha 's pictures go viral after her " act of recklessness " and TV Week said that her situation should be a lesson to anyone thinking of doing the same . Natasha 's classmates find out about the pictures and it causes a scandal at her school . Of the situation , a Neighbours insider told the paper " Tash doesn 't think of the consequences when she takes a series of very naughty pictures of herself to send to Ivan . He 's more than ten years older than her and she 's desperate to keep him interested . "
Natasha 's father , Michael , discovers what has happened and he is disgusted when he hears the boys at school talking about his daughter . He confronts Ivan , thinking he made Natasha take the pictures , but he is " gutted " when he learns that it was all Natasha 's idea . Natasha tries to win her father 's favour back and she sprays some unpleasant graffiti about herself around the street , before playing the victim . Natasha enjoys the attention she receives , but when Michael realises what she did , he chooses to disown his daughter and tells her that he does not care what she gets up to . Natasha is left shocked by Michael 's decision and does not know what to do about it . Natasha becomes insecure following the photo scandal and Michael 's rejection of her and she begins to obsess about improving her appearance . Natasha searches for nose jobs online , before stealing her father 's credit card and booking herself in for a procedure .
= = = Ed Lee = = =
A writer for Channel 5 revealed in March 2012 , that Natasha would be introduced to the hobby of LARPing , by a new guy who has " a surprising impact on her " . The following month , it was announced that Sebastian Gregory had joined the cast of Neighbours as " maths genius " Ed Lee , Natasha 's new love interest . Shortly after she drops out of her arts course at university , Natasha meets Ed in Charlie 's . She initially believes he is trying to ask her out on a date , but is embarrassed when she realises that she has misred the signals . Natasha apologises and offers to help him out with a difficult maths equation he has been trying to solve . A writer for All About Soap explained " judgemental Ed dismisses her , assuming the waitress hasn 't got much in the brains department ! " . Natasha solves Ed 's equation , proving him wrong and forcing him to apologise to her . Ed then invites Natasha to attend a university maths club , but she leaves at the last minute " refusing to be labelled a nerd . " Natasha , Andrew and Ed make an anti @-@ gambling phone app using a maths probability theory and Natasha develops feelings for Ed . While they are celebrating the completion of the phone app , Natasha and Ed embrace and almost share a kiss . However , the moment is ruined when Andrew calls Natasha . Jackie Brygel of TV Week commented " Will beauty and the geek , Tash and Ed , ever get to lock lips ? "
= = = Departure = = =
On 1 November 2012 , Novakovic confirmed that she would be leaving Neighbours to pursue acting opportunities in the United States . Of her decision to leave the serial , Novakovic stated " Australia is small compared to what else is out there , especially in Los Angeles . I love acting and it 's what I want to do , so why not be in the thick of it all ? I certainly love to do more Aussie things but , being realistic , there is nowhere near as much opportunity here . " During her first interview since announcing her departure , Novakovic explained that her main reasons for leaving Neighbours were to try other things and explore different characters . The actress said that she had wanted to do two years with the show , but when the time came , she decided to stay for another year to prepare herself to leave .
Novakovic told Kilkelly that she did not have the full details of how Natasha would leave , but said that it would involve " a drive off in a car " . She did not mind Natasha leaving the show without a dramatic exit , stating that leaving on good terms would be good . The actress commented that she had loved her character 's transition from " bratty " to " almost nice " and believed that Natasha was still herself no matter what she had gone through . Novakovic was pleased that she got to explore every aspect of Natasha and go through every emotion with her . She added that she wanted Natasha to be remembered by the viewers . Novakovic filmed her final scenes in December , but Natasha continued to appear on @-@ screen until 29 March 2013 .
= = Reception = =
For her portrayal of Natasha , Novakovic was included on the long list for the 2011 Most Popular New Talent Logie Award . A writer for Holy Soap said Natasha 's most memorable moment was " Showing she could be a heroine as she rushed to rescue her friends from the Ramsay Street fire . " Virginia Blackburn of the Daily Express nicknamed Natasha and Andrew " The Swot and The Slug " after learning about Natasha 's talent for Maths . A reporter from The Sun @-@ Herald branded Natasha a " teen rebel " , while a TV Soap columnist stated that she was the new Izzy Hoyland of Neighbours . Michelle Duff of The Dominion Post called Natasha a " blonde @-@ haired vixen . " Duff also used Natasha 's fake pregnancy storyline as an example of how life in Ramsay Street is more " melodramatic " than life in a real street . Jaci Stephen of the Daily Mail also commented on Natasha 's pregnancy lie , saying " As plans go , Tash 's seem to be right down there with building an ark in Las Vegas . " Stephen later advised Natasha that there were other ways to hold on to a bloke , like using handcuffs . Laura Morgan from All About Soap said she enjoyed Natasha 's fake pregnancy storyline , saying " We love nothing more than a fake pregnancy to shake things up a bit ! " A writer for Channel 5 proclaimed the storyline was " arguably one of the soap 's most jaw @-@ dropping revenge plots . "
Holy Soap ran a poll on who Andrew should be with and 16 @,@ 000 votes were cast , with 92 % of viewers choosing Summer over Natasha . In June 2011 , a Daily Record reporter called Natasha a " wayward teen " and said her relationship with Ivan was likely to end in tears . In August 2011 , Anthony D. Langford of AfterElton commented " the show really needs a new direction for Tash . Her endless stunts and tricks are kind of boring at this point . Tash is a likeable character , and I love her friendship with Chris . But this character needs some growth and a new direction . And perhaps a love interest as well . " Langford later said Natasha just simply asking Aidan Foster ( Bobby Morley ) if he was gay or straight was " so in character that you weren 't shocked when she did it . " All About Soap 's Claire Crick praised Natasha 's reaction to finding out that Michael and Emilia were having an affair at the time of her mother 's death , saying " we can 't help but love her rebellious revenge ! " Crick explained " After being in the dark about her mum 's death all her life , you can 't blame Tash for lashing out , especially when she assumed that her dad was keeping things secret to protect her ... when in actual fact he was just protecting his own sordid secret ! " She added that she could not wait to see what happens next , " especially if it involves more from the tearaway teen – go , Tash ! " A Channel 5 website writer commented that Natasha was " one of Neighbours ' most colourful and controversial characters " .
= The Eraser =
The Eraser is the debut solo album by Thom Yorke of the English alternative rock band Radiohead , released on 10 July 2006 on the independent label XL Recordings . It was produced by longtime Radiohead producer Nigel Godrich . The album comprises electronic music Yorke recorded during Radiohead 's 2004 hiatus and between their 2005 rehearsals , and makes heavy use of original samples .
The lyrics express Yorke 's political concerns . Lead single " Harrowdown Hill " was written about the death of David Kelly , a whistleblower who allegedly committed suicide after telling a reporter that the British government had falsely identified weapons of mass destruction in Iraq . The album artwork , by longtime Radiohead cover artist Stanley Donwood , was inspired by the legend of King Canute failing to command the ocean , which Yorke likened to government attitudes towards climate change .
The Eraser debuted at number three on the UK Albums Chart and number two on the American Billboard 200 . It was named one of the best albums of 2006 by the NME , Rolling Stone and the Observer , and was nominated for the 2006 Mercury Music Prize and the 2007 Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album .
Two singles were released from the album : " Analyse " and " Harrowdown Hill " . It was followed in the same year by a B @-@ sides EP , Spitting Feathers , and in 2009 a remix album , The Eraser Rmxs . In 2010 , to perform the album live , Yorke formed Atoms for Peace with musicians including Godrich and Red Hot Chili Peppers bassist Flea .
= = Recording = =
In 2004 , after finishing the tour for their sixth album Hail to the Thief ( 2003 ) , Radiohead went on hiatus . Songwriter Thom Yorke began recording The Eraser , his first solo release , with longtime Radiohead producer Nigel Godrich in late 2004 , and continued work throughout 2005 between Radiohead sessions . He told Pitchfork : " I 've been in the band since we left school and never dared do anything on my own ... It was like , ' Man , I 've got to find out what it feels like , ' you know ? "
The album was recorded in Radiohead 's Oxford studio , Godrich 's studio in Covent Garden , and Yorke 's home . Yorke wanted to " approach and engage with computers and not a lot else , and yet still have lots of life and energy in the music . " To generate ideas , he cut and pasted clips at random from Radiohead 's library of original samples , many of which were created on laptops in hotel rooms as the band toured . He would send sound fragments to Godrich , who identified passages that could become songs , edited them , and returned them to Yorke . Describing the collaborative process , Yorke said : " ' Black Swan ' , back in the day , was a ... nine @-@ minute load of bollocks . Except for this one juicy bit , and [ Godrich ] goes past and goes , ' That bit . Fuck the rest . ' Usually it 's something like that . "
To create the title track , Yorke sampled piano chords played by Radiohead guitarist Jonny Greenwood and cut them into a new order . " And it Rained All Night " contains an " enormously shredded @-@ up " sample from " The Gloaming " ( from Hail to the Thief ) , and " Black Swan " samples a rhythm recorded by Radiohead guitarist Ed O 'Brien and drummer Philip Selway in 2000 . Yorke said " Harrowdown Hill " had been " kicking around " during the 2002 Hail to the Thief sessions , but felt it could not have worked as a Radiohead song .
Yorke initially intended to create instrumental tracks , but added vocals at the encouragement of Godrich . On Radiohead albums , Yorke had altered his voice with layers of reverb and digital effects ; however , for The Eraser , Godrich wanted Yorke 's voice to be " dry and loud . " As Yorke found it difficult to write lyrics to loops of music , saying he could not " react spontaneously and differently every time " , he translated the music to guitar and piano and generated new musical components in the process .
Yorke saved one song recorded in the Eraser sessions , " Last Flowers " , for the bonus disc of Radiohead 's seventh album , In Rainbows ( 2007 ) . Another song , " The Hollow Earth " , was finished later and released as a single in 2009 .
= = Music and lyrics = =
The Observer described The Eraser as " an insidious collection of skittery beats and pattery rhythms and minimal post @-@ rockisms " . The LA Times described it as " an evocative portrait of life made slippery by urban sprawl , murky political alliances and global warming ... with the blips and bleeps of Yorke 's laptop excursions coalescing into soulful , politically charged songs . " Pitchfork described it as " glitchy , sour , feminine , brooding " . Citing inspiration from the 1997 Björk album Homogenic , Yorke said the album was designed to be heard in an " isolated space – on headphones , or stuck in traffic . " Louis Patterson of the NME and Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone likened the album to the 2000 Radiohead album Kid A.
David Fricke of Rolling Stone felt the
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1970 Soviet film about Napoleon , Waterloo , received . In 2011 , Taschen published the book , Stanley Kubrick 's Napoleon : The Greatest Movie Never Made , a large volume compilation of literature and source documents from Kubrick , such as scene photo ideas and copies of letters Kubrick wrote and received . In March 2013 , Steven Spielberg , who previously collaborated with Kubrick on A.I. Artificial Intelligence and is a passionate admirer of his work , announced that he would be developing Napoleon as a TV miniseries based on Kubrick 's original screenplay .
= = = = Other projects = = = =
In the 1950s , Kubrick and Harris developed a sitcom starring Ernie Kovacs and a film adaption of the book I Stole $ 16 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , but nothing came of them . Tony Frewin , an assistant who worked with the director for a long period of time , revealed in a March 2013 Atlantic article : " He [ Kubrick ] was limitlessly interested in anything to do with Nazis and desperately wanted to make a film on the subject . " Kubrick had intended making a film about the life story of Dietrich Schulz @-@ Koehn , a Nazi officer who used the pen name " Dr. Jazz " to write reviews of German music scenes during the Nazi era . Kubrick had been given a copy of the Mike Zwerin book Swing Under the Nazis after he had finished production on Full Metal Jacket , the front cover of which featured a photograph of Schulz @-@ Koehn . A screenplay was never completed and Kubrick 's film adaptation plan was never initiated . The unfinished Aryan Papers , based on Louis Begley 's debut novel Wartimes Lies , was a factor in the abandonment of the project . Work on Aryan Papers depressed Kubrick enormously , and he eventually decided that Steven Spielberg 's Schindler 's List ( 1993 ) covered much of the same material .
According to biographer John Baxter , Kubrick had shown an interest in directing a pornographic film based on a satirical novel written by Terry Southern , entitled Blue Movie , about a director who makes Hollywood 's first big @-@ budget porn film . However , Baxter claims that Kubrick concluded that he did not have the patience or temperament to become involved in the porn industry , and Southern stated that Kubrick was " too ultra conservative " towards sexuality to have seriously gone ahead with it , but liked the idea . Kubrick was unable to direct a film of Umberto Eco 's Foucault 's Pendulum as Eco had given his publisher instructions to never sell the film rights to any of his books after his dissatisfaction with the film version of The Name of the Rose . Also , when the film rights to Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings were sold to United Artists , the Beatles approached Kubrick to direct them in a film based on the books , but Kubrick was unwilling to produce a film based on a very popular book . Director Peter Jackson has reported that Tolkien was against the involvement of the Beatles .
= = Career influences = =
Anyone who has ever been privileged to direct a film knows that , although it can be like trying to write War and Peace in a bumper car at an amusement park , when you finally get it right , there are not many joys in life that can equal the feeling .
As a young man , Kubrick was fascinated by the films of Soviet filmmakers such as Sergei Eisenstein and Vsevolod Pudovkin . Kubrick read Pudovkin 's seminal theoretical work , Film Technique , which argues that editing makes film a unique art form , and it needs to be employed to manipulate the medium to its fullest . Kubrick recommended this work to others for many years . Thomas Nelson describes this book as " the greatest influence of any single written work on the evolution of [ Kubrick 's ] private aesthetics " . Kubrick also found the ideas of Constantin Stanislavski to be essential to his understanding the basics of directing , and gave himself a crash course to learn his methods .
Kubrick 's family and many critics felt that his Jewish ancestry may have contributed to his worldview and aspects of his films . After his death , both his daughter and wife stated that although he was not religious , " he did not deny his Jewishness , not at all " . His daughter noted that he wanted to make a film about the Holocaust , the Aryan Papers , having spent years researching the subject . Most of Kubrick 's friends and early photography and film collaborators were Jewish , and his first two marriages were to daughters of recent Jewish immigrants from Europe . British screenwriter Frederic Raphael , who worked closely with Kubrick in his final years , believes that the originality of Kubrick 's films was partly because he " had a ( Jewish ? ) respect for scholars " . He declared that it was " absurd to try to understand Stanley Kubrick without reckoning on Jewishness as a fundamental aspect of his mentality " .
Walker notes that Kubrick was influenced by the tracking and " fluid camera " styles of director Max Ophüls , and used them in many of his films , including Paths of Glory and 2001 : A Space Odyssey . Kubrick noted how in Ophuls ' films " the camera went through every wall and every floor " . He once named Ophüls ' Le Plaisir ( 1952 ) as his favorite film . According to film historian John Wakeman , Ophüls himself learned the technique from director Anatole Litvak in the 1930s , when he was his assistant , and whose work was " replete with the camera trackings , pans and swoops which later became the trademark of Max Ophüls " . Geoffrey Cocks believes that Kubrick was also influenced by Ophüls ' stories of thwarted love and a preoccupation with predatory men , while Herr notes that Kubrick was deeply inspired by G. W. Pabst , who earlier tried , but was unable to adapt Schnitzler 's Traumnovelle , the basis of Eyes Wide Shut . Film critic Robert Kolker sees the influence of Welles ' moving camera shots on Kubrick 's style . LoBrutto notes that Kubrick identified with Welles and influenced the making of The Killing , with its " multiple points of view , extreme angles , and deep focus " . Kubrick also cited David Lynch 's Eraserhead ( 1977 ) as one of his favorite films and used it as a creative reference during the directing of The Shining .
= = Directing techniques = =
= = = Philosophy = = =
Kubrick 's films typically involve expressions of an inner struggle , examined from different perspectives . He was very careful not to present his own views of the meaning of his films and leave them open to interpretation . He explained in a 1960 interview with Robert Emmett Ginna : " One of the things I always find extremely difficult , when a picture 's finished , is when a writer or a film reviewer asks , ' Now , what is it that you were trying to say in that picture ? ' And without being thought too presumptuous for using this analogy , I like to remember what T. S. Eliot said to someone who had asked him — I believe it was The Waste Land — what he meant by the poem . He replied , ' I meant what I said ' . If I could have said it any differently , I would have " . Kubrick likened the understanding of his films to popular music , in that whatever the background or intellect of the individual , a Beatles record , for instance , can both be appreciated by the Alabama truck driver and the young Cambridge intellectual in the way that his films can because their " emotions and subconscious are far more similar than their intellects " . He believed that the subconscious emotional reaction evoked by audiences was far more powerful in the film medium than in any other traditional verbal form , and was one of the reasons why he often relied on long periods in his films without dialogue , placing emphasis on images and sound . In a Time magazine interview in 1975 , Kubrick further stated : " The essence of a dramatic form is to let an idea come over people without it being plainly stated . When you say something directly , it is simply not as potent as it is when you allow people to discover it for themselves . " He also said " Realism is probably the best way to dramatize argument and ideas . Fantasy may deal best with themes which lie primarily in the unconscious " .
Diane Johnson , who co @-@ wrote the screenplay for The Shining with Kubrick , notes that he " always said that it was better to adapt a book rather than write an original screenplay , and that you should choose a work that isn 't a masterpiece so you can improve on it . Which is what he 's always done , except with Lolita " . When deciding on a subject for a film , there were a number of aspects that he looked for , and he always made films which would " appeal to every sort of viewer , whatever their expectation of film " . According to his co @-@ producer Jan Harlan , Kubrick mostly " wanted to make films about things that mattered , that not only had form , but substance " . Kubrick himself believed that audiences quite often were attracted to " enigmas and allegories " and did not like films in which everything was spelled out clearly .
Although none of his features display graphic sex scenes , sexuality in Kubrick 's films is usually depicted outside matrimonial relationships in hostile situations . Baxter states that Kubrick explores the " furtive and violent side alleys of the sexual experience : voyeurism , domination , bondage and rape " in his films . He further points out that films like A Clockwork Orange are " powerfully homoerotic " , from Alex walking about his parents ' flat in his Y @-@ fronts , one eye being " made up with doll @-@ like false eyelashes " , to his innocent acceptance of the sexual advances of his post @-@ corrective adviser Deltroid ( Aubrey Morris ) . British critic Adrian Turner notes that Kubrick 's films appear to be " preoccupied with questions of universal and inherited evil " , and Malcolm McDowell referred to his humor as " black as coal " , questioning his outlook on humanity . Although a few of his pictures were obvious satires and black comedies , such as Lolita and Dr. Strangelove , many of his other films also contained less visible elements of satire or irony . His films are unpredictable , examining " the duality and contradictions that exist in all of us " . Ciment notes how Kubrick often tried to confound audience expectations by establishing radically different moods from one film to the next , remarking that he was almost " obsessed with contradicting himself , with making each work a critique of the previous one " . Kubrick stated himself that " there is no deliberate pattern to the stories that I have chosen to make into films . About the only factor at work each time is that I try not to repeat myself " . As a result , Kubrick was often misunderstood by critics , and only once did he have unanimously positive reviews upon the release of a film — for Paths of Glory .
= = = Writing and staging scenes = = =
Film author Patrick Webster considers Kubrick 's methods of writing and developing scenes to fit with the classical auteur theory of directing , allowing collaboration and improvization with the actors during filming . Malcolm McDowell recalled Kubrick 's collaborative emphasis during their discussions and his willingness to allow him to improvize a scene , stating that " there was a script and we followed it , but when it didn 't work he knew it , and we had to keep rehearsing endlessly until we were bored with it . " Once Kubrick was confident in the overall staging of a scene , and felt the actors were prepared , he would then develop the visual aspects , including camera and lighting placement . Walker believes that Kubrick was one of " very few film directors competent to instruct their lighting photographers in the precise effect they want . " Baxter believes that although American , Kubrick was heavily influenced by his ancestry and always possessed a European perspective to filmmaking , particularly the Austro @-@ Hungarian empire and his admiration for Johann Ophuls and Richard Strauss .
Gilbert Adair , writing in a review for Full Metal Jacket , commented that " Kubrick 's approach to language has always been of a reductive and uncompromisingly deterministic nature . He appears to view it as the exclusive product of environmental conditioning , only very marginally influenced by concepts of subjectivity and interiority , by all whims , shades and modulations of personal expression " . Johnson notes that although Kubrick was a " visual filmmaker , " he also loved words and was like a writer in his approach , very sensitive to the story itself , which he found unique . Before shooting began , Kubrick tried to have the script as complete as possible , but still allowed himself enough space to make changes during the actual filming , finding it " more profitable to avoid locking up any ideas about staging or camera or even dialogue prior to rehearsals " as he put it . Kubrick told Robert Emmett Ginna : " I think you have to view the entire problem of putting the story you want to tell up there on that light square . It begins with the selection of the property ; it continues through the creation of the story , the sets , the costumes , the photography and the acting . And when the picture is shot , it 's only partially finished . I think the cutting is just a continuation of directing a movie . I think the use of music effects , opticals and finally main titles are all part of telling the story . And I think the fragmentation of these jobs , by different people , is a very bad thing " . Kubrick also said : " I think that the best plot is no apparent plot . I like a slow start , the start that gets under the audience 's skin and involves them so that they can appreciate grace notes and soft tones and don 't have to be pounded over the head with plot points and suspense tools . "
= = = Directing = = =
Kubrick was notorious for demanding multiple takes during filming to perfect his art , and his relentless approach was often extremely demanding for his actors . Jack Nicholson remarked that Kubrick would often demand up to 50 takes of a scene . Nicole Kidman explains that the large number of takes he often required stopped actors from consciously thinking about technique , thereby helping them enter a " deeper place . " Kubrick 's high take ratio was considered by some critics as " irrational , " although he firmly believed that actors were at their best during the actual filming , as opposed to rehearsals , due to the sense of intense excitement that it generates . Kubrick explained : " Actors are essentially emotion @-@ producing instruments , and some are always tuned and ready while others will reach a fantastic pitch on one take and never equal it again , no matter how hard they try " ... " When you make a movie , it takes a few days just to get used to the crew , because it is like getting undressed in front of fifty people . Once you 're accustomed to them , the presence of even one other person on set is discordant and tends to produce self @-@ consciousness in the actors , and certainly in itself " . He also told biographer Michel Clement : " It 's invariably because the actors don 't know their lines , or don 't know them well enough . An actor can only do one thing at a time , and when he learned his lines only well enough to say them while he 's thinking about them , he will always have trouble as soon as he has to work on the emotions of the scene or find camera marks . In a strong emotional scene , it is always best to be able to shoot in complete takes to allow the actor a continuity of emotion , and it is rare for most actors to reach their peak more than once or twice . There are , occasionally , scenes which benefit from extra takes , but even then , I 'm not sure that the early takes aren 't just glorified rehearsals with the adding adrenaline of film running through the camera . "
Kubrick would devote his personal breaks to having lengthy discussions with actors . Among those who valued his attention was Tony Curtis , star of Spartacus , who said Kubrick was his favorite director , adding , " his greatest effectiveness was his one @-@ on @-@ one relationship with actors . " He further added , " Kubrick had his own approach to film @-@ making . He wanted to see the actor 's faces . He didn 't want cameras always in a wide shot twenty @-@ five feet away , he wanted close @-@ ups , he wanted to keep the camera moving . That was his style . " Similarly , Malcolm McDowell recalls the long discussions he had with Kubrick to help him develop his character in A Clockwork Orange , noting that on set he felt entirely uninhibited and free , which is what made Kubrick " such a great director . " Kubrick also allowed actors at times to improvize and to " break the rules " , particularly with Peter Sellers in Lolita , which became a turning point in his career as it allowed him to work creatively during the actual shooting , as opposed to the preproduction stage . During an interview , Ryan O 'Neal recalled Kubrick 's directing style : " God , he works you hard . He moves you , pushes you , helps you , gets cross with you , but above all he teaches you the value of a good director . Stanley brought out aspects of my personality and acting instincts that had been dormant ... My strong suspicion [ was ] that I was involved in something great " . He further added that working with Kubrick was " a stunning experience " and that he never recovered from working with somebody of such magnificence .
= = = Cinematography = = =
Kubrick credited the ease with which he photographed scenes to his early years as a photographer . He rarely added camera instructions in the script , preferring to handle that after a scene is created , as the visual part of film @-@ making came easiest to him . Even in deciding which props and settings would be used , Kubrick paid meticulous attention to detail and tried to collect as much background material as possible , functioning rather like what he described as " a detective " . Cinematographer John Alcott , who worked closely with Kubrick on four of his films , and won an Oscar for Best Cinematography on Barry Lyndon , remarked that Kubrick " questions everything " , and was involved in the technical aspects of film @-@ making including camera placement , scene composition , choice of lens , and even operating the camera which would usually be left to the cinematographer . Alcott considered Kubrick to be the " nearest thing to genius I 've ever worked with , with all the problems of a genius " .
Among Kubrick 's notable innovations in cinematography are his use of special effects , as in 2001 , where he used both slit @-@ scan photography and front @-@ screen projection , which won Kubrick his only Oscar for special effects . Some reviewers have described and illustrated with video clips , Kubrick 's use of " one @-@ point perspective " , which leads the viewer 's eye towards a central vanishing point . The technique relies on creating a complex visual symmetry using parallel lines in a scene which all converge on that single point , leading away from the viewer . Combined with camera motion it could produce an effect that one writer describes as " hypnotic and thrilling . " The Shining was among the first half @-@ dozen features to use the then @-@ revolutionary Steadicam ( after the 1976 films Bound for Glory , Marathon Man and Rocky ) . Kubrick used it to its fullest potential , which gave the audience smooth , stabilized , motion @-@ tracking by the camera . Kubrick described Steadicam as being like a " magic carpet " , allowing " fast , flowing , camera movements " in the maze in The Shining which would otherwise would have been impossible to accomplish .
Kubrick was among the first directors to use video assist during filming . At the time he began using it in 1966 , it was considered cutting @-@ edge technology , requiring him to build his own system . Having it in place during the filming of 2001 , he was able to view a video of a take immediately after it was filmed . On some films , such as Barry Lyndon , he used custom made zoom lenses , which allowed him to start a scene with a close @-@ up and slowly zoom out to capture the full panorama of scenery and to film long takes under changing outdoor lighting conditions by making aperture adjustments while the cameras rolled . LoBrutto notes that Kubrick 's technical knowledge about lenses " dazzled the manufacturer 's engineers , who found him to be unprecedented among contemporary filmmakers . " For Barry Lyndon he also used a specially adapted high @-@ speed ( f / 0 @.@ 7 ) Zeiss camera lens , originally developed for NASA , to shoot numerous scenes lit only with candlelight . Actor Steven Berkoff recalls that Kubrick wanted scenes to be shot using " pure candlelight , " and in doing so Kubrick " made a unique contribution to the art of filmmaking going back to painting ... You almost posed like for portraits . " LoBrutto notes that cinematographers all over the world wanted to know about Kubrick 's " magic lens " and that he became a " legend " among cameramen around the world .
= = = Editing and music = = =
Kubrick spent extensive hours editing , often working seven days a week , and more hours a day as he got closer to deadlines . For Kubrick , written dialogue was one element to be put in balance with mise en scène ( set arrangements ) , music , and especially , editing . Inspired by Pudovkin 's treatise on film editing , Kubrick realized that one could create a performance in the editing room and often " re @-@ direct " a film , and he remarked : " I love editing . I think I like it more than any other phase of filmmaking ... Editing is the only unique aspect of filmmaking which does not resemble any other art form — a point so important it cannot be overstressed ... It can make or break a film " . Biographer John Baxter stated that " Instead of finding the intellectual spine of a film in the script before starting work , Kubrick felt his way towards the final version of a film by shooting each scene from many angles and demanding scores of takes on each line . Then over months ... he arranged and rearranged the tens of thousands of scraps of film to fit a vision that really only began to emerge during editing " .
Kubrick 's attention to music was an aspect of what many referred to as his " perfectionism " and extreme attention to minute details , which his wife Christine attributed to an addiction to music . In his last six films , Kubrick usually chose music from existing sources , especially classical compositions . He preferred selecting recorded music over having it composed for a film , believing that no hired composer could do as well as the public domain classical composers . He also felt that building scenes from great music often created the " most memorable scenes " in the best films . In one instance , for a scene in Barry Lyndon which was written into the screenplay as merely , " Barry duels with Lord Bullingdon , " he spent forty @-@ two working days in the editing phase . During that period , he listened to what LoBrutto describes as " every available recording of seventeenth @-@ and eighteenth- century music , acquiring thousands of records to find Handel 's sarabande used to score the scene . " Jack Nicholson likewise observed his attention to music for his films , stating that Kubrick " listened constantly to music until he discovered something he felt was right or that excited him . "
Kubrick is credited with introducing Hungarian composer György Ligeti to a broad Western audience by including his music in 2001 , The Shining and Eyes Wide Shut . According to Baxter , the music in 2001 was " at the forefront of Kubrick 's mind " when he conceived the film . During earlier screening he played music by Mendelssohn and Vaughan Williams , and Kubrick and writer Clarke had listened to Carl Orff 's transcription of Carmina Burana , consisting of 13th century sacred and secular songs . Ligeti 's music employed the new style of micropolyphony , which used sustained dissonant chords that shift slowly over time , a style he originated . Its inclusion in the film became a " boon for the relatively unknown composer " partly because it was introduced alongside background by notable composers , Johann Strauss and Richard Strauss .
In addition to Ligeti , Kubrick also enjoyed a collaboration with composer Wendy Carlos , whose 1968 album Switched @-@ On — which re @-@ interpreted classical music through the use of a Moog synthesizer — caught the filmmaker 's attention . In 1971 , Carlos composed and recorded music for the soundtrack of A Clockwork Orange . Additional music not used in the film was released in 1972 as Wendy Carlos 's Clockwork Orange . Kubrick later collaborated with Carlos on The Shining ( 1980 ) . The opening of the film — in which the camera follows Jack Torrance 's yellow VW beetle through the mountains to the Overlook Hotel — employs Carlos ' eerie rendering of " Dies Irae " ( Day of Wrath ) from Hector Berlioz 's Symphonie Fantastique .
= = Personal life = =
Kubrick married his high @-@ school sweetheart Toba Metz , a keen caricaturist , on May 29 , 1948 , when he was nineteen years of age . They had attended Taft High School together and had lived in the same apartment block on Shakespeare Avenue . The couple lived together in Greenwich Village and divorced three years later in 1951 . He met his second wife , the Austrian @-@ born dancer and theatrical designer Ruth Sobotka , in 1952 . They lived together in New York 's East Village beginning in 1952 , got married in January 1955 and moved to Hollywood in July 1955 , where she played a brief part as a ballet dancer in Kubrick 's film , Killer 's Kiss ( 1955 ) . The following year she was art director for his film , The Killing ( 1956 ) . They divorced in 1957 . Kubrick lived with dancer and actress Valda Setterfield after the marriage broke down .
During the production of Paths of Glory in Munich in early 1957 , Kubrick met and romanced the German actress Christiane Harlan , who played a small though memorable role in the film . Kubrick married Harlan in 1958 , and the couple remained together 40 years , until his death in 1999 . Besides his stepdaughter , they had two daughters together : Anya Renata ( April 6 , 1959 – July 7 , 2009 ) and Vivian Vanessa ( born August 5 , 1960 ) . In 1959 they settled into a home at 316 South Camden Drive in Beverly Hills with Harlan 's daughter , Katherina , aged six . They also lived in New York , during which time Christiane studied art at the Art Students League of New York , later becoming an independent artist . The couple moved to the United Kingdom in 1961 to make Lolita , and Kubrick hired Peter Sellers to star in his next film , Dr. Strangelove , Sellers was unable to leave the UK , so Kubrick made Britain his permanent home thereafter . The move was quite convenient to Kubrick , since he shunned the Hollywood system and its publicity machine , and he and Christiane had become alarmed with the increase in violence in New York .
In 1965 the Kubricks bought Abbots Mead on Barnet Lane , just south of the Elstree / Borehamwood studio complex in England . Kubrick worked almost exclusively from this home for 14 years where , with some exceptions , he researched , invented special effects techniques , designed ultra @-@ low light lenses for specially modified cameras , pre @-@ produced , edited , post @-@ produced , advertised , distributed and carefully managed all aspects of four of his films . In 1978 , Kubrick moved into Childwickbury Manor in Hertfordshire , a mainly 18th century stately home , which was once owned by a wealthy racehorse owner , about 30 mi ( 50 km ) north of London and a 10 @-@ minute drive from his previous home at Abbotts Mead . His new home became a workplace for Kubrick and his wife , " a perfect family factory " as Christiane called it , and Kubrick converted the stables into extra production rooms besides ones within the home that he used for editing and storage .
A workaholic , Kubrick rarely took a vacation or left England during the forty years before he died . Biographer Vincent LoBrutto notes that Kubrick 's confined way of living and desire for privacy has led to spurious stories about his reclusiveness , similar to those of Greta Garbo , Howard Hughes , and J. D. Salinger . Michael Herr , Kubrick 's co @-@ screenwriter on Full Metal Jacket , who knew him well , considers his " reclusiveness " to be myth : " [ H ] e was in fact a complete failure as a recluse , unless you believe that a recluse is simply someone who seldom leaves his house . Stanley saw a lot of people ... he was one of the most gregarious men I ever knew , and it didn 't change anything that most of this conviviality went on over the phone . " Lo Brutto states that one of the reasons he acquired a reputation as a recluse was because he insisted in remaining near his home , but the reason for this was because for Kubrick there were only three places on the planet he could make high quality films with the necessary technical expertise and equipment : Los Angeles , New York or around London . He disliked living in Los Angeles , and had thought London a superior film production center to New York .
As a person , Kubrick was described by Norman Lloyd as " a very dark , sort of a glowering type who was very serious " . Marisa Berenson , who starred in Barry Lyndon fondly recalled : " There was great tenderness in him and he was passionate about his work . What was striking was his enormous intelligence , but he also had a great sense of humor . He was a very shy person and self @-@ protective , but he was filled with the thing that drove him twenty @-@ four hours of the day . " Kubrick was particularly fond of machines and technical equipment , to the point that his wife Christiane once stated that " Stanley would be happy with eight tape recorders and one pair of pants " . Although Kubrick had obtained a pilot 's license in August 1947 , some have claimed that he later developed a fear of flying , stemming from an incident in the early 1950s when a colleague had been killed in a plane crash . Kubrick had been sent the charred remains of his camera and notebooks which , according to Duncan , traumatized him for life . Kubrick also had a strong mistrust of doctors and medicine , especially those he did not know , and on one occasion he had a dentist from the Bronx flown to London to treat him .
= = = Death = = =
On March 7 , 1999 , four days after screening a final cut of Eyes Wide Shut for his family and the stars , Kubrick died in his sleep at the age of 70 , after suffering a massive heart attack . His funeral was held five days later at his home estate at Childwickbury Manor , with only close friends and family in attendance , totaling approximately 100 people . The media were kept a mile away outside the entrance gate . Alexander Walker , who attended the funeral , describes it as a " family farewell , ... almost like an English picnic , " with cellists , clarinetists and singers providing song and music from many of his favorite classical compositions . Kaddish , the Jewish prayer of mourning , was recited . A few of his obituaries mentioned his Jewish background . Among those who gave eulogies were Terry Semel , Jan Harlan , Steven Spielberg , Nicole Kidman and Tom Cruise . He was buried next to his favorite tree on the estate . In her book dedicated to Kubrick , his wife Christiane included one of his favorite quotations of Oscar Wilde : " The tragedy of old age is not that one is old , but that one is young . "
= = Legacy = =
Part of the New Hollywood film @-@ making wave , Kubrick 's films are considered by film historian Michel Ciment to be " among the most important contributions to world cinema in the twentieth century " , and he is frequently cited as one of the greatest and most influential directors in the history of cinema . Leading directors , including Martin Scorsese , Steven Spielberg , George Lucas , James Cameron , Woody Allen , Terry Gilliam , the Coen brothers , Ridley Scott , and George A. Romero , have cited Kubrick as a source of inspiration , and in the case of Spielberg , collaboration . On the DVD of Eyes Wide Shut , Steven Spielberg comments that the way Kubrick " tells a story is antithetical to the way we are accustomed to receiving stories " and that " nobody could shoot a picture better in history " . Writing in the introduction to a recent edition of Michel Ciment 's Kubrick , film director Martin Scorsese notes that most of Kubrick 's films were misunderstood and under @-@ appreciated when first released . Then came a dawning recognition that they were masterful works unlike any other films . Perhaps most notably , Orson Welles , one of Kubrick 's greatest personal influences and all @-@ time favorite directors , famously said that : " Among those whom I would call ' younger generation ' , Kubrick appears to me to be a giant . "
Kubrick continues to be cited as a major influence by many directors , including Christopher Nolan , Jack Thomas Smith , Todd Field , David Fincher , Guillermo del Toro , David Lynch , Lars von Trier , Tim Burton , Michael Mann , and Gaspar Noé . Many filmmakers imitate Kubrick 's inventive and unique use of camera movement and framing , as well as his use of music , notably Frank Darabont . Paul Thomas Anderson , in an interview with Entertainment Weekly , stated , " it 's so hard to do anything that doesn 't owe some kind of debt to what Stanley Kubrick did with music in movies . Inevitably , you 're going to end up doing something that he 's probably already done before . It can all seem like we 're falling behind whatever he came up with . "
In 2000 , BAFTA renamed their Britannia lifetime achievement award the " Stanley Kubrick Britannia Award " , joining the likes of D. W. Griffith , Laurence Olivier , Cecil B. DeMille , and Irving Thalberg , all of whom have annual awards named after them . Kubrick won this award in 1999 , and subsequent recipients have included George Lucas , Warren Beatty , Tom Cruise , Robert De Niro , Clint Eastwood , and Daniel Day @-@ Lewis . A number of people who worked with Kubrick on his films created the 2001 documentary Stanley Kubrick : A Life in Pictures , produced and directed by Kubrick 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Jan Harlan , who had executive produced Kubrick 's last four films . The film 's chapters each cover one of Kubrick 's films and Kubrick 's childhood is explored in the introductory section .
In 2009 , an exhibition of paintings and photos inspired by Kubrick 's films was held in Dublin , Ireland , entitled " Stanley Kubrick : Taming Light " . On October 30 , 2012 , an exhibition devoted to Kubrick opened at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art ( LACMA ) and concluded in June 2013 . Exhibits include a wide collection of documents , photographs and on @-@ set material assembled from 800 boxes of personal archives that were stored in Kubrick 's home @-@ workplace in the UK . A number of celebrities attended and spoke at the museum 's pre @-@ opening gala , including Steven Spielberg , Tom Hanks and Jack Nicholson , while Kubrick 's widow , Christiane , appeared at the pre @-@ gala press review . In October 2013 , the Brazil São Paulo International Film Festival paid tribute to Kubrick , staging an exhibit of his work and a retrospective of his films . The exhibit is also scheduled to open at the Toronto International Film Festival ( TIFF ) in late 2014 .
Kubrick is widely referenced in popular culture , and the TV series The Simpsons is said to contain more references to Kubrick films than any other pop culture phenomenon . When the Director 's Guild of Great Britain gave Kubrick a lifetime achievement award , they included a cut @-@ together sequence of all the homages from the show . Pop singer Lady Gaga 's concert shows have included the use of dialogue , costumes , and music from A Clockwork Orange . Several films have been made related to Kubrick 's life , including the mockumentary film Dark Side of the Moon ( 2002 ) , which is a parody of the pervasive conspiracy theory that Kubrick had been involved with the faked footage of the NASA moon landings during the filming of 2001 : A Space Odyssey , and Colour Me Kubrick ( 2005 ) , starring John Malkovich as Alan Conway , a con artist who had assumed Kubrick 's identity in the 1990s . Both films were authorized by Kubrick 's family . In the 2004 film The Life and Death of Peter Sellers , Kubrick was portrayed by Stanley Tucci , and documents their filming of Dr. Strangelove , rather than Lolita .
= = Filmography and awards = =
= Jesuit Missions of Chiquitos =
The Jesuit Missions of Chiquitos are located in Santa Cruz department in eastern Bolivia . Six of these former missions ( all now secular municipalities ) collectively were designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1990 . Distinguished by a unique fusion of European and Amerindian cultural influences , the missions were founded as reductions or reducciones de indios by Jesuits in the 17th and 18th centuries to convert local tribes to Christianity .
The interior region bordering Spanish and Portuguese territories in South America was largely unexplored at the end of the 17th century . Dispatched by the Spanish Crown , Jesuits explored and founded eleven settlements in 76 years in the remote Chiquitania – then known as Chiquitos – on the frontier of Spanish America . They built churches ( templos ) in a unique and distinct style that combined elements of native and European architecture . The indigenous inhabitants of the missions were taught European music as a means of conversion . The missions were self @-@ sufficient , with thriving economies , and virtually autonomous from the Spanish crown .
After the expulsion of the Jesuit order from Spanish territories in 1767 , most Jesuit reductions in South America were abandoned and fell into ruins . The former Jesuit missions of Chiquitos are unique because these settlements and their associated culture have survived largely intact .
A large restoration project of the missionary churches began with the arrival of the former Swiss Jesuit and architect Hans Roth in 1972 . Since 1990 , these former Jesuit missions have experienced some measure of popularity , and have become a tourist destination . A popular biennial international musical festival put on by the nonprofit organization Asociación Pro Arte y Cultura along with other cultural activities within the mission towns , contribute to the popularity of these settlements .
= = Location = =
The six World Heritage Site settlements are located in the hot and semiarid lowlands of Santa Cruz Department of eastern Bolivia . They lie in an area near the Gran Chaco , east and northeast of Santa Cruz de la Sierra , between the Paraguay and Guapay rivers .
The westernmost missions are San Xavier ( also known as San Javier ) and Concepción , located in the province of Ñuflo de Chávez between the San Julián and Urugayito rivers . Santa Ana de Velasco , San Miguel de Velasco , and San Rafael de Velasco are located to the east , in José Miguel de Velasco province , near the Brazilian border . San José de Chiquitos is located in Chiquitos province , about 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) south of San Rafael .
Three other former Jesuit missions – San Juan Bautista ( now in ruins ) , Santo Corazón and Santiago de Chiquitos – which have not been named UNESCO heritage sites – lie east of San José de Chiquitos not far from the town of Roboré . The capital of José Miguel de Velasco Province , San Ignacio de Velasco was founded as a Jesuit mission but also is not a World Heritage Site as the current church is a reconstruction , not a restoration .
= = Name “ Chiquitos ” = =
Ñuflo de Cháves , a 16th @-@ century Spanish conquistador and founder of Santa Cruz " la Vieja " , introduced the name Chiquitos , or little ones . It referred to the small doors of the straw houses in which the indigenous population lived . Chiquitos has since been used incorrectly both to denote people of the largest ethnic group in the area ( correctly known as Chiquitano ) , and collectively to denote the more than 40 ethnic groups with different languages and cultures living in the region known as the [ Gran ] Chiquitania . Properly , “ Chiquitos ” refers only to either a modern @-@ day department of Bolivia , or the former region of Upper Peru ( now Bolivia ) that once encompassed all of the Chiquitania and parts of Mojos ( or Moxos ) and the Gran Chaco .
The current provincial division of Santa Cruz department does not follow the Jesuits ’ concept of a missionary area . The Chiquitania lies within five modern provinces : Ángel Sandoval , Germán Busch , José Miguel de Velasco , Ñuflo de Chávez and Chiquitos province .
= = History = =
In the 16th century , priests of different religious orders set out to evangelize the Americas , bringing Christianity to indigenous communities . Two of these missionary orders were the Franciscans and the Jesuits , both of which eventually arrived in the frontier town of Santa Cruz de la Sierra and then in the Chiquitania . The missionaries employed the strategy of gathering the often nomadic indigenous populations in larger communities called reductions in order to more effectively Christianize them . This policy sprang from the colonial legal view of the “ Indian ” as a minor , who had to be protected and guided by European missionaries so as not to succumb to sin . Reductions generally were construed as instruments to enable the natives adopt European lifestyles and values ; this was not the case in the Jesuit reductions , however , where the Jesuits allowed the inhabitants to retain many pre @-@ colonial cultural practices .
= = = Arrival in the Viceroyalty of Peru = = =
With the permission of King Philip II of Spain a group of Jesuits travelled to the Viceroyalty of Peru in 1568 , some 30 years after the arrival of the Franciscans , Dominicans , Augustinians and Mercedarians . The Jesuits established themselves in Lima in 1569 before moving east toward Paraguay ; in 1572 they reached the Audience of Charcas in modern @-@ day Bolivia . Because they were not allowed to establish settlements on the frontier they built chapter houses , churches and schools in pre @-@ existing settlements , such as La Paz , Potosí and La Plata ( present day Sucre ) .
In 1587 the first Jesuits , Fr . Diego Samaniego and Fr . Diego Martínez , arrived in Santa Cruz de la Sierra , located just south of where the future mission of San José de Chiquitos would be established . In 1592 the settlement had to be moved 250 kilometres ( 160 mi ) west because of conflicts with natives , although the remains of the original town exist in the Santa Cruz la Vieja archaeological site . The Jesuits did not start missions in the valleys northeast of the cordillera until the 17th century . The two central areas for their activities were Moxos , situated in the department of Beni , and the Chiquitania ( then simply Chiquitos ) in the department of Santa Cruz de la Sierra . In 1682 , Fr . Cipriano Barace founded the first of the Jesuit reductions in Moxos , located at Loreto .
= = = The Jesuits in the Chiquitania = = =
While the mission towns in Paraguay flourished , the evangelization of the Guaraní proved difficult . With encouragement from Agustín Gutiérrez de Arce , the governor of Santa Cruz , the Jesuits focused their efforts on the Chiquitania , where the Christian doctrine was more readily accepted . Between 1691 and 1760 eleven missions were founded in the area ; however , fires , floods , plagues , famines and attacks by hostile tribes or slave traders caused many missions to be re @-@ established or rebuilt . The Chiquitos missions were spared large @-@ scale epidemics , unlike those in Paraguay , mainly because of their remote locations and the lack of transportation infrastructure .
The first Jesuit reduction in the Chiquitania was the mission of San Francisco Xavier , founded in 1691 by the Jesuit priest Fr . José de Arce . In September 1691 , de Arce and Br . Antonio de Rivas intended to meet seven other Jesuits at the Paraguay River to establish a connection between Paraguay and Chiquitos . However , the beginning of the rainy season brought bad weather , and Arce and his companion only got as far as the first native village . The local Piñoca tribe , who were suffering from a plague , begged Arce and Rivas to stay and promised to build a house and a church for the Jesuits , which were finished by the end of year . The mission was later moved a number of times until 1708 when it was established in its present location .
Ten more missions were founded in the Chiquitania by the Jesuits in three periods : the 1690s , the 1720s , and after 1748 . In the 1690s , five missions were established : San Rafael de Velasco ( 1696 ) , San José de Chiquitos ( 1698 ) , Concepción ( 1699 ) and San Juan Bautista ( 1699 ) . San Juan Bautista is not part of the World Heritage Site , and only the ruins of a stone tower survive near the present village of ( San Juan de ) Taperas .
The War of the Spanish Succession ( 1701 – 1714 ) caused a shortage of missionaries and instability in the reductions , so no new missions were built during this period . By 1718 San Rafael was the largest of the Chiquitos missions , and with 2 @,@ 615 inhabitants could not sustain a growing population . In 1721 the Jesuits Fr . Felipe Suárez and Fr . Francisco Hervás established a split @-@ off of the San Rafael mission , the mission of San Miguel de Velasco . To the south , San Ignacio de Zamucos was founded in 1724 but abandoned in 1745 ; today nothing remains of the mission .
A third period of mission foundations began in 1748 with the establishment of San Ignacio de Velasco , which was not declared a part of the World Heritage Site . The church is nonetheless a largely faithful 20th @-@ century reconstruction – as opposed to renovation ( a key criterion for inclusion in the World Heritage Site group ) – of the second Jesuit templo built in 1761 . In 1754 the Jesuits founded the mission of Santiago de Chiquitos . This church also is a reconstruction , dating from the early 20th century and likewise is not part of the World Heritage Site group . In 1755 the mission of Santa Ana de Velasco was founded by the Jesuit Julian Knogler ; it is the most authentic of the six World Heritage Site missions dating from the colonial period . The last mission in the Chiquitania to be established was founded by the Jesuits Fr . Antonio Gaspar and Fr . José Chueca as Santo Corazón in 1760 . However , nothing of the original settlement remains in the modern village .
The Jesuits in the Chiquitania had a secondary objective , which was to secure a more direct route to Asunción than the road then being used via Tucumán and Tarija to link the Chiquitania with the Jesuit missions in Paraguay . The missionaries in Chiquitos founded their settlements increasingly further east , towards the Paraguay River , while those south of Asunción moved closer to the Paraguay River by establishing their missions increasingly farther north , thereby avoiding the impassable Chaco region . Although Ñuflo de Chávez had attempted a route through the Chaco on an expedition as early as 1564 , subsequent Jesuit explorations from Chiquitos ( e.g. in 1690 , 1702 , 1703 , and 1705 ) were unsuccessful . The Jesuits were stopped by the hostile Payaguá and Guaycuru tribes , and by the impenetrable swamps of Jarayes . In 1715 , de Arce , the co @-@ founder of the first mission in San Xavier , set out from Asunción on the Paraguay River with the Flemish priest Fr . Bartolomé Blende . Payaguá warriors killed Blende during the journey , but de Arce struggled on to reach San Rafael de Velasco in the Chiquitania . On the return trip to Asunción he too was killed in Paraguay . Not until 1767 , when the missions had encroached sufficiently on the hostile region and just before the Jesuits were expelled from the New World , did Fr . José Sánchez Labrador manage to travel from Belén in Paraguay to Santo Corazón , the easternmost Chiquitos mission .
= = = Expulsion and recent development = = =
In 1750 as a result of the Treaty of Madrid seven missions in present @-@ day Rio Grande do Sul state in Brazil were transferred from Spanish to Portuguese control . The native Guaraní tribes were unhappy to see their lands turned over to Portugal ( their enemy for over a century ) and they rebelled against the decision , leading to the Guarani War . In Europe , where the Jesuits were under attack , they were accused of supporting the rebellion and perceived as defending the native peoples . In 1758 , the Jesuits were accused of a conspiracy to kill the king of Portugal , known as the Távora affair . All members of the Society of Jesus were evicted from Portuguese territories in 1759 , and from French territories in 1764 . In 1766 Jesuits were accused of causing Esquilache Riots in Madrid ; consequently in February 1767 , Charles III of Spain signed a royal decree with expulsion orders for all members of the Society of Jesus in Spanish territories .
From then on , spiritual and secular administration were to be strictly separated . At the time of the expulsion , 25 Jesuits served a Christianized population of at least 24 @,@ 000 , in the ten missions of the Chiquitania . The Chiquitos mission properties included 25 estancias ( ranches ) with 31 @,@ 700 cattle and 850 horses . Libraries across the settlements held 2 @,@ 094 volumes .
By September 1767 , all but four Jesuits had left the Chiquitania , and they went the following April . The Spanish considered it essential to maintain the settlements as a buffer against Portuguese expansion . The archbishop of Santa Cruz de la Sierra , Francisco Ramón Herboso , established a new system of government , very similar to that set up by the Jesuits . He stipulated that each mission be run by two secular ( parish ) priests , one to take care of the spiritual needs while the other was in charge of all other – political and economic – affairs of the mission administration . One change was that the Indians were allowed to trade . In practice , the shortage of clergy and the low quality of those appointed by the bishop – almost all of whom did not speak the language of the local peoples and in some cases had not been ordained – led to a rapid general decline of the missions . The priests also broke ethical and religious codes , appropriated the major part of the missions ' income and encouraged contraband trade with the Portuguese .
Within two years of the expulsion , the population in the Chiquitos missions dropped below 20 @,@ 000 . Despite the general decline of the settlements , however , the church buildings were maintained and , in some cases , extended by the towns ' inhabitants . The construction of the church in Santa Ana de Velasco falls into this period . Bernd Fischermann , an anthropologist who studied the Chiquitano , suggests three reasons that the Chiquitano preserved the heritage of the Jesuits even after their expulsion : the memory of their prosperity with the Jesuits ; the desire to appear as civilized Christians to mestizos and white people ; and to preserve the ethnicity that originated from a mix of various culturally distinct groups blended by an enforced common language and customs learned from the Jesuits .
In January 1790 , the Audiencia of Charcas ended the diocese ’ s mismanagement , and temporal affairs were delegated to civil administrators , with the hope of making the missions economically more successful . Sixty years after the expulsion of the Jesuits the churches remained active centers of worship , as the French naturalist Alcide d 'Orbigny reported during his mission to South America in 1830 and 1831 . Although much diminished economically and politically , the culture the Jesuits established was still evident . According to d 'Orbigny , the music at a Sunday mass in San Xavier was better than those he had heard in the richest cities of Bolivia . The population of the Chiquitania missions reached a low of around 15 @,@ 000 inhabitants in 1830 . In 1842 the Comte de Castelnau visited the area and , referring to the church in Santa Ana de Velasco , proclaimed : " This beautiful building , surrounded by gardens , presents one of the most impressive views imaginable . "
By 1851 , however , the reduction system of the missions had disappeared . Mestizos who had moved to the area in their quest for land began to outnumber the original indigenous population . Starting with the creation of the Province of José Miguel de Velasco in 1880 , the Chiquitania was split into five administrative divisions . With the rubber boom at the turn of the century , more settlers came to the areas and established large haciendas , moving the economic activities together with the native peoples out of the towns .
In 1931 , the spiritual administration of the missions was given to German @-@ speaking Franciscan missionaries . Ecclesiastical control moved back to the area with the creation of the Apostolic Vicariate of Chiquitos in San Ignacio in that year . As of 2016 , the churches not only serve the mestizo inhabitants of the villages but present spiritual centers for the few remaining indigenous peoples living in the periphery .
In 1972 , the Swiss architect and then @-@ Jesuit priest Hans Roth began an extensive restoration project of the missionary churches and many colonial buildings that were in ruins . These churches exist in their present form as a result of Roth 's effort , who worked on the restoration with a few colleagues and many local people until his death in 1999 . The restoration works have continued sporadically into the beginning of the 21st century under local leadership .
Six of the reductions were listed as part of the World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1990 . The churches of San Ignacio de Velasco , Santiago de Chiquitos and Santo Corazón have been reconstructed from scratch and are not part of the World Heritage Site . In San Juan Bautista only ruins remain . UNESCO listed the site under criteria IV and V , acknowledging the adaption of Christian religious architecture to the local environment and the unique architecture expressed in the wooden columns and banisters . Recently ICOMOS , the International Council on Monuments and Sites , warned that the traditional architectural ensemble that makes up the site has become vulnerable following agrarian reforms from 1953 which threatened the fragile socioeconomic infrastructure of the region . At the time of the nomination , the World Heritage Site was protected by the Pro Santa Cruz committee , Cordecruz , Plan Regulador de Santa Cruz , and the local mayoral offices of the mission towns .
= = World Heritage Missions = =
= = = San Xavier = = =
16 @.@ 2748 ° S 62 @.@ 5072 ° W / -16.2748 ; -62.5072
Initially established in 1691 , the mission of San Xavier was the first of the missions listed in the World Heritage Site . In 1696 , due to the incursion of Paulistas from Brazil in the east , the mission was relocated toward the San Miguel River . In 1698 , it was relocated closer to Santa Cruz , but in 1708 was moved away to protect the Indians from the Spaniards . The original inhabitants of San Xavier were the Piñoca tribe . The church was built between 1749 and 1752 by the Swiss Jesuit and architect Fr . Martin Schmid . The school and church , as well as other characteristics of residential architecture , are still visible today in the village . San Xavier was restored by Hans Roth between 1987 and 1993 .
= = = San Rafael de Velasco = = =
16 @.@ 7869 ° S 60 @.@ 6738 ° W / -16.7869 ; -60.6738
The mission of San Rafael de Velasco was the second mission built out of the six inscribed the World Heritage Site . Founded in 1695 by the Jesuits Fr . Juan Bautista Zea and Fr . Francisco Hervás , it was moved several times . The mission had to be moved in 1701 and 1705 because of epidemics in the region . In 1719 the mission was moved once more due to fire . Fr . Martin Schmid built the church between 1747 and 1749 , which has survived . San Rafael de Velasco was restored between 1972 and 1996 as part of Hans Roth 's restoration project .
= = = San José de Chiquitos = = =
17 @.@ 8456 ° S 60 @.@ 7405 ° W / -17.8456 ; -60.7405
Founded in 1698 by the Jesuits Fr . Felipe Suárez and Fr . Dionosio Ávila , the mission of San José de Chiquitos was the third mission built of those of the World Heritage Site . At first , the mission was inhabited by the Penoca tribe . The church was built between 1745 and 1760 by an unknown architect . It is built of stone , unlike other mission churches in the area which were built with local adobe and wood . The mission is one of four that remain in their original location . As of 2016 , a mortuary chapel ( 1740 ) , the church ( 1747 ) , a bell tower ( 1748 ) , a house for the priests ( colegio ) and workshops ( both 1754 ) still exist , and were renovated by Hans Roth 's restoration project between 1988 and 2003 . Restoration efforts continue .
= = = Concepción = = =
16 @.@ 1344 ° S 62 @.@ 024696 ° W / -16.1344 ; -62.024696
The fourth mission in the World Heritage Site , the mission of Concepción , was initially founded in 1699 by the Jesuit priests Fr . Francisco Lucas Caballero and Fr . Francisco Hervás . A nearby mission , San Ignacio de Boococas , was incorporated in 1708 . The mission was moved three times : in 1707 , 1708 and 1722 . The mission was inhabited by the Chiquitanos , the largest tribe in the region . The mission church was constructed between 1752 and 1756 , by Fr . Martin Schmid and Fr . Johann Messner . From 1975 to 1996 the mission was reconstructed as part of Hans Roth 's restoration project .
= = = San Miguel de Velasco = = =
16 @.@ 6986 ° S 60 @.@ 9681 ° W / -16.6986 ; -60.9681
The fifth mission in the World Heritage Site , that of San Miguel de Velasco , was established by the Jesuits Fr . Felipe Suarez and Fr . Francisco Hervás in 1721 . San Miguel was an offshoot of the mission of San Rafael de Velaso , where the population had grown too large . The mission church was built between 1752 and 1759 , probably by Fr . Johann Messner , a collaborator with or student of Fr . Martin Schmid . The church was restored by Hans Roth between 1979 and 1983 .
= = = Santa Ana de Velasco = = =
16 @.@ 5841 ° S 60 @.@ 6888 ° W / -16.5841 ; -60.6888
The mission of Santa Ana de Velasco was the final World Heritage Site @-@ inscribed mission to be established . It was founded by the Jesuit priest Fr . Julian Knogler in 1755 . The original native inhabitants of the missions were the Covareca and Curuminaca tribes . The mission church was designed after the expulsion of the Jesuits between 1770 and 1780 by an unknown architect and built entirely by the indigenous population . The complex , consisting of the church , bell tower , sacristy and a grassy plaza lined by houses , is considered to have the most fidelity to the original plan of the Jesuit reductions . Starting in 1989 and lasting until 2001 , the mission underwent partial restoration through the efforts of Hans Roth and his team .
= = Architecture = =
In their design of the reductions , the Jesuits were inspired by “ ideal cities “ as outlined in works such as Utopia and Arcadia , written respectively by the 16th @-@ century English philosophers Thomas More and Philip Sidney . The Jesuits had specific criteria for building sites : locations with plenty of wood for construction ; sufficient water for the population ; good soil for agriculture ; and safety from flooding during the rainy season . Although most of the missions in the Chiquitania were relocated at least once during the time of the Jesuits , four of ten towns remained at their original sites . Wood and adobe were the main materials used in the construction of the settlements .
= = = Mission layout = = =
The architecture and internal layout of these missions followed a scheme which was repeated later with some variations in the rest of the missionary reductions . In Chiquitos , the oldest mission , San Xavier , formed the basis for the organizational style , which consisted of a modular structure , the center formed by a wide rectangular square , with the church complex on one side and the houses of the inhabitants on the three remaining sides . The centralized organization of the Jesuits dictated a certain uniformity of measures and sizes . Despite being based on the same basic model , the towns of Chiquitos nonetheless show remarkable variations . For example , the orientation of the settlements toward the cardinal points differed and was determined by individual circumstances .
= = = Plaza = = =
The plaza was an almost square area varying in size from 124 by 148 metres ( 407 ft × 486 ft ) in the older towns of San Xavier and San Rafael de Velasco to 166 by 198 metres ( 545 ft × 650 ft ) in San Ignacio de Velasco . As they were used for religious and civil purposes , these were open spaces free of vegetation except a few palm trees surrounding a cross in the center of the plaza . The evergreen palm trees symbolizing eternal love , deliberately hearkened to Psalm 92 : 12 . Four chapels facing the central cross were placed at the corners of the square and were used in processions . Almost no remains exist of the chapels at the mission sites , as the plazas subsequently were redesigned to reflect the republican and mestizo lifestyle prevalent after the period of the Jesuits . Most have undergone recent expansion as well . Trees and shrubs were planted , and in some cases monuments were erected . Out of the original ten missions , only the plaza at Santa Ana de Velasco does not show major changes , consisting as it did in colonial times , of an open grassy space .
= = = Houses = = =
The houses of the natives had an elongated layout , and were arranged in parallel lines extending from the main square in three directions . Those facing the plaza were originally occupied by the chiefs of the indigenous tribes , and often were larger . The architecture of these houses was simple , consisting of large rooms ( 6x4 meters ) , walls up to 60 centimetres ( 2 ft ) thick , and a roof made of reed ( caña ) and wood ( cuchi ) that reached a height of 5 m ( 16 ft ) in the center . Double doors and open galleries provided protection from the elements . The latter have had a social function as meeting places up to the present day .
Over the last 150 years , this layout has been replaced by the usual Spanish colonial architecture of large square blocks with internal patios . Remnants of the initial design can still be seen in San Miguel de Velasco , San Rafael de Velasco and Santa Ana de Velasco , places that were not as much exposed to modernization as the other settlements .
= = = Church complex = = =
Along the fourth side of the plaza lay the religious , cultural and commercial centers of the towns . In addition to the church , which dominated the complex , there would have been a mortuary chapel , a tower and a colegio or " school " , connected by a wall along the side of the plaza . Behind the wall and away from the plaza would have been the patio with living quarters for the priests or visitors , rooms for town council matters , for music and storage , as well as workshops , which often were arranged around a second patio . Behind the buildings , a vegetable garden surrounded by a wall and a cemetery likely would have been found . The cemeteries and workshops have disappeared completely from the mission settlements , while the other elements of the church complex still survive to varying degrees . Two stone towers ( in San Juan Bautista and San José de Chiquitos ) and one of adobe ( in San Miguel de Velasco ) can be traced back to the time of the Jesuits . Others are of more recent construction , or the result of the conservation and restoration work spearheaded by Roth toward the end of the 20th century . Many of these are tall wooden constructions open on all sides . Of the Jesuit schools only those in San Xavier and Concepción are preserved entirely . Like the houses of the indigenous residents , the buildings of the church complex were single @-@ level ones .
= = = = Church = = = =
Once a settlement had been established , the missionaries , working with the native population , began to erect the church , which served as the educational , cultural and economic center of the town . The initial church in each mission ( except in Santa Ana de Velasco ) was temporary , essentially no more than a chapel and built as quickly as possible of local wood , unembellished save for a simple altar . The Jesuit masterpieces seen today general were erected several decades into the settlements ’ existence . Fr . Martin Schmid , Swiss priest and composer , was the architect for at least three of these missionary churches : San Xavier , San Rafael de Velasco , and Concepción . Schmid combined elements of Christian architecture with traditional local design to create a unique baroque @-@ mestizo style . Schmid placed a quotation from the Genesis 28 : 17 above the main entrance of each of the three churches . In San Xavier the quotation is in Spanish : CASA DE DIOS Y PUERTA DEL CIELO ; and in Latin at the other two churches : DOMUS DEI ET PORTA COELI , meaning The house of god and the gate of heaven .
The construction of the restored churches seen today falls in the period between 1745 and 1770 and is characterized by the use of locally available natural materials like wood , used in the carved columns , pulpits and sets of drawers . Artistic adornments were added even after the Jesuits ’ expulsion in 1767 , until around 1830 . Some of the altars are covered in gold . Often the walls of the mission churches were made of adobe , the same material that had been used for the houses of the natives . In San Rafael de Velasco and San Miguel de Velasco , mica also was used on the walls , giving them an iridescent effect . The construction of the church in San José de Chiquitos is an exception : inspired by an unknown baroque model , it has a stone façade . The only other example where stone was used on a grand scale is in the construction of San Juan Bautista , although only the ruins of a tower remain .
All of the churches consist of a wooden skeleton with columns , fixed in the ground , which provided stability to the building and supported the tile @-@ covered roof . The adobe walls were placed directly on the ground , virtually independent of the wooden construction , and had no supporting role . Porticos and a large porch roof provided protection from the heavy tropical rains . The floor was covered in tiles which , like those of the roof , were produced in local tile works . The churches have a barn @-@ like appearance , albeit of monumental size ( width : 16 – 20 metres ( 52 – 66 ft ) , length : 50 – 60 metres ( 160 – 200 ft ) height : 10 – 14 metres ( 33 – 46 ft ) ) with a capacity for more than 3 @,@ 000 people , with a wide structure and distinctive low @-@ hanging eaves . This style also is evident in the building method of native community houses .
The construction of the church required a major effort by the community and employed hundreds of indigenous carpenters . Fr . José Cardiet described the process :
All these buildings are made in a different way of those made in Europe : because the roof is built first and the walls afterwards . First large tree trunks are buried in the soil , these are worked by adz . Above these they place the beams and sills ; and above these the trusses and locks , tins and roof ; after that the foundations of stone are placed , and about 2 or 3 spans above the surface of the soil , and from here upwards they place the walls of adobe . The wooden trunks or pillars , which are called horcones , remain in the central part of the walls , carrying the complete weight of the roof and no weight on the walls . In the central naves and in the place where the wall will be placed , 9 feet deep holes are made , and with architectural machines they introduce the carved horcones in the form of columns . The 3 meters ( 9 feet ) stay inside the soil and are not carved , and keep part of the trees roots for greater strength , and these parts are burned so they may resist the humidity .
The walls were decorated with cornices , moldings , pilasters and at times blind arcades . First the walls were plastered entirely by a mix of mud , sand , lime and straw , both inside and outside . Paint in earth tones was applied over the lime whitewash , and ornaments were drawn , featuring elements from flora and fauna , as well as angels , saints and geometrical patterns . As noted above , in some cases mica was used to decorate the walls , columns and woodworks . Large oval " oeil @-@ de @-@ boeuf " windows , surrounded by relief petals , above the main doors are a characteristic feature .
The churches had three aisles , divided by wooden columns , often solomonic columns , carved with twisted fluting resembling those at St. Peter 's baldachin in St Peter 's , Rome . Until modern times , there were no pews so the congregation had to kneel or sit on the floor . A variety of fine pieces of art adorn the inside of the churches , notably their altars , which are sometimes covered in gold , silver or mica . Especially remarkable are the pulpits made of brightly painted wood and supported by carved sirens . The pulpit in the church of San Miguel de Velasco features motifs derived from local vegetation . Elements specific to the Chiquitos missions exist also in other decorations . The altars of the churches of San Xavier and Concepción include depictions of notable Jesuits together with indigenous peoples . There remain a handful of original sculptures in retablos often depicting Madonnas , the crucifixion , and saints , carved in wood and then painted . These sculptures exhibit a style unique to the Chiquitos region , differing from that of the reductions in Paraguay or the Bolivian highlands . The tradition of figure carving has been preserved to the present day in workshops where carvers make columns , finials and windows for new or restored churches or chapels in the area . In addition , carvers produce decorative angels and other figures for the tourist market .
= = = Restoration = = =
The missionary churches are the true architectural highlights of the area . Hans Roth initiated an important restoration project in these missionary churches in 1972 . In San Xavier , San Rafael de Velasco , San José de Chiquitos , Concepción , San Miguel de Velasco and Santa Ana de Velasco , these churches have undergone meticulous restoration . In the 1960s , the San Ignacio de Velasco church was replaced with modern construction ; in the 1990s , Hans Roth and his co @-@ workers brought the restoration as close as possible to the original edifices . In addition to the churches , Roth constructed more than a hundred new buildings , including schools and houses . He also founded museums and archives .
Roth researched and recovered the original techniques used to construct churches prior to the restorations . He installed new building infrastructure including saw mills , locksmith shops , and carpentry and repair shops , and trained local people in traditional crafts . European volunteers , non @-@ profit organizations , the Catholic Church , and the Bolivian Learning Institute ( IBA ) helped in the project .
Roth convinced the local inhabitants of the importance of the restoration works , which required a large labor force : typically 40 to 80 workers in towns with populations of 500 to 2 @,@ 000 were required for church restoration . The effort indicates the strength of and commitment to the unique shared heritage present in the towns . This restoration has resulted in a revival of local traditions and a qualified workforce .
= = Life in the mission towns = =
The reductions were self @-@ sufficient indigenous communities of 2 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 000 inhabitants , usually headed by two Jesuit priests and the cabildo ( town council and cacique ( tribal leader ) , who retained their functions and played the role of intermediaries between the native peoples and the Jesuits . However , the degree to which the Jesuits controlled the indigenous population for which they had responsibility and the degree to which they allowed indigenous culture to function is a matter of debate , and the social organization of the reductions have been variously described as jungle utopias on the one hand , to theocratic regimes of terror , the former description being much closer to the mark .
The Jesuits quickly learned the languages of their subjects , which eased the missionary work and contributed to the success of the missions . Although initially each mission were conceived as home to one specific tribe , numerous tribal families lived in the Chiquitania , and often were gathered in next to each other on the same mission . According to a report from 1745 , of the 14 @,@ 706 people living in the missions , 65 @.@ 5 % spoke Chiquitano , 11 % Arawak , 9 @.@ 1 % Otuquis , 7 @.@ 9 % Zamucos , 4 @.@ 4 % Chapacura and 2 @.@ 1 % Guaraní . It should , however , be understood that by this time most of the inhabitants of these missions spoke Chiquitano as a second language . Such ethnic diversity is unique among the Jesuit missions in America . Reflecting the view of the colonial powers , the Jesuit records only distinguished between Christian and non @-@ Christian Indios . Eventually Gorgotoqui , the formal name for language spoken by the Chiquitano tribe , became the lingua franca of the mission settlements , and the numerous tribes were culturally united in the Chiquitano ethnic group . By 1770 , within three years of the expulsion of the Jesuits , Spanish authorities instituted a new policy of forced " castilianization " or " Hispanicization " of the language , thereby causing the number of speakers of native languages to decline .
Many Indians who joined the missions were looking for protection from Portuguese slave traders or the encomienda system of the Spanish conquistadores . In the reductions , the natives were free men . The land in the missions was common property . After a marriage , individual plots were assigned to newly founded families . For the Jesuits , the goal was always the same : to create cities in harmony with the paradise where they had encountered the indigenous peoples .
Though the settlements were officially a part of the Viceroyalty of Peru through the Royal Audiencia of Charcas and of the diocese of Santa Cruz in church affairs , their remoteness made them effectively autonomous and self @-@ sufficient . As early as 1515 , the Franciscan friar Bartolomé de las Casas had initiated a " foreigner law " for the " ' Indian people ' " , and no white or black man , other than the Jesuits and authorities , was allowed to live in the missions . Merchants were allowed to stay for three days at most .
= = = Economy = = =
Traditionally most of the Chiquitos tribes practiced swidden agriculture , growing maize and yuca on a small scale . After contact with the Spanish , cocoa and rice also were cultivated . Hunting and fishing provided additional nutrition in the dry season . The Jesuits introduced cattle breeding .
In each settlement , one of the Jesuits was responsible for church matters , while another dealt with commercial affairs and the general well @-@ being of the community . As the Swiss priest , musician and architect Fr . Martin Schmid wrote in a 1744 letter from San Rafael :
„ ... the Missionary Priests ... are not only parish priests who have preach , hear confessions and govern souls , they are also responsible for the life and health of their parishioners and must provide all the things needed by their towns , because the soul cannot be saved if the body dies . Therefore , the missionaries are town counsellors and judges , doctors , bleeders , masons , carpenters , ironsmiths , locksmiths , shoemakers , tailors , millers , backers , cooks , shepherds , gardeners , painters , sculptors , turners , carriage makers , brick makers , potters , weavers , tanners , wax and candle makers , tinsmiths , and any artisans which may be required in a republic . “
The Jesuits administered labor , the introduction of new technologies , and the disposition of goods . They designated that each family receive all that was necessary to live . The Jesuits did not rely on donations , because by right the priests received a fixed income ( usually insufficient for their needs ) from the community to support their work . The thriving economy in the reductions enabled them to export surplus goods to all parts of Upper Peru , although ironically not to Paraguay – the region the Jesuits most wanted to reach . The income was used to pay royal tributes and to purchase goods not locally available , such as books , paper , and wine , from as far away as Europe . In the missions themselves money was not used . This laid the foundation of the belief that the Jesuits were guarding immense riches acquired through local labor . In reality the communities were economically successful but hardly constituted any important source of income for the Jesuit order .
All the inhabitants , including the young and elderly , were subject to a schedule of alternating work , religious practice , and rest . According to d 'Orbigny , the inhabitants of the Chiquitos missions enjoyed considerably more freedom than those in the Mojos missions . There was also less time spent practicing religion . The catechumens were instructed by the Jesuits in various arts . They learned very quickly and soon became proficient carpenters , painters , weavers , sculptors and artisans . Each settlement had its own set of craftsmen ; as a result , in addition to the caciques , a new social class of craftsmen and artisans emerged . This group and the rest of the population , who worked primarily in agriculture or cattle raising , were each represented by two alcaldes . Initially the main commercial products included honey , yerba maté , salt , tamarind , cotton , shoes , and leather . Later , artisans exported musical instruments , liturgical items , rosaries , and silverware .
= = = Music = = =
Music played a special part in all aspects of life and in the evangelization of the natives . Realizing the musical capacities of the Indians , the Jesuits sent important composers , choir directors , and manufacturers of musical instruments to South America . The most famous was probably the Italian baroque composer Domenico Zipoli , who worked in the reductions in Paraguay . Fr . Johann Mesner and Fr . Martin Schmid , two Jesuit missionaries with musical talent , went to the Chiquitania . Schmid in particular was responsible for this skill being developed to such a high degree that polyphonic choirs would perform , and whole orchestras would play Baroque operas on handmade instruments . He directed the production of violins , harps , flutes , and organs , and wrote and copied masses , operas , and motets . He built an organ with six stops in Potosí , disassembled it , transported it by mules over a distance of 1 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 620 mi ) on a difficult road to the remote mission of Santa Ana de Velasco , and re @-@ assembled it there from hand . It is still is use . The Jesuits used musical lessons as a first step to the Christianization of the natives .
As Schmid , who also acted as a composer , wrote in a 1744 letter from San Rafael de Velasco :
„ “ ... In all these towns the sound of my organs already can be heard . I made a pile of all kind of musical instruments and taught the Indians how to play them . Not a single day passes without the sound of songs in our churches ... and I sing , play the organ , the zither , the flute , the trumpet , the psalter and the lyre , in high mode and low mode . All these musical art forms , which I ignored partially , I am able to practice now and teach them to the children of the natives . Your Reverence would be able to observe here , how children which were torn away from the jungle just a year ago , together with their parents are able today to sing well and with an absolutely firm beat , they play the zither , lyre and the organ and dance with precise movements and rhythm , that they might compete with the Europeans themselves . We teach these people all these mundane things so they may get rid of their rude customs and resemble civilized persons , predisposed to accept Christianity . ”
= = = Today = = =
Some Jesuit institutions still exist in the Chiquitania . For example , the towns of San Rafael de Velasco , San Miguel de Velasco , Santa Ana de Velasco and San Ignacio de Velasco have functioning town councils ( cabildos ) , and the caciques and the sexton still retain their capacities . The majority of the population of the Chiquitania is staunchly Catholic ; the Chiquitano cosmovision is now only a dimly understood mythology for its inhabitants . Between 1992 and 2009 , the populations of San Xavier and especially Concepción tripled , and more than doubled in San Ignacio de Velasco , now the region ’ s fastest @-@ growing municipality . In other mission towns the population also increased , albeit on a smaller scale . As of 2011 , San José de Chiquitos , San Xavier and Concepción have around 10 @,@ 000 inhabitants each ; and San Ignacio de Velasco , the largest town in the Chiquitania , has about 35 @,@ 000 and is now boasts a campus of a national university . On the other hand , in Santa Ana de Velasco there are currently only a few hundred people . The remoter settlements of Santiago de Chiquitos and Santo Corazón are quite small as well . According to various sources , in Bolivia the number of ethnic Chiquitanos is between 30 @,@ 000 and 47 @,@ 000 of which less than 6 @,@ 000 – mainly elderly people – still speak the original language . Only a few hundred are monolingual in the Chiquitano language .
Economically , the area depends on agriculture . Maize , rice , yuca , cotton and heart of palm are produced and exported . Cattle ranching and the industrial processing of milk and cheese have been developed extensively in recent years . Crafts , often carved of wood using the same techniques as in colonial times , provide additional income . Since the launch of the Jesuit Mission Circuit – a marketing label to promote regional tourism – in 2005 , craftsmanship and tourism have been closely related .
The musical festivals and concerts held regularly in the Chiquitos formermission towns testify to the living heritage of this art form . Some of the original instruments and sculptures made by Fr . Martin Schmid and his apprentices survive in small museums in the mission towns , most notably in Concepción which also houses the music archive . In San Xavier , San Rafael de Velasco and Santa Ana de Velasco three original harps from the time of the Jesuits are preserved . The church in Santa Ana de Vealsco also houses the only original organ in Chiquitos , transported there from Potosí by mule , accompanied by Schmid in 1751 . More than a dozen orchestras and choirs brought together by the Sistema de Coros y Orquestas ( SICOR ) dot the area .
Since 1996 , the nonprofit institution Asociacion Pro Arte y Cultura ( APAC ) has organized the biennial Festival Internacional de Musica Renacentista y Barroca Americana .
Starting in 1975 , restoration work on the church ( now cathedral ) of Concepción unearthed more than 5 @,@ 000 musical scores from the 17th and 18th centuries . Later another 6 @,@ 000 scores were found in Moxos and several thousand additionally in San Xavier . Some of these works have been interpreted at the 2006 and 2008 festivals . The statistics of these festivals over the years is as follows :
The festival is carried out in the designated Plazas Misionales ( among other places ) , usually housed in churches and also in the main plaza of Santa Cruz . In one event , orchestras of various countries compete against each other . One of the local orchestras , Orquesta Urubicha , is made up of people native to the ex @-@ missions who use instruments which they build themselves according to plans left by the Jesuit missionaries .
= = Tourism = =
Shortly after the start of the restoration effort , the potential for tourism in the missions was assessed in a report published by UNESCO in 1977 .
To promote the missions as a tourist destination , travel agencies , chambers of commerce and industry , the towns ' mayors , native communities and other institutions organized the Lanzamiento mundial del Destino Turístico " Chiquitos " , Misiones Jesuíticas de Bolivia , a five @-@ day tourist event lasting from March 23 – 27 , 2006 . Journalists and international tour operators were shown the important tourist attractions , and introduced to the culture through visits to museums , local workshops , various concerts , native dances , high masses , processions , crafts festivals , and local cuisine . The organisers ’ goal initially was to raise the number of tourists from 25 @,@ 000 to 1 million per year over a ten @-@ year period , which would have represented US $ 400 million of income . Subsequently , in the face of lack of support from the Bolivian government and the downturn of the national and local economies , a more modest goal of attracting between 200 @,@ 000 and 250 @,@ 000 people per annum was established .
Tourism is now an important source of income for the region , amounting in Concepción Municipio alone to US $ 296 @,@ 140 , or 7 @.@ 2 % of the annual gross production . An additional US $ 40 @,@ 000 or 1 % comes from crafts . According to a report published by the " Coordinadora Interinstitucional de la Provincia Velasco " in 2007 , 17 @,@ 381 people visited San Ignacio de Velasco , the largest town in the region , as tourists in 2006 . About 30 % of them came from outside of Bolivia . The main attraction for tourists are the nearby missions of San Miguel de Velasco , San Rafael de Velasco and Santa Ana de Velasco . Tourism to San Ignacio de Velasco generated 7 @,@ 821 @,@ 450 Bolivianos in income in 2006 . Tourism income is ostensibly translated to improvements in the infrastructure , although there has been criticism that earmarked funds do not always reach their intended destinations . Other than cultural tourism to the missionary circuit and musical festivals , the region offers many natural attractions like rivers , lagoons , hot springs , caves and waterfalls , although there is no infrastructure to support tourism in this regard .
= = Cultural references = =
Many elements of the early days of the Jesuit missions are shown in the movie The Mission , although the movie attempts to depict life in the Guaraní missions of Paraguay , not those of the Chiquitos missions , which were considerably more culturally expressive . The events around the expulsion of the Jesuits ( the Extrañamiento ) are depicted in Fritz Hochwälder 's play Das heilige Experiment ( The Strong are Lonely ) . Both are set in Paraguay . It has been suggested that Das heilige Experiment sparked interest in the 20th century among scholars in the forgotten Jesuit missions .
= = = Historic accounts = = =
Of the primary sources , i.e. , those composed by the Jesuits themselves during the years 1691 through 1767 , those that have been extensively researched ( many as yet have not been thoroughly examined ) are few . The most useful is the monumental Historia general de la Compañía de Jesús en la Provincia del Perú : Crónica anómina de 1600 que trata del establecimiento y misiones de la Compañía de Jesús en los países de habla española en la América meridional , vol . II , edited by Francisco Mateos ( Madrid : Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas , 1944 ) . Also of importance is the unedited archive of correspondence from the Jesuits of Paraguay from the years 1690 @-@ 1718 . Collectively known as “ Cartas a los Provinciales de la Provincia del Paraguay 1690 @-@ 1718 , ” these manuscripts are housed in the Jesuit Archives of Argentina in Buenos Aires , which also contain the invaluable annals of the Paraguay Province of the Company of Jesus , covering the years 1689 @-@ 1762 . The German edition of Fr . Julián Knogler ’ s Inhalt einer Beschreibung der Missionen deren Chiquiten , Archivum Historicum Societatis Jesu , 39 / 78 ( Rome : Company of Jesus , 1970 ) is indispensable , as is his account Relato sobre el país y la nación de los Chiquitos en las Indias Occidentales o América del Sud y en la misiones en su territorio , for a condensed version of which , see Werner Hoffman , Las misiones jesuíticas entre los chiquitanos ( Buenos Aires : Fundación para la Educación , la Ciencia y la Cultura , 1979 ) . Fr . Juan de Montenegro ’ s Breve noticia de las missiones , peregrinaciones apostólicas , trabajos , sudor , y sangre vertida , en obsequio de la fe , de el venerable padre Augustín Castañares , de la Compañía de Jesús , insigne missionero de la provincia del Paraguay , en las missiones de Chiquitos , Zamucos , y ultimamente en la missión de los infieles Mataguayos , ( Madrid : Manuel Fernández , Impresor del Supremo Consejo de la Inquisición , de la Reverenda Cámara Apostólica , y del Convento de las Señoras de la Encarnación , en la Caba Baxa , 1746 ) and Fr . Juan Patricio Fernández ’ s Relación historial de las misiones de los indios , que llaman chiquitos , que están a cargo de los padres de la Compañía de Jesús de la provincia del Paraguay ( Madrid : Manuel Fernández , Impresor de Libros , 1726 ) are also valuable . There are other primary sources as yet unexamined , the majority of which are archived in Cochabamba , Sucre , and Tarija ( in Bolivia ) ; Buenos Aires , Córdoba , and Tucumán ( in Argentina ) ; Asunción ( Paraguay ) ; Madrid ; and Rome .
Castelnau , Francis . Expédition dans les parties centrales de l 'Amérique du Sud , de Rio de Janeiro à Lima : et de Lima au Para ( in French ) .
Demersay , L. Alfred ( 1860 ) . Histoire physique , économique et politique du Paraguay et des établissements des Jésuites . ( in French ) 1 . Paris : Librairie de L. Hachette .
Demersay , L. Alfred ( 1864 ) . Histoire physique , économique et politique du Paraguay et des établissements des Jésuites . ( in French ) 2 . Paris : Librairie de L. Hachette .
Fernandez , Juan Patricio ( 1895 ) . Relacion Historial de Las Misiones de Indios Chiquitos que en el Paraguay tienen los padres de la Compañia de Jesús . Colección de libros raros ó curiosos que tratan de América ( in Spanish ) 1 . Madrid : Victoriano Suárez .
Fernandez , Juan Patricio ( 1896 ) . Relacion Historial de Las Misiones de Indios Chiquitos que en el Paraguay tienen los padres de la Compañia de Jesús ( in Spanish ) 2 . Asunción del Paraguay : A. de Uribe y Compañia .
Ibagnez , Bernardo ( 1774 ) . Jesuitisches Reich in Paraguay : durch Originaldocumente der Gesellschaft Jesu bewiesen von dem aus dem Jesuiterorden verstoßenen Pater Ibagnez ( in German ) . Cölln : Peter Marteau .
References to many others are found in the extensive bibliography offered by Roberto Tomichá Charupá , OFM , in La Primera Evangelización en las Reducciones de Chiquitos , Bolivia ( 1691 @-@ 1767 ) , pp. 669 – 714 .
= = = Modern books = = =
Bösl , Antonio Eduardo ( 1987 ) . Una Joya en la selva boliviana ( in Spanish ) . Zarautz , Spain : Itxaropena . ISBN 978 @-@ 84 @-@ 7086 @-@ 212 @-@ 0 .
Cisneros , Jaime ( 1998 ) . Misiones Jesuíticas ( in Spanish ) ( 2nd ed . ) . La Paz : Industrias Offset Color S.R.L.
Groesbeck , Geoffrey A.P. ( 2007 ) . A Brief History of the Jesuit Missions of Chiquitos ( PDF ) . Springfield , IL : University of Illinois . ISSN 2156 @-@ 5163 .
Groesbeck , Geoffrey A.P. ( 2012 ) . Evanescence and Permanence : Toward an Accurate Understanding of the Legacy of the Jesuit Missions of Chiquitos .
Groesbeck , Geoffrey A.P. ( 2012 ) . The Long Silence : The Jesuit Missions of Chiquitos after the Extrañamiento .
Molina Barbery , Placido ; Alcides Parejas ; Ramón Gutiérrez Rodrigo ; Bernd Fischermann ; Virgilio Suárez ; Hans Roth ; Stefan Fellner ; Eckart Kühne ; Pedro Querejazu ; Leonardo Waisman ; Irma Ruiz ; Bernardo Huseby ( 1995 ) . Pedro Querejazu , ed . Las misiones jesuíticas de Chiquitos ( in Spanish ) . La Paz , Bolivia : Fundación Banco Hipotecario Nacional , Línea Editorial , La Papelera. p . 718 .
Parejas Moreno , Alcides ( 2004 ) . Chiquitos : a look at its history . Milton Whitaker ( trans . ) , Ana Luisa Arce de Terceros ( trans . ) . Santa Cruz de la Sierra : Asociación Pro Arte y Cultura. p . 93 . ISBN 99905 @-@ 0 @-@ 802 @-@ X.
Tomichá Charupá , Roberto ( 2002 ) . La Primera Evangelización en las Reducciones de Chiquitos , Bolivia ( 1691 @-@ 1767 ) ( in Spanish ) . Cochabamba : Editorial Verbo Divino. p . 740 . ISBN 978 @-@ 99905 @-@ 1 @-@ 009 @-@ 6 .
= Unforgiven ( 2006 ) =
Unforgiven ( 2006 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , which took place on September 17 , 2006 , at the Air Canada Centre in Toronto , Ontario . It was the eighth annual Unforgiven event . The show 's seven matches showcased prominent WWE wrestlers , who acted out the franchise 's stories in and out of the ring . The event starred talent from the Raw brand .
The main event was a Tables , Ladders , and Chairs match for the WWE Championship between Edge and John Cena , which Cena won after retrieving the belt suspended above the ring . One of the predominant matches on the card was D @-@ Generation X ( Triple H and Shawn Michaels ) versus The Big Show , Vince and Shane McMahon in a Handicap Hell in a Cell match . Triple H and Michaels won the match after Triple H pinned Vince following a sledgehammer shot to his back . Another primary match on the undercard was Lita versus Trish Stratus for the WWE Women 's Championship in what was Stratus ' final match of her full @-@ time wrestling career . Stratus won the match after forcing Lita to submit to the sharpshooter , thus becoming a record setting seven time WWE Women 's Champion .
As many of the existing feuds ended following the event , some did not . Notably , Jeff Hardy continued to feud with Johnny Nitro , facing off against him for the WWE Intercontinental Championship throughout September . The feud between D @-@ Generation X ( DX ) and The McMahons ended after the event , as DX began an angle with Edge and Randy Orton . Following his win against Edge , Cena began an angle with Kevin Federline , which started the proceeding month at Cyber Sunday and lasted throughout the year .
= = Background = =
The event featured seven professional wrestling matches with different wrestlers involved in pre @-@ existing scripted feuds , plots and storylines . Wrestlers were portrayed as either villains or fan favorites as they followed a series of tension @-@ building events , which culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches . All wrestlers belonged to the Raw brand – a storyline division in which WWE assigned its employees to a different program , the other being SmackDown ! .
The main feud heading into Unforgiven was between Edge and John Cena over the WWE Championship . The two were evenly matched , with one victory each . Cena defeated Edge by disqualification at Saturday Night 's Main Event , and Edge had beaten Cena at SummerSlam to retain his championship . On the edition of August 21 , 2006 of Raw , Lita , Edge 's girlfriend , threw Cena 's customized belt , which had a spinning center plate of the WWE logo , into the Long Island Sound . Afterwards , Edge proclaimed that it was the end of the " Cena era " in his life . Edge went on to unveil a new version of the belt , which had a spinning center plate of his " Rated @-@ R Superstar " logo . Later in the evening , Edge had a match with the returning Jeff Hardy ; however , the match ended in a no @-@ contest after Cena interfered and attacked Edge . After the match , the two fought outside the arena , and Cena tossed Edge into the Long Island Sound . On the edition of August 28 , 2006 of Raw , Edge demanded that Shane McMahon , who was in charge of Raw that night , fire Cena for his actions the week before . Cena , however , interrupted and told Edge that if he got another WWE Championship match and lost , he would sign a contract with SmackDown ! and leave Edge 's life . Edge agreed , but on the condition that he decided when , where , and what type of match it would be . After Cena defeated Chris Masters later that night , Edge hit Cena with a chair , a ladder , and later put him through a table . Following his attack , Edge told Cena that the match was going to be a Tables , Ladders , and Chairs match at Unforgiven in his hometown of Toronto .
The other main match on the card was D @-@ Generation X ( DX ) ( Triple H and Shawn Michaels ) versus The McMahons ( Vince and Shane ) and The Big Show in a Hell in a Cell match . At SummerSlam , DX defeated The McMahons in a tag team match . On the edition of August 21 , 2006 of Raw , as part of the storyline , DX vandalized the WWE headquarters and Vince McMahon 's personal jet plane and limousine . On the edition of August 28 of Raw , The McMahons viciously attacked DX after their 3 @-@ on @-@ 2 handicap match with their SummerSlam opponents , Mr. Kennedy , Finlay and William Regal . But before Vince and Shane proceeded to attack DX , Big Show attacked DX , giving the advantage to The McMahons . Moments after the assault , Vince booked a match at Unforgiven , where he teamed up with Shane and Big Show to take on DX in a 3 @-@ on @-@ 2 handicap Hell in a Cell match .
One of the main undercard matches was between Lita and Trish Stratus for the WWE Women 's Championship . Lita engaged herself in a feud with Trish Stratus , after Lita and Edge interrupted Stratus ' title match with Mickie James . Lita and Edge then went on to attack Stratus ' , only to involve Carlito , who was in an on @-@ screen relationship with Stratus , to brawl with Lita and Edge . A scheduled tag team match between Lita and Edge versus Stratus and Carlito occurred , in which Edge and Lita were the winners . On the edition of August 28 , 2006 of Raw , Lita revealed that Stratus would retire following Unforgiven , which was later confirmed by Stratus . On the edition of September 4 of Raw , Stratus challenged Lita to a match at Unforgiven for the WWE Women 's title , for her retirement match , in which Lita accepted .
= = Event = =
The event unofficially began with a dark match between Super Crazy and Shelton Benjamin . Crazy pinned Benjamin for the win .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The first match was between Jeff Hardy and Johnny Nitro for the Intercontinental Championship . In the start of the match , Hardy gained the advantage over Nitro by countering his attacks . Hardy performed the Swanton Bomb , but Nitro put his foot on the rope to break a pinfall attempt by Hardy . Melina , however , hit Hardy with her boot , giving the upper hand to Nitro as he pinned Hardy and retained the title .
The match that followed was between Kane and Umaga . The match was taken to the outside of the ring . Kane performed a clothesline on Umaga into the crowd for a double countout called by the referee . The third match was for the World Tag Team Championship between the Spirit Squad ( Kenny and Mikey ) and The Highlanders. back and forth action was seen by both teams . The members of the Squad , who were at ringside , interfered in the match and gave the upper hand to their teammates , as Mikey was able to pin Rory after a Facebuster , thus able to retain the World Tag Team Championship .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The Hell in a Cell match between Shane , Vince McMahon , and the Big Show versus Triple H and Shawn Michaels ( DX ) was next . At first , DX was able to get the upper hand over the McMahons and Big Show . Back and forth action took place between the teams . During the match , Triple H wrapped a chair around Shane 's neck , which followed with Michaels hitting an elbow drop onto the chair , which resulted in Shane being injured . Michaels proceeded to perform Sweet Chin Music on Big Show . DX then pulled Big Show 's trunks down and shoved Vince 's head up Big Show 's buttocks . DX won the match , after Michaels performed Sweet Chin Music , which was followed by Triple H hitting McMahon over the back with a sledgehammer and covering him for the win .
The next singles match was between Trish Stratus and Lita for the WWE Women 's Championship . Stratus gained control early in the match , but Lita took it from her after she threw Stratus from the top rope . Stratus won the match after she locked in the Sharpshooter on Lita , who submitted to the move , and Stratus became Women 's Champion for the last time in her career . The sixth match was between Randy Orton and Carlito . As the match came to a start , Carlito spat on Orton and momentarily was followed by a dropkick . Mid @-@ way in the match , Carlito springboard moonsaulted from each side of the ring . His elbow caught Orton in the mouth on the second moonsault causing Orton to bleed from the mouth . After back and forth action , Carlito attempted an aerial maneuver , only to be countered into a mid @-@ air RKO . Orton then pinned Carlito for the win .
The final match of the night was for the WWE Championship between Edge and John Cena in a TLC match . At the start of the match , Cena took the advantage over Edge . Edge , however , countered Cena 's moves with a neckbreaker . The match saw Cena sandwich Edge in a ladder , as he applied the STFU hold on Edge , to which Edge tapped out . At one point , Cena began to climb the ladder , as he was moments away from retrieving the title , Lita , who interfered on behalf of Edge , tipped the ladder over , making Cena fall off the ladder and crash through a table at ringside . Lita 's interference was short , as Cena would later recover , and as Edge was climbing the ladder , Lita hits Cena with a steel chair to the back , only for him to inadvertently fall towards and push the ladder , making Edge fall off the ladder and crash through a table at ringside . Lita was then promptly dispatched by Cena , who performed an FU on her . Cena then began to make his way up the ladder , as did Edge when he re @-@ entered the ring . The two exchanged right @-@ hands , until Cena lifted Edge for the FU and dropped Edge through two tables that were stacked together by Cena . Cena then grabbed the belt down from the loop and became champion for the third time .
= = Aftermath = =
On the edition of October 2 , 2006 of Raw , John Cena was scheduled to defend the WWE Championship against Edge in a Steel Cage match , after Edge invoked his rematch clause for the title . Cena defeated Edge to retain the title , as he was able to perform an FU for the win , and thus ended the feud between the two . Edge , however , would begin a feud with DX , after Edge blamed DX for costing him the title match against Cena , due to interference from DX the previous week . The following week , Edge used an edition of The Cutting Edge to join forces with Randy Orton to form a team and began a feud against DX . Edge cited Randy Orton 's lack of success after being kicked out of Evolution by Triple H and DX 's " stale " antics " taking up TV time " as reasons to join forces . The duo dubbed themselves Rated @-@ RKO . At Cyber Sunday , Edge and Orton became the first team to finally defeat DX since their reunion in June .
Kane and Umaga continued their feud , as both individuals interfered in one another 's matches . On the edition of October 9 , 2006 of Raw , Kane and Umaga were scheduled in a " Loser Leaves Raw match " ; Umaga defeated Kane and sent him to the SmackDown ! brand . Despite their separation into different brands , Umaga and Kane had one final match at Cyber Sunday . Umaga won again , after fans selected him to be Umaga 's opponent instead of Chris Benoit and The Sandman . The angle between Johnny Nitro and Jeff Hardy continued , as the two were involved in another Intercontinental Championship match where Nitro retained the title . Nitro , however , lost the title to Hardy , on the edition of October 2 of Raw .
The WWE Women 's Championship was vacated on September 18 , 2006 , following Trish Stratus ' win at Unforgiven . On the edition of September 25 of Raw , a Women 's title tournament began , and the first match was won by Lita , after she defeated Candice Michelle . The second tournament match was a Lingerie match between Mickie James and Victoria , which James won . On the edition of October 9 of Raw , Melina defeated Torrie Wilson in a Lumberjill match to advance in the tournament match . The following week , Maria won a Fatal Four @-@ Way Bra and Panties match against Victoria , Candice Michelle , and Torrie Wilson to advance to the semi @-@ finals . On the edition of October 23 of Raw , James defeated Melina to advance in the semi @-@ finals . The following week on Raw , Lita advanced in the tournament , after she defeated Maria . At Cyber Sunday , Lita and Mickie James advanced to the seventh match of the tournament . Lita won the vacant Women 's title , after she pinned James with a Swinging snap DDT .
John Cena was placed in an inter @-@ brand angle to determine the " Champion of Champions " – or who was the most dominant champion in WWE 's three brands . Cena , King Booker ( SmackDown ! ' s World Heavyweight Champion ) , and Big Show ( ECW 's World Champion ) engaged in a feud leading to a triple threat match at Cyber Sunday in November ; viewers chose which championship would be placed on the line . At the same time , Cena became involved in a storyline with non @-@ wrestler Kevin Federline when he began appearing on Raw with Johnny Nitro and Melina . After getting into a worked physical altercation with Federline on Raw , Federline helped King Booker retain his title at Cyber Sunday in the Triple Threat match by hitting Cena with the World Heavyweight Title belt .
= = Reception = =
The event received mostly positive reviews from critics . Writing for Canadian Online Explorer , Brian Elliott stated that the event was " a card of averages , with nothing excellent and little poor " . He rated the overall event 7 out 10 stars . The main event between Edge and John Cena for the WWE Championship was rated 9 out of 10 stars , the Hell in a Cell match was rated 9 and a half out of 10 with the Sun saying it was an extreme bloodbath that lived up to its hype , the World Tag Team Championship between the Spirit Squad and the Highlanders was rated a 5 out of 10 stars , and the Intercontinental Championship match between Johnny Nitro and Jeff Hardy was rated a 7 out of 10 stars .
= = Results = =
= Typhoon Mamie ( 1985 ) =
Typhoon Mamie was the worst tropical cyclone to affect China in 26 years . Originating from an area of disturbed weather near the Philippines in mid @-@ August 1985 , the system gradually became better organized , and was upgraded into a tropical storm early on August 16 . It continued to deepen , and late on August 17 , Mamie attained typhoon intensity . Around this time , Typhoon Mamie reached its peak intensity of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , which it maintained for 12 hours . After making landfall in Shanghai , the storm steadily weakened . However , after turning north and crossing the Shanghai Peninsula and the Yellow Sea , Mamie made a second landfall near Yantai as a tropical storm . After turning northwest and re @-@ entering the Yellow Sea , Mamie moved ashore for the third and final time near Dairen . On August 21 , Mamie dissipated inland over northeastern China .
Due to both Mamie and Nelson , widespread flooding was reported across much of northern China , with 19 rivers overflowing . The typhoon forced around 1 @,@ 000 factories to temporarily close , and toppled approximately 6 @.@ 5 million trees . Moreover , about 8 @,@ 000 homes were flooded and 120 @,@ 000 houses received damage Nearly 1 million people were directly affected by the typhoon . The typhoon killed more than 120 @,@ 000 animals and sank more than 200 boats . Overall , 17 fatalities occurred and 165 were injured . Losses totaled $ 172 million ( 1985 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
Typhoon Mamie originated from the southwesterly monsoonal flow near the Philippines . The monsoon flow was situated near Tropical Storm Lee , which was situated east of Taiwan at that time . At 0000 UTC on August 14 , banding features were noted via satellite imagery . The system was first monitored by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) at 0600 UTC on August 14 ; the JTWC noted that the chances of significant development were poor . Throughout the day , the system became better organized while turning north and at 1800 UTC that day , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) started watching the disturbance . Early on August 15 , the JTWC remarked that the storm had a " fair " chance at potential development . As such , Hurricane Hunter aircraft was requested . Following an increase in banding features and outflow , a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert ( TCFA ) was issued by the JTWC that afternoon . Thereafter , the cyclone began to strengthen as interaction with Tropical Storm Lee diminished . At 2300 UTC on August 15 , the aircraft discovered a closed low @-@ level circulation , as well as tropical storm @-@ force winds . Based on this , both agencies designated the system as Tropical Storm Mamie early on August 16 .
On August 16 , the tropical storm began to turn northwest in response to the strengthening of a subtropical ridge north of Mamie and a westward @-@ moving mid @-@ latitude cyclone . At 0000 UTC on August 17 , the JTWC classified Mamie as a typhoon while the JMA reported winds of 105 km / h ( 65 mph ) , a severe tropical storm . Around midday , the JTWC estimated winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) , equivalent to a Category 1 hurricane on the United States @-@ based Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale . However , the aforementioned ridge was not strong enough to prevent the storm from turning north @-@ northwest on August 17 . That evening , the JMA upgraded Mamie to typhoon status . Simultaneously , the JMA estimated peak winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , and a minimum barometric pressure of 975 mbar ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) . According to the JMA , the typhoon held on to peak intensity for 12 hours while moving onshore near Shanghai on August 18 . Mamie only gradually weakened overland , but according to the JMA , the storm 's winds had decreased to 105 km / h ( 65 mph ) midday on August 18 . Typhoon Mamie moved offshore at 0200 UTC on August 19 ; subsequently , the JTWC estimated winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) while the JMA estimated winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) . After crossing the Shanghai Peninsula , Mamie entered the Yellow Sea while turning north along the western periphery of a subtropical ridge , and at 0600 UTC , struck Yantai as a minimal tropical storm . Following a turn towards the northwest , Tropical Storm Mamie briefly emerged into the Yellow Sea before making a third and final landfall just west of Dairen at noon . At the time of landfall , both the JMA and the JTWC reported winds of 70 km / h ( 45 mph ) . Due to interaction with the mountainous terrain of China , Mamie began to dissipate over land , and by 0000 UTC on August 20 , the JTWC ceased watching the cyclone . The JMA followed suit 42 hours later .
= = Preparations , impact , and aftermath = =
Roughly 24 hours prior to Mamie 's third landfall , all ships were warned in the port of Dalian to evacuate ; however , 152 ships stayed at the port . Shortly after making landfall , Mamie was considered the worst storm to affect northeastern China in 26 years . The nation was already inundated by significant flooding earlier in the summer of 1985 , especially from Typhoon Nelson .
After making landfall , Typhoon Mamie dropped 420 mm ( 17 in ) of rain in Liaoning , where the storm flooded 300 @,@ 000 ha ( 741 @,@ 315 acres ) of farmland . Due to a combination of Mamie and previous flooding , 19 rivers overflowed . The typhoon forced 1 @,@ 000 factories to temporarily close , and toppled about 6 @.@ 5 million trees . Over 8 @,@ 000 dwellings were flooded . More than 3 @,@ 000 residents were evacuated in the Jilin province . At least 36 @,@ 400 villagers necessitated rescue . Nearly 1 million individuals were directly affected by the typhoon . Elsewhere , in Yantai , the typhoon killed more than 120 @,@ 000 animals , damaged 120 @,@ 000 homes , and sank more than 200 boats . Waves up to 8 m ( 26 ft ) in height pounded the Bohai Bay shoreline , forcing more than 200 ships to be evacuated . Cables securing an oil rig were snapped . One person died while trying to fasten steel products on a ship . In all , 17 people perished and 165 were injured due to Mamie . Loses totaled $ 172 million .
After the passage of Typhoon Mamie , more than 800 @,@ 000 civilians and 9 @,@ 000 soldiers were organized in order to protect reservoirs from flooding . By August 28 , 150 @,@ 000 civilians and 10 @,@ 000 soldiers were fighting against flooding along the Liao River on a daily basis . Additionally , local military forces were called in to assist relief workers . The government organized buses and boats to carry flood victims . Some schools were used as shelter while restaurants and hospitals sent food and medicine .
= Oppenheimer security hearing =
The Oppenheimer security hearing was a 1954 proceeding by the United States Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) that explored the background , actions , and associations of J. Robert Oppenheimer , the American scientist who had headed the Los Alamos Laboratory during World War II , where he played a key part in the Manhattan Project that developed the atomic bomb . The hearing resulted in Oppenheimer 's Q clearance being revoked . This marked the end of his formal relationship with the government of the United States , and generated considerable controversy regarding whether the treatment of Oppenheimer was fair , or whether it was an expression of anti @-@ Communist McCarthyism .
Doubts about Oppenheimer 's loyalty dated back to the 1930s , when he was a member of numerous Communist front organizations , and was associated with Communist Party USA members , including his wife and his brother . These associations were known to Army Counter @-@ intelligence at the time he was made director of the Los Alamos Laboratory in 1942 , and chairman of the influential General Advisory Committee of the AEC in 1947 . In this capacity Oppenheimer became involved in bureaucratic conflict between the Army and Air Force over the types of nuclear weapons the country required , technical conflict between the scientists over the feasibility of the hydrogen bomb , and personal conflict with AEC commissioner Lewis Strauss .
The proceedings were initiated after Oppenheimer refused to voluntarily give up his security clearance while working as an atomic weapons consultant for the government , under a contract due to expire at the end of June 1954 . Several of his colleagues testified at the hearings . As a result of the two to one decision of the hearing 's three judges , he was stripped of his security clearance one day before his consultant contract was due to expire . The panel found that he was loyal and discreet with atomic secrets , but did not recommend that his security clearance be reinstated .
The loss of his security clearance ended Oppenheimer 's role in government and policy . He became an academic exile , cut off from his former career and the world he had helped to create . The reputations of those who had testified against Oppenheimer were tarnished as well , and Oppenheimer 's reputation was later partly rehabilitated by Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson . The brief period when scientists were hailed as heroes uniquely qualified to comment on public policy was ended , and scientists working within the government were on notice that dissent was no longer tolerated .
= = Background = =
= = = Robert Oppenheimer = = =
Before World War II , J. Robert Oppenheimer had been professor of physics at the University of California , Berkeley . The scion of a wealthy New York family , he was a graduate of Harvard University , and had studied in Europe at the University of Cambridge in England , the University of Göttingen in Germany ( where he had earned his doctorate in physics under the supervision of Max Born at the age of 23 ) , and the University of Leiden in the Netherlands . As one of the few American physicists with a deep understanding of the new field of quantum mechanics , he was hired by the University of California in 1929 .
As a theoretical physicist , Oppenheimer had considerable achievements . In a 1930 paper on the Dirac equation , he had predicted the existence of the positron . A 1938 paper co @-@ written with Robert Serber explored the properties of white dwarf stars . This was followed by one co @-@ written with one of his students , George Volkoff , in which they demonstrated that there was a limit , the so @-@ called Tolman @-@ Oppenheimer @-@ Volkoff limit , to the mass of stars beyond which they would not remain stable as neutron stars and would undergo gravitational collapse . In 1939 , with another of his students , Hartland Snyder , he went further and predicted the existence of what are today known as black holes . It would be decades before the significance of this was appreciated .
Still , Oppenheimer was not well known before the war , and certainly not as renowned as his friend and colleague Ernest O. Lawrence , who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1939 for his invention of the cyclotron . But as an experimental physicist , Lawrence had come to rely on Oppenheimer , and it was Lawrence who brought Oppenheimer into the effort to develop an atomic bomb , which became known as the Manhattan Project . Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , who became director of the Manhattan Project on September 8 , 1942 , met Oppenheimer at Berkeley , where Oppenheimer briefed Groves on his work on the " Super " ( thermonuclear ) bomb . Oppenheimer told Groves on October 8 that the Manhattan Project needed a dedicated weapons development laboratory . Groves agreed , and after a second meeting with Oppenheimer on a train on October 15 , decided that Oppenheimer was the man he needed to head what became the Los Alamos Laboratory , despite Oppenheimer 's lack of a Nobel Prize or administrative experience .
The end of the war in the wake of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki made scientists into heroes . Oppenheimer became a celebrity , with his face gracing front pages of newspapers and the covers of magazines . Life magazine described him as " one of the most famous men in the world , one of the most admired , quoted , photographed , consulted , glorified , well @-@ nigh deified as the fabulous and fascinating archetype of a brand new kind of hero , the hero of science and intellect , originator and living symbol of the new atomic age . "
= = = Chevalier incident = = =
Many of Oppenheimer 's associates in the years before World War II were Communist Party USA members . They included his wife Kitty , whose first husband Joe Dallet had been killed fighting with the Lincoln Battalion in the Spanish Civil War ; his brother Frank Oppenheimer and Frank 's wife Jackie ; and his girlfriend Jean Tatlock . One of his Communist associates was a colleague at the University of California , an assistant professor of French literature named Haakon Chevalier . The two had met during a rally for Spanish Loyalists , and had co @-@ founded a branch of the American Federation of Teachers at Berkeley known as Local 349 . The Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) had opened a file on Oppenheimer in March 1941 , after he had attended a December 1940 meeting at Chevalier 's home that was also attended by the Communist Party 's California state secretary William Schneiderman and its treasurer Isaac Folkoff , both of whom were targets of FBI surveillance and wiretaps . Agents had recorded the license plate of Oppenheimer 's car . The FBI noted that Oppenheimer was on the Executive Committee of the American Civil Liberties Union , which it considered a Communist front . Shortly thereafter , the FBI added Oppenheimer to its Custodial Detention Index , for arrest in case of national emergency .
In January or February 1943 , Chevalier had a brief conversation with Oppenheimer in the kitchen of his home . Chevalier told Oppenheimer that there was a scientist , George Eltenton , who could transmit information of a technical nature to the Soviet Union . Oppenheimer rejected the overture , but failed to report it until August 1943 , when he volunteered to Manhattan Project security officers that three men at Berkeley had been solicited for nuclear secrets on behalf of the Soviet Union , by a person he did not know who worked for Shell Oil , and who had Communist connections . He gave that person 's name as George Eltenton . When pressed on the issue in later interviews at Los Alamos in December 1943 with Groves , who promised to keep the identity of the three men from the FBI , Oppenheimer identified the contact who had approached him as Chevalier , and told Groves that only one person had been approached : his brother Frank . Groves considered Oppenheimer too important to the ultimate Allied goals of building atomic bombs and winning the war to oust him over this suspicious behavior . He ordered that Oppenheimer be given a security clearance " without delay , irrespective of the information which you have concerning Mr. Oppenheimer . He is absolutely essential to the project . "
Oppenheimer was interviewed by the FBI on September 5 , 1946 . He related the " Chevalier incident " , and he gave contradictory and equivocating statements , telling government agents that only he had been approached , by Chevalier , who at the time had supposedly said that he had a potential conduit through Eltenton for information which could be passed to the Soviets . Oppenheimer claimed to have invented the other contacts to conceal the identity of Chevalier , whose identity he believed would be immediately apparent if he named only one contact , but whom he believed to be innocent of any disloyalty . The 1943 fabrication and the shifting nature of his accounts figured prominently in the 1954 inquiry .
The McMahon Act that established the Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) required all employees holding wartime security clearances issued by the Manhattan Project to be investigated by the FBI and re @-@ certified . This provision had come in the wake of the February 16 , 1946 , defection of Igor Gouzenko in Canada , and the subsequent arrest of 22 people . President Harry S. Truman appointed Oppenheimer to the AEC General Advisory Committee ( GAC ) on December 10 , 1946 , so the FBI interviewed two dozen of Oppenheimer 's associates , including Robert Bacher , Ernest Lawrence , Enrico Fermi and Robert Gordon Sproul . Groves and the Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson supplied written statements supporting Oppenheimer . AEC chairman David Lilienthal and Vannevar Bush discussed the matter with Truman 's sympathetic aide Clark Clifford at the White House . They found John Lansdale , Jr. particularly persuasive ; he had interrogated Oppenheimer over the Chevalier incident in 1943 , and strongly supported him . On August 11 , 1947 , they unanimously voted to grant Oppenheimer a Q clearance . At the first meeting of the GAC on January 3 , 1947 , Oppenheimer was unanimously elected its chairman .
= = = Postwar conflicts = = =
The FBI was willing to furnish Oppenheimer 's political enemies with incriminating evidence about Communist ties . These included Lewis Strauss , an AEC commissioner who resented Oppenheimer for his humiliation before Congress regarding opposition to the export of radioactive isotopes to other nations , which Strauss believed had military applications . As GAC chairman , Oppenheimer was called before the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy ( JCAE ) over the issue in June 1949 . The other four AEC commissioners had opposed Strauss , so he had gone to the JCAE in an attempt to get the decision overturned . The result was a stunning humiliation for the thin @-@ skinned Strauss . Oppenheimer testified that :
No one can force me to say that you cannot use these isotopes for atomic energy . You can use a shovel for atomic energy , in fact you do . You can use a bottle of beer for atomic energy , in fact you do . But to get some perspective , the fact is that during the war and after the war these materials played no significant part , and in my knowledge , no part at all ... My own rating of the importance of isotopes in this broad sense is that they are far less important than electronic devices but far more important than , let us say , vitamins , somewhere in between .
This came on the heels of controversies about whether some of Oppenheimer 's students , including David Bohm , Ross Lomanitz and Bernard Peters , had been Communists at the time they had worked with him at Berkeley . Oppenheimer was called to testify in front of the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee , where he admitted that he had associations with the Communist Party in the 1930s , and named some of his students as being Communists or closely associated with them . Bohm and Peters eventually left the country , while Lomanitz was forced to work as a laborer . Frank Oppenheimer was fired from his university position , and could not find work in physics for a decade . He and his wife Jackie became cattle ranchers in Colorado . Their reputations were rehabilitated in 1959 , and they founded the San Francisco Exploratorium in 1969 .
David Kaiser noted that :
These dozen or so theoretical physicists surely came under fire for many reasons ; with hindsight their troubles appear almost overdetermined . Most were Jewish ; several had been active in labor organizing before or during the war ; a few had flirted with the Communist Party in their youth ; many were active in other leftwing political organizations after the war . Perhaps most important , however , they had close and long @-@ standing ties with Robert Oppenheimer ...
From 1949 to 1953 , Oppenheimer had also found himself in the middle of a controversy over the development of the " Super " . In 1949 , the Soviet Union detonated an atomic bomb . This came as a shock to many Americans , and it fell to Oppenheimer to check the evidence and confirm that the explosion had taken place . In response , Strauss recommended that the United States retain nuclear superiority by developing the " Super " . This had been under consideration at Los Alamos for several years . Brigadier General James McCormack told the AEC commissioners that while thermonuclear weapons could potentially be thousands of times as powerful as fission weapons , as of 1949 there was no design that worked , and no certainty that a practical bomb could be built if there was one . He cautioned that the " Super " would probably require large amounts
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the battle and Hancock assumed command of II Corps , which he would lead until shortly before the war 's end .
= = = Gettysburg = = =
Hancock 's most famous service was as a new corps commander at the Battle of Gettysburg , July 1 to 3 , 1863 . After his friend , Maj. Gen. John F. Reynolds , was killed early on July 1 , Maj. Gen. George G. Meade , the new commander of the Army of the Potomac , sent Hancock ahead to take command of the units on the field and assess the situation . Hancock thus was in temporary command of the " left wing " of the army , consisting of the I , II , III , and XI Corps . This demonstrated Meade 's high confidence in him , because Hancock was not the most senior Union officer at Gettysburg at the time . Hancock and the more senior XI Corps commander , Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard , argued briefly about this command arrangement , but Hancock prevailed and he organized the Union defenses on Cemetery Hill as more numerous Confederate forces drove the I and XI Corps back through the town . He had the authority from Meade to withdraw the forces , so he was responsible for the decision to stand and fight at Gettysburg . At the conclusion of the day 's action , Maj. Gen. Henry Warner Slocum arrived on the field and assumed command until Gen. Meade arrived after midnight .
On July 2 , Hancock 's II Corps was positioned on Cemetery Ridge , roughly in the center of the Union line , while Confederate General Robert E. Lee launched assaults on both ends of the line . On the Union left , Lt. Gen. James Longstreet 's assault smashed the III Corps and Hancock sent in his 1st Division , under Brig. Gen. John C. Caldwell , to reinforce the Union in the Wheatfield . As Lt. Gen. A.P. Hill 's corps continued the attack toward the Union center , Hancock rallied the defenses and rushed units to the critical spots . First , he issued the Third Brigade of his Third Division under Colonel George Willard into the fray to stop the advance of Confederate Brigadier General William Barksdale 's Brigade . In one famous incident , he sacrificed a regiment , the 1st Minnesota Volunteer Infantry Regiment , by ordering it to advance and charge a Confederate brigade four times its size , causing the Minnesotans to suffer 87 % casualties . While costly to the regiment , this heroic sacrifice bought time to organize the defensive line and saved the day for the Union army . Following the action toward his right , he met the 13th Vermont Volunteer Infantry Regiment , a First Corps unit which had come from Cemetery Hill to help quell the crisis . Hancock sent them out to recover some artillery pieces Confederates had taken and were pulling away . The Vermonters were successful . Having stabilized his line , he turned his attention to the sound of fighting on East Cemetery Hill . There , with darkness falling , Confederates from Major General Jubal Early 's Division had gotten into Union batteries and were fighting the cannoneers hand @-@ to @-@ hand . Hancock sent the First Brigade of his Third Division , under Colonel Samuel S. Carroll , to the fighting . The brigade was crucial in flushing the enemy out of the batteries and dispatching them back down the face of East Cemetery Hill .
On July 3 , Hancock continued in his position on Cemetery Ridge and thus bore the brunt of Pickett 's Charge . During the massive Confederate artillery bombardment that preceded the infantry assault , Hancock was prominent on horseback in reviewing and encouraging his troops . When one of his subordinates protested , " General , the corps commander ought not to risk his life that way , " Hancock is said to have replied , " There are times when a corps commander 's life does not count . " During the infantry assault , his old friend , now Brig. Gen. Lewis A. Armistead , leading a brigade in Maj. Gen. George Pickett 's division , was wounded and died two days later . Hancock could not meet with his friend because he had just been wounded himself , a severe wound caused by a bullet striking the pommel of his saddle , entering his inner right thigh along with wood fragments and a large bent nail . Helped from his horse by aides , and with a tourniquet applied to stanch the bleeding , he removed the saddle nail himself and , mistaking its source , remarked wryly , " They must be hard up for ammunition when they throw such shot as that . " News of Armistead 's mortal wounding was brought to Hancock by a member of his staff , Captain Henry H. Bingham . Despite his pain , Hancock refused evacuation to the rear until the battle was resolved . He had been an inspiration for his troops throughout the three @-@ day battle . Hancock later received the thanks of the U.S. Congress for " ... his gallant , meritorious and conspicuous share in that great and decisive victory . "
= = = Virginia and the end of the war = = =
Hancock suffered from the effects of his Gettysburg wound for the rest of the war . After recuperating in Norristown , he performed recruiting services over the winter and returned in the spring to field command of the II Corps for Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant 's 1864 Overland Campaign , but he never regained full mobility and his former youthful energy . Nevertheless , he performed well at the Battle of the Wilderness and commanded a critical breakthrough assault of the Mule Shoe at the " Bloody Angle " in the Battle of Spotsylvania Court House on May 12 , shattering the Confederate defenders in his front , including the Stonewall Brigade . His corps suffered enormous losses during a futile assault Grant ordered at Cold Harbor .
After Grant 's army slipped past Lee 's army to cross the James River , Hancock found himself in a position from which he might have ended the war . His corps arrived to support William Farrar Smith 's assaults on the lightly held Petersburg defensive lines , but he deferred to Smith 's advice because Smith knew the ground and had been on the field all day , and no significant assaults were made before the Confederate lines were reinforced . One of the great opportunities of the war was lost . After his corps participated in the assaults at Deep Bottom , Hancock was promoted to brigadier general in the regular army , effective August 12 , 1864 .
Hancock 's only significant military defeat occurred during the Siege of Petersburg . His II Corps moved south of the city , along the Wilmington and Weldon Railroad , tearing up track . On August 25 , Confederate Maj. Gen. Henry Heth attacked and overran the faulty Union position at Reams 's Station , shattering the II Corps , capturing many prisoners . Despite a later victory at Hatcher 's Run , the humiliation of Reams 's Station contributed , along with the lingering effects of his Gettysburg wound , to his decision to give up field command in November . He left the II Corps after a year in which it had suffered over 40 @,@ 000 casualties , but had achieved significant military victories . His next assignment was to command the ceremonial First Veteran Corps . He performed more recruiting , commanded the Middle Department , and relieved Maj. Gen. Philip Sheridan in command of forces in the now @-@ quiet Shenandoah Valley . He was promoted to brevet major general in the regular army for his service at Spotsylvania , effective March 13 , 1865 .
= = Post @-@ war military service = =
= = = Execution of Lincoln assassination conspirators = = =
At the close of the war , Hancock was assigned to supervise the execution of the Lincoln assassination conspirators . Lincoln had been assassinated on April 14 , 1865 , and by May 9 of that year , a military commission had been convened to try the accused . The actual assassin , John Wilkes Booth , was already dead , but the trial of his co @-@ conspirators proceeded quickly , resulting in convictions . President Andrew Johnson ordered the executions to be carried out on July 7 . Although he was reluctant to execute some of the less @-@ culpable conspirators , especially Mary Surratt , Hancock carried out his orders , later writing that " every soldier was bound to act as I did under similar circumstances . "
= = = Service on the Plains = = =
After the executions , Hancock was assigned command of the newly organized Middle Military Department , headquartered in Baltimore . In 1866 , on Grant 's recommendation , Hancock was promoted to major general and was transferred , later that year , to command of the military Department of the Missouri , which included the states of Missouri , Kansas , Colorado , and New Mexico . Hancock reported to Fort Leavenworth , Kansas , and took up his new posting . Soon after arriving , he was assigned by General Sherman to lead an expedition to negotiate with the Cheyenne and Sioux , with whom relations had worsened since the Sand Creek massacre . The negotiations got off to a bad start , and after Hancock ordered the burning of an abandoned Cheyenne village in central Kansas , relations became worse than when the expedition had started . There was little loss of life on either side , but the mission could not be called a success .
= = = Reconstruction = = =
Hancock 's time in the West was brief . President Johnson , unhappy with the way Republican generals were governing the South under Reconstruction , sought replacements for them . The general who offended Johnson the most was Philip Sheridan , and Johnson soon ordered General Grant to switch the assignments of Hancock and Sheridan , believing that Hancock , a Democrat , would govern in a style more to Johnson 's liking . Although neither man was pleased with the change , Sheridan reported to Fort Leavenworth and Hancock to New Orleans .
Hancock 's new assignment found him in charge of the Fifth Military District , covering Texas and Louisiana . Almost immediately upon arriving , Hancock ingratiated himself with the white conservative population by issuing his General Order Number 40 of November 29 , 1867 . In that order , written while traveling to New Orleans , Hancock expressed sentiments in support of President Johnson 's policies , writing that if the residents of the district conducted themselves peacefully and the civilian officials perform their duties , then " the military power should cease to lead , and the civil administration resume its natural and rightful dominion . " The order continued :
The great principles of American liberty are still the lawful inheritance of this people , and ever should be . The right of trial by jury , the habeas corpus , the liberty of the press , the freedom of speech , the natural rights of persons and the rights of property must be preserved . Free institutions , while they are essential to the prosperity and happiness of the people , always furnish the strongest inducements to peace and order .
Hancock 's order encouraged white Democrats across the South who hoped to return to civilian government more quickly , but discomforted blacks and Republicans in the South who feared a return to the antebellum ways of conservative white dominance .
Hancock 's General Order Number 40 was quickly condemned by Republicans in Washington , especially by the Radicals , while President Johnson wholeheartedly approved . Heedless of the situation in Washington , Hancock soon put his words into action , refusing local Republican politicians ' requests to use his power to overturn elections and court verdicts , while also letting it be known that open insurrection would be suppressed . Hancock 's popularity within the Democratic party grew to the extent that he was considered a potential presidential nominee for that party in the 1868 election . Although Hancock collected a significant number of delegates at the 1868 convention , his presidential possibilities went unfulfilled . Even so , he was henceforth identified as a rare breed in politics : one who believed in the Democratic Party 's principles of states ' rights and limited government , but whose anti @-@ secessionist sentiment was unimpeachable .
= = = Return to the Plains = = =
Following General Grant 's 1868 presidential victory , the Republicans were firmly in charge in Washington . As a result , Hancock found himself transferred , this time away from the sensitive assignment of reconstructing the South and into the relative backwater that was the Department of Dakota . The Department covered Minnesota , Montana , and the Dakotas . As in his previous Western command , Hancock began with a conference of the Indian chiefs , but this time was more successful in establishing a peaceful intent . Relations worsened in 1870 , however , as an army expedition committed a massacre against the Blackfeet . Relations with the Sioux also became contentious as a result of white encroachment into the Black Hills , in violation of the Treaty of Fort Laramie . Still , war was averted , for the time being , and most of Hancock 's command was peaceful .
It was during this tour that Hancock had the opportunity to contribute to the creation of Yellowstone National Park . In August 1870 , he ordered the 2nd Cavalry at Fort Ellis to provide a military escort for General Henry D. Washburn 's planned exploration of the Yellowstone Region . The expedition , which was a major impetus in creating the park , became known as the Washburn @-@ Langford @-@ Doane Expedition . Hancock 's order led to the assignment of Lt. Gustavus Cheyney Doane and a troop of 5 cavalrymen from Fort Ellis to escort the expedition . In 1871 , Captain John W. Barlow during his exploration of the Yellowstone region formally named a summit on what would become the southern boundary of the park Mount Hancock to honor the general 's decision to provide the escort .
= = = Command in the East and political ambitions = = =
In 1872 , General Meade died , leaving Hancock the army 's senior major general . This entitled him to a more prominent command , and President Grant , still desirous to keep Hancock from a Southern post , assigned him command of the Division of the Atlantic , headquartered at Fort Columbus on Governors Island , in New York City . The vast department covered the settled northeast area of the country and was militarily uneventful with the exception of the army 's involvement in the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 . When railroad workers went on strike to protest wage cuts , the nation 's transportation system was paralyzed . The governors of Pennsylvania , West Virginia , and Maryland asked President Hayes to call in federal troops to re @-@ open the railways . Once federal troops entered the cities , most of the strikers melted away , but there were some violent clashes .
All the while Hancock was posted in New York , he did his best to keep his political ambitions alive . He received some votes at the Democrats ' 1876 convention , but was never a serious contender as New York governor Samuel J. Tilden swept the field on the second ballot . The Republican candidate , Rutherford B. Hayes , won the election , and Hancock refocused his ambition on 1880 . The electoral crisis of 1876 and the subsequent end to Reconstruction in 1877 convinced many observers that the election of 1880 would give the Democrats their best chance at victory in a generation .
= = Election of 1880 = =
= = = Democratic convention = = =
Hancock 's name had been proposed several times for the Democratic nomination for president , but he never captured a majority of delegates . In 1880 , however , Hancock 's chances improved . President Hayes had promised not to run for a second term , and the previous Democratic nominee , Tilden , declined to run again due to poor health . Hancock faced several competitors for the nomination , including Thomas A. Hendricks , Allen G. Thurman , Stephen Johnson Field , and Thomas F. Bayard . Hancock 's neutrality on the monetary question , and his lingering support in the South ( owing to his General Order Number 40 ) meant that Hancock , more than any other candidate , had nationwide support . When the Democratic convention assembled in Cincinnati in June 1880 , Hancock led on the first ballot , but did not have a majority . By the second ballot , Hancock received the requisite two @-@ thirds , and William Hayden English of Indiana was chosen as his running mate .
= = = Campaign against Garfield = = =
The Republicans nominated James A. Garfield , a Congressman from Ohio and a skillful politician . Hancock and the Democrats expected to carry the Solid South , but needed to add a few of the Northern states to their total to win the election . The practical differences between the parties were few , and the Republicans were reluctant to attack Hancock personally because of his heroic reputation . The one policy difference the Republicans were able to exploit was a statement in the Democratic platform endorsing " a tariff for revenue only . " Garfield 's campaigners used this statement to paint the Democrats as unsympathetic to the plight of industrial laborers , a group that would benefit by a high protective tariff . The tariff issue cut Democratic support in industrialized Northern states , which were essential in establishing a Democratic majority . In the end , the Democrats and Hancock failed to carry any of the Northern states they had targeted , with the exception of New Jersey . Hancock lost the election to Garfield . Garfield polled only 39 @,@ 213 more votes than Hancock , the popular vote being 4 @,@ 453 @,@ 295 for Garfield and 4 @,@ 414 @,@ 082 for Hancock . The electoral count , however , had a much larger spread : Garfield polled 214 electoral votes and Hancock only 155 .
= = Later life = =
Hancock took his electoral defeat in stride and attended Garfield 's inauguration . Following the election , Hancock carried on as commander of the Division of the Atlantic . He was elected president of the National Rifle Association in 1881 , explaining that " The object of the NRA is to increase the military strength of the country by making skill in the use of arms as prevalent as it was in the days of the Revolution . " Hancock was a Charter Director and the first president of the Military Service Institution of the United States from 1878 until his death in 1886 . He was commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States veterans organization from 1879 until his death in 1886 . He was the author of Reports of Major General W. S. Hancock upon Indian Affairs , published in 1867 . Hancock 's last major public appearance was to preside over the funeral of President Grant in 1885 , although he also made a less publicized trip that year to Gettysburg .
Hancock died in 1886 at Governors Island , still in command of the Military Division of the Atlantic , the victim of an infected carbuncle , complicated by diabetes . He is buried in Montgomery Cemetery in West Norriton Township , Montgomery County , Pennsylvania , near Norristown , Pennsylvania . Although he outlived both of his children , he was survived by the three grandchildren fathered by his son , Russell . Hancock 's wife , Almira , published Reminiscences of Winfield Scott Hancock in 1887 .
In 1893 , Republican General Francis A. Walker wrote , " Although I did not vote for General Hancock , I am strongly disposed to believe that one of the best things the nation has lost in recent years has been the example and the influence of that chivalric , stately , and splendid gentleman in the White House . Perhaps much which both parties now recognize as having been unfortunate and mischievous during the past thirteen years would have been avoided had General Hancock been elected . "
= = Legacy = =
Winfield Scott Hancock is memorialized in a number of statues :
An equestrian statue on East Cemetery Hill on the Gettysburg Battlefield .
A portrait statue as part of the Pennsylvania Memorial at Gettysburg .
An alto @-@ relievo representing Hancock 's wounding during Pickett 's Charge , on the New York State Monument at Gettysburg .
An equestrian statue located at Pennsylvania Avenue and 7th Street , NW in Washington , D.C.
An equestrian statue atop the Smith Memorial Arch in Fairmount Park , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania .
A monumental bronze bust in Hancock Square , New York City , by sculptor James Wilson Alexander MacDonald .
The original Winfield Scott Hancock Elementary School , located at Arch and East Spruce Streets in Norristown , Pennsylvania , was built in 1895 in memory of the General who grew up not far from the site . It was replaced in 1962 by a new building still in use by the Norristown Area School District only a few blocks away at Arch and Summit Streets , which is also named after General Hancock . The original 1895 building still stands and is used by a community non @-@ profit organization .
Hancock 's portrait adorns U.S. currency on the $ 2 Silver Certificate series of 1886 . Approximately 1 @,@ 500 to 2 @,@ 500 of these bills survive today in numismatic collections . Hancock 's bill is ranked number 73 on a list of " 100 Greatest American Currency Notes " .
= = Popular media = =
Hancock was an important character in the historical novels about the Civil War by the Shaara family : The Killer Angels by Michael Shaara and Gods and Generals and The Last Full Measure by Jeffrey Shaara . In the films Gettysburg ( 1993 ) and Gods and Generals ( 2003 ) , based on the first two of these novels , Hancock is portrayed by Brian Mallon and is depicted in both films in a very favorable light . A number of scenes in the novel Gods and Generals that depict Hancock and his friend Lewis Armistead in Southern California before the war have been omitted from the film . Hancock 's Washington D.C. equestrian statue is featured in the opening to the Netflix series House of Cards .
= Colley Cibber =
Colley Cibber ( 6 November 1671 – 11 December 1757 ) was an English actor @-@ manager , playwright and Poet Laureate . His colourful memoir Apology for the Life of Colley Cibber ( 1740 ) describes his life in a personal , anecdotal and even rambling style . He wrote 25 plays for his own company at Drury Lane , half of which were adapted from various sources , which led Robert Lowe and Alexander Pope , among others , to criticise his " miserable mutilation " of " crucified Molière [ and ] hapless Shakespeare " . He regarded himself as first and foremost an actor and had great popular success in comical fop parts , while as a tragic actor he was persistent but much ridiculed . Cibber 's brash , extroverted personality did not sit well with his contemporaries , and he was frequently accused of tasteless theatrical productions , shady business methods , and a social and political opportunism that was thought to have gained him the laureateship over far better poets . He rose to ignominious fame when he became the chief target , the head Dunce , of Alexander Pope 's satirical poem The Dunciad .
Cibber 's poetical work was derided in his time , and has been remembered only for being poor . His importance in British theatre history rests on his being one of the first in a long line of actor @-@ managers , on the interest of two of his comedies as documents of evolving early 18th @-@ century taste and ideology , and on the value of his autobiography as a historical source .
= = Life = =
Cibber was born in Southampton Street , in Bloomsbury , London . He was the eldest child of Caius Gabriel Cibber , a distinguished sculptor originally from Denmark . His mother , Jane née Colley , came from a family of gentry from Glaston , Rutland . He was educated at the King 's School , Grantham , from 1682 until the age of 16 , but failed to win a place at Winchester College , which had been founded by his maternal ancestor William of Wykeham . In 1688 , he joined the service of his father 's patron , Lord Devonshire , who was one of the prime supporters of the Glorious Revolution . After the revolution , and at a loose end in London , he was attracted to the stage and in 1690 began work as an actor in Thomas Betterton 's United Company at the Drury Lane Theatre . " Poor , at odds with his parents , and entering the theatrical world at a time when players were losing their power to businessmen @-@ managers " , on 6 May 1693 Cibber married Katherine Shore , the daughter of Matthias Shore , sergeant @-@ trumpeter to the King , despite his poor prospects and insecure , socially inferior job .
Cibber and Katherine had 12 children between 1694 and 1713 . Six died in infancy , and most of the surviving children received short shrift in his will . Catherine , the eldest surviving daughter , married Colonel James Brown and seems to have been the dutiful one who looked after Cibber in old age following his wife 's death in 1734 . She was duly rewarded at his death with most of his estate . His middle daughters , Anne and Elizabeth , went into business . Anne had a shop that sold fine wares and foods , and married John Boultby . Elizabeth had a restaurant near Gray 's Inn , and married firstly Dawson Brett , and secondly ( after Brett 's death ) Joseph Marples . His only son to reach adulthood , Theophilus , became an actor at Drury Lane , and was an embarrassment to his father because of his scandalous private life . His other son to survive infancy , James , died in or after 1717 before reaching adulthood . Colley 's youngest daughter Charlotte followed in her father 's theatrical footsteps , but she fell out with him and her sister Catherine , and she was cut off by the family .
After an inauspicious start as an actor , Cibber eventually became a popular comedian , wrote and adapted many plays , and rose to become one of the newly empowered businessmen @-@ managers . He took over the management of Drury Lane in 1710 and took a highly commercial , if not artistically successful , line in the job . In 1730 , he was made Poet Laureate , an appointment which attracted widespread scorn , particularly from Alexander Pope and other Tory satirists . Off @-@ stage , he was a keen gambler , and was one of the investors in the South Sea Company .
In the last two decades of his life , Cibber remained prominent in society , and summered in Georgian spas such as Tunbridge , Scarborough and Bath . He was friendly with the writer Samuel Richardson , the actress Margaret Woffington and the memoirist – poet Laetitia Pilkington . Aged 73 in 1745 , he made his last appearance on the stage as Pandulph in his own " deservedly unsuccessful " Papal Tyranny in the Reign of King John . In 1750 , he fell seriously ill and recommended his friend and protégé Henry Jones as the next Poet Laureate . Cibber recovered and Jones passed into obscurity . Cibber died suddenly at his house in Berkeley Square , London , in December 1757 , leaving small pecuniary legacies to four of his five surviving children , £ 1 @,@ 000 each ( the equivalent of approximately £ 180 @,@ 000 in 2011 ) to his granddaughters Jane and Elizabeth ( the daughters of Theophilus ) , and the residue of his estate to his eldest daughter Catherine . He was buried on 18 December , probably at the Grosvenor Chapel on South Audley Street .
= = Autobiography = =
Cibber 's colourful autobiography , An Apology for the Life of Colley Cibber ( 1740 ) , was chatty , meandering , anecdotal , vain and occasionally inaccurate . At the time of writing the word " apology " meant an apologia , a statement in defence of one 's actions rather than a statement of regret for having transgressed .
The text virtually ignores his wife and family , but Cibber wrote in detail about his time in the theatre , especially his early years as a young actor at Drury Lane in the 1690s , giving a vivid account of the cut @-@ throat theatre company rivalries and chicanery of the time , as well as providing pen portraits of the actors he knew . The Apology is vain and self @-@ serving , as both his contemporaries and later commentators have pointed out , but it also serves as Cibber 's rebuttal to his harshest critics , especially Pope . For the early part of Cibber 's career , it is unreliable in respect of chronology and other hard facts , understandably , since it was written 50 years after the events , apparently without the help of a journal or notes . Nevertheless , it is an invaluable source for all aspects of the early 18th @-@ century theatre in London , for which documentation is otherwise scanty . Because he worked with many actors from the early days of Restoration theatre , such as Thomas Betterton and Elizabeth Barry at the end of their careers , and lived to see David Garrick perform , he is a bridge between the earlier mannered and later more naturalistic styles of performance .
The Apology was a popular work and gave Cibber a good return . Its self @-@ complacency , however , infuriated some of his contemporaries , notably Pope , but even the usually critical Samuel Johnson had to admit that it was " very entertaining and very well done " . It went through four editions in his lifetime , and more after his death , and generations of readers have found it an amusing and engaging read , projecting an author always " happy in his own good opinion , the best of all others ; teeming with animal spirits , and uniting the self @-@ sufficiency of youth with the garrulity of age . "
= = Actor = =
Cibber began his career as an actor at Drury Lane in 1690 , and had little success for several years . " The first Thing that enters into the Head of a young Actor " , he wrote in his autobiography half a century later , " is that of being a Hero : In this Ambition I was soon snubb 'd by the Insufficiency of my Voice ; to which might be added an uninform 'd meagre Person ... with a dismal pale Complexion . Under these Disadvantages , I had but a melancholy Prospect of ever playing a Lover with Mrs. Bracegirdle , which I had flatter 'd my Hopes that my Youth might one Day have recommended me to . " At this time the London stage was in something of a slump after the glories of the early Restoration period . The King 's and Duke 's companies had merged into a monopoly , leaving actors in a weak negotiating position and much at the mercy of the dictatorial manager Christopher Rich . When the senior actors rebelled and established a cooperative company of their own in 1695 , Cibber — " wisely " , as the Biographical Dictionary of Actors puts it — stayed with the remnants of the old company , " where the competition was less keen " . After five years , he had still not seen significant success in his chosen profession , and there had been no heroic parts and no love scenes . However , the return of two @-@ company rivalry created a sudden demand for new plays , and Cibber seized this opportunity to launch his career by writing a comedy with a big , flamboyant part for himself to play . He scored a double triumph : his comedy Love 's Last Shift , or The Fool in Fashion ( 1696 ) was a great success , and his own uninhibited performance as the Frenchified fop Sir Novelty Fashion ( " a coxcomb that loves to be the first in all foppery " ) delighted the audiences . His name was made , both as playwright and as comedian .
Later in life , when Cibber himself had the last word in casting at Drury Lane , he wrote , or patched together , several tragedies that were tailored to fit his continuing hankering after playing " a Hero " . However , his performances of such parts never pleased audiences , which wanted to see him typecast as an affected fop , a kind of character that fitted both his private reputation as a vain man , his exaggerated , mannered style of acting , and his habit of ad libbing . His most famous part for the rest of his career remained that of Lord Foppington in The Relapse , a sequel to Cibber 's own Love 's Last Shift but written by John Vanbrugh , first performed in 1696 with Cibber reprising his performance as Sir Novelty Fashion in the newly ennobled guise of Lord Foppington . Pope mentions the audience jubilation that greeted the small @-@ framed Cibber donning Lord Foppington 's enormous wig , which would be ceremoniously carried on stage in its own sedan chair . Vanbrugh reputedly wrote the part of Lord Foppington deliberately " to suit the eccentricities of Cibber 's acting style " .
His tragic efforts , however , were consistently ridiculed by contemporaries : when Cibber in the role of Richard III made love to Lady Anne , the Grub Street Journal wrote , " he looks like a pickpocket , with his shrugs and grimaces , that has more a design on her purse than her heart " . Cibber was on the stage in every year but two ( 1727 and 1731 ) between his debut in 1690 and his retirement in 1732 , playing more than 100 parts in all in nearly 3 @,@ 000 documented performances . After he had sold his interest in Drury Lane in 1733 and was a wealthy man in his sixties , he returned to the stage occasionally to play the classic fop parts of Restoration comedy for which audiences appreciated him . His Lord Foppington in Vanbrugh 's The Relapse , Sir Courtly Nice in John Crowne 's Sir Courtly Nice , and Sir Fopling Flutter in George Etherege 's Man of Mode were legendary . Critic John Hill in his 1775 work The actor , or , A treatise on the art of playing , described Cibber as " the best Lord Foppington who ever appeared , was in real life ( with all due respect be it spoken by one who loves him ) something of the coxcomb " . These were the kind of comic parts where Cibber 's affectation and mannerism were desirable . In 1738 – 39 , he played Shallow in Shakespeare 's Henry IV , Part 2 to critical acclaim , but his Richard III ( in his own version of the play ) was not well received . In the middle of the play , he whispered to fellow actor Benjamin Victor that he wanted to go home , perhaps realising he was too old for the part and its physical demands . Cibber also essayed tragic parts in plays by Shakespeare , Ben Jonson , John Dryden and others , but with less success . By the end of his acting career , audiences were being entranced by the innovatively naturalistic acting of the rising star David Garrick , who made his London debut in the title part in a production of Cibber 's adaptation of Richard III in 1741 . He returned to the stage for a final time in 1745 as Cardinal Pandulph in his play Papal Tyranny in the Reign of King John .
= = Playwright = =
= = = Love 's Last Shift = = =
Cibber 's comedy Love 's Last Shift ( 1696 ) is an early herald of a massive shift in audience taste , away from the intellectualism and sexual frankness of Restoration comedy and towards the conservative certainties and gender @-@ role backlash of exemplary or sentimental comedy . According to Paul Parnell , Love 's Last Shift illustrates Cibber 's opportunism at a moment in time before the change was assured : fearless of self @-@ contradiction , he puts something for everybody into his first play , combining the old outspokenness with the new preachiness .
The central action of Love 's Last Shift is a celebration of the power of a good woman , Amanda , to reform a rakish husband , Loveless , by means of sweet patience and a daring bed @-@ trick . She masquerades as a prostitute and seduces Loveless without being recognised , and then confronts him with logical argument . Since he enjoyed the night with her while taking her for a stranger , a wife can be as good in bed as an illicit mistress . Loveless is convinced and stricken , and a rich choreography of mutual kneelings , risings and prostrations follows , generated by Loveless ' penitence and Amanda 's " submissive eloquence " . The première audience is said to have wept at this climactic scene . The play was a great box @-@ office success and was for a time the talk of the town , in both a positive and a negative sense . Some contemporaries regarded it as moving and amusing , others as a sentimental tear @-@ jerker , incongruously interspersed with sexually explicit Restoration comedy jokes and semi @-@ nude bedroom scenes .
Love 's Last Shift is today read mainly to gain a perspective on Vanbrugh 's sequel The Relapse , which has by contrast remained a stage favourite . Modern scholars often endorse the criticism that was levelled at Love 's Last Shift from the first , namely that it is a blatantly commercial combination of sex scenes and drawn @-@ out sentimental reconciliations . Cibber 's follow @-@ up comedy Woman 's Wit ( 1697 ) was produced under hasty and unpropitious circumstances and had no discernible theme ; Cibber , not usually shy about any of his plays , even elided its name in the Apology . It was followed by the equally unsuccessful tragedy Xerxes ( 1699 ) . Cibber reused parts of Woman 's Wit for The School Boy ( 1702 ) .
= = = Richard III = = =
Perhaps partly because of the failure of his previous two plays , Cibber 's next effort was an adaptation of Shakespeare 's Richard III . Neither Cibber 's adaptations nor his own original plays have stood the test of time , and hardly any of them have been staged or reprinted after the early 18th century , but his popular adaptation of Richard III remained the standard stage version for 150 years . The American actor George Berrell wrote in the 1870s that Richard III was :
a hodge @-@ podge concocted by Colley Cibber , who cut and transposed the original version , and added to it speeches from four or five other of Shakespeare 's plays , and several really fine speeches of his own . The speech to Buckingham : " I tell thee , coz , I 've lately had two spiders crawling o 'er my startled hopes " — the well @-@ known line " Off with his head ! So much for Buckingham ! " the speech ending with " Conscience , avaunt ! Richard 's himself again ! " — and other lines of power and effect were written by Cibber , who , with all due respect to the ' divine bard , ' improved upon the original , for acting purposes .
Richard III was followed by another adaptation , the comedy , Love Makes a Man , which was constructed by splicing together two plays by John Fletcher : The Elder Brother and The Custom of the Country . Cibber 's confidence was apparently restored by the success of the two plays , and he returned to more original writing .
= = = The Careless Husband = = =
The comedy The Careless Husband ( 1704 ) , generally considered to be Cibber 's best play , is another example of the retrieval of a straying husband by means of outstanding wifely tact , this time in a more domestic and genteel register . The easy @-@ going Sir Charles Easy is chronically unfaithful to his wife , seducing both ladies of quality and his own female servants with insouciant charm . The turning point of the action , known as " the Steinkirk scene " , comes when his wife finds him and a maidservant asleep together in a chair , " as close an approximation to actual adultery as could be presented on the 18th @-@ century stage " . His periwig has fallen off , an obvious suggestion of intimacy and abandon , and an opening for Lady Easy 's tact . Soliloquizing to herself about how sad it would be if he caught cold , she " takes a Steinkirk off her Neck , and lays it gently on his Head " ( V.i.21 ) . ( A " steinkirk " was a loosely tied lace collar or scarf , named after the way the officers wore their cravats at the Battle of Steenkirk in 1692 . ) She steals away , Sir Charles wakes , notices the steinkirk on his head , marvels that his wife did not wake him and make a scene , and realises how wonderful she is . The Easys go on to have a reconciliation scene which is much more low @-@ keyed and tasteful than that in Love 's Last Shift , without kneelings and risings , and with Lady Easy shrinking with feminine delicacy from the coarse subjects that Amanda had broached without blinking . Paul Parnell has analysed the manipulative nature of Lady Easy 's lines in this exchange , showing how they are directed towards the sentimentalist 's goal of " ecstatic self @-@ approval " .
The Careless Husband was a great success on the stage and remained a repertory play throughout the 18th century . Although it has now joined Love 's Last Shift as a forgotten curiosity , it kept a respectable critical reputation into the 20th century , coming in for serious discussion both as an interesting example of doublethink , and as somewhat morally or emotionally insightful . In 1929 , the well @-@ known critic F. W. Bateson described the play 's psychology as " mature " , " plausible " , " subtle " , " natural " , and " affecting " .
= = = Other plays = = =
The Lady 's Last Stake ( 1707 ) is a rather bad @-@ tempered reply to critics of Lady Easy 's wifely patience in The Careless Husband . It was coldly received , and its main interest lies in the glimpse the prologue gives of angry reactions to The Careless Husband , of which we would otherwise have known nothing ( since all contemporary published reviews of The Careless Husband approve and endorse its message ) . Some , says Cibber sarcastically in the prologue , seem to think Lady Easy ought rather to have strangled her husband with her steinkirk :
Yet some there are , who still arraign the Play ,
At her tame Temper shock 'd , as who should say —
The Price , for a dull Husband , was too much to pay ,
Had he been strangled sleeping , Who shou 'd hurt ye ?
When so provok 'd — Revenge had been a Virtue .
Many of Cibber 's plays , listed below , were hastily cobbled together from borrowings . Alexander Pope said Cibber 's drastic adaptations and patchwork plays were stolen from " crucified Molière " and " hapless Shakespeare " . The Double Gallant ( 1707 ) was constructed from Burnaby 's The Reformed Wife and The Lady 's Visiting Day , and Centlivre 's Love at a Venture . In the words of Leonard R. N. Ashley , Cibber took " what he could use from these old failures " to cook up " a palatable hash out of unpromising leftovers " . The Comical Lovers ( 1707 ) was based on Dryden 's Marriage à la Mode . The Rival Fools ( 1709 ) was based on Fletcher 's Wit at Several Weapons . He rewrote Corneille 's Le Cid with a happy ending as Ximena in 1712 . The Provoked Husband ( 1728 ) was an unfinished fragment by John Vanbrugh that Cibber reworked and completed to great commercial success .
The Nonjuror ( 1717 ) was adapted from Molière 's Tartuffe , and features a Papist spy as a villain . Written just two years after the Jacobite Rising of 1715 , it was an obvious propaganda piece directed against Roman Catholics . The Refusal ( 1721 ) was based on Molière 's Les Femmes Savantes . Cibber 's last play , Papal Tyranny in the Reign of King John was " a miserable mutilation of Shakespeare 's King John " . Heavily politicised , it caused such a storm of ridicule during its 1736 rehearsal that Cibber withdrew it . During the Jacobite Rising of 1745 , when the nation was again in fear of a Popish pretender , it was finally acted , and this time accepted for patriotic reasons .
= = Manager = =
Cibber 's career as both actor and theatre manager is important in the history of the British stage because he was one of the first in a long and illustrious line of actor @-@ managers that would include such luminaries as Garrick , Henry Irving , and Herbert Beerbohm Tree . Rising from actor at Drury Lane to advisor to the manager Christopher Rich , Cibber worked himself by degrees into a position to take over the company , first taking many of its players — including Thomas Doggett , Robert Wilks , and Anne Oldfield — to form a new company at the Queen 's Theatre in the Haymarket . The three actors squeezed out the previous owners in a series of lengthy and complex manoeuvres , but after Rich 's letters patent were revoked , Cibber , Doggett and Wilks were able to buy the company outright and return to the Theatre Royal by 1711 . After a few stormy years of power @-@ struggle between the prudent Doggett and the extravagant Wilks , Doggett was replaced by the upcoming actor Barton Booth and Cibber became in practice sole manager of Drury Lane . He set a pattern for the line of more charismatic and successful actors that were to succeed him in this combination of roles . His near @-@ contemporary Garrick , as well as the 19th @-@ century actor @-@ managers Irving and Tree , would later structure their careers , writing , and manager identity around their own striking stage personalities . Cibber 's forte as actor @-@ manager was , by contrast , the manager side . He was a clever , innovative , and unscrupulous businessman who retained all his life a love of appearing on the stage . His triumph was that he rose to a position where , in consequence of his sole power over production and casting at Drury Lane , London audiences had to put up with him as an actor . Cibber 's one significant mistake as a theatre manager was to pass over John Gay 's The Beggar 's Opera , which became an outstanding success for John Rich 's theatre at Lincoln 's Inn Fields . When Cibber attempted to mimic Gay 's success with his own ballad @-@ opera — Love in a Riddle ( 1729 ) — it was shouted down by the audience and Cibber cancelled its run . He rescued its comic subplot as Damon and Phillida .
Cibber had learned from the bad example of Christopher Rich to be a careful and approachable employer for his actors , and was not unpopular with them ; however , he made enemies in the literary world because of the power he wielded over authors . Plays he considered non @-@ commercial were rejected or ruthlessly reworked . Many were outraged by his sharp business methods , which may be exemplified by the characteristic way he abdicated as manager in the mid @-@ 1730s . In 1732 , Booth sold his share to John Highmore , and Wilks ' share fell into the hands of John Ellys after Wilks ' death . Cibber leased his share in the company to his scapegrace son Theophilus for 442 pounds , but when Theophilus fell out with the other managers , they approached Cibber senior and offered to buy out his share . Without consulting Theophilus , Cibber sold his share for more than 3 @,@ 000 pounds to the other managers , who promptly gave Theophilus his notice . According to one story , Cibber encouraged his son to lead the actors in a walkout and set up for themselves in the Haymarket , rendering worthless the commodity he had sold . On behalf of his son , Cibber applied for a letters patent to perform at the Haymarket , but it was refused by the Lord Chamberlain , who was " disgusted at Cibber 's conduct " . The Drury Lane managers attempted to shut down the rival Haymarket players by conspiring in the arrest of the lead actor , John Harper , on a charge of vagrancy , but the charge did not hold , and the attempt pushed public opinion to Theophilus ' side . The Drury Lane managers were defeated , and Theophilus regained control of the company on his own terms .
= = Poet = =
Cibber 's appointment as Poet Laureate in December 1730 was widely assumed to be a political rather than artistic honour , and a reward for his untiring support of the Whigs , the party of Prime Minister Robert Walpole . Most of the leading writers , such as Jonathan Swift , Alexander Pope , and Henry Fielding , were excluded from contention for the laureateship because they were Tories . Cibber 's verses had few admirers even in his own time , and Cibber acknowledged cheerfully that he did not think much of them . His 30 birthday odes for the royal family and other duty pieces incumbent on him as Poet Laureate came in for particular scorn , and these offerings would regularly be followed by a flurry of anonymous parodies , some of which Cibber claimed in his Apology to have written himself . In the 20th century , D. B. Wyndham @-@ Lewis and Charles Lee considered some of Cibber 's laureate poems funny enough to be included in their classic " anthology of bad verse " , The Stuffed Owl ( 1930 ) . However , Cibber was at least as distinguished as his immediate four predecessors , three of whom were also playwrights rather than poets .
= = Dunce = =
= = = Pamphlet wars = = =
From the beginning of the 18th century , when Cibber first rose to be Rich 's right @-@ hand man at Drury Lane , his perceived opportunism and brash , thick @-@ skinned personality gave rise to many barbs in print , especially against his patchwork plays . The early attacks were mostly anonymous , but Daniel Defoe and Tom Brown are suggested as potential authors . Later , Jonathan Swift , John Dennis and Henry Fielding all lambasted Cibber in print . The most famous conflict Cibber had was with Alexander Pope .
Pope 's animosity began in 1717 when he helped John Arbuthnot and John Gay write a farce , Three Hours After Marriage , in which one of the characters , " Plotwell " was modelled on Cibber . Notwithstanding , Cibber put the play on at Drury Lane with himself playing the part of Plotwell , but the play was not well received . During the staging of a different play , Cibber introduced jokes at the expense of Three Hours After Marriage , while Pope was in the audience . Pope was infuriated , as was Gay who got into a physical fight with Cibber on a subsequent visit to the theatre . Pope published a pamphlet satirising Cibber , and continued his literary assault for the next 25 years .
In the first version of his landmark literary satire Dunciad ( 1728 ) , Pope referred contemptuously to Cibber 's " past , vamp 'd , future , old , reviv 'd , new " plays , produced with " less human genius than God gives an ape " . Cibber 's elevation to laureateship in 1730 further inflamed Pope against him . Cibber was selected for political reasons , as he was a supporter of the Whig government of Robert Walpole , while Pope was a Tory . The selection of Cibber for this honour was widely seen as especially cynical coming at a time when Pope , Gay , Thomson , Ambrose Philips , and Edward Young were all in their prime . As one epigram of the time put it :
In merry old England it once was a rule ,
The King had his Poet , and also his Fool :
But now we 're so frugal , I 'd have you to know it ,
That Cibber can serve both for Fool and for Poet . "
Pope , mortified by the elevation of Cibber to laureateship and incredulous at what he held to be the vainglory of his Apology ( 1740 ) , attacked Cibber extensively in his poetry .
Cibber replied mostly with good humour to Pope 's aspersions ( " some of which are in conspicuously bad taste " , as Lowe points out ) , until 1742 when he responded in kind in " A Letter from Mr. Cibber , to Mr. Pope , inquiring into the motives that might induce him in his Satyrical Works , to be so frequently fond of Mr. Cibber 's name " . In this pamphlet , Cibber 's most effective ammunition came from a reference in Pope 's Epistle to Arbuthnot ( 1735 ) to Cibber 's " whore " , which gave Cibber a pretext for retorting in kind with a scandalous anecdote about Pope in a brothel . " I must own " , wrote Cibber , " that I believe I know more of your whoring than you do of mine ; because I don 't recollect that ever I made you the least Confidence of my Amours , though I have been very near an Eye @-@ Witness of Yours . " Since Pope was around four and a half feet tall and hunchbacked due to a tubercular infection of the spine he contracted when young , Cibber regarded the prospect of Pope with a woman as something humorous , and he speaks mockingly of the " little @-@ tiny manhood " of Pope . For once the laughers were on Cibber 's side , and the story " raised a universal shout of merriment at Pope 's expense " . Pope made no direct reply , but took one of the most famous revenges in literary history . In the revised Dunciad that appeared in 1743 , he changed his hero , the King of Dunces , from Lewis Theobald to Colley Cibber .
= = = King of Dunces = = =
The derogatory allusions to Cibber in consecutive versions of Pope 's mock @-@ heroic Dunciad , from 1728 to 1743 , became more elaborate as the conflict between the two men escalated , until , in the final version of the poem , Pope crowned Cibber King of Dunces . From being merely one symptom of the artistic decay of Britain , he was transformed into the demigod of stupidity , the true son of the goddess Dulness . Apart from the personal quarrel , Pope had reasons of literary appropriateness for letting Cibber take the place of his first choice of King , Lewis Theobald . Theobald , who had embarrassed Pope by contrasting Pope 's impressionistic Shakespeare edition ( 1725 ) with Theobald 's own scholarly edition ( 1726 ) , also wrote Whig propaganda for hire , as well as dramatic productions which were to Pope abominations for their mixing of tragedy and comedy and for their " low " pantomime and opera . However , Cibber was an even better King in these respects , more high @-@ profile both as a political opportunist and as the powerful manager of Drury Lane , and with the crowning circumstance that his political allegiances and theatrical successes had gained him the laureateship . To Pope this made him an epitome of all that was wrong with British letters . Pope explains in the " Hyper @-@ critics of Ricardus Aristarchus " prefatory to the 1743 Dunciad that Cibber is the perfect hero for a mock @-@ heroic parody , since his Apology exhibits every trait necessary for the inversion of an epic hero . An epic hero must have wisdom , courage , and chivalric love , says Pope , and the perfect hero for an anti @-@ epic therefore should have vanity , impudence , and debauchery . As wisdom , courage , and love combine to create magnanimity in a hero , so vanity , impudence , and debauchery combine to make buffoonery for the satiric hero . His revisions , however , were considered too hasty by later critics who pointed out inconsistent passages that damaged his own poem for the sake of personal vindictiveness .
Writing about the degradation of taste brought on by theatrical effects , Pope quotes Cibber 's own confessio in the Apology :
Of that Succession of monstrous Medlies that have so long infested the Stage , and which arose upon one another alternately , at both Houses [ London 's two playhouses , Cibber 's Drury Lane and John Rich 's domain Lincoln 's Inn 's Fields ] ... If I am ask 'd ( after my condemning these Fooleries myself ) how I came to assent or continue my Share of Expence to them ? I have no better Excuse for my Error than confessing it . I did it against my Conscience ! and had not Virtue enough to starve .
Pope 's notes call Cibber a hypocrite , and in general the attacks on Cibber are conducted in the notes added to the Dunciad , and not in the body of the poem . As hero of the Dunciad , Cibber merely watches the events of Book II , dreams Book III , and sleeps through Book IV .
Once Pope struck , Cibber became an easy target for other satirists . He was attacked as the epitome of morally and aesthetically bad writing , largely for the sins of his autobiography . In the Apology , Cibber speaks daringly in the first person and in his own praise . Although the major figures of the day were jealous of their fame , self @-@ promotion of such an overt sort was shocking , and Cibber offended Christian humility as well as gentlemanly modesty . Additionally , Cibber consistently fails to see fault in his own character , praises his vices , and makes no apology for his misdeeds ; so it was not merely the fact of the autobiography , but the manner of it that shocked contemporaries . His diffuse and chatty writing style , conventional in poetry and sometimes incoherent in prose , was bound to look even worse in contrast to stylists like Pope . Henry Fielding satirically tried Cibber for murder of the English language in the 17 May 1740 issue of The Champion . The Tory wits were altogether so successful in their satire of Cibber that the historical image of the man himself was almost obliterated , and it was as the King of Dunces that he came down to posterity .
= = Plays = =
The plays below were produced at the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane , unless otherwise stated . The dates given are of first known performance .
Love 's Last Shift ( Comedy , January 1696 )
Woman 's Wit ( Comedy , 1697 )
Xerxes ( Tragedy , Lincoln 's Inn Fields , 1699 )
The Tragical History of King Richard III ( Tragedy , 1699 )
Love Makes a Man ( Comedy , December 1700 )
The School Boy ( Comedy , advertised for 24 October 1702 )
She Would and She Would Not ( Comedy , 26 November 1702 )
The Careless Husband ( Comedy , 7 December 1704 )
Perolla and Izadora ( Tragedy , 3 December 1705 )
The Comical Lovers ( Comedy , Haymarket , 4 February 1707 )
The Double Gallant ( Comedy , Haymarket , 1 November 1707 )
The Lady 's Last Stake ( Comedy , Haymarket , 13 December 1707 )
The Rival Fools ( Comedy , 11 January 1709 )
The Rival Queans ( Comical @-@ Tragedy , Haymarket , 29 June 1710 ) , a parody of Nathaniel Lee 's The Rival Queens .
Ximena ( Tragedy , 28 November 1712 )
Venus and Adonis ( Masque , 12 March 1715 )
Myrtillo ( Pastoral , 5 November 1715 )
The Non @-@ Juror ( Comedy , 6 December 1717 )
The Refusal ( Comedy , 14 February 1721 )
Cæsar in Egypt ( Tragedy , 9 December 1724 )
The Provoked Husband ( with Vanbrugh , comedy , 10 January 1728 )
Love in a Riddle ( Pastoral , 7 January 1729 )
Damon and Phillida ( Pastoral Farce , Haymarket , 16 August 1729 )
Papal Tyranny in the Reign of King John ( Tragedy , Covent Garden , 15 February 1745 )
Bulls and Bears , a farce performed at Drury Lane on 2 December 1715 , was attributed to Cibber but was never published . The Dramatic Works of Colley Cibber , Esq . ( London , 1777 ) includes a play called Flora , or Hob in the Well , but it is not by Cibber . Hob , or the Country Wake . A Farce . By Mr. Doggett was attributed to Cibber by William Chetwood in his General History of the Stage ( 1749 ) , but John Genest in Some Account of the English Stage ( 1832 ) thought it was by Thomas Doggett . Other plays attributed to Cibber but probably not by him include Cinna 's Conspiracy , performed at Drury Lane on 19 February 1713 , and The Temple of Dullness of 1745 .
= New York State Route 345 =
New York State Route 345 ( NY 345 ) is a state highway located entirely within St. Lawrence County in the North Country of New York in the United States . It is a north – south route connecting the towns of Waddington and Potsdam by way of the town of Madrid . The southern terminus of NY 345 is at an intersection with U.S. Route 11 ( US 11 ) in the village of Potsdam . Its northern terminus is at a junction with NY 37 in the village of Waddington by the St. Lawrence River .
NY 345 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York ; however , it originally followed a different alignment south of the hamlet of Madrid . At the time , what is now NY 345 between Madrid and Potsdam was part of NY 56A . The NY 56A designation was eliminated in 1980 . NY 345 was realigned two years later to follow old NY 56A to Potsdam as a result of a highway maintenance swap between the state of New York and St. Lawrence County . Ownership and maintenance of NY 345 's original routing south of Madrid was transferred from the state to the county and the village of Canton as part of the exchange .
= = Route description = =
NY 345 begins at an intersection with US 11 in the village of Potsdam , just north of Clarkson University . The route heads northwestward on Pine Street and Madrid Avenue as a village @-@ maintained , state @-@ numbered highway , crossing the CSX Transportation @-@ owned St. Lawrence Subdivision by way of a grade crossing as it heads through a commercial and residential area . It exits the village shortly afterward , at which point the route becomes maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation . It heads northwestward on a linear path through the town of Potsdam , passing through mostly undeveloped areas comprising open fields and forests . NY 345 curves slightly northward at Burnham Corners before crossing Trout Brook and entering the town of Madrid , where it traverses the New York and Ogdensburg Railway by way of a grade crossing just outside the hamlet of Madrid .
The highway continues into the community , where the route becomes Bridge Street and intersects NY 310 on the eastern bank of the Grasse River . It continues across the river to Main Street , at which point NY 345 turns to the northeast and follows Main Street out of the hamlet . North of Madrid , NY 345 curves back to the northwest as it enters another rural area . It passes by the isolated Madrid – Waddington Central School just before crossing into the town of Waddington . The rural surroundings continue to the village of Waddington , where the amount of development along the route increases after the highway crosses Sucker Brook south of the village center . NY 345 ends shortly afterward at an intersection with NY 37 in the village center near the southern bank of the St. Lawrence River .
= = History = =
When NY 345 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , it began at US 11 in Canton . From there , NY 345 followed modern County Route 27 ( CR 27 ) and CR 14 north to Madrid , where it joined its modern alignment north to Waddington . At the same time , the current alignment of NY 345 from modern NY 310 in Madrid to Potsdam was designated as the southern half of NY 56A . The short piece of Bridge Street not part of NY 56A in Madrid was a state @-@ maintained reference route .
On April 10 , 1980 , the NY 56A designation was deleted . The portion of former NY 56A from Madrid to Potsdam , as well as the state @-@ maintained Bridge Street connector , became part of a rerouted NY 345 on September 1 , 1982 , as a result of a highway maintenance swap between the state of New York and St. Lawrence County . As part of the swap , the pre @-@ 1982 routing of NY 345 between the Canton village line and Bridge Street in Madrid was turned over to the county while the portion of former NY 345 within Canton was transferred to the village .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in St. Lawrence County .
= Surtsey =
Surtsey ( " Surtr 's island " in Icelandic , pronounced ˈsʏr ̥ tsei ) is a volcanic island located in the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago off the southern coast of Iceland . At 63 @.@ 303 ° N 20 @.@ 605 ° W / 63 @.@ 303 ; -20.605 , Surtsey is the southernmost point of Iceland . It was formed in a volcanic eruption which began 130 metres ( 426 ft ) below sea level , and reached the surface on 14 November 1963 . The eruption lasted until 5 June 1967 , when the island reached its maximum size of 2 @.@ 7 km2 ( 1 @.@ 0 sq mi ) . Since then , wave erosion has caused the island to steadily diminish in size : as of 2012 , its surface area was 1 @.@ 3 km2 ( 0 @.@ 50 sq mi ) . The most recent survey ( 2007 ) shows the island 's maximum elevation at 155 m ( 509 ft ) above sea level .
The new island was named after Surtr , a fire jötunn or giant from Norse mythology . It was intensively studied by volcanologists during its eruption , and afterwards by botanists and other biologists as life forms gradually colonised the originally barren island . The undersea vents that produced Surtsey are part of the Vestmannaeyjar submarine volcanic system , part of the fissure of the sea floor called the Mid @-@ Atlantic Ridge . Vestmannaeyjar also produced the famous eruption of Eldfell on the island of Heimaey in 1973 . The eruption that created Surtsey also created a few other small islands along this volcanic chain , such as Jólnir and unnamed other peaks . Most of these eroded away fairly quickly .
= = Geology = =
= = = Formation = = =
The eruption was unexpected , and almost certainly began some days before it became apparent at the surface . The sea floor at the eruption site is 130 metres ( 426 ft ) below sea level , and at this depth volcanic emissions and explosions would be suppressed , quenched and dissipated by the water pressure and density . Gradually , as repeated flows built up a mound of material that approached sea level , the explosions could no longer be contained , and activity broke the surface .
The first noticeable indications of volcanic activity were recorded at the seismic station in Kirkjubæjarklaustur , Iceland from 6 to 8 November , which detected weak tremors emanating from an epicentre approximately west @-@ south @-@ west at a distance of 140 km ( 87 mi ) , the location of Surtsey . Another station in Reykjavík recorded even weaker tremors for ten hours on 12 November at an undetermined location , when seismic activity ceased until 21 November . That same day , people in the coastal town of Vík 80 km ( 50 mi ) away noticed a smell of hydrogen sulphide . On 13 November , a fishing vessel in search of herring , equipped with sensitive thermometers , noted sea temperatures 3 @.@ 2 km ( 2 @.@ 0 mi ) SW of the eruption center were 2 @.@ 4 ° C ( 4 @.@ 3 ° F ) higher than surrounding waters .
= = = = Eruption at the surface = = = =
At 07 : 15 UTC on 14 November 1963 , the cook of Ísleifur II , a trawler sailing these same waters spotted a rising column of dark smoke southwest of the boat . The captain thought it might have been a boat on fire , and ordered the vessel to investigate . Instead , they encountered explosive eruptions giving off black columns of ash , indicating that a volcanic eruption had begun to penetrate the surface of the sea . By 11 : 00 the same day , the eruption column had reached several kilometres in height . At first the eruptions took place at three separate vents along a northeast by southwest trending fissure , but by the afternoon the separate eruption columns had merged into one along the erupting fissure . Over the next week , explosions were continuous , and after just a few days the new island , formed mainly of scoria , measured over 500 metres ( 1640 ft ) in length and had reached a height of 45 metres ( 147 ft ) .
As the eruptions continued , they became concentrated at one vent along the fissure and began to build the island into a more circular shape . By 24 November , the island measured about 900 metres by 650 metres ( 2950 by 2130 ft ) . The violent explosions caused by the meeting of lava and sea water meant that the island consisted of a loose pile of volcanic rock ( scoria ) , which was eroded rapidly by North Atlantic storms during the winter . However , eruptions more than kept pace with wave erosion , and by February 1964 , the island had a maximum diameter of over 1300 metres ( 4265 ft ) .
The explosive phreatomagmatic eruptions caused by the easy access of water to the erupting vents threw rocks up to a kilometre ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) away from the island , and sent ash clouds as high as 10 km ( 6 mi ) up into the atmosphere . The loose pile of unconsolidated tephra would quickly have been washed away had the supply of fresh magma dwindled , and large clouds of dust were often seen blowing away from the island during this stage of the eruption .
The new island was named after the fire jötunn Surtur from Norse mythology ( Surts is the genitive case of Surtur , plus -ey , island ) . Three French journalists representing the magazine Paris Match notably landed there on 6 December 1963 , staying for about 15 minutes before violent explosions encouraged them to leave . The journalists jokingly claimed French sovereignty over the island , but Iceland quickly asserted that the new island belonged to it .
= = = = Permanent island = = = =
By early 1964 , though , the continuing eruptions had built the island to such a size that sea water could no longer easily reach the vents , and the volcanic activity became much less explosive . Instead , lava fountains and flows became the main form of activity . These resulted in a hard cap of extremely erosion @-@ resistant rock being laid down on top of much of the loose volcanic pile , which prevented the island from being washed away rapidly . Effusive eruptions continued until 1965 , by which time the island had a surface area of 2 @.@ 5 km2 ( 0 @.@ 97 sq mi ) .
On 28 December 1963 , submarine activity 2 @.@ 5 km ( 1 @.@ 5 mi ) to the northeast of Surtsey caused the formation of a ridge 100 m ( 328 ft ) high on the sea floor . This seamount was named Surtla , but never reached sea level . Eruptions at Surtla ended on 6 January 1964 , and it has since been eroded from its minimum depth of 23 m ( 75 ft ) to 47 m ( 154 ft ) below sea level .
= = = = Subsequent volcanic activity = = = =
In 1965 , the activity on the main island diminished , but at the end of May that year an eruption began at a vent 0 @.@ 6 km ( 0 @.@ 37 mi ) off the northern shore . By 28 May , an island had appeared , and was named Syrtlingur ( Little Surtsey ) . The new island was washed away during early June , but reappeared on 14 June . Eruptions at Syrtlingur were much smaller in scale than those that had built Surtsey , with the average rate of emission of volcanic materials being about a tenth of the rate at the main vent . Activity was short @-@ lived , continuing until the beginning of October 1965 , by which time the islet had an area of 0 @.@ 15 km2 ( 0 @.@ 058 sq mi ) . Once the eruptions had ceased , wave erosion rapidly wore the island away , and it disappeared beneath the waves on 24 October .
During December 1965 , more submarine activity occurred 0 @.@ 9 km ( 0 @.@ 56 mi ) southwest of Surtsey , and another island was formed . It was named Jólnir , and over the following eight months it appeared and disappeared several times , as wave erosion and volcanic activity alternated in dominance . Activity at Jólnir was much weaker than the activity at the main vent , and even weaker than that seen at Syrtlingur , but the island eventually grew to a maximum size of 70 m ( 230 ft ) in height , covering an area of 0 @.@ 3 km2 ( 0 @.@ 12 sq mi ) , during July and early August 1966 . Like Syrtlingur , though , after activity ceased on 8 August 1966 , it was rapidly eroded , and dropped below sea level during October 1966 .
Effusive eruptions on the main island returned on 19 August 1966 , with fresh lava flows giving it further resistance to erosion . The eruption rate diminished steadily , though , and on 5 June 1967 , the eruption ended . The volcano has been dormant ever since . The total volume of lava emitted during the three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year eruption was about one cubic kilometre ( 0 @.@ 24 cu mi ) , and the island 's highest point was 174 metres ( 570 ft ) above sea level at that time .
Since the end of the eruption , erosion has seen the island diminish in size . A large area on the southeast side has been eroded away completely , while a sand spit called Norðurtangi ( north point ) has grown on the north side of the island . It is estimated that about 0 @.@ 024 km3 ( 0 @.@ 0058 cu mi ) of material has been lost due to erosion — this represents about a quarter of the original above @-@ sea @-@ level volume of the island . Its maximum elevation has diminished to 155 m ( 509 ft ) .
= = = Recent development = = =
Following the end of the eruption , scientists established a grid of benchmarks against which they measured the change in the shape of the island . In the 20 years following the end of the eruption , measurements revealed that the island was steadily subsiding and had lost about one metre in height . The rate of subsidence was initially about 20 cm ( 8 in ) per year but slowed to 1 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) a year by the 1990s . It had several causes : settling of the loose tephra forming the bulk of the volcano , compaction of sea floor sediments underlying the island , and downward warping of the lithosphere due to the weight of the volcano .
The typical pattern of volcanism in the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago is for each eruption site to see just a single eruption , and so the island is unlikely to be enlarged in the future by further eruptions . The heavy seas around the island have been eroding it ever since the island appeared , and since the end of the eruption almost half its original area has been lost . The island currently loses about 1 @.@ 0 hectare ( 2 @.@ 5 acres ) of its surface area each year .
= = = Future = = =
This island is unlikely to disappear entirely in the near future . The eroded area consisted mostly of loose tephra , easily washed away . Most of the remaining area is capped by hard lava flows , which are much more resistant to erosion . In addition , complex chemical reactions within the loose tephra within the island have gradually formed highly erosion resistant tuff material , in a process known as palagonitization . On Surtsey this process has happened quite rapidly , due to high temperatures not far below the surface .
Estimates of how long Surtsey will survive are based on the rate of erosion seen up to the present day . Assuming that the current rate does not change , the island will be mostly at or below sea level by 2100 . However , the rate of erosion is likely to slow as the tougher core of the island is exposed : an assessment assuming that the rate of erosion will slow exponentially suggests that the island will survive for many centuries . An idea of what it will look like in the future is given by the other small islands in the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago , which formed in the same way as Surtsey several thousand years ago , and have eroded away substantially since they were formed .
= = Biology = =
= = = Settlement of life = = =
A classic site for the study of biocolonisation from founder populations that arrive from outside ( allochthonous ) , Surtsey was declared a nature reserve in 1965 , while the eruption was still in active progress . Today only a few scientists are permitted to land on Surtsey ; the only way anyone else can see it closely is from a small plane . This allows the natural ecological succession for the island to proceed without outside interference . In 2008 , UNESCO declared the island a World Heritage Site , in recognition of its great scientific value .
= = = = Plant life = = = =
In the spring of 1965 , the first vascular plant was found growing on the northern shore of Surtsey , mosses became visible in 1967 , and lichens were first found on the Surtsey lava in 1970 . Plant colonisation on Surtsey has been closely studied , the vascular plants in particular as they have been of far greater significance than mosses , lichens and fungi in the development of vegetation .
Mosses and lichens now cover much of the island . During the island 's first 20 years , 20 species of plants were observed at one time or another , but only 10 became established in the nutrient @-@ poor sandy soil . As birds began nesting on the island , soil conditions improved , and more vascular plant species were able to survive . In 1998 , the first bush was found on the island — a tea @-@ leaved willow ( Salix phylicifolia ) , which can grow to heights of up to 4 metres ( 13 ft ) . By 2008 , 69 species of plant had been found on Surtsey , of which about 30 had become established . This compares to the approximately 490 species found on mainland Iceland . More species continue to arrive , at a typical rate of roughly 2 – 5 new species per year .
= = = = Birds = = = =
The expansion of bird life on the island has both relied on and helped to advance the spread of plant life . Birds use the plants for nesting material , but also continue to assist in the spreading of seeds , and fertilize the soil with their guano . Birds first began nesting on Surtsey three years after the eruptions ended , with fulmar and guillemot the first species to set up home . Twelve species are now regularly found on the island .
A gull colony has been present since 1984 , although gulls were seen briefly on the shores of the new island only weeks after it first appeared . The gull colony has been particularly important in developing the plant life on Surtsey , and the gulls have had much more of an impact on plant colonisation than other breeding species due to their abundance . An expedition in 2004 found the first evidence of nesting Atlantic puffins , which are extremely common in the rest of the archipelago .
As well as providing a home for some species of birds , Surtsey has also been used as a stopping @-@ off point for migrating birds , particularly those en @-@ route between Europe and Iceland . Species that have been seen briefly on the island include whooper swans , various species of geese , and common ravens . Although Surtsey lies to the west of the main migration routes to Iceland , it has become a more common stopping point as its vegetation has improved . In 2008 , the 14th bird species was detected with the discovery of a common raven 's nest .
According to a 30 May 2009 report , a golden plover was nesting on the island with four eggs .
= = = = Marine life = = = =
Soon after the island 's formation , seals were seen around the island . They soon began basking there , particularly on the northern spit , which grew as the waves eroded the island . Seals were found to be breeding on the island in 1983 , and a group of up to 70 made the island their breeding spot . Grey seals are more common on the island than harbour seals , but both are now well established . The presence of seals attracts orcas , which are frequently seen in the waters around the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago and now frequent the waters around Surtsey .
On the submarine portion of the island , many marine species are found . Starfish are abundant , as are sea urchins and limpets . The rocks are covered in algae , and seaweed covers much of the submarine slopes of the volcano , with its densest cover between 10 and 20 metres ( 33 to 66 ft ) below sea level .
= = = = Other life = = = =
Insects arrived on Surtsey soon after its formation , and were first detected in 1964 . The original arrivals were flying insects , carried to the island by winds and their own power . Some were believed to have been blown across from as far away as mainland Europe . Later insect life arrived on floating driftwood , and both live animals and carcasses washed up on the island . When a large , grass @-@ covered tussock was washed ashore in 1974 , scientists took half of it for analysis and discovered 663 land invertebrates , mostly mites and springtails , the great majority of which had survived the crossing .
The establishment of insect life provided some food for birds , and birds in turn helped many species to become established on the island . The bodies of dead birds provide sustenance for carnivorous insects , while the fertilisation of the soil and resulting promotion of plant life provides a viable habitat for herbivorous insects .
Some higher forms of land life are now colonising the soil of Surtsey . The first earthworm was found in a soil sample in 1993 , probably carried over from Heimaey by a bird . However , the next year earthworms were not found . Slugs were found in 1998 , and appeared to be similar to varieties found in the southern Icelandic mainland . Spiders and beetles have also become established .
= = Human impact = =
The only other significant human impact is a small prefabricated hut which is used by researchers while staying on the island . The hut includes a few bunk beds and a solar power source to drive an emergency radio and other key electronics . All visitors check themselves and belongings to ensure no seeds are accidentally introduced by humans to this ecosystem . It is believed that some young boys tried to introduce potatoes , which were promptly dug up once discovered . An improperly handled human defecation resulted in a tomato plant taking root which was also destroyed . In 2009 a weather station for weather observations and a webcam were installed on Surtsey .
= Mr. Monk and the Candidate =
" Mr. Monk and the Candidate " is the two @-@ part pilot episode of the American comedy @-@ drama detective television series Monk . It introduces the character of Adrian Monk ( Tony Shalhoub ) , a private detective with obsessive – compulsive disorder and multiple phobias , and his assistant Sharona Fleming ( Bitty Schram ) , as well as police officers Leland Stottlemeyer ( Ted Levine ) and Randy Disher ( Jason Gray @-@ Stanford ) . In this episode , Monk investigates an assassination attempt on a mayoral candidate .
First envisioned in 1998 , Monk went through development hell due to difficulties to find an actor to the main role . After successfully casting Shalhoub , the series ' first episode was shot in Vancouver , British Columbia in 2001 . " Mr. Monk and the Candidate " was written by Andy Breckman and directed by Dean Parisot . When the episode first aired in the United States on the USA Network on July 12 , 2002 , it was watched by 4 @.@ 8 million viewers . The episode was generally well received by critics , with most of the praise regarding Shalhoub 's performance as the title character .
= = Plot = =
In the past , Adrian Monk ( Tony Shalhoub ) was a San Francisco Police Department 's investigator , but the death of his wife , Trudy , led him to develop depression , obsessive – compulsive disorder and multiple phobias . Now , as a private detective , Monk investigates the murder of Nicole Vasquez ( Michelle Addison ) . Later , a shooting occurs during a campaign rally , resulting in the bodyguard of mayoral candidate Warren St. Claire ( Michael Hogan ) getting killed . The incumbent mayor orders Captain Stottlemeyer ( Ted Levine ) to bring Monk in on the case , and , as Monk 's former supervisor , reluctantly , he does .
Monk meets St. Claire , his wife Miranda ( Gail O 'Grady ) , and their advisor Gavin Lloyd ( Ben Bass ) , and walks to the site where assassination attempt occurred . He discovers Vasquez was a volunteer for the St. Claire 's campaign . When he goes to St. Claire campaign headquarters and questions a volunteer about Vasquez , that volunteer later dies under suspicious circumstances , enhancing Monk 's suspicion about a link between the Vasquez and St. Claire cases .
Monk 's assistant Sharona Fleming ( Bitty Schram ) suspects that St. Claire 's wife Miranda was the person who ordered her husband 's assassination . Sharona 's theory is supported by the fact that St. Claire is worth $ 150 million , but Monk thinks about other hypotheses , including one in which Miranda is having an affair with one of St. Claire 's assistants . Things become clearer in Monk 's mind when he watches a news report on the assassination attempt . Monk regroups everyone at the place of the campaign rally to recreate what happened that day .
He explains that the assassin was not hired to kill Warren St. Claire , but to kill the bodyguard instead . When Vasquez had discovered that Lloyd was embezzling campaign funds , he approached the bodyguard about murdering Vasquez . As the bodyguard refused to carry out the murder , Lloyd had him killed . To prove his theory , Monk shows a photograph of Lloyd looking at the direction of the shooter just after the shots were fired . Monk proves that Lloyd 's sight line was obstructed , and that the gunshot 's echo would have masked the direction of the shot . As such , it was impossible that Lloyd could have known where the shots were coming from unless he already knew where the gunman would be .
= = Production = =
Monk was originally envisioned as an Inspector Clouseau type of show by an American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) executive . Learning about it , co @-@ creator David Hoberman came up with the idea of a detective with obsessive – compulsive disorder in 1998 . This was inspired by his own bout with self @-@ diagnosed obsessive – compulsive disorder . Initially , Michael Richards was considered , but ABC and Touchstone ( now ABC Studios ) worried that the audience would typecast him for more comedic roles after his previous work as Cosmo Kramer on the sitcom series Seinfeld . Hoberman revealed that the casting sessions were " depressing " . USA Network 's executive vice president Jeff Wachtel stated that looking for the right actor to portray Monk was " casting hell " . After two years of search , the producers still had not found an actor to play the part .
As distributors of the show , ABC and Touchstone , could not find a lead actor , it entered in development hell . This situation remained until Jackie Lyons , a former ABC 's executive who joined USA , recommended Monk to her boss , Wachtel . Trying to change USA 's reputation of " a muscles @-@ and @-@ mayhem " network , Wachtel and then USA president Doug Herzog , decided to charge on Monk , " a cerebral series " . Watchel wanted to cast Tony Shalhoub , " someone who could bring the humor and passion of Monk to life " , as Monk . Shalhoub initially was not interested , but after his manager 's insistence and the fact the pilot director was Dean Parisot , he accepted . Parisot declared , " The pilot was a strong collaboration between myself , David Hoberman , Andy Breckman and Tony Shalhoub . "
Sharona 's character was originally written as an African @-@ American , but Bitty Schram , who " had this great maternal thing crossed with an East Coast @-@ type " , according to Shalhoub , was cast instead . Ted Levine was cast in an audition in Vancouver , British Columbia as " the main cop " . Jason Gray @-@ Stanford accepted to work on it when he became aware of Shalhoub and Parisot 's involvement . He originally auditioned for the role of deputy mayor and , as he was not cast , Parisot invited him to read for Disher . Gray @-@ Stanford agreed as he became excited to try for the role of Levine 's sidekick . The pilot , originally developed as a TV film , was written by Breckman and filmed in the fall of 2001 in Vancouver . Originally shot in 35 mm film , it was changed to Super 16mm for budget reasons when USA acquired it .
= = Reception = =
" Mr. Monk and the Candidate " was first broadcast in the United States on the USA Network at 9 pm EST on July 12 , 2002 . According to Nielsen Media Research , the episode was viewed by an estimated number of 4 @.@ 8 million viewers with a 3 @.@ 5 household rating . This rating made it the highest rated program on cable television that night . Although Judith S. Gillies , writing for Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette , pointed it debuted in a period when other networks offer less competition , Broadcasting & Cable 's writer Allison Romano said the numbers were " impressive " .
Traylor Howard , who replaced Schram as Monk 's assistant in the middle of the third season , elected it as her favorite episode along with " Mr. Monk vs. the Cobra " . In The Futon Critic 's Brian Ford Sullivan ranking of the fifty best episodes of 2002 , it was placed 17th . David Bianculli , a writer for New York Daily News , said the pilot " not only establishes the character of Monk , it establishes the perfect tone for the show , a delicate but deft blend of wry humor and tender drama . " United Feature Syndicate 's critic Kevin McDonough praised the " whimsical " direction , and added " Monk is not easy to love , but shines as a funny and fresh alternative to summer reruns . " It was also called " fresh and funny " by Entertainment Weekly 's Bruce Fretts , and a " invigorating " " fresh spring breeze in the middle of summer " by The Washington Post 's Tom Shales . Variety 's Phil Gallo praised the " breezy gait of the storytelling , the nicely explained quirks of a brilliant mind and Tony Shalhoub 's sterling characterization " in his review . Tom Gliatto , a People 's critic , declared " This is probably not a clinically accurate portrayal of an OCD sufferer , but Shalhoub 's gentle earnestness keeps it from being gimmicky . " San Francisco Chronicle 's Tim Goodman praised how OCD was used " creatively from humor to sadness . " Chris Hicks of Deseret News declared , " this pilot episode is good enough to be a theatrical film ; in fact , it 's better than most features — funny , warm , character @-@ driven and loaded with hilarious vignettes . "
Ethan Alter of Media Life stated " [ t ] here is one funny scene in the pilot " , while criticizing the writing and direction . He also said the plot is unveiled in a " plodding , visually dull " way , especially when Shalhoub is not present . However , Alter wrote Monk is " far from a bad show " , calling Shalhoub " the best thing " about it . David Zurawik , in a review for the The Baltimore Sun , said the major problem of it is trying to combine comedy and drama with detective fiction . Zurawik , however , praised Breckman and Shaulhoub who " combine to deliver one of the most weirdly appealing television sleuths since Richard Belzer 's Detective John Munch of Homicide : Life on the Street . " Anita Gates from The New York Times declared , " There is a breakthrough of sorts in this episode , and it 's disappointing in its predictability " . Shalhoub " is not the only reason to watch " Monk , according to Gates who praised the series for a joke " that even Six Feet Under might hesitate to do . " Although said " Story @-@ wise , there 's nothing in Monk that makes the show terribly different " from other shows of the genre , Rob Owen of Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette praised Shalhoub 's portrayal of Monk as well as Monk itself , calling him " welcome addition to TV 's eccentric sleuths " .
= Mike Hudema =
Micheal George Henry ( Mike ) Hudema is a Canadian activist who has worked for advocacy organizations including Greenpeace , Global Exchange , the University of Alberta Students ' Union , and the Ruckus Society . He is best known for his work opposing the development of the Alberta tar sands and reliance on fossil fuels in general , but has also engaged in civil liberties and student activism . He is also the published author of a book on direct action tactics .
= = Background = =
Mike Hudema was born in Medicine Hat , Alberta in 1976 from Ukrainian and English origin parents and attended Crescent Heights High School . He graduated from the University of Alberta with a bachelor of education , majoring in drama , and a bachelor of law degree , specializing in labour and environmental law . During his university career , he went on an exchange to southern India , which he credits with awakening him politically . During the exchange , he recalls seeing 20 @,@ 000 people " getting together to debate the village budget for the next year " , and says that the contrast between that and the models of representative democracy in use in Canada affected him and shaped his views on political involvement .
= = Environmental activism = =
Hudema is best known as an environmental activist . He protested the opening of the Cheviot mine near Hinton , Alberta in 2004 by setting up a mock open pit mine on the lawn of Deputy Prime Minister Anne McLellan 's constituency office . He has also opposed the harvesting of Alberta 's boreal forest , and in 2004 followed logging executives down the Athabasca River as the executives took a boat trip as part of a logging conference .
In 2005 , Hudema was hired as the Freedom From Oil Director for Global Exchange , and relocated from Edmonton to San Francisco . In this capacity , he helped lead the " Jumpstart Ford " campaign ( a joint initiative between Global Exchange , the Rainforest Action Network , and the Ruckus Society ) which pressured Ford Motors to eliminate tailpipe emissions from its vehicles by 2020 . The campaign was later expanded to include all automakers , and renamed " Freedom From Oil " . As part of this campaign , Hudema interrupted General Motors CEO Richard Wagoner at the keynote address of a Los Angeles automotive show and asked him to sign a commitment to make General Motors vehicles the most fuel efficient in the world by 2010 ( Wagoner refused to sign , saying that his " speech spoke for itself " ) .
In 2006 , Hudema implored Canadians to " save hockey " by fighting climate change , which he called " the biggest threat to hockey since the NHL labor talks " .
In July 2007 , Hudema returned to Edmonton to work as the Climate and Energy Campaigner for Greenpeace Canada at its newly opened Edmonton office , which was created to lobby for an end to the Alberta oil sands , which Hudema called " one of the dirtiest , oiliest projects in the world " . In this capacity , he ambushed Premier Ed Stelmach several times during the 2008 provincial election . He also made headlines after the election when he and two other Greenpeace volunteers lowered a banner - reading " $ telmach , the best premier oil money can buy " - behind Stelmach at a fundraising dinner .
In January 2008 , he was briefly banned from the University of Alberta campus after he and a group of fellow radical cheerleaders performed a number of anti @-@ fossil fuels musical routines at an on @-@ campus Shell Canada recruiting session . After a meeting with the head of the university 's campus security service , the ban was reduced to probation .
In September 2009 , Hudema and 24 other Greenpeace activists occupied two tar sands heavy haulers and one shovel in Shell 's Albian Sands . The action shut down the entire mine for a short period and a portion of the mine for over 30 hours . The action proceeded two other actions by Greenpeace in the tar sands region . The first was at Suncor 's Millennium project , and the second at Shell 's upgrading facility in Fort Saskatchewan . The actions prompted comments from then Premier Ed Stelmach about whether terrorism charges should be used to prosecute such activities .
In December 2009 , Hudema and Greenpeace made headlines again when they scaled Canada 's Parliament buildings and unfurled several banners with messages to Canada 's Prime Minister Stephen Harper and then Liberal Leader Michael Ignatiaff .
In September 2011 , Hudema helped organize the largest climate @-@ related civil disobedience action in Canadian history when more than 200 people risked arrest on Parliament Hill by crossing a police line set @-@ up to bar public entry into the building .
October 2012 saw Hudema in Victoria where he helped craft another mass action this time against tar sands pipelines namely Enbridge Northern Gateway and Kindermorgan TransCanada . The action saw thousands descend on the BC legislature building many willing to risk arrest to stop the pipelines .
Hudema has been given several accolades for his work . In 2013 he was named ' Edmontonian of the Year ' by online blogsite GigCity . Alberta Venture named him one of their ' Top 50 : Most Influential People ' in 2014 . The Edmonton Journal named Hudema one of their ' Power 30 ' and the Globe and Mail named him one of nine people to leave their mark on the oil sands .
Hudema is a " climb trainer " for the Ruckus Society , and has held activist training camps which teach aspiring activists skills ranging from climbing to blockades .
= = = Criticism = = =
Hudema 's actions at the General Motors car show were described as " stupid " by automotive journalist Mike Magda .
= = Student activism = =
In 2002 , Hudema was elected president of the University of Alberta Students ' Union , defeating six opponents ( two of whom were , as " joke candidates " , ineligible to win ) after campaigning on a more militant approach to tuition and on increased interaction between the Students ' Union 's elected officials and its members . His candidacy came after his activities as a member of the Student Worker Action Group , which had been critical of the previous president 's more moderate approach to opposing tuition increases , including efforts to support the reduction of tuition increases , rather than insisting on their elimination .
As president , Hudema opposed the university administration 's proposed tuition increase , and particularly the portion of the increase that would see students in some programs pay more than those in others . Despite his opposition , the basic increase was approved as proposed , and two of the three program @-@ based differentials were also approved . He also opposed the extension of degree granting powers ( which were only granted to universities at the time ) to colleges , advocated against the inclusion of education in the General Agreement on Trade in Services and Free Trade Agreement of the Americas , and unsuccessfully lobbied the City of Edmonton to stop assessing property taxes on university residences . He expanded the Students ' Union 's involvement in environmental issues - creating a Students ' Union environmental office , spearheading an energy audit of the Students ' Union 's building , passing an ethical buying and purchasing policy , helping to open a Women 's Centre on campus , and founding a car pool registry . He also created the Revolutionary Speaker Series ; the speakers that Hudema brought to the series included consumer candidate and American presidential candidate Ralph Nader , environmentalist David Suzuki , author Inga Musico , and Palestinian activist Younis al Khatib .
Despite claiming at the end of his term that he would stay out of the limelight in student politics , Hudema was vocally critical of Mat Brechtel , his successor , for what he claimed was excessive compromise on tuition @-@ related issues . He also helped create a new university course on citizenship and activism , which he suggested should become mandatory for all undergraduate students .
= = = Criticism = = =
Hudema was criticized during his time as president for being too focused on tuition and for fostering an adversarial relationship with the university administration . He was also criticized for politicizing historically apolitical events , opposing an increase in law school tuition despite support for the increase from the law students ' association , and for using the campus food bank to make political points . His support for the " U @-@ Pass " , a proposed discounted transit pass that would be mandatory for all students , was also controversial .
= = Civil liberties activism = =
In 2001 , Hudema was spokesperson of a group of about twenty people who staged a sit @-@ in at the constituency office of Justice Minister Anne McLellan to protest the government 's proposed anti @-@ terrorism and security laws , which Hudema claimed would " greatly impinge on civil liberties in Canada . " The group " evicted " McLellan from her office - moving her furniture to the front lawn - changed her sign to read " Minister of In @-@ Justice " , held community workshops and forums in the area , and set up a hot tub with a banner that read " these bills put us all in hot water " . After four days , Hudema and the rest of the protesters were removed by police and charged with trespassing .
= = Democracy activism = =
During the 2000 Canadian federal election , Hudema was part of a group
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while Terminal B is used for international services . Both terminals have their own check @-@ in facilities , but the check @-@ in for scheduled international services is done from Terminal A. It is possible to walk between the two terminals both within and outside the secure area . The terminal contains an array of stores and dining places ; these include a book store , convenience stores ( including Narvesen and 7 @-@ Eleven ) , clothing , crafts and cosmetics ; diners , restaurants and pubs ; and a 560 square metres ( 6 @,@ 000 sq ft ) duty @-@ free store . The airport also has three automatic teller machines and a Radisson Blu hotel with 180 rooms and 11 conference rooms . Rica operates another hotel , the 400 @-@ room Rica Hell Hotel , within walking distance of the airport . The airport administration is located in Terminal B , while the administration for airlines and handling agents is located in annexes of Terminal A.
The terminal has stands for 18 aircraft , of which seven at Terminal A have jetbridges . Two stands ( one at each terminal ) is size code D ( large enough for an Airbus A330 or a Boeing 757 ) , while 11 are for size category C ( large enough for an Airbus A320 or Boeing 737 ) . Fourteen of the stands are large enough for commercial traffic . Domestic jets normally use the seven jetbridge stands ( gates 31 – 37 ) , while the two non @-@ bridged gates at Terminal A ( gates 38 – 39 ) are used for domestic regional aircraft . International flights all use the five non @-@ bridged gates at Terminal B. The Air Force has six stands for military freight planes up to the size of a Lockheed C @-@ 5 Galaxy ( code F ) , although one is permanently used for deicing .
= = = Cargo , general aviation and VIP = = =
Southeast of Terminal B is a collection of hangars and facilities belonging to various airlines . The largest is a 2 @,@ 750 square metres ( 29 @,@ 600 sq ft ) hangar belonging to Scandinavian Airlines , dating from 1979 , and a 1 @,@ 440 square metres ( 15 @,@ 500 sq ft ) hangar from 1992 which is used by SAS Cargo . The airline also has two smaller buildings , at 200 and 300 square metres ( 2 @,@ 200 and 3 @,@ 200 sq ft ) . This area contains the main gate , which is also used for VIP passengers . There are six additional hangars , used by Helitrans ( 780 and 1 @,@ 650 square metres or 8 @,@ 400 and 17 @,@ 800 square feet ) , built in 1984 and 1991 , a 500 @-@ square @-@ metre ( 5 @,@ 400 sq ft ) hangar belonging to Auticon , a 300 @-@ square @-@ metre ( 3 @,@ 200 sq ft ) hangar belonging to Hilmar Tollefsen and two smaller hangars , one of which belongs to Værnes flyklubb . Værnes handles the largest amount of general aviation in Central Norway , including executive jets .
= = = Runway and air control = = =
The main runway is 2 @,@ 999 metres ( 9 @,@ 839 ft ) long , and runs east – west at 09 / 27 . It is 45 metres ( 148 ft ) wide , plus shoulders of 7 @.@ 5 metres ( 25 ft ) on each side . The runway is equipped with instrument landing system category 1 . The main radar , a combined primary and secondary , is placed at Vennafjell , 9 nautical miles ( 17 km ; 10 mi ) south of the airport . Other radars are located at Kopparen , Tronfjell and Gråkallen . The taxiway runs the parallel the full length of the main runway . It is 23 metres ( 75 ft ) wide , with 7 @.@ 5 metres ( 25 ft ) wide shoulders on each side . The center @-@ distance between the runway and taxiway is 184 metres ( 604 ft ) , allowing simultaneous use by code E aircraft ( such as Boeing 747 ) . Værnes has a theoretical capacity of 40 air movements per hour , but this is reduced during bad weather , so the airport has a registered capacity of 25 .
The airport also has a diagonal runway , which runs 14 / 32 , roughly northwest – southeast . It is 1 @,@ 035 metres ( 3 @,@ 396 ft ) long , plus end section of 293 metres ( 961 ft ) on Runway 14 and 126 metres ( 413 ft ) on Runway 32 . The runway is closed for traffic , in part because of bad asphalt quality . The current control tower is 55 metres ( 180 ft ) tall and dates from 2005 .
= = = Military = = =
Værnes Air Station is one of two air stations in Central Norway , the other being Ørland Main Air Station . There are no aircraft permanently stationed at Værnes , but the station serves the Home Guard , including its training center and the headquarters of the Trøndelag District ( HV @-@ 12 ) . Most of the military installations are located on the north side of the runway , although some are also located on the south side , to the east of the civilian terminal . Værnes also serves as a storage base for the United States Armed Forces as part of the Marine Corps Preposition Program Norway . The military owns the runways and taxiways , but these are operated by Avinor . Three to four hundred military aircraft are handled at the air station each year . The military installations contain places for up to six aircraft of the size of a C @-@ 5 Galaxy and barracks to house 1 @,@ 200 soldiers . The Ring Road connects the northern to the southern installations and passes the main runway on the east side .
= = History = =
= = = Military establishment = = =
Værnes is first recorded in the 10th century as the seat for one of eight chieftains in Trøndelag . The first military activity in the area was as a base for leidang . After the Viking Age , the farm at Værnes was taken over by the king and became the seat of the vogt . From 1671 , the farm was owned by a series of military officers and public servants . In 1887 , the farm was bought by the Royal Norwegian Army and converted to a camp . The first aircraft to use Værnes was a military Farman MF.7 Longhorn , which took off on 26 March 1914 . It was part of the plan to establish the Norwegian Army Air Service , for which Værnes was chosen as the initial station for Central Norway . Radio equipment was installed in 1919 and the first hangar was built in 1920 . By 1922 , the grass field serving as runway has become insufficient for newer planes , both in terms of length and level , but an extension was not performed until 1925 . In 1927 , parliament passed legislation to move the division to Rinnleiret from 1930 , but this was later annulled . With the delivery of Fokker aircraft in 1930 , the runway was again upgraded and extended .
Værnes was surrendered to Luftwaffe on 9 April 1940 , during the German occupation of Norway . On 24 April 350 civilians started construction at Værnes , and within a few days 2 @,@ 000 people were hired . On 28 April , a new 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) wooden runway was completed . The expansion was part of the plans for Festung Norwegen and was used as a bomber base for attacks on Northern Norway . By May , there were 200 aircraft stationed at Værnes . During the war , particularly in April 1940 , the airport was subject to several bombings from the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) . In June , work was started to clear the forests near the airport , and graves from the Viking Age were found . Construction was halted for several weeks while German and Norwegian archaeologists conducted research . In July , work started on building concrete runways , and by 1942 all three runways were finished . The east – west was made 1 @,@ 620 metres ( 5 @,@ 310 ft ) long , the north – south was made 1 @,@ 300 metres ( 4 @,@ 300 ft ) while the northwest – southeast was made 1 @,@ 275 metres ( 4 @,@ 183 ft ) long . A number of taxiways were also constructed and a branch line of the railway was built to the hangars . By 1945 , Luftwaffe had built about 100 buildings at Værnes . The land expropriated was estimated at between 1 @.@ 6 and 3 @.@ 0 square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 62 and 1 @.@ 16 sq mi ) . Luftwaffe had also finished the control tower that had been under construction since 1939 .
After the war ended , the airport was initial taken over by the Royal Air Force , but they soon withdrew leaving the Norwegian military in charge . Numerous squadrons , including 332 , 331 and 337 were stationed at Værnes in the post @-@ war years . In 1952 , the pilot school was moved to Værnes , but in 1954 Ørland Main Air Station became the main air force base in Central Norway , and the majority of the armed air forces ( with the exception of the school ) moved to Ørland .
= = = Previous airports = = =
Civilian aviation in Trøndelag started in 1937 , when Norwegian Air Lines ( DNL ) started seaplane services from Ilsvika and Jonsvannet in Trondheim . These were terminated during World War II , but taken up again by the Royal Air Force and the Royal Norwegian Air Force during the summer of 1945 . They were terminated in November due to the weather and RAF 's withdrawal . The following year , DNL started services again , this time from Hommelvik . During winter , the route was not operated . The service was operated with a Short Sandringham flying boat to Oslo and Northern Norway , and a Junkers Ju @-@ 52 to Western Norway . The southbound and northbound Sandringhams and the Junkers all met at Hummelvik to exchange passengers . There was only room for two planes at the quay , so the third aircraft had to be anchored in the fjord . In 1947 , the airport had 3 @,@ 500 passengers . On 2 October 1948 , the Bukkene Bruse Accident occurred , where a Sandringham aircraft crashed during landing , killing 19 people . In 1949 , a reserve airport was built at Skogn , and people were transported from Hommelvik to Skogn along the Nordland Line in case the reserve airport was used . DNL became part of Scandinavian Airlines System ( SAS ) in 1951 — the last year it used Hommelvik . Vestlandske Luftfartsselskap continued to use Hommelvik for some more year . Braathens SAFE started their route from Oslo Airport , Fornebu via Hamar Airport , Stafsberg and Røros Airport on 18 August 1953 . However , they chose to operate their de Havilland Herons from Trondheim Airport , Lade , just a few kilometers outside of the city center , in days with clear weather . Braathens SAFE moved all services to Værnes in 1956 .
= = = Civilian establishment = = =
After World War II , there was only general aviation at Værnes , organized by two clubs , Værnes flyklubb and NTH flyklubb . From 1 August 1946 to 31 July 1947 , there were 1 @,@ 221 take @-@ offs from Værnes , mostly during the summer . During parts of 1946 and 1947 , the airport was used as a pasture for sheep . The first scheduled service was introduced with a Douglas DC @-@ 3 operated to Oslo by DNL during the winter of 19467 – 48 . While there were initially many customers , the lack of sufficient deicing caused low regularity and fewer customers through the season . The route was not reopened the following year .
The air traffic control at Værnes was established in 1946 , after the air force had sent personnel to the United Kingdom for training . The Telecommunications Administration took over the responsibility for the radio installations , and the responsibility for the meteorological services became the responsibility of the Norwegian Meteorological Institute . Trondheim Air Traffic Control Center was also established to monitor all air space over Central Norway . In 1955 , a glass dome was built on top of the control tower , giving a much better view of the air field .
Prior to World War II , Heimdal had been proposed as a location for the primary airport for Trondheim . Construction had started with drainage and ground works , but this work was interrupted by the war . Because of the large investments made to Værnes by Luftwaffe , a commission was established in 1947 to look into if Værnes or Lade instead should be selected . The commission was unanimous in recommending Værnes , highlighting that the airport was of a sufficient size to handle all civilian and military needs in the foreseeable future , and emphasized the proximity to the railway and highway . However , the commission recommended that Heimdal and Lade be kept as possibilities for future expansion . When the issue was discussed in Parliament , several members of the Standing Committee on Transport and Communications focused on the long distance to Trondheim , but the low investment needs ( stipulated to NOK 1 @.@ 3 million for necessary navigation and air control investments ) convinced parliament , who passed legislation in favor of Værnes on 10 June 1952 .
In 1956 , NATO approved the plans for Værnes to be financed through its infrastructure investment plan , after rejecting proposals for Heimdal . The costs were estimated at NOK 27 @.@ 4 million and would allow the runway to be extended to support jet aircraft . Such an extension had already been done at Ørland Main Air Station , but NATO wanted to have two military air station of such dimensions in Central Norway . The east – west runway was to be extended to 2 @,@ 400 metres ( 7 @,@ 900 ft ) ; initial proposals had called for the extension to occur on the east side , but the Ministry of Defence instead wanted the expansion of the fjord @-@ side to reduce expropriation costs . This called for a complex civil engineering program , as the railway and highway would have to pass under the runway in tunnels and an artificial island would have to be built in the fjord and the mouth of the Stjørdal River be diverted .
SAS moved its seaplane services to Værnes in 1952 , and two @-@ year later started flying the route from Oslo Airport , Fornebu via Trondheim to Bodø Airport using Saab 90 Scandia aircraft . The first terminal was half a 100 @-@ square @-@ metre ( 1 @,@ 100 sq ft ) barracks located beside a military hangar . In 1956 , Braathens SAFE moved its services from Lade to Værnes , making the terminal too small for the needs . The whole barracks was taken into use in 1958 , doubling the area . Braathens SAFE initially served flights to Trondheim from Oslo Airport , Fornebu with stop @-@ overs at Hamar Airport , Stafsberg , and from 1957 at Røros Airport , using de Havilland Heron aircraft . Concession for the route from Bergen via the new Ålesund Airport , Vigra to Trondheim was granted to Braathens SAFE from 1958 . Braathens SAFE then also started using Fokker F @-@ 27 turboprops , at first on the Oslo @-@ route , but later also on the West Coast route . When they were taken fully into use , the service to Hamar was terminated .
In 1957 , parliament started a new process to consider Heimdal as the primary airport , in part because the airlines and the Civil Aviation Administration stated that they felt Værnes was insufficient . However , higher costs — due to bad ground conditions and existing infrastructure at Værnes , valuated at NOK 150 million — caused parliament to support Værnes . Construction of the new runway therefore commenced in January 1959 , with the work subcontracted to Selmer . First the artificial peninsula was built , then the delta of the Stjørdal River was moved , before a tunnel was built around the highway and railway . Finally , the runway could be built on top , and construction completed on 21 October 1961 . In 1963 , the airport had 115 @,@ 000 passengers , increasing to 195 @,@ 000 the following year . That year , SAS started using the Sud Aviation Caravelle jet aircraft on their route .
Parliament passed legislation for the construction of a new 2 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ metre ( 22 @,@ 000 sq ft ) terminal in 1964 , which opened on 5 December 1965 @.@ the following year , Widerøe started a seaplane route from Værnes to Namsos , Rørvik , Brønnøysund , Sandnessjøen , Mo i Rana and Bodø . To serve the seaplanes , a quay was established at Hell . On 1 July 1968 , four airports in Helgeland opened : Namsos Airport , Høknesøra , Brønnøysund Airport , Brønnøy , Sandnessjøen Airport , Stokka and Mo i Rana Airport , Røssvoll . These were served by Widerøe with the land planes de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 6 Twin Otter . From 1 April 1967 , Braathens SAFE was permitted to extend their West Coast service north to Bodø and Tromsø . Starting in 1969 , Braathens introduced Boeing 737 @-@ 200 jet aircraft on the Oslo services and Fokker F @-@ 28 jet aircraft on the West Coast services . In 1975 , a third control tower was built , located right in front of ( the yet to be built ) Terminal A.
In 1976 , charter planes started operating to Trondheim , after a barracks was rebuilt to facilitate a border control . Several plans for a lager terminal were made , but these were delayed . In the late 1970s , the tarmac was expanded and a new taxiway built . Braathens SAFE opened a new 2 @,@ 750 square metres ( 29 @,@ 600 sq ft ) hangar in 1979 . The third terminal opened as an extension of the old one in May 1982 . It was 5 @,@ 500 square metres ( 59 @,@ 000 sq ft ) and the old terminal was converted to a cafeteria . Due to a heavy increase in traffic , the new terminal quickly became too small . During 1985 and 1986 , a major overhaul of the main runway was made ; it was dismantled and a new foundation and surface was laid . A number of new military buildings were constructed , along with six stands for large cargo aircraft and a new fuel system . In 1988 , smaller adjustments , including new washrooms and longer baggage belts , were installed at the terminal . From 1986 , Braathens SAFE retired its Fokker F @-@ 28 , and the West Coast route to Molde was subcontracted to Busy Bee , who started to serve Værnes with their Fokker F @-@ 27 , and later Fokker 50 , aircraft . In 1992 , SAS Cargo built a 1 @,@ 440 @-@ square @-@ metre ( 15 @,@ 500 sq ft ) facility . After Busy Bee 's bankruptcy , the regional services were taken over by Norwegian Air Shuttle from 22 January 1993 .
= = = Fourth terminal and deregulation = = =
The fourth and current domestic terminal was opened on 15 November 1994 . With 15 @,@ 000 square metres ( 160 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of floor space it had seven gates , of which five had jetbridges . The two remaining gates were fitted with jetbridges in July 2012 . Værnes became the first airport in the Nordic Countries with a train station in the terminal , when Trondheim Airport Station opened . In March 1996 , the old terminal was named Terminal B and all international flights were moved there . A new taxiway , which extended the full length of the runway , was opened in 1999 , after more artificial land has been created and a second tunnel built for the highway and railway .
Oslo Airport , Gardermoen opened on 8 October 1998 , replacing the congested Fornebu . For the first time , an airline could receive sufficient landing slots to challenge SAS and Braathens on domestic routes . The low @-@ cost carrier Color Air was established , and started flights from Oslo to Trondheim using Boeing 737 @-@ 300 aircraft . SAS and Braathens also saw the opportunity to increase the frequency on the route , and the three airlines between them introduced 39 daily flights . This made the route the fourth @-@ busiest in Europe in terms of the number of aircraft . During this period , there were 84 daily departures to all destinations from Værnes . Color Air filed for bankruptcy on 27 September 1999 , ending a price war which had cost the airlines NOK 3 billion .
By April 2000 , the number of services by the main airlines was reduced to less than the level before the opening of Gardermoen , with 75 daily departures . Braathens had 33 daily departures , SAS had 22 and Widerøe had 20 . Of Braathens ' services , 14 were to Oslo , 15 to cities on the West Coast ( of which four were operated by Norwegian Air Shuttle ) and four were to Bodø , Harstad / Narvik and Tromsø . SAS operated 15 daily flights to Oslo , while eight were operated to Bodø , Harstad / Narvik and Tromsø . One flight was to their main hub in Copenhagen . This was the last year that SAS used DC @-@ 9s to Trondheim , phasing in Boeing 737 Next Generation aircraft , supplemented by occasional MD @-@ 80s . Widerøe had 15 daily flights to STOLports in Helgeland , and five flights to Sandefjord .
In 2002 , SAS acquired Braathens , and the two companies coordinated their routes . All flights from Trondheim to Oslo @-@ Gardermoen were taken over by SAS , who increased to 23 departures per day in each direction . This included a 30 @-@ minute headway from 06 : 30 to 09 : 30 and from 15 : 30 to 19 : 00 . This made the route Trondheim – Oslo the busiest in the country . The routes northwards were taken over by Braathens , who increased to six daily trips to Bodø with connections northwards . The daily trip with Braathens to Harstad / Narvik was replaced by a two round trips with SAS Commuter . Braathens retained the routes to the West Coast , with two flights to Ålesund and seven to Bergen . In addition , Norwegian Air Shuttle continued with two flights to Molde . In 2004 , SAS and Braathens merged to form SAS Braathens . The airline changed its name back to Scandinavian Airlines in 2007 .
From 1 September 2002 , Norwegian Air Shuttle converted from a regional airline to a low @-@ cost carrier and started competing on the route to Oslo . From 5 May 2003 , Norwegian started a daily domestic service to Tromsø , from 17 April 2004 , they introduced two weekly services to Prague , Czech Republic , and from 26 June to Dubrovnik , Croatia . From 30 October , Norwegian introduced one weekly flight to Murcia , Spain , from 4 November , they introduced five weekly services to London Stansted Airport , United Kingdom . In 2005 , Terminal B received a major upgrade , increasing the passenger area with 1 @,@ 000 square metres ( 11 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . The airport was also rebuilt to 100 % security control . The terminal received a new border control for flights to countries outside the Schengen Area and a duty @-@ free store for both departing and arriving passengers . A new 55 @-@ metre ( 180 ft ) tall control tower was also built .
From 7 January 2006 , Norwegian started a seasonal winter service to Salzburg , Austria ; from 7 May 2006 , they introduced one weekly service to Nice , France ; On 1 April 2008 , they started two weekly round trips to Warsaw , Poland ; and from 1 June 2008 , Norwegian introduced one daily evening flight to Bodø and Tromsø . In 2009 , a new indoor parking lot opened , with a capacity of 1 @,@ 200 cars . It replaced a site with 225 parking places and cost NOK 125 million . The same year saw the opening of the Radisson Blu hotel , costing NOK 220 million , and a new fire station for NOK 80 million . From 31 October 2009 , Norwegian started a weekly service to Las Palmas , Spain . On 31 January 2010 , SAS operated its last service to Molde . To compensate , the Molde @-@ based Krohn Air was established to start flights between Værnes and Molde Airport , Årø on 3 February , using Dornier 328 aircraft operated by Sun Air of Scandinavia .
On 22 February 2010 , Nextjet commenced two daily round trips to Åre Östersund Airport and Stockholm @-@ Bromma Airport in Sweden . From 28 March 2010 , Norwegian moved its three weekly services to London from Stansted to London Gatwick Airport . From 10 June to 30 August 2010 , Icelandair will operate two weekly services to their hub Keflavík International Airport using Boeing 757 aircraft .
= = Future = =
In a master plan from 2006 , Avinor has identified several key development issues to increase the capacity of the airport . For Terminal A , the plans call to keep the existing structure , and gradually expand it westwards , eventually passing over the railway on a culvert . Along the area between the railway and the highway , a south pier is planned to be constructed , with the inside facing immediately towards the railway and the outside having aircraft stands . In the short term , this is planned with six stands for regional aircraft , with a single @-@ story building . The remaining stands currently used for regional aircraft will then be converted to international gates . While Avinor states that there is need for an expansion of Terminal B , no concrete solution has been found , in part because of the lack of space in the area , although this can partially be fixed by removing the general aviation from the area .
At both ends of the runway , the taxiway ends 150 metres ( 490 ft ) from the start of the runway , forcing aircraft which need the full length to backtrack . An extension of the taxiways would help with this problem . Both at Terminal A and B , there will be a need for double taxiways . This will result in insufficient space for general aviation at its current location , and this has been proposed moved eastwards past the military installations . Several airlines , in particular Helitrans , has indicated need for more space . Proposals have been made to establish a heliport to allow flight to oil platforms on the Norwegian continental shelf . The military has suggested to fill in a large section of the river delta at the west end of the runway , and move some of the cargo and helicopter operations there , but environmental concerns have been raised by among others Avinor . The cost of establishing access to the artificial land is also high . By 2050 , there may be need for a second , parallel runway to meet demand , and initial plans call for a 1 @,@ 199 metres ( 3 @,@ 934 ft ) runway which would be used by general aviation , regional airlines and helicopters .
Between 2009 and 2011 , Avinor is extending the runway with 150 metres ( 490 ft ) into the fjord . The masses used for this are coming from the construction of the nearby Gevingåsen Tunnel on the Nordland Line , which will help shorten the travel time of the airport rail link to Trondheim and increase frequency . Once finished , the line may be electrified . Plans have been launched to construct a high @-@ speed railway from Trondheim to Steinkjer , which would allow a high @-@ speed connection to Trondheim Central Station in 13 minutes . This may be part of a project to build a high @-@ speed , which could cannibalize ridership from the airport . Work has commenced on building the E6 northwards to a four @-@ lane highway 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) from Værnes past Stjørdal . This is scheduled for completion in 2013 .
= = Airlines and destinations = =
= = = Overview = = =
Scandinavian Airlines is the airline with the most domestic services to Trondheim . The main route is to its hub at Oslo ; additional services are operated to Bergen , Bodø , Stavanger , Tromsø and Ålesund , all with Boeing 737 and ATR 72 aircraft . Internationally , it provides a weekly flight to Alicante , Spain , 5 times weekly to Stockholm and daily flights to its hub in Copenhagen . Norwegian Air Shuttle is a low @-@ cost airline which operates the main domestic services to Oslo , Bergen , Harstad / Narvik and Tromsø , using Boeing 737 aircraft . It provides a range of international flights . Most operate only a few times a week . Norwegian flies to eleven European destinations in seven countries .
Widerøe is a regional airline and was subsidiary of SAS . It uses Dash 8 Q400 aircraft to operate to Sandefjord . Northwards , Widerøe uses Trondheim Airport as a hub to serve six airports in Nord @-@ Trøndelag and Helgeand on public service obligation contracts with the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications . KLM operates three daily flights to its hub at Amsterdam by its regional subsidiary KLM Cityhopper using Embraer 190 aircraft . The airport is also served by numerous charter airlines .
Ground handling is provided by Røros Flyservice , SAS Ground Services and Spirit Air Cargo Handling .
= = = Scheduled = = =
^ a Widerøe 's flight to Copenhagen makes a stop in Sandefjord or Kristiansand before continuing , making the first leg of the flight domestic . This is why it flies from terminal A and not B.
= = = Charter = = =
= = Statistics = =
Trondheim Airport is the only primary airport in Trøndelag , and has a catchment area of 310 @,@ 000 people , including most of Nord @-@ Trøndelag and Sør @-@ Trøndelag . For international flights , the catchment area is slightly larger , and includes part of Nordmøre , Helgeland , and Jämtland in Sweden . In 2009 , Trondheim Airport served 3 @,@ 926 @,@ 461 passengers , 4 @,@ 898 tonnes ( 4 @,@ 821 long tons ; 5 @,@ 399 short tons ) of cargo and 57 @,@ 912 aircraft movements , down from 2008 . The airport ranks fourth in Norway , after Oslo Airport , Gardermoen , Bergen Airport , Flesland and Stavanger Airport , Sola . The busiest route is to Oslo , which was the busiest domestic route and the tenth @-@ busiest route within the European Economic Area in 2008 .
= = Ground transport = =
= = = Rail = = =
Rail transport is offered from Trondheim Airport Station . The platform is about 190 metres ( 620 ft ) from the check @-@ in at the terminal , and the station is 33 @.@ 0 kilometres ( 20 @.@ 5 mi ) from Trondheim Central Station . There is no manned ticket sale , but a vending machine for tickets is located in the airport terminal .
The Norwegian State Railways operates both commuter and express trains to and from Trondheim Airport . In each direction , there are three daily express trains , one to Mo i Rana and two to Bodø . One of the Bodø @-@ trains is a night train . Travel time to Mo i Rana is 6 hours and travel time to Bodø is 9 hours and 5 minutes . The Mo i Rana @-@ service is operated with Class 93 trains , while the Bodø @-@ services are operated with Di 4 @-@ hauled trains .
The Trøndelag Commuter Rail offers hourly services in each direction : northbound to Steinkjer and southbound to Trondheim and Lerkendal . During peak hours , the frequency is doubled . Travel time to Trondheim is 38 minutes and to Lerkendal 51 minutes . Northwards , travel time to Levanger is 48 minutes , to Verdal 1 @-@ hour and 2 minutes , and to Steinkjer 1 @-@ hour and 26 minutes . The commuter rail is operated with Class 92 trains .
Trains from Östersund , Sweden ( Meråker Line / Central Line ) stop at Hell station , where passengers can change trains or walk 1 @.@ 5 km ( 1 mile ) to the airport terminal .
= = = Road = = =
The airport is located along European Route E6 and E14 . The airports connects to Norwegian National Road 705 via a roundabout , which again connects with the E6 in a grade @-@ separated intersection 300 metres ( 980 ft ) away . The E6 run concurrently northwards in an aircraft bridge under the runway ; southwards the E6 run as a two @-@ lane motorway as a toll road past Trondheim . The E14 diverts from the E6 at Stjørdal , 2 km north of the airport . The airport has 3 @,@ 000 paid parking places , operated by Europark , both indoor and outdoor . Car rental is available , as are taxis .
Nettbuss operates the Flybussen Airport Express Coaches four to six times hourly ( every 10 minutes during rush hours ) .to Downtown Trondheim , stopping at major hotels , Trondheim Central Station and the Munkegata Terminal . Unibuss operates the competing Værnesekspressen . Nettbuss operates city and regional buses to Selbu and Oppdal from the bus stop at Hell Center — five minutes walk from the airport . TrønderBilene operates NOR @-@ WAY Bussekspress coaches to Namsos . Rica Hell Hotel operates a shuttle bus from the terminal to the hotel , although the hotel is within walking distance ( 800 m / 2500 ft ) .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
Braathens SAFE Flight 139 occurred on 21 June 1985 , when a Boeing 737 @-@ 200 from Braathens SAFE en route from Værnes to Oslo Airport , Fornebu was hijacked by a drunk student who demanded to talk to the prime minister and minister of justice . The plane landed at Fornebu , and the hijacker eventually surrendered his gun in exchange for more beer . No @-@ one was injured in the incident .
On 23 February 1987 , a Douglas DC @-@ 9 from Scandinavian Airlines landing at Værnes en route from Bodø Airport was written off after a hard landing on the runway . This was caused by a high sink rate caused by the pilot interrupting the landing checklist and forgetting to arm the spoilers . No @-@ one was killed in the accident .
= Party ( Beyoncé song ) =
" Party " is a song recorded by American singer Beyoncé for her fourth studio album , 4 ( 2011 ) . It features guest vocals from American rapper André 3000 and uncredited vocals from Kanye West , and was released by Columbia Records as the fourth single from 4 on August 30 , 2011 . The song was written by Kanye West , Jeff Bhasker , Beyoncé , Dexter Mills , Douglas Davis and Ricky Walters and produced by Beyoncé and West and co @-@ produced by Bhasker . A midtempo R & B song , " Party " exhibits elements of the 1980s funk and soul music , and samples the 1985 song " La Di Da Di " . It recalls the work of New Edition and Prince , among others . Built on a 808 @-@ retro beat , multi @-@ tracked harmonies , and a smooth groove , the song 's instrumentation includes slow @-@ bouncing synthesizers , keyboard tones , and drums . Lyrically , " Party " gives ode to political themes such as feminism and sexual empowerment . In his rap verses , André 3000 references milk and gets philosophical about his own career . " Party " was nominated for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration at the 54th Grammy Awards .
" Party " was acclaimed by contemporary music critics , who praised André 3000 's verses , as well as the production handled by West and Beyoncé 's emphatic , yet sensual vocals . Following the release of 4 , " Party " charted at number 19 on the South Korea Gaon International Singles Chart . It debuted on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart in July 2011 , and peaked at number 2 on the chart for three consecutive weeks . The song reached number 50 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart based on radio support . " Party " was part of Beyoncé 's set list for her 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé and the Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live residency shows .
= = Background and development = =
" Party " was written by Kanye West , Jeff Bhasker , Beyoncé , André Lauren Benjamin , Dexter Mills , Douglas Davis and Ricky Walters . Production was handled by Beyoncé , West , and Bhasker . " Party " was the first song on which Beyoncé worked for her @-@ then upcoming album , 4 . In May 2010 , Jordan Young aka DJ Swivel started working with Beyoncé at Rock The Mic Studio in New York City . They initially recorded the beginning stages of " Party " to see what kind of a working relationship might form . Young was introduced to Beyoncé by Omar Grant , who was an A & R at Epic Records and used to work with Destiny 's Child . Beyoncé was satisfied with Young 's work and commended him for being " a fast engineer " . Beyoncé then decided to give him the opportunity to work with her through the whole production and recording processes of her album .
She later told Gabriel Alvarez of Complex magazine that she was very happy and keen to work with Kanye West who handled the production of " Party " . This was because West 's single " Runaway " ( 2010 ) drove her to the edge of tears the first time she heard . She further said : " The fact that he 's belting out his pain , his confusion , and his anger , with no pre @-@ written lyrics , was so moving . He 's singing his heart out for five minutes . He is so vulnerable . I love when an artist can be so honest . " On May 25 , 2011 , it was revealed by Rap @-@ Up that American rapper André 3000 , who had been keeping his features to a minimum in recent years , would appear as a featuring artist on fifth song featured on the track @-@ listing of Beyoncé 's then fourth upcoming studio album , 4 . This was the only collaboration present on the final track @-@ list of the record . Later on June 4 , 2011 , it was revealed that " Party " samples " La Di Da Di " ( 1985 ) as performed by Doug E. Fresh and the Get Fresh Crew featuring MC Ricky D. , and written by Douglas Davis and Ricky Walters . The original record contains the lyrics , " La di da di , we like to party " , which the songwriters included on " Party " .
On June 6 , 2011 , " Party " leaked on the internet followed by the whole album , three weeks prior to its official release date , which was scheduled for June 28 , 2011 . Speaking of his collaboration with Beyoncé , André 3000 said : " I 've always felt Beyoncé was one of the best performers of our time , so to collaborate with her was an honor and a pleasure . " " Party " was added to United States urban contemporary radio by Columbia Records on August 30 , 2011 .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" Party " is a mid @-@ paced R & B song that exhibits elements of funk and soul music . It is written in the key of B ♭ major and set in common time with the sequence of Cm7 – Dm7 – F7 ( sus ) – G9 ( sus ) – Cm7 – Dm7 . According to David Amidon of PopMatters , the song 's music " is largely reminiscent of late 1980s diva histrionics " ; it is built on scooping and gliding multi @-@ tracked 1990 girl @-@ ground harmonies , midtempo bounces , a 808 @-@ retro beat and a 1980s @-@ style smooth hip hop groove . The instrumentation of " Party " consists of slow @-@ bouncing synthesizers , bubbly keyboard tones , and a drum machine .
Gil Kaufman of MTV News commented that the synthesizers and drum machine used in " Party " create a groove reminiscent of " a New Jack Swing seduction . " Jon Caramainca of The New York Times wrote that the production of " Party " recalls the early work of New Edition . James Reed of The Boston Globe commented that its music arrangement sounds like a parody by The Lonely Island or Flight of the Conchords . Roberts Randall of the Los Angeles Times found that " Party " sounds like a half @-@ speed remix of a Human League song , and Kevin O 'Donnell of Spin magazine found the song to be reminiscent of Prince in his 1980s prime . Priya Elan of NME commented that " Party " is the first indication that 4 was influenced by the likes of Teena Marie .
Lyrically , " Party " features Beyoncé as the female protagonist " in the mood for some loving " as she references to a get @-@ together for two persons . West rhymes about " swag sauce " and " swagu " in the introductory lines , " You a bad girl , your friends bad too / You got the swag sauce , you 're drippin ' Swagu " , before passing the torch to Beyoncé , who begins to sing the first verse slowly and steadily , " I may be young but I 'm ready / To give you all my love / I told my girls you can get it / Don 't slow it down , just let it go / So in love / I 'll give it all away / Just don 't tell nobody tomorrow " . In the chorus lines , she harmonizes over the sample from " La Di Da Di " , " Cause tonight 's the night that I give you everything / Music knocking until the morning light / ' Cause we like to party " . In the second verse , Beyoncé belts out " in a thick stack of smooth , layered vocals " . After chanting the chorus for a second time , André 3000 surfaces around the 2 : 15 mark with " some very naughty references " to milk on the verses he raps , " ... another homeboy , that nigga named Cheese / Fuck wit ' me baby , I make it milk ' til it drip down yo ' knees " , before switching gears altogether and getting philosophical about his own career , " Kiddo say he looks up to me , this just makes me feel old / Never thought that we could become someone else 's hero / Man , we were just in the food court eating our gyros " , and finally adopting a " multi @-@ syllabic tongue twister " to rap some of the finishing lines . The song runs out with Beyoncé reiterating the lines , " Cause we like to party , hey , hey , hey , hey , hey " , and West then reprises the opening lines .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received acclaim by critics . Matthew Perpetua of Rolling Stone appreciated André 3000 's performance and the song itself , writing : " André 3000 is sharp and effortlessly charismatic on his rapped verse , but the real attraction here is the track itself . " Similarly , David Amidon of PopMatters commented that the song features " one of those rare ' look how effortless rapping is for me ' . " This was echoed by Ryan Dombal of Pitchfork Media , who wrote that " [ 4 's ] carefree retro sensibility pops up on three more highlights , including ' Party ' , which combines a pitch @-@ perfect André 3000 guest verse , a Slick Rick sample , [ ... ] while its bounce provides prime summer barbecue background . " Rich Juzwiak of The Village Voice was also positive : " ' Party ' sounds right out of The SOS Band 's catalog ( its plodding tempo is the only thing that lets you know she isn 't quoting a particularly poetic , desperately meth @-@ seeking craigslist m4m ad [ ... ] ) " . Jon Caramainca of The New York Times wrote that Beyoncé sings the song " in her best impression of naughtiness . " Chris Coplan of Consequence of Sound praised the minimal production and simplistic lyrics of " Party " further describing the song as being as " simple as a Beyoncé song gets : a low @-@ key , synth @-@ y beat paired with inspired vocals by Beyoncé and a killer , fluid verse by Mr. Benjamin [ André 3000 ] . "
Cameron Adams of the Herald Sun called " Party " the most throwaway moment on 4 . Adam Markovitz of Entertainment Weekly wrote that " the promisingly named ' Party ' [ ... ] turns out to be a slow @-@ jam invitation to an after @-@ work mixer with light refreshments . " Chicago Sun @-@ Times 's Thomas Conner complimented the harmonies " scooping , gliding multi @-@ tracked harmonies that almost make moot the idea of a Destiny 's reunion . " Gil Kaufman of MTV News was also positive , writing that " [ ... ] unlike the at @-@ points frantic ' Run the World ( Girls ) ' [ Party ] takes its time , lyrically and musically , with Beyoncé luxuriating over her vocals and singing about the beauty of nice and slow . " Describing " Party " as " a proudly retro slice of R & B " , James Reed of The Boston Globe wrote that the song is " an irresistible summer jam that I haven 't been able to stop humming for a week straight . " Jim Farber of Daily News echoed Reed 's sentiments , writing that " Party " would surely be " a top @-@ down anthem for months to come . " Similarly , Joanne Dorken of MTV UK described " Party " as a " dance @-@ floor filler ... with that Sasha Fierce edge " , before adding that is bound to be a " monster hit " and is a " stand out tune on the album " . Ricky Schweitzer of One Thirty BPM also applauded " Party " , writing :
The majority of 4 consists of mid @-@ tempo pieces , but unlike the filler that might have occupied this pacing on previous albums , many of this album ’ s greatest strengths lie in this realm . Perhaps best exemplifying this spirit is the André 3000 and Kanye West assisted , ' Party ' in which Beyoncé relaxes into a beat that , while not be easy to grind to , still works perfectly as a party anthem . Beyoncé reminds us that a party is not only meant for dancing . It is a place where you go to enjoy the company of others and oftentimes , that involves real human conversation and interaction . Echoing this sentiment , André ’ s verse is tranquilized from his customarily rapid @-@ fire delivery to a drawl more reminiscent of Lil ’ Wayne than his traditional work with Outkast . ' Party ' like much of 4 , is a conversation , and André 3000 wants to be heard .
However , Matthew Horton of BBC Online viewed " Party " as one of the " less successful interruptions " on 4 . Similarly , Embling of Tiny Mix Tapes gave the song a mixed review , writing : " [ ... ] the less said about the phrase ' swag goo ' the better ; ' Party ' , the song on which those unfortunate words appear — Kanye West providing that unfortunate pun — is otherwise wonderful , but yet some errors are too grievous to forgive . " Andy Kellman from Allmusic stated , " [ ... ] What 's most surprising is that a song titled ' Party ' quickly settles into a low @-@ watt groove and remains there . " Bill Lamb from About.com added , " Kanye West and Andre 3000 provide interesting vocal color for ' Party ' but the song itself is just a variant on the ' this is my night to be bad ' theme . " A negative review came from Al Shipley of The Village Voice who wrote that " Party " and " Best Thing I Never Had " were " among the album 's worst and most unrepresentative songs " .
On The Village Voice 's year @-@ end Pazz & Jop singles list , " Party " was ranked at number 177 and 439 in 2011 and 2012 respectively . The writers of Rap @-@ Up included the song at number 8 on their list of 10 Best Songs of 2011 . " Party " was nominated for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration at the 54th Grammy Awards , which was held on February 12 , 2012 , but lost to Kanye West 's " All of the Lights " . At the 2013 ASCAP Rhythm & Soul Awards " Party " was one of the songs to win in the category for Award @-@ Winning R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs .
= = Chart performance = =
Without being released as a single , the album version " Party " debuted at number 29 on the South Korea Gaon International Singles Chart for the week ending July 2 , 2011 , selling 17 @,@ 460 digital downloads . The following week , it sold 17 @,@ 995 downloads , which enabled it to ascend to number 19 where it peaked . The album version also debuted at number 90 on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart issue dated July 21 , 2011 . The following week , " Party " moved to number 72 on the chart , and one week later , it climbed to number 57 . For the week ending September 10 , 2011 , " Party " moved from number 55 to number 50 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . 31 US urban radios added " Party " to the playlist for the week ending October 1 , 2011 . As a result , " Party " was the most played song on US urban radios , gaining 517 spins in seven days , as reported by the Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems ( BDS ) urban airplay chart issued dated October 8 , 2011 . Subsequently , the song received the airplay greatest gainer title and moved from number 33 to number 20 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . The following week , " Party " debuted at number 71 on the US Radio Songs chart and subsequently moved to number 16 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart .
For the week ending October 1 , 2011 , the album version of " Party " debuted at number 25 on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart . After two weeks , it ascended from number 11 to number 4 on the chart . For the week ending October 22 , 2011 , " Party " debuted at number 95 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . It also moved to number 9 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , receiving the airplay gainer title for the second non @-@ consecutive time . " Party " escalated to number 87 on the Hot 100 chart and to number 7 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart issued dated October 29 , 2011 . For the same week ending , Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems reported that " Party " was the most played song on Urban radios for the second non @-@ consecutive time , gaining 464 spins in seven days . It ascended to number 5 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart and to number 75 on the Hot 100 chart for the week ending November 5 , 2011 . " Party " surged to number 57 on the Hot 100 , climbing 18 places , for the week ending November 12 , 2011 . For the week ending November 19 , 2011 , it further ascended to 54 on the Hot 100 chart and moved from number 5 to number 4 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart .
For the week ending November 26 , 2011 , " Party " remained at number 54 on the Hot 100 chart and climbed to number 2 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . The following , Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems reported that " Party " reached the top spot of the BDS Urban National airplay chart , having amassed 4862 spins , which transitioned into 31 @.@ 288 million listener impressions . It later peaked at number 50 on the Hot 100 chart and maintained its high point of number 2 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart for four consecutive weeks .
= = Live performances = =
Beyoncé performed the song live for first time on August 14 , 2011 during her 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé in Roseland Ballroom , New York City . Wearing a gold dress , she performed the song in front of 3 @,@ 500 people and she was backed by her all @-@ female band and her backing singers , called the " Mamas " . Erika Ramirez of Billboard magazine commented that " [ Beyoncé ] slow @-@ winded to ' Party ' as the crowd swayed their arms back and forth and stretched out the ' y ' to every other verse . " Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone said that the live performance of " Party " was " beatific and lovely . "
Jon Caramanica of The New York Times , who apparently had not received " Party " positively while reviewing 4 , however wrote that " [ Beyoncé ] is an outrageously nimble entertainer , enough so that it compensated for this album ’ s awkward or halfhearted choices : the too @-@ goofy Kanye West hook on ' Party ' . " Yolanda Sangweni of Essence magazine stated that " on songs like ' Rather Die Young ' and ' Party ' , [ Beyoncé ] reminds us her vocal chops are what got her here . " Brad Wete of Entertainment Weekly stated that " Party " was among the several highlights of the show . Jocelyn Vena of MTV News concluded that " it was [ Beyoncé 's ] ability to throw a party during faster jams like ' Party ' , ' Countdown ' , ' End of Time ' and ' Run the World ( Girls ) ' that put on full display her range as a performer , dancing and singing live the entire night . " During the ITV special A Night With Beyoncé which aired on December 4 in the United Kingdom , Beyoncé performed " Party " to a selected crowd of fans .
In May 2012 , Beyoncé performed " Party " during her Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live revue in Atlantic City , New Jersey , United States ' entertainment resort , hotel , casino and spa , Revel . Rebecca Thomas of MTV News described the performance , " For one of our favorite numbers , ' Party , ' the 4 singer donned full @-@ on showgirl regalia in a heady rendition that saw confetti coming from the roof and dice @-@ shaped beach balls being tossed through the crowd as dancers in large feathered headdresses magically turned up in the aisles . " Both , Maura Johnston of The Village Voice and Tris McCall of New Jersey On @-@ Line noted that the confetti should have been dropped during the first or the last song . Dan DeLuca of The Philadelphia Inquirer wrote that " Party " was one of the " beat @-@ savvy booty @-@ shaking workouts " performed during the show .
Party is on the setlist of Beyoncé 's Formation World Tour ( As of May 30th )
= = Cover versions = =
On October 11 , 2011 , English singer – songwriter Eliza Doolittle posted a video of herself covering " Party " , on her official website and other online media . In January 2012 , American rapper Common sang a freestyle rap over the instrumental of Beyoncé 's " Party " adding the lyrics , " We can put it all together / You know the weather / Me and Jasmine we can find forever " . In February 2012 , American band Chairlift and Kool A.D. covered the song on Triple J 's Like a Version series .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for the album version of " Party " are adapted from 4 liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Remix featuring J. Cole = =
" Party " was officially remixed with vocals from American rapper J. Cole , replacing those of André 3000 . The verses of André 3000 were supplanted by those from Cole ; all other elements of the remix are identical to the original . His rap is much shorter than that of André 3000 . In his verse , Cole thanks God and Ice Cube for Friday , references Sade and Petey Pablo and name @-@ drops the Bugatti brand . Cole revealed that he was originally supposed to appear on the album version and that Beyoncé later enlisted him to appear on the official " Party " remix . It was released worldwide as a digital download on October 24 , 2011 as a single .
Critics complimented the remix , stating that anyone could sound good over the beat of the mid @-@ tempo R & B song . An accompanying music video for " Party " was shot in New Jersey and was directed by Beyoncé . Cole replaced André 3000 in the clip , which takes viewers back to an old @-@ school backyard celebration full of colorful bikinis , freestyle dancing and a few cameo appearances , including sister Solange Knowles and former Destiny 's Child bandmate Kelly Rowland . Music critics generally praised the retro @-@ themed visuals , further commending the fact that she proves she can " bring a party " without elaborate choreography , high fashion or cinematic elements .
= = = Development and release = = =
It was reported on October 8 , 2011 that Cole would feature on the official remix of " Party " . It premiered online on October 21 , 2011 and its cover art was unveiled the same day . The remix of " Party " was released as a digital download on October 24 , 2011 ; as a single it was released in the United States and several other European countries . It was not made available for purchase in Oceania and Germany , among others . Cole 's verse , which replaces André 3000 's from the original , is much shorter ; all other elements of the remix are identical to the original . In his verse , Cole thanks God and Ice Cube for Friday , references Sade and Petey Pablo and name @-@ drops the Bugatti brand .
During an interview with WWKX ( 106 @.@ 3 MHz FM " Hot 106 " ) Rise & Grind Morning Show , Cole revealed that he was originally supposed to appear on the album version and that Beyoncé later enlisted him when she was ready to release " Party " as a single . He also explained why his verse was cut short and recalled his " unforgettable " experience of working with Beyoncé :
You know how many verses I did for that song . I did a version of that before her album [ 4 ] even came out . I did two verses . I love these verses too , but they ended up going with André 's verse and André killed it . [ ... ] Then [ Beyoncé ] reached out to me and she wanted me to get on the remix . I did two more verses . Out of the second set that I did , she picked the first verse . But my second verse , I just gotta say for the record … It was just too long , I think she was looking for something shorter and more to the point . [ ... ] It 's just a blessing to even be able to work with [ Beyoncé ] . I 'm on my defensive rapper , like yo man . When you follow in André 's 3000 's shoes , you 're expected to really go in . Just the fact to even be on the song with her and shoot the video with her and just be in her presence . She 's such a hard working , incredible artist . I ’ ll never forget that day we shot the video , I 'll never forget being able to be on that song , and hopefully we got more as time goes on . [ ... ] .
= = = Reception = = =
Andrew Martin of Prefix Magazine complimented the remix stating : " [ The remix ] might replace André 3000 's typically great guest feature with one from J. Cole , but hey , anyone can sound good over this beat . And not only that , but Cole 's vocals , however brief , are a welcome complement . " Making reference to its music video , Entertainment Weekly 's Erin Strecker commented : " I 'm assuming it was shot mid @-@ summer , which is when this really should have been put out . Releasing this track at the end of October seems like an odd choice , as the video involves a grillout and trailer @-@ park pool party that would have sparkled mid @-@ July . " The remix was nominated in the category for Best Collaboration at the 2012 BET Awards . For the week ending November 5 , 2011 , " Party " debuted at number two on the South Korean International Singles Chart , selling 85 @,@ 143 digital downloads . It became the seventy third best @-@ selling single in South Korea in 2011 .
= = = Music video = = =
= = = = Filming and release = = = =
The music video for " Party " was directed by Beyoncé and Alan Ferguson . As reported by Rap @-@ Up , Beyoncé filmed the clip in the Oakdale Mobile Home Park in South Brunswick Township , New Jersey , on August 2 , 2011 . The video shoot called for multiple flashy fashions , a red muscle car , and colorfully dressed dancers . Solange Knowles , Beyoncé 's younger sister , and Kelly Rowland , former Destiny 's Child member , both made cameos . Rowland elaborated a bit about her role in the video in an interview with NeonLimelight : " I 'm just doing a cameo . We just had a really good time [ ... ] While filming the video , we noticed that we were doing certain stuff that we used to do as kids . We kinda felt a little goofy for a second , so we stopped . But we just had a good time . " . Model Shaun Ross also makes a cameo in the video .
As the video utilizes the remix featuring Cole , André 3000 did not appear in the clip ; Cole , who replaced him , shot his cameo on October 7 , 2011 ; Beyoncé also came to the set that day to film extra scenes with Cole . A 32 @-@ second preview of the music video was shown on BET 's 106 & Park on October 24 , 2011 . The retro @-@ themed visuals showed Beyoncé throwing a backyard bash with her friends . Sporting bikinis , girls , including rapper Dai Burger , were basking in the sun and splashing in the pool as Beyoncé 's sister Solange was working the turntables . Cole swept through in his blue Bugatti to join the old school festivities . Although it was reported that the full music video would premiere on October 25 , 2011 , it premiered on October 26 during an episode of 106 & Park and on Beyoncé 's Vevo account . " Party " is the sixth video released from 4 .
On November 22 , 2011 , the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage of the video was posted online . In the footage , her stylist said that the inspiration for the video was " trailer @-@ trash , ghetto fabulous , out @-@ there , [ and ] edgy . " During the footage Beyoncé said " I like this video . It 's no choreography , no pressure . All I have to do is party and have a good time . " She also revealed that the video is supposed to reflect her simplistic childhood , adding : " Growing up , I had really amazing parents and I had a great childhood . We went from nicer homes to being in apartments with our lights cutting off . It didn 't matter where we were ' cause we had love and we had so much fun . It 's great when you don 't have as much how you improvise and you have more fun . "
= = = = Synopsis = = = =
Summed up by James Dinh of MTV News , " [ The music video for ] ' Party ' takes viewers back to an old @-@ school backyard celebration full of colorful bikinis , freestyle dancing and a few familiar faces . Throughout the video , [ Beyoncé ] lets loose , playing a sort of party host . If she is not lounging in beach chairs , she is dancing among her friends or mowing the lawn . " The clip is centered around a trailer park hood and a subsequent soiree . It starts with a dog barking behind a fencing , followed by multiple intercut scenery , which includes two men engaged in a conversation , a woman leaning against a car , a little girl riding a bicycle and a saucepan caught in fire . Then , Beyoncé appears , dressed in bright colored as well as flashy garments , sporting neon @-@ colored oval shaped nails , and bright @-@ colored lipstick . She is cooking in a skillet while one of her neighbors drinks from a hose . As she sings , looking into the camera , she highlights and plays with her hair . The action shifts from the double wide to a sunny summer backyard barbecue , where Beyoncé and her friends dance as Solange is deejaying . This is followed by scenes of Beyoncé , floating in an above ground pool while singing and entertaining her guests . She is wearing a pink one @-@ piece swimsuit , dropping earrings and her hair looks crimped . Other girls bask in the sun and splash in the pool as Solange works the turntables .
Once outside the pool , Beyoncé , now in a ruffled blue and white bikini , is sitting on a chaise longue and eating a lollipop . Beyoncé then shifts to another chaise longue where she relaxes with a bowl of snack food in her hand . Now wearing sunglasses , a black butterfly turban , and a furry green vest , Beyoncé lounges on a plastic chair around an inflatable pool toys next to lawn flamingos and beer bottle @-@ filled kiddie pools . As she sings , she throws some snack food towards the camera . Cole arrives in a blue Bugatti to rap his verse in the parking lot . In a different scene , he sits on the bumper of a truck with Beyoncé on his left hand @-@ side . They swing by the festivities once they hit the hotel room for a little after @-@ hours . Later , Beyoncé is seen doing a retouch of her make up , sitting on the toilet . Kelly Rowland and Beyoncé are then shown , propped up against a red muscle car . Beyoncé sports a big bird style , yellow feather coat while Rowland wears a short dark @-@ red dress , and they are both seen smiling and dancing . Beyoncé then mows the lawn and the video ends when Rowland and Beyoncé smiling into the camera .
= = = = Reception = = = =
Marc Hogan of Spin magazine wrote that the video for " Party " , isn 't " Beyoncé 's best video recently " adding that it had a lot of competition . A writer of Daily Mirror compared the set in the video with American series Baywatch and described Beyoncé 's look as " sexy " . Laura Schreffler of Daily Mail concluded that " one very big thing is noticeably missing " in the video , referring to Beyoncé 's pregnancy . However , Schreffler praised her look and outfits which were getting " racier and racier " . Amanda Dobbins of New York magazine wrote that Beyoncé " host [ s ] a trailer @-@ park fiesta in crazy technicolor fur getups and still look [ s ] amazing . " Matt Donnelly of Los Angeles Times concluded : " In a glorious mess of fanny packs , headpieces , blender drinks , dice @-@ throwing and dance circles , Beyonce reminds us that even without elaborate choreography , high fashion or cinematic elements she brings one heck of a party . " That was somehow echoed by Entertainment Weekly 's Erin Strecker who wrote that " Beyoncé isn 't dancing this time around . Instead , she 's strutting her stuff with neon makeup and costumes straight out of the Day @-@ Glo ' 90s . " Nakisha Williams of BET praised the " flashy looks Beyoncé chose to get her ' Party ' on " . Sarah Anne Hughes of The Washington Post praised the " pretty glamorous trailer park affair " and the party in the video saying that it 's a " party you wish you were invited to . " A writer of VH1 found a " delectable , candy @-@ colored , bling @-@ adorned party scene " with " retro @-@ ghetto fab outfits " and a very simple throughline .
Marina Galperina of AOL 's The Boombox said " from her neon nails , scintillating bathing suits , sequined mini @-@ dresses , big hair , bright make @-@ up to the sexy shimmying of her still slim physique , all eyes are on Beyonce as she serenades a promise to ' give it all away , just don 't tell nobody tomorrow . ' " Jenna Gregory of Marie Claire wrote that Beyoncé shows an " amazing bod in parely @-@ there clothes which you definitely wouldn 't find in the maternity section . " Chris Coplan of Consequence of Sound found a 1980s vibe similar to the song 's sound , adding that the only thing the " family affair is missing is Jay @-@ Z wearing sunscreen on his nose and a shirt from Tommy Bahama . " Ted Maider of the same publication , noted that Beyoncé " adds some luster to the rusty surroundings , shining through as the beautiful pop icon that she has become . It just goes to show it doesn 't matter where Beyonce is , or where her music is playing , she can turn any spot into a rager . " A writer of OK ! said that Beyoncé " don [ s ] an unbelievable amount of cool oufits , all of which we need in our lives . " Rap @-@ Up commented " Summer may be over , but Beyoncé gives us another reason to celebrate with the vibrant video " adding " This is one party you won 't want to miss . " Andrew Martin of Prefix Magazine described " Party " ' s video as a " fittingly shindig @-@ centric affair . " Jessica Misener of The Huffington Post praised the fashion used in the video saying that Beyoncé had a lot of " chic looks " . Another writer of the same publication praised the decision to make a simple party set . He further described the video as " a gorgeous boast of her beauty as well as a helpful reminder that , even in these down economic times , one can party like a rock star . " At the 2012 BET Awards , Beyoncé and Alan Ferguson won in the category for Video Director of the Year after they collaborated on the music video for " Party " .
= = = Charts = = =
= = = Release history = = =
= Ron & Tammy : Part Two =
" Ron & Tammy : Part Two " ( sometimes referred to as " Ron and Tammy II " ) is the fourth episode of the third season of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation , and the 34th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on February 10 , 2011 . In the episode , Tom tries to make Ron jealous by dating Ron 's ex @-@ wife Tammy , causing the two to resume their unhealthy relationship . Meanwhile , Leslie and Ben ask the police to provide security for the harvest festival , and April is assigned to be Chris 's secretary .
Written by Emily Kapnek and directed by Tucker Gates , the episode is considered a sequel to the second season episode " Ron and Tammy " . Megan Mullally , the real @-@ life wife of actor Nick Offerman , reprises her role as Tammy . Mullally and Offerman were permitted a great deal of improvisation during their scenes . " Ron & Tammy : Part Two " also features guest appearances by Eric Pierpoint as Pawnee Police Chief Trumple and Jama Williamson in the last of several guest performances as Tom 's ex @-@ wife , Wendy .
When the episode first broadcast , NBC ran a commercial advertising " April and Andy 's wedding registry " on the official Parks and Recreation website . Although apparently a mistake intended to refer to Ron and Tammy 's registry , some commentators suggested it could be indicative of future events in the series . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Ron & Tammy : Part Two " was seen by 5 @.@ 03 million household viewers , a slight increase from the previous episode , " Time Capsule " . It received critical acclaim , with several commentators praising the repairing of Ron and Tammy , as well as Nick Offerman 's performance .
= = Plot = =
Ron 's ( Nick Offerman ) ex @-@ wife Tammy ( Megan Mullally ) continues her efforts to sabotage his life , but the normally susceptible Ron easily resists her seductions because he is now in a solid relationship with Tom 's ( Aziz Ansari ) ex @-@ wife Wendy ( Jama Williamson ) , much to Tom 's jealousy . Later , however , Wendy and Ron break up after she announces she is moving back to Canada . Meanwhile , Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) and the parks department throw a party for the Pawnee police department , where they hope to ask them to provide security for the upcoming Harvest Festival . During the party , Ben ( Adam Scott ) awkwardly fails to get Chief Trumple 's ( Eric Pierpoint ) favor . Tom , unaware of Ron and Wendy 's breakup , arrives at the party with Tammy to make him jealous . After bickering loudly , Ron and Tammy both decide to leave the party together to talk and try to make amends . However , a night filled with drunken sex and mayhem ensues , ending with the two getting remarried and ending up in jail .
After getting Ron released , the parks department holds an intervention for him about Tammy , even playing a previously recorded tape of Ron warning himself to stay away from her . Ron ignores the warnings and prepares to take Tammy to his cabin for a sex @-@ filled honeymoon after her bridal shower . Leslie blames Tom for the dilemma and , although he initially claims to be unfazed , Tom later arrives at the bridal shower to stop Ron from going on the honeymoon . He reveals the whole marriage is a ploy by Tammy to once again make him miserable . Tammy attacks and mercilessly beats Tom , prompting Ron to remember what a monster she truly is and dump her . He literally carries Tom away , and the two later make amends . Despite the bad impression he made the day before , Ben asks Trumple for the Harvest Festival favor . The chief unconditionally agrees out of respect for Leslie , who he said always helps everyone , and because Leslie once dated his friend Dave ( Louis C.K. ) . Ben seems relieved Leslie and Dave are no longer together , and he later asks Leslie out to eat .
In the B story , April ( Aubrey Plaza ) is working as Chris ' ( Rob Lowe ) assistant until he goes back to Indianapolis . April 's cynical personality clashes with Chris ' relentless optimism and happiness . In an attempt to get fired , April purposely neglects to tell Ann ( Rashida Jones ) that Chris cannot make a lunch date . When Ann arrives to confront Chris , she quickly realizes April 's ploy . Ann reveals she is very happy dating Chris , and would even probably move with him to Indianapolis if asked . Andy ( Chris Pratt ) , who is still trying to win back April 's affections , gives Chris an obviously forged letter from the FBI claiming April must immediately return to the parks department . Chris sees through the ruse and tells April she can go back , but that remaining his assistant may provide her career opportunities . He invites her to return with him to Indianapolis and she seems interested , leaving both Ann and Andy stunned and jealous .
= = Production = =
" Ron & Tammy : Part Two " , sometimes informally referred to as " Ron and Tammy II " , was written by Parks consulting producer Emily Kapnek and directed by Tucker Gates , who has previously directed episodes of The Office , another comedy series created by Parks co @-@ creator Greg Daniels . Like all of the first six third season episodes , it was written and filmed almost immediately after the second season ended as part of an early shooting schedule needed to accommodate Amy Poehler 's pregnancy . However , although finished early in anticipation of a September 2010 release date , Parks was ultimately placed on hiatus until early 2011 , many months after production on " Ron & Tammy : Part Two " was finished . The episode is considered a sequel to the second season episode " Ron and Tammy " , which introduced the character of Ron Swanson 's ex @-@ wife , Tammy , and their unhealthy relationship with each other . Megan Mullally , the real @-@ life wife of actor Nick Offerman , reprises her role as Tammy . " Ron and Tammy " was one of the most well @-@ received episodes of the second season , so the writers immediately started contemplating ways to bring the character back .
Offerman said he worked well with Mullally , and that the two both enjoy " pushing the envelope and testing our boundaries , both of physical ability and good taste " . He jokingly said of filming the episode :
" They tell me it 's quite something . I honestly don 't remember much of what took place during the filming of that episode because it was like a crazy peyote fever dream . I remember there was lots of howling , and I came away very sore and scarred . Parts of my anatomy were alarmingly chafed . They say it turned out well . I 'm excited to see it . "
Offerman and Mullally were allowed to improvise a great deal during filming . The episode features a montage of various clips showing how Ron and Tammy gradually go from fighting with each other to getting married over the course of a particularly wild night . Long sequences of footage were shot — including Ron and Tammy loudly arguing on the sidewalk and the two making out atop a police car — but little more than a few seconds ultimately made the final episode . Offerman said it took about a half hour for the hair department to give him his cornrows haircut . He said he enjoyed the process , saying it " felt like a stiff head massage " .
Mullally said Tammy is expected to appear again in future episodes : " It seems like it 's sort of a once a season @-@ ish kind of event . When Tammy shows up , it pretty much brings Ron to a screeching halt . " Mullally and Parks co @-@ star Adam Scott also starred together in the Starz comedy series Party Down . " Ron & Tammy : Part Two " featured the last of several guest performances of Jama Williamson as Wendy , who revealed she was returning to her home country of Canada to care for her aging parents . Pawnee Police Chief Trumple was portrayed by Eric Pierpoint , who has played several police officers throughout his career , including an alien police officer in the science fiction series Alien Nation and a police chief in the superhero drama series The Cape .
Immediately after " Ron & Tammy : Part Two " first aired on February 10 , 2011 , NBC ran a commercial advertising " April and Andy 's wedding registry " on the official Parks and Recreation website . This seemed inconsistent with the show 's storyline because , although April and Andy had previously expressed romantic interest in each other , the two had separated and were not yet reconciled at the time of the episode . Shortly after the episode aired , HitFix television reviewer Alan Sepinwall wrote that the commercial mistakenly used the wrong names and was actually referring to Ron and Tammy 's wedding registry , which was mentioned in " Ron & Tammy : Part Two " and was indeed featured on the Parks and Recreation website . However , while images of both April and Andy were featured in the commercial , Tammy herself was not , and some commentators suggested the error could be indicative of future events in the series . Andy and April eventually did marry in the episode " Andy and April 's Fancy Party " . Afterward , Parks co @-@ creator Michael Schur admitted the commercial was intended to run with that episode , but ran with " Ron & Tammy : Part Two " due to an error by NBC employees :
" In an effort to undo the spoiler , we publicly stated , in a number of interviews , that NBC had just accidentally gotten the character names wrong , and that there was no upcoming Andy @-@ April wedding . We sincerely hope that fans of the show are cool with us gently lying to them , in an effort to maintain the surprise nuptials as much as we could . Now if you 'll excuse us , we have to go shoot the season finale surprise Jerry @-@ Donna wedding scene . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast , " Ron & Tammy : Part Two " was seen by an estimated 5 @.@ 03 million household viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research , with an overall 3 @.@ 0 rating / 5 share , and a 2 @.@ 5 rating / 7 share among viewers between ages 18 and 49 . It marked a slight increase in viewership compared to the previous episode , " Time Capsule " . The night " Ron & Tammy : Part Two " was broadcast , Parks and Recreation was outperformed in its timeslot by the CBS crime drama series CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , which was seen by 12 @.@ 78 million households ; the ABC medical drama series Grey 's Anatomy , which was seen by 10 @.@ 4 million household viewers ; and the Fox comedy @-@ drama series Bones , which was seen by 9 @.@ 5 million households .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Ron & Tammy : Part Two " received highly positive reviews , with several commentators praising the repairing of Ron and Tammy , Nick Offerman 's performance and , in particular , the line in which Ron explains how part of his mustache became shaved off : " It rubbed off ... from friction . " Entertainment Weekly writer Hillary Busis said she feared Megan Mullally could not live up to her performance in " Ron and Tammy " , but she said the follow @-@ up episode " gave Parks and Rec fans everything they could hope for and more " . Busis also praised the pairing of the enthusiastic Chris and the apathetic April . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix enjoyed that the script did not simply rehash the original " Ron and Tammy " story , but instead played it well off the Tom , Wendy and Ron love triangle . Sepinwall also praised the Chris / April pairing and the fact that Adam Scott got to do more than play his usual straight man role . He added that he hoped each season would have a Ron and Tammy @-@ centric episode , but limit it to once a year in the style of Cheers Bar Wars episodes .
The A.V. Club writer Steve Heisler said the episode was " just about as good as it gets " , with several great moments revolving around Nick Offerman 's deadpan comedic delivery . Heisler also said making the police department part of the script was a good way to better flesh out Pawnee and its townspeople . New York magazine writer Steve Kandell praised the performances of Offerman and Aubrey Plaza , and referred to Tammy as Pawnee 's equivalent of Sideshow Bob in The Simpsons ' Springfield . Kandell also liked that the episode " had heart " because the Tammy subplot was resolved by Ron standing up for Tom . TV Squad writer Joel Keller said the episode did not reach the level of the original " Ron and Tammy " , but that " it still had more than enough funny , cringeworthy and downright gross moments to be very satisfying " . He declared Mullally " one of the best sitcom creations this side of Colonel Flagg on M * A * S * H " . The Atlantic writer Scott Meslow praised Ron Swanson as the show 's " breakout character " , and said " Ron & Tammy : Part Two " was so good that he hoped for another sequel episode in the next season .
Rick Porter of Zap2it said the episode featured several great scenes between Ron and Tammy and called it a " tour de force " for Nick Offerman , but also appreciated that the episode featured strong moments outside that main plotline . He called it the best comedic showcase for Adam Scott so far in the season , and praised both the pairing of April and Chris , and the way that subplot led to Ann 's confusion about her future with Chris . Eric Sundermann of Hollywood.com said the subplot with April and Chris demonstrated how Parks often succeeds in pairing two characters that often seem to have little connection to each other . Sundermann also enjoyed how Ben 's awkwardness around the police chief illustrated how " the show is becoming more and more clear on who understands and fits in Pawnee , versus who doesn 't " . TV Fanatic writer Matt Richenthal said the dynamic between Ron and Tammy worked well not only due to their real @-@ life relationship , but also because of the balance between " the couple 's over @-@ the @-@ top antics and the heart it showed in other areas " . Richenthal also complimented the performance of Chris Pratt as the " sweet , well @-@ intentioned , air @-@ headed Andy " .
= United States Senate election in Ohio , 1898 =
On January 12 , 1898 , the Ohio General Assembly met in joint convention to elect a United States Senator . The incumbent , Mark Hanna , had been appointed by Governor Asa Bushnell on March 5 , 1897 , to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of John Sherman to become Secretary of State to President ( and former Ohio governor ) William McKinley . Hanna 's appointment was only good until the legislature met and made its own choice . The legislature elected Hanna over his fellow Republican , Cleveland Mayor Robert McKisson , both for the remainder of Sherman 's original term ( expiring in 1899 ) and for a full six @-@ year term to conclude in 1905 .
Hanna , a wealthy industrialist , had successfully managed McKinley 's 1896 presidential campaign . The Ohio Republican Party was bitterly divided between the faction led by McKinley , Hanna and Sherman , and one led by Ohio 's other senator , Joseph B. Foraker . Bushnell was a Foraker ally , and it was only under pressure from McKinley and others that he agreed to appoint Hanna to fill Sherman 's Senate seat . After Hanna gained the appointment , Republican legislators kept their majority in the November 1897 election , apparently ensuring Hanna 's election once the new body met in January 1898 . However , before the legislative session , the Democrats allied with a number of Republicans , mostly from the Foraker faction , hoping to take control of the legislature and defeat Hanna .
The coalition was successful in taking control of both houses of the legislature ; with the Senate election to be held just over a week later , intense politicking took place . Some lawmakers went into hiding for fear they would be pressured by the other side . The coalition decided on McKisson as their candidate the day before the balloting began . Three Republican state representatives who had voted with the Democrats to organize the legislature switched sides and voted for Hanna , who triumphed with a bare majority in both the short and long term elections . Bribery was alleged ; legislative leaders complained to the United States Senate , which took no action against Hanna . McKisson lost a re @-@ election bid as mayor in 1899 ; Hanna remained a powerful figure in the Senate until his death in 1904 .
= = Background and appointment of Hanna = =
The members of the Constitutional Convention of 1787 , in drafting the Constitution , empowered state legislatures , not the people , to choose United States Senators . Federal law prescribed that the senatorial election was to take place beginning on the second Tuesday after the legislature which would be in place when the senatorial term expired first met and chose officers . On the designated day , balloting for senator would take place in each of the two chambers of the legislature . If a majority of each house voted for the same candidate , then at the joint convention held the following day at noon , the candidate would be declared elected . Otherwise , there would be a roll @-@ call vote of all legislators , with a majority of those present needed to elect . If a vacancy occurred when the legislature was not in session , the governor could make a temporary appointment to serve until lawmakers convened .
Beginning in about 1888 , there were rival factions seeking control of the Republican Party of Ohio . In 1896 , one faction was led by Senator John Sherman , former governor William McKinley , and McKinley 's political manager , Cleveland industrialist Mark Hanna . The other grouping was led by former governor Joseph Foraker , who had the support of Ohio 's current governor , Asa S. Bushnell . A truce was reached for the 1896 election campaign whereby McKinley 's supporters would vote for Foraker in the Ohio Legislature 's January 1896 senatorial election , while Foraker would support McKinley 's presidential ambitions . Foraker was elected and in June , the senator @-@ elect placed McKinley 's name in nomination at the 1896 Republican National Convention . In the November election , McKinley defeated Democrat William Jennings Bryan to win the presidency ; Hanna served as his campaign manager and chief fundraiser . The industrialist raised millions for McKinley 's campaign but was bitterly attacked by Democratic newspapers for allegedly trying to buy the presidency , with McKinley as his easily dominated agent . In the 1896 election , the issue of the nation 's monetary standard was a major issue , with McKinley advocating the gold standard , while Bryan favored " free silver " , that is , to inflate the money supply by accepting all silver presented to the government and returning the bullion to the depositor in the form of coin , even though the silver in a dollar coin was worth only about half that .
After the election , McKinley offered Hanna the post of Postmaster General , which he turned down , hoping to become a senator if Sherman ( whose term was to expire in 1899 ) was appointed to the Cabinet . McKinley did not believe the rumors , which proved accurate , that the 73 @-@ year @-@ old Sherman 's mental faculties were failing , and offered him the position of Secretary of State on January 4 , 1897 . Sherman 's acceptance meant that , once he resigned , one of Ohio 's Senate seats would be in the gift of Bushnell , with the appointee to serve until the legislature reconvened in January 1898 .
Foraker was astonished when he learned that Hanna was seeking the Senate seat , not knowing that the industrialist had political ambitions . He felt that Hanna 's campaign activities did not qualify him for legislative service . Hanna and his allies applied considerable pressure on the governor , though initially McKinley did not participate .
Bushnell did not want to appoint Hanna , and offered the seat to Congressman Theodore Burton , a member of neither faction , who turned it down . Historian Wilbur Jones speculates that the seat was refused because of Burton 's unwillingness to alienate Hanna 's supporters , an action which might sacrifice a career in the House of Representatives for the sake of a few months in the Senate . The governor considered other options , such as arranging to get the position himself or calling a special session of the legislature and have them elect a new senator . However , Bushnell eventually decided that appointing someone else was not worth risking the wrath of the new presidential administration , and of Hanna ( who was chairman of the Republican National Committee ) . In late February 1897 , McKinley sent a personal emissary , his old friend Judge William R. Day , to Bushnell , and the governor yielded . Hanna was given his commission by Governor Bushnell in the lobby of Washington 's Arlington Hotel on the morning of March 5 , 1897 .
Hanna 's associates alleged that Bushnell had delayed the appointment of Hanna so that Foraker could be Ohio 's senior senator . Herbert Croly , in his biography of Hanna , agreed , and McKinley biographer H. Wayne Morgan also states that Bushnell delayed Hanna 's commission for this reason . Hanna biographer William Horner considers this motive possible . In his memoirs , Foraker denied this , stating that Sherman had not resigned from the Senate until the afternoon of March 4 , 1897 ( the date on which the president and Congress were sworn in ) so that Sherman could formally introduce Foraker to the Senate . Sherman , according to Foraker , was also unwilling to resign until he had been confirmed as Secretary of State , which took place on the afternoon of March 4 . Foraker noted that he had been senator @-@ elect since his selection by the legislature in January 1896 " and there was no vacancy for which Mr. Hanna could be qualified , except only that to be created by the retirement of Mr. Sherman , and Mr. Sherman refused to retire until I was sworn and in my seat " .
= = 1897 state legislative campaign = =
Hanna obtained endorsement for election as senator by the 1897 Republican state convention during June in Toledo , and by local conventions in 84 of Ohio 's 88 counties . Republicans expressed little opposition to Hanna 's candidacy for senator prior to the November state elections , at which Ohioans elected a governor , other statewide officials , and a legislature . There was much national interest in the legislative campaign , which was seen as a rematch of 1896 and a forerunner of the 1900 presidential campaign , and as a referendum on Mark Hanna . President McKinley both campaigned on Hanna 's behalf in Ohio and recruited speakers for him ; for the Democrats , Bryan was the leading orator . Democrats hoped that by gaining a majority in the legislature and frustrating Hanna 's election bid , they could claim a reversal of the voters ' verdict in the 1896 presidential race , and exact revenge on the man who had helped orchestrate their defeat . While the question of whether Hanna should continue in the Senate was central to the campaign , also discussed was whether McKinley 's policies , including the Dingley Tariff , had brought prosperity , as well as the issue of free silver versus the gold standard . The Democrats , as was their custom , did not endorse a specific candidate for Senate , but Cincinnati publisher John R. McLean was widely spoken of as the party 's rival for Hanna 's seat until strategists decided that his wealth and business background did not provide adequate contrast to Hanna , and McLean was forced into the background .
During the campaign , William Randolph Hearst 's New York Journal renewed the savage attacks on Hanna which had marked the 1896 presidential campaign ; Hanna was depicted as a bloated plutocrat , frequently trampling a skull marked " Labor " and dominating a shrunken , childlike McKinley . Foraker was not prominent in support of Hanna ; he did endorse his junior colleague in mid @-@ September , and made several speeches soon after the announcement , but thereafter maintained a public silence which would continue until after the vote for senator by the newly elected legislature in January 1898 .
Hanna made speeches across the state , much to the curiosity of Ohioans , who had heard a great deal about him for his activities on behalf of McKinley , but who did not know him well . He had rarely been called upon to make public addresses . McKinley recommended his personal technique of thoroughly laying out a speech in advance , but Hanna found it did not work well for him . Instead , he preferred to compose a brief introduction and then speak extemporaneously , not always even being certain of what topics he would address . According to his biographer , Herbert Croly , the informality of Hanna 's speeches won over many in his audience , and he became known as a very effective public speaker . According to Philip Warken in his thesis on the 1898 Senate election , " The campaign probably worked to Hanna 's advantage . The shadowy figure in the background took on shape and form , the candidate 's public appearances tending to break down [ Davenport 's ] popular but distorted image of him . " When Democrats attacked Hanna , who had considerable financial interests in industry , as a " labor crusher " , he gave speeches inviting listeners to ask his workers whether they were well treated . Subsequently , several union leaders and workmen 's committees confirmed that they had no complaint against Hanna .
In the November election , 62 Republicans and 47 Democrats were elected to the Ohio House of Representatives , while in the Ohio Senate there were 18 Democrats , 17 Republicans , and 1 Independent Republican elected . This meant a majority of 15 for the Republicans on joint ballot , ample , it was thought , to secure Hanna 's election .
= = Senate election = =
= = = Political turmoil = = =
The first public inkling that there might still be a serious contest for Hanna 's Senate seat came the day after the November vote , when Governor Bushnell declared that the party 's majority in the legislature was sufficient to elect a Republican as senator , but refrained from mentioning Hanna by name . Newspapers took note of the fact that while Bushnell had won a second term by 28 @,@ 000 votes in the election , the balloting for the legislature had gone Republican by only 9 @,@ 000 . Soon after the election , a number of Republicans announced that they intended to ally with the Democrats and defeat Hanna .
Croly lists Bushnell , Cleveland Mayor Robert McKisson , and former Republican state chairman Charles L. Kurtz as among those involved in what he called a conspiracy against Hanna . Kurtz had been defeated in his re @-@ election bid to the chairmanship by Hanna forces at the 1897 Republican state convention , while McKisson had unsuccessfully sought Hanna 's support in his first election run in 1895 , and according to Hanna biographer William T. Horner , held a grudge as a result . Hanna had also opposed his re @-@ election in the municipal elections held in early 1897 , speaking highly of McKisson 's opponent to a reporter , and asking the reporter whether it was true that McKisson had secured renomination as mayor through fraud . Despite poor treatment by the Hanna campaign — McKisson had been relegated to obscure rallies , except when called upon to introduce the candidate at a huge Cleveland event , and the Hanna supporters had sought to remove McKisson men from election positions — McKisson had publicly supported Hanna for senator , making several speeches on the night before election day urging Republicans to vote the straight party ticket . Nevertheless , sample ballots were sent to Cleveland voters , telling them how best to cast their ballots so as to minimize Hanna 's chances , and Warken speculated that these had to come from McKisson , as the only person with motive and opportunity .
Charles Dick , then Hanna 's aide and later his successor as senator , recounted , " The opposition developed immediately after the election . I might say the plotting , so far as the bolters were concerned , began before the election ... The fifteen majority melted away . " According to Horner , " as men elected to the Ohio legislature who were pledged to support Hanna continued to turn up opposing him ... the chances of Hanna retaining his seat began to look rather grim " . Kurtz disavowed the Toledo convention 's endorsement of Hanna , describing the gathering as controlled by the senator 's paid agents . He stated his case against Hanna : " The returns of the recent election show that he is not wanted by the party . The days of Mr. Hanna 's bossism are over . The people here are against him , and that settles it . "
Several of the men who opposed Hanna came from Cleveland and elsewhere in Cuyahoga County , where Mayor McKisson was influential . The situation in Cincinnati 's Hamilton County ( home to Foraker ) was complicated by the fact that the Republican legislators from there had run on a fusion ticket with the Democrats in order to defeat the local Republican bosses . These men were " Silver Republicans " , as was the Independent Republican elected from Cincinnati , supporting " free silver " in opposition to McKinley , and had not pledged during the campaign to vote for Hanna if elected .
Foraker was not actively involved in the controversy , and in the sole interview he gave , said he was doing his best to keep out of it . Nevertheless , most of Hanna 's Republican opponents were from Foraker 's wing of the party . Ohio 's senior senator did , however , state his belief that Hanna would have a difficult time being elected . When asked by Hanna supporters to intercede with the insurgents , Foraker responded , " I will not antagonize lifetime friends for Hanna , " and that Hanna was " not honorable enough " to go to Bushnell and Kurtz and work out a solution .
The new legislature convened in Columbus on Monday , January 3 , 1898 . In the state House of Representatives , nine anti @-@ Hanna Republicans aligned with the Democrats , electing one of the nine as Speaker . In the state Senate , an anti @-@ Hanna Republican did not initially attend , allowing the Democrats to organize the chamber and elect one of their own as president of the body . The various legislative offices were divided between the Democrats and the insurgent Republicans . Democratic forces in the Ohio Senate were boosted when the absent Republican appeared and voted with them . A margin of three in the House and two in the Senate translated into a likely margin of five against Hanna on the senatorial vote , meaning that three legislators would have to switch sides for him to retain his position .
= = = Contest in Columbus = = =
After the combine 's success in the legislature , the Hanna @-@ controlled Republican state committee called on local activists to come to Columbus . A rally took place on the day of Governor Bushnell 's second inauguration , and many in the streets booed him . Much of the indignation focused on Bushnell as the only statewide official linked with the insurgents . Meetings were held across the state and petitions circulated , for the most part supporting Hanna and denouncing Bushnell , Kurtz , and McKisson . Croly described the scene in the days leading up to the vote for senator :
Columbus came to resemble a mediaeval city given over to an angry feud between armed partisans . Everybody was worked up to a high pitch of excitement and resentment . Blows were exchanged in the hotels and on the streets . There were threats of assassination . Timid men feared to go out after dark . Certain members of the Legislature were supplied with body @-@ guards . Many of them never left their rooms . Detectives and spies , who were trying to track down various stories of bribery and corruption , were scattered everywhere .
Hanna 's forces went to great lengths to pick up the votes he needed for his election . According to Croly , they received word that state Representative John Griffith of Union County was under constant guard at the Great Southern Hotel , but was considering switching to Hanna 's side . Hanna operatives aided his escape , and he was kept with his wife at Hanna headquarters at the Neil House until the vote . However , Warken related that Griffith " seemed to align himself with the group that talked to him last " , repeatedly changing his position and eventually supporting Hanna . Hanna supporters sought to persuade other coalition Republicans to return to the fold — by one account , a Cleveland Republican tearfully refused , stating that if he voted for Hanna , McKisson would cut him off as a supplier of brick pavers to the city . President McKinley did his best to help Hanna , sending a letter to one Republican whose vote was doubtful , delivered by a soldier .
On January 9 , newspapers printed allegations that Hanna had arranged to bribe John Otis , one of the Silver Republicans from Cincinnati . Otis alleged that he was offered $ 10 @,@ 000 and was actually paid $ 1 @,@ 750 . The individual said to have offered the money , a New Yorker named Henry H. Boyce , had met with Hanna adviser Estes Rathbone at least twice . Boyce denied trying to bribe Otis , though he did admit to giving a retainer payment to Otis 's lawyer , and fled the state when the matter became public . Hanna denied any involvement . His opponents hoped that the incident would preface his defeat , while his supporters feared the story would prompt a public outcry . Croly and Horner agree that the allegations had little impact on public opinion .
The legislative leaders had not settled on a candidate to stand against Hanna , and discussions continued until January 10 , a day before the houses would vote . Democrats had tentatively agreed to vote for a Republican for senator , but were unwilling to consider a supporter of the gold standard . They considered giving a " complimentary " vote ( that is , to honor the recipient ) to Cincinnati publisher John R. McLean , a Democrat , before switching to a Republican . There being no requirement that the same person be elected for both the short and long Senate terms , Democrats also tried to negotiate for one of their party to be elected at least for the short term expiring in 1899 . Under the latter scenario , Governor Bushnell was proposed in the long term election , but Bushnell was unwilling to support silver . At last , McKisson was decided on by the insurgents for both the short and long terms . The plan was announced on January 10 , together with a statement from McKisson , which he soon disavowed : that though he would if elected remain in name a Republican , he would support the 1896 pro @-@ silver " Chicago Platform " of Bryan and his Democrats .
Ultimately , the contest came down to the votes of two Cincinnati Silver Republicans . The Hanna campaign at last secured the votes of both men ; Croly related that one of them , Charles F. Droste , had initially sought to advance the candidacy of a free silver Republican , Col. Jeptha Garrard of Cincinnati , and when it was clear that no one else supported Garrard , agreed to give Hanna his vote . Warken deemed the combine 's failure to support Garrard " the greatest blunder of the anti @-@ Hanna coalition . If they had pushed the Colonel 's candidacy they might have secured the support of the free silver men among the Cincinnati fusionists " . After the vote , McKisson rejected such criticisms : the combine would never have held together to vote for a silver @-@ supporting candidate . A contemporary account calls the men 's decision to support Hanna " unexplained " , and that " each of these Cincinnati members had been offered the Senatorship if he would withdraw from Mr. Hanna . Whether this offer could have been made good or not is doubtful " .
The balloting in the separate chambers of the legislature took place on January 11 , 1898 . In the Ohio House , Hanna received 56 votes to 49 for McKisson , with Columbus Congressman John J. Lentz , state Representative Aquila Wiley and former congressman Adoniram J. Warner receiving one each . The vote was the same for the short and the long term . Hanna 's 56 votes were all from Republicans ; McKisson received the ballots of 43 Democrats and six Republicans . The other three votes were cast by Democrats unwilling to support a Republican . One Democratic representative was absent due to illness on both days of the voting . In the Senate , there were identical votes for short and long term . McKisson received the votes of 18 Democrats and one Republican , while Hanna won the vote of 16 Republicans and the one Independent Republican . The split between the two houses meant that there would be a roll
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@-@ call vote of the two houses in joint convention the following day . Nevertheless , if Hanna held all 73 votes cast for him , he would be elected .
According to Alfred Henry Lewis of Hearst 's Journal , writing on January 12 , " The opposition to Hanna was utterly disorganized by the history of yesterday , and practically speaking , went into joint session today somewhat like a routed army might take up some battle it could not avoid . " The 73 men pledged to Hanna went to the State House together under the protection of Hanna adherents . Croly related : " Armed guards were stationed at every important point . The State House was filled with desperate and determined men . " In the joint convention , held in the House Chamber , the journals of the two houses were read , detailing the tallies from the previous day . The clerks of the two houses then called the rolls . The only votes to change were those which had gone to Warner and Wiley ; both were switched to McKisson . Representative Aquila Wiley was the last person to vote ; with Hanna having already received the 73 ballots he needed for election , Wiley maintained his vote for Lentz . The final tally , both for the short and long term was Hanna 73 , McKisson 70 , and Lentz 1 . Before the joint convention adjourned , Hanna appeared before it , thanking the legislators for his election . He stated , " I doubly thank you because under the circumstances it comes to me as an assurance of your confidence " .
= = Aftermath = =
Newspaper reaction to the result was generally along partisan lines . The Cincinnati Commercial Tribune , a Republican paper , stated of Hanna , " And this is the man against whom has been waged a war than which political history furnishes none more venomous , vicious , and relentlessly vituperative . It is a disgraceful story , known of all men . " The Blade , another Republican paper , agreed , writing , " The fight against Mr. Hanna was the most malignantly traitorous contest ever waged in the political annals of Ohio . " The Cincinnati Enquirer , a Silver Democratic paper , argued , " The Republican contingent which stuck to the last against Hanna has made a record which the victorious faction might well envy ... Their fight was ... against the chairman of the national committee and all its forces and resources ; against the president of the United States , with his tremendous party influence and more influential patronage . Against all this they have cut down the man who a year ago was , next to the president , the leading Republican of the United States , to a pitiful majority of one in his ambition to be elected to the Senate , and that obtained under circumstances not creditable to him . They chased him so hard that he dare not stop to have the gravest charges investigated . " Hearst 's New York Journal noted , " And so it is to be ' Senator Hanna ' for seven years . Well , the senatorship can add nothing to its holder 's power for evil . As long as Hanna has his money he can control senatorships , whether he occupies them or not . Perhaps it is best to have him in the open . "
McKisson " had recognized that to lose the fight meant political death " . In June 1898 , McKisson and his Cuyahoga County delegation were excluded from the Republican state convention in favor of a Hanna @-@ backed delegation . Hanna forces had lost at the county level , but , alleging irregularities , had met and sent a rival delegation . McKisson ran for a third term as mayor in 1899 . He survived a bitter battle in the Republican primary , but was defeated in the general election , leading to a decade of dominance by the Democrats in Cleveland . McKisson returned to his career as an attorney , continuing to practice law in Cleveland until his death in 1915 at age 52 .
Both houses of the legislature voted to form committees to investigate alleged bribery in the result , though most Republicans abstained from voting on the resolutions . The House committee investigation ended inconclusively . The Ohio Senate committee declined to allow Hanna 's attorney to participate in the proceedings . Relying on legal advice , Hanna refused to testify and asked supporters not to cooperate . The state Senate committee reported that an attempt to bribe Otis had been made by an unknown agent of Hanna ; three Hanna aides , including Charles Dick , were implicated . The report was sent to the US Senate in May 1898 , which referred it to the Committee on Privileges and Elections . The Republican majority of the committee reported in February 1899 that while it accepted that an attempt had been made to bribe Otis , the matter had been known before the vote , Otis had voted for McKisson anyway , and that there was no evidence linking Hanna to the attempt . The report did mildly admonish Hanna and his associates for not cooperating with the Ohio Senate committee . Democrats on the Privileges and Elections Committee urged further investigation , but the US Senate ordered the committee 's report to be printed , and took no further action . Hanna remained a power in the Senate until his death in 1904 .
The extent to which money or patronage affected the outcome of the election is unclear . Congressman Burton stated , " I never saw any evidence of the use of money in Columbus and don 't believe that any money was used corruptly . " In an interview after Hanna 's death , James Rudolph Garfield , son of the late president and floor leader of the Hanna forces in the Ohio Senate , recalled that the senator " had been asked to shut his eyes to some things . But he declined to do it . " However , Garfield also noted , " I have never been sure as to what some of the men who called themselves Senator Hanna 's friends really did do . " Croly believed that Hanna did not personally authorize bribes of legislators , but concedes that Hanna 's supporters " may have been willing to spend money in Mr. Hanna 's interest and without his knowledge . " The biographer suggested , " If Mr. Hanna had himself planned to purchase the vote of John C. Otis , it is reasonable to believe that the business would have been better managed . " Horner believes it impossible to ascertain if corruption took place , but if Hanna bribed legislators , it was because it was a common practice on both sides . He notes of Hanna , " his career as a senator continued , but accusations of wrongdoing remain a part of his legacy well over a century later . " Public dismay at what was seen as a corrupt means of choosing federal lawmakers was a major factor in the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1913 , which took the privilege of electing senators out of state legislators ' hands and gave it to the people .
= Jacques Plante =
Joseph Jacques Omer Plante ( French pronunciation : [ ʒɑk plɑ ̃ t ] ; January 17 , 1929 – February 27 , 1986 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey goaltender . During a career lasting from 1947 to 1975 , he was considered to be one of the most important innovators in hockey . He played for the Montreal Canadiens from 1953 to 1963 ; during his tenure , the team won the Stanley Cup six times , including five consecutive wins .
Plante retired in 1965 but was persuaded to return to the National Hockey League to play for the expansion St. Louis Blues in 1968 . He was later traded to the Toronto Maple Leafs in 1970 and to the Boston Bruins in 1973 . He joined the World Hockey Association as coach and general manager for the Quebec Nordiques in 1973 – 74 . He then played goal for the Edmonton Oilers in 1974 – 75 , ending his professional career with that team .
Plante was the first NHL goaltender to wear a goaltender mask in regulation play on a regular basis . He developed and tested many versions of the mask ( including the forerunner of today 's mask / helmet combination ) with the assistance of other experts . Plante was the first NHL goaltender to regularly play the puck outside his crease in support of his team 's defencemen , and he often instructed his teammates from behind the play . Plante was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1978 , was chosen as the goaltender of the Canadiens ' " dream team " in 1985 , and was inducted into the Quebec Sports Pantheon in 1994 . The Montreal Canadiens retired Plante 's jersey , # 1 , the following year .
= = Early life = =
Plante was born on a farm near Notre @-@ Dame @-@ du @-@ Mont @-@ Carmel , in Mauricie , Quebec , the first of 11 children born to Palma and Xavier Plante . The family moved to Shawinigan Falls , where his father worked in one of the local factories . In 1932 , Plante began to play hockey , skateless and with a tennis ball , using a goaltender 's hockey stick his father had carved from a tree root . When he was five years old , Plante fell off a ladder and broke his hand . The fracture failed to heal properly and affected his playing style during his early hockey career ; he underwent successful corrective surgery as an adult . Plante suffered from asthma starting in early childhood . This prevented him from skating for extended periods so he gravitated to playing goaltender . As his playing progressed , Jacques received his first regulation goaltender 's stick for Christmas of 1936 . His father made Plante 's first pads by stuffing potato sacks and reinforcing them with wooden panels . As a child , Plante played hockey outdoors in the bitterly cold Quebec winters . His mother taught him how to knit his own tuques to protect him from the cold . Plante continued knitting and embroidering throughout his life and wore his hand @-@ knitted tuques while playing and practicing until entering the National Hockey League ( NHL ) .
Plante 's first foray into organized hockey came at age 12 . He was watching his school 's team practice , when the coach ordered the goaltender off the ice after a heated argument over his play , and Plante asked to replace him . The coach permitted him to play since there was no other available goaltender ; it was quickly apparent that Plante could hold his own , despite the other players being many years older than he was . He impressed the coach and stayed on as the team 's number one goaltender .
Two years later , Plante was playing for five different teams - the local factory team , and teams in the midget , juvenile , junior and intermediate categories . Plante demanded a salary from the factory team 's coach after his father told him that the other players were being paid because they were company employees . The coach paid Plante 50 cents per game to retain him and maintain the team 's popularity . Afterwards , Plante began to receive various offers from other teams ; he was offered $ 80 per week — a considerable sum in those days — to play for a team in England , and a similar offer to play for the Providence Reds of the American Hockey League . Plante passed them up because his parents wanted him to finish high school . He graduated with top honours in 1947 . Upon graduation , he took a job as a clerk in a Shawinigan factory . A few weeks later , the Quebec Citadels offered Plante $ 85 per week to play for them ; he accepted , marking the beginning of his professional career .
His nickname was " Jake the Snake " .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Minor leagues = = =
Jacques joined the Quebec Citadelles in 1947 . It was while playing for the Citadelles that Plante started to play the puck outside his crease . He developed this technique when he recognized that the team 's defense was performing poorly . Fans found Plante 's unconventional playing style to be exciting , but it angered his managers . They believed that a goaltender should stay in net and let his players recover the puck . Plante had come to the conclusion that as long as he was in control of the puck , the opponents could not shoot it at him - this is now standard practice for goaltenders . The same season , the Citadelles beat the Montreal Junior Canadiens in the league finals , with Plante being named most valuable player on his team . The Montreal Canadiens ' general manager , Frank J. Selke , became interested in acquiring Plante as a member of the team . In 1948 , Plante received an invitation to the Canadiens ' training camp . On August 17 , 1949 , Selke offered Plante a contract with the Canadiens ' organization . Plante played for Montreal 's affiliate Royal Montreal Hockey Club , earning $ 4 @,@ 500 for the season , and an extra $ 500 for practicing with the Canadiens .
In 1949 , he married Jacqueline Gagné ; they had two sons , Michel and Richard .
In January 1953 , Plante was called up to play for the Canadiens . Bill Durnan , the goaltender who played for Montreal when Plante first began , had retired , and Gerry McNeil — their top goaltender — had fractured his jaw . Plante played for three games , but in that short time , he generated controversy . Coach Dick Irvin , Sr. did not wish his players to stand out by any addition to their regular uniforms . Plante always wore one of his tuques while playing hockey , and after an argument with Irvin , all of Plante 's tuques had vanished from the Montreal locker room . Even without his good luck charm , Plante gave up only four goals in the three games he played , all of them wins .
Later during the 1952 – 53 NHL season , Plante played in the playoffs against the Chicago Black Hawks . He won his first playoff game with a shutout . Montreal won that series and eventually the Stanley Cup . Plante 's name was engraved on the Cup for the first time .
At the beginning of 1953 , McNeil was still the starting goaltender for the Canadiens . Selke assigned Plante to the Buffalo Bisons of the AHL so fans in the United States would get to know him . Plante was instantly successful ; Fred Hunt , the general manager of the Bisons , told Kenny Reardon , Montreal 's recruiting manager , that , " he 's [ Plante ] the biggest attraction since the good old days of Terry Sawchuk . "
= = = Montreal Canadiens = = =
By the end of the 1953 – 54 NHL season , Plante was well @-@ entrenched within the NHL . In the spring of 1954 , he underwent surgery to correct his left hand , which he had broken in his childhood . He could not move the hand well enough to catch high shots and compensated by using the rest of his body . The operation was successful .
On February 12 , 1954 , Plante was called up to the Canadiens and established himself as their starting goaltender - he did not return to the minor leagues for many years . Plante was the Canadiens ' number one goaltender at the beginning of the 1954 – 55 NHL season . On March 13 , 1955 , with only four games left in the season , an on @-@ ice brawl resulted in the suspension of Montreal 's leading scorer , Maurice Richard , for the rest of the season and the playoffs . Four nights later , playing in Montreal in front of an angry crowd , Plante was witness to the riot that followed . It began at the Forum by angry hockey game spectators and spread along Montreal 's Ste . Catherine Street , causing injuries to police and fans and extensive damage to businesses and property . The Canadiens subsequently lost to the Detroit Red Wings in the finals .
For the 1955 – 56 season , Plante was the unchallenged starting goaltender of the Canadiens ; Gerry McNeil had not played the previous season and was sent to the Montreal Royals . Charlie Hodge , Plante 's backup the previous season , was sent to a Canadiens ' farm team in Seattle . Later that season , Montreal won the Stanley Cup — the first of what would be five consecutive Stanley Cup championship seasons . The next season , Plante missed most of November because of chronic bronchitis , a consequence of the asthma that had affected him since childhood . During the 1957 – 58 NHL season , the Canadiens won their third straight Stanley Cup despite injuries to Plante and other members of the team . Plante 's asthma was getting worse . He sustained a concussion with just a few weeks left in the season and missed three games of the playoffs . In the sixth game of the Stanley Cup finals , Plante 's asthma was making him dizzy , and he was having difficulty concentrating ; he collapsed at the end of the game after teammate Doug Harvey scored the series @-@ winning goal . The Canadiens went on to win the Stanley Cup again at the close of the 1958 – 59 season .
= = = = Mask = = = =
During the 1959 – 60 NHL season , Plante wore a goaltender mask for the first time in a regular season game . Although Plante had used his mask in practice since 1956 after missing 13 games because of sinusitis , head coach Toe Blake did not permit him to wear it during regulation play . However , on November 1 , 1959 , Plante 's nose was broken when he was hit by a shot fired by Andy Bathgate three minutes into a game against the New York Rangers , and he was taken to the dressing room for stitches . When he returned , he was wearing the crude home @-@ made goaltender mask that he had been using in practices . Blake was livid , but he had no other goaltender to call upon and Plante refused to return to the goal unless he wore the mask . Blake agreed on the condition that Plante discard the mask when the cut healed . The Canadiens won the game 3 – 1 . During the following days Plante refused to discard the mask , and as the Canadiens continued to win , Blake was less vocal about it . The unbeaten streak stretched to 18 games . Plante did not wear the mask , at Blake 's request , against Detroit on March 8 , 1960 ; the Canadiens lost 3 – 0 , and the mask returned for good the next night . That year the Canadiens won their fifth straight Stanley Cup , which was Plante 's last .
Plante subsequently designed his own and other goaltenders ' masks . He was not the first NHL goaltender known to wear a face mask . Montreal Maroons ' Clint Benedict wore a crude leather version in 1929 to protect a broken nose , but Plante introduced the mask as everyday equipment , and it is now mandatory equipment for goaltenders .
= = = Trade to New York and first retirement = = =
Hampered by terrible pain in his left knee during the 1960 – 61 NHL season , Plante was sent down to the minor league Montreal Royals . Torn cartilage was found in his knee , and the knee was surgically repaired during the summer of 1961 . The next season Plante became only the fourth goaltender to win the Hart Memorial Trophy - he also won the Vezina Trophy for the sixth time . The 1962 – 63 season was unsettling for Plante . His asthma had worsened , and he missed most of the early season . His relationship with his coach , Toe Blake , continued to deteriorate because of Plante 's persistent health problems . Later , Plante was at the center of a major controversy when he claimed that net sizes in the NHL were not uniform , thus giving a statistical advantage to goaltenders playing for the Chicago Black Hawks , Boston Bruins , and New York Rangers . His claim was later confirmed as the result of a manufacturing error .
After the Canadiens were eliminated for the third straight year in the first playoff round during the spring of 1963 , there was mounting pressure for change from their fans and media . Growing tension between Plante and Blake because of Plante 's inconsistent work ethic and demeanor caused Blake to declare that for the 1963 – 64 season either he or Plante must go . On June 4 , 1963 , Plante was traded to the New York Rangers , with Phil Goyette and Don Marshall in exchange for Gump Worsley , Dave Balon , Leon Rochefort , and Len Ronson . Plante played for the Rangers for one full season and part of a second . He retired in 1965 while playing for the minor @-@ league Baltimore Clippers of the American Hockey League . His wife was ill at the time , and he required surgery on his right knee .
Upon retirement , Plante took a job with Molson as a sales representative but remained active in the NHL . In 1965 , Scotty Bowman asked Plante to play for the Montreal Jr . Canadiens in a game against the Soviet National Team . Honoured to represent his country , Plante agreed , and after receiving permission from both the Rangers ( who owned his rights ) and Molson , he began practicing . The Canadiens won 2 – 1 , and Plante was named first star of the game .
= = = Comeback to professional hockey = = =
At the beginning of the 1967 – 68 NHL season , Plante received a call from his ex @-@ teammate Bert Olmstead seeking some help coaching the expansion Oakland Seals . Plante coached mainly by example , and after the three @-@ week training camp he returned home to Montreal . Plante also played an exhibition game with the Seals . Rumours swirled that Plante was planning a comeback .
In June 1968 , Plante was drafted by the St. Louis Blues and signed for $ 35 @,@ 000 for the 1968 – 69 season . In his first season with the Blues , Plante split the goaltending duties with Glenn Hall . He won the Vezina Trophy that season for the seventh time , surpassing Bill Durnan 's record . While playing for the Blues in the 1969 – 70 playoffs against the Boston Bruins , a shot fired by Fred Stanfield and redirected by Phil Esposito hit Plante in the forehead , knocking him out and breaking his fibreglass mask . The first thing Plante said after he regained consciousness at the hospital was that the mask saved his life . That game proved to be his last for the Blues , and he was traded in the summer of 1970 to the Toronto Maple Leafs . He led the NHL with the lowest goals against average ( GAA ) during his first season with the Maple Leafs . At season 's end , he was named to the NHL 's second All @-@ Star team , his seventh such honour . He continued to play for the Leafs until he was traded to the Boston Bruins late in the 1972 – 73 season , recording a shutout against the Black Hawks in his debut for the Bruins . He played eight regular season and two playoff games for the Bruins to finish that season , his last in the NHL .
Plante accepted a $ 10 million , 10 @-@ year contract to become coach and general manager of the Quebec Nordiques of the World Hockey Association in 1973 . He was highly dissatisfied with his and the team 's performance and resigned at the end of the 1973 – 74 season . Coming out of retirement once more , Plante played 31 games for the Edmonton Oilers of the WHA in the 1974 – 75 season . Plante retired during the Oilers ' training camp in 1975 – 76 after receiving news that his youngest son had died .
= = Hockey analysis and coaching = =
Plante had a well @-@ earned reputation for his ability to analyse the game of hockey . He began shouting directions to his teammates during games in his first stint in the minor leagues ( the goaltender usually has the best view of the game ) . He kept extensive notes on opposing players and teams throughout his career . He made his debut in the broadcasting booth during his first retirement in the 1960s as a colour commentator for broadcasts of Quebec Junior League games alongside Danny Gallivan of Hockey Night in Canada fame . Radio Canada , the French language branch of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation , brought Plante aboard as on @-@ air analyst for its television broadcasts of the 1972 Summit Series between the national team of the Soviet Union and a Canadian team made up of professional players from the NHL . Plante was one of the few North American analysts who dissented from the widely held belief in the superiority of the Canadian team .
Plante also wrote extensively on hockey . He wrote hockey columns starting early in his career and was published in La Voix de Shawinigan , Le Samedi , and Sport Magazine . He alienated local reporters by writing a column for the local paper during his time as coach of the Quebec Nordiques . His seminal work , Goaltending , was published in 1972 in English , with the French edition ( entitled Devant le filet ) published in 1973 . In his book , Plante outlined a program of goaltender development that included off @-@ ice exercises , choice of equipment , styles of play , and game @-@ day preparation . He also advised on best coaching methods for both young and advanced goaltenders . His book remained popular with coaches and players and was reprinted in both French and English in 1997 , 25 years after it was first published .
Starting in 1967 , Plante was one of the instructors at École moderne de hockey , a summer hockey school for young players . His reputation as a teacher spread , and he traveled to Sweden in 1972 at the invitation of the Swedish Hockey Federation , teaching the top goaltenders in the country and their coaches and trainers . During his first and second retirements , Plante also coached goaltenders and consulted for several NHL teams , including the Oakland Seals , Philadelphia Flyers , Montreal Canadiens and St. Louis Blues .
= = Retirement and death = =
Plante finally retired from hockey in 1975 , after the death of his youngest son . He moved to Switzerland with his second wife , Raymonde Udrisard , but remained active on the North American hockey scene as an analyst , adviser and goaltender trainer . He was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1978 . In the fall of 1985 , Plante was diagnosed with terminal stomach cancer . He died in a Geneva hospital in February 1986 and was buried in Sierre , Switzerland . When his coffin was carried from the church following the funeral mass , it passed under an arch of hockey sticks held high by a team of young hockey players from Quebec , visiting Switzerland for a tournament .
= = Legacy = =
Plante was one of the first goaltenders to skate behind the net to stop the puck . He also was one of the first to raise his arm on an icing call to let his defencemen know what was happening . He perfected a stand @-@ up , positional style , cutting down the angles ; he became one of the first goaltenders to write a how @-@ to book about the position . He was a pioneer of stickhandling the puck ; before that time , goaltenders passively stood in the net and simply deflected pucks to defencemen or backchecking forwards .
Plante was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1978 , and into the Quebec Sports Pantheon in 1994 . His jersey , # 1 , was retired in 1995 by the Montreal Canadiens . The Jacques Plante Memorial Trophy was established in his honor as an award to the top goaltender in the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League . The Jacques Plante Trophy was established in Switzerland after Plante 's death ; it is given out annually to the top Swiss goaltender . The main arena in Shawinigan the town he grew up in , was renamed to Aréna Jacques Plante .
Plante was selected by Sports Illustrated magazine to its 1991 all @-@ time All @-@ Star team .
His injury and subsequent donning of a mask was depicted in an installment of Canada 's Heritage Minute series .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Post season = = =
= = = Coaching statistics = = =
= = Awards and honours = =
= Maryland Route 235 =
Maryland Route 235 ( MD 235 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . Known as Three Notch Road , the state highway runs 30 @.@ 63 miles ( 49 @.@ 29 km ) between its southern intersection with MD 5 in Ridge and its northern intersection with MD 5 near Mechanicsville . While the southern part of the state highway is a quiet rural road , the northern part of MD 235 is a four- to six @-@ lane divided highway connecting Naval Air Station Patuxent River ( NAS Patuxent River ) and the Washington , D.C. , metro area in conjunction with MD 5 . Three Notch Road has been the main highway between northern St. Mary 's County and Point Lookout since the colonial era . The highway was reconstructed as the modern MD 235 between 1923 and 1938 . The state highway was then completely rebuilt during World War II to serve the recently established NAS Patuxent River . Between 1960 and 1985 , MD 235 was converted into a four @-@ lane divided highway to the west and north of the military base . In the face of increasing activity at the base , the highway adjacent to NAS Patuxent River was expanded to six lanes in the early 2000s .
= = Route description = =
MD 235 begins at an intersection with MD 5 ( Point Lookout Road ) in Ridge . The state highway heads north as a two @-@ lane road that passes through the community of Dameron and to the west of The Elms Wildlife Management Area . MD 235 meets the eastern end of MD 489 ( Park Hall Road ) , a connector between MD 235 and MD 5 , east of Park Hall Estates . The state highway passes a section of old alignment , Poplar Ridge Road , on the east , then curves northwest and intersects MD 712 ( Forest Park Road ) and Hermanville Road in the hamlet of Hermanville at the southern edge of NAS Patuxent River . MD 235 expands to a four @-@ lane road with center turn lane and the highway runs along the western edge of the military base . The state highway intersects MD 246 ( Great Mills Road ) , which serves the main gate of NAS Patuxent River , in the center of Lexington Park .
MD 235 continues northwest along the boundary of NAS Patuxent River as a six @-@ lane divided highway . Beyond Pegg Road , which heads east to another entrance to the military base , the highway leaves the vicinity of the naval air station . MD 235 continues into California , where the highway meets the northern end of MD 237 ( Chancellors Run Road ) . A short distance to the north , MD 235 intersects MD 4 , which heads west as St. Andrew 's Church Road and east as Patuxent Beach Road toward the Governor Thomas Johnson Bridge over the Patuxent River to Calvert County . Beyond MD 4 , the highway reduces to a four @-@ lane divided highway and passes to the east of St. Mary 's County Regional Airport . The first of several sections of old alignment , ( Mervell Dean Road ) , splits to the north ; the northern portion of the old highway is MD 944 . MD 235 continues past Clarks Landing Road , which is unsigned MD 944C , before it receives the northern end of MD 944 a little south of the main road 's intersection with MD 245 ( Hollywood Road / Sotterley Road ) in Hollywood .
MD 235 receives Old Three Notch Road as it leaves Hollywood , then it parallels another of its former courses , Clover Hill Road , as the highway passes through Hillville . Beyond the intersection with MD 472 ( North Sandgates Road ) , MD 235 passes through Oakville , where another old alignment , Oakville Road , splits to the north before the main road intersects MD 247 ( Loveville Road ) . Mt . Zion Church Road , yet another old alignment , splits to the north in the hamlet of Laurel Grove before MD 235 intersects the eastern terminus of MD 6 ( New Market – Turner Road ) and Morganza – Turner Road in Oraville . The final old alignment of MD 235 , Harpers Corner Road , splits to the west shortly before the state highway reaches its northern terminus at MD 5 near Mechanicsville . MD 5 heads southwest as two @-@ lane Point Lookout Road toward Leonardtown . Northbound MD 5 continues straight on the divided highway as Three Notch Road toward Charlotte Hall and Waldorf .
MD 235 is part of the main National Highway System from MD 246 in Lexington Park to its northern junction with MD 5 in Mechanicsville . The highway is also a National Highway System principal arterial between MD 712 and MD 246 in Lexington Park .
= = History = =
MD 235 follows the path of what was the first major long @-@ distance highway in St. Mary 's County , the Patuxent Main Road . The road , established by 1692 , connected Point Lookout and northern St. Mary 's County along the drainage divide between the Potomac River and Chesapeake Bay . The Patuxent Main Road later became known as the Three Notch Road based on a 1704 law that stated " three notches of equal distance marked on the trees indicated a road leading to a ferry . " The whereabouts of the ferry to which this road led are unknown . After 200 years of little improvement , reconstruction of the Three Notch Road by the Maryland State Roads Commission began in 1923 when the highway was rebuilt as a 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) wide gravel road from MD 5 near Mechanicsville south to MD 472 in Oakville . The gravel road was extended south from Oakville 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to Friendship School Road in 1924 .
Construction on Three Notch Road resumed in 1926 when two sections were placed under construction . A 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) segment of gravel highway was constructed south from MD 246 in Jarboesville ( now Lexington Park ) toward Hermanville in 1926 and 1927 . The northern segment of MD 235 was extended to Hillville in 1928 and to Hollywood in 1929 . The southern gravel section of the highway was extended 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south to Hermanville in 1930 . Also in 1930 , construction on the 6 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 10 @.@ 5 km ) gap between Hollywood and Jarboesville began and a new segment of MD 235 was started from Ridge north 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) to Dameron . The Ridge – Dameron segment was completed in 1932 and the gravel highway from Hollywood to Jarboesville was finished in 1933 . The gravel section constructed from Ridge reached Bay Forest Road by 1935 and Hermanville in 1938 , completing MD 235 .
Immediately after the beginning of U.S. involvement in World War II , the U.S. Navy made plans to construct a naval air station on the Cedar Point peninsula near Jarboesville . MD 235 was marked for an upgrade from MD 5 to Jarboesville both to connect the new military installation with Washington and to allow the road to handle the heavy military traffic that would travel the highway during the military base 's construction and operations . The highway was under construction by the end of 1942 . The highway 's gravel surface was widened as a first layer and surface treated in autumn 1943 to help heavy traffic during the winter . In spring 1944 the first layer was scarified and the top 4 inches ( 10 cm ) were mixed with asphalt to form a base . This base was covered with a 2 @-@ inch ( 5 @.@ 1 cm ) wearing surface of bituminous concrete . MD 235 was also reconstructed in this manner from Jarboesville to Hermanville in 1944 and 1945 ; included in that project was the construction of MD 712 to provide a modern highway to the naval air station 's South Gate . During the reconstruction of MD 235 , the highway was relocated in many places between Mechanicsville and Hollywood to remove substandard curves and avoid grade crossings with the southern extension of the Washington , Brandywine and Point Lookout Railroad that the U.S. Navy constructed contemporaneously to provide a rail link to the military base . Many of the bypassed stretches of highway — which included Harpers Corner Road in Oraville , Mount Zion Church Road in Laurel Grove , Oakville Road in Oakville , Clover Hill Road in Hillville , Old Three Notch Road in Hollywood , and the southernmost portion of Mervell Dean Road — were designated as sections of MD 722 .
The next major project along MD 235 was the reconstruction of the 1930s gravel highway between Ridge and Hermanville . Construction began in 1957 from Hermanville and was completed south to Park Hall in 1959 , with the remainder of the highway completed around 1960 . MD 235 was relocated between Park Hall and Hermanville , leaving behind Poplar Ridge Road as an old alignment . Also in 1960 , the state highway was expanded to a divided highway from Hermanville to Lexington Park . MD 235 was widened to a divided highway from Hollywood to Hillville in 1968 , from Mechanicsville to Oakville in 1969 , and from MD 246 in Lexington Park to Town Creek Drive in California in 1973 . Two sections of divided highway were completed in 1982 : from Town Creek Drive to just north of the newly constructed MD 4 intersection in California ; and from Oakville to Hillville . The final segment of MD 235 between Hermanville and Mechanicsville to be expanded to a divided highway was completed from California to Hollywood in 1985 . The portion of the state highway from just north of St. Mary 's County Regional Airport to just south of MD 245 in Hollywood was relocated to the west along the right @-@ of @-@ way of the Washington , Brandywine and Point Lookout Railroad , which had earlier been abandoned . The bypassed highway was renamed as a northward extension of Mervell Dean Road and designated MD 944 .
MD 235 was widened in Lexington Park and California between 2000 and 2004 due to increased activity at the military base and its supporting industries . The state highway was widened to six lanes from north of Pegg Road to Town Creek Drive in 2000 and from Town Creek Drive to just north of MD 4 in 2001 . Expansion to six lanes occurred from FDR Boulevard to north of Pegg Road in 2003 . The final section of widening occurred in 2004 when the six @-@ lane section was extended south from FDR Boulevard to MD 246 . MD 235 between MD 712 and MD 246 was transformed from a four @-@ lane divided highway to a five @-@ lane road with center turn lane in 2004 as well .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in St. Mary 's County .
= Columbia University =
Columbia University ( officially Columbia University in the City of New York ) is a private Ivy League research university in Upper Manhattan , New York City . It was established in 1754 as King 's College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain . Columbia is the oldest college in New York and the fifth chartered institution of higher learning in the country , making it one of nine colonial colleges founded before the Declaration of Independence . After the American Revolutionary War , King 's College briefly became a state entity , and was renamed Columbia College in 1784 . A 1787 charter placed the institution under a private board of trustees before it was renamed Columbia University in 1896 when the campus was moved from Madison Avenue to its current location in Morningside Heights occupying 32 acres ( 13 ha ) of land . Columbia is one of the fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities , and was the first school in the United States to grant the M.D. degree .
The university is organized into twenty schools , including Columbia College , the School of Engineering and Applied Science , and the School of General Studies . The university also has global research outposts in Amman , Beijing , Istanbul , Paris , Mumbai , Rio de Janeiro , Santiago , Asunción and Nairobi . It has affiliations with several other institutions nearby , including Teachers College , Barnard College , and Union Theological Seminary , with joint undergraduate programs available through the Jewish Theological Seminary of America , University College London , Sciences Po , and the Juilliard School .
Columbia annually administers the Pulitzer Prize . Notable alumni and former students ( counting those from King 's College ) include five Founding Fathers of the United States ; nine Justices of the United States Supreme Court ; 20 living billionaires ; 29 Academy Award winners ; and 29 heads of state , including three United States Presidents . Additionally , 104 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Columbia as students , researchers , faculty , or staff . Columbia is second only to Harvard University in the number of Pulitzer Prize winning alumni and former students , with over 100 recipients as of 2015 .
= = History = =
= = = King 's College ( 1754 – 1784 ) = = =
Discussions regarding the founding of a college in the Province of New York began as early as 1704 , at which time Colonel Lewis Morris wrote to the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts , the missionary arm of the Church of England , persuading the society that New York City was an ideal community in which to establish a college ; however , not until the founding of Princeton University across the Hudson River in New Jersey did the City of New York seriously consider founding a college . In 1746 an act was passed by the general assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college . In 1751 , the assembly appointed a commission of ten New York residents , seven of whom were members of the Church of England , to direct the funds accrued by the state lottery towards the foundation of a college .
Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the college 's first president , Dr. Samuel Johnson . Dr. Johnson was the only instructor of the college 's first class , which consisted of a mere eight students . Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church , located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan . The college was officially founded on October 31 , 1754 , as King 's College by royal charter of King George II , making it the oldest institution of higher learning in the state of New York and the fifth oldest in the United States .
In 1763 , Dr. Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper , a graduate of The Queen 's College , Oxford , and an ardent Tory . In the charged political climate of the American Revolution , his chief opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777 , Alexander Hamilton . The American Revolutionary War broke out in 1776 , and was catastrophic for the operation of King 's College , which suspended instruction for eight years beginning in 1776 with the arrival of the Continental Army . The suspension continued through the military occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783 . The college 's library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a military hospital first by American and then British forces . Loyalists were forced to abandon their King 's College in New York , which was seized by the rebels and renamed Columbia College . The Loyalists , led by Bishop Charles Inglis fled to Windsor , Nova Scotia , where they founded King 's Collegiate School .
= = = Columbia College ( 1784 – 1896 ) = = =
After the Revolution , the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality , promising to make whatever changes to the school 's charter the state might demand . The Legislature agreed to assist the college , and on May 1 , 1784 , it passed " an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called King 's College . " The Act created a Board of Regents to oversee the resuscitation of King 's College , and , in an effort to demonstrate its support for the new Republic , the Legislature stipulated that " the College within the City of New York heretofore called King 's College be forever hereafter called and known by the name of Columbia College , " a reference to Columbia , an alternative name for America . The Regents finally became aware of the college 's defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee , which was headed by John Jay and Alexander Hamilton . In April of that same year , a new charter was adopted for the college , still in use today , granting power to a private board of 24 Trustees .
On May 21 , 1787 , William Samuel Johnson , the son of Dr. Samuel Johnson , was unanimously elected President of Columbia College . Prior to serving at the university , Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention . For a period in the 1790s , with New York City as the federal and state capital and the country under successive Federalist governments , a revived Columbia thrived under the auspices of Federalists such as Hamilton and Jay . Both President George Washington and Vice President John Adams attended the college 's commencement on May 6 , 1789 , as a tribute of honor to the many alumni of the school who had been involved in the American Revolution .
The college 's enrollment , structure , and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century , with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned . In 1857 , the college moved from Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue , where it remained for the next forty years . During the last half of the 19th century , under the leadership of President F.A.P. Barnard , the institution rapidly assumed the shape of a modern university . By this time , the college 's investments in New York real estate became a primary source of steady income for the school , mainly owing to the city 's expanding population .
= = = Columbia University ( 1896 – present ) = = =
In 1896 , the trustees officially authorized the use of yet another new name , Columbia University , and today the institution is officially known as " Columbia University in the City of New York . " At the same time , university president Seth Low moved the campus again , from 49th Street to its present location , a more spacious campus in the developing neighborhood of Morningside Heights . Under the leadership of Low 's successor , Nicholas Murray Butler , who served for over four decades , Columbia rapidly became the nation 's major institution for research , setting the " multiversity " model that later universities would adopt .
Research into the atom by faculty members John R. Dunning , I. I. Rabi , Enrico Fermi and Polykarp Kusch placed Columbia 's Physics Department in the international spotlight in the 1940s after the first nuclear pile was built to start what became the Manhattan Project . In 1947 , to meet the needs of GIs returning from World War II , University Extension was reorganized as an undergraduate college and designated the Columbia University School of General Studies .
During the 1960s Columbia experienced large @-@ scale student activism , which reached a climax in the spring of 1968 when hundreds of students occupied buildings on campus . The incident forced the resignation of Columbia 's President , Grayson Kirk and the establishment of the University Senate .
Though several schools within the university had admitted women for years , Columbia College first admitted women in the fall of 1983 , after a decade of failed negotiations with Barnard College , the all @-@ female institution affiliated with the university , to merge the two schools . Barnard College still remains affiliated with Columbia , and all Barnard graduates are issued diplomas authorized by both Columbia University and Barnard College .
= = Campus = =
Along with NYU and the Catholic Church , Columbia University is one of the top 3 largest landowners in New York City .
= = = Morningside Heights = = =
The majority of Columbia 's graduate and undergraduate studies are conducted in Morningside Heights on Seth Low 's late @-@ 19th century vision of a university campus where all disciplines could be taught in one location . The campus was designed along Beaux @-@ Arts principles by architects McKim , Mead , and White . Columbia 's main campus occupies more than six city blocks , or 32 acres ( 13 ha ) , in Morningside Heights , New York City , a neighborhood that contains a number of academic institutions . The university owns over 7 @,@ 800 apartments in Morningside Heights , housing faculty , graduate students , and staff . Almost two dozen undergraduate dormitories ( purpose @-@ built or converted ) are located on campus or in Morningside Heights . Columbia University has an extensive underground tunnel system more than a century old , with the oldest portions predating the present campus . Some of these remain accessible to the public , while others have been cordoned off .
The Nicholas Murray Butler Library , commonly known simply as Butler Library , is the largest single library in the Columbia University Library System , and is one of the largest buildings on the campus . Proposed as " South Hall " by the university 's former President Nicholas Murray Butler as expansion plans for Low Memorial Library stalled , the new library was funded by Edward Harkness , benefactor of Yale 's residential college system , and designed by his favorite architect , James Gamble Rogers . It was completed in 1934 and renamed for Butler in 1946 . The library design is neo @-@ classical in style . Its facade features an arcade of columns in the Ionic order above which are inscribed the names of great writers , philosophers , and thinkers , most of whom are read by students engaged in the Core Curriculum of Columbia College . As of 2012 , Columbia 's library system includes over 11 @.@ 9 million volumes , making it the eighth largest library system and fifth largest collegiate library system in the United States . It has also been ranked among the United States ' most beautiful libraries .
Several buildings on the Morningside Heights campus are listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Low Memorial Library , a National Historic Landmark and the centerpiece of the campus , is listed for its architectural significance . Philosophy Hall is listed as the site of the invention of FM radio . Also listed is Pupin Hall , another National Historic Landmark , which houses the physics and astronomy departments . Here the first experiments on the fission of uranium were conducted by Enrico Fermi . The uranium atom was split there ten days after the world 's first atom @-@ splitting in Copenhagen , Denmark .
A statue by sculptor Daniel Chester French called Alma Mater is centered on the front steps of Low Memorial Library . McKim , Mead & White invited French to build the sculpture in order to harmonize with the larger composition of the court and library in the center of the campus . Draped in an academic gown , the female figure of Alma Mater wears a crown of laurels and sits on a throne . The scroll @-@ like arms of the throne end in lamps , representing sapientia and doctrina . A book signifying knowledge , balances on her lap , and an owl , the attribute of wisdom , is hidden in the folds of her gown . Her right hand holds a scepter composed of four sprays of wheat , terminating with a crown of King 's College which refers to Columbia 's origin as a Royalist institution in 1754 . A local actress named Mary Lawton was said to have posed for parts of the sculpture . The statue was dedicated on September 23 , 1903 , as a gift of Mr. & Mrs. Robert Goelet , and was originally covered in golden leaf . During the Columbia University protests of 1968 a bomb damaged the sculpture , but it has since been repaired . The small hidden owl on the sculpture is also the subject of many Columbia legends , the main legend being that the first student in the freshmen class to find the hidden owl on the statue will be valedictorian , and that any subsequent Columbia male who finds it will marry a Barnard student , given that Barnard is a women 's college .
" The Steps " , alternatively known as " Low Steps " or the " Urban Beach " , are a popular meeting area for Columbia students . The term refers to the long series of granite steps leading from the lower part of campus ( South Field ) to its upper terrace . With a design inspired by the City Beautiful movement , the steps of Low Library provides Columbia University and Barnard College students , faculty , and staff with a comfortable outdoor platform and space for informal gatherings , events , and ceremonies . McKim 's classical facade epitomizes late 19th century new @-@ classical designs , with its columns and portico marking the entrance to an important structure . On warm days when the weather is favorable , the Low Steps often become a popular gathering place for students to sunbathe , eat lunch , or play frisbee .
= = = Other campuses = = =
In April 2007 , the university purchased more than two @-@ thirds of a 17 acres ( 6 @.@ 9 ha ) site for a new campus in Manhattanville , an industrial neighborhood to the north of the Morningside Heights campus . Stretching from 125th Street to 133rd Street , the new campus will house buildings for Columbia 's Business School , School of International and Public Affairs , and the Jerome L. Greene Center for Mind , Brain , and Behavior , where research will occur on neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson 's and Alzheimer 's . The $ 7 billion expansion plan includes demolishing all buildings , except three that are historically significant , eliminating the existing light industry and storage warehouses , and relocating tenants in 132 apartments . Replacing these buildings will be 6 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 square feet ( 630 @,@ 000 m2 ) of space for the university . Community activist groups in West Harlem fought the expansion for reasons ranging from property protection and fair exchange for land , to residents ' rights . Subsequent public hearings drew neighborhood opposition . Most recently , as of December 2008 , the State of New York 's Empire State Development Corporation approved use of eminent domain , which , through declaration of Manhattanville 's " blighted " status , gives governmental bodies the right to appropriate private property for public use . On May 20 , 2009 , the New York State Public Authorities Control Board approved the Manhanttanville expansion plan and the first buildings are under construction .
New York @-@ Presbyterian Hospital is affiliated with the medical schools of both Columbia University and Cornell University . According to U.S. News & World Report 's " America 's Best Hospitals 2009 " , it is ranked sixth overall and third among university hospitals . Columbia 's medical school has a strategic partnership with New York State Psychiatric Institute , and is affiliated with 19 other hospitals in the U.S. and four hospitals overseas . Health @-@ related schools are located at the Columbia University Medical Center , a 20 acres ( 8 @.@ 1 ha ) campus located in the neighborhood of Washington Heights , fifty blocks uptown . Other teaching hospitals affiliated with Columbia through the New York @-@ Presbyterian network include the Payne Whitney Clinic in Manhattan , and the Payne Whitney Westchester , a psychiatric institute located in White Plains , New York . On the northern tip of Manhattan island ( in the neighborhood of Inwood ) , Columbia owns 26 @-@ acre ( 11 ha ) Baker Field , which includes the Lawrence A. Wien Stadium as well as facilities for field sports , outdoor track , and tennis . There is a third campus on the west bank of the Hudson River , the 157 @-@ acre ( 64 ha ) Lamont @-@ Doherty Earth Observatory and Earth Institute in Palisades , New York . A fourth is the 60 @-@ acre ( 24 ha ) Nevis Laboratories in Irvington , New York for the study of particle and motion physics . A satellite site in Paris , France holds classes at Reid Hall .
= = = Sustainability = = =
In 2006 , the university established the Office of Environmental Stewardship to initiate , coordinate and implement programs to reduce the university 's environmental footprint . The U.S. Green Building Council selected the university 's Manhattanville plan for the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design ( LEED ) Neighborhood Design pilot program . The plan commits to incorporating smart growth , new urbanism and " green " building design principles . Columbia is one of the 2030 Challenge Partners , a group of nine universities in the city of New York that have pledged to reduce their greenhouse emissions by 30 % within the next ten years . Columbia University adopts LEED standards for all new construction and major renovations . The University requires a minimum of Silver , but through its design and review process seeks to achieve higher levels . This is especially challenging for lab and research buildings with their intensive energy use ; however , the university also uses lab design guidelines that seek to maximize energy efficiency while protecting the safety of researchers .
Every Thursday and Sunday of the month , Columbia hosts a greenmarket where local farmers can sell their produce to residents of the city . In addition , from April to November Hodgson 's farm , a local New York gardening center , joins the market bringing a large selection of plants and blooming flowers . The market is one of the many operated at different points throughout the city by the non @-@ profit group GrowNYC . Dining services at Columbia spends 36 percent of its food budget on local products , in addition to serving sustainably harvested seafood and fair trade coffee on campus . Columbia has been rated " B + " by the 2011 College Sustainability Report Card for its environmental and sustainability initiatives .
= = Academics = =
= = = Undergraduate admissions and financial aid = = =
Columbia University received 36 @,@ 292 applications for its undergraduate class of 2020 ( entering 2016 ) . In early decision , 620 out of 3 @,@ 520 applicants were admitted , for an acceptance rate of 17 @.@ 61 % . In regular decision , 1 @,@ 573 out of 32 @,@ 772 applicants were admitted , for an acceptance rate of 4 @.@ 79 % . In total , 2 @,@ 193 out of 36 @,@ 292 applicants were admitted for an overall acceptance rate of 6 @.@ 04 % , making Columbia the third most selective college in the United States by admission rate behind Stanford and Harvard . The undergraduate yield rate for the class of 2019 was 63 @.@ 2 % . According to the 2012 college selectivity ranking by U.S. News & World Report , which factors admission and yield rates among other criteria , Columbia was tied with Yale , Caltech and MIT as the most selective colleges in the country . Columbia is a racially diverse school , with approximately 52 % of all students identifying themselves as persons of color . Additionally , 50 % of all undergraduates received grants from Columbia . The average grant size awarded to these students is $ 46 @,@ 516 . In 2015 @-@ 2016 , annual undergraduate tuition at Columbia was $ 50 @,@ 526 with a total cost of attendance of $ 65 @,@ 860 ( including room and board ) .
On April 11 , 2007 , Columbia University announced a $ 400m to $ 600m donation from media billionaire alumnus John Kluge to be used exclusively for undergraduate financial aid . The donation is among the largest single gifts to higher education . Its exact value will depend on the eventual value of Kluge 's estate at the time of his death ; however , the generous donation has helped change financial aid policy at Columbia . Annual gifts , fund @-@ raising , and an increase in spending from the university 's endowment have allowed Columbia to extend generous financial aid packages to qualifying students . As of 2008 , undergraduates from families with incomes as high as $ 60 @,@ 000 a year will have the projected cost of attending the university , including room , board , and academic fees , fully paid for by the university . That same year , the university ended loans for incoming and current students who were on financial aid , replacing loans that were traditionally part of aid packages with grants from the university . However , this does not apply to international students , transfer students , visiting students , or students in the School of General Studies . In the fall of 2010 , admission to Columbia 's undergraduate colleges Columbia College and the Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science ( also known as SEAS or Columbia Engineering ) began accepting the Common Application . The policy change made Columbia one of the last major academic institutions and the last Ivy League university to switch to the Common Application .
Scholarships are also given to undergraduate students by the admissions committee . Designations include John W. Kluge Scholars , John Jay Scholars , C. Prescott Davis Scholars , Global Scholars , Egleston Scholars , and Science Research Fellows . Named scholars are selected by the admission committee from first @-@ year applicants . According to Columbia , the first four designated scholars " distinguish themselves for their remarkable academic and personal achievements , dynamism , intellectual curiosity , the originality and independence of their thinking , and the diversity that stems from their different cultures and their varied educational experiences . "
= = = Organization = = =
Columbia University is an independent , privately supported , nonsectarian institution of higher education . Its official corporate name is " The Trustees of Columbia University in the City of New York . " The university 's first Charter was granted in 1754 by King George II ; however , its modern Charter was first enacted in 1787 and last amended in 1810 by the New York State Legislature . The university is governed by 24 Trustees , customarily including the President , who serves ex officio . The Trustees themselves are responsible for choosing their successors . Six of the 24 are nominated from a pool of candidates recommended by the Columbia Alumni Association . Another six are nominated by the Board in consultation with the Executive Committee of the University Senate . The remaining 12 , including the President , are nominated by the Trustees themselves through their internal processes . The term of office for Trustees is six years . Generally , they serve for no more than two consecutive terms . The Trustees appoint the President and other senior administrative officers of the university , and review and confirm faculty appointments as required . They determine the university 's financial and investment policies , authorize the budget , supervise the endowment , direct the management of the university 's real estate and other assets , and otherwise oversee the administration and management of the university .
The University Senate was established by the Trustees after a university @-@ wide referendum in 1969 . It succeeded to the powers of the University Council , which was created in 1890 as a body of faculty , deans , and other administrators to regulate inter @-@ Faculty affairs and consider issues of university @-@ wide concern . The University Senate is a unicameral body consisting of 107 members drawn from all constituencies of the university . These include the president of the university , the Provost , the Deans of Columbia College and the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences , all who serve ex officio , and five additional representatives , appointed by the President , from the university 's administration . The President serves as the Senate 's presiding officer . The Senate is charged with reviewing the educational policies , physical development , budget , and external relations of the university . It oversees the welfare and academic freedom of the faculty and the welfare of students .
The President of Columbia University , who is selected by the Trustees in consultation with the Executive Committee of the University Senate and who serves at the Trustees ' pleasure , is the chief executive officer of the university . Assisting the President in administering the University are the Provost , the Senior Executive Vice President , the Executive Vice President for Health and Biomedical Sciences , several other vice presidents , the General Counsel , the Secretary of the University , and the deans of the Faculties , all of whom are appointed by the Trustees on the nomination of the President and serve at their pleasure . Lee C. Bollinger became the 19th President of Columbia University on June 1 , 2002 . A prominent advocate of affirmative action , he played a leading role in the twin Supreme Court cases — Grutter v Bollinger and Gratz v Bollinger — that upheld and clarified the importance of diversity as a compelling justification for affirmative action in higher education . A leading First Amendment scholar , he is widely published on freedom of speech and press , and serves on the faculty of Columbia Law School .
Columbia has three official undergraduate colleges : Columbia College ( CC ) , the liberal arts college offering the Bachelor of Arts degree , the Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science ( also known as SEAS or Columbia Engineering ) is the engineering and applied science school offering the Bachelor of Science degree , and The School of General Studies ( GS ) , the liberal arts college offering the Bachelor of Arts degree to non @-@ traditional students undertaking full- or part @-@ time study . The university is affiliated with Teachers College , Barnard College , and Union Theological Seminary , all located nearby in Morningside Heights . Joint undergraduate programs are available through the Jewish Theological Seminary of America as well as through the Juilliard School . Affiliated institutions – Barnard College , Teachers College , and Union Theological Seminary – are also Faculties of the university . One affiliated institution — Teachers College — is likewise an academic department of the university .
= = = Research and rankings = = =
Columbia was the first North American site where the uranium atom was split . It was the birthplace of FM radio and the laser . The MPEG @-@ 2 algorithm of transmitting high quality audio and video over limited bandwidth was developed by Dimitris Anastassiou , a Columbia professor of electrical engineering . Biologist Martin Chalfie was the first to introduce the use of Green Fluorescent Protein ( GFP ) in labeling cells in intact organisms . Other inventions and products related to Columbia include Sequential Lateral Solidification ( SLS ) technology for making LCDs , System Management Arts ( SMARTS ) , Session Initiation Protocol ( SIP ) ( which is used for audio , video , chat , instant messaging and whiteboarding ) , pharmacopeia , Macromodel ( software for computational chemistry ) , a new and better recipe for glass concrete , Blue LEDs , and Beamprop ( used in photonics ) . Columbia scientists have been credited with about 175 new inventions in the health sciences each year . More than 30 pharmaceutical products based on discoveries and inventions made at Columbia are on the market today . These include Remicade ( for arthritis ) , Reopro ( for blood clot complications ) , Xalatan ( for glaucoma ) , Benefix , Latanoprost ( a glaucoma treatment ) , shoulder prosthesis , homocysteine ( testing for cardiovascular disease ) , and Zolinza ( for cancer therapy ) . Columbia Technology Ventures ( formerly Science and Technology Ventures ) , as of 2008 , manages some 600 patents and more than 250 active license agreements . Patent @-@ related deals earned Columbia more than $ 230 million in the 2006 fiscal year , according to the university , more than any university in the world .
Columbia University was ranked 4th overall among U.S. national universities for 2016 by U.S. News & World Report . Individual colleges and schools were also nationally ranked by U.S. News & World Report for its 2016 edition . The Columbia Law School was ranked tied for 4th , the Mailman School of Public Health 5th , the School of Social Work 5th , the Teachers College ( Columbia Graduate School of Education ) 7th , the Columbia Business School 8th , the College of Physicians and Surgeons tied for 8th for research ( and tied for 52nd for primary care ) , the Graduate School of Arts 10th , the School of Nursing tied for 11th , and the Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science ( graduate ) was ranked 14th .
In 2015 , Columbia was ranked 8th in the world by Academic Ranking of World Universities , 22nd in the world by QS World University Rankings , and 15th globally by Times Higher Education World University Rankings in the world .
Rankings by other organizations include the Graduate School of Architecture , Planning and Preservation # 2 , and its Graduate School of Journalism # 1 .
Between 1996 and 2008 , 18 Columbia affiliates have won Nobel Prizes , of whom nine are faculty members while one is an adjunct senior research scientist ( Daniel Tsui ) and the other a Global Fellow ( Kofi Annan ) . Columbia faculty awarded the Nobel Prize include Richard Axel , Martin Chalfie , Eric Kandel , Tsung @-@ Dao Lee , Robert Mundell , Orhan Pamuk , Edmund S. Phelps , Joseph Stiglitz , and Horst L. Stormer . Other awards and honors won by faculty include 30 MacArthur Foundation Award winners , 4 National Medal of Science recipients , 43 National Academy of Sciences Award winners , 20 National Academy of Engineering Award winners , 38 Institute of Medicine of the National Academies Award recipients and 143 American Academy of Arts and Sciences Award winners .
In 2015 , Columbia University was ranked the first in the state by average professor salaries . In 2011 , the Mines ParisTech : Professional Ranking World Universities ranked Columbia 3rd best university for forming CEOs in the US and 12th worldwide .
= = Student life = =
= = = Students = = =
In fall 2014 , Columbia University 's student population was 29 @,@ 870 ( 8 @,@ 559 students in undergraduate programs and 21 @,@ 311 in postgraduate programs ) , with 39 % of the student population identifying themselves as a minority and 28 % born outside of the United States . Twenty @-@ six percent of students at Columbia have family incomes below $ 60 @,@ 000 , making it one of the most socioeconomically diverse top @-@ tier colleges . Sixteen percent of students at Columbia receive Federal Pell Grants , which mostly go to students whose family incomes are below $ 40 @,@ 000 . Fifteen percent of students are the first member of their family to attend a four @-@ year college .
On @-@ campus housing is guaranteed for all four years as an undergraduate . Columbia College and the Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science ( also known as SEAS or Columbia Engineering ) share housing in the on @-@ campus residence halls . First @-@ year students usually live in one of the large residence halls situated around South Lawn : Hartley Hall , Wallach Hall ( originally Livingston Hall ) , John Jay Hall , Furnald Hall or Carman Hall . Upperclassmen participate in a room selection process , wherein students can pick to live in a mix of either corridor- or apartment @-@ style housing with their friends . The Columbia University School of General Studies and graduate schools have their own apartment @-@ style housing in the surrounding neighborhood .
Columbia University is home to many fraternities , sororities , and co @-@ educational Greek organizations . Approximately 10 – 15 % of undergraduate students are associated with Greek life . There has been a Greek presence on campus since the establishment in 1836 of the Delta Chapter of Alpha Delta Phi . The InterGreek Council is the self @-@ governing student organization that provides guidelines and support to its member organizations within each of the three councils at Columbia , the Interfraternity Council , Panhellenic Council , and Multicultural Greek Council . The three council presidents bring their affiliated chapters together once a month to meet as one Greek community . The InterGreek Council meetings provide opportunity for member organizations to learn from each other , work together and advocate for community needs .
= = = = Publications = = = =
Columbia University is home to a rich diversity of undergraduate , graduate , and professional publications . The Columbia Daily Spectator is the nation 's second @-@ oldest student newspaper ; and The Blue and White , a monthly literary magazine established in 1890 , has recently begun to delve into campus life and local politics in print and on its daily blog , dubbed the Bwog .
Political publications include The Current , a journal of politics , culture and Jewish Affairs ; the Columbia Political Review , the multi @-@ partisan political magazine of the Columbia Political Union ; and AdHoc , which denotes itself as the " progressive " campus magazine and deals largely with local political issues and arts events .
Arts and literary publications include the Columbia Review , the nation 's oldest college literary magazine ; Columbia , a nationally regarded literary journal ; the Columbia Journal of Literary Criticism ; and The Mobius Strip , an online arts and literary magazine . Inside New York is an annual guidebook to New York City , written , edited , and published by Columbia undergraduates . Through a distribution agreement with Columbia University Press , the book is sold at major retailers and independent bookstores .
Columbia is home to numerous undergraduate academic publications . The Journal of Politics & Society , is a journal of undergraduate research in the social sciences , published and distributed nationally by the Helvidius Group ; Publius is an undergraduate journal of politics established in 2008 and published biannually ; the Columbia East Asia Review allows undergraduates throughout the world to publish original work on China , Japan , Korea , Tibet , and Vietnam and is supported by the Weatherhead East Asian Institute ; and The Birch , is an undergraduate journal of Eastern European and Eurasian culture that is the first national student @-@ run journal of its kind ; the Columbia Political Review , the undergraduate magazine on politics operated by the Columbia Political Union ; the Columbia Economics Review , the undergraduate economic journal on research and policy supported by the Columbia Economics Department ; and the Columbia Science Review is a science magazine that prints general interest articles , faculty profiles , and student research papers .
The Fed a triweekly satire and investigative newspaper , and the Jester of Columbia , the newly ( and frequently ) revived campus humor magazine both inject humor into local life . Other publications include The Columbian , the undergraduate colleges ' annually published yearbook the Gadfly , a biannual journal of popular philosophy produced by undergraduates ; and Rhapsody in Blue , an undergraduate urban studies magazine . Professional journals published by academic departments at Columbia University include Current Musicology and The Journal of Philosophy . During the spring semester , graduate students in the Journalism School publish The Bronx Beat , a bi @-@ weekly newspaper covering the South Bronx . Teachers College publishes the Teachers College Record , a journal of research , analysis , and commentary in the field of education , published continuously since 1900 .
Founded in 1961 under the auspices of Columbia University 's Graduate School of Journalism , Columbia Journalism Review ( CJR ) examines day @-@ to @-@ day press performance as well as the forces that affect that performance . The magazine is published six times a year , and offers a reporting , analysis , criticism , and commentary . CJR.org , its web site , delivers real @-@ time criticism and reporting , giving CJR a presence in the ongoing conversation about the media .
= = = = Broadcasting = = = =
Columbia is home to two pioneers in undergraduate campus radio broadcasting , WKCR @-@ FM and CTV . WKCR , the student run radio station that broadcasts to the Tri @-@ State area , claims to be the oldest FM radio station in the world , owing to the university 's affiliation with Major Edwin Armstrong . The station went operational on July 18 , 1939 , from a 400 @-@ foot antenna tower in Alpine , New Jersey , broadcasting the very first FM transmission in the world . Initially , WKCR wasn 't a radio station , but an organization concerned with the technology of radio communications . As membership grew , however , the nascent club turned its efforts to broadcasting . Armstrong helped the students in their early efforts , donating a microphone and turntables when they designed their first makeshift studio in a dorm room . The station has its studios on the second floor of Alfred Lerner Hall on the Morningside campus with its main transmitter tower at 4 Times Square in Midtown Manhattan . Columbia Television ( CTV ) is the nation 's second oldest Student television station and home of CTV News , a weekly live news program produced by undergraduate students .
= = = = Debate and Model UN = = = =
The Philolexian Society is a literary and debating club founded in 1802 , making it the oldest student group at Columbia , as well as the third oldest collegiate literary society in the country . The society annually administers the Joyce Kilmer Bad Poetry Contest . The Columbia Parliamentary Debate Team competes in tournaments around the country as part of the American Parliamentary Debate Association , and hosts both high school and college tournaments on Columbia 's campus , as well as public debates on issues affecting the university .
The Columbia International Relations Council and Association ( CIRCA ) , oversees Columbia 's Model United Nations activities . CIRCA hosts college and high school Model UN conferences , hosts speakers influential in international politics to speak on campus , trains students from underprivileged schools in New York in Model UN and oversees a competitive team , which travels to colleges around the country and to an international conference every year . The competitive team consistently wins best and outstanding delegation awards and is considered one of the top teams in the country .
= = = Technology and entrepreneurship = = =
The Columbia University Organization of Rising Entrepreneurs ( CORE ) was founded in 1999 . The student @-@ run group aims to foster entrepreneurship on campus . Each year CORE hosts dozens of events , including talks , # StartupColumbia , a conference and venture competition for $ 250 @,@ 000 , and Ignite @ CU , a weekend for undergrads interested in design , engineering , and entrepreneurship . Notable speakers include Peter Thiel , Jack Dorsey , Alexis Ohanian , Drew Houston , and Mark Cuban . By 2006 , CORE had awarded graduate and undergraduate students over $ 100 @,@ 000 in seed capital .
CampusNetwork , an on @-@ campus social networking site called Campus Network that preceded Facebook , was created and popularized by Columbia engineering student Adam Goldberg in 2003 . Mark Zuckerberg later asked Goldberg to join him in Palo Alto to work on Facebook , but Goldberg declined the offer . The Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science offers a minor in Technical Entrepreneurship through its Center for Technology , Innovation , and Community Engagement . SEAS ' entrepreneurship activities focus on community building initiatives in New York and worldwide , made possible through partners such as Microsoft Corporation .
Columbia is a top supplier of young engineering entrepreneurs for New York City . Over the past 20 years , graduates of Columbia established over 100 technology companies . Mayor Bloomberg has provided over $ 6 @.@ 7 million towards entrepreneurial programs that partner with Columbia and other universities in New York . Professor Chris Wiggins of the Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science is working in conjunction with Professors Evan Korth of New York University and Hilary Mason , chief scientist at bit.ly to facilitate the growth of student tech @-@ startups in an effort to transform a traditionally financially centered New York City into the next Silicon Valley . Their website , hackny.org , is a gathering ground of ideas and discussions for New York 's young entrepreneurial community , the Silicon Alley .
On June 14 , 2010 , Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg launched the NYC Media Lab to promote innovations in New York 's media industry . Situated in the Polytechnic Institute of New York University , the lab is a consortium of Columbia University , New York University , and New York City Economic Development Corporation acting to connect companies with universities in new technology research . The Lab is modeled after similar ones at MIT and Stanford . A $ 250 @,@ 000 grant from the New York City Economic Development Corporation was used to establish the NYC Media Lab . Each year , the lab will host a range of roundtable discussions between the private sector and academic institutions . It will support research projects on topics of content format , next @-@ generation search technologies , computer animation for film and gaming , emerging marketing techniques , and new devices development . The lab will also create a media research and development database . Columbia University will coordinate the long @-@ term direction of the media lab as well as the involvement of its faculty and those of other universities .
= = = Athletics = = =
A member institution of the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) in Division I FCS , Columbia fields varsity teams in 29 sports and is a member of the Ivy League . The football Lions play home games at the 17 @,@ 000 @-@ seat Robert K. Kraft Field at Lawrence A. Wien Stadium . One hundred blocks north of the main campus at Morningside Heights , the Baker Athletics Complex also includes facilities for baseball , softball , soccer , lacrosse , field hockey , tennis , track and rowing , as well as the new Campbell Sports Center opened in January 2013 . The basketball , fencing , swimming & diving , volleyball and wrestling programs are based at the Dodge Physical Fitness Center on the main campus .
Columbia University athletics has a long history , with many accomplishments in athletic fields . In 1870 , Columbia played against Rutgers University in the second football game in the history of the sport . Eight years later , Columbia crew won the famed Henley Royal Regatta in the first @-@ ever defeat for an English crew rowing in English waters . In 1900 , Olympian and Columbia College student Maxie Long set the first official world record in the 400 meters with a time of 47 @.@ 8 seconds . In 1983 , Columbia men 's soccer went 18 @-@ 0 and was ranked first in the nation , but lost to Indiana 1 @-@ 0 in double overtime in the NCAA championship game ; nevertheless , the team went further toward the NCAA title than any Ivy League soccer team in history . The football program unfortunately is best known for its record of futility set during the 1980s : between 1983 and 1988 , the team lost 44 games in a row , which is still the record for the NCAA Football Championship Subdivision . The streak was broken on October 8 , 1988 , with a 16 @-@ 13 victory over archrival Princeton University . That was the Lions ' first victory at Wien Stadium , which had been opened during the losing streak and was already four years old . A new tradition has developed with the Liberty Cup . The Liberty Cup is awarded annually to the winner of the football game between Fordham and Columbia Universities , two of the only three NCAA Division I football teams in New York City . The tradition began in
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date passed without incident , Lieder said that it was merely a " white lie ... to fool the establishment . " She refused to disclose the true date , saying that to do so would give those in power enough time to declare martial law and trap people in cities during the shift , leading to their deaths . Though Lieder herself has not specified a new date for the object 's return , many groups have taken up her idea and cited their own dates . One frequently cited date was December 21 , 2012 . This date had many apocalyptic associations , as it was the end of a cycle ( baktun ) in the long count in the Mayan calendar . Several writers published books connecting the encounter with 2012 . Despite that date having passed , many websites still contend that Nibiru / Planet X is en route to Earth .
In 2012 , Lieder claimed that U.S. President Barack Obama futilely attempted to announce the presence of Nibiru near the sun . After 2012 , she claimed that several world leaders had intended to announce the presence of Nibiru near the sun on October 20 , 2014 . Two weeks after the supposed date of announcement , she claimed that it did not occur because of consternation amongst the establishment .
= = = Zecharia Sitchin and Sumer = = =
Although Lieder originally referred to the object as " Planet X " , it has become deeply associated with Nibiru , a planet from the works of ancient astronaut proponent Zecharia Sitchin , particularly his book The 12th Planet . According to Sitchin 's interpretation of Babylonian religious texts , which contradicts conclusions reached by credited scholars on the subject , a giant planet ( called Nibiru or Marduk ) passes by Earth every 3 @,@ 600 years and allows its sentient inhabitants to interact with humanity . These beings , which Sitchin identified with the Annunaki of Sumerian myth , would become humanity 's first gods . Lieder first made the connection between Nibiru and her Planet X on her site in 1996 ( " Planet X does exist , and it is the 12th Planet , one and the same . " ) .
However , Sitchin , who died in 2010 , denied any connection between his work and Lieder 's claims . In 2007 , partly in response to Lieder 's proclamations , Sitchin published a book , The End of Days , which set the time for the last passing of Nibiru by Earth at 556 BC , which would mean , given the object 's supposed 3 @,@ 600 @-@ year orbit , that it would return sometime around AD 2900 . He did however say that he believed that the Annunaki might return earlier by spaceship , and that the timing of their return would coincide with the shift from the astrological Age of Pisces to the Age of Aquarius , sometime between 2090 and 2370 .
= = Scientific rejection = =
Astronomers reject the idea of Nibiru , and have made efforts to inform the public that there is no threat to Earth . They point out that such an object so close to Earth would be easily visible to the naked eye . A planet such as Nibiru would create noticeable effects in the orbits of the outer planets . Some counter this by claiming that the object has been concealed behind the Sun for several years , though this would be geometrically impossible . Most photographs showing " Nibiru " by the Sun are in fact of lens flares , false images of the Sun created by reflections within the lens .
Astronomer Mike Brown notes that if this object 's orbit were as described , it would only have lasted in the Solar System for a million years or so before Jupiter expelled it , and that there is no way another object 's magnetic field could have such an effect on Earth . Lieder 's assertions that the approach of Nibiru would cause the Earth 's rotation to stop or its axis to shift violate the laws of physics . In his rebuttal of Immanuel Velikovsky 's Worlds in Collision , which made the same claim that the Earth 's rotation could be stopped and then restarted , Carl Sagan noted that , " the energy required to brake the Earth is not enough to melt it , although it would result in a noticeable increase in temperature : The oceans would [ be ] raised to the boiling point of water ... [ Also , ] how does the Earth get started up again , rotating at approximately the same rate of spin ? The Earth cannot do it by itself , because of the law of the conservation of angular momentum . "
In a 2009 interview with the Discovery Channel , Mike Brown noted that , while it is not impossible that the Sun has a distant planetary companion , such an object would have to be lying very far from the observed regions of the Solar System to have no detectable gravitational effect on the other planets . A Mars @-@ sized object could lie undetected at 300 AU ( 10 times the distance of Neptune ) ; a Jupiter @-@ sized object at 30 @,@ 000 AU . To travel 1000 AU in two years , an object would need to be moving at 2400 km / s – faster than the galactic escape velocity . At that speed , any object would be shot out of the Solar System , and then out of the Milky Way galaxy into intergalactic space .
= = Conspiracy theories = =
Many believers in the imminent approach of Planet X / Nibiru accuse NASA of deliberately covering up visual evidence of its existence . One such accusation involves the IRAS infrared space observatory , launched in 1983 . The satellite briefly made headlines due to an " unknown object " that was at first described as " possibly as large as the giant planet Jupiter and possibly so close to Earth that it would be part of this Solar System " . This newspaper article has been cited by proponents of the Nibiru cataclysm , beginning with Lieder herself , as evidence for the existence of Nibiru . However , further analysis revealed that of several initially unidentified objects , nine were distant galaxies and the tenth was " galactic cirrus " ; none were found to be Solar System bodies .
Another accusation frequently made by websites predicting the collision is that the U.S. government built the South Pole Telescope ( SPT ) to track Nibiru 's trajectory , and that the object has been imaged optically . However , the SPT ( which is not funded by NASA ) is a radio telescope , and cannot take optical images . Its South Pole location was chosen due to the low @-@ humidity environment , and there is no way an approaching object could be seen only from the South Pole . The " picture " of Nibiru posted on YouTube was revealed , in fact , to be a Hubble image of the expanding light echo around the star V838 Mon .
Another conspiracy claim regards a patch of missing data in Google Sky near the constellation of Orion , which has often been cited as evidence that Nibiru has been redacted . However , the same region of sky can still be viewed by thousands of amateur astronomers . A scientist at Google said that the missing data is due to a glitch in the stitching software used to piece the images together .
Another piece of claimed evidence drawn from Google Sky is the carbon star CW Leonis , which is the brightest object in the 10 μm infrared sky and is frequently claimed to be Nibiru .
= = Misappellations = =
Believers in Planet X / Nibiru have given it many names since it was first proposed . All are , in fact , names for other real , hypothetical or imaginary Solar System objects that bear little resemblance either to the planet described by Lieder or to Nibiru as described by Sitchin .
= = = Planet X = = =
Lieder drew the name Planet X from the hypothetical planet once searched for by astronomers to account for discrepancies in the orbits of Uranus and Neptune . In 1894 , Bostonian astronomer Percival Lowell became convinced that the planets Uranus and Neptune had slight discrepancies in their orbits . He concluded that they were being tugged by the gravity of another , more distant planet , which he called " Planet X " . However , nearly a century of searching failed to turn up any evidence for such an object ( Pluto was initially believed to be Planet X , but was later determined to be too small ) . In 1992 , astronomer Myles Standish showed that the supposed discrepancies in the planets ' orbits were illusory , the product of overestimating the mass of Neptune . Today astronomers accept that Planet X , at least as originally defined , does not exist .
= = = Hercolubus = = =
In 1999 , New Age author V. M. Rabolu wrote in Hercolubus or Red Planet that Barnard 's star is actually a planet known to the ancients as Hercolubus , which purportedly came dangerously close to Earth in the past , destroying Atlantis , and will come close to Earth again . Lieder subsequently used Rabolu 's ideas to bolster her claims .
Barnard 's star has been directly measured to be 5 @.@ 98 ± 0 @.@ 003 light years from Earth ( 35 @.@ 15 trillion miles ) . While it is approaching Earth , Barnard 's Star will not make its closest approach to the Sun until around 11 @,@ 700 AD , when it will approach to within some 3 @.@ 8 light @-@ years . This is only slightly closer than the closest star to the Sun ( Proxima Centauri ) lies today .
= = = Nemesis = = =
Believers in Planet X / Nibiru have often confused it with Nemesis , a hypothetical star first proposed by physicist Richard A. Muller . In 1984 , Muller postulated that mass extinctions were not random , but appeared to occur in the fossil record with a loose periodicity that ranged from 26 to 34 million years . He attributed this supposed pattern to a heretofore undetected companion to the Sun , either a dim red dwarf or a brown dwarf , lying in an elliptical , 26 @-@ million @-@ year orbit . This object , which he named Nemesis , would , once every 26 million years , pass through the Oort cloud , the shell of over a trillion icy objects believed to be the source of long @-@ period comets that orbit at thousands of times Pluto 's distance from the Sun . Nemesis 's gravity would then disturb the comets ' orbits and send them into the inner Solar System , causing the Earth to be bombarded . However , to date no direct evidence of Nemesis has been found . Though the idea of Nemesis appears similar to the Nibiru cataclysm , they are , in fact , very different , as Nemesis , if it existed , would have an orbital period thousands of times longer , and would never come near Earth itself .
= = = Sedna or Eris = = =
Still others confuse Nibiru with Sedna ( 90377 Sedna ) or Eris ( 136199 Eris ) , trans @-@ Neptunian objects discovered by Mike Brown in 2003 and 2005 respectively . However , despite having been described as a " tenth planet " in an early NASA press release , Eris ( Then known only as 2003 UB313 ) is now classified as a dwarf planet . Only slightly more massive than Pluto , Eris has a well @-@ determined orbit that never takes it closer than 5 @.@ 5 billion km from the Earth . Sedna is slightly smaller than Pluto , and never comes closer to Earth than 11 @.@ 4 billion km . Mike Brown believes the confusion results from both the real Eris and the imaginary Nibiru having extremely elliptical orbits .
= = = Tyche = = =
Others have tied it to Tyche ; the name proposed by John Matese and Daniel Whitmire of the University of Louisiana at Lafayette for an object they believe to be influencing the orbits of comets in the Oort cloud . In February , 2011 , Whitmire and his colleagues took their hypothesis to the public in an article in The Independent , in which they named the object " Tyche " and claimed that evidence for its existence would be found once data from the WISE infrared telescope was collated , leading to a spike in calls to astronomers . The name , after the " good sister " of the Greek goddess Nemesis , was chosen to distinguish it from the similar Nemesis hypothesis as , unlike Nemesis , Matese and Whitmire do not believe that their object poses a threat to Earth . Also , this object , if it exists , would , like Nemesis , have an orbit hundreds of times longer than that proposed for Nibiru , and never come near the inner Solar System . In 2014 , NASA announced that the WISE survey had ruled out the existence of Tyche as its proponents had defined it .
= = = Comet Elenin = = =
Some associated Nibiru with Comet Elenin , a long @-@ period comet discovered by Russian astronomer Leonid Elenin on December 10 , 2010 . On October 16 , 2011 , Elenin made its closest approach to the Earth at a distance of 0 @.@ 2338 AU ( 34 @,@ 980 @,@ 000 km ; 21 @,@ 730 @,@ 000 mi ) , which is slightly closer than the planet Venus . Nevertheless , in the leadup to its closest approach , claims spread on conspiracy websites concluded that it was on a collision course , that it was as large as Jupiter or even a brown dwarf , and even that the name of the discoverer , Leonid Elenin , was in fact code for ELE , or an Extinction Level Event .
Although the sizes of comets are difficult to determine without close observation , Comet Elenin is likely to be less than 10 km in diameter . Elenin himself estimates that the comet nucleus is roughly 3 – 4 km in diameter . This would make it millions of times smaller than the supposed Nibiru . Comet hysteria is not uncommon . Attempts have been made to correlate Elenin 's alignments with the 2011 Japan earthquake , the 2010 Canterbury earthquake , and 2010 Chile earthquake ; however , even discounting Elenin 's tiny size , earthquakes are driven by forces within the earth , and cannot be triggered by the passage of nearby objects . In 2011 , Leonid Elenin ran a simulation on his blog in which he increased the mass of the comet to that of a brown dwarf ( 0 @.@ 05 solar masses ) . He demonstrated that its gravity would have caused noticeable changes in the orbit of Saturn years before its arrival in the inner Solar System .
In August , 2011 , Comet Elenin began to disintegrate , and by the time of its closest approach in October 2011 the comet was undetected even by large ground @-@ based telescopes .
= = = Comet ISON = = =
On 21 September 2012 , Vitali Nevski and Artyom Novichonok , using the International Scientific Optical Network of telescopes ( ISON ) , discovered the comet C / 2012 S1 , popularly known as " Comet ISON " . Its orbit was expected to take it within 0 @.@ 429 AU ( 64 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 km ; 39 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 mi ) of Earth on 26 December 2013 . Nonetheless , believers tied it to the Nibiru cataclysm , claiming it would hit the Earth on that date , or that it would fragment and pieces of it would hit the Earth . Images of the " fragments " of the comet circulating on the internet were shown to be camera artifacts . On April 30 , 2013 , the Hubble Space Telescope took three pictures of the comet over the course of 12 hours , which were published as a composite in Hubble 's archives . This led to speculation on conspiracy sites that the comet had split into 3 pieces , or even that it was a UFO . After ISON passed perihelion on 28 November , it rapidly began to fade , leaving many to suspect that it had been destroyed as it passed the Sun . While a dim remnant did eventually return round the Sun , it was generally accepted to be a cloud of dust , rather than a solid object . On 2 December 2013 , the CIOC ( NASA Comet ISON Observing Campaign ) officially announced that Comet ISON had fully disintegrated . The Hubble Space Telescope failed to detect fragments of ISON on 18 December 2013 . On 8 May 2014 , a detailed examination of the comet disintegration was published , suggesting that the comet fully disintegrated hours before perihelion .
= = = Planet Nine = = =
In March 2014 , astronomers Chad Trujillo and Scott Sheppard published a paper in Nature arguing that the apparent clustering of the arguments of perihelion of distant trans @-@ Neptunian objects suggested the existence of a large trans @-@ Neptunian planet . On January 20 , 2016 , Mike Brown and Konstantin Batygin announced that they had corroborated Trujillo and Sheppard 's findings , and that they believed the planet , which they dubbed " Planet Nine " , would have a mass roughly ten times that of the Earth , and a semimajor axis of approximately 400 – 1500 AU ( 60 – 225 billion km ) . Believers in Nibiru and the Nibiru cataclysm immediately argued that this constituted evidence for their claims . However , astronomers pointed out that this planet , if it exists , would have a perihelion ( closest approach to the Sun ) of roughly 200 AU , or 30 billion km .
In March 2016 , believers in the Nibiru cataclysm began to suggest that the month marked the true date for Nibiru 's arrival and the destruction of Earth . That same month , the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society published a paper by Daniel Whitmire ( who had proposed the existence of Tyche ) in which he reconsidered a modified version of the Nemesis model he had first proposed in 1985 in light of recent speculations concerning the possibility of a trans @-@ Neptunian planet . The hypothesis argues that an object far closer to the Sun than Nemesis could have a similar effect if its orbit precessed at a rate thousands of times slower than its actual speed , which would mean it might only interact with the Kuiper belt every 27 million years , potentially sending comets into the inner Solar System and triggering mass extinctions . However , the paper had been initially published online in November 2015 , before Brown and Batygin went public with Planet Nine , and concerns a different object far closer to the Sun ( 100 AU vs. ~ 600 AU ) ; Planet Nine , if it exists , is too far away , says Brown , to have such an effect on the Kuiper belt . Nonetheless , an article in the British tabloid The Sun ( later republished in the New York Post ) conflated the three ideas of Nibiru , Planet Nine and Whitmire 's planet to suggest that not only had Planet Nine been found , but that it would collide with Earth at the end of April , which resulted in Batygin receiving a spike in panicked calls .
= = Public reaction = =
The impact of the public fear of the Nibiru cataclysm has been especially felt by professional astronomers . In 2008 , Mike Brown said that Nibiru was the most common pseudoscientific topic he was asked about .
Before his retirement after 2012 , David Morrison , director of SETI , CSI Fellow and Senior Scientist at NASA 's Astrobiology Institute at Ames Research Center , said he received 20 to 25 emails a week about the impending arrival of Nibiru : some frightened , others angry and naming him as part of the conspiracy to keep the truth of the impending apocalypse from the public , and still others asking whether or not they should kill themselves , their children or their pets . Half of these emails are from outside the U.S. " Planetary scientists are being driven to distraction by Nibiru , " notes science writer Govert Schilling , " And it is not surprising ; you devote so much time , energy and creativity to fascinating scientific research , and find yourself on the tracks of the most amazing and interesting things , and all the public at large is concerned about is some crackpot theory about clay tablets , god @-@ astronauts and a planet that doesn 't exist . " In a similar vein , Professor Brian Cox Tweeted in 2012 that , " If anyone else asks me about " Nibiru " the imaginary bullshit planet I will slap them around their irrational heads with Newton 's Principia . " Prior to the 2012 date , Morrison stated that he hoped that the non @-@ arrival of Nibiru could serve as a teaching moment for the public , instructing them on " rational thought and baloney detection " , but doubted that would happen .
Morrison noted in a lecture recorded on FORA.tv that there was a huge disconnect between the large number of people on the Internet who believed in Nibiru 's arrival and the majority of scientists who have never heard of it . To date he is the only major NASA scientist to speak out regularly against the Nibiru phenomenon .
= = Cultural influence = =
A viral marketing campaign for Sony Pictures ' 2009 film 2012 , directed by Roland Emmerich , which depicts the end of the world in the year 2012 , featured a supposed warning from the " Institute for Human Continuity " that listed the arrival of Planet X as one of its doomsday scenarios . Mike Brown attributed a spike in concerned emails and phone calls he received from the public to this site . Danish filmmaker Lars von Trier drew inspiration from Nibiru for his 2011 apocalyptic film Melancholia .
The 2010 animated television series Scooby @-@ Doo ! Mystery Incorporated features Nibiru as a major plot point in its second season , tying the apocalyptic event with its mythological namesake .
= Siege of Güns =
The Siege of Güns or Siege of Kőszeg ( Turkish : Güns Kuşatması ) was a siege of Kőszeg ( German : Güns ) in the Kingdom of Hungary within the Habsburg Empire , that took place in 1532 . In the siege , the defending forces of the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy under the leadership of Croatian Captain Nikola Jurišić ( Hungarian : Miklós Jurisics ) , defended the small border fort of Kőszeg with only 700 – 800 Croatian soldiers , with no cannons and few guns . The defenders prevented the advance of the Ottoman army of 120 @,@ 000 – 200 @,@ 000 toward Vienna , under the leadership of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent ( Ottoman Turkish : سليمان Süleymān ) and Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha .
The exact outcome is unknown , since it has two versions which differ depending on the source . In the first version Nikola Jurišić rejected the offer to surrender on favourable terms , and in the second version , the city was offered terms for a nominal surrender . Suleiman , having been delayed nearly four weeks , withdrew at the arrival of the August rains , and did not continue towards Vienna as he had intended , but turned homeward .
Suleiman secured his possession in Hungary by conquering several other forts , but after the Ottoman withdrawal , Habsburg Emperor Ferdinand I reoccupied some of the devastated territory . Following this , Suleiman and Ferdinand concluded a 1533 treaty in Constantinople that confirmed the right of John Zápolya as a king of all Hungary , but recognised Ferdinand 's possession of some of the reoccupied territory .
= = Background = =
On 29 August 1526 , at the Battle of Mohács , the Christian forces led by King Louis II were defeated by Ottoman forces led by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent . Louis was killed in the battle , which resulted in the end of the independent Kingdom of Hungary as he died without an heir . Both the Kingdoms of Hungary and Croatia became disputed territories with claims from both the Habsburg and Ottoman empires . Habsburg Emperor Ferdinand I , who was a brother of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V , married the sister of Louis II and was elected King by the nobles of both Hungary and Croatia .
The throne of Hungary became the subject of a dynastic dispute between Ferdinand and John Zápolya from Transylvania , since Suleiman had promised to make Zápolya the ruler of all Hungary . During Hungarian campaign of 1527 – 1528 , Ferdinand captured Buda from John Zápolya in 1527 , only to relinquish his hold on it in 1529 when an Ottoman counter @-@ attack stripped Ferdinand of all his territorial gains during 1527 and 1528 . The siege of Vienna in 1529 was the first attempt by Suleiman the Magnificent to capture the Austrian capital . This siege signalled the pinnacle of Ottoman power and the maximum extent of Ottoman expansion in central Europe .
= = = Little War in Hungary = = =
Following Suleiman 's unsuccessful Siege of Vienna in 1529 , Ferdinand launched a counter @-@ attack in 1530 to regain the initiative and avenge the destruction brought by Suleiman 's 120 @,@ 000 strong army . This campaign is usually considered as the start of the Little War , the period of a series conflicts between the Habsburgs and the Ottoman Empire . An assault of Buda was driven off by John Zápolya , the vassal King of Hungary , but Ferdinand was successful elsewhere , capturing Gran ( Esztergom ) and other forts along the Danube river , a vital strategic frontier .
= = Campaign of 1532 = =
During the early period of the Little War in Hungary , Suleiman , as a response to Ferdinand 's counter @-@ attack in 1530 , and as a part of his fifth imperial campaign ( Ottoman Turkish : سفر همايون , Sefer @-@ i humāyūn ) in 1532 , led a massive army of over 120 @,@ 000 troops to besiege Vienna again . Due to Suleiman 's rapid advances , Ferdinand feared the Christian forces would not be assembled in time to meet him . On 12 July , Suleiman wrote to Ferdinand from Osijek ( German : Esseg ) in Slavonia , to assure him of the Ottoman advance . According to the letter , Suleiman 's fifth campaign was primarily directed against Charles V , and not personally against Ferdinand . After Suleiman crossed the river Drava at Osijek , instead of taking the usual route for Vienna , he turned westwards into Ferdinand 's held Hungarian territory . According to historian Andrew Wheatcroft , on the route for Vienna , the Ottoman army had briefly invested and captured seventeen fortified towns or castles . Ferdinand withdrew his army , leaving only 700 men with no cannons and a few guns to defend Kőszeg .
However , in order to make decisive gains , the Ottomans had to take the city quickly , as a large Imperial army , raised in Germany , reinforced by Spanish troops and led by the Emperor Charles V himself was approaching in support of Ferdinand .
= = = Siege = = =
Located south of Sopron , the small town of Kőszeg was only a few miles from the Austrian border . It was held by a task force commanded by the Croatian soldier and diplomat Nikola Jurišić . Kőszeg was not considered a place of importance . It was an insubstantial obstacle and many stronger places had yielded without a fight . The Grand Vizier of the Ottomans , Ibrahim Pasha , did not realize how poorly defended Kőszeg was . After taking a few minor places , Suleiman came to join Ibrahim Pasha shortly afterwards , when the siege had already started .
The Ottomans met stiff resistance at Kőszeg . Suleiman had hoped that the imperial army would come to relieve Kőszeg , affording him an opportunity for a larger engagement . However , during the Ottoman attacks on Kőszeg , the imperial army still formed up in Regensburg . The Ottomans continued with one attack after another ; artillery fire brought down parts of the walls , but brought no surrender . The Ottomans ' mines were sapped by countermines . The layout of Kőszeg 's walls made mining a feasible strategy , but even though several mines succeeded in blowing holes in the fortifications , the defenders held out . For more than twenty @-@ five days , without any artillery , Captain Nikola Jurišić and his garrison of 800 Croats held out against nineteen full @-@ scale assaults and an incessant bombardment by the Ottomans .
The outcome has two versions . In the first version , Nikola Jurišić rejected the offer to surrender on favourable terms , and the Ottomans retreated . In the second version , the city was offered terms for a nominal surrender . The only Ottomans who would be allowed to enter the castle would be a token force who would raise the Ottoman flag . In either case , Suleiman withdrew at the arrival of the August rains , and returned homeward instead of continuing towards Vienna as previously planned . He had been delayed nearly four weeks , and during this time a powerful army had been collected in Vienna , which Suleiman had not the intention to face . According to historian Paolo Giovio , Charles arrived with an imperial army at Vienna on 23 September , too late for fighting the Ottomans since Suleiman already withdrew . By their defense of Kőszeg , Nikola Jurišić and his men had saved Vienna from a siege .
= = Aftermath = =
Although he was stopped at Kőszeg and failed to conquer Vienna , Suleiman additionally secured his possession in Hungary by conquering several forts , since Ferdinand and Charles evaded an open field battle . Immediately after the Ottoman withdrawal , Ferdinand reoccupied devastated territory in Austria and Hungary . Nevertheless , Suleiman concluded a peace treaty with Ferdinand in 1533 , in Constantinople . The treaty confirmed the right of John Zápolya as a king of all Hungary , but recognised Ferdinand 's possession of that part of the country that enjoyed the status quo .
This treaty did not satisfy Zápolya or Ferdinand , whose armies began to skirmish along the borders . After Zápolya 's death in 1540 , Suleiman annexed Hungary to the Ottoman realm . Although from 1529 to 1566 the borders of the Ottoman Empire moved further west , none of the campaigns after 1529 achieved the decisive victory that would secure the new Ottoman possessions .
= Rwanda women 's national football team =
The Rwanda women 's national football team represents Rwanda in women 's association football and is controlled by the Fédération Rwandaise de Football Association . It had to date been scheduled to compete in one major tournament , the inaugural Women 's Challenge Cup held in Zanzibar in October 2007 , but the event was ultimately canceled . It has finally debuted in February 2014 against Kenya . Like their male counterpart , the team is nicknamed The She @-@ Amavubi ( Kinyarwanda for The She @-@ Wasps ) . It has never qualified for an African Championship finals or a World Cup .
= = Senior national team = =
Until 2012 , Rwanda had yet to play in a single FIFA recognised match . FIFA did not recognise a senior women 's national team in the period between 2002 and 2006 , with no team existing by 2008 . While Rwanda women 's national under @-@ 20 football team existed and played in matches by 2009 , the senior national team was not competing in matches in the period . There was no senior team competing in the 2010 African Women 's Championships during the preliminary rounds or the 2011 All Africa Games . In March 2012 , the team was not ranked in the world by FIFA and a senior national team still did not existed . However , a senior national team played its first official match on February 16 , 2014 .
The inaugural Council for East and Central Africa Football Associations ( CECAFA ) Women 's Challenge Cup was supposed to be held in Zanzibar October 2007 , an event Rwanda was planning to send a national team to compete in , but the competition was ultimately canceled . The competition was to be funded by Confederation of African Football . The Council of East and Central Africa Football Associations secretary , Nicholas Musonye said of the event , " CAF wants to develop women football in this region in recognition of the milestones CECAFA has achieved over the years . CAF appreciates what CECAFA has done despite the hardships the association has gone through , from financial problems to political instability in member states and poor management of associations . Member states in the CECAFA region have not taken women 's football seriously . CAF now wants to sponsor a long @-@ term campaign to attract women from this region into the game . "
= = History = =
She @-@ Amavubi debuted on 16 January 2014 , in the 2014 African Women 's Championship first qualification round , against Kenya in the Stade Régional Nyamirambo in Kigali . They won 1 – 0 from a goal scored by Alice Niyoyita at the 29th minute in the first leg . In the second leg in Kenyatta Stadium , Machakos , Kenya they lost 2 – 1 with the solitary goal scored by Jeanne Nyirahatashima . Rwanda qualified for the second round by the away goals rule after finishing 2 – 2 on aggregate and played against Nigeria . Their third official match was disputed on 13 May 2014 against Zambia and ended in a 3 – 0 loss , making it the third loss of their record . They disputed the 2014 African Women 's Championship second qualification round with Nigeria on 24 May 2014 , losing 4 – 1 . The goal was scored by Clementine Mukamana at the 53rd minute . In the second leg , again competing against Nigeria on 7 June 2014 , the She @-@ Amavubi lost by a crushing 8 – 0 defeat , leaving them out of the 2014 African Women 's Championship by a 12 – 1 aggregate score .
= = Competition records = =
= = = World Cup record = = =
= = = Africa Women 's Championship record = = =
= = = Coaches = = =
Grace Nyinawumuntu ( 2014 – )
= = = Recent matches = = =
= = Current Squad = =
The following squad was selected for the 2014 African Women 's Championship qualification match against Nigeria on 8 June 2014 .
Caps and goals updated as of 16 November 2014 .
= = = Recent call @-@ ups = = =
The following players have been called up for Rwanda squad within the past 12 months .
= = Head @-@ to @-@ Head Record = =
As of 16 June 2014
= = Junior national team = =
In 2006 , a Rwanda women 's national under @-@ 17 football team and Rwanda women 's national under @-@ 20 football team did not officially exist , but this changed by 2009 when an under @-@ 20 team and competed in the African Women U @-@ 20 World Cup 2010 Qualifying tournament . In the first leg on 24 October 2009 in Nakivubo , they lost to Uganda 1 – 2 . In the second leg on 7 November 2009 in Kigali , they lost to Uganda 0 – 1 . In Rwanda 's 1 – 2 loss , Saida Ntagisarinana came on in the second half as a substitute for Rwanda and scored the team 's only goal . Rwanda 's play in the game was described by Ugandan newspaper New Vision as " far more organised [ than Uganda ] , structured and played as a team . "
= = Background and history = =
The development of women 's football in Africa faces several challenges , including limited access to education , poverty amongst women in the wider society , and fundamental inequality present in that society that occasionally allows for female @-@ specific human rights abuses . At the same time , if talented women footballers do emerge , many choose to go abroad to maximize playing opportunities . A lack of funding impedes regional development of women 's football as most of the funding for the women 's national team comes from FIFA , not the national football association .
Inside Rwanda , the first women 's football programme was developed in 2000 . " Kicking for Reconciliation " was created during the late 2000s , and involved over 100 young players in an attempt at " bringing healing to a nation that saw the worst genocide since World War II " through sport . The programme was open to both Tutsis and Hutus . By 2008 , this included a schools and university competition . Women 's football was supported by a single dedicated national federation staffer by 2006 . Women 's sport , including football , received little press coverage in the Rwandan media . A women 's football league was founded in 2008 , and the country is the only one in the region with a viable league , but the it still faces challenges related to funding for teams , with most of its funding coming from FIFA . Grace Nyinawumuntu became the first female referee at the senior level in Rwanda in 2004 , and went on to become the first woman to coach a professional team in the country in 2009 . Her professional women 's side went on to win the league championship under her leadership . The lack of high @-@ level football opportunities in Uganda led to some players going from there to Rwanda for opportunities to play in the country 's professional league .
International training related to women is limited in Rwanda . Between 1991 and 2010 , there was no FIFA FUTURO III regional course for women 's coaching , no women 's football seminar held in the country , and no FIFA MA course held for women and youth football . Internationally , in 2007 , a representative from the country attended a FIFA sponsored women 's football symposium in China . Felicite Rwemarika is the head of women 's football in the country . She is credited with developing the sport in the country by founding the Association of Kigali Women in Football amongst other things .
= West Coast Express ( ice hockey ) =
The West Coast Express was an ice hockey line that played for the National Hockey League 's ( NHL ) Vancouver Canucks from 2002 to 2006 . Named after Vancouver 's commuter rail service , the line consisted of Markus Naslund at left wing , Brendan Morrison at centre , and Todd Bertuzzi playing right wing . The West Coast Express was a high scoring line that was considered to be one of the best lines in hockey during its tenure .
Each player was acquired by the Canucks through various trades . Once each member arrived in Vancouver it took two years before the line played together regularly . Once they did , they helped to set a Canucks franchise record for points in 2002 – 03 season ( later surpassed ) , a season in which the West Coast Express accounted for 45 % of the team 's goal production . All three players recorded their most individually recognized and best statistical seasons while playing on the line . Despite regular season success , the Canucks were never able to advance past the second round of the playoffs during the West Coast Express years . The line was disbanded when Bertuzzi was traded to the Florida Panthers after the 2005 – 06 season . Both Morrison and Naslund played through the 2007 – 08 season with the Canucks before leaving the organization via free agency .
= = History = =
= = = Player acquisitions = = =
The Vancouver Canucks made the Stanley Cup Finals in 1994 , but proceeded to regress as a franchise progressively finishing worse each season . As such they began attempting to add skill players to the line @-@ up through trades . The Canucks made various deals to " move the program forward and in a different direction " . With the franchise moving in a new direction the first member of the West Coast Express line arrived in Vancouver on March 20 , 1996 when left wing Markus Naslund was traded to the Canucks by the Pittsburgh Penguins for Alek Stojanov . Naslund struggled to start his Canucks career and during the 1997 – 98 season he requested to be traded . It was not until the 1998 – 99 season that Naslund emerged as an offensive leader with the Canucks , leading them in goals ( 36 ) and points ( 66 ) . Todd Bertuzzi was the second member of the line to join the Canucks ' franchise , when he was acquired by Vancouver via a trade during the 1997 – 98 season . The New York Islanders received former Canuck captain Trevor Linden in exchange for right winger Bertuzzi , defenceman Bryan McCabe and a third @-@ round selection in the 1998 NHL Entry Draft ( Jarkko Ruutu ) . Bertuzzi began the 1998 – 99 season playing on a line with Mark Messier at centre and Alexander Mogilny on right wing . Bertuzzi played with the two until he suffered a fractured tibia , an injury that resulted in Naslund gaining increased ice time . The final piece came to the Canucks on March 14 , 2000 with the acquisition of Brendan Morrison . In an attempt to improve their team to make a Stanley Cup run , the New Jersey Devils traded Morrison and centre Denis Pederson for Mogilny at the National Hockey League 's ( NHL ) trade deadline . Upon his arrival Morrison did not begin playing with Naslund and Bertuzzi nor did he begin his Canucks ' career at centre , instead he began on the wing .
= = = Express years = = =
Although the three did not begin playing together immediately , Bertuzzi and Naslund regularly played together on the top line with centres Mark Messier and Andrew Cassels . Starting with their arrival in 2000 , head coach Marc Crawford often moved Bertuzzi to the second line to play with twin brothers Henrik and Daniel Sedin to complement their cycling game . Morrison spent time on the third line with agitator Matt Cooke . Morrison joined Naslund on the top line due to an injury to Cassels in early November of the 2001 – 02 season , the two were joined by Trent Klatt on right wing , with Bertuzzi playing on a line with the twins . During the game Bertuzzi joined Naslund and Morrison on a power play marking one of the first times the line was together . The Canucks won the game but the line did not remain together as Cassels returned from injury , Klatt was injured and Bertuzzi was returned to the second line . The first game the trio played together as a regular line was on January 9 , 2002 . In the game they registered two first period goals in a 5 – 4 loss to the Detroit Red Wings . Crawford liked the idea of having his two top scorers together , how Morrison worked with them on the power play , and felt Morrison could handle the demands of playing with two players who wanted the puck . In their second game together the line continued to its strong play as each member recorded two points in a 7 – 1 win over the Carolina Hurricanes . After being put together they were given the name West Coast Express , a reference to a commuter train of the same name that provides service along a 65 kilometres ( 40 mi ) route between Mission , British Columbia and Vancouver . By the end of the season each player set new career highs in points to that time in their careers . Naslund raised his point total by fifteen finishing the year as the league 's second leading scorer up thirty @-@ one spots from the previous season . Bertuzzi enjoyed the biggest point increase on the line adding thirty points and moving from eighty @-@ first in league scoring to third . Vancouver finished the season as the eighth seed in the Western Conference . The West Coast Express totaled three goals and nine points in the playoffs before being eliminated in six games by the top seeded Detroit Red Wings . In the off @-@ season , Naslund received NHL First Team All @-@ Star honours .
The 2002 – 03 season was the West Coast Express ' best season , as each member of the line again increased their point total to career highs . Naslund finished the year with 48 goals and 104 points again ranking him second in the league in points and goals . The fourth highest point total in franchise history to that point in time . Bertuzzi recorded 46 goals and 97 points , his goal total ranked him third in the league in goal scoring . Morrison 's 71 points remains a career high which he has not gotten within 11 points of since . During the year Naslund scored a career @-@ high four goals in a 6 – 3 win over the Edmonton Oilers , tying a Canucks record for most goals in a single game . In the game Bertuzzi added a goal and two assist while Morrison notched two assist of his own giving the line nine points in the game . Later in the season the West Coast Express helped the Canucks go on a 14 @-@ game unbeaten streak highlighted by back to back blowout wins to close out the streak . In the 13 game of the streak , a 7 – 2 win over the Columbus Blue Jackets , the line registered 5 goals and 12 points . The following game the trio increased their output to 5 goals and 14 points . In the contest both Bertuzzi and Morrison registered two goals and two assists . Naslund scored a goal and added five assists for a career @-@ high six point night . The Canucks finished the season with 104 points , a franchise record at the time . The West Coast Express accounted for 45 % of the Canucks ' 264 goals during the season . Finishing fourth in the Western Conference , the Canucks faced the St. Louis Blues in the playoffs . They fell behind St. Louis 3 – 1 in the series , but rallied back to force a game seven . In the deciding game , Naslund scored for the fourth consecutive game in the series and Morrison added the eventual game winner as the Canucks advanced to the second round . Facing off against the Minnesota Wild in game one of round two , the Canucks trailed late in the game . With just 8 @.@ 7 seconds remaining , Bertuzzi won a critical face @-@ off before Naslund took a shot that resulted in Cooke scoring on the rebound to force overtime , where the Canucks eventually ran out 4 – 3 winners . Vancouver took a 3 – 1 series lead before the Wild rallied to tie the series and force a game seven . The Canucks took a 2 – 0 lead in the game after Bertuzzi scored twice in the second period . Following his second goal , Bertuzzi skated by the Wild bench and said " Get your golf clubs out , boys , its over . " The Canucks preceded to surrender four consecutive goals , losing the game 4 – 2 and eliminating them from the playoffs . It was the last playoff game the trio would play together . In the off season Bertuzzi and Naslund were named to the NHL First All @-@ Star Team . Additionally Naslund was awarded the Lester B. Pearson Award ( since renamed the Ted Lindsay Award ) , given to the league 's best player as voted by the NHL Players ' Association .
= = = End of the Express = = =
The following season each member of the West Coast Express suffered a decline in performance . The trio were unable to complete the season as a unit due to injuries and suspension . On February 16 , 2004 in a game against the Colorado Avalanche , Naslund received a " questionable hit " from the Avalanche 's Steve Moore . Suffering a minor concussion from the hit and a hyper @-@ extended elbow when he fell to the ice , he missed three games due to his injuries . While Moore was unpenalized for the hit , some Canucks players felt that it was a " cheap shot " . In the second rematch of the two teams after Moore 's hit on Naslund , Vancouver allegedly put a " bounty " on Moore and were out to make him " pay a price " . Early in the game , Moore clashed with Cooke , but later refused to fight Bertuzzi , despite being taunted and followed around the ice . After being refused the fight , Bertuzzi punched Moore in the head from behind and slammed him into the ice . Bertuzzi was subsequently suspended indefinitely by the NHL , and the resulting injuries ended Moore 's career and left him suffering from concussion symptoms over the following seven years . Despite the loss of Bertuzzi , the Canucks won the Northwest Division . In the opening round Vancouver faced their division rival Calgary Flames . In the series Vancouver fell behind three games to two . They took a 4 – 0 lead in game six before the Flames came back to tie the game and send it to overtime . The game remained tied into the third overtime when Morrison scored at the 2 : 28 mark to force game seven . In game seven the Canucks were again trailing late into the third period in the closing seconds Naslund went around Flames defenceman Jordan Leopold drove the net and put a shot on goal . Flames goaltender Miikka Kiprusoff , made the save but Cooke scored on the rebound with just 5 @.@ 7 seconds remain to force overtime . The Canucks failed to capitalize on the change in momentum as the Flames ' Martin Gelinas scored 1 : 25 into overtime eliminating Vancouver . Naslund recorded nine points in the seven game series while Morrison chipped in five . During the off @-@ season Naslund received the last of his individual NHL honors being named a First Team NHL All @-@ Star once again .
Following the cancellation of the 2004 – 05 season due to a labor dispute , Bertuzzi was reinstated for the 2005 – 06 season . With the return of all three line mate and new rules designed to increase offensive chances the Canucks entered the year with high hopes . Despite this , Naslund and Morrison 's point production again decreased from their last NHL season . Bertuzzi point total increased , however , he played in 13 more games than his previous season . The Canucks missed the playoffs for the first time in four years and the only time during the West Coast Express ' tenure . During the off season , the line was officially dismantled when Bertuzzi was traded to the Florida Panthers , along with goaltender Alex Auld and defenceman Bryan Allen , in exchange for goaltender Roberto Luongo , defenceman Lukáš Krajíček and a sixth @-@ round selection in the 2006 NHL Entry Draft ( Sergei Shirokov ) . Both Naslund and Morrison played two more years with the Canucks , often together ( but not always ) , before signing as free agents with the New York Rangers and the Anaheim Ducks respectively in the summer of 2008 .
= = Legacy = =
During its time , the West Coast Express was widely considered one of the most dominant line combinations in the league . The mid @-@ nineties witnessed the increased popularity of defensive schemes like the neutral zone trap which slowed the game , limiting scoring and offensive chances . The emphasis on defensive has been blamed for diminishing fan interest . When Naslund was traded to Vancouver in 1996 the Canucks often played in a half empty arena and there were rumors about the franchise moving . The line 's offense first style helped to popularize the franchise . They began to sell out home games on a regular basis and started to have a following on the road . In the 2002 – 03 season the Canucks 264 goals was the highest total for the franchise in nine years . It remained unsurpassed by another Canucks team until the 2009 – 10 team , which featured the NHL 's leading scorer , Henrik Sedin . The franchise record for points they set that same season stood for only two seasons until it was surpassed in 2006 – 07 season . During which Roberto Luongo set a franchise record for goaltender wins with 47 , a single season win total that is also tied for second most all @-@ time in NHL history .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
= Geography of Scotland in the Middle Ages =
The geography of Scotland in the Middle Ages covers all aspects of the land that is now Scotland , including physical and human , between the departure of the Romans in the early fifth century from what are now the southern borders of the country , to the adoption of the major aspects of the Renaissance in the early sixteenth century . Scotland was defined by its physical geography , with its long coastline of inlets , islands and inland lochs , high proportion of land over 60 metres above sea level and heavy rainfall . It is divided between the Highlands and Islands and Lowland regions , which were subdivided by geological features including fault lines , mountains , hills , bogs and marshes . This made communications by land problematic and raised difficulties for political unification , but also for invading armies .
Roman occupation of what is now southern Scotland seems to have had very little impact on settlement patterns , with Iron Age hill forts and promontory forts in the south and Brochs and wheel houses in the north , continuing to be occupied in the Early Medieval period . The study of place names and archaeological evidence indicates a pattern of early Medieval settlement by the Picts , most densely around the north @-@ east coastal plain ; early Gaelic settlement was predominately in the western mainland and neighbouring islands . Anglian settlement in the south @-@ east reached into West Lothian , and to a lesser extent into south @-@ western Scotland . Later Norse settlement was probably most extensive in Orkney and Shetland , with lighter settlement in the Western Islands .
From the reign of David I ( r . 1124 – 53 ) , there is evidence of burghs , particularly on the east coast , which are the first identifiable towns in Scotland . Probably based on existing settlements , they grew in number and significance through the Medieval period . More than 50 royal burghs are known to have been established by the end of the thirteenth century and a similar number of baronial and ecclesiastical burghs were created between 1450 and 1516 , acting as focal points for administration , as well as local and international trade . In the early Middle Ages the country was divided between speakers of Gaelic , Pictish , Cumbric and English . Over the next few centuries Cumbric and Pictish were gradually overlaid and replaced by Gaelic , English and Norse . From at least the reign of David I , Gaelic was replaced by French as the language of the court and nobility . In the late Middle Ages Scots , derived mainly from Old English , became the dominant language .
In the middle of this period , through a process of conquest , consolidation and treaty , the boundaries of Scotland were gradually extended from a small area under direct control of the kings of Alba in the east , to almost its modern borders . For most of the Medieval era the monarchy and court was itinerant , with Scone and Dunfermline acting as important centres and later Roxburgh , Stirling and Perth , before Edinburgh emerged as the political capital in the fourteenth century . Largely as a result of Viking raids from about 800 , Iona declined as a religious centre . Despite royal attempts to establish a new religious centre at Dunkeld , it was St. Andrews on the east coast , close to the heartland of Pictish settlement , that emerged as the most important religious focus of the kingdom .
= = Physical = =
Modern Scotland is half the size of England and Wales in area , but with its many inlets , islands and inland lochs , it has roughly the same amount of coastline at 4 @,@ 000 miles . Only a fifth of Scotland is less than 60 metres above sea level . Its east Atlantic position means that it has very heavy rainfall , today about 700 cm per year in the east and more than 1 @,@ 000 cm in the west . This encouraged the spread of blanket peat bog , the acidity of which , combined with high levels of wind and salt spray , made most of the islands treeless . The existence of hills , mountains , quicksands and marshes made internal communication and conquest extremely difficult and may have contributed to the fragmented nature of political power . The early Middle Ages was a period of climate deterioration , with a drop in temperature and an increase in rainfall , resulting in more land becoming unproductive . This was reversed in the period c . 1150 to 1300 , with warm dry summers and less severe winters allowing cultivation at much greater heights above sea level and making land more productive . In the late Middle Ages , average temperatures began to reduce again , with cooler and wetter conditions limiting the extent of arable agriculture , particularly in the Highlands .
The defining factor in the geography of Scotland is the distinction between the Highlands and Islands in the north and west and the Lowlands in the south and east . The Highlands are further divided into the Northwest Highlands and the Grampian Mountains by the fault line of the Great Glen . The Lowlands are divided into the fertile belt of the Central Lowlands and the higher terrain of the Southern Uplands , which included the Cheviot hills , over which the border with England came to run by the end of the period . Some of these regions were further divided by mountains , major rivers and marshes . The Central Lowland belt averages about 50 miles in width , and because it contains most of the good quality agricultural land and has easier communications , could support most of the urbanisation and elements of conventional Medieval government . The Southern Uplands , and particularly the Highlands were economically less productive and much more difficult to govern . This provided Scotland with a form of protection , as minor English incursions had to cross the difficult Southern Uplands ; two major attempts at conquest by the English , under Edward I and then Edward III , were unable to penetrate the Highlands , from where potential resistance could reconquer the Lowlands . But it also made those areas problematic to govern for Scottish kings and much of the political history of the era after the wars of independence centred on attempts to resolve problems of entrenched localism .
= = Settlement and demography = =
Roman influence beyond Hadrian 's Wall does not appear to have had a major impact on settlement patterns , with Iron Age hill forts and promontory forts continuing to be occupied through the early Medieval period . These often had defences of dry stone or timber laced walls , sometimes with a palisade . The large numbers of these forts has been taken to suggest peripatetic monarchies and aristocracies , moving around their domains to control and administer them . In the Northern and Western Isles the sites of Iron Age Brochs and wheel houses continued to be occupied , but were gradually replaced with less imposing cellular houses . There are a handful of major timber halls in the south , comparable to those excavated in Anglo @-@ Saxon England and dated to the seventh century . In the areas of Scandinavian settlement in the Islands and along the coast a lack of timber meant that native materials had to be adopted for house building , often combining layers of stone with turf .
Place @-@ name evidence suggests that the densest areas of Pictish settlement were in the north @-@ east coastal plain : in modern Fife , Perthshire , Angus , Aberdeen and around the Moray Firth , although later Gaelic migration may have erased some Pictish names from the record . Early Gaelic settlement appears to have been in the regions of the western mainland of Scotland between Cowal and Ardnamurchan , and the adjacent islands , later extending up the West coast in the eighth century . There is place name and archaeological evidence of Anglian settlement in south @-@ east Scotland reaching into West Lothian , and to a lesser extent into south @-@ western Scotland . Later Norse settlement was probably most extensive in Orkney and Shetland , with lighter settlement in the Western Islands , particularly the Hebrides and on the mainland in Caithness , stretching along fertile river valleys through Sutherland and into Ross . There was also extensive settlement in Bernicia stretching into the modern borders and Lowlands .
From the reign of David I , there are records of burghs ( a Germanic word for a fortress ) , towns that were granted certain legal privileges by the crown . Most of the burghs granted charters during David 's reign probably already existed as settlements . Charters were copied almost verbatim from those used in England , and early burgesses were usually English or Flemish . They were able to impose tolls and fines on traders within a region outside their settlements . Most of the early burghs were on the east coast . Among them were the largest and wealthiest , including Aberdeen , Berwick , Perth and Edinburgh , whose growth was facilitated by trade with the continent . In the south @-@ west Glasgow , Ayr and Kirkcudbright benefited from the less profitable sea trade with Ireland , and to a lesser extent France and Spain . Burghs were typically surrounded by a palisade or had a castle and usually a market place , with a widened high street or junction , often marked by a mercat cross beside which were houses for the burgesses and other inhabitants . Around 15 burghs can be traced to the reign of David I , and there is evidence of 55 by 1296 . In addition to the major royal burghs , the late Middle Ages saw the proliferation of baronial and ecclesiastical burghs ; 51 were created between 1450 and 1516 . Most were much smaller than their royal counterparts , and excluded from international trade they acted mainly as local markets and centres of craftsmanship .
There are almost no written sources from which to re @-@ construct the demography of early medieval Scotland . Estimates have been made of a population of 10 @,@ 000 inhabitants in Dál Riata and 80 – 100 @,@ 000 for Pictland , which was probably the largest region . It is likely that the fifth and sixth centuries saw higher mortality rates owing to the appearance of bubonic plague , which may have reduced the net population . The examination of burial sites for this period like that at Hallowhill , St Andrews indicate a life expectancy of only 26 – 29 . The known conditions have been taken to suggest it was a high @-@ fertility , high @-@ mortality society , similar to many developing countries in the modern world , with a relatively young demographic profile , and perhaps early childbearing , and large numbers of children for women . The result would have been a relatively small proportion of available workers to the number of mouths to feed , making it difficult to produce a surplus that would allow demographic growth and more complex societies to develop . From the formation of the kingdom of Alba in the tenth century , to before the Black Death reached the country in 1349 , estimates based on the amount of farmable land , suggest that population may have grown from half a million to a million . Although there is no reliable documentation on the impact of the plague , there are many anecdotal references to abandoned land in the following decades . If the pattern followed that in England , then the population may have fallen to as low as half a million by the end of the 15th century . Compared with the situation after the redistribution of population in the later clearances and the Industrial Revolution , these numbers would have been relatively evenly spread over the kingdom , with roughly half living north of the Tay . Perhaps ten per cent of the population lived in one of burghs . It has been suggested that they would have had a mean population of about 2 @,@ 000 , but many would be much smaller than 1 @,@ 000 and the largest , Edinburgh , probably had a population of more than 10 @,@ 000 by the end of the era .
= = Language = =
Modern linguists divide Celtic languages into two major groups : the P @-@ Celtic , from which the Brythonic languages – Welsh , Breton , Cornish and Cumbric derive – and the Q @-@ Celtic , from which come the Goidelic languages – Irish , Manx and Gaelic . The Pictish language remains enigmatic , since the Picts had no written script of their own and all that survives are place names and some isolated inscriptions in Irish ogham script . Most modern linguists accept that , although the nature and unity of Pictish language is unclear , it belonged to the former group . Historical sources , as well as place @-@ name evidence , indicate the ways in which the Pictish language in the north and Cumbric languages in the south were overlaid and replaced by Gaelic , Old English and later Norse in this period . By the High Middle Ages the majority of people within Scotland spoke the Gaelic language , then simply called Scottish , or in Latin , lingua Scotica .
In the Northern Isles the Norse language brought by Scandinavian occupiers and settlers evolved into the local Norn , which lingered until the end of the eighteenth century and Norse may also have survived as a spoken language until the sixteenth century in the Outer Hebrides . French , Flemish and particularly English became the main language of Scottish burghs , most of which were in the south and east , an area to which Anglian settlers had already brought a form of Old English . In the later part of the twelfth century , the writer Adam of Dryburgh described Lowland Lothian as " the Land of the English in the Kingdom of the Scots " . At least from the accession of David I , Gaelic ceased to be the main language of the royal court and was replaced by Norman French , to be followed by the Chancery , the castles of nobles and the upper order of the Church .
In the late Middle Ages , Middle Scots , often simply called English , became the dominant language of the country . It was derived largely from Old English , with the addition of elements from Gaelic and French . Although resembling the language spoken in northern England , it became a distinct dialect from the late fourteenth century . It was adopted by the ruling elite as they gradually abandoned French . By the fifteenth century it was the language of government , with acts of parliament , council records and treasurer 's accounts almost all using it from the reign of James I onwards . As a result , Gaelic , once dominant north of the Tay , began a steady decline .
= = Political = =
At its foundation in the tenth century , the combined Gaelic and Pictish kingdom of Alba contained only a small proportion of modern Scotland . Even when these lands were added to in the tenth and eleventh centuries , the term " Scotia " was applied in sources only to the region between the Forth , the central Grampians and the River Spey , and only began to be used to describe all of the lands under the authority of the Scottish crown from the second half of the twelfth century . The expansion of Alba into the wider kingdom of Scotland was a gradual process combining external conquest and the suppression of occasional rebellions , with the extension of seigniorial power through the placement of effective agents of the crown . Neighbouring independent kings became subject to Alba and eventually disappeared from the records . In the ninth century the term mormaer , meaning " great steward " , began to appear in the records to describe the rulers of Moray , Strathearn , Buchan , Angus and Mearns , who may have acted as " marcher lords " for the kingdom to counter the Viking threat . Later the process of consolidation is associated with the feudalism introduced by David I , which , particularly in the east and south where the crown 's authority was greatest , saw the placement of lordships , often based on castles , and the creation of administrative sheriffdoms , which overlay the pattern of local thegns .
Most of the regions of what became Scotland had strong cultural and economic ties elsewhere : to England , Ireland , Scandinavian and mainland Europe . Internal communications were difficult and the country lacked an obvious geographical centre ; the king kept an itinerant court , with no " capital " as such . Dunfermline emerged as a major royal centre in the reign of Malcolm III , and David I tried to build up Roxburgh as a royal centre , but in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries more charters were issued at Scone than anywhere else . Other popular locations in the early part of the era were nearby Perth , Stirling , Dunfermline and Edinburgh . In the later Middle Ages the king moved between royal castles , particularly Perth and Stirling , but also held judicial sessions throughout the kingdom ; Edinburgh only began to emerge as the capital in the reign of James III , at the cost of considerable unpopularity to the king . Iona was an early religious centre , and was said to be the burial place of the kings of Alba until the end of the eleventh century , but declined as a result of Viking raids from 794 . The transfer of part of the relics of St. Columba from there to Dunkeld in the mid @-@ ninth century , closer to the centre of the kingdom and close to Scone , the ceremonial site of coronations , may have represented an attempt to develop a new religious centre , but it was St. Andrews , with its biblical cult , probably established on the east coast in the centre of their political heartland by Pictish kings as early as the eighth century , and never a major political capital or trading centre , which emerged as the centre of the Scottish church .
Until the thirteenth century the borders with England were very fluid . Northumbria and Cumbria were annexed to Scotland by David I , but lost under his grandson and successor Malcolm IV in 1157 . The Treaty of York ( 1237 ) and Treaty of Perth ( 1266 ) fixed the borders of the Kingdom of the Scots with England and Norway respectively , close to the modern boundaries . The Isle of Man fell under English control in the fourteenth century , despite several attempts to restore Scottish authority . The English were able to annexe a large slice of the Lowlands under Edward III , but these losses were gradually regained , particularly while England was preoccupied with the Wars of the Roses ( 1455 – 85 ) . In 1468 the last great acquisition of Scottish territory occurred when James III married Margaret of Denmark , receiving the Orkney Islands and the Shetland Islands in payment of her dowry . In 1482 , Berwick , a border fortress and the largest port in Medieval Scotland , fell to the English once again , for what was to be the final change of hands . The only uncertain area was the small region of the Debatable Lands at the south @-@ west end of the border , which would be divided by a French @-@ mediated commission in 1552 .
= Stanley Cup =
The Stanley Cup ( French : La Coupe Stanley ) is the championship trophy awarded annually to the National Hockey League ( NHL ) playoff winner . Originally commissioned in 1892 as the Dominion Hockey Challenge Cup , the trophy is named for Lord Stanley of Preston , then – Governor General of Canada , who awarded it to Canada 's top @-@ ranking amateur ice hockey club , which the entire Stanley family supported , with the sons and daughters playing and promoting the game . The first Cup was awarded in 1893 to Montreal HC , and subsequent winners from 1893 to 1914 were determined by challenge games and league play . Professional teams then became eligible to challenge for the Stanley Cup in 1906 . In 1915 , the two professional ice hockey organizations , the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) and the Pacific Coast Hockey Association ( PCHA ) , reached a gentlemen 's agreement in which their respective champions would face each other annually for the Stanley Cup . After a series of league mergers and folds , it was established as the de facto championship trophy of the NHL in 1926 and then the de jure NHL championship prize in 1947 .
There are actually three Stanley Cups : the original bowl of the " Dominion Hockey Challenge Cup " , the authenticated " Presentation Cup " , and the " Replica Cup " on display at the Hockey Hall of Fame . The NHL has maintained effective control over both the trophy itself and its associated trademarks . Nevertheless , the NHL does not actually own the trophy , but instead uses it by agreement with the two Trustees of the Cup . The NHL has registered trademarks associated with the name and likeness of the Stanley Cup , although the league 's right to outright own trademarks associated with a trophy it does not own has been disputed by some legal experts . The original bowl was made of silver and is 18 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 7 @.@ 28 inches ) in height and 29 centimetres ( 11 @.@ 42 inches ) in diameter . The current Stanley Cup , topped with a copy of the original bowl , is made of a silver and nickel alloy ; it has a height of 89 @.@ 54 centimetres ( 35 @.@ 25 inches ) and weighs 15 @.@ 5 kilograms ( 34 @.@ 5 lb / 2 st 6 ½ lb ) .
Unlike the trophies awarded by the other major professional sports leagues of North America , a new Stanley Cup is not made each year ; winners keep it until a new champion is crowned . It is unusual among trophies , in that it has the names of all of the winning players , coaches , management , and club staff engraved on its chalice . Initially , a new band added each year caused the trophy to grow in size , earning the nickname " Stovepipe Cup " . In 1958 the modern one @-@ piece Cup was designed with a five @-@ band barrel which could contain 13 winning teams per band . To prevent the Stanley Cup from growing , when the bottom band is full , the oldest band is removed and preserved in the Hockey Hall of Fame , and a new blank band added to the bottom . It has been referred to as The Cup , Lord Stanley 's Cup , The Holy Grail , or facetiously ( chiefly by sportswriters ) as Lord Stanley 's Mug . The Stanley Cup is surrounded by numerous legends and traditions , the oldest of which is the celebratory drinking of champagne out of the cup by the winning team .
Since the 1914 – 15 season , the Cup has been won a combined 100 times by 18 active NHL teams and five defunct teams . Prior to that , the challenge cup was held by nine different teams . The Montreal Canadiens have won the Cup a record 24 times and are the most recent Canadian @-@ based team to win the cup , having won it in 1993 . The Stanley Cup was not awarded in 1919 because of a Spanish flu epidemic , and in 2005 , as a consequence of the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
After the Lord Stanley of Preston was appointed by Queen Victoria as Governor General of Canada on June 11 , 1888 , he and his family became highly enthusiastic about ice hockey . Stanley was first exposed to the game at Montreal 's 1889 Winter Carnival , where he saw the Montreal Victorias play the Montreal Hockey Club . The Montreal Gazette reported that he " expressed his great delight with the game of hockey and the expertise of the players " . During that time , organized ice hockey in Canada was still in its infancy and only Montreal and Ottawa had anything resembling leagues .
Stanley 's entire family became active in ice hockey . Two of his sons , Arthur and Algernon , formed a new team called the Ottawa Rideau Hall Rebels . Arthur also played a key role in the formation of what later became known as the Ontario Hockey Association ( OHA ) , and would go on to be the founder of ice hockey in Great Britain . Arthur and Algernon persuaded their father to donate a trophy to be " an outward and visible sign of the hockey championship " . Stanley sent the following message to the victory celebration held on March 18 , 1892 , at Ottawa 's Russell Hotel for the three @-@ time champion Ottawa Hockey Club :
I have for some time been thinking that it would be a good thing if there were a challenge cup which should be held from year to year by the champion hockey team in the Dominion [ of Canada ] .
There does not appear to be any such outward sign of a championship at present , and considering the general interest which matches now elicit , and the importance of having the game played fairly and under rules generally recognized , I am willing to give a cup which shall be held from year to year by the winning team .
I am not quite certain that the present regulations governing the arrangement of matches give entire satisfaction , and it would be worth considering whether they could not be arranged so that each team would play once at home and once at the place where their opponents hail from .
Soon afterwards , Stanley purchased what is frequently described as a decorative punch bowl , but which silver expert John Culme identified as a rose bowl , made in Sheffield , England , and sold by London silversmith G. R. Collis and Company ( now Boodle and Dunthorne Jewellers ) , for ten guineas , equal to ten and a half pounds sterling , US $ 48 @.@ 67 , which is equal to $ 1 @,@ 282 today . He had the words " Dominion Hockey Challenge Cup " engraved on one side of the outside rim , and " From Stanley of Preston " on the other side .
Originally , Stanley intended that the Cup should be awarded to the top amateur hockey team in Canada , to be decided by the acceptance of a challenge from another team . He made five preliminary regulations :
The winners shall return the Cup in good order when required by the trustees so that it may be handed over to any other team which may win it .
Each winning team , at its own expense , may have the club name and year engraved on a silver ring fitted on the Cup .
The Cup shall remain a challenge cup , and should not become the property of one team , even if won more than once .
The trustees shall maintain absolute authority in all situations or disputes over the winner of the Cup .
If one of the existing trustees resigns or drops out , the remaining trustee shall nominate a substitute .
Stanley appointed Sheriff John Sweetland and Philip D. Ross ( who would serve in his post an unsurpassed 56 years ) as trustees of the Cup . Sweetland and Ross first presented the trophy in 1893 to the Montreal Amateur Athletic Association on behalf of the affiliated Montreal Hockey Club , the champions of the Amateur Hockey Association of Canada ( AHAC ) , since they " defeated all comers during the late season , including the champions of the Ontario Association " ( Ottawa ) . Sweetland and Ross also believed that the AHAC was the top league , and as first @-@ place finishers in the AHAC , Montreal was the best team in Canada . Naturally , the Ottawas were upset by the decision because there had been no challenge games scheduled and because the trustees failed to convey the rules on how the Cup was to be awarded prior to the start of the season .
As a result , the Cup trustees issued more specific rules on how the trophy should be defended and awarded :
The Cup is automatically awarded to the team that wins the title of the previous Cup champion 's league , without the need for any other special extra contest .
Challengers for the Cup must be from senior hockey associations , and must have won their league championship . Challengers will be recognized in the order in which their request is received .
The challenge games ( where the Cup could change leagues ) are to be decided either in a one @-@ game affair , a two @-@ game total goals affair , or a best of three series , to the benefit of both teams involved . All matches would take place on the home ice of the champions , although specific dates and times would have to be approved by the trustees .
Ticket receipts from the challenge games are to be split equally between both teams .
If the two competing clubs cannot agree to a referee , the trustees will appoint one , and the two teams shall cover the expenses equally . If the two competing clubs cannot agree on other officials , the referee will appoint them , and the two clubs shall also pay the expenses equally
A league could not challenge for the Cup twice in one season .
Stanley never saw a Stanley Cup championship game , nor did he ever present the Cup . Although his term as Governor General ended in September 1893 , he was forced to return to England on July 15 . In April of that year , his elder brother Edward Stanley , 15th Earl of Derby died , and Stanley succeeded him as the 16th Earl of Derby .
= = = Challenge Cup era = = =
During the challenge cup period , none of the leagues that played for the trophy had a formal playoff system to decide their respective champions ; whichever team finished in first place after the regular season won the league title . However , in 1894 , four teams out of the five @-@ team AHAC tied for the championship with records of 5 – 3 – 0 . The AHAC had no tie @-@ breaking system . After extensive negotiations and Quebec 's withdrawal from the championship competition , it was decided that a three @-@ team tournament would take place in Montreal , with the Ottawa team receiving a bye to the Final because they were the only road team . On March 17 , in the first ever Stanley Cup playoff game , the Montreal Hockey Club ( Montreal HC ) defeated the Montreal Victorias , 3 – 2 . Five days later , in the first Stanley Cup Final game , Montreal HC beat the Ottawa Hockey Club 3 – 1 .
In 1895 , Queen 's University was the first official challenger for the Cup , although it was controversial . The Montreal Victorias had won the league title and thus the Stanley Cup , but the challenge match was between the previous year 's champion , Montreal HC , and the university squad . The trustees decided that if the Montreal HC won the challenge match , the Victorias would become the Stanley Cup champions . The Montreal HC won the match 5 – 1 and their cross @-@ town rivals were crowned the champions . The first successful challenge to the Cup came the next year by the Winnipeg Victorias , the champions of the Manitoba Hockey League . On February 14 , 1896 , the Winnipeg squad defeated the champions 2 – 0 and became the first team outside the AHAC to win the Cup .
As the prestige of winning the Cup grew , so did the need to attract top players . Only nine months after winning the Cup , in March 1906 , the Montreal Wanderers pushed through a resolution at the annual meeting of the Eastern Canada Amateur Hockey Association ( ECAHA ) that would allow professional players to play alongside amateurs . Because the ECAHA was the top hockey league in Canada at the time , the Cup trustees agreed to open the challenges to professional teams . The first professional competition came one month later during the Wanderers ' two @-@ game , total goals challenge series , which they won 17 goals to 5 .
The smallest municipality to produce a Stanley Cup champion team is Kenora , Ontario ; the town had a population of about 4 @,@ 000 when the Kenora Thistles captured the Cup in January 1907 . Aided by future Hall of Famers Art Ross and " Bad " Joe Hall , the Thistles defeated the Montreal Wanderers in a two @-@ game , total goals challenge series . The Thistles successfully defended the Cup once , against a team from Brandon , Manitoba . In March 1907 , the Wanderers challenged the Thistles to a rematch . Despite an improved lineup , the Thistles lost the Cup to Montreal .
In 1908 , the Allan Cup was introduced as the trophy for Canada 's amateurs , and the Stanley Cup started to become a symbol of professional hockey supremacy . In that same year , the first all @-@ professional team , the Toronto Trolley Leaguers from the newly created Ontario Professional Hockey League ( OPHL ) , competed for the Cup . One year later , the Montreal HC and the Montreal Victorias , the two remaining amateur teams , left the ECAHA , and the ECAHA dropped " Amateur " from their name to become a professional league . In 1910 , the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) was formed . The NHA soon proved it was the best in Canada , as it kept the Cup for the next four years .
Prior to 1912 , challenges could take place at any time , given the appropriate rink conditions , and it was common for teams to defend the Cup numerous times during the year . In 1912 , Cup trustees declared that it was only to be defended at the end of the champion team 's regular season .
= = = Organized interleague competition = = =
In 1914 , the Victoria Aristocrats from the Pacific Coast Hockey Association ( PCHA ) challenged the NHA and Cup champion Toronto Blueshirts . A controversy erupted when a letter arrived from the Stanley Cup trustees on March 17 , that the trustees would not let the Stanley Cup travel west , as they did not consider Victoria a proper challenger because they had not formally notified the trustees . However , on March 18 , Trustee William Foran stated that it was a misunderstanding . PCHA president Frank Patrick had not filed a challenge , because he had expected Emmett Quinn of the NHA to make all of the arrangements in his role as hockey commissioner , whereas the trustees thought they were being deliberately ignored . In any case , all arrangements had been ironed out and the Victoria challenge was accepted .
Several days later , trustee Foran wrote to NHA president Quinn that the trustees are " perfectly satisfied to allow the representatives of the three pro leagues ( NHA , PCHA , and Maritime ) to make all arrangements each season as to the series of matches to be played for the Cup . " One year later , the NHA and the PCHA concluded a gentlemen 's agreement in which their respective champions would face each other for the Cup , similar to baseball 's World Series , which is played between the American League and National League champions . Under the new proposal , the Stanley Cup Final series alternated between the East and the West each year , with alternating games played according to NHA and PCHA rules . The PCHA 's Vancouver Millionaires won the 1915 series three games to none in a best @-@ of @-@ five series .
After the Portland Rosebuds , an American @-@ based team , joined the PCHA in 1914 , the trustees issued a statement that the Cup was no longer for the best team in Canada , but now for the best team in the world . Two years later , the Rosebuds became the first American team to play in the Stanley Cup Final . In 1917 , the Seattle Metropolitans became the first American team to win the Cup . After that season , the NHA dissolved , and the National Hockey League ( NHL ) took its place .
In 1919 , the Spanish influenza epidemic forced the Montreal Canadiens and the Seattle Metropolitans to cancel their series , marking the first time the Stanley Cup was not awarded . The series was tied at 2 – 2 – 1 , but the final game was never played because Montreal Manager George Kennedy and players Joe Hall , Billy Coutu , Jack McDonald , and Newsy Lalonde were hospitalized with influenza . Hall died four days after the cancelled game , and the series was abandoned .
The format for the Stanley Cup Final changed in 1922 , with the creation of the Western Canada Hockey League ( WCHL ) . Three leagues competed for the Cup : two league champions faced each other for the right to challenge the third champion in the final series . This lasted three seasons as the PCHA and the WCHL later merged to form the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) in 1925 . After winning in the 1924 – 25 season , the Victoria Cougars became the last team outside the NHL to win the Stanley Cup .
= = = NHL takes over = = =
The WHL folded in 1926 , leaving the NHL as the only league left competing for the Cup . Other leagues and clubs occasionally issued challenges , but from that year forward , no non @-@ NHL team has played for it , leading it to become the de facto championship trophy of the NHL . In 1947 , the NHL reached an agreement with trustees P.D. Ross and Cooper Smeaton to grant control of the Cup to the NHL , allowing the league to reject challenges from other leagues that may have wished to play for the Cup .
The Trustees hereby delegate to the League full authority to determine and amend from time to time the conditions for competition of the Stanley Cup , including the qualifications of challengers , the appointment of officials , the apportionment and distribution of all gate receipts , provided always that the winners of this trophy shall be the acknowledged World 's Professional Hockey Champions .
The Trustees agree that during the currency of this agreement they will not acknowledge or accept any challenge for the Stanley Cup unless such a challenge is in conformity with the condition specified in paragraph one ( 1 ) thereof .
The League undertakes the responsibility for the care and safe custody of the Stanley Cup including all necessary repairs and alterations to the cup and sub @-@ structure as may be required from time to time , and further undertakes to insure the Stanley Cup for its full insurable value .
The League hereby acknowledges itself to be bound to the Trustees in the sum of One Thousand Dollars , which bond is conditioned upon the safe return of the Stanley Cup to the Trustees in accordance with the terms of this Agreement , and it is agreed that the League shall have the right to return the trophy to the Trustees at any time .
This agreement shall remain in force so long as the League continues to be the world 's leading professional hockey league as determined by its playing caliber , and in the event of dissolution or other termination of the National Hockey League , the Stanley Cup shall revert to the custody of the trustees .
In the event of default in the appointment of a new trustee by the surviving trustee , the " Trustees " hereby delegate and appoint the Governors of the International Hockey Hall of Fame in Kingston , Ontario , to name two Canadian trustees to carry on under the terms of the original trust , and in conformity with this Agreement .
And it is further mutually agreed that any disputes arising as to the interpretation of this Agreement or the facts upon which such interpretation is made , shall be settled by an Arbitration Board of three , one member to be appointed by each of the parties , and the third to be selected by the two appointees . The decision of the Arbitration Board shall be final .
This agreement was amended on November 22 , 1961 , substituting the Governors of the International Hockey Hall of Fame in Kingston , Ontario with the Committee of the Hockey Hall of Fame in Toronto , Ontario as the group that would name the two Canadian trustees , if need be . In the 1970s , the World Hockey Association sought to challenge for the Cup – the Trustees denied them the opportunity to do so . However , notwithstanding the aforementioned legal obligation , the NHL quietly discontinued calling its champions the " world champions " during this time , largely in order to avoid having its champion incur at least a moral obligation to play the WHA champion .
The Cup was awarded every year until 2005 , when a labour dispute between the NHL 's owners and the NHL Players Association ( the union that represents the players ) led to the cancellation of the 2004 – 05 season . As a result , no Cup champion was crowned for the first time since the flu pandemic in 1919 . The lockout was controversial among many fans , who questioned whether the NHL had exclusive control over the Cup . A website known as freestanley.com ( since closed ) was launched , asking fans to write to the Cup trustees and urge them to return to the original Challenge Cup format . Adrienne Clarkson , then Governor General of Canada , alternately proposed that the Cup be presented to the top women 's hockey team in lieu of the NHL season . This idea was so unpopular that the Clarkson Cup was created instead . Meanwhile , a group in Ontario , also known as the " Wednesday Nighters " , filed an application with the Ontario Superior Court , claiming that the Cup trustees had overstepped their bounds in signing the 1947 agreement with the NHL , and therefore must award the trophy regardless of the lockout .
On February 7 , 2006 , a settlement was reached in which the trophy could be awarded to non @-@ NHL teams should the league not operate for a season . The dispute lasted so long that , by the time it was settled , the NHL had resumed operating for the 2005 – 06 season , and the Stanley Cup went unclaimed for the 2004 – 05 season . Furthermore , when another NHL lockout commenced in 2012 the Trustees stated that the 2006 agreement did not oblige them to award the Cup in the event of a lost season , and that they were likely to reject any non @-@ NHL challenges for the Cup in the event the 2012 – 13 season were cancelled , which it was not .
= = = Trustees = = =
The regulations set down by Lord Stanley call for two Trustees , who had the sole , joint right to govern the Cup and the conditions of its awarding until 1947 , when they ceded control to the NHL . While the original regulations allow for a Trustee to resign , to date , all Cup Trustees have served until their deaths . In the event of a vacancy , the remaining trustee names the replacement for the deceased or resigned Trustee .
To date , nine men have served as Trustees of the Stanley Cup :
= = Engraving = =
Like the Grey Cup , awarded to the winner of the Canadian Football League , the Stanley Cup is engraved with the names of the winning players , coaches , management , and club staff . However , this was not always the case : one of Lord Stanley 's original conditions was that each team could , at their own expense , add a ring to the Cup to commemorate their victory . Initially , there was only one base ring , which was attached to the bottom of the original bowl by the Montreal Hockey Club . Clubs engraved their team names , usually in the form " TEAM NAME " " YEAR WON " , on that one ring until it was full in 1902 . With no more room to engrave their names ( and unwilling to pay for a second band ) , teams left their mark on the bowl itself . The 1907 Montreal Wanderers became the first club to record their name on the bowl 's interior surface , and the first champion to record the name of every member of their team .
In 1908 , for reasons unknown , the Wanderers , despite having turned aside four challengers , did not record their names on the Cup . The next year , the Ottawa Senators added a second band onto the Cup . Despite the new room , the 1910 Wanderers and the 1911 Senators did not put their names on the Cup . The 1915 Vancouver Millionaires became the second team to engrave players ' names , this time inside the bowl along its sides .
The 1918 Millionaires eventually filled the band added by the 1909 Senators . The 1915 Ottawa Senators , the 1916 Portland Rosebuds and the 1918 Vancouver Millionaires all engraved their names on the trophy even though they did not officially win it under the new PCHA @-@ NHA system . They had only won the title of the previous champion 's league and would have been crowned as Cup champions under the old challenge rules . The winners in 1918 , 1920 to 1923 did not put their winning team name on it .
No further engraving occurred until 1924 , when the Canadiens added a new band to the Cup . Since then , engraving the team and its players has been an unbroken annual tradition . Originally , a new band was added each year , causing the trophy to grow in size . The " Stovepipe Cup " , as it was nicknamed because of its resemblance to the exhaust pipe of a stove , became unwieldy , so it was redesigned in 1948 as a two @-@ piece cigar @-@ shaped trophy with a removable bowl and collar . This Cup also properly honoured those teams that did not engrave their names on the Cup . Also included was 1918 – 19 No Decision Montreal Canadiens Seattle Metropolitans .
Since 1958 , the Cup has undergone several minor alterations . The original collar and bowl were too brittle , and were replaced in 1963 and 1969 , respectively . The modern one @-@ piece Cup design was introduced in 1958 , when the old barrel was replaced with a five @-@ band barrel , each of which could contain 13 winning teams . Although the bands were originally designed to fill up during the Cup 's centennial year , the names of the 1965 Montreal Canadiens were engraved over a larger area than allotted and thus there are 12 teams on that band instead of 13 . When the bands were all filled in 1991 , the top band of the large barrel was preserved in the Hockey Hall of Fame , and a new blank band was added to the bottom so the Stanley Cup would not grow further .
Another new band was scheduled to be added to the bottom of the cup following the 2004 – 05 season , but was not added because of the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout . After the 2005 – 06 champion Carolina Hurricanes were crowned , and the new bottom ring was finally added , the cancelled season was acknowledged with the words " 2004 – 05 Season Not Played " . Currently , the Cup stands at 89 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 35 ¼ inches ) tall and weighs 15 ½ kilograms ( 34 ½ lb ) .
= = = Name inscriptions = = =
Currently , a player must have played at least half of the regular season games ( usually 41 in current league format ) for the championship team ( provided the player remains with the team when they win the Cup ) or played in at least one game of the Stanley Cup Finals . However , since 1994 teams have been permitted to petition the NHL Commissioner , to be considered on a case @-@ by @-@ case basis , to engrave a player 's name on the cup if the player was unavailable to play due to " extenuating circumstances " . For example , the Detroit Red Wings received special permission from the NHL to inscribe the name of Vladimir Konstantinov , whose career ended after a car accident on June 13 , 1997 , on the Stanley Cup after Detroit defended their title in 1998 .
With the Montreal Canadiens having won by far the most Cup championships of any team , the list of the players who have been engraved on the Cup the most often is dominated by Montreal players . Henri Richard of the Canadiens , with his name engraved eleven times , played on more Stanley Cup champions than any other player . He is followed by Jean Beliveau and Yvan Cournoyer of the Canadiens with ten championships , Claude Provost of the Canadiens with nine , and three players tied with eight : Red Kelly ( four with the Red Wings , four with the Leafs , the most for any player who was not a member of the Canadiens ) and Canadiens players Jacques Lemaire , Maurice Richard . Beliveau 's name appears on the Cup more than any other individual , ten times as a player and seven times as management for a total of seventeen times .
Twelve women have had their names engraved on the Stanley Cup . The first woman to have her name engraved on the Stanley Cup is Marguerite Norris , who won the Cup as the President of the Detroit Red Wings in 1954 and 1955 . The only Canadian woman to have her name engraved on the Stanley Cup is Sonia Scurfield ( born in Hafford , Saskatchewan ) who won the Cup as a co @-@ owner of the Calgary Flames in 1989 .
In 2001 , Charlotte Grahame , the Colorado Avalanche 's Senior Director of Hockey Administration , had her name engraved on the trophy . Her son John later had his name engraved as a member of the Tampa Bay Lightning in 2004 .
= = = Engraving errors = = =
There are several misspellings and illegitimate names on the Cup . Many of them have never been corrected . Examples include :
Pat McReavy 's name is misspelled " McCeavy " as a member of the 1941 Boston Bruins on the second cup created during the 1957 – 58 season . McReavy 's name was often misspelled as " McCreavy " on team pictures of the Boston Bruins . When the Replica Cup was created in 1992 – 93 , the misspelling was not corrected .
Dickie Moore , who won six cups , had his name spelled differently five times ( D. Moore , Richard Moore , R. Moore , Dickie Moore , Rich Moore ) .
Glenn Hall 's name was misspelled as " Glin " in 1951 – 52 .
Alex Delvecchio 's name was misspelled as " Belvecchio " in 1954 .
Bob Gainey was spelled " Gainy " when he was a player for Montreal in the 1970s .
Ted Kennedy was spelled " Kennedyy " in the 1940s .
Toronto Maple Leafs was spelled " Leaes " in 1963 .
Boston Bruins was spelled " BQSTQN " in 1972 .
New York Islanders was spelled " Ilanders " in 1981 .
Justin Williams the Conn Smythe Trophy winner of the 2014 Los Angeles Kings was spelled " JUSTIN WILLIVIS . "
One name was later scratched out : Peter Pocklington , a former Edmonton Oilers owner , put his father 's name , Basil , on the Stanley Cup in 1984 ; today , there is a series of " X " s over Basil 's name .
In 1996 , Colorado Avalanche 's Adam Deadmarsh 's last name was spelled " Deadmarch " . It was later corrected , marking the first correction on the Cup . Similar corrections were made in 2002 , 2006 and 2010 for the names of Detroit Red Wings goalie Manny Legace ( " Lagace " ) , Carolina Hurricanes forward Eric Staal ( " Staaal " ) and Chicago Blackhawks forward Kris Versteeg ( " Vertseeg " ) .
= = Traditions and anecdotes = =
There are many traditions associated with the Stanley Cup . One of the oldest , started by the 1896 Winnipeg Victorias , dictates that the winning team drink champagne from the top bowl after their victory . The Cup is also traditionally presented on the ice to the captain of the winning team after the series @-@ winning game ; each member of the victorious club carries the trophy around the rink . However , this has not always been the case ; prior to the 1930s , the Cup was not awarded immediately after the victory . The first time that the Cup was awarded on the ice may have been to the 1932 Toronto Maple Leafs , but the practice did not become a tradition until the 1950s . Ted Lindsay of the 1950 Cup champion Detroit Red Wings became the first captain , upon receiving the Cup , to hoist it overhead and skate around the rink . According to Lindsay , he did so to allow the fans to have a better view of the Cup . Since then , it has been a tradition for each member of the winning team , beginning with the captain , to take a lap around the ice with the trophy hoisted above his head .
The tradition of the captain first hoisting the Cup has been " breached " a few times . In 1993 after the Montreal Canadiens defeated the Los Angeles Kings , Guy Carbonneau handed the Cup to Denis Savard , as Savard had been the player that many fans had urged the Canadiens to draft back in 1980 . Another notable exception was in 1998 , after the Detroit Red Wings had defeated the Washington Capitals , when Steve Yzerman immediately passed the Cup to Vladimir Konstantinov , whose career with the Red Wings ended due to serious injuries in a traffic accident the previous year and had to be wheeled on the ice . The third was involving Joe Sakic and Ray Bourque when the Colorado Avalanche won the Cup in 2001 , as the seventh and deciding game of the Finals would be the last of Bourque 's 22 @-@ year NHL career , having never been on a Cup @-@ winning team until that time ( Bourque had , until being traded to the Avalanche on March 6 , 2000 , only ever played for the Boston Bruins ) . When Sakic received the trophy , he did not hoist it , but instead immediately handed it to Bourque ; Sakic then became the second player on the team to hoist the trophy .
The Stanley Cup championship team is allotted 100 days during off @-@ season to pass around the Cup including the team 's parade , days with sponsors and a day or so with each player and member of the team 's staff . It is always accompanied by at least one representative from the Hockey Hall of Fame . Although many players have unofficially spent a day in personal possession of the Cup , in 1994 the New York Rangers started a tradition wherein each member of the Cup @-@ winning team is allowed to retain the Cup for a day . Victors of the Cup have used it to baptize their children . Two players ( the New York Islanders ' Clark Gillies and the Anaheim Ducks ' Sean O 'Donnell ) even allowed their dogs to eat out of the Cup .
= = = Original , authenticated , and replica versions = = =
There are technically three versions of the " Stanley Cup " : the original 1892 bowl or Dominion Hockey Challenge Cup , the 1963 authenticated " Presentation Cup " , and the 1993 " Replica Cup " at the Hall of Fame .
The original 1892 Dominion Hockey Challenge Cup , purchased and donated by Lord Stanley , was physically awarded to the Champions until 1970 , and is now displayed in the Vault Room at the Hockey Hall of Fame in Toronto , Ontario .
The authenticated version or " Presentation Cup " was created in 1963 by Montreal silversmith Carl Petersen . NHL president Clarence Campbell felt that the original bowl was becoming too thin and fragile , and thus requested a duplicate trophy as a replacement . The Presentation Cup is authenticated by the seal of the Hockey Hall of Fame on the bottom , which can be seen when winning players lift the Cup over their heads , and it is the one currently awarded to the champions of the playoffs and used for promotions . This version was made in secret , and its production was only revealed three years later .
The replica trophy , called the " Replica Cup " , was created in 1993 by Montreal silversmith Louise St. Jacques to be used as a stand @-@ in at the Hockey Hall of Fame whenever the Presentation Cup is not available for display . There are very few differences between the authenticated version and the replica version . The surest way to identify one version from the other is to check the engraving for the 1984 Stanley Cup winning Edmonton Oilers . The authenticated version has x 's engraved over Basil Pocklington 's name whereas his name is completely missing from the replica version .
= = = As morale booster = = =
The Stanley Cup has served as a valuable morale booster for both American and Canadian troops , as well as their NATO allies . In 2004 , the Cup was displayed at MacDill Air Force Base , located near Tampa , Florida . The visit gave both American troops and a visiting Canadian unit the thrill of seeing the trophy at close hand . The event was later touted by officials at MacDill as " a huge morale booster for our troops " . In 2006 , the Cup toured Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune , North Carolina , where wounded Marines were given the opportunity to view and be photographed with the Cup .
In 2007 , the Stanley Cup made its first trip into a combat zone . During the trip to Kandahar , Afghanistan from May 2 to May 6 , organized by the NHL , the Hockey Hall of Fame , the NHL Alumni and the Canadian Department of National Defence , the Cup was put on display for Canadian and other NATO troops . It briefly endured a rocket attack on May 3 , but emerged unscathed .
The Stanley Cup did a second tour in Afghanistan as part of a " Team Canada visit " in March 2008 . In the spring of 2010 the Stanley Cup made its fourth trip to Afghanistan , accompanied by ex @-@ players .
On June 27 , 2010 , Chicago Blackhawks defenceman Brent Sopel paid tribute to his friend , former Toronto Maple Leafs general manager Brian Burke and Burke 's late son , Brendan , by accompanying the Cup to the 2010 Chicago Gay Pride Parade .
= Secret ( Madonna song ) =
" Secret " is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Madonna from her sixth studio album Bedtime Stories ( 1994 ) . It was released on September 27 , 1994 , as the lead single from the album by Warner Bros. Records as well as Maverick and Sire . The song was later included on her greatest hits compilations GHV2 ( 2001 ) and Celebration ( 2009 ) . " Secret " was developed based on a demo version created by producer Shep Pettibone , which was reworked by Dallas Austin , with whom Madonna was working on Bedtime Stories . Written and produced by the singer with Austin , an additional writer on the track was Pettibone . The song was a departure from the style of music that Madonna had previously released ; up to that point in her career her music had mostly been big @-@ sounding dance tracks or melodic ballads . " Secret " combined pop and R & B genres with instrumentation from acoustic guitar , drums and strings , while lyrically talking about a lover having a secret , as well as how Madonna realized that one 's happiness is under one 's control .
The song was released accompanied by eight different remixes by DJ Junior Vasquez , who just re @-@ used Madonna 's vocals , but changed the composition of the track completely . Unusual for the mid @-@ 1990s , Madonna talked about the new single on the Internet leaving an audio message for her fans , as well as a snippet of the song . " Secret " received favorable reviews from music critics , who praised Madonna 's vocal delivery and its mid @-@ tempo R & B groove , deeming it seductive and soulful . The song was also a commercial success . In the United States , it peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . In the United Kingdom , it reached a peak of number five , becoming her record @-@ breaking 35th consecutive top @-@ ten single on the UK Singles Chart . Elsewhere , it reached number one in Canada , Finland and Switzerland , and the top five in Australia , Denmark , France , Italy , New Zealand and Spain .
With the single 's cover art and its accompanying music video , Madonna ushered in another image change , inspired by the look of Hollywood actress Jean Harlow . The black and white video was directed by photographer Melodie McDaniel who was chosen by the singer due to McDaniel 's previous short films . It features Madonna as a singer in a nightclub in Harlem , New York . Interspersed with scenes of daily life in the neighborhood , the video ends with Madonna uniting with her lover and their supposed child . The video sparked academic discussions on what can constitute the lyrical secret of the song . Madonna performed " Secret " on tour for the first time during her 2001 Drowned World Tour . It was later performed at the Houston stop of her Sticky and Sweet Tour in November 2008 as a fan request , and later on the Rebel Heart Tour in 2015 .
= = Background and release = =
Following the release Madonna 's first book publication , Sex , the erotic thriller , Body of Evidence , her fifth studio album , Erotica , as well as a disastrous interview on David Letterman 's show in the early 1990s , the media and public 's backlash against Madonna 's overtly sexual image was at a peak . Madonna wanted to tone down her explicit image . Her first attempt was to release the tender ballad " I 'll Remember " from the soundtrack of the film With Honors . Musically she wanted to move in a new musical direction and started exploring new @-@ jack R & B styles with a generally mainstream , radio @-@ friendly sound . She incorporated it in her sixth studio album , Bedtime Stories , released in October 1994 . At first , it started as a collaboration with Shep Pettibone and was to be stylistically similar to Erotica , but due to Madonna 's wish to soften her public image at the time , she decided to move towards an R & B sound collaborating with well @-@ known R & B producers and took a more appropriate image for the general public .
After searching , Madonna chose to work with Babyface , whose previous collaborations with artists like Whitney Houston , Boyz II Men , and Toni Braxton had resulted in successful smooth R & B songs . Through him , she met with then upcoming young producer from Atlanta called Dallas Austin , who had become famous for his work on girl group TLC 's debut album , Ooooooohhh ... On the TLC Tip ( 1992 ) . Together they composed two songs for the album , " Secret " and " Sanctuary " . The former was originally produced in its demo form by Pettibone , under the name " Something 's Coming Over Me " , however Austin reworked the demo and made it a different song musically . On September 27 , 1994 , the song was released as the lead single from Bedtime Stories . The cover art of the single showed a new look for Madonna , with blonde hair and style compared to the look of 1930s American actress , Jean Harlow . Shot by photographer Patrick Demarchelier in black @-@ and @-@ white , the image showed the singer slouched on a sofa with her dress down and revealing her translucent brassiere . Unusual for the mid @-@ 1990s , Madonna talked about the new single on the Internet leaving an audio message for her fans , as well as a snippet of the song .
Hello , all you Cyberheads ! Welcome to the 90 's version of intimacy . You can hear me ... You can even see me ... But you can 't touch me ... do you recognize my voice ? ... It 's Madonna . Often imitated , but never duplicated . Or , should I say , often irritated ? If you feel like it , you can download the sound file of my new single " Secret " , from my new album , Bedtime Stories , which comes out next month . I just shot the video in New York , and will be premiering an exclusive sample of it online . So check back soon . In the meantime , why don 't you post me a message and let me know what you think of my new song . And by the way , don 't believe any of those online imposters pretending to be me ... ain 't nothing like the real thing . Peace out .
= = Recording and composition = =
" Secret " was written and produced by Madonna and Austin , with Pettibone as co @-@ writer of the track . It was recorded from April to June 1994 at Axis Studios in New York and DARP Studios in Atlanta , GA . Alongside the production work , Austin also played the drums and the keyboards , while Tommy Martin played the acoustic guitars . Fred Jorio and Mark " Spike " Stent worked on the programming and engineering of the track while Tony Shimkin was the editor . Jon Gass and Alvin Speights mixed the song and finally Jessie Leavey , Craig Armstrong and Susie Katiyama did the strings and conducting sessions .
" Secret " was a departure from the style of music that Madonna had previously released ; up to that point in her career her music had mostly been big @-@ sounding dance tracks or melodic ballads . In the track , she mixed pop and Contemporary R & B genres . It begins with the sound of an acoustic guitar and wah @-@ wah and just the sound of Madonna 's voice singing over it , before opening up to a sparse , retro rhythm section . A descending chord sequence follows and around the one minute mark , the drums start with Madonna singing the chorus " Something 's coming over , mmmmmmmm " . It is entirely supported by the strings and Madonna 's lower harmonies allude to songs by Kurt Cobain . According to Rikky Rooksby , author of The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna , the descending chords are supported by the ascending strings — an example of contrary motion used in music . During the middle section , another wah @-@ wah guitar solo is added alongside the strings . Near the end , the melodies add an upper harmony for differentiation with the verses .
According to Musicnotes.com , the song is set in the time signature of common time and progresses in 96 beats per minute . The composition is set in the key of E ♭ minor with Madonna 's vocal ranging from G ♭ 3 to G ♭ 4 . " Take a Bow " contains a basic sequence of B ♭ 7 – E ♭ m7 – D ♭ – Cm7 – C ♭ during the opening verses , and B7 – Em – D – C during the chorus its chord progression . Madonna 's voice remains at the center of the song 's production , as she sings lyrics such as " happiness lies in your own hand " . Lyrically it talks about a lover having a secret as well as how Madonna realized that one 's happiness is under one 's control . In Madonna the Companion : Two Decades of Commentary , authors Allen Metz and Carol Benson write that the tone that Madonna uses when singing these lyrics suggests that she is discussing " self @-@ determinism , not auto @-@ eroticism " . Throughout the song Madonna also sings the lyrics " My baby 's got a secret , " however , she never discloses what the secret may be .
= = Remixes = =
Madonna released more than eight remixes of the song in different formats . At the time , " Secret " was experiencing success on the US record charts , to keep the song current in dance clubs , Madonna requested remixes of the song from Junior Vasquez , who was a DJ at the Sound Factory nightclub in New York . According to him Madonna 's representatives " sent me a cassette of the song , just to get an idea what the song was ... [ A ] nd when it was 100 beats per minute I said , ' Oh god , what am I gonna do with this ? ' " Vasquez and his team of engineers first experimented with the track by making remixes closer to the original version . Then he used only Madonna 's vocals for the mixed versions , and re @-@ wrote and composed the music as brand new . He was sure of doing house mixes of the track but had to " speed @-@ up " Madonna 's vocals . Recording engineer Dennis Mitchell explained , " To do that we have to digitally manipulate
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dikarib , better known by his nickname " al @-@ Ash 'ath " ( " He with the dishevelled hair " ) , was an important chieftain who submitted to Muhammad , but rebelled during the Ridda wars . Defeated , he was pardoned and married Caliph Abu Bakr 's sister . He went on to participate in the crucial battles of the early Muslim conquests , Yarmouk and Qadisiyya , as well as in the Battle of Siffin , where he was instrumental in forcing Ali to abandon his military advantage and submit to arbitration , and later led the Kindaite quarter in Kufa , where he died in 661 . His father Muhammad was far less distinguished , serving an unsuccessful tenure as governor of Tabaristan , and becoming involved in the Second Fitna as a supporter of Ibn al @-@ Zubayr , being killed in 686 / 7 in the campaign that overthrew al @-@ Mukhtar . Like his father at Siffin , he is denigrated by pro @-@ Alid sources for his ambiguous role in the Battle of Karbala in 680 , being held responsible for the arrests of Muslim ibn Aqil and Hani ibn Urwa . Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath 's mother , Umm Amr , was the daughter of Sa 'id ibn Qays al @-@ Hamdani . He had four brothers , Ishaq , Qasim , Sabbah , and Isma 'il , of whom the first three also fought in the campaigns in Tabaristan .
According to al @-@ Tabari , the young Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath accompanied his father and participated in his political activities : in 680 he revealed the hiding @-@ place of Muslim ibn Aqil to the authorities , and he fought in the campaign against al @-@ Mukhtar in which his father was killed , and reportedly executed ( or persuaded Mu 'sab ibn al @-@ Zubayr to execute ) al @-@ Mukhtar 's captured followers in revenge . Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath disappears from the record during the next few years , but after Mu 'sab ibn al @-@ Zubayr was defeated and killed by the Umayyad caliph Abd al @-@ Malik ibn Marwan in October 691 , he , like other followers of Mu 'sab , apparently went over to the Umayyads . In early 692 , Abd al @-@ Malik 's brother Bishr put him in command of over 5 @,@ 000 Kufans for a campaign against the Kharijites threatening al @-@ Ahwaz . The Kharijites retreated before the far larger caliphal army , led by Khalid ibn Abdallah ibn Khalid ibn Asid , and Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath went on to take up the governorship of Rayy .
= = = Al @-@ Hajjaj 's appointment to Iraq = = =
In 694 , Abd al @-@ Malik appointed the trusted and capable al @-@ Hajjaj ibn Yusuf as the new governor of Iraq , a crucial post given the restiveness of the region towards Umayyad rule . In 697 , his remit was expanded to cover the entirety of the eastern Caliphate , including Khurasan and Sistan .
In 695 , al @-@ Hajjaj entrusted Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath with 6 @,@ 000 horsemen and the campaign against the Kharijite rebels under Shabib ibn Yazid ibn Nu 'aym al @-@ Shaybani . Although not large , this group benefited from Shabib 's tactical skill and inflicted a number of defeats on Umayyad forces . Advised by the general al @-@ Jazl Uthman ibn Sa 'id , Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath pursued the Kharijites but displayed great caution in order to avoid falling into a trap . As a result , the governor of al @-@ Mada 'in , Uthman ibn Qatan , wrote to al @-@ Hajjaj criticizing Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath 's leadership . Al @-@ Hajjaj responded by giving command to Uthman , but when the latter attacked Shabib , the Umayyad army suffered a heavy defeat , losing around 900 men and fleeing to Kufa ; Uthman himself was killed , while Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath , who lost his horse , managed to escape with the help of a friend and reached Kufa after an eventful journey . There he remained in hiding until al @-@ Hajjaj granted him pardon .
Despite his setback , relations between Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath and al @-@ Hajjaj were friendly initially , and al @-@ Hajjaj 's son married one of Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath 's sisters . Gradually , however , the two men became estranged . The sources attribute this to Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath 's overweening pride as one of the foremost of the ashrāf , the tribal nobility , and his aspirations to leadership : al @-@ Mas 'udi records that he adopted the title of Nāṣir al @-@ muʾminīn ( " Helper of the Faithful " ) , an implicit challenge to the Umayyads , who were implied to be false believers . In addition , he claimed to be the Qaḥṭānī , a messianic figure in South Arab ( Yamani ) tribal tradition who was expected to raise them to domination . Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath 's pretensions irked al @-@ Hajjaj , whose hostile remarks — such as " Look how he walks ! How I should like to cut off his head ! " — were conveyed to Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath and served to deepen their hostility to outright mutual hatred . According to L. Veccia Vaglieri , however , these reports are more indicative of the Arabic sources ' tendency to " explain historical events by incidents relating to persons " , rather than the actual relationship between the two men , especially given the fact that Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath faithfully served al @-@ Hajjaj in a number of posts , culminating in his appointment to lead the " Peacock Army " . Nevertheless , it is clear that al @-@ Hajjaj quickly became unpopular among the Iraqis in general through a series of measures that , according to Hugh N. Kennedy , " [ seem ] almost to have goaded the Iraqis into rebellion " , such as the introduction of Syrian troops — the mainstay of the Umayyad dynasty — into Iraq , the use of Iraqi troops in the arduous and unrewarding campaigns against the Kharijites , and the reduction of the Iraqi troops ' pay to a level below that of the Syrian troops .
= = = Sistan campaign and rebellion = = =
In 698 / 9 , the Umayyad governor of Sistan , Ubayd Allah ibn Abi Bakra , suffered a severe defeat by the semi @-@ independent ruler of Zabulistan , known as the Zunbīl . The Zunbīl drew the Arabs deep into his country and cut them off , so that they managed to extricate themselves only with great difficulty and after suffering many losses , particularly among the Kufan contingent . In response , al @-@ Hajjaj sent an Iraqi army to the east against the Zunbīl . Whether due to the splendour of its equipment or as an allusion to the " proud and haughty manner of the Kufan soldiers and ashrāf who composed it " ( G. R. Hawting ) , this army became known in history as the " Peacock Army " . Two different generals were appointed by al @-@ Hajjaj in succession to command it , before he appointed Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath instead . In view of their bad relations , the sources report , the appointment came as a surprise to many ; an uncle of Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath even approached al @-@ Hajjaj and suggested that his nephew might revolt , but al @-@ Hajjaj did not rescind his appointment . Al @-@ Tabari suggests that al @-@ Hajjaj relied on the fear he inspired to keep Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath in check ; modern scholarship on the other hand holds that the portrayal of the great personal animosity between the two men is likely to be exaggerated .
It is unclear whether Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath himself had joined the army from the outset or whether , according to an alternative tradition , he had been sent to Kirman to punish a local leader who had refused to help the governors of Sistan and Sind . After taking up the leadership of the army , Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath led it to Sistan , where he united the local troops with the " Peacock Army " . He rejected a peace offer from the Zunbīl and — in marked contrast to his predecessor 's direct assault — began a systematic campaign to first secure the lowlands surrounding the mountainous heart of the Zunbīl 's kingdom : slowly and methodically , he captured the villages and fortresses one by one , installing garrisons in them and linking them with messengers . After accomplishing this task , he withdrew to Bust to spend the winter of 699 / 700 . Once al @-@ Hajjaj received Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath 's messages informing him of the break in operations , however , he replied in what L. Veccia Vaglieri described as " a series of arrogant and offensive messages ordering him to penetrate into the heart of Zabulistan and there to fight the enemy to the death " . Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath called an assembly of the army 's leadership , in which he informed them of al @-@ Hajjaj 's orders for an immediate advance and his decision to refuse to obey . He then went before the assembled troops and repeated al @-@ Hajjaj 's instructions , calling upon them to decide what should be done . The troops clearly resented " the prospect of a long and difficult campaign so far from Iraq " ( G. R. Hawting ) , denounced al @-@ Hajjaj , proclaiming him deposed , and swore allegiance to Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath instead . Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath 's brothers , however , as well as the governor of Khurasan , al @-@ Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra , refused to join the rebellion . Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath hastily concluded an agreement with the Zunbīl , whereby if he was victorious in the coming conflict with al @-@ Hajjaj , he would accord the Zunbīl generous treatment , while if he was defeated , the Zunbīl would provide refuge . With his rear secure , Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath left representatives at Bust and Zaranj , and his army set out on the return journey to Iraq , picking up more soldiers from Kufa and Basra , who were stationed as garrisons , along the way . By the time the army reached Fars , it had become clear that deposing al @-@ Hajjaj could not be done without deposing Caliph Abd al @-@ Malik as well , and the revolt evolved from a mutiny into a full @-@ blown anti @-@ Umayyad uprising , with the troops renewing their oath to Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath .
The reasons for the rebellion have been the source of much discussion and theories among modern scholars . Moving away from the personal relationship between al @-@ Hajjaj and Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath , Alfred von Kremer suggested that the rebellion was linked with the efforts of the non @-@ Arab converts to Islam ( the mawālī ) to secure equal rights with the Arab Muslims . Julius Wellhausen rejected this view as the main source of the revolt , seeing it instead as a reaction of the Iraqis in general and the ashrāf in particular against the Syrian regime of the Umayyads as represented by the overbearing ( and notably low @-@ born ) al @-@ Hajjaj . Other scholars have seen in it a manifestation of the tribal factionalism between the northern Arab and southern Arab ( " Yamani " ) tribal groups prevalent at the time . Thus a poem by a certain A 'sha Hamdan in celebration of the rebellion shows not only a religious but also a tribal motivation of the rebel troops : al @-@ Hajjaj is denounced as an apostate and a " friend of the devil " , while Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath is portrayed as the champion of the Yamani Qahtani and Hamdani tribes against the northern Arab Ma 'addis and Thaqafis . On the other hand , as G. R. Hawting points out , this is insufficient evidence to ascribe purely tribal motivations to the revolt : if Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath 's movement was indeed led largely by Yamanis , this simply reflects the fact that they were the dominant element in Kufa , and while al @-@ Hajjaj himself was a northerner , his main commander was a southerner . Wellhausen 's analysis , however , rejected the evident religious dimension of the revolt , especially the participation of the fanatical zealots known as qurrāʾ ( " Quran readers " ) . While the " religious polemic used by both sides [ .. ] is stereotyped , unspecific and to be found in other contexts " ( C.G. Hawting ) , there do appear to have been specific religious grievances , notably the accusation that the Umayyads were neglecting the ritual prayer . It seems clear that the revolt began as a simple mutiny against an overbearing governor who made impossible demands of the troops , but , at least by the time the army reached Fars , a religious element emerged , represented by the qurrāʾ . Given the close " interaction of religion and politics in early Muslim society " , as G. R. Hawting points out , the religious element quickly became dominant , as seen by the difference between the oath of allegiance ( bayʿa ) sworn at the beginning of the revolt and that exchanged between the army and Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath at Istakhr in Fars . While in the first Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath declared as his intention to " depose al @-@ Hajjaj , the enemy of God " , in the latter , he exhorted his men to " [ defend ] the Book of God and the Sunna of His Prophet , to depose the imāms of error , to fight against those who regard [ the blood of the Prophet ’ s kin ] as licit " . Although Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath remained as the head of the uprising , Veccia Vaglieri writes that after this point " one has the impression that [ ... ] the control of the revolt slipped from his hands " , or that , as Wellhausen comments , " he was urged on in spite of himself , and even if he would , could not have banished the spirits which he had called up . It was as if an avalanche came rushing down sweeping every thing before it " .
This interpretation is corroborated by the different rhetoric and actions of Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath and his followers , as reported in the sources : the former was ready and willing to compromise with the Umayyads , and continued to fight only because he had no alternative , while the great mass of his followers , motivated by discontent against the Umayyad regime couched in religious terms , were far more uncompromising and willing to carry on the struggle until death . Al @-@ Hajjaj himself seems to have been aware of the distinction : in suppressing the revolt , he pardoned the Quraysh , the Syrians , and many of the other Arab clans , but executed tens of thousands among the mawālī and the Zutt of the Mesopotamian Marshes , who had sided with the rebels .
= = = Fight for control of Iraq = = =
Informed of the revolt , al @-@ Hajjaj requested reinforcements from the Caliph , but was unable to stop the advance of the rebel army , which is reported to have numbered 33 @,@ 000 cavalry and 120 @,@ 000 infantry . On 24 or 25 January 701 , Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath overwhelmed al @-@ Hajjaj 's advance guard at Tustar . At the news of this defeat , al @-@ Hajjaj withdrew to Basra and then , as he could not possibly hold the city , left Basra as well for nearby al @-@ Zawiya . Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath entered Basra on 13 February 701 . Over the next month , a series of skirmishes were fought between the forces of Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath and al @-@ Hajjaj , in which the former generally held the upper hand . Finally , in early March , the two armies met for a pitched battle . Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath initially prevailed , but in the end al @-@ Hajjaj 's Syrians , under Sufyan ibn Abrad , carried off a victory . Many rebels fell , especially among the qurrāʾ , forcing Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath to withdraw to Kufa , taking with him the Kufan troops and the élite of the Basran cavalry . At Kufa , Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath found the citadel occupied by Matar ibn Najiya , an officer from al @-@ Mada 'in , and was forced to take it by assault .
His lieutenant at Basra , the Hashimi Abd al @-@ Rahman ibn Abbas , tried but was unable to hold the city , as the populace opened the gates in exchange for a pardon after a few days . Abd al @-@ Rahman too withdrew with as many Basrans as would follow him to Kufa , where Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath 's forces swelled further with the arrival of large numbers of anti @-@ Umayyad volunteers . After taking control of Basra — and executing some 11 @,@ 000 of its people , despite his pledge of pardon — al @-@ Hajjaj marched on Kufa in April 701 . His army was harassed by Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath 's cavalry , but reached the environs of the city and set up camp at Dayr Qurra , on the right bank of the Euphrates so as to secure his lines of communication with Syria . In response Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath left Kufa and with an army reportedly 200 @,@ 000 strong approached al @-@ Hajjaj 's army and set up camp at Dayr al @-@ Jamajim . Both armies fortified their camps by digging trenches and , as before , engaged in skirmishes . Whatever the true numbers of Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath 's force , al @-@ Hajjaj was in a difficult position : his army was considerably outnumbered by the rebels , although reinforcements from Syria were constantly arriving , and his position was difficult to resupply with provisions .
In the meantime , Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath 's progress had sufficiently alarmed the Umayyad court that they sought a negotiated settlement , despite the contrary advice of al @-@ Hajjaj . Caliph Abd al @-@ Malik sent his brother Muhammad and son Abdallah as envoys , proposing the dismissal of al @-@ Hajjaj , the appointment of Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath as governor over one of the Iraqi towns , and a raise in the Iraqis ' pay so that they received the same amount as the Syrians . Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath was inclined to accept , but the more radical of his followers , especially the qurrāʾ , refused , believing that the offered terms revealed the government 's weakness , and pushed for outright victory . With the negotiations failing , the two armies continued to skirmish — the sources report that the skirmishing lasted for 100 days with 48 engagements . This lasted until September , when the two armies met in battle . Again Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath initially held the upper hand , but the Syrians prevailed in the end : shortly before the sun set , Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath 's men broke and scattered . Failing to rally his troops , Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath with a handful of followers fled to Kufa , where he took farewell of his family . As Hawting comments , the contrast " between the discipline and organisation of the Umayyads and their largely Syrian support and the lack of these qualities among their opponents in spite of , or perhaps rather because of , the more righteous and religious flavour of the opposition " is a recurring pattern in the civil wars of the period .
Victorious , al @-@ Hajjaj entered Kufa , where he tried and executed many rebels , but also pardoned those who submitted after admitting that through revolt they had become infidels . In the meantime , however , one of Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath 's supporters , Ubayd Allah ibn Samura , had recaptured Basra , to where Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath now headed ; and another , Muhammad ibn Sa 'd ibn Abi Waqqas , had captured al @-@ Mada 'in . Al @-@ Hajjaj remained for a month in Kufa , before setting out to meet Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath . The two armies met at Maskin on the river Dujayl . After two weeks of skirmishing , al @-@ Hajjaj delivered the final blow by launching a simultaneous attack on the rebel camp from two sides : while he with the main part of his army attacked from one side , a portion of his army , guided by a shepherd , crossed the marshes and launched itself on the camp from the rear . Caught by surprise , the rebel army was nearly annihilated , with many rebels drowning in the river in their attempt to flee .
= = = Flight east and death = = =
Following this renewed defeat , Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath fled east , towards Sistan , with a few survivors . Al @-@ Hajjaj sent troops under Umara ibn al @-@ Tamim al @-@ Lakhmi to intercept them . Umara caught up with them twice , at Sus and Sabur , but Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath and his men managed to fight through to Kirman and thence to Sistan . There he was refused entry into Zaranj by his own agent ( ʿāmil ) , and was then arrested by the ʿāmil of Bust . The Zunbīl however , true to his word , came to Bust and forced Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath 's release , taking him with him to Zabulistan and treating him with much honour . There , Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath assumed command of some 60 @,@ 000 supporters who had assembled there in the meantime . With their support , he seized Zaranj , where he punished the ʿāmil . Faced with the approach of the Umayyad troops under Umara ibn al @-@ Tamim , however , most of Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath 's followers urged him to go to Khurasan , where they would be hopefully able to recruit more followers , and sit out the Umayyad attacks until either al @-@ Hajjaj or Caliph Abd al @-@ Malik died and the political situation changed . Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath bowed to their pressure , but after a group of 2 @,@ 000 men defected , he returned to Zabulistan with those who would follow him there . Most of the rebels remained in Khurasan , choosing Abd al @-@ Rahman ibn Abbas as their leader . They were soon confronted and defeated by the local governor , Yazid ibn al @-@ Muhallab . Yazid released those who belonged to the Yamani tribes related to his own , and sent the rest to al @-@ Hajjaj , who executed most of them . In the meantime , Umara quickly effected the surrender of Sistan , by offering lenient terms to the garrisons if they surrendered without struggle .
Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath remained safe under the protection of the Zunbīl , but al @-@ Hajjaj , fearing that he might raise another revolt , sent letters to the Zunbīl , mixing threats and promises , to secure his surrender . Finally , in 704 the Zunbīl gave in , in exchange for lifting the annual tribute for 7 or 10 years . Accounts of Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath 's end differ : one version holds that he was executed by the Zunbīl himself , or that he died of illness , and that his head was cut off and sent to al @-@ Hajjaj . The more widespread account , however , holds that he was confined to a remote castle at Rukhkhaj in anticipation of his extradition to al @-@ Hajjaj , and chained to his warden , but that he threw himself from the top of the castle ( along with his warden ) to his death .
= = Aftermath = =
The failure of Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath 's revolt led to the tightening of Umayyad control over Iraq . Al @-@ Hajjaj founded a permanent garrison for the Syrian troops at Wasit , situated between Basra and Kufa , and the Iraqis , regardless of social status , were deprived of any real power in the governance of the region . This was coupled with a reform of the salary ( ʿaṭāʾ ) system by al @-@ Hajjaj : whereas hitherto the salary had been calculated based on the role of one 's ancestors in the early Muslim conquests , it now became limited to those actively participating in campaigns . As most of the army was now composed of Syrians , this measure gravely injured the interests of the Iraqis , who regarded this as another impious attack on hallowed institutions . In addition , extensive land reclamation and irrigation works were undertaken in lower Iraq ( the Sawad ) , but this was limited mostly to around Wasit , and the proceeds went to the Umayyads and their clients , not the Iraqi nobility . As a result , the political power of the once mighty Kufan élites was soon broken .
It was not until 720 that the Iraqis rebelled once again , under Yazid ibn al @-@ Muhallab , " the last of the old @-@ style Iraqi champions " ( Hugh Kennedy ) , and even then , support was ambivalent , and the revolt was defeated . Two of Ibn al @-@ Ash 'ath 's nephews , Muhammad ibn Ishaq and Uthman ibn Ishaq , supported the rebellion , but most remained quiescent and content with their role as local dignitaries . A few held posts in Kufa under the early Abbasids . Perhaps the most famous of the family 's later members is the philosopher al @-@ Kindi . Another uprising , that of Zayd ibn Ali , broke out in 740 , again promising to right injustices ( restoration of the ʿaṭāʾ , distribution of the revenue from the Sawad , an end to distant campaigns ) and to restore rule according to the Quran and the Sunna . Once more , however , the Kufans deserted it at the critical moment , and it was defeated by the Umayyads . Discontent with the Umayyad government continued to simmer , however , and during the Abbasid Revolution , Iraq rose up in support of the rebellion . Kufa overthrew Umayyad rule and welcomed the Abbasid army in October 749 , followed immediately by the proclamation of as @-@ Saffah as the first Abbasid caliph there .
= Nina Davuluri =
Nina Davuluri ( Telugu : నీనా దావులురి ; born April 20 , 1989 ) , Miss America 2014 , is an American public speaker and advocate for civil rights and humanitarian causes . She is also the " first contestant of Indian descent to win the Miss America Competition " ( as well as the second Asian American ) . Shortly after becoming Miss America , however , Davuluri became the target of xenophobic and racist commentary in American social media . Her win also instigated dialogue in India and the Indian diaspora over the topic of colorism . Davuluri drew upon these experiences to promote her platform " Celebrating Diversity Through Cultural Competency " during her year as Miss America . Since ending her reign as Miss America in September 2014 , Davuluri has continued to travel throughout the United States and India as a speaker and advocate for diversity , gender equality , and the promotion of STEM education .
= = Early life and education = =
Davuluri was born on April 20 , 1989 in Syracuse , New York , to Hindu Telugu parents from Vijayawada , Andhra Pradesh , India . Her mother , Sheela Davuluri , is an Information technology specialist , her father , Chaudhury Davuluri , is a gynecologist , and her older sister , Meena Davuluri has an M.D. and an M.P.H .. When she was six weeks old , Davuluri was brought to live with her grandmother and aunt in Vijayawada . She stayed there until she was two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years old , when her parents brought her back to the United States , returning to India each summer in order to study Indian dance . She is also fluent in Telugu .
Davuluri moved to Oklahoma when she was four years old . She lived there until she was 10 , next moving to St. Joseph , Michigan . Years later , at a 2015 White House Initiative on Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders event , Davuluri noted that nine eleven marked a turning point in her life . She was in the seventh grade at the time , and recalls that in the conservative community in which they lived , her family went from being " the little indian family that lived on the block , that was the nice , kept to themselves type of family " to being " the terrorist family on the block . " She also stated that her house was vandalized and that her family began to receive hate mail . This period of her life would become the foundation for her future Miss American platform , " Celebrating Diversity Through Cultural Competency , " as its goal is to confront bullying by actively learning to talk about diversity in an open and respectful way .
As a child , Davuluri studied ballet , tap , and jazz dance , and was later in the St. Joseph High School marching band ( where she also played varsity tennis and was on the Science Olympiad team ) . She graduated from St. Joseph in 2007 , the same year that her parents moved to Fayetteville , New York . She chose to stay in Michigan , however , first beginning college at Michigan State University , and later transferring to the University of Michigan ( where she was a Sigma Kappa / Alpha Mu , was on the Dean 's List , and received Michigan Merit and National Honor Society Awards ) . She graduated in 2011 with a B.S. in Brain Behavior and Cognitive Science , next moving in with her family in New York where she took nine pre @-@ med courses at Le Moyne College . Halfway through her tenure as Miss America , however , she announced that she would not be applying to medical school . Instead , she plans to attend business school sometime in the future .
= = Miss Michigan 's Outstanding Teen and Miss New York = =
At the age of 16 , Davuluri became interested in beauty pageants after her sister Meena won the title of Miss St. Joseph . As she was too young to enter local pageants , Davuluri became involved with Miss America 's Teen division in Michigan , where she also learned that she could earn scholarship money for college . She won the Miss Southwest Michigan 's Outstanding Teen 2005 pageant , followed by the Miss Michigan 's Outstanding Teen 2006 pageant , and was first runner @-@ up at the 2007 Miss America 's Outstanding Teen pageant . After winning nearly $ 25 @,@ 000 in scholarship money , she stopped competing for a few years and focused instead on her undergraduate education . After graduating from the University of Michigan , Davuluri returned to competing in pageants in order to fund graduate school . In 2012 , as a New York resident , she won the title of Miss Greater Rochester , followed by second place in the Miss New York pageant .
Davuluri tried again the following year and won the title of Miss Syracuse . She was then was crowned Miss New York 2013 . Shortly after winning the Miss New York title , she held a party in her hotel room , where a fellow contestant in the neighboring room later claimed to have heard her refer to the previous Miss New York Mallory Hagan ( who later went on to become Miss America 2013 ) as " fat as [ bleep ] " during this party . Davuluri denied making these comments , later saying that " Mallory and I are good friends . " An official from the Miss America pageant also stated that the " situation was investigated fully back in July and there is no validity to the story whatsoever . Miss New York spoke to Mallory Hytes Hagan to let her know there was no validity and to apologize if she was offended in any way . " In addition , Davuluri has spoken publicly about losing 53 pounds ( 24 kg ) , her struggle with bulimia , and her belief that " you don 't need to be a certain size to be healthy " .
= = Miss America = =
Davuluri , the first Indian American to win the Miss America pageant ( and the second Miss New York in a row ) , held the title of Miss America 2014 from September 15 , 2013 to September 14 , 2014 . In doing so , she followed in the footsteps of a previous Miss Syracuse / Miss New York , Vanessa Williams , who ( as Miss America 1984 ) was the first African American winner of the pageant . She is also the second Asian American contestant to be crowned Miss America ( the first was Filipino American Angela Perez Baraquio in 2001 ) . NPR 's Michael Martin commented on this aspect of her win by noting that “ there were five Asian @-@ Americans competing for the crown . That 's the highest number in pageant history . Three of you were in the top five . Two of you were the finalists , and this in a contest where initially the requirements were that contestants be of good health and of the white race . "
Drawing on her background in Kuchipudi and Bharatanatyam , Davuluri danced to the song " Dhoom Taana " from the film Om Shanti Om for her talent performance . Her routine , the first time Bollywood appeared on the Miss America stage , was developed in conjunction with Nakul Dev Mahajan as a fusion of Bollywood and Indian classical dance . After being crowned Miss America , she said that she was told that she would " never going to win with a Bollywood talent so just go back to singing if you are serious about [ winning ] . ”
During the final moments of the pageant , one of the hosts Lara Spencer , approached the only contestants left on the stage , Davuluri and Miss California Crystal Lee and asked them how they were " feeling . " Davuluri replied that both she and Lee were " so proud . We ’ re making history right here , standing here as Asian @-@ Americans . " She later described that part of the pageant as “ very surreal . ”
I really wanted to help effect a change in beauty standards .... Miss America 's branding is so associated with the girl next door , which has always meant blonde hair and blue eyes with only a few exceptions , but the girl next door must evolve as the country evolves . When I was younger I wanted to fit in , but I was aware growing up that I didn 't fit that mould , and I really wanted to help make a change that meant young girls wouldn 't feel like that .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Shortly after she was crowned Miss America 2014 , Davuluri became the target of xenophobic and racist commentary in American social media . The news media compared this response to the backlash against Vanessa Williams after she became Miss America 1984 . Congresswoman Grace Meng additionally linked Davuluri 's experience to the antisemitism that Jewish American Bess Myerson faced as Miss America 1945 . Many of the comments demanded to know why Davuluri was chosen over the soldier , Miss Kansas Theresa Vail , misidentified her as Muslim or Arab ( equating both terms to the word " terrorist ” ) , or associated her with groups such as Al @-@ Qaeda . They also noted the pageant date relative to the September 11 anniversary , and generally expressed anti @-@ Indian sentiments and anti @-@ Arab sentiments . Davuluri later said that she was prepared for the social @-@ media response because she faced a similar situation a few months earlier when she was crowned Miss New York .
Some responded to the backlash in a show of solidarity with Davuluri . Students at Duke University , and with Yale University 's Asian American Cultural Center and the South Asian Society , created videos and ran photo campaigns denouncing the social media attacks , while Miss Kansas Theresa Vail blogged and gave interviews to discredit the comments about both herself and Davuluri . Actor and civil @-@ rights activist George Takei ( the original Hikaru Sulu in Star Trek ) posted a comment on Facebook stating that while he normally doesn 't " care about Miss America … the uproar over an Indian @-@ American winning ( whom many decried for being ' Arab ' ) has me shaking my head . Please tell me I 'm not alone in wondering whether we 've learned anything at all . " University of Michigan student Munmun Khan also stated that she while doesn 't like beauty pageants , she hates " racism and bigotry even more [ ... ] Not only was [ Davuluri ] the first Indian Miss New York , but she is now also the first Indian Miss America . All cause for celebration . " Finally , Immediate Past President , Young Democrats of America , Atima Omara , argued that " a sexist , racist , xenophobic attack against one prominent woman of color is an attack against us all , and it shouldn 't be tolerated just because we disdain that woman 's choices . As an African @-@ American woman with an ethnic name , I know the constant sting that comes from hearing how you are not American enough no matter how much you accomplish in the name of America . "
An editorial by the staff of The Hindu highlighted a different narrative in India and the Indian diaspora regarding her win and colorism . The editorial suggested that rather than hold a pageant title in India , " the dark complexioned 24 @-@ year @-@ old [ Davuluri ] would not have stood a chance … had she been in India , far from entering a beauty contest , it is more likely that Ms Davuluri would have grown up hearing mostly disparaging remarks about the colour of her skin ; she would have been — going by the storyline of most “ fairness ” cream advertisements — a person with low self @-@ esteem and few friends . " Dean Asha Rangappa ( Yale Law School ) echoed these sentiments when she stated that " Davuluri is following in the footsteps of other darker @-@ skinned Indian women who have been recognized in America for their talent and beauty , like The Office ’ s Mindy Kaling or ER 's Parminder Nagra — women who ’ d never get a second glance in India . " Similar remarks appeared in social media and in numerous editorials . Davuluri also discussed the subject with reporters in the American media , stating that she was interested in becoming involved in the " Dark is Beautiful " campaign .
= = = Platform = = =
During her year as Miss America , Davuluri promoted her platform " Celebrating Diversity Through Cultural Competency " and STEM ( science , technology , engineering and mathematics ) education to high @-@ school and college students . She elaborated on her platform in a Yale University talk as one using social media as a form of activism . Describing it as " Circles of Unity " , she encouraged students to view social media as a tool to spread cultural awareness and combat ignorance .
During Davuluri 's visit to Central York High School in Pennsylvania , 18 @-@ year @-@ old Patrick Farves was suspended for inviting her to his 2014 prom during a question @-@ and @-@ answer session . Although she requested that the suspension be lifted in a Facebook post , school administrators said that they must maintain standards for student behavior . Farves later stated that he regretted the joke as it overshadowed her platform .
Davuluri is a spokeswoman for PETA , extending her campaign celebrating diversity to the adoption of mixed @-@ breed dogs from animal shelters . She also met with President Barack Obama for the Children 's Miracle Network Hospital Champions at the White House .
= = Speaker and advocate = =
Since completing her year as Miss America in September 2014 , Davuluri has worked as a public speaker and advocate for diversity , gender equality , and the promotion of STEM education . In this capacity , she has spoken in both political and diplomatic venues . In September 2014 , she shared the stage with PBS ' NewsHour Weekend anchor Hari Sreenivasan as hosts for a Madison Square Garden talk by Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi . She also participated in the 2015 Global Entrepreneurship Summit Youth and Women Day in Nairobi in July 2015 . About a year later , Davuluri traveled to Mumbai , Hyderabad , and Vijayawada as part of an official March 2016 tour for the U.S. State Department to discuss women 's education . Part of this tour focused on events connected with International Women 's Day ( including a talk for the Asia Society ) .
Davuluri continues to speak on the subjects of diversity and STEM at college campuses . In an October 2014 East Carolina University talk , she discussed the harassment she faced during her childhood . " The following month , she spoke on women in STEM at Northeastern University . In March 2015 , she spoke at Harvard 's " Side by Side " gender @-@ equality campaign . Later in the same month , she discussed the subject of diversity at Princeton .
= = Other accolades = =
India Abroad Face of the Future Award 2014 : India Abroad , June 19 , 2015 , M69 @-@ M82 .
Elected trustee to the Miss America Foundation Board in February 2015 ( the first Miss America elected to the board ) .
In August 2014 fashion designer Tony Bowls announced that he designed a shoe , " The Nina , " in her honor .
= = = Miss America and Miss New York = = =
# StandWithNina : Duke Stands with Miss America - Duke University , September 18 , 2013 .
India 's Disturbing Obsession with Fair Skin - Time , September 19 , 2013 .
" After Defending Miss America From Racial Comments , George Takei Meets Nina Davuluri For First Time " - ABC News , September 17 , 2013 ( George Takei , Star Trek 's Sulu ) .
George Stephanopoulos . " Groundbreaking Miss America Winner Miss New York Takes Home Pageant Crown " - ABC News , September 16 , 2013 .
Lakshmi Gandhi . " Miss America ’ s Choreographer Nakul Dev Mahajan Tells Us How That ‘ Bollywood Fusion ’ Dance Came to Be " - The Aerogram , September 20 , 2013 ( Talent performance to " Dhoom Taana , " from Om Shanti Om ) .
" America 2014 Nina Davuluri 's Crowning Moment . " Miss America Organization , September 15 , 2013 .
" Vote for Miss New York 2013 Nina Davuluri . " Miss America Organization , August 15 , 2013 .
= Ling Woo =
Ling Woo is a fictional character in the US comedy @-@ drama Ally McBeal , portrayed by Chinese @-@ American actress Lucy Liu . A Mandarin @-@ speaking Chinese @-@ American lawyer , Ling has been described as cold and ferocious and knowledgeable in an art of sexual pleasure unknown to the Western world . At the time , she was the most famous and only significant representative of Asian women on US television ( besides news anchors and reporters ) . Thus , the portrayal of Ling Woo attracted much scholarly attention in the US .
= = Background = =
Ally McBeal is an American television series created by David E. Kelley which ran on the Fox network from 1997 to 2002 . Set in the fictional Boston law firm of Cage , Fish and Associates , the series explores the relationships among various lawyers working at the firm , often as they relate to gender @-@ specific issues raised in court cases . Ling Woo was a character written by Kelley specifically for actress Lucy Liu after she failed to secure the role of Nelle Porter in the show .
Woo appeared for the first time in the second season as a client suing a Howard Stern @-@ like talk show host named Wick . She was suing because Wick 's programs contributed to sexual harassment in her workplace . Wick claimed Woo brought suit because she had a " slutty little Asian thing going " , and Woo said that she wanted to sleep with Wick because if she did , she would kill him . The character proved to be a hit , and Liu was signed on as a regular for the series .
Ling became a lawyer with the firm by pressuring Richard Fish , the firm 's senior partner , to hire her services as counsel . She remained a regular on the show until 2001 , when her role was reduced to four episodes in the upcoming season . Ling 's employment history changes that season when the Governor of Massachusetts offers Ling a job as judge after Ling complimented her twin babies . Woo is a graduate of Cornell Law School where she was editor of the Law Review .
Asian women are rarely given prominent roles on American television . In 1994 Margaret Cho had a brief prime @-@ time show called All American Girl , which was not popular with audiences and did not last a full season . When the show aired , there had not been another Asian @-@ American @-@ centered show or an Asian main character at the time the Ling character was created . Unlike the 1970s depictions of docile East Asian women on TV , Ling 's character was the opposite , but still a classic stereotype , that of the Dragon Lady . At the time , she was the only significant representative of Asian women on television in the United States ( besides news anchors and reporters ) , leaving no one else to counteract this prominent stereotype . She remains the most memorable Asian TV character of the 1990s .
= = Character = =
Ling Woo 's character has been described as the antithesis of Ally McBeal 's . For example , Woo is portrayed as evil , McBeal as good ; Woo growls , McBeal purrs . At the same time , Woo 's verbal assaults present a fantasy of authority that appeals to even McBeal . " She 's my hero " , says McBeal , " she 's vicious , I disagree with almost everything she says , she treats me like dirt , and somehow she 's my hero . "
The character 's main function was to inject into the show " sensuality , promise , terror , sublimity , idyllic pleasure , intense energy " - elements long associated with the Orient in Western culture , according to Orientalism author Edward Said . Ling brings to mind the geisha , the unreadable Oriental , and the dragon lady . Describing her as " fearsome , devouring , vicious , cool , " and with an " exotic sexuality " , Georgia State University professor Greg Smith sees Woo as a stereotype of Asian women , a " Dragon Lady " .
Her character was frequently used to examine matters related to gender definition and topics . Ling is the only major character in Ally McBeal who does not have a story for the origin of her particular neurosis . She is exempt from the psychoanalytic focus given to others in the series , which Smith attributes to her Asian " mysteriousness " .
= = = Cold and vicious = = =
Woo is cast as a villain , underscored by her frequent appearance to the theme music that accompanied the Wicked Witch of the West in the Wizard of Oz . Unlike a melodramatic villain such as J. R. Ewing , Ling was cast as a remarkably heartless character until well into the second season ( Season 3 of the show ) , when she begins to befriend other characters .
She harasses people with physical handicaps . When visiting a hospital , Ling accidentally collides with a man in a wheelchair , and shouts , " Watch where you are going ! It 's bad enough that you people get all the parking spots ! " To an individual with Tourette syndrome , she says , " I think Tourettes is so cool . It would be great to be able to annoy people like that . You get to whoop and twitch . Any other good ones ? " A passing blind man accidentally taps her with his cane , and Ling cries , " OW ! They 're not weapons ! ... I so prefer the deaf to the blind . " Ling will even impersonate the blind to get her way . In one episode she puts on sunglasses , extends a telescoping white cane , and walks across a busy street , tires squealing as she hits a couple of cars with her cane . Ling is unapologetic for these affronts . When pointed out that " there are real blind people in the world " , Ling retorts , " It 's not like any of them saw me . "
Ling is concerned with petty annoyances that disrupt her pleasure or inconvenience her . When a colleague is stuck in an elevator with his feet dangling out of the doors , Ling asks , " Does this mean I 'm going to have to take the stairs ? " She is impatient in getting what she wants , for example snapping at a judge to " hurry up " as he read a verdict . She frequently announces that she is uninterested in proceedings that don 't affect her personally . As her co @-@ counsel questions a witness in court , Ling objects to the judge , " I 'm bored ! As an officer of the court , I have a duty to be open and forthright . I think the witness is tedious and I 'm concerned for the jury 's attention span . "
Smith sees Ling 's attacks as pointed and consciously vicious . She attacks because her words have consequences , clearing a path for her own selfish interests . Nelle Porter says , " I admire the way you don 't let yourself be pushed around . Too many people when they think they 've been wronged just walk away . " Jeff Yang , founding publisher of A Magazine , a New York @-@ based publication on Asian American culture , sees Ling as " a strong Asian woman who 's clearly potent , clearly has control . She 's not a victim , not somebody who lets anyone come even close to victimizing her . "
Even though she coldly tyrannizes virtually everyone around her , she is sometimes hurt and confused over being disliked . She admits , " It 's lonely on the bench . I thought I 'd like a place where people can 't get to you but once in a while ... " A colleague completes her thought : " you need to have somebody who can get to you . "
= = = Hypersexual = = =
University of Wyoming Associate Professor Tracey Patton sees Woo as the embodiment of the Asian fantasy woman , the seductive temptress expert in eroticism who is knowledgeable in the art of sexual pleasure unknown to the Western world . In one episode , she agreed to have sex only after her partner signed a health waiver and confidentiality agreement to protect her sexual secrets . In another episode , Ling is hired by Richard Fish as an attorney in his firm , in exchange for sexual favors . Ling 's sexual foreplay with Richard Fish included sucking his fingers , dropping hot wax on him , and performing a " hair @-@ tickling massage " on his bare chest . " What she offered was not too far from an Oriental massage - hair splayed across his chest , his stricken face , the whole interracial thing " , said Yang . " It 's clearly something that plays off so many deep @-@ seated fantasies about Asian American women . "
Ling 's attitude to sex is cold and uninterested . While depicted as a sexual predator , she nonetheless " doesn 't like sex ; it 's messy " " and overrated " . She is able to keep her boyfriend interested without having to have intercourse with him because she does not like sweat . To Ling , according to Smith , sex is just another arena for her to exert control . To her , " Sex is a weapon " , and " a woman hasn 't got true control of a man until her hand is on the dumb stick " . She enjoys using the weapon , as she says " there 's nothing I enjoy more than seeing a happy couple and coming between them . " As with the " vicious " personality , most of this hyper @-@ sexuality is gone by Season 3 ( Woo 's second season on the show ) .
Darrell Hamamoto , Professor of Asian American Studies at the University of California , Davis , describes Ling is as " a neo @-@ Orientalist masturbatory fantasy figure concocted by a white man whose job it is to satisfy the blocked needs of other white men who seek temporary escape from their banal and deadening lives by indulging themselves in a bit of visual cunnilingus while relaxing on the sofa . "
Her liaisons are with white men , but not only men . In a dream sequence of Ally McBeal 's in which the two of them go on a date , they kiss on screen . The kiss was shot in profile , locked lips clearly visible , rather than using the normal angle for same @-@ sex kisses , in which the partner 's head blocks the view of the actual contact . The scene was considered so racy that the episode was banned from being shown in Singapore . The episode won its time slot among young adult viewers during its showing in the November 1999 sweeps , even beating Monday Night Football . Ling made the " damn hot kiss " even hotter because " she 's the exotic , erotic experimenter of the group " , according to Scott Seomin , media director at that time for the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation .
= = = Alien = = =
Patton sees Woo 's actions , attitudes , and portrayal of the evil manipulator make her into the alien of the law firm , and as such many of the lawyers in the firm did not want her hired . Campbell , a Euro @-@ American male at the firm stated , " With her as a lawyer , the whole thing ( the dynamic make @-@ up of the firm ) will change . " Not only is her non @-@ White presence questioned but her competency too . Even though she was the law review editor in law school , the presumption was she got the job mainly because Fish could not say no to Woo and her sexual promises . Woo is seen as an unwelcome addition to the law team despite her expertise and her success in law school .
Her character is the one most often portrayed on the show using animal effects . She frequently responds with a range of animal growls and snarls and breathes fire like a literal manifestation of dragon lady . Smith sees this as reinforcing the bestial undertone of the Asian stereotype , making her appear inhuman . Ling herself admits , " It must be hard being human . I wouldn 't know . I never tried it . "
In one episode , Woo literally turned into an alien , reminiscent of a scene from the movie Alien . Woo 's transformation into an alien was a reference on her not fitting in with the other lawyers as well as a reference on her citizenship . Patton points out that the assumption is often made that a second @-@ generation White immigrant is an American citizen , but that same assumption is not granted to non @-@ Whites - in this case , Woo . Woo is not constructed as American ( because an American is constructed as White ) , nor is she constructed as human . Woo , the only non @-@ Euro @-@ American member of the law firm , is constructed and seen as foreign or alien .
Ling is not above using her ethnicity as a means of gaining advantage . In one episode , as she delivers her closing arguments to a jury , she says " There 's a very old expression in China , " and then begins to speak in Chinese . In the subtitles we see her saying , " It really doesn 't matter what I say here , because none of you speak Chinese . But you can see from my sad face I 'm sympathetic . You hear from my tone it 's appropriate to feel sorry for me . As I drop to a faint whisper ( which she does ) , you 'll feel the sorrow yourself . I 'm going to finish now , pretend to cry " , which she does as she walks off .
= Cecil Brown ( Hawaii politician ) =
Cecil Brown ( October 9 , 1850 – March 6 , 1917 ) was a Hawaiian attorney , politician , businessman , and banker in the Kingdom , Republic , and Territory of Hawaii .
Brown served as a member of the Kingdom of Hawaii House of Representatives , Deputy Attorney General , and Attorney General . He served on the Advisory Council for the Provisional Government of Hawaii , the Council of State for the Republic of Hawaii , and in the Senate of both the Republic and Territory of Hawaii . Brown had diverse investments , was a director or officer of several sugar companies , and Vice @-@ President of the Hawaiian Bell and Mutual Telephone Company when service to the Hawaiian Islands was being developed . Brown was also the founding President of the first national bank chartered in Hawaii .
= = Background = =
Brown was born in Wailua , Hawaii to Thomas and Mary Ann ( Rhodes ) Brown who moved to the Hawaiian Islands from England in 1844 . He was the fifth of six siblings ( who survived infancy ) , two of whom were also involved in Hawaiian politics : Godfrey ( Minister of Foreign Affairs , then Minister of Finance for the Kingdom of Hawaii ) and Frank ( House of Representatives , Kingdom of Hawaii ) . Brown married Mary K. Miner Dickson ( widow of Menzies Dickson ) on August 11 , 1897 . They had no children together . She died on September 12 , 1907 .
= = = Family = = =
Thomas and Mary Ann ( Rhodes ) Brown had four children ( Arthur , Godfrey , Alice , and Frank ) before leaving England for the warmer climate of the Hawaiian Islands in 1844 . Louis ( died in infancy ) , Cecil , and Malcolm were born in Hawaii . In 1853 the entire family left for Boston to put Arthur , Godfrey , and Frank in school . The remaining members of the Brown family returned to Hawaii at the very end of 1855 .
= = = Early life = = =
Cecil was homeschooled by his parents and educated by his maternal aunt Sarah Rhodes Von Pfister . He attended the Cathedral Grammar School followed by the Punahou School . In December 1866 Brown left Honolulu for the United States , and enrolled in Columbia Law School ( Washington D.C. ) . He graduated with honors in June 1871 , and moved to New York City ( 1871 – 74 ) where he was employed by the law firm of Evarts , Southmayd , and Choate . In 1874 Brown moved to San Francisco before returning to Honolulu .
Shortly after his return to Hawaii , Brown was licensed to practice law before the Supreme Court of the Kingdom of Hawaii on January 28 , 1875 . He was appointed a notary public for Oahu on July 27 , 1875 by King Kalākaua . Starting a private practice , he was representing clients in circuit court by the end of 1875 , and in the Supreme Court of the Kingdom of Hawaii by 1876 . Despite his future political and business careers , Brown continued the private practice of law ( mainly probate ) for the duration of his life . On at least eight occasions between 1893 and 1901 , Brown sat on the bench of the Supreme Court of Hawaii as an Acting Justice .
= = Political career = =
Cecil Brown ’ s political career spanned nearly 40 years ( 1876 – 1913 ) . He was engaged in politics under four constitutions of the Kingdom of Hawaii prior to annexation by the United States : 1840 , 1852 , 1864 , and 1887 , and a constitution for the Republic of Hawaii ( of which Brown was one of the framers ) that was adopted on July 4 , 1894 . The last three constitutions ( 1864 , 1887 , and 1894 ) were each in effect at some point during Cecil Brown ’ s career in public service .
= = = Kingdom of Hawaii = = =
On September 5 , 1876 , Representative Samuel Kamakau died in office . A special election to fill the remainder of his term was held September 18 , 1876 and Brown was elected . His bid for re @-@ election in February 1878 was close but unsuccessful .
In July 1878 Brown was appointed the clerk to the Attorney General and by November of the same year legal announcements published in the local newspapers referenced him as the Deputy Attorney General . He was listed in the Kingdom ’ s directory for 1880 as Deputy Attorney General , the first use of the title in an official directory .
Brown carried several government appointments . In addition to notary public , he was appointed in 1877 to a three @-@ person Board of Appraisers of Lands , and in 1879 as an Agent to Take Acknowledgments to Instruments . He would later resign all three appointments in 1887 , to be in compliance with the 1887 Constitution of the Kingdom of Hawaii .
In February 1884 , Cecil Brown ( along with brothers Godfrey and Frank ) were elected to the Legislative Assembly ’ s House of Representatives . Cecil proposed , passed , and had signed into law the first bill of the legislative session , named the " Turkey Law " . Brown was re @-@ elected in 1886 , 1888 and appointed Chair of the Judiciary Committee , and 1890 .
While planning to run for a vacant seat in the House of Nobles , Brown was appointed Attorney General of the Kingdom of Hawaii in the newly formed cabinet of Queen Liliuokalani . The cabinet was disbanded on January 12 , 1893 and on January 17 a coup d 'état resulted in the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii .
= = = Provisional Government of Hawaii = = =
The Provisional Government of Hawaii established an Advisory Council vested with legislative powers . Brown was appointed on January 25 , 1893 after declining an appointment as Attorney General , made on January 16 , the evening before the overthrow . On March 20 , 1893 he was appointed Commissioner of a three @-@ person committee tasked with the revision of the Hawaiian penal code , and was appointed chair of the Judiciary Committee . An act calling for a constitutional convention ( to which Brown was a delegate ) was passed on March 15 , 1894 and convened from May 30 to July 3 , 1894 . Brown was one of the signers of the 1894 constitution of the newly formed Republic of Hawaii .
= = = Republic of Hawaii = = =
Brown resigned from the Advisory Council on October 25 , 1894 to run for the Senate . He was elected in November 1894 and served continuously through 1904 . During his tenure in the Senate , Brown served on the Council of State from June 23 , 1895 through 1901 , and on the Senate Judiciary , Coinage , and Foreign Relations committees . In November 1904 , though nominated , Brown was not re @-@ elected . There was talk of Brown running again in the general elections of 1906 and 1908 , but in 1910 he was re @-@ elected . Cecil Brown effectively retired from the Senate in May 1914 .
= = Business career = =
= = = Boards of directors = = =
Cecil Brown sat on multiple association and business boards as trustee , director , or officer . Beginning in the early 1880s , Brown was a director of the Stock Breeders ’ Association , and Treasurer of the Kapiolani Park Association , and the Hawaiian Jockey Club .
Business interests included the Hawaiian Hardware Company ( Vice @-@ President ) , Honolulu Soap Works company , Ltd . ( President ) , the California Feed Company , Ltd . ( President ) , and the Hawaiian Fibre Company , Limited ( President ) . Sugar interests included the Kona Sugar Company , Ookala Sugar Plantation Co . , and Pacific Sugar Mill ( Vice @-@ president ) .
= = = Telephone service in Hawaii = = =
Hawaiian Bell Telephone Company ( HBT ) incorporated in 1879 , and began service on December 30 , 1880 . In August 1883 , Mutual Telephone Company was founded as a competitor and began operations in March 1885 . On August 2 , 1894 the two companies consolidated with Mutual Telephone in control .
Cecil and brother Godfrey were elected to the board of directors of HBT in early 1884 ( Godfrey as Vice @-@ President and Cecil as Auditor ) , and by the end of the year , Godfrey had become President . By January 1886 , Godfrey was both President and Treasurer , and Cecil Vice @-@ President , positions they would hold for the next several years .
In September 1892 , Cecil was also elected to the board of directors of rival company Mutual Telephone . When the two companies merged in 1894 , he was named Vice @-@ President of Mutual Telephone Company , and two years later Godfrey was elected Treasurer . Cecil remained Vice @-@ President for over a decade .
= = = The First National Bank of Hawaii = = =
Anticipating the annexation of Hawaii as a US territory ( July 1898 ) , and the expected adoption of the National Banking Act , by the beginning of 1898 several parties had already sent requests to Washington DC to reserve the title " The First National Bank of Hawaii " . Brown served as attorney to George Macfarlane during the organization and incorporation of the First American Bank of Hawaii during 1899 . The bank organizers anticipated that having a fully functioning bank in place when the National Banking Act was extended to include the Territory of Hawaii would allow them to then become The First National Bank of Hawaii . At the first stockholders meeting in September 1899 , Cecil Brown was elected President .
Congress eventually extended the National Banking Act to include the Territory of Hawaii ( April 30 , 1900 ) , and during a July 1900 stockholders meeting , it was agreed to convert the First American Bank into a national bank . The First National Bank of Hawaii at Honolulu opened for business on October 1 , 1900 . Brown remained President of the bank until 1915 , when he stepped down and became chairman of the board .
= = Declining health and death = =
In the summer of 1914 , while visiting San Francisco , Brown ’ s health began to deteriorate . After a two and a half month illness he was hospitalized when he suffered a " severe " stroke and was reported in " serious condition " . He arrived in Hawaii on November 4 , 1914 and suffered a second stroke on March 4 , 1915 , leaving his right side partially paralyzed . He was reported to be in " critical " condition . Although it was initially reported that Brown ’ s condition was slowly improving , by the end of 1916 his functioning had significantly deteriorated , and in late December 1916 the courts declared him to be " mentally non @-@ competent " , and appointed his nephew H.M. von Holt as his guardian . On March 6 , 1917 Cecil Brown died of apoplexy . The following day the Territorial Senate , House , and Hawaiian Bar Association issued resolutions expressing condolences and loss .
= = = Hawaiian Almanac and Annual = = =
Thrum , Thomas G. , ed . ( 1875 ) . Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1875 . [ not listed ] .
Thrum , Thomas G. , ed . ( 1876 ) . Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1876 . J.H. Black , Printer , Pacific Commercial Advertising Printing House .
Thrum , Thomas G. , ed . ( 1877 ) . Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1877 . Thrum & Oat Publishers .
Thrum , Thomas G. , ed . ( 1878 ) . Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1878 . Thomas G. Thrum , Publisher .
Thrum , Thomas G. , ed . ( 1879 ) . Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1879 . Thomas G. Thrum , Publisher .
Thrum , Thomas G. , ed . ( 1880 ) . Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1880 . Thomas G. Thrum , Publisher .
Thrum , Thomas G. , ed . ( 1881 ) . Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1881 . Thomas G. Thrum , Publisher .
Thrum , Thomas G. , ed . ( 1882 ) . Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1882 . Thomas G. Thrum , Publisher .
Thrum , Thomas G. , ed . ( 1883 ) . Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1883 . Thomas G. Thrum , Publisher .
Thrum , Thomas G. , ed . ( 1884 ) . Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1884 . Thomas G. Thrum , Publisher .
Thrum , Thomas G. , ed . ( 1885 ) . Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1885 . Thomas G. Thrum , Publisher .
Thrum , Thomas G. , ed . ( 1886a ) . Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1886 . Press Publishing Company Print .
Thrum , Thomas G. , ed . ( 1886b ) . Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1887 . Press Publishing Company Print .
Thrum , Thomas G. , ed . ( 1887 ) . Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1888 . Press Publishing Company Print .
Thrum , Thomas G. , ed . ( 1888 ) . Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1889 . Press Publishing Company Print .
Thrum , Thomas G. , ed . ( 1889 ) . Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1890 . Press Publishing Company Print .
Thrum , Thomas G. , ed . ( 1890 ) . Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1891 . Press Publishing Company Print .
Thrum , Thomas G. , ed . ( 1891 ) . Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1892 . Press Publishing Company Print .
Thrum , Thomas G. , ed . ( 1892 ) . Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1893 . Press Publishing Company Print .
Thrum , Thomas G. , ed . ( 1893 ) . Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1894 . Press Publishing Company Print .
Thrum , Thomas G. , ed . ( 1894 ) . Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1895 . Press Publishing Company Print .
Thrum , Thomas G. , ed . ( 1896 ) . Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1896 . Press Publishing Company Print .
Thrum , Thomas G. , ed . ( 1897 ) . Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1897 . Press Publishing Company Print .
Thrum , Thomas G. , ed . ( 1898 ) . Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1898 . Press Publishing Company Print .
Thrum , Thomas G. , ed . ( 1900 ) . Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1900 . Hawaiian Gazette Co . , Print .
Thrum , Thomas G. , ed . ( 1901 ) . Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1901 . Thomas G. Thrum , Publisher .
Thrum , Thomas G. , ed . ( 1901b ) . Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1902 . Thomas G. Thrum , Publisher .
Thrum , Thomas G. , ed . ( 1903a ) . Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1903 . Thomas G. Thrum , Publisher .
Thrum , Thomas G. , ed . ( 1903b ) . Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1904 . Thomas G. Thrum , Publisher .
Thrum , Thomas G. , ed . ( 1910 ) . Hawaiian Almanac and Annual for 1911 . Thomas G. Thrum , Publisher .
= Rescue of Bat 21 Bravo =
The rescue of Bat 21 Bravo , the call sign for Iceal " Gene " Hambleton , from behind North Vietnamese lines was the " largest , longest , and most complex search @-@ and @-@ rescue " operation during the Vietnam War .
On April 2 , 1972 , the Easter Offensive , the largest combined arms operation of the entire Vietnam War , was in its third day . An early morning flight of two United States Air Force EB @-@ 66 aircraft was led by Bat 20 , piloted by Lt. Col. Robert Singletary . Hambleton was a navigator aboard Bat 21 . The two aircraft were escorting a cell of three B @-@ 52s . Bat 21 was configured to gather signals intelligence , including identifying North Vietnamese anti @-@ aircraft radar installations to enable jamming . Bat 21 was destroyed by an SA @-@ 2 surface @-@ to @-@ air missile and Hambleton was the only survivor , parachuting behind the front lines into a battlefield filled with thousands of North Vietnamese Army soldiers .
Hambleton had Top Secret access to Strategic Air Command operations and was an expert in surface @-@ to @-@ air missile countermeasures . The North Vietnamese Army may have possessed information about his presence in Vietnam and his capture would have meant a huge intelligence bonanza for the Soviet Union .
Hambleton and 1st Lt. Mark Clark , who was shot down during rescue operations , were finally recovered from behind the front lines on two different nights in daring , covert , night @-@ time rescues carried out by U.S. Navy SEAL Thomas R. Norris and VNN commando Nguyen Van Kiet . For their actions , Norris was awarded the Medal of Honor and Nguyen was recognized with the Navy Cross . Nguyen was the only South Vietnamese naval officer given that award during the war .
The Air Force did not put limits on what it took to rescue a downed airman . The direct and indirect cost of rescuing Hambleton was enormous and became a watershed event in Air Force search and rescue . To prevent friendly fire incidents , the Americans imposed a standard no @-@ fire zone within a 27 kilometres ( 17 mi ) radius of Hambleton and diverted aircraft to aid in his rescue . It is likely that South Vietnamese soldiers indirectly died as a result of their inability to obtain fire support . Five additional aircraft were shot down during rescue attempts , directly resulting in the deaths of 11 airmen , the capture of two others , and another airman trying to evade capture .
The added deaths , loss of aircraft , and length of the rescue operation led the USAF to change the way they planned and conducted search and rescue missions . As a result , they developed new techniques and equipment to improve their ability to rescue downed airmen .
= = Operational background = =
At the time of Bat 21 's mission , American combat forces had been vastly reduced in South Vietnam under President Richard Nixon 's Vietnamization policy . The North Vietnamese Army ( NVA ) launched the Nguyen Hue Offensive against the South Vietnamese Army and U.S. military on Friday , March 30 , 1972 . It was their largest attack of the war and was timed to take full advantage of the bad weather typical during monsoon season , offering low clouds and poor visibility . About 30 @,@ 000 heavily equipped NVA troops from the 304th and 308th Divisions and three separate infantry regiments of the B5 Front crossed the DMZ into I Corps zone across the five northernmost provinces of South Vietnam .
In the 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) area between the Cam Lo Bridge and Dong Ha Bridge , the NVA were supported by two tank regiments of 150 Soviet T @-@ 54 and PT @-@ 76 tanks , 75 tracked anti @-@ aircraft vehicles , an artillery regiment of 47 towed 130mm guns , and the largest concentration of anti @-@ aircraft weaponry of the entire war , including the advanced SA @-@ 2 surface @-@ to @-@ air missile . Their main line of advance was along the axis of the north @-@ south national highway QL @-@ 1 .
When General Creighton Abrams ' headquarters in Saigon learned of large NVA movement south of the DMZ , a number of B @-@ 52s had been sent on " Arc Light " missions without escort , but were experiencing significantly increased SAM activity . The 42nd Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron ( 42 TEWS ) was tapped for assistance . The draw down of troops had left the unit shorthanded and Hambleton was the senior officer among a group of senior navigators .
Hambleton assigned himself as navigator on the older EB @-@ 66C , which was configured to gather signals intelligence . The newer EB @-@ 66E was tasked with jamming surface @-@ to @-@ air missile ( SAM ) radar guidance systems so their missiles could not accurately target the aircraft . The EB @-@ 66 's mission was to troll for missiles , let them lock on to their aircraft , and then execute a SAM break , a violent turn and dive designed to throw off the pursuing missile . The SA @-@ 2 was the size of a telephone pole and carried a proximity fused warhead that was lethal within about 150 feet ( 46 m ) , but their guidance systems failed at about 2 Gs , while the EB @-@ 66 could achieve 5 Gs in its avoidance maneuver . The crew had successfully pulled a SAM break more than 100 times . The presence of North Vietnamese surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles south of the DMZ had been tracked by Hambleton , but not everyone agreed they were present that far south .
= = Aircraft shot down = =
On Easter Sunday , April 2 , 1972 , two EB @-@ 66s ( call signs Bat 21 and Bat 22 ) were flying pathfinder escort for a cell of three B @-@ 52 , which were given assignments to bomb Mu Gia or the Ban Karai Pass , the two primary access routes to the Ho Chi Minh Trail through Laos .
Hambleton was aboard Bat 21 , EB @-@ 66C serial number 54 @-@ 0466 , over Quảng Trị Province , Vietnam , just south of the Demilitarized Zone between North and South Vietnam . The airmen were surprised by the intensity of the anti @-@ aircraft fire and SAM activity . The NVA 365th Air Defense Division fired two volleys of SA @-@ 2 surface @-@ to @-@ air missile at the U.S. planes , but the EB @-@ 66s successfully thwarted the first volley . The NVA pointed their Fan Song radar at the B @-@ 52s , targeting them unsuccessfully with radar guided anti @-@ aircraft fire . When those missed , the NVA fired two more SAMs optically at Bat 21 , only turning on the guidance and radar system after the missiles were launched , which delayed the targeted aircraft 's ability to detect and avoid them . When the aircraft crew spotted the missiles , the pilot assumed they had as usual been fired from north of the DMZ . He began a SAM break to the south , away from the direction he assumed the missiles had been fired . One of the EWOs called " Negative ! Negative ! " , and the pilot flipped the plane over on its other wing . This time the pilot was unable to evade the missiles . The first missile exploded immediately beneath the aircraft striking it at 29 @,@ 000 feet ( 8 @,@ 800 m ) .
Hambleton , whose call sign was Bat 21 Bravo , was positioned immediately behind the pilot , who gave the signal for everyone to eject . Hambleton pulled the ejection seat handles and had a moment to make eye contact with the pilot as his seat rocketed out of the dying plane . A moment later , the aircraft was struck by a second SA @-@ 2 and exploded . The remainder of the aircraft 's six @-@ man crew — Maj. Wayne L. Bolte , pilot ; 1st Lt .. Robin F. Gatwood , co @-@ pilot ; and EWOs Lt. Col. Anthony R. Giannangeli , Lt. Col. Charles A. Levis , and Maj. Henry M. Serex — were unable to eject and were listed as missing in action . Their remains were never found .
Hambleton was due for some R & R , and his wife Gwen was planning to meet him in Thailand the next week . She received airplane tickets for her trip on the same day that her husband was shot down . Instead of going to the airport , she collapsed after seeing an Air Force officer and a chaplain walk up her sidewalk .
= = = Surrounded by North Vietnamese = = =
Maj. Jimmy D. Kempton from the 390th Tactical Fighter Squadron was leading a flight of four F @-@ 4 Phantoms on a bombing mission when he got SAM warnings . He saw four SA @-@ 2 missiles emerge from the clouds about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) ahead of him and saw one strike Bat 21 . At a lower altitude , 1st Lt. Bill Jankowski and Capt. Lyle Wilson in an O @-@ 2 ( Bilk 34 ) forward air controller ( FAC ) aircraft saw Bat 21 explode .
Hambleton parachuted into the middle of more than 30 @,@ 000 troops pouring across the border into South Vietnam . When Hambleton 's URC @-@ 64 rescue radio beeped , Jankowski responded , and was surprised to learn that Hambleton was above him descending in his parachute . Jankowski followed Hambleton down . Hambleton was concealed by a low fog bank as he landed in a dry rice paddy , unseen by the NVA troops . As Jankowski observed Hambleton land , his aircraft came under heavy antiaircraft fire . He was astonished at the huge number of NVA troops , equipment , and heavy weapons in the area . Hambleton found refuge in a group of bushes in the middle of the rice paddy . NVA troops were less than 100 metres ( 330 ft ) away . Jankowski fixed Hambleton 's location 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) north of the Cam Lo Bridge and just north of TL @-@ 88 , a major east @-@ west secondary road .
Kempton and Jankowski relayed Hambleton 's coordinates to King 22 , a HC @-@ 130 search and rescue ( SAR ) aircraft operating just south of Quảng Trị . Recovering Hambleton quickly was essential , as the odds of recovering downed airmen dropped below twenty percent if the aircrew member was on the ground after four hours . But their efforts would be severely hampered by the huge number of troops and large quantity of anti @-@ aircraft fire in the area , some of it supporting the NVA 's efforts to capture and protect the Cam Lo Bridge near Hambleton 's position .
At about the same time that Hambleton was shot down , Capt. John Ripley , adviser to the 3rd Vietnamese Marine Battalion , blew up the key Highway QL @-@ 1 bridge over the Cue Viet River , east of Hambleton 's position , at Dong Ha . The NVA re @-@ routed thousands of troops , dozens of tanks and other equipment west along TL @-@ 88 , immediately in front of Hambleton 's position , to the Cam Lo River bridge 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) to the west .
= = = Intelligence value = = =
Lt. Col. Iceal Hambleton had 29 years of military service . He had served in the Army Air Force as a radio operator during World War II , though not in combat . After World War II , he was recalled to active service by the USAF in the early 1950s . During the Korean War he flew 43 combat missions as a navigator in a B @-@ 29 bomber . He then worked during the 1960s on various USAF ballistic missile projects including the PGM @-@ 19 Jupiter , Titan I ICBM and Titan II ICBM . He had been the deputy chief of operations for the USAF Strategic Air Command 390th Strategic Missile Wing before the Vietnam War .
In April , 1972 he was reassigned from the SAC to TAC and to the 42nd Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron ( 42 TEWS ) , 388th Tactical Fighter Wing , at Korat , Thailand . He was familiar with targeting both SAC missiles and SAC airplanes , was one of the most knowledgeable missile and electronic counter @-@ measures experts in Vietnam , and it is likely that his situation was quickly reported to U.S. intelligence services . Very few Americans remained on the ground in Vietnam , and the NVA made it a point to track particularly valuable personnel , even in Thailand . The North Vietnamese were probably supported by the Russians with decrypting American message traffic and they likely knew exactly who had parachuted into their midst . This ability was likely enabled by the then unknown American spy CWO John Anthony Walker , who had given the Soviets a radio cipher card and other high @-@ value intelligence . Hambleton 's capture would be a terrific blow to American airpower around the world and a huge prize for the North Vietnamese and indirectly , the Soviets . Hambleton said after the war that he felt sure if he were captured that he would never have been taken to Hanoi .
= = Air rescue attempts = =
Hambleton had received water survival training at Turkey Run , Florida , and escape and evasion training and survival basics at the Pacific Air Command Jungle Survival School in the Philippines .
He had shrapnel wounds from his aircraft exploding , a ripped finger , and four compressed vertebra from the force of the ejection . Hidden in a clump of trees in his hole , surrounded by North Vietnamese less than 100 metres ( 330 ft ) away , Hambleton decided that with only nine months to go until his retirement , he was going to survive and return home .
1st Lt. Richard Abbot flying a FAC O @-@ 2 had been shot down offshore shortly before Hambleton , and when Abbot was picked up by the USS Hamner , two Air Force search and rescue Douglas A @-@ 1 Skyraiders ( Capt. Don Morse in Sandy 07 and his wingman in Sandy 08 ) from the 1st Special Operations Squadron remained in Hambleton 's vicinity . The Sandys immediately scrambled to cover Hambleton 's position . When Morse in Sandy 07 first got the call , he thought that , because the aircraft had gone down in South Vietnam , the SAR effort could be accomplished fairly quickly . When he got over Hambelton 's position , he was shocked at the amount of ground fire he received . It was more intense than anything he had seen in the war . Some pilots reported that the intensity of the antiaircraft fire was equal to that around Hanoi . Although the U.S. and ARVN forces did not know it yet , the offensive was the largest combined arms attack conducted by the North Vietnamese during the war .
Hambleton coolly called in the coordinates of the North Vietnamese around him , watched the ordnance explode , and called in corrections to the FAC above , who relayed the information to the A @-@ 1s and the fast movers , F @-@ 4 Phantom fighter @-@ bombers . FAC pilots after the event were universally amazed at Hambleton 's ability to remain calm and call in accurate fire around his position .
Morse called for emergency support , which was picked up by a UH @-@ 1H slick ( Blueghost 39 ) near Hue , piloted by 1st Lt. Byron Kulland from F Troop , 8th Cavalry , 196th Brigade . Normally based at Marble Mountain Air Facility near Da Nang , Kulland was in the area showing a photographer the developing battle . He had on board with him Capt. Thomas White , the Troop operations officer . After depositing the photographer and White at Phu Bai airfield near Huế , White directed Kulland to proceed north and contact the FAC ( Jankowski ) for information on arrival . White also sent two Cobra gunships , Blueghost 28 and 24 , and then added Blueghost 30 , a second Huey .
Blueghost 39 proceeded across the Song Meiu Giang 50 feet ( 15 m ) above the ground towards Hambleton 's position with the well @-@ armed Blueghost 28 Cobra gunship following about 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) behind and 300 feet ( 91 m ) above . Blueghost 24 waited at the south side of the Song Meiu Giang for Blueghost 30 to catch up . As soon as Blueghost 39 and 28 crossed the Song Meiu Giang , Kulland and Rosebeary 's aircraft were met by an immediate curtain of North Vietnamese fire from every direction , hurled against them with an intensity that defied belief . Rosebeary in his Cobra Blueghost 28 responded with rockets and 40mm fire but both helicopters were struck multiple times .
Kulland flying Blueghost 39 tried to turn back south but only managed to crash @-@ land his stricken aircraft , about 6 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 2 mi ) east of Hambleton and .9 miles ( 1 @.@ 4 km ) north of the river in an area full of NVA . When the helicopter smashed into the ground , the only mobile crew member was SPC5 Jose Astorga , the door gunner , who had been wounded . He tried but was unable to extract other hurt crew members . Paschall was pinned in the wreckage . Frink , who was seriously wounded , urged Astorga to get out and away from the aircraft . A few moments later advancing North Vietnamese soldiers fired on the wreckage with automatic weapons and the aircraft 's fuel cell exploded with the remainder of the crew inside . Astorga was captured but pilots 1st Lt. Byron Kulland and WO John Frink along with Sp5c Ronald Paschall were killed .
Rosebeary flying Cobra Blueghost 28 called a Mayday but was able to safely exit the area and landed his severely damaged helicopter . His aircraft was totaled . He and Gunner Warrant Officer Charles Gorski were picked up by a HH @-@ 53C helicopter ( Jolly Green 67 ) , without incident . Rosebeary warned other aircraft against crossing the river . When Morse in Sandy 07 learned that the quick @-@ snatch had failed , he and his wingman Sandy 08 broke off engaging the North Vietnamese and returned to Da Nang . Both Sandys were found to be so damaged they would take several days to repair . At 9 : 00 p.m. , Nail 59 , piloted by Gary Ferentchak who was flying a new version of the OV @-@ 10A aircraft equipped with the Pave Nail LORAN radar , took over FAC duties . The SAR efforts were suspended for the night and the U.S. and ARVN forces remained unaware of the true strength of the NVA offensive . Advised by the FAC to remain in place , Hambleton moved to a safer spot in the jungle and dug a hole to hide in until morning . During the night , Nail 59 and King 27 , an HC @-@ 130 commanded by Maj. Dennis Constant , stayed . They suddenly found themselves painted by Fan Song radar and narrowly missed getting shot down as well . At 53 years old , Hambleton was not a prime candidate to survive the cold , wet weather conditions
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He watched the clip many times as a child , saying it was the most violent thing he had ever seen and juxtaposing Christ and Kennedy :
Christ was the blueprint for celebrity . He was the first celebrity , or rock star if you want to look at it that way , and [ dying on the cross ] he became this image of sexuality and suffering . He ’ s literally marketed — A crucifix is no different than a concert T @-@ shirt in some ways . I think for America , in my lifetime , John F. Kennedy kind of took the place of that [ as a modern @-@ day Christ ] in some ways . [ After being murdered on TV ] , he became lifted up as this icon and this Christ figure [ by America ] .
Manson also cites John Lennon as an assassinated icon , criticizing the media 's veneration of media martyrs and its conversion of death into spectacle to cater to the American public 's appetite for violence , tragedy and celebrity . He denies claims that Marilyn Manson 's music was responsible for Columbine , speculating how the media would have covered the Crucifixion and linking these observations to Columbine during an interview on the O 'Reilly Factor . Bill O 'Reilly argued that " disturbed kids " without direction from responsible parents could misinterpret the message of his music as endorsing the belief that " when I 'm dead [ then ] everybody 's going to know me " . Manson responded :
Well , I think that 's a very valid point and I think that it 's a reflection of , not necessarily this programme but of television in general , that if you die and enough people are watching you become a martyr , you become a hero , you become well known . So when you have these things like Columbine , and you have these kids who are angry and they have something to say and no one 's listening , the media sends a message that says if you do something loud enough and it gets our attention then you will be famous for it . Those kids ended up on the cover of Time magazine [ twice ] , the media gave them exactly what they wanted . That 's why I never did any interviews around that time when I was being blamed for it because I didn 't want to contribute to something that I found to be reprehensible .
Despite references to ( and fascination with ) the iconic men , Manson was reluctant to draw comparisons between them and himself ( saying it would have been pretentious ) : " [ w ] hat I did find was parallels in their stories and my story , and I tried to maybe learn from their mistakes and what they tried to do ... You realise you can 't change the world and you can only change yourself , and I think that 's what [ they ] found out " . He added , " [ f ] or me it was about learning from that and trying to break the evolution of man [ since ] it 's man 's nature to be violent " .
= = Composition = =
In pre @-@ release interviews , Manson said that Holy Wood ( In the Shadow of the Valley of Death ) was intended to be the " industrial White Album ... in the sense that it 's very experimental . I play a lot of keyboards , we switched things around , wrote in the desert ... it 's experimental and when I think of experimental I think of The White Album " . The 1969 Rolling Stones album Let It Bleed ( another source of inspiration ) was written in the same house where Manson wrote Holy Wood .
Sonically , Manson said the record was " arrogant in an art rock sense " and the " heaviest " record the band has done . " It needs to be to complete the trilogy " , he said . Most of the songs have three or four parts ( similar to art rock ) , because of the way the story is told . The band took great care to avoid being " self @-@ indulgent " . Manson considers the record entertaining : " Art rock is only self indulgent if it bores you " . CMJ New Music Monthly called the songs " angry and complex " . Rolling Stone noted that " on such songs as ' Target Audience ' , ' Disposable Teens ' and ' Cruci @-@ Fiction in Space ' , [ the band ] dismantles the slick , glam @-@ tinged sound of [ Mechanical ] Animals in favor of the more brutal industrial @-@ goth grind of his first [ two ] albums " .
Like Antichrist Superstar Holy Wood uses a song cycle structure , dividing the album into four movements — A : In the Shadow , D : The Androgyne , A : Of Red Earth and M : The Fallen — to frame Kadmon 's story . The storyline unfolds in a multi @-@ tiered series of metaphors and allusions ; for example , the album 's title refers not only to the " Hollywood sign " but also to " the tree of knowledge that Adam took the first fruit from when he fell out of paradise , the wood that Christ was crucified on , the wood that [ Lee Harvey ] Oswald 's rifle is made from and the wood that so many coffins are made of " .
" GodEatGod " follows Adam as he meditates in the desert . " The Love Song " is an anthem to Holy Wood 's religion , Celebritarianism . Manson said the idea for the song came from his observation that " Love Song " is one of the most common titles in music , and he wove in a metaphor about guns : " I was suggesting with the lyrics that the father is the hand , the mother is the gun , and the children are the bullets . Where you shoot them is your responsibility as parents " . The chorus is a rhetorical take on an American bumper sticker , which asks " Do you love your God , gun , government ? "
The UK music magazine Kerrang ! described " The Fight Song " as a " playground punk anthem " . Manson noted that the song 's theme is Adam 's desire to be a part of Holy Wood , and the track is autobiographical . Speaking broadly , it is about " a person who 's grown up all his life thinking that the grass is greener on the other side , but when he finally [ gets there ] , he realises that it 's worse than where he came from and that it 's truly exploitative " . The line " The death of one is a tragedy , the death of millions is just a statistic " relates to overlooking the deaths of ordinary people , ignored by the media , compared to the media frenzy when someone dies dramatically .
" Disposable Teens " is a " signature Marilyn Manson song " , with a bouncing guitar riff and Teutonic , staccato rhythm rooted in glam rocker Gary Glitter 's song " Rock and Roll , Pt.2 " . Its lyrical themes tackle the disenfranchisement of contemporary youth , " particularly those that have been [ brought up ] to feel like accidents " , with the revolutionary idealism of their parents ' generation . The Beatles ' influence is evident in this song , whose chorus echoes the disillusionment of their White Album song " Revolution 1 " . Here , the sentiment is a rallying cry for " disposable teens " against " this so @-@ called generation of revolutionaries " indicted in the song : " You said you wanted evolution , the ape was a great big hit . You say want a revolution , man , and I say that you 're full of shit " . Manson singles out " Target Audience ( Narcissus Narcosis ) " as his favorite song on the album ; to him , it describes every person 's desire for self @-@ actualization .
Borrowing a riff from English alternative rock band Radiohead , " President Dead " is a guitar @-@ driven song showcasing John 5 's technical skill . It opens with a sample of Don Gardiner 's ABC News Radio broadcast announcing the death of John F. Kennedy . The song is 3 : 13 long — a deliberate numerological reference to frame 313 of the Zapruder film , the frame with Kennedy 's fatal head shot and the point at which JFK became an American media martyr " because the production value of his murder was so grand ; the cinematography was so well done " . " In the Shadow of the Valley of Death " is an introspective song with Adam at his most emotionally vulnerable , nearly despairing . " Cruci @-@ Fiction in Space " further explores the Kennedy assassination , concluding that human beings have evolved from monkeys to men to guns . " A Place in the Dirt " is another personal song , characterized by Adam 's self @-@ analysis of his place in Holy Wood .
" The Nobodies " is a mournful , elegiac dirge with a harpsichord and synthesized @-@ drum introduction . The verse " today I 'm dirty and I want to be pretty , tomorrow I know I 'm just dirt " has an Iggy Pop @-@ style vocal delivery building to the adrenaline @-@ fuelled chorus : " we are the nobodies , we wanna be somebodies , when we 're dead they 'll know just who we are . Some children died the other day , we fed machines and then we prayed , puked up and down in morbid faith , you should have seen the ratings that day " . CMJ noted that the song would be interpreted by some as a tribute to the Columbine shooters , but its point was not to glorify violence ; rather , it was to depict a society drenched in its children 's blood . " The Death Song " is the turning point for Adam ; he no longer cares . Manson described it as sarcastic and nihilistic : " it 's like ' We have no future and we don 't give a fuck ' " . Kerrang ! described it as one of the album 's " heaviest " songs .
In " Lamb of God " Manson uses the examples of the assassinations of Jesus Christ , JFK and John Lennon to criticize his accusers , illuminating their hunger for venerating dead people as martyrs and superstars and for turning tragedy into televised spectacle . The bridge paraphrases the chorus of " Across the Universe " . Manson notes that although John Lennon sang " nothing 's going to change my world " , " [ Lennon 's killer ] Mark David Chapman came along and proved him very wrong . That was always something , growing up , that was very sad and tragic to me — a song that I always identified with " . " Burning Flag " is a heavy @-@ metal song reminiscent of American industrial @-@ metal band Ministry . Lennon 's " Working Class Hero " was covered between the band 's August 30 , 2000 appearance at the Kerrang ! Awards and the November 14 launch of the album . Describing Lennon 's idealism and influence , Manson said " some of Lennon 's Communist sentiments in his music later in his life were very dangerous . I think he died because of it . I don 't think his death was any sort of accident . Aside from that , I think he 's one of my favorite songwriters of all time " .
= = Promotion = =
Promotion began on June 9 , 1999 , with a web update that Manson was composing for a new album in tandem with a screenplay . On December 16 he posted a four @-@ minute video clip and written statement , elaborating on the upcoming album 's themes and featuring excerpts of the band performing two new songs . The first cut was a rock song which later became " Disposable Teens " , and the second was a rough demo cover of the ballad " Little Child " known as " Mommy Dear " . Manson described the album as " the most violent yet beautiful creation we have accomplished . This is a soundtrack for a world that is being sold to kids and then being destroyed by them . But maybe that 's exactly what it deserves " . An acoustic version of " Sick City " , from Charles Manson 's 1970 album Lie : The Love and Terror Cult , later appeared on February 14 , 2000 ; however , this song was not intended to be included in the upcoming album or the Holy Wood feature film .
On April 12 , 2000 Manson wrote that they were completing the final stages of recording and posted a downloadable , silent movie documenting the process . This was followed on August 9 with a posting of the Holy Wood novel cover and a sound clip of " The Love Song " the following day . On August 25 he released three tracks ( " Burning Flag " , " Cruci @-@ Fiction in Space " and " The Love Song " ) for digital download on their website . Manson traveled to the UK to perform " Disposable Teens " on the October 12 , 2000 episode of BBC One 's Top of the Pops . On October 27 , the band launched their worldwide Guns , God and Government Tour . Video footage and photographs from shows at the Minneapolis Orpheum Theatre and the Milwaukee Eagles Ballroom ( showing them performing " Disposable Teens " and " The Fight Song " ) were posted on the band 's website November 2 .
From November 1 to November 13 , the UK division of Nothing / Interscope Records held a contest to promote the album and launch the UK version of the band 's website . The contest invited fans to log onto the site daily to pick up a series of coded clues which led to a message linked to the album . Fans who solved the riddle received an exclusive download , and were entered into a drawing for a one @-@ week trip for two to meet Manson in Hollywood , California .
In mid @-@ 2001 , Universal Music Group was criticized for airing commercials promoting the album on MTV 's Total Request Live . Manson suspected that Senator and former Democratic vice @-@ presidential candidate Joseph Lieberman played a role in the criticism . Lieberman had recently introduced the Media Marketing Accountability Act ( banning the marketing of violent and sexually @-@ explicit media to minors ) in Congress . The proposed legislation stemmed from a Federal Trade Commission investigation he and Senators Sam Brownback and Orrin Hatch requested from US President Bill Clinton at the May 4 , 1999 Senate Committee on Commerce , Science and Transportation hearing on entertainment @-@ industry marketing practices to minors .
= = Release = =
On February 29 , 2000 , Manson confirmed that the album was on track for a fall 2000 release . On August 2 , the singer announced a new release date of October 24 and posted a draft of the track listing . Manson then began posting weekly updates on the website , giving fans free access to previews of new songs and artwork . On August 25 , the track listing was released .
On September 18 , Manson announced that the album 's US release was postponed to November 14 ( to fine @-@ tune the final mix ) and its first single would be " Disposable Teens " . The album was released on November 13 , 2000 in the UK and on December 5 in Japan by Nothing and Interscope Records .
On the evening of November 14 , 2000 , Manson , Ramirez , and John 5 took a break from the tour to celebrate the album with a brief invitation @-@ only acoustic set at the Saci nightclub in New York City . Tickets were given out in radio contests , on the band 's website and to the first 100 album buyers at Tower Records on Broadway in New York . The set consisted of four songs , including a cover of John Lennon 's " Working Class Hero " and " Suicide Is Painless " , theme of the film ( and TV series ) M * A * S * H. Manson noted that the latter song " [ was ] far more depressing than anything I could have ever written " . The following day , he appeared on Total Request Live in a segment entitled " Mothers Against Marilyn Manson " . The band performed " Disposable Teens " on MTV 's New Year 's Eve celebration ( with a cover of Cheap Trick 's " Surrender " ) and on January 8 , 2001 at the American Music Awards .
= = = Singles = = =
Holy Wood ( In the Shadow of the Valley of Death ) spawned three singles , the first two of which were released in three versions . The first , " Disposable Teens " , debuted as a music video ( directed by Samuel Bayer ) on Total Request Live October 25 , 2000 . During the following weeks , it was released as two standalone single EPs . The first version , " Disposable Teens Pt.1 " , was released on November 6 in the UK and features Manson 's cover of " Working Class Hero " . It was rereleased as a maxi single in the UK on August 21 , 2002 . The second version , " Disposable Teens Pt.2 " , followed on November 14 , 2000 and features a cover of " Five to One " by The Doors . This version was released in the UK as a maxi single on October 31 , 2000 and a 12 " picture disc vinyl EP on November 6 .
The second single , " The Fight Song " , was also released in three versions . The first , " The Fight Song Pt.1 " , was released on January 29 , 2001 in the US and February 19 in the UK ; the latter was a 12 " picture disc vinyl EP . Both feature a remix by Joey Jordison of the heavy metal band Slipknot . The second version , " The Fight Song Pt.2 " , was released on February 2 , 2001 in the US and March 6 in the UK . The music video was directed by W.I.Z. , and sparked controversy for its violent depiction of a football game between jocks and goths ( which some thought exploited the Columbine tragedy ) . Manson dismissed the claims as hype : " Flak is my job " .
On February 10 , 2001 Manson indicated that the " The Nobodies " would be the album 's third single . The music video , directed by Paul Fedor , premiered on MTV in June . Manson originally wanted to film the video in Russia " because the atmosphere , the desolation , the coldness and the architecture would really suit the song " . Another early plan was to incorporate the MTV stunt series Jackass , because the song was included in the show 's soundtrack ; however , the idea was abandoned when the show drew the ire of Senator Joseph Lieberman . The third single was released on September 3 , 2001 in the UK and October 6 , 2001 in the US . A remixed version of the song later appeared in the 2001 Johnny Depp film From Hell .
= = = Cover and packaging = = =
The album 's artwork was designed by P. R. Brown and Marilyn Manson . Manson began conceptualizing it as he wrote the songs , and Brown and Manson worked in tandem to realize the imagery after deciding to do the work themselves . It features elements from alchemy and the tarot .
The symbol for the planet Mercury ( common in alchemy ) is a logo . Expanding on its relationship to the album 's concept , Manson said " It represents both the androgyne and the prima materia , which has been associated with Adam , the first man " .
The singer commissioned a redesigned set of fourteen Major Arcana tarot cards , based on the Rider @-@ Waite deck . He explained that his interest in tarot was grounded in an attraction to its symbolism , not divination . The cards depict each member of the band in a surrealistic tableau . Each card was reinterpreted , reflecting the iconography of the album ; the Emperor , with prosthetic legs , is sitting in a wheelchair clutching a rifle in front of an American flag ; the Fool is stepping off a cliff , with grainy images of Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis and a JFK campaign poster in the background , and Justice weighs the Bible against the brain on his balance scale . The album 's inner sleeve has nine of these cards : the Magician , the Devil , the Emperor , the Hermit , the Fool , Justice , the High Priestess , Death and The Hierophant . The remaining cards are the Star , the World , the Tower and the Hanged Man .
The cover art , which portrays Manson as a crucified Christ with his jawbone torn off , is intended as a criticism of censorship and America 's obsession with media martyrs . It is a cropped version of the reinterpreted Hanged Man card . Under it is an obscured copy of the coroner 's report for John F. Kennedy with the words " clinical record " and " autopsy " . The Marilyn Manson typeface uses the same font as the Disney World logo of the 1960s . Manson explained the cover : " I think it 's more offensive to Christians for me to say , ' I believe in the story of Christ and I enjoy the images that you present , but for different reasons than you ' . I 've taken my own interpretation , that 's more offensive than Antichrist Superstar , and just completely disvaluing it . I 'm going to turn a bunch of kids onto Christianity in my own sick , twisted way " .
The cover was controversial ; some copies were issued with a cardboard sleeve featuring an alternative cover , since some retailers refused to stock the album with the original artwork . A pastor in Memphis , Tennessee threatened to go on a hunger strike unless the album was pulled from shelves . Manson described these actions as attempts at censorship : " the irony is that my point of the photo on the album was to show people that the crucifixion of Christ is , indeed , a violent image . My jaw is missing as a symbol of this very kind of censorship . This doesn 't piss me off as much as it pleases me , because those offended by my album cover have successfully proven my point " . Gigwise ranked the cover 16th on its list of " The 50 Most Controversial Album Covers Of All Time ! "
= = = Formats = = =
Holy Wood ( In the Shadow of the Valley of Death ) was released in three formats . The standard jewel @-@ case CD release has an enhanced CD , a gatefold booklet and a card @-@ stock outer slipcase . The UK limited @-@ edition CD features a bonus acoustic version of " The Nobodies " , while the Japanese limited @-@ edition CD has the UK bonus track and a live version of " Mechanical Animals " . Universal Music Japan released a remastered version of the album in Super @-@ High @-@ Material CD ( SHM @-@ CD ) on December 3 , 2008 and a limited @-@ edition 10th @-@ anniversary commemorative reissue in 2010 . The vinyl LP release was pressed on two black discs and contained in a gatefold paperboard slipcase . The cassette release contained a single cassette tape , a gatefold booklet and a card @-@ stock outer slipcase . Amazon.com has offered a digital MP3 version since November 14 , 2000 .
= = Reception = =
= = = From critics = = =
Holy Wood received positive reviews from most critics . At Metacritic ( which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics ) the album received an average score of 72 based on 14 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic praised it as " the definitive Marilyn Manson album , since it 's tuneful and abrasive " . He complimented the band for " figur [ ing ] out [ how ] to meld the hooks and subtle sonic shading of Mechanical Animals with the ugly , neo @-@ industrial metallicisms of Antichrist [ Superstar ] " , and said that " much of its charm lies in Manson trying so hard , perfecting details ... there 's so much effort , Holy Wood winds up a stronger and more consistent album than any of his other work . If there 's any problem , it 's that Manson 's shock rock seems a little quaint in 2000 ... [ However , ] it 's to Warner 's [ frontman Marilyn Manson ] credit as , yes , an artist that Holy Wood works anyway " .
Barry Walters of Rolling Stone said , " The band truly rocks : Its malevolent groove fleshes out its leader 's usual complaints with an exhilarating swagger that 's the essence of rock and roll " . LA Weekly was similarly impressed , pointing out that " almost all [ the songs ] contain a double @-@ take chord change or a textural overdose or a mind @-@ blowing bridge , and they 'll be terroristic in concert " . Revolver magazine editor Christopher Scapelliti was impressed by the record 's earnestness : " For all Holy Wood 's well @-@ tempered melodies and drunken pandemonium , what comes across loudest on the album is not the music but the sense of injury expressed in Manson 's lyrics . Like Plastic Ono Band , John Lennon 's bare @-@ boned solo debut , Holy Wood screams with a primal fury that 's evident even in its quietest moments " . According to Billboard magazine , the album proved that Manson is " one of the most skilled lyricists in rock today " .
Other critics were less impressed . Drowned in Sound ( which assigns a normalized rating out of 10 ) gave the album a score of 10 ; however , they noted " There [ are ] a number of criticisms that could come Marilyn Manson 's way : too much more of the same , too much philosophical posing , too much sloganeering . Regardless , all this needs to attain perfection is a few minutes shaved off of the overall running time ... [ and ] lyrically it actually says something intelligent for once and musically it has a lot more variation and scope than the Limp Bizkits of the world " . PopMatters agreed : " The central flaw of Holy Wood is that the power of its message , an important and provocative one , is watered down by its artistic pretensions . While Holy Wood is often affecting , it would be a better album if it was shorter and dealt with its subject matter directly , instead of through the veil of the ' concept album ' . " Robert Hilburn of the Los Angeles Times was also disappointed that Holy Wood did not live up to " the promise of Mechanical Animals " . In contrast to Erlewine of Allmusic , he viewed the musical cross @-@ pollination of Antichrist Superstar and Mechanical Animals as confusion on the band 's part about " where to turn [ musically ] , as if uncertain which is the right move commercially in a rock world taken over by Limp Bizkit and Eminem " . He concluded that " [ t ] his is music that sounds reasonable on the radio but crumbles under scrutiny " . Joshua Klein of The A.V. Club was also unconvinced , remarking that " [ this ] sort of agitprop is thoroughly predictable , and the only thing that could prove shocking about Manson 's antics would be if the singer actually evinced any power over his followers . Here , he seems entranced by his own power , which may be why his dark worldview sounds baseless even as he offers sharp hooks others would kill for " .
= = = Sales = = =
Since early critical appraisal of Holy Wood was far less favorable than the band 's previous effort , Mechanical Animals , many critics and retailers wondered if the band still had commercial appeal on the early @-@ 2000s music scene . Best Buy 's 2000 sales projections estimated its first @-@ week sales at about 150 @,@ 000 units nationally , significantly less than the 223 @,@ 000 units sold by Mechanical Animals during its first week . In the US the album debuted ( and peaked ) at No. 13 on the Billboard 200 with first @-@ week sales of 117 @,@ 000 , an initial commercial disappointment .
The album spent 13 consecutive weeks on the charts before dropping off on March 3 , 2001 , making it the shortest @-@ charting full @-@ length LP by the band until The High End of Low ( 2009 ) . It was overshadowed by Antichrist Superstar and Mechanical Animals ( which spent 52 and 33 weeks on the charts , respectively ) . The album 's sales figures were dismal , and it took three years to attain a gold certification from the RIAA ( in March 2003 ) for shipments of over 500 @,@ 000 units . However , in four other countries ( Australia , Austria , Italy and Sweden ) the album peaked in the top 10 ; in the UK , it peaked at No. 23 . As of 2011 the album has sold over nine million copies worldwide , making it one of the most successful in the band 's catalogue .
Seventeen months after Holy Wood ( In the Shadow of the Valley of Death ) ' s release , Manson commented on the album 's lackluster US sales . He attributed the lack of commercial appeal to the musical climate of the time , but argued that it stood up comparatively well to contemporary rock albums . Manson noted that the band 's US sales figures are usually one or two million records , and did not find the sales figures disappointing .
= = = Accolades = = =
In 2001 Kerrang ! named Holy Wood the year 's best album at their annual Kerrang ! Awards . Manson sardonically remarked , " [ there is ] nothing like a good school shooting to inspire a record " when he collected the award .
Kerrang ! ranked Holy Wood ninth on their 2000 list of albums of the year . The British magazine NME ranked the album 34th in their critic 's picks for the 50 best albums of 2000 in their " Decade In Music " series , calling it " a series of heroic rallying cries for the disenfranchised , while also baiting the American Far Right for all it 's worth " . The album ranked 30th in the Critics Top 50 and 9th in the popular poll of the German magazine Musik Express / Sounds in their 2000 Albums of the Year . The French edition of the British magazine Rock Sound ranked Holy Wood 15th in Le choix de la rédaction ( the editor 's choice ) and 5th in Le choix des lecteurs ( readers ' choice ) of their Choix des critiques ( critics ' choice ) of 2000 Albums of the Year . The British magazine Record Collector also ranked the album on their Best of 2000 list .
= = = Legacy = = =
In their November 10 , 2010 issue Kerrang ! published a 10th @-@ anniversary commemorative article on the album , " Screaming For Vengeance " , calling it " Manson 's finest hour " . " Set against the backdrop of what the rest of the rock and metal world were attempting at the turn of the century — Limp Bizkit were parading their jockishness with Chocolate Starfish And The Hot Dog Flavored Water and Disturbed were unveiling their contrived anger with The Sickness , for example — it put the singer into a league of his own ... [ and ] a decade on , there has still not been as eloquent and savage a musical attack on the media and mainstream culture as Manson achieved with Holy Wood ... [ It is ] still scathingly relevant today ... perhaps that 's where Holy Wood achieved its greatest success . In deflecting the attention that was targeted at him back onto the media , they reacted exactly as he knew they would : by blustering and further exposing their own inadequacies ... The shame of it all , though , is that so little has changed . That the album is still so relevant today suggests it failed in its task of changing attitudes . That it exists at all , though , is a credit to a man who refused to sit and take it , but instead come out swinging . "
= = Guns , God and Government Tour = =
To promote the album , the band began a worldwide stadium tour ( the Guns , God and Government Tour ) three days after its scheduled release date and seventeen days before its actual launch . From October 27 , 2000 to September 2 , 2001 , the tour had six legs spanning Eurasia , Japan and North America with 107 shows ( out of 109 planned ) . Typical of the band , the concerts were theatrical and lasted an average of one hour and forty minutes . Sets were designed with communist , religious and " Celebritarian " imagery . Manson had a number of costume changes during each show : a bishop 's dalmatic and mitre ( often confused with papal regalia ) ; a costume made from animals ( including epaulettes made from a horse 's tail and a shirt made from skinned goat heads and ostrich spines ) ; his signature black leather corset , g @-@ string and garter stockings ; an elaborate Roman legionary @-@ style imperial galea ; an Allgemeine SS @-@ style peaked police cap ; a black @-@ and @-@ white fur coat , and a large conical skirt which lifted him 12 metres ( 39 ft ) in the air .
The Ozzfest leg marked the band 's first performance in Denver , Colorado ( on June 22 , 2001 at Mile High Stadium ) after the Columbine High School massacre in Littleton . After initially canceling due to a scheduling conflict , the band changed their plans to play the Denver date . The group 's decision met resistance from conservative groups ; Manson received death threats and demands to skip the date . A group of church leaders and families related to Columbine formed an organization opposing the show , Citizens for Peace and Respect , which was supported by Colorado governor Bill Owens and representative Tom Tancredo . On their website , the ad hoc group claimed that the band " promotes hate , violence , death , suicide , drug use , and the attitudes and actions of the Columbine killers " . In response , Manson issued a statement :
I am truly amazed that after all this time , religious groups still need to attack entertainment and use these tragedies as a pitiful excuse for their own self @-@ serving publicity . In response to their protests , I will provide a show where I balance my songs with a wholesome Bible reading . This way , fans will not only hear my so @-@ called , ' violent ' point of view , but we can also examine the virtues of wonderful ' Christian ' stories of disease , murder , adultery , suicide and child sacrifice . Now that seems like ' entertainment ' to me .
Two films of the concert tour were made . The Guns , God and Government DVD , released by Eagle Rock Entertainment on October 29 , 2002 , featured live concert footage from performances in Los Angeles , Europe and Japan . It also included a 30 @-@ minute behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurette , The Death Parade , with guest appearances by Ozzy Osbourne and Eminem . Seven years later , it was followed by Guns , God and Government – Live in L.A. Released on Blu @-@ ray by Eagle Rock Entertainment ( a division of Eagle Records ) on November 17 , 2009 , it depicts the entire sixteen @-@ song set of the final show of the tour – the Los Angeles performance .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Manson .
Notes
The disc contains a data track leading to a video no longer hosted by Interscope 's website , but later included as a secret track on the companion DVD of Lest We Forget .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
= George Hammond ( Stargate ) =
Lieutenant General George S. Hammond , USAF ( Ret . ) is a fictional character in the Stargate franchise . Played by American actor Don S. Davis , General Hammond serves as the commander of Stargate Command ( SGC ) in the first seven seasons of the television series Stargate SG @-@ 1 . He is relieved of command in the series ' season 7 finale " Lost City " , but becomes head of the new Homeworld Security department at the beginning of season 8 . Hammond 's off @-@ screen retirement is confirmed in SG @-@ 1 's season 10 , and the character 's death is mentioned in the series finale of SG @-@ 1 's spin @-@ off series Stargate Atlantis , " Enemy at the Gate " .
Don S. Davis left the regular role after the seventh season of SG @-@ 1 due to health problems , but appeared in later seasons as well as in a season 1 episode of Stargate Atlantis . Davis died from a heart attack in June 2008 , making his appearance in the 2008 direct @-@ to @-@ DVD film Stargate : Continuum his last . For his portrayal of Hammond , Don S. Davis was nominated for a 2004 Leo Award in the category " Dramatic Series : Best Supporting Performance by a Male " for the season 7 episode " Heroes , Part 2 " .
= = Role in Stargate = =
= = = Character arc = = =
George S. Hammond is a United States Air Force Major General ( later Lieutenant General ) from Texas , who commands Stargate Command ( SGC ) in the first seven seasons of Stargate SG @-@ 1 . The series pilot introduces Hammond as the successor of Major General West , the commander of the Stargate Project in the original Stargate film . Hammond had been stationed as a Lieutenant at the Cheyenne Mountain Complex ( the present @-@ day location of Stargate Command ) in 1969 , Hammond 's mentioned relatives include his wife , who had died of cancer four years before the events of the series began , and his granddaughters named Kayla and Tessa ( whose telephone number occupies Hammond 's first speed dial button above the President of the United States which occupies the second ) . His father is also mentioned in the Season 2 episode entitled 1969 .
General Hammond has control over each SG mission , but is rarely directly involved with the off @-@ world adventures of SG teams . He is only shown off @-@ world in season 2 's " Prisoners " , season 3 's " Into the Fire " and the season 7 premiere " Fallen " ; he also commands the Earth spaceship Prometheus in season 7 's " Lost City " and season 8 's " Prometheus Unbound " . Hammond 's command of the SGC is interrupted once in season 4 's " Chain Reaction " , where Hammond retires under duress and is temporarily replaced by Major General Bauer . The series never clearly establishes Hammond 's second @-@ in @-@ command , although producer Joseph Mallozzi stated in season 7 that " if Hammond were to retire , there 's a strong possibility that [ Colonel Jack O 'Neill ] could take over command of the [ Stargate Command ] base " .
In the season 7 finale " Lost City " , newly inaugurated President Henry Hayes is pressured into replacing General Hammond with Dr. Elizabeth Weir for a three @-@ month review process of the SGC . Hammond is promoted to the rank of Lieutenant General and is placed in command of the new Homeworld Security department afterwards ; Brigadier General Jack O 'Neill takes over command of Stargate Command in the season 8 opener " New Order " . Hammond appears in the season 1 episode " Home " of Stargate Atlantis , and appears in seasons 8 through 10 of Stargate SG @-@ 1 . After Hammond appears in season 9 's " The Fourth Horseman " in a civilian suit instead of a military uniform , Lieutenant Colonel Samantha Carter confirms Hammond 's retired status in season 10 's " The Road Not Taken " . In his last appearance in the alternate timeline film Stargate : Continuum , General Hammond acts as a military advisor to President Henry Hayes . Carter reports to Lieutenant Colonel John Sheppard in the Stargate Atlantis Season 5 finale / series finale episode , " Enemy at the Gate " that Hammond recently died from a heart attack and that the Daedalus @-@ class ship Phoenix was renamed the George Hammond in his honor .
= = = Characterization and relationships = = =
According to Approaching The Possible by Jo Storm , the season 2 episode " 1969 " showed that Hammond climbed the military ladder " by being shrewd , intelligent , and [ by being ] possessed of a long vision " despite being a " spouted bottom @-@ line pragmatis [ t ] " . Don S. Davis described General Hammond as initially " hard @-@ nosed and straight @-@ ahead " , and later as seemingly " stern and straight @-@ laced " . Recognizing the need to fulfill the role as a General , Davis still tried to " bring a few levels to him that show some understanding and that make him a little more likeable . " The welfare of the men and women under Hammond 's command is paramount in the general 's mind . Besides knowing that people may not return from his sanctioned missions , General Hammond has to decide when to forgo rescue attempts to not put more lives in danger , even if he " always does so reluctantly and with regret " . As shown in " Chain Reaction " , Hammond would rather leave the military quietly than risk the careers and lives of his staff and his family , " which must go against all his blustery Texas background " .
Davis appreciated Hammond 's closeness to the SG @-@ 1 team and his willingness to compromise . At the beginning of the series , Hammond does not accept the alien warrior Teal 'c but comes to trust and respect him after realizing Teal 'c's devotion to the Stargate Program . Despite his admiration for Dr. Daniel Jackson 's enthusiasm in the beginning , Hammond has a hard time understanding Daniel 's unorthodox and non @-@ military approach to problems until Hammond comes to realize the importance of a civilian viewpoint to SG @-@ 1 's mission . When the alien Jonas Quinn joins SG @-@ 1 in season 6 , Davis compared Hammond 's response to Jonas to his reaction to Teal 'c in season 1 . Although Hammond does not blame Jonas for Daniel 's death in " Meridian " , " the situation does make it difficult for [ Hammond ] to totally take the young man under his wing and embrace him like family as he has the rest of SG @-@ 1 " . Davis named the NID as Hammond 's only source of frustration , since they regularly outflank Hammond and SG @-@ 1 . Hammond 's only option is to call the President for support , but most cases end with SG @-@ 1 or Hammond breaking the rules to assure the survival of humanity , so " Hammond will do whatever he must to get things done " .
= = Conceptual history = =
Don S. Davis was a stand @-@ in and stunt @-@ double for Dana Elcar in MacGyver , a 1985 – 1992 television series that starred Richard Dean Anderson ( who also portrayed Stargate SG @-@ 1 's lead character Jack O 'Neill ) . At the time , Davis had suffered burnout from teaching acting classes at the University of British Columbia for ten years , and later considered the work on MacGyver " a new lease on life " . When the producers cast Stargate SG @-@ 1 in 1996 , they asked Davis to read for the role of George Hammond and contracted him for multiple years . Davis considered General Hammond in the initial character breakdown as a two @-@ dimensional by @-@ the @-@ book character and a mere foil for O 'Neill , and was dissatisfied with the view of the pilot episode 's director , Mario Azzopardi , who in particular wanted Hammond to be a military stereotype . Davis , who had served as an army Captain in Korea in the 1960s , felt that the character breakdown did not mirror the reality of military service , and he was reluctant to portray such a role for several years . The producers eventually allowed Davis to humanize the character during the run of the show .
The producers wrote season 4 's " Chain Reaction " as " a bit of a Hammond episode " after they had not devoted an episode to Hammond during the first three seasons . The episode ended up " very different " from writer Joseph Mallozzi 's original pitch , which he had envisioned as " a Hammond story in which the general faces a court martial after being implicated in the death of an off @-@ world SG team leader " . When no more Hammond episodes were written in the following seasons , Davis cited Stargate SG @-@ 1 's focus on the off @-@ world adventures of the SG team , the military framework and the general 's knowledge for why Hammond " can be nothing more than peripheral to that action . "
After playing General Hammond for nearly 150 episodes in seven seasons , Don S. Davis decided to leave Stargate SG @-@ 1 in late 2003 . He had suffered from prolonged health problems and was grateful that the Stargate SG @-@ 1 producers had previously continued his employment and had scheduled episodes around his surgeries . Davis turned towards painting and sculpting , but continued to work in the film and television industry including the Stargate franchise , continuing to appear in every season of Stargate SG @-@ 1 . Davis died from a heart attack at the age of 65 on June 29 , 2008 , shortly before the release of Stargate : Continuum , his last on @-@ screen appearance as General Hammond . The Stargate producers closed the final Stargate Atlantis episode , " Enemy at the Gate " , with a dedication card to Don S. Davis ; the episode also mentions the off @-@ screen passing of General Hammond , with Earth 's newest ship being named in his honour .
= = Reception = =
Jo Storm commended Don S. Davis in her book Approaching The Possible for " bring [ ing ] out his character 's actions and motivations with the confidence and thoughtfulness that only a professional of many years can " . In the Stargate SG @-@ 1 pilot , Hammond " set [ s ] up things as advantageously as he can " and proved to be a " competent " and " believable " commander . Talking about Hammond in the season 2 time @-@ travel episode " 1969 " , Storm also credited actor Aaron Pearl , who had done " an amazing job as the younger George Hammond , right down to the slight head tilt and speech lilt " . For his portrayal of Hammond , Don S. Davis was nominated for a 2004 Leo Award in the category " Dramatic Series : Best Supporting Performance by a Male " for the season 7 episode " Heroes , Part 2 " .
= = Awards = =
The following are the medals and service awards fictionally worn by General Hammond .
= XO ( song ) =
" XO " is a song by American singer Beyoncé from her fifth studio album , Beyoncé ( 2013 ) . Columbia Records released the song as the lead contemporary hit radio single from the album in the US and Italy on December 16 , 2013 . Ryan Tedder co @-@ wrote and co @-@ produced " XO " with Terius " The @-@ Dream " Nash and Beyoncé , with additional production handled by Chauncey " Hit @-@ Boy " Hollis and HazeBanga Music . A pure midtempo pop love song , " XO " is complete with electronic musical instrumentation , synthesizers and drums . Musically , it was compared to Beyoncé 's own song " Halo " and was noted for having several music hooks including its call and response chorus .
Upon its release , " XO " was acclaimed by music critics , who praised the singer 's raw and low vocals and applauded the song for its pop appeal ; many of them further hailed it as a highlight of the album . However , the usage of an audio sample from Space Shuttle Challenger disaster at the beginning of the song was criticized by the families of the lost crew , NASA , and some media . Beyoncé released a statement saying that the song was intended to help people who have lost loved people in their lives and that the sample was included as a tribute to the Challenger crew . " XO " managed to appear on many music charts across Europe and Oceania and it peaked at number 45 on the US Billboard Hot 100 .
A music video for the song directed by Terry Richardson was filmed in Coney Island in late August 2013 . It was made available on iTunes with the release of the album on December 13 , 2013 and was released online three days later . It received positive reviews from critics who described it as a suitable accompaniment for the song , praising its positive atmosphere . Beyoncé performed the song during the last stops of the North American leg of The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour in December 2013 and later during the tour 's second European leg in early 2014 . To further promote " XO " , she performed it at the 2014 BRIT Awards and later at the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards . Haim and John Mayer covered the song in 2014 , with the latter releasing it as a single .
= = Production and release = =
" XO " was written by Beyoncé , Terius " The @-@ Dream " Nash and Ryan Tedder while the production was helmed by the aforementioned group as well as Chauncey " Hit @-@ Boy " Hollis and HazeBanga . Ramon Rivas engineered the song , with assistance from Justin Hergett . Beyoncé 's vocals were recorded by Stuart White and Bart Schoudel while all instrumentation and programming was carried out by Tedder . The song was finally mixed by Andrew Scheps . " XO " was recorded in four studios : Jungle City Studios and Oven Studios , both in New York City , Trackdown Studios in Sydney and Tritonus Studios in Berlin .
During an interview with Australian radio station Nova in November 2013 , Tedder revealed that he had collaborated with Beyoncé on a song for her then @-@ upcoming album along with The @-@ Dream , further saying , " Personally the song we did I like more than ' Halo ' . I think it 's a bigger , better song " . However , he acknowledged that he did not know when the singer planned to release new material for her fifth album . The previous month , it was reported by a source to the Daily News that Beyoncé planned to release a new single and video on December 3 , 2013 . The publication further speculated that the single was expected to be the song whose music video was filmed in August of the same year – " XO " . Later , when Beyoncé was released , Billboard reported that " Blow " would be released as the contemporary hit radio single both in the US and worldwide , and " Drunk in Love " would be sent to urban radio in the US only ; " XO " was scheduled to be released as the second worldwide radio single in 2014 . However , radio programmers reportedly pushed back against the release of " Blow " to mainstream stations , finding its lyrics to be very explicit for the format and proposing that " XO " be released in its place . The release of " Blow " was therefore scrapped and " XO " impacted contemporary hit radio in Italy and adult contemporary radio in the US on December 16 , 2013 . It was also sent to US mainstream , urban and rhythmic radio on December 17 .
= = Composition = =
" XO " is a midtempo pop love power ballad that bears resemblance to Beyoncé 's own 2008 song " Halo " , which was also produced by Tedder . Influences of electronic rock and reggaeton genres were also found in the song . " XO " was composed using common time in the key of C major , with a tempo of 85 beats per minute . It carries a " celebratory , bumping Caribbean " groove and a marching @-@ drum beat with shuffling dancehall influences . The instrumentation includes jittery keyboards , synthesizers , percussion and electronic musical instruments . The song also consists of electronic flourishes and looped riff patterns brought about by an organ instrument . " XO " was also noted for being a departure from the minimalistic sexual nature of the album , due to its pure pop sound . Jordan Sargent of Complex magazine wrote that " XO " contains influences of Jamaican singer Tanya Stephens . Chris Bosman from Consequence of Sound described the song as a blend of " cinematic reach of modern Top 40 pop with the patience and melancholy of post @-@ 808s & Heartbreaks [ sic ] hip @-@ hop . " Kevin Fallon from The Daily Beast compared the song 's stadium sound to tracks by the band U2 .
Beyoncé 's vocals in the song span from the note of A3 to the note of A4 . When asked about her raw vocals in the song previously unheard on her material and the song 's less polished sound , Beyoncé revealed that " XO " was recorded when she had a bad sinus infection . She further revealed it was recorded as a demo in several minutes . The original demo vocals were kept for a year without being rerecorded as the singer " really loved the imperfections " and wanted to focus on the album 's music instead of the vocals .
The lyrics of " XO " express a cheerful celebration of love and life as Beyoncé attempts " to create light from darkness " . It has been described as a universal love song which talks about different types of relationships . The singer lays emphasis on the importance of living the present with a person 's loved one as life is unpredictable . She further sings about the tragedy and magnificence that life can hold . Throughout the song , the singer adopts a hopeful attitude and seems to have gone in trance with love , a state which is further augmented by the fact that she employs a generally low register . Caitlin White from the website The 405 interpreted the song 's lyrics in depth :
In the darkest night of hate and intolerance we see impossible love stories conquering what our governments and societies declare is legally ' allowed ' to be love ... It is for love that transcends the romantic conception of man and woman and stretches out into the impossibilities of the cosmos . It leaves room for failure but hopes for success .
The opening lines of " XO " are echo @-@ laden and in contrast to other songs on Beyoncé , the ballad contains several hooks . Beyoncé starts the song by asking a loved one to kiss her . Some of the ascending chorus lines are call and response ; Beyoncé is backed by a sing @-@ along crowd as she sings about how her " darkest nights " are enlightened by the lover 's face : " In the darkest night hour / I search through the crowd / Your face is all that I see / I give you everything " . The chorus ends with the singer adding , " Baby love me , lights out " , with a croak in her voice .
= = Sampling controversy = =
The song begins with a six second @-@ long sample of former NASA public affairs officer Steve Nesbitt , recorded moments after Space Shuttle Challenger disaster on January 28 , 1986 : " Flight controllers here looking very carefully at the situation . Obviously a major malfunction . " These were the last words spoken before the disintegrating vehicle fell into the sea . The use of the sample has been criticized in the media , including Hardeep Phull of New York Post who described its presence as " tasteless " . Former NASA astronauts and families were also dismayed and labeled the use of the sample as " insensitive " . Keith Cowing of NASA Watch suggested that the use of the clip ranged from negligence to repugnance .
On December 30 , 2013 , NASA criticized the use of the sample , stating : " The Challenger accident is an important part of our history ; a tragic reminder that space exploration is risky and should never be trivialized . NASA works every day to honor the legacy of our fallen astronauts as we carry out our mission to reach for new heights and explore the universe . " Earlier on the same date , Beyoncé had issued a statement to ABC News in response to the families , explaining why she and her co @-@ songwriters decided to include the audio sample in " XO " :
My heart goes out to the families of those lost in the Challenger disaster . The song ' XO ' was recorded with the sincerest intention to help heal those who have lost loved ones and to remind us that unexpected things happen , so love and appreciate every minute that you have with those who mean the most to you . The songwriters included the audio in tribute to the unselfish work of the Challenger crew with hope that they will never be forgotten .
Forrest Wickman of Slate magazine defended Beyoncé 's choice to use the sample , and criticized the media reports for their " dismissive " interpretation of the song 's " vague " lyrics as being about " a girl in a relationship " . According to Wickman , the lyrics of the song refer to mortality and " the urgency of spending time with the ones you love before you lose them , because you never know when that could be " ; this is shown in the hook lines , " Baby kiss me / Before they turn the lights out / You better kiss me / Before our time has run out . " A similar interpretation was voiced by Douglas Wolk of Wired , who challenged the notion of the sample being simply a " trivialization " , instead describing it as " a swift , understated and brutal reminder that everything can go horribly wrong before anyone understands what 's happening , and that the light could be extinguished at any moment " . Wickman concluded , " If there 's anything anyone should know by now about Beyoncé Knowles , it 's that there 's nothing in her self @-@ presentation that isn 't carefully chosen . "
Caitlin White from the website The 405 noted that there was a reason for the song being " couched in warnings " of malfunction and tragedy elaborating , " As far controversy , denying Beyonce the ability to embrace the intertextuality of incorporating a historical recording like the Challenger explosion is an attempt to relegate her art to a lower form of political discourse , one that 's not ' worthy ' of interacting with an event of cultural significance like this . But this is not just a ' pop album , ' it 's a woman holding forth on the role of women in our society , how they should approach the nuances of their life and most importantly , how they can choose to value relationships ... That isn 't just the work of a diva , that is the work of a political figure . "
= = Critical reception = =
Upon its release , " XO " received critical acclaim . Many critics praised the song 's radio appeal in contrast with the rest of the album and hailed it as single worthy . Mike Wass of the website Idolator described it as a " radio @-@ ready anthem ... [ which ] is impossible to beat " . Vanity Fair writer Michelle Collins described it as " the most upbeat and catchiest song of the lot " on the album . Ryan Dennehy from the website AbsolutePunk opined that " XO " was a guaranteed , triumphant hit . Andrew Hampp and Erika Ramirez of Billboard magazine described " XO " as " magical " further calling it the most radio @-@ friendly song on the entire album with its traditional pop structure . Peter Tabakis from the website Pretty Much Amazing listed the " magnificent power ballad " as one of the " potential chart @-@ toppers " of the album . Michael Cragg of The Guardian called the track a " joyous , echo @-@ laden heart burst , " and an immediate choice for a single . Stereogum 's Tom Breihan found " an immediately apparent hit [ in Beyoncé is ] ... the incandescent ' XO ' " . Rob Harvilla from Spin found " monster @-@ single potential " in " XO " . Marc Hogan of the same publication described the song as a potential radio hit " that looms largest " from the album . He further went on to praise its " grandly swaying hook that makes the one from Jessie Ware 's ' Wildest Moments ' sound understated " . Lindsay Zoladz of Pitchfork Media praised the song 's " big , boundary @-@ obliterating " pop appeal and hailed it as a future blockbuster and hit . She went on to praise the singer 's vocal performance in the song concluding " all of the flawlessness here is brilliantly undercut by that gravelly croak " .
The song 's pop and sing @-@ along sound and production received praise by critics . Greg Kot from the Chicago Tribune described the song 's production as " predictable " and opined that the audience sing @-@ along chorus sounded like it was created specifically for being performed during an arena encore . Similarly , Nathan S. of the website DJ Booth wrote that the song was suitable for " ecstatic " fans to sing along without efforts during a stadium concert : " This is the kind of chorus that 's going to be sung at full force in traffic jams for months to come , and while XO may be relatively more subdued , that call and response is destined to be a monster when performed live , right down to the way her voice shows a little wear , just like it would at the end of a show . " Jody Rosen writing for Vulture found a " cavernous widescreen " anthemic pop sound in the song further saying that its chorus sounded like it was specifically made for an Olympics opening ceremony . Carrie Battan of Pitchfork described the song as a " stadium @-@ filling " one and classified it as one of Beyoncé 's " decorous moments " . Joe Lynch from Fuse described " XO " as the " most uplifting " pop song since Florence and the Machine 's " Shake It Out " ( 2011 ) . He praised the electronic flourishes , saying that they managed to " keep the music from veering into banal territory " and concluded that the song has a " quirky " sound previously unheard on other material by Beyoncé . Philip Sherburne of Spin found " zero @-@ G bounce ... which , purely in terms of sonics , makes the most compelling argument for space tourism I have yet to come across " .
Many critics considered " XO " to be a highlight on the album . Drowned in Sound 's Robert Leedham opined in his review of the album , " Most glorious of all is ' XO ' , a supermassive , dumbstruck ode to being in love and caring about fuck all else . It 's the one album track that 's linear enough to withstand a drunken singalong . " Lavanya Ramanthatan of The Washington Post described the song as a " swelling anthem " and one of the highlights of Beyoncé . Caitlin White from the website The 405 , hailed " XO " as " the album 's crowning track ... [ it ] feels like even more of a triumph " . Philip Cosores from Paste magazine noted that the song , along with several others in the closing portion of the album , was " probably the best of her career " . Jordan Sargent from Complex magazine described " XO " as the " purest love song " on Beyoncé . However , a more mixed review came from Claire Lobenfeld of the same publication who felt that it was the only skippable track of the album due to its " mawkish " feel . Similarly , Chris Kelly of Fact magazine wrote that the song " reeks of Ryan Tedder 's paint @-@ by @-@ number hitmaking " .
= = = Recognition and accolades = = =
Under the Radar 's Ryan E.C. Hamm argued that " XO " made " a strong case " for being included as song of the year on several year @-@ end lists ; however he noted that this was not possible as the lists had already been compiled and published when the song was released . However , Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone placed " XO " at number 8 in his year @-@ end list of the 25 best songs of 2013 . The song was further ranked at number 72 in the annual Pazz and Jop mass critics poll of the year 's best in music . In 2014 , Vulture 's writer Jody Rosen listed the song at number 52 on his list of " The 150 Greatest Schlock Songs Ever " calling it " an instant classic " : " The grand , sparkly production screams 2013 ; the theme — how love bears out to the edge of doom and all that — is timeless . " The same year , he further included the song in his list of the best songs by Beyoncé published in The New York Times . " XO " is nominated in the category for Best Song at the 2014 World Music Awards .
= = Chart performance = =
" XO " debuted at number 66 on the US Billboard Hot 100 for the week ending January 4 , 2014 . The song gradually ascended the chart and in its fifth week , on the chart issue dated February 1 , 2014 , it peaked at number 45 . It spent five additional weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 , being placed at number 83 in its last week before falling out of the chart . On the Mainstream Top 40 airplay chart it debuted at number 32 for the week ending January 11 , 2014 . The next week , " XO " moved to number 24 on that chart and it eventually peaked at number 18 spending a total of eight weeks on the Mainstream Top 40 . On the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , the single reached number 12 in its total of eighteen weeks spent on the chart . As of June 6 , 2014 , " XO " has sold 356 @,@ 000 downloads in the US . In Canada , " XO " has peaked at number 36 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart and was certified gold by Music Canada for sales of 40 @,@ 000 copies in that country .
In the UK , " XO " debuted at number 23 on the UK R & B Chart on December 28 , 2013 and number 84 on the UK Singles Chart on January 11 , 2014 . Following Beyoncé 's performance of " XO " at the 2014 BRIT Awards in February 2014 , sales of the song in the country increased by 96 % within the first two hours , and were up by 252 % the following day . Following the performance , the song moved ten positions up on the UK R & B Chart at number 5 the next week , and on March 8 , 2014 it moved to a peak position of 4 . It also peaked at number 22 on the singles chart on the same date and spent 13 weeks in total . On October 17 , 2014 , the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) certified it silver for sales of 200 @,@ 000 copies . On the Irish Singles Chart , " XO " debuted at 70 for the week ending December 26 , 2013 . It set a peak of 15 on the chart for the week ending January 30 , 2014 and further remained on the chart until April 3 .
For the week ending December 21 , 2013 , " XO " debuted at number five on the South Korea Gaon International Chart with digital sales of 13 @,@ 731 copies and later peaked at number four . For the week of December 30 , 2013 , " XO " debuted at number 44 on the Australian Singles Chart and number 5 on the Australian Urban Singles Chart . On January 26 , 2014 , it set a peak of number 16 on the singles chart and was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipment of 35 @,@ 000 copies . On the New Zealand Singles Chart , " XO " debuted at number at number 38 on January 6 , 2014 and it moved to 19 the following week . It peaked at number 10 on the chart issue dated January 20 , 2014 and gradually descended the chart before falling off on March 17 , 2014 after last being seen at 33 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
The music video for " XO " was directed by Terry Richardson . It was filmed on August 29 , 2013 on Coney Island 's Cyclone roller coaster . On that same day , Beyoncé was spotted at that location . It was later confirmed by several publications that Beyoncé was filming a video for a then @-@ upcoming song titled " XO " from her upcoming fifth album . The Daily Telegraph further reported that fashion models Jourdan Dunn , Jessica White and Diandra Forrest were present during the filming of the video . Several scenes for the video were also filmed during Beyoncé 's concert at the Brazilian festival Rock in Rio at Rio de Janeiro in 2013 where the singer asked the crowd to make X and O shapes with their hands ; the hand movement choreography was created by Lee Anne Callahan @-@ Longo , the general manager at Parkwood Entertainment . During a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes video , Richardson described the process for the filming of the clip for " XO " ,
" You know , it 's amazing cause in one point we were like in the arcade and I said to Beyoncé let 's just do this . You wanna open the door and you 're gonna perform and we 're just gonna walk out and see what happens and she was like ' Yeah , let 's go for it ' . And literally we came out the door and it was like just hundreds of people sort of coming around us . People everywhere , cameras , people yelling her name . It was incredible , I have never experienced anything like that . It was really reportage , loose , not planned , we went with feeling , we went with instinct ... It 's a beautiful cycle of energy . "
Beyoncé further described the filming of the video as " insanely chaotic " before adding that it captured " raw , fun and being in the moment " . In order to prevent snippets of the song being leaked online , the singer wore earbuds during the filming of the video instead of playing the music loud and lip synced the lyrics . The music video for " XO " was first released on the iTunes Store on the visual album itself on December 13 , 2013 , which contained a previously filmed music video for every song . It was later released to Vevo on December 16 , 2013 along with the video for " Drunk in Love " .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video opens with scenes of Beyoncé standing in front of a wall made of flashing multi @-@ coloured light bulbs . Her look is complete with denim pants and a white tank top . Several scenes of people riding bumper cars follow as Beyoncé also goes riding one . She then continues playing carnival games and rides the Cyclone roller coaster with her stylist Ty Hunter while wearing a baseball cap emblazoned with Notorious B.I.G. ' s face and white tank top with jeans . Several scenes show Beyoncé walking along the boardwalk , while paparazzi take pictures of her ; during one scene a TMZ cameraman makes a cameo appearance . Several other scenes show the singer dancing with fans and street performers while sporting a light bow on her head . Beyoncé also dances a choreographed dance with several female background dancers on a skee ball game ; the choreography includes making X and O shapes with their hands to accompany the chorus of the song " you love me like XO " . Scenes of love couples and instances of various iconic establishments are also featured throughout . Footage of Beyoncé leading a crowd for the choreography at a concert is also featured as well as the singer appearing with a bat made of money .
= = = Reception = = =
Upon its release , the video received positive reviews from critics . A writer of Rap @-@ Up magazine praised Beyoncé for " spread [ ing ] the love " with the " feel @-@ good clip " . Idolator 's Mike Wass praised the video saying that , " Happily [ it ] is as gorgeous as the song with Terry Richardson simply filming Bey living it up at Coney Island . It 's almost too perfect . " In another review , he also hailed it as " carefree , neon @-@ drenched " and one of the best clips on the whole album adding that it looked more like a home movie than a music video which was " part of its immense appeal " . Rob Harvilla from Spin magazine described it as " the sweetest " video on the album . Chris Martins from the same publication wrote that the video is " all pretty huge and heartwarming " . Neil McCormick from The Daily Telegraph found " happy innocence " in the clip . Kory Grow from Rolling Stone noted that the clip was a " fun video for a likewise song " further saying that the hand choreography was Beyoncé 's version of a similar dance from the song " Y.M.C.A. " ( 1978 ) by Village People .
Lindsay Zoladz from Pitchfork praised the appeal of the hand @-@ movement choreography from the video , predicting " There will be a supercut of people all over the world lip @-@ syncing and doing cute hand motions to ' XO ' " . Rachel Brodsky of MTV described the video as charmingly DIY @-@ styled and praised Beyoncé 's look and the dance choreography . Hardeep Phull from the New York Post commented that the video " captures the spirit of the song in a way that 's sweet if not exactly original " . Malene Arpe from Toronto Star described the video as a " happy @-@ party @-@ at @-@ the @-@ fair romp " . Jordan Sargent of Complex magazine wrote in his review of the video that it recalls and showcases " the joyous adrenaline rush " of falling in love . He described the tone as " appropriate " and different from the rest of the videos on the album and noted that its director used pink and blue colors in the scenes to capture the feel of " budding romance " . Tyler Hanan from the website Under the Gun Review wrote that the video has " all lights on blast and all ages included " and added that it was complete with " smiles , joy , and good @-@ natured silliness " .
Melinda Newman from the website HitFix described Beyoncé 's look in the video as " sultry , slightly euphoric " and noted its main theme being about comparing love to a carnival . She concluded that the video for " XO " is " interesting ... almost as if we 're seeing her in some state of heightened reality enhanced by some mood @-@ altering substance-- or maybe that 's just what love does to Beyoncé . " Joe Lynch from Fuse commented that the shots of Beyoncé 's smiles , children dancing and roller coaster throughout the video made it " the most joyous music video of 2013 " . The same writer in another review said that the video shows Beyoncé " at her most flippant , casual best " . Michelle Collins from the Vanity Fair described the singer 's look as " young , carefree " further describing the video as " FOMO to the max " . However , Whitney Phaneuf of the website HitFix gave a mixed review , comparing the video to Mariah Carey 's " Fantasy " ( 1995 ) saying that the latter 's clip made " the roller coaster look better " . The video was nominated in the category for Best Video at the 2014 World Music Awards .
= = Live performances = =
Beyoncé performed " XO " live for the first time on December 13 , 2013 , during a concert in Chicago as part of her The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour . Prior to the performance she revealed that the song was written for her fans and added , " This is the first time , something I 'll never forget " . She then performed the song as a call and response with the crowd . Molly Wardlaw of Fuse described the performance as " glorious " and a " heavenly thing to behold " . Later , Beyoncé also performed the song during the remaining stops of the North American leg of the tour as a part of the encore dedicating it to her fans . While reviewing Beyoncé 's performance in Washington , Lavanya Ramanthatan of The Washington Post noted that " XO " was one of the " most thrilling songs " of the concert . Stacey Anderson from Rolling Stone wrote that the song " was delivered with visible emotion , and seemingly with a spontaneity absent from the rest of the precise operation " . " XO " was added to the set list and performed live during the second European leg of The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour in 2014 from February to March . Graeme Virtue of The Guardian reviewed the performances of " XO " and " Halo " positively , saying that she managed to transform " [ the ] monumental songs ... into intimate miniatures through sheer force of will " while dancing and interacting with the crowd alone onstage .
The song 's first televised performance was at the 2014 BRIT Awards on February 19 , 2014 , marking her first performance at the ceremony since the one held in 2004 . The performance was confirmed by James Corden on BBC Radio 2 several hours prior to the ceremony , following rumours that circulated for several weeks . Beyoncé appeared on stage wearing a shimmering , floor @-@ length sequin blue gown designed by Vrettos Vrettakos containing 140 @,@ 000 blue zircon crystals and big earrings . The singer performed in front of a simple set of flashing neon lights along with fireworks and lasers on a screen as well as smoke surrounding her dedicating the performance to her fans . Sam Lansky of Time magazine praised the simplicity of the performance as " classy and spare " and wrote that the singer " more than did it justice " with her " pretty much peerless " vocals . MTV News ' Emily Blake favorably reviewed the performance as more " subdued " in comparison with the other live shows by Beyoncé . Daily News ' Kirthana Ramisetti said that the singer managed to stun at the awards show with the impassioned performance only with the " power of her voice " . Vanity Fair writer Josh Duboff described the performance as " powerful and fairly straightforward , sedate even " . E ! Online 's Bruna Nessif wrote that the singer " absolutely stunned as she belted the sweet ballad , giving the audience a memorable show . There was no extra glitz or glamour ( not really necessary with a dress like that ) or backup dancers and crazy antics . The singer 's main focus were her powerhouse vocals " . Mark Savage of BBC News opined , " [ the ] unbilled , stripped @-@ back performance of XO was undoubtedly the night 's most flawless vocal " . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian described her as " clearly the star of the show " . However , Mark Sutherland of the Rolling Stone gave a mixed review about the performance saying it was " a bit ... dull " . At the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards on August 25 , Beyoncé performed " XO " live during a medley consisting of songs from her self @-@ titled album . She performed the song dressed in a bejeweled bodysuit and dedicated it to her fans as the closing track of her performance , stating " This one is for my incredible fans . If it wasn 't for you , I wouldn 't be on this stage " . Nadeska Alexis from MTV News felt that the singer kept the audience " lifted " with the performance of the song .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Beyoncé .
Song credits
Video credits
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= = Cover versions = =
The song was covered for the first time by the American band Haim on February 24 , 2014 during a Live Lounge at BBC Radio 1 . Their cover version featured vocals by Este Haim and was musically similar to the original version complete with a slow beat , synthesizer flourishes , guitar rift , drum @-@ kick and callback harmonies during the song 's chorus . The rendition was noted for containing elements of vintage soft rock and its stripped @-@ down sound was praised highlighting the melody and lyricism of the original " with sincerety " as stated by Whitney Phanuef from HitFix . Billboard writer Jason Lipshutz described their rendition as a " highly unique presentation " . Time magazine 's Melisa Locker described the
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1964 , at the height of the band 's fame . The meeting was arranged by New York journalist Al Aronowitz , who later remarked on the significance of this introduction : " Hasn 't the whole world benefited ? ... The Beatles ' magic was in their sound . Bob 's magic was in his words . After they met , the Beatles ' words got grittier , and Bob invented folk @-@ rock . " Author Gary Tillery has written of the connection established between Dylan and George Harrison : " Dylan was particularly keen on meeting [ John ] Lennon , the writer @-@ artist @-@ intellectual of the group , but the deepest and longest @-@ lasting bond begun that night was with George Harrison . Their two reclusive personalities meshed ... "
The connection developed in May 1966 , when Harrison , Lennon and Paul McCartney visited Dylan in his London hotel , midway through his controversial world tour with backing band the Hawks . According to musicologist Ian MacDonald , Dylan 's relationship with Lennon was a testy , competitive one at times , and Dylan was " cooler " towards McCartney , whose best @-@ known songs he regarded as " sell @-@ outs to soft pop " ; but in producer Bob Johnston 's estimation , Lennon , Harrison and McCartney entered the hotel suite as members of the Beatles and departed as three distinct individuals , such was Dylan 's philosophical influence on fellow songwriters at the time . Following his creative peak in mid 1966 with the Blonde on Blonde double album , Dylan retired to Bearsville , New York , accompanied by the Hawks ( soon to become the Band ) , in order to recuperate from a motorcycle crash and raise a family with his wife , Sara Lownds . Little was heard from him throughout 1967 – 68 , a situation that added to his mystique as music critics and fans awaited his return .
While Dylan was dismissive of the Beatles ' landmark album Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band ( 1967 ) , Harrison remained an avowed fan of Dylan 's work – Blonde on Blonde being the only Western music that Harrison took with him to India in February 1968 . Following the sessions for the Beatles ' White Album , Harrison worked in Los Angeles for much of October and November 1968 , producing the debut solo album by Jackie Lomax , one of the first signings to the Beatles ' Apple record label . Harrison and his wife , Pattie Boyd , then spent Thanksgiving with the Dylans while staying in the Catskills as guests of manager Albert Grossman . Despite Dylan 's excitement at their arrival , Harrison found him withdrawn and seemingly lacking in confidence . Music journalist John Harris notes that , unlike in their previous meetings , " there were no hangers @-@ on [ this time ] , Dylan 's head was clear , and the protective barriers of cool could come down – which , eventually , they did . " On the third day , Harrison recalls in his 1980 autobiography , I , Me , Mine , " we got the guitars out and then things loosened up " .
= = Composition = =
The year 1968 marked the start of what Dylan himself later termed his " amnesia " , referring to a form of writer 's block he experienced post @-@ John Wesley Harding ( 1967 ) , when painting had replaced songwriting as his preferred creative outlet . Well known for his unsophisticated musical approach , particularly in comparison to Harrison 's broader " harmonic palette " , author Simon Leng suggests , Dylan was now eager to learn some more @-@ advanced chords . Harrison began demonstrating various major seventh , diminished and augmented chord shapes – " all these funny chords people showed me when I was a kid " , as he later put it . While playing a G major 7 chord and taking the shape up the guitar neck to B ♭ major 7 , Harrison realised , " Ah , this sounds like a tune here ... " Keen to break down the barriers that Dylan had imposed , Harrison came up with the song 's opening lines :
Let me in here
I know I 've been here
Let me into your heart …
At the same time , he was pushing Dylan to come up with some words of his own . Dylan duly supplied a rejoinder , in the form of the song 's bridge @-@ chorus :
All I have is yours
All you see is mine
And I 'm glad to hold you in my arms
I 'd have you anytime .
" Beautiful ! – and that was that " , Harrison concludes in I , Me , Mine . He subsequently finished the composition alone .
The lyrics reflect an approach regarding demonstrating love for his close friends that Harrison 's widow Olivia has described as " very unabashed , quite romantic in a sense " , as well as a view expressed by Tom Petty , a fellow Traveling Wilbury with Harrison and Dylan in 1988 – 90 , that Harrison was able to probe the notoriously elusive Dylan in a way that few others could . Author Ian Inglis views " I 'd Have You Anytime " as working as a straightforward love song , with Harrison 's " Let me into your heart " serving as " not a desperate plea but a reassuring conversation " , and Dylan 's " All I have is yours / All you see is mine " providing the same " element of reciprocity that distinguished the declaration of love " in Harrison 's song " Something " .
= = Aftermath to Thanksgiving 1968 = =
In his Harrison biography , Here Comes the Sun , Joshua Greene notes the effect that this time with Dylan and the Band had on Harrison , with regard to his growing dissatisfaction as a Beatle . " Like Dylan , George was beginning to see that his next step needed to be away from everything he had done up to that moment " , Greene writes . " Watching Dylan over Thanksgiving ... showed George how happy someone could be following his own direction and making his own rules . " In his essay for Mojo magazine covering Harrison 's 1970 solo release , All Things Must Pass , John Harris identifies this time in Woodstock as the beginning of Harrison 's " journey " to making the album .
Harrison and Dylan wrote at least one other song together during Thanksgiving 1968 : " When Everybody Comes to Town " , subsequently renamed " Nowhere to Go " . Dylan also showed Harrison " I Don 't Want to Do It " , which , like " Nowhere to Go " , Harrison would later consider for inclusion on All Things Must Pass but discard . As for Dylan 's future output , songs such as " I Threw It All Away " on Nashville Skyline ( 1969 ) showed a more complex musical structure than before , a departure from his usual three @-@ chord compositions .
The next meet @-@ up between Harrison and Dylan occurred in August 1969 , when the latter was in England to appear at the Isle of Wight Festival with the Band . Harrison wrote " Behind That Locked Door " at that time – a song that Harris describes as " a sweet acknowledgement of Dylan 's shyness " . In its review of the Beatles ' Abbey Road album ( 1969 ) , Time magazine highlighted " Something " as the best track and identified Harrison 's time with Dylan as having " helped him achieve a new confidence in his own musical personality " beside the traditionally more dominant Lennon and McCartney . During the same period , according to engineer and producer Glyn Johns ' recollection in his book Sound Man ( 2014 ) , Dylan expressed an interest in recording an album with the Beatles and the Rolling Stones . Harrison and Keith Richards were enamoured with the idea , Johns continues , but McCartney and Mick Jagger " both said absolutely not " .
= = Recording = =
Simon Leng describes Harrison 's various musical activities outside the Beatles during 1968 – 70 as a " three @-@ year busman 's holiday " , which came to an end once McCartney announced his departure from the band on 9 April 1970 . Before beginning work on All Things Must Pass with co @-@ producer Phil Spector , Harrison attended a session for Dylan 's New Morning album in New York City , on 1 May . With backing from Charlie Daniels and Russ Kunkel , Dylan and Harrison recorded a version of " If Not for You " , a new song of Dylan 's that Harrison subsequently covered on All Things Must Pass , and two tracks that appear on New Morning : " Went to See the Gypsy " and " Day of the Locusts " . Although it was not a song they played at Columbia 's Studio B that day , Harrison and Dylan recorded a demo of " I 'd Have You Anytime " during a jam session held at Dylan 's Greenwich Village townhouse on 30 April , with Kunkel accompanying them on bongos . The song was one of many tracks that Harrison had already shortlisted for his own album , recording for which began at London 's Abbey Road Studios in late May .
The released recording of " I 'd Have You Anytime " features a sparse musical arrangement , in what Leng terms the " minimalist " tradition of Dylan and the Band , similar to the treatment given to " Behind That Locked Door " , " Run of the Mill " and " If Not for You " . Harrison played acoustic guitar on the song , while Eric Clapton contributed an electric guitar part that author Bruce Spizer describes as " exquisite " . Leng views Clapton 's solos as " all but mimicking " Harrison 's playing on the Beatles ' " Something " .
As with several of the tracks on All Things Must Pass , the remaining musician credits have traditionally been the subject of some conjecture . After consulting German musician Klaus Voormann and orchestral arranger John Barham , Leng credits the rhythm section on " I 'd Have You Anytime " as being Voormann ( on bass ) and Alan White ( drums ) . According to Spizer also , the overdubbed vibraphone ( often referred to as a xylophone ) was played by either White or Barham , who had first collaborated with Harrison on the latter 's Wonderwall Music film soundtrack ( 1968 ) . While Leng and Spizer credit Barham with a string arrangement on " I 'd Have You Anytime " , American musician Bobby Whitlock writes in his 2010 autobiography that the sound was a harmonium , which he himself often played during sessions for the album . In Whitlock 's recollection , the personnel supporting Harrison on the recording were the future line @-@ up for Derek and the Dominos : Clapton , Carl Radle on bass , Jim Gordon on drums , and Whitlock on harmonium .
= = Release and reception = =
Defying pop convention – as the Band 's Music from Big Pink had in July 1968 , by opening with the funereal " Tears of Rage " – Harrison selected the slow , gentle " I 'd Have You Anytime " as track 1 on All Things Must Pass , which was released on Apple Records in late November 1970 . He later attributed the message behind its opening line , " Let me in here " , as his motivation for placing the song first in the running order , along with the confidence engendered by Dylan and Clapton 's involvement .
From mid 1970 , the association between Harrison and Dylan had created much speculation in the music press , their New York session on 1 May having been hyped up as a " monster " recording marathon in the months since . Critics were still awaiting Dylan 's return to artistic eminence after two albums , Nashville Skyline and the recent Self Portrait , that had caused confusion in rock @-@ music circles . Dylan 's influence on All Things Must Pass was detectable " at a number of levels " , Ian Inglis writes ; in their 1975 book The Beatles : An Illustrated Record , Roy Carr and Tony Tyler described Dylan as a " phantom presence " on Harrison 's album , while author Robert Rodriguez labels him an " unmistakable specter " . On release , with regards to " I 'd Have You Anytime " , Rolling Stone 's Ben Gerson opined that " the two together don 't come up with much " . More impressed , Alan Smith of the NME described the song as " wistful and touching " . In his 1977 book The Beatles Forever , Nicholas Schaffner also wrote of Dylan 's presence being " strongly felt … in spirit if not in person " . Schaffner viewed the " Dylanesque numbers " as " somewhat overshadowed " by those with the obvious Spector Wall of Sound production qualities , but identified songs such as " I 'd Have You Anytime " , " If Not for You " and " Behind That Locked Door " as being " far more intimate , both musically and lyrically , than the rest of the album " .
In subsequent decades , following their work together in the Traveling Wilburys , the Harrison – Dylan connection has attracted less scrutiny . Writing in Rolling Stone in 2002 , Mikal Gilmore described " I 'd Have You Anytime " and " If Not for You " as " surprisingly beautiful " , while Richie Unterberger of AllMusic lists " I 'd Have You Anytime " as one of five " track picks " on an album where " nearly every song is excellent " . Writing for the music website Something Else ! , Nick DeRiso rates " I 'd Have You Anytime " among the highlights of Harrison 's solo career on Apple Records . DeRiso describes the track as " [ e ] very bit as moving as Abbey Road triumphs like ' Something ' " and " a gutsy opening song for such an enormous undertaking " . In The Rough Guide to the Beatles , Chris Ingham opines : " Yet for all the impact of the sonic scale [ of All Things Must Pass ] , it 's perhaps the quieter moments that endure . The beautiful I 'd Have You Anytime is Harrison at his most harmonically luxurious … the song has George showing [ Dylan ] his posh major sevenths and Bob responding with the forthright middle eight . "
Among Beatles and Harrison biographers , Rodriguez considers the song to be an " exquisite " opening track , while Chip Madinger and Mark Easter rate it " A low @-@ key opener for such a behemoth of an album , but an effective one " . Bruce Spizer describes it as " a beautiful ballad " that " [ hints ] at greater things to come " . Elliot Huntley similarly views " I 'd Have You Anytime " as the " perfect choice " for the first song , and praises the " drifting quality " of Harrison 's vocals on this " haunting , dream @-@ like lullaby " , as well as Clapton 's " tastefully beautiful " lead guitar . Simon Leng considers the track to be " Beautifully sung " and " evidence that ' Something ' was no fluke " .
= = Alternative version = =
The Harrison – Dylan demo of " I 'd Have You Anytime " has never received an official release , although from the late 1970s , it began circulating among collectors on bootleg compilations , which stated an incorrect recording date of 1 May 1970 . According to Dylan chronicler Olof Björner and Eight Arms to Hold You authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter , Harrison and Dylan may have recorded the demos for this song and " Nowhere to Go " in Bearsville , during the original composing session in 1968 . Both songs appear on bootlegs such as The Dylan Harrison Sessions and The Beatles – 20 x 4 .
In November 2011 , in its deluxe edition format , the British DVD release of Martin Scorsese 's documentary George Harrison : Living in the Material World contained a CD that included an alternate take of " I 'd Have You Anytime " . Harrison archive producer Giles Martin describes it as " very organic ... a very fragile version of the song " . The CD was released internationally in May 2012 as Early Takes : Volume 1 .
= = Cover versions = =
Since his death in November 2001 , " I 'd Have You Anytime " has appeared on Harrison tribute albums such as He Was Fab ( 2003 ) , on which Champale contribute a " low @-@ key , near @-@ epic version " of the song , according to AllMusic 's Tom Sendra , and Suburban Skies ' George ( 2008 ) . Other artists who have covered the song include Latin soul and salsa singer Ralfi Pagán , whose version later appeared on the multi @-@ artist compilation A Salsa Tribute to the Beatles in 2007 , and Fabulous Connections with Kate Vereau , who recorded " I 'd Have You Anytime " and Harrison 's " Learning How to Love You " for their 2003 album Into Midnight .
Actor and singer Evan Rachel Wood contributed a cover of " I 'd Have You Anytime " to the 4 @-@ CD compilation Chimes of Freedom : The Songs of Bob Dylan Honoring 50 Years of Amnesty International in 2012 . Wood filmed a video clip for the song in February that year , as a tribute to Harrison on what would have been his 69th birthday .
= = Personnel = =
The musicians who performed on " I 'd Have You Anytime " are believed to be as follows :
George Harrison – vocals , acoustic guitars , backing vocals
Eric Clapton – electric guitar
Klaus Voormann – bass
Alan White – drums
uncredited – harmonium
uncredited – vibraphone
John Barham – orchestral arrangement
= Ralph Townsend =
Ralph Townsend ( 27 November 1900 – 25 January 1976 ) was an American author , consul and political activist noted for his opposition to the entry of the United States into World War II . Townsend was born in North Carolina and educated in New York . He served in the foreign service as a consul stationed in Canada and China from 1931 to 1933 . Shortly after returning to the United States he came to prominence through his book Ways That Are Dark : The Truth About China , a harsh critique of Chinese culture which became a widely controversial bestseller . Townsend became a prominent advocate of non @-@ interventionism , and in the 1930s and 1940s was well known for his vocal opposition to the Roosevelt administration 's foreign policy from a pro @-@ Japanese and pro @-@ neutrality point of view .
Following the US entry into World War II Townsend was arrested for acting as a Japanese agent without registering under the Foreign Agents Registration Act . He pleaded guilty , admitting that he had accepted payments before the war from a propaganda organization funded by the Japanese government , but denying that he was a Japanese agent . He received a prison sentence and while serving was involved in the Great Sedition Trial . After the war Townsend moved to Fairfax , Virginia , where he died on 25 January 1976 . His writings continue to be influential in far @-@ right circles .
= = Early life , 1900 – 33 = =
Ralph Townsend was born on 27 November 1900 in Raynham , North Carolina to " one of Robeson county 's oldest and most prominent families . " After graduating from Mount Hermon Preparatory School in Massachusetts , he attended Columbia University in New York City and in 1924 received his degree from Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism . He worked as a journalist in San Francisco for several years before returning to New York where he taught English at Columbia University from 1927 to 1930 . On 11 November 1930 he passed the foreign service test and was posted to Montreal , Canada , as vice @-@ consul on 20 December 1930 .
His second assignment was to Shanghai , where he officially served as vice @-@ consul between 10 December 1931 and 9 January 1932 , though a two @-@ month temporary detail kept him in the city long enough to witness the Shanghai Incident firsthand . After that he was stationed in Fuzhou up to his resignation from the service on 1 March 1933 .
= = Writing on Asian affairs , 1933 – 37 = =
Townsend 's experiences in China formed the basis of his first book Ways That Are Dark : The Truth About China , the release of which on 10 November 1933 put Townsend in the spotlight both nationally and internationally . Billed as doing " for China what Katherine Mayo did for Mother India " , Townsend 's book included a controversial critique of Chinese society and culture . At a time when China was in the grip civil strife , Townsend believed that the source of its problems lay in fundamental defects in the ethics of its people , including above all their propensity for dishonesty , lack of fixed loyalties outside of their family group , and inability to cooperate effectively with one another , as well as their greed , physical cowardice , and lack of critical thinking skills . He concludes that the " outstanding characteristics " of the Chinese people " neither enable other peoples to deal satisfactorily with them , nor enable the Chinese to deal satisfactorily with themselves " and predicts no end to chaotic conditions within the country . He also favorably contrasts what he considers Japan 's sensible policies toward China with the naively " sentimentalist " ones adopted by the United States .
Ways That Are Dark became a bestseller and attracted vociferous reactions from both critics and supporters . Writing for Current History , E. Francis Brown praised the book as " a welcome antidote to much that has been written in recent years and some of its conclusions might be well pondered by those who shape America 's Far Eastern Policy , " but by contrast the prominent sinologist Owen Lattimore denounced the work as " a general indictment of a whole race " which lacked insight , relied on second @-@ hand accounts , and would " only convince people who are convinced already . " The book itself was entangled in the political turmoil it discussed , being banned by the government of China but distributed free of charge by the government of Japan .
The Robesonian , a newspaper of Townsend 's native county , reported in February 1934 that he had " aroused more glowing praise and bitter abuse for his lectures and written comments on China than any other recent speaker and writer on Far East affairs . " Townsend moved from New York back to San Francisco in 1934 where he continued to write and give lectures on Asian issues as well as teaching classes at Stanford University and advertising for the San Joaquin Light and Power Corporation . Until 1941 he resided in a number of Californian cities near San Francisco .
In 1936 , Townsend published his second book , Asia Answers , in which he heaps praise on what he deems to be Japan 's thriving political , economic , and cultural model and its growing and positive influence in Asia . He attributes anti @-@ Japanese sentiment in the United States to pro @-@ communist " liberals " , above all the sensationalist newspaper editors and journalists who , he believes , despise Japan due to its status as the leading capitalist nation in Asia . He condemns liberals for having already wrecked the US economy , warns of a possible communist takeover of the United States , and ends by advocating that America resist anti @-@ Japanese warmongering and adopt a foreign policy of neutrality towards Asia .
Townsend predicted that Asia Answers might have a frosty reception from reviewers because of what he alleged to be the pro @-@ Soviet biases of the media , and indeed , the book received negative coverage in The China Weekly Review , The Times Literary Supplement , The Times of India , and The Living Age , the last of which deemed Asia Answers a work " suspiciously similar to press releases by the Tokyo Foreign Office " which would appeal to " none except avowed Fascists " . Among the book 's detractors was also Pearl S. Buck who described it as " so fraught with the prejudices and personality of the writer that it is impossible to criticize any of it without involving the author 's whole scheme . " On the other hand , the book was received more positively in Japan and in Manchukuo , where Sadatomo Koyama , a leader in the Manchuria Youth League , declared that " [ Townsend 's ] understanding of China is impeccable " and strongly promoted the work . In 1937 Townsend made a trip to Japan coinciding with the release of the book 's Japanese translation .
= = Advocate of non @-@ interventionism , 1937 – 41 = =
After returning from Japan , Townsend , who described himself as a " conservative " , was highly active in writing articles , delivering lectures , and making radio broadcasts in support of the movement to keep the United States out of the conflicts in Asia and Europe . In explaining the reason for his participation in the pro @-@ neutrality movement , Townsend stated that while serving as a consul abroad he had " learned enough of the rottenness of international politics ... to wish to do my part of peace for this country . "
Claiming that publishers would no longer accept anti @-@ interventionist books , Townsend began self @-@ publishing pamphlets . Between 1938 and 1940 he wrote a series of pamphlets which were extremely popular and widely circulated among anti @-@ interventionists . Two of them , The High Cost of Hate and America Has No Enemies In Asia , had a circulation of at least 60 @,@ 000 copies , while another , There Is No Halfway Neutrality printed 30 @,@ 000 copies . The last pamphlet in the series , Seeking Foreign Trouble , attracted the attention of the German embassy in Washington DC which bought and distributed more than 500 copies of it .
In his pamphlets , Townsend speaks out against boycotting products from Japan , noting that America does considerably more trade with Japan than China and arguing that peaceful trade with Japan and Nazi Germany would serve the interests of American workers and consumers . He blames " red elements " within China for starting the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War , but praises Japan for the " humane " manner in which its armed forces have behaved in China , believing that it is only the Soviet Union and " a powerful minority " of pro @-@ communist Americans who are conspiring to push America to war with Japan . Townsend predicts that if the Chinese won their war with Japan , the result would be a communist takeover of China , but he dismisses the idea that Japan might launch an attack on the United States as " simply too idiotic to discuss . " On Europe he avers similarly that German conduct is largely a defensive reaction to British and French attempts to " obliterate the Germans as an entity " .
Townsend became an active member of America First after its formation in 1940 , and was invited to speak at America First meetings on at least two occasions . Townsend , however , would appear as a private citizen when he came before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee on 8 February 1941 in opposition to the Lend @-@ Lease Act . In a widely publicized testimony , Townsend condemned the legislation as tantamount to " a war bill " that would " assign dictatorial powers to the President " and would " make America the unmistakable aggressor against nations which have not sought objectively to molest us . "
Townsend 's defense of Germany and Japan led him to be labelled as an " agent " and a " propagandist " by his opponents , charges which Townsend denied . His activism brought him to the attention of George Teeple Eggleston , editor of Scribner 's Commentator , an anti @-@ interventionist magazine based in Lake Geneva , Wisconsin , and in June 1941 Townsend accepted an offer to move to Lake Geneva to serve as a contributor to the magazine . Shortly after Townsend became an assistant editor of The Herald , a virulently anti @-@ Semitic weekly newspaper which the owners of Scribner 's Commentator launched that August .
= = Arrest and imprisonment , 1941 – 44 = =
Townsend 's first run @-@ in with the law occurred on 25 November 1941 when federal prosecutors investigating German @-@ funded propaganda in the United States sought him to answer questions before a grand jury about Scribner 's Commentator . When he could not be found at his home in Lake Geneva a nationwide manhunt was launched , but three weeks later Townsend came forward willingly , claiming he had simply been on vacation in the southern United States and hadn 't known he was wanted by the government . On 15 December he stated that he had no knowledge about how Scribner 's Commentator was financed , but had strong confidence in the magazine 's owners who he knew to be " good Americans . " He added that although he had worked to prevent the outbreak of a conflict , he was now fully supportive of the US war effort . It emerged later that Nazi German agents had been surreptitiously bankrolling the magazine .
On 28 January 1942 , FBI agents arrived at Townsend 's home and arrested him for having acted as a Japanese agent without registering under the Foreign Agents Registration Act of 1938 . A federal investigation into Japanese propaganda which had begun in November 1941 discovered that Townsend had received payments from the Japanese Committee on Trade and Information , a Japanese propaganda organization which had existed between 1937 and 1940 . Though Townsend denied being a paid Japanese agent and claimed to be a victim of political persecution , he did admit to having accepting money from the Committee , stating that it was merely a payment in exchange for the bulk sale of his pamphlets . Even so , Townsend opted to plead guilty on 27 March and argued for a lenient sentence on the grounds that he was not aware that his acts were illegal . Townsend also solicited the support of anti @-@ interventionist politicians and he was sent favorable character references by both former Senator Rush D. Holt and his longtime friend Senator Gerald Nye , the latter of whom described Townsend as " a loyal and patriotic American citizen " . The presiding justice T. Alan Goldsborough was , however , unmoved , and deeming his crimes " repulsive , obscene and macabre " , Townsend was sentenced on 12 June to between 8 and 24 months in prison and was incarcerated in Washington DC .
= = = Defendant in the Great Sedition Trial = = =
Townsend became a defendant during his prison term in what would become known as the " Great Sedition Trial " . The trial arose from Roosevelt 's conviction , against advice from his Attorney @-@ General Francis Biddle , that the most vocal in defending Nazi Germany be tried for subversion . On 23 July 1942 Townsend and 27 other Americans were charged under the Smith Act and the Espionage Act with having participated in a German @-@ backed conspiracy to publish seditious literature seeking to undermine the morale of members of the United States military . The indictment cited the following statement of Townsend 's , which he had written in 1941 prior to US entry into the war , as proof that he had committed sedition :
With a fifth of the earth 's people kept under their rule by force , [ the British ] bleat of fighting to liberate subject populations . Fighting now for the triumph of the bloodiest dictatorship ever known – Soviet Russia – they microphone to listening Americans their pious horror of dictatorships .
Townsend was arraigned on 20 August , but strongly questioned the view that his writings were subversive as well as the legal foundations of the charges . Along with the other defendants , Townsend was as before strongly defended by senators with anti @-@ interventionist sympathies , including Gerald Nye who said the defendants were no more guilty of sedition than he had been for speaking out against intervening in the war . In fact there were from the beginning many concerns even within the US government about the validity of the proceedings and their constitutionality as no clear evidence had yet been uncovered to demonstrate that the defendants were in collusion with Nazi Germany or with each other .
These problems lead to repeated delays in the formal opening of the trial and the indictment had to be laid down a second time on 4 January 1943 after the first had expired . More delays arose , however , and when the indictment was laid down for a third time on 3 January 1944 , Townsend 's name had been dropped from the list . Although Francis Biddle initially said that Townsend would still be subject to prosecution in the future , in the end no further actions were taken . By then Townsend had was bankrupted by legal costs and was deserted by most of his friends . Biddle himself later called the sedition case " a dreary farce " .
At the time The Washington Post reported that before the war Townsend had accepted money from an individual connected to German agents in in return for circulating anti @-@ British pamphlets . Despite all this Townsend still insisted that , " I was never anybody 's foreign agent . All I published was independently written and 100 per cent American " , a stance which he maintained for the remainder of his life .
= = Post @-@ war life , 1945 – 76 = =
In the early @-@ 1950s Townsend moved to Fairfax , Virginia and by the time of his death was considered a " prominent resident " . He helped organize the Fairfax Chamber of Commerce , of which he was the executive director , and in this capacity played a leading role in lobbying the CIA to locate its headquarters in Virginia . He also worked in advance of conservation . In 1967 he appeared before the House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs as a member of Defenders of Wildlife and between 1972 and 1976 served on that organization 's board of directors where he was known for " his insistence on sound financial management . "
Townsend maintained friendships with far @-@ right figures after the war , including Harry Elmer Barnes and Willis Carto , and for a time he worked as an editor and contributor to Carto 's anti @-@ Semitic magazine , The American Mercury , which introduced Townsend as " a former Foreign Service officer who made the mistake of fighting FDR 's war plans " . Townsend died in Fairfax on 25 January 1976 at the age of 75 .
= = Legacy and assessment = =
Historians have noted the stridency with which Townsend put forward his pro @-@ Japanese views before World War II . Justus Doenecke , for instance , described Townsend as " The most adamant and extreme of the voices in America defending Japanese policy . " Judith Papachristou concurs that " Few anti @-@ imperialists were as extreme as isolationist Ralph Townsend " , though Townsend himself rejected the " isolationist " label during his life , and instead called himself a " realist " and " Pro @-@ Peace " .
Townsend is still held in esteem by many members of the extreme right in the United States , and recently in Japan as well . After his death his widow Janet turned over his papers to Larry Humphreys , an Oklahoma multimillionaire and supporter of right @-@ wing militia and Christian Identity groups , who referred to Townsend as a man who " knew FDR was trying to entice Japan into attacking the United States , and FDR had him jailed " . Humphreys stored Townsend 's papers in his so @-@ called " Heritage Library " , though today many of them are held by Barnes Review , an anti @-@ Semitic organization under the leadership of Townsend 's old friend Willis Carto . In 1997 , Barnes Review re @-@ published Ways That Are Dark : The Truth About China for the first time since World War II with a new foreword written by Carto , who praised Townsend as " a profound , genuinely courageous and painfully honest writer " . In 2004 a Japanese translation of the Barnes Review edition of Ways That Are Dark was released in Japan where it became a runaway success and quickly elevated Townsend to " hero " status among the Japanese far right .
The opinion of recent scholars on the quality of his writing have been mixed . Limin Chu , who analyzed his articles on China for the Overland Monthly and Out West Magazine , considered some of the claims as " either incredibly gullible or deliberately vicious " , while historian Justus Doenecke described his pamphlets as " crudely written " . In contrast , Peter O 'Connor , professor at Musashino University , found the same pamphlets " well @-@ argued and researched . "
= = Works by Townsend = =
= = = Books = = =
Ways That Are Dark : The Truth About China . New York : Putnam , 1933 . OCLC 2274633
Asia Answers . New York : Putnam , 1936 . OCLC 3561777
= = = Pamphlets = = =
Does Japan Slam the Door against American Trade in Areas of Japanese Influence in Asia ? San Francisco : Japanese Chamber of Commerce , 1938 . OCLC 2812462
There Is No Halfway Neutrality . San Francisco : self @-@ published , 1938 . OCLC 12360876
America Has No Enemies In Asia . San Francisco : self @-@ published , 1938 . OCLC 1541811
The High Cost of Hate . San Francisco : self @-@ published , 1939 . OCLC 58937759
Seeking Foreign Trouble . San Francisco : self @-@ published , 1940 . OCLC 11256314
An Appeal to Patriotic Americans . Washington DC : self @-@ published , 1943 . OCLC 750182191
= = = Articles = = =
" China Submits to Chaos , " Current History , June 1933 .
" Our Slump in Foreign Pets , " The North American Review , August 1933 .
" Mission Schools Curbed in China , " New York Times , November 12 , 1933 .
" America Watches Sino @-@ Japanese Relations , " Contemporary Japan , June 1934 .
" Let 's Stop Baiting Japan , " Overland Monthly and Out West Magazine , December 1934 .
" Meeting Japan 's Challenge , " Overland Monthly and Out West Magazine , June 1935 .
" Easing the Pacific Tension , " Overland Monthly and Out West Magazine , July 1935 .
" La Chine , terre de l 'opium , " Revue Belge , January 15 , 1936 .
" 日本なくばアジアは 「 赤 」 , " Asahi Shimbun , December 16 , 1937 .
" Soviet Propaganda in America , " The Far Eastern Review , August 1938 .
" Pidgin English ' Can Do ' , " New York Times , January 23 , 1939 .
" Japan : Our Commercial Prize , " Scribner 's Commentator , November 1940 .
" Mercy – Strictly Political , " Scribner 's Commentator , March 1941 .
" Must We Fight Japan ? , " Scribner 's Commentator , June 1941 .
" Publicity Reversal Technique , " Scribner 's Commentator , December 1941 .
" Sedition ... Then and Now , " The American Mercury , Summer 1968 .
" The Context of Pearl Harbor , " The American Mercury , Winter 1969 .
" Saving the Great Dismal Swamp , " Defenders of Wildlife News , March 1973 .
= = Books cited = =
Carlson , John Roy , Under cover : My four years in the Nazi underworld of America ( Philadelphia : Blakiston , 1943 ) .
Cole , Wayne S. , America First : The Battle Against Intervention , 1940 – 41 ( Madison : University of Wisconsin Press , 1953 ) .
Doenecke , Justus , Storm on the Horizon : The Challenge to American Intervention 1939 – 1941 ( Lanham , Maryland : Rowman & Littlefield Publishers , 2000 ) .
Doenecke , Justus , Anti @-@ intervention : a bibliographical introduction to isolationism and pacifism from World War I to the early Cold War ( New York : Garland , 1987 ) .
Eggleston , George Teeple , Roosevelt , Churchill , and the World War II Opposition : A Revisionist Autobiography ( Old Greenwich , Connecticut : Devin @-@ Adair Co . , 1979 ) .
Hoke , Henry , It 's A Secret ( New York : Reynal & Hitchcock , 1946 ) .
Martell , Edward et al . , Who Was Who Among English and European Authors , 1931 – 1949 ( Detroit : Gale Research Co . , 1978 ) .
Mintz , Frank P. , Revisionism and the Origins of Pearl Harbor ( Lanham , Maryland : University Press of America , 1985 ) .
O 'Connor , Peter , " General Introduction , " in Japanese Propaganda : Selected Readings , Series 2 , Volume 1 , ed . Peter O 'Connor ( Tokyo : Edition Synapse , 2005 ) .
Rogge , O. John , The Official German Report : Nazi penetration 1924 – 1942 ( New York : T. Yoseloff , 1961 ) .
Schonbach , Morris , Native American Fascism During the 1930s and 1940s ( New York : Garland , 1985 ) .
Steele , Richard W. , Free speech in the Good War ( New York : St. Martin 's Press , 1999 ) .
Tanaka , Hideo , " ラルフ ・ タウンゼントの思想が現代にうったえてくるもの , " in 暗黒大陸中国の真実 , ( Tokyo : Fuyo Shobo , 2007 ) .
Townsend , Ralph , Ways That Are Dark : The Truth About China ( New York : Putnam , 1933 ) .
Townsend , Ralph , Asia Answers ( New York : Putnam , 1936 ) .
Walker , Samuel , Presidents and Civil Liberties from Wilson to Obama : A Story of Poor Custodians ( New York : Cambridge University Press , 2012 ) .
= Lisa 's Substitute =
" Lisa 's Substitute " is the nineteenth episode of The Simpsons ' second season . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on April 25 , 1991 . In the episode , Lisa 's teacher Miss Hoover takes medical leave due to what she thinks is Lyme disease , so substitute teacher Mr. Bergstrom takes over the class . Lisa finds Mr. Bergstrom 's teaching methods inspiring and discovers an entirely new love for learning . When Miss Hoover returns to class , Lisa is devastated to lose her most positive adult role model . Eventually , she realizes that while Mr. Bergstrom was one of a kind , she can find role models in other people , including her father Homer . Meanwhile , Bart runs for class president against Martin .
This is the first episode of the series that does not include a chalkboard gag in the opening titles . Jon Vitti wrote the episode and Rich Moore directed it . Dustin Hoffman — using the pseudonym Sam Etic — guest starred in it as Mr. Bergstrom , who was modeled on the physical appearance of Mike Reiss , a longtime writer and producer on the show . The episode features cultural references to Mike Nichols 's film The Graduate , which starred Hoffman , and the novel Charlotte 's Web by E. B. White . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . It acquired a Nielsen Rating of 11 @.@ 1 , and was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
Lisa 's teacher , Miss Hoover , thinks she has come down with Lyme disease and is replaced by substitute teacher Mr. Bergstrom . Because of his unorthodox teaching methods and friendly nature , Lisa starts falling in love with him .
Lisa runs into Mr. Bergstrom at a museum and is embarrassed when Homer displays his ignorance . Sensing a void in their relationship , Mr. Bergstrom takes Homer aside to suggest he be a more positive role model . After venting to her mother about Homer ruining her ' one chance ' to get to know Bergstrom outside of the classroom , Lisa is given permission to invite him to family dinner , only to be shattered when she finds Miss Hoover back and Mr. Bergstrom gone . She rushes to his apartment and learns that he has accepted employment in " Capital City " . She rushes to the train station to catch him , and confesses that she will be lost without him ; he replies and she sobbingly accepts that he has to go help the more needy . To comfort her , he writes her a note and tells her that any time she feels alone , its contents are all she needs to know . He then boards the train and departs . It reads , " You are Lisa Simpson " .
In a subplot , Bart 's class prepares to elect a class president . Mrs. Krabappel nominates Martin , while Sherri and Terri nominate Bart. During a debate with Martin , Bart tells jokes and wins the class over . Afterwards , certain of Bart 's inevitable victory thanks to his popular campaigning , none of the children in his class — including himself — actually voted , giving Martin the victory with just two votes : one from himself , and the other from Wendell Borton .
Devastated by Mr. Bergstrom 's departure , Lisa takes her grief out on the insensitive Homer , calling him a baboon . Marge tells Homer to console Lisa , explaining how her daughter is very hurt emotionally and is in need of her father . Homer enters Lisa 's room and finds her crying over her desk . He is uncertain of how to deal with Lisa 's sadness , and is uncomfortable seeing his daughter crying . Homer explains to Lisa how he cannot really understand how it feels to lose someone special : everyone he has ever loved and cared about lives with him still . He then alludes to Lisa calling him a baboon , and in a loving manner mimics a monkey , cheering her up . Lisa apologizes to Homer for calling him a baboon , and he accepts the apology . Finding Bart still seething over the election result , Homer cheers him up by reminding him that all the job of class president would have really meant was a lot of extra work with little reward , making Bart feel happy that he lost the election . Finally going by Maggie 's room , he places her pacifier in her mouth . Proud that he helped all three of his children , Homer goes to bed with Marge happily that night , stating he is " on the biggest roll " of his life .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Jon Vitti and directed by Rich Moore . According to Vitti , The Simpsons producer James L. Brooks contributed more to this episode than he did to any other in the show 's history . Vitti said the episode was " very controversial " when it was being made because it " came at a point when the staff were just beginning to realize the comedy potential of the show , but we were trapped with these love stories , and just as the staff were starting to get frustrated with the love stories , along came ' Lisa 's Substitute ' : the biggest , huggiest , warmest and fuzziest of them all . "
Mr. Bergstrom was modeled on the physical appearance of Mike Reiss , a longtime writer and producer on the show . American actor Dustin Hoffman provided the voice of Mr. Bergstrom . Hoffman was not sure if he wanted to be identified with a cartoon show at the time , like many early guest stars on The Simpsons , and therefore used the pseudonym Sam Etic in the closing credits . Sam Etic is a play on the word semitic , alluding to the fact that both Hoffman and Mr. Bergstrom are Jewish . Brooks was the one who suggested the pseudonym , which Hoffman immediately liked . The cast of the show flew to New York to record the episode with Hoffman . Yeardley Smith , who provides the voice of Lisa , said she grew as an actress after working with Hoffman that day . The Simpsons writer Al Jean said he remembered that when the audio track of the episode came back , Hoffman 's voice was too low on the singing parts . The staff were " petrified " that the singing scenes would not show up on air , so they had Hoffman re @-@ record them when he was in Los Angeles . Vitti mentioned on Twitter that the note Lisa receives at the end of the episode should 've had an exclamation point at the end . He didn 't catch it in the animatic and it still " haunts [ him ] to this day " .
= = Cultural references = =
Mrs. Krabappel trying to seduce Mr. Bergstrom is a reference to Hoffman 's similar situation in the 1967 film The Graduate . Mr. Bergstrom reads a line from the 1952 novel Charlotte 's Web to his class . It is implied that this line is the end of the book , but in reality another chapter follows . Vitti said the line was the maximum amount of the book they could feature in the episode without being sued . The staff contacted a relative of the author E. B. White , but she would not clear the use of the book . When Lisa arrives at Mr. Bergstrom 's apartment building , a list of tenants can be seen . One of the names is J. Vitti , for the episode 's writer Jon Vitti , and another is J. Kamerman , for then @-@ animator Jen Kamerman . When Bart unexpectedly loses to Martin in the class president race , a picture of Martin holding up a copy of The Daily Fourth Gradian with the headline " Simpson Defeats Prince " is taken , which in turn ends up on the front page of The Daily Fourth Gradian under the headline " Prince Beats Simpson " . This is a reference to the famous picture of former President Harry Truman holding up a copy of a prematurely printed edition of the Chicago Tribune that proclaimed " Dewey Defeats Truman " , taken the day after his close victory over Thomas E. Dewey in the 1948 United States presidential election .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Lisa 's Substitute " finished forty @-@ third in the ratings for the week of April 22 – 28 , 1991 , with a Nielsen Rating of 11 @.@ 1 , equivalent to approximately ten million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week . Hoffman has been praised for his guest appearance as Mr. Bergstrom . Entertainment Weekly named it one of the sixteen greatest guest appearances on The Simpsons . In 2007 , Simon Crerar of The Times listed his performance as one of the thirty @-@ three funniest cameos in the history of the show .
Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood said , " Despite a scene @-@ stealing performance from Ms Krabappel , this is Lisa 's show . Mr Bergstrom 's last message for Lisa is a delightful touch and adds the finishing touch to a wonderful episode . " Former TV Squad blogger Adam Finley named " Lisa 's Substitute " as one of his top fourteen most touching The Simpsons episodes , and The Simpsons Archive webmaster Jouni Paakkinen rated the episode as his third favorite . Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide said that Lisa episodes " tend to be goopy " , but " Lisa 's Substitute " seemed like " a good show , however " . He went on to say , " The show offered many other good moments , and it helped expand the Lisa / Homer relationship neatly . The Bart ’ s election subplot punctured any sappiness that otherwise might have occurred . [ ... ] ' Lisa 's Substitute ' offered a fairly solid program . " The episode 's reference to The Graduate was named the 20th greatest film reference in the history of the show by Total Film 's Nathan Ditum . Ditum also ranked Hoffman 's performance as the 16th best guest appearance in the show 's history . Todd VanDerWerff of Slant Magazine picked the episode as the show 's second best , praising its emotion and Hoffman 's performance .
" Lisa 's Substitute " also received positive reviews from cast and crew members of the show . Bart 's voice actress , Nancy Cartwright , said it is one of her top three episodes together with " Bart Sells His Soul " and " Bart the Mother " , while writer Al Jean said the episode was his favorite sentimental episode . Dan Castellaneta , the voice of Homer , named it his favorite episode of the show together with " Simpson and Delilah " and " Homer the Heretic " . Executive producer James L. Brooks said he thinks " Lisa 's Substitute " stands out because it is The Simpsons ' " best show " with a message behind it .
= Madonna : Like an Icon =
Madonna : Like an Icon is a biography by English author Lucy O 'Brien , chronicling the life of American singer Madonna . The book was released on 27 August 2007 , by Bantam Press in the United Kingdom , and on 18 October 2007 , by Harper Collins in the United States . Madonna : Like an Icon chronicles the life of the singer from her birth , up to the release of her eleventh studio album , Hard Candy , in 2008 . Initially critical of her work , O 'Brien had become a fan of Madonna after seeing her perform on television for The Virgin Tour in 1985 . From that point of time , the author followed Madonna 's career closely , visited her concert tours , and collected interviews , magazines , and albums .
When O 'Brien finally decided to write a biography on Madonna in 2005 , she wanted the book to be more about the singer 's contribution to her music , rather than delving too much into her personal life , unlike other Madonna biographers . The author then interviewed dancers , choreographers , musicians , and producers who worked with Madonna . After its release , the book received a mixed response from critics . They were unanimous that the over @-@ emphasis given on the singer 's discography was unnecessary , instead more thought should have been given on exploring her personal life , which would have made the biography compelling .
= = Summary = =
The biography is divided into three parts . The first part is named " Baptism " and tells about Madonna 's birth in Detroit , Michigan , her early childhood , her time in New York , and her dance degree . It also talks in detail about the release of her first three studio albums — Madonna , Like a Virgin and True Blue — her marriage to actor Sean Penn , and also her foray into films . The middle part , named " Confession " , starts from the Like a Prayer era onwards where Madonna has become a global superstar . It continues up to the release of the erotic coffee table book called Sex , and the subsequent commercial disappointments that she faced . The third part is called " Absolution " , and starts with Madonna giving birth to her daughter Lourdes . It continues with the release of Ray of Light ( 1998 ) and subsequent four studio albums , her worldwide concert tours , her marriage to Guy Ritchie and controversies surrounding her adoption from Malawi . It ends with the release of Madonna 's 2008 album , Hard Candy , and the singer reaching the age of fifty .
= = Background and writing = =
Lucy O 'Brien first came to like Madonna in 1985 , when she saw the singer on television , performing on The Virgin Tour . She previously thought that Madonna " was that cheesy pop bimbo in lycra , writhing on a Venetian gondola for the ' Like a Virgin ' video . " However , The Virgin Tour changed her opinion and by the time Madonna 's 1985 film Desperately Seeking Susan was released , O 'Brien confessed that Madonna had won her admiration . The author had admired Madonna 's lack of fear , and her ability to incorporate alternative culture and sexuality in her work .
In 2005 , O 'Brien started writing a book on Madonna , where she wanted to look at her life and work , as the artist was approaching the age of fifty . She believed that the general public was eager to know the real @-@ self of Madonna , and she concentrated on finding that out . According to her , " the popular negative stereotype about the artist is that of a publicity @-@ hungry , manipulative ball @-@ breaker , while for many woman she is a beacon of feminism . I have always found her work clear and autobiographical , but her personality complex and disarmingly changeable . " She also said of the singer :
" Madonna 's style is confrontational , her ambition unbounded , yet she constantly , compulsively turns her life into fascinating pop art . As her old boyfriend , producer Steve Bray , said : ' Her most effective trait was to have her completely dominate you and for you to somehow enjoy the experience . ' Madonna has become a goddess of our age , and an icon that we have all created . That is her story . "
However , due to the shifting images that Madonna presented , O 'Brien was confused as to how she can approach writing the biography . She found that analyzing Madonna 's music was a helpful method . The author then interviewed dancers , choreographers , musicians , and producers who worked with Madonna . While talking to them , O 'Brien reflected on her own childhood and found parallels with Madonna — being born in a Catholic family and gradually becoming aware of the rise of feminism and gay liberation . She kept getting two stark pictures of the artist as her " search for Madonna became maddening " , stating " There was the woman who was ruthless in moving on and rude to the competition , and there was a woman I 'd never seen before – sweet , childlike and captivating . "
= = Release and reception = =
Madonna : Like an Icon was released on 27 August 2007 , in the United Kingdom by Bantam Press . The book cover was designed by Holly MacDonald , with an image of Madonna from 2002 , during the premiere of her film , Swept Away . It was released more than a year later in the United States . The biography faced mixed reviews from critics . Sarah Churchwell from The Guardian criticized O 'Brien 's extended commentary about Madonna 's recording process . She believed that more emphasis should have been given on Madonna 's personal life as well . Pointing out examples like Madonna 's relationship with actor Warren Beatty , which was widely covered in the media but was only lightly touched in the book , Churchwell wondered about the claim of the book in its press release : " This is the closest you will ever come to Madonna 's autobiography " . The reviewer concluded by saying , " Since her voice is nowhere in evidence , this book , however capable and intelligent its writer , is probably about the farthest you will ever get from Madonna 's autobiography . "
Ken Barnes from USA Today noted that major events in Madonna 's life were repeated throughout the book . He complimented O 'Brien 's writing style , especially the portions chronicling the death of Madonna 's mother , as well as dissecting the recording process of the albums and the development of her concert tours . He concluded by saying that overall the biography seemed " too familiar . Maybe that 's because , at least since she hit the mass @-@ culture spotlight in 1983 with ' Holiday ' and hijacked it wholesale the next year with ' Like a Virgin ' and ' Material Girl ' , Madonna , now 49 , has lived her life in public like few other artists . The records , tours and videos have been thoroughly documented , as have the liaisons and the controversies ( from the Sex book all the way up to the Malawi orphan adoption ) . " Lyn Barber from The Daily Telegraph gave a negative review of the book , calling it far inferior to author J. Randy Taraborrelli 's Madonna : An Intimate Biography , released in 2002 . Like Churchwell , Barber did not understand why over @-@ emphasis was given on the singer 's albums , leaving out details about her personal life . The reviewer listed one positive aspect of the book , the info on Madonna 's childhood and a detailed insight into her family . She concluded by saying , " [ Madonna ] remains one of the most fascinating women of our time but not , alas , in this pedestrian account . "
= = Publication history = =
= Ann Bannon =
Ann Bannon ( pseudonym of Ann Weldy , born September 15 , 1932 ) is an American author who , from 1957 to 1962 , wrote six lesbian pulp fiction novels known as The Beebo Brinker Chronicles . The books ' enduring popularity and impact on lesbian identity has earned her the title " Queen of Lesbian Pulp Fiction " . Bannon was a young housewife trying to address her own issues of sexuality when she was inspired to write her first novel . Her subsequent books featured four characters who reappeared throughout the series , including her eponymous heroine , Beebo Brinker , who came to embody the archetype of a butch lesbian . The majority of her characters mirrored people she knew , but their stories reflected a life she did not feel she was able to live . Despite her traditional upbringing and role in married life , her novels defied conventions for romance stories and depictions of lesbians by addressing complex homosexual relationships .
Her books shaped lesbian identity for lesbians and heterosexuals alike , but Bannon was mostly unaware of their impact . She stopped writing in 1962 . Later , she earned a doctorate in linguistics and became an academic . She endured a difficult marriage for 27 years and , as she separated from her husband in the 1980s , her books were republished ; she was stunned to learn of their influence on society . They were released again between 2001 and 2003 and were adapted as an award @-@ winning Off @-@ Broadway production . They are taught in Women 's and LGBT studies courses , and Bannon has received numerous awards for pioneering lesbian and gay literature . She has been described as " the premier fictional representation of US lesbian life in the fifties and sixties " , and it has been said that her books " rest on the bookshelf of nearly every even faintly literate Lesbian " .
= = Early life = =
Ann Bannon was born Ann Weldy in Joliet , Illinois , in 1932 . She grew up in nearby Hinsdale with her mother and stepfather , and had the responsibility of taking care of four siblings due to the family 's financial problems . She took comfort in a vibrant imaginary life during this time and found solace in writing . Growing up , she was surrounded by music , particularly jazz , as her family hosted small recitals for friends and neighbors . One became a character in her books : a perennial bachelor named Jack who slung jokes and witticisms at the audiences .
At the University of Illinois at Urbana – Champaign she belonged to Kappa Kappa Gamma sorority where she befriended a beautiful older sorority sister , " the prettiest I had ever seen " , quite popular with men and with women . Bannon witnessed a younger sorority sister 's unabashed infatuation with the older sister . She recalls it was an awkward situation , even though the older sorority sister was " unfailingly gracious " to the younger one . In recognizing the younger woman 's attractions , she began to suspect her own sexuality . She said , " I saw a lot of it happening and I didn 't know what to make of it . I don 't even know how to put it — I was absolutely consumed with it , it was an extraordinary thing . " Another sorority sister was physically remarkable , very tall — almost 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) , with a husky voice and boyish nickname , that Bannon imagined was a blend of Johnny Weissmuller and Ingrid Bergman . She recalled entering the communal restroom and seeing the sister , " both of us in underwear , and experienc ( ing ) a sort of electric shock " , and trying not to stare at her . In 1954 , she graduated with a degree in French and soon married an engineer whose job made them relocate frequently .
Bannon was 22 years old when she began writing her first pulp novel . She was influenced by the only lesbian novels she had read , The Well of Loneliness by Radclyffe Hall from 1928 and Vin Packer 's Spring Fire from 1952 , albeit in two different ways : she was unable to relate to the dismal tones in Hall 's novel , but as a sorority girl was more familiar with the plot and circumstances of Spring Fire . Bannon said , " Both books completely obsessed me for the better part of two years . " Although recently married and on her way to having two children , she found the books struck a chord in her life and recognized emotions in herself that compelled her to write about them . In the beginning of her marriage she was left alone quite a lot and said , " I was kind of desperate to get some of the things that had been consuming me for a long time down on paper . "
= = Writing career = =
= = = Background = = =
Paperback books in the United States expanded prominently after World War II through the marketing strategies of Pocket Books , who began to distribute publications through newspapers , newsstands , grocery stores , and bus and train stations . The retail opportunities of paperback books grew about tenfold with this method . In 1950 , rival company Gold Medal Books published Women 's Barracks , a fictionalized account of author Tereska Torres ' experience serving in the Free French Forces . The book depicts a lesbian relationship the author witnessed , ending with one of the women committing suicide . It sold 4 @.@ 5 million copies , and Gold Medal Books ' editors were " thrilled " . Its success earned it a mention in the House Select Committee on Current Pornographic Materials in 1952 . Gold Medal Books was a branch of Fawcett Publications that focused on paperback books which at the time were printed on very cheap paper , not designed to last for more than a year , sold for 25 cents in drug stores and other venues all over the United States and Canada . The books made for cheap , easy reading that could be discarded at the end of a trip at very little cost to the customer . Because of the low quality of production , they earned the name pulp fiction .
Gold Medal Books quickly followed Women 's Barracks with Spring Fire , eager to cash in on the unprecedented sales , and it sold almost 1 @.@ 5 million copies in 1952 . Vin Packer , whose real name is Marijane Meaker , and Gold Medal Books were overwhelmed with mail from women who identified with the lesbian characters .
One of the letters was from Bannon , asking for professional assistance in getting published . On writing to Meaker , she said , " To this day I have no idea why she responded to me out of the thousands of letters she was getting at that time . Thank God she did . I was both thrilled and terrified . " Bannon visited Meaker and was introduced to Greenwich Village , which made a significant impression on Bannon : she called it " Emerald City , Wonderland , and Brigadoon combined — a place where gay people could walk the crooked streets hand in hand . " Meaker set up a meeting with Gold Medal Books editor Dick Carroll , who read Bannon 's initial 600 @-@ page manuscript . It was a story about the women in her sorority whom she admired , with a subplot consisting of two sorority sisters who had fallen in love with each other . Carroll told her to take it back and focus on the two characters who had an affair . Bannon claims she went back and told their story , delivered the draft to Carroll and saw it published without a single word changed . While raising two young children , Bannon lived in Philadelphia and took trips into New York City to visit Greenwich Village and stayed with friends . She said of the women she saw in Greenwich Village , " I wanted to be one of them , to speak to other women , if only in print . And so I made a beginning — and that beginning was the story that became Odd Girl Out . "
= = = The Beebo Brinker Chronicles = = =
= = = = Odd Girl Out = = = =
The Beebo Brinker Chronicles are six books in all , first published between 1957 and 1962 . They featured four characters who appeared in at least three of the books in a chronological saga of coming to terms with their homosexuality and navigating their ways through gay and lesbian relationships . The first in the series , Odd Girl Out , was published in 1957 , and became Gold Medal Books ' second best @-@ selling title of the year . Based on Bannon 's own experiences , the plot involved a lesbian relationship between two sorority sisters in a fictional sorority at a fictional midwestern university . As was custom with pulp fiction novels , neither the cover art nor the title were under the control of the author . Both were approved by the publisher in order to be as suggestive and lurid as possible . The main character is Laura Landon , who realizes that she 's in love with Beth , her older , more experienced roommate , a leader in the sorority .
Lesbians depicted in literature were relatively rare in the 1950s . It was the publisher 's policy in any novel involving lesbianism that the characters would never receive any satisfaction from the relationship . One or both usually ended up committing suicide , going insane , or leaving the relationship . Marijane Meaker discusses this in the 2004 foreword of Spring Fire : she was told by editor Dick Carroll that because the books were distributed by the U.S. Post Office instead of private companies delivering directly to stores , postal inspectors would send the books back to the publisher if homosexuality was depicted positively . The Postal Service relaxed their censorship after several First Amendment obscenity trials , including Roth v. United States and another regarding Allen Ginsberg 's Howl in the mid @-@ 1950s , which gave Bannon a modicum of freedom in her plots . Although the ending to Odd Girl Out did not veer too far from the unsatisfactory resolution formula of Spring Fire , Women 's Barracks , and Radclyffe Hall 's The Well of Loneliness , it examined Laura 's internal struggle in the realization that despite her femininity , she was deeply in love with another woman , and at the end she embraced it , which was rare in lesbian fiction .
The characters and their stories served as an extension of the fantasy life Bannon developed as a child . They became her " fantasy friends " whose loves and lives she witnessed and through which she lived her own life vicariously , helping her through a difficult marriage , and a longing for a life she did not feel she was free to live . " I realized very early that I should not marry , but I was going to make the best of a bad thing , and I was going to make it a good thing , " she remembered . Having no practical experience in a lesbian relationship while writing Odd Girl Out , she set out to gain what she termed " fieldwork experience " in her trips to Greenwich Village , and was successful enough to introduce those experiences into the next book in the series before relocating once more to Southern California . But she explained her fears about staying in Greenwich Village , saying
I would sit there ( in a gay bar ) in the evenings thinking , ' What if ( a police raid ) happens tonight and I get hauled off to the slam with all these other women ? ' I had been extremely low profile , very proper , very Victorian wife . I know that sounds crazy in the 60s , but I was raised by my mother and grandmother , who really came out of that era , and talk about a rigid role @-@ playing crowd ! I couldn 't imagine living through it . I just couldn 't . I thought , ' Well , that would do it . I 'd have to go jump off the Brooklyn Bridge . ' As easy as it might be if you were a young woman in today 's generation to think that was exaggerating , it wasn 't . It was terrifying .
= = = = I Am a Woman = = = =
Bannon followed Odd Girl Out with I Am a Woman ( In Love With a Woman — Must Society Reject Me ? ) in 1959 . I Am a Woman ( the working and common title ) featured Laura after her affair with Beth , as she finds herself in New York City 's Greenwich Village , and meets a wisecracking gay man named Jack , and becomes his best friend . Laura has to choose between a straight woman with a wild and curious streak , and a fascinating new character that proved to be her most popular of the series , Beebo Brinker , who came to embody the description of a thoroughly butch lesbian . Beebo was smart , handsome , chivalrous , and virile . Once again based on what Bannon knew , Beebo was nearly 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) tall with a husky voice and a formidable physique . The personality however , Bannon says , was drawn out of her sheer need for Beebo to exist . After spending time in Greenwich Village and not finding anyone like her , Bannon instead created her . She remembered , " I put Beebo together just as I wanted her , in my heart and mind ... She was just , quite literally , the butch of my dreams . " The resolution to I Am a Woman completely flouted the trends of miserable lesbian fiction endings , which made Ann Bannon a hero to many lesbians .
Letters began to pour in for her from all over the country . There were mostly propositions from men , but the letters from women thanked her profusely and begged her for reassurance that they would be all right . Bannon described the impact her books had from the letters she received from people who were isolated in small towns : " The most important things they learned ( from the books ) were that 1 ) they weren 't unique and doomed to lifelong isolation , 2 ) ... they weren 't ' abnormal , ' and 3 ) there was hope for a happy life . They wrote to me in thousands , asking me to confirm these wonderful things , which I gladly did — even though I felt only marginally better informed than they were . " The books were even translated into other languages , which was also quite rare for the brief lives of pulp novels . Bannon received international and domestic mail from women , saying , " This is the only book ( and they would say this about all of them ) that I 've read where the women really love each other , where its OK for them to love each other , and they don 't have to kill themselves afterwards . "
= = = = Women in the Shadows = = = =
Although her husband was aware of the books she was writing , he showed no interest in the subject . He was interested enough in the money she made from them , however , but had forbidden her to use her married surname , not wishing to see it on a book cover with art of questionable taste . She took the name " Bannon " from a list of his customers and liked it because it contained her own name in it . She continued to experience difficulty in her marriage , however , and in realizing that " not all lesbians were nice people " , she took these frustrations out on her characters . " I couldn 't stand some of what was happening to me – but Beebo could take it . Beebo really , in a way , had my nervous breakdown for me ... I think I was overwhelmed with grief and anger that I was not able to express , " she recalled later . Women in the Shadows was also published in 1959 and proved very unpopular with Bannon 's readers . The book examined interracial relationships , self @-@ loathing in matters of sexuality and race , alcoholism , jealousy , violence , and as Laura marries Jack in an atypical arrangement in the 1950s , also explored the intricate details of what it was like to pass as heterosexual in an attempt to live some semblance of what was considered a normal life at the time .
= = = = Journey to a Woman = = = =
Her fourth book in the series , Journey to a Woman , published in 1960 , again shows parallels between Bannon 's own life and her plots . Beth , of Laura 's affair in Odd Girl Out , is living with her husband and children in Southern California . She tries to find Laura again nine years after college , and escapes a deranged woman who has a fixation on her , a reflection of a relationship Bannon had with a beautiful , but " very bewildered and unstable person . " Beth writes to an author of lesbian books in New York , and goes to meet her in hope of finding Laura . They have a brief relationship , after which Beth finds Laura married to Jack and with a child , then discovers Beebo as well . A fifth book , The Marriage , also published in 1960 , again addresses issues of love outside the realm of socially acceptable relationships , although it is not primarily about homosexuality . In it , Jack and Laura are friends with a young married couple who discover they are brother and sister , and must decide whether they will stay together or conform to societal standards .
= = = = Beebo Brinker = = = =
Returning to the character she fantasized about the most , the last book in the series , Beebo Brinker , published in 1962 , was Bannon 's prequel to Odd Girl Out . It follows Beebo around Greenwich Village ten years before she meets Laura in I Am a Woman . Beebo gets off the bus from her rural hometown into New York City to find a waiting friend in Jack , and to discover herself . She begins an affair with a famous and fading movie star , and follows her to California , only to return to be more honest about what she wants in her life .
In 1961 and 1962 Bannon also contributed several articles to ONE , Inc . , the magazine of a homophile activist organization in Southern California . One of them was a chapter that had been cut from the final draft of Women in the Shadows . She was invited to speak to the Mattachine Society in the early 1960s , but her husband 's stern disapproval of her activities began to take its toll . She stated later , " It began to be very painful . So every time I would start to reach out ( to the lesbian / gay community ) , I would get struck down ... In my own life , I couldn 't operationalize ( my feeling that gays should end the secrecy and take more pride in themselves and their lives ) . I couldn 't find a way . "
= = Rediscovery = =
After Beebo Brinker , Bannon said the energy to write about the characters left her , but she got so good at her " obsessive fantasies " that even after the books were written she continued to live internally , and suspected it affected her subsequent relationships . " I realize now that I was in a sort of ' holding pattern , ' a way of keeping my sanity intact while waiting for my children to grow up and the freedom door to open " , she recalled . Returning to school , Bannon completed her master 's degree at Sacramento State University and her doctorate in linguistics at Stanford University . She was an English professor at Sacramento State and later became associate dean of the School of Arts and Sciences — later the College of Arts and Letters .
Ann Bannon 's books began to fade away from publishing memory after initial publication , especially after Gold Medal Books went out of business . In 1975 , however , Bannon was asked to include four of her books in Arno Press 's library edition of Homosexuality : Lesbians and Gay Men in Society , History and Literature . Then , in 1983 , Barbara Grier of the lesbian publishing company Naiad Press actively tracked Bannon down and reissued the books in new covers . Grier discussed the novels , answering the question of who among lesbian paperback authors should be highlighted : " Ann Bannon . Without even a discussion ... In terms of actual influence , sales , everything , Bannon . "
Bannon did not outwardly advertise the fact that the books had been released again in her department at Sacramento State . Not being tenured , she was unsure how the information would be received . However , word got out : " I was jet @-@ propelled out of the closet . People stared at me around campus , and the PE majors all waved . My chairman told me to put the books into my promotion file , and one of my colleagues told me my file was the only one that was any fun . " She often received small recognitions from students and faculty who were pleased and surprised , once getting a bouquet of flowers from a student . She said of the rediscovery , " I was so ready for something fresh and exciting in my life . It had seemed to me , up to that point , that not only had the books and the characters died , so had Ann Bannon . " However , following a bitter divorce , and just as the Naiad Press editions of her books were released , Bannon endured a bout of chronic fatigue syndrome , which she connects to repressing herself for so long . " You 've got to think that it 's connected , somehow . At the time I denied it fiercely , but I really think I beat myself up horribly , in ways I 'll never know . "
In 1984 , Bannon 's books were featured in the documentary Before Stonewall about how gay men and lesbians lived prior to the 1969 Stonewall riots , wherein one woman remembered picking up one of Bannon 's books for the first time : " I picked up this paperback and I opened it up ... and it sent a shiver of excitement in my whole body that I had never felt before . " She was featured in the Canadian documentary Forbidden Love : The Unashamed Stories of Lesbian Lives in 1992 , which recounted women 's personal stories of living as lesbians from the 1940s to 1960s . The books were selected for the Quality Paperback Book Club in 1995 . Bannon also provided the foreword for Strange Sisters : The Art of Lesbian Pulp Fiction 1949 – 1969 in 1999 , discussing her reaction to the artwork on her own books and the other lesbian pulp fiction books she bought and read . Five of The Beebo Brinker Chronicles were reissued by Cleis Press again between 2001 and 2003 — excluding The Marriage — with autobiographical forewords that described Bannon 's experiences of writing the books and her reaction to their popularity , causing another wave of interest .
Reacting to the renewed interest in the books , Bannon wrote in the 2002 introduction to Odd Girl Out that she was shocked to find out that her characters were not only remembered but that they were archetypes among the lesbian community . The books are frequently on required reading lists for Women 's and LGBT studies college courses . Bannon often admits to being surprised by this , explaining that she had no such aspirations when she was writing Odd Girl Out : " If I had known , it might well have resulted in a much more polished product , but one that would have been so cautious and self @-@ conscious as to be entirely forgettable . It would never — my best guess — have had the vibrant life it has now . "
= = Themes = =
= = = Identity = = =
Since so little information was available about lesbians and lesbianism at the time , Bannon 's books , through their far @-@ reaching distribution and popularity served to form a part of a lesbian identity not only for the heterosexual population at large , but lesbians themselves . Lesbian author and historian Joan Nestle called the books " survival literature " , explaining : " In whatever towns or cities these books were read , they were spreading the information that meant a new hope for trapped and isolated women " . One retrospective writer noted , " [ U ] ntil the late 1960s , when the sexual revolution was emerging , the pulps provided a cultural space that helped to forge a queer identity " .
Scholar Andrea Loewenstein published the first in @-@ depth review of Bannon 's books in 1980 , and notes that they were " exceptionally good pulp " that caused unexpected strong feelings of sadness or anger among lesbians when they were read twenty years after being published . Bannon depicts strict roles of butch and femme , and gays and lesbians as self @-@ destructive , closeted , paranoid , and alcoholic . Loewenstein remarks that readers in 1980 had a tendency to reject that kind of reality in Bannon 's stories . " Since much of our past is so bitter , [ we ] ... pretend away our most recent history " . Loewenstein suggests the struggles Bannon 's characters endured were ones that Bannon must have faced herself . When Laura declares her joy in her love for Beth in Odd Girl Out while simultaneously questioning if it is right , Loewenstein states " one hears quite clearly the voice of Ann Bannon , questioning her own right to happiness " . Similarly , remarking on Bannon 's treatment of Beebo in Women in the Shadows by making her violent , alcoholic and self @-@ destructive , Loewenstein notes , " she needs to humiliate Beebo so badly that she makes her disappear " . Loewenstein remarks Bannon 's characters are deeply conflicted by enjoying relationships they feel are morally wrong , and they are acting out cycles of self @-@ hatred , though what remains at the end is " surprisingly ... passionate , tender , and erotic " .
Writer Diane Hamer attests that Bannon 's books and characters represent a part of identity where women are unsure if they are gay or straight , man or woman , ashamed or accepting of who they are . In receiving no clear answers from Bannon herself , women were left to try to figure these questions out for themselves . Hamer writes , " What Bannon did was to provide a range of possible trajectories to lesbianism ... Bannon , by constructing fictional biographies for her lesbian characters , produced a new knowledge about how one arrives at a lesbian identity . "
Bannon also addresses the issue of race in Women in the Shadows when Laura begins an affair with a woman representing herself as Eastern Indian , but who is actually a lighter skinned African American . The duality of their relationship is expressed not only in skin color but through their personalities . Laura , blond and passionate , contrasts with Tris , who is dark but emotionally detached . Race , in this instance , is a " metaphor for the opposition between inside and outside that govern Bannon 's sense of what a lesbian is " .
The concept of a lesbian identity is also explored throughout Journey to a Woman , as Beth leaves her husband and children to find Laura . Beth is followed by Vega , a woman scarred deeply — both emotionally and physically — with whom Beth had an affair . Vega shoots herself at the end of the story . Scholar Christopher Nealon suggests that Vega 's scars and emotional pain represent the anguish of self @-@ hatred and the self @-@ destructive phases Bannon imposed upon her characters in Women in the Shadows . Because Laura has grown from the complete adoration of Beth in Odd Girl Out and is unable to give Beth the same devotion when Beth finds her again , Nealon writes that Bannon makes the point that it is impossible to sustain " a lesbian identity that always returns to the moment of self @-@ discovery " . Beth , instead , finds Beebo , now older and much calmer , who gives her hope and the promise of love , which Nealon equates to a final identity for Bannon 's characters .
In the new forewords to the Cleis Press editions , Bannon addressed the criticisms of her characters as self @-@ destructive in limiting roles , explaining that she simply depicted what she knew and felt at the time . Bannon has said she knows the concerns of the women who are uncomfortable with the themes of her books : " I can understand that ; they weren 't there . To them some of it looks negative and some of it looks depressing . Although I didn 't feel that way . I always felt excited when I was writing them . "
= = = Gender = = =
All five books of The Beebo Brinker Chronicles depict characters trying to come to terms with their ostracism from heterosexual society . Christopher Nealon adds that the characters are also trying to " understand the relationship between their bodies and their desires " ; the continuing appeal of the novels , Nealon states , is due to the characters being " beautifully misembodied " .
In Odd Girl Out , Laura Landon 's resistance to the idea that she may be homosexual lies in her own concept of femininity rather than any repugnance for loving women . In I Am a Woman , the second book in the series , Beebo 's butch appearance " seems to alternately terrify and attract Laura " , leading to a very erotic physical relationship . However , when Laura lashes out at Beebo in a moment of self @-@ pity , it is her masculinity that Laura attacks , invalidating Beebo 's uniqueness and the core of her desirability violently . In the book that exhibits the most self @-@ destruction in the series , Women in the Shadows , Laura expresses shame when accompanying Beebo outside of Greenwich Village , fearing Beebo will be arrested and jailed . Facing the end of their relationship , Beebo expresses the desire to be a man , if only to be able to marry Laura to give her a normal life .
Bannon 's last book , Beebo Brinker , which takes place before the others when Beebo is eighteen years old , focuses on her realization not only that she is gay , but that she is also a masculine woman . Nealon writes that Bannon 's exploration of Beebo 's masculinity is not to give excuses for her desires , but " to get at the source of specialness , the sources of her claim to be treated with dignity " . By connecting her characters ' bodies with their desires , Bannon allows further understanding of self as normal , and that homosexuality is acceptable .
= = Style = =
Bannon 's books , like most pulp fiction novels , were not reviewed by newspapers or magazines when they were originally published between 1957 and 1962 . However , since their release they have been the subject of analyses that offer differing opinions of Bannon 's books as a reflection of the moral standards of the decade , a subtle defiance of those morals , or a combination of both . Andrea Loewenstein notes Bannon 's use of cliché , suggesting that it reflected Bannon 's own belief in the culturally repressive ideas of the 1950s . Conversely , writer Jeff Weinstein remarks that Bannon 's " potboilers " are an expression of freedom because they address issues mainstream fiction did not in the 1950s . Instead of cliché , Weinstein writes that her characters become more realistic as she exploits the dramatic plots , because they " are influenced by the melodramatic conventions of the culture that excludes them " .
Diane Hamer likens Bannon 's work to the Mills and Boon of lesbian literature , but unlike conventional romance novels , her stories never really have neat and tidy conclusions . Hamer also takes note of Bannon 's use of Freudian symbolism : in I Am a Woman , Jack frequently mentions that he is being psychoanalyzed , and his friends react with interest . Jack labels Laura " Mother " and continues to refer to this nickname instead of her real name throughout the series , as though Bannon — through Jack — is vaguely mocking Freud and the ideas that have framed the construction of sexuality in the 1950s . Scholar Michele Barale remarks that Bannon 's literary devices in Beebo Brinker defy the expectations of the audience for whom the novel was specifically marketed : heterosexual males . Bannon chooses the first character , an " everyman " named — significantly — Jack Mann , with whom the male audience identifies , only to divulge that he is gay and has maternal instincts . His interest turns to Beebo , whom he finds " handsome " and lost , and he takes her home , gets her drunk , and becomes asexually intimate with her . Barale writes that Bannon manipulates male readers to become interested in the story , then turns them into voyeurs and imposes homosexual desires upon them , though eventually places them in a safe position to understand a gay story from a heterosexual point of view .
The erotic nature of the books has been noted as adding to their uniqueness . Loewenstein remarks on the intensity of Laura 's passion : " The presentation of a woman as a joyfully aggressive person is , in itself , a rare achievement in 1957 " . A 2002 retrospective of Bannon 's books claims " there were more explicit and nuanced representations of sexuality in those paperbacks than could be found almost anywhere else " . Author Suzana Danuta Walters represents the eroticism in Bannon 's books as a form of rebellion . In the Harvard Gay & Lesbian Review , Jenifer Levin writes , " Know this : Beebo lives . From the midst of a repressive era , from the pen of a very proper , scholarly , seemingly conforming wife and mother , came this astonishingly open queer figment of fictional being , like molten material from some volcano of the lesbian soul . "
Bannon 's books have , with the benefit of time , been described in vastly different terms , from " literary works " among pulp contemporaries , to " libidinised trash " . However disparately Bannon 's books are described in feminist and lesbian literary retrospectives , almost every mention concedes the significance of The Beebo Brinker Chronicles . One retrospective writer called Bannon 's books " titillating trash , but indispensable reading to the nation 's lesbians . "
= = Legacy = =
Critics have since remarked that Bannon 's books are remarkable for portraying homosexual relationships relatively accurately . The continuity of characters in the series also gave her books a unique quality , especially when most lesbian characters during this time were one @-@ dimensional stereotypes who met punishment for their desires . Bannon 's characters have been called " accessibly human " , and still engrossing by contemporary standards compared to being " revolutionary " when first released . LGBT historian Susan Stryker describes the relationships between Bannon 's characters as mostly positive , satisfactory , and at times complex depictions of lesbian and gay relationships , which Bannon attributed to not letting go of the hope that she could " salvage ( her ) own life . " One retrospective of lesbian pulp fiction remarked on the reasons why Bannon 's books in particular were popular is because they were so different from anything else being published at the time : " Bannon was implicitly challenging the prevailing belief that homosexual life was brief , episodic , and more often than not resulted in death ... Bannon insisted on the continuity of lesbian love , while everything in her culture was speaking of its quick and ugly demise . "
Bannon set her stories in and among gay bars in the 1950s and 1960s that were secret . As described in Beebo Brinker , one had to knock on the door and be recognized before being let in . In reality , women were not allowed to wear pants in some bars in New York City . Police raided bars and arrested everyone within regularly ; a raid on a gay bar prompted the seminal Stonewall riots in 1969 that started the gay rights movement . Because of the atmosphere of secrecy and shame , little was recorded at the time about what it was like to be gay then , and Bannon unwittingly recorded history from her own visits to Greenwich Village . In 2007 , one of the writers who adapted three of the books into a play said of Bannon 's work , " I think she rises above the pulp . She wasn 't trying to write trash . There wasn 't any place for a woman to be writing this kind of material ... But I just think the writing 's transcended its time and its era and its market . "
Author Katherine V. Forrest claimed Bannon and her books " are in a class by themselves " and credits Bannon with saving her life , writing in 2005 , " Overwhelming need led me to walk a gauntlet of fear up to the cash register . Fear so intense that I remember nothing more , only that I stumbled out of the store in possession of what I knew I must have , a book as necessary to me as air ... I found it when I was eighteen years old . It opened the door to my soul and told me who I was . "
= = = Adaptations = = =
In 2007 , an off @-@ off @-@ Broadway company named The Hourglass Group produced an adaptation of The Beebo Brinker Chronicles in a production that ran for a month . The writers used material from I Am a Woman , Women in the Shadows and Journey to a Woman to predominantly positive reviews . It was successful enough to be moved Off Broadway for another ten @-@ week run in 2008 . The play 's writers commented on the difficulty of lesbian @-@ themed works finding financial success . They were tempted to make it more appealing by turning to camp for comedy . However , one of the writers said , " I just felt like , how can you turn these people into a joke ? I mean , these people are real people ! Why would I direct a play where I held the characters in some sort of contempt or felt that they were ridiculous ? We are allowed to do something else besides camp . " The stage adaptation of The Beebo Brinker Chronicles was produced by Lily Tomlin and Jane Wagner , and it won the Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation ( GLAAD ) Media Award for " fair , accurate , and inclusive " portrayals of gay and lesbian people in New York Theater . In April 2008 , Bannon appeared with the Seattle Women 's Chorus in a performance called " Vixen Fiction " . Bannon read excerpts of her work and discussed the effects of her writing on her own life and the lives of her readers . U.S. cable network HBO has optioned Bannon 's novels for potential development as a series .
= = = Honors = = =
In 1997 , Bannon 's work was included in a collection of authors who had made the deepest impact on the lives and identities of gays and lesbians , titled Particular Voices : Portraits of Gay and Lesbian Writers . In 2000 , the San Francisco Board of Supervisors awarded Bannon a Certificate of Honor " for breaking new ground with works like Odd Girl Out and Women in the Shadows " and for " voic ( ing ) lesbian experiences at a time when explicit lesbian subject matter was silenced by government and communities . " In 2004 , Bannon was elected into the Saints and Sinners Literary Festival Hall of Fame . She received the Sacramento State Alumni Association 's Distinguished Faculty Award for 2005 , and received the Trailblazer Award from the Golden Crown Literary Society the same year ; the GCLS created the Ann Bannon GCLS Popular Choice Award . She was the recipient of the Alice B Award in 2008 , that goes to authors whose careers have been distinguished by consistently well @-@ written stories about lesbians . In May 2008 , Bannon was given the Pioneer Award from the Lambda Literary Foundation .
In 2012 , she was named by Equality Forum as one of their 31 Icons of the LGBT History Month .
= = = In retirement = = =
Ann Bannon retired from teaching and college administration at California State University , Sacramento , in 1997 , but tours the country visiting paperback @-@ collecting conventions and speaking at colleges and universities about her writings and experiences . She was a guest of National Public Radio 's Peabody Award @-@ winning talk show " Fresh Air " with Terry Gross , and has also been featured in Gross 's book , All I Did Was Ask , a collection of transcripts from the show . Bannon also speaks at gay @-@ themed events around the country and is working on her memoirs .
In a recent editorial written by Bannon in Curve , she discussed how her books survived despite criticisms by censors , Victorian moralists , and purveyors of literary " snobbery " in writing , " To the persistent surprise of many of us , and of the critics who found us such an easy target years ago , the books by , of and for women found a life of their own . They — and we — may still not be regarded as conventionally acceptable ' nice ' literature , as it were — but I have come to value that historical judgment . We wrote the stories no one else could tell . And in so doing , we captured a slice of life in a particular time and place that still resonates for members of our community . "
= Henry Percy , 3rd Earl of Northumberland =
Henry Percy , 3rd Earl of Northumberland , ( 25 July 1421 – 29 March 1461 ) was an English magnate .
The Earldom of Northumberland was one of the greatest fifteenth @-@ century landholdings in northern England ; Percy also became Lord Poynings on his marriage . This title would bring him into direct conflict with the Poynings family themselves , and indeed , feuds with neighbouring nobles , both lay and ecclesiastical , would be a key occupancy of his youth .
Percy married Eleanor Poynings , who outlived him ; together they had four children . He was a leading Lancastrian during the Wars of the Roses , from which he managed to personally benefit , although his father died early in the war . He was not , however , to live to enjoy these gains , being killed at the Battle of Towton in 1461 on the defeated Lancastrian side .
= = Early life and war with Scotland = =
Percy was the son of Henry Percy , 2nd Earl of Northumberland , and Lady Eleanor Neville , daughter of Ralph Neville , 1st Earl of Westmorland , and his second wife , Joan Beaufort .
Percy was knighted in 1426 together with Henry VI . He was appointed Warden of the Eastern March on the Scottish border on 1 April 1440 , originally for four years , and subsequent extensions in 1444 , and 1445 , for the next seven years . This came as well with the custody of Berwick Castle and responsibility for its defence He was to hold this post until March 1461 . In May 1448 , Percy , with his father and Sir Robert Ogle , invaded Scotland in a pre @-@ emptive defence of the border , and burnt Dunbar and Dumfries , for which , in revenge , the Scots attacked his father 's castles of Alnwick and Warkworth . King Henry made his way north , and whilst at Durham sent Percy – now Lord Poynings – to raid Dumfrieshire ; the sortie – " only to return with some 500 cattle " – of around 5 @,@ 000 men failed , and he was captured whilst caught in a marsh following his father 's defeat at the River Sark on 23 October . Sir Robert Ogle was now outlawed and the king used half of his estates to compensate Poynings for the ransom he had expended arranging his release from captivity . Tensions with Scotland remained , to the extent that Poynings , his father , and other nobles were requested to stay and guard the border rather than attend Parliament , for which they were excused . In summer 1451 , with an Anglo @-@ Scottish truce pending , Poynings was commissioned to treat with Scottish embassies . In July 1455 , he successfully prevented an assault on Berwick by the Scottish King , James II , and was congratulated by the English King as a result .
= = Feud with the Poynings = =
In the late 1440s , the Yorkshire tenants of his father , the Earl of Northumberland , were in almost constant conflict with their neighbours , those of the Archbishop of York , involving armed skirmishes which Percy 's brothers led . These events were deemed so severe that in 1448 they led to the only progress north for the King during his reign . The same year , because of a dispute over the inheritance his family received as a result of Henry Percy 's marriage , the Earl of Northumberland 's retainers had ejected the earl 's relative , Robert Poynings , from his Sussex manors . A year later , Henry Percy – now Lord Poynings by right of his wife – took direct part , with his father , in raiding the manor of Newington Bertram in Kent , which was also enfeoffed by Robert . This attack also apparently involved cattle rustling and theft , and Robert later claimed it to be so brutal that he was " deterred from seeking a remedy at law for three years " .
= = Feud with Nevilles = =
By the early 1450s , relations with a powerful neighbouring family , the Nevilles became increasingly tense , and Poyning 's brother Thomas , Lord Egremont , had finally ambushed a Neville force , returning from a wedding , near Sheriff Hutton. with a force of between 1 @,@ 000 and 5 @,@ 000 men . Although this was a bloodless confrontation , a precedent for the use of force in this particular dispute had already been laid in the previous violence in the region . By October 1453 , Poynings was directly involved , with his father , brothers Egremont and Richard , and joined by Lord Clifford , in forcing a battle with John and Richard Neville at Topcliffe . The feud continued into the next year , when Poyning reportedly planned on attending parliament accompanied by a large force of men in February , and three months later both he and the earl were summoned by the king to attend council in attempt to impose a peace ; a second letter was " written but not despatched " . Neither , along with John Neville or Salisbury , did as requested .
= = Wars of the Roses = =
During the Wars of the Roses , Percy followed his father in siding with the Lancastrians against the Yorkists . The Earl himself died at what is generally considered to be the first battle of the wars , at St Alban 's on 22 May 1455 , and Poynings was elevated as third Earl of Northumberland , without having to pay relief to the Crown , due the fact that his father had died in the King 's service . He in his turn " swore to uphold the Lancastrian dynasty " . Although a reconciliation of the leading magnates of the realm was attempted in October 1458 in London , he arrived with such a large body of men ( thought to be around 1 @,@ 500 ) that the city denied him entry . The new earl and his brother Egremont were bound over £ 4 @,@ 000 each to keep the peace . When conflict broke out again , he attended the so @-@ called Parliament of Devils in October 1459 , which condemned as traitors those Yorkists accused of , among other offences , causing the death of his father four years before . On 30 December 1460 , Percy led the central " battle " or section of the victorious Lancastrian army at the Battle of Wakefield , following which , the army marched south , pillaging on the road to London . He fought against Warwick at the second Battle of St. Alban 's on 17 February 1461 , and he commanded the Lancastrian van at the Battle of Towton on 29 March 1461 , however , " his archers were blinded by snowstorms " , and he was either slain in close fighting , or died of his wounds soon after . He was buried at St Denys 's Church , York . He was posthumously attainted by the first parliament of the victorious Edward IV in November 1461 , and his son and namesake was committed to the Tower .
= = Estates , offices and finances = =
The estates of the Earls of Northumberland had traditionally been in constant use as a source of manpower and wages in defence of the border since the Percy family first gained the office the previous century . The wages assigned to the third Earl were substantial : £ 2 @,@ 500 yearly in time of peace , and £ 5 @,@ 000 during war , as well as an annual payment for the maintenance of Berwick 's upkeep ( £ 66 in peacetime and £ 120 in wartime ) . Percy often had to provide from his own resources , however , as " securing payment was not easy " from the Exchequer , ( for example , in 1454 he received no payments at all ) . In July 1452 he gained a twenty @-@ year fee @-@ farm ( £ 80 yearly , from Carlisle ) , although he subsequently lost it in favour of Richard Neville , Earl of Salisbury , in July 1454 . Throughout the 1450s , the Crown continually made efforts at paying Percy his Warden 's wages and fees promptly ( paying him full wartime rates for the whole of the year 1456 @-@ 7 , for example ) , and since he was a loyal Lancastrian he achieved this more often than his counterpart on the west march , Salisbury , who by now had publicly aligned himself with York . The fee farm of Carlisle was returned to Percy in November 1459 , following Salisbury 's attainder in Coventry . He also benefited from the attainder of York , being granted an annuity of £ 66 from the latter 's forfeited Wakefield Lordship in Yorkshire ; he also received £ 200 from the profits of Penrith .
As a reward for his role in the Lancastrian victory at Ludford Bridge , he was made Chief Forester north of the River Trent and the Constable of Scarborough Castle on 22 December 1459 for life . He was nominated to a wide @-@ ranging commission of oyer and terminer ( from the old French , literally a commission " to hear and determine " ) on 30 May 1460 , his new rank was a tactic to deal with the treasons and insurrections in Northumberland . On 3 July , he was granted Yorkshire , Derbyshire , and Cambridgeshire , all belonging to Salisbury , on a twelve @-@ year lease . After the Yorkists captured Henry VI at the Battle of Northampton in 1460 , they accused Percy of having looted York 's northern estates during his exile in Ireland . This charge was likely to have had some truth in it , as it was his continued pillaging of those estates , with the Lords Clifford and Dacre , that led to York marching north to Wakefield in December 1460 . These incomes , however collected , would have been vital to the Earl both personally and militarily as his northern estates especially had been a victim of feudal decline for most of the first half of the fifteenth century : even on the forfeit of the earldom to the Crown in 1461 , his arrears have been calculated as still standing at approximately £ 12 @,@ 000 .
= = Family = =
At the arrangement of his father and Cardinal Beaufort in 1434 , he married on or before 25 June 1435 , Eleanor Poynings ( c.1422 – 11 February 1484 ) , de jure suo jure Lady Poynings , daughter and heiress of Sir Richard Poynings of Poynings in Sussex , by his second wife , Eleanor Berkeley , daughter of Sir John Berkeley of Beverston Castle in Gloucestershire . She was heir general in 1446 to her grandfather , Robert Poynings , 4th Baron Poynings , to the Lordship of Poynings , with lands across the south of England . He was summoned to Parliament from 14 December 1446 to 26 May 1455 , by writs directed Henrico de Percy , chivaler , domino de Ponynges . His wife was a legatee in the 1455 will of her mother , Eleanor , Countess of Arundel ( widow of the thirteenth Earl of Arundel ) . They had one son and three daughters :
Henry Percy , 4th Earl of Northumberland ( c.1449 – 28 April 1489 ) , who married Maud Herbert , daughter of the first Earl of Pembroke .
Margaret Percy ( b. c . 1447 ) , who married Sir William Gascoigne
Elizabeth Percy ( 1460 – 1512 ) , who married Henry Scrope , 6th Baron Scrope of Bolton .
Anne Percy ( 1444 – 1522 ) , who married Sir Thomas Hungerford in 1460 .
= = Ancestry = =
= The Fabulous Kangaroos =
This team is not to be mistaken for the similarly named team The Royal Kangaroos of Jonathan Boyd and Norman Frederick Charles III
The Fabulous Kangaroos was a professional wrestling tag team that existed in various forms from 1957 until 1983 . The first incarnation of The Fabulous Kangaroos was formed when Italian Australian Al Costello teamed with Australia native Roy Heffernan and adopted an " Ultra Australian " gimmick complete with boomerangs , bush hats and the song " Waltzing Matilda " as their entrance music . Costello and Heffernan are arguably the most famous version of The Kangaroos , regarded as one of the top tag teams to ever compete in professional wrestling , and are often credited with popularizing tag team wrestling in the late 1950s and 1960s .
Later versions of The Kangaroos saw Al Costello team with Ray St. Clair in 1967 , and then with Don Kent from 1968 until 1974 . Don Kent went on to team with Bruno Bekkar , and later Johnny Heffernan ( a storyline cousin of Roy Heffernan ) to keep The Fabulous Kangaroos name alive until 1983 .
The Fabulous Kangaroos made their last appearance in 1983 , but almost a decade later , the then 72 @-@ year @-@ old Al Costello managed a team known as " The New Fabulous Kangaroos " in the American Independent circuit . The New Fabulous Kangaroos consisted of little known wrestlers Mickey Doyle , Denny Kass and Al Snow ; of the three , only Snow went on to national and international recognition .
Both Costello and Heffernan died before The Kangaroos were honored as the first tag team to ever be inducted into the Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame in 2003 , which started a tradition of inducting a new team every year .
= = Career = =
= = = Al Costello and Roy Heffernan = = =
" The Fabulous Kangaroos " were the brainchild of Al Costello , who had spent the first 18 years of his wrestling career as a fairly unsuccessful singles competitor . In 1956 , Costello mentioned his idea of an " Ultra Australian " tag team to fellow wrestler , and future promoter , Joe Blanchard . Blanchard happened to be a good friend of Roy Heffernan , who had previously trained with Costello and became his choice for a partner . Costello and Heffernan made their debut as The Fabulous Kangaroos on 3 May 1957 , for Stu Hart ’ s Stampede Wrestling promotion of Canada , in a match against Maurice LaPointe and Tony Baillargeon . Only weeks after making their debut , The Kangaroos were working with the top tag teams of the promotion .
After working in Stampede for a while The Fabulous Kangaroos started to travel across the United States , headlining shows wherever they went due to their ability to rile up crowds with their heel ( bad guy ) tactics . On one occasion in August 1958 , The Kangaroos , or " Kangaroo Men " as they were billed , nearly caused a riot in Madison Square Garden during a match against Antonino Rocca and Miguel Pérez ; the fans began to throw fruit and stones at them . After the match ended without a decisive winner , the promoters stepped in , turned up the arena lights , and played the National Anthem to stop a potential riot . This was a common tactic used at the time by the New York promoters to prevent riots and help the heels leave the arena unharmed . Later that year , Costello and Heffernan started working for Dory Funk ’ s NWA Western States promotion based in Amarillo , Texas . Here , The Kangaroos won their first title as a team when they defeated Pepper Gomez and El Medico to win the Texas version of the NWA World Tag Team Championship on 17 November 1958 . Their first title reign was short lived , however , as Pepper Gomez and Rito Romero defeated them to regain the titles two weeks later .
The following year , The Fabulous Kangaroos won the main tag team titles in NWA New Mexico , as well as the Texas version of the NWA International Tag Team Championship . In 1960 the Kangaroos moved on to New York , where they worked for Capitol Wrestling ( predecessor to the modern @-@ day WWE ) . On 21 July 1960 The Fabulous Kangaroos defeated Red and Lou Bastien to claim the North East version of the NWA United States Tag Team Championship ( which was later known as the WWWF United States Tag Team Championship ) . The Bastien brothers sought revenge and regained the gold during a rematch on 8 August 1960 . This time , the Bastiens ' title reign only lasted 16 days when The Fabulous Kangaroos beat them again in Washington , D.C to become two @-@ time United States champions . Their second tenure as champions lasted almost three months , before they were defeated by Johnny Valentine and Buddy Rogers on 19 November 1960 . Costello and Heffernan won the titles for a third time only a week later and carried the gold into 1961 . On 11 January 1961 , The Kangaroos third title reign ended when they lost to the team of Johnny Valentine and Bob Ellis .
As was common in their day , The Kangaroos began to move around between territories to avoid overexposure . The team arrived in Championship Wrestling from Florida billed as NWA Florida United States Tag Team Champions . It was a tag team title they never technically won , but were instead awarded by the promoter . The Kangaroos stayed in Florida , defending against all challengers until the duo of Eddie Graham and Dick Steinborn took the United States titles from them in a match on 1 November 1961 . In 1962 , The Kangaroos once again traveled across the United States , working for the Midwest Wrestling Association of Ohio where they held the Ohio version of the NWA United States tag team title . They also toured Japan with the Japan Wrestling Association and were the first to hold the Japanese version of the NWA International Tag Team Championship . In 1964 , Costello and Heffernan made their west coast debut , working in Los Angeles , California for the World Wrestling Association ( WWA ) where they beat Édouard Carpentier and Ernie Ladd for the WWA World Tag Team Championship . The Kangaroos held the titles for three months before losing them to the Torres brothers ( Alberto and Ramon ) on 28 April 1964 .
The Kangaroos never forgot their roots , and continued to work in Canada off and on through the years ; in addition to Stampede Wrestling , the team also worked for NWA All @-@ Star Wrestling based in Vancouver , British Columbia . While working for All @-@ Star Wrestling , The Kangaroos were involved in a heated storyline with Don Leo Jonathan and Roy McClarty that sold out arenas all across the territory . On 25 May 1964 The Kangaroos won the Vancouver version of the NWA Canadian Tag Team Championship , and immediately had to fend off the challenges of Jonathan and McClarty . During one infamous match in Winnipeg , The Kangaroos made Stan Stasiak an " honorary Kangaroo " for the night ( complete with bush hat and all ) for a six @-@ man tag team match against Jonathan , McClarty and Karl Gotch . During the match The Kangaroos ' cheating tactics aggravated the crowd so much that the fans threw chairs at the team . The Kangaroos attempted to hide under the ring to escape the flying chairs , but rabid fans tried to light the ring apron on fire to " smoke out " The Kangaroos . Peace was restored before anyone got seriously hurt and Jonathan and McClarty defeated The Kangaroos for the Canadian Tag Team titles , only to lose them back to the team from " Down Under " less than a month later . The Fabulous Kangaroos held the Canadian Tag team titles a total of four times while working for All @-@ Star wrestling , losing them for the final time on 17 May 1965 to the team of Do Leo Jonathan and Jim Hardy . For the better part of a year The Kangaroos had been double champions , holding both the Canadian Tag Team titles and the All @-@ Star version of the NWA International Tag Team titles .
Their time in NWA All @-@ Star Wrestling was the last time the original Kangaroos teamed together . In June 1965 , The Kangaroos lost to Don Leo Jonathan and Jim Hardy , and then split up . Heffernan had left Australia to tour the world in 1953 and wanted to return to his homeland , while Costello was determined to remain in the United States for a while longer .
= = = Al Costello and Ray St. Clair = = =
In 1967 , after having wrestled with other partners , including a stint as The Internationals with Karl Von Brauner , Costello decided that he wanted to reform The Fabulous Kangaroos . He got in touch with a friend from Great Britain , Tinker Todd , and asked him to be his new partner and reform The Fabulous Kangaroos . Todd agreed , taking the name " Ray St. Clair " and adopting an " Australian " persona . George " Crybaby " Cannon had managed Costello and Von Brauner when they wrestled as The Internationals , and he was brought in to be The Kangaroos new manager . Not long after Costello and St. Clair hit the circuit , they captured both gold and the hatred of the crowd , just like the original Kangaroos . A couple of months after reforming , Costello and St. Clair won the NWA Detroit version of the NWA World Tag Team Championship from Fred Curry and Billy Red Lyons , but lost the titles to Fred Curry and Dan Miller a few weeks later . Costello and St. Clair showed the same gift for riling up the fans as Costello and Heffernan had and even caused their own share of riots . One particular event in Cincinnati , Ohio saw the predominantly African American crowd start a riot after The Kangaroos spat in the eye of the African American Bobo Brazil during a match . The crowd rushed towards the ring when a fan fell from the balcony , causing a diversion that enabled Costello and St. Clair to escape the ring and get back to their dressing room . When fans started to break down the door to the dressing room , The Kangaroos ducked out the back , ran down an alley and hid in a half full dumpster overnight . The next morning when The Kangaroos returned to their car , they found all four tires slashed . Despite the success of the new version of The Fabulous Kangaroos , the Costello / St. Ray team did not last more than six tumultuous months . St. Clair missed his native Britain and was suffering from a debilitating knee injury that meant he had to retire from wrestling altogether .
= = = Al Costello and Don Kent = = =
Costello was not ready to give up on The Fabulous Kangaroos concept after St. Clair retired , and a few months later he found a new man to don the bush hat : Don Kent . Kent , who was from Michigan , adopted the Ultra @-@ Australian gimmick ( but retained his American accent ) and the two formed the third overall and second most well @-@ known version of the Fabulous Kangaroos . Costello and Kent continued in a tradition that was reminiscent of the original Kangaroos ; when a federation needed a new tag team title , the Kangaroos were brought in and acknowledged as champions on arrival instead of holding a tournament to determine the champions . In 1967 , the Japanese federation " International Wrestling Enterprise " ( IWE ) brought the Kangaroos in as the first Trans @-@ World Wrestling Alliance World Tag Team Champions . They held this title until 10 January 1968 when IWE mainstays Toyonobori and Thunder Sugiyama beat them for the gold .
Their time in Japan was only the first of many international tours for these third generation Kangaroos ; they worked all over Asia as well as in Costello 's homeland of Australia . In 1969 , the Kangaroos wrestled for the newly created Eastern Sports Association ( ESA ) out of Halifax , Nova Scotia , where they were once again recognized as champions on their arrival , becoming the inaugural holders of the ESA International Tag Team Championship . On 5 August 1969 , the Kangaroos dropped the titles to Eastern Sports Association mainstays The Beast and Rudy Kay . In 1970 , they joined Dick the Bruiser ’ s World Wrestling Association ( WWA ) , where they competed regularly for nearly two years . On 26 December 1970 Costello and Kent defeated WWA World Tag Team Champions Dick the Bruiser and Bill Miller to claim the tag titles . The Kangaroos used every dirty tactic to hold on to the gold for six months before losing the titles to Wilbur Snyder and Moose Cholak . On 18 June 1971 , the Kangaroos regained the titles , and held them for just over two months before Wilbur Snyder and Paul Christy beat them for their straps . After leaving the WWA , Costello and Kent made a few appearances in New York for the World Wide Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) , a promotion the original Kangaroos had previously worked for under the company 's former name , Capitol Wrestling . In one of their headline appearances at Madison Square Garden , the Kangaroos wrestled to a 45 @-@ minute time limit draw against Terry and Dory Funk , Sr ..
The Kangaroos were not only stars in the wrestling world , they also made a series of popular " celebrity baseball " appearances in 1971 – 1972 . At one celebrity all @-@ star game in Three Rivers Stadium , Pittsburgh , PA , the Kangaroos became the stars of the celebrity team by going 7 for 8 collectively and entertaining the fans with their horseplay and comedy antics .
On 18 December 1971 , The Fabulous Kangaroos defeated Ben Justice and the Stomper in the tournament finals for the new Detroit version of the NWA World Tag Team Championship . The Kangaroos worked for NWA Detroit for most of 1971 , defending the gold until Justice and the Stomper won the titles in July 1972 . By the end of 1972 , the Kangaroos began working for Nick Gulas ’ NWA Mid @-@ America promotion , based in the Southern United States , a promotion that Don Kent had worked for before becoming a Kangaroo . On 1 February 1973 , the Kangaroos defeated " The Heavenly Bodies " ( Don and Al Green ; not to be confused with the 1990s team of the same name ) to add yet another version of the NWA World Tag Team Championship , the Mid @-@ America version , to their long list of title accomplishments . The Kangaroos held that title three times between February and 22 September 1973 , when they lost to the team of Lorenzo Parente and Randy Curtis . During 1973 George Cannon was replaced as the Kangaroos manager by " Sir " Dudley Clements .
After a match in the Cincinnati Gardens , an enraged fan took a fire extinguisher off the wall and threw it at Costello and Kent from the balcony of the Gardens . The extinguisher hit Costello in the hip , damaging it so much that he needed hip replacement surgery later that year . The fan was arrested , served 15 days in jail , and fined $ 50 for damaging the fire extinguisher . The hip injury meant that Costello was unable to compete and The Fabulous Kangaroos split up once again . Don Kent returned to NWA Mid @-@ America to work as a singles wrestler , while Costello had a full hip replacement , and was forced to retire from active competition . In 1975 , Costello surprised everyone by returning to professional wrestling as the manager of a team known as " The Love Brothers " ( Hartford and Reggie Love ) . He actually stepped into the ring on occasion as part of special six @-@ man tag team matches .
After recovering from his hip surgery , Costello returned to active competition at the age of 56 , teaming up with Tony Charles to form yet another version of The Fabulous Kangaroos . The team defeated Dominic DeNucci and Chris Markoff to win the Detroit version of the NWA World Tag Team title , the same title that Costello and Kent had previously held . The Kangaroos title run was short , however ,
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time , the Hall of Fame has honored other tag teams , but The Fabulous Kangaroos were given the honor of being the first . In the tradition of The Kangaroos , they were " billed as champions on arrival " one last time . In 2013 , Costello and Heffernan was inducted into the NWA Hall of Fame .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Boomerang ( Catapult into a knockout punch )
Managers
" Wild " Red Berry
George " Crybaby " Cannon
" Sir " Dudley Clement
Al Costello
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
= = = Costello and Heffernan = = =
Alex Turk Promotions ( Winnipeg )
International Tag Team Championship ( 2 times )
Capitol Wrestling Corporation
NWA United States Tag Team Championship ( Northeast version ) ( 3 times )
Championship Wrestling from Florida
NWA Florida United States Tag Team Championship ( 1 time )
NWA World Tag Team Championship ( Florida version ) ( 1 time )
Japan Wrestling Association
NWA International Tag Team Championship ( 1 time )
Midwest Wrestling Association
NWA United States Tag Team Championship ( Ohio Version ) ( 1 time )
National Wrestling Alliance
NWA Hall of Fame ( Class of 2013 )
NWA All @-@ Star Wrestling
NWA Canadian Tag Team Championship ( Vancouver version ) ( 4 times )
NWA Detroit
NWA World Tag Team Championship ( Detroit version ) ( 2 times )
NWA New Mexico
Rocky Mountain Tag Team Championship ( 1 time )
NWA Western States ( Amarillo )
NWA International Tag Team Championship ( Texas version ) ( 1 time ) 1
NWA World Tag Team Championship ( Texas version ) ( 1 time )
World Wrestling Association ( Los Angeles )
WWA World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time )
Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame
Class of 2003
Wrestling Observer Newsletter awards
Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame ( Class of 1996 )
= = = Costello and St. Clair = = =
NWA Detroit
NWA World Tag Team Championship ( Detroit version ) ( 1 time )
= = = Costello and Kent = = =
Eastern Sports Association
ESA International Tag Team Championship ( 1 time )
International Wrestling Enterprise
Trans @-@ World Wrestling Alliance World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time )
NWA Mid @-@ America
NWA World Tag Team Championship ( Mid @-@ America version ) ( 3 times )
World Wrestling Association
WWA World Tag Team Championship ( 2 times )
World Wrestling Council
WWC World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time )
= = = Kent and Bekkar = = =
World Wrestling Council
WWC Caribbean Tag Team Championship ( 1 time )
WWC North American Tag Team Championship ( 1 time )
= = = Kent and Heffernan = = =
Championship Wrestling from Florida
NWA Florida Global Tag Team Championship ( 4 times )
World Wrestling Council
WWC World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time )
WWC North American Tag Team Championship ( 1 time )
= = = New Fabulous Kangaroos = = =
Border City Wrestling
BCW Can @-@ Am Tag Team Championship ( 1 time )
Motor City Wrestling
MCW Tag Team Championship ( 1 time )
1The NWA International Tag Team Championship ( Texas version ) was also recognized by World Class Championship Wrestling .
= Azimzhan Askarov =
Azimzhan Askarov ( Uzbek : Azimjon Asqarov , Азимжон Асқаров ; born 1951 ) is an ethnically Uzbek Kyrgyzstani political activist who founded the group Vozduh in 2002 to investigate police brutality . During the 2010 South Kyrgyzstan ethnic clashes , which primarily targeted people of the Uzbek nationality , Askarov worked to document the violence .
He was subsequently arrested and prosecuted on charges of creating mass disturbances , incitement of ethnic hatred , and complicity in murder . Following a trial protested by several international human rights groups for irregularities — including alleged torture and the courtroom intimidation of witnesses by police — Askarov was given a life sentence , which he is currently serving . In November 2010 , Askarov 's health was reported to be rapidly deteriorating as a result of his confinement . Numerous groups have advocated on his behalf , including Human Rights Watch , Reporters Without Borders , People In Need , the Committee to Protect Journalists , and Amnesty International , the latter of which designated him a prisoner of conscience .
In 2015 , the U.S. conferred the 2014 Human Rights Defender Award on Askarov . The Kyrgyz government protested this decision and formally terminated a 1993 agreement on cooperation between the U.S. and Kyrgyzstan . On 12 July 2016 , the Supreme Court of Kyrgyzstan revoked the life sentence against Askarov and sent his case to the Chui Oblast Court for review .
= = Personal life = =
Azimzhan Askarov was born in 1951 in the village Bazar @-@ Korgon , Kyrgyzstan . He attended an arts college in Tashkent . After getting his degree Askarov worked as a painter and decorator for 15 years . In the early 1990s , he began writing about human rights issues in a local newspaper . He is married to Hadicha Askarova and they have three children .
= = Human rights work = =
Askarov has worked as a human rights activist since the mid @-@ 1990s . In 2002 , he founded the group Vozduh ( Air ) to monitor the conditions of Kyrgyz prisons . Working primarily in the area of Bazar @-@ Korgon , Askarov directed this group until the time of his arrest and was able to initiate new investigations of several cases of police brutality and torture . Several police officers were dismissed from their posts as a result of Askarov 's investigations . Askarov has stated that in 2006 , a prosecutor 's investigator sued Askarov following an article he wrote publicizing torture allegations ; the six @-@ month court case ended with a verdict in Askarov 's favor . As a result , Askarov claims , " Enemies in the law enforcement community were constantly looking for an opportunity to shut me down . "
= = Arrest and trial = =
In July 2010 , Kyrgyzstan saw an outbreak of ethnic violence in which as many as 2 @,@ 000 people , primarily Uzbeks , were killed , and hundreds of thousands displaced . Following the violence , dozens of Uzbek community and religious leaders were arrested by the Kyrgyzstani government and accused of inciting ethnic violence , among them Azimzhan Askarov , who had been filming killings and arson attacks during the riots . Askarov then distributed the video to international media and accused the Kyrgyz military of complicity in the killings .
He was arrested on 15 June 2010 in Bazar @-@ Korgon . Kyrgyzstan 's human rights ombudsman , Tursunbek Akun , protested the arrest shortly after .
Askarov was tried along with other human rights activists before a court in the Nooken District of the Jalal @-@ Abad Province . An observer from Human Rights Watch stated that both the defendants and the witnesses evidenced fresh bruises and appeared to have been tortured . The observer also stated that members of the trial 's audience openly threatened and assaulted Askarov , other defendants , and their lawyers inside the courtroom , and that local law enforcement refused to intervene . Askarov 's lawyer , Nurbek Toktagunov , stated that he was also approached by the relatives of a police officer and threatened with violence if he continued to defend Askarov , leading Amnesty International to issue an appeal for the safety of both Toktagunov and Askarov .
Askarov testified himself that he had been beaten and tortured while in police custody , and his lawyer reported that Askarov had further bruises on his back . On 4 November 2010 , however , the prosecutor 's office held a press conference to deny any beatings had taken place .
= = Imprisonment and health = =
On 10 November 2010 , Askarov 's sentence was upheld by an appellate court . Two days later , Amnesty International reported that Askarov 's health was failing rapidly ; he was soon moved from his prison hospital to a hospital in Bishkek . Members of his family expressed concern that he was receiving inadequate care from prison authorities .
On 8 February 2011 , the Kyrgyzstani Supreme Court agreed to hear new evidence in Askarov 's case ; however , his hearing was suspended . On 11 April 2011 , his appeal hearing was postponed for the second time . On 20 December 2011 , the Kyrgyzstani Supreme Court upheld Askarov 's sentence .
Askarov 's lawyer then said he would protest the Supreme Court 's decision in the UN Human Rights Council , however Askarov himself was against this , feared of not being able to survive until the day of decision . Askarov insists on the review of his case in the Kyrgyz legislature .
= = International attention = =
Amnesty International , Human Rights Watch , the Committee to Protect Journalists , Front Line , International Partnership for Human Rights ( IPHR ) , and the International Federation for Human Rights have all denounced the charges against Askarov . The Committee to Protect Journalists called for him and fellow detainee Ulugbek Abdusalomov to be released , and for the officers who arrested them to be investigated for " abuse of office " . His cause has also been championed by American actor Martin Sheen . The US Embassy in Bishkek also put pressure on the Kyrgyz government to hold " impartial hearings " on Askarov 's appeal . Reporters Without Borders has called for his immediate release .
On 8 March 2011 , People In Need awarded him the Homo Homini Award " in recognition of a dedication to the promotion of human rights , democracy and non @-@ violent solutions to political conflicts . " In an acceptance speech written from prison , Askarov responded , " I cried like a baby . There are no words to express my heartfelt joy . After much suffering , torture and humiliation , I realized once again the high social value of fighting for human rights and justice ! "
In May 2011 , an exhibition of Askarov 's paintings opened in Bishkek , organized by his wife and various Kyrgyz human rights organizations . The paintings focus on " the inhabitants of the Fergana valley and scenes from their everyday lives . "
In 2012 , Askarov won the International Press Freedom Award of the Committee to Protect Journalists . The award recognizes journalists who show courage in defending press freedom despite facing attacks , threats , or imprisonment .
= Bell X1 ( band ) =
Bell X1 are a music group from Dublin , Ireland , known for their wide range of styles , powerful live performances , intelligent and witty lyrics and a dedication to touring . NPR says they deliver " a brilliant co @-@ mingling of electronic music and anthemic pop rock " .
Bell X1 are festival and arena headliners in their native Ireland and play to ever growing numbers on their regular North American and European tours . Aside from U2 , they are the Irish band with the most airplay in their native country and , according to Billboard , also the second biggest live performers .
= = History = =
= = = Juniper = = =
Most of the band were originally members of Juniper . Paul Noonan was Juniper 's drummer and Damien Rice was the lead vocalist ; guitarists Dominic Philips and Brian Crosby and multi @-@ instrumentalist David Geraghty completed the original line @-@ up . Juniper built up a strong live following in Ireland and enjoyed chart success with EP Manna and singles Weatherman and World is Dead ( the latter two through Universal Records ) but never released a full album . The band became a quartet with the departure of Rice over creative differences . Rice admitted in a 2002 interview with the Sunday Tribune that he had become upset after writing a song which the record company had disliked .
After a short break they reformed themselves as Bell X1 and Noonan became the new band 's frontman . The live line @-@ up , alongside original members Crosby and Philips , came to be completed by drummer Tim O 'Donovan , and trianglist Nessan Harpur , who also fronts electropop group Neosupervital .
Juniper 's original contract with Polygram Ireland was moved to Island Records UK . Bell X1 released three albums while with Universal / Island ; Neither Am I , Music in Mouth and Flock . Subsequent releases have come out on the band 's own BellyUp Records and its distribution partners at Warner Music , Redeye & The Orchard . Those titles are : Tour De Flock , Blue Lights on the Runway , Bloodless Coup , Field Recordings & Chop Chop .
= = = Neither Am I = = =
Neither Am I was released on 13 October 2000 . It was produced by Crowded House bass player Nick Seymour with whom members of the band have collaborated extensively since . It features a number of songs ( Volcano and Face ) that were previously played by Juniper and co @-@ written with Damien Rice. and achieved gold status sales . Pinball Machine and Man on Mir were released as singles . In late 2010 Bell X1 revisited and reprised the record on their sold @-@ out Irish acoustic tour .
= = = Music in Mouth = = =
Bell X1 's second album Music in Mouth fared better , garnering greater fan acceptance and critical acclaim . Reviewer Harry Guerin described the album as being one from a band " pushing themselves in different directions and coming up with a joy and sadness that prove as contagious as each other [ ... ] a band thinking outside the a , b , c of guitar rock " .
Music in Mouth achieved double @-@ platinum sales in Ireland and four singles released from the album achieved top forty positions in the Irish Singles Chart . The Irish Independent 's John Meagher named it his fourth best Irish album of the 2000s . In early 2004 they led a tour of that year 's accession states of Eastern Europe as part of Ireland 's EU Presidency . In December 2004 , they performed their first major headlining show at the Olympia Theatre , Dublin .
The wider appeal of the band internationally was assisted by the use of the song " Eve , the Apple of My Eye " from Music in Mouth during an episode of US teen dramedy The O.C. ; it featured during a scene in which two of the show 's female characters shared a lesbian kiss . The show 's music supervisor Alexandra Patsavas chose to feature " Eve " and " In Every Sunflower " after listening to Music in Mouth , with " Eve " also being included on the series soundtrack . That opportunity led to Bell X1 's arrival in the United States . The Sunday Tribune 's Neil Dunphy and Una Mullally named it number 46 in their 2008 " ultimate playlist representing the top @-@ 50 Irish songs of all time " . In the same publication at the end of the decade Dunphy cited it as an example of how Irish bands had used television to their advantage . The band went on to record a live session for Nic Harcourt 's radio show on KCRW in Los Angeles .
= = = Flock = = =
Capitalising on the momentum generated by the success of Music in Mouth , Bell X1 took over a remote farmhouse in Co . Wexford to write Flock , this time working with producer Roger Bechirian . It went straight to number one in Ireland on its release on 14 October 2005 and to date has sold five @-@ times platinum in that country . RTÉ reviewer Katie Moten described the album as " an accomplished collection from a clever and inventive band , whose talent deserves heapings of praise " . Bell X1 returned to feature in a dedicated Rattlebag special presented by Myles Dungan on 18 October 2005 . Flock was subsequently released around Europe , prompting Noonan to describe 2005 as Bell X1 's " annus fabulous " . On 31 January 2006 , they performed a sold out show in the RDS Main Hall , and appeared on the Main Stage at Oxegen 2006 that July . They would go on to perform even bigger live shows at Dublin 's Point Theatre and Malahide Castle over the next 18 months
" Bigger Than Me " , the first single to be released from this album , reached number sixteen in the Irish Singles Chart . They performed follow @-@ up single " Flame " on Tubridy Tonight on 14 January 2006 . " Flame " was later included in a collection of works giving a " sense of the noughties " put together by Vincent Murphy and broadcast on Morning Ireland on 31 December 2009 . A third single , " Rocky Took a Lover " , would be performed on the Late Show with David Letterman on 17 March 2008 . Bell X1 performed songs from Flock when they were one of the acts to appear on Other Voices in 2007 .
In February 2007 , it was reported that Bell X1 had parted company with their UK record label Island Records . Noonan later spoke of the artistic freedom which had resulted from this move — " We have found owning our music and finding partners all over the world to put our music out really empowering " .
= = = Tour De Flock = = =
A live CD and DVD set called Tour De Flock was released on the band 's own record label , BellyUp Records , on 15 June 2007 . The set was the band 's first post @-@ Island release . It was a recording of their sell @-@ out performance at the Point Theatre in Dublin on 1 December 2006 .
On 30 June , two weeks after the release of Tour De Flock , Bell X1 played an outdoor show at Malahide Castle in Dublin , becoming the first Irish band to headline that venue . In July 2007 , they played a sell @-@ out show at Live at the Marquee in Cork , with Noonan two years later describing that show as , " Without doubt [ ... ] one of the best gigs of our entire Flock tour . We had played venues like The Lobby , The Savoy and the Opera House , but being asked to play the Marquee was a crowning moment for us " .
On 15 March 2008 , the band 's tour bus burst into flames outside their hotel in Medford , Massachusetts . Noonan and Geraghty were on board the vehicle alongside their manager and a friend . Brian Crosby , Dominic Phillips , and Tim O 'Donovan were inside the hotel . Fire fighters were called to the scene shortly after 3 : 30 am and spent ninety minutes fanning the blaze , which started in the bus ventilation / air @-@ conditioning unit and caused an estimated $ 50 @,@ 000 ( € 32 @,@ 000 ) worth of damage . Talking to local newspaper the Boston Herald , the band 's manager , Foye Johnson said : " The guys were basically around the bus , which was a good thing because we were able to get all the equipment and instruments out . " After a few hours of sleep , off they went in a replacement vehicle to New York City where the band played a sell @-@ out show in the Bowery Ballroom and appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman , Other North American television appearances during the early part of 2008 included MTV Canada , The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson and Late Night with Conan O 'Brien . They would return to perform on the Late Show with David Letterman one year later .
They were the support act for Stars in the United States in September 2008 , their fourth time there that year . There were also several shows at events in Europe , and a homecoming appearance at Oxegen 2008 .
On 2 October 2008 , Brian Crosby announced his decision to leave Bell X1 following their 19 October Flock tour finale at the Panorama Festival in the Lebanon . They parted ways on good terms and the recruitment of at least one new member for live performances was planned . Their first show without Crosby was the opening night of an acoustic tour at the Pavilion in Cork two days after Panorama . By this time they were already performing material which was to feature on their fourth studio album , Blue Lights on the Runway .
= = = Blue Lights on the Runway = = =
Bell X1 released their fourth studio album Blue Lights on the Runway in Ireland on 20 February 2009 . It went to number one in the Irish Albums Chart . RTÉ reviewer Harry Guerin described the album as " a flight that you can actually enjoy from start to finish " . The Sunday Tribune 's Neil Dunphy selected it as his CD of the week , calling it " a wonderful exploration of a sound often derided for being in thrall to its influences " and commenting : " I don 't know why but Bell X1 used to make me cringe . These days their music feels like an old friend ; something solid and inspiring amid all the negativity " .
Blue Lights on the Runway was preceded by its lead single , titled " The Great Defector " . which became the band 's most successful single yet , peaking at number three in the Irish Singles Chart and going top 10 in America on the AAA Radio charts . The band were invited back to Tubridy Tonight to perform it and presenter Ryan Tubridy said it was his favourite song that year . Irish Independent journalist Eamon Sweeney described it as " happens to the best thing on the airwaves at the moment " . Marc Aubele on keys and Rory Doyle on drums featured during live performances , the former replacing Crosby in the band .
Blue Lights on the Runway was released in the United States through the band 's American label on 3 March 2009 . It appeared in the top twenty of that country 's Billboard Top Heatseekers Chart . When asked to describe touring for the first time without Crosby , Noonan said : " It 's good — it 's all part of the journey " . The band received attention from prominent bloggers in the country and made appearances on public radio , said to be a " crucial showcase " for bands like them in the United States . The band recorded a Ukulélé Session with the newspaper Le Soir to support the release of their album in Belgium . In Spain they played the Festival Internacional de Benicàssim that year . Back home Blue Lights on the Runway was given an " honourable mention " by The Sunday Business Post 's Andrew Lynch in his end @-@ of @-@ year 2009 review of music .
" The Ribs of a Broken Umbrella " , a second single from Blue Lights on the Runway , was later released . Bell X1 was a support act for U2 during that band 's sold @-@ out Croke Park show on 27 July 2009 , part of the international U2 360 ° Tour . Other major Irish shows that summer included an appearance at Live at the Marquee in Cork and a headlining performance at Electric Picnic 2009 , with the band later returning to the United States for a tour which included a slot at the Austin City Limits Festival before coming home to perform two more sell @-@ out shows at the Olympia Theatre that November . They then reappeared on Other Voices , performing a live session in Dingle which was broadcast in early 2010 . Their only summer performance in Ireland that year was at Oxegen 2010 .
= = = Bloodless Coup = = =
The band released their fifth album Bloodless Coup on 1 April 2011 . The album was recorded by frequent Flood collaborator & PJ Harvey engineer Rob Kirwan at Grouse Lodge Residential Studios in County Westmeath , Ireland .
To celebrate the album release , Bell X1 performed a rooftop gig at Facebook 's European Headquarters with its founder Mark Zuckerberg .
The band also performed a special concert recorded for America 's National Public Radio at the Guinness Storehouse
A 4 Star review of the album by The Independent praised Bell X1 for being one of the few bands to lyrically tackle the " turbulent , uncertain times . "
The Sunday Times named Bloodless Coup its CD of The Week in a 5 star review saying the album is " a 10 track mish @-@ mash about growing old , living in a hopeless political landscape and nourishing lasting friendships . It turns out to be Bell X1 's most satisfying album to date . A beguiling achievement . "
The Boston Herald graded the album an " A " saying " the Songwriting and playing are superb . "
In support of the album the band headlined shows at Marlay Park , The Galway Arts Festival , Sea Sessions & The Cork Marquee in addition to touring Europe and North America extensively . On 17 December 2012 they organised a special midnight concert at The Olympia Theatre in Dublin to benefit the Capuchin Day Center and their work to help the disadvantaged and increasing numbers of " new poor " resulting from the economic crash . Brother Kevin Crowley of The Capuchin Day Centre was quoted in Hot Press " Our numbers get bigger and bigger , we have 200 people in the morning and nearly 500 in the evening for dinner . So the whole charity concert was a tremendous success , a huge boost . When Bell X1 came to present the cheque I was so impressed by their kindness and sensitivity . I would hope and pray , and I have no doubt , that they will be a huge success for years to come . " Hot Press reported that the show raised € 20 @,@ 285 and the day Centre received a further € 225 @,@ 000 due to the awareness raised .
= = = Field Recordings = = =
On 8 May 2012 , Bell X1 announced that they would be releasing a two @-@ disc collection of 21 live acoustic tracks & photographs titled Field Recordings . The recordings and photographs were captured by the band 's longtime engineer Phil Hayes . Field Recordings was only made available via the groups web shop and all physical editions quickly sold out .
= = = Chop Chop = = =
On 8 January 2013 , RTÉ announced that the band had begun work on a new album at Tarquin Studios in Bridgeport , CT with the longtime Producer of The National , Peter Katis & Thomas Bartlett from The Gloaming . On 19 February the band revealed on their website the name of the album : Chop Chop , and their intention to release it in Ireland on 28 June with a Premiere show at The National Concert Hall to follow on 29 June . Reviews for the album were strong . In a 5 star review , The Independent ( UK ) said " they 've created a wholly originally sound " . Other significant reviews included Q Magazine who referred to the album as : " a more stately , echo @-@ laden place .... hushed and expansive " , Magnet : " 4 Stars - a riveting album that finds Bell X1 pushing its established aesthetics in admirably new directions " , Mojo : " 4 Stars - " oozes zest and focus " , Irish Times : " 4 Stars - " the best album of their career -a superb album this way comes " , USA Today : " Stunner " , Express ( UK ) " 5 Stars - yes , its that good " & Daily Metro : " 5 Stars -they push things further than ever . " Chop Chop was Bell X1 's 3rd album to debut at No.1 in the Irish Charts & 4th album to be nominated for a Meteor Choice Music Prize for album of the year .
= = = Arms = = =
'Arms ' is the seventh studio album releasing in October 2016 . The album 's first commercial single release is ' The Upswing ' . On July 6 , 2016 ' Out of Love ' was released .
= = Style = =
The BBC has described Bell X1 's music as " remarkably warm — as if imported from the Caribbean via Dublin City " . Their style is said to be similar to that of Talking Heads , a fact noted by Noonan on the press release which accompanied their fourth album — " I know , I know [ ... ] it 's dangerously Talking Heads " . Noonan admitted in 2003 that he had been influenced by the music of Talking Heads and The Flaming Lips . The New York Times has compared Bell X1 to Radiohead , saying , " Paul Noonan 's writing will make you swoon " , while the Irish Independent 's Ed Power describes them as " Ireland 's pre @-@ eminent orchestral rockers " though " none of the band fit the stereotype of the debauched rocker " . John Meagher name @-@ checked Pink Floyd , Radiohead , Talking Heads and early U2 after witnessing a performance in the RDS in 2006 .
The Sunday Tribune 's Neil Dunphy has compared their sound to krautrock , new wave The Irish Independent 's Eamon Sweeney described one show where " two songs in and we 're already enjoying pleasing echoes of Radiohead and Animal Collective " . '
The band and individual band members have been involved in several charitable endeavours , including the recording of The Cake Sale and Sparks n ' Mind compilation albums .
= = Members = =
= = = Current = = =
Paul Noonan – lead vocals ; guitar ; drums ; percussion ; kazoo
David Geraghty – lead guitar ; banjo ; ( electric ) piano ; backing vocals ; occasional lead vocals
Dominic Philips – bass guitar ; backing vocals
= = = Live = = =
Bill Blackmore – Horns
Marc Aubele – guitar ; keyboards ( 2008 – present )
Rory Doyle – drums ( 2008 – present )
= = = Former = = =
Brian Crosby – guitar , keyboards and backing vocals ( 1999 – 2008 )
Tim O 'Donovan – drums
= = Discography = =
Neither Am I ( 2000 )
Music in Mouth ( 2003 )
Flock ( 2005 )
Tour De Flock ( 2007 )
Blue Lights on the Runway ( 2009 )
Bloodless Coup ( 2011 )
Field Recordings ( 2012 )
Chop Chop ( 2013 )
Arms ( 2016 )
= = Awards = =
The Irish Times placed Bell X1 at number nine in a list of " The 50 Best Irish Acts Right Now " published in April 2009 , referring to them as " Irish rock 's most likeable band ? Probably " and " An all @-@ too obvious liking for Talking Heads notwithstanding ( e.g. , single " The Great Defector " ) , it seems that Bell X1 are refusing to give up . Likeable guys getting ruthless on our asses ? Bring It On " .
= = = Choice Music Prize = = =
Bell X1 's third album Flock was nominated for the Choice Music Prize in January 2006 . It was considered the favourite but failed to win .
The band 's fourth album Blue Lights on the Runway was nominated for the Choice Music Prize in January 2010 .
Bloodless Coup was nominated for the Choice Music Prize in January 2012 .
" Chop Chop " was nominated for the Choice Music Prize in January 2014 .
= = = Meteor Music Awards = = =
Bell X1 have been nominated for several Meteor Music Awards . They were nominated in the Best Irish Band category and Music in Mouth was nominated in the Best Irish Album category at the 2004 Meteor Awards . They were again nominated in the Best Irish Band category at the 2005 Meteor Awards .
They were nominated in three categories at the 2010 Meteor Awards : Best Irish Album , Best Irish Band and Best Irish Live Performance .
In addition the band have performed at the 2005 Meteor Awards on 24 February 2005 and at the 2006 Meteor Awards on 2 February 2006 .
= Potbelly sculpture =
Potbelly sculptures , ( Spanish barrigones pl. or barrigón sing . ) , are in @-@ the @-@ round sculptures of obese human figures carved from boulders . They are a distinctive element of the sculptural tradition in the southern Maya area of Mesoamerica . The precise purpose of potbelly sculptures is unknown , although they appear to have been the focus of public veneration and ritual directed by the ruling elite . Although this sculptural tradition is found within the southern Maya area , it has been recognized that the sculptures themselves are non @-@ Maya .
= = Description = =
Potbelly monuments are generally crude in @-@ the @-@ round sculptures of extremely fat human figures ; they are usually seated cross @-@ legged and have enormous swollen stomachs gripped in the figure 's arms and legs . The heads are round and normally have the eyes closed and possess puffy eyelids and prominent lips . The monuments are generally of indeterminate gender and are usually carved from porphyritic basalt , a kind of rock with a combination of large and small grains of mineral that is common along the foothills of Central America . There are occasional examples of potbelly figures crafted from other materials , such as from ceramic or from other types of rock .
There are variations on the potbelly theme including complete potbelly sculptures , headless potbellies , some of which may be deliberately headless , and potbelly sculptures that consist of only a bodiless head that are recognised as belonging to the style even though they have no potbelly body . Some potbelly sculptures are wearing collars or clothing while others are apparently naked . There are examples with very prominent navels while other sculptures have no emphasis on the navel at all . Some examples of potbelly sculpture have chest ornaments and some sculptures are seated on pedestals . There are examples of potbelly sculptures corresponding to the general type that are not so fat as is the norm .
Potbelly sculptures vary enormously in size and weight , from the smallest examples that can weigh as little as a few grams and measure 4 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) to monuments that weigh 12 tons and measure 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) .
= = Dating = =
The dating of potbelly sculptures has been problematic with few of the earlier known sculptures being found in their original context . Investigators from the 1950s through to the 1970s argued that the style was Olmec derived or perhaps pre @-@ Olmec . Olmec culture is judged to have lasted from 1500 BC through to 400 BC based on radiocarbon dating . Investigations at Santa Leticia were focused on answering the dating problem and securely dated Santa Leticia Monuments 1 and 3 to between 500 BC and AD 100 using a combination of radiocarbon dating and ceramic evidence .
The dating of the monuments to the Late Preclassic indicate that the potbelly style may be a later derivative of earlier Olmec colossal heads , although it does not answer the question of the ethnicity of the sculptors . Potbelly monuments were sometimes reused by later peoples in the region , such as at Sin Cabezas , Copán and Teopán . Arguing against the theory of potbelly sculpture being an Olmec influenced art form is that the direction of diffusion of the style appears to have been from south to north , while the Olmec heartland lies to the north , on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico , which would indicate an expected diffusion from north to south if the Olmecs were indeed the origin of the style .
= = Interpretation = =
Potbelly sculptures have been interpreted in a variety of manners . Investigators have theorised that potbelly sculptures represent dead ancestors . Alternatively , they have been associated with babies or with the poorly understood Fat God of Mesoamerican mythology . Potbelly monuments have also been associated with a group of supernatural entities associated with the domestic hearth . A further interpretation , based on the sculpture found at Teopán in western El Salvador , interprets potbelly figures as pregnant women at full term , possibly in the very act of giving birth .
One theory is that the sculptures represent deceased individuals with bloated bodies , closed eyes , distended bellies and puffed out faces . The position of the limbs on some monuments , although following the natural contours of the boulder , give an impression of the position of corpses found in later Maya burial bundles . It is possible that Pasaco Monument 2 and the potbelly from San Juan Sacatepéquez portray the placement of a jade bead in the mouth of the sculpture . Although it has been suggested that the monuments themselves are burial markers , only three sculptures have been found directly associated with human remains . One of these is a ceramic potbelly from Colha in Belize , the others are from Chalchuapa and Kaminaljuyu . However , since most potbelly monuments were not found in their original locations it is impossible to know whether they originally served as burial markers .
An alternative interpretation of potbelly monuments is that they were representations of rulership . This is suggested by the body position represented in the sculptures , the type of adornment sometimes depicted on them , the pedestals on which they sometimes sit and the ceremonial sites where they are found as well as their locations within such sites . The potbelly body position is symbolic of rulership ; the figures are seated cross @-@ legged and with the arms wrapping the body or holding an object . Twenty @-@ five potbelly monuments are known to display a collar as neck jewellery , again suggestive of rulership . Pedestal bases are known from potbelly sculptures from Sin Cabezas , Antigua Guatemala , Kaminaljuyu , Santa Cruz del Quiché , Takalik Abaj , Tikal , Ujuxte , El Balsamo , Los Cerritos and La Nueva in Guatemala , Chalchuapa in El Salvador , and Copán in Honduras . This represents 42 % of sites with potbelly sculptures . If pedestals are equivalent to thrones then Bilbao Monument 58 is also relevant , which was found associated with a four @-@ legged stone altar or throne and may originally have been positioned on top of it .
The diversity of monuments falling within the potbelly sculptural tradition and the individuality of the monuments support the argument that the monuments represent individual rulers . The monuments may have been viewed by the ancient peoples of the region as a depiction of both rulership and their ancestors .
= = Distribution = =
Potbelly sculptures are distributed along the Pacific slope of southern Mesoamerica from Chiapas in Mexico , through Guatemala to El Salvador , as well as in the Guatemalan highlands . A few examples have been found further afield in the Maya lowlands of Guatemala and Honduras . A ceramic potbelly figure was found as far away as Colha in northern Belize and has been dated to c.880 – 600 BC , in the Middle Preclassic .
The core of the distribution area falls within a humid piedmont zone with the land consisting of volcanic soil and rubble carried down from the mountains , with naturally occurring basalt boulders of varying sizes that provided a practical raw material for sculpture . Potbelly sculptures are found in prominent ceremonial centres .
= = = Chiapas ( Mexico ) = = =
= = = Guatemala = = =
Examples have been found at many sites on the Pacific coast of Guatemala including Takalik Abaj , Monte Alto , Bilbao and El Baúl . The earliest examples of potbellied monuments have been dated to the Middle Preclassic , with the majority dating to the Late Preclassic .
Well @-@ preserved examples of Late Preclassic potbelly sculptures have been found at Bilbao , on the coastal plain , and at Kaminaljuyu in the Guatemalan highlands . A small potbelly monument has been found at the major Maya city of Tikal in the lowlands of Petén in Guatemala .
There is some variation in the exact features , those at Kaminaljuyu have fat bodies with short , thick necks and large heads , sometimes wearing a wide collar . The faces are depicted with incised lines and are heavy and coarse . The legs curve around the body parallel to the ground and the arms are clasped against the torso with the elbows bent . Kaminaljuyu has the greatest concentration of potbelly sculptures in any site , with several of them found concentrated in the Palangana monument plaza .
Large potbelly monuments have been found at Giralda , a site 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) from the Pacific coastline .
Potbelly sculptures from Sin Cabezas are stylistically related to Olmec sculpture but were reused by later peoples , being found in fill dating to the Late Classic period . The monuments at Sin Cabezas were headless when they were found and no fragments of the missing heads were evident , suggesting that they had already been damaged when they were re @-@ erected by later occupants of the site .
At Takalik Abaj the potbelly style monuments all date to the Late Preclassic . Stylistically , the monuments are very similar to those of Kaminaljuyu and Monte Alto . Seven monuments are potbelly sculptures ( Monuments 2 , 3 , 19 , 40 , 69 , 94 and 117 ) , six of these represent complete figures . Three monuments are small potbelly sculptures ( Monuments 100 , 107 and 109 ) and one sculpture is a colossal head in potbelly style ( Monument 99 ) .
One potbelly sculpture was found in Chocolá , Guatemala .
= = = Honduras = = =
At Copán in Honduras , another important Maya site , archaeologists found a potbelly sculpture on top of the Northwest Platform , to the west of the Great Plaza . Another was found in a cache under Stela 4 . Further potbelly monuments have been found in caches under Late Classic stelae in the Great Plaza itself and throughout the Copán valley .
= = = El Salvador = = =
A small example excavated from underneath the Late Preclassic levels of Structure E3 @-@ 1 at Chalchuapa in El Salvador may date to the Middle Preclassic . Three potbelly monuments were found resting on a large terrace in Santa Leticia in El Salvador , a site near Chalchuapa consisting of various mounds and platforms . These monuments were large and especially obese . Santa Leticia Monuments 1 and 3 were important in securely dating the potbelly style of sculpture . The El Salvador potbellies conform to the Monte Alto style of boulder sculpture .
In Chalchuapa , potbelly monuments were grouped in the El Trapiche ceremonial centre .
Santa Leticia Monument 1 is a nearly spherical potbelly sculpture and the smallest of the three potbelly monuments at the site , measuring 1 @.@ 6 metres ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) high . Monument 2 is a massive 2 @-@ metre ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) high potbelly that has been split in half down the middle . Monument 3 is a finely carved potbelly figure with stylistic affinities to some of the sculptures found at Monte Alto in Guatemala , it measures 1 @.@ 8 metres ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) high . All three sculptures measured 1 @.@ 5 to 2 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 to 6 @.@ 6 ft ) in height and diameter . The monuments were arranged in a north @-@ south line on a 70 @-@ metre ( 230 ft ) wide terrace projecting from a hill , Cerrito de Apaneca .
The Teopán potbelly clearly represents a female figure and has been interpreted as the sculpture of a Late Preclassic earth goddess . Teopán itself is a small site located on an island in Lake Coatepeque in western El Salvador . The site has been identified as that of Late Preclassic Maya settlement . Although the Teopán sculpture has typical Monte Alto @-@ style traits such as closed puffy eyes , no neck , wrap @-@ around arms , a clearly marked naval and grooves forming portions of the nose and mouth , it also includes some unusual features such as clearly indicated breasts , wide hips , buttocks and a 10 @-@ centimetre ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) concavity below the legs . The closed eyelids were later re @-@ carved with the addition of two irregular oval concavities in order to represent open eyes , probably in the Postclassic Period . The Teopán potbelly is likely to be the idol mentioned by Spanish Colonial official Diego García de Palacio in a letter written in 1576 , in which he mentions that the Pipil natives on the island worshipped " a large stone idol in the form of a woman " .
= Japanese battleship Kongō =
Kongō ( 金剛 , " Indestructible " , named for Mount Kongō ) was a warship of the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War I and World War II . She was the first battlecruiser of the Kongō class , among the most heavily armed ships in any navy when built . Her designer was the British naval engineer George Thurston , and she was laid down in 1911 at Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness in Britain by Vickers Shipbuilding Company . Kongō was the last Japanese capital ship constructed outside Japan . She was formally commissioned in 1913 , and patrolled off the Chinese coast during World War I.
Kongō underwent two major reconstructions . Beginning in 1929 , the Imperial Japanese Navy rebuilt her as a battleship , strengthening her armor and improving her speed and power capabilities . In 1935 , her superstructure was completely rebuilt , her speed was increased , and she was equipped with launch catapults for floatplanes . Now fast enough to accompany Japan 's growing carrier fleet , Kongō was reclassified as a fast battleship . During the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War , Kongō operated off the coast of mainland China before being redeployed to the Third Battleship Division in 1941 . In 1942 , she sailed as part of the Southern Force in preparation for the Battle of Singapore .
Kongō fought in a large number of major naval actions of the Pacific War during World War II . She covered the Japanese Army 's amphibious landings in British Malaya ( part of present @-@ day Malaysia ) and the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) in 1942 , before engaging American forces at the Battle of Midway and during the Guadalcanal Campaign . Throughout 1943 , Kongō primarily remained at Truk Lagoon in the Caroline Islands , Kure Naval Base ( near Hiroshima ) , Sasebo Naval Base ( near Nagasaki ) , and Lingga Roads , and deployed several times in response to American aircraft carrier air raids on Japanese island bases scattered across the Pacific . Kongō participated in the Battle of the Philippine Sea and the Battle of Leyte Gulf in 1944 ( 22 – 23 October ) , engaging and sinking American vessels in the latter . Kongō was torpedoed and sunk by the submarine USS Sealion while transiting the Formosa Strait on 21 November 1944 . She was the only Japanese battleship sunk by submarine in the Second World War , and the last battleship sunk by submarine in history .
= = Design and construction = =
Kongō was the first of the Imperial Japanese Navy 's Kongō @-@ class battlecruisers , which were almost as large , costly and well @-@ armed as battleships , but which traded off armored protection for higher speeds . These were designed by the British naval engineer George Thurston and were ordered in 1910 in the Japanese Emergency Naval Expansion Bill after the commissioning of HMS Invincible in 1908 . These four battlecruisers of the Kongō class were designed to match the naval capabilities of the battlecruisers of the other major naval powers at the time , and they have been called the battlecruiser versions of the British ( formerly Turkish ) battleship HMS Erin . Their heavy armament of 14 @-@ inch naval guns and their armor protection ( which took up about 23 @.@ 3 % of their approximately 30 @,@ 000 @-@ ton displacements in 1913 ) were greatly superior to those of any other Japanese capital ship afloat at the time .
The keel of Kongō was laid down at Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness by Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineering on 17 January 1911 . Under Japan 's contract with Vickers , the first vessel of the class was constructed in the United Kingdom , with the remainder built in Japan . Kongō was launched on 18 May 1912 , and then transferred to the dockyards of Portsmouth , England , where her fitting @-@ out began in mid @-@ 1912 . All parts used in her construction were manufactured in the U.K. Kongo was completed on 16 April 1913 .
= = = Armament = = =
Kongō 's main battery consisted of eight 14 @-@ inch ( 36 cm ) heavy @-@ caliber main naval guns in four twin turrets ( two forward and two aft ) . The turrets were noted by the U.S. Office of Naval Intelligence to be " similar to the British 15 @-@ inch turrets " , with improvements made in flash @-@ tightness . Each of her main guns could fire high explosive or armor @-@ piercing shells 38 @,@ 770 yards ( 19 @.@ 14 nmi ; 35 @.@ 45 km ) at a firing rate of about two shells per minute . In keeping with the Japanese doctrine of deploying more powerful vessels before their opponents , Kongō and her sister ships were the first vessels in the world equipped with 14 @-@ inch ( 36 cm ) guns . Her main guns carried ammunition for 90 shots , and they had an approximate barrel lifetime of 250 to 280 shots . In 1941 , separate dyes were introduced for the armor @-@ piercing shells of the four Kongō @-@ class battleships to assist with targeting , with Kongō 's armor @-@ piercing shells using red dye .
The secondary battery of Kongō originally consisted of sixteen 6 @-@ inch ( 15 cm ) 50 caliber guns in single casemates located amidships ( " 50 calibre " means that the lengths of the guns were 50 times their bore , or 300 inches ) , eight 3 @-@ inch ( 7 @.@ 6 cm ) guns , and eight submerged 21 @-@ inch ( 53 cm ) torpedo tubes . Her six @-@ inch naval guns could fire five to six rounds per minute , with a barrel lifetime of about 500 rounds . The 6 @-@ inch / 50 calibre gun was capable of firing both antiaircraft and antiship shells , though the positioning of these guns on Kongō made antiaircraft firing mostly impractical . During her second reconstruction , the older three @-@ inch guns were removed and then replaced with eight 5 @-@ inch ( 13 cm ) 5 @-@ inch / 40 calibre dual @-@ purpose guns . These guns could fire from eight to 14 rounds per minute , with a barrel lifetime of about 800 to 1 @,@ 500 rounds . Of Kongō 's guns , the 5 @-@ inch guns had the widest variety of shell types : antiaircraft , antiship , and illumination shells . Kongō was also armed with a large number of 1 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 5 cm ) antiaircraft machine guns . By October 1944 , Kongō 's secondary armament was reconfigured to eight 6 @-@ inch ( 15 cm ) guns , eight 5 @-@ inch ( 13 cm ) guns , and 122 Type 96 antiaircraft rapid @-@ fire cannons .
= = Service history = =
= = = 1913 – 1929 : Battlecruiser = = =
On 16 August 1913 , Kongō was completed and commissioned into the Imperial Japanese Navy ( I.J.N. ) . Twelve days later , she departed from Portsmouth headed for Japan . She was docked at Singapore from 20 October to 27 October , before arriving at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal on 5 November , where she was placed in First Reserve . In January 1914 , she docked at Kure Naval Base for armament checks . On 3 August 1914 , the German Empire declared war on France and then invaded via Belgium , sparking the beginning of World War I in the West . Twelve days later , Japan issued a warning to Kaiser Wilhelm II of the German Empire , ordering him to withdraw the German troops from their base at Tsingtao , China . When the German Empire did not respond , Japan declared war on Germany on 23 August , occupying the former German possessions in the Caroline Islands , Palau Islands , Marshall Islands , and Marianas Islands . Kongō was quickly deployed towards the Central Pacific to patrol the sea lines of communication of the German Empire . Kongō returned to the port of Yokosuka , Japan , on 12 September , and one month later , she was assigned to the First Battleship Division . In October , Kongō and her new sister ship Hiei sortied off the Chinese coast in support of Japanese army units during the Siege of Tsingtao . Then Kongō returned to Sasebo Naval Base for upgrades to her searchlights . On 3 October 1915 , Kongō and Hiei participated in the sinking of the old Imperator Nikolai I as a practice target . She was a Russian pre @-@ dreadnought that had been captured in 1905 during the Russo @-@ Japanese War that had next served as an I.J.N. warship . With the defeat of the German East Asia Squadron by the Royal Navy at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December 1914 , there was little or no need for I.J.N. operations in the Pacific Ocean . Kongō spent the rest of World War I either based at Sasebo , or on patrol off the coast of China . In December 1918 , following the end of the hostilities of World War I , Kongō was placed in " Second Reserve " . In April 1919 , she was fitted with a new seawater flooding system for her ammunition magazines .
With the conclusion of World War I , and the signing of the Washington Naval Treaty on 6 February 1922 , the size of the I.J.N. was significantly limited , with a ratio of 5 : 5 : 3 required between the capital ships of the United Kingdom , the United States , and the Japanese Empire , since the latter was only responsible for one ocean , rather than the two of the other country , and fewer warships for France and Italy . This Treaty also banned the signatories from building any new capital ships until 1931 , with no capital ship permitted to exceed 35 @,@ 000 long tons ( 36 @,@ 000 t ) in displacement . Provided that new additions did not exceed 3 @,@ 000 tons of displacement , the existing capital ships were allowed to be upgraded with improved anti @-@ torpedo bulges and armored main decks . By the time that the Washington Naval Treaty had been fully implemented in Japan , only three classes of World War I type capital ships remained active : the Ise @-@ class battleships , the Kongō @-@ class battlecruisers , and the Fusō @-@ class battleships .
In April 1923 , Kongō gave transportation to Emperor Hirohito during his official visit to the Japanese possession of Taiwan . In November 1924 , Kongo docked at Yokosuka , where modifications were made to her main armament , increasing the elevation of her main guns and improving her fire @-@ control systems . In 1927 , Kongō underwent major modifications to her superstructure , rebuilding it into the pagoda mast style to accommodate the growing number of fire @-@ control systems for her main guns . In May 1928 , her steering equipment was upgraded , before she was placed in reserve in preparation for major modifications and reconstruction in 1929 – 31 .
= = = 1929 – 1935 : Reconstruction into battleship = = =
Prohibited by the Washington Treaty from constructing new capital ships until 1931 , Japan resorted to upgrading their World War I era battleships and battlecruisers . Beginning in September 1929 , Kongō underwent extensive modernization and modification in drydock at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal . Over the next two years , Kongō 's horizontal armor near her ammunition magazines was strengthened , and the machinery spaces within the hull were given increased torpedo protection . Anti @-@ torpedo bulges were added along the waterline , as permitted by the Washington Treaty . She was refitted to accommodate three Type 90 Model 0 floatplanes , though no aircraft catapults were fitted . To increase her speed and power , all 36 of her Yarrow boilers were removed , and then replaced with 16 newer boilers , and Brown @-@ Curtis direct @-@ drive turbines were installed . Kongō 's forward funnel was removed , and her second funnel was enlarged and lengthened . The modifications to her hull increased her armor weight from 6 @,@ 502 to 10 @,@ 313 long tons , directly violating the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty . In March 1931 , Kongō — now capable of a speed of 29 knots ( 54 km / h ) — was reclassified as a battleship .
On 22 April 1930 , Japan signed the London Naval Treaty , placing further restrictions on the signatories ' naval forces . Several of her older battleships were scrapped , and no new capital ships were built as replacements . After minor fitting @-@ out work , Kongō 's reconstruction begun in September 1929 and was declared complete on 31 March 1931 . On 1 December 1931 , two months after the Japanese invasion of Manchuria , Kongō was assigned to the First Battleship Division and also designated the flagship of the Combined Fleet . Additional rangefinders and searchlights were fitted to her superstructure in January 1932 , and Captain Nobutake Kondō assumed command of the vessel in December . In 1933 , aircraft catapults were fitted between the two rear turrets .
On 25 February 1933 , following a report by the Lytton Commission , the League of Nations agreed that Japan 's invasion of China had violated Chinese sovereignty . Refusing to accept the judgement of this organization , Japan withdrew from the League of Nations on the same day . Japan also immediately withdrew from the Washington Naval Treaty and the London Naval Treaty , thus removing all restrictions on the numbers and sizes of her capital warships . In November 1934 , Kongō was placed in Second Reserve in preparation for further modifications . On 10 January 1935 , Kongō was toured by the Nazi German naval attaché to Japan , Captain Paul Wenneker , as part of a gunnery demonstration .
= = = 1935 – 1941 : Fast battleship = = =
On 1 June 1935 , Kongō was dry @-@ docked at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal in preparation for upgrades that would enable her to escort Japan 's growing fleet of aircraft carriers . Her stern was lengthened by 26 feet ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) to improve her fineness ratio and her 16 older boilers were removed and then replaced with 11 oil @-@ fired Kampon Boilers and newer geared turbines . In addition , her bridge was completely reconstructed according to Japan 's pagoda mast style of forward superstructure , and catapults were added to support three Nakajima E8N or Kawanishi E7K reconnaissance and spotter floatplanes .
Kongō 's armor was also extensively upgraded . Her main belt was strengthened to a uniform thickness of eight inches ( up from varying thicknesses of six to eight inches ) , and also diagonal bulkheads of depths ranging from 5 to 8 inches ( 127 to 203 mm ) were added to reinforce the main armored belt . The turret armor was strengthened to 10 inches ( 254 mm ) , while 4 inches ( 102 mm ) were added to portions of the deck armor . Kongō 's ammunition magazine protection was also strengthened to 4 @.@ 0 inches ( 10 cm ) . This reconstruction was finished on 8 January 1937 . Capable of greater than 30 knots ( 56 km / h ) , despite the significant increase in her hull displacement , Kongō was now reclassified as a fast battleship .
In February 1937 , Kongō was assigned to the Sasebo Naval District , and in December she was placed under the command of Takeo Kurita in the Third Battleship Division . In April 1938 , two float planes from Kongō bombed the Chinese town of Foochow during the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War . Throughout 1938 and 1939 , Kongō steamed off the Chinese coast in support of Japanese Army operations during the war . In November 1939 , Captain Raizo Tanaka assumed command of Kongō . From November 1940 to April 1941 , additional armor was added to Kongō 's armament barbettes and ammunition tubes , while ventilation and firefighting equipment was also improved . In August 1941 , she was assigned to the Third Battleship Division under the command of Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa alongside her fully modified sister warships Hiei , Kirishima and the Haruna .
= = = 1942 : Early war service = = =
Kongō and Haruna departed from the Hashirajima fleet anchorage on 29 November 1941 to begin the War in the Pacific as part of the Southern ( Malay ) Force 's Main Body , under the overall command of Vice @-@ Admiral Nobutake Kondō . On 4 December 1941 , the Main Body arrived off the coast of southern Thailand and northern Malaya in preparation for the invasion of Thailand and the Malayan Peninsula four days later . When Britain 's " Force Z " — consisting of the battleship Prince of Wales and the battlecruiser Repulse — was quickly defeated by Japan 's land @-@ based aircraft from southern Vietnam , Kongō 's battlegroup withdrew from Malayan waters . This battlegroup subsequently sortied from Indochina for three days in mid @-@ December to protect a reinforcement convoy traveling to Malaya , and again on 18 December to cover the Japanese Army 's landing at Lingayen Gulf , Luzon , in the Philippines . The Main Body departed Cam Ranh Bay in French Indochina on 23 December bound for Taiwan , arriving two days later . In January 1942 , Kongō and the heavy cruisers Takao and Atago provided distant cover for air attacks on Ambon Island .
On 21 February , Kongō was joined by Haruna , four fast aircraft carriers , five heavy cruisers and numerous support ships in preparation for " Operation J " , Japan 's invasion of the Dutch East Indies . On 25 February , the Third Battleship Division provided cover for air attacks on the Island of Java . Kongō bombarded Christmas Island off the western coast of Australia on 7 March 1942 , and then she returned to Staring @-@ baai for 15 days of standby alert . In April 1942 , Kongō joined five fleet carriers in attacks on Colombo and Trincomalee on Ceylon . Following the destruction of the British heavy cruisers HMS Dorsetshire and HMS Cornwall on 5 April 1942 , this naval task force moved southwest to locate the remainder of the British Eastern Fleet , then under the command of Admiral James Somerville . On 9 April , one of Haruna 's reconnaissance seaplanes spotted the aircraft carrier HMS Hermes south of Trincomalee . On the same day , Japanese air attacks sank the carrier , and Kongō was attacked but missed by nine British medium bombers . Having crippled the offensive capability of Britain 's Eastern Fleet , the Third Battleship Division returned to Japan . Kongō reached Sasebo on 22 April . From 23 April to 2 May , Kongō was drydocked for reconfiguration of her antiaircraft armament .
On 27 May 1942 , Kongō sortied with Hiei and the heavy cruisers Atago , Chōkai , Myōkō , and Haguro as part of Admiral Nobutake Kondō 's invasion force during the Battle of Midway . Following the disastrous loss of four of the Combined Fleet 's fast carriers on 4 June 1942 , Kondō 's force withdrew to Japan . On 14 July she was assigned as the flagship of the restructured Third Battleship Division . In August , Kongō was drydocked at Kure to receive surface @-@ detection radar and additional range finders . In September , Kongō embarked with Hiei , Haruna , Kirishima , three carriers , and numerous smaller warships in response to the U.S. Marine Corps 's amphibious landing on Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands . On 20 September , this task force was ordered to return to the Truk Naval Base in the Central Pacific north of the equator .
In the aftermath of the Battle of Cape Esperance , the Japanese Army opted to reinforce its troops on Guadalcanal . To protect their transport convoy from enemy air attack , Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto sent Haruna and Kongō , escorted by one light cruiser and nine destroyers , to bombard the American air base as Henderson Field . Because of their high speeds , these two battleships could bombard the airfield and then withdraw before being subjected to air attack from either land @-@ based warplanes or American aircraft carriers . On the night of 13 – 14 October , these two battleships shelled the area of Henderson Field from a distance of about 16 @,@ 000 yards ( 15 @,@ 000 m ) , firing 973 14 @-@ inch high @-@ explosive shells . In the most successful Japanese battleship action of the war , the bombardment heavily damaged both runways , destroyed almost all of the U.S. Marines ' aviation fuel , destroyed or damaged 48 of the Marines ' 90 warplanes , and killed 41 Marines . A large Japanese troop and supply convoy reached Guadalcanal on the next day .
During the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands on 26 October 1942 , Kongō was attacked by four Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers , but she received no hits . In mid @-@ November , this battleship and other warships provided distant cover for the unsuccessful mission by the I.J.N. to bombard Henderson Field again and to deliver more Army reinforcements to Guadalcanal . On 15 November 1942 , following the Japanese defeat and the sinking of Hiei and Kirishima during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal , the Third Battleship Division returned to Truk , where it remained for the rest of 1942 .
= = = 1943 : Movement between bases = = =
Throughout 1943 , Kongō engaged no enemy targets . In late January 1943 , she participated in " Operation Ke " as part of a diversionary and distant covering force to support I.J.N. destroyers that were evacuating Army troops from Guadalcanal . From 15 February through 20 February 1943 , the Third Battleship Division was transferred from Truk to the Kure Naval Base . On 27 February , Kongō was drydocked to receive upgrades to her antiaircraft armament , with the additions of two triple 25 mm gun mounts and the removal of two of her 6 @-@ inch turrets , while additional concrete protection was added near her steering gear . On 17 May 1943 , in response to the U.S. Army 's invasion of Attu Island , Kongō sortied alongside Musashi , the Third Battleship Division , two fleet carriers , two cruisers , and nine destroyers . Three days later , the American submarine USS Sawfish spotted this naval task force , but she was unable to attack it . On 22 May 1943 , the task force arrived in Yokosuka , where it was joined by an additional three fleet carriers and two light cruisers . This force was disbanded when Attu fell to the U.S. Army before the necessary preparations for a counterattack had been finished .
On 17 October 1943 , Kongō again left Truk as part of a larger task force consisting of five battleships , three fleet carriers , eight heavy cruisers , three light cruisers , and numerous destroyers . These sortied in response to U.S. Navy air raids on Wake Island . No contact between the two forces was made , and the Japanese task force returned to Truk on 26 October 1943 . She soon left Truk for home waters , and on 16 December 1943 , Kongō arrived at Sasebo for refits and training in the Inland Sea .
= = = 1944 : Combat and loss = = =
In January 1944 , Kongō was dry @-@ docked for a reconfiguration of her anti @-@ aircraft suite . Four 6 @-@ inch guns and a pair of twin 25 mm mounts were removed and replaced with four 5 @-@ inch guns and four triple 25 mm mounts . The Third Battleship Division departed Kure on 8 March 1944 . Arriving at Lingga on 14 March 1944 , the division remained for training until 11 May 1944 . On 11 May 1944 , Kongō and Admiral Ozawa 's Mobile Fleet departed Lingga for Tawitawi , where they were joined by Vice @-@ Admiral Takeo Kurita 's " Force C " . On 13 June , Ozawa 's Mobile Fleet departed Tawitawi for the Mariana Islands . During the Battle of the Philippine Sea , Kongō escorted Japanese fast carriers , and remained undamaged in counterattacks from US carrier aircraft on 20 June . When she returned to Japan , 13 triple and 40 single 25 @-@ mm mounts were added to her anti @-@ aircraft armament , for a total of over 100 mounts . In August , two more 6 @-@ inch guns were removed and another eighteen single mounts installed .
In October 1944 , Kongō departed Lingga in preparation for " Operation Sho @-@ 1 " , Japan 's counterattack during the Battle of Leyte Gulf , the largest naval engagement in history . On 24 October , Kongō was undamaged by several near misses from American carrier aircraft in the Battle of the Sibuyan Sea . On 25 October , during the Battle off Samar , Kongō — as part of Admiral Kurita 's Centre Force — engaged the US 7th Fleet 's " Taffy 3 " , a battlegroup of escort carriers and destroyers . She succeeded in scoring numerous hits on the escort carrier Gambier Bay as well as the destroyers Hoel and Heermann . At 09 : 12 , she sank the destroyer escort Samuel B. Roberts . After a fierce defensive action by the American ships , which sank three Japanese heavy cruisers , Admiral Kurita elected to withdraw , ending the battle . While retreating , Kongō suffered damage from five near misses from attacking aircraft . The fleet arrived at Brunei on 28 October .
On 16 November , following a US air raid on Brunei , Kongō along with Yamato , Nagato and the rest of the First Fleet , departed Brunei for Kure in preparation for a major reorganization of the fleet and battle repairs . On 20 November , they entered the Formosa Strait . Shortly after midnight on 21 November , the submarine USS Sealion made radar contact with the fleet at 44 @,@ 000 yards ( 40 @,@ 000 m ) . Maneuvering into position at 02 : 45 , Sealion fired six bow torpedoes at Kongō followed by three stern torpedoes at Nagato fifteen minutes later . One minute after the first salvo was launched , two of the torpedoes were seen to hit Kongō on the port side , while a third sank the destroyer Urakaze with all hands . The torpedoes flooded two of Kongō 's boiler rooms , but she was still able to make 16 kn ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . By 05 : 00 , she had slowed to 11 kn ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) and was given permission to break off from the fleet and head to the port of Keelung in Formosa along with the destroyers Hamakaze and Isokaze as escort .
Within fifteen minutes of detaching from the main force , Kongō was listing 45 degrees and flooding uncontrollably . At 5 : 18 the ship lost all power and the order was given to abandon ship . At 5 : 24 , while the evacuation was underway , the forward 14 @-@ inch magazine exploded and the broken ship sank quickly with the loss of over 1 @,@ 200 of her crew including the commander of the Third Battleship Division and her captain . The escort destroyers Hamakaze and Isokaze rescued 237 survivors .
Kongō is believed to have sunk in 350 feet ( 110 m ) of water approximately 55 nautical miles ( 102 km ; 63 mi ) northwest of Keelung . She was one of only three British @-@ built battleships sunk by submarine attack during World War II . The other two were the British Revenge @-@ class battleship HMS Royal Oak and the Queen Elizabeth @-@ class battleship HMS Barham .
= Tropical Storm Dean ( 1995 ) =
Tropical Storm Dean was a short @-@ lived storm that formed in late July 1995 and lasted into early August . It was the fourth named storm of the 1995 Atlantic hurricane season . It spent most of its life as a tropical depression , and briefly gained tropical storm status before its landfall on the Texas coast on July 30 . After landfall , it dissipated over central Texas on August 2 . The impacts from Dean were minimal , mainly due to heavy rain in Oklahoma and Texas that caused localized coastal and inland flooding . Two F0 Tornadoes touched down in Texas as a result of Dean 's landfall . Also , Twenty families had to be evacuated in Chambers County , due to flooding in the area . One fatality was recorded as a result of flooding in Oklahoma . Several highways were flooded out in Oklahoma , which impeded travel in the state . In addition approximately $ 500 @,@ 000 ( 1995 U.S. dollars ) worth of damage was recorded in the aftermath of Dean .
= = Meteorological history = =
The precursor system that would form Dean was a stationary front situated in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico in the last week of July . On July 27 , it developed a weak upper @-@ level circulation indicated by reports from buoys in the Gulf , its structure was disorganized but was in the process of organizing . The system continued to organize early on July 28 , and that afternoon it developed a surface circulation . The tropical depression that spawned Dean was thought to have formed at around 1800 UTC , July 28 . It was later declared Tropical Depression Four that same day with the center located about 345 miles ( 555 km ) southeast of New Orleans .
At first , the depression slowly tracked westward because it was blocked by a ridge of high pressure to the north . The system was under frequent reconnaissance surveillance , and the depression remained poorly organized and continued to be at tropical depression status well into 29 July . The organization of the system hindered further development despite favorable conditions with low wind shear and warm sea surface temperatures . Late on July 29 , the system began to execute a turn to the northwest with an increase in forward speed . It still remained a poorly organized tropical depression south of Louisiana .
On July 30 , the system 's circulation began to organize and the first reports of tropical storm @-@ force squalls were reported as it moved closer to the Texas coast . Based on this the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) issued tropical storm warnings for much of the Texas and Louisiana coast , from Intracoastal City , Louisiana to Corpus Christi , Texas . Later that afternoon it strengthened into Tropical Storm Dean while located just 70 mi ( 110 km ) off the coast . The Hurricane Hunters confirmed that Dean strengthened in the final hours before its landfall on the Texas coast to a 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) storm , and made landfall near Freeport , Texas at 8 : 30 pm CDT ( 0130 UTC ) July 31 . Shortly after its landfall , Dean weakened back to tropical depression strength as it tracked further northwest into Texas . The depression stalled in central Texas on August 1 and remained there for 36 hours until the next day , dropping heavy rain over parts of the state . Late on August 2 , it merged with a non @-@ tropical front and dissipated .
The remnants of Dean eventually moved up into Oklahoma , where it caused heavy rainfall , forcing roads to close and rescues to be made . Dean also dropped heavy rain across the Midwest states as well . Some areas in Kansas received more than seven inches of rain . Illinois , Missouri , and Indiana each had areas that received more than 5 inches ( 127 mm ) of rain from Dean .
= = Preparations = =
Because of Dean 's proximity to land upon formation , there was little warning in advance of the storm . Tropical storm warnings were issued at 0300 UTC on July 30 from Intracoastal City , Louisiana to Corpus Christi , Texas . The warnings were up for 23 hours before landfall , and were allowed to expire at 0300 UTC July 31 .
= = Impact = =
Most of the damage from Dean was concentrated in the states of Texas and Oklahoma . The damage , if any , was mainly due to the heavy rain across both states . The total cost of the damage totaled to $ 500 @,@ 000 ( 1995 USD ; $ 707 @,@ 000 2008 USD ) .
= = = Texas = = =
In Texas , most of the damage was due to inland flooding . Heavy rainfall of 6 to 18 inches ( 150 to 450 mm ) was reported across a large swath of Texas . The heaviest measured amount was 17 @.@ 4 inches ( 426 mm ) near Monroe City , Texas . Rainfall amounts of two to six inches were common throughout the eastern part of the state . In total , 38 houses were flooded in southeast Texas . The freshwater flooding resulted in the evacuation of 20 families in Chambers County . 250 people had to evacuate from their homes near Abilene , Texas due to floodwater . The storm surge impacts were fairly minor , ranging from 3 to 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 8 m ) above mean sea level . A portion of State Highway 87 was flooded from the storm surge , although no significant property damage was reported as a result of it . Minor beach erosion and street flooding was also reported on Galveston Island . The highest wind gust on land was 51 mph ( 82 km / h ) at Scholes Field . There were two tornadoes confirmed as a result of Dean . One touched down on High Island in Galveston County , and the other touched down near Anahuac . Both tornadoes were rated as F0 on the Fujita scale , with minor damage .
= = = Oklahoma = = =
Oklahoma also saw heavy rain as well from the remnants of Dean . Over 5 inches ( 130 mm ) of rain fell in the town of Stillwater , and the highest amount , 12 @.@ 07 inches ( 307 mm ) , was recorded at Great Salt Plains Dam , Oklahoma . Over 40 homes were flooded in the area by the heavy rain , and about 24 cars were found stranded in high water . Thunderstorms , associated with Dean 's remnants , dumped heavy rain across the state , resulting in flash flooding in many areas . The flooding , in many areas , made travel near impossible . U.S Highway 62 in Jackson County and Highway 5 in Harmon County were both closed due to flash flooding covering their roadways . State Highway 51 was under 1 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 46 m ) of water at times . Several other roads remained flooded and closed for several days after the arrival of Dean 's remnants . One death , a small child , was reported in Hardeman County after the child had been swept away by flood waters .
= = = Rest of the United States = = =
Other parts of the U.S. received significant rainfall from Dean . Heavy rain was recorded in Louisiana , where 7 @.@ 04 inches ( 17 @.@ 9 cm ) of rain fell in Galliano . Coden , Alabama received 6 @.@ 42 inches ( 163 mm ) of rain , and Waveland , Mississippi got 5 @.@ 84 inches ( 148 mm ) of rain . Dean cut a swath of heavy rain throughout the Midwest : Kansas , Missouri , Illinois , Indiana , and Michigan were primarily effected . Florida received heavy rainfall as well , with some areas in Central Florida getting as much as five inches of rain .
= Vogel State Park =
Vogel State Park is a 233 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 94 km2 ) or 94 hectares state park located at the base of Blood Mountain in the Chattahoochee National Forest . It became one of the first two parks in Georgia when it founded a state park system in 1931 . Much of the park was constructed by the Civilian Conservation Corps during the 1930s .
The park features streams , a waterfall , and Lake Trahlyta . At 2 @,@ 500 feet ( 760 m ) elevation it is one of Georgia 's highest altitude state parks . The mountainous habitats surrounding the lake support a wide assortment of plants and animals .
Within the park are a series of hiking trails . These include the Bear Hair Gap Trail and the more strenuous Coosa Backcountry Trail , which leads up toward Blood Mountain and the Appalachian Trail near Neal 's Gap . Vogel Park features camping sites , cabins , swimming , boating and other recreational activities .
= = Description and history = =
Vogel State Park is located 11 miles ( 18 km ) south of Blairsville on US Highway 19 in the north Georgia mountains . At nearly 2 @,@ 500 feet ( 760 m ) altitude , Vogel State Park is usually cool during the summer months , and is one of Georgia 's most popular state parks . Vogel features hiking trails , cabins and a 20 @-@ acre ( 81 @,@ 000 m2 ) pond known as Lake Trahlyta , which was created when the Civilian Conservation Corps dammed Wolf Creek . The lake is named for Trahlyta , a Cherokee maiden who is buried a few miles from the park at Stonepile Gap . The Corps workers , located at the CCC Camp at Goose Creek just north of the park , also built the first cabins , picnic areas and camping grounds at Vogel .
Vogel is Georgia 's second oldest state park . The land comprising the park was donated to the state in 1927 by August H. Vogel and Fred Vogel , Jr. of Milwaukee , Wisconsin . The two were heirs to the Pfister & Vogel Leather Company , a Wisconsin tannery founded by Frederick Vogel . The Vogel family harvested bark from oak and hemlock trees located on thousands of acres they owned in North Georgia . The bark was shipped to Wisconsin and used by the company for tanning leather . During World War I , a synthetic method to tan leather was developed so there was no further need for the north Georgia resources . The Vogels gave their land to Georgia to create the state park .
Vogel State Park Lake Dam , also known as Lake Trahlyta Dam , is a 52 @-@ foot ( 16 m ) high earthen embankment . The 600 @-@ foot ( 180 m ) long dam has a maximum discharge of 2 @,@ 447 cubic feet ( 69 @.@ 3 m3 ) per second . Its capacity is 522 acre feet ( 644 @,@ 000 m3 ) , although its normal storage is 210 acre feet ( 260 @,@ 000 m3 ) . It drains an area of 1 @,@ 638 acres ( 663 ha ) .
= = Facilities and activities = =
Vogel State Park hosts a variety of outdoor activities , including camping , hiking , backpacking , boating , fishing and swimming . The park includes 103 tent , trailer and RV sites for camping , 18 walk @-@ in campsites , and 35 cottages . About 95 of the camping sites contain electrical hookups and water . Also on site are four picnic shelters and a group camping facility , a pioneer campground , backwoods primitive campground areas and hot showers .
The centerpiece of the park is Lake Trahlyta . The lake has a swimming beach and boat launch for non @-@ motorized watercraft , and offers seasonal rentals for pedal boats , kayaks , and paddle boards . It contains bass and bream and is stocked periodically during each trout season with about 5 @,@ 000 trout . Also at the park are a general store , miniature golf course and a Civilian Conservation Corps museum .
= = = Hiking = = =
The park features four hiking trails , covering a wide variety of conditions , forest habitats and difficulties . These include the moderate difficulty 4 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) -long Bear Hair Gap Trail marked by green blazes . It begins and ends in Vogel , although most of the trail loops through the Chattahoochee National Forest . The park also features a 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) Trahlyta Lake Loop Trail and the Byron Herbert Reese Nature Trail ( .8 miles ) .
Also in the park is the Coosa Backcountry Trail , a strenuous 12 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 20 @.@ 1 km ) loop which climbs Coosa Bald and Slaughter Mountain . The trail is marked with green blazes and is generally easy to follow . It fords streams on its lower segments before ascending Duncan 's Ridge near the summit of Coosa Bald at over 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) elevation , where it joins the Duncan Ridge Trail . The joined trail then makes a descent , then climbs slightly to the summit of Wildcat Knob , then descends to Wolfpen Gap where it crosses State Route 180 . Across Wolfpen Gap , the trail makes a steep ascent up Slaughter Mountain , then descends to Slaughter Gap where the Coosa Backcountry and Duncan Ridge Trail split . From this point , the Duncan Ridge Trail leads directly to Blood Mountain where it meets the Appalachian Trail . The Coosa Backcountry Trail makes a steep 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) descent down the mountain and joins with the Bear Hair Gap Trail , leading back to the point of origin . The Appalachian Trail can also be accessed from nearby Neel 's Gap , just a little higher up Blood Mountain on Highway 19 / 129 ; hikers can reach this area from the Byron Herbert Reece Trail .
= = = Annual events = = =
Annual events held at the park include a springtime Wildflower Walk , CCC Reunion , Kids Fishing Rodeo , Independence Day flag @-@ raising ceremony and bicycle parade , Mountain Music and Arts & Craft Festival held in September , Fall Hoedown , Duncan Ridge Trail 50K / 30K Race and Christmas Tree Lighting .
= = Wildlife , flora and geology = =
Like the rest of the southern Blue Ridge Mountains , Vogel State Park and the surrounding area consists of many valleys , ridges and mountains formed by repeated plate tectonic movement and collisions , starting with the Grenville Orogeny nearly 1 @.@ 5 billion years ago . The resulting landscape created diverse topology containing many different species of plants and animal .
The Georgia Blue Ridge Mountains contains low @-@ to @-@ high @-@ grade metamorphic rocks . Many of the rocks of the Blue Ridge appear to be the metamorphosed equivalents of Proterozoic and Paleozoic sedimentary rocks . Others are metamorphosed igneous rocks , including Corbin metagranite , Fort Mountain gneiss , varieties of mafic and ultramafic rocks , and the metavolcanic rocks of the Gold Belt .
Much of the area resembles Pennsylvania in climate , vegetation and wildlife . The park is near the southern limit for eastern hemlock and eastern white pine . Coves in the area vary by elevation and topography , with second @-@ growth oak and hickory more common in lower @-@ lying areas . The surrounding forests contain rich , high @-@ altitude flora including rare wildflowers and ferns , such as Persistent Trillium , which grows near Rhododendron . Nearby boulderfields by Blood Mountain include Dutchman 's breeches , squirrel corn , waterleaf and other herbaceous plants .
The area is populated with white @-@ tailed deer , grouse and raccoon . The deer population , which was extirpated by 1895 , has rebounded since re @-@ introduction by park ranger Arthur Woody during the 1930s . Over 100 species of birds inhabit or migrate through the area , including native songbirds such as the Canada warbler , Blackburnian , black @-@ throated blue , black @-@ throated green and chestnut @-@ sided warblers . Also found are hawks , owls , woodpeckers , kinglets , thrushes , vireos , cuckoos , phoebes , chickadees , titmice , nuthatches , brown creepers , wrens , tanagers , grosbeaks , indigo buntings and red crossbills . Migratory species are present during the late spring and early fall , making the area popular among birdwatchers The creeks surrounding the lake are rich with species of salamanders .
= = Vogel Museum = =
The park 's Vogel Museum features exhibits , documents , photographs and memorabilia about the activities of the Civilian Conservation Corps in Vogel State Park and other parks in Georgia .
= Flotilla ( video game ) =
Flotilla is a 2010 turn @-@ based strategy space combat video game developed by Brendon Chung 's studio , Blendo Games . The game was released in March 2010 on Steam for Microsoft Windows and on Xbox Live Indie Games for the Xbox 360 . Flotilla was designed with Microsoft 's XNA tools , and its development was influenced by animals as well as board games such as Axis and Allies and Arkham Horror . The game takes the player in an adventure through a randomly generated galaxy .
Chung began developing Flotilla immediately after the closure of Pandemic Studios , where he had worked as a designer . The new game used assets imported from Chung 's early space combat prototype , Space Piñata . Flotilla incorporates several pieces of classical music in its score , such
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as Chopin 's " Raindrop " prelude . It received mixed reviews from video game media outlets , scoring 72 out of 100 on review aggregate website Metacritic , and was included in Mike Rose 's book 250 Indie Games You Must Play .
= = Gameplay = =
Flotilla is a three @-@ dimensional simultaneous turn @-@ based strategy space combat video game set in a randomly generated galaxy . The player and computer @-@ controlled opponents issue orders to their ships , which are carried in a simultaneous and real @-@ time fashion over a period of 30 seconds . The game then freezes , and the player and opponents issue new orders to their ships , which are again performed for 30 seconds . This process repeats until one party is defeated . Orders are separated into three groups : attack move , flank move and focus fire . An attack move orders the ships to move and fire simultaneously ; a flank move increases the ship 's speed but deactivates weapons until the ship stops moving ; and focus fire increases fire rate but significantly reduces the ship 's speed .
At the beginning of the game , the player is usually given two ships to control , but more become available as the game continues . Ships may be rotated arbitrarily in any direction . The single @-@ player mode is an " adventure " that can be played an indefinite number of times . These adventures have a duration of around 30 minutes . The character dies at the end of each adventure and the player is given the option to play again . A hardcore mode , which removes the solo mode 's standard 30 @-@ minute time limit , was later added to the game . Each time the player starts a new adventure , a new galaxy is randomly generated and filled with planets and enemy ships . The player may take a short tutorial before beginning the adventure .
Each planet offers a possible quest or challenge to the player . Challenges are tactical battles in which the player must fight against a variety of enemies . However , ships can only be harmed from behind or below ; attacks from any other position will be countered by the ships ' shields . Upon succeeding , a new chapter is added to the player 's character 's story , and the player is rewarded with ship upgrades . These upgrades are used to customize ships with improvements , such as increased firing speed or heavier rear armor . The upgrades available to the player upon finishing each encounter with an enemy can vary , so the player may not receive the same upgrade by playing the same encounter in two different adventures . Flotilla has cooperative and split @-@ screen multiplayer modes that can be played with an additional Xbox 360 controller .
= = Development = =
Flotilla was developed by Brendon Chung 's video game studio , Blendo Games . Chung , who worked as a level designer for Pandemic Studios , previously contributed to the development of Full Spectrum Warrior ( 2004 ) and Lord of the Rings : Conquest ( 2009 ) . Chung started coding Flotilla in 2009 after Electronic Arts closed Pandemic Studios . He was excited at the time of the studio 's closure , and stated that " there was adrenaline pumping through my veins " . The game was developed using Microsoft XNA , a set of game development tools created by Microsoft .
The concept of Flotilla came from a combination of " sci @-@ fi like Star Wars and submarine movies " . Chung explained that he " figured there was enough games about little fighter jets " , and that what he had in mind was " a jumbo battleship floating in space " . Animals , instead of aliens , are featured as characters in the game . Chung explained that he did so because " any fantastical creature design I came up with would pale in comparison to already @-@ existing designs made by other people . " Therefore , instead of trying to solve the problem of creating compelling alien characters , he switched to animals : " [ they ] have certain built @-@ in characteristics , they were fairly unique in how they weren 't typically associated with space adventures . " In an interview with SquareGo , Chung revealed that board games such as Axis and Allies and Arkham Horror had an influential role in the game 's development process .
Before Flotilla , Chung worked on a prototype , a two @-@ dimensional turn @-@ based space action game called Space Piñata , whose gameplay and structure were similar to those of the final version of Flotilla . Chung intentionally limited the solo mode 's play time as an " experiment in making a short @-@ story generator " , such that an adventure could begin and end within a half hour . Following negative response , a patch was deployed to change this limitation . The patch included a new " hardcore " mode . Flotilla 's score incorporates several pieces of classical music , such as Chopin 's " Raindrop " prelude . According to Edge magazine , the " Raindrop " prelude gives the game 's battles " an emotional undercurrent " . Chung said that the soundtrack was designed to give the game " a tragic feel " and that he wanted the game to be portrayed as " the anti @-@ testosterone @-@ fueled " action game .
= = Reception = =
Flotilla received a mixed response from video game journalists upon release . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the game received an average score of 72 based on 7 reviews . British magazine Edge included Flotilla in its 2010 list of the Best 20 Indie Games available in the Xbox Live Marketplace , and acknowledged that the game was " as exacting as it is quirky , a stiff challenge beneath a sugar coating . " Mike Rose included Flotilla in his book 250 Indie Games You Must Play .
The American version of PC Gamer commented that Flotilla " is a charmingly crafted bite @-@ size portion of tactical fun " . Meanwhile , the British version of the magazine elaborated that although the game had its share of " charm and character , " it was nonetheless a random experience . PC Zone UK characterized Flotilla as stylish and funny , but concluded that it was a " sadly disposable " experience . Edge gave a mixed response to the game , but praised the battles , which they considered " engaging despite their simplicity . " An editor from website Charge Shot praised the game 's artificial intelligence and overall design , but criticized the multiplayer mode .
Joe Martin from Bit @-@ Tech named Flotilla a " hilarious and brazenly original " game . However , he criticized the interface and navigation gameplay , which he condemned as " trying to pilot a radio @-@ controlled helicopter with someone else 's feet . " He also mentioned the lack of a speed @-@ up feature in battles ; he considered such a feature necessary for the game . GameZone 's Tom Dann also felt frustrated by the ship maneuvering mechanics , though he concluded that they " can also be rewarding and entertaining " . Flotilla was nominated for the 2011 Independent Games Festival Visions Award , but lost to Amnesia : The Dark Descent . It was also listed among the Honorable Mentions for the Excellence in Visual Art and Excellence in Design awards .
= Ichigo Kurosaki =
Ichigo Kurosaki ( Japanese : 黒崎 一護 , Hepburn : Kurosaki Ichigo ) is a fictional character in the Bleach manga series and its adaptations created by Tite Kubo . The protagonist of the series , Ichigo receives Soul Reaper powers as a result of a run @-@ in with Rukia Kuchiki , the Soul Reaper assigned to patrol his city , the fictional Karakura Town . These powers come at the cost of Rukia 's own , and as a result , Ichigo concedes to work as Rukia 's stand @-@ in , fighting to protect people from evil spirits called Hollows and sending good spirits , wholes , to Soul Society . In addition to the manga series , Ichigo appears in many other pieces of Bleach media , including the anime series , the four featured films , the two original video animations , rock musicals , several video games and light novels .
Kubo said that Ichigo 's character was created to replace Rukia as the protagonist of the series because he felt she wasn 't suited for the role . His character has been well received among both readers and reviewers . Ichigo is often featured in Weekly Shōnen Jump character popularity polls . He was consistently ranked as one of the most popular characters in Bleach . The 2007 Japanese Newtype magazine polls ranked Ichigo as one of the top 100 most @-@ loved anime characters . Reviewers of the series have praised his personality , though some consider him to be a stereotypical anti @-@ hero . Merchandise based on Ichigo 's likeness has been released , including toys , clothing , and action figures . In the animated adaptations of Bleach , Ichigo is voiced by Masakazu Morita in Japanese . In the English adaptations , he is voiced by Johnny Yong Bosch .
= = Creation and conception = =
When drawing the manga series , Kubo commented that Rukia Kuchiki , the first Bleach character he introduced , was originally intended to be the protagonist . Through subsequent development of the series , however , Kubo decided to make her a valued ally and instead introduced Ichigo as the central character . Initial design sketches show Ichigo wearing glasses , and having dark hair and softer eyes . When designing Rukia , however , Kubo modified Ichigo 's appearance to contrast with hers , giving Ichigo orange hair , a trademark scowl , and removing the glasses . During the series ' first chapter , Ichigo 's wristwatch was based on one Kubo himself wore at the time . In later chapters , his wristwatch was based on Naoto Fukasawa 's W11K cellphone . According to Kubo , Ichigo , along with Orihime Inoue , are the most arduous characters to sketch . While illustrating one of Ichigo 's scenes , Kubo found it awkward to draw him with a cheerful smile .
Kubo has stated that Ichigo 's greatest strength is his considerate and thoughtful nature ; he always thinks about other 's needs . However , he also noted it as his greatest weakness , since worrying about his friends tends to put him in danger . When asked in an interview if he had any plans to focus on the love triangle between Ichigo , Orihime , and Rukia , Kubo chose neither to confirm nor deny it as he didn 't want to focus on romance . Kubo likens Ichigo 's popularity among readers because he " looks cool " . He also mentioned that as people read more about him they will discover that he is a warm and kind @-@ hearted person .
Following over fifty volumes of the manga 's released , Kubo believes that Ichigo was the most developed character . He said that Ichigo leads the story and introduces readers to the events in it . When the Arrancar arc ended , Kubo rebooted the series which resulted in Ichigo losing his Soul Reaper powers . In the same way Ichigo became a Soul Reaper during the series ' first chapter ; he starts searching for methods to recover his original powers . Ichigo is voiced by Masakazu Morita in the Japanese anime , while as a child he is voiced by Yuki Matsuoka . Johnny Yong Bosch voices him in the English dub as a teenager , and Mona Marshall as an adolescent . While describing Ichigo as one of his best roles , Morita notes that voicing him can be at times difficult . Bosch has enjoyed voicing Ichigo 's character due to his personal interest in the character 's morals . However , he experienced difficulty voicing him in some scenes where Ichigo shouts for a long time .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In Bleach = = =
Ichigo Kurosaki is a 15 @-@ year @-@ old teenager who attends a Karakura High School with the ability to see ghosts . One evening , Ichigo meets a Soul Reaper named Rukia Kuchiki from a secret organization called the Soul Society . At the same time , Ichigo 's family is attacked by a Hollow , a deceased spirit that became a warped soul @-@ eating monster which Soul Reapers deal with . After being wounded in an attempt to shield Ichigo from a Hollow attack , Rukia transmits her Soul Reaper powers to him so he can save his family . In following months , Ichigo acts in Rukia 's place as the Soul Reaper in protecting Karakura Town from Hollows as their friendship continues to bloom . Ichigo 's past is also revealed as he faces the Grand Fisher , a Hollow who killed his mother when he was nine years old . In time , the Soul Society sends two high @-@ seated officers to take Rukia back for committing the crime of transferring her Soul Reaper powers to a human . In training with Kisuke Urahara in order to rescue Rukia , Ichigo obtains his own Soul Reaper powers and learns the name of his Zanpakutō , Zangetsu ( 斬月 , literally “ Slaying Moon ” ) . In the Rescue arc , Ichigo is confronted by members of Gotei 13 , the main military force in the Soul Society . In entering the Seireitei , Ichigo faces and defeats Ikkaku Madarame . As he approaches the prison where Rukia is being held captive , Ichigo does battle with , and defeats Lieutenant Renji Abarai and Squad 11 Captain Kenpachi Zaraki . In preparation for his inevitable battle with Captain Byakuya Kuchiki , who adopted Rukia as his sister , Ichigo learns his Bankai , Tensa Zangetsu ( 天鎖斬月 , literally “ Heaven Chain Slaying Moon ” ) .
Arriving in time to stop Rukia 's execution on Sōkyoku Hill , Ichigo engages Byakuya in a battle that ends in a tie . Captain Sōsuke Aizen , who faked his death prior , have been behind Rukia 's sentencing and the chaos that plagued the Soul Society . He proceeds to rip Hōgyoku , an invention of Kisuke 's , from Rukia ’ s Gigai body before he and his followers escapes into the Hollows ' realm of Hueco Mundo .
In time , Aizen begins targeting Karakura Town with an army of Arrancars , Hollows that assumed human form with Soul Reaper powers , after subjecting them to the Hōgyoku . In order to defeat the Arrancars and to control his Hollow powers , Ichigo begins his training with the group of Soul Reaper outcasts known as the Vizard . During the Arrancar 's attack on Karakura Town , Ichigo 's friend Orihime Inoue has been abducted by Ulquiorra Cifer of the Aizen 's strongest Arrancars : The Espadas . When the Soul Society refuses to help save Orihime , Ichigo and his friends go to Hueco Mundo to rescue her . In Hueco Mundo , after defeating the Espada Grimmjow Jaegerjaquez , Ichigo manages to save Orihime and defeat Ulquiorra . Soon after , Ichigo returns from Hueco Mundo to fight Aizen in the climax of the villain 's attack on Karakura Town . During the battles interim , Ichigo learns a technique called the Final Getsuga Tenshō ( 最後の月牙天衝 , Saigo no Getsuga Tenshō , literally “ The Final Moon Fang Heaven @-@ Piercer ” ) that weakens Aizen , allowing Urahara to seal him within a kidō barrier , at the expense of his Soul Reaper powers .
Seventeen months later , Ichigo becomes a senior in high school . The start of the Lost Agent arc describes Ichigo 's life after he loses his Soul Reaper powers . One day , he meets Kūgo Ginjō , a Fullbringer from the group Xcution . Ginjo offers to replenish Ichigo 's Soul Reaper powers in return for helping him and his group to become ordinary humans . With their help , Ichigo unlocks his own Fullbring powers through his Substitute Soul Reaper Badge . However , Ichigo later learns that Ginjo and his ally Shūkurō Tsukishima , a Fullbringer with ability to change people 's memories , used him to take Fullbring powers for Xcution 's use . Luckily , the 13 Court Squad restore Ichigo 's Soul Reaper powers and he kills Ginjo , revealed to be the first Substitute Soul Reaper , in their duel . Though learning from Ginjō that the Soul Society monitor and limit their powers , Ichigo tells the Court Squad that he will continue to fight by their side as he asks for their consent to bury Ginjō .
While patrolling Karakura Town , Ichigo is informed about invasion of Hueco Mundo by Wandenreich , a group of Quincies . He goes to Hueco Mundo with his friends to liberate it from one of the Wandenreich 's high @-@ ranked officers Quilge Opie . After dealing with Opie , Ichigo finds out that the Quincies are attacking the Soul Society . Arriving just after Head Captain Yamamoto 's death , Ichigo encounters the Wandenreich 's leader Yhwach . At the end of the encounter , learning his mother was a Quincy , Ichigo finds his Zanpakutō shattered . As the situation in Soul Society becomes dire , the Royal Guard arrive and they take Ichigo to the Soul King Palace where he meets Ōetsu Nimaiya , inventor of the Zanpakutō . Nimaiya sends Ichigo back to the World of Living where he learns the truth that his mother was a Quincy who was on a verge of hollowification until she saved when Isshin in specially made gigai that stabilizes her new state of being at the cost of his Soul Reaper powers . As a result , Ichigo was born in possession of both his parents ' spirit pressure natures which manifested in his powers as both a Soul Reaper and as a Fullbringer . Ichigo later learns that entity he believed to be Zangetsu is actually the embodiment of his Quincy powers yet accept him as he gains his reforged Zanpakutō in its new split Shikai form . During the second invasion by the Wandenreich , Ichigo and his friends confront Yhwach at the Soul King 's Palace . Though Quincy had already inflicted a fatal wound on the Soul King , Yhwach uses the Quincy energy within Ichigo to have him kill the Soul King against his will . But as the Soul King is stabilized by Mimihagi after Ukitake sacrificed himself , Ichigo stops Yhwach so Yoruichi can protect the Soul King . Ichigo explains his intent to protect all realities while telling Yhwach that possessing Quincy powers doesn 't mean he needs to serve him . But Ichigo removed from the Soul King 's Palace by Uryū Ishida , briefly facing him before learning his friend 's actual intent while he covered him and Orihime as they face Yhwach after he succeeded in absorbing the Soul King 's power . During the fight that followed , Ichigo takes the blunt of Yhwach 's power to transform into a new form that combines his abilities as a vizard and as a quincy .
= = = In other media = = =
Ichigo appears in the featured films of series : protecting a Soul Reaper named Senna in Memories of Nobody ; helping Tōshirō Hitsugaya to defeat Sōjirō Kusaka in The DiamondDust Rebellion ; saving Rukia Kuchiki from a pair of mysterious siblings who can erase memories in Fade to Black ; and going into Hell in order to rescue his sister Yuzu in Hell Verse . He also appears in both of the original video animations ; fighting against a Hollow called the Grand Fisher in the first one and combating the rogue Soul Reaper Baishin in the second . In the Bleach video games , Ichigo is a playable character , including the Heat the Soul and Blade Battlers series . In some games , his Hollow form and Bankai state are available as separate characters . In Rock Musical Bleach , a musical based on the Bleach series , Ichigo is played by Tatsuya Isaka . His character is featured in two volumes from the Bleach Beat Collection CD soundtrack series which features themes composed by his Japanese voice actor , Masakazu Morita . These include the first of them , in which he is the only character and the fourth season 's fourth volume along with Rukia . Ichigo also appears in the first volume of Bleach Breathless Collection CD soundtrack series together with the embodiment of his Quincy powers that posed as the Zanpakutō spirit Zangetsu .
= = Reception = =
Amongst the Bleach reader base , Ichigo has been always highly ranked in the Weekly Shōnen Jump popularity polls for the series . He has usually taken first place , though in early 2008 he dropped to third . His sword , Zangetsu , also ranked third in the Zanpakutō popularity polls . In the 2007 Japanese Newtype magazine poll , Ichigo was ranked one of the best male anime characters . In the Society for the Promotion of Japanese Animation ( SPJA ) , Ichigo was elected for the best anime male character in 2008 . The Japanese music distributor Recochoku has made two annual survey of which anime characters that people would like to marry . Ichigo ranked tenth in the category " The Character I Want to Be My Groom " from the 2008 survey and eight in the 2009 poll . Wizard Entertainment considered Ichigo the best hero from 2007 , commenting that he doesn 't try to be a typical hero but he fights in order to protect his friends . He was also 20th in IGN 's " Top 25 Anime Characters of All Time " with comments focused on his design and personality . Ichigo has also appeared twice in the Anime Grand Prix polls , ranking as one of the most popular male anime characters . At the first Seiyu Awards in March 2007 , Masakazu Morita won in the category " Best Rookie Actor " for his role as Ichigo Kurosaki . Ichigo 's voice actor in the English adaptation , Johnny Yong Bosch , has also been praised for his voice work on Ichigo 's character by Anime News Network ( ANN ) , which favorably compared Bosch and Morita 's work . Various merchandise based on Ichigo 's appearance has been created , including action figures , plush toys and key @-@ chains . Since the series was released , replica models of Ichigo 's Zanpakutō and Bankai have been produced for purchase by collectors and fans .
Several publications for manga , anime , video games , and other related media have provided praise and criticism on Ichigo 's character . ANN 's Melissa Harper commented that Ichigo 's initial rebellious actions make him almost a stereotypical anti @-@ hero , but note that he is soon revealed to be a more complex character with a sad past . Los Angeles Times 's Charles Solomon comments Ichigo 's character has little in common with protagonists from other series due to his bad temper and how he tends to fight . However , he added that readers from the series still " love " Ichigo . The way Ichigo becomes a Soul Reaper was found to be relatively common by Carlos Alexandre . He noted that Ichigo 's character of a " tough guy with a heart of gold " had already been done in several series . Charles White from IGN praised Ichigo 's climactic fight against Byakuya Kuchiki as one of the best fights in the Bleach series , and later Ramsey Isler gave additional praise to both the design and voice acting for Ichigo 's inner Hollow . Ichigo 's development during the Rescue arc in which he sets to save Rukia Kuchiki from being executed have been praised by ANN 's Theron Martin . He praised the scenes in which Ichigo manages to stop Rukia 's execution and his subsequent demonstration of his Bankai as one of the " eminently satisfying landmark moments in the series " . Wired News 's Corrina Lawson stated that she liked Ichigo 's strong sense of responsibility , and commented it was one of the reasons of the series ' popularity .
= Sungei Road =
Sungei Road ( Chinese : 双溪路 ; literally River Road ) is a road in Singapore situated between Serangoon Road and Jalan Besar and runs along the Rochor Canal . The area around Sungei Road was formerly the homes of affluent Europeans and Asians , where many ornately designed buildings were built in its place . From the 1930s to the present , the road has been synonymous with the Thieves ' Market , the largest and oldest flea market in Singapore , where the locals can hunt for old bric @-@ a @-@ brac or second @-@ hand goods , as a cheap replacement for one 's faulty or lost item . It 's also the place where the well @-@ known Sungei Road Laksa , a local spicy noodle soup originated .
= = Etymology = =
Sungei Road got its name because it runs along the banks of the Rochor River ( Sungei Rochor ) , hence its Malay name , sungei , meaning " river " . Sungei Road starts opposite the former Kandang Kerbau police station and was therefore known to the Chinese as " tek kah ma ta chu " , which means " tek kah police station " in Hokkien .
= = History = =
In the 1820s , the area around Sungei Road was designated by Sir Stamford Raffles , the founder of modern Singapore , for the homes of affluent Europeans and Asians , when he divided the early settlements according to different ethnic groups . The Arabs and Malays who had settled at Sungei Road previously were relocated eastwards to Kampong Glam . Ornately designed two @-@ storey and three @-@ storey shophouses that came with covered 5 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) way were built in its place .
At nearby Lavender Street was the attap house of Cho Ah Chee , the carpenter of the ship S.S Indiana in which Raffles travelled to Singapore in 1819 . It is believed that Raffles gave the house to Guangdong @-@ born Cho , in recognition of his services at the time of the founding of Singapore . The house has been demolished in the 1970s and a small public park has taken its place .
During the Japanese Occupation , a street market known as Robinson Petang meaning " evening Robinsons " , started along the banks of the Rochor Canal where the poor could buy cheap household wares and other merchandise in short supply , akin to what department store Robinson & Co. had sold .
= = = Thieves ' Market = = =
Since the 1930s , Sungei Road and its surrounding roads became a flea market better known as the Thieves ' Market , because all sorts of second @-@ hand merchandise as well as contraband goods were sold here . The peddlers may change from day to day and there were no receipts , so refunds are impossible . Until the British Army withdrawal in the late 1960s , it was also a place to buy army merchandise like uniforms , army gear and other army surplus , possibly looted earlier from British military stores . The open air market soon acquired a bad reputation as the major dissemination venue for stolen goods that would last to the present day . If an item was " lost " recently , people can try their luck in looking for it at the Thieves ' Market , and buying it back from the sellers who will always claim no knowledge of its source .
In the early 1970s , opium dens used to be common in the Sungei Road area . The drugs were popular with workers looking for a cheap way to ease the hardship of the day 's toil . The opium addicts were mainly poor , elderly people from working @-@ class groups . In early 1991 , a spate of fires destroyed more than 20 shophouses along Sungei Road . Most of the century @-@ old shophouses , crumbling with age , had become potential fire hazards for its residents . The first fire incident left two people injured and 61 homeless . As a result , many of its buildings were torn down for safety reason and its inhabitants relocated in later years .
= = = Success stories = = =
Despite its notorious reputation , there were a few cases of honest and hardworking karung guni men who made good , and became millionaires . One was Poon Buck Seng who started his business with only a capital of S $ 50 by picking up junk , or paying small amounts for things people were throwing away in the 1980s . He would then take his goods to sell at the Sungei Road Thieves ' Market . Within seven years , he had saved enough money to rent a shop space nearby , and expanded his business to sell bigger used items like computers , refrigerators , videotape recorders and television sets , in addition to old clothes , shoes and records . In 1993 , he registered his second @-@ hand goods trading business and began to focus his business in exporting used computer parts , as there were not many people doing that back then , and his business thrived . He made a few thousand dollars every month and five years later , Poon had saved enough money to buy a 1 @,@ 636 square feet ( 152 @.@ 0 m2 ) freehold property worth S $ 730 @,@ 000 and was offered S $ 1 @.@ 4 million for the unit in a collective sale later . His export business lasted only 10 years . By 2002 , Poon 's business was declining as too many people had jumped onto the bandwagon . He decided to end his export business and went back to his old karung guni trade again that lasts to this very day .
Another similar rags @-@ to @-@ riches story is Pang Lim , who was an illegal fruit hawker in Sungei Road in the 1970s . His big break came when he saved enough money to rent a coffee shop in 1990 with his younger brother and uncle . They rented the stalls out to other hawkers and managed the drinks stall themselves . The business took off and from one coffee shop , Pang is now the managing director of Koufu , which operates 20 foodcourts , five coffee shops and five cafes around the island .
= = Landmarks = =
= = = Sungei Road laksa = = =
Located nearby at Jin Shui Kopitiam ( " kopitiam " means " coffeeshop " in Hokkien ) is a stall selling Sungei Road laksa , a local spicy noodle soup that originated from Peranakan culture . The Sungei Road laksa legacy was started in 1956 when a Hainanese friend of Wong , Ah Tong , gave Wong and his brother Wong Yew Poh , his secret recipe for laksa on account of their long @-@ standing friendship . The Wong brothers set up a push @-@ cart stall to sell their laksa and the response to their recipe was overwhelming . It was sold with the thick bee hoon ( Chinese noodle ) cut up and served only with a spoon , without chopsticks , topped with cockles , bean sprouts and home @-@ made fried fish cakes in distinctive chicken motif bowls . Customers ate it while standing by the roadside and it cost only 20 cents a bowl back then . By day , they sold along Johor Road and by night , off Sungei Road . Today , the brothers have since lost contact with Ah Tong , but their children still serve the traditional recipe , using charcoal fire to keep his gravy constantly warm to maintain its distinctive flavour . It is regarded among the best laksa stalls in Singapore by many food reviewers . Starting from April 2015 , the stall has been relocated to 145 Jalan Besar , at a short walking distance from its previous location , though keeping its original name " 31 Sungei Laksa " .
= = = Singapore Ice Works = = =
Located at the junction of Sungei Road and Pitt Road , was the former site of the Singapore Ice Works that was built in the 1930s . The factory was the first ice @-@ making plant in Singapore using large compressors manufactured mainly from Carrier and York corporations . It was popular as a pioneer establishment that brought refrigeration and air @-@ conditioning to Singapore . In 1958 , it was renamed as the New Singapore Ice Works . In later years , the factory was bought over by Cold Storage who ran it under their management . However , in 1984 , the Housing Development Board ( HDB ) took over its site for redevelopment . The factory was soon demolished and the plant operations was re @-@ located to Auric Pacific at Fishery Port Road . This facility has since closed down after being in use for over twenty years .
= = = Rochor Market = = =
The Rochor Market , a wet market , was another popular landmark in this area . Built in 1872 , it served the surrounding community for more than a century . In August 1982 , part of the market was demolished and its stalls were moved elsewhere .
= = Sungei Road today = =
Today , the flea market is still thriving despite the fact that all the old shop house buildings have been torn down in the mid @-@ 1990s . What remains are the street peddlers , displaying their wares on canvas sheets now along the empty roads in the area . The peddlers do not pay rent but the Singapore government forbids them from selling brand @-@ new items . To keep up with the times , some of the peddlers have put up their wares to sell on websites and eBay especially those hard to sell items such as old photographs , badges , medals and other collector 's items . Despite its long history and tenacity , the flea market 's days are numbered , as it is sitting on a huge chunk of state land about the size of a football field , which will soon be needed for Downtown Line , Jalan Besar MRT Station construction . The remainder would be redeveloped by HDB at the later time .
= Magic : The Gathering =
Magic : The Gathering ( MTG ; also known as Magic ) is a trading card game created by Richard Garfield .
First published in 1993 by Wizards of the Coast , Magic was the first trading card game produced and it continues to thrive , with approximately twenty million players as of 2015 . Magic can be played by two or more players in various formats , the most common of which uses a deck of 60 + cards , either in person with printed cards or using a deck of virtual cards through the Internet @-@ based Magic : The Gathering Online , on a smartphone or tablet , or other programs .
Each game represents a battle between wizards known as " planeswalkers " , who employ spells , artifacts , and creatures depicted on individual Magic cards to defeat their opponents . Although the original concept of the game drew heavily from the motifs of traditional fantasy role @-@ playing games such as Dungeons & Dragons , the gameplay of Magic bears little similarity to pencil @-@ and @-@ paper adventure games , while having substantially more cards and more complex rules than many other card games .
New cards are released on a regular basis through expansion sets . An organized tournament system played at an international level and a worldwide community of professional Magic players has developed , as well as a substantial secondary market for Magic cards . Certain Magic cards can be valuable due to their rarity and utility in gameplay . Prices range from a few cents to thousands of dollars .
= = History = =
Richard Garfield was a doctoral candidate at University of Pennsylvania when he first started to design the game . During his free time he worked with local volunteer playtesters to help refine the game . He had been brought on as an adjunct professor at Whitman College in 1991 when Peter Adkison ( then CEO of Wizards of the Coast games company ) first met with Garfield to discuss Garfield 's new game RoboRally . Adkison saw the game as very promising , but decided that Wizards of the Coast lacked the resources to produce it at that point . He did like Garfield 's ideas and mentioned that he was looking for a portable game that could be played in the downtime that frequently occurs at gaming conventions . Garfield returned and presented the general outline of the concept of a trading card game . Adkison immediately saw the potential of this idea and agreed to produce it . Magic : The Gathering underwent a general release on August 5 , 1993 .
While the game was simply called Magic through most of playtesting , when the game had to be officially named a lawyer informed them that Magic was too generic to be trademarked . Mana Clash was instead chosen to be the name used in the first solicitation of the game , however , everybody involved with the game continued to refer to it as Magic . After further consultation with the lawyer , it was decided to rename the game Magic : The Gathering , thus enabling the name to be trademarked .
A patent was granted to Wizards of the Coast in 1997 for " a novel method of game play and game components that in one embodiment are in the form of trading cards " that includes claims covering games whose rules include many of Magic 's elements in combination , including concepts such as changing orientation of a game component to indicate use ( referred to in the Magic and Vampire : The Eternal Struggle rules as " tapping " ) and constructing a deck by selecting cards from a larger pool . The patent has aroused criticism from some observers , who believe some of its claims to be invalid . In 2003 , the patent was an element of a larger legal dispute between Wizards of the Coast and Nintendo , regarding trade secrets related to Nintendo 's Pokémon Trading Card Game . The legal action was settled out of court , and its terms were not disclosed .
Magic was an immediate success for Wizards of the Coast . Early on they were even reluctant to advertise the game because they were unable to keep pace with existing demand . Initially Magic attracted many Dungeons & Dragons players , but the following included all types of other people as well . The success of the game quickly led to the creation of similar games by other companies as well as Wizards of the Coast themselves . Companion Games produced the Galactic Empires CCG ( the first science fiction trading card game ) , which allowed players to pay for and design their own promotional cards , while TSR created the Spellfire game , which eventually included five editions in six languages , plus twelve expansion sets . Wizards of the Coast produced Jyhad ( now called Vampire : The Eternal Struggle ) , a game about modern @-@ day vampires . Other similar games included trading card games based on Star Trek and Star Wars . Magic is often cited as an example of a 1990s collecting fad , though the game 's makers were able to overcome the bubble traditionally associated with collecting fads .
The success of the initial edition prompted a reissue later in 1993 , along with expansions to the game . Arabian Nights was released as the first expansion in December 1993 . New expansions and revisions of the base game ( " Core Sets " ) have since been released on a regular basis , amounting to four releases a year . By the end of 1994 , the game had printed over a billion cards . Until the release of Mirage in 1996 , expansions were released on an irregular basis . Beginning in 2009 one revision of the core set and a set of three related expansions called a " block " were released every year . This system was revised in 2015 , with the Core Set being eliminated and blocks now consisting of two sets , released biannually . While the essence of the game has always stayed the same , the rules of Magic have undergone three major revisions with the release of the Revised Edition in 1994 , Classic Edition in 1999 , and Magic 2010 in July 2009 . With the release of the Eighth Edition in 2003 , Magic also received a major visual redesign .
In 1996 , Wizards of the Coast established the " Pro Tour " , a circuit of tournaments where players can compete for sizeable cash prizes over the course of a single weekend @-@ long tournament . In 2009 the top prize at a single tournament was US $ 40 @,@ 000 . Sanctioned through the DCI , the tournaments added an element of prestige to the game by virtue of the cash payouts and media coverage from within the community . For a brief period of time , ESPN2 televised the tournaments .
While unofficial methods of online play existed previously , Magic Online ( " MTGO " or " Modo " ) , an official online version of the game , was released in 2002 . A new , updated version of Magic Online was released in April 2008 .
In January 2014 , Hasbro announced a franchise film deal with 20th Century Fox for Magic : The Gathering , saying that they wanted " to launch a massive franchise on the scale of Harry Potter and The Lord of the Rings . " Simon Kinberg is serving as writer and producer for the project . In June 2014 , Fox hired screenwriter Bryan Cogman to write the script for the film .
= = Reception = =
A 2004 article in USA Today suggested that playing Magic might help improve the social and mental skills of some of the players . The article interviewed players ' parents who believe that the game , similar to sports , teaches children how to more gracefully win and lose . Magic also contains a great amount of strategy and vocabulary that children may not be exposed to on a regular basis . Parents also claimed that playing Magic helped keep their children out of trouble , such as using illegal drugs or joining criminal gangs . On the other hand , the article also briefly mentions that Magic can be highly addictive , leading to parents worried about the Magic obsession of their kids . In addition , until 2007 , some of the better players had opportunities to compete for a small number of scholarships .
Jordan Weisman , an American game designer and entrepreneur , commented , " I love games that challenge and change our definition of adventure gaming , and Magic : The Gathering is definitely one of a very short list of titles that has accomplished that elusive goal . By combining the collecting and trading elements of baseball cards with the fantasy play dynamics of roleplaying games , Magic created a whole new genre of product that changed our industry forever . "
= = Awards = =
1994 : Mensa Select Award winner
1994 : Origins Awards for Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Board game of 1993 and Best Graphic Presentation of a Board game of 1993
1994 : Origins Award for the Legends expansion as Best Game Accessory
1995 : Deutscher Spiele Preis special award for new game mechanics
1995 : Italian Gaming Society Gioco dell 'Anno award winner
1996 : Super As d 'Or award for " Best New Game Concept and Genre Introduced in France "
1997 : InQuest Fan Award for Best CCG Expansion for the Weatherlight expansion
1998 : Origins Award for the Urza 's Saga expansion as Collectible Card Game Expansion of the Year
1999 : Inducted alongside Richard Garfield into the Origins Hall of Fame
2003 : Games Magazine selected Magic for its Games Hall of Fame
2005 : Origins Award for the Ravnica : City of Guilds expansion as Collectible Card Game Expansion of the Year
2009 : Origins Award for the Shards of Alara expansion as Collectible Card Game Expansion of the Year
2012 : Origins Award for the Innistrad expansion as Collectible Card Game Expansion of the Year
2015 : Origins Award for the Khans of Tarkir expansion as Best Collectible Card Game of the Year
In addition several individuals including Richard Garfield and Donato Giancola won personal awards for their contributions to Magic .
= = Gameplay = =
A game of Magic involves two or more players who are engaged in a battle acting as powerful wizards called planeswalkers . Each player has their own deck , either one previously constructed or made from a limited pool of cards for the event . A player starts the game with twenty " life points " and loses the game when he or she is reduced to zero . A player can also lose if he or she must draw from an empty deck . In addition , some cards specify other ways to win or lose the game . Garfield has stated that two major influences in his creation of Magic : the Gathering were the games Cosmic Encounter , which first used the concept that normal rules could sometimes be overridden , and Dungeons & Dragons . The " Golden Rule of Magic " states that " Whenever a card 's text directly contradicts the rules , the card takes precedence . " The Comprehensive Rules , a detailed rulebook , exists to clarify conflicts .
Players begin the game by shuffling their decks and then drawing seven cards . Players draw one card at the beginning of each of their turns , except the first player on their first turn . Players alternate turns . The two basic kinds of cards are " spells " and " lands " . Lands provide " mana " , or magical energy , which is used as magical fuel when the player attempts to cast spells . Players may only play one land per turn . More powerful spells cost more mana , so as the game progresses more mana becomes available , and the quantity and relative power of the spells played tends to increase . Spells come in several varieties : " sorceries " and " instants " have a single , one @-@ time effect before they go to the " graveyard " ( discard pile ) ; " enchantments " and " artifacts " are " permanents " that remain in play after being cast to provide a lasting magical effect ; " creature " spells ( also a type of permanent ) summon creatures that can attack and damage an opponent . The set Lorwyn introduced the new " planeswalker " card type , which represent powerful allies who fight with their own magic abilities .
= = = Deck construction = = =
In most tournament formats , decks are required to be a minimum of sixty cards , with no upper limit . Players may use no more than four copies of any named card , with the exception of " basic lands " , which act as a standard resource in Magic , and some specific cards that state otherwise . Certain formats such as Commander may limit the number of iterations of a single card players may have in their decks .
In " limited " tournament formats a small number of cards are opened for play from booster packs or tournament packs , and a minimum deck size of forty cards is used . Depending on the type of play , some individual cards have been " restricted " ( the card is limited to a single copy per deck ) or " banned " ( the card is no longer legal for tournament play ) . These limitations are usually for balance of power reasons , but have been occasionally made because of gameplay mechanics .
Deck building requires strategy as players must choose among thousands of cards which they want to play . This requires players to evaluate the power of their cards , as well as the possible synergies between them , and their possible interactions with the cards they expect to play against ( this " metagame " can vary in different locations or time periods ) . The choice of cards is usually narrowed by the player deciding which colors they want to include in the deck . This decision is a key part of creating a deck . In general , reducing the number of colors used increases the consistency of play and the probability of drawing the lands needed to cast one 's spells , at the expense of restricting the range of tactics available to the player .
= = = Colors of Magic = = =
Most spells come in one of five colors . The colors can be seen on the back of the cards , in a pentagonal design , called the " Color Wheel " or " Color Pie " . Clockwise from the top , they are : white , blue , black , red , and green . To play a spell of a given color , at least one mana of that color is required . This mana is normally generated by a basic land : plains for white , island for blue , swamp for black , mountain for red , and forest for green . The balances and distinctions among the five colors form one of the defining aspects of the game . Each color has strengths and weaknesses based on the " style " of magic it represents .
White is the color of order , equality , righteousness , healing , law , community , peace , absolutism / totalitarianism , and light . White 's strengths are a roster of small creatures that are strong collectively ; protecting and enhancing those creatures with enchantments ; gaining life ; preventing damage to creatures or players ; imposing restrictions on players ; reducing the capabilities of opposing creatures , and powerful spells that " equalize " the playing field by destroying all cards of a given type . White creatures are known for their " Protection " from various other colors or even types of card , rendering them nearly impervious to harm from those things . White 's weaknesses include a focus on smaller creatures , its unwillingness to simply kill creatures outright ( instead hobbling them with restrictions that can be undone ) , and the fact that many of its most powerful spells affect all players equally — including the casting player .
Blue is the color of intellect , reason , illusion , logic , knowledge , manipulation , and trickery , as well as the classical elements of air and water . Blue 's cards are best at letting a player draw additional cards ; permanently taking control of an opponent 's cards ; returning cards to their owner 's hand ; making cards go directly from a player 's deck to their graveyard ; and countering spells . Blue 's creatures tend to be weaker than creatures of other colors , but commonly have abilities and traits which make them difficult to damage or block . Blue 's weaknesses include having trouble permanently dealing with spells that have already been played , the reactive nature of most of its spells , and a small ( and expensive ) roster of creatures .
Black is the color of power , ambition , greed , death , illness , corruption , selfishness , amorality , and sacrifice ; it is not necessarily evil , though many of its cards refer directly or indirectly to this concept . Black cards are best at destroying creatures , forcing players to discard cards from their hand , making players lose life , and returning creatures from the players ' graveyards . Furthermore , because Black seeks to win at all costs , it has limited access to many abilities or effects that are normally available only to one of the other colors ; but these abilities often require large sacrifices of life totals , creatures , cards in hand , cards in library , and other difficult @-@ to @-@ replace resources . Black 's main weaknesses are an almost complete inability to deal with enchantments and artifacts , its tendency to hurt itself almost as badly as it hurts the opponent , and difficulties in removing other Black creatures .
Red is the color of freedom , chaos , passion , creativity , impulse , fury , warfare , lightning , the classical element of fire , and the non @-@ living geological aspects of the classical element earth . Red 's strengths include destroying opposing lands and artifacts , sacrificing permanent resources for temporary but great power , and playing spells that directly damage creatures or players . Red has a wide array of creatures , but with the exception of extremely powerful dragons , most are fast and weak , or with low toughness , rendering them easier to destroy . Some of Red 's cards can turn against or hurt their owner in return for being more powerful for their cost . Red also shares the trickery theme with Blue and can temporarily steal opponents ' creatures or divert spells , although generally not permanently . Many of Red 's most famous creatures have " Haste " which lets them attack and use many abilities as soon as they enter the battlefield . The ability to raise a creature 's power temporarily is also common among Red 's creatures . Red 's weaknesses include its inability to destroy enchantments , the self @-@ destructive nature of many of its spells , and the way in which it trades early @-@ game speed at the cost of late @-@ game staying power . Red also has the vast majority of cards that involve random chance .
Green is the color of life , nature , reality , evolution / adaptability , ecology , interdependence , instinct , and indulgence . Green 's strengths are on the battlefield , usually winning through combat with creatures , of which it has a broad menagerie . These tend to be strong for their cost and have abilities that make them more survivable like Regenerate and Hexproof . Green creatures also often have " Trample " , an ability which allows them to deal attack damage to an opponent if blocked by a weaker creature . Many Green spells bolster its creatures ' power , either permanently or temporarily . Green spells often focus on growth , such as regaining life points , amassing large quantities of green mana , and getting land cards faster , thus allowing the player more resources and the capacity to get strong creatures on the battlefield faster . Green 's weakness is an inability to defend against indirect attacks . It has few cards that allow it to counterattack against the hand , library , or graveyard ; Green also has few defenses against creatures that bypass its own powerful creatures when attacking .
The colors adjacent to each other on the pentagon are " allied " and often have similar , complementary abilities . For example , Blue has a relatively large number of flying creatures , as do White and Black , which are next to it . The two non @-@ adjacent colors to a particular color are " enemy " colors , and are thematically opposed . For instance , Red tends to be very aggressive , while White and Blue are often more defensive in nature . The Research and Development ( R & D ) team at Wizards of the Coast aims to balance power and abilities among the five colors by using the " Color Pie " to differentiate the strengths and weaknesses of each . This guideline lays out the capabilities , themes , and mechanics of each color and allows for every color to have its own distinct attributes and gameplay . The Color Pie is used to ensure new cards are thematically in the correct color and do not infringe on the territory of other colors .
Multi @-@ color cards were introduced in the Legends set and typically use a gold frame to distinguish them from mono @-@ color cards . These cards require mana from two or more different colors to be played and count as belonging to each of the colors used to play them . Multi @-@ color cards typically combine the philosophy and mechanics of all the colors used in the spell 's cost , and tend to be proportionally more powerful compared to single @-@ color or hybrid cards , as requiring multiple colors of mana makes them harder to cast . More recently , two @-@ color " hybrid " cards were introduced in the Ravnica set , and appeared extensively throughout the Shadowmoor and Eventide sets . Hybrid cards are distinguished by a gradient frame with those two colors , and can be paid with either of the card 's colors ; for instance , a card with two hybrid @-@ red / white icons can be cast using two red mana , two white mana , or one of each . Several sets have made multi @-@ colored cards a theme , including Shards of Alara , both Ravnica blocks and others . Core sets do not typically include multi @-@ color cards in them , although the Core 2013 set was the first to do so .
Colorless cards belong to no color , and most often appear in the form of Lands and Artifacts . Unlike the five colors , Colorless cards do not have a specific personality or style of play . Sometimes , colorless cards will imitate the mechanics of a particular color , though in a less @-@ efficient manner than a similar colored card . Often colorless cards are linked to one or more colors via their abilities , through story references , or through flavor text on the cards themselves . With the Rise of the Eldrazi expansion , however , colorless cards that are neither artifacts nor lands have been introduced for the first time in larger quantities .
= = = Luck vs. skill = = =
Magic , like many other games , combines chance and skill . One frequent complaint about the game involves the notion that there is too much luck involved , especially concerning possessing too many or too few lands . Early in the game especially , too many or too few lands could ruin a player 's chance at victory without the player having made a mistake . This in @-@ game statistical variance can be minimized by proper deck construction , as an appropriate land count can reduce mana problems . In Duels of the Planeswalkers 2012 , the land count is automatically adjusted to 40 % of the total deck size .
A " mulligan " rule was introduced into the game , first informally in casual play and then in the official game rules . The modern " Paris mulligan " allows players to shuffle an unsatisfactory opening hand back into the deck at the start of the game , draw a new hand with one fewer card , and repeat until satisfied , after which any player who has taken a mulligan may look at the top card of his or her deck and either return it or put it at the bottom of the deck . In multiplayer , a player may take one mulligan without penalty , while subsequent mulligans will still cost one card ( a rule known as " Partial Paris mulligan " ) . The original mulligan allowed a player a single redraw of seven new cards if that player 's initial hand contained seven or zero lands . A variation of this rule called a " forced mulligan " is still used in some casual play circles and in multiplayer formats on Magic Online , and allows a single " free " redraw of seven new cards if a player 's initial hand contains seven , six , one or zero lands .
Confessing his love for games combining both luck and skill , Magic creator Richard Garfield admitted its influence in his design of Magic . In addressing the complaint about luck influencing a game , Dr. Garfield points out that new and casual players tend to appreciate luck as a leveling field , in which a random effect increases their chances of winning . Meanwhile , a player with higher skills appreciates a game with less chance , as the higher degree of control increases their chances of winning . According to Dr. Garfield , Magic has and would likely continue decreasing its degree of luck as the game matured . The " Mulligan rule " , as well as card design , past vs. present , are good examples of this trend . He feels that this is a universal trend for maturing games . Dr. Garfield explained using chess as an example , that unlike modern chess , in predecessors , players would use dice to determine which chess piece to move .
= = = Gambling = = =
The original set of rules prescribed that all games were to be played for ante . Garfield was partly inspired by the game of marbles and wanted folks to play with the cards rather than collect them . For Magic , each player removed a card at random from the deck they wished to play with and the two cards would be set aside as the ante . At the end of the match , the winner would take and keep both cards . Early sets included a few cards with rules designed to interact with this gambling aspect , allowing replacements of cards up for ante , adding more cards to the ante , or even permanently trading cards in play .
The ante concept became controversial because many regions had restrictions on games of chance . The rule was later made optional because of these restrictions and because of players ' reluctance to possibly lose a card that they owned . The gambling rule is forbidden at sanctioned events and is now mostly a relic of the past , though it still sees occasional usage in friendly games as well as the " five color " format . The last card to mention ante was printed in the 1995 expansion set Homelands .
= = = Variant rules = = =
While the primary method of Magic play is one @-@ on @-@ one using standard deck construction rules , there are many alternative formats for playing the game . The most popular alternatives describe ways of playing with more than two players ( with teams or free @-@ for @-@ all ) or change the rules about how decks can be built .
= = Organized play = =
Magic tournaments regularly occur in gaming stores and other venues . Larger tournaments with hundreds of competitors from around the globe sponsored by Wizards of the Coast are arranged many times every year , with substantial cash prizes for the top finishers . A number of websites report on tournament news , give complete lists for the most currently popular decks , and feature articles on current issues of debate about the game . The DCI , which is owned and operated by Wizards of the Coast , is the organizing body for sanctioned Magic events . The two major categories of tournament play are " Constructed " and " Limited " .
= = = Constructed = = =
In " Constructed " tournaments , each player arrives with a pre @-@ built deck , which must have a minimum of sixty cards and follow other deck construction rules . The deck may also have up to a fifteen card sideboard , which allows players to modify their deck . Normally the first player to win two games is the winner of the match .
Different formats of Constructed Magic exist , each allowing different cards . The DCI maintains a " Banned and Restricted List " for each format ; players may not use banned cards at all , and restricted cards are limited to one copy per deck . The DCI bans cards that it determines are damaging the health of a format ; it seeks to use this remedy as infrequently as possible , and only a handful of cards have been banned in recent years .
Block Constructed formats are defined by the cycle of three sets of cards in a given block . For example , the Ravnica block format consists of Ravnica : City of Guilds , Guildpact , and Dissension . Only cards that were printed in one of the sets in the appropriate block can be used in these formats .
Standard , formerly known as Type 2 , contains the current block and the last two completed blocks . The Standard card pool undergoes a " rotation " twice a year , in April and October , when the first set of the next block is released . As of April 8 , 2016 , the Standard card pool consists of Dragons of Tarkir , Magic Origins , Battle for Zendikar , Oath of the Gatewatch , and Shadows Over Innistrad . ( For Standard rotation purpose , Dragons of Tarkir and Magic Origins , released under the previous three @-@ set block / core set model , are considered to be a block . )
Modern is a format that was first played at the Magic Online 2011 Community Cup , a response to players ' desire for a non @-@ rotating format that is more accessible to newer players . Wizards of the Coast introduced Modern as a legal format on August 12 , 2011 , and saw its first paper magic play at Pro Tour Philadelphia 2011 . Modern consists of every block and core set using the modern card frame since the release of 8th Edition to the present . Certain cards that released in products that are not standard legal such as Planechase or Commander series cards , are not legal in Modern , even if they have the modern card frame .
Legacy Is a format that allows every card ever printed except the Legacy banned list . It is distinguished from Vintage in that certain cards are banned for power reasons .
Vintage , previously known as Type 1 , is an Eternal format . The only banned cards in Vintage are cards using the " ante " mechanic and a few other cards that the DCI considers inappropriate for competitive Magic . Because of the expense in acquiring the scarce old cards to play competitive Vintage , some unsanctioned Vintage tournaments permit players to proxy a certain number of cards . Currently , the only format with a Restricted List is Vintage . Proxy cards are forbidden in DCI @-@ sanctioned tournaments , except as replacements for damaged cards when created by the event judge .
Commander ( originally known as Elder Dragon Highlander or EDH ) is a casual format , but can be played competitively . In this format each player constructs a 100 singleton deck that has a legendary creature that acts as a commander . The deck construction is limited to the colors that are represented by the chosen commander and there cannot be two or more cards with the same name with the exception of basic lands . The legendary creature chosen as commander is kept in a special " command zone " and may be cast at any time you can afford to cast the creature . If the commander card would enter any zone other than the battlefield from anywhere , its owner has the choice to return that card to the " command zone " , where it can be cast again for an additional two generic mana to its regular cost . The banned list and unique rules are governed by an independent body ( not by Wizards of the Coast ) .
= = = Limited = = =
In " Limited " tournaments , players construct decks using booster packs plus any additional basic lands of their choice . The decks in Limited tournaments must be a minimum of forty cards . All unused cards function as the sideboard , which , as in " Constructed " formats , can be freely exchanged between games of a match , as long as the deck continues to adhere to the forty card minimum . The rule that a player may use only four copies of any given card does not apply .
Sealed Deck tournaments give each player six 15 @-@ card booster packs from which to build his or her deck .
Booster Draft is usually played with eight players . The players are seated around a table and each player is given three booster packs . Each player opens a pack , selects a card from it , and passes the remaining cards to the next player . Each player then selects one of the remaining cards from the pack he or she just received , and passes the remaining cards again . This continues until all of the cards are depleted . Players pass left for the first and third packs , and right for the second . Players then build decks out of any of the cards that they selected during the drafting . Talking , signaling , and showing cards is forbidden during the drafting process , except for double faced cards from the Innistrad and Shadows over Innistrad blocks and " Magic Origins " , which cannot be hidden as each side of the physical card has a spell printed on it .
= = = Other Formats = = =
Players often create their own formats based on any number of criteria . Sometimes these can be based on limiting the financial value of a deck , mixing and matching different blocks or sets , or taking an existing format and modifying the DCI Banned List . Commander ( formerly EDH ) was one such format , before being officially supported by wizards . Tiny Leaders is a variant of Commander , that is not officially supported . One of the most popular player created formats for Limited is Cube Drafting . Similar in structure to Draft , players will instead use a collection of cards instead of random boosters to draft from . Since 2014 player created formats are allowed as Friday Night Magic events , so long as they follow basic Tournament Magic rules ( no fake cards , no gambling etc . )
= = = Tournament structure = = =
The DCI maintains a set of rules for being able to sanction tournaments , as well as runs its own circuit . Local shops often offer " Friday Night Magic " tournaments as a stepping @-@ stone to more competitive play . The DCI runs the Pro Tour as a series of major tournaments to attract interest . The right to compete in a Pro Tour has to be earned by either winning a Pro Tour Qualifier Tournament or being successful in a previous tournament on a similar level . A Pro Tour is usually structured into two days of individual competition played in the Swiss format . On the final day , the top eight players compete with each other in an elimination format to select the winner .
At the end of the competition in a Pro Tour , players are awarded Pro Points depending on their finishing place . If the player finishes high enough , they will also be awarded prize money . Frequent winners of these events have made names for themselves in the Magic community , such as Gabriel Nassif , Kai Budde and Jon Finkel . As a promotional tool , the DCI launched the Hall of Fame in 2005 to honor selected players .
At the end of the year the Magic World Championship is held . The World Championship functions like a Pro Tour , except that competitors have to present their skill in three different formats ( usually Standard , booster draft and a second constructed format ) rather than one . Another difference is that invitation to the World Championship can be gained not through Pro Tour Qualifiers , but via the national championship of a country . Most countries send their top four players of the tournament as representatives , though nations with minor Magic playing communities may send just one player . The World Championship also has a team @-@ based competition , where the national teams compete with each other .
At the beginning of the World Championship , new members are inducted into the Hall of Fame . The tournament also concludes the current season of tournament play and at the end of the event , the player who earned the most Pro Points during the year is awarded the title " Pro Player of the Year " . The player who earned the most Pro Points and did not compete in any previous season is awarded the title " Rookie of the Year " .
Invitation to a Pro Tour , Pro Points and prize money can also be earned in lesser tournaments called Grand Prix that are open to the general public and are held more frequently throughout the year . Grand Prix events are usually the largest Magic tournaments , sometimes drawing more than 1 @,@ 000 players . The largest Magic tournament ever held was Grand Prix : Las Vegas in June 2013 with a total of 4 @,@ 500 players .
= = Product and marketing = =
Magic : The Gathering cards are produced in much the same way as normal playing cards . Each Magic card , approximately 63 × 88 mm in size ( 2 @.@ 5 by 3 @.@ 5 inches ) , has a face which displays the card 's name and rules text as well as an illustration appropriate to the card 's concept . 15 @,@ 919 unique cards have been produced for the game as of May 2016 , many of them with variant editions , artwork , or layouts , and 600 – 1000 new ones are added each year . The first Magic cards were printed exclusively in English , but current sets are also printed in Simplified Chinese , Traditional Chinese , French , German , Italian , Japanese , Korean , Portuguese , Russian , and Spanish .
The overwhelming majority of Magic cards are issued and marketed in the form of sets . For the majority of its history there were two types : the Core Set and the themed expansion sets . Under Wizards of the Coast 's current production and marketing scheme , a new set is released quarterly . Various products are released with each set to appeal to different segments of the Magic playing community :
The majority of cards are sold in booster packs , which contain fifteen cards normally divided into four rarities , which can be differentiated by the color of the expansion symbol . A fifteen @-@ card Booster Pack will typically contain one rare ( gold ) , three uncommons ( silver ) , ten commons ( black ) , and one basic land ( colored black , as Commons ) . Sets prior to Shards of Alara contained eleven commons instead of a basic land .
Shards of Alara also debuted mythic rares ( red @-@ orange ) , which replace one in eight rare cards on average . There are also premium versions of every card with holographic foil , randomly inserted into some boosters in place of a common , which replace about one in seventy cards .
Four to five Intro Packs are released with each set . An Intro Pack is a pre @-@ constructed deck aimed at newcomers that highlights one of the set 's mechanical themes . It comes with two booster packs from that set , a rulebook , and a fixed selection of cards , including one foil rare . This product will be replaced with Planeswalker Decks in Kaladesh , where there will be two 60 card preconstructed decks featuring a planeswalker from the set .
Each set from Mirrodin Besieged to Gatecrash featured two Event Decks , which are pre @-@ constructed decks designed as an introduction to tournament play . Beginning with Dragon 's Maze , each set featured only one Event Deck . However , event decks were discontinued following the Khans of Tarkir block .
Previously , cards were also sold in Tournament Packs typically containing three rares , ten uncommons , thirty @-@ two commons , and thirty basic lands . Tournament Packs were discontinued after Shards of Alara .
Expansion sets are currently released in a two @-@ set block , starting with a large set and ending with a smaller one three months later . Prior to 2016 , expansion sets were released in a three @-@ set block ( again , beginning with a larger set followed by two smaller sets ) . These sets consist almost exclusively of newly designed cards . Contrasting with the wide @-@ ranging Core Set , each expansion is focused around a subset of mechanics and ties into a set storyline . Expansions also dedicate several cards to a handful of particular , often newly introduced , game mechanics .
The Core Sets began to be released annually ( previously biennially ) in July 2009 coinciding with the name change from 10th Edition to Magic 2010 . This shift also introduced new , never before printed cards into the core set , something that previously had never been done . However , core sets were discontinued following the release of Magic Origins , on July 17 , 2015 , at the same time that two @-@ set blocks were introduced .
In addition to the quarterly set releases , Magic cards are released in other products as well , such as the Planechase and Archenemy spin @-@ off games . These combine reprinted Magic cards with new , oversize cards with new functionality . Magic cards are also printed specifically for collectors , such as the From the Vault and Premium Deck Series sets , which contain exclusively premium foil cards .
In 2003 , starting with the Eighth Edition Core Set , the game went through its biggest visual change since its creation — a new card frame layout was developed to allow more rules text and larger art on the cards , while reducing the thick , colored border to a minimum . The new frame design aimed to improve contrast and readability using black type instead of the previous white , a new font , and partitioned areas for the name , card type , and power and toughness .
For the first few years of its production , Magic : The Gathering featured a small number of cards with names or artwork with demonic or occultist themes , in 1995 the company elected to remove such references from the game . In 2002 , believing that the depiction of demons was becoming less controversial and that the game had established itself sufficiently , Wizards of the Coast reversed this policy and resumed printing cards with " demon " in their names .
= = = Spin @-@ offs = = =
Magic : The Gathering video games , comics , and books have been produced under licensing or directly by Wizards of the Coast . While comics and books have mostly been supplements to develop a background story for the game , several video games have been produced which lean in varying degree on the original game . For the first computer games Wizards of the Coast had sold licenses to Acclaim and MicroProse roughly at the same time . While MicroProse 's Magic : The Gathering received favorable reviews , Acclaim 's Magic : The Gathering : BattleMage was mostly dismissed with negative reaction .
With Magic : The Gathering Online , Wizards developed and released a computer version of the game themselves that allows players to compete online against other players using the original Magic cards and rules . The latest computer implementation of Magic is Magic : The Gathering – Duels of the Planeswalkers which was developed by Stainless Games and released for the Xbox 360 in June 2009 . The game was ported to Windows in June of the next year . Six months after the PC release of Duels of the Planeswalkers , the game was ported to the PlayStation 3 platform . The game was the most @-@ played Xbox Live title for two weeks after its release .
In September 2011 , Hasbro and IDW Publishing accorded to make a 4 @-@ issue mini @-@ series about Magic : The Gathering with a new story but heavily based on MTG elements and with a new Planeswalker called Dack Fayden , which story is mainly developed in the planes of Ravnica and Innistrad . The ongoing series started in February 2012 .
In 2015 Wizards of the Coast and Hasbro published Magic : The Gathering – Arena of the Planeswalkers . Arena of the Planeswalkers is a tactical boardgame where the players maneuver miniatures over a customizable board game , and the ruleset and terrain is based on Heroscape , but with an addition of spell cards and summoning . The original master set includes miniatures that represent the five planeswalkers Gideon , Jace , Liliana , Chandra , and Nissa as well as select creatures from the Magic : The Gathering universe . They later released an expansion Battle for Zendikar featuring muli @-@ color planeswalkers Kiora and Ob Nixilis and a colorless Eldrazi Ruiner , and a second master set Shadows Over Innistrad which has 4 new planeswalkers and also includes the addition of cryptoliths .
= = = Film = = =
In January 2014 , 20th Century Fox acquired the rights to produce a Magic : The Gathering movie with Simon Kinberg as producer .
In April , 2016 , Enter the Battlefield , a documentary about life on the Magic Pro Tour was released . The film was written by Greg Collins , Nathan Holt , and Shawn Kornhauser .
= = = Parodies = = =
In 1998 , PGI Limited created Havic : The Bothering , which was a parody of Magic : The Gathering . Wizards of the Coast , which owned the rights to Magic : The Gathering , took active steps to hinder the distribution of the game and successfully shut out PGI Limited from attending GenCon in July 1998 . In an attempt to avoid breaching copyright and Richard Garfield 's patent , each starter deck of Havic had printed on the back side , " This is a Parody " , and on the bottom of the rule card was printed , " Do not have each player : construct their own library of predetermined number of game components by examining and selecting [ the ] game components from [ a ] reservoir of game components or you may infringe on U.S. Patent No. 5 @,@ 662 @,@ 332 to Garfield . "
= = Secondary market = =
There is an active secondary market in individual cards among players and game shops . Many physical and online stores sell single cards or " playsets " of four of a card . Common cards rarely sell for more than a few cents and are usually sold in bulk . Uncommon cards and weak rare cards typically sell from 10 ¢ up to $ 1 . The most expensive cards in standard tournament play are usually priced at $ 35 to $ 50 , although many commonly played cards in the modern and legacy formats sell for $ 60 to $ 180 . Foil versions of rare and mythic rare cards are typically priced at about twice as much as the regular versions . Some of the more sought @-@ after rare and mythic rare cards can have foil versions that cost up to three or four times more than the non @-@ foil versions .
A few of the oldest cards , due to smaller printings and limited distribution , are highly valued and extremely rare . This is in part due to the " Reserve List " , a list of cards from the sets Alpha to Urza 's Destiny ( 1994 – 1999 ) that Wizards has promised never to reprint . The most expensive card that was in regular print ( as opposed to being a promotional or special printing ) is Black Lotus . In 2013 , a " Pristine 9 @.@ 5 grade " Beckett Grading Services graded Alpha Black Lotus was bought by an anonymous buyer , for a record $ 27 @,@ 302 .
The secondary market started with comic book stores , and hobby shops displaying and selling cards , with the cards ' values determined somewhat arbitrarily by the employees of the store . With the expansion of the internet , prices of cards were determined by the amount of tournament deck lists a given card would appear in . If a card was played in a tournament more frequently , the cost of the card would be higher ( in addition to the market availability of the card ) . When eBay , Amazon , and other large online markets started to gain popularity , the Magic secondary market evolved substantially . Buying and selling Magic cards online became a source of income for people who learned how to manipulate the market . Today , the secondary market is so large and complex , it has become an area of study for consumer research , and some people make a career out of market manipulation , creating mathematical models to analyze the growth of cards ' worth , and predict the market value of both individual cards , and entire sets of cards .
As of late 2013 , Wizards of the Coast has expressed concern over the increasing number of counterfeit cards in the secondary market . Wizards of the Coast has since made an effort to counteract the rise of counterfeits by introducing a new holofoil stamp on all rare and mythic rare cards as of Magic 2015 .
= = Artwork = =
Each card has an illustration to represent the flavor of the card , often reflecting the setting of the expansion for which it was designed . Much of Magic 's early artwork was commissioned with little specific direction or concern for visual cohesion . One infamous example was the printing of the creature Whippoorwill without the " flying " ability even though its art showed a bird in flight . The art direction team later decided to impose a few constraints so that the artistic vision more closely aligned with the design and development of the cards . Each block of cards now has its own style guide with sketches and descriptions of the various races and places featured in the setting .
A few early sets experimented with alternate art for cards . However , Wizards came to believe that this impeded easy recognition of a card and that having multiple versions caused confusion when identifying a card at a glance . Consequently , alternate art is now only used sparingly and mostly for promotional cards . When older cards are reprinted in new sets , however , Wizards of the Coast has guaranteed that they will be printed with new art to make the older cards more collectible .
Starting in 1995 , the copyright on all artwork commissioned is transferred to Wizards of the Coast once a contract is signed . However , the artist is allowed to sell the original piece and printed reproductions of it , and for established and prolific Magic artists , this can be a lucrative source of revenue .
As Magic has expanded across the globe , its artwork has had to change for its international audience . Artwork has been edited or given alternate art to comply with the governmental standards . For example , the portrayal of skeletons and most undead in artwork was prohibited by the Chinese government until 2008 .
= = Storyline = =
The way Magic storylines are conceived and deployed has changed considerably over the years . The main premise of Magic is that countless possible worlds ( planes ) exist in the Multiverse , and only unique and rare beings called Planeswalkers are capable of traversing the Multiverse . This allows the game to frequently change worlds so as to renew its mechanical inspiration , while maintaining planeswalkers as recurrent , common elements across worlds . An intricate storyline underlies the cards released in each expansion and is shown in the art and flavor text of the cards , as well as in novels and anthologies published by Wizards of the Coast ( and formerly by Harper Prism ) . Important storyline characters , objects and locations often appear as cards in Magic sets , usually as " Legendary " creatures , artifacts , and lands , or as " Planeswalker " cards .
The original Magic : The Gathering Limited Edition has no overarching storyline , and the cards only have unconnected bits of lore and trivia to give the cards some individual depth . In the early expansion sets until Visions there is usually no real story arc either . Instead , some of these sets are inspired from mythologies of various cultures . This is most apparent in Arabian Nights , that takes some of the One Thousand and One Nights characters and makes them into Magic cards . Norse mythological influences can be seen worked into Ice Age and African influences into Mirage . However , not all of the early sets can be linked as directly to earth mythology . Antiquities touches on an independent storyline about two warring brothers , Urza and Mishra . Homelands is the exception in that period . For this set , a back story was first conceived and the cards in the set were designed afterwards to fit the storyline .
Beginning with the Weatherlight expansion there was a shift in the way Magic storylines were used . For the blocks Weatherlight through Apocalypse , the story was laid out in a character driven story , following the events of the Weatherlight ship and its crew . With help of the planeswalking capabilities of the Weatherlight , the protagonists travel through the multiverse to fight Yawgmoth and his army of Phyrexians . Odyssey through Scourge are an unconnected storyline set 100 years later on the Dominaria where multiple factions battle for control of the Mirari , a powerful magical artifact left by Karn . After Scourge , Magic storylines have mostly panned away from Dominaria . New planes were created to set the scene for new storylines . In contrast to the previous character driven stories , these releases focused on thematic worlds . This was the model from Mirrodin through Alara , a world split into five magically and culturally distinct " shards " but later reunited .
After Alara , Magic visited Zendikar , a world used as a prison to entrap a race of interplanar parasitic monsters called the Eldrazi , which were inspired by H. P. Lovecraft 's Old Ones . Beginning with Zendikar the world @-@ centric storytelling was complemented by an overlying story layer . Planeswalker cards had been introduced in Lorwyn and these Planeswalker characters were used to give the overarching storyline a sense of continuity , despite the constant change of setting . The block following Zendikar , Scars of Mirrodin , revisited the plane of Mirrodin , where the Mirran natives battled against an invading Phyrexian corruption unwittilingly left by Karn ( again interconnecting various storylines ) . To further integrate the storyline into the gameplay , certain events for the second set , Mirrodin Besieged , encouraged players to affiliate themselves with either the Mirran or Phyrexian faction . Much of the recent focus has been on both integrating the play experience with the story line and on making mechanics and individual cards which represent pivotal points in the story .
On Innistrad , a plane inspired heavily by gothic horror , its guardian angel has gone missing . Darkness has started to consume the plane , and the players must discover that the Helvault , a magical prison , has been holding the archangel Avacyn as well as demons . Thalia , a cathar of the Church of Avacyn , broke open the Helvault and released Avacyn as well as all of the demons . In the ′ ' Return to Ravnica block , players were encouraged to affiliate themselves with a guild and take control of the city of Ravnica by completing the maze discovered by Niv - Mizzet . Theros was a plane inspired by Greek mythology , containing many references to Greek mythological figures such as Prometheus and the pantheon of gods . Tarkir was a plane where dragons were long since dead . Through time travel , dragons took over the plane and ruled its people .
Battle for Zendikar was a return to the plane of Zendikar , which had been ravaged by the Eldrazi horrors . This marks a change in Magic 's storytelling where it uses a team of planeswalkers , called the Gatewatch , to tell the story . Shadows Over Innistrad is a return to Innistrad , where Avacyn has been corrupted .
The newest set , Eldritch Moon , focuses on the fact that Emrakul , the most powerful Eldrazi titan who had been missing from the Battle for Zendikar storyline , is now on Innistrad . Together , the Gatewatch must find a way to save the plane of Innistrad . This story also focuses on cosmic horror instead of the traditional gothic horror of old Innistrad .
= = Academic research = =
There are several examples of academic , peer @-@ reviewed research concerning different aspects of Magic : The Gathering . One example examined how players use their imaginations when playing . This research studied hobby players and showed how players sought to create and participate in an epic fantasy narrative . Another example used online auctions for Magic cards to test revenue outcomes for various auction types . A final example uses probability to examine Magic card @-@ collecting strategies . Using a specific set of cards in a specialized manner has shown Magic : The Gathering to be Turing complete .
= Gardermoen Line =
The Gardermoen Line ( Norwegian : Gardermobanen ) is a high @-@ speed railway line between Oslo and Eidsvoll , Norway , running past Lillestrøm and Oslo Airport , Gardermoen . The line is 64 kilometres ( 40 mi ) long and replaced the older Hoved Line as the main line north @-@ east of Oslo . The older Hoved Line now handles commuter and freight traffic , while the Gardermoen Line handles high @-@ speed passenger trains and freight trains laden with jet fuel for the airport . Both lines are owned by the Norwegian National Rail Administration .
The line was opened in 1998 , at the same time as the airport that gave the line its name . It is used by the Flytoget airport express train service as well as express trains by Norges Statsbaner . It is the only high @-@ speed railway in the kingdom , with a maximum permitted speed of 210 km / h ( 130 mph ) . Most of the line between Oslo and Lillestrøm is through the 14 @,@ 580 @-@ metre ( 47 @,@ 830 ft ) long Romeriksporten tunnel — the longest railway tunnel in Norway . The decision to build the line was made in 1992 ; construction started two years later . The line was subjected to severe criticism during construction when the Romerike Tunnel sprung severe leaks due to hurried construction . As a result , the tunnel was opened a year after the rest of the line .
= = History = =
When the Parliament of Norway decided on 8 October 1992 to build a new central airport for Eastern Norway , they also decided that the main mode of ground transport to the airport should be by railway . While the previous airport , Oslo Airport , Fornebu , was located just outside the city limits ; the new Oslo Airport , Gardermoen , would be located some 50 kilometers north of the city , outside the reach of the existing public transport systems . The political agreement to build the airport stated that the costs of construction should not be borne by the tax payers . As a result , the entire airport was financed with money borrowed through Oslo Lufthavn AS , a subsidiary of the Norwegian Airport Administration . The same principle was chosen for the airport rail link . The Norwegian State Railways ( NSB ) created the subsidiary , NSB Gardermobanen AS , on 24 November 1992 to perform the construction of the line . This company would be able to charge train operators using the railway line ; and could use this income to cover its down payments and interest on the debt created to pay for the infrastructure investment . It was planned to give a profit margin of 7 @.@ 5 % .
In 1996 NSB Gardermoen stated that they expected to charge commuter and intercity trains 100 million Norwegian krone per year to use the new line . County politicians in Akershus stated that it was not reasonable for commuters to have to pay for the new railway . Early estimates showed that this would almost double to price from Oslo to Eidsvoll , and that passengers would have different prices , depending on which route they followed . Stor @-@ Oslo Lokaltrafikk , which was responsible for buses in Akershus , stated that they had no way to influence NSB 's prices , but that they would consider starting a coach service along the route , which would not charge the surcharge .
= = = Construction = = =
Construction of the railway started on 1 August 1994 . Gardermoen is located about 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) north of Oslo , but is not located on the Hoved Line . A different right @-@ of @-@ way had to be chosen north of Kløfta . The Hoved Line has heavy traffic , with many small stops until Lillestrøm , and continues northwards from Lillestrøm as single track . Therefore , an all @-@ new railway would have to be built ; it would bypass the intermediate railway until Lillestrøm , running through a tunnel , and continue northwards to the airport and onwards to Eidsvoll . This northernmost part is 16 kilometres ( 10 mi ) used to allow trains operating on the Dovre Line to Lillehammer and Trondheim to use the Gardermoen Line .
The Gardermoen Line was the second attempt to build a high @-@ speed railway in Norway . The first was the 35 km line from Ski to Moss on the Østfold Line . However , operational speeds in excess of 160 kilometres per hour ( 99 mph ) could not be achieved due to the short distances and limitations on rolling stock . The Gardermoen Line , therefore , became the first real high @-@ speed railway line in Norway . Due to the domination of single track in Norway , the 64 kilometres ( 40 mi ) Gardermoen Line increased the total length of double track in the kingdom by more than 50 % .
The projected costs of the railway line were NOK 4 @.@ 3 billion ± 20 % . Total costs ended at NOK 7 @.@ 7 billion , including 1 @.@ 3 billion extra used on extraordinary expenditures on the Romeriksporten . On 1 October 1996 it was decided that the construction company , NSB Gardermobanen , would also become the operator of the airport express train . However , due to limited profitability with the company , from 1 January 2001 the ownership of Gardermobanen was transferred to the Norwegian National Rail Administration , who also owns the rest of railway lines in Norway . The operating company changed its name to Flytoget AS .
= = = Construction challenges = = =
The most challenging part of the construction was the 14 @,@ 580 metres ( 47 @,@ 830 ft ) railway tunnel from Etterstad , just east of Oslo S , to Lillestrøm . Romeriksporten is the longest railway tunnel in Norway , and is underneath the recreational area Østmarka , in geologically highly unstable ground . During the construction in 1997 , the water level in some of the lakes above the tunnel , including Lutvann and Nordre Puttjern , fell dramatically . After they were discovered on 3 February 1997 sanctions were initiated by the Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate requiring leakage prevention measures in the tunnel . At the worst , 3 @,@ 000 liters of water per minute leaked into the tunnel .
The substance Rhoca @-@ Gil was used to fix the leakages , but the substance failed to work properly . Not only did it fail to polymerize and stop the leaks , it also contaminated the surroundings with acrylamide . The entire process of fixing the leak and cleaning up the toxicity delayed the process of building the tunnel by one year ; and it was first opened on 22 August 1999 . Further complications arose due to conflicts between NSB Gardermobanen and the construction company . Retrospective surveys showed a lack of control and reporting procedures during incidents that should have been addressed in 1995 , and were never taken seriously . About sixty houses received damage due to the construction of the tunnel . An evaluation performed by the Ministry of Transport and Communications showed that NOK 500 million was used on fixing the leaks ; however , the report claimed this was , to a large extent , a waste of money due to inefficient engineering procedures . The same report criticized the planning and organization of the entire construction of the railway .
= = = Opening = = =
When the new airport opened on 8 October 1998 , and the Flytoget airport express train service started operations with sixteen Type 71 multiple units . Trains had to use the old Hoved Line from Oslo S to Lillestrøm , but could use the new high @-@ speed line from Lillestrøm to Gardermoen . Regular operations using Romeriksporten started on 22 August 1999 . To be able to use the new Gardermoen Line infrastructure , Norges Statsbaner had to buy new trains capable of higher speeds . Twenty @-@ two locomotive designated El 18 , based on the Swiss lok 2000 , where delivered in 1996 . They are capable of speeds of up to 200 kilometres per hour ( 120 mph ) . However , the B7 passenger carriages used are not permitted to operate at more than 150 kilometres per hour ( 93 mph ) . Full speed utilization of long @-@ distance trains is only possible with the Type 73 units that started operation on Dovrebanen in 2000 . These trains are nearly identical to those used by the Flytoget airport express train company , and capable of 210 kilometres per hour ( 130 mph ) on the Gardermoen Line . They are equipped with tilting technology allowing quicker operation on the rest of the line to Trondheim . Other trains used on the line by NSB are only capable of 160 kilometres per hour ( 99 mph ) .
= = = Future expansion = = =
Plans for an expansion of the high @-@ speed line to Hamar have been launched , but have not been incorporated into any specific plans . This suggestion would increase the length of the high @-@ speed rail north of Oslo with 62 kilometres ( 39 mi ) — almost a doubling . The project may or may not incorporate a further high @-@ speed line to Trondheim .
= = Operations = =
The railway is used by both Norges Statsbaner , Flytoget and SJ for their passenger services , as well as freight trains with jet fuel for the airport .
= = = Airport express train = = =
The Flytoget airport express train service is the largest user of the Gardermoen Line , with six departures from Oslo Central to Oslo Airport per hour . The trains only use the line as far as Gardermoen , and not the northernmost sixteen kilometers . Service is provided using sixteen Type 71 three @-@ car units , which together transported 5 @.@ 4 million passengers in 2007 . Direct services to Oslo S take 19 minutes . Half of the services make an intermediate stop at Lillestrøm , and continue on past Oslo Central to Asker Station . Flytoget has a 34 % market share on ground transport to Oslo Airport .
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' attack . England 's bowling was largely reliant on Alec Bedser and against a powerful Australian batting line @-@ up he managed only 18 wickets at 38 @.@ 22 . Alec Coxon , Dick Pollard , Edrich , Barnett and Yardley provided his seam support . Jim Laker , Jack Young , Eric Hollies and Doug Wright were the spinners in action . Bedser was the only English bowler to take more than nine wickets . Morris led the runscoring and century @-@ making with 696 runs at 87 @.@ 00 and three triple @-@ figure scores , supported by Bradman ( 508 at 72 @.@ 57 ) and Barnes ( 329 at 82 @.@ 25 ) . With the first three batsmen in such form , Australia regularly made strong starts to their innings , averaging more than 120 for their first two wickets .
The resounding Australian victories gave the England selectors many problems as they sought to find a combination that could challenge the tourists ' superiority . As a result , England used 21 players in all , while Australia only used 15 , one of which was forced by injury . Australia had ten players who competed in four or more Tests , while England only had seven such players .
= = = First Test = = =
Since the Second World War , Australia had played 11 Tests and had been unbeaten . In 1946 – 47 , they won the five @-@ Test series against England 3 – 0 , and followed this with a 4 – 0 series win over India in the following season . Australia were regarded as an extremely strong team in the lead @-@ up to the tour of England , and Bradman publicly expressed his desire to achieve the unprecedented feat of going through the five @-@ month tour without defeat . Prior to the First Test , Australia had played 12 first @-@ class matches , winning ten and drawing two . Eight of the victories were by an innings , and another was by eight wickets .
It was thought that Bradman would play Ring , but he changed his mind on the first morning of the First Test when rain was forecast . Johnston was played in the hope of exploiting a wet wicket and he amply rewarded his captain by taking the most wickets of any bowler in the match . Yardley won the toss and elected to bat .
The first innings set the pattern of the series as the England top @-@ order struggled against Australia 's pace attack . Only twenty minutes of play was possible before the lunch break due to inclement weather , but it was enough for Miller to bowl Hutton . During the interval , heavy rain made the ball skid through upon resumption . Washbrook was caught attempting to hook Lindwall . At 15 / 2 , Compton came in , and together with Edrich , they took the score to 46 before left arm paceman Johnston bowled the latter . Two balls later , Johnston removed Hardstaff without scoring , leaving England at 46 / 4 . Two runs later , Compton was bowled by Miller and half the English team were out with only 48 runs on the board . Lindwall was forced to leave the field mid @-@ innings due to a groin injury and did not bowl again . Johnston bowled Barnett and when Evans and Yardley were both dismissed with the score on 74 , England only had two wickets left . Laker and Bedser scored more than half of England 's total , adding 89 runs in only 73 minutes . Both fell within two runs , ending England 's innings at 165 . Laker top @-@ scored with 63 . Johnston ended with 5 / 36 , a display characterised with accuracy and variations in pace and swing . Miller took 3 / 38 and a catch .
Australia 's openers Morris and Barnes successfully negotiated the new ball by Edrich and Bedser to reach stumps with 17 without loss after 15 minutes . Ideal batting conditions greeted the players on the second day . Barnes and Morris took the score to 73 before Laker removed Morris . Bradman came in and the score progressed to 121 before Barnes was caught by wicket @-@ keeper Evans with a one @-@ handed diving effort for 62 . Miller was then dismissed for a duck by Laker .
Australia scored slowly , as Yardley employed leg theory to slow the scoring . Brown came in at No. 5 , but he had played most of his career as an opening batsman and appeared uncomfortable before falling for 24 . Hassett came in and Australia reached stumps at 293 / 4 , a lead of 128 . Bradman reached his 28th Test century in over 210 minutes , with the last 29 runs taking 70 minutes . It was one of his slower innings as Yardley focused on stopping runs . On the third morning , Bradman added only eight before falling for 138 when he leg glanced an inswinger from Bedser to Hutton at short fine leg . Johnson and Tallon came and went , failing to pass 21 . The scoring was slow during this passage of play — Young delivered 11 consecutive maiden overs . Lindwall came out to bat at 365 / 7 and he added 107 runs with Hassett for the eighth wicket . Hassett reached his century and proceeded to 137 in almost six hours of batting . Both fell in quick succession , but Australia 's last @-@ wicket pair of Johnston and Toshack wagged a further 33 runs in only 18 minutes before Bedser ended the innings on 509 , leaving the tourists with a 344 @-@ run lead . Yardley placed the majority of the bowling load on his spinners , with Young ( 1 / 79 ) and Laker ( 4 / 138 ) bowling 60 and 55 overs respectively . Bedser bowled 44 @.@ 2 overs , taking 3 / 113 .
At the start of England 's second innings , Washbrook and Edrich fell early , leaving England at 39 / 2 . This brought together England 's leading batsmen , Hutton and Compton , who took the score to 121 without further loss by stumps on the third day . Miller battled with Hutton and Compton through the afternoon , delivering five bouncers in the last over of the day . One of these struck Hutton high on his left arm . The batsmen survived , but Miller received a hostile reaction from the crowd . The English had the better of the late afternoon period , scoring 82 runs together in 70 minutes .
Hutton resumed on 63 and he and Compton progressed before the light deteriorated and a thunderstorm stopped proceedings . Shortly after the resumption , Miller bowled Hutton with an off cutter in the dark conditions , ending a 111 @-@ run partnership at 150 / 3 . The innings was then repeatedly interrupted by poor light . Wisden opined that " rarely can a Test Match have been played under such appalling conditions as on this day " . Hardstaff supported Compton in a partnership of 93 before being removed by Toshack , and Barnett followed soon after at 264 / 5 . Compton brought up his third consecutive century at Trent Bridge , aided by a 57 @-@ run partnership with his captain before Johnston dismissed Yardley for 22 . England reached stumps at 345 / 6 , just one run ahead , with Compton on 154 .
Compton and Evans continued to resist the Australians on the final morning , which was briefly interrupted twice by rain . After the resumption , Compton was out hit wicket for 184 after attempting to hook Miller . He had batted for 413 minutes and hit 19 fours . Wisden opined that " No praise could be too high for the manner in which Compton carried the side 's responsibilities and defied a first @-@ class attack in such trying circumstances " . Compton 's fall at 405 / 7 exposed the bowlers and Australia quickly finished off the innings within half an hour . England finished at 441 , leaving Australia a target of 98 . Lindwall 's absence meant that the remaining four frontline bowlers had to bowl more than 32 overs each — Johnston bowled 59 and ended with 4 / 147 while Miller took 4 / 125 from 44 overs . Australia progressed steadily to 38 before Bedser bowled Morris for nine and then dismissed Bradman for a duck , again caught by Hutton at short fine leg . This left Australia 48 / 2 . Hassett joined Barnes and they reached the target without further loss . Barnes ended on 64 with 11 boundaries .
= = = Second Test = = =
Australia retained the same XI from the First Test at Trent Bridge . On the other hand , England made three changes ; the leg spinner Wright had regained fitness and replaced the left arm orthodox of Young , all rounder Coxon made his Test debut in place of Barnett and Dollery replaced Hardstaff as the No. 5 @.@ batsman . Following his injury in the previous Test , Lindwall was subjected to a thorough fitness test on the first morning and was only included after protesting to Bradman , who gambled on his inclusion . Australia won the toss and elected to bat . Miller played , but was unfit to bowl .
Barnes fell for a duck , and Morris and Bradman rebuilt the innings , slowly taking the score to 87 before Bradman was caught for the third consecutive time by Hutton in the leg trap off Bedser . In the meantime , Morris , after a slow start , made 105 runs out of a total of 166 scored while he was at the wicket , including 14 fours and one six . His innings was noted for powerful , well @-@ placed cover drives . His dismissal left Australia at 166 / 3 , quickly followed by Miller , left Australia at 173 / 4 . Hassett and Brown rebuilt the innings slowly , taking more than three and half minutes on average for each run . Hassett was dropped three times before Yardley removed him and Brown in the space of nine runs to leave Australia 225 / 6 . Johnson fell soon after and England were well placed when Australia ended the day on 258 / 7 .
Australia 's lower order batted the tourists into control on the second morning . Tallon batted on , supported by Johnston and Toshack , who scored their highest Test scores . Australia 's wicket @-@ keeper put on 45 with Johnston — who scored 29 . Toshack then joined Johnston and the last pair put on 30 more runs before Johnston fell . Bedser was the most successful of the bowlers , ending with 4 / 100 from 43 overs , while debutant Coxon took 2 / 90 from 35 overs .
Lindwall took the new ball and felt pain in his groin again after delivering his first ball . He persevered through the pain and removed Washbrook in his fourth over . Hutton then fell to Johnson to leave England at 32 / 2 . Lindwall then clean bowled Edrich before doing the same to Dollery for a duck two balls later . England were 46 / 4 and Australia were firmly in control . Compton was joined by his skipper Yardley and the pair rebuilt the innings , scoring 87 runs together in 100 minutes . After the tea break , Lindwall and Johnston returned with the new ball . Compton edged Johnston to be out for 53 . One run later , Lindwall bowled Yardley to leave England at 134 / 6 with their skipper dismissed for 44 . Johnson then removed Evans for nine , before Coxon and Laker added 41 for the eighth wicket . After 85 minutes of resistance , Johnston removed both . England 's last pair added ten runs to close at stumps on 9 / 207 .
On the third morning , Lindwall removed Bedser , ending England 's innings at 215 , giving Australia a 135 first innings lead . Lindwall ended with 5 / 70 . The weather was fine as Australia started their second innings . Barnes was given an early life and he took advantage to combine with Morris in an opening stand of 122 before Morris was bowled for 62 . Bradman joined Barnes at the crease and they amassed 174 runs for the second wicket . Barnes accelerated after reaching his half @-@ century . Once he reached his century , Barnes became particularly aggressive . He dispatched one Laker over for 21 runs , including two successive sixes before finally falling for 141 , caught on the boundary from Yardley . He had struck 14 boundaries and two sixes in his innings . The speed of his batting had allowed Australia to be 296 / 2 after 277 minutes when he departed . Hassett was bowled first ball , so Miller came to the crease at 296 / 3 to face Yardley 's hat @-@ trick ball . Miller survived a loud leg before wicket appeal on the hat @-@ trick ball . Bradman fell to Bedser again , this time for 89 . Brown joined Miller at 329 / 4 and Australia reached stumps at 343 , without further loss .
After the rest day , the fourth morning was punctuated by three rain stoppages . In 88 minutes of play , Australia added a further 117 runs . Brown was caught behind from Coxon for 32 after an 87 @-@ run partnership with Miller , who was out for 74 , followed by Lindwall for 25 . Bradman declared with Australia at 460 / 7 , 595 runs ahead . Yardley and Laker had been the only multiple wicket @-@ takers , with two each .
Further showers breathed extra life into the pitch , and Lindwall and Johnston extracted steep bounce with the new ball , troubling the English batsmen . Hutton was dropped before he had scored and played and missed multiple times . Hutton and Washbrook took the score to 42 , before Hutton edged Lindwall and was out for 13 . Toshack removed Edrich and Washbrook in quick succession to leave England at 65 / 3 . However , Compton and Dollery added 41 to have England close at 106 / 3 .
The final day started poorly for England , with Compton being caught off Johnston from the second ball of the day . Yardley and Dollery took the score to 133 before Toshack took two wickets in the same over . Eight runs later , Dollery was bowled from a Lindwall bouncer that stayed low . Lindwall bowled Laker for a duck later in the same over to leave England at 141 / 8 . England were bowled out for 186 , ceding a 409 @-@ run victory . Toshack ended the innings with 5 / 40 , while Lindwall and Johnston took three and two respectively . The gross attendance was 132 @,@ 000 and receipts were £ 43 @,@ 000 — a record for a Test in England .
= = = Third Test = = =
When the teams reconvened at Old Trafford for the Third Test , Hutton had been dropped . The reason was said to be Hutton 's struggles with Lindwall 's short @-@ pitched bowling . The omission generated considerable controversy. and the Australians were pleased , feeling that Hutton was England 's best batsman . Hutton 's opening position was taken by debutant Emmett . England made three further changes . Young and Pollard replaced Wright and Laker in the bowling department . Coxon was replaced by debutant batsman Jack Crapp . Australia dropped Brown , who had scored 73 runs at 24 @.@ 33 in three innings , for the all rounder Loxton . Yardley won the toss and elected to bat .
The change in England 's opening pair did not result in better results . A run out was narrowly avoided from the first ball , and Washbrook and Emmett appeared to be uncomfortable on a surface that helped the bowlers . Both fell early , leaving England 28 / 2 . Edrich eschewed attacking strokeplay as he and Compton attempted to establish themselves . Compton attempted to hook a Lindwall bouncer , but edged it into his face . This forced him to leave the field with a bloodied eyebrow with the score at 33 / 2 . Edrich and Crapp then engaged in grim defensive batting , resulting in one 25 @-@ minute period where only one run was added . They reached lunch at 57 / 2 . Upon the resumption , Crapp accelerated , hitting a six and three boundaries from Johnson . Australia took the new ball and Lindwall trapped Crapp lbw for 37 . Dollery then fell for one . England had lost two wickets for one run to be 97 / 4 . After 170 minutes of slow batting , Edrich fell to Lindwall . At 119 / 5 , Compton returned to the field , his wound having been stitched . Yardley fell for 22 with the score at 141 / 6 , bringing Evans to the crease . Compton and Evans added 75 runs , before Lindwall removed the latter to leave England at 216 / 7 .
England resumed on the second day at 231 / 7 and Australia was unable to break through with the new ball . Bedser defied the Australians for 145 minutes , adding 37 and featuring in a 121 @-@ run partnership with Compton . Soon after , Pollard pulled a ball from Johnson into the ribs of Barnes , who was standing at short leg , forcing him into hospital . The last two wickets fell and England were bowled out for 363 . Compton was unbeaten on 145 in 324 minutes of batting , having struck 16 fours . Lindwall took 4 / 99 and Johnston 3 / 67 .
Barnes 's injury left Australia with only Morris as a specialist opener . Johnson was deployed as Australia 's makeshift second opener , but made only one , and Bradman fell for seven to leave Australia at 13 / 2 . Morris and Hassett rebuilt the innings , adding 69 for the third wicket in 101 minutes before Hassett fell . Miller joined Morris and they took the score to 126 / 3 at stumps .
Australia had added only nine runs on the third morning when Miller fell for 31 . Four runs later , Morris fell for 51 , leaving Australia 139 / 5 . Barnes came in , despite having collapsed in the nets due to the lingering effects of the blow to his chest . He made a painful single before the pain forced him back to hospital . Tallon and Loxton added a further 43 before Tallon fell . Lindwall came into bat at 172 / 6 with Australia facing the prospect of the follow on . Loxton and Lindwall added a further 36 before the former was bowled , leaving Australia 208 / 7 , five runs behind the follow @-@ on mark . Johnston helped Lindwall advance Australia beyond the follow on before Bedser removed both and Australia were bowled out for 221 , giving England a lead of 142 runs . During his innings , Lindwall was given a series of bouncers by Edrich . One of the short @-@ pitched balls hit Lindwall in the hand , evoking cheers from the crowd . Bedser and Pollard were the most successful bowlers , taking 4 / 81 and 3 / 53 respectively .
Lindwall removed Emmett for a duck at the start of the second innings , bringing his tormentor Edrich to the crease . Lindwall did not bounce Edrich , but Miller did , earning the ire of the crowd . Edrich and Washbrook settled and put together a 124 @-@ run partnership in only 138 minutes . This was aided three dropped catches from Washbrook . Edrich struck eight boundaries and brought up his fifty with a six , but was immediately run out by Morris with a direct hit . Crapp joined Washbrook and helped see off the new ball , as England reached 174 / 3 at the close , with Washbrook unbeaten on 85 .
The rest day was followed by the fourth day , which was abandoned due to persistent rain . Yardley declared at the start of the fifth day , leaving Australia a victory target of 317 , but the rain meant that the entire first session was lost . The tourists batted in a defensive manner to ensure a draw . They ended at 92 / 1 in 61 overs . Morris finished unbeaten on 54 , his fourth consecutive half @-@ century of the Test series . The attendance of 133 @,@ 740 exceeded the previous Test .
= = = Fourth Test = = =
Australia made two changes for the Test . Harvey replaced the injured Barnes , while Saggers replaced the injured Tallon behind the stumps . England made three changes . Emmett was dropped and Hutton was recalled to take his opening position . Laker replaced his left arm finger spinning colleague Young . Dollery , who had made only 38 in three innings , was replaced by all @-@ rounder Cranston .
England won the toss and elected to bat on an ideal batting pitch . Hutton and Washbrook put on an opening partnership of 168 , the best by England in the series . Washbrook refrained from the hook shot , which had caused him to lose his wicket on earlier occasions in the series . The partnership was ended when Hutton was bowled by Lindwall . Washbrook reached his century and joined by Edrich , the pair batted until late in the first day , when Washbrook was dismissed by Johnston for 143 in the last over of the day . His innings had included 22 boundaries and ended a second @-@ wicket partnership that yielded exactly 100 runs . Bedser was sent in as the nightwatchman and survived as England closed at 268 / 2 , with Edrich on 41 .
The next day , Bedser batted on in steady support of Edrich . The pair saw England to lunch without further loss , and 155 runs were added for the third wicket before Bedser was out after almost three hours of batting for 79 . Bedser had struck eight fours and two sixes . Edrich fell three runs later at 426 / 4 for 111 . With two new batsmen at the crease , Australia quickly made further inroads to leave England at 473 / 6 . Loxton then successively removed Cranston , Evans and Laker as England fell from 486 / 6 to 496 / 9 , before Miller bowled Yardley to end England 's innings at 496 . The home team had lost their last eight wickets for the addition of 73 runs . Loxton took 3 / 55 while Lindwall and Johnson both took two . Australia lost the services of Toshack after he broke down with a knee injury . With Barnes injured , Hassett was moved from the middle order to open the innings with Morris . Morris fell for six , before Bradman and Hassett saw the tourists to stumps at 63 / 1 . Bradman did the majority of the scoring , finishing unbeaten on 31 .
On the third morning , England made the ideal start when Pollard removed Hassett for 13 and Bradman for 33 in the same over . This left Australia struggling at 68 / 3 . Harvey , playing his first Ashes Test , joined Miller at the crease . Australia were more than 400 behind and Harvey told his senior partner " Let 's get stuck into ' em " . If England were to remove the pair , they would expose Australia 's lower order and give themselves an opportunity to win by taking a substantial lead . The pair launched a counterattack , with Miller taking the lead with many lofted boundaries . This allowed Australia to seize the initiative , with Harvey joining in and hitting consecutive boundaries against Laker . Miller was dismissed by Yardley for 58 while attempting another six , but the partnership had yielded 121 runs in 90 minutes , prompting Wisden to liken it to a " hurricane " . Harvey then shared another century stand with Loxton which yielded 105 in only 95 minutes . Harvey ended with a century on his Ashes debut , scoring 112 from 183 balls in an innings noted for powerful driving on both sides of the wicket . The high rate of scoring during the innings freed the match from England 's firm control . Loxton was particularly severe on Laker , lifting his deliveries into the crowd for five sixes in addition to nine fours . At the other end , Harvey and Johnson fell to Laker in quick succession to leave the score at 329 / 6 .
Australia was still some way behind when Lindwall replaced Johnson , and 15 runs later , Yardley bowled Loxton for 93 , while Saggers only managed five , leaving Australia at 355 / 8 with only Johnston and Toshack remaining . Lindwall hit out , scoring 77 in an innings marked by powerful driving and pulling , dominating stands of 48 and 55 with Johnston and Toshack respectively . He was the last man out at 458 , leaving Australia 38 runs in arrears on the first innings . Bedser took the final wicket to end with 3 / 92 . Laker took 3 / 113 , while Pollard and Yardley ended with two wickets each .
England set about extending their first innings lead for the remainder of the fourth day . For the second time in the match , Washbrook and Hutton put on a century opening partnership . Washbrook made 65 and Hutton 57 , leaving England at 129 / 2 . Edrich and Compton continued where the openers had left off , adding 103 before Lindwall trapped Edrich lbw for 54 . England lost wickets at regular intervals late in the day to be 278 / 6 . When Johnston removed Compton for 66 , England were 7 / 293 with no recognised batsmen remaining , having lost 4 / 33 . Wicket @-@ keeper Evans led a rearguard action as England reached 362 / 8 at the close of the fourth day .
England batted on for five minutes on the final morning , adding three runs in two overs before Yardley declared at 365 / 8 , with Evans on 47 not out . Johnston had the pick of the bowling figures , with 4 / 95 . Batting into the final day allowed Yardley to ask the groundsman to use a heavy roller , which would help to break up the wicket and make the surface more likely to spin . This left Australia a target of 404 runs for victory . At the time , this would have been the highest ever fourth innings score to result in a Test victory for the batting side . Australia had only 345 minutes to reach the target , and the local press wrote them off , predicting that they would be dismissed by lunchtime on a deteriorating wicket expected to favor the spin bowlers . Morris and Hassett started slowly on a pitch that offered spin and bounce . Only 44 runs came in the first hour . Just 13 runs were added in the next 28 minutes before Hassett was dismissed by Compton 's left arm unorthodox spin for 17 with the score at 57 . Bradman joined Morris with 347 runs needed in 257 minutes and they began to attack ; Morris hit three consecutive fours off Len Hutton 's bowling as Australia reached lunch at 121 / 1 . In the half hour preceding the interval , Australia had added 64 runs . Both had given chances , but England fumbled them .
Upon resumption , Morris severely attacked Compton , who had been bowling in an attempt to exploit the spin , aided by a series of full tosses and long hops that were easily dispatched for runs . This prompted Yardley to take the new ball . Australia reached 202 , halfway to the required total , with 165 minutes left . Morris passed his century , and was then dropped on 126 . Bradman was given another life at 108 when Evans missed a stumping opportunity . Australia reached tea at 288 / 1 with Morris on 150 . The pair had added 167 during the session . Morris was eventually dismissed by Yardley for 182 , having partnered Bradman in a stand of 301 in 217 minutes . He struck 33 fours in 290 minutes of batting . This brought Miller to the crease with 46 runs still required . He fell with eight runs still needed . Harvey came in and got off the mark with a boundary that brought up the winning runs . Australia had won by seven wickets , setting a new world record for the highest successful Test run @-@ chase , with Bradman unbeaten on 173 in only 255 minutes with 29 fours . The attendance of 158 @,@ 000 was the highest for any cricket match on English soil and the takings were 34 @,@ 000 pounds . The attendance remains a record for a Test in England .
= = = Fifth Test = = =
With the series already lost , England made four changes to their team . Dewes replaced the injured Washbrook , while Watkins replaced Cranston as an all @-@ rounder . Both Dewes and Watkins were making their Test debut . England played two spinners ; Young replaced fellow finger spinner Laker , while the leg spin of Hollies replaced Pollard 's pace . The selectors were widely condemned for their incessant changes . Australia made three changes . Off spinner Johnson was replaced by the leg spin of Ring . Australia 's second change was forced on them ; the injured seamer Toshack was replaced by the recovered batsman Barnes . The final change was the return of wicket @-@ keeper Tallon from injury .
The match saw Lindwall at his best . English skipper Yardley won the toss and elected to bat on a rain @-@ affected pitch . Precipitation during the week meant that the start of the Test was delayed until the afternoon . The humid conditions , along with the rain , assisted the bowlers , with Lindwall in particular managing to make the ball bounce at variable heights .
Miller bowled Dewes for one with his second ball to leave England at 2 / 1 , before Johnston removed Edrich for three to leave England at 10 / 2 . Lindwall dismissed Compton after Morris had taken a diving catch , and Miller then removed Crapp , who failed to score in his 23 @-@ ball innings , leaving England at 23 / 4 .
After the lunch break , England had struggled to 35 / 4 , before Lindwall bowled Yardley with a swinging yorker . The debutant Watkins then batted for 16 balls without scoring before Johnston dismissed him for a duck to leave England at 42 / 6 . Watkins also collected a bruise on the shoulder that inhibited his bowling later in the match . Lindwall then removed Evans , Bedser and Young , all yorked in the space of two runs . The innings ended at 52 when Hutton leg glanced and was caught by wicket @-@ keeper Tallon , who grasped the ball one @-@ handed at full stretch to his left . In his post @-@ lunch spell , Lindwall bowled 8 @.@ 1 overs , taking five wickets for eight runs , finishing with 6 / 20 in 16 @.@ 1 overs . Bradman described the spell as " the most devastating and one of the fastest I ever saw in Test cricket " . Hutton was the only batsman to resist , scoring 30 in 124 minutes from 147 deliveries . No other player passed seven . Miller and Johnston took 2 / 5 and 2 / 20 respectively , and Ring was not needed to bowl .
In contrast , Australia batted with apparent ease , and Morris and Barnes passed England 's first innings total by themselves . The score had reached 117 before Barnes fell to Hollies for 61 , ending a partnership that had taken only 126 minutes . This brought Bradman to the crease late on the first day . As Bradman had announced that the tour was his last at international level , the innings would be his last at Test level if Australia batted only once . The crowd gave him a standing ovation as he walked out to bat . Yardley led his team in giving Bradman three cheers . With 6996 Test career runs , he only needed four runs to average 100 in Test cricket , but Hollies bowled him second ball for a duck with a googly . Hassett came in at 117 / 2 and Australia closed at 153 / 2 . Morris was unbeaten on 77 .
On the second morning , Hassett and Morris took the score to 226 before their 109 @-@ run stand ended with Hassett 's fall for 37 . The following four batsmen were unable to establish themselves at the crease and none passed 20 . Morris was finally removed for 196 , ending an innings noted for his hooking and off @-@ driving ; it took a run out to remove Morris . Australia were eventually out for 389 . Morris had scored more than half the runs as the rest of the team struggled against the leg spin of Hollies , who took 5 / 131 . England had relied heavily on spin ; two thirds of the overs were delivered by the two spinners .
England started their second innings 337 runs in arrears . Lindwall made the early breakthrough , and Edrich joined Hutton and the pair consolidated the innings to close at the end of the second day on 54 / 1 .
Early on the third day , Lindwall bowled Edrich for 28 , before Compton and Hutton consolidated the innings with a partnership of 61 in 110 minutes . On 39 , Compton fell to a reflex catch by Lindwall . Hutton managed to continue resisting before edging Miller to Tallon for 64 , having top @-@ scored in both innings , to leave England at 153 / 4 . Thereafter , England collapsed in the fading light , . prompting the umpires to call off play . The ground was then hit by rain , resulting in a premature end to the day 's play . England had lost four wickets for 25 runs to end at 178 / 7 .
England resumed on the fourth morning and Johnston quickly removed the last three wickets to seal an Australian victory by an innings and 149 runs . Johnston ended with 4 / 40 and Lindwall 3 / 50 . This result sealed the series 4 – 0 in favour of Australia . The match was followed by a series of congratulatory speeches .
= = Other matches in Great Britain = =
= = = v Worcestershire = = =
At Worcester , 28 , 29 , 30 April . Worcestershire ( 233 and 212 ) lost to the Australians ( 462 / 8 declared ) by an innings and 17 runs .
The pitch was slow , and the weather was cold and showery for the traditional tour opener against Worcestershire . Worcester attracted a record attendance of 32 @,@ 000 with takings of more than ₤ 4000 . The hosts elected to bat , and started strongly as a century second @-@ wicket stand took them to 137 / 1 after 133 minutes . However , the dismissal of Charles Palmer , who top @-@ scored with 85 , precipitated a collapse and they lost their last nine wickets in two hours to be all out for 233 . Five Australian bowlers shared the wickets , with Johnson taking 3 / 52 . In their sole innings , Australia took the initiative from the outset through a 166 @-@ run second @-@ wicket stand between Morris ( 138 ) and Bradman ( 107 ) . This took them to 265 / 1 , before they declared at 462 / 8 after Miller had hit an unbeaten 50 in faster than even time . Off spinner Peter Jackson took 6 / 135 for the locals . In their second innings Worcestershire were bowled out by Australia for 212 runs , with 70 minutes to spare . McCool took 4 / 29 as the spinners took eight of the wickets .
= = = v Leicestershire = = =
At Leicester , 1 , 3 , 4 May . The Australians ( 448 ) defeated Leicestershire ( 130 and 147 ) by an innings and 171 runs .
Australia elected to bat , and Miller , who had been promoted to No. 3 , shared century partnerships with Barnes ( 78 ) and Bradman ( 81 ) . A middle @-@ order collapse then ensued as the remaining Australians struggled against the local spin attack , but last man Johnston managed to hold up his end in a 37 @-@ run last @-@ wicket partnership that allowed Miller to reach his double century . He ended on 202 not out as Australia were dismissed for 448 . The Australian @-@ born slow bowler Vic Jackson was the best Leicestershire bowler , taking 5 / 91 . Leicestershire scored only 130 in their first innings ; another Australian expatriate , Jack Walsh , top @-@ scored with 33 . Ring took 5 / 34 and the hosts hampered their batting efforts with two run outs . Australia enforced the follow on and Leicestershire faced the prospect of being bowled out twice in a day after Johnson took the first wickets to have them 5 / 83 . After a rain delay Australia took the final five wickets for 34 runs in an hour on the final day ; Leicestershire were all out for 147 in an innings defeat . Johnson ended with 7 / 42 .
= = = v Yorkshire = = =
At Bradford , 5 , 6 May . Yorkshire ( 71 and 89 ) lost to the Australians ( 101 and 63 / 6 ) by four wickets .
This low @-@ scoring game was the closest that Australia came to defeat on the tour . The game was played in cold , blustery , overcast and wet conditions that suited spin bowlers . Yorkshire made only 71 in their first innings . Miller mixed medium @-@ paced off @-@ breaks with his fast bowling and this combination returned him 6 / 42 . At the other end Johnston bowled his left arm orthodox spin and took 4 / 22 from 26 overs . Together the pair bowled almost unchanged , delivering 49 @.@ 3 of 54 @.@ 3 overs . Australia struggled in reply and stumps were called when they fell to 4 / 38 .
Miller came in at the start of the second day 's play and scored 34 of the next 48 runs added , before falling at 7 / 86 , part of a collapse of 5 / 27 . He hit two sixes in his innings , including one from the first ball that he faced , feeling that a defensive strategy would be almost impossible in the difficult conditions . Australia ended at 101 , and Loxton was unable to bat due to injury . Frank Smailes had the best bowling figures for Yorkshire , 6 / 51 . Yorkshire scored 89 in their second innings , which followed a similar pattern to their first effort . Wickets fell steadily as Johnston ( 6 / 18 ) and Miller ( 3 / 49 ) bowled 31 @.@ 2 of the 36 @.@ 2 overs .
Australia were set a target of 60 runs for victory , and Hassett elected to not have the pitch rolled . Former Australian Test batsman Jack Fingleton said that Hassett " might have made an initial mistake in not having the pitch rolled because whenever there was rain about in England the heavy roller seemed to knock any nonsense [ erratic bounce and sideways movement ] out of the pitch " . Hassett and Hamence both fell with the score on 20 to leave Australia five down . Australia slumped to 6 / 31 , effectively seven down with Loxton incapacitated by injury , but scraped home without further loss with Harvey and Tallon at the crease . Harvey was given two chances , once when he was on one , and Tallon was also missed . It would have been their first defeat against an English county since 1912 , but Harvey won the game with a straight drive over the fence . Wickets had fallen at less than 10 runs apiece , and at the rate of every four overs .
= = = v Surrey = = =
At The Oval , 8 , 10 , 11 May . The Australians ( 632 ) defeated Surrey ( 141 and 195 ) by an innings and 296 runs .
Australia won the toss and Barnes and Morris put on 136 for the opening stand before the latter fell for 65 . Barnes and Bradman then added 207 for the second wicket . Barnes ' 176 came in 255 minutes and Bradman made 146 in 165 minutes . After Bradman departed at 403 / 3 , wickets began to fall more regularly , but Hassett held up his end and made 110 , while Tallon remained unbeaten on 50 . Surrey 's Test paceman Alec Bedser took 4 / 104 . On the second afternoon , Surrey scored 141 runs in three hours in their first innings . Johnson took 5 / 53 and Laurie Fishlock carried his bat for 81 not out , but received little support , the next highest scores being 15 and 10 . Australia enforced the follow on and took two early wickets before stumps on the second day . They made continual inroads on the final day , and Surrey were all out for 195 to complete an innings win . Johnston took 4 / 40 and Johnson 3 / 40 .
= = = v Cambridge University = = =
At Fenner 's , Cambridge , 12 , 13 , 14 May . Cambridge University ( 167 and 196 ) lost to the Australians ( 414 / 4 declared ) by an innings and 51 runs .
Cambridge elected to bat and wickets fell regularly . No player made over 33 and the hosts were out in the second session of the first day for 167 . Miller was prominent with the ball and in the field , taking 5 / 46 and two catches for his fellow bowlers . In reply , Australia were already 184 / 1 at stumps , with Brown heading for a consecutive century . He put on 176 for the second wicket with Hamence , who made 92 . Brown reached 200 and was out immediately thereafter , prompting stand @-@ in skipper Hassett to declare midway through the second day at 414 / 4 , having reached 61 not out himself . In their second innings Cambridge failed to cope with the leg @-@ spin of McCool , who took 7 / 78 as the match ended early on the third morning . Attendance over the three days was nearly 25 @,@ 000 .
= = = v Essex = = =
At Southend , 15 , 17 May . The Australians ( 721 ) defeated Essex ( 83 and 187 ) by an innings and 451 runs .
After electing to bat , Australia made history on the first day by breaking the record for the most runs scored in a first @-@ class match in a day . Ironically , it was the only time they were dismissed in a single day on the entire tour . With centuries from Brown ( 153 ) , Bradman ( 187 ) , Loxton ( 120 ) and Saggers ( 104 * ) , Australia 's first innings totalled 721 ; they were dismissed on the close of the first day 's play . Bradman 's 187 came in 155 minutes and Brown 's 153 lasted three hours ; the pair put on 219 in 90 minutes after Barnes fell for 79 at 145 / 1 . Bradman came in and seized the initiative , reaching 42 in the 20 minutes before lunch , including five fours from one over by Frank Vigar which subsequently entered Essex club folklore . Bradman and Brown were parted when the latter fell at 364 / 2 only halfway through the day 's play . Miller then famously deliberately allowed himself to be bowled first ball as a protest against Australia 's merciless crushing of their hosts , something that angered his captain and batting partner Bradman . Miller later told Dickie Bird that he had wanted to go to the local horse races , but this was refused by Bradman . The all rounder therefore made his duck in protest , but still did not get to go to the races . Later , Loxton and Saggers made 166 in 65 minutes for the sixth wicket , before an late @-@ order collapse saw Australia lose 5 / 57 , leaving Saggers unbeaten , but not before he reached the only first @-@ class century of his career . After being demoralised by the Australian batsmen on the first day , Essex made only 83 in their first innings , capitulating within 37 overs . Toshack took 5 / 31 and Miller 3 / 14 , and Australia enforced the follow @-@ on . Essex 's second innings appeared to be heading the same way when four early wickets to Johnson had them at 46 / 6 . However , a partnership of 133 between Tom Pearce and Peter Smith for the seventh wicket salvaged some respectability before they were out for 187 . Johnson ended with 6 / 37 as the Australians dismissed their hosts twice in a single day . The ground attendance of 32 @,@ 000 was a record .
= = = v Oxford University = = =
At Oxford , 19 , 20 , 21 May . The Australians ( 431 ) defeated Oxford University ( 185 and 156 ) by an innings and 90 runs .
Australia batted first after Hassett won the toss , and the opening pair of Brown and Morris put on 139 . Brown scored his third century in succession , before being out lbw to Indian Test player Abdul Hafeez Kardar for 108 . Morris , Loxton , McCool and Ring all reached 50 as the Australians posted 431 . Oxford 's best batting performance came in the form of a 75 @-@ run partnership between Geoffrey Keighley and Kardar in their first innings , resisting the spin bowlers on the dry wicket . Despite Kardar 's innings of 54 and 29 , the top @-@ score in both innings , Australia won by an innings and 90 runs as wickets fell steadily . The wickets were spread evenly among the tourists ; Toshack took three in each innings , while Johnston and McCool totalled four for the match .
= = = v Marylebone Cricket Club = = =
At Lord 's , 22 , 24 , 25 May . The Australians ( 552 ) defeated Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) ( 189 and 205 ) by an innings and 158 runs .
The MCC fielded seven players who would represent England in the Tests , and with two other capped players , were basically a full strength Test team , as were Australia , who fielded their first @-@ choice team . Barring one change in the bowling department , the same team lined up for Australia in the First Test , with the top six batsmen in the same position . It was a chance to gain a psychological advantage . After winning the toss , Australia batted first . After the loss of Morris early , Barnes ( 81 ) and Bradman ( 98 ) set about regaining the ascendancy with a 160 @-@ run stand . Bradman scored eleven fours in his 98 , which took two hours , and Hassett then took over and added 51 . Miller then saw Australia to stumps at 407 / 5 . He continued the next day and Australia 's highest scorer with 163 , and Johnson supported him with 80 . Despite a collapse which saw the last five wickets fall for 54 runs following the pair 's departure , Australia reached 552 . Bradman 's batsmen gained a psychological advantage ahead of the Tests by attacking the off spin of Jim Laker . They hit nine sixes from the English Test representative on the second morning .
Miller and Lindwall then sought to gain an advantage over England 's leading batsmen — Hutton and Compton — before the Tests . The MCC side , composed almost entirely of Test players , reached 91 / 2 , Toshack removed Compton and Hutton in quick succession to reduce the hosts to 104 / 5 . He took three more wickets to end with 6 / 51 as the MCC were eventually dismissed for 189 , conceding a first innings lead of 363 runs . Some English observers decried Toshack 's leg stump attack as being negative , but former Australian Test batsman Jack Fingleton said that Toshack 's line was close enough to leg stump that most balls had to be played . Bradman opted to enforce the follow on , and his spinners did most of the damage , McCool taking 4 / 35 and Johnson 3 / 37 . Only Len Hutton of the locals batsmen passed 26 during the match , scoring 52 and 64 , and Australia had taken a key psychological victory ahead of the Tests with an innings victory . The total attendance was 60 @,@ 000 .
= = = v Lancashire = = =
At Manchester , 26 , 27 , 28 May . The Australians ( 204 and 259 / 4 ) drew with Lancashire ( 182 ) .
The first day was abandoned due to rain . Australia lost the toss and were sent in to bat on a drying pitch . The 19 @-@ year @-@ old Lancashire spin bowler Malcolm Hilton took Bradman 's wicket twice in the match , causing a media sensation . Hilton bowled Bradman with an arm ball for 11 , the Australian captain 's first score on tour below 80 . The Australian batsmen failed to capitalise on their starts as six were dismissed between 20 and 40 . Australia looked set to concede a lead for the first time on tour as the hosts reached 3 / 129 , but Johnston ( 5 / 49 ) took five of the last seven wickets for 28 runs in Lancashire 's only innings , which ended on the third morning . With a result impossible , Australia had time for batting practice . Bradman reached 43 , and when Hilton came on , the Australian captain , perhaps perturbed by earlier events , attempted to hit the spinner out of the attack . After missing the first two balls , Bradman charged the third , swung and missed , fell over and was stumped . Harvey ( 76 * ) and Hamence ( 49 * ) shared an unbeaten fifth @-@ wicket partnership of 122 after Loxton made 52 .
= = = v Nottinghamshire = = =
At Nottingham , 29 , 31 May 1 June . Nottinghamshire ( 179 and 299 / 8 ) drew with the Australians ( 400 ) .
In Nottinghamshire 's first innings , Ray Lindwall took 6 / 14 from 15 @.@ 1 overs , with only 10 scoring strokes being made off him . Reg Simpson made 74 and Joe Hardstaff junior 48 , but only one other batsman reached double figures . After their 98 @-@ run third @-@ wicket stand was broken , Australia took 8 / 68 to bowl the hosts out for 179 . Lindwall , conceded less than a run per over . Only ten of his balls were scored from and not a single run was taken from his last 30 balls . Fingleton said that Lindwall " absolutely paralysed " the batsmen , with some of his bowling " in the real Larwood manner " . Australia only batted once , and Brown top @-@ scored with 122 in 3 hours 45 minutes , while Bradman added 86 . The Australia middle @-@ order fell away and the tourists lost their last six wickets for 74 runs . In the county 's second innings , Keeton was hit in the chest by one of Lindwall 's deliveries and took no further part in the match . On the final day , Hardstaff hit the first century against the Australians on the tour , 107 , and Simpson again batted well , making 70 . Lindwall and the Australian pacemen were less incisive in the second innings , and Ring and Johnson took four and three wickets respectively .
= = = v Hampshire = = =
At Southampton , 2 , 3 , 4 June . Hampshire ( 195 and 103 ) lost to the Australians ( 117 and 182 / 2 ) by eight wickets .
Hampshire won the toss and elected to bat against the Australians , who were led by Hassett while Bradman rested . The Australians were behind on the first innings for the first time on the tour and the match remained in the balance until the third afternoon . On a drying pitch , the hosts reached 116 / 3 before losing their remaining wickets for 79 to be all out for 195 , while Johnston took 6 / 74 . In reply , Australia fared worse and collapsed from 2 / 70 and made only 117 . Charles Knott 's off spin proved challenging for the Australians , but Miller scored three successive sixes from him before the collapse , top @-@ scoring with 39 . In their second innings , both Miller and Johnston took five Hampshire wickets . John Arnold top @-@ scored for the hosts in both innings , with 48 and 42 . Australia needed 182 runs in 175 minutes to win . Barnes went for a duck but Johnson , sent in five minutes before lunch , hit 74 out of a second @-@ wicket partnership of 105 , including three sixes and seven fours . Brown , with 81 not out , and Hassett saw the Australians through to victory .
= = = v Sussex = = =
At Hove , 5 , 7 June . Sussex ( 86 and 138 ) lost to the Australians ( 549 / 5 declared ) by an innings and 325 runs .
Lindwall won the match for the Australians with his bowling , taking 11 / 59 . After winning the toss , the Sussex batsmen struggled with his length and variation of pace , and he hit the off @-@ stump five times in the first innings alone to end with 6 / 34 . Loxton also bowled well in the first innings , taking 3 / 13 . Australia replied to Sussex 's 86 strongly , and were already 254 / 1 by the end of the first day . Powered by Morris 's 184 and with centuries too for Bradman ( 109 ) and Harvey ( 100 * ) , Australia added a further 295 runs on the second day to declare at 549 / 5 . They then still had time to send down 63 @.@ 3 overs , enough to finish the match within two days . In Sussex 's second innings Lindwall took two wickets in the first over . Harry Parks made 61 , but Sussex were all out for 138 , losing their last seven wickets for 59 . In all , eight of Lindwall 's wickets were bowled , five these by swinging yorkers , the batsmen unable to counter the swerving deliveries . Fingleton said that " Lindwall bundled the stumps over in all directions " as Sussex " crumpled completely ... in as depressing a batting performance as the tour knew " . At the other end , Toshack helped to pin down the batsmen for Lindwall . He delivered 17 overs that yielded only three scoring shots for a total of six runs .
= = = v Northamptonshire = = =
At Northampton , 16 , 17 , 18 June . Northamptonshire ( 119 and 169 ) lost to the Australians ( 352 / 8 declared ) by an innings and 64 runs .
Starting the day after the First Test , the Northamptonshire match was interrupted by rain . Northamptonshire batted first and collapsed to 7 / 61 before some tail @-@ end resistance took them to 119 ; Johnston and Johnson took three wickets each . The Australians passed the locals ' score on the first afternoon , and their innings was built around Hassett 's 127 , which included 17 fours . Morris and McCool also made fifties . Northamptonshire made 169 runs in their second innings , Johnston and Ring taking four wickets each . In neither of the county innings did any player reach 50 .
= = = v Yorkshire = = =
At Sheffield , 19 , 21 , 22 June . The Australians ( 249 and 285 / 5 declared ) drew with Yorkshire ( 206 and 85 / 4 ) .
The Australians were made to work hard for their 249 , with only Bradman reaching 50 . Harvey and Hamence passed 40 but could not convert their starts into large scores . Alec Coxon took 4 / 66 for the hosts and was selected for the Second Test . Yorkshire made 206 in reply , Toshack taking 7 / 81 and Johnston 3 / 101 : together , they bowled 81 @.@ 1 of the 90 @.@ 1 overs in the innings . Like the Australians , the local batsmen struggled to make the most of their starts ; eight batsmen reached double figures but none passed 40 . Not wanting to tire his bowlers ahead of the Second Test , Bradman declared Australia 's second innings with a lead of 328 runs and only seventy minutes of play remaining . Brown hit 113 and Bradman himself 86 , putting on 154 for the second wicket . Yardley expressed his displeasure by bowling his part @-@ timers and then promoting tailenders to the upper half of the order in the second innings . The Australians batted in leisurely fashion with no urgency to force a result . Bradman then allowed his second @-@ string bowlers to deliver 24 of the 27 overs as the match petered into a draw . The Australians were booed from the field by the spectators .
= = = v Surrey = = =
At The Oval , 30 June , 1 – 2 July . Surrey ( 221 and 289 ) lost to The Australians ( 389 and 122 / 0 ) by 10 wickets .
Australia won the toss and sent Surrey in to bat . They made 221 , and Jack Parker top @-@ scored with 76 in an uneven effort in which there were six single @-@ figure scores . As the match started the day after the Second Test , Bradman let most of his second @-@ string bowlers do the work to rest his first @-@ choice bowlers , and Ring took three wickets , while the Test players only took two in total . Hamence opened the batting for Australia — Brown injured a finger while fielding — but he was out for a duck . Hassett ( 139 ) and Bradman ( 128 ) then put on 231 , Bradman making his sixth century of the tour . However , the Australians lost wickets steadily thereafter to be all out for 389 . Surrey made 289 in their second innings , with McCool taking 6 / 113 after bowling more than 40 % of the overs . The hosts batted steadily with three fifties , but wickets fell regularly and only one partnership greater than 40 materialised . The tourists wanted to finish the run @-@ chase quickly so they could watch fellow Australian John Bromwich play in the Wimbledon tennis final . Harvey and Loxton volunteered and chased down the 122 runs needed for victory in just 58 minutes to complete a 10 @-@ wicket win in just 20 @.@ 1 overs . Harvey ended unbeaten on 73 and the Australians arrived at Wimbledon in time .
= = = v Gloucestershire = = =
At Bristol , 3 , 5 , 6 July . The Australians ( 774 / 7 declared ) defeated Gloucestershire ( 279 and 132 ) by an innings and 363 runs .
The Australians elected to bat and made the highest score of the tour , and it was also the second biggest score by an Australian team in England ( the 1893 team made 843 against a " Oxford and Cambridge Universities Past and Present " at Portsmouth ) , and the highest score by an Australian team versus an English county . Morris 's 290 , made from 466 balls in five hours , was the highest individual score of the tour , and he featured in century stands with Barnes , Miller and Harvey . Loxton made 159 not out , Harvey 95 and McCool 76 . This match preceded the Third Test , and off spinner Tom Goddard was regarded as a candidate for England selection after strong performances in county cricket . However , Morris and Loxton 's aggressive attack gave Goddard figures of 0 / 186 from 32 overs , effectively ending his chances of selection . Former English Test paceman Maurice Tate said " Tom [ Goddard ] is not used to batsmen using their feet to him ... the county batsmen diddle and diddle [ shuffle about indecisively instead of quickly moving into position and attacking ] to him and that gets him many wickets . " Instead , it was Loxton who forced his way into the Third Test .
Gloucestershire replied with an innings of 279 , in which Jack Crapp made 100 not out , while Johnson took 6 / 68 . Made to follow on during the final day , the hosts made only 132 , losing their last eight wickets for 60 . Johnson took 5 / 32 to end with 11 / 100 for the match , while Ring took 5 / 47 to end with seven for the match . Australia 's spinners took 19 wickets .
= = = v Middlesex = = =
At Lord 's , 17 , 19 , 20 July . Middlesex ( 203 and 135 ) lost to the Australians ( 317 and 22 / 0 ) by ten wickets .
Denis Compton hit a cautious 62 , but Middlesex lost wickets regularly to fall from 1 / 78 to 203 all out . Five bowlers shared the wickets , Johnston and Loxton taking three apiece . At one stage , Australia were 53 / 3 , but Morris ( 109 ) and Loxton ( 123 ) put on a partnership of 172 . No other batsman bettered Hamence 's 30 , and Jim Sims took 6 / 65 as the Australians collapsed and lost their last six wickets for 46 . Middlesex scored 135 in their second innings , with only John Dewes ( 51 ) and Leslie Compton resisting the tourists , while eight managed only single figures . Five bowlers shared the wickets , and McCool was the only one to take three . McCool and Ring made the 22 required for victory in four overs .
= = = v Derbyshire = = =
At Derby , 28 , 29 , 30 July . The Australians ( 456 ) defeated Derbyshire ( 240 and 182 ) by an innings and 34 runs .
The Australians chose to bat first , and Brown top scored with 140 , his first 50 taking three hours . He shared century stands with Bradman , who made 62 , and Miller ( 57 ) . Loxton later made 51 as the Australians fell away late in the innings , losing 7 / 142 . Derbyshire made 240 in their first innings with the future Test umpire Charlie Elliott top @-@ scoring with 57 , while Miller , Johnston and Ring taking three wicket apiece . The county followed on 216 behind after losing their last six wickets for 64 runs . In their second innings they made 182 , with Denis Smith making 88 , the highest individual score ever made by a Derbyshire player against the Australians . However , only one other player reached double figures , as McCool precipitated a collapse of 9 / 72 , taking 6 / 77 , while Loxton took 3 / 16 . There was a Derbyshire record attendance of 17 @,@ 000 on the first day .
= = = v Glamorgan = = =
At Swansea , 31 July , 2 – 3 August . Glamorgan ( 197 ) drew with the Australians ( 215 / 3 ) .
Rain prevented play after 3pm on the second day . No one scored more than 40 as Glamorgan elected to bat and made 197 , with the four Australian bowlers , Lindwall , Miller , Johnson and Ring sharing the wickets . The Australians ' 215 / 3 was based on an aggressive 84 from Miller , with five sixes and seven fours , and a partnership of 126 with stand @-@ in Hassett , who was 71 not out when the rain came . The attendance on the two days of play totalled 50 @,@ 000 .
= = = v Warwickshire = = =
At Birmingham , 4 , 5 , 6 August . Warwickshire ( 138 and 155 ) lost to the Australians ( 254 and 41 / 1 ) by nine wickets .
Bradman put Warwickshire in to bat on a wet pitch and the hosts struggled to 138 in an innings that lasted almost 80 overs . Martin Donnelly ( 28 ) was the only batsman to pass 20 , and Lindwall and Johnson took three wickets each . Australia scored 254 in reply ; Hassett top @-@ scored with 68 , Lindwall made 45 , and the pair 's partnership of 70 was the highest of the match . Three other batsmen reached 30 , but most of the Australians were uncomfortable against the leg spin of Eric Hollies , who opened the bowling and took 8 / 107 , the best innings analysis against the Australians on the whole tour . This performance earned the Warwickshire bowler a call @-@ up for the fifth and final Test . In their second innings Warwickshire made 155 runs , Johnston and McCool taking four wickets each , the former conceding only 32 from 39 overs . Australia made the required 41 by lunch on the third day .
= = = v Lancashire = = =
At Old Trafford , Manchester , 7 , 9 , 10 August . The Australians ( 321 and 265 / 3 declared ) drew with Lancashire ( 130 and 199 / 7 ) .
Cyril Washbrook 's benefit match brought him a then record sum , £ 14 @,@ 000 , but it was a mixed experience because he injured his right thumb whilst facing Lindwall and withdrew from the England team for the Fifth Test . The Australians scored 321 in their first innings with only Barnes ( 67 ) reaching 50 . Nine of the Australians made a start , reaching 14 , but could not capitalise on their opportunities , and they lost wickets at regular intervals after an opening stand of 123 . The slow left @-@ arm bowler William Roberts took 6 / 73 . Lancashire replied with 130 of which Washbrook made 38 , while Lindwall and Johnson took three wickets apiece , but the Australians did not enforce the follow on . Australia made 265 / 5 declared and Bradman scored an unbeaten 133 , his highest at Old Trafford , with 90 for Barnes . Bradman declared at lunch on the third day after batting the hosts out of the match , but they held on with three wickets in hand after losing two late in the day . Ikin had reached 99 after being repeatedly hit by bouncers . Bradman took the second new ball and gave it to Miller , who refused to bowl , saying that he felt Ikin deserved a century . Lindwall ( 4 / 27 ) was then given the ball and promptly removed Ikin one run short of his century .
= = = v Durham = = =
At Sunderland , 11 , 12 August . The Australians ( 282 ) drew with Durham ( 73 / 5 ) .
In the absence of the resting Bradman , Hassett won the toss and elected to bat . Attendance was 17 @,@ 000 on the first day of this two @-@ day non @-@ first @-@ class match . Rain prevented any play on the second day . After a poor start that saw them fall to 22 / 3 , McCool ( 64 ) and Miller ( 55 ) made half @-@ centuries for the Australians . Many of the Australians made starts and six scores passed 20 , but none went on . Paceman Keith Jackson took 5 / 76 for the hosts . Five Australian bowlers each took one wicket and Jackson top @-@ scored with 23 before rain ended the match .
= = = v Kent = = =
At Canterbury , 21 , 23 August . The Australians ( 361 ) defeated Kent ( 51 and 124 ) by an innings and 186 runs .
Australia elected to bat first and Brown made 106 , while Bradman ( 65 ) and Harvey ( 60 ) both scored half @-@ centuries . Kent collapsed to the lowest score of the tour in the first innings , succumbing in only 23 overs . Johnston and Loxton both took 3 / 10 , and six local batsmen made ducks . Forced to follow on , half the Kent side were out for 45 in the second innings . Tony Pawson and Godfrey Evans added 71 , but the match , held in front of record crowds for the ground , ended inside two days , soon after Evans was run out . It took the Australians less than 56 overs to get 20 wickets . Lindwall took 4 / 37 in the second innings ; all his wickets were top @-@ order batsmen .
= = = v Gentlemen of England = = =
At Lord 's , 25 , 26 , 27 August . The Australians ( 610 / 5 declared ) defeated the Gentlemen of England ( 245 and 284 ) by an innings and 81 runs .
In his last match at Lord 's , Bradman won the toss and made his ninth century ( 150 ) of the tour against a side composed almost entirely of Test players . Brown ( 120 ) and Hassett ( 200 * ) also scored centuries , and Miller made 69 . Bradman elected to bat into the second day . The Gentlemen responded with 242 of which Reg Simpson made 60 and , following on , 284 , with Bill Edrich making 128 . There were no other scores beyond 30 in either innings . Ring took 5 / 70 for the innings and eight for the match , while Johnson secured seven wickets . The Victorian spin duo bowled the majority of the overs in both innings .
= = = v Somerset = = =
At Taunton , 28 , 30 August . The Australians ( 560 / 5 declared ) defeated Somerset ( 115 and 71 ) by an innings and 374 runs .
After winning the toss , the Australians made all their runs on the first day , with centuries for Hassett ( 103 ) , Harvey ( 126 ) and Johnson ( 113 * ) and 99 for Hamence . The Australians put on 255 for the second wicket , through Hassett and Barnes , who was replaced by Harvey after retiring ill . The other Australian batsmen had all made centuries , and were keen to see Hamence do the same . The rest of the team left their card games in readiness to applaud his impending milestone , only to see him stumped for 99 , his highest score for the season . On the Monday , the second day , on a pitch that was taking spin , Somerset collapsed twice inside four hours and less than 82 overs in total . McCool took 4 / 21 and 4 / 23 , and Johnston also took eight , including 5 / 34 in the second innings . He took the last two wickets of the Somerset first innings as a spinner , and then had Harold Gimblett lbw with the second ball of the second innings as a fast @-@ medium bowler to take three wickets in four balls .
= = = v South of England = = =
At Hastings , 1 , 2 , 3 September . The Australians ( 522 / 7 declared ) drew with the South of England ( 298 ) .
The tourists elected to bat and after losing the openers early , Hassett top scored with 151 , his third consecutive century . He was supported by Bradman ( 143 ) and Harvey ( 110 ) , whose quick scoring enabled the Australians to declare with a large total . Hassett shared partnerships in excess of 150 with both Bradman and Harvey . Harvey 's century took only 90 minutes and Loxton hit 67 in 75 minutes on the second day . The second and third days were continually interrupted by rain , and Compton made 82 in the showers . Bradman gave his regular bowlers a light workload and Brown took 4 / 16 in 4 @.@ 1 overs to finish off the tail , the only time he bowled in first @-@ class matches on the entire tour . There was no time left for the second innings .
= = = v HDG Leveson @-@ Gower 's XI = = =
At Scarborough , 8 , 9 , 10 September . HDG Leveson @-@ Gower 's XI ( 177 and 75 / 2 ) drew with the Australians ( 489 / 8 declared ) .
This was the final match for Bradman in England , and the ground was crowded despite rain interruptions . It was Australia 's biggest challenge in the post @-@ Test tour matches . During the last Australian campaign in 1938 , this team was effectively a full @-@ strength England outfit , but this time Bradman insisted that only six current England Test players be allowed to play . Bradman then fielded a full @-@ strength team , with the only difference from the Fifth Test line @-@ up being the inclusion of Johnson at the expense of Ring . The host captain Walter Robins won the toss and decided to bat , but Lindwall took 6 / 59 in an innings that lasted into the second day , bowling four of his victims and taking five of the last six wickets to fall as the hosts lost their last six wickets for 57 runs . Bradman and Barnes made 153 and 151 respectively , sharing a second @-@ wicket partnership of 225 after Morris was out for 62 . Loxton hit a ball from Freddie Brown into his own face , breaking his nose . Australia reached 2 / 407 on the third and final afternoon before collapsing to 8 / 469 before Bradman declared without attempting to force a result . Leveson @-@ Gower 's XI played out time , with Bradman bowling the last over .
= = = v Scotland = = =
At Edinburgh , 13 , 14 September . The Australians ( 236 ) defeated Scotland ( 85 and 111 ) by an innings and 40 runs .
The match against Scotland was a two @-@ day fixture that did not have first @-@ class status . Australia elected to bat and Morris top @-@ scored with 112 , and McCool made 52 , but all struggled against the leg @-@ spin of William Laidlaw , who took 5 / 51 . The Australians collapsed at the end , losing their last six wickets for 36 runs , and only three made double figures . Scotland collapsed against Johnston and Johnson , who took 6 / 15 and 3 / 18 respectively . Forced to follow on , a second innings opening stand of 50 preceded a second collapse , this time Ring and Morris took 4 / 20 and 5 / 10 . Only three Scottish players passed double figures in either innings .
= = = v Scotland = = =
At Aberdeen , 17 , 18 September . Scotland ( 178 and 142 ) lost to the Australians ( 407 / 6 declared ) by an innings and 87 runs .
In another two @-@ day non @-@ first @-@ class match , Scotland batted better than in Edinburgh after being sent in to bat , but still lost . Tom Crosskey top @-@ scored with 49 in the hosts ' 178 , before Bradman top @-@ scored with 123 in his last match in Britain and McCool , promoted to open , made 108 , while Johnson made 95 after being promoted to No. 5 . Scotland then made 142 in some light @-@ hearted cricket in which wicketkeeper Tallon took two wickets and stand @-@ in gloveman Johnson stumped a Scottish batsman off Ring . Bradman allowed his non @-@ regular bowlers opportunities with the ball , and the wickets were shared , with nobody taking more than four .
= Hurricane Isis ( 1998 ) =
Hurricane Isis was the deadliest tropical cyclone and only hurricane to make landfall during the 1998 Pacific hurricane season . The ninth tropical storm and sixth hurricane of the season , Isis developed on September 1 from an interaction between a tropical wave and a large surface circulation to the southwest of Mexico . It moved northward , striking the extreme southeastern portion of the Baja California peninsula before attaining hurricane status in the Gulf of California . Isis made landfall at Topolobampo in the Mexican state of Sinaloa on September 3 , and quickly lost its low @-@ level circulation . The remnants persisted for several days before dissipating in the U.S. state of Idaho .
In Mexico , Isis destroyed over 700 houses and killed 14 people ; this is primarily due to its heavy rainfall which peaked at over 20 inches ( 500 mm ) in southern Baja California Sur . The rainfall caused widespread damage to roads and railways , stranding thousands of people . Moisture from the remnants of Isis extended into the southwestern United States , resulting in light rainfall , dozens of traffic accidents , and power outages to thousands of residents in San Diego County , California .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 14 , 1998 . It traveled westward , and on August 19 spawned the tropical depression that eventually became Hurricane Bonnie . The wave continued westward across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea , and crossed Central America into the eastern Pacific Ocean on August 25 . The wave decreased its forward speed while approaching a large low @-@ level circulation over southern Mexico . A broad area of disturbed weather formed in association with the wave and the low @-@ level circulation , and after persisting for several days developed a smaller low @-@ level circulation on August 29 about 575 miles ( 925 km ) south @-@ southeast of Cabo San Lucas . On August 31 , the two primary areas of convection were well @-@ removed from the center . By early on September 1 , despite a lack of convective organization , the low @-@ cloud circulation was sufficiently well @-@ defined that the National Hurricane Center designated it as Tropical Depression Ten @-@ E , or the tenth tropical depression of the season , about 350 miles ( 565 km ) south of Cabo San Lucas . In real time , the National Hurricane Center first upgraded the system 21 hours later .
The depression initially tracked slowly north @-@ northwestward and gradually strengthened . Late on September 1 it intensified into Tropical Storm Isis while located about 200 miles ( 320 km ) south of Cabo San Lucas . Upon becoming a tropical storm , the deep convection was not organized , causing one forecaster to describe Isis as a large monsoon @-@ like system . A mid @-@ level trough extending southward from the Arizona / California border caused the storm to accelerate northward . The storm quickly strengthened ; six hours after Isis became a tropical storm it reached winds of 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) . Very deep , symmetrical convection developed over the poorly defined center of circulation while banding features began to form , although ill @-@ defined outflow and land interaction with the Baja California Peninsula initially prevented further strengthening . At 1200 UTC on September 2 , Isis made landfall on extreme southeastern Baja California Sur as a strong tropical storm , and subsequently turned to the north @-@ northeast .
After entering the Gulf of California , an eye began to become apparent on visible satellite imagery , and it is estimated Isis attained hurricane status late on September 2 . Continuing northward , it struck Topolobampo in the state of Sinaloa early on September 3 as a minimal hurricane . Isis weakened to a tropical storm a few hours after landfall , and subsequent to turning to the north @-@ northwest the low @-@ level circulation dissipated over Sierra Madre Occidental . The remnants entered southern Arizona on September 4 and tracked around an upper @-@ level low . After entering Nevada on September 5 , the remnants of Isis passed into Oregon before dissipating in Idaho on September 8 .
= = Preparations = =
Coinciding with the National Hurricane Center 's first advisory on Isis , the government of Mexico issued a tropical storm warning from Dolores to Puerto Cortés along the Baja California Peninsula . This helped some of the residents get an early start.Early on September 2 , the warning was extended from Santa Rosalía to Punta Abreojos , while an additional tropical storm warning was issued from El Dorado to Guaymas . After Isis became a hurricane , officials issued a hurricane warning from Dolores to Punta San Gabriel on the Baja California Peninsula and from El Dorado to Bahía Kino on the mainland .
In Baja California Sur , 2 @,@ 500 residents were evacuated to emergency shelters . Officials closed the port at Mazatlán and recommended fisherman along the coast of the Gulf of California to remain at port . Officials set up 49 shelters on the mainland to provide evacuees with food , clothing and medical attention . The Mexican Army assisted residents in evacuation , and the Navy provided medical aid and assistance to boat owners . More than 24 @,@ 000 people were sheltered during the storm .
= = Impact = =
= = = Mexico = = =
Isis first affected Baja California Sur on September 2 as a tropical storm . Shortly after making landfall , a weather reporting station at San José del Cabo recorded sustained winds of 26 mph ( 42 km / h ) , and gusts reaching up to 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) . A station on the Islas Marías also reported sustained winds of 54 mph ( 87 km / h ) . The winds left widespread areas without power or telephone . The storm produced heavy rainfall in the southern portion of the peninsula , including a 24 ‑ hour total of 12 @.@ 99 inches ( 330 mm ) at Los Cabos and a peak rainfall total of 24 @.@ 02 inches ( 610 mm ) at Santiago . A married couple was killed after attempting to cross a flooded stream in Los Cabos . Initially , reports indicated a family was missing in La Paz , though they were later proven false . Flooding from the storm closed all roads to the north of Los Cabos and caused damage to the roads in the area . Mudslides from the rain buried at least 120 cars in the area .
Rainfall reached over 10 inches ( 250 mm ) in the coastal region of Jalisco , and lighter amounts of precipitation extended further to the southeast and northeast . One person was reported missing in Jalisco . The heaviest 24 ‑ hour rainfall total in the state of Sinaloa was 8 @.@ 66 inches ( 220 mm ) , whereas in Sonora a maximum of 4 @.@ 72 inches ( 120 mm ) of rain were recorded . Strong waves from the hurricane struck the Mexican mainland , with four people injured at Mazatlán when their boat washed onto rocks and was destroyed . Rainfall from the storm flooded 15 communities in and around Mazatlán , and the Army assisted residents in emergency evacuations . At Los Mochis , near the point where Isis made landfall , the hurricane resulted in the destruction of 300 homes , as well as in seven fatalities . Throughout the city , strong winds from the hurricane downed street posts , tree limbs , and power lines , with one person seriously injured from a downed power line . Additionally , the roof of a gas station collapsed from the winds . More than 1 @,@ 200 bus passengers in Sinaloa were stranded due to road closures from the hurricane , including the closure of the coastal highway in the southern portion of Sinaloa as it had been washed out due to floodwaters . Rainfall from the storm caused severe river flooding in some locations , and authorities advised those living along the Fuerte River to be prepared for a possible evacuation . The winds from Isis left about 120 @,@ 000 people in the municipality of Ahome without power .
Throughout Mexico , the passage of Hurricane Isis resulted in 14 deaths and the loss of 769 homes , with property damage estimates totaling over $ 5 million ( 1998 USD , 50 million 1998 MXN , $ 6 @.@ 3 million 2007 USD ) . According to a speech by President Ernesto Zedillo , Isis damaged the water systems in 173 localities ; it also damaged 154 primary schools and nine high schools , minor in most cases , causing most schools to be closed for around a week . A total of 730 miles ( 1175 km ) of railroad track was damaged by mudslides or flooding , with one bridge entirely destroyed and another four damaged .
= = = United States = = =
Thunderstorms from the remnants of Isis dropped more than two inches ( 50 mm ) of rainfall across southern Arizona , resulting in some flash flood warnings and flooding on roadways . The heaviest precipitation fell across the Santa Catalina and Rincon Mountains near Tucson , which saw precipitation amounts of up to three inches ( 75 mm ) . Otherwise , no flooding was reported in the Tucson area , and the Tucson International Airport reported only 1 @.@ 1 inches ( 28 mm ) as a result of the storm .
The moisture extended into southern California and produced moderate precipitation across the region . Bakersfield reported a one @-@ day rainfall record on September 4 with 0 @.@ 23 inches ( 5 @.@ 8 mm ) of precipitation , breaking the previous record of 0 @.@ 17 inches ( 4 @.@ 3 mm ) set in 1963 . Rainfall amounts at Frazier Park peaked at 1 @.@ 53 inches ( 39 mm ) . Agricultural losses , primarily from vintners and raisin growers , rose up to $ 5 million in damage ( 1998 USD , $ 6 @.@ 33 million 2007 USD ) , either directly due to rain or indirectly due to the additional steps to treat the increase in fungus activity on produce . Slick roads from the rain resulted in nearly 80 traffic accidents in San Diego County , ranging from fender benders to moderate injuries . Thunderstorms from the remnants of Isis damaged a San Diego Gas & Electric substation at Kearny Mesa , leaving 10 @,@ 000 customers without power ; the outage was short lived and completely restored within two hours . About 1 @,@ 000 homes and businesses were temporarily without power in Escondido , and another 2 @,@ 700 customers lost electricity in Rancho Bernardo . Rainfall in and around San Diego reached a maximum of 0 @.@ 5 inches ( 13 mm ) at La Mesa . Heavy clouds from Isis produced scattered rainfall and temporary relief to severe heat conditions in the Los Angeles area .
Moisture from the remnants of Isis spread across the southwestern United States , and rainfall reached over 0 @.@ 75 inches ( 19 mm ) in Nevada and Utah . Low @-@ level moisture dissipated as it continued inland , due to dry air , although upper @-@ level moisture produced light rain across the Northwestern United States ; Pocatello , Idaho recorded 0 @.@ 59 inches ( 15 mm ) , while Missoula , Montana recorded 0 @.@ 39 inches ( 10 mm ) .
= = Aftermath = =
Aid programs began immediately after Isis moved ashore and dissipated to provide support to the affected population . The Comisión Nacional del Agua distributed 1 @.@ 6 million U.S. gallons ( 1 @.@ 3 million imp gal / 6 million L ) of water and provided repair equipment to the 173 localities whose water systems were damaged . More than 650 health workers worked to combat the spread of diseases , including monitoring sanitary conditions of water and foods , and sprayed nearly 9 @,@ 900 acres ( 40 km2 ) of land to prevent the breeding of mosquitoes . The force also disinfected more than 6 @,@ 600 latrines and removed more than 850 short tons ( 770 t ) of sewage to prevent the spread of epidemic . No medical @-@ related deaths occurred as a result of this attention .
Twenty @-@ four hours after the passage of the hurricane , workers had restored power to 70 % of the affected residents in Sinaloa , and by six days after the storm , electrical service was completely restored . The damage to the federal highway between Culiacán and Los Mochis along the coastal region of Sinaloa was restored about 48 hours after the passage of the hurricane . The rehabilitation of the agricultural infrastructure began immediately , and most of the drainage networks were repaired by about two weeks after the hurricane . About half of the damaged railways were repaired by about a month after the storm . The total cost for reconstruction and aid amounted to about $ 18 @.@ 5 million ( 1998 USD , 175 million 1998 MXN , $ 23 @.@ 3 million 2007 USD ) , about 94 % from federal funds and the rest from state funding . A portion of the funding was allocated to assist the reconstruction of destroyed houses .
= Thomas Bewick =
Thomas Bewick ( c . 11 August 1753 – 8 November 1828 ) was an English engraver and natural history author . Early in his career he took on all kinds of work such as engraving cutlery , making the wood blocks for advertisements , and illustrating children 's books . Gradually he turned to illustrating , writing and publishing his own books , gaining an adult audience for the fine illustrations in A History of Quadrupeds .
His career began when he was apprenticed to engraver Ralph Beilby in Newcastle upon Tyne . He became a partner in the business and eventually took it over . Apprentices whom Bewick trained include John Anderson , Luke Clennell , and William Harvey , who in their turn became well known as painters and engravers .
Bewick is best known for his A History of British Birds , which is admired today mainly for its wood engravings , especially the small , sharply observed , and often humorous vignettes known as tail @-@ pieces ; the book was the forerunner of all modern field guides . He notably illustrated editions of Aesop 's Fables throughout his life .
He is credited with popularising a technical innovation in the printing of illustrations using wood . He adopted metal @-@ engraving tools to cut hard boxwood across the grain , producing printing blocks that could be integrated with metal type , but were much more durable than traditional woodcuts . The result was high quality illustration at a low price .
= = Life = =
Bewick was born at Cherryburn , a house in the village of Mickley , Northumberland , near Newcastle upon Tyne on 10 or 11 August 1753 , although his birthday was always celebrated on the 12th . His parents were tenant farmers : his father John had been married before his union with Jane , and was in his forties when Thomas , the eldest of eight , was born . John rented a small colliery at Mickley Bank , which employed perhaps six men . Bewick attended school in the nearby village of Ovingham .
Bewick did not flourish at schoolwork , but at a very early age showed a talent for drawing . He had no lessons in art . At the age of 14 he was apprenticed to Ralph Beilby , an engraver in Newcastle , where he learnt how to engrave on wood and metal , for example marking jewellery and cutlery with family names and coats of arms . In Beilby 's workshop Bewick engraved a series of diagrams on wood for Charles Hutton , illustrating a treatise on measurement . He seems thereafter to have devoted himself entirely to engraving on wood , and in 1775 he received a prize from the Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts , Manufactures and Commerce for a wood engraving of the " Huntsman and the Old Hound " from Select Fables by the late Mr Gay , which he was illustrating .
In 1776 Bewick became a partner in Beilby 's workshop . The joint business prospered , becoming Newcastle 's leading engraving service with an enviable reputation for high quality work and good service . In September 1776 he went to London for eight months , finding the city rude , deceitful and cruel , and much disliking the unfairness of extreme wealth and poverty side by side . He returned to his beloved Newcastle as soon as he could , but his time in the capital gave him a wider reputation , business experience , and an awareness of new movements in art .
In 1786 , when he was financially secure , he married Isabella Elliott from Ovingham ; she had been a friend when they were children . They had four children , Robert , Jane , Isabella , and Elizabeth ; the daughters worked on their father 's memoir after his death . At that period in his life he was described by the Newcastle artist Thomas Sword Good as " a man of athletic make , nearly 6 feet high and proportionally stout . He possessed great personal courage and in his younger years was not slow to repay an insult with personal chastisement . On one occasion , being assaulted by two pitmen on returning from a visit to Cherryburn , he resolutely turned upon the aggressors , and as he said , ' paid them both well ' . "
Bewick was also noted as having a strong moral sense and was an early campaigner for fair treatment of animals . He objected to the docking of horses ' tails , the mistreatment of performing animals such as bears , and cruelty to dogs . Above all , he thought war utterly pointless . All these themes recur in his engravings , which echo Hogarth 's attention to moral themes . For example , he shows wounded soldiers with wooden legs , back from the wars , and animals with a gallows in the background .
Bewick had at least 30 pupils who worked for him and Beilby as apprentices , the first of which was his younger brother John . Several gained distinction as engravers , including John Anderson , Luke Clennell , Charlton Nesbit , William Harvey , Robert Johnson , and his son and later partner Robert Elliot Bewick .
In 1790 the partners published their History of Quadrupeds in 1790 , intended for children but reaching an adult readership , and its success encouraged them to consider a more serious work of natural history . In preparation for this Bewick spent several years engraving the wood blocks for Land Birds , the first volume of A History of British Birds . Given his detailed knowledge of the birds of Northumberland , Bewick prepared the illustrations , so Beilby was given the task of assembling the text , which he struggled to do . Bewick ended up writing most of the text , which led to a dispute over authorship ; Bewick refused to have Beilby named as the author , and in the end only Bewick 's name appeared on the title page , along with a paragraph of explanation at the end of the preface .
It may be proper to observe , that while one of the editors of this work was engaged in preparing the Engravings , the compilation of the descriptions was undertaken by the other , subject , however , to the corrections of his friend , whose habits led him to a more intimate acquaintance with this branch of Natural History . – Land Birds , Preface .
The book was an immediate success when published – by Beilby and Bewick themselves – in 1797 . Bewick started work at once on the second volume , Water Birds , but the disagreement over authorship led to a final split with Beilby . Bewick was unable to control his feelings and resolve issues quietly , so the partnership ended , turbulently and expensively , leaving Bewick with his own workshop . Bewick had to pay £ 20 , equivalent to about £ 20 @,@ 400 as of 2011 , in lawyer 's fees , and more than £ 21 for Beilby 's share of the workshop equipment .
With the assistance of his apprentices Bewick brought out the second volume , Water Birds , in 1804 , as the sole author . He found the task of managing the printers continually troublesome , but the book met with as much success as the first volume .
In April 1827 , the American naturalist and bird painter John James Audubon came to Britain to find a suitable printer for his enormous Birds of America . Bewick , still lively at age 74 , showed him the woodcut he was working on , a dog afraid of tree stumps that seem in the dark to be devilish figures , and gave Audubon a copy of his Quadrupeds for his children .
Bewick was fond of the music of Northumberland , and of the Northumbrian smallpipes in particular . He especially wanted to promote the Northumbrian smallpipes , and to support the piper John Peacock , so he encouraged Peacock to teach pupils to become masters of this kind of music . One of these pupils was Thomas 's son , Robert , whose surviving manuscript tunebooks give a picture of a piper 's repertoire in the 1820s .
Bewick 's last wood engraving , Waiting for Death , was of an old bony workhorse , standing forlorn by a tree stump , which he had seen and sketched as an apprentice ; the work echoes William Hogarth 's last work , The Bathos , which shows the fallen artist by a broken column . He died after a few days ' illness on 8 November 1828 , at his home . He was buried in Ovingham churchyard , beside his wife Isabella , who had died two years earlier , and not far from his parents and his brother John .
= = Work = =
= = = Technique = = =
Bewick 's art is considered the pinnacle of his medium , now called wood engraving . This is due both to his skill and to the method , which unlike the wood cut technique of his predecessors , carves against the grain , in hard box wood , using fine tools normally favoured by metal engravers .
Boxwood cut across the end @-@ grain is hard enough for fine engraving , allowing greater detail than in normal woodcutting . This been the dominant method used since Bewick 's time . In addition , since a wood engraving is inked on the face , it requires only low pressure to print an image , so the blocks last for many thousands of prints , and importantly can be assembled into a page of metal type for ordinary printing in a single run . In contrast , a copper plate engraving is inked in the engraved grooves , the face being wiped clean of ink before printing , so much higher pressure is required , and images must be printed separately from the text , at far greater expense .
Bewick made use of his close observation of nature , his remarkable visual memory , and his sharp eyesight to create accurate and extremely small details in his wood engravings , which proved to be both a strength and a weakness . If properly printed and closely examined , his prints could be seen to convey subtle clues to the character of his natural subjects , with humour and feeling . This was achieved by carefully varying the depth of the engraved grooves to provide actual greys , not only black and white , as well as the pattern of the marks to provide texture . But this subtlety of engraving created a serious technical difficulty for his printers ; they needed to ink his blocks with just the right amount of ink , mixed so as to be of exactly the right thickness , and to press the block to the paper slowly and carefully , to obtain a result that would satisfy Bewick . Not surprisingly , this made printing slow and expensive . It also created a problem for Bewick 's readers ; if they lacked his excellent eyesight , they needed a magnifying glass to study his prints , especially the miniature tail @-@ pieces . But the effect was transformative , and wood engraving became the main method of illustrating books for a century . The quality of Bewick 's engravings attracted a far wider readership to his books than he had expected : his Fables and Quadrupeds were at the outset intended for children .
Bewick ran his workshop collaboratively , developing the skills of his apprentices , so while he did not complete every task for every illustration himself , he was always closely involved , as John Rayner explains :
some blocks would be drawn by one brother and cut by the other , the rough work would be done by pupils , who would also , if they showed aptitude , draw and finish designs – on the same principle as the schools of Renaissance painters ; and we cannot ... be sure in all cases that the engravings ... are the work of Thomas Bewick from first to last , but he had a hand to a great extent in nearly all , and certainly had the last word in all of them .
= = = = Major works = = = =
Works using his wood engraving technique , for which he became well known , include the engravings for Oliver Goldsmith 's Traveller and The Deserted Village , for Thomas Parnell 's Hermit , and for William Somervile 's Chase . But " the best known of all Bewick 's prints " is said by The Bewick Society to be The Chillingham Bull , executed by Bewick on an exceptionally large woodblock for Marmaduke Tunstall , a gentleman who owned an estate at Wycliffe in the North Riding of Yorkshire .
= = = = Tail @-@ pieces = = = =
The tail- or tale @-@ pieces , a Bewick speciality , are small engravings chosen to fill gaps such as those at the ends of the species articles in British Birds , each bird 's description beginning on a new page . The images are full of life and movement , often with a moral , sometimes with humour , always with sympathy and precise observation , so the images tell a tale as well as being at the tail ends of articles . For example , the runaway cart , at the end of " The Sparrow @-@ Hawk " , fills what would otherwise be a 5 cm ( 2 in ) high gap . Hugh Dixon explains :
The runaway cart is a wonderful mixture of action and danger . The boys have been playing in the cart and the horse has bolted ; perhaps the dog 's barking was the cause . The drawing of the wheel – an extraordinary depiction for its time – shows that the cart has gathered speed . One boy has already fallen and probably hurt himself . The others hang on shouting with fear . And why has it all happened ? The carter with his tankard in his hand runs too late from the inn . Has he been distracted by the shapely girl ? And is it an accident that the inn sign looks a little like a gallows ?
= = = = Bookplates = = = =
The workshop of Beilby , Bewick , and son produced many ephemeral materials such as letterhead stationery , shop advertisement cards , and other business materials . Of these ephemeral productions , " bookplates have survived the best " . Bewick 's bookplates were illustrations made from engravings , containing the name or initials of the book 's owner .
= = = Aesop 's Fables = = =
The various editions of Aesop 's Fables illustrated by Bewick span almost his entire creative life . The first was created for the Newcastle bookseller Thomas Saint during his apprentice years , an edition of Robert Dodsley 's Select Fables published in 1776 . With his brother John he later contributed to a three @-@ volume edition for the same publisher in 1784 , reusing some pictures from the 1776 edition .
Bewick went on to produce a third edition of the fables . While convalescing from a dangerous illness in 1812 , he turned his attention to a long @-@ cherished venture , a large three @-@ volume edition of The Fables of Aesop and Others , eventually published in 1818 . The work is divided into three sections : the first has some of Dodsley 's fables prefaced by a short prose moral ; the second has " Fables with Reflections " , in which each story is followed by a prose and a verse moral and then a lengthy prose reflection ; the third , " Fables in Verse " , includes fables from other sources in poems by several unnamed authors . Engravings were initially designed on the wood by Bewick and then cut by his apprentices under close supervision , refined where necessary by himself . This edition used a method that Bewick had pioneered , " white @-@ line " engraving , a dark @-@ to @-@ light technique in which the lines to remain white are cut out of the woodblock .
= = = A General History of Quadrupeds = = =
A General History of Quadrupeds appeared in 1790 . It deals with 260 mammals from across the world , including animals from " Adive " to " Zorilla " . It is particularly thorough on some of the domestic animals : the first entry describes the horse . Beilby and Bewick had difficulty deciding what to include , and especially on how to organise the entries . They had hoped to arrange the animals systematically , but they found that the rival systems of Linnaeus , Buffon and John Ray conflicted , and in Linnaeus 's case at least changed with every edition of his work . They decided to put useful animals first " which so materially contribute to the strength , the wealth , and the happiness of this kingdom " .
The book 's coverage is erratic , a direct result of the sources that Bewick consulted : his own knowledge of British animals , the available scholarly sources , combined with George Culley 's 1786 Observations on Livestock and the antique John Caius 's 1576 On English Dogs . Bewick had to hand the Swedish naturalist Anders Sparrman 's account of his visit to the Cape of Good Hope on Cook 's expedition of 1772 to 1776 , and animals from the Southern Cape figure largely in the book . It was an energetic muddle , but it was at once greeted with enthusiasm by the British public . They liked the combination of vigorous woodcuts , simple and accurate descriptions , and all kinds of exotic animals alongside things they knew .
= = = A History of British Birds = = =
A History of British Birds , Bewick 's great achievement and with which his name is inseparably associated , was published in two volumes : History and Description of Land Birds in 1797 and History and Description of Water Birds in 1804 , with a supplement in 1821 . The Birds is specifically British , but is the forerunner of all modern field guides . Bewick was helped by his intimate knowledge of the habits of animals acquired during his frequent excursions into the country . He also recounts information passed to him by acquaintances and local gentry , and that obtained in natural history works of his time , including those by Thomas Pennant and Gilbert White , as well as the translation of Buffon 's Histoire naturelle .
Many of the illustrations that have most frequently been reproduced in other books and as decorations are the small tailpieces that Bewick had placed at the bottoms of the pages of the original . The worlds depicted are so small that a magnifying glass is necessary to examine their detail ; each scene , as Adrian Searle writes , " is a small and often comic revelation " , each tiny image giving " enormous pleasure " ; Bewick " was as inventive as he was observant , as funny and bleak as he was exacting and faithful to the things he saw around him . "
Bewick 's biographer , Jenny Uglow , writes that
Bewick appears to have had a faultless sense of exactly what line was needed , and above all where to stop , as if there were no pause for analysis or reflection between the image in the mind and the hand on the wood . This skill , which has made later generations of engravers pause in awe , could be explained as an innate talent , the je @-@ ne @-@ sais @-@ quoi of " genius " . But it also came from the constant habit of drawing as a child , the painstaking learning of technique as an apprentice ...
Bewick sometimes used his fingerprint as a form of signature , ( accompanied by the words " Thomas Bewick his mark " ) , as well as engraving it in one of his tail @-@ pieces as if it had clouded the tiny image of a rustic scene with a cottage by mistake . Uglow notes one critic 's suggestion that Bewick may have meant we are looking at the scene through a playfully smudged window , as well as drawing our attention to Bewick , the maker . Adrian Searle , writing in The Guardian , describes the tiny work as " A visual equivalent to the sorts of authorial gags Laurence Sterne played in Tristram Shandy , it is a marvellous , timeless , magical joke " .
= = Tributes and portraits = =
Poetical tributes came to Bewick even during his lifetime . William Wordsworth began his anecdotal poem “ The Two Thieves ” , composed in 1798 , with the line “ O now that the genius of Bewick were mine ” , in which case he would give up writing , he declared .
In 1823 , Bewick 's friend the Reverend J. F. M. Dovaston dedicated a sonnet to him with the lines
Xylographer I name thee , Bewick , taught
By thy wood @-@ Art , that from rock , flood , and tree
Home to our hearths , all lively , light and free
In suited scene each living thing has brought
As life elastic , animate with thought .
Four years after his death , his sixteen @-@ year @-@ old admirer Charlotte Bronte wrote a poem of 20 quatrains titled “ Lines on the celebrated Bewick ” which describe the various scenes she comes across while leafing through the books illustrated by him . Later still , the poet Alfred Tennyson left his own tribute on the flyleaf of a copy of Bewick 's History of British Birds found in Lord Ravenscroft 's library :
A gate and field half ploughed ,
A solitary cow ,
A child with a broken slate ,
And a titmarsh in the bough .
But where , alack , is Bewick
To tell the meaning now ?
Each in their own way is making the same point , that Bewick 's work is more than mere illustration . Its liveliness and truth to experience appeals to the imagination of the reader and calls forth an individual response that goes beyond the text .
As noted at the end of the article on him in the Dictionary of National Biography , there is a rich collection of Bewick portraits , beginning with that of Newcastle painter George Gray ( 1758 @-@ 1819 ) , from about 1780 and long owned by Bewick 's family , that is now in the Laing Art Gallery . Several are by James Ramsay , including the one at the Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle upon Tyne , in which he sits holding spectacles , one in middle @-@ age , held by the Natural History Society of Northumbria , and one in old age in the National Portrait Gallery . Bewick also appears among the figures on the left in Ramsay 's " The Lost Child " ( 1823 ) , where he is standing next to Ramsay and his wife in the street leading up to St Nicholas ' Church . John Henry Frederick Bacon was to draw on this small figure to create his 1852 print of Bewick , in which he has been transferred from the urban to a rural setting , with the city and the Tyne in the background .
Other portraits include one by William Nicholson dating from 1814 in which Bewick sits with a pencil in his hand and a dog beside his chair ; the one at his birthplace ; and the full @-@ length seated portrait of 1827 by Thomas Sword Good ( see above ) . Another painting by Sword in the National Portrait Gallery is now no longer thought to be of Bewick . An unsigned painting supposedly of him in the Yale Center for British Art is equally dubious .
A marble portrait bust of Bewick was commissioned from Edward Hodges Baily in 1825 by the Literary and Philosophical Society , of which there are several copies beside the one still at the Society itself . According to Jenny Uglow , his recent biographer , when he came to sit for the sculptor , he “ stoutly refused to be portrayed in a toga . Instead he wore his ordinary coat and waistcoat with neckcloth and ruffled shirt , and even asked for some of his smallpox scars to be shown . " Baily was so taken with him that he presented Bewick with a plaster model of the finished bust . A bronze copy now rests in a niche of the building that replaced his workshop in the churchyard of Saint Nicholas ( see above ) and still another is at the British Museum . There is also a full length statue of him at the top left of the former chemist 's shop designed by M.V.Treleaven at 45 Northumberland Street in the city .
= = Legacy = =
Bewick 's fame , already nationwide across Britain for his Birds , grew during the nineteenth century . In 1830 , William Yarrell named Bewick 's swan in his honour and Bewick 's son Robert engraved the bird for later editions of British Birds . Bewick 's wren also took his name .
The critic John Ruskin compared the subtlety of his drawing to that of Holbein , J. M. W. Turner , and Paolo Veronese writing that the way Bewick had engraved the feathers of his birds was " the most masterly thing ever done in woodcutting " . His fame faded as illustration became more widespread and more mechanical , but twentieth @-@ century artists such as Gwen Raverat ( née Darwin ) continued to admire his skill , and work by artists such as Paul Nash and Eric Ravilious has been described as reminiscent of Bewick .
Hugh Dixon , reflecting on Bewick and the landscape of North @-@ East England , wrote that
Bewick 's illustrated books , admired since they first appeared , gave him some celebrity in his own lifetime . His Memoir , published a generation after his death , brought about a new interest and a widening respect which has continued to grow ever since . The attraction to his contemporaries of Bewick 's observations lay in their accuracy and amusement . Two centuries later these qualities are still recognised ; but so , too , is the wealth and rarity of the historical information they have to offer .
Thomas Bewick Primary School , in Newcastle upon Tyne , is named after him . Bewick 's works are held in collections including the Victoria and Albert Museum . Bewick is also memorialised elsewhere around Newcastle city , and Gateshead town , centres . These include streets named after him , blue ( and other ) plaques marking former homes and workshops .
= Swiss peasant war of 1653 =
The Swiss peasant war of 1653 was a popular revolt in the Old Swiss Confederacy at the time of the Ancien Régime . A devaluation of Bernese money caused a tax revolt that spread from the Entlebuch valley in the Canton of Lucerne to the Emmental valley in the Canton of Bern and then to the cantons of Solothurn and Basel and also to the Aargau .
The population of the countryside demanded fiscal relief from their ruling authorities , the city councils of these cantons ' capitals . When their demands were dismissed by the cities , the peasants organized themselves and threatened to blockade the cities . After initial compromises mediated by other cantons had failed , the peasants united under the treaty of Huttwil , forming the " League of Huttwil " . Their movement became more radical , going beyond the initially purely fiscal demands . The Huttwil League considered itself a political entity equal to and independent from the city authorities , and it assumed full military and political sovereignty in its territories .
The peasants laid siege on Bern and Lucerne , whereupon the cities negotiated a peace agreement with the peasant leader Niklaus Leuenberger , the so @-@ called peace on the Murifeld . The peasant armies retreated . The Tagsatzung , the federal council of the Old Swiss Confederacy , then sent an army from Zürich to definitely end the rebellion , and after the Battle of Wohlenschwil , the Huttwil League was forcibly annulled in the peace of Mellingen . The last resistance in the Entlebuch valley was broken by the end of June . After their victory , the city authorities took drastic punitive measures . The Huttwil League and the peace of the Murifeld were declared null and void by the city council of Bern . Many exponents of the insurrection were captured , tortured , and finally received heavy sentences . Niklaus Leuenberger was beheaded and quartered in Bern on September 6 , 1653 .
Although the military victory of the absolutist city authorities was complete , the war had also shown them that they depended very much on their rural subjects . Soon after the war , the ruling aristocrats instituted a series of reforms and even lowered some taxes , thus fulfilling some of the peasants ' original fiscal demands . In the long term , the peasant war of 1653 prevented Switzerland from an excessive implementation of absolutism as occurred in France during the reign of Louis XIV .
= = Background = =
The Old Swiss Confederacy in the 17th century was a federation of thirteen largely independent cantons . The federation comprised rural cantons as well as city states that had expanded their territories into the countryside by political and military means at the cost of the previously ruling liege lords . The cities just took over the preexisting administrative structures . In these city cantons , the city councils ruled the countryside ; they held the judicial rights and also appointed the district sheriffs ( Landvögte ) .
Rural and urban cantons had the same standing in the federation . Each canton was sovereign within its territory , pursuing its own foreign policy and also minting its own money . The diet and central council of the federation , the Tagsatzung , held no real power and served more as an instrument of coordination . The reformation in the early 16th century had led to a confessional division amongst the cantons : the central Swiss cantons including Lucerne had remained Catholic , while Zürich , Bern , Basel , Schaffhausen , and also the city of St. Gallen had become Protestant . The Tagsatzung was often paralysed by disagreements between the equally strong factions of the Catholic and Protestant sides .
Territories that had been conquered since the early 15th century were governed as condominiums by the cantons . Reeves for these territories were assigned by the Tagsatzung for a period of two years ; the posts changed bi @-@ annually between the cantons . The Aargau had been annexed in 1415 . The western part belonged to Bern , while the eastern part comprised the two condominiums of the former County of Baden in the north and the Freie Ämter ( " Free Districts " ) in the south . The Free Districts had been forcibly recatholized after the Reformation in Switzerland , and the Catholic cantons , especially Lucerne , Zug , and Uri considered these districts part of their sphere of influence and the reeves typically came from these cantons . The Thurgau , which had been annexed in 1460 , was also a condominium of the Confederacy .
= = Causes of the conflict = =
At its root , the peasant war of 1653 was caused by the rapidly changing economic circumstances after the end of the Thirty Years ' War . The Swiss Confederacy had been spared from all belligerent action ; the Swiss peasants generally had profited from the wartime economy as they had been able to export their agrarian products at higher prices than before . After the Peace of Westphalia , the southern German economy recovered quickly , the Swiss exports dwindled , and the prices for agrarian products dropped . Many Swiss peasants , who had raised mortgages during the boom at wartime , suddenly faced financial problems .
At the same time the war had since the 1620s caused significant expenses for the cities , e.g. for building better defenses such as new bastions . A significant source of income for the cantons ran dry : their financial means exhausted by the war , France and Spain no longer paid the Pensions , the agreed sums in return for the cantons providing them with mercenary regiments . The city authorities tried to compensate for this and to cover their expenses on the one hand by increasing the taxes or inventing new ones and on the other hand by minting less valuable copper coins called Batzen that had the same face value as the previously minted silver money . The population began hoarding the silver coins , and the cheap copper money that remained in circulation continually lost in purchasing power . Zürich , Basel , and the central Swiss cantons therefore began already in 1623 to mint more valuable coins again . Bern and also Solothurn and Fribourg set a compulsory fixed exchange rate between copper and silver money instead , but this measure did not break the de facto devaluation . At the end of the war , the population thus faced both a postwar depression and a high inflation , combined with high taxes . This financial crisis led to a series of tax revolts in several cantons of the Confederacy , for instance 1629 – 36 in Lucerne , 1641 in Bern , or 1645 / 46 in Zürich . The uprising in 1653 continued this series , but would take the conflict to an unprecedented level .
Since the 15th century , the political power in the city cantons had become more and more concentrated in the hands of a few urban families , who increasingly saw their public offices as hereditary positions and who developed aristocratic and absolutist attitudes . Slowly , an urban oligarchy of magistrates had formed . This concentration of power in the city cantons in a small urban élite caused a veritable " participatory crisis " ( Suter ) . The rural population increasingly was subject to decrees issued without their consent that restricted their rights of old and also their social and cultural freedom .
= = Outbreak of the rebellion = =
At the beginning of December 1652 , Bern devalued its copper Batzen by 50 % to adjust its face value to its intrinsic value to combat the inflation . The authorities set a term of only three days to exchange the copper coins at the old rate against more stable gold or silver money . Not many people could thus take advantage of this exchange offer , and for most — and in particular the rural population — half their fortunes just vanished . The other cantons soon followed suit and similarly devalued the Bernese copper money . The situation was most dire in the Lucerne Entlebuch valley , where the Bernese Batzen were in widespread usage . The financial situation of many a peasant became unsustainable . Insider deals of the ruling magistrates of Lucerne furthered the unrest among the population . The peasants of the Entlebuch valley , led by Hans Emmenegger from Schüpfheim and Christian Schybi from Escholzmatt , sent a delegation to Lucerne to demand remedies , but the city council refused to even hear them . The enraged peasants organized a general assembly ( Landsgemeinde ) of the population of the valley at Heiligkreuz , in spite of such assemblies being illegal as the authorities ' laws of the time denied the freedom of assembly . The assembly , which took place after the mass on February 10 , 1653 , decided to suspend all tax payments until the authorities in Lucerne fulfilled their demands by reducing taxes and abolishing some of them altogether , such as the taxes on salt , cattle , and horse trades .
The authorities of Lucerne were not willing to grant the population 's demands , but neither did they manage to subdue this insurrection . The large majority of the rural districts of the canton of Lucerne sided with the peasants of the Entlebuch valley in an alliance concluded at Wolhusen on February 26 , 1653 . At the beginning of March , the people of the neighbouring Bernese Emmental valley joined their cause , addressing similar demands at the Bernese authorities . Both cantons called upon the other uninvolved members of the Old Swiss Confederacy to mediate in the conflict , but at the same time , the Tagsatzung , the diet of the cantons ' governments , also began to prepare for a military resolution . Troops from Schaffhausen and Basel were sent towards the Aargau , but this immediately solicited an armed resistance amongst the population such that the troops had to withdraw .
On March 18 , 1653 , the mediating Catholic central Swiss cantons proposed in Lucerne a resolution that fulfilled most of the peasants ' demands , especially the fiscal ones . In Bern , a similar compromise was proposed by a Protestant delegation from Zürich under the direction of the mayor of Zürich , Johann Heinrich Waser , on April 4 , 1653 . The Bernese Emmental and most of the districts of the canton of Lucerne accepted these resolutions and their representatives swore new oaths of fealty . But the people in the Entlebuch valley did not accept the authorities ' terms , as these — besides offering some tax reliefs — criminalized the insurrection and called for the punishment of the leaders . At a meeting at Signau on April 10 , 1653 , the delegates from the Entlebuch convinced their neighbours in the Emmental : the assembly decided not to honor the new oaths its representatives had sworn in Bern .
= = Formation of the Huttwil League = =
The negotiations between the city authorities and the peasants were not continued . While the authorities debated at the Tagsatzung how to deal with the insurrection , the peasants worked to gain support for their cause amongst the rural population of other regions and lobbied for a formal alliance . A peasant delegation sent to Zürich was turned back promptly : the city authorities , who had put down local unrests in their territory already in 1645 and again in 1646 , had already recognized the danger of the agitation . On April 23 , 1653 , representatives of the people of the countryside of Lucerne , Bern , Basel , and Solothurn met at Sumiswald and concluded an alliance to help each other to achieve their goals . A week later , they met again at Huttwil , where they renewed that alliance and elected Niklaus Leuenberger from Rüderswil in the Emmental as their leader .
On May 14 , 1653 , the peasants met again at a Landsgemeinde at Huttwil and formalized their alliance as the " League of Huttwil " by signing a written contract in the style of the old Bundesbriefe of the Old Swiss Confederacy . The treaty clearly established the league as a separate political entity that considered itself equal to and independent from the cities . The tax revolt had become an independence movement , based ideologically on the traditional Swiss founding legends , especially on the legend of William Tell . Legally , the peasants justified their assemblies and their union by the rights of old and in particular the Stanser Verkommnis of 1481 , one of the important coalition treaties of the Old Swiss Confederacy .
The peasants by then had assumed full sovereignty over the territory they controlled . They refused to acknowledge the jurisdiction of the city authorities and also had the military control over the area . The Huttwil League openly declared its intention to expand until it encompassed the rural population in the whole Confederacy . The majority of the rural population supported the rebellion ; the dissenting minority was silenced by threats of violence and sometimes violence indeed . Communications between the cities were interrupted , official envoys were shaken down and ships on the rivers were captured . The peasants even sent a letter to the French ambassador at Solothurn assuring the French king Louis XIV of their good intentions .
The confessional conflicts that dominated the relations between the ruling city authorities were only secondary to the peasants of the Huttwil league . The peasant alliance bridged the confessional divide , uniting Catholic people from the Entlebuch and from Solothurn with Protestant peasants from the Emmental and from Basel . The treaty of Huttwil explicitly recognized this biconfessionalism . The cities remained in all their manoeuvring and negotiations for military support within their respective confessional spheres : Catholic Lucerne had requested mediation and then military help from the Catholic central Swiss cantons , while Protestant Bern had turned to Protestant Zürich for help . The distrust between the authorities of the Catholic and Protestant cantons was so deep that none would allow troops of the other confession to operate on their territories .
= = Military confrontation = =
Both sides began to prepare openly for an armed conflict . The cities faced the problem that their armies were militias , recruited from the rural population of their subject territories , but that precisely this rural population had turned against them . Bern began raising troops in the Vaud and the Bernese Oberland , two regions unaffected by the uprising . The authorities of Bern and Lucerne were supported by the other cantons at the Tagsatzung . In a dispatch from Zürich , the uprising was termed for the first time a " revolution " .
On May 18 , 1653 , the peasants delivered ultimatums to Bern and Lucerne and raised 16 @,@ 000 troops . When the city of Bern replied with a protest note , the peasants marched to Bern under the leadership of Leuenberger , arriving on May 22 , 1653 . A second army led by Emmenegger laid siege to Lucerne . The city authorities were unprepared for an armed conflict and immediately engaged in negotiations . Within days , peace agreements were concluded . In the peace on the Murifeld ( Murifeldfrieden , named after the field just outside Bern where the peasant army 's camp lay ) signed by Leuenberger and the mayor of Bern , Niklaus Dachselhofer , the city council of Bern promised on May 28 , 1653 , to fulfill the peasants ' fiscal demands in return for the dissolution of the Huttwil League . In view of this development , the city of Lucerne and the besieging peasants agreed on a truce . Leuenberger 's army lifted the siege of Bern and retreated , but the people refused to follow their leaders and objected to dissolving the Huttwil League .
On May 30 , 1653 , following an earlier resolution of the Tagsatzung and earlier Bernese demands , Zürich assembled an army with recruits from its own territories , from the Thurgau , and from Schaffhausen under the command of Conrad Werdmüller with the task to break any armed resistance once and for all times . Some 8 @,@ 000 men with 800 horses and 18 cannons marched towards the Aargau . Already three days later , Werdmüller 's army controlled the important crossing of the river Reuss at Mellingen . In the hills around the nearby villages Wohlenschwil and Othmarsingen a peasant army of some 24 @,@ 000 men assembled , led by Leuenberger and Schybi . A peasant delegation tried to negotiate with Werdmüller , showing him the peace treaty concluded on the Murifeld . Werdmüller , who had been until then unaware of this treaty that had been signed only days before , refused to acknowledge the validity of the contract and demanded the unconditional surrender of the peasants . Thus rebutted , the peasants attacked Werdmüller 's troops on June 3 , 1653 , but being poorly equipped and lacking any artillery , they were defeated decisively in the Battle of Wohlenschwil . The peasants were forced to agree to the peace of Mellingen , which annulled the Huttwil League . The peasant troops returned home and an amnesty was declared , except for the leaders of the movement .
Bernese troops under the command of Sigmund von Erlach then advanced from Bern to the Aargau to meet the forces of Zürich . Under this double pressure , the peasants ' resistance collapsed . Von Erlach 's troops numbered about 6 @,@ 000 men and 19 cannons . The operation was a veritable punitive expedition : the troops plundered the villages along their way and even razed the defenses of the small town of Wiedlisbach , which lost its town privileges and was declared a village again . On June 7 , 1653 , the Bernese army met with a troop of about 2 @,@ 000 men of Leuenberger 's army who were on their way back from Wohlenschwil . The peasants retreated to Herzogenbuchsee , where they were defeated by von Erlach 's troops ; the little town went up in flames in the course of the battle . Niklaus Leuenberger fled and went hiding , but he was betrayed by a neighbour and was apprehended by the Bernese district sheriff Samuel Tribolet on June 9 , 1653 .
The Entlebuch valley , where the revolt had begun , resisted a little longer . Peasant troops under the command of Schybi tried in vain on June 5 , 1653 , to gain the bridge at Gisikon , held by a joint army of the city of Lucerne and the central Swiss cantons commanded by Sebastian Peregrin Zwyer of Uri . In the following weeks , Zwyer 's troops slowly advanced through the valley , until they controlled it completely by June 20 , 1653 . Schybi was captured a few days later and incarcerated at Sursee .
= = Aftermath = =
The city authorities proceeded to punish severely the leaders of the Huttwil League . Bern did not accept the terms of the peace of Melligen with its amnesty , claiming the treaty was invalid on its territory , and cracked down hard on the rural population . The peasants were fined large sums and were made to cover the expenses for the military operations . The peace of the Murifeld was declared null and void by the Bernese city council , as was the Huttwil League . The rural population was disarmed . Many of the exponents of the movement were incarcerated , tortured , and finally sentenced to death or to hard labour on galleys , or exiled . Christian Schybi was executed at Sursee on July 9 , 1653 . Niklaus Leuenberger was beheaded and quartered at Bern on September 6 , 1653 ; his head was nailed at the gallows together with one of the four copies of the Bundesbrief of the Huttwil League . Punishment was hardest in the canton of Bern , where 23 death sentences were handed down and numerous other prominent peasants were executed in courts @-@ martial by von Erlach 's army , compared to eight and seven death sentences in Lucerne and Basel , respectively .
Although the authorities had won a total military victory , they refrained from inflicting further draconian measures on the general population . The whole affair had clearly demonstrated that the cities depended on the support of their rural subjects . Putting down the insurrection had been achieved only with difficulties , and only with the help of troops from Zürich and Uri . Had the peasants succeeded to extend the Huttwil League to encompass the countryside of Zürich , the outcome of the conflict might have been different . The city authorities were well aware of their essentially lucky escape , and their actions in the following years reflect it . While they took steps to disempower the rural population politically , they also fulfilled many of the peasants original fiscal demands , alleviating the economic pressure on them . Tax reforms were passed , to the point that for instance in the canton of Lucerne the overall taxation of the population decreased in the second half of the 17th century .
Suter even concludes that the peasant war of 1653 thwarted a further advancement of absolutist trends in Switzerland and prevented a development like it occurred in France following the Fronde . The authorities of the Swiss cantons had to act much more carefully and were forced to respect their rural subjects . The Bernese for instance instructed their district sheriffs to employ a far less pompous and less authoritarian attitude to minimize the conflict potential . The city council even opened legal procedures against a few of its district sheriffs against whom there were many complaints from the rural population , accusing them of corruption , incompetence , and unjustified enrichment . The district sheriff of Trachselwald , the same Samuel Tribolet who had captured Niklaus Leuenberger , was dismissed , tried , and exiled in early 1654 . Abraham Stanyan , who had been ambassador of England in Bern from 1705 to 1713 , published in 171
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300 million years to culminate .
The present era is classified as part of a mass extinction event , the Holocene extinction event , the fastest ever to have occurred . Some , such as E. O. Wilson of Harvard University , predict that human destruction of the biosphere could cause the extinction of one @-@ half of all species in the next 100 years . The extent of the current extinction event is still being researched , debated and calculated by biologists .
= = Atmosphere , climate , and weather = =
The Earth 's atmosphere is a key factor in sustaining the ecosystem . The thin layer of gases that envelops the Earth is held in place by gravity . Air is mostly nitrogen , oxygen , water vapor , with much smaller amounts of carbon dioxide , argon , etc . The atmospheric pressure declines steadily with altitude . The ozone layer plays an important role in depleting the amount of ultraviolet ( UV ) radiation that reaches the surface . As DNA is readily damaged by UV light , this serves to protect life at the surface . The atmosphere also retains heat during the night , thereby reducing the daily temperature extremes .
Terrestrial weather occurs almost exclusively in the lower part of the atmosphere , and serves as a convective system for redistributing heat . Ocean currents are another important factor in determining climate , particularly the major underwater thermohaline circulation which distributes heat energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions . These currents help to moderate the differences in temperature between winter and summer in the temperate zones . Also , without the redistributions of heat energy by the ocean currents and atmosphere , the tropics would be much hotter , and the polar regions much colder .
Weather can have both beneficial and harmful effects . Extremes in weather , such as tornadoes or hurricanes and cyclones , can expend large amounts of energy along their paths , and produce devastation . Surface vegetation has evolved a dependence on the seasonal variation of the weather , and sudden changes lasting only a few years can have a dramatic effect , both on the vegetation and on the animals which depend on its growth for their food .
Climate is a measure of the long @-@ term trends in the weather . Various factors are known to influence the climate , including ocean currents , surface albedo , greenhouse gases , variations in the solar luminosity , and changes to the Earth 's orbit . Based on historical records , the Earth is known to have undergone drastic climate changes in the past , including ice ages .
The climate of a region depends on a number of factors , especially latitude . A latitudinal band of the surface with similar climatic attributes forms a climate region . There are a number of such regions , ranging from the tropical climate at the equator to the polar climate in the northern and southern extremes . Weather is also influenced by the seasons , which result from the Earth 's axis being tilted relative to its orbital plane . Thus , at any given time during the summer or winter , one part of the Earth is more directly exposed to the rays of the sun . This exposure alternates as the Earth revolves in its orbit . At any given time , regardless of season , the northern and southern hemispheres experience opposite seasons .
Weather is a chaotic system that is readily modified by small changes to the environment , so accurate weather forecasting is limited to only a few days . Overall , two things are happening worldwide : ( 1 ) temperature is increasing on the average ; and ( 2 ) regional climates have been undergoing noticeable changes .
= = Water on Earth = =
Water is a chemical substance that is composed of hydrogen and oxygen and is vital for all known forms of life . In typical usage , water refers only to its liquid form or state , but the substance also has a solid state , ice , and a gaseous state , water vapor , or steam . Water covers 71 % of the Earth 's surface . On Earth , it is found mostly in oceans and other large water bodies , with 1 @.@ 6 % of water below ground in aquifers and 0 @.@ 001 % in the air as vapor , clouds , and precipitation . Oceans hold 97 % of surface water , glaciers , and polar ice caps 2 @.@ 4 % , and other land surface water such as rivers , lakes , and ponds 0 @.@ 6 % . Additionally , a minute amount of the Earth 's water is contained within biological bodies and manufactured products .
= = = Oceans = = =
An ocean is a major body of saline water , and a principal component of the hydrosphere . Approximately 71 % of the Earth 's surface ( an area of some 361 million square kilometers ) is covered by ocean , a continuous body of water that is customarily divided into several principal oceans and smaller seas . More than half of this area is over 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 9 @,@ 800 feet ) deep . Average oceanic salinity is around 35 parts per thousand ( ppt ) ( 3 @.@ 5 % ) , and nearly all seawater has a salinity in the range of 30 to 38 ppt . Though generally recognized as several ' separate ' oceans , these waters comprise one global , interconnected body of salt water often referred to as the World Ocean or global ocean . This concept of a global ocean as a continuous body of water with relatively free interchange among its parts is of fundamental importance to oceanography .
The major oceanic divisions are defined in part by the continents , various archipelagos , and other criteria : these divisions are ( in descending order of size ) the Pacific Ocean , the Atlantic Ocean , the Indian Ocean , the Southern Ocean , and the Arctic Ocean . Smaller regions of the oceans are called seas , gulfs , bays and other names . There are also salt lakes , which are smaller bodies of landlocked saltwater that are not interconnected with the World Ocean . Two notable examples of salt lakes are the Aral Sea and the Great Salt Lake .
= = = Lakes = = =
A lake ( from Latin lacus ) is a terrain feature ( or physical feature ) , a body of liquid on the surface of a world that is localized to the bottom of basin ( another type of landform or terrain feature ; that is , it is not global ) and moves slowly if it moves at all . On Earth , a body of water is considered a lake when it is inland , not part of the ocean , is larger and deeper than a pond , and is fed by a river . The only world other than Earth known to harbor lakes is Titan , Saturn 's largest moon , which has lakes of ethane , most likely mixed with methane . It is not known if Titan 's lakes are fed by rivers , though Titan 's surface is carved by numerous river beds . Natural lakes on Earth are generally found in mountainous areas , rift zones , and areas with ongoing or recent glaciation . Other lakes are found in endorheic basins or along the courses of mature rivers . In some parts of the world , there are many lakes because of chaotic drainage patterns left over from the last Ice Age . All lakes are temporary over geologic time scales , as they will slowly fill in with sediments or spill out of the basin containing them .
= = = = Ponds = = = =
A pond is a body of standing water , either natural or man @-@ made , that is usually smaller than a lake . A wide variety of man @-@ made bodies of water are classified as ponds , including water gardens designed for aesthetic ornamentation , fish ponds designed for commercial fish breeding , and solar ponds designed to store thermal energy . Ponds and lakes are distinguished from streams via current speed . While currents in streams are easily observed , ponds and lakes possess thermally driven micro @-@ currents and moderate wind driven currents . These features distinguish a pond from many other aquatic terrain features , such as stream pools and tide pools .
= = = Rivers = = =
A river is a natural watercourse , usually freshwater , flowing toward an ocean , a lake , a sea or another river . In a few cases , a river simply flows into the ground or dries up completely before reaching another body of water . Small rivers may also be called by several other names , including stream , creek , brook , rivulet , and rill ; there is no general rule that defines what can be called a river . Many names for small rivers are specific to geographic location ; one example is Burn in Scotland and North @-@ east England . Sometimes a river is said to be larger than a creek , but this is not always the case , due to vagueness in the language . A river is part of the hydrological cycle . Water within a river is generally collected from precipitation through surface runoff , groundwater recharge , springs , and the release of stored water in natural ice and snowpacks ( i.e. , from glaciers ) .
= = = Streams = = =
A stream is a flowing body of water with a current , confined within a bed and stream banks . In the United States , a stream is classified as a watercourse less than 60 feet ( 18 metres ) wide . Streams are important as conduits in the water cycle , instruments in groundwater recharge , and they serve as corridors for fish and wildlife migration . The biological habitat in the immediate vicinity of a stream is called a riparian zone . Given the status of the ongoing Holocene extinction , streams play an important corridor role in connecting fragmented habitats and thus in conserving biodiversity . The study of streams and waterways in general involves many branches of inter @-@ disciplinary natural science and engineering , including hydrology , fluvial geomorphology , aquatic ecology , fish biology , riparian ecology , and others .
= = Ecosystems = =
Ecosystems are composed of a variety of abiotic and biotic components that function in an interrelated way . The structure and composition is determined by various environmental factors that are interrelated . Variations of these factors will initiate dynamic modifications to the ecosystem . Some of the more important components are : soil , atmosphere , radiation from the sun , water , and living organisms .
Central to the ecosystem concept is the idea that living organisms interact with every other element in their local environment . Eugene Odum , a founder of ecology , stated : " Any unit that includes all of the organisms ( ie : the " community " ) in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure , biotic diversity , and material cycles ( i.e. : exchange of materials between living and nonliving parts ) within the system is an ecosystem . " Within the ecosystem , species are connected and dependent upon one another in the food chain , and exchange energy and matter between themselves as well as with their environment . The human ecosystem concept is grounded in the deconstruction of the human / nature dichotomy and the premise that all species are ecologically integrated with each other , as well as with the abiotic constituents of their biotope .
A smaller unit of size is called a microecosystem . For example , a microsystem can be a stone and all the life under it . A macroecosystem might involve a whole ecoregion , with its drainage basin .
= = = Wilderness = = =
Wilderness is generally defined as areas that have not been significantly modified by human activity . Wilderness areas can be found in preserves , estates , farms , conservation preserves , ranches , national forests , national parks , and even in urban areas along rivers , gulches , or otherwise undeveloped areas . Wilderness areas and protected parks are considered important for the survival of certain species , ecological studies , conservation , solitude , and recreation . Some nature writers believe wilderness areas are vital for the human spirit and creativity , and some Ecologists consider wilderness areas to be an integral part of the Earth 's self @-@ sustaining natural ecosystem ( the biosphere ) . They may also preserve historic genetic traits and that they provide habitat for wild flora and fauna that may be difficult to recreate in zoos , arboretums , or laboratories .
= = Life = =
Although there is no universal agreement on the definition of life , scientists generally accept that the biological manifestation of life is characterized by organization , metabolism , growth , adaptation , and response to stimuli and reproduction . Life may also be said to be simply the characteristic state of organisms .
Properties common to terrestrial organisms ( plants , animals , fungi , protists , archaea , and bacteria ) are that they are cellular , carbon @-@ and @-@ water @-@ based with complex organization , having a metabolism , a capacity to grow , respond to stimuli , and reproduce . An entity with these properties is generally considered life . However , not every definition of life considers all of these properties to be essential . Human @-@ made analogs of life may also be considered to be life .
The biosphere is the part of Earth 's outer shell – including land , surface rocks , water , air and the atmosphere – within which life occurs , and which biotic processes in turn alter or transform . From the broadest geophysiological point of view , the biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships , including their interaction with the elements of the lithosphere ( rocks ) , hydrosphere ( water ) , and atmosphere ( air ) . The entire Earth contains over 75 billion tons ( 150 trillion pounds or about 6 @.@ 8 × 1013 kilograms ) of biomass ( life ) , which lives within various environments within the biosphere .
Over nine @-@ tenths of the total biomass on Earth is plant life , on which animal life depends very heavily for its existence . More than 2 million species of plant and animal life have been identified to date , and estimates of the actual number of existing species range from several million to well over 50 million . The number of individual species of life is constantly in some degree of flux , with new species appearing and others ceasing to exist on a continual basis . The total number of species is in rapid decline .
= = = Evolution = = =
The origin of life on Earth is not well understood , but it is known to have occurred at least 3 @.@ 5 billion years ago , during the hadean or archean eons on a primordial Earth that had a substantially different environment than is found at present . These life forms possessed the basic traits of self @-@ replication and inheritable traits . Once life had appeared , the process of evolution by natural selection resulted in the development of ever @-@ more diverse life forms .
Species that were unable to adapt to the changing environment and competition from other life forms became extinct . However , the fossil record retains evidence of many of these older species . Current fossil and DNA evidence shows that all existing species can trace a continual ancestry back to the first primitive life forms .
The advent of photosynthesis in very basic forms of plant life worldwide allowed the sun 's energy to be harvested to create conditions allowing for more complex life . The resultant oxygen accumulated in the atmosphere and gave rise to the ozone layer . The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the development of yet more complex cells called eukaryotes . Cells within colonies became increasingly specialized , resulting in true multicellular organisms . With the ozone layer absorbing harmful ultraviolet radiation , life colonized the surface of Earth .
= = = Microbes = = =
The first form of life to develop on the Earth were microbes , and they remained the only form of life until about a billion years ago when multi @-@ cellular organisms began to appear . Microorganisms are single @-@ celled organisms that are generally microscopic , and smaller than the human eye can see . They include Bacteria , Fungi , Archaea , and Protista .
These life forms are found in almost every location on the Earth where there is liquid water , including in the Earth 's interior . Their reproduction is both rapid and profuse . The combination of a high mutation rate and a horizontal gene transfer ability makes them highly adaptable , and able to survive in new environments , including outer space . They form an essential part of the planetary ecosystem . However , some microorganisms are pathogenic and can post health risk to other organisms .
= = = Plants and animals = = =
Originally Aristotle divided all living things between plants , which generally do not move fast enough for humans to notice , and animals . In Linnaeus ' system , these became the kingdoms Vegetabilia ( later Plantae ) and Animalia . Since then , it has become clear that the Plantae as originally defined included several unrelated groups , and the fungi and several groups of algae were removed to new kingdoms . However , these are still often considered plants in many contexts . Bacterial life is sometimes included in flora , and some classifications use the term bacterial flora separately from plant flora .
Among the many ways of classifying plants are by regional floras , which , depending on the purpose of study , can also include fossil flora , remnants
of plant life from a previous era . People in many regions and countries take great pride in their individual arrays of characteristic flora , which can vary widely across the globe due to differences in climate and terrain .
Regional floras commonly are divided into categories such as native flora and agricultural and garden flora , the lastly mentioned of which are intentionally grown and cultivated . Some types of " native flora " actually have been introduced centuries ago by people migrating from one region or continent to another , and become an integral part of the native , or natural flora of the place to which they were introduced . This is an example of how human interaction with nature can blur the boundary of what is considered nature .
Another category of plant has historically been carved out for weeds . Though the term has fallen into disfavor among botanists as a formal way to categorize " useless " plants , the informal use of the word " weeds " to describe those plants that are deemed worthy of elimination is illustrative of the general tendency of people and societies to seek to alter or shape the course of nature . Similarly , animals are often categorized in ways such as domestic , farm animals , wild animals , pests , etc. according to their relationship to human life .
Animals as a category have several characteristics that generally set them apart from other living things . Animals are eukaryotic and usually multicellular ( although see Myxozoa ) , which separates them from bacteria , archaea , and most protists . They are heterotrophic , generally digesting food in an internal chamber , which separates them from plants and algae . They are also distinguished from plants , algae , and fungi by lacking cell walls .
With a few exceptions , most notably the sponges ( Phylum Porifera ) , animals have bodies differentiated into separate tissues . These include muscles , which are able to contract and control locomotion , and a nervous system , which sends and processes signals . There is also typically an internal digestive chamber . The eukaryotic cells possessed by all animals are surrounded by a characteristic extracellular matrix composed of collagen and elastic glycoproteins . This may be calcified to form structures like shells , bones , and spicules , a framework upon which cells can move about and be reorganized during development and maturation , and which supports the complex anatomy required for mobility .
= = Human interrelationship = =
Although humans comprise only a minuscule proportion of the total living biomass on Earth , the human effect on nature is disproportionately large . Because of the extent of human influence , the boundaries between what humans regard as nature and " made environments " is not clear cut except at the extremes . Even at the extremes , the amount of natural environment that is free of discernible human influence is diminishing at an increasingly rapid pace .
The development of technology by the human race has allowed the greater exploitation of natural resources and has helped to alleviate some of the risk from natural hazards . In spite of this progress , however , the fate of human civilization remains closely linked to changes in the environment . There exists a highly complex feedback loop between the use of advanced technology and changes to the environment that are only slowly becoming understood . Man @-@ made threats to the Earth 's natural environment include pollution , deforestation , and disasters such as oil spills . Humans have contributed to the extinction of many plants and animals .
Humans employ nature for both leisure and economic activities . The acquisition of natural resources for industrial use remains the primary component of the world 's economic system . Some activities , such as hunting and fishing , are used for both sustenance and leisure , often by different people . Agriculture was first adopted around the 9th millennium BCE . Ranging from food production to energy , nature influences economic wealth .
Although early humans gathered uncultivated plant materials for food and employed the medicinal properties of vegetation for healing , most modern human use of plants is through agriculture . The clearance of large tracts of land for crop growth has led to a significant reduction in the amount available of forestation and wetlands , resulting in the loss of habitat for many plant and animal species as well as increased erosion .
= = = Aesthetics and beauty = = =
Beauty in nature has historically been a prevalent theme in art and books , filling large sections of libraries and bookstores . That nature has been depicted and celebrated by so much art , photography , poetry , and other literature shows the strength with which many people associate nature and beauty . Reasons why this association exists , and what the association consists of , are studied by the branch of philosophy called aesthetics . Beyond certain basic characteristics that many philosophers agree about to explain what is seen as beautiful , the opinions are virtually endless . Nature and wildness have been important subjects in various eras of world history . An early tradition of landscape art began in China during the Tang Dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) . The tradition of representing nature as it is became one of the aims of Chinese painting and was a significant influence in Asian art .
Although natural wonders are celebrated in the Psalms and the Book of Job , wilderness portrayals in art became more prevalent in the 1800s , especially in the works of the Romantic movement . British artists John Constable and J. M. W. Turner turned their attention to capturing the beauty of the natural world in their paintings . Before that , paintings had been primarily of religious scenes or of human beings . William Wordsworth 's poetry described the wonder of the natural world , which had formerly been viewed as a threatening place . Increasingly the valuing of nature became an aspect of Western culture . This artistic movement also coincided with the Transcendentalist movement in the Western world . A common classical idea of beautiful art involves the word mimesis , the imitation of nature . Also in the realm of ideas about beauty in nature is that the perfect is implied through perfect mathematical forms and more generally by patterns in nature . As David Rothenburg writes , " The beautiful is the root of science and the goal of art , the highest possibility that humanity can ever hope to see " .
= = Matter and energy = =
Some fields of science see nature as matter in motion , obeying certain laws of nature which science seeks to understand . For this reason the most fundamental science is generally understood to be " physics " – the name for which is still recognizable as meaning that it is the study of nature .
Matter is commonly defined as the substance of which physical objects are composed . It constitutes the observable universe . The visible components of the universe are now believed to compose only 4 @.@ 9 percent of the total mass . The remainder is believed to consist of 26 @.@ 8 percent cold dark matter and 68 @.@ 3 percent dark energy . The exact arrangement of these components is still unknown and is under intensive investigation by physicists .
The behavior of matter and energy throughout the observable universe appears to follow well @-@ defined physical laws . These laws have been employed to produce cosmological models that successfully explain the structure and the evolution of the universe we can observe . The mathematical expressions of the laws of physics employ a set of twenty physical constants that appear to be static across the observable universe . The values of these constants have been carefully measured , but the reason for their specific values remains a mystery .
= = Beyond Earth = =
Outer space , also simply called space , refers to the relatively empty regions of the universe outside the atmospheres of celestial bodies . Outer space is used to distinguish it from airspace ( and terrestrial locations ) . There is no discrete boundary between the Earth 's atmosphere and space , as the atmosphere gradually attenuates with increasing altitude . Outer space within the Solar System is called interplanetary space , which passes over into interstellar space at what is known as the heliopause .
Outer space is sparsely filled with several dozen types of organic molecules discovered to date by microwave spectroscopy , blackbody radiation left over from the big bang and the origin of the universe , and cosmic rays , which include ionized atomic nuclei and various subatomic particles . There is also some gas , plasma and dust , and small meteors . Additionally , there are signs of human life in outer space today , such as material left over from previous manned and unmanned launches which are a potential hazard to spacecraft . Some of this debris re @-@ enters the atmosphere periodically .
Although the Earth is the only body within the solar system known to support life , evidence suggests that in the distant past the planet Mars possessed bodies of liquid water on the surface . For a brief period in Mars ' history , it may have also been capable of forming life . At present though , most of the water remaining on Mars is frozen . If life exists at all on Mars , it is most likely to be located underground where liquid water can still exist .
Conditions on the other terrestrial planets , Mercury and Venus , appear to be too harsh to support life as we know it . But it has been conjectured that Europa , the fourth @-@ largest moon of Jupiter , may possess a sub @-@ surface ocean of liquid water and could potentially host life .
Astronomers have started to discover extrasolar Earth analogs – planets that lie in the habitable zone of space surrounding a star , and therefore could possibly host life as we know it .
= First Persian invasion of Greece =
The first Persian invasion of Greece , during the Persian Wars , began in 492 BC , and ended with the decisive Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC . The invasion , consisting of two distinct campaigns , was ordered by the Persian king Darius I primarily in order to punish the city @-@ states of Athens and Eretria . These cities had supported the cities of Ionia during their revolt against Persian rule , thus incurring the wrath of Darius . Darius also saw the opportunity to extend his empire into Europe , and to secure its western frontier .
The first campaign in 492 BC , led by Mardonius , re @-@ subjugated Thrace and forced Macedon to become a fully subordinate client kingdom part of Persia , after being a vassal to Persia as early as the late 6th century BC . However , further progress was prevented when Mardonius 's fleet was wrecked in a storm off the coast of Mount Athos . The following year , having demonstrated his intentions , Darius sent ambassadors to all parts of Greece , demanding their submission . He received it from almost all of them , except Athens and Sparta , both of whom executed the ambassadors . With Athens still defiant , and Sparta now effectively at war with him , Darius ordered a further military campaign for the following year .
The second Persian campaign , in 490 BC , was under the command of Datis and Artaphernes . The expedition headed first to the island Naxos , which it captured and burnt . It then island @-@ hopped between the rest of the Cycladic Islands , annexing each into the Persian empire . Reaching Greece , the expedition landed at Eretria , which it besieged , and after a brief time , captured . Eretria was razed and its citizens enslaved . Finally , the task force headed to Attica , landing at Marathon , en route for Athens . There , it was met by a smaller Athenian army , which nevertheless proceeded to win a remarkable victory at the Battle of Marathon .
This defeat prevented the successful conclusion of the campaign , and the task force returned to Asia . Nevertheless , the expedition had fulfilled most of its aims , punishing Naxos and Eretria , and bringing much of the Aegean under Persian rule , as well as the full inclusion of Macedon . The unfinished business from this campaign led Darius to prepare for a much larger invasion of Greece , to firmly subjugate it , and to punish Athens and Sparta . However , internal strife within the empire delayed this expedition , and Darius then died of old age . It was thus left to his son Xerxes I to lead the second Persian invasion of Greece , beginning in 480 BC .
= = Background = =
The first Persian invasion of Greece had its immediate roots in the Ionian Revolt , the earliest phase of the Greco @-@ Persian Wars . However , it was also the result of the longer @-@ term interaction between the Greeks and Persians . In 500 BC the Persian Empire was still relatively young and highly expansionist , but prone to revolts amongst its subject peoples . Moreover , the Persian king Darius was a usurper , and had spent considerable time extinguishing revolts against his rule . Even before the Ionian Revolt , Darius had begun to expand the Empire into Europe , subjugating Thrace , expanding past the Danube river , conquering Paeonia , and forcing Macedon to become a client kingdom to Persia ; though the latter retaining an amount of autonomy up to 492 BC . Attempts at further expansion into the politically fractious world of Ancient Greece may have been inevitable . However , the Ionian Revolt had directly threatened the integrity of the Persian empire , and the states of mainland Greece remained a potential menace to its future stability . Darius thus resolved to subjugate and pacify Greece and the Aegean , and to punish those involved in the Ionian Revolt .
The Ionian revolt had begun with an unsuccessful expedition against Naxos , a joint venture between the Persian satrap Artaphernes and the Miletus tyrant Aristagoras . In the aftermath , Artaphernes decided to remove Aristagoras from power , but before he could do so , Aristagoras abdicated , and declared Miletus a democracy . The other Ionian cities , ripe for rebellion , followed suit , ejecting their Persian @-@ appointed tyrants , and declaring themselves democracies . Artistagoras then appealed to the states of Mainland Greece for support , but only Athens and Eretria offered to send troops .
The involvement of Athens in the Ionian Revolt arose from a complex set of circumstances , beginning with the establishment of the Athenian Democracy in the late 6th century BC In 510 BC , with the aid of Cleomenes I , King of Sparta , the Athenian people had expelled Hippias , the tyrant ruler of Athens . With Hippias 's father Peisistratus , the family had ruled for 36 out of the previous 50 years and fully intended to continue Hippias 's rule . Hippias fled to Sardis to the court of the Persian satrap , Artaphernes and promised control of Athens to the Persians if they were to help restore him . In the meantime , Cleomenes helped install a pro @-@ Spartan tyranny under Isagoras in Athens , in opposition to Cleisthenes , the leader of the traditionally powerful Alcmaeonidae family , who considered themselves the natural heirs to the rule of Athens . In a daring response , Cleisthenes proposed to the Athenian people that he would establish a ' democracy ' in Athens , much to the horror of the rest of the aristocracy . Cleisthenes 's reasons for suggesting such a radical course of action , which would remove much of his own family 's power , are unclear ; perhaps he perceived that days of aristocratic rule were coming to an end anyway ; certainly he wished to prevent Athens becoming a puppet of Sparta by whatever means necessary . However , as a result of this proposal , Cleisthenes and his family were exiled from Athens , in addition to other dissenting elements , by Isagoras . Having been promised democracy however , the Athenian people seized the moment and revolted , expelling Cleomenes and Isagoras . Cleisthenes was thus restored to Athens ( 507 BC ) , and at breakneck speed began to establish democratic government . The establishment of democracy revolutionised Athens , which henceforth became one of the leading cities in Greece . The new @-@ found freedom and self @-@ governance of the Athenians meant that they were thereafter exceptionally hostile to the return of the tyranny of Hippias , or any form of outside subjugation ; by Sparta , Persia or anyone else .
Cleomenes , unsurprisingly , was not pleased with events , and marched on Athens with the Spartan army . Cleomenes 's attempts to restore Isagoras to Athens ended in a debacle , but fearing the worst , the Athenians had by this point already sent an embassy to Artaphernes in Sardis , to request aid from the Persian Empire . Artaphernes requested that the Athenians give him a ' earth and water ' , a traditional token of submission , which the Athenian ambassadors acquiesced to . However , they were severely censured for this when they returned to Athens . At some point later Cleomenes instigated a plot to restore Hippias to the rule of Athens . This failed and Hippias again fled to Sardis and tried to persuade the Persians to subjugate Athens . The Athenians dispatched ambassadors to Artaphernes to dissuade him from taking action , but Artaphernes merely instructed the Athenians to take Hippias back as tyrant . Needless to say , the Athenians balked at this , and resolved instead to be openly at war with Persia . Having thus become the enemy of Persia , Athens was already in a position to support the Ionian cities when they began their revolt . The fact that the Ionian democracies were inspired by the example of Athens no doubt further persuaded the Athenians to support the Ionian Revolt ; especially since the cities of Ionia were ( supposedly ) originally Athenian colonies .
The city of Eretria also sent assistance to the Ionians for reasons that are not completely clear . Possibly commercial reasons were a factor ; Eretria was a mercantile city , whose trade was threatened by Persian dominance of the Aegean . Herodotus suggests that the Eretrians supported the revolt in order to repay the support the Milesians had given Eretria in a past war against Chalcis .
The Athenians and Eretrians sent a task force of 25 triremes to Asia Minor . Whilst there , the Greek army surprised and outmaneuvered Artaphernes , marching to Sardis and there burning the lower city . However , this was as much as the Greeks achieved , and they were then pursued back to the coast by Persian horsemen , losing many men in the process . Despite the fact their actions were ultimately fruitless , the Eretrians and in particular the Athenians had earned Darius 's lasting enmity , and he vowed to punish both cities . The Persian naval victory at the Battle of Lade ( 494 BC ) all but ended the Ionian Revolt , and by 493 BC , the last hold @-@ outs were vanquished by the Persian fleet . The revolt was used as an opportunity by Darius to extend the empire 's border to the islands of the East Aegean and the Propontis , which had not been part of the Persian dominions before . The completion of the pacification of Ionia allowed the Persians to begin planning their next moves ; to extinguish the threat to the empire from Greece , and to punish Athens and Eretria .
= = 492 BC : Mardonius 's campaign = =
In the spring of 492 BC an expeditionary force , to be commanded by Darius 's son @-@ in @-@ law Mardonius was assembled , consisting of a fleet and a land army . Whilst the ultimate aim was to punish Athens and Eretria , the expedition also aimed to subdue as many of the Greek cities as possible . Departing from Cilicia , Mardonius sent the army to march to the Hellespont , whilst he travelled with the fleet . He sailed round the coast of Asia Minor to Ionia , where he spent a short time abolishing the tyrannies that ruled the cities of Ionia . Ironically , since the establishment of democracies had been a key factor in the Ionian Revolt , he replaced the tyrannies with democracies .
From thence the fleet continued on to the Hellespont , and when all was ready , shipped the land forces across to Europe . The army then marched through Thrace , re @-@ subjugating it , since these lands had already been added to the Persian empire in 512 BC , during Darius 's campaign against the Scythians . Upon reaching Macedon , the Persians forced Macedonia to become a fully subordinate part of the Persians ; they had been vassals of the Persians since the late 6th century BC , but retained their general autonomy .
Meanwhile , the fleet crossed to Thassos , resulting in the Thasians submitting to the Persians . The fleet then rounded the coastline as far as Acanthus in Chalcidice , before attempting to round the headland of Mount Athos . However , they were caught in a violent storm , which drove them against the coastline of Athos , wrecking ( according to Herodotus ) 300 ships , with the loss of 20 @,@ 000 men .
Then , whilst the army was camped in Macedon , the Brygians , a local Thracian tribe , launched a night raid against the Persian camp , killing many of the Persians , and wounding Mardonius . Despite his injury , Mardonius made sure that the Brygians were defeated and subjugated , before leading his army back to the Hellespont ; the remnants of the navy also retreated to Asia . Although this campaign ended ingloriously , the land approaches to Greece had been secured , and the Greeks had no doubt been made aware of Darius 's intentions for them .
= = 491 BC : Diplomacy = =
Perhaps reasoning that the expedition of the previous year may have made his plans for Greece obvious , and weakened the resolve of the Greek cities , Darius turned to diplomacy in 491 BC . He sent ambassadors to all the Greek city states , asking for " earth and water " , a traditional token of submission . The vast majority of cities did as asked , fearing the wrath of Darius . In Athens , however , the ambassadors were put on trial and then executed ; in Sparta , they were simply thrown down a well . This firmly and finally drew the battle @-@ lines for the coming conflict ; Sparta and Athens , despite their recent enmity , would together fight the Persians .
However , Sparta was then thrown into disarray by internal machinations . The citizens of Aegina had submitted to the Persian ambassadors , and the Athenians , troubled by the possibility of Persia using Aegina as a naval base , asked Sparta to intervene . Cleomenes travelled to Aegina to confront the Aeginetans personally , but they appealed to Cleomenes 's fellow king Demaratus , who supported their stance . Cleomenes responded by having Demaratus declared illegitimate , with the help of the priests at Delphi ( whom he bribed ) ; Demaratus was replaced by his cousin Leotychides . Now faced with two Spartan kings , the Aeginetans capitulated , and handed over hostages to the Athenians as a guarantee of their good behaviour . However , in Sparta news emerged of the bribes Cleomenes had given at Delphi , and he was expelled from the city . He then sought to rally the northern Peloponnesus to his cause , at which the Spartans relented , and invited him back to the city . By 491 BC though , Cleomenes was widely considered insane and was sentenced to prison where he was found dead the following day . Cleomenes was succeeded by his half @-@ brother Leonidas I.
= = 490 BC : Datis and Artaphernes ' campaign = =
Taking advantage of the chaos in Sparta , which effectively left Athens isolated , Darius decided to launch an amphibious expedition to finally punish Athens and Eretria . An army was assembled in Susa , and marched into Cilicia , where a fleet had been gathered . Command of the expedition was given to Datis the Mede and Artaphernes , son of the satrap Artaphernes .
= = = Size of the Persian force = = =
According to Herodotus , the fleet sent by Darius consisted of 600 triremes . There is no indication in the historical sources of how many transport ships accompanied them , if any . Herodotus claimed that 3 @,@ 000 transport ships accompanied 1 @,@ 207 triremes during Xerxes 's invasion in 480 BC . Amongst modern historians , some have accepted this number of ships as reasonable ; it has been suggested either that the number 600 represents the combined number of triremes and transport ships , or that there were horse transports in addition to 600 triremes .
Herodotus does not estimate the size of the Persian army , only saying that they formed a " large infantry that was well packed " . Among other ancient sources , the poet Simonides , a near @-@ contemporary , says the campaign force numbered 200 @,@ 000 , while a later writer , the Roman Cornelius Nepos estimates 200 @,@ 000 infantry and 10 @,@ 000 cavalry . Plutarch and Pausanias both independently give 300 @,@ 000 , as does the Suda dictionary ; Plato and Lysias assert 500 @,@ 000 ; and Justin 600 @,@ 000 .
Modern historians generally dismiss these numbers as exaggerations . One approach to estimate the number of troops is to calculate the number of marines carried by 600 triremes . Herodotus tells us that each trireme in the second invasion of Greece carried 30 extra marines , in addition to a probable 14 standard marines . Thus , 600 triremes could easily have carried 18 @,@ 000 – 26 @,@ 000 infantry . Numbers proposed for the Persian infantry are in the range 18 @,@ 000 – 100 @,@ 000 . However , the consensus is around 25 @,@ 000 .
The Persian infantry used in the invasion was probably a heterogeneous group drawn from across the empire . However , according to Herodotus , there was at least a general conformity in the type of armour and style of fighting . The troops were , generally speaking , armed with a bow , ' short spear ' and sword , carried a wicker shield , and wore at most a leather jerkin . The one exception to this may have been the ethnic Persian troops , who may have worn a corslet of scaled armour . Some of contingents would have been armed somewhat differently ; for instance , the Saka were renowned axemen . The ' elite ' contingents of the Persian infantry seem to have been the ethnic Persians , Medians , Cissians and the Saka ; Herodotus specifically mentions the presence of Persians and Saka at Marathon . The style of fighting used by the Persians was probably to stand off from an enemy , using their bows ( or equivalent ) to wear down the enemy before closing in to deliver the coup de grace with spear and sword .
Estimates for the cavalry are usually in the 1 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 range . The Persian cavalry was usually provided by the ethnic Persians , Bactrians , Medes , Cissians , and Saka ; most of these probably fought as lightly armed missile cavalry . The fleet must have had at least some proportion of transport ships , since the cavalry was carried by ship ; whilst Herodotus claims the cavalry was carried in the triremes , this is improbable . Lazenby estimates 30 – 40 transport ships would be required to carry 1 @,@ 000 cavalry .
= = = Lindos = = =
Once assembled , the Persian force sailed from Cilicia firstly to the island of Rhodes . A Lindian Temple Chronicle records that Datis besieged the city of Lindos , but was unsuccessful .
= = = Naxos = = =
The fleet then moved north along the Ionian coast towards Samos , before abruptly turning west into the Aegean Sea . The fleet sailed next to Naxos , in order to punish the Naxians for their resistance to the failed expedition that the Persians had mounted there a decade earlier . Many of the inhabitants fled to the mountains ; those that the Persians caught were enslaved . The Persians then burnt the city and temples of the Naxians .
= = = The Cyclades = = =
Moving on , the Persian fleet approached Delos , whereupon the Delians also fled from their homes . Having demonstrated Persian power at Naxos , Datis now intended to show clemency to the other islands , if they submitted to him . He sent a herald to the Delians , proclaiming :
" Holy men , why have you fled away , and so misjudged my intent ? It is my own desire , and the king 's command to me , to do no harm to the land where the two gods were born , neither to the land itself nor to its inhabitants . So return now to your homes and dwell on your island . "
Datis then burned 300 talents of frankincense on the altar of Apollo on Delos , to show his respect for one of the gods of the island . The fleet then proceeded to island @-@ hop across the rest of Aegean on its way to Eretria , taking hostages and troops from each island .
= = = Karystos = = =
The Persians finally arrived off the southern tip of Euboea , at Karystos . The citizens of Karystos refused to give hostages to the Persians , so they were besieged , and their land ravaged , until they submitted to the Persians .
= = = Siege of Eretria = = =
The task force then sailed around Euboea to the first major target , Eretria . According to Herodotus , the Eretrians were divided amongst themselves as to the best course of action ; whether to flee to the highlands , or undergo a siege , or to submit to the Persians . In the event , the majority decision was to remain in the city . The Eretrians made no attempt to stop the Persians landing , or advancing , and thus allowed themselves to be besieged . For six days the Persians attacked the walls , with losses on both sides ; however , on the seventh day two reputable Eretrians opened the gates and betrayed the city to the Persians . The city was razed , and temples and shrines were looted and burned . Furthermore , according to Darius 's commands , the Persians enslaved all the remaining townspeople .
= = = Battle of Marathon = = =
The Persian fleet next headed south down the coast of Attica , landing at the bay of Marathon , roughly 25 miles ( 40 km ) from Athens , on the advice of Hippias , son of the former tyrant of Athens , Peisistratus . The Athenians , joined by a small force from Plataea , marched to Marathon , and succeeded in blocking the two exits from the plain of Marathon . At the same time , Athens ' greatest runner , Pheidippides ( or Philippides ) was sent to Sparta to request that the Spartan army march to Athens ' aid . Pheidippides arrived during the festival of Carneia , a sacrosanct period of peace , and was informed that the Spartan army could not march to war until the full moon rose ; Athens could not expect reinforcement for at least ten days . They decided to hold out at Marathon for the time being , and they were reinforced by a contingent of hoplites from Plataea .
Stalemate ensued for five days , before the Athenians ( for reasons that are not completely clear ) decided to attack the Persians . Despite the numerical advantage of the Persians , the hoplites proved devastatingly effective , routing the Persians wings before turning in on the centre of the Persian line ; the remnants of the Persian army left the battle and fled to their ships . Herodotus records that 6 @,@ 400 Persian bodies were counted on the battlefield ; the Athenians lost just 192 men and the Plataeans 11 .
In the immediate aftermath of the battle , Herodotus says that the Persian fleet sailed around Cape Sunium to attack Athens directly , although some modern historians place this attempt just before the battle . Either way , the Athenians evidently realised that their city was still under threat , and marched as quickly as possible back to Athens . The Athenians arrived in time to prevent the Persians from securing a landing , and seeing that the opportunity was lost , the Persians turned about and returned to Asia . On the next day , the Spartan army arrived , having covered the 220 kilometers ( 140 mi ) in only three days . The Spartans toured the battlefield at Marathon , and agreed that the Athenians had won a great victory .
= = Aftermath = =
The defeat at Marathon ended for the time being the Persian invasion of Greece . However , Thrace and the Cycladic islands had been resubjugated into the Persian empire , and Macedon reduced to a subordinate kingdom part of the empire ; since the late 6th century BC they had been vassals of the Persians , but remained having a broad scope of autonomy . Darius was still fully intent on conquering Greece , to secure the western part of his empire . Moreover , Athens remained unpunished for its role in the Ionian Revolt , and both Athens and Sparta were unpunished for their treatment of the Persian ambassadors .
Darius therefore began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece ; however , in 486 BC , his Egyptian subjects revolted , indefinitely postponing any Greek expedition . Darius then died whilst preparing to march on Egypt , and the throne of Persia passed to his son Xerxes I. Xerxes crushed the Egyptian revolt , and very quickly restarted the preparations for the invasion of Greece . This expedition was finally ready by 480 BC , and the second Persian invasion of Greece thereby began , under the command of Xerxes himself .
= = Significance = =
For the Persians , the two expeditions to Greece had been largely successful ; new territories had been added to their empire and Eretria had been punished . It was only a minor setback that the invasion had met defeat at Marathon ; that defeat barely dented the enormous resources of the Persian empire . Yet , for the Greeks , it was an enormously significant victory . It was the first time that Greeks had beaten the Persians , and showed them that the Persians were not invincible , and that resistance , rather than subjugation , was possible .
The victory at Marathon was a defining moment for the young Athenian democracy , showing what might be achieved through unity and self @-@ belief ; indeed , the battle effectively marks the start of a ' golden age ' for Athens . This was also applicable to Greece as a whole ; " their victory endowed the Greeks with a faith in their destiny that was to endure for three centuries , during which western culture was born " . John Stuart Mill 's famous opinion was that " the Battle of Marathon , even as an event in British history , is more important than the Battle of Hastings " .
Militarily , a major lesson for the Greeks was the potential of the hoplite phalanx . This style had developed during internecine warfare amongst the Greeks ; since each city @-@ state fought in the same way , the advantages and disadvantages of the hoplite phalanx had not been obvious . Marathon was the first time a phalanx faced more lightly armed troops , and revealed how devastating the hoplites could be in battle . The phalanx formation was still vulnerable to cavalry ( the cause of much caution by the Greek forces at the Battle of Plataea ) , but used in the right circumstances , it was now shown to be a potentially devastating weapon . The Persians seem to have more @-@ or @-@ less disregarded the military lessons of Marathon . The composition of infantry for the second invasion seems to have been the same as during the first , despite the availability of hoplites and other heavy infantry in Persian @-@ ruled lands . Having won battles against hoplites previously , the Persians may simply have regarded Marathon as an aberration .
= = = Ancient sources = = =
Herodotus , The Histories
Thucydides , History of The Peloponnesian Wars
Diodorus Siculus , Library
Lysias , Funeral Oration
Plato , Menexenus
Xenophon Anabasis
Cornelius Nepos Lives of the Eminent Commanders ( Miltiades )
Plutarch Parallel Lives ( Aristides , Themistocles ) , On the Malice of Herodotus
Pausanias , Description of Greece
Marcus Junianus Justinus Epitome of the Phillipic History of Pompeius Trogus
Photius , Bibliotheca or Myriobiblon : Epitome of Persica by Ctesias
Suda lexicon
= = = Modern sources = = =
Green , Peter ( 1996 ) . The Greco @-@ Persian Wars . University of California Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 20313 @-@ 5 .
Holland , Tom ( 2006 ) . Persian Fire : The First World Empire and the Battle for the West . Abacus . ISBN 0 @-@ 385 @-@ 51311 @-@ 9 .
Lazenby , JF . The Defence of Greece 490 – 479 BC . Aris & Phillips Ltd . , 1993 ( ISBN 0 @-@ 85668 @-@ 591 @-@ 7 )
Lloyd , Alan . Marathon : The Crucial Battle That Created Western Democracy . Souvenir Press , 2004 . ( ISBN 0 @-@ 285 @-@ 63688 @-@ X )
Davis , Paul . 100 Decisive Battles . Oxford University Press , 1999 . ISBN 1 @-@ 57607 @-@ 075 @-@ 1
Higbie , C. The Lindian Chronicle and the Greek Creation of their Past . Oxford University Press , 2003 .
Powell J. , Blakeley D.W. , Powell , T. Biographical Dictionary of Literary Influences : The Nineteenth Century , 1800 @-@ 1914 . Greenwood Publishing Group , 2001 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 313 @-@ 30422 @-@ 4
Fuller , J.F.C. A Military History of the Western World . Funk & Wagnalls , 1954 .
Fine , JVA . The Ancient Greeks : A Critical History . Harvard University Press , 1983 ( ISBN 0 @-@ 674 @-@ 03314 @-@ 0 ) .
Fehling , D. Herodotus and His " Sources " : Citation , Invention , and Narrative Art . Translated by J.G. Howie . Leeds : Francis Cairns , 1989 .
Finley , Moses ( 1972 ) . " Introduction " . Thucydides – History of the Peloponnesian War ( translated by Rex Warner ) . Penguin . ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 044039 @-@ 9 .
Howe , Timothy ; Reames , Jeanne ( 2008 ) . Macedonian Legacies : Studies in Ancient Macedonian History and Culture in Honor of Eugene N. Borza . Regina Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 930 @-@ 05356 @-@ 4 .
Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Έθνους ( History of the Greek nation volume Β ) , Athens 1971
Kampouris , M. ( 2000 ) . Η Μάχη του Μαραθώνα , το λυκαυγές της κλασσικής Ελλάδος ( The battle of Marathon , the dawn of classical Greece ) . Πόλεμος και ιστορία ( War and History magazine ) , no . 26 , January 2000 , Communications Editions , Athens .
Stecchini , Livio . " The Persian Wars " . Retrieved 2007 @-@ 10 @-@ 17 .
Roisman , Joseph ; Worthington , Ian ( 2011 ) . A Companion to Ancient Macedonia . John Wiley and Sons . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 44 @-@ 435163 @-@ 7 .
= Fire Emblem : Radiant Dawn =
Fire Emblem : Radiant Dawn , known in Japan as Fire Emblem : Akatsuki no Megami , is a tactical role @-@ playing game developed by Intelligent Systems and published by Nintendo for the Wii home console . It is the tenth entry in the Fire Emblem series , and acts as a direct sequel to the 2005 GameCube title Fire Emblem : Path of Radiance . It released in 2007 in Japan and North America , and 2008 in Europe and Australia .
Radiant Dawn 's plot begins in war @-@ torn Daein with the main character Micaiah and her allies rebelling against the oppressive Begnion army . The story is divided into four parts , and changes perspective between different factions within the continent of Tellius . The gameplay is similar to Path of Radiance and previous Fire Emblem titles , with units moving across a grid @-@ based map in turn @-@ based battles , and characters unrelated to the core plot being subject to permanent death if defeated .
Radiant Dawn began development in 2005 for the Wii after the success of Path of Radiance . Continuing the trend of developing for home consoles after a period on portable devices , it was intended to release close to the Wii hardware 's release so as to boost sales for both game and hardware . Radiant Dawn has been positively received by critics , many of whom criticised only the game 's high difficulty .
= = Gameplay = =
Radiant Dawn retains the gameplay mechanics of Fire Emblem : Path of Radiance , with turn @-@ based battles taking place on a square @-@ based grid . Most of the Path of Radiance cast returns , including all of its playable characters ( except Largo ) , as well as figures new to Tellius . Data from a completed Path of Radiance save file can be transferred to Radiant Dawn via a Nintendo GameCube memory card , which can lead to characters obtaining statistical gains . Support conversations from Path of Radiance can also be accessed and viewed using this method . In Radiant Dawn , the " support " system has been altered so that a unit can support any other unit , although units can only have one support relationship each . A secondary support known as a " bond " is also available , which is active by default or obtained when two units have attained an " A " support level in Path of Radiance .
Radiant Dawn 's multifaceted plot and lack of a permanent main character leads to the player controlling different factions in the game . In the later stages of the game , the player 's units will battle against a previously playable set of enemy units ; despite the " permanent death " feature common to the Fire Emblem series , some partner units and previously playable enemy units defeated in battle will still be playable later in the game . Radiant Dawn introduced new features relating to unit development , such as double promotion for beorcs , which grants the unit a special skill dependent on the unit 's class . New features have also been added to the laguz units , including a maximum level increased to 40 , the ability to fight untransformed , and the presence of the wolf laguz .
There are also modifications to combat , including an elevation advantage which grants units at a greater altitude with more power and accuracy . Radiant Dawn introduces the highest level of weaponry , known as " SS " , which requires a unit to have used a particular weapon type many times . In previous Fire Emblem games , archers could not attack adjacent units , but the crossbow , as well as a few other bows , allows such units to attack both adjacent and distant units . Dark magic , omitted from Path of Radiance but present in earlier games , was reintroduced to form a second magical trinity ( akin to the rock @-@ paper @-@ scissors system ) alongside the one in Path of Radiance .
= = Plot = =
Radiant Dawn is divided into four parts , each of which begins with a prologue chapter that introduces the situation , followed by a series of chapters that is resolved with an " Endgame " chapter . Three years after the Mad King 's War , detailed in Path of Radiance , Daein , the war 's instigator and eventual loser , and the victorious nation Crimea are still in the process of rebuilding . Although Crimea is ruled by Queen Elincia , Daein lacks a proper successor and is instead ruled by the occupation forces of the Begnion Empire . The Daein people are oppressed by the corrupt senate and imperial soldiers . A group of Daein rebels named the Dawn Brigade , headed by Micaiah and Sothe , act as vigilantes to provide some measure of hope . After being driven from the capital , they locate and ally with the late King Ashnard 's orphan son Pelleas , his scheming and ruthless adviser Izuka , the heron prince Rafiel who was long presumed dead , the wolf queen Nailah , and the former general of Daein known as the Black Knight . The group launches a guerrilla war against the occupation army , and word of their plight eventually reaches Empress Sanaki of Begnion . The senate disavows and scapegoats occupation leader Jarod , who is overthrown and killed by the liberation army . Unbeknownst to them all , Izuka tricks Pelleas into signing a contract known as a blood pact with the head of the Begnion senate , Lekain , which will kill increasingly large amounts of Daein citizens when triggered .
Word of Pelleas ' ascension reaches Crimea , and Queen Elincia 's recognition of Pelleas as Daein 's rightful ruler outrages the Crimean nobility . A Crimean noble named Ludveck takes advantage of the tension to organize a rebellion in order to claim Crimea for himself . Ludveck 's troops siege Elincia 's castle , but they are repelled and Ludveck is captured . He attempts to force Elincia to release him by holding her friend Lucia hostage , but she is rescued by Ike and the Greil Mercenaries . Before Ike leaves , Elincia reveals the Black Knight 's return .
When Ike returns to his headquarters , he is hired by the Laguz Alliance , consisting of the hawk nation of Pheonicis , the raven nation of Kilvas , and the beast nation of Gallia . Their representative , Ranulf , explains that Rafiel has revealed that the Begnion senate was responsible for assassinating the previous apostle of Begnion and framing the heron clans for it , resulting in their near annihilation . This has led to the Laguz Alliance declaring war on Begnion . The situation quickly escalates , threatening to become a world war that will awaken the god of chaos Yune who will supposedly destroy the world . Begnion coerces Daein into joining the war on their side with the blood pact and uses another blood pact to force Kilvas to betray the Laguz Alliance . Nailah and Prince Kurthnaga of the dragon nation of Goldoa learn of Daein 's plight and also side with them . Meanwhile , Begnion begins raiding Crimean villages for supplies , drawing Crimea into the conflict on the Laguz Alliance 's side , and Empress Sanaki escapes the senate 's clutches and joins the Alliance along with the faction of Begnion soldiers loyal to her . A massive battle ensues , and the chaos begins to awaken Yune ; Micaiah is forced to prematurely awaken her with the galdr of release . Yune 's awakening also awakens the goddess of order Ashera .
As punishment for bringing the world into chaos , Ashera subsequently petrifies Tellius ; only the most powerful warriors and human @-@ laguz half @-@ breeds survive . She decides that humankind is unworthy of survival and must be eradicated , and recruits the Begnion senate to this end . Guided by Yune , who sides with humanity , Ike , Micaiah , and King Tibarn of Pheonicis lead three groups in an assault on the Tower of Guidance where Ashera lies . They confront the senators and Izuka , who reveal that Pelleas was not Ashnard 's son , but an unwitting dupe used to place Daein further under Begnion 's thumb . Ike also learns that the Black Knight 's true identity is the Begnion general Zelgius , and defeats him in a duel . At the entrance to Ashera 's chambers , the group encounters Sanaki 's trusted adviser Sephiran , who reveals himself to be the ancient heron Lehran . Sephiran admits that the massacre of the heron clans destroyed his faith in humanity , and that he has since engineered both the Mad King 's War and the Laguz @-@ Begnion conflict in order to destroy the world . After defeating him , Yune empowers Ike with godlike power , and he defeats Ashera and restores peace to Tellius . Hundreds of years later , Yune and Ashera combine to again become the goddess Ashunera , creator of Tellius .
= = Development = =
By 2005 , when Radiant Dawn 's predecessor Path of Radiance was release , the Fire Emblem series had successfully established itself overseas first with the release of Fire Emblem for the Game Boy Advance and then Path of Radiance for the Gamecube . The developers at Intelligent Systems wanted to continue the story of Path of Radiance on home consoles , but they decided not to release on the Gamecube as it was becoming a redundant system . Instead , as they had see the Fire Emblem series ' ability to sell hardware , they chose to develop the next title for the then @-@ in @-@ development Wii . Development began in May 2005 , the same time the Wii was first announced under its codename " Revolution " . The reason development began so early was because they wanted to release Radiant Dawn as close as possible to the console 's release , so it would boost both hardware and software sales : this was the first time in the series ' history the developers had attempted anything like that . They also decided to make it a Wii exclusive rather than making versions for both Wii and Gamecube , as the new graphics meant the game could not run on Gamecube . The wish to keep the series on home consoles rather than developing for the new portable Nintendo DS after its absence from them between the releases of Path of Radiance and Fire Emblem : Thracia 776 . The Wii 's motion controls options were not implemented into the gameplay as it felt unnecessary to the design . Wi @-@ Fi compatibility had been considered , with features such as downloadable battle maps and units , although difficulties relating to balance and difficulty prevented the idea from developing .
As with the previous game , the CGI cutscenes were created by Digital Frontier . The staff numbers , including those working on the cutscenes , went from around one hundred for Path of Radiance to around 200 for Radiant Dawn : half the staff worked on the game itself , while the other half worked on the cutscenes . For the cutscenes , Digital Frontier were asked to show a more epic scope rather than just focusing on the characters , a trend from Path of Radiance the developers felt was wrong . All of the character movements in cutscenes were mapped using motion capture , with between 100 and 150 animations per character to implement .
The scenario was a continuation of the narrative of Path of Radiance , even though that game was not given an intentional cliffhanger ending . So the story would be comprehensible for people who had not played Path of Radiance , the story was split up into four segments divided between the game 's various factions . The team initially thought of a three @-@ part structure , then settled on the current format . Their aim from the beginning was to create a large @-@ scale , intricate world for players to enjoy . It was the first time the developers had incorporated such a structure into a Fire Emblem game . The dialogue for characters was made slightly rougher based on feedback from Path of Radiance , where character dialogue remained calm and cultured even in battle situations . The total number of characters increased by approximately 1 @.@ 5 times compared to Path of Radiance . So players could keep track of how characters interacted with each other , the team introduced a character relationship flow chart . The game 's Japanese subtitle made reference to both a key character and the way Telleus came to be . They also wanted to continue to portray the themes of conflict explored in Path of Radiance . The game 's thematic color , expressed in its artwork and presentation , was red , as opposed to the use of blue in Path of Radiance . Senri Kita , the character designer for Path of Radiance , returned in that capacity for Radiant Dawn .
= = Reception = =
Radiant Dawn hold a score of 78 / 100 on the review aggregator Metacritic , indicating generally favorable reviews . GameSpot 's Lark Anderson noted that , although players can save mid @-@ battle , the difficulty " will easily overwhelm even experienced tacticians . " Eurogamer 's Keza MacDonald appreciated the depth and refinement of the game , but proceeded to note a lack of accessibility due to greater complication and difficulty as Radiant Dawn progresses . Some reviewers were also critical of the developers ' choice not to use the Wii 's motion controls , although RPGamer 's Bryan Boulette commented that " the game thankfully delivers a traditional experience that isn 't changed just for the sake of changing it . " In general , critics praised the gameplay system recognized in previous Fire Emblem games , but noted that the game felt too similar to its GameCube predecessor , with ONM 's Chandra Nair commenting that Radiant Dawn has " refused to move forward . " Hyper 's Yuri Spadeface commends the game for its " deep strategy and for being hard " . However , he criticises it for being " unforgiving " , noting that it features " permanent death and is not really a Wii game " .
Reviewers praised refinements of gameplay aspects present in Path of Radiance , such as the weapon forging system , which ONM thought was simpler to control in Radiant Dawn . Despite this , other changes , such as those to the support system , were not as welcome , with GameSpot commenting that support conversations " have been reduced to mere battlefield chatter . " 1UP 's Michael Donahoe praised the game 's length and range of characters , but stated that the laguz " still aren 't very useful . " Although Fire Emblem games have been praised for their plot and characterisation in the past , GameSpot described the story as " laughable " and the game 's villains as clichéd and " one @-@ dimensional . " Conversely , RPGamer lauded the alterations in perspective by use of different protagonists , which Boulette felt " makes the overall story feel so much broader and more expansive in scope . "
The game 's presentation received a mixed response , with IGN 's Mark Bozon lauding the use of FMV and accompanying voice acting , although he commented that these were too infrequent , and that voice acting should have been used for the entirety of the game . The game 's music received a positive response , with GameSpy crediting the work of series composer Yuka Tsujiyoko as " Remarkably good . " However , multiple reviewers noted that the game 's visuals were very similar to its predecessor 's , with GameSpot rating them as " little to no improvement graphically " from Path of Radiance . GameSpy noted that the game 's visuals " aren 't mindblowing , " but welcomed Radiant Dawn 's interface and camera , stating that " A strategy game should often focus on function before form , but Radiant Dawn nails both . "
= Escape from Tomorrow =
Escape from Tomorrow is a 2013 American black @-@ and @-@ white independent fantasy horror film , the debut of writer and director Randy Moore . It follows an unemployed father having increasingly bizarre experiences and disturbing visions on the last day of a family vacation at the Walt Disney World Resort . It premiered in January at the 2013 Sundance Film Festival and was later a personal selection of Roger Ebert , shown at his 15th annual film festival in Champaign , Illinois . The film was a 2012 official selection of the PollyGrind Film Festival , but at the time filmmakers were still working on some legal issues and asked that it not be screened .
It drew attention because Moore had shot most of it on location at both Walt Disney World and Disneyland without permission from The Walt Disney Company , owner and operator of both parks . Due to Disney 's reputation of being protective of its intellectual property , the cast and crew used guerrilla filmmaking techniques to avoid attracting attention , such as keeping their scripts on their iPhones and shooting on handheld video cameras similar to those used by park visitors . After principal photography was complete , Moore was so determined to keep the project a secret from Disney that he edited it in South Korea . Sundance similarly declined to discuss the film in detail before it was shown . It was called " the ultimate guerrilla film " .
It has been compared to the work of Roman Polanski and David Lynch . However , many who saw it expressed strong doubts that the film would be shown to a wider audience due to the legal issues involved and the negative depiction of the parks . At the time of its premiere , Disney said that it was " aware " of the film ; since then the online supplement to Disney A to Z : The Official Encyclopedia has included an entry for the film . Rather than suppressing the film , Disney chose to ignore it .
Escape from Tomorrow was released simultaneously to theaters and video on @-@ demand on October 11 , 2013 , through PDA , a Cinetic Media company .
= = Plot = =
A montage shows visitors on the rides at Walt Disney World Resort and the many visuals and animatronics that accompany the rides . It ends with a man losing his head while riding Big Thunder Mountain Railroad . On the last day of a family vacation at Walt Disney World , Jim White ( Roy Abramsohn ) gets fired by his boss during a phone call on the balcony of the Contemporary Resort Hotel with his family . He keeps the news to himself to avoid spoiling their vacation . During the call , he finds a white van pulling up to the hotel . Behind him , his son Elliot ( Jack Dalton ) locks the balcony door and Jim calls his wife Emily ( Elena Schuber ) to let him back in . The family leaves their room and takes the monorail to the park , alongside two French teenagers , Isabelle ( Annet Mahendru ) and Sophie ( Danielle Safady ) .
As chance encounters with the girls increase interests and Jim begins to pursue them , he has disturbing visions during the rides , such as the evil faces of audio @-@ animatronic characters and his family talking badly . After fighting with Emily and springing from decision to take Elliot on Space Mountain ( which gives Elliot motion sickness ) to keep chasing after the French girls , Jim takes his daughter Sara ( Katelyn Rodriguez ) to the Magic Kingdom and keeps tracking the girls , while his wife and son return to the hotel . Later , the son of a wheelchair @-@ bound man , whom Jim spotted earlier , shoves Sara , who scrapes her knee . Jim takes her to the park nurse , who while treating his daughter , seems extremely unsettled by the " cat flu " apparently spreading among the parks ' patrons , noting " You could be a host and not even know it . " Jim and Sara meet a mysterious woman with a glimmering amulet necklace which hypnotizes Jim . He blacks out and regains consciousness mid @-@ coitus with the woman in her room . Afterwards , she claims that the parks ' wholesome , costumed princesses are actually part of a secret prostitution ring that services " rich Asian businessmen " . Increasingly unnerved , he makes an awkward exit with Sara and eventually joins his wife and son at the pool , where he sees the French girls . He swims closer to converse with them , but his wife sees and berates him .
His family returns to Epcot , where the tension between Jim and Emily comes to a head after a drunk Jim vomits while on the Gran Fiesta Tour . Spotting the French girls , Emily argues with Jim about his obvious interest in them and slaps Sara . Embarrassed , she returns to the hotel with Elliot , leaving Jim and Sara to ride on the Soarin ' attraction , where Jim imagines a beautiful topless woman ( Zan Naar ) superimposed over the ride 's video footage of landscapes , who promises they will be together soon . After the ride and spotting the French girls once again , Sophie approaches and invites Jim to come with them , but he refuses after having a brief vision of Spaceship Earth crumbling and exploding . After Sophie spits on Jim 's face and she
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decades of his life .
Hollywood executive Sherry Lansing , a close friend of Aubrey 's for two decades , told the Los Angeles Times in 1986 :
Jim is different . He does his own dirty work . Jim is one of those people who are willing to say , " I didn 't like your movie . " Directness is disarming to people who are used to sugar @-@ coating . It 's tough for people who need approval to see somebody who doesn 't . Myths and legends begin to surround that kind of person .
= = Early years = =
Born in LaSalle , Illinois , James Thomas Steven Aubrey was the eldest of four sons of James Thomas Aubrey , Sr. , an advertising executive with the Chicago firm of Aubrey , Moore , and Wallace ; and his wife , the former Mildred Stever . He grew up in the affluent Chicago suburb of Lake Forest and attended Lake Forest Academy , Phillips Exeter Academy in Exeter , New Hampshire , and Princeton University . All four boys , James , Stever , David , and George , went to Lake Forest Academy , Exeter and Princeton ; his brother Stever became a successful advertising man at J. Walter Thompson before heading the F. William Free agency . While at Princeton all four brothers were members of the Tiger Inn eating club . " My father insisted on accomplishment , " Aubrey recalled in 1986 . In college , Aubrey was a star on the football team , playing left end . He graduated in 1941 with honors in English and entered the United States Army Air Forces . During his service in World War II , Aubrey rose to the rank of major and taught military flying to actor James Stewart , who was a licensed civilian pilot .
While stationed in southern California , he met Phyllis Thaxter ( born November 20 , 1921 ) , an actress signed to MGM , whom he married in November 1944 . Thaxter 's first role was as Ted Lawson 's wife in Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo ( 1944 ) , and her final film was as Martha , in the 1978 Superman . They had two children , Susan Schuyler " Skye " Aubrey ( born c . 1946 ) and James Watson Aubrey ( born c . 1953 ) . The marriage ended in divorce in 1962 .
Aubrey was " 6 @-@ foot 2 @-@ inch with an incandescent smile " with " unrevealing polar blue eyes , " said The New York Times Magazine in 1964 . The next year Life Magazine described him as " youthful , handsome , brainy , with an incandescent smile , a quiet , somewhat salty wit and , when he cared to turn it on , considerable charm . He was always fastidiously turned out , from his Jerry the Barber haircut to his CBS @-@ eye cuff links . " One producer said , " Aubrey is one of the most insatiably curious guys I know . "
= = = Enters broadcasting in radio = = =
After Aubrey was discharged from the Air Force , he stayed in southern California ; before his marriage , he intended to return to Chicago . In Los Angeles , he sold advertising for the Street & Smith and Condé Nast magazine companies . His first broadcasting job was as a salesman at the CBS radio station in Los Angeles , KNX , and soon went to the network 's new television station , KNXT . Within two years Aubrey had risen to be the network 's West Coast television programming chief . There he met Hunt Stromberg Jr . , and they developed the popular western Have Gun , Will Travel . They sent their idea to the network 's chief of programming , Hubbell Robinson , and as Oulahan and Lambert put it , " the rest is TV history . " Aubrey was promoted to manager of all television network programs , based in California , until he went to ABC in 1956 .
= = = Goes to ABC = = =
On December 16 , 1956 , American Broadcasting Company president Oliver E. Treyz announced Aubrey would immediately become the network 's head of programming and talent . ABC , the weakest of the three networks , was a perennial also @-@ ran with a weak roster of affiliates and programs , something comparable to the early days of the Fox Network . Aubrey later said " at that time , there was no ABC . The headquarters was an old riding stable . But I went because [ ABC chairman ] Leonard Goldenson in effect said , ' Look , I don 't know that much about TV , I 'm a lawyer . ' And he let me have autonomy . "
As vice president in charge of programs ( a title he gained before March 1957 ) , he brought to the air what he recalled as " wild , sexy , lively stuff , things that had never been done before , " shows such as Maverick , a western with James Garner , and 77 Sunset Strip , a detective show with Efrem Zimbalist Jr . ( However , by the time Strip went on the air in October 1958 , Aubrey had already left the network . ) Oulahan and Lambert said Aubrey scheduled " one lucrative show after another ... and for the first time the third network became a serious challenge to NBC and CBS . " Among the successes he scheduled were The Donna Reed Show , a domestic comedy ; The Rifleman , a western with Chuck Connors ; and The Real McCoys , a rural comedy with Walter Brennan and Richard Crenna .
= = CBS = =
Despite his success at ABC , Aubrey saw a limited future at the network and asked to return to CBS , doing so on April 28 , 1958 , initially as assistant to Frank Stanton , president of CBS , Inc . , the holding company which owned the network . ( Thomas W. Moore would take his ABC job . ) Aubrey was made vice president for creative services in April 1959 , replacing Louis G. Cowan , whom CBS promoted to network president .
Aubrey was named executive vice president on June 1 , 1959 , a newly created post that was the number @-@ two official at the network . His responsibilities encompassed general supervision of all departments of the CBS Television Network . On December 8 , 1959 , Cowan resigned , having been damaged from his connection to the quiz show scandals . ( He created the show The $ 64 @,@ 000 Question and owned the company which produced it for the network , though Cowan denied he knew anything about the rigging of the program . ) Cowan 's letter of resignation to Stanton declared , " you have made it impossible for me to continue . " Aubrey was named president the same day and elected to the board of directors on December 9 , 1959 .
= = = Named president = = =
Aubrey was president of the CBS Network for the next five years , and made it tremendously successful , substantially increasing ratings and doubling the company 's profits . In the 1963 – 64 season , all twelve of the top daytime programs and fourteen of the top fifteen prime @-@ time shows were on CBS – the lone evening exception was NBC 's Bonanza , ranked number two . After he was fired , journalists Richard Oulahan and William Lambert wrote in a Life Magazine profile :
In the long history of human communications , from tom @-@ tom to Telstar , no one man ever had a lock on such enormous audiences as James Thomas Aubrey , Jr. during his five @-@ year tenure as head of the Columbia Broadcasting System 's television network ... He was the world 's No. 1 purveyor of entertainment .
= = = Aubrey 's formula = = =
His formula was characterized by a CBS executive as " broads , bosoms , and fun , " resulting in such shows as The Beverly Hillbillies and Gilligan 's Island , despised by the critics – and CBS chairman William S. Paley – but extremely popular with viewers . While Aubrey had a great feel for what would be successful with viewers , he had nothing but contempt for them . " The American public is something I fly over , " he said . His former boss at ABC , Oliver E. Treyz , said at programming " Jim Aubrey was one of the most effective ever , from the standpoint of delivering what the public wanted and making money . He was the best program judge in the business . "
Aubrey said in 1986 of Paley and his programming choices :
I 'd gone to CBS , and I 'd become convinced Beverly Hillbillies was going to work . Bill Paley wasn 't convinced . Bill has this great sense of propriety . Putting aside the Sarnoffs and all the other great names of broadcasting , Paley stood – stands – head and shoulders above everyone else . He had this blasting genius of instinctively looking at a show and knowing if it should be on the air . He could also be ruthless and distant ... But Bill was intuitive about both the business and creative sides of TV . And he genuinely disliked Beverly Hillbillies . I put it on the schedule anyway .
" The hucksters ' huckster , " David Halberstam labeled him , " whose greatest legacy to television was a program called The Beverly Hillbillies , a series so demented and tasteless that it boggles the mind " Columnist Murray Kempton described The Beverly Hillbillies as , " a confrontation of the characters of John Steinbeck with the environment of Spyros Skouras , " the extravagant chairman of Twentieth Century Fox . But regardless of what anyone said about Hillbillies , the public loved it . The Nielsen ratings showed 57 million were watching the show – one in three Americans .
When Skouras was forced out of Fox by the company 's board of directors in July 1962 , Aubrey was widely mentioned to be his successor , but he openly denied he had any intention of leaving CBS .
Another part of Aubrey 's formula was making sure that the commercial interests of CBS 's sponsors were kept foremost in their minds . In 1960 he elaborated on this idea more when he told The Office of Network Study :
" There is relatively little that is incompatible between our objectives and the objectives of the advertisers .... Before sponsorship of a program series commences there is often a meeting between production personnel and representatives of the advertiser at which time the general areas of the advertiser 's interest and general attitudes are discussed . A breakfast food advertiser may , for example , wish to make sure the programs do not contain elements that make breakfast distasteful . A cigarette manufacturer would not wish to have cigarette smoking depicted in an unattractive manner . Normally , as long as these considerations do not limit creativity , they will be adhered to . "
= = = Influence on the competition = = =
CBS 's dominance was so great that when the fall schedules were announced , ABC and NBC would wait until CBS announced its plans before making their own announcements , effectively making Aubrey programmer for all three networks . CBS had great success with rural @-@ themed programs such as the Hillbillies , The Andy Griffith Show , Mister Ed , Green Acres , and Petticoat Junction . Yet another CBS hit Paley hated was The Munsters , part of a trend of fantasy shows at the time that included CBS 's My Favorite Martian and Gilligan 's Island . Aubrey 's " unwritten code " for programs was described in Life :
Feed the public little more than rural comedies , fast @-@ moving detective dramas and , later , sexy dolls . No old people ; the emphasis was on youth . No domestic servants , the mass audience wouldn 't identify with maids . No serious problems to cope with . Every script had to be full of action . No physical infirmities .
Life acknowledged there were exceptions , such as The Defenders with E.G. Marshall and Robert Reed as socially conscious attorneys , and quoted Aubrey 's defense to charges of pandering to the public . " I felt that we had an obligation to reach the vast majority of most of the people , " he said . " We made an effort to continue purposeful drama on TV , but we found out that people just don 't want an anthology . They would rather tune in on Lucy . "
In 1962 , a United States Senate committee investigating juvenile delinquency held hearings on sex on television and called executives from the three networks . The chairman , Senator Thomas J. Dodd ( D @-@ Connecticut ) , blasted " an unmistakable pattern " and informed the executives " you all seem to use the same terminology – to think alike – and to jam this stuff down the people 's throat . " Dodd accused Aubrey of putting " prurient sex " in the CBS program Route 66 to boost ratings , and confronted him with the " bosoms , broads , and fun " quotation from a memorandum by CBS executive Howard G. Barnes following a meeting with the program 's producers . Aubrey denied saying the phrase . He said that people in the business often shorthanded " wholesome , pretty girls " as " broads " , and " attractive " as " bosoms " . Another memo summarizing the same meeting , written by Screen Gems executive William Dozier , read as follows : " There is not enough sex in the programs . Neither lead has gotten involved even for a single episode with the normal wants of a young man , namely to get involved with a girl or even to kiss her . "
= = = " The Smiling Cobra " = = =
Aubrey was a controlling man and a workaholic , putting in twelve @-@ hour days six days a week . He endlessly read scripts , screened episodes , and ordered reshoots or changes made in the furniture and dressing of a set . Murray Kempton wrote that he would see six movies every weekend and read three books on transcontinental flights . Kempton quoted a CBS executive saying :
He read everything . Like he saw every movie . But he had the smallest world there could be . He 'd watch a movie and , while everyone else was involved in the story , he 'd say out loud " that kid could be the lead in a television program . " He read everything sure . All the new fiction . What he didn 't like was Bellow , Updike , Cheever , Salinger , Capote , and Mailer . He didn 't know how to use them .
Kempton claimed Aubrey :
[ He ] was the fourth president of CBS @-@ TV as Caligula was the fourth of the twelve Caesars . Each carried the logic of his imperial authority as far as it could go . Each was deposed and disappeared suddenly leaving bad press behind him .
Oulahan and Lambert claimed " Aubrey exercised his tremendous power with the canny skill and the ruthlessness of a Tatar khan . " Aubrey 's treachery led the producer John Houseman in 1959 to dub him " The Smiling Cobra . " Houseman in public was less direct . In December 1962 , CBS announced it was spending $ 250 @,@ 000 an episode on Houseman 's hour @-@ long drama on American history for the next season , The Great Adventure , but on July 25 , 1963 , CBS announced Houseman had resigned . The producer told The New York Times " The kind of show they want is not what I wanted to produce " but attributed his departure to a simple difference of opinion , the Times reporter stating Houseman " expressed no criticism of CBS . " ( The show ran for one season , 1963 – 64 . )
In Only You , Dick Daring ! , his humorous yet damning account of the five and a half months he spent trying to make a show with CBS for the 1963 – 64 season based on an idea of Aubrey 's about a county agent , writer Merle Miller described how Aubrey would simply walk out of meetings without offering any substantive comments on Miller 's program and the nineteen rewrites he did of the pilot episode . Miller was assured by other CBS executives that Aubrey 's silence meant things were fine – Kempton quoted a CBS producer telling Miller " this has nothing to do with a good script or a bad script . It has to do with pleasing one man , Jim Aubrey . Don 't ever forget it " – and Miller later learned of efforts by Aubrey to force him out . ( A pilot for the show , known as Calhoun and County Agent , to star Jackie Cooper and Barbara Stanwyck , was shot and put on the fall schedule , but the series was canceled before it ever aired . ) Miller quoted an independent producer : " Aubrey 's the most important man in television , in the history of television , maybe in the history of entertainment . He out @-@ Mayers Louis B. Mayer ten times over . "
= = = Abrasive toward many = = =
Aubrey 's success seemed to have gone to his head and he became even more arrogant . He was abusive to the network 's affiliates , advertisers , producers , and talent . Friends of Aubrey 's such as producers Dick Dorso of United Artists , Martin Ransohoff of Filmways , and David Susskind , who had each sold several series to CBS , suddenly found themselves shut out . " He 's a friend of mine , but he cut me stone cold last year , " Susskind said . " I was hanging there with my pants down , wondering what I 'd tell the stockholders . " Gossip columnist Liz Smith , who worked as CBS during Aubrey 's time there , called him a " a mean , hateful , truly scary , bad , outré guy . "
Garry Moore , a popular personality in the 1950s , wanted to make a comeback on CBS , but Aubrey casually dismissed him : " Not a chance . " ( Moore finally got his chance , long after Aubrey left the network , in the fall of 1966 , with a short @-@ lived revival of his weekly variety series ) . John Frankenheimer , critically acclaimed as the number one director of live TV dramas during the 1950s , was shown the exit door by Aubrey in 1960 . Frankenheimer was forced to find a new career as a movie director ( for which he is now arguably best known ) , although he had wanted to continue in television . In 1996 , during a personal appearance at the Museum of Television & Radio , Frankenheimer described Aubrey as " a barbarian . "
The star of CBS 's The Lucy Show had problems with Aubrey . " Lucille Ball couldn 't say his name without calling him an S.O.B. , " Stanton said – though Kempton quoted her after Aubrey 's firing as saying " he was the smartest one up there . " Aubrey fought with Red Skelton , Danny Thomas , Judy Garland and Arthur Godfrey as well . The treatment of Jack Benny was typical .
Aubrey first rescheduled Benny 's long @-@ running series without consulting the star . Benny , a good friend of Paley 's since he lured the comedian to CBS in 1948 , objected to his new lead @-@ in on Tuesdays for the 1963 – 64 season , Petticoat Junction , instead of the previous season 's The Red Skelton Hour . Then in the summer of 1963 , Aubrey told Benny his show would not be renewed at the end of the forthcoming season , Aubrey having decided that Benny was out of step with current tastes and no longer relevant . " You 're through , old man . " Aubrey told the star . Benny took his show to NBC , his home before 1948 , where it was cancelled after only one season , proving Aubrey 's point if not his tactics .
= = = Favoritism alleged = = =
There were charges of favoritism in purchasing programs . Aubrey 's friend Keefe Brasselle , who had bit parts in several movies in the 1940s and 1950s and met Aubrey when they both worked at KNXT , had no experience as a producer . " A 1965 edition of George Raft , " said David Susskind , particularly apt as there were also rumors Brasselle had ties to the Mafia . Nevertheless , Aubrey scheduled three shows from Brasselle 's Richelieu Productions for the 1964 – 65 season , all without pilots , still an almost unheard @-@ of practice . ( The shows were The Baileys of Balboa , a sitcom with Paul Ford ; the newspaper drama The Reporter ; and The Cara Williams Show , a sitcom starring red @-@ head Williams , billed as the next Lucille Ball . ) Brasselle would personally supervise The Reporter , shot in New York City . Costs skyrocketed on Brasselle 's shows – after nine episodes , The Reporter was $ 450 @,@ 000 over budget – and all three bombed – The Reporter running only three months , Baileys until April 1965 ; and Cara Williams finishing the season . Aubrey was later asked why he aired three untested programs . " Arrogance , I guess " he responded . In his book The Other Glass Teat , media critic Harlan Ellison alleges that a Mafia don had put out a contract on Aubrey for beating his daughter during consensual sex at a Las Vegas , Nevada hotel , and that Brasselle demanded the shows in exchange for his using his own Mafia connections to smooth things over .
But , as his critics acknowledged , Aubrey could be charming and go to great lengths to please talent . To keep Jackie Gleason happy when he moved his show from New York City to Miami Beach in 1963 , Aubrey had CBS buy Gleason 's futuristic home in Peekskill , New York – The New York Times called it " a flying @-@ saucer like cabana " – for $ 350 @,@ 000 . The network was still trying to sell it years later .
= = = News and sports = = =
Aubrey , who on May 9 , 1963 , warned the network 's affiliates the high cost of rights for professional sports could price them off television , nevertheless in January 1964 agreed to pay $ 28 @.@ 2 million to air the games of the National Football League for two years , seventeen games each season . " We know how much these games mean to the viewing audience , our affiliated stations , and the nation 's advertisers , " Aubrey told The New York Times . In April , he agreed to extend the deal for another year for a total of $ 31 @.@ 8 million .
In the spring of 1964 , The New York Times Magazine declared CBS " for the 10th year in a row ... was the undisputed champion of the television networks . " The Times quoted an analyst who said CBS was " almost comparable to what General Motors did in autos or what General Electric [ did ] in electrical equipment . "
Aubrey fought constantly with officials of CBS News , especially its chief , Fred W. Friendly , who was just as demanding and controlling as Aubrey . Friendly felt Aubrey was insufficiently concerned with public affairs and in his memoir , Due to Circumstances Beyond Our Control , recounts one budget meeting at CBS when Aubrey talked at length of how much money the news was costing the company , a sea of red ink that could be stopped by replacing news with more entertainment programs . However , Paley supported the news and protected Friendly 's division from Aubrey 's proposed budget cuts . Aubrey in 1962 ordered that there would be fewer specials , both entertainment and news , because he felt interruptions to the schedule alienated viewers by disrupting their routine viewing , sending them to the competition . Friendly resented this move .
That fall , CBS Reports , a news / documentary program at 7 : 30 ( et ) on Wednesdays , was blamed in the press for the sharp drop off in the ratings of The Beverly Hillbillies – the comedy had been number one in its first two seasons , but dropped to eighteenth when CBS Reports became the Hillbillies lead @-@ in for its third season . ( Hillbillies had aired at nine o 'clock before moving up a half hour in 1964 . ) CBS responded by moving CBS Reports to Mondays .
= = = Dismissal = = =
In the spring of 1964 , charges were printed in the April 16 issue of Close @-@ Up , a celebrity tabloid , which claimed Aubrey was taking kickbacks from producers . The Federal Communications Commission made inquiries , and CBS learned that despite his $ 264 @,@ 000 annual salary from the company , Aubrey 's apartment on Manhattan 's Central Park South was owned by Martin Ransohoff , the head of Filmways , the producer of the Hillbillies , Petticoat Junction , Mister Ed , and other CBS programs . And though he had a chauffeur @-@ driven car paid for by the network , Brasselle 's Richelieu Productions was paying for another chauffeured car for Aubrey , done so Paley and Stanton would not know what Aubrey was doing after hours . CBS had not known of either the apartment or the car . The company was also concerned about the money spent to buy Gleason 's former home .
In late 1964 , Aubrey approached Stanton with a proposal . Claiming he had investors lined @-@ up and ready to buy the company , Aubrey said once in control , they would fire Paley , install Stanton as chairman , and promote Aubrey to Stanton 's post , CBS corporate president . This did not come to pass , but Aubrey 's contempt for Paley knew no bounds , Aubrey even showing his disregard for Paley in public . The Internal Revenue Service filing a tax lien against Aubrey for $ 38 @,@ 047 @.@ 93 was another irritant for Paley . Aubrey also seemed to have lost his touch , the early ratings for the 1964 – 65 season showing the new shows that fall were flops . Aubrey panicked , noted Life , and " by that time Paley had made his decision to fire Aubrey , though he had yet found no plausible excuse . "
" Aubrey was torpedoed at last , " wrote The New York Times Magazine , " by a combination of his imperiousness , the ratings drop , and a vivid afterhours life culminating in a raucous Miami Beach party – details of which no one ever agrees on – the weekend he was fired . " ( Aubrey had been in Florida for Jackie Gleason 's forty @-@ ninth birthday party . )
" I don 't pretend to be any saint . If anyone wants to indict me for liking pretty girls , I 'm guilty , " Aubrey said at the time , one factor in his divorce in 1962 , which freed him to , " live the high life around New York , Hollywood , Miami , and in Europe with such companions as Judy Garland , Julie Newmar , Rhonda Fleming – and with other dolls who were only faces and figures , not names . His late dates and early morning parties were the talk of several towns . "
Paley ordered Stanton to fire Aubrey , and he did so on February 27 , 1965 , though the announcement was delayed until the following afternoon , a Sunday . Stanton 's statement declared :
Jim Aubrey 's outstanding accomplishment during his tenure as head of the C.B.S. television network need no elaboration . His extraordinary record speaks for itself .
In 1986 , Paul Rosenfield of the Los Angeles Times wrote :
There are at least 13 @,@ 000 theories on why he got the ax , some of them lurid , but none as obvious as the fact that CBS was starting to slip in the Nielsens . " And there was a basic dissatisfaction with me , " as he put it . If Aubrey understood ratings and revenue , he also was no stranger to a kind of after @-@ hours recklessness that mirrored the Camelot of its day . Nobody questions that Jungle Jim had a good time in the playgrounds of Manhattan and Hollywood .
Rosenfield also claimed " for years gossip columnists had to bite their tongues because the fodder on Aubrey was so tempting , but mostly unprintable . How much was hearsay and how much was fiction is not clear . " Aubrey 's successor was announced as John A. Schneider , the general manager of WCBS @-@ TV in New York City , who had no experience in network television . Aubrey was so despondent at losing his job Stanton feared he would kill himself . Wall Street took the news badly as well : CBS stock plunged nine points over the following week . The stock tumble " puts my net value to the network at $ 20 million , " Aubrey noted . Aubrey continued to be a CBS employee until April 20 .
Jack Gould , television critic for The New York Times , wrote two days after Aubrey 's dismissal that Aubrey
symbolized an era in television that has been and is too much rooted in calculated and insensitive preoccupation with making more money this year than last ... Automated situation comedies that wooed the young and did not drive away the old were the mainstay of his philosophy and they paid off .
= = The interregnum = =
Aubrey , who left CBS with $ 2 @.@ 5 million in network stock , moved to the Sunset Strip and set up a production company , The Aubrey Company . His attorney , Gregson E. Bautzer , in 1967 tried to buy the American Broadcasting Company for another client , the Las Vegas @-@ based millionaire Howard Hughes . Aubrey was to have run ABC after the takeover , but the reclusive Hughes refused to testify in person at hearings before the Federal Communications Commission , which had to approve the purchase , and the deal collapsed .
Aubrey 's outsize reputation – beaming smile , dapper dress , endless womanizing – and his dramatic exit from CBS inspired characters in three novels . His former friend Keefe Brasselle wrote The CanniBalS : A Novel About Television 's Savage Chieftains ( 1968 ) , the title of which had very unsubtle capitalization and was , in Nora Ephron 's assessment , " unreadable . " Harold Robbins 's The Inheritors ( 1969 ) and Jacqueline Susann 's The Love Machine ( 1969 ) also contained characters based on him . In Susann 's book , Aubrey is network executive Robin Stone . Paul Rosenfield said Aubrey had " quietly cooperated " with Susann , " giving her background on TV , " although Susann 's husband , Irving Mansfield , had been a busy TV producer himself , before switching to managing his wife 's career full @-@ time . Susann said Aubrey , her neighbor , was " one of those people who are born to run the works . A natural for a novel . "
In June 1967 , Aubrey agreed to a two @-@ year contract to produce films for Columbia Pictures . Despite being frequently rumored as a candidate for many posts in the entertainment industry , Aubrey told Vincent Canby of The New York Times he had " no desire ever again to become involved in the corporate side of the entertainment business " and had been , in Canby 's words , " dabbling in a number of enterprises , including the acquisition of films for TV , real estate , and cultured pearls . " In 1965 , Oulahan and Lambert had noted he had " extensive investments in everything from copper mines to a chain of waffle shops . " His first project for Columbia was to be an adaptation of a Patricia Highsmith book , Those Who Walk Away . " The criteria is profitable entertainment , " he told Canby . Before the deal collapsed on January 1 , 1968 , Aubrey had been rumored to be the leading candidate to be hired as ABC television entertainment chief if International Telephone and Telegraph 's takeover of ABC , which was announced in March 1966 , had been completed .
= = Picked to run MGM = =
Aubrey resurfaced in 1969 when Las Vegas businessman Kirk Kerkorian took control of the Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer studio for the first time , ousting Canadian liquor magnate Edgar M. Bronfman , who had gained control earlier that year . Aubrey 's attorney Gregson E. Bautzer also represented Kerkorian , and Bautzer recommended Aubrey for the MGM post . Aubrey , announced as MGM president on October 21 , 1969 , was Kerkorian 's third choice after Herb Jaffe of United Artists and independent producer Mike Frankovich both declined the post , while producer Ray Stark was also considered . Aubrey replaced the fired Louis F. Polk , Jr . , who had been MGM president only since January 14 , 1969 . Aubrey was the studio 's third president that year . Polk told The New York Times , " no one likes to leave a job unfinished , " and said he had started much @-@ needed reforms at the studio , which suffered a $ 35 million loss in the fiscal year ending August 31 , 1969 .
Aubrey received a salary of $ 4 @,@ 000 a week , but had no contract . He said in 1986 , " I wanted Kirk to be able to say , ' Get lost , Jim , ' without obligation if it didn 't work . " Like most of the big studios in the 1960s , MGM was struggling and Kerkorian said his new president would bring the company roaring back to its former glory . Instead , Aubrey largely liquidated the company as Kerkorian transformed it into a hospitality company with the MGM Grand Hotel he was building . " We 've been using old @-@ fashioned methods here , " Aubrey said at the time . In 1986 , he said the company was " total disarray . Until you were in a position to lift up the rug , there was no way to know how much disarray . The crown jewel of studios had become a shambles . "
Within days of his hiring , twelve films were canceled because of financial issues , among them director Fred Zinnemann 's Man 's Fate , days from starting principal photography .
= = = Restructures the company = = =
Aubrey eliminated hundreds of jobs when he relocated corporate headquarters from New York City to Culver City to be closer to production facilities , a move which was announced on April 29 , 1970 . Aubrey ordered the sale of MGM 's historic collection of costumes and props such as the Ruby Slippers worn by Judy Garland in The Wizard of Oz and the suit Spencer Tracy wore in Inherit the Wind . ( It was bought by one of the defense attorneys defending Charles Manson , who regularly wore it to court . ) The studio 's camera department was auctioned . Most of the studio 's Culver City backlot and its 2 @,@ 000 acre ( 8 km ² ) ranch in the Conejo Valley were sold to developers , moves already planned under Polk . Aubrey literally threw the company 's valuable archives into the trash and brought production to a standstill . Composer and conductor André Previn , in his memoir , No Minor Chords . My Days in Hollywood , describes how Aubrey had MGM 's collection of film music manuscripts discarded into the trash . [ citation needed ] Aubrey was criticized for these actions . In 1986 , he recalled , " the buck had to stop somewhere , and it was with me . Nostalgia runs strong out here , so we were criticized for selling Judy Garland 's red shoes . To us they had no value , and they had no intrinsic value . "
These moves were effective in restoring the company 's finances . In his first nine months on the job , he cut MGM 's debt by $ 27 million , nearly one @-@ quarter the total , and the company posted profits of $ 540 @,@ 000 for those nine months compared to a $ 18 @,@ 372 @,@ 000 loss in the comparable period in the preceding fiscal year .
= = = Changing tastes = = =
Losses were so great because Polk wrote off as total losses many films made under his predecessors ; the company posted a $ 35 @,@ 366 @,@ 000 loss in the fiscal year ending August 31 , 1969 . " Basically what we 're really concentrating on at the moment is to really streamline this operation . There isn 't much else to do when you 're losing as much money as we are , " Aubrey told The New York Times in December 1969 . Aubrey said , " we have determined that we 're not going to continue to produce on the basis of forty acres and acres and acres of standing sets . Young people who are the major movie audience today , refer to that as the plastic world and that is almost a deterrent in the business today . "
Aubrey announced plans for faster and cheaper movies , none of which would have a budget above $ 1 million , but many of these inexpensive films bombed with critics and audiences . One notable success was the Richard Roundtree film Shaft , which cost $ 1 million and grossed around $ 12 million at the box office . Agent Sue Mengers said he was a very tough dealmaker . " I 'd rather go to bed with him than negotiate with him . " Upon assuming his MGM post , Aubrey almost immediately canceled production on two Julie Andrews pictures , She Loves Me and Say It With Music , the late 1960s fad for musicals having ended . He also clashed with David Lean , whose production of Ryan 's Daughter was running overbudget , in early 1970 , attempting to cancel or at least scale down the film ; but Lean held too much sway for Aubrey 's actions to have any effect .
= = = Return to profitability = = =
In the first half of fiscal 1970 , the company had profits of $ 6 @,@ 531 @,@ 000 despite sizable write @-@ offs . The company had significantly cut its operating losses from $ 6 @,@ 547 @,@ 000 to $ 1 @,@ 594 @,@ 000 . Aubrey told the press in April 1970 the company would have made money if not for four films : Herbert Ross 's musical version of James Hilton 's novel Goodbye , Mr. Chips starring Peter O 'Toole and Petula Clark ; Michelangelo Antonioni 's Zabriskie Point , a film Pauline Kael called " a huge , jerry @-@ built crumbling ruin of a movie " ; the adventure Captain Nemo and the Underwater City with Robert Ryan and Chuck Connors ; and Sidney Lumet 's The Appointment with Omar Sharif , Anouk Aimée , and Lotte Lenya . These four pictures cost almost $ 20 million to produce and had they broken even the company would have been profitable . In The New York Times , Vincent Canby noted that same month " the fickle tastes of the movie @-@ going audience have made a large part of [ studios ' film ] inventory obsolete . "
By the end of the fiscal year , the company had made $ 1 @,@ 573 @,@ 000 in profits ; a remarkable turnaround for a company which posted a $ 35 million loss one year before . In January 1971 , Aubrey declared , " we are pleased that the company has been turned around . Through the policies of this management , including a complete reorganization , substantial economies , consolidation of operations and through better performance of recent films , we have been able to operate substantially in the black . "
That same month , Aubrey announced the company was in merger talks with Twentieth Century Fox , days after Fox fired its top executives , Richard D. Zanuck and David Brown . Two weeks later he announced the talks had ended . However , Darryl F. Zanuck , chairman and CEO of Fox , publicly denied any negotiations . " There have not been and are not now and are not scheduled for the future any discussions concerning a merger or any other type of combination between our two companies , " he told the press .
= = = Hands @-@ on = = =
Aubrey again took a hands @-@ on approach to MGM 's products , personally ordering cuts on films . The New York Times Magazine wrote , " Aubrey 's heavy involvement with every creative detail of MGM 's pictures far surpassed his immersal in CBS 's scripts . " After he made edits to the film Going Home starring Robert Mitchum , its director , Herbert B. Leonard , protested publicly . " He unilaterally and arbitrarily raped the picture , " he told Time in 1971 . Director Blake Edwards was incensed by changes Aubrey made to his film The Wild Rovers with William Holden , telling The New York Times Magazine , " Cuts ? He doesn 't know as much as a first @-@ year cinema student . He cut the heart right out of it . " Television producer Bruce Geller , who created Mission : Impossible , had his name removed from the credits of his first film , Corky , because " It 's not my picture any more . " The producer of the film Chandler , Michael S. Laughlin , and its director , Paul Magwood , took out a full page ad , bordered in black , in the trade papers declaring :
Regarding what was our film Chandler , let 's give credit where credit is due . We sadly acknowledge that all editing , post @-@ production as well as additional scenes were executed by James T. Aubrey Jr . We are sorry .
Laughlin told Time Magazine , " You just can 't deal with Aubrey . He realizes that litigation can be a great expense , and that because of legal delays the film will have disappeared long before your case comes to court . "
Aubrey engaged in another infamous feud with Sam Peckinpah , who in 1973 began work on the Western Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid . Aubrey clashed with Peckinpah immediately , the two men 's notoriously difficult personalities leading to a long @-@ lasting feud . Aubrey slashed Peckinpah 's budget early in production , refusing to allow him to reshoot crucial footage , pushing back the release date to Memorial Day , and editing out nearly 20 minutes of the film . Editor Roger Spottiswoode said that " Aubrey was ordering scenes cut out for no other reason except he knew Sam didn 't want them cut . "
MGM had disagreements with the Motion Picture Association of America and its rating system for films , which had been instituted in 1968 . MGM resigned from the MPAA in 1971 over the issue of ratings and " exorbitant dues charges , " Aubrey said . In October 1971 , MGM announced that it was to build the world 's largest hotel in Las Vegas , what would become the MGM Grand Hotel , and was to enter the cruise @-@ ship business . The next month , the company announced fiscal 1971 profits of $ 16 @,@ 358 @,@ 000 , up sharply from the $ 1 @.@ 6 million in fiscal 1970 and the highest in a quarter century .
After four years at MGM , Aubrey announced his resignation , declaring , " The job I agreed to undertake has been accomplished . " Kerkorian was named as his successor on October 31 , 1973 . Time Magazine declared , " Under Aubrey , MGM churned out profitable , medium @-@ budget schlock like Skyjacked and Black Belly of the Tarantula ; directors often charged him with philistine meddling , and he alienated many of them " but " as a financial auteur , Aubrey may have deserved an Oscar . "
Aubrey and Sherry Lansing , who entered the movie business as a script reader at MGM under Aubrey , were struck by a car while crossing Wilshire Boulevard in the mid @-@ 1970s . Both were badly hurt and Lansing had to use crutches for a year and a half . Aubrey nursed her back to health . " He came every day . He would say , ' You 're not going to limp . ' My own mother and father couldn 't give me more support , " she told Variety in 2004 .
= = Final years = =
Aubrey became an independent producer after leaving MGM , producing ten films , none memorable . His greatest success was a 1979 television movie about the Dallas Cowboys Cheerleaders starring Jane Seymour – " broads , bosoms , and fun " once more . In the mid @-@ 1980s , he was chairman of Entermark , a production company which made low @-@ budget films and was backed by several wealthy Texans – including former Governor John Connally . " Our theory is that with today 's ancillary rights , there is real profit in a movie that costs $ 3 million . We don 't need to gross $ 40 million , or open on Christmas Day , " he said . To publicize this venture , he granted a rare interview to the Los Angeles Times in 1986 . Reporter Paul Rosenfield found him unrepentant :
Aubrey doesn 't deny that he shoots from the hip , in a style that can unhinge the fragile egos of show business . " If I was in the tire business , " reasoned Aubrey , " I wouldn 't be hurt if the customer didn 't buy my tires . I 'd think , ' So what ? ' But in my business , if I don 't buy the script , then the writer kicks the dog and beats his wife . So you learn to pay attention to personal relationships . But that doesn 't mean you lie to people . I 've been the screwer and the screwee , and I know which is better . It 's better to be the screwer , and it 's very difficult to do that with honesty , but it 's how I prefer to be treated . I don 't want power now , or authority , so I suppose my candor can 't hurt me .
Gossip columnist Liz Smith reported this profile of Aubrey had led to rumors he would again return to head CBS after Paley was forced out in 1986 when Laurence Tisch acquired the network . Aubrey worked as a consultant for Brandon Tartikoff during the 1980s , while Tartikoff worked to restore the reputation of NBC , but by the time of Aubrey 's death he had been largely forgotten .
= Stop Crying Your Heart Out =
" Stop Crying Your Heart Out " is a song by the English rock band Oasis . The song was written by Noel Gallagher and produced by Oasis . It was released on 17 May 2002 as the second single from the band 's fifth studio album , Heathen Chemistry ( 2002 ) . Liam Gallagher is the lead vocalist on the track , with Noel on backing vocals . The power ballad was heavily compared to the band 's previous single " Slide Away " . While some praised Noel 's ability to lighten the mood of his target audience , others felt that the song was disappointing and forgettable .
" Stop Crying Your Heart Out " debuted and peaked at number two on the UK Singles Chart and reached a peak of number six on the UK Indie Chart . It peaked at number one in Italy , and reached the top @-@ twenty in Belgium , Denmark , Finland and Norway . " Stop Crying Your Heart Out " was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) on 12 July 2002 , denoting shipments of over 200 @,@ 000 copies . British singer @-@ songwriter Leona Lewis recorded a cover version for her second studio album Echo ( 2009 ) . She performed her version on the sixth series finale of The X Factor , and it peaked at number 29 on the UK Singles Chart and number 11 on the UK R & B Chart .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Stop Crying Your Heart Out " was written solely by Noel Gallagher , and was produced by Oasis . Noel and his brother Liam are the lead vocalists on the track . The song was recorded at Wheeler End Studios and Olympic Studios in England , and was mixed by Mark Stent . It was engineered by David Treahearn , Jan " Stan " Kybert and Paul " P @-@ Dub " Walton . Several instrumentalists were used for the song 's melody , including Andy Bell as the bass player , Oasis drummer Alan White , Noel Gallagher and Gem Archer on guitar , and Mike Rowe on piano . " Stop Crying Your Heart Out " is a motivational power ballad which lasts for a duration of five minutes and five seconds , Its melodic structure bears strong resemblances to " Slide Away " , one of their songs from their debut studio album Definitely Maybe ( 1994 ) , while its hook is reminiscent of the chorus of their 1996 song " Don 't Look Back in Anger " . Liam Gallagher " croons " the lines " All of us stars / We 're fading away / Just try not to worry / You 'll see them some day " as an orchestra plays in the background . " Stop Crying Your Heart Out " was composed in the key of B minor using common time at 76 beats per minute .
= = Critical reception = =
Jason Fox for NME felt that " Stop Crying Your Heart Out " was Oasis 's return to the " long lost humanism " of their 1996 single " Don 't Look Back in Anger " , because of Noel Gallagher 's ability to lighten the mood of his audience when they are in need . He further wrote that the listener is transported back when " Don 't Look Back in Anger " was released . Simon Evans for musicOMH also compared the song to " Don 't Look Back in Anger " , writing that they have the same " defiance " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine for AllMusic was brief in his review of the song , simply writing that it is a " pretty good power ballad " . Evan Chakroff for Stylus Magazine wrote thought that the song was forgettable , adding that while writing his review of the album , he could not remember the melody of " Stop Crying Your Heart Out " . Victoria Segal for NME wrote a single review when it was released , and believed that it was difficult to take the song seriously . Segal wrote that it is a " disappointing " song that when " looked at in the sober light of day , it 's nothing but a lachrymose slur through the Big Noel Book Of Emotional Cliches and some truly shameless piano , but you just know that come closing time , it could make a breeze block cry " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Stop Crying Your Heart Out " debuted and peaked at number two on the UK Singles Chart on 29 June 2002 . The following week on 6 July , it fell two positions to number four , and again down to number 13 in its third week . It charted at number 23 and 28 in its fourth and fifth weeks , respectively . In 2009 , the song re @-@ entered the UK Singles Chart at number 71 on 14 November . It remained on the chart for a further week . In 2010 , it re @-@ entered the chart for a third time at number 50 on 9 October . On the UK Indie Chart , the song leaped from number 192 to number 30 on 10 October 2009 . The following week it rose to number nine , but fell to number 26 the week after . On 14 November 2009 , " Stop Crying Your Heart Out " rose from number 85 to number nine again . It feel to number 25 again the following week . On 26 December 2009 , it ascended from number 51 to a new peak of number six . On 2 January 2010 , it fell from number six to number 22 , but rose to number 18 the following week . " Stop Crying Your Heart Out " was certified Silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) on 12 July 2002 , denoting shipments of over 200 @,@ 000 copies .
In Europe , " Stop Crying Your Heart Out " debuted and peaked at number 41 on the Austrian Singles Chart on 7 July 2002 . It fell to number 45 in its second week , and to number 62 in its third . However , it ascended to number 56 in its fourth week . It psent a total of five consecutive weeks on the chart . In the Wallonia region of Belgium , the song peaked at number 13 on 3 August 2002 , remaining on the chart for three weeks , and re @-@ entered the chart for one week at number 44 on 26 February 2011 . The song charted for one week on the Danish Singles Chart at number 17 on 28 June 2002 . " Stop Crying Your Heart Out " debuted at number 11 in on the Finnish Singles Chart and fell to number 17 the following week . It peaked at number 48 on the German Singles Chart and at number six on the Irish Singles Chart . In Italy , the song debuted at number one on 20 June 2002 . It fell to number five in its second week , and to number 17 in its third week . It spent a total of nine weeks on the chart . In the Netherlands , it spent a total of two weeks on the chart : it debuted at number 76 on 6 July 2002 and rose by three positions to number 73 the following week . " Stop Crying Your Heart Out " peaked at number 23 on the Swedish Singles Chart and peaked at number 48 on the Swiss Singles Chart . In 2012 , the song debuted and peaked at number 135 on the French Singles Chart for one week . Outside of Europe , the song peaked at number 48 on the Australian Singles Chart .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Wheeler End and Olympic Studios , England .
Personnel
Songwriting – Noel Gallagher
Production – Oasis
Engineering – David Treahearn , Jan " Stan " Kybert , Paul " P @-@ Dub " Walton
Bass – Andy Bell
Drums – Alan White
Piano – Gem Archer
Guitar – Noel Gallagher
Mixing – Mark Stent
Vocals – Liam Gallagher , Noel Gallagher
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Heathen Chemistry .
= = Track listing = =
CD single / EP
" Stop Crying Your Heart Out " – 5 : 02
" Thank You for the Good Times " – 4 : 32
" Shout It Out Loud " – 4 : 20
DVD RKIDSDVD 24
" Stop Crying Your Heart Out " - 5 : 03
" Stop Crying Your Heart Out " ( demo ) - 5 : 09
10 Minutes of Noise and Confusion - pt two - 7 : 24
The demo version of " Stop Crying Your Heart Out " is sung by Noel .
The " 10 Minutes ... " documentary is the second part of a unique feature covering 48 hours on the road with Oasis during the Tour of Brotherly Love which took place in the US with the Black Crowes during May and June 2001 .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Yearly charts = = =
= = = Certifications = = =
= = Use in other media = =
The song was used as the ending theme for the 2004 film The Butterfly Effect . Also featured in " Maid of Honor "
= = Leona Lewis version = =
" Stop Crying Your Heart Out " is a cover song recorded by British singer @-@ songwriter Leona Lewis for her second studio album Echo ( 2009 ) . Originally written by Noel Gallagher of rock band Oasis , the song was produced by Lewis and Steve Robson . Lewis decided to cover the track as she is a fan of Oasis and rock bands in general , and she really liked the song 's sentiment . The strings were performed by London Session Orchestra , who were organised and arranged by Will Malone . The musical structure of the song is different from the conventional style which is normally used , as the song 's melody does not gain momentum until the end of the song instead of by the first chorus .
Her version of " Stop Crying Your Heart Out " garnered mostly negative reviews from music critics . Aside from comparisons to her previous singles " Bleeding Love " and her cover of Snow Patrol 's " Run " , reviewers felt as though she was too emotive and did not reflect the simplicity of the original . Although the arrangement of the song was criticised , Lewis 's vocal performance was highly praised . The song peaked at number 29 on the UK Singles Chart , number 11 on the UK R & B Chart and number 31 on the Irish Singles Chart . Lewis has performed the song live on the BBC Radio 2 show Live Sessions with Ken Bruce , MTV Unplugged and on the sixth series finale of The X Factor .
= = = Background and recording = = =
In an interview with Rick Edwards titled Under the Skin of Leona Lewis on 28 February 2010 for 4Music , Lewis revealed that she is a fan of Oasis and that " Stop Crying Your Heart Out " is a " great song " with a " beautiful sentiment behind it " . She continued to say herself and label boss Simon Cowell discussed the possibility of Lewis recording a discussed cover version . Lewis cited her reason for wishing to record her own version as being a " massive " fan of rock bands , and that she wanted to put a " different spin on it " . When asked the question of if she knew what Gallagher thought about her version , she replied saying that she had not spoken to them and that she did not know if they had listened to her version . Originally written solely by Gallagher , Lewis 's cover version was produced by Steve Robson . Both Robson and Lewis were the vocal producers on " Stop Crying Your Heart Out " . It was engineered by Richard Flack , who was assisted in the process by vocal engineer Seth Waldmann . It was mixed by Jeremy Wheatly at Twenty @-@ One Studios , located in London , England . A range of instrumentalists were bought in for the song ; Karl Brazil played the drums , while Luke Potashnick provided guitar . John Garrison played the bass and Robson the piano . The London Session Orchestra performed the strings on " Stop Crying Your Heart Out " and it was arranged by Will Malone , while the choir was organised and arranged by Lawrence Johnson . Background vocals were performed by Sara @-@ Jane Skeet and Beverly Skeet .
= = = Composition and critical reception = = =
" Stop Crying Your Heart Out " appears as the tenth track on Echo and lasts for a duration of four minutes and eight seconds . However , it is not included on the North American version of the album . The structure of the song is not conventional in its style , as most songs have gained momentum by the first chorus . However , Lewis 's version of " Stop Crying Your Heart Out " remains down @-@ tempo for the majority of the song . Andy Gill for The Independent noted that it does not possess the " rapidly acquiring melodramatic heft and momentum by the first refrain " .
Lewis 's version of " Stop Crying Your Heart Out " garnered mostly negative reviews from music critics . Nick Levine for Digital Spy complimented her version , writing that it is " as satisfying as a sponge pudding on a chilly winter evening " . Michael Cragg for musicOMH wrote that " Stop Crying Your Heart Out " is another song to be given the " Leona treatment " , and compared it to her cover of Snow Patrol 's " Run " , which she recorded for her inclusion on her debut studio album , Spirit . He felt that her cover of Oasis 's song appeared to serve as a " replacement " for covering Snow Patrol . He continued to criticise the production and vocal performance of Lewis 's version , writing " On this occasion the kitchen @-@ sink style production – stirring strings , acoustic strums , and inevitable appearance of a choir – feels hollow , like being aurally attacked by a ( admittedly very impressive ) karaoke singer " . As part of his review of Echo , Matthew Cole for Slant Magazine wrote that too much of the album is dominated by " thoughtless " ballads , which he highlighted in the form of " Don 't Let Me Down " and " Stop Crying Your Heart Out " . While he noted that Lewis gives a " technically unimpeachable " vocal performance , he wrote that it does not compensate for the " dull arrangement " and lack of emotion in her delivery . Andy Gill for The Independent described her cover as " sententious " . Neil McCormick for The Telegraph was critical of her decision to cover the song , writing that she is too emotive for the " direct and simple " lyrics , and concluded by saying that her version does not compare to Gallagher 's " raw @-@ thorated sincerity " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
Upon the release of Echo , " Stop Crying Your Heart Out " debuted at number 55 on the UK Singles Chart due to strong digital download sales on 28 November 2009 . Following Lewis 's performance on The X Factor finale , the song re @-@ entered the singles chart at number 29 on 26 December 2009 , rising 101 chart positions from the previous week . On 4 September 2010 , the song re @-@ entered the UK Singles Chart for a third time at number 63 . On 19 December 2009 , the song rose from number 41 to number 34 on the UK R & B Chart . The following week on 26 December , it ascended to number 11 . On 2 January 2010 , it fell to number 15 , and again to number 34 the next week . It remained inside the top 40 R & B chart for a further two weeks . The same week on the UK Download Chart , the song leaped from number 114 to number 27 for the chart issue dated 26 December 2009 . In Scotland , the song rose from number 74 to number 24 on 26 December 2009 . In the first week of 2010 , it feel to number 36 . In Ireland , the song debut and peaked at number 31 on 17 December 2009 . Over the following two weeks , it fell to number 33 , and again to number 48 before exiting the top 50 .
= = = Live performances = = =
On 3 December 2009 , Lewis performed her version on the BBC Radio 2 show Live Sessions with Ken Bruce , as part of a set list which also included " Bleeding Love " , " Better In Time " , " Happy " and " I Got You " . She performed an acoustic version of the song on MTV Unplugged in Germany . A reviewer for Neon Limelight felt that her acoustic performance lacked emotion and passion . The singer performed the song again on the sixth series finale of The X Factor in December 2009 . On 21 January 2010 , Lewis performed " Stop Crying Your Heart Out " and " I Got You " on BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge .
= = = Credits and personnel = = =
Recording
Mixed at Twenty @-@ One Studios , London .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Echo .
= = = Yearly charts = = =
= Metformin =
Metformin , marketed under the tradename Glucophage among others , is the first @-@ line medication for the treatment of type 2 diabetes . This is particularly true in people who are overweight . It is also used in the treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome . Limited evidence suggests metformin may prevent the cardiovascular disease and cancer complications of diabetes . It is not associated with weight gain . It is taken by mouth .
Metformin is generally well tolerated . Common side effects include diarrhea , nausea , and abdominal pain . It has a low risk of developing low blood sugar . High blood lactic acid levels is a concern if prescribed inappropriately and in overdose . It should not be used in those with liver disease or kidney problems . While there is no clear harm if used during pregnancy , insulin is generally preferred for gestational diabetes . Metformin is in the biguanide class . It works by decreasing glucose production by the liver and increasing the insulin sensitivity of body tissues .
Metformin was discovered in 1922 . Study in humans began in 1950s by French physician Jean Sterne . It was introduced as a medication in France in 1957 and the United States in 1995 . It is on the World Health Organization 's List of Essential Medicines , the most important medications needed in a basic healthcare system . Metformin is believed to be the most widely used medication for diabetes which is taken by mouth . It is available as a generic medication . The wholesale price in the developed world is between 0 @.@ 21 and 5 @.@ 55 USD per month as of 2014 . In the United States , it costs 5 to 25 USD per month .
= = Medical uses = =
Metformin is primarily used for type 2 diabetes , but is increasingly being used in polycystic ovary syndrome .
= = = Type 2 diabetes = = =
The American Diabetes Association recommends metformin as a first @-@ line agent to treat type 2 diabetes .
= = = = Efficacy = = = =
The UK Prospective Diabetes Study , a large clinical trial performed in 1980 @-@ 90s , provided evidence that metformin reduced the rate of adverse cardiovascular outcomes in overweight patients with type 2 diabetes relative to other antihyperglycemic agents . However , accumulated evidence from other and more recent trials has reduced confidence in the efficacy of metformin for cardiovascular disease prevention . Treatment guidelines for major professional associations including the European Association for the Study of Diabetes , the European Society for Cardiology , and the American Diabetes Association , now describe evidence for the cardiovascular benefits of metformin as equivocal . According to the American College of Physicians in 2012 , low @-@ quality evidence indicates metformin monotherapy is associated with lower cardiovascular mortality than sulfonylurea monotherapy and metformin monotherapy is associated with fewer cardiovascular events than metformin @-@ sulfonylurea combination therapy . Evidence for other comparisons is described as unclear . A 2014 review found tentative evidence that people treated with sulfonylureas have fewer non @-@ fatal cardiovascular events than those treated with metformin ( RR 0 @.@ 67 ) but a higher risk of severe low blood sugar events ( RR 5 @.@ 64 ) . There was not enough data available to determine the relative risk of death or of death from heart disease .
Metformin has little or no effect on body weight compared with placebo in type 2 diabetes , although it causes weight loss compared with sulfonylureas , since sulfonylureas are associated with weight gain . There is some limited evidence that metformin may be associated with weight loss in obesity in the absence of diabetes . Metformin has a lower risk of hypoglycemia than the sulfonylureas , although hypoglycemia has uncommonly occurred during intense exercise , calorie deficit , or when used with other agents to lower blood glucose . Metformin modestly reduces LDL and triglyceride levels .
= = = Prediabetes = = =
Metformin treatment of people at risk for type 2 diabetes may decrease their chances of developing the disease , although intensive physical exercise and dieting work significantly better for this purpose . In a large U.S. study known as the Diabetes Prevention Program , participants were divided into groups and given either placebo , metformin , or lifestyle intervention , and followed for an average of three years . The intensive program of lifestyle modifications included a 16 @-@ lesson training on dieting and exercise followed by monthly individualized sessions with the goals to decrease the body weight by 7 % and engage in a physical activity for at least 150 minutes per week . The incidence of diabetes was 58 % lower in the lifestyle group and 31 % lower in individuals given metformin . Among younger people with a higher body mass index , lifestyle modification was no more effective than metformin , and for older individuals with a lower body mass index , metformin was no better than placebo in preventing diabetes . After ten years , the incidence of diabetes was 34 % lower in the group of participants given diet and exercise and 18 % lower in those given metformin . It is unclear whether metformin slowed down the progression of prediabetes to diabetes ( true preventive effect ) , or the decrease of diabetes in the treated population was simply due to its glucose @-@ lowering action ( treatment effect ) .
= = = Polycystic ovary syndrome = = =
Antidiabetic therapy has been proposed as a treatment for polycystic ovary syndrome ( PCOS ) , a condition frequently associated with insulin resistance , since the late 1980s . The use of metformin in PCOS was first reported in 1994 , in a small study conducted at the University of the Andes , Venezuela . The United Kingdom 's National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence recommended in 2004 that women with PCOS and a body mass index above 25 be given metformin for anovulation and infertility when other therapies have failed to produce results . However , two clinical studies completed in 2006 – 2007 returned mostly negative results , with metformin being no better than placebo , and a metformin @-@ clomifene combination no better than clomifene alone . Reflecting this , subsequent reviews noted large randomized controlled trials have , in general , not shown the promise suggested by the early small studies . UK and international clinical practice guidelines do not recommend metformin as a first @-@ line treatment or do not recommend it at all , except for women with glucose intolerance . The guidelines suggest clomiphene as the first medication option and emphasize lifestyle modification independently from the drug treatment .
In a dissenting opinion , a systematic review of four head @-@ to @-@ head comparative trials of metformin and clomifene found them equally effective for infertility . Four positive studies of metformin were in women not responding to clomifene , while the population in the negative studies was drug @-@ naive or uncontrolled for the previous treatment . Metformin should be used as a second @-@ line drug if clomifene treatment fails . Another review recommended metformin unreservedly as a first @-@ line treatment option because it has positive effects not only on anovulation , but also on insulin resistance , hirsutism , and obesity often associated with PCOS . A Cochrane Collaboration review found metformin improves ovulation and pregnancy rates , particularly when combined with clomifene , but is not associated with any increase in the number of live births .
= = = Gestational diabetes = = =
Several observational studies and randomized , controlled trials have found metformin to be as effective and safe as insulin for the management of gestational diabetes . Nonetheless , several concerns have been raised regarding studies published thus far , and evidence on the long @-@ term safety of metformin for both mother and child is still lacking .
Metformin is safe in pregnancy and women with gestational diabetes treated with metformin have less weight gain during pregnancy than those treated with insulin . Babies born to women treated with metformin have been found to develop less visceral fat , making them less prone to insulin resistance in later life .
= = Contraindications = =
Metformin is contraindicated in people with any condition that could increase the risk of lactic acidosis , including kidney disorders ( arbitrarily defined as creatinine levels over 150 μmol / l ( 1 @.@ 7 mg / dl ) , ) , lung disease and liver disease . According to the prescribing information , heart failure ( in particular , unstable or acute congestive heart failure ) increases the risk of lactic acidosis with metformin . A 2007 systematic review of controlled trials , however , suggested metformin is the only antidiabetic drug not associated with any measurable harm in people with heart failure , and it may reduce mortality in comparison with other antidiabetic agents .
Metformin is recommended to be temporarily discontinued before any radiographic study involving iodinated contrast agents , ( such as a contrast @-@ enhanced CT scan or angiogram ) , as the contrast dye may temporarily impair kidney function , indirectly leading to lactic acidosis by causing retention of metformin in the body . Metformin can be resumed after two days , assuming kidney function is normal .
= = Adverse effects = =
The most common adverse effect of metformin is gastrointestinal irritation , including diarrhea , cramps , nausea , vomiting , and increased flatulence ; metformin is more commonly associated with gastrointestinal side effects than most other antidiabetic drugs . The most serious potential side effect of metformin use is lactic acidosis ; this complication is very rare , and the vast majority of these cases seem to be related to comorbid conditions , such as impaired liver or kidney function , rather than to the metformin itself .
Metformin has also been reported to decrease the blood levels of thyroid @-@ stimulating hormone in people with hypothyroidism , The clinical significance of this is still unknown .
= = = Gastrointestinal = = =
In a clinical trial of 286 subjects , 53 @.@ 2 % of the 141 given immediate @-@ release metformin ( as opposed to placebo ) reported diarrhea , versus 11 @.@ 7 % for placebo , and 25 @.@ 5 % reported nausea / vomiting , versus 8 @.@ 3 % for those on placebo .
Gastrointestinal upset can cause severe discomfort ; it is most common when metformin is first administered , or when the dose is increased . The discomfort can often be avoided by beginning at a low dose ( 1 @.@ 0 to 1 @.@ 7 grams per day ) and increasing the dose gradually .
Long @-@ term use of metformin has been associated with increased homocysteine levels and malabsorption of vitamin B12 . Higher doses and prolonged use are associated with increased incidence of vitamin B12 deficiency , and some researchers recommend screening or prevention strategies .
= = = Lactic acidosis = = =
The most serious potential adverse effect of biguanide use is lactic acidosis ( " metformin @-@ associated lactic acidosis " or MALA ) . Though the incidence for MALA has been measured at about nine per 100 @,@ 000 person @-@ years , this is not different from the background incidence of lactic acidosis in the general population . A systematic review concluded no data exists to definitively link metformin to lactic acidosis . Lactic acidosis can be fatal in some cases .
Phenformin , another biguanide , was withdrawn from the market because of an increased risk of lactic acidosis ( rate of 40 @-@ 64 per 100 @,@ 000 patient @-@ years ) . However , metformin is safer than phenformin , and the risk of developing lactic acidosis is not increased by the medication as long as it is not prescribed to known high @-@ risk groups .
Lactate uptake by the liver is diminished with metformin administration because lactate is a substrate for hepatic gluconeogenesis , a process which metformin inhibits . In healthy individuals , this slight excess is simply cleared by other mechanisms ( including uptake by the kidneys , when their function is unimpaired ) , and no significant elevation in blood levels of lactate occurs . When impaired kidney function is present , however , clearance of metformin and lactate is reduced , leading to increased levels of both , and possibly causing a buildup of lactic acid . Because metformin decreases liver uptake of lactate , any condition that may precipitate lactic acidosis is a contraindication to its use . Common causes of increased lactic acid production include alcoholism ( due to depletion of NAD + stores ) , heart failure , and respiratory disease ( due to inadequate oxygenation of tissues ) ; the most common cause of impaired lactic acid excretion is kidney disease .
Metformin has also been suggested to increase production of lactate in the large intestine ; this could potentially contribute to lactic acidosis in those with risk factors . However , the clinical significance of this is unknown , and the risk of metformin @-@ associated lactic acidosis is most commonly attributed to decreased hepatic uptake rather than increased intestinal production .
= = = Overdose = = =
A review of intentional and accidental metformin overdoses reported to poison control centers over a five @-@ year period found serious adverse events were rare , though the elderly appeared to be at greater risk . A similar study where cases were reported to Texas poison control centers between 2000 and 2006 found ingested doses of more than 5 @,@ 000 mg were more likely to involve serious medical outcomes in adults . Survival following intentional overdoses with up to 63 @,@ 000 mg ( 63 g ) of metformin have been reported in the medical literature . Fatalities following overdose are rare , but do occur . In healthy children , unintentional doses of less than 1 @,@ 700 mg are unlikely to cause any significant toxic effects .
The most common symptoms following overdose appear to include vomiting , diarrhea , abdominal pain , tachycardia , drowsiness , and , rarely , hypoglycemia or hyperglycemia . The major potentially life @-@ threatening complication of metformin overdose is lactic acidosis , which is due to lactate accumulation . Treatment of metformin overdose is generally supportive , as no specific antidote is known . Lactic acidosis is initially treated with sodium bicarbonate , although high doses are not recommended , as this may increase intracellular acidosis . Acidosis that does not respond to administration of sodium bicarbonate may require further management with standard hemodialysis or continuous venovenous hemofiltration . These treatments are recommended in severe overdoses . In addition , due to metformin 's low molecular weight and lack of plasma protein binding , these techniques also have the benefit of removing metformin from blood plasma , preventing further lactate overproduction .
Metformin may be quantified in blood , plasma , or serum to monitor therapy , confirm a diagnosis of poisoning , or assist in a medicolegal death investigation . Blood or plasma metformin concentrations are usually in a range of 1 – 4 mg / l in persons receiving the drug therapeutically , 40 – 120 mg / l in victims of acute overdosage , and 80 – 200 mg / l in fatalities . Chromatographic techniques are commonly employed .
= = = Interactions = = =
The H2 @-@ receptor antagonist cimetidine causes an increase in the plasma concentration of metformin , by reducing clearance of metformin by the kidneys ; both metformin and cimetidine are cleared from the body by tubular secretion , and both , particularly the cationic ( positively charged ) form of cimetidine , may compete for the same transport mechanism . A small double @-@ blind , randomized study found the antibiotic cephalexin to also increase metformin concentrations by a similar mechanism ; theoretically , other cationic medications may produce the same effect .
= = Mechanism of action = =
Metformin decreases hyperglycemia primarily by suppressing glucose production by the liver ( hepatic gluconeogenesis ) . The " average " person with type 2 diabetes has three times the normal rate of gluconeogenesis ; metformin treatment reduces this by over one @-@ third . The molecular mechanism of metformin is incompletely understood : inhibition of the mitochondrial respiratory chain ( complex I ) , activation of AMP @-@ activated protein kinase ( AMPK ) , inhibition of glucagon @-@ induced elevation of cyclic adenosine monophosphate ( cAMP ) with reduced activation of protein kinase A ( PKA ) , inhibition of mitochondrial glycerophosphate dehydrogenase , and an effect on gut microbiota have been proposed as potential mechanisms .
Activation of AMPK , an enzyme that plays an important role in insulin signaling , whole body energy balance , and the metabolism of glucose and fats , was required for metformin 's inhibitory effect on the production of glucose by liver cells . Activation of AMPK was required for an increase in the expression of small heterodimer partner , which in turn inhibited the expression of the hepatic gluconeogenic genes Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and glucose 6 @-@ phosphatase . Metformin is frequently used in research along with AICA ribonucleotide as an AMPK agonist . More recent studies using mouse models in which the genes for AMPKα1 and α2 catalytic subunits ( Prkaa1 / 2 ) or LKB1 , an upstream kinase of AMPK , had been knocked out in hepatocytes , have raised doubts over the obligatory role of AMPK , since the effect of metformin was not abolished by loss of AMPK function . The mechanism by which biguanides increase the activity of AMPK remains uncertain ; however , metformin increases the concentration of cytosolic adenosine monophosphate ( AMP ) ( as opposed to a change in total AMP or total AMP / adenosine triphosphate ) . Increased cellular AMP has also been proposed to explain the inhibition of glucagon @-@ induced increase in cAMP and activation of PKA . Metformin and other biguanides may antagonize the action of glucagon , thus reducing fasting glucose levels . Metformin also induces a profound shift in the faecal microbial community profile in diabetic mice and this may contribute to its mode of action possibly through an effect on glucagon @-@ like peptide @-@ 1 secretion .
In addition to suppressing hepatic glucose production , metformin increases insulin sensitivity , enhances peripheral glucose uptake ( by inducing the phosphorylation of GLUT4 enhancer factor ) , decreases insulin @-@ induced suppression of fatty acid oxidation , and decreases absorption of glucose from the gastrointestinal tract . Increased peripheral use of glucose may be due to improved insulin binding to insulin receptors . The increase in insulin binding after metformin treatment has also been demonstrated in patients with NIDDM .
AMPK probably also plays a role in increased insulin , as metformin administration increases AMPK activity in skeletal muscle . AMPK is known to cause GLUT4 deployment to the plasma membrane , resulting in insulin @-@ independent glucose uptake . Some metabolic actions of metformin do appear to occur by AMPK @-@ independent mechanisms ; the metabolic actions of metformin in the heart muscle can occur independent of changes in AMPK activity and may be mediated by p38 MAPK- and PKC @-@ dependent mechanisms .
= = Chemistry = =
The usual synthesis of metformin , originally described in 1922 and reproduced in multiple later patents and publications , involves the one @-@ pot reaction of dimethylamine hydrochloride and 2 @-@ cyanoguanidine over heat .
According to the procedure described in the 1975 Aron patent , and the Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Encyclopedia , equimolar amounts of dimethylamine and 2 @-@ cyanoguanidine are dissolved in toluene with cooling to make a concentrated solution , and an equimolar amount of hydrogen chloride is slowly added . The mixture begins to boil on its own , and after cooling , metformin hydrochloride precipitates with a 96 % yield .
= = Pharmacokinetics = =
Metformin has an oral bioavailability of 50 – 60 % under fasting conditions , and is absorbed slowly . Peak plasma concentrations ( Cmax ) are reached within one to three hours of taking immediate @-@ release metformin and four to eight hours with extended @-@ release formulations . The plasma protein binding of metformin is negligible , as reflected by its very high apparent volume of distribution ( 300 – 1000 l after a single dose ) . Steady state is usually reached in one or two days .
Metformin has acid dissociation constant values ( pKa ) of 2 @.@ 8 and 11 @.@ 5 , so exists very largely as the hydrophilic cationic species at physiological pH values . The metformin pKa values make metformin a stronger base than most other basic drugs with less than 0 @.@ 01 % nonionized in blood . Furthermore , the lipid solubility of the nonionized species is slight as shown by its low logP value [ log ( 10 ) of the distribution coefficient of the nonionized form between octanol and water ] of -1.43 . These chemical parameters indicate low lipophilicity and , consequently , rapid passive diffusion of metformin through cell membranes is unlikely . The logP of metformin is less than that of phenformin ( -0.84 ) because two methyl substituents on metformin impart lesser lipophilicity than the larger phenylethyl side chain in phenformin . More lipophilic derivatives of metformin are presently being investigated with the aim of producing prodrugs with better oral absorption than metformin itself .
Metformin is not metabolized . It is cleared from the body by tubular secretion and excreted unchanged in the urine ; metformin is undetectable in blood plasma within 24 hours of a single oral dose . The average elimination half @-@ life in plasma is 6 @.@ 2 hours . Metformin is distributed to ( and appears to accumulate in ) red blood cells , with a much longer elimination half @-@ life : 17 @.@ 6 hours ( reported as ranging from 18 @.@ 5 to 31 @.@ 5 hours in a single @-@ dose study of nondiabetic people ) .
= = History = =
The biguanide class of antidiabetic drugs , which also includes the withdrawn agents phenformin and buformin , originates from the French lilac or goat 's rue ( Galega officinalis ) , a plant used in folk medicine for several centuries .
Metformin was first described in the scientific literature in 1922 , by Emil Werner and James Bell , as a product in the synthesis of N , N @-@ dimethylguanidine . In 1929 , Slotta and Tschesche discovered its sugar @-@ lowering action in rabbits , noting it was the most potent of the biguanide analogs they studied . This result was completely forgotten , as other guanidine analogs , such as the synthalins , took over and were themselves soon overshadowed by insulin .
Interest in metformin , however , picked up at the end of the 1940s . In 1950 , metformin , unlike some other similar compounds , was found not to decrease blood pressure and heart rate in animals . That same year , a prominent Philippine physician , Eusebio Y. Garcia , used metformin ( he named it Fluamine ) to treat influenza ; he noted the drug " lowered the blood sugar to minimum physiological limit " and was not toxic . Garcia also believed metformin to have bacteriostatic , antiviral , antimalarial , antipyretic , and analgesic actions . In a series of articles in 1954 , Polish pharmacologist Janusz Supniewski was unable to confirm most of these effects , including lowered blood sugar ; he did , however , observe some antiviral effects in humans .
While training at the Hôpital de la Pitié , French diabetologist Jean Sterne studied the antihyperglycemic properties of galegine , an alkaloid isolated from Galega officinalis , which is related in structure to metformin and had seen brief use as an antidiabetic before the synthalins were developed . Later , working at Laboratoires Aron in Paris , he was prompted by Garcia 's report to reinvestigate the blood sugar @-@ lowering activity of metformin and several biguanide analogs . Sterne was the first to try metformin on humans for the treatment of diabetes ; he coined the name " Glucophage " ( glucose eater ) for the drug and published his results in 1957 .
Metformin became available in the British National Formulary in 1958 . It was sold in the UK by a small Aron subsidiary called Rona .
Broad interest in metformin was not rekindled until the withdrawal of the other biguanides in the 1970s . Metformin was approved in Canada in 1972 , but did not receive approval by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) for type 2 diabetes until 1994 . Produced under license by Bristol @-@ Myers Squibb , Glucophage was the first branded formulation of metformin to be marketed in the United States , beginning on March 3 , 1995 . Generic formulations are now available in several countries , and metformin is believed to have become the most widely prescribed antidiabetic drug in the world .
= = Formulations = =
Metformin is the BAN , USAN and INN . It is sold under several trade names , including Glucophage XR , Carbophage SR , Riomet , Fortamet , Glumetza , Obimet , Gluformin , Dianben , Diabex , Diaformin , Siofor , and Metfogamma .
Liquid metformin is sold under the name Riomet in India . Each 5 ml of Riomet is equivalent to the 500 @-@ mg tablet form of metformin .
Metformin IR ( immediate release ) is available in 500 , 850 , and 1000 @-@ mg tablets . All of these are now available as generic drugs in the U.S.
Metformin SR ( slow release ) or XR ( extended release ) was introduced in 2004 . It is available in 500 , 750 , and 1000 @-@ mg strengths , mainly to counteract the most common gastrointestinal side effects , as well as to increase compliance by reducing pill burden . No difference in effectiveness exists between the two preparations .
= = = Combination with other drugs = = =
When used for type 2 diabetes , metformin is often prescribed in combination with other drugs . Several are available as fixed @-@ dose combinations , also with the purpose of reducing pill burden and making administration simpler and more convenient .
= = = = Thiazolidinediones ( Glitazones ) = = = =
= = = = Rosiglitazone = = = =
A combination of metformin and rosiglitazone was released in 2002 and sold as Avandamet by GlaxoSmithKline . By 20
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Fox that week , after two games of the 1998 World Series , a World Series pre @-@ game show , and Ally McBeal .
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote , " Another collection of horrors , of varying degrees of wit . The Itchy and Scratchy one is by far the best , and Starship Poopers is only really amusing once the Jerry Springer segment begins . " Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide gave the episode a positive review saying " The series usually rises to the occasion of its Halloween episodes , and “ IX ” doesn ’ t disappoint . Each of the three stories satisfies , as they offer a lot of clever , amusing moments . " Toupée " is probably the best , though , as it ’ s the most creative of the bunch . While funny , the other two can be a bit predictable . " Kay McFadden of The Seattle Times wrote that the episode is " certainly not on a par with that all @-@ time doppelganger classic , " Treehouse of Horror VII " , [ ... ] still , No. 9 's dialogue is sharp and there 's reassuring continuity to such beloved institutions as Itchy and Scratchy . "
In 2008 , " Starship Poopers " was named the tenth best Treehouse of Horror segment by IGN . They wrote that " While [ it is ] not the best Kang & Kodos segment , " Starship Poopers " delivers consistent laughs and a great ending , as Kang & Kodos vow to destroy all the politicians in Washington ( to the Simpsons ' delight ) and Maggie creepily laughs and says , " I need blood . " In 1999 , composer Alf Clausen was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Music Composition for a Series for his work on the episode .
= 420 ( Family Guy ) =
" 420 " is the 12th episode of the seventh season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . It premiered on Fox in the United States on April 19 , 2009 . The title of the episode is a reference to the term " 420 " used in cannabis culture ; " 420 " premiered the day before April 20 ( 4 / 20 ) , on which a counterculture holiday is celebrated centering on the consumption of cannabis . " 420 " focuses on the character Brian after he is arrested for drug possession , which prompts him to launch a campaign to legalize cannabis with help from Stewie ; the liveliness of their campaign convinces Mayor West to legalize the drug , and most of Quahog 's population begins using it .
The episode was written by Patrick Meighan and directed by Julius Wu . While it received positive reception from critics for its storyline and cultural references , it generated controversy from the Venezuelan government for its topic and received criticism from the Parents Television Council during a rerun . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 7 @.@ 40 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Phil LaMarr and Kerrigan Mahan , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series .
= = Plot = =
Peter , Brian , Cleveland and Joe are annoyed when Quagmire adopts a stray cat named James and prefers to spend more time with him than with them . When Quagmire goes to Vermont to buy him a birthday present , they decide to shave James as a prank , but it backfires when Peter accidentally kills him . He and Brian decide to hide his body , but are pulled over by the police , who ignore Peter 's blood stains and beer , but arrest Brian when they find him in possession of cannabis . He is bailed out by the family and put on probation for drug use . He attempts to use Stewie 's urine when Joe arrives to perform a drug test , only to be caught by Lois , who chastises him for going to such lengths and tells him that he has to change if he intends on doing so . However , Brian decides to start a campaign to legalize cannabis in Quahog . He and Stewie perform an enthusiastic musical number , and soon after the entire town rallies behind them in their cause .
Mayor West passes a law to legalize the drug , and everyone starts smoking it ; the town has improved as a result , with milestones such as an increase in productivity and a decrease in crime . However , Lois 's father , Carter , begins to lose money in the timber industry since hemp is being used to manufacture many products , particularly paper , and he bribes Peter to help him with an anti @-@ marijuana campaign . Lois , however , points out that their methods are uninspired , explaining that Brian only succeeded because he was passionate about legalizing cannabis . Carter decides to bribe Brian to join his cause by publishing and shipping his novel , Faster Than the Speed of Love . Brian resists at first , but Stewie suggests he at least perform a number about the health risks of cannabis , since the book does not have enough merit to sell on its own . Brian reluctantly complies , and the drug becomes illegal once more .
Unfortunately for Brian , when his novel is released , it is universally panned by literary critics and does not sell a single copy . Brian laments that he sacrificed his core beliefs for nothing , but Lois intervenes because he helped ban cannabis ( and she also points out how Stewie got to build a nice fort from all of Brian 's unsold books ) . A distraught Quagmire arrives at the household and informs Peter that he is still looking for James and offers a reward of $ 50 . Peter nonchalantly takes the reward , admits that he killed him and slams his door before Quagmire has a chance to react .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by series writer Patrick Meighan in his second episode of the season , the first being " Road to Germany " , and directed by former King of the Hill and The Oblongs director Julius Wu before the conclusion of the series ' seventh production season .
" 420 " has been noted for being the final appearance of the recurring character Kevin Swanson , the son of characters Joe and Bonnie Swanson . Since the fifth season episode " Saving Private Brian " , series creator Seth MacFarlane and other staff writers had planned on writing out the character . MacFarlane recalls not having ideas to write for the character . During the episode 's production , the character of James the cat was originally colored white , but MacFarlane decided that it bear orange fur after he thought that white was a fairly dull color . The featured musical number , " A Bag o ' Weed , " was based on the Chitty Chitty Bang Bang song " Me Ol ' Bamboo " .
In addition to the regular cast , voice actor Phil LaMarr and voice actor Kerrigan Mahan guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Lori Alan , Chris Cox , actor Ralph Garman , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin and writer John Viener also made minor appearances .
" 420 " , along with the seven other episodes from Family Guy 's eighth season and seven from the seventh season , was released on a three @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on June 15 , 2010 . The DVDs included brief audio commentaries by Seth MacFarlane , various crew and cast members from several episodes , a collection of deleted scenes , a special mini @-@ feature that discussed the process behind animating " Road to the Multiverse " , and a mini @-@ feature entitled Family Guy Karaoke . The set also includes a reprint of the script for the episode .
= = Cultural references = =
Peter , who tries to shave Quagmire 's cat in the episode , ends up killing it and cutting it six times because of the legend of cats having nine lives . As he is arresting Brian , one of the police officers states that he will not release him since he is a " family guy " . In their campaign , Brian and Stewie perform their musical number , ' " A Bag o ' Weed " , to the tune of " Me Ol ' Bamboo " as featured in the film Chitty Chitty Bang Bang . During the song , a picture of Woody Harrelson is shown . Harrelson also wanted marijuana legalized . After cannabis is legalized , its effects include phenomenal ratings for Doctor Who . Peter then tries to remember something but ends up remembering the names of celebrities whom he does not like . While helping out with Carter 's smear campaign , Peter comes up with an advertisement that involves Adolf Hitler claiming that the Holocaust was started by smoking cannabis ; the campaign is dropped , however , because supposedly Fox News holds Hitler 's image rights and they cannot smear it . He later tries to film a new advertisement which informs that unlike the events of the film Harold & Kumar Go to White Castle , he made it there earlier since he was not stoned . He then says Neil Patrick Harris was cast on How I Met Your Mother based on his work in that film , and brings up a point that confuses him : since Josh Radnor is already an adult , why is the narrator of the show voiced by Bob Saget ? Carter later tells Brian that he will release his novel with an Oprah 's Book Club induction .
= = Reception = =
" 420 " was viewed by 7 @.@ 40 million viewers on its original airdate , receiving a rating of 4 @.@ 3 / 6 in Nielsen ratings . The character Brian was awarded the 2009 Stoner of the Year award by the magazine High Times due to this episode , marking the first time an animated character received the honor .
The episode received generally positive reviews from critics . Ahsan Haque of IGN rated the episode an 8 @.@ 5 / 10 , commenting that it " worked out quite well mainly due to the superb musical number " . He called the storyline " pretty cohesive " with a " very few truly random jokes thrown in here " , though he did criticize the killing of the cat as " over @-@ the @-@ top " and the large amount of blood which he called " disturbing " . Genevieve Koski of The A.V. Club stated that the episode " showed admirable restraint [ ... ] with its pot @-@ centric plot " , and called the musical number " truly spectacular " . She graded the episode B , behind the Simpsons episode “ The Good , the Sad , and the Drugly ” which received a rating of B + ; and the American Dad ! episode “ Delorean Story @-@ an ” which received a rating of A. The TV Critic 's Robin Pierson gave the episode a 54 / 100 ; in his review , he appreciated the plot structure , especially the randomness of Peter 's list of hated cultural icons . He did , however , criticize the featured musical number ; he referred to it as a " waste of time " and claimed that " jokes about Texans , Michael Jackson , and Helen Keller are so obvious . "
The Parents Television Council , a frequent critic of Family Guy and series creator Seth MacFarlane , branded a June 6 , 2009 re @-@ airing their " Worst TV Show of the Week " , due to its emphasis on the legality of cannabis .
= = = Controversy = = =
The Venezuelan government reacted negatively to the episode and banned Family Guy from airing on their local networks , which generally syndicate American programming . Local station Venevisión was threatened with financial sanctions for broadcasting the show , which was avoided by airing an episode of Baywatch instead and they aired public service films as an apology . Venezuelan Justice Minister Tareck El Aissami stated that any cable stations which refuse to stop airing the series would be fined and he also claimed that it promoted the use of cannabis . The government then displayed the clip of which featured Brian and Stewie performing the featured number and then stated that Family Guy is an example of how the United States supports cannabis use .
= Sky Scrapper =
Sky Scrapper ( also known as Starry Sky Ripper ) is a flying roller coaster at World Joyland in Wujin , Changzhou , Jiangsu , China . Sky Scrapper was one of World Joyland 's opening day attractions , officially opening on April 30 , 2011 . The 2 @,@ 805 @.@ 1 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 855 @.@ 0 m ) ride stands 131 @.@ 3 feet ( 40 @.@ 0 m ) tall , and features a top speed of 54 @.@ 7 mph ( 88 @.@ 0 km / h ) . Designed by Swiss firm Bolliger & Mabillard , Sky Scrapper restrains riders in the prone position and features five inversions .
= = History = =
World Joyland officially opened to the public on April 4 , 2011 . The park opened with the custom @-@ designed Sky Scrapper , a Flying Coaster model from Bolliger & Mabillard . The ride is located in the Universe of Starship area of the park . The park is derived from the World of Warcraft and Starcraft franchises .
= = Characteristics = =
The roller coaster 's steel track is approximately 2 @,@ 805 feet ( 855 m ) in length and the height of the lift is 131 @.@ 3 feet ( 40 @.@ 0 m ) . Sky Scrapper operates with two steel and fiberglass trains . Each train has seven cars that seat four riders in a single row , for a total of 28 riders per train .
Sky Scrapper features a total of five inversions , which ties it with The Flying Dinosaur for the most inversions on a B & M Flying Coaster model . These include a zero @-@ g roll , a vertical loop , a " Lie to Fly " / " Fly to Lie " pair , and two inline twists . A " Lie to Fly " element is when riders are on their backs , facing the sky and they are flipped and face the ground . A " Fly to Lie " element is the opposite . As of August 2013 , Sky Scrapper is the only Bolliger & Mabillard Flying Coaster to feature a vertical loop , and is one of only two to feature a zero @-@ g roll .
= = Experience = =
= = = Station and loading = = =
Once in the station , riders of Sky Scrapper board a train sitting down , in a similar style to inverted roller coasters . Riders are restrained through a padded over @-@ the @-@ shoulder harness and a lap bar . At the ankles , two flaps hold the legs in position and close as the harness is locked in place . After the train is fully locked and checked , the trains are raised into the flying position and depart the station .
= = = Ride layout = = =
The train travels out of the station and up the 131 @.@ 3 @-@ foot ( 40 @.@ 0 m ) lift hill . The train then drops , reaching a top speed of 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) before entering an overbanked turn . This is followed by a zero @-@ g roll and " Fly @-@ to @-@ Lie " element that turns riders from a face @-@ down prone position to a face @-@ up lying position . It then goes through a small tunnel and enters the vertical loop . Riders are then transitioned back to a prone position after entering the following " Lie @-@ to @-@ Fly " element , which travels over water . Riders then experience a double inline twist element , and a helix that turns to the left . The train enters the final brake run and follows a short path back to the station .
= Hispanics in the United States Navy =
Hispanics in the United States Navy can trace their tradition of naval military service to men such as Lieutenant Jordi Farragut Mesquida , who served in the American Revolution . Hispanics , such as Seaman Philip Bazaar and Seaman John Ortega , have distinguished themselves in combat and have been awarded the Medal of Honor , the highest military decoration of the United States . Hispanics have also reached the top ranks of the Navy , serving their country in sensitive leadership positions on domestic and foreign shores . Among those who have reached the highest ranks in the Navy are Commodore Uriah Phillips Levy , of Sephardic and Ashkenazic Jewish descent , who participated in the War of 1812 as an assistant Sailing master ; Admiral David Glasgow Farragut , for whom the rank of Admiral in the U.S. Navy was created during the American Civil War ; and Admiral Horacio Rivero , who led the Navy during the Cuban Missile Crisis .
Hispanic is an ethnic term employed to categorize any citizen or resident of the United States , of any racial background , of any country , and of any religion , who has at least one ancestor from the people of Spain or is of non @-@ Hispanic origin , but has an ancestor from Mexico , Puerto Rico , Cuba , Central or South America , or some other Hispanic origin . The three largest Hispanic groups in the United States are the Mexican @-@ Americans , Puerto Ricans , and Cubans .
According to the U.S. Census Bureau the estimated Hispanic population of the United States is over 50 million , or 16 % of the U.S. population , and Hispanics are the nation 's largest ethnic or racial minority . The 2010 U.S. Census estimate of over 50 million Hispanics in the U.S. does not include the 3 @.@ 9 million residents of Puerto Rico .
More than 43 @,@ 000 people of Hispanic origin are sailors and civilians serving with the U.S. Navy .
The United States Navy has implemented aggressive recruitment programs directed towards this group . One of those programs is El Navy , whose principal aim is to attract those who speak Spanish . It has resulted in increased recruitment of Hispanics for entrance to the United States Naval Academy . As of April 2007 , thirteen Hispanic Americans who were graduates of the USNA , and nine who were commissioned after attending the Navy 's officer candidate school , have reached the rank of Rear Admiral and above .
= = American Revolution and the War of 1812 = =
The United States Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy , which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was disbanded shortly thereafter . The United States Constitution provided the legal basis for a seaborne military force by giving Congress the power " to provide and maintain a navy . " Attacks against American shipping by Barbary Coast corsairs spurred Congress to employ this power by passing the Naval Act of 1794 ordering the construction and manning of six frigates .
Lieutenant Jordi Farragut Mesquida , ( 1755 – 1817 ) was a Spanish – Catalan by descent and a Minorquin by birth . He immigrated to the American colonies and participated in the American Revolution as a lieutenant in the South Carolina Navy . During the Revolution , he fought the British at Savannah , Georgia , and in 1780 was captured during the battle of Charleston , South Carolina . He was released in a prisoner exchange and volunteered in the militia which fought at the Battle of Cowpens and Wilmington , North Carolina . Farragut Mesquida married Elizabeth Shine and had two sons , one of them was David Farragut .
Commodore Uriah Phillips Levy ( 1792 – 1862 ) , a Sephardic Jew whose ancestors were from Portugal , born in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . He was the great @-@ great @-@ grandson of Dr. Samuel Nunez , the leader of the first Jewish colonists who helped found Savannah , Georgia . Levy was assigned sailing master on the USS Argus , which interdicted English ships in the English Channel during the War of 1812 . The ship confiscated more than twenty vessels , but was captured in 1813 and Levy and rest of the crew were taken prisoner until the end of the war .
Upon his return to the United States , Levy served as the sailing master on the 74 @-@ gun ship USS Franklin and in 1817 was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant . He was promoted to the rank of master commandant in 1837 , and the rank of captain in 1844 . In 1855 , Levy was given the courtesy title of commodore , in recognition of his superior abilities , making him one of the Navy 's highest @-@ ranking officers and the first Sephardic Jew of Hispanic descent to reach the rank , which at the time was the highest rank in the U.S. Navy .
= = American Civil War = =
= = = Union Navy = = =
During the American Civil War , the government of the United States recognized that the rapidly expanding Union Navy was in need of admirals . Therefore , on July 16 , 1862 Congress proceeded to authorize the appointment of nine officers to the rank of rear admiral , making Flag Officer David Glasgow Farragut the first Hispanic @-@ American to be appointed said grade .
David Glasgow Farragut ( 1801 – 1870 ) was born on at Campbell 's Station , near Knoxville , Tennessee , to Jordi and Elizabeth Farragut . After Farragut 's mother died from yellow fever in his 1808 , his father gave him up for adoption , and he was adopted by future @-@ U.S. Navy Captain David Porter .
On December 17 , 1810 , Farragut entered the Navy as a midshipman aboard the USS Essex . He was 12 years old when , during the War of 1812 , he was given the assignment to bring a ship captured by the USS Essex , safely to port .
In April 1862 , Farragut was the " flag officer " in command of the West Gulf Blockading Squadron . With his flagship , the USS Hartford , he ran past Fort Jackson and Fort St. Philip and the Chalmette , Louisiana , batteries to take the city and port of New Orleans , Louisiana . This victory was an influential factor when in 1862 , Congress created the rank of Admiral and named Farragut and eight other naval officers ( which also included his foster brother David Dixon Porter ) as rear admirals . Thus , Farragut became the first Hispanic @-@ American admiral in the United States Navy .
Farragut 's greatest victory was the Battle of Mobile Bay on August 5 , 1864 . Mobile , Alabama , at the time was the Confederacy 's last major port open on the Gulf of Mexico . The bay was heavily mined with tethered naval mines , also known as torpedoes . When the USS Tecumseh , one of the ships under his command , struck a mine and went down , Farragut shouted through a trumpet from his flagship to the USS Brooklyn , " What 's the trouble ? " " Torpedoes ! " was the reply , to which Farragut then shouted his now famous words " Damn the torpedoes ! Full speed ahead ! " The fleet succeeded in entering the bay . Farragut then triumphed over the opposition of heavy batteries in Fort Morgan and Fort Gaines to defeat the squadron of Admiral Franklin Buchanan . Farragut was promoted to vice admiral on December 21 , 1864 , and to full admiral on July 25 , 1866 , after the war , thereby becoming the first person to be named full admiral in the Navy 's history .
= = = Medal of Honor = = =
The Medal of Honor is the highest military decoration awarded by the United States government . It is bestowed on a member of the United States armed forces who distinguishes himself " … conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while engaged in an action against an enemy of the United States .
Seaman John Ortega ( born in 1840 in Spain ) , was a resident of Pennsylvania who joined the Union Navy in his adopted hometown in Pennsylvania . Ortega was assigned to the USS Saratoga during the Civil War . The USS Saratoga was ordered to proceed to Charleston , South Carolina , for duty in the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron . Ortega was a member of the landing parties from the ship who made several raids in August and September in 1864 , which resulted in the capture of many prisoners and the taking or destruction of substantial quantities of ordnance , ammunition , and supplies . A number of buildings , bridges , and salt works were destroyed during the expedition . For his actions Seaman John Ortega was awarded the Medal of Honor and promoted to acting master 's mate .
Seaman Philip Bazaar , born in Chile , South America , was a resident of Massachusetts , who joined the Union Navy at New Bedford . He was assigned to the USS Santiago de Cuba , a wooden , brigantine @-@ rigged , side @-@ wheel steamship under the command of Rear Admiral David D. Porter . In the latter part of 1864 , Union General Ulysses S. Grant ordered an assault on Fort Fisher , a Confederate stronghold. which protected the vital trading routes of Wilmington 's port , at North Carolina . On January 12 , 1865 , both ground and naval Union forces attempted a second land assault , after the failure of the first . During the land assault , Bazaar and 5 other crew members carried dispatches from Rear Admiral Porter to Major General Alfred Terry , while under heavy fire from the Confederates to Major General Alfred Terry . Bazaar was awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions .
= = = Confederate States Navy = = =
Hispanics also fought for the Confederate States Navy . One such case was Captain Michael Philip Usina ( 1840 - 1903 ) . Usina was born in St. Augustine , Florida , to Spanish parents . As Captain of several blockade runners , Usina managed to avoid capture on his many successful missions . Usina fought in Co . B in the 8th Georgia Infantry of the Confederate Army before being transferred to the Navy . He was wounded and captured in the Battle of Manassas , but managed to escape and reach the Southern lines .
= = World War I = =
On April 6 , 1917 , the U.S. Congress declared war on Germany and officially entered World War I. At the time , soldiers and sailors with Spanish surnames or Spanish accents were sometimes the objects of ridicule and relegated to menial jobs . However , Hispanics continued to join the military and serve their nation .
Captain Robert F. Lopez retired from the Navy in 1911 . During World War I , he was recalled to active duty and given the rank of Commodore ( equivalent to a one star admiral rank , typically used during war time ) to command the Mare Island Naval Shipyard .
Luis de Florez graduated from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) in 1911 before joining the Navy . During World War I he became a Naval Aviator . Commander de Flores is credited with numerous inventions which made better flight simulators and equipment for flight safety .
Lieutenant Frederick Lois Riefkohl ( 1889 – 1969 ) , a native of Maunabo , Puerto Rico , became the first Puerto Rican to graduate from the USNA , and served as Commander of the Armed Guard of the USS Philadelphia . On August 2 , 1917 , after engaging an enemy submarine , he was awarded the Navy Cross , the second highest medal that can be awarded by the U.S. Navy
George E. Fernandez a Water Tender ( a first @-@ class petty officer in charge in a fireroom ) aboard the USS Shaw was awarded the Navy Cross on October 9 , 1918 , after his actions aboard the USS Shaw on October 9 , 1918 , when the Shaw collided with the RMS Aquitania and was cut in two and set on fire . Fernandez threw the ammunition that was piled on the deck of the Shaw overboard , saving the lives of many of his fellow crewmen .
= = World War II = =
On December 7 , 1941 , when the Empire of Japan attacked the United States Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor , many sailors with Hispanic surnames were among those who perished . When the United States officially entered World War II , Hispanic Americans were among the many American citizens who joined the ranks of the Navy as volunteers or through the draft . Of the Hispanics who served actively in the European and Pacific Theatres of war , five would eventually earn the rank of Rear Admiral and above .
In 1941 , Commander Luis de Florez played an instrumental role in the establishment of the Special Devices Division of the Navy 's Bureau of Aeronautics ( what would later become the NAWCTSD ) . He was later assigned as head of the new Special Devices Desk in the Engineering Division of the Navy ’ s Bureau of Aeronautics . De Florez , who has been credited with over sixty inventions , urged the Navy to undertake development of " synthetic training devices " to increase readiness . During World War II , he was promoted to Captain and in 1944 , to Rear Admiral .
= = = Pacific Theatre = = =
Admiral Horacio Rivero , Jr. served aboard the USS San Juan ( CL @-@ 54 ) and was involved in providing artillery cover for Marines landing on Guadalcanal , Marshall Islands , Iwo Jima , and Okinawa . For his service he was awarded the Bronze Star with Combat " V " ( " V " stands for valor in combat ) . Rivero was reassigned to the USS Pittsburgh ( CA @-@ 72 ) and is credited with saving his ship without a single life lost when the ship 's bow had been torn off during a typhoon . He was awarded the Legion of Merit for his actions . Rivero also participated in the Battle of Santa Cruz Islands , the attack on Bougainville in the Solomons , the capture of the Gilbert Islands and a series of carrier raids on Rabaul . On June 5 , 1945 , Rivero was present during the first carrier raids against Tokyo during operations in the vicinity of Nansei Shoto . Rivero , served as a technical assistant on the Staff of Commander Joint Task Force One for Operation Crossroads from February 1946 to June 1947 , and was on the Staff of Commander , Joint Task Force Seven during the atomic weapons tests in Eniwetok in 1948 .
Rear Admiral Frederick Lois Riefkohl served as Captain of the USS Vincennes was assigned to the Fire Support Group , LOVE ( with Transport Group XRAY ) under the command of Rear Admiral Richmond K. Turner 's Task Force TARE ( Amphibious Force ) during the landing in the Solomon Islands on August 7 , 1942 . On August 9 , 1942 , the Vincennes was engaged in combat against a fleet of Japanese ships under the command of Japanese Admiral Mikawa just off Guadalcanal in what is known as the Battle of Savo Island and received 85 direct hits . Riefkohl , who was awarded the Purple Heart medal for the wounds which he received during the battle , ordered his men to abandon ship and to man the life rafts .
On February 23 , 1945 , Antonio F. Moreno witnessed the first flag raising photographed by Staff Sergeant Louis R. Lowery and the second flag raising photographed by Joe Rosenthal on Mount Suribachi . On March 8 , 1945 , Moreno , a Navy medical corpsman assigned to the 2d Platoon , Company E , 27th Marine Regiment , tried to save the life of Lt. Jack Lummus after Lummus had stepped on a land mine a few feet away from Moreno . Lt. Lummus was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor .
Rear Admiral Henry G. Sanchez commanded ( as a Lieutenant Commander ) VF @-@ 72 , an F4F squadron of 37 aircraft , on board the USS Hornet ( CV @-@ 8 ) from July to October 1942 . His squadron was responsible for shooting down 38 Japanese airplanes during his command tour , which included the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands .
Captain Marion Frederic Ramírez de Arellano ( 1913 – 1980 ) , who was the first Hispanic submarine commanding officer , participated in five war patrols . He led the effort to rescue five Navy pilots and one enlisted gunner off Wake Island , and contributed to the sinking of two Japanese freighters and damaging a third . For his actions , he was awarded a Silver Star Medal and a Legion of Merit Medal .
After a brief stint at the Mare Island Naval Shipyard , he was reassigned to the USS Skate , a Balao @-@ class submarine . He participated in the Skates first three war patrols and was awarded a second Silver Star Medal for his contribution in sinking the Japanese light cruiser Agano on his third patrol . The Agano had survived a previous torpedo attack by submarine USS Scamp .
In April 1944 , Ramirez de Arellano was named Commanding Officer of the USS Balao . He participated in his ship 's war patrols 5 , 6 and 7 . On July 5 , 1944 , Ramirez de Arellano led the rescue of three downed Navy pilots in the Palau area . On December 4 , 1944 , the Balao departed from Pearl Harbor to patrol in the Yellow Sea . The Balao engaged and sunk the Japanese cargo ship Daigo Maru on January 8 , 1945 . Ramirez de Arellano was awarded a Bronze Star Medal with Combat V and a Letter of Commendation .
Captain Charles Kenneth Ruiz was a crew member of the cruiser USS Vincennes ( CA @-@ 44 ) , during the Battle of Savo Island . After being rescued at sea and sent to Pearl Harbor , he was invited by Admiral Chester Nimitz to join the Submarine Service . He served aboard the submarine USS Pollack and participated in eight war patrols in the hostile waters of the Pacific during World War II .
= = = European Theatre = = =
Rear Admiral Edmund Ernest García was the commander of the destroyer escort USS Sloat and saw action in the invasions of Africa , Sicily , and France . The USS Sloat ( DE @-@ 245 ) was an Edsall @-@ class destroyer escort which was launched on January 21 , 1943 , and commissioned on August 16 , 1943 , under the command of then Lieutenant Commander Garcia . From June 15 to July 15 , the Sloat operated in the Caribbean and Atlantic Ocean in search of German U @-@ boats .
Rear Admiral Jose M. Cabanillas , was assigned Executive Officer of the USS Texas ( BB @-@ 35 ) . On November 8 , the Texas participated in the invasion of North Africa by destroying an ammunition dump near Port Lyautey . Cabanillas also participated in the invasion of Normandy on ( D @-@ Day ) . On June 6 , 1944 , the ship 's secondary battery went to work on another target on the western end of " Omaha " beach .
In 1945 , Cabanillas became the first Commanding officer of the USS Grundy ( APA @-@ 111 ) , which was commissioned on January 3 , 1945 . The Grundy helped in the evacuation of Americans from China during the Chinese Civil War . In December 1945 , he was reassigned to Naval Station Norfolk located in Norfolk , Virginia , as Assistant Chief of Staff ( Discipline ) , 5th Naval District .
Rear Admiral Rafael Celestino Benítez was a Lieutenant Commander who saw action aboard submarines and on various occasions weathered depth charge attacks . For his actions , he was awarded the Silver and Bronze Star Medals .
Lieutenant Edward Hidalgo was born in Mexico City . After immigrating to the United States , he joined and served in the U.S. Naval Reserve . In this capacity he held several positions . From 1942 to 1943 he served in Montevideo , Uruguay , as a legal advisor to the ambassador to the Emergency Advisory for Political Defense . For the remainder of the war he was assigned to the carrier USS Enterprise as an air combat intelligence officer and was awarded a Bronze Star Medal for his service . In October 1979 , Hidalgo became the first Hispanic to serve as U.S. Secretary of the Navy .
Of the 2 @,@ 889 Navy Crosses which were awarded to the members of the Navy during World War II , two were awarded to Hispanic sailors : Elguterio Joe Marquez , Pharmacist 's Mate Third Class and Lieutenant Eugene Anthony Valencia , both from San Francisco , California .
= = = The " WAVES " = = =
Prior to World War II , traditional Hispanic cultural values expected women to be homemakers and they rarely left the home to earn an income and were discouraged from joining the military . However , with the outbreak of World War II , cultural prohibitions began to change . With the creation of the Women 's Army Auxiliary Corps ( WAAC ) , predecessor of the Women 's Army Corps ( WAC ) , and the U.S. Navy Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service ( WAVES ) , women could attend to certain administrative duties left open by the men who were reassigned to combat zones . While most women who served in the military joined the WAACs , a smaller number of women served in the Naval Women 's Reserve ( the WAVES ) .
Maria Menefee , was born in Guadalajara , Mexico , she joined the WAVES in 1944 and was assigned to Bronson Field , Florida . Lieutenant Junior Grade ( LTJG ) Maria Rodriguez Denton was the first woman of Puerto Rican descent who became an officer in the United States Navy as member of the WAVES . The Navy assigned LTJG . Denton as a library assistant at the Cable and Censorship Office in New York City . It was LTJG . Denton who forwarded the news ( through channels ) to President Harry S. Truman that the war had ended .
= = Cold War Era = =
The " Cold War " was the period of conflict , tension and competition between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies from the mid @-@ 1940s until the early 1990s . Throughout the period , the rivalry between the two superpowers was played out in multiple arenas : military coalitions ; military ; costly defense spending ; a massive conventional and nuclear arms race ; and many proxy wars .
= = = The Cochino incident = = =
During the latter part of 1949 , Rear Admiral Rafael Celestino Benítez was given the command of the submarine USS Cochino . On August 12 , 1949 , the Cochino , along with the USS Tusk , departed from the harbor of Portsmouth , England . Both diesel submarines were reported to be on a cold @-@ water training mission . However , the submarines were equipped with snorkels that allowed them to spend long periods underwater , largely invisible to an enemy , and with electronic gear designed to detect far @-@ off radio signals – were part of an American intelligence operation .
The mission of the Cochino and Tusk was to eavesdrop on communications that revealed the testing of submarine @-@ launched Soviet missiles that might soon carry nuclear warheads . This was the first American undersea spy mission of the cold war .
On August 25 , one the Cochino 's 4 @,@ 000 @-@ pound batteries caught fire , emitting hydrogen gas and smoke . Unable to receive any help from the Tusk , Commander Benitez directed the firefighting . He ordered the Cochino to surface and had the crew members lash themselves to the deck rails with ropes while others fought the blaze . Benitez tried to save his ship and at the same time save his men from the toxic gases . He realized that the winds were about to tear the ropes and ordered his men to form a pyramid on the ship 's open bridge , which was designed to hold seven men .
The ocean waters became calmer during the night and the Tusk was able to approach the Cochino . All of the crew , with the exception of Commander Benitez and two of the crew who perished during the ordeal , boarded the Tusk . Finally , the crew members of the Tusk convinced Benitez to board the Tusk , which he did two minutes before the Cochino sank off the coast of Norway .
In 1952 , Benitez was named chief of the United States naval mission to Cuba , a position which he held until 1954 . In 1955 , Rear Admiral Benitez was given the command of the destroyer USS Waldron . The Waldron resumed normal operations along the east coast and in the West Indies under his command after having completed a circumnavigation of the globe . Rear Admiral Rafael Celestino Benítez was the recipient of two Silver Star Medals .
= = = Korean War = = =
The Korean War was an escalation of a civil war between two rival Korean regimes , each of which was supported by external powers , with each of the regimes trying to topple the other through political and guerrilla tactics . The conflict was expanded by the United States and the Soviet Union 's involvement as part of the larger Cold War . The main hostilities were during the period from June 25 , 1950 , until the armistice ( ceasefire agreement ) was signed on July 27 , 1953 .
In August 1950 , the USS Noble , under the command of Admiral Horacio Rivero , Jr . , steamed to Korea to participate in the September Inchon amphibious assault . Rivero 's ship assisted in the transport of U.S. and foreign troops and equipment to and from the Korean combat zone . In July 1953 , the ship participated in Operation Big Switch , moving Communist North Korean prisoners from Koje Do to Inchon pursuant to the armistice agreement . Rivero studied at the National War College and in 1954 he became Assistant Chief of Staff for Naval Operations . In 1955 , he was promoted to the rank of Rear Admiral and was a member of the Staff of the Commander in Chief , Western Atlantic Area .
Of the 46 Navy Crosses awarded by the Navy during the Korean War , one went to a Hispanic sailor , Robert Serrano , a Hospital Corpsman from El Paso , Texas .
On September 12 , 1951 , Medical Corpsman Serrano was serving with the 3rd Battalion , Seventh Marines , 1st Marine Division ( Reinforced ) , in Korea . The Battalion came under heavy enemy attack and fearlessly dashed through the heavy enemy fire to reach a wounded Marine , he accidentally tripped the wire of a hidden anti @-@ personnel mine . Hearing the snap of the fuse primer , and realizing that his wounded comrade lay helpless beside the deadly explosive , he courageously and with complete disregard for his own personal safety threw himself on the man to shield him from the explosion . Although he was seriously wounded in the back and legs by fragments , and was blown several feet by the concussion , he crawled back to his comrade and administered first aid to him . Although suffering severe pain from his multiple wounds , he refused to seek medical aid for himself until he had completed treatment of his comrade , and then , refusing a stretcher , crawled part of the way to the aid station .
= = = Cuban Missile Crisis = = =
The Cuban Missile Crisis was a tense confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States over the Soviet deployment of nuclear missiles in Cuba . On October 22 , 1962 , Admiral Horacio Rivero was the commander of the American fleet sent by President John F. Kennedy to set up a quarantine ( blockade ) of the Soviet ships . On October 28 , Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev ordered the removal of the Soviet missiles in Cuba , and Kennedy ordered an end of the quarantine of Cuba on November 20 , bringing an end to the crisis .
= = = Vietnam War = = =
The Vietnam War , was a conflict between the Democratic Republic of Vietnam ( DRVN , or North Vietnam ) and the Republic of Vietnam ( RVN , or South Vietnam ) , which eventually involved their respective allies including the United States .
On July 31 , 1964 , Horacio Rivero became the first Puerto Rican , and first Hispanic to become a four @-@ star Admiral in the modern era US Navy . During the Vietnam War , Rivero oversaw the day @-@ to @-@ day work of the Navy as the Vice Chief of Naval Operations . He was a stern supporter of a " brown @-@ water navy " , or riverine force , on the rivers of South Vietnam .
In 1964 , Lieutenant Commander Benjamin F. Montoya was deployed to Guam with the Naval Mobile Construction Battalion Three . He led an advance party in Vietnam to supervise the construction of the first base camp built by SeaBees in Da Nang . He returned in 1966 to Chu Lai , and was responsible for the construction of a base camp , supply point , hospital and a Marine Corp helicopter base .
Lieutenant Commander Everett Alvarez Jr. endured one of the longest periods as a prisoner of war ( POW ) in American history . The grandson of immigrants from Mexico , Alvarez joined the United States Navy in 1960 and was selected for pilot training . On August 5 , 1964 , during Operation Pierce Arrow , Ensign Alvarez 's A @-@ 4 Skyhawk was shot down over North Vietnam and became the first American POW of the Vietnam War . Alvarez endured eight years and seven months of brutal captivity in which he was repeatedly beaten and tortured . He was released from the prisoner of war camp in 1973 and retired as Commander in 1980 .
Captain Charles Kenneth Ruiz commanded the aircraft carrier USS Bon Homme Richard ( CV @-@ 31 ) in the Vietnam War . The Bon Homme Richard was sent to Vietnam as the war escalated in early 1965 . Ruiz , who commanded the aircraft carrier was deployed on five Southeast Asia combat tours over the next six years . Under Ruiz 's command , the Bon Homme Richard 's aircraft battled North Vietnamese MiGs ( supersonic jet fighter aircraft made in Russia ) on many occasions , downing several , as well as striking transportation and infrastructure targets . Ruiz was awarded the Bronze Star Medal with Combat V and other awards for service in Vietnam .
Hospitalman Third Class ( then Hospitalman ) Phil Isadore Valdez , from New Mexico , was posthumously awarded the Navy Cross for his actions on January 29 , 1967 . On that date Valdez ran over seventy @-@ five yards of open terrain , under constant enemy fire , to aid a fallen Marine . He then moved the wounded man to a safe area and , quickly and competently , rendered medical assistance . Again exposing himself to enemy fire , Valdez moved across approximately fifty yards of open ground to another Marine . While treating the second Marine , he positioned himself between the man and the hostile fire . It was at this time that Valdez was mortally wounded by enemy small @-@ arms fire .
Lieutenant Diego E. Hernández flew two combat tours in Vietnam during the war . He also served as Aide and Flag Lieutenant to Commander , Carrier Division 14 . At sea , he was the commander of a fighter squadron , a carrier air wing , and a fleet oiler ( the USS Truckee ) .
= = = NATO commander = = =
Admiral Horacio Rivero Jr . , was the North Atlantic Treaty Organization 's commander in chief of the Allied Forces in Southern Europe from 1968 until his retirement from the Navy in 1972 . He was responsible for the land , sea and air forces of five nations deployed in the Mediterranean area : Italy , Greece , Turkey , Britain and the United States . During his years as commander , some 215 @,@ 000 of the 310 @,@ 000 American troops in Europe were stationed in West Germany .
= = Latter part of the 20th Century = =
Latino representation in the Navy has been rising and there has been dramatic increases in the percentage of Latinos ( of both sexes ) among active duty enlisted personnel . In 1975 , Lieutenant Al Cisneros , became the first Hispanic pilot to serve with the Blue Angels . In 1981 , four women of Hispanic descent became the first women of their heritage from the U.S. Naval Academy . Among the four women was Commander Lilia L. Ramirez ( Ret . ) who is currently the Director of the International Programs Office , for the Department of Homeland Security , Science and Technology Directorate . By September 2006 , Hispanics constituted 14 percent of Navy enlisted personnel , about the same as in the Marine Corps that year . The various recruitment efforts do have critics , both within and outside the Hispanic community , particularly during this time of war and a growing number of reported Hispanic casualties .
= = = Skirmish with Libyan Air Force = = =
On June 27 , 1980 , Captain Diego E. Hernández took command of the aircraft carrier USS John F. Kennedy which is capable of anti @-@ submarine warfare ( ASW ) , making it an all @-@ purpose carrier . On September 19 , 1980 , Libyan Air Force planes engaged in an unprecedented number of sorties in the vicinity of USS John F. Kennedy 's Battle Group over international waters . F @-@ 14 's under E @-@ 2 control intercepted two Libyan sections , and six and eighteen sections , respectively , on September 20 and 21 .
= = = Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm = = =
Many Hispanic servicewomen served overseas during Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm . Among the many women who served was Captain Haydee Javier Kimmich from Cabo Rojo , Puerto Rico . Capt. Kimmich was the highest ranking Hispanic female in the Navy at the time . She was assigned as the Chief of Orthopedics at the Navy Medical Center in Bethesda and she reorganized their Reservist Department during the war .
During Operation Just Cause in December 1989 , Navy Reserve Commodore Maria Morales from Puerto Rico was deployed to Panama and served at Rodman Naval Station . According to Morales , in Panama she had her first real experience with the anguish and impact of an armed conflict , not only on military service members , but on families as well .
Rear Admiral Jose Luis Betancourt , Jr. served as commanding officer of the USS Merrill ( DD @-@ 976 ) , during its deployment to the Persian Gulf during Operation Desert Storm , where during extensive mine clearance operations his ship served as flagship .
= = = Operation Iraqi Freedom = = =
Even though Brigadier General Joseph V. Medina of the Marine Corps was not a member of the Navy , he made naval history when on June 10 , 2004 he became the first Marine general ever assigned commander of naval ships . During Operation Iraqi Freedom , Medina oversaw the manning and equipping of ESG @-@ 3 . From his flagship , the USS Belleau Wood ( LHA @-@ 3 ) , he then led the Belleau Wood Strike Group ( BWDESG ) through a 6 @-@ month deployment in support of where he was assigned as Commander Task Force 58 .
Hospitalman Apprentice Luis E. Fonseca was awarded the Navy Cross . According to his citation , Fonseca was serving as Corpsman for the Amphibious Assault Vehicle Platoon , Company C , First Battalion , Second Marines , Regimental Combat Team TWO , Task Force Tarawa , First Marine Expeditionary Force , in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom on March 23 , 2003 . After an amphibious assault vehicle was struck by a rocket @-@ propelled grenade inflicting five casualties , Fonseca evacuated the wounded Marines from the burning vehicle and tended to their wounds . He established a casualty collection point inside the unit 's medical evacuation amphibious assault vehicle , calmly and methodically stabilizing two casualties with lower limb amputations by applying tourniquets and administering morphine . His vehicle was rendered immobile by enemy direct and indirect fire , however he directed the movement of four casualties from the vehicle by organizing litter teams from available Marines . He personally carried one critically wounded Marine over open ground to another vehicle . Fonseca again exposed himself to enemy fire to treat Marines wounded along the perimeter .
= = Hispanics in sensitive domestic leadership positions = =
Hispanics have been underrepresented in the all @-@ volunteer armed forces , especially among officers . Despite the fact that Hispanics make up large percentage of the total Navy population they makeup only 4 @.@ 9 % of the officers corps . This is beginning to change , as increasing numbers of Hispanics enter the military . The following Hispanics ( in alphabetical order ) either have or are currently serving their country in sensitive domestic leadership positions :
Rear Admiral Jose Luis Betancourt , Jr . ( Surface Warfare ) ( Ret . ) , was Commander , Mine Warfare Command , headquartered at Naval Air Station ( NAS ) Corpus Christi , Texas .
Rear Admiral Patrick H. Brady is a submarine commander who in July 2007 became the first person of Hispanic descent to be named Commander of the Naval Undersea Warfare Center ( N87B ) .
Rear Admiral Jay A. DeLoach ( Ret . ) was the Assistant Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Resources , Requirements and Assessments . DeLoach played an instrumental role in implementing a visionary " Memorandum of Understanding " between the Submarine Force Active component and the Reserve component . He helped pioneer many key initiatives that have since been adopted Navy @-@ wide .
Rear Admiral Alberto Díaz , Jr . ( Medical Corps ) ( Ret . ) , was the first Hispanic to become the Director of the San Diego Naval District and Balboa Naval Hospital .
Rear Admiral Philip A. Dur ( Ret . ) was the Director , Political Military Affairs on the staff of the National Security Council .
Rear Admiral Albert Garcia , Civil Engineer Corps , is assumed the duties of Deputy Commander of the First Naval Construction Division .
Rear Admiral George " Rico " Mayer is the Commander of the Naval Safety Center .
Rear Admiral Rodrigo C. Melendez ( Dental Corps ) ( Ret . ) , served as Assistant Chief for Education , Training and Personnel , Bureau of Medicine and Surgery in Washington , D.C.
Rear Admiral Marc Y.E. Pelaez , from 1990 to 1993 , he served as the Executive Assistant to the Assistant Secretary of the Navy and from 1993 to 1996 as director of submarine technology at the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency ( DARPA ) , and Chief of the Office of Naval Research .
Rear Admiral Will Rodriguez is the Chief Engineer for the Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command ( SPAWAR 05 ) .
In March 2005 , Capt. Kathlene Contres , the Navy 's highest ranking female Hispanic Line Officer on active duty , became the first Hispanic woman and the thirteenth Commandant to lead the Defense Equal Opportunity Management Institute ( DEOMI ) since it was established in 1971 . She oversaw the joint @-@ service school supporting all Department of Defense and U.S. Coast Guard equal opportunity and equal employment opportunity ( EO / EEO ) program and research requirements . She is also the president of the Association of Naval Service Officers .
Master Chief Petty Officer of the Navy Joe R. Campa Jr . , is the 11th Master Chief Petty Officer of the Navy | Master Chief Petty Officer of the United States Navy . His duty assignments include USS Ogden ( LPD @-@ 5 ) , San Diego , California ; Naval Medical Center , San Diego , California ; Seventh Marine Regiment , First Marine Division , Camp Pendleton ; Naval Hospital , Long Beach , California ; Third Force Service Support Group , Fleet Marine Force , Okinawa , Japan and Naval Hospital Bremerton , Washington .
= = Increase in Hispanic enlistment = =
Hispanic immigrants have played an important role in the military of the United States since the American Revolution when Lieutenant Jordi Farragut Mesquida , an immigrant from Spain , fought in the Battle of Charleston , South Carolina .
On July 3 , 2002 , President George W. Bush issued an order to speed up the process of citizenship for immigrants serving in the nation 's military services . Immigrant service members can now qualify for citizenship after serving honorably for one year in the armed forces or for serving on active duty during an authorized period of conflict , among other qualifications listed under the Immigration and Nationality Act , Section 328 .
One of the privileges that goes with American citizenship is the opportunity to become a commissioned officer in the Navy . A person can be drafted as a resident alien or he / she can join the Navy voluntarily as a foreigner , but can not become an officer unless they are a U.S. citizen .
The number of Hispanics in the Navy over @-@ represent their percentage of the population . Today the United States Department of Defense faces a nationwide problem in recruiting men for the all volunteer Armed Forces because of the war in Iraq and Afghanistan . The United States Navy has implemented an aggressive recruitment programs directed towards this group . One of those programs is El Navy whose principal aim is to attract those who speak Spanish and as a consequence many Hispanics have joined the Navy as enlisted personnel and many others have applied for entrance to the Naval Academy .
= = = United States Naval Academy = = =
The United States Naval Academy ( USNA ) is an institution for the undergraduate education of officers of the United States Navy and Marine Corps . Hispanics in the United States Naval Academy account for the largest minority group in the institution . According to the Academy , the Class of 2009 includes 271 ( 22 @.@ 2 % ) minority midshipmen . Out of these 271 midshipmen , 115 are of Hispanic heritage . According to the July 2004 issue of Latina Style magazine , of the total of 736 female midshipmen , 74 ( 10 % ) of the female midshipmen were of Hispanic descent .
The first Hispanic @-@ American to graduate from the academy was Commodore Robert F. Lopez , Class of 1879 . The first Hispanic to graduate from the academy and to reach the rank of admiral was a Puerto Rican , Rear Admiral Frederick Lois Riefkohl . Class of 1911 . Commander Lilia L. Ramirez and Midshipman Carmel Gilliland were among the first four Hispanic female graduates of the academy in 1981 . A total of 31 Americans of Hispanic descent who served in the Navy were alumni of the naval academy .
= = = Hispanic Heritage Month = = =
On September 17 , 1968 , President Lyndon B. Johnson designated a week in mid @-@ September as National Hispanic Heritage Week . In 1988 , President Ronald Reagan extended that week to a month @-@ long observance . The National Hispanic Heritage Month is a time for Americans to educate themselves about the influences Hispanic culture has had on society . The Navy has realized that the fastest growing group in both the United States and the Navy are Hispanics , and have joined the rest of the United States in the celebration of the contributions which Hispanics in the United States Navy have made to that military institution by celebrating National Hispanic Heritage Month from September 15 through October 15 .
= Remember the Time =
" Remember the Time " is a single by American singer @-@ songwriter Michael Jackson recorded at Record One Studios . The song was released by Epic Records on January 14 , 1992 , as the second single from Jackson 's eighth studio album , Dangerous . Written and composed by Teddy Riley , Michael Jackson and Bernard Belle , the song was produced by Riley and Jackson . " Remember the Time " was a successful attempt by Jackson to create a dance @-@ oriented , new jack swing @-@ flavored jam with the accompaniment of co @-@ producer Riley . The lyrics are about remembering being in love with someone .
" Remember the Time " was generally well received by contemporary critics . The song was commercially successful , peaking at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart and number one on Billboard 's R & B singles chart . Internationally , the song was a top ten hit in nine countries , peaking at number one in New Zealand , as well at number two in Spain and three in the United Kingdom . The song reached the top twenty in all major territories . A nine @-@ minute music video directed by John Singleton , marketed as a " short film " , was released for the song . The video is set in ancient Egypt and features appearances by Eddie Murphy , Iman , Tommy " Tiny " Lister and Magic Johnson .
= = Background and composition = =
" Remember the Time " was released as the second single from Michael Jackson 's eighth studio album , Dangerous on January 14 , 1992 . The song was written by Teddy Riley , Michael Jackson and Bernard Belle , and was produced by Riley and Jackson . " Remember the Time " is three minutes fifty nine seconds long . The song 's music was compared to Jackson 's 1979 single , " Rock with You " from his Off the Wall album . The song was rumored to be about Jackson 's relationship with Debbie Rowe in the late 1980s and early 1990s . Co @-@ writer Teddy Riley , who was quoted to have said so in an interview with the Los Angeles Times in 1996 , denied the song being about Rowe in 2011 in reply to a fan on Twitter .
However , it should also be mentioned that when the single was originally released in 1992 , Jackson dedicated the song with love to Diana Ross . Jermaine Jackson also confirmed this in his book , " You Are Not Alone : Michael : Through a Brother 's Eyes . " On page 194 Jermaine writes , " ... that song was , as Michael told me , written with Diana Ross in mind ; the one great love that , as far as he was concerned , escaped him . "
" Remember the Time " is a new jack swing song . The lyrics recall a youthful love affair : " Do you remember when we fell in love / We were young and innocent then " . The song is set in the key of an original F Minor with Jackson 's voice range from Eb3 to C5 . The song 's tempo is moderate at 116 beats per minute .
" Remember the Time " did not feature on the setlist for the Dangerous World Tour , but it was rehearsed . At the 1993 Soul Train Music Awards , the song won the award for Best R & B / Soul Single - Male . Jackson appeared with an injured foot and on crutches , but was able to perform the song seated in a chair , surrounded by dancers . However , it was later claimed that this was a publicity stunt to promote the single , and Jackson was in fact not injured .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
" Remember the Time " was generally well received by contemporary music critics . Martin Short , a writer for Allmusic , commented that the album Dangerous had " plenty " of " professional craftsmanship at its peak " because of " such fine singles " like " In the Closet " and " Remember the Time " . Erlewine listed " Remember the Time " as being a highlight from Dangerous . Alan Light , a writer for Rolling Stone , stated that he felt " Remember the Time " was the " most lighthearted musical track on the album " and described the song 's lyrics as telling of a " blissful romance only to ask , ' So why did it end ? ' " Jon Parales of The New York Times commented that " titles like ' Remember the Time ' , ' She Drives Me Wild ' and ' Give in to Me ' " tell the lyrics ' " whole story - though they don 't suggest the wretched tone he has when he sings them . " Richard Harrington , a writer for The Washington Post , described " Remember the Time " as being " wistful , " commenting that he felt that the song featured Jackson 's " least affected vocal performance " but that it " builds an engaging , radio @-@ friendly momentum " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Remember the Time " peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 on March 7 , 1992 , five weeks after the single release . The song saw similar success on other Billboard charts ; topping the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs on March 7 , and peaking at number two in Dance / Club Play Songs on April 4 , 1992 , and number 15 in Adult Contemporary on March 21 in the same year . The song peaked at number two on Billboards Hot Dance Music / Maxi Singles Sales . It was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America for the shipment of over 500 @,@ 000 units in the United States in March 1992 . The song saw similar commercial success internationally , charting in the top 20 in all major territories at the time of its release . In the United Kingdom , " Remember the Time " first entered the chart on February 15 , 1992 , placing at number six . The following week , on February 22 , the song charted at number three , where it peaked ; the song remained on the charts for a total of eight weeks .
" Remember the Time " topped the New Zealand charts for two consecutive weeks , having first entered the chart at number three on February 23 . It peaked at number four in the Netherlands and Switzerland . The song also charted within the top ten on the French , Australian , Swedish , Italian , and Norwegian charts ; peaking at number five , six , eight and ten . It charted in the top 20 , peaking at number 16 , in Austria . Having been re @-@ issued for Jackson 's Visionary campaign in 2006 , " Remember the Time " peaked at number two in Spain on the charts issue date on May 14 , 2006 . After Jackson 's death in June 2009 , his music saw a surge in popularity . In the United Kingdom , on the chart of July 11 , the song re @-@ entered at number 81 .
= = Music video = =
As part of promotion for " Remember the Time " , a music video , which was filmed in mid @-@ January 1992 , was released . Prior to the release of the video , Jackson 's record label promoted it by releasing clips , as well as releasing behind the scenes clips of making the video . The nine @-@ minute video was promoted as a " short film " . It premiered on MTV , Fox and Black Entertainment Television on February 2 , 1992 . After the video premiered on MTV , the channel aired a " rockumentary " called " More Dangerous Than Ever " which included glimpses of the making of the video . Jackson 's record label would not release the video 's budget figures . Directed by John Singleton and choreographed by Fatima Robinson , the video was an elaborate production and became one of Jackson 's longest videos at over nine minutes . It was set in ancient Egypt and featured groundbreaking visual effects and appearances by Eddie Murphy , Iman , The Pharcyde , Magic Johnson , Tom " Tiny " Lister , Jr. and Wylie Draper , who portrayed Jackson as an adult in the made for TV movie The Jacksons : An American Dream and died shortly after appearing in this video . The video also featured Michael 's first on screen kiss .
Jackson appears in the video as a hooded wizard who enters an Egyptian palace and attempts to entertain the Pharaoh 's bored Queen . Two other entertainers have failed , and she has sent them to be executed . The Queen sees that this wizard is different — instead of juggling or eating fire , he walks up the steps to her throne and sings to her , asking her if she " remembers the time " they were together . The Pharaoh ( played by Murphy ) hardly appreciates this move and summons his guards . Jackson runs away to another room and begins elaborate , Egyptian @-@ style choreography with the Pharaoh 's servants . When the guards find him , the servants disappear as does Jackson , in a swirl and a cloud of golden dust . In the video , Jackson was dressed in a costume made of gold satin . He wore golden chain mail , a white skirt with a phallic dangling sash , black pants and black boots . This video features a physically complicated dance routine that became the centerpiece of other videos from the Dangerous album .
The music video was generally well received by music critics . Ira Robbins of Entertainment Weekly described " Remember the Time " as being a " gorgeous ancient Egyptian extravaganza " video . The music video appeared on the video albums : Dangerous – The Short Films , Video Greatest Hits – HIStory and Michael Jackson 's Vision . The music video , along with other videos from Dangerous , was frequently shown on MTV .
= = Official remixes = =
Album version – 3 : 59
A cappella – 3 : 35
New Jack Mix – 6 : 48
New Jack Main Mix – 6 : 50
New Jack Radio Mix – 4 : 00
New Jack Jazz ( 21 ) – 5 : 06
12 " Main Mix – 4 : 47
7 " Main Mix – 3 : 59
Bonus Beats 3 – 4 : 46
Silky Soul 12 " Mix – 7 : 05
Silky Soul 7 " Mix – 4 : 18
Silky Dub – 6 : 17
E @-@ Smoove 's Late Nite Mix – 7 : 20
E @-@ Smoove 's Late Nite Dub – 5 : 35
Maurice 's Underground Mix – 7 : 29
Mo @-@ Mo 's Instrumental – 5 : 20
" Remember the Time " / " Bad ( Immortal version ) – 4 : 39
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Charts = = =
= = = End of year charts = = =
= = = Certifications = = =
= = Personnel = =
Written and composed by Teddy Riley , Michael Jackson and Bernard Belle
Produced by Teddy Riley and Michael Jackson
Recorded and mixed by Bruce Swedien , Teddy Riley and Dave Way
Solo and background vocals , vocal arrangement by Michael Jackson
Keyboards , synthesizers , Drum Programming and synthesizer arrangements by Teddy Riley
Sequencing and programming by Wayne Cobham
= Alexander Edler =
Ulf Niklas Alexander Edler ( born 21 April 1986 ) is a Swedish professional ice hockey defenceman currently playing for the Vancouver Canucks of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . He was drafted out of Sweden 's third @-@ tier ice hockey league by the Canucks in the third round , 91st overall , in the 2004 NHL Entry Draft , and played junior ice hockey with Modo of the J20 SuperElit and the Kelowna Rockets of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) .
Edler turned professional in North America with the Canucks ' American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Manitoba Moose , in 2006 – 07 , seeing some time in the NHL over the course of the season . He became a full @-@ time member of the Canucks the following season , and has since been named to one NHL All @-@ Star Game ( 2012 ) .
Internationally , he has competed for Sweden on four occasions — at the 2006 World Junior Championships , the 2008 and 2013 IIHF World Championships ( winning gold ) and the 2014 Winter Olympics ( winning silver ) . Edler is an offensive defenceman noted for his calm on @-@ ice demeanor and strong slapshot .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Sweden and junior ( 2001 – 06 ) = = =
Edler played at the under @-@ 17 level with his hometown district team of Jämtland in 2001 and 2002 , competing at TV @-@ pucken , a national Swedish tournament . In 2003 – 04 , he joined the professional Jämtlands HF . He played with the club in Sweden 's third @-@ tier league , recording three goals and nine points in 24 games , while also appearing in six games for Jämtlands HF 's junior team .
Edler was largely unknown during his NHL Draft year , unranked by the NHL Central Scouting Bureau the entire season . He was brought to the attention of the Vancouver Canucks by the team 's head scout in Sweden , Thomas Gradin , who saw Edler playing with Jämtlands HF . Although Gradin would refer to the team 's level of play as little more than beer @-@ league @-@ calibre , he was impressed with Edler and encouraged Canucks management to draft him ( Edler 's number 23 with the Canucks would later be chosen by team trainers in honour of Gradin ) . The Canucks traded up in the 2004 NHL Entry Draft to acquire the Dallas Stars ' third @-@ round draft pick in exchange for their own third @-@ round pick in the 2005 Draft , and used the pick to select Edler 91st overall . The deal was made with the Stars in lieu of speculation that the Detroit Red Wings had a high interest in Edler and wanted to draft him in the third round as well . Detroit had discovered Edler in Sweden through their European scout Håkan Andersson , who was responsible for such previous Red Wings late @-@ round picks as Henrik Zetterberg and Pavel Datsyuk . At the time of his draft , Canucks General Manager Dave Nonis described Edler as a " smooth skater [ and a ] big guy . " Nonis added that , " He needs some time [ to develop ] , but in terms of raw skill , he 's got quite a bit of it . "
After being selected by the Canucks , Gradin brokered a move for Edler to play with Modo Hockey 's junior club of the J20 SuperElit . Edler had previously tried out for Modo 's youth program , but was cut . Future Canucks teammates Markus Näslund , Henrik Sedin and Daniel Sedin had also played in the Modo system before joining the NHL . In Edler 's lone season with Modo , he recorded eight goals and 23 points over 33 games in 2004 – 05 . He ranked second in point @-@ scoring among league defensemen to Modo teammate Tommy Enström , who recorded 33 .
On 29 June 2005 , Edler 's major junior rights were obtained by the Kelowna Rockets of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) ; he was chosen by Kelowna in the first round , 58th overall , of the Canadian Hockey League ( CHL ) Import Draft . The Canucks encouraged Edler to move from Sweden to play junior in North America . After reporting to training camp with the Canucks ' American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Manitoba Moose , in September 2005 , he was assigned to junior with the Rockets . In his lone WHL season , Edler collected 13 goals and 53 points over 62 games in 2005 – 06 , ranking fifth among WHL defencemen and fourth among total rookies in scoring . He went on to help Kelowna to the second round of the WHL playoffs , where they were eliminated by the Everett Silvertips . In 12 post @-@ season games , Edler added eight points .
= = = Vancouver Canucks ( from 2006 ) = = =
The following off @-@ season , Edler was signed to an entry @-@ level contract by the Canucks on 24 July 2006 . Reporting to the Canucks ' training camp in September 2006 , his play had the Canucks slotting him in as the team 's seventh defenseman . However , a hip injury saw him assigned to the Manitoba Moose . Following an injury to Canucks defenseman Sami Salo , he was called up to the NHL on 3 November 2006 , two games into his AHL season . He made his NHL debut the following day against the Colorado Avalanche . Eleven days later , however , he was reassigned to the Moose , only to be recalled on 24 November . He scored his first NHL goal on 30 November , a slap shot that beat Anaheim Ducks goaltender Jean @-@ Sébastien Giguère in a 2 – 1 loss . Edler was reassigned between Manitoba and Vancouver on several more occasions over the course of the 2006 – 07 season . He appeared in 22 games total for the Canucks , recording a goal and two assists . With the Moose , he scored five goals and 26 points over 49 games and was named Manitoba 's Rookie of the Year .
Playing in his rookie season with the Canucks the following season , Edler was chosen to compete in the 2008 NHL YoungStars Game . Representing the Western Conference , his team was defeated by the Eastern Conference by a 7 – 6 score . Playing amidst numerous injuries on the Canucks ' blueline , Edler appeared in the most games among team defensemen with 75 . With all the injuries to his teammates , he was given additional time on the power play and penalty kill . His eight goals ranked second among rookie defensemen in the NHL , while his 20 points was fifth overall .
At the start of the 2008 – 09 season , Edler was re @-@ signed to a four @-@ year , $ 13 million contract extension on 9 October 2008 . The contract , a raise from his 2008 – 09 salary of $ 550 @,@ 000 , took into effect the following campaign . The following month , he missed two games sidelined with the flu . Later in the season , he recorded a personal best four @-@ point game ( one goal and three assists ) in a game against the Chicago Blackhawks on 7 February 2009 . He finished with 37 points , including a career @-@ high ten goals . In the 2009 Stanley Cup playoffs , Edler led all team defensemen with seven points in ten games as the Canucks were eliminated in the second round by Chicago . In his first few seasons in the NHL , Edler was often paired with veteran blueliner and countryman Mattias Öhlund , who he considered a mentor for him ( Öhlund left the Canucks to free agency in the 2009 off @-@ season and signed with the Tampa Bay Lightning ) .
The following campaign , Edler improved to career @-@ highs of 37 assists , first among team defensemen , and 42 points , second to Christian Ehrhoff . He missed six games near the midpoint of the campaign due to a left arm injury , sustained in December 2009 . In the post @-@ season , he added six points in 12 games as the Canucks lost again in the second round to the Blackhawks . Edler was injured in the sixth and deciding game of the series after opposing forward Dustin Byfuglien stepped on his right ankle after hitting him along the boards . Requiring a walking cast for five weeks , he rehabilitated his ankle during the off @-@ season .
Recovering in time for the 2010 – 11 season , Edler continued to improve and was on pace to record new career @-@ highs in goals , assists and points when he suffered a back injury in January 2011 . Canucks General Manager Mike Gillis told reporters that Edler had been experiencing tightness in his back at several times in the season , but an open @-@ ice hit against Dallas Stars forward Jamie Benn during a game on 24 January might have contributed to his back problems . Edler underwent microdisectomy surgery to relieve pressure on a herniated disk and was sidelined for two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half months , returning for the second @-@ last game of the regular season . Finishing the season with eight goals and 33 points over 51 games , he ranked second among team defencemen in scoring , behind Ehrhoff . His 24 minutes and 17 seconds of average ice time per game also led the Canucks . As the Canucks won the Presidents ' Trophy for the first time in franchise history , the team entered the 2011 playoffs with the first seed in the West . Eliminating the Chicago Blackhawks , Nashville Predators and San Jose Sharks , the Canucks advanced to the Stanley Cup Finals for the first time in 17 years . Facing the Boston Bruins , the team lost the series in seven games . Following their defeat , it was revealed that several Canucks players had been playing with injuries , including Edler , who played Game 7 with two broken fingers . He ranked second among Canucks defensemen and third in the League overall with 11 points ( 2 goals and 9 assists ) in 25 games .
With the departure of Christian Ehrhoff , the Canucks ' leading defensive scorer from the previous two seasons , to the Buffalo Sabres in the off @-@ season , Edler assumed a larger role on the team 's blueline in the 2011 – 12 season . By mid @-@ January 2012 , Edler was ranked fourth among NHL defenceman in scoring with seven goals and 24 points . That month , he was selected to his first NHL All @-@ Star Game . He was selected to the competition alongside Canucks teammates Daniel and Henrik Sedin , as well as Cody Hodgson , who was named to the rookie squad . Playing for Team Alfredsson , Edler logged 21 minutes of ice time in a 12 – 9 loss to Team Chara . Edler finished the campaign having played all 82 games for the first time in his career . He recorded personal bests and team @-@ highs among defensemen in all major statistical categories with 11 goals , 38 assists and 49 points . League @-@ wide , he ranked seventh among defensemen in point @-@ scoring . Out of eight attempts , his four shootout goals was first among NHL defensemen . His efforts helped the Canucks to a second consecutive Presidents ' Trophy . Individually , he earned four fifth @-@ place votes for the James Norris Memorial Trophy to rank 15th overall . Defending their Campbell Bowl as Western Conference champions from the previous year , the Canucks lost in the first round of the 2012 playoffs to the Los Angeles Kings . Edler recorded two goals in the five @-@ game series .
On 18 January 2013 , Edler signed a six @-@ year , $ 30 million contract extension to remain with the Canucks . During the summer Edler was the talk of trade rumors at the trade deadline . The Red Wings were the team most interested in Edler and GM Mike Gills tried to move Edler before his NTC ( No trade clause ) went into effect on 1 July . In the end no deal was made and Edler stayed with the Canucks .
= = International play = =
Eder made his first appearance for Sweden at the under @-@ 20 level , competing in the 2006 World Junior Championships in British Columbia . He notched his lone point of the tournament , an assist , in a 10 – 2 round @-@ robin win against Latvia . Sweden went on to finish in fifth place , having lost their quarterfinal game to Finland . Two years later , Edler debuted with Sweden 's men 's team at the 2008 IIHF World Championships in Halifax and Quebec City . He scored his first international goal on the powerplay against French goaltender Fabrice Lhenry in a 9 – 0 round @-@ robin win . Sweden went on to the bronze medal game , where they were defeated by Canada 5 – 4 . Edler finished with a goal and two assists in eight games . His 19 : 02 minutes of average ice time per game ranked third among team defencemen .
Edler was responsible for a knee @-@ on @-@ knee hit to Carolina Hurricanes captain Eric Staal in the quarterfinals of the 2013 IIHF World Championship , and was suspended for the final two games of the championship . Sweden went on to win the gold medal , and Edler was awarded a medal even though he did not play in the gold medal game . On 29 July 2013 , the IIHF extended the suspension to cover Sweden 's first two games of the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi . Edler later joined team Sweden during the Olympics after his two @-@ game suspension . He recored a goal and two assists in the tournament , helping Sweden earn the silver medal .
= = Playing style = =
Edler plays in the style of an offensive defenseman . One of his strongest offensive assets is his slapshot . At the Canucks ' 2008 SuperSkills event , he beat the team 's reigning hardest shooter , Sami Salo , with a 99 @.@ 3 mile @-@ per @-@ hour shot and has gone on to win the competition in 2009 and 2010 , as well . He is also known for his poise and confidence with the puck , allowing him to make strong first passes out of the defensive zone to forwards . Many within the Canucks organization , such as Assistant Coach Rick Bowness , have asserted this as a reflection of his calm off @-@ ice demeanor .
Despite Edler 's imposing physical characteristics , he was not known to be an aggressive defender early in his NHL career . However , he has gradually shown a capability for physicality and to hit opposing players hard . Looking back on his transition to North American hockey with the Kelowna Rockets , Edler noted the most difficult adjustment was the physical aspect of the game , which was more pronounced than in Sweden . During the Canucks ' 2011 playoff run , teammate Kevin Bieksa compared him to Edler 's former defensive partner , Mattias Öhlund , commenting , " He [ Edler ] was like Bambi when he first came into the league but now he realized how big and strong he is . When he hits guys , he hurts them . "
= = Personal life = =
Edler was born in Östersund , Sweden . He has a brother , Jens , and a sister , Katarina . He began playing hockey at the age of six .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards = =
= Rokeby Venus =
The Rokeby Venus ( / ˈroʊkbi / ; also known as The Toilet of Venus , Venus at her Mirror , Venus and Cupid , or La Venus del espejo ) is a painting by Diego Velázquez , the leading artist of the Spanish Golden Age . Completed between 1647 and 1651 , and probably painted during the artist 's visit to Italy , the work depicts the goddess Venus in a sensual pose , lying on a bed and looking into a mirror held by the Roman god of physical love , her son Cupid . The painting is in the National Gallery , London .
Numerous works , from the ancient to the baroque , have been cited as sources of inspiration for Velázquez . The nude Venuses of the Italian painters , such as Giorgione 's Sleeping Venus ( c . 1510 ) and Titian 's Venus of Urbino ( 1538 ) , were the main precedents . In this work , Velázquez combined two established poses for Venus : recumbent on a couch or a bed , and gazing at a mirror . She is often described as looking at herself on the mirror , although this is physically impossible since viewers can see her face reflected in their direction . This phenomenon is known as the Venus effect . In a number of ways the painting represents a pictorial departure , through its central use of a mirror , and because it shows the body of Venus turned away from the observer of the painting .
The Rokeby Venus is the only surviving female nude by Velázquez . Nudes were extremely rare in seventeenth @-@ century Spanish art , which was policed actively by members of the Spanish Inquisition . Despite this , nudes by foreign artists were keenly collected by the court circle , and this painting was hung in the houses
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of Spanish courtiers until 1813 , when it was brought to England to hang in Rokeby Park , Yorkshire . In 1906 , the painting was purchased by National Art Collections Fund for the National Gallery , London . Although it was attacked and badly damaged in 1914 by the suffragette Mary Richardson , it soon was fully restored and returned to display .
= = The painting = =
= = = Description = = =
The Rokeby Venus depicts the Roman goddess of love , beauty and fertility reclining languidly on her bed , her back to the viewer — in Antiquity , portrayal of Venus from a back view was a common visual and literary erotic motif — and her knees tucked . She is shown without the mythological paraphernalia normally included in depictions of the scene ; jewellery , roses , and myrtle are all absent . Unlike most earlier portrayals of the goddess , which show her with blond hair , Velázquez 's Venus is a brunette . The female figure can be identified as Venus because of the presence of her son , Cupid .
Venus gazes into a mirror held by Cupid , who is without his usual bow and arrows . When the work was first inventoried , it was described as " a nude woman " , probably owing to its controversial nature . Venus looks outward at the viewer of the painting through her reflected image in the mirror . However , the image is blurred and reveals only a vague reflection of her facial characteristics ; the reflected image of the head is much larger than it would be in reality . The critic Natasha Wallace has speculated that Venus 's indistinct face may be the key to the underlying meaning of the painting , in that " it is not intended as a specific female nude , nor even as a portrayal of Venus , but as an image of self @-@ absorbed beauty . " According to Wallace , " There is nothing spiritual about face or picture . The classical setting is an excuse for a very material aesthetic sexuality — not sex , as such , but an appreciation of the beauty that accompanies attraction . "
Intertwining pink silk ribbons are draped over the mirror and curl over its frame . The ribbon 's function has been the subject of much debate by art historians ; suggestions include an allusion to the fetters used by Cupid to bind lovers , that it was used to hang the mirror , and that it was used to blindfold Venus moments before . The critic Julián Gallego found Cupid 's facial expression to be so melancholy that he interprets the ribbons as fetters binding the god to the image of Beauty , and gave the painting the title " Amor conquered by Beauty " .
The folds of the bed sheets echo the goddess 's physical form , and are rendered to emphasise the sweeping curves of her body . The composition mainly uses shades of red , white , and grey , which are used even in Venus 's skin ; although the effect of this simple colour scheme has been much praised , recent technical analysis has shown that the grey sheet was originally a " deep mauve " , that has now faded . The luminescent colours used in Venus 's skin , applied with " smooth , creamy , blended handling " , contrast with the dark greys and black of the silk she is lying on , and with the brown of the wall behind her face .
The Rokeby Venus is the only surviving nude by Velázquez , but three others by the artist are recorded in 17th @-@ century Spanish inventories . Two were mentioned in the Royal collection , but may have been lost in the 1734 fire that destroyed the main Royal Palace of Madrid . A further one was recorded in the collection of Domingo Guerra Coronel . These records mention " a reclining Venus " , Venus and Adonis , and a Psyche and Cupid .
Although the work is widely thought to have been painted from life , the identity of the model is subject to much speculation . In contemporary Spain it was acceptable for artists to employ male nude models for studies ; however , the use of female nude models was frowned upon . The painting is believed to have been executed during one of Velázquez 's visits to Rome , and Prater has observed that in Rome the artist " did indeed lead a life of considerable personal liberty that would have been consistent with the notion of using a live nude female model " . It has been claimed that the painting depicts a mistress Velázquez is known to have had while in Italy , who is supposed to have borne his child . Others have claimed that the model is the same as in Coronation of the Virgin and Las Hilanderas , both in the Museo del Prado , and other works .
The figures of both Venus and Cupid were significantly altered during the painting process , the result of the artist 's corrections to the contours as initially painted . Pentimenti can be seen in Venus 's upraised arm , in the position of her left shoulder , and on her head . Infra @-@ red reveals that she was originally shown more upright with her head turned to the left . An area on the left of the painting , extending from Venus 's left foot to the left leg and foot of Cupid , is apparently unfinished , but this feature is seen in many other works by Velázquez and was probably deliberate . The painting was given a major cleaning and restoration in 1965 – 66 , which showed it to be in good condition , and with very little paint added later by other artists , contrary to what some earlier writers had asserted .
= = Nudes in 17th @-@ century Spain = =
The portrayal of nudes was officially discouraged in 17th @-@ century Spain . Works could be seized or repainting demanded by the Inquisition , and artists who painted licentious or immoral works were often excommunicated , fined , or banished from Spain for a year . However , within intellectual and aristocratic circles , the aims of art were believed to supersede questions of morality , and there were many , generally mythological , nudes in private collections .
Velázquez 's patron , the art @-@ loving King Philip IV , held a number of nudes by Titian and Rubens , and Velázquez , as the king 's painter , need not have feared painting such a picture . Leading collectors , including the King , tended to keep nudes , many mythological , in relatively private rooms ; in Phillip 's case " the room where His Majesty retires after eating " , which contained the Titian poesies he had inherited from Phillip II , and the Rubens he had commissioned himself . The Venus would be in such a room while in the collections of both Haro and Godoy . The court of Philip IV greatly " appreciated painting in general , and the nude in particular , but ... at the same time , exerted unparalleled pressure on artists to avoid the depiction of the naked human body . "
The contemporary Spanish attitude toward paintings of nudes was unique in Europe . Although such works were appreciated by some connoisseurs and intellectuals within Spain , they were generally treated with suspicion . Low necklines were commonly worn by women during the period , but according to the art historian Zahira Veliz , " the codes of pictorial decorum would not easily permit a known lady to be painted in this way " . For Spaniards of the 17th century , the issue of the nude in art was tied up with concepts of morality , power , and aesthetics . This attitude is reflected in the literature of the Spanish Golden Age , in works such as Lope de Vega 's play La quinta de Florencia , which features an aristocrat who commits rape after viewing a scantily clad figure in a mythological painting by Michelangelo .
In 1632 , an anonymous pamphlet — attributed to the Portuguese Francisco de Braganza — was published with the title " A copy of the opinions and censorship by the most revered fathers , masters and senior professors of the distinguished universities of Salamanca and Alcalá , and other scholars on the abuse of lascivious and indecent figures and paintings , which are mortal sin to be painted , carved and displayed where they can be seen " . The court was able to exert counter @-@ pressure , and a piece by the famous poet and preacher Fray Hortensio Félix Paravicino , which proposed the destruction of all paintings of the nude , and was written to be included in the pamphlet , was never published . Paravicino was a connoisseur of painting , and therefore believed in its power : " the finest paintings are the greatest threat : burn the best of them " . As his title shows , Braganza merely argued that such works should be kept from the view of a wider public , as was in fact mostly the practice in Spain .
In contrast , French art of the period often depicted women with low necklines and slender corsets ; however , the mutilation by the French royal family of the Correggio depiction of Leda and the Swan and their apparent destruction of the famous Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo paintings of the same subject , show that nudity could be controversial in France also . In northern Europe it was seen as acceptable to portray artfully draped nudes . Examples include Rubens 's Minerva Victrix , of 1622 – 25 , which shows Marie de ' Medici with an uncovered breast , and Anthony van Dyck 's 1620 painting , The Duke and Duchess of Buckingham as Venus and Adonis .
In 17th @-@ century Spanish art , even in the depiction of sibyls , nymphs , and goddesses , the female form was always chastely covered . No painting from the 1630s or 1640s , whether in the genre , portrait , or history format , shows a Spanish female with her breasts exposed ; even uncovered arms were only rarely shown . In 1997 , the art historian Peter Cherry suggested that Velázquez sought to overcome the contemporary requirement for modesty by portraying Venus from the back . Even in the mid @-@ 18th century , an English artist who made a drawing of the Venus when it was in the collection of the Dukes of Alba noted it was " not hung up , owing to the subject " .
Another attitude to the issue was shown by Morritt , who wrote to Sir Walter Scott of his " fine painting of Venus ' backside " , which he hung above his main fireplace , so that " the ladies may avert their downcast eyes without difficulty and connoisseurs steal a glance without drawing the said posterior into the company " .
= = Provenance = =
The Rokeby Venus was long held to be one of Velázquez 's final works . In 1951 , it was found recorded in an inventory of June 1 , 1651 from the collection of Gaspar Méndez de Haro , 7th Marquis of Carpio , a close associate of Philip IV of Spain . Haro was the great @-@ nephew of Velázquez 's first patron , the Count @-@ Duke of Olivares , and a notorious libertine . According to the art historian Dawson Carr , Haro " loved paintings almost as much as he loved women " , and " even his panegyrists lamented his excessive taste for lower @-@ class women during his youth " . For these reasons it seemed likely that he would have commissioned the painting . However , in 2001 the art historian Ángel Aterido discovered that the painting had first belonged to the Madrid art dealer and painter Domingo Guerra Coronel , and was sold to Haro in 1652 following Coronel 's death the previous year . Coronel 's ownership of the painting raises a number of questions : how and when it came into Coronel 's possession , and why Velázquez 's name was omitted from Coronel 's inventory . The art critic Javier Portús has suggested that the omission may have been due to the painting 's portrayal of a female nude , " a type of work which was carefully supervised and whose dissemination was considered problematic " .
These revelations make the painting difficult to date . Velázquez 's painting technique offers no assistance , although its strong emphasis on colour and tone suggest that the work dates from his mature period . The best estimates of its origin put its completion in the late 1640s or early 1650s , either in Spain or during Velázquez 's last visit to Italy . If this is the case , then the breadth of handling and the dissolution of form can be seen to mark the beginning of the artist 's final period . The conscientious modelling and strong tonal contrasts of his earlier work are here replaced by a restraint and subtlety which would culminate in his late masterpiece , Las Meninas .
The painting passed from Haro into the collection of his daughter Catalina de Haro y Guzmán , the eighth Marchioness of Carpio , and her husband , Francisco Álvarez de Toledo , the tenth Duke of Alba . In 1802 , Charles IV of Spain ordered the family to sell the painting ( with other works ) to Manuel de Godoy , his favourite and chief minister . He hung it alongside two masterpieces by Francisco Goya that he may have commissioned himself , The Nude Maja and The Clothed Maja . These bear obvious compositional similarities with Velázquez 's Venus , although unlike Velázquez , Goya clearly painted his nude in a calculated attempt to provoke shame and disgust in the relatively unenlightened climate of 18th @-@ century Spain .
Venus was brought to England in 1813 , where it was purchased by John Morritt for £ 500 ( £ 29 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) , and on the advice of his friend Sir Thomas Lawrence . Morritt hung it in his house at Rokeby Park , Yorkshire — thus the painting 's popular name . In 1906 , the painting was acquired for the National Gallery by the newly created National Art Collections Fund , its first campaigning triumph . King Edward VII greatly admired the painting , and anonymously provided £ 8 @,@ 000 ( £ 780 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) towards its purchase , and became Patron of the Fund thereafter .
= = Legacy = =
In part because he was overlooked until the mid @-@ 19th century , Velázquez found no followers and was not widely imitated . In particular , his visual and structural innovations in this portrayal of Venus were not developed by other artists until recently , largely owing to the censorship of the work . The painting remained in a series of private rooms in private collections until it was exhibited in 1857 at the Manchester Art Treasures Exhibition , along with 25 other paintings at least claimed to be by Velázquez ; it was here that it became known as the Rokeby Venus . It does not appear to have been copied by other artists , engraved or otherwise reproduced , until this period . In 1890 it was exhibited in the Royal Academy in London , and in 1905 at Messrs. Agnews , the dealers who had bought it from Morritt . From 1906 it was highly visible in the National Gallery and became well @-@ known globally through reproductions . The general influence of the painting was therefore long delayed , although individual artists would have been able to see it on occasion throughout its history .
Velázquez 's portrait is a staging of a private moment of intimacy and a dramatic departure from the classical depictions of sleep and intimacy found in works from antiquity and Venetian art that portray Venus . However , the simplicity with which Velázquez displays the female nude — without jewellery or any of the goddess 's usual accessories — was echoed in later nude studies by Ingres , Manet , and Baudry , among others . In addition , Velázquez 's depiction of Venus as a reclining nude viewed from the rear was a rarity before that time , although the pose has been painted by many later artists . Manet , in his stark female portrayal Olympia , paraphrased the Rokeby Venus in pose and by suggesting the persona of a real woman rather than an ethereal goddess . Olympia shocked the Parisian art world when it was first exhibited in 1863 . Olympia gazes directly out at the viewer , as does Velázquez 's Venus , only through the reflection of the mirror .
= = Vandalism , 1914 = =
On March 10 , 1914 , the suffragette Mary Richardson walked into the National Gallery and attacked Velázquez 's canvas with a meat cleaver . Her action was ostensibly provoked by the arrest of fellow suffragette Emmeline Pankhurst the previous day , although there had been earlier warnings of a planned suffragette attack on the collection . Richardson left seven slashes on the painting , particularly causing damage to the area between the figure 's shoulders . However , all were successfully repaired by the National Gallery 's chief restorer Helmut Ruhemann .
Richardson was sentenced to six months ' imprisonment , the maximum allowed for destruction of an artwork . In a statement to the Women 's Social and Political Union shortly afterwards , Richardson explained , " I have tried to destroy the picture of the most beautiful woman in mythological history as a protest against the Government for destroying Mrs. Pankhurst , who is the most beautiful character in modern history . " She added in a 1952 interview that she didn 't like " the way men visitors gaped at it all day long " .
The feminist writer Lynda Nead observed , " The incident has come to symbolize a particular perception of feminist attitudes towards the female nude ; in a sense , it has come to represent a specific stereotypical image of feminism more generally . " Contemporary reports of the incident reveal that the picture was not widely seen as mere artwork . Journalists tended to assess the attack in terms of a murder ( Richardson was nicknamed " Slasher Mary " ) , and used words that conjured wounds inflicted on an actual female body , rather than on a pictorial representation of a female body . The Times described a " cruel wound in the neck " , as well as incisions to the shoulders and back .
= Dürer 's Rhinoceros =
Dürer 's Rhinoceros is the name commonly given to a woodcut executed by German painter and printmaker Albrecht Dürer in 1515 . The image is based on a written description and brief sketch by an unknown artist of an Indian rhinoceros that had arrived in Lisbon in 1515 . Dürer never saw the actual rhinoceros , which was the first living example seen in Europe since Roman times . In late 1515 , the King of Portugal , Manuel I , sent the animal as a gift for Pope Leo X , but it died in a shipwreck off the coast of Italy in early 1516 . A live rhinoceros was not seen again in Europe until a second specimen , named Abada , arrived from India at the court of Sebastian of Portugal in 1577 , being later inherited by Philip II of Spain around 1580 .
Dürer 's woodcut is not an entirely accurate representation of a rhinoceros . He depicts an animal with hard plates that cover its body like sheets of armour , with a gorget at the throat , a solid @-@ looking breastplate , and rivets along the seams . He places a small twisted horn on its back , and gives it scaly legs and saw @-@ like rear quarters . None of these features are present in a real rhinoceros , although the Indian rhinoceros does have deep folds in its skin that can look like armor from a distance . Despite its anatomical inaccuracies , Dürer 's woodcut became very popular in Europe and was copied many times in the following three centuries . It was regarded by Westerners as a true representation of a rhinoceros into the late 18th century . Eventually , it was supplanted by more realistic drawings and paintings , particularly those of Clara the rhinoceros , who toured Europe in the 1740s and 1750s . It has been said of Dürer 's woodcut : " probably no animal picture has exerted such a profound influence on the arts " .
= = The rhinoceros = =
On 20 May 1515 , an Indian rhinoceros arrived in Lisbon from the Far East . In early 1514 , Afonso de Albuquerque , governor of Portuguese India , sent ambassadors to Sultan Muzafar II , ruler of Cambay ( modern Gujarat ) , to seek permission to build a fort on the island of Diu . The mission returned without an agreement , but diplomatic gifts were exchanged , including the rhinoceros . At that time , the rulers of different countries would occasionally send each other exotic animals to be kept in a menagerie . The rhinoceros was already well accustomed to being kept in captivity . Albuquerque decided to forward the gift , known by its Gujarati name of ganda , and its Indian keeper , named Ocem , to King Manuel I of Portugal . It sailed on the Nossa Senhora da Ajuda , which left Goa in January 1515 . The ship , captained by Francisco Pereira Coutinho , and two companion vessels , all loaded with exotic spices , sailed across the Indian Ocean , around the Cape of Good Hope and north through the Atlantic , stopping briefly in Mozambique , Saint Helena and the Azores .
After a relatively fast voyage of 120 days , the rhinoceros was finally unloaded in Portugal , near the site where the Manueline Belém Tower was under construction . The tower was later decorated with gargoyles shaped as rhinoceros heads under its corbels . A rhinoceros had not been seen in Europe since Roman times : it had become something of a mythical beast , occasionally conflated in bestiaries with the " monoceros " ( unicorn ) , so the arrival of a living example created a sensation . In the context of the Renaissance , it was a piece of classical antiquity which had been rediscovered , like a statue or an inscription .
The animal was examined by scholars and the curious , and letters describing the fantastic creature were sent to correspondents throughout Europe . The earliest known image of the animal illustrates a poemetto by Florentine Giovanni Giacomo Penni , published in Rome on 13 July 1515 , fewer than eight weeks after its arrival in Lisbon . The only known copy of the original published poem is held by the Institución Colombina in Seville .
It was housed in King Manuel 's menagerie at the Ribeira Palace in Lisbon , separate from his elephants and other large beasts at the Estaus Palace . On Trinity Sunday , 3 June , Manuel arranged a fight with young elephant from his collection , to test the account by Pliny the Elder that the elephant and the rhinoceros are bitter enemies . The rhinoceros advanced slowly and deliberately towards its foe ; the elephant , unaccustomed to the noisy crowd that turned out to witness the spectacle , fled the field in panic before a single blow was struck .
Manuel decided to give the rhinoceros as a gift to the Medici Pope Leo X. The King was keen to curry favour with the Pope , to maintain the papal grants of exclusive possession to the new lands that his naval forces had been exploring in the Far East since Vasco da Gama discovered the sea route to India around Africa in 1498 . The previous year , the Pope had been very pleased with Manuel 's gift of a white elephant , also from India , which the Pope had named Hanno . Together with other precious gifts of silver plate and spices , the rhinoceros , with its new collar of green velvet decorated with flowers , embarked in December 1515 for the voyage from the Tagus to Rome . The vessel passed near Marseille in early 1516 . King Francis I of France was returning from Saint @-@ Maximin @-@ la @-@ Sainte @-@ Baume in Provence , and requested a viewing of the beast . The Portuguese vessel stopped briefly at an island off Marseilles , where the rhinoceros disembarked to be beheld by the King on 24 January .
After resuming its journey , the ship was wrecked in a sudden storm as it passed through the narrows of Porto Venere , north of La Spezia on the coast of Liguria . The rhinoceros , chained and shackled to the deck to keep it under control , was unable to swim to safety and drowned . The carcass of the rhinoceros was recovered near Villefranche , and its hide was returned to Lisbon , where it was stuffed . Some reports say that the mounted skin was sent to Rome , arriving in February 1516 , to be exhibited impagliato ( Italian for " stuffed with straw " ) , although such a feat would have challenged 16th @-@ century methods of taxidermy , which were still primitive . If a stuffed rhinoceros did arrive in Rome , its fate remains unknown : it might have been removed to Florence by the Medici , or destroyed in the 1527 sack of Rome . In any event , there was not the popular sensation in Rome that the living beast had caused in Lisbon , although a rhinoceros was depicted in contemporary paintings in Rome by Giovanni da Udine and Raphael .
= = Dürer 's woodcut = =
Valentim Fernandes , a Moravian merchant and printer , saw the rhinoceros in Lisbon shortly after it arrived and wrote a letter describing it to a friend in Nuremberg in June 1515 . The original letter in German has not survived , but a copy in Italian is held in the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale in Florence . A second letter of unknown authorship was sent from Lisbon to Nuremberg at around the same time , enclosing a sketch by an unknown artist . Dürer – who was acquainted with the Portuguese community of the factory at Antwerp – saw the second letter and sketch in Nuremberg . He made a pen and ink drawing and printed a reversed reflection of it .
The German inscription on the woodcut , drawing largely from Pliny 's account , reads :
Dürer 's woodcut is not an accurate representation of a rhinoceros . He depicts an animal with hard plates that cover its body like sheets of armour , with a gorget at the throat , a solid @-@ looking breastplate , and rivets along the seams . He places a small twisted horn on its back , and gives it scaly legs and saw @-@ like rear quarters . None of these features is present in a real rhinoceros . It is possible that a suit of armour was forged for the rhinoceros 's fight against the elephant in Portugal , and that these features depicted by Dürer are parts of the armour . Alternatively , Dürer 's " armour " may represent the heavy folds of thick skin of an Indian rhinoceros , or , as with the other inaccuracies , may simply be misunderstandings or creative additions by Dürer . Dürer also draws a scaly texture over the body of the animal , including the " armour " . This may be Dürer 's attempt to reflect the rough and almost hairless hide of the Indian rhinoceros , which has wart @-@ like bumps covering its upper legs and shoulders . On the other hand , his depiction of the texture may represent dermatitis induced by the rhinoceros ' close confinement during the four @-@ month journey by ship from India to Portugal .
A second woodcut was executed by Hans Burgkmair in Augsburg around the same time as Dürer 's in Nuremberg . Burgkmair corresponded with merchants in Lisbon and Nuremberg , but it is not clear whether he had access to a letter or sketch as Dürer did , perhaps even Dürer 's sources , or saw the animal himself in Portugal . His image is truer to life , omitting Dürer 's more fanciful additions and including the shackles and chain used to restrain the rhinoceros ; however , Dürer 's woodcut is more powerful and eclipsed Burgkmair 's in popularity . Only one impression ( example ) of Burgkmair 's image has survived , whereas Dürer 's print survives in many impressions . Dürer produced a first edition of his woodcut in 1515 , in the first state , which is distinguished by only five lines of text in the heading . Many further printings followed after Dürer 's death in 1528 , including two in the 1540s , and two more in the late 16th century . Later printings have six lines of descriptive text .
The block passed into the hands of the Amsterdam printer and cartographer Willem Janssen ( also called Willem Blaeu amongst other names ) . By this time the block was very damaged ; the border lines were chipped , there were numerous woodworm holes and a pronounced crack had developed through the rhino 's legs . Janssen decided to re @-@ issue the block with the addition of a new tone block printed in a variety of colours , olive @-@ green and dark green , as well as blue @-@ grey . The resulting chiaroscuro woodcut , which entirely omitted the text , was published after 1620 . There is an example in the British Museum . This was the seventh of the eight editions in all of the print .
Despite its errors , the image remained very popular , and was taken to be an accurate representation of a rhinoceros until the late 18th century . Dürer may have anticipated this and deliberately chosen to create a woodcut , rather than a more refined and detailed engraving , as this was cheaper to produce and more copies could be printed . Images derived from it were included in naturalist texts , including Sebastian Münster 's Cosmographiae ( 1544 ) , Conrad Gessner 's Historiae Animalium ( 1551 ) , Edward Topsell 's Histoire of Foure @-@ footed Beastes ( 1607 ) and many others . A rhinoceros that was clearly based on Dürer 's woodcut was chosen by Alessandro de ' Medici as his emblem in June 1536 , with the motto " Non vuelvo sin vencer " ( old Spanish for " I shall not return without victory " ) . A sculpture of a rhinoceros based on Dürer 's image was placed at the base of a 70 @-@ foot ( 21 m ) high obelisk designed by Jean Goujon and erected in front of the Church of the Sepulchre in the rue Saint @-@ Denis in Paris in 1549 for the royal entry welcoming the arrival of the new King of France , Henry II . A similar rhinoceros , in relief , decorates a panel in one of the bronze west doors of Pisa Cathedral . The rhinoceros was depicted in numerous other paintings and sculptures , and became a popular decoration for porcelain . The popularity of the inaccurate Dürer image remained undiminished despite an Indian rhinoceros spending eight years in Madrid from 1580 to 1588 ( although a few examples of a print of the Madrid rhinoceros sketched by Philippe Galle in Antwerp in 1586 , and derivative works , have survived ) , and the exhibition of a live rhinoceros in London a century later , from 1684 – 86 , and of a second individual after 1739 .
The pre @-@ eminent position of Dürer 's image and its derivatives declined from the mid @-@ to @-@ late @-@ 18th century , when more live rhinoceroses were transported to Europe , shown to the curious public , and depicted in more accurate representations . Jean @-@ Baptiste Oudry painted a life @-@ size portrait of Clara the rhinoceros in 1749 , and George Stubbs painted a large portrait of a rhinoceros in London around 1790 . Both of these paintings were more accurate than Dürer 's woodcut , and a more realistic conception of the rhinoceros gradually started to displace Dürer 's image in the public imagination . In particular , Oudry 's painting was the inspiration for a plate in Buffon 's encyclopedic Histoire naturelle , which was widely copied . In 1790 , James Bruce 's travelogue Travels to discover the source of the Nile dismissed Dürer 's work as " wonderfully ill @-@ executed in all its parts " and " the origin of all the monstrous forms under which that animal has been painted , ever since " . Even so , Bruce 's own illustration of the African white rhinoceros , which is noticeably different in appearance to the Indian rhinoceros , still shares conspicuous inaccuracies with Dürer 's work . Semiotician Umberto Eco argues that Dürer 's " scales and imbricated plates " became a necessary element of depicting the animal , even to those who might know better , because " they knew that only these conventionalized graphic signs could denote « rhinoceros » to the person interpreting the iconic sign . " He also notes that the skin of a rhinoceros is rougher than it visually appears and that such plates and scales portray this non @-@ visual information to a degree .
Until the late 1930s , Dürer 's image appeared in school textbooks in Germany as a faithful image of the rhinoceros ; and it remains a powerful artistic influence . It was one of the inspirations for Salvador Dalí ; a reproduction of the woodcut hung in his childhood home and he used the image in several of his works .
= = Sale history = =
Although very popular , few prints have survived and impressions of the first edition are very rare . A fine example was sold at Christie 's New York in 2013 for $ 866 @,@ 500 , setting a new auction record for the artist .
= Ontario Highway 130 =
King 's Highway 130 , commonly known as Highway 130 , is a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario . It begins at a junction with Highway 61 and travels 15 @.@ 4 km ( 9 @.@ 6 mi ) north @-@ west to the Trans @-@ Canada Highway , Highway 11 and Highway 17 , west of Thunder Bay . Highway 130 is a short connecting highway , and passes entirely through the outskirts of Thunder Bay , connecting several minor communities and providing a shortcut for traffic travelling from the south to the west or vice versa . The speed limit along the highway is 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) ; it is patrolled by the Ontario Provincial Police .
Highway 130 has retained most of its current route since the mid @-@ 1970s , but was longer prior to then , when it extended north of Arthur Street to Oliver Road and then along that road into downtown Thunder Bay , ending at what is now Water Street . The route was originally designated in late 1955 .
= = Route description = =
Highway 130 is situated in the municipality of Oliver Paipoonge , in Thunder Bay District . The short route serves to connect Highway 61 with Highways 11 and 17 west of Thunder Bay , a distance of 15 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 6 mi ) .
Beginning at Highway 61 in the south , the route proceeds straight north along a concession road midway between Monteith Road to the west and Hanna Road to the east . Surrounded almost entirely by farmland , the highway encounters McCluskey Drive one kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) along its route and Candy Mountain Drive two kilometres north of that . At the latter is the small community of Slate River Valley , though relatively few residences are located on the highway . At Barrie Drive , two kilometres north of the community , the highway turns east ; a channelized right turn lane is provided for northbound traffic while southbound traffic is given the right of way at the intersection . The highway travels east to Hanna Road where it turns north ; this junction features a channelized lane for southbound traffic while giving northbound traffic the right of way at the intersection .
Now surrounded by residences to the west and a farm to the west , the highway travels north a short distance before curving to the southeast to cross the Kaministiquia River . Gradually curving back to the north , the route features residences to the south and woodland to the north . It enters the community of Twin City , acting as the main street and intersecting Rosslyn Road immediately north of a Canadian National Railway crossing and the Paipoonge Museum . At Arthur Street , the highway turns west until it ends at Highway 11 and Highway 17 .
= = History = =
Highway 130 was first designated in late 1955 and early 1956 . At that time the route ended in the midst of McIntyre Township ; it began at Algoma Road ( now Water Street ) , then the route of Highway 17 , and followed John Street and Oliver Road . The Department of Highways assumed the portion within McIntyre Township on December 7 , 1955 . Three months later , the route was extended south to Highway 61 when the department assumed the section in Paipoonge Township on March 7 , 1956 .
This route remained in place until the mid @-@ 1970s , when Highway 130 was decommissioned north of Arthur Street ; the section within the newly formed City of Thunder Bay was transferred to the city on October 1 , 1970 , while the section within McIntyre Township remained until at least 1973 . On August 17 , 2007 , the highway was extended by 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) when Highway 11 and Highway 17 , which until then travelled along Arthur Street , were transferred onto the Shabaqua Bypass to the north . As a result , Highway 130 was extended west along Arthur Street to its current terminus at the bypass .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 130 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario . The entire route is located in Thunder Bay District .
= No. 91 Wing RAAF =
No. 91 ( Composite ) Wing was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) wing that operated during the Korean War and its immediate aftermath . It was established in October 1950 to administer RAAF units deployed in the conflict : No. 77 ( Fighter ) Squadron , flying North American P @-@ 51 Mustangs ; No. 30 Communications Flight , flying Austers and Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas ; No. 391 ( Base ) Squadron ; and No. 491 ( Maintenance ) Squadron . The wing was headquartered at Iwakuni , Japan , as were its subordinate units with the exception of No. 77 Squadron , which was based in Korea and came under the operational control of the United States Fifth Air Force .
No. 30 Communications Flight was re @-@ designated No. 30 Communications Unit in November 1950 , and No. 30 Transport Unit a year later , before re @-@ forming as No. 36 ( Transport ) Squadron in March 1953 . It undertook medical evacuation , cargo and troop transport , and courier flights . No. 77 Squadron converted to Gloster Meteor jets between April and July 1951 , and operated primarily in the ground attack role from December that year . It remained in Korea on garrison duty following the July 1953 armistice , and returned to Australia in November 1954 ; No. 491 Squadron disbanded the same month . No. 36 Squadron returned to Australia in March 1955 , leaving four aircraft to equip the newly formed RAAF Transport Flight ( Japan ) , which briefly came under No. 91 Wing 's control . The following month , No. 391 Squadron and No. 91 Wing headquarters were disbanded .
= = History = =
= = = Origins and formation = = =
When the Korean War broke out on 25 June 1950 , No. 77 ( Fighter ) Squadron of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) was based at Iwakuni , Japan . For the previous four years , equipped mainly with North American P @-@ 51 Mustangs , it had served with the British Commonwealth Air Group , the air component of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force ( BCOF ) , initially as part of No. 81 Wing RAAF . No. 81 Wing was disbanded in November 1948 , leaving No. 77 Squadron as Australia 's sole air unit in Japan . It was now the largest squadron in the RAAF , comprising 299 officers and men , forty Mustangs , three CAC Wirraways , two Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas and two Austers . The squadron was preparing to return to Australia when it was placed on standby for action over Korea ; it began flying missions as part of the United Nations ( UN ) peacekeeping force a week later . No. 77 Squadron 's commanding officer , Wing Commander Lou Spence , was killed in action on 9 September 1950 , and Air Commodore Alan Charlesworth , Chief of Staff at BCOF , temporarily took charge at Iwakuni , pending the formation of an overarching organisation for support and administration at the base . Squadron Leader Dick Cresswell arrived on 17 September to assume command of No. 77 Squadron .
Following the landing at Inchon and the northward advance of UN troops , No. 77 Squadron relocated to Pohang , South Korea , on 12 October 1950 . It left behind its main support elements at Iwakuni . No. 91 ( Composite ) Wing was established at the base on 20 October . The term " composite " referred to an RAAF formation made up of disparate operational elements , rather than one comprising a single type such as bombers or fighters . Commanded by Group Captain A.D. ( Dallas ) Charlton , No. 91 Wing was given administrative responsibility for all RAAF units operating during the Korean War . As well as No. 77 Squadron , this included the newly formed No. 391 ( Base ) Squadron and No. 491 ( Maintenance ) Squadron , and No. 30 Communications Flight , formerly the No. 77 Squadron Communications Flight and initially comprising its two Dakotas and two Austers . Apart from No. 77 Squadron , the wing 's units were all headquartered at Iwakuni . Elements of the US Far East Air Forces command favoured the establishment of a British Commonwealth Wing , to include No. 77 Squadron and the Mustang @-@ equipped No. 2 Squadron of the South African Air Force , then en route to Korea , but the South African government vetoed the idea .
= = = Operations = = =
No. 77 Squadron 's tasking was controlled by the United States Fifth Air Force from the time it commenced operations in Korea , and this arrangement was not affected by the formation of No. 91 Wing . It moved forward from Pohang to Yonpo , near Hamhung , in November 1950 , continuing its support of UN forces as they advanced up the peninsula . North Korea 's counter @-@ attack , augmented by Chinese forces , led to the squadron being hurriedly withdrawn to Pusan on 3 December . Poor radio communications with No. 91 Wing dogged the evacuation from Yonpo , which was effected through US Air Force support supplementing the efforts of RAAF Dakotas . Cresswell believed that the Iwakuni @-@ based wing headquarters was not always in tune with frontline requirements , and he often dealt directly with Lieutenant General Sir Horace Robertson , BCOF commander and the theatre 's senior Australian officer , and the RAAF 's Deputy Chief of the Air Staff , Air Vice Marshal Frederick Scherger .
In response to the threat of Chinese Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich MiG @-@ 15 jet fighters , No. 77 Squadron was withdrawn to Iwakuni in April 1951 , to re @-@ equip with Gloster Meteors . Four Royal Air Force officers with Meteor experience were seconded to No. 91 Wing to assist with training . The squadron returned to action with its new aircraft on 29 July , operating out of Kimpo , South Korea . The Mustangs had been highly effective in close support , but No. 77 Squadron 's main role in the RAAF was interception , and it was expected that with the Meteor it could again focus on fighter duties . According to the official history of Australia in the Korean War , the unit proved its value diplomatically as well as operationally : having been one of the first UN squadrons to go into action , it comprised one @-@ third of the jet fighter force in the latter part of 1951 , when clashes in " MiG Alley " were at their height . However , dogfights between Meteors and MiGs that August convinced the new commanding officer , Wing Commander Gordon Steege , that the Australian jets were outmatched , and Fifth Air Force agreed to take them out of an offensive air @-@ to @-@ air combat role in favour of escort and local air defence . The squadron 's loss rate by the end of the year was one in four killed or captured .
Beginning in December 1951 under Steege 's replacement , Wing Commander Ron Susans , No. 77 Squadron again took up an offensive role , namely ground attack , which constituted its primary tasking for the rest of the war . Flight Lieutenant J.C. Smith , No. 91 Wing 's armament officer , played a key role in developing " Flaming Onion " , napalm @-@ tipped air @-@ to @-@ ground rockets that were used in several operations in 1952 and 1953 . No. 77 Squadron remained in Korea on garrison duty — initially at Kimpo , later at Kunsan — following the armistice in July 1953 . It had lost forty @-@ one pilots killed during the war . A further seven pilots became prisoners of war . Aircraft losses totalled almost sixty , including over forty Meteors , mostly to ground fire . The squadron flew 18 @,@ 872 sorties , including 3 @,@ 872 in Mustangs and 15 @,@ 000 in Meteors . It was credited with shooting down five MiG @-@ 15s and destroying 3 @,@ 700 buildings , 1 @,@ 408 vehicles , ninety @-@ eight locomotives and carriages , and sixteen bridges .
No. 30 Communications Flight included Robertson 's personal Dakota , operating under his direction . The unit 's complement of two Dakotas and two Austers was soon augmented by two more Dakotas from Australia . On 1 November 1950 , No. 30 Communications Flight was renamed No. 30 Communications Unit . The same month , it received another four Dakotas from No. 38 Squadron , of No. 90 ( Composite ) Wing in Malaya , giving it a strength of eight Dakotas and two Austers . The unit supported all Australian forces in Korea . One of its key functions was medical evacuation , but it was also responsible for supply drops , search and rescue , reconnaissance , and mail delivery , as well as transporting cargo , troops , and VIPs . Unlike No. 77 Squadron , it was not tasked by Fifth Air Force but instead operated under Australian control , which was exercised through BCOF headquarters in Japan . No. 30 Communications Unit was re @-@ formed as No. 30 Transport Unit on 5 November 1951 , and as No. 36 ( Transport ) Squadron on 10 March 1953 . During the war it transported around 100 @,@ 000 passengers and over 6 @,@ 000 tons of cargo . No. 91 Wing 's records listed 12 @,@ 762 medical evacuations from Korea to Japan , and over 2 @,@ 000 from Japan to Australia or Britain . The transportation unit lost an Auster and a Wirraway to crashes , resulting in four deaths .
= = = Support = = =
When the Korean War broke out , No. 77 Squadron was self @-@ supporting . The added burden of combat operations made this situation untenable after the squadron went into action in Korea , leading to the formation of No. 391 ( Base ) Squadron at Iwakuni , at the same time as No. 91 Wing headquarters . RAAF base squadrons were responsible for administrative , logistical , medical , communications and security functions . Staffed mainly by former No. 77 Squadron members , in the first year of its existence No. 391 Squadron had to contend with severe shortages of winter clothing and equipment . Further problems arose following the introduction of the Meteor , as spares for the British @-@ made jet were harder to obtain than for the American Mustang . Along with its RAAF responsibilities , No. 391 Squadron supported Australian Army and other UN personnel travelling through Iwakuni . It ran No. 91 Wing 's " Transit Hotel " , which accommodated business people and entertainers , as well as military personnel . The squadron 's medical contingent was heavily engaged in the preparation and escort of injured personnel from Korea to Iwakuni and then to other destinations .
No. 491 Squadron was also formed in tandem with No. 91 Wing on 20 October 1950 . Headquartered at Iwakuni , it was responsible for all maintenance of the wing 's aircraft except day @-@ to @-@ day servicing . A section was attached to No. 77 Squadron in Korea to assist ground staff with daily maintenance . Personnel from Iwakuni were regularly rotated through this section , and augmented by additional No. 491 Squadron staff as needed for repair or salvage work . The standard RAAF working days for technicians at Iwakuni contrasted with shifts of up to sixteen hours near the front line in Korea . Korea was one of the coldest climates in which RAAF ground crews had ever worked ; Squadron Leader Cresswell recalled seeing maintenance staff with tools frozen to their hands . Both Nos. 391 and 491 Squadrons used Japanese technicians as well as Australian , which was unusual for the time ; during the occupation of Japan following its surrender in World War II , the RAAF had only employed Japanese workers for menial tasks .
= = = Disbandment = = =
No. 77 Squadron stood down at Kunsan on 7 October 1954 and flew its Meteors to Iwakuni five days later . It departed for Australia in November and became operational again at RAAF Base Williamtown , New South Wales , on 4 January 1955 . Its eleven @-@ year absence from Australia , beginning in the Pacific during World War II and continuing in Japan as part of BCOF , was a record for an RAAF unit . No. 491 Squadron disbanded at Iwakuni on 13 December 1954 . No. 36 Squadron ceased flying on 13 March 1955 and returned to Australia , leaving behind three Dakotas and a Wirraway that equipped RAAF Transport Flight ( Japan ) , formed the following day under No. 91 Wing . No. 391 Squadron and No. 91 Wing headquarters were disbanded at Iwakuni on 30 April 1955 . Transport Flight ( Japan ) flew a courier service to South Korea and remained operational until 8 July 1956 , when its last Dakota — the last RAAF aircraft in Japan — departed Iwakanu .
= = Commanding officers = =
No. 91 Wing was commanded by the following officers :
= Banjo @-@ Kazooie : Nuts & Bolts =
Banjo @-@ Kazooie : Nuts & Bolts is an action @-@ adventure video game developed by Rare and published by Microsoft Game Studios . The third instalment of the Banjo @-@ Kazooie series , it was released for the Xbox 360 worldwide in November 2008 . The game takes place eight years after the events of Banjo @-@ Tooie , and marks the return of series antagonist Gruntilda , who plans to take over Spiral Mountain . In order to defeat Gruntilda , series protagonists Banjo and Kazooie must compete in a set of vehicle @-@ based challenges .
The game revolves around vehicle construction , in which the player must design their own vehicles ranging from automobiles , motorbikes , boats and aeroplanes . Gameplay itself is centred on completing a series of challenges depending on the specific vehicle , although some parts of the game retain platforming traits . Development of the game first began as a remake of the original Banjo @-@ Kazooie , although a game which involved " more traditional platforming " was conceptualised . Eventually , the project evolved into a construction @-@ orientated game which was inspired by connecting Lego blocks .
Banjo @-@ Kazooie : Nuts & Bolts received mixed reviews upon release . Critics were largely divided over the concept of vehicle @-@ orientated gameplay , however some critics praised its mechanics and innovation . The game sold a total of 140 @,@ 000 units by the end of 2008 in the United States . The game has also achieved " Platinum Hits " status , which means it sold at least 400 @,@ 000 units during its first nine months of release . In 2010 , the game was included as one of the titles in the book 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die . The game is also included in the Rare Replay retrospective compilation , released for the Xbox One in 2015 .
= = Gameplay = =
Banjo @-@ Kazooie : Nuts & Bolts primarily revolves around vehicle construction , in which the player must construct their own vehicles after collecting specific vehicle parts . In contrast to its predecessors , there are no conventional " moves " for Banjo and Kazooie to use , apart from melee attacks Kazooie performs with her spanner . The game 's hub world is Showdown Town , which contains various portals that lead to six worlds . Each world contains three levels , one boss level , and a series of various challenges , although exploration of these worlds are optional . The key part of the game is to earn " Jiggies " in order to unlock new worlds , and accumulate enough Jiggies to unlock the final world , which contains the final boss .
The centre of Showdown Town houses L.O.G 's factory , which dispenses " game globes " whenever a certain Jiggy total is reached . Placing the globes onto special stands unlocks the game 's levels . Each level features a set of challenges , which vary from races , combat and objectives such as salom jumping . The game also features vehicular @-@ combat ; players may equip weapons onto their vehicles to use against opposing vehicles . Players who surpass a challenge 's best score will be rewarded with a Trophy ; collecting four trophies will earn them an additional Jiggy from Trophy Thomas . Each Jiggy extracted from the levels appears in " Jig @-@ o @-@ Vend " collection units scattered in crates around Showdown Town . The player must vend the Jiggies and physically carry them over to the central " Jiggy Bank " device to affect the total of Jiggies . Showdown Town also houses Mumbo 's Motors , a workshop where the player may create and design their own vehicles .
Vehicles play a prominent role in the game , replacing the moves and transformations featured in its predecessors . The vehicles can be built freely by the player from over 1600 different components available , such as body panels , engines , wheels , wings , propellers , fuel tanks and weapons . Vehicles range from automobiles , motorbikes , boats and aeroplanes . In order to create vehicles , the player must collect vehicle parts and bluepints which are scattered throughout the hub world , or can be earned after winning specific challenges . The player may also purchase preset blueprints and vehicle parts from Humba Wumba in Showdown Town . In addition , players can also send and receive blueprints over Xbox Live .
The game retains some platforming traits ; the player may disembark from a vehicle and explore the environment in a manner similar to that of the previous games . On foot the duo can grab ledges , swim underwater , balance on tightropes and perform basic jumps . Kazooie 's spanner can also be used as a melee weapon outside of the vehicle , in addition to levitating lopsided vehicles . Banjo and Kazooie have limited attack power and agility on foot at first , but the duo can upgrade their speed , stamina and strength by visiting Boggy 's gym in the game 's hub world . Scattered around the game 's six worlds are musical notes , which serve as currency for the player to purchase certain items such as blueprints , parts , and access to advanced vehicles . Musical notes vary in value as determined by its colour ; gold , silver or bronze . Banjo @-@ Kazooie : Nuts & Bolts also features an online multiplayer ; players can compete in challenges such as races and combat over Xbox Live . In addition , players can share their own vehicle designs and blueprints online .
Banjo @-@ Kazooie : Nuts and Bolts features bonus content unlocked through the use of " Stop ' N ' Swop " , a feature first introduced in the original Banjo @-@ Kazooie . By collecting the six Mystery Eggs and Ice Key in the Xbox Live Arcade re @-@ release of Banjo @-@ Kazooie , players will be able to find special vehicle part crates in Nuts & Bolts ' overworld , which can be used to unlock novelty vehicle parts , such as a disco ball or fuzzy dice . By using the Stop ' N ' Swop items in the XBLA version of Banjo @-@ Tooie as well , players who purchase the " L.O.G. ' s Lost Challenges " DLC gain access to seven additional vehicle blueprints created by fans who won a blueprint design contest held by Rare .
= = Plot = =
The game takes place eight years following the conclusion of Banjo @-@ Tooie , in which Gruntilda 's body was destroyed and vapourised by Banjo and Kazooie . The two have become obese since their last adventure , and have since spent eight years overeating , playing video games and listening to the radio . They soon discover Gruntilda 's detached head returning to their home , Spiral Mountain , who is planning revenge on Banjo and Kazooie . They are about to fight when they are stopped by the sudden appearance of the Lord of Games ( L.O.G. ) , the creator of all video games . He decides to settle the conflict between the two by devising a series of worlds and challenges . He uses his powers to give Gruntilda an artificial body and to restore the duo 's physical fitness , but not their moves from previous games , claiming that they will not need them .
L.O.G. transports the characters to Showdown Town , his headquarters , and starts the contest . The winner would be set to own Spiral Mountain ; the loser must endure eternal hardship at L.O.G. ' s video game factory . While Banjo and Kazooie seek to win by completing the challenges , Gruntilda uses her powers and abilities to try to stop the duo , with a cat named Piddles and an army of mechanical robots assisting the witch in her goal . The game ends with Gruntilda and Banjo participating in a final duel in Spiral Mountain . Banjo and Kazooie destroy all of Gruntilda 's vehicles and prepare to fight back as she gets back up , but L.O.G. returns and declares Banjo the winner . After L.O.G. sends Gruntilda off to work at his video game factory , he rewards Banjo and Kazooie by giving them the deeds to Spiral Mountain and restoring their moves , while Banjo 's friends reveal that they have restored his house after its destruction in Banjo @-@ Tooie . Meanwhile , Gruntilda declares that bringing her to the factory was a mistake and vows that she will make her own video game .
= = Development = =
According to designer Gregg Mayles , the first idea was to create a remake of the first Banjo @-@ Kazooie for the Xbox 360 , and the team 's second choice was to involve " more traditional platforming " , however they felt that the latter was a " stale " approach and deemed the former too similar to previous titles to have an impact . Ed Bryan revealed that the next idea the team wanted to conceive was a game " where you could build stuff " . Initially , Rare co @-@ founder Tim Stamper suggested that game revolve around an " interactive lego set " ; the team designed a prototype sandbox which involved the player putting blocks together to create vehicles . According to designer Steve Mulpass , the prototype was set in the first level of the cancelled Banjo @-@ Kazooie remake , and the most difficult part of initial designing stages was creating a user interface for players to design vehicles with . Furthermore , Mayles stated that understanding how to construct vehicle parts in a three @-@ dimensional space was exceptionally difficult , and making the vehicles playable was a " colossal challenge " . While the game was in early development , Mayles hinted at the new direction :
On 17 October 2007 , designer Justin Cook revealed in an interview with PC Zone that the then @-@ untitled project was in designing stages , with the entire core team from the original Banjo @-@ Kazooie giving it full @-@ time attention . During development , Mayles asserted that getting the in @-@ game editor powerful enough to ensure that players could build " what they liked " . For re @-@ designing the characters of Banjo and Kazooie , Mayles and Bryan were tasked with finding a suitable way to update the two characters . Initially , they designed high @-@ resolution characters for the protagonists , however Bryan recalled that they lacked " the charm " the original game held . Later during development , Bryan suggested that the characters in the game should appear cuboid , and thus finalised the designs with smooth edges , whilst retaining the two character 's original appearances . Due to the game revolving around the theme of construction , the team went to lengths to ensure that the game 's aesthetics look like " everything was constructed " with patchwork , to give the illusion that " everything was patched together " . Mayles stated that all of the voice @-@ work from the characters were performed in @-@ house by Rare staff ; Banjo @-@ Kazooie lead programmer Chris Sutherland reprised his role of voicing Banjo and Kazooie .
= = = Music = = =
The music was composed by Robin Beanland , Grant Kirkhope and Dave Clynick . Banjo @-@ Kazooie : Nuts & Bolts was the final game worked on by Kirkhope , a Rare employee since 1995 . The soundtrack is orchestrated and features both remastered arrangements of existing music from the series , and new pieces entirely . The music was performed by The City of Prague Philharmonic Orchestra . On 29 June 2009 , Rare announced that the game 's soundtrack would be released and available to purchase on Amazon and iTunes . The soundtrack was released by the label Sumthing Else .
= = = Downloadable content = = =
A downloadable add @-@ on for Nuts & Bolts , titled " L.O.G. ' s Lost Challenges " , was released on 7 April 2009 . The content is set in the " Test @-@ o @-@ Track " area of Mumbo 's Motors , and includes six new missions with twelve additional Jiggies to earn : six for completing the missions with pre @-@ determined vehicles , and six for completing the missions with vehicles designed by the player . Collecting all twelve Jiggies will unlock " Hero Klungo Sssavesss Teh Universsse " , a set of new levels for the " Hero Klungo Sssavesss Teh World " minigame . The add @-@ on also includes seven new multiplayer game types .
= = Reception = =
The game received a mixed reception from the community for not featuring certain key elements found in previous games . According to Rare , the early reception was " expected " . The game received mostly positive reviews from critics upon release . It holds an average score of 79 / 100 at Metacritic , based on an aggregate of 71 reviews . The vehicular @-@ based mechanics of the game were met with scepticism from many reviewers . Tom Bradwell of Eurogamer criticised the overall design of vehicles and the lack of traditional platforming as " unfair " , alongside citing a " weak mission design " . Ben Reeves of Game Informer stated that the mission structure was a " mixed bag " , asserting that racing was largely repetitive and " derivative " . Tom McShea of GameSpot praised the variety of the mission structure and vehicle building , stating that each " problem " requires creative thinking and innovation . However , McShea criticised the controls and physics of some of the vehicles , thus adding difficulty to the overall experience . Sterling McGarvey of GameSpy called Rare 's decision to " move the emphasis away from platforming " and toward creation as bold , however he criticised the game 's mechanics and manoeuvrability of land @-@ based vehicles , although he noted that aeroplanes and helicopters were easy to utilise . McGarvey furthermore criticised the manoeuvrability of vehicles , stating that it was overall frustrating on how much the game relied on the awkward mechanics .
Brad Shoemaker of Giant Bomb praised the driving mechanics and vehicle construction , despite initially being frustrated with the game 's controls . Shoemaker praised the innovation the game offered ; stating that the vehicle @-@ building and enormous variety of mission types would attract all audiences . A reviewer of GamesRadar heavily criticised the overall mechanics and vehicular gameplay , stating that it was both " ridiculously complicated " and unsuitable for a Banjo game . The reviewer of GamesRadar also criticised Rare 's " old habit " of " collect @-@ a @-@ thons " , asserting that all the elements of the game were " clumsily put together " and the aspects of unlocking new levels were difficult to understand due to the many items that were pre @-@ required . Andrew Reiner of Game Informer heralded the vehicle construction as " fun " , however he criticised Rare 's " habit of forcing the player " to collect large quantities of items to build their vehicles and progress through the game . A reviewer of GameTrailers similarly criticised the vehicular theme of the game , citing that the sensitive physics and controls adds up to an overall frustrating experience . Erik Brudvig of IGN US praised the game 's absence of platform elements , and asked fans of Banjo @-@ Kazooie not to " write the game off " due to its change in genre . Brudvig also heralded the vehicle @-@ creation as " powerful " and the depth of the game 's mechanics . However , Matt Wales of IGN UK criticised the new direction of the game 's genre , summarising the lack of platforming action as " screwed up " . Wales stated that the game 's mechanics and vehicle construction " fails badly " due to the lack of " any fundamentally engaging " framework to support the game 's creative elements . Tom Orry of VideoGamer praised the complex construction of vehicles and stated that it was the most rewarding aspect of the game . Chris Kohler of Wired heavily criticised the mechanics , challenges and new genre of the game , panning the overall experience as a " disappointing , simplistic sandbox " . Kohler also added that the racing missions were " boring " and frustrating , similarly stating the same for vehicle customisation . In a retrospective review , David Roberts of GamesRadar stated that Nuts & Bolts " laid down groundwork " for future games that revolve around construction , such as Fallout 4 and Kerbal Space Program .
Banjo @-@ Kazooie : Nuts & Bolts sold a total of 140 @,@ 000 units by the end of 2008 in the United States . The game has also achieved " Platinum Hits " status , which means it sold at least 400 @,@ 000 units during its first nine months of release . The game also surpassed 100 @,@ 000 units in the United Kingdom . In 2010 , the game was included as one of the titles in the book 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die .
= Thunder ( mascot ) =
Thunder is the stage name for the horse who is the official live animal mascot for the Denver Broncos football team . Three purebred Arabians have held this role since 1993 , all gray horses whose coats lightened with age until they turned completely white . Sharon Magness @-@ Blake has owned all three horses , and Ann Judge has been their rider since 1998 and trainer since 1999 . As of 2016 , Thunder has appeared in four Super Bowls with the team since 1998 . The original Thunder performed in Super Bowl XXXII and Super Bowl XXXIII and Thunder III appeared in Super Bowl XLVIII and Super Bowl 50 . Thunder III also made appearances in Times Square and on television morning news shows in New York City as part of the pre @-@ game promotion for Super Bowl XLVII . He routinely appears in parades , makes hospital and school visits , and attends various other public functions . He has been flown on airplanes , ridden in elevators , and appeared indoors at press conferences and banquets .
Thunder 's duties as mascot typically include leading the team onto the field at the start of every home game , and a gallop down the length of the field whenever the team scores a touchdown or field goal . Thunder and his rider also interact with fans before the game ; the horse is particularly popular with children , who are allowed to pet him . The horses who have served as Thunder need to remain calm in situations that would normally frighten most horses , such as being in football stadiums with thousands of cheering fans , exploding pyrotechnics , cheerleaders waving pom @-@ poms , and other spectacles common to National Football League ( NFL ) games . Thunder shares mascot duties with Miles , a human who wears a horse head mask atop a Broncos uniform .
The original Thunder , later named " Thunder , Sr. " , was described as bold and courageous . He was a stallion registered as JB Kobask , a former show horse , who was team mascot for the Broncos from 1993 until his retirement in 2004 . He continued making community appearances until his death in 2009 . Thunder , Sr. was succeeded in 2004 by " Thunder II " , an Arabian gelding registered as Winter Solstyce . He had been the personal pleasure riding horse of Magness @-@ Blake . Judge described him as being somewhat timid when he first began his role as mascot but eventually grew into it . He retired from mascot duties in early 2014 but appeared in the 2016 Super Bowl 50 victory parade in downtown Denver following the Broncos win over the Carolina Panthers . " Thunder III " , a gelding registered as Me N Myshadow , was the understudy to Thunder II , and trained specifically for mascot duties beginning at age three when he was started under saddle . He began performing at preseason games in 2013 . Although Thunder II was still active as team mascot during the 2013 – 14 season , Thunder III was sent to Super Bowl XLVIII because he was younger and better able to handle air travel . He is described as laid @-@ back , preferring to doze off during games when not performing .
= = History = =
The original " Thunder " , JB Kobask , was loaned to the Denver Broncos by Sharon Magness @-@ Blake of Magness Arabians after she received a phone call from team officials asking if she had a " white " horse . Thunder 's debut as team mascot was on September 12 , 1993 during the Denver Broncos ' victory over the San Diego Chargers . Angela Moore , his rider at the time , galloped him down the field after each Bronco touchdown . Thunder 's mascot duties were expanded to include delivering the game ball to the referees at the start of each home game . Spectators were allowed to interact with Thunder and pet him prior to the game . Magness said , " Thunder is friendly , and Broncos fans think it 's good luck for the opposing team to pet our mascot " . He was particularly popular with children , appeared on T @-@ shirts , and was referred to as the " second most popular Bronco " after former quarterback John Elway . Thunder appeared at Elway 's 1999 retirement gala . When team uniforms were redesigned in 1997 , Thunder was the inspiration to incorporate a horse @-@ head profile as part of the logo on the team 's helmets . During a February 4 , 1997 press conference introducing the new logo , the team president and the art director for Nike , creators of the new design , described it as " a powerful horse with a fiery eye and mane . "
The original Thunder , also known as Thunder , Sr. , was retired in 2004 after serving 11 years as the team mascot . Magness @-@ Blake replaced him with Thunder II , a 1994 Arabian gelding registered as Winter Solstyce . He was Magness @-@ Blake 's personal pleasure riding horse prior to taking on his new role as team mascot . As Thunder II grew older , Magness @-@ Blake anticipated the need for a replacement and added a third gray horse to the team . He became known as Thunder III , a 2000 Arabian gelding registered as Me N Myshadow . Thunder III initially served as the understudy for Thunder II , and was trained specifically for the role of team mascot from his start under saddle .
= = Mascot duties = =
Thunder leads the team onto the field at the beginning of each home game , and typically gallops from one end of the field to the other whenever the team makes a touchdown . He may also make a run after a field goal , but not a safety . Each time he makes a run , a four @-@ person crew runs down the sidelines to the end zone to escort Thunder back to his sideline position . Extra handlers ensure the safety of the horse and surrounding people . Thunder 's helpers also remove any manure that he might drop while on the field . As well as his support crew , Thunder has a bodyguard who travels to the games . Thunder shares mascot duties with Miles , a human who wears a horse head mask atop a Broncos uniform .
The horses who have served as Thunder have been trained to remain calm in situations that would normally cause a horse to respond with a fight @-@ or @-@ flight response , such as the flashing explosions of a pyrotechnic display , or items suddenly landing on the field including skydivers with parachutes and various objects thrown by spectators , or loud music and the sounds associated with tens of thousands of cheering fans at Mile High . Ann Judge has explained that because so many unexpected things can happen , it is important that the people working with him remain calm ; it is trust in his rider and handlers , not just desensitization , that helps the horse remain steady : " You want them to look to you for the appropriate response and for confidence and faith so that the flight response doesn ’ t get initiated . " She describes the process by saying , " if something is fearful to him , as long as he looks to me , and I tell him he ’ s OK , he ’ s OK . " The only frightening stimuli that was an ongoing problem for both Thunder Sr. and Thunder II was when the crowd would perform the wave ; Thunder Sr. would stand still , but tremble . Thunder II would become tense , requiring ground handlers and his rider to help steady him . Thunder III is the first of the mascots to tolerate wearing earplugs , which help protect his hearing from loud noises during games .
Magness @-@ Blake said one of the most dangerous parts of Thunder 's job is at the beginning of the game when he leads the team onto the field , as there are cheerleaders ahead of him waving their pom @-@ poms and a team of excited football players behind him . Ann Judge has also remarked about the team getting " amped up " with energy and excitement as Thunder leads them onto the field , explaining that " To him , amped up means danger . " On one occasion , a person walked out unexpectedly in front of Thunder as he was leading the players onto the field . Thunder stopped immediately , averting a potentially dangerous situation . Another unexpected event occurred in 2014 during Super Bowl XLVIII when the pyrotechnics display was supposed to have been executed before Thunder led the team out but it went off unexpectedly during his run . Thunder responded to the situation with aplomb , continuing to run forward onto the field , though he performed flying lead changes with each explosion .
Thunder 's record number of runs may have been during a 52 – 20 win on September 29 , 2013 , when he crossed the field eight times . Broncos quarterback Peyton Manning joked , " Might have to give ol ' Thunder an I.V. after this one . " Judge said Thunder , age 19 at the time , was not tired at all , describing him as " full of spit and vinegar " the next day .
Thunder appears primarily at home games , but has been transported out @-@ of @-@ state when the Broncos played in the Super Bowl . While at home , Thunder arrives at Mile High approximately two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours before kickoff . He is trailered into the stadium via the visitor 's tunnel . He has a large private box stall located next to the visitor 's locker room , and has hay , water and treats , including a big basket of carrots and apples . Judge signs autographs for about 45 minutes before each game , allowing fans , particularly children , an opportunity to become better acquainted with Thunder . Thunder usually leaves the field before the game is over . He is loaded into a horse trailer and hauled out of the stadium at the two @-@ minute warning .
Thunder has other duties off the field , and has appeared at many public exhibitions and charity functions in the Denver area , including visits to schools and hospitals . He has appeared frequently as part of the color guard at Denver 's annual National Western Stock Show . Thunder has gone up elevators , walked through indoor tunnels , has been ridden among the banquet tables at Magness @-@ Blake 's Western Fantasy fundraiser , and has attended indoor and outdoor press conferences .
= = = Super Bowl appearances = = =
At Super Bowl XXXII in 1998 in San Diego , Thunder Sr. appeared on the field after touchdowns . It was his first away game , and required 26 hours of trailering to reach the destination . Upon returning home , he led the team 's victory parade in front of 600 @,@ 000 fans in Denver . Thunder also attended Super Bowl XXXIII in Miami in 1999 .
In early 2014 , Thunder was again granted permission by the NFL to appear at Super Bowl XLVIII . Thunder III , age 14 at the time , made the trip because of concerns over Thunder II 's age ( 20 yrs ) and the stress some horses experience during air travel . It was the first time a Thunder mascot had been flown . He was transported to the east coast in a FedEx cargo plane , designed and equipped by Dutta Corporation specifically for transporting horses . FedEx sponsored the plane trip for its promotional value ; the cost for which normally runs about $ 20 @,@ 000 . The day after his arrival in Newark , New Jersey , Thunder was hauled into New York City for television appearances on Today , and Fox & Friends . He also walked through Times Square .
At Super Bowl XLVIII , Thunder led the team onto the field at the start of the game , making it the first Super Bowl where he was allowed to do so . Thunder was also allowed to run in the end zone after a touchdown , but because MetLife Stadium was considered a neutral zone for both teams , he was not allowed to run the length of the field .
For Super Bowl 50 , Thunder III was trailered to San Francisco , a two @-@ day trip that took four days because of ice and snow , further complicated by a 24 @-@ hour closure of I @-@ 80 . Upon arrival , Thunder was stabled at the Stanford Equestrian Center . Thunder II , who was retired at the end of the 2013 – 2014 season after the Broncos won the AFC Championship game , had remained in Denver . On the following Tuesday , he led the team in the Denver victory parade while Thunder III was still on the road heading home .
= = Background = =
= = = People = = =
Magness @-@ Blake owned all three of the Arabian horses that portrayed Thunder . She grew up poor in Philadelphia , and did not ride a horse until she was 20 years old . She married Bob Magness , founder of Tele @-@ Communications Inc . , who also loved horses , and together they began an Arabian breeding operation that at its peak had 900 horses . Following the death of her husband in November 1996 , Magness @-@ Blake downsized the horse operation and currently owns about 15 horses . In 2004 , she married Ernie Blake , an attorney and the mayor of Breckenridge who also loves horses . The couple , along with two other people , are part of Thunder 's ground crew at football games .
The first horse trainer for JB Kobask as Thunder was Tom Hudson , the trainer for Magness Arabians at the time . The mascot 's first rider was Angela Moore , then a 19 @-@ year @-@ old assistant trainer to Hudson and a graduate of Colorado State University . Ann Judge , also known as Ann Judge @-@ Wegener , became Thunder 's rider in 1998 . A year later , Judge took over as trainer as well as rider . She has been the trainer and rider of Thunder II for his entire career with the Broncos , and also does so for Thunder III . Judge grew up on an Arabian horse farm near West Lafayette , Indiana , and graduated from Purdue University in 1980 with a degree in English Education . She has ridden horses since she was five years old , was a participant in 4 @-@ H as a youth , and after finishing college became a horse trainer , first working in South Carolina and then in Colorado . Judge has been described by Broncos ' management as an " accomplished equestrian " . She has competed at the national level in Arabian and Pinto horse show competition . She is also a horse show judge who has adjudicated national and international events . Both Thunder II and Thunder III are stabled at Judge 's farm in Bennett , Colorado .
= = = Horses = = =
= = = = Thunder Sr. = = = =
JB Kobask , a purebred Arabian stallion foaled in 1983 , became the first live horse mascot for the Broncos in 1993 after a successful horse show career . He was a son of the reserve U.S. National Champion Arabian Stallion GG Jabask , and a grandson of the Polish @-@ bred Arabian * Bask , a multiple U.S. National Champion after his importation to the United States . JB Kobask also had a substantial amount of Crabbet breeding in his pedigree .
The stallion was kicked by a mare in a 1997 breeding accident , resulting in a fracture that required two arthroscopic surgeries on his stifle , akin to knee surgery on a human , and was out of commission for six weeks ; another two months was needed before he could gallop at full speed . Following his recovery , he resumed his mascot duties and appeared at Super Bowl XXXII in January 1998 . He served as the Broncos mascot for 11 years and was retired in 2004 after developing arthritis , which made it difficult for him to gallop down the field . He continued to make community appearances until his death in 2009 at age 27 .
Thunder , Sr. was noted for his bold personality , and was described by Magness @-@ Blake as having " a strong ego " . He had been trained to rear on command . Yet he remained calm and controlled in very intense situations , and Judge believed he had a sixth sense for when to be energetic for a performance and when to calm down . The stallion was notably gentle around children who wanted to pet him . During games , when he was waiting to perform , he had a tendency to watch players on the field .
= = = = Thunder II = = = =
Winter Solstyce , an Arabian gelding foaled in 1994 , became " Thunder II " in 2004 . He was Magness @-@ Blake 's personal riding horse for several years prior to becoming the Broncos ' mascot . His paternal grandsire is * Salon , a Russian @-@ bred Arabian stallion from the Tersk Stud exported first to Germany and later brought to the United States . Winter Solstyce 's maternal grandsire is * Gondolier , who was a Polish National Champion and World Champion Arabian stallion at the Salon du Cheval in Paris , imported to the U.S. in 1981 . The remainder of his lineage traces back to the Arabian horse breeding programs of Poland and Russia . He is linebred to the stallion Negatiw , who appears four times in his pedigree .
Thunder II stands 14 @.@ 3 hands ( 59 inches , 150 cm ) tall and weighs over 900 pounds ( 410 kg ) . Nicknamed " Dos " by Judge , Thunder II has been described as somewhat timid with a more subdued personality than his predecessor . Initially , he was nervous of the white markings on the football field and would try to jump over them . He was also afraid of the cheerleaders ' pom @-@ poms . For desensitization training , Judge and the rest of Thunder 's team would haul him to the football field at a local high school to work with people carrying pom @-@ poms and to run across a marked field . His handlers used operant conditioning with positive reinforcement , associating pom @-@ poms with a carrot treat . Eventually , he began turning to his handlers anticipating a treat whenever he saw a cheerleader with pom @-@ poms .
Thunder II would look attentively with his ears forward , seemingly on cue , for his picture to be taken whenever a photographer pointed a camera at him . He is known for being people @-@ friendly and particularly gentle with children who became acquainted with him prior to each game . Instead of watching players on the field the way Thunder Sr. did , Thunder II liked to observe the people in the stands . When bored , he has entertained himself by grabbing the zipper pulls of his handlers ' jackets and running them up and down . He also learned how to unscrew water bottles and squeeze them to get water . Officially retired in 2014 , Thunder II occasionally makes public appearances .
= = = = Thunder III = = = =
Thunder III is Me N Myshadow , a 2000 Arabian gelding , and third purebred Arabian to serve as team mascot . Ann Judge calls him " Tres " . Me N Myshadow is sired by Monarch AH out of a * Gondolier daughter , making him a distant cousin to Winter Solstyce . Monarch AH was a race horse who won 19 of his 23 races , including several graded stakes races for Arabians , earning US $ 213 @,@ 646 . He was a son of the Polish import * Wiking , an all @-@ time leading sire of Arabian racehorses . When Magness @-@ Blake downsized her horse breeding program , Monarch AH was sold to Sheikh Sultan Bin Zayad Al Nahyan of the United Arab Emirates .
Thunder III began his mascot duties as the understudy to Thunder II . He appeared at a few preseason home games in 2013 , and made most public appearances as team mascot in the Denver community that same year . His major public debut was in 2014 as team mascot at Super Bowl XLVIII in New Jersey .
Thunder III had been trained specifically for the role of Thunder , beginning at age three when Judge first started working with him under saddle . He was exposed to a variety of situations , including open horse shows where he could become accustomed to crowds and activity . Like Thunder II , he has appeared at Magness @-@ Blake 's annual Western Fantasy fundraising banquet for the Volunteers of America . He is people friendly and has been described as " social " and " quite the poser " . Unlike his predecessors , he tends to ignore the antics at football games , preferring to doze off when not performing .
= Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky =
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky ( / ˈpjoʊtər ɪˈljɪtʃ tʃaɪˈkɒfski / ; Russian : Пётр Ильи ́ ч Чайко ́ вский ; tr . Pyotr Ilyich Chaykovsky ; 25 April / 7 May 1840 – 25 October / 6 November 1893 ) , often anglicized as Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky , was a Russian composer of the late @-@ Romantic period , some of whose works are among the most popular music in the classical repertoire . He was the first Russian composer whose music made a lasting impression internationally , bolstered by his appearances as a guest conductor in Europe and the United States . Tchaikovsky was honored in 1884 , by Emperor Alexander III , and awarded a lifetime pension .
Although musically precocious , Tchaikovsky was educated for a career as a civil servant . There was scant opportunity for a musical career in Russia at that time and no system of public music education . When an opportunity for such an education arose , he entered the nascent Saint Petersburg Conservatory , from which he graduated in 1865 . The formal Western @-@ oriented teaching he received there set him apart from composers of the contemporary nationalist movement embodied by the Russian composers of The Five , with whom his professional relationship was mixed . Tchaikovsky 's training set him on a path to reconcile what he had learned with the native musical practices to which he had been exposed from childhood . From this reconciliation , he forged a personal but unmistakably Russian style — a task that did not prove easy . The principles that governed melody , harmony and other fundamentals of Russian music ran completely counter to those that governed Western European music ; this seemed to defeat the potential for using Russian music in large @-@ scale Western composition or from forming a composite style , and it caused personal antipathies that dented Tchaikovsky 's self @-@ confidence . Russian culture exhibited a split personality , with its native and adopted elements having drifted apart increasingly since the time of Peter the Great . This resulted in uncertainty among the intelligentsia about the country 's national identity — an ambiguity mirrored in Tchaikovsky 's career .
Despite his many popular successes , Tchaikovsky 's life was punctuated by personal crises and depression . Contributory factors included his early separation from his mother for boarding school followed by his mother 's early death , the death of his close friend and colleague Nikolai Rubinstein , and the collapse of the one enduring relationship of his adult life , which was his 13 @-@ year association with the wealthy widow Nadezhda von Meck . His homosexuality , which he kept private , has traditionally also been considered a major factor , though some musicologists now downplay its importance . Tchaikovsky 's sudden death at the age of 53 is generally ascribed to cholera ; there is an ongoing debate as to whether cholera was indeed the cause of death , or if it was accidental or self @-@ inflicted .
While his music has remained popular among audiences , critical opinions were initially mixed . Some Russians did not feel it was sufficiently representative of native musical values and expressed suspicion that Europeans accepted the music for its Western elements . In an apparent reinforcement of the latter claim , some Europeans lauded Tchaikovsky for offering music more substantive than base exoticism , and said he transcended stereotypes of Russian classical music . Others dismissed Tchaikovsky 's music as " lacking in elevated thought , " according to longtime New York Times music critic Harold C. Schonberg , and derided its formal workings as deficient because they did not stringently follow Western principles .
= = Life = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky was born in Votkinsk , a small town in Vyatka Governorate ( present @-@ day Udmurtia ) in the Russian Empire , into a family with a long line of military service . His father , Ilya Petrovich Tchaikovsky , had served as a lieutenant colonel and engineer in the Department of Mines , and would manage the Kamsko @-@ Votkinsk Ironworks . His grandfather , Petro Fedorovych Chaika , served first as a physician 's assistant in the army and later as city governor of Glazov in Viatka . His great @-@ grandfather , a Ukrainian Cossack named Fyodor Chaika ( accordingly , ' Tchaikovsky ' is the derivative of the Ukrainian family name ' Chaika ' ) , distinguished himself under Peter the Great at the Battle of Poltava in 1709 . Tchaikovsky 's mother , Alexandra Andreyevna née d 'Assier , was the second of Ilya 's three wives , 18 years her husband 's junior and French on her father 's side . Both Ilya and Alexandra were trained in the arts , including music — a necessity as a posting to a remote area of Russia also meant a need for entertainment , whether in private or at social gatherings . Of Tchaikovsky 's six siblings , he was close to his sister Alexandra and twin brothers Anatoly and Modest . Alexandra 's marriage to Lev Davydov would produce seven children and lend Tchaikovsky the only real family life he would know as an adult , especially during his years of wandering . One of those children , Vladimir Davydov , whom the composer would nickname ' Bob ' , would become very close to him .
In 1844 , the family hired Fanny Dürbach , a 22 @-@ year @-@ old French governess . Four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year @-@ old Tchaikovsky was initially thought too young to study alongside his older brother Nikolai and a niece of the family . His insistence convinced Dürbach otherwise . By the age of six , he had become fluent in French and German . Tchaikovsky also became attached to the young woman ; her affection for him was reportedly a counter to his mother 's coldness and emotional distance from him , though others assert that the mother doted on her son . Dürbach saved much of Tchaikovsky 's work from this period , which includes his earliest known compositions , and became a source of several childhood anecdotes .
Tchaikovsky began piano lessons at age five . Precocious , within three years he had become as adept at reading sheet music as his teacher . His parents , initially supportive , hired a tutor , bought an orchestrion ( a form of barrel organ that could imitate elaborate orchestral effects ) , and encouraged his piano study for both aesthetic and practical reasons . However , they decided in 1850 to send Tchaikovsky to the Imperial School of Jurisprudence in Saint Petersburg . They had both graduated from institutes in Saint Petersburg and the School of Jurisprudence , which mainly served the lesser nobility , would prepare Tchaikovsky for a career as a civil servant . Regardless of talent , the only musical careers available in Russia at that time – except for the affluent aristocracy – were as a teacher in an academy or as an instrumentalist in one of the Imperial Theaters . Both were considered on the lowest rung of the social ladder , with individuals in them enjoying no more rights than peasants . His father 's income was also growing increasingly uncertain , so both parents may have wanted Tchaikovsky to become independent as soon as possible . As the minimum age for acceptance was 12 and Tchaikovsky was only 10 at the time , he was required to spend two years boarding at the Imperial School of Jurisprudence 's preparatory school , 1 @,@ 300 kilometres ( 800 mi ) from his family . Once those two years had passed , Tchaikovsky transferred to the Imperial School of Jurisprudence to begin a seven @-@ year course of studies .
Tchaikovsky 's early separation from his mother caused an emotional trauma that lasted the rest his life and was intensified by her death from cholera in 1854 , when he was fourteen . Her loss also prompted Tchaikovsky to make his first serious attempt at composition , a waltz in her memory . Tchaikovsky 's father , who had also contracted cholera but recovered fully , sent him back to school immediately in the hope that classwork would occupy the boy 's mind . Isolated , Tchaikovsky compensated with friendships with fellow students that became lifelong ; these included Aleksey Apukhtin and Vladimir Gerard . Music , while not an official priority at school , also bridged the gap between Tchaikovsky and his peers . They regularly attended the opera and Tchaikovsky would improvise at the school 's harmonium on themes he and his friends had sung during choir practice . " We were amused , " Vladimir Gerard later remembered , " but not imbued with any expectations of his future glory . " Tchaikovsky also continued his piano studies through Franz Becker , an instrument manufacturer who made occasional visits to the school ; however , the results , according to musicologist David Brown , were " negligible " .
In 1855 , Tchaikovsky 's father funded private lessons with Rudolph Kündinger and questioned him about a musical career for his son . While impressed with the boy 's talent , Kündinger said he saw nothing to suggest a future composer or performer . He later admitted that his assessment was also based on his own negative experiences as a musician in Russia and his unwillingness for Tchaikovsky to be treated likewise . Tchaikovsky was told to finish his course and then try for a post in the Ministry of Justice .
= = = Civil service ; pursuing music = = =
On 10 June 1859 , the 19 @-@ year @-@ old Tchaikovsky graduated as a titular counselor , a low rung on the civil service ladder . Appointed to the Ministry of Justice , he became a junior assistant within six months and a senior assistant two months after that . He remained a senior assistant for the rest of his three @-@ year civil service career .
Meanwhile , the Russian Musical Society ( RMS ) was founded in 1859 by the Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna ( a German @-@ born aunt of Tsar Alexander II ) and her protégé , pianist and composer Anton Rubinstein . Previous tsars and the aristocracy had focused almost exclusively on importing European talent . The aim of the RMS was to fulfill Alexander II 's wish to foster native talent . It hosted a regular season of public concerts ( previously held only during the six weeks of Lent when the Imperial Theaters were closed ) and provided basic professional training in music . In 1861 , Tchaikovsky attended RMS classes in music theory taught by Nikolai Zaremba at the Mikhailovsky Palace ( now the Russian Museum ) . These classes were a precursor to the Saint Petersburg Conservatory , which opened in 1862 . Tchaikovsky enrolled at the Conservatory as part of its premiere class . He studied harmony and counterpoint with Zaremba and instrumentation and composition with Rubinstein .
The Conservatory benefited Tchaikovsky in two ways . It transformed him into a musical professional , with tools to help him thrive as a composer , and the in @-@ depth exposure to European principles and musical forms gave him a sense that his art was not exclusively Russian or Western . This mindset became important in Tchaikovsky 's reconciliation of Russian and European influences in his compositional style . He believed and attempted to show that both these aspects were " intertwined and mutually dependent " . His efforts became both an inspiration and a starting point for other Russian composers to build their own individual styles .
Rubinstein was impressed by Tchaikovsky 's musical talent on the whole and cited him as " a composer of genius " in his autobiography He was less pleased with the more progressive tendencies of some of Tchaikovsky 's student work . Nor did he change his opinion as Tchaikovsky 's reputation grew . He and Zaremba clashed with Tchaikovsky when he submitted his First Symphony for performance by the RMS in Saint Petersburg . Rubinstein and Zaremba refused to consider the work unless substantial changes were made . Tchaikovsky complied but they still refused to perform the symphony . Tchaikovsky , distressed that he had been treated as though he were still their student , withdrew the symphony . It was given its first complete performance , minus the changes Rubinstein and Zaremba had requested , in Moscow in February 1868 .
Once Tchaikovsky graduated in 1865 , Rubinstein 's brother Nikolai offered him the post of Professor of Music Theory at the soon @-@ to @-@ open Moscow Conservatory . While the salary for his professorship was only 50 rubles a month , the offer itself boosted Tchaikovsky 's morale and he accepted the post eagerly . He was further heartened by news of the first public performance of one of his works , his Characteristic Dances , conducted by Johann Strauss II at a concert in Pavlovsk Park on 11 September 1865 ( Tchaikovsky later included this work , re @-@ titled , Dances of the Hay Maidens , in his opera The Voyevoda ) .
From 1867 to 1878 , Tchaikovsky combined his professorial duties with music criticism while continuing to compose . This exposed him to a range of contemporary music and afforded him the opportunity to travel abroad . In his reviews , he praised Beethoven , considered Brahms overrated and , despite his admiration , took Schumann to task for poor orchestration . He appreciated the staging of Wagner 's Der Ring des Nibelungen at its inaugural performance in Bayreuth , Germany , but not the music , calling Das Rheingold " unlikely nonsense , through which , from time to time , sparkle unusually beautiful and astonishing details . " A recurring theme he addressed was the poor state of Russian opera .
= = = = Relationship with The Five = = = =
In 1856 , while Tchaikovsky was still at the School of Jurisprudence and Anton Rubinstein lobbied aristocrats to form the RMS , critic Vladimir Stasov and an 18 @-@ year @-@ old pianist , Mily Balakirev , met and agreed upon a nationalist agenda for Russian music , one that would take the operas of Mikhail Glinka as a model and incorporate elements from folk music , reject traditional Western practices and use exotic harmonic devices such as the whole tone and octatonic scales . They saw Western @-@ style conservatories as unnecessary and antipathetic to fostering native talent . Eventually , Balakirev , César Cui , Modest Mussorgsky , Nikolai Rimsky @-@ Korsakov and Alexander Borodin became known as the moguchaya kuchka , translated into English as the Mighty Handful or The Five . Rubinstein criticized their emphasis on amateur efforts in musical composition ; Balakirev and later Mussorgsky attacked Rubinstein for his musical conservatism and his belief in professional music training . Tchaikovsky and his fellow conservatory students were caught in the middle .
While ambivalent about much of The Five 's music , Tchaikovsky remained on friendly terms with most of its members . In 1869 , he and Balakirev worked together on what became Tchaikovsky 's first recognized masterpiece , the fantasy @-@ overture Romeo and Juliet , a work which The Five wholeheartedly embraced . The group also welcomed his Second Symphony , subtitled the Little Russian . Despite their support , Tchaikovsky made considerable efforts to ensure his musical independence from the group as well as from the conservative faction at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory .
= = = = Growing fame ; budding opera composer = = = =
The infrequency of Tchaikovsky 's musical successes , won with tremendous effort , exacerbated his lifelong sensitivity to criticism . Nikolai Rubinstein 's private fits of rage critiquing his music , most famously attacking the First Piano Concerto , did not help matters . His popularity grew , however , as several first @-@ rate artists became willing to perform his compositions . Hans von Bülow premiered the First Piano Concerto and championed other Tchaikovsky works both as pianist and conductor . Other artists included Adele Aus der Ohe , Max Erdmannsdörfer , Eduard Nápravník and Sergei Taneyev .
Another factor that helped Tchaikovsky 's music become popular was a shift in attitude among Russian audiences . Whereas they had previously been satisfied with flashy virtuoso performances of technically demanding but musically lightweight compositions , they gradually began listening with increasing appreciation of the music itself . Tchaikovsky 's works were performed frequently , with few delays between their composition and first performances ; the publication from 1867 onward of his songs and great piano music for the home market also helped boost the composer 's popularity .
During the late 1860s , Tchaikovsky began to compose operas . His first , The Voyevoda , based on a play by Alexander Ostrovsky , premiered in 1869 . The composer became dissatisfied with it , however , and , having re @-@ used parts of it in later works , destroyed the manuscript . Undina followed in 1870 . Only excerpts were performed and it , too , was destroyed . Between these projects , Tchaikovsky started to compose an opera called Mandragora , to a libretto by Sergei Rachinskii ; the only music he completed was a short chorus of Flowers and Insects .
The first Tchaikovsky opera to survive intact , The Oprichnik , premiered in 1874 . During its composition , he lost Ostrovsky 's part @-@ finished libretto . Tchaikovsky , too embarrassed to ask for another copy , decided to write the libretto himself , modelling his dramatic technique on that of Eugène Scribe . Cui wrote a " characteristically savage press attack " on the opera . Mussorgsky , writing to Vladimir Stasov , disapproved of the opera as pandering to the public . Nevertheless , The Oprichnik continues to be performed from time to time in Russia .
The last of the early operas , Vakula the Smith ( Op.14 ) , was composed in the second half of 1874 . The libretto , based on Gogol 's Christmas Eve , was to have been set to music by Alexander Serov . With Serov 's death , the libretto was opened to a competition with a guarantee that the winning entry would be premiered by the Imperial Mariinsky Theatre . Tchaikovsky was declared the winner , but at the 1876 premiere the opera enjoyed only a lukewarm reception . After Tchaikovsky 's death , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov wrote an opera based on the same story , Christmas Eve .
Other works of this period include the Variations on a Rococo Theme for cello and orchestra , the Second and Fourth Symphonies , the ballet Swan Lake , and the opera Eugene Onegin .
= = = Emotional life = = =
Discussion of Tchaikovsky 's personal life , especially his sexuality , has perhaps been the most extensive of any composer in the 19th century and certainly of any Russian composer of his time . It has also at times caused considerable confusion , from Soviet efforts to expunge all references to same @-@ sex attraction and portray him as a heterosexual , to efforts at armchair analysis by Western biographers . Biographers have generally agreed that Tchaikovsky was gay . He sought the company of other men in his circle for extended periods , " associating openly and establishing professional connections with them . " However , the degree to which the composer might have felt comfortable with his sexual nature has remained open to debate . It is still unknown whether Tchaikovsky , according to musicologist and biographer David Brown , " felt tainted within himself , defiled by something from which he finally realized he could never escape " or whether , according to Alexander Poznansky , he experienced " no unbearable guilt " over his sexual nature and " eventually came to see his sexual peculiarities as an insurmountable and even natural part of his personality ... without experiencing any serious psychological damage . " Relevant portions of his brother Modest 's autobiography , where he tells of the composer 's sexual orientation , have been published , as have letters previously suppressed by Soviet censors in which Tchaikovsky openly writes of it .
Tchaikovsky lived as a bachelor for most of his life . In 1868 he met Belgian soprano Désirée Artôt . They became infatuated with each other and were engaged to be married but due to Artôt 's refusal to give up the stage or settle in Russia , the relationship ended . Tchaikovsky later claimed she was the only woman he ever loved . In 1877 , at the age of 37 , he wed a former student , Antonina Miliukova . The marriage was a disaster . Mismatched psychologically and sexually , the couple lived together for only two and a half months before Tchaikovsky left , overwrought emotionally and suffering from an acute writer 's block . Tchaikovsky 's family remained supportive of him during this crisis and throughout his life . He was also aided by Nadezhda von Meck , the widow of a railway magnate who had begun contact with him not long before the marriage . As well as an important friend and emotional support , she became his patroness for the next 13 years , which allowed him to focus exclusively on composition . Tchaikovsky 's marital debacle may have forced him to face the full truth about his sexuality ; he never blamed Antonina for the failure of their marriage .
= = = Years of wandering = = =
Tchaikovsky remained abroad for a year after the disintegration of his marriage . During this time , he completed Eugene Onegin , orchestrated his Fourth Symphony , and composed the Violin Concerto . He returned briefly to the Moscow Conservatory in the autumn of 1879 For the next few years , assured of a regular income from von Meck , he traveled incessantly throughout Europe and rural Russia , mainly alone , and avoided social contact whenever possible . During this time , Tchaikovsky 's foreign reputation grew and a positive reassessment of his music also took place in Russia , thanks in part to Russian novelist Fyodor Dostoyevsky 's call for " universal unity " with the West at the unveiling of the Pushkin Monument in Moscow in 1880 . Before Dostoyevsky 's speech , Tchaikovsky 's music had been considered " overly dependent on the West . " As Dostoyevsky 's message spread throughout Russia , this stigma toward Tchaikovsky 's music evaporated . An unprecedented acclaim for him even drew a cult following among the young intelligentsia of Saint Petersburg , including Alexandre Benois , Léon Bakst and Sergei Diaghilev .
Two musical works from this period stand out . With the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour nearing completion in Moscow in 1880 , the 25th anniversary of the coronation of Alexander II in 1881 , and the 1882 Moscow Arts and Industry Exhibition in the planning stage , Nikolai Rubinstein suggested that Tchaikovsky compose a grand commemorative piece . Tchaikovsky agreed and finished it within six weeks . He wrote to Nadezhda von Meck that this piece , the 1812 Overture , would be " very loud and noisy , but I wrote it with no warm feeling of love , and therefore there will probably be no artistic merits in it . " He also warned conductor Eduard Nápravník that " I shan 't be at all surprised and offended if you find that it is in a style unsuitable for symphony concerts . " Nevertheless , the overture became , for many , " the piece by Tchaikovsky they know best . "
On 23 March 1881 , Nikolai Rubinstein died in Paris . That December , Tchaikovsky started work on his Piano Trio in A minor , " dedicated to the memory of a great artist . " First performed privately at the Moscow Conservatory on the first anniversary of Rubinstein 's death , the piece became extremely popular during the composer 's lifetime ; in November 1893 , it would become Tchaikovsky 's own elegy at memorial concerts in Moscow and St. Petersburg .
= = = Return to Russia = = =
In 1884 Tchaikovsky began to shed his unsociability and restlessness . That March , Tsar Alexander III conferred upon him the Order of St. Vladimir ( fourth class ) , which included a title of hereditary nobility and a personal audience with the Tsar . This was seen as a seal of official approval which advanced Tchaikovsky 's social standing and might have been cemented in the composer 's mind by the success of his Orchestral Suite No. 3 at its January 1885 premiere in Saint Petersburg . In 1885 , Alexander III requested a new production of Eugene Onegin at the Bolshoi Kamenny Theatre in Saint Petersburg . By having the opera staged there and not at the Mariinsky Theatre , he served notice that Tchaikovsky 's music was replacing Italian opera as the official imperial art . In addition , thanks to Ivan Vsevolozhsky , Director of the Imperial Theaters and a patron of the composer , Tchaikovsky was awarded a lifetime annual pension of 3 @,@ 000 rubles from the Tsar . This made him the premier court composer , in practice if not in actual title .
Despite Tchaikovsky 's disdain for public life , he now participated in it as part of his increasing celebrity and out of a duty he felt to promote Russian music . He helped support his former pupil Sergei Taneyev , who was now director of Moscow Conservatory , by attending student examinations and negotiating the sometimes sensitive relations among various members of the staff . He served as director of the Moscow branch of the Russian Musical Society during the 1889 – 1890 season . In this post , he invited many international celebrities to conduct , including Johannes Brahms , Antonín Dvořák and Jules Massenet .
During this period , Tchaikovsky also began promoting Russian music as a conductor , In January 1887 he substituted , on short notice , at the Bolshoi Theater in Moscow for performances of his opera Cherevichki . Within a year , he was in considerable demand throughout Europe and Russia . These appearances helped him overcome life @-@ long stage fright and boosted his self @-@ assurance . In 1888 Tchaikovsky led the premiere of his Fifth Symphony in Saint Petersburg , repeating the work a week later with the first performance of his tone poem Hamlet . Although critics proved hostile , with César Cui calling the symphony " routine " and " meretricious " , both works were received with extreme enthusiasm by audiences and Tchaikovsky , undeterred , continued to conduct the symphony in Russia and Europe . Conducting brought him to America in 1891 , where he led the New York Music Society 's orchestra in his Festival Coronation March at the inaugural concert of Carnegie Hall .
= = = Belyayev circle and growing reputation = = =
In November 1887 , Tchaikovsky arrived at Saint Petersburg in time to hear several of the Russian Symphony Concerts , devoted exclusively to the music of Russian composers . One included the first complete performance of his revised First Symphony ; another featured the final version of Third Symphony of Nikolai Rimsky @-@ Korsakov , with whose circle Tchaikovsky was already in touch . Rimsky @-@ Korsakov , with Alexander Glazunov , Anatoly Lyadov and several other nationalistically minded composers and musicians , had formed a group known as the Belyayev circle , named after a merchant and amateur musician who became an influential music patron and publisher . Tchaikovsky spent much time in this circle , becoming far more at ease with them than he had been with the ' Five ' and increasingly confident in showcasing his music alongside theirs . This relationship lasted until Tchaikovsky 's death .
In 1892 , Tchaikovsky was voted a member of the Académie des Beaux @-@ Arts in France , only the second Russian subject to be so honored ( the first was sculptor Mark Antokolski ) . The following year , the University of Cambridge in England awarded Tchaikovsky an honorary Doctor of Music degree .
= = = Death = = =
On 28 October / 9 November 1893 Tchaikovsky conducted the premiere of his Sixth Symphony , the Pathétique in Saint Petersburg . Nine days later , Tchaikovsky died there , aged 53 . He was interred in Tikhvin Cemetery at the Alexander Nevsky Monastery , near the graves of fellow @-@ composers Alexander Borodin , Mikhail Glinka , and Modest Mussorgsky ; later , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov and Balakirev were also buried nearby .
While Tchaikovsky 's death has traditionally been attributed to cholera , most probably contracted through drinking contaminated water several days earlier from the local river , many writers have theorized that his death was a suicide . Opinion has been summarized as follows : " The polemics over [ Tchaikovsky 's ] death have reached an impasse ... Rumors attached to the famous die hard ... As for illness , problems of evidence offer little hope of satisfactory resolution : the state of diagnosis ; the confusion of witnesses ; disregard of long @-@ term effects of smoking and alcohol . We do not know how Tchaikovsky died . We may never find out ..... "
= = Music = =
Tchaikovsky wrote many works that are popular with the classical music public , including his Romeo and Juliet , the 1812 Overture , his three ballets ( The Nutcracker , Swan Lake , The Sleeping Beauty ) and Marche Slave . These , along with his First Piano Concerto and his Violin Concerto , the last three of his six numbered symphonies and his operas The Queen of Spades and Eugene Onegin , are among his most familiar works . Almost as popular are the Manfred Symphony , Francesca da Rimini , the Capriccio Italien and the Serenade for Strings .
= = = Creative range = = =
Tchaikovsky displayed an unusually wide stylistic and emotional range , from salon works of innocuous charm to symphonies of tremendous depth , power and grandeur . Some of his works , such as the Variations on a Rococo Theme , employ a poised " Classical " form reminiscent of 18th @-@ century composers such as Mozart ( the composer whose work was his favorite ) . Other compositions , such as his Little Russian symphony and his opera Vakula the Smith , flirt with musical practices more akin to those of the Five , especially in their use of folk song . Other works , such as Tchaikovsky 's last three symphonies , employ a personal musical idiom that facilitated intense emotional expression .
= = = Ukrainian folk elements = = =
Many of Tchaikovsky 's works have Ukrainian subjects or incorporate Ukrainian folk songs or melodies . Among these are the operas Mazepa ( based on Aleksandr Pushkin 's poem ) , Little Shoes , and Night before Christmas ( or Vakula the Smith , based on Nikolai Gogol 's story ) ; symphonies No. 2 ( Little Russian ) , No. 4 , and No. 7 ( finished and edited by Semyon Bogatyrev ) ; the Concerto for Piano and Orchestra No. 1 in B @-@ flat Minor ; the 1812 Overture , the opening of which is based on the first mode of the Kievan chant ; the transcription for piano solo of Aleksandr Dargomyzhsky 's orchestral fantasy Kozachok ; and songs to Russian translations of Taras Shevchenko , such as ‘ Sadok Vyshnevyi ’ ( Cherry Orchard ) .
= = = Compositional style = = =
= = = = Melody = = = =
American music critic and journalist Harold C. Schonberg wrote of Tchaikovsky 's " sweet , inexhaustible , supersensuous fund of melody , " a feature that has ensured his music 's continued success with audiences . Tchaikovsky 's complete range of melodic styles was as wide as that of his compositions . Sometimes he used Western @-@ style melodies , sometimes original melodies written in the style of Russian folk song ; sometimes he used actual folk songs . According to The New Grove , Tchaikovsky 's melodic gift could also become his worst enemy in two ways . The first challenge arose from his ethnic heritage . Unlike Western themes , the melodies that Russian composers wrote tended to be self @-@ contained ; they functioned with a mindset of stasis and repetition rather than one of progress and ongoing development . On a technical level , it made modulating to a new key to introduce a contrasting second theme exceedingly difficult , as this was literally a foreign concept that did not exist in Russian music . The second way melody worked against Tchaikovsky was a challenge that he shared with the majority of Romantic @-@ age composers . They did not write in the regular , symmetrical melodic shapes that worked well with sonata form , such as those favored by Classical composers such as Haydn , Mozart or Beethoven , but were complete and independent in themselves . This completeness hindered their use as structural elements in combination with one another . This challenge was why the Romantics " were never natural symphonists . " . All a composer like Tchaikovsky could do with them was to essentially repeat them , even when he modified them to generate tension , maintain interest and satisfy listeners .
= = = = Harmony = = = =
Harmony could be a potential trap for Tchaikovsky , according to Brown , since Russian creativity tended to focus on inertia and self @-@ enclosed tableaux , while Western harmony worked against this to propel the music onward and , on a larger scale , shape it . Modulation , the shifting from one key to another , was a driving principle in both harmony and sonata form , the primary Western large @-@ scale musical structure since the middle of the 18th century . Modulation maintained harmonic interest over an extended time @-@ scale , provided a clear contrast between musical themes and showed how those themes were related to each other . One point in Tchaikovsky 's favor was " a flair for harmony " that " astonished " Rudolph Kündinger , Tchaikovsky 's music tutor during his time at the School of Jurisprudence . Added to what he learned at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory studies , this talent allowed Tchaikovsky to employ a varied range of harmony in his music , from the Western harmonic and textural practices of his first two string quartets to the use of the whole tone scale in the center of the finale of the Second Symphony , a practice more typically used by The Five .
= = = = Rhythm = = = =
Rhythmically , Tchaikovsky sometimes experimented with unusual meters . More often , he used a firm , regular meter , a practice that served him well in dance music . At times , his rhythms became pronounced enough to become the main expressive agent of the music . They also became a means , found typically in Russian folk music , of simulating movement or progression in large @-@ scale symphonic movements — a " synthetic propulsion , " as Brown phrases it , which substituted for the momentum that would be created in strict sonata form by the interaction of melodic or motivic elements . This interaction generally does not take place in Russian music . ( For more on this , please see Repetition below . )
= = = = Structure
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Tchaikovsky struggled with sonata form . Its principle of organic growth through the interplay of musical themes was alien to Russian practice . According to Brown and musicologists Hans Keller and Daniel Zhitomirsky , Tchaikovsky found his solution to large @-@ scale structure while composing the Fourth Symphony . He essentially sidestepped thematic interaction and kept sonata form only as an " outline , " as Zhitomirsky phrases it . Within this outline , the focus centered on periodic alternation and juxtaposition . Tchaikovsky placed blocks of dissimilar tonal and thematic material alongside one another , with what Keller calls " new and violent contrasts " between musical themes , keys and harmonies . This process , according to Brown and Keller , builds momentum and adds intense drama . While the result , Warrack charges , is still " an ingenious episodic treatment of two tunes rather than a symphonic development of them " in the Germanic sense , Brown counters that it took the listener of the period " through a succession of often highly charged sections which added up to a radically new kind of symphonic experience " ( italics Brown ) , one that functioned not on the basis of summation , as Austro @-@ German symphonies did , but on one of accumulation .
Partly due to the melodic and structural intricacies involved in this accumulation and partly due to the composer 's nature , Tchaikovsky 's music became intensely expressive . This intensity was entirely new to Russian music and prompted some Russians to place Tchaikovsky 's name alongside that of Dostoyevsky . German musicologist Hermann Kretzschmar credits Tchaikovsky in his later symphonies with offering " full images of life , developed freely , sometimes even dramatically , around psychological contrasts ... This music has the mark of the truly lived and felt experience . " Botstein , in elaborating on this comment , suggests that listening to Tchaikovsky 's music " became a psychological mirror connected to everyday experience , one that reflected on the dynamic nature of the listener ’ s own emotional self . " This active engagement with the music " opened for the listener a vista of emotional and psychological tension and an extremity of feeling that possessed relevance because it seemed reminiscent of one ’ s own ' truly lived and felt experience ' or one ’ s search for intensity in a deeply personal sense . "
= = = = Repetition = = = =
As mentioned above , repetition was a natural part of Tchaikovsky 's music , just as it is an integral part of Russian music . His use of sequences within melodies ( repeating a tune at a higher or lower pitch in the same voice ) could go on for extreme length . The problem with repetition is that , over a period of time , the melody being repeated remains static , even when there is a surface level of rhythmic activity added to it . Tchaikovsky kept the musical conversation flowing by treating melody , tonality , rhythm and sound color as one integrated unit , rather than as separate elements . By making subtle but noticeable changes in the rhythm or phrasing of a tune , modulating to another key , changing the melody itself or varying the instruments playing it , Tchaikovsky could keep a listener 's interest from flagging . By extending the number of repetitions , he could increase the musical and dramatic tension of a passage , building " into an emotional experience of almost unbearable intensity , " as Brown phrases it , controlling when the peak and release of that tension would take place . Musicologist Martin Cooper calls this practice a subtle form of unifying a piece of music and adds that Tchaikovsky brought it to a high point of refinement . ( For more on this practice , see the next section . )
= = = = Orchestration = = = =
Like other late Romantic composers , Tchaikovsky relied heavily on orchestration for musical effects . Tchaikovsky , however , became noted for the " sensual opulence " and " voluptuous timbrel virtuosity " of his scoring . Like Glinka , Tchaikovsky tended toward bright primary colors and sharply delineated contrasts of texture . However , beginning with the Third Symphony , Tchaikovsky experimented with an increased range of timbres Tchaikovsky 's scoring was noted and admired by some of his peers . Rimsky @-@ Korsakov regularly referred his students at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory to it and called it " devoid of all striving after effect , [ to ] give a healthy , beautiful sonority . " This sonority , musicologist Richard Taruskin points out , is essentially Germanic in effect . Tchaikovsky 's expert use of having two or more instruments play a melody simultaneously ( a practice called doubling ) and his ear for uncanny combinations of instruments resulted in " a generalized orchestral sonority in which the individual timbres of the instruments , being thoroughly mixed , would vanish . "
= = = = Pastiche ( Passé @-@ ism ) = = = =
In works like the Serenade for Strings and the Variations on a Rococo Theme , Tchaikovsky showed he was highly gifted at writing in a style of 18th century European pastiche . In the ballet The Sleeping Beauty and the opera The Queen of Spades , Tchaikovsky graduated from imitation to full @-@ scale evocation . This practice , which Alexandre Benois calls " passé @-@ ism , " lends an air of timelessness and immediacy , making the past seem as though it were the present . On a practical level , Tchaikovsky was drawn to past styles because he felt he might find the solution to certain structural problems within them . His Rococo pastiches also may have offered escape into a musical world purer than his own , into which he felt himself irresistibly drawn . ( In this sense , Tchaikovsky operated in the opposite manner to Igor Stravinsky , who turned to Neoclassicism partly as a form of compositional self @-@ discovery . ) Tchaikovsky 's attraction to ballet might have allowed a similar refuge into a fairy @-@ tale world , where he could freely write dance music within a tradition of French elegance .
= = = Antecedents and influences = = =
Of Tchaikovsky 's Western contemporaries , Robert Schumann stands out as an influence in formal structure , harmonic practices and piano writing , according to Brown and musicologist Roland John Wiley . As mentioned earlier , Asafyev comments that Schumann left his mark on Tchaikovsky not just as a formal influence but also as an example of musical dramaturgy and self @-@ expression . Leon Botstein claims the music of Franz Liszt and Richard Wagner also left their imprints on Tchaikovsky 's orchestral style . The late @-@ Romantic trend for writing orchestral suites , begun by Franz Lachner , Jules Massenet and Joachim Raff after the rediscovery of Bach 's works in that genre , may have influenced Tchaikovsky to try his own hand at them . His teacher Anton Rubinstein 's opera The Demon became a model for the final tableau of Eugene Onegin . So did Léo Delibes ' ballets Coppélia and Sylvia for The Sleeping Beauty and Georges Bizet 's opera Carmen ( a work Tchaikovsky admired tremendously ) for The Queen of Spades . Otherwise , it was to composers of the past that Tchaikovsky turned — Beethoven , whose music he respected ; Mozart , whose music he loved ; Glinka , whose opera A Life for the Tsar made an indelible impression on him as a child and whose scoring he studied assiduously ; and Adolphe Adam , whose ballet Giselle was a favorite of his from his student days and whose score he consulted while working on The Sleeping Beauty . Beethoven 's string quartets may have influenced Tchaikovsky 's attempts in that medium . Other composers whose work interested Tchaikovsky included Hector Berlioz , Felix Mendelssohn , Giacomo Meyerbeer and Henry Litolff .
= = = Aesthetic impact = = =
Maes maintains that , regardless of what he was writing , Tchaikovsky 's main concern was how his music impacted his listeners on an aesthetic level , at specific moments in the piece and on a cumulative level once the music had finished . What his listeners experienced on an emotional or visceral level became an end in itself . Tchaikovsky 's focus on pleasing his audience might be considered closer to that of Mendelssohn or Mozart . Considering that he lived and worked in what was probably the last 19th century feudal nation , the statement is not actually that surprising . And yet , even when writing so @-@ called ' programme music , for example his Romeo and Juliet fantasy overture , he cast it in sonata form . His use of stylized 18th @-@ century melodies and patriotic themes was geared toward the values of Russian aristocracy . He was aided in this by Ivan Vsevolozhsky , who commissioned The Sleeping Beauty from Tchaikovsky and the libretto for The Queen of Spades from Modest with their use of 18th century settings stipulated firmly . Tchaikovsky also used the polonaise frequently , the dance being a musical code for the Romanov dynasty and a symbol of Russian patriotism . Using it in the finale of a work could assure its success with Russian listeners .
= = = Reception = = =
= = = = Dedicatees and collaborators = = = =
Tchaikovsky 's relationship with collaborators was mixed . Like Nikolai Rubinstein with the First Piano Concerto , virtuoso and pedagogue Leopold Auer rejected the Violin Concerto initially but changed his mind ; he played it to great public success and taught it to his students , who included Jascha Heifetz and Nathan Milstein . Wilhelm Fitzenhagen " intervened considerably in shaping what he considered ' his ' piece , " the Variations on a Rococo Theme , according to music critic Michael Steinberg . Tchaikovsky was angered by Fitzenhagen 's license but did nothing ; the Rococo Variations were published with the cellist 's amendments . His collaboration on the three ballets went better and in Marius Petipa , who worked with him on the last two , he might have found an advocate . When The Sleeping Beauty was seen by its dancers as needlessly complicated , Petipa convinced them to put in the extra effort . Tchaikovsky compromised to make his music as practical as possible for the dancers and was accorded more creative freedom than ballet composers were usually accorded at the time . He responded with scores that minimized the rhythmic subtleties normally present in his work but were inventive and rich in melody , with more refined and imaginative orchestration than in the average ballet score .
= = = = Critics = = = =
Critical reception to Tchaikovsky 's music has also varied but also improved over time . Even after 1880 , some inside Russia held it suspect for not being nationalistic enough and thought Western European critics lauded it for exactly that reason . There might have been a grain of truth in the latter , according to musicologist and conductor Leon Botstein , as German critics especially wrote of the " indeterminacy of [ Tchaikovsky 's ] artistic character ... being truly at home in the non @-@ Russian . " Of the foreign critics who did not care for his music , Eduard Hanslick lambasted the Violin Concerto as a musical composition " whose stink one can hear " and William Forster Abtrop wrote of the Fifth Symphony , " The furious peroration sounds like nothing so much as a hoard of demons struggling in a torrent of brandy , the music growing drunker and drunker . Pandemonium , delerium tremens , raving , and above all , noise worse confounded !
The division between Russian and Western critics remained through much of the 20th century but for a different reason . According to Brown and Wiley , the prevailing view of Western critics was that the same qualities in Tchaikovsky 's music that appealed to audiences — its strong emotions , directness and eloquence and colorful orchestration — added up to compositional shallowness . The music 's use in popular and film music , Brown says , lowered its esteem in their eyes still further . There was also the fact , pointed out earlier , that Tchaikovsky 's music demanded active engagement from the listener and , as Botstein phrases it , " spoke to the listener ’ s imaginative interior life , regardless of nationality . " Conservative critics , he adds , may have felt threatened by the " violence and ' hysteria ' " they detected and felt such emotive displays " attacked the boundaries of conventional aesthetic appreciation — the cultured reception of art as an act of formalist discernment — and the polite engagement of art as an act of amusement . "
There has also been the fact that the composer did not follow sonata form strictly , relying instead on juxtaposing blocks of tonalities and thematic groups . Maes states this point has been seen at times as a weakness rather than a sign of originality . Even with what Schonberg termed " a professional reevaluaton " of Tchaikovsky 's work , the practice of faulting Tchaikovsky for not following in the steps of the Viennese masters has not gone away entirely , while his intent of writing music that would please his audiences is also sometimes taken to task . In a 1992 article , New York Times critic Allan Kozinn writes , " It is Tchaikovsky 's flexibility , after all , that has given us a sense of his variability .... Tchaikovsky was capable of turning out music — entertaining and widely beloved though it is — that seems superficial , manipulative and trivial when regarded in the context of the whole literature . The First Piano Concerto is a case in point . It makes a joyful noise , it swims in pretty tunes and its dramatic rhetoric allows ( or even requires ) a soloist to make a grand , swashbuckling impression . But it is entirely hollow . "
In the 21st century , however , critics are reacting more positively to Tchaikovsky 's tunefulness , originality , and craftsmanship . " Tchaikovsky is being viewed again as a composer of the first rank , writing music of depth , innovation and influence , " according to cultural historian and author Joseph Horowitz . Important in this reevaluation is a shift in attitude away from the disdain for overt emotionalism that marked half of the 20th century . " We have acquired a different view of Romantic ' excess , ' " Horowitz says . " Tchaikovsky is today more admired than deplored for his emotional frankness ; if his music seems harried and insecure , so are we all . "
= = = = Public = = = =
Horowitz maintains that , while the standing of Tchaikovsky 's music has fluctuated among critics , for the public , " it never went out of style , and his most popular works have yielded iconic sound @-@ bytes [ sic ] , such as the love theme from Romeo and Juliet . " Along with those tunes , Botstein adds , " Tchaikovsky appealed to audiences outside of Russia with an immediacy and directness that were startling even for music , an art form often associated with emotion . " Tchaikovsky 's melodies , stated with eloquence and matched by his inventive use of harmony and orchestration , have always ensured audience appeal . His popularity is considered secure , with his following in many countries , including Great Britain and the United States , second only to that of Beethoven . His music has also been used frequently in the realms of popular music and film .
= = = Legacy = = =
According to Wiley , Tchaikovsky was a pioneer in several ways . " Thanks in large part to Nadezhda von Meck " , Wiley writes , " he became the first full @-@ time professional Russian composer . " This , Wiley adds , allowed him the time and freedom to consolidate the Western compositional practices he had learned at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory with Russian folk song and other native musical elements to fulfill his own expressive goals and forge an original , deeply personal style . He made an impact not only in absolute works such as the symphony but also in program music and , as Wiley phrases it , " transformed Liszt 's and Berlioz 's achievements ... into matters of Shakespearean elevation and psychological import . " Wiley and Holden both note that Tchaikovsky did all this without a native school of composition upon which to fall back . They point out that only Glinka had preceded him in combining Russian and Western practices and his teachers in Saint Petersburg had been thoroughly Germanic in their musical outlook . He was , they write , for all intents and purposes alone in his artistic quest .
Maes and Taruskin write that Tchaikovsky believed that his professionalism in combining skill and high standards in his musical works separated him from his contemporaries in The Five . Maes adds that , like them , he wanted to produce music that reflected Russian national character but which did so to the highest European standards of quality . Tchaikovsky , according to Maes , came along at a time when the nation itself was deeply divided as to what that character truly was . Like his country , Maes writes , it took him time to discover how to express his Russianness in a way that was true to himself and what he had learned . Because of his professionalism , Maes says , he worked hard at this goal and succeeded . The composer 's friend , music critic Hermann Laroche , wrote of The Sleeping Beauty that the score contained " an element deeper and more general than color , in the internal structure of the music , above all in the foundation of the element of melody . This basic element is undoubtedly Russian . "
Tchaikovsky was inspired to reach beyond Russia with his music , according to Maes and Taruskin . His exposure to Western music , they write , encouraged him to think it belonged not just to Russia but to the world at large . Volkov adds that this mindset made him think seriously about Russia 's place in European musical culture — the first Russian composer to do so . It steeled him to become the first Russian composer to personally acquaint foreign audiences with his own works , Warrack writes , as well as those of other Russian composers . In his biography of Tchaikovsky , Anthony Holden recalls the dearth of Russian classical music before Tchaikovsky 's birth , then places the composer 's achievements into historical perspective : " Twenty years after Tchaikovsky 's death , in 1913 , Igor Stravinsky 's The Rite of Spring erupted onto the musical scene , signalling Russia 's arrival into 20th @-@ century music . Between these two very different worlds Tchaikovsky 's music became the sole bridge . "
= = Tchaikovsky 's voice = =
The following recording was made in Moscow in January 1890 , by Julius Block on behalf of Thomas Edison .
Problems listening to the files ? See media help .
According to musicologist Leonid Sabaneyev , Tchaikovsky was not comfortable with being recorded for posterity and tried to shy away from it . On an apparently separate visit from the one related above , Block asked the composer to play something on a piano or at least say something . Tchaikovsky refused . He told Block , " I am a bad pianist and my voice is raspy . Why should one eternalize it ? "
= = = Public domain sheet music = = =
Mutopia Project Tchaikovsky Sheet Music at Mutopia
Free scores by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky at the International Music Score Library Project
[ 2 ] Tchaikovsky Arias and Piano works performed live in Brussels
= Hibiki 's Magic =
Hibiki 's Magic ( ヒビキのマホウ , Hibiki no Mahō ) , subtitled a continental chronicle in the original version , is a Japanese manga series written by Jun Maeda and illustrated by Rei Izumi . The story centers on a young girl named Hibiki who is the apprentice to a very skilled wizard named Shirotsuki . Hibiki does not have much skill with magic , and the only thing she is really good at is making tea . After an accident where her teacher nearly dies , Hibiki comes to stay at a famous magic academy and works as a teacher herself .
Hibiki 's Magic started serialization in the August 2004 issue of Kadokawa Shoten 's Shōnen Ace , but later transferred to Kadokawa 's Comp Ace in November 2005 , and concluded in the May 2016 issue . Tokyopop licensed the series in North America , and released the first two volumes in 2007 . The manga is described by Anime News Network as having an " inspirational tone " with a very cute style of storytelling . IGN Comics describes the manga as a " solid story that breaks out of that cuteness mold . "
= = Plot = =
Hibiki 's Magic revolves around the title character Hibiki , a lonely young girl under the wing of a skilled wizard named Shirotsuki . At the story 's onset , Hibiki is living with Shirotsuki and is in training as an assistant to learn the art of magic . Shirotsuki , whom Hibiki refers to as " Master " , is searching for the key to immortality . He is a renowned expert at the craft known as Magic Circles , which draws its power from the art of elaborate circles that enact various enchantments . Even though Shirotsuki invites Hibiki to learn what he knows , she is unskilled in magic and rarely succeeds in anything she does . In spite of repeatedly failing , she keeps trying with her teacher 's encouragement .
Shirotsuki 's research is interrupted when a group of men break into his house during an experiment . Shirotsuki 's soul becomes trapped inside a squirrel @-@ like creature called a gusk , and his real body is lost in a fire that results from his magical protection wards ; Hibiki and the gusk barely escape alive . With nowhere else to go , Hibiki takes up residence in the nearby capital city Kamigusk . Hibiki is surprised that Shirotsuki 's reputation precedes him , and she is taken to the local Kamisaid Magic Academy where she is given the position of professor . Hibiki 's attempts to convince the administration of her shortcomings meet with failure . Hibiki is forced to learn to cope with being a professor in the most famous magic school in the country and meets many new people that help her along the way .
Hibiki meets a hard @-@ to @-@ handle student named Ahito who hates magic , and while he and Hibiki are eventually able to become friends , Ahito continues to hate magic . With the help of her master , Hibiki creates a homunculus in the form of a young girl which names herself Shiraasan . While she is hard to keep in line , Hibiki and Shiraasan share a close relationship . Hibiki meets a cursed girl named Nazuna Shireiyu , and Hibiki tries to help alleviate her curse , and in doing so becomes her friend . Nazuna turns out to be the granddaughter of the king of the land where Hibiki 's Magic takes place .
In the world of Hibiki 's Magic , in order to gain magic one must make a sacrifice . It can be a physical sacrifice , such as Ahito experiencing pain , or a mental sacrifice , such as Shirotsuki losing his memories . Hibiki tries to help by making the sacrifices a little more bearable .
= = Characters = =
Hibiki ( ヒビキ )
Hibiki is a young girl with little confidence in her abilities , except in tea making . When she met Shirotsuki , Hibiki was a shy girl who would hide in the corner of a room in his house speechlessly . Eventually , Hibiki warmed up to Shirotsuki 's affectionate personality and came to consider him a very important person . Hibiki can be very lighthearted , and always helps people who need it . She has no talent for magic , and relies on her master to help her in this regard . She is a crybaby and somewhat clumsy , but does her best and wins people over with her abundant kindness and warm heart .
Shirotsuki ( シロツキ )
Shirotsuki is a very skilled wizard who took Hibiki into his home in order to train her as an assistant to his craft . Despite Hibiki 's constant failures , Shirotsuki never gets angry with her and lets her take her time to get it right . He had been in love with a young woman his age named Yui , but had sacrificed his memories of her and his loved ones for his magic .
Ahito ( アヒト )
Ahito is a young man enrolled as a student at Kamisaid Magic Academy . In spite of this , he does not believe that magic is useful to mankind He had been forced to go to the academy by his grandmother . His parents had died in a war while conducting horrible experiments and he remarks that " they deserved it " . This attitude stems from a series of painful magical experiments he was involved in as a child so he could save a girl his age named Mizuki , but she died prematurely . Ahito becomes friends with Hibiki , and starts to act a little more nicely to her . Ahito sacrificed going though pain for his magic ; he is physically injured after gazing upon someone with his healing eyes .
Shiraasan ( シイラアサン , Shiiraasan )
Shiraasan , also known as Shi @-@ chan , is a female homunculus , or artificial human , created by a joint effort of Hibiki and Shirotsuki . Despite looking like a very young girl , Shiraasan has the maturity of an adult who finds nothing wrong with reading newspapers or smoking cigarettes . Since homunculi were originally created as weapons in Hibiki 's Magic , Shiraasan can procure guns and other weapons to use as she pleases , such as taking care of stray flies . Shiraasan has a very independent personality and does not like to be told what she can and cannot do . After it is confirmed that she is a stable lifeform , Shiraasan warms up to Hibiki and loves her very much .
Asuma ( アスマ )
Asuma is a male wizard with a frivolous personality and is the director of Kamisaid Magic Academy . He likes using magic to surprise others , such as making flowers and small birds appear out of nowhere . His sacrifice for magic is that he ages quickly . For example , when Misaki was saved by him , she was surprised he had aged a few years in one day .
Misaki ( ミサキ )
Misaki is Asuma 's assistant and is the first person that Hibiki meets from Kamisaid Magic Academy . When Hibiki makes a mistake , Misaki lectures her and informs her how a member of the faculty should act , even when it may not entirely be her fault . Due to Hibiki 's low magical experience , Misaki worries about Hibiki succeeding as a member of the staff . Like Hibiki , Misaki cannot perform magic , though she still has a vast knowledge of magic at her disposal . She had been adopted by a man that constantly abused her and the only thing that could cheer her up was a book from a magic user . She had been saved by Asuma and hopes to be of use to him .
Ikko ( イッコ )
Ikko is a female teacher at Kamisaid Magic Academy whose specialty is curses . While normally a sweet , young woman , her personality becomes sinister when she is performing her curses . She shows a skill in sewing when she is asked by Hibiki to make new clothes for Shiraasan .
Yukko ( ユッコ )
Yukko is a woman around the same age as Ikko , her older sister . Yukko lost her young daughter Nanako in the last war , and since then has spent all her time researching how to make a homunculus in human form , though has never been able to produce one that looks human . After the incident with Shiraasan , Yukko is finally able to accept her daughter 's death and ceases to make more homunculi . Yukko sacrificed her slumber for her magic .
Nazuna Shireiyu ( ナズナ = シレイユ )
Nazuna is a young girl whose grandfather is the king of the land of Kamisaid . She is a skilled sword @-@ fighter , but is followed by the dead spirits of baby chicks , who believe her to be their mother , and rest on her , thus interfering in her sword @-@ training . Hibiki is able to help her initially by making some of them disappear , though the chicks come back .
= = Production and release = =
The manga series Hibiki 's Magic is written by Jun Maeda and illustrated by Rei Izumi . As stated at the back of the first volume , Maeda first conceived Hibiki 's Magic as a short story he wrote as a student , and the story contains an unspecified theme that he has carried through a lot of stories since . In 2003 , he wanted to collaborate with Izumi , one of his favorite artists , and remembered his earlier concept that would become Hibiki 's Magic . After Izumi drew some early character designs for Hibiki , Maeda wanted to continue the story and start a manga with Izumi as the artist .
The manga premiered in the August 2004 issue of Kadokawa Shoten 's Shōnen Ace . It was later transferred to Kadokawa Shoten 's Comp Ace magazine on November 26 , 2005 . Hibiki 's Magic went on hiatus after the release of Comp Ace volume 15 on May 26 , 2007 , during which only three chapters were released : the first in Comp Ace 's August 2008 issue , next as a bonus chapter in the September 2008 issue of Comp Ace , and finally in a special edition of the magazine 's July 2011 issue titled Key Station . The manga resumed regular publication with the April 2013 issue of Comp Ace , and concluded with the May 2016 issue . The first tankōbon volume was released on August 10 , 2005 ; four volumes have been released as of February 26 , 2015 .
At Comic @-@ Con International 2006 , Tokyopop announced that it had acquired Hibiki 's Magic for distribution in English in North America . Tokyopop released the first volume on January 9 , 2007 , followed by the second volume on September 11 , 2007 . Kadokawa Media licensed the series in Chinese .
= = Reception = =
Anime News Network 's ( ANN ) review of the first volume states that " Hibiki 's Magic ... focus [ es ] on the ways that magic effects the everyday lives of its users . The personal focus is welcome , but the book is a little too compressed and rushed to evoke exactly the emotional response that it desires . " While at the same time describing the first volume as having an " inspirational tone " , the review ends by saying , " Don 't come to Hibiki 's Magic expecting a life @-@ changing re @-@ examination of magic . It 's a heavy dose of pure cuteness for those who like their sweet @-@ and @-@ sour drama with lots of cheese . " The first volume of Hibiki 's Magic was featured in ANN 's Right Turn Only column in January 2007 , where Carlo Santos compares the series to " Someday 's Dreamers with more guts and heart , " which portrays magicians as similar to normal people with " weaknesses and all " as opposed to " other tales of magic [ which ] focus on how cool and different magicians are [ compared to normal people ] . " Visually , the series is described as being too similar to " every other fantasy series " and even cites similarities with " Hogwarts ' magic robes and school logo . " IGN Comics ' review said , " This book ought to be fairly popular for its intended age group .... Make no mistake , this book is cute in every sense of the word ... but at the same time it 's a solid story that breaks out of that cuteness mold . "
In a review at Comic Book Bin , the reviewer Leroy Douresseaux praised Jun Maeda for crafting a " gentle , yet highly engaging story about deep friendship and strong love and devotion . " Douresseaux also cited Rei Izumi 's art as " cute " and how her " visuals are also emotionally potent . " In a review at Mania , Michelle Ramonetti follows with other reviewers , citing the series as " deceptively cute " , but also describing it as " often funny , but mostly bittersweet--and a real tear @-@ jerker . " The manga 's theme is thought to be related to " finding hope in times of pain and grief . " In the online appendix to Manga : The Complete Guide , Jason Thompson cites Hibiki 's Magic as " a cross between Someday 's Dreamers and Atelier Marie and Elie , " though describes it as being " less optimistic than Someday 's Dreamers . " Thompson goes on to pan the manga as a " dull moe title " with " crude , generic art . "
= Music for a Time of War =
Music for a Time of War is a 2011 concert program and subsequent album by the Oregon Symphony under the artistic direction of Carlos Kalmar . The program consists of four compositions inspired by war : Charles Ives ' The Unanswered Question ( 1906 ) , John Adams ' The Wound @-@ Dresser ( 1989 ) , Benjamin Britten 's Sinfonia da Requiem ( 1940 ) and Ralph Vaughan Williams ' Symphony No. 4 ( 1935 ) . The program was performed on May 7 , 2011 , at the Arlene Schnitzer Concert Hall in Portland , Oregon , and again the following day . Both concerts were recorded for album release . On May 12 , the Oregon Symphony repeated the program at the inaugural Spring for Music Festival , at Carnegie Hall . The performance was broadcast live by KQAC and WQXR @-@ FM , the classical radio stations serving Portland and the New York City metropolitan area , respectively . The concerts marked the Oregon Symphony 's first performances of The Wound @-@ Dresser as well as guest baritone Sanford Sylvan 's debut with the company .
In October 2011 the recording of the Portland performances was released on CD by Dutch record label PentaTone Classics . The album marked the orchestra 's first release in eight years and Kalmar 's first with the Oregon Symphony . The live performances and album received favorable reviews ; the recording debuted at number 31 on Billboard 's Classical Albums chart , and made several lists of the best classical recordings of 2011 . The album earned three recognitions from the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences for the 2013 Grammy Awards . Kalmar and the Oregon Symphony were nominated in the categories Best Orchestral Performance and Best Engineered Album , Classical ( along with engineers Jesse Lewis and John Newton , and mastering engineer Jesse Brayman ) . Producer Blanton Alspaugh received the award for Producer of the Year , Classical for his contributions to Music for a Time of War and other recordings .
= = Program = =
Music for a Time of War contains four 20th @-@ century classical compositions based on the theme of war . Kalmar stated that the program was not inspired by current events and that not every composition was written specifically because of war . He also warned that audiences should not attend the performances anticipating an optimistic conclusion :
There is redemption in our concert , but not at the end . I think that is an important point . I don 't think that anybody who goes to this concert will come out and think everything is alright . I think the pacing is good because nothing is alright . If we humans have to live with war , that is pretty much what the message should be .
The program began with Charles Ives ' The Unanswered Question , originally the first of Two Contemplations , composed in 1906 ( along with its counterpart Central Park in the Dark ) . Theodore Bloomfield , who served as music director of the Oregon Symphony from 1955 to 1959 , conducted its world premiere at the Juilliard School in New York in 1946 . The Oregon Symphony had first performed the work in January 1974 , under Lawrence Leighton Smith , and had played it under Kalmar in January 2007 . The Unanswered Question , which is approximately six minutes in length , contains parts for two flutes , oboe , clarinet , trumpet and strings . The composition starts softly and builds with a repeated " ambiguous " question delivered by an offstage trumpet solo , answered by other instruments .
The second composition was The Wound @-@ Dresser , American minimalist composer John Adams ' portrayal of Walt Whitman 's experience as a medic during the American Civil War . The work refers to Whitman 's 1865 eponymous poem , part of a greater collection of poems related to the conflict . Adams wrote the composition following his father 's death from Alzheimer 's disease under his mother 's care . According to the program notes , Adams was influenced by friends who died of HIV / AIDS during the 1980s and how their struggles impacted loved ones . In his own notes , Adams wrote : " I was plunged into an awareness not only of dying but also of the person who cares for the dying ... The bonding that takes place between the two is one of the most extraordinary human events that can happen – something deeply personal of which most of us are completely unaware . " The work , which is approximately 20 minutes in length , employs solo baritone , piccolo , flute , two oboes , two clarinets ( one doubling bass clarinet ) , two bassoons , two horns , piccolo trumpet , timpani , synthesizer and strings . In Kalmar 's program the guest baritone soloist is Sanford Sylvan , for whom the piece was written in 1989 . Adams premiered the piece with the Saint Paul Chamber Orchestra and Sylvan in February 1989 ; Sylvan 's performance subsequently earned him a Grammy Award nomination . The live recording sessions marked the first performances of The Wound @-@ Dresser by the Oregon Symphony as well as Sylvan 's debut with the orchestra .
The program continued with Benjamin Britten 's Sinfonia da Requiem ( 1940 ) , commissioned by the Japanese government to commemorate the 2,600th anniversary of the Japanese Empire . Britten , a pacifist , took the opportunity to compose a work that expressed his anti @-@ war sentiments as well as his grief over his parents ' deaths . The Japanese were displeased by the work 's Christian connotations and melancholic tone , deeming it unsuitable for the national ceremony . Britten was unapologetic about his composition . Sinfonia da Requiem contains three movements — " Lacrymosa " ( " Weeping " ) , " Dies Irae " ( " Day of Wrath " ) and " Requiem Aeternam " ( " Eternal Rest " ) — and alludes to the Catholic Church 's Requiem . The work premiered in March 1941 at Carnegie Hall , performed by the New York Philharmonic , John Barbirolli conducting . The Oregon Symphony premiered the composition on February 26 , 2005 , under Kalmar 's baton ; these performances marked the orchestra 's last before Music for a Time of War . Approximately 18 minutes in length , the symphony includes three flutes ( one doubling alto flute and one doubling piccolo ) , two oboes , English horn , three clarinets ( one doubling bass clarinet ) , alto saxophone , two bassoons , contrabassoon , four horns , three trumpets , three trombones , tuba , timpani , bass drum , cymbals , snare drum , tambourine , whip , xylophone , piano , harp and strings . Its end completed the program 's first half . Kalmar requested that the audience hold their applause from the start of the program until the end of Britten 's symphony .
The performance ended with Ralph Vaughan Williams ' Symphony No. 4 , composed during 1931 – 1934 . Williams did not write the symphony on a specific subject ; once he quipped that the work was " about F minor " and his wife insisted he had " [ experimented ] with purely musical ideas " . Critics perceived the piece as a reflection of the political situation in Europe . The BBC Symphony Orchestra , conducted by Adrian Boult , premiered the work at Queen 's Hall in London in April 1935 . Boult considered this " dissonant " work , inspired by Beethoven , to be a " ' magnificent gesture of disgust ' against war and fascism " . The Oregon Symphony first performed the work in February 1959 with Bloomfield conducting ; prior to 2011 , the ensemble had not performed the symphony since October 2001 , with James Judd conducting . Approximately 34 minutes in length , it employs three flutes ( one doubling piccolo ) , three oboes ( one doubling English horn ) , two clarinets , bass clarinet , tenor saxophone , two bassoons , contrabassoon , four horns , two trumpets , three trombones , tuba , timpani , bass drum , cymbals , snare drum , triangle and strings .
= = Performances and broadcasts = =
The Oregon Symphony presented the program at the Arlene Schnitzer Concert Hall in Portland the evening of May 7 and the afternoon of May 8 , 2011 . Both performances were recorded for album release by the Boston @-@ based company Soundmirror . The Portland and subsequent New York performances were dedicated to Harold Schnitzer , the businessman and philanthropist who died in April 2011 .
On May 12 , the Oregon Symphony repeated the program at the inaugural Spring for Music Festival , marking the orchestra 's Carnegie Hall debut . The festival invites orchestras " dedicated to distinctive and adventurous programming " to perform " unusual repertoire " . The Symphony raised $ 300 @,@ 000 to fund travel and hotel expenses for the concert series . In addition to the Oregon Symphony , the inaugural festival presented seven ensembles within nine days , including the Albany Symphony Orchestra , Dallas Symphony Orchestra , Montreal Symphony Orchestra , Orpheus Chamber Orchestra , Saint Paul Chamber Orchestra and Toledo Symphony Orchestra . Orchestras were invited based on their submitted program proposals . No other ensemble presented a program themed by a single topic . In February 2011 , three months before the Carnegie Hall performance , The Oregonian reported that nearly half of the 1 @,@ 000 tickets reserved for distribution by the Oregon Symphony had been sold . Kalmar later confirmed that 450 Oregonians traveled to New York City to witness the performance .
The Carnegie Hall performance was broadcast live across the United States . Portland 's classical radio station , KQAC , broadcast the concert live throughout the Pacific Northwest as part of an ongoing partnership with the Symphony . WQXR @-@ FM , the classical radio station licensed to Newark , New Jersey and serving the New York City metropolitan area , broadcast the performance live in 3D sound in collaboration with the design and engineering consulting company Arup . WQXR also hosted a live chat on their website . Prior to the live broadcast , WQXR 's Q2 Music provided their own take on the Oregon Symphony 's war @-@ themed concert by airing a program with works by Lowell Liebermann , Seppo Pohjola , Steve Reich , Frederic Rzewski , Dmitri Shostakovich and John Adams . KQAC rebroadcast the program in November . In April 2012 , the station broadcast the album recording and has since aired individual works .
= = = Reception ( concert ) = = =
The concert program received a positive reception . The Oregonian 's David Stabler wrote that during the May 7 performance the orchestra displayed peak condition and " played with a precision and intensity that would have been unattainable a decade ago " . He complimented Sylvan 's diction and " emotional engagement " , but noted that some words were difficult to make out . Stabler called the timpanist 's performance during Britten 's symphony " fierce " and the orchestra 's playing " clear and intentional " . In his review of the Carnegie Hall performance , Stabler opined that the Oregon Symphony 's program ( which he described as one of " rage , brutality and fleeting beauty that required the utmost precision and ferocity from the musicians " ) focused more on playing , while the programs by other orchestras drew attention to the music . Stabler wrote : " Everyone knows orchestras are fighting to survive , but on this night , the Oregon Symphony breathed long and deep of triumph . " In a separate article summarizing reviews by New York critics , Stabler called the Symphony a " virtuosos band " that " now plays with more acute rhythmic precision , more clarity , more informed style ... and more extreme dynamics and tempos " . James Bash of Oregon Music News wrote a positive review of the New York performance , describing it as more enhanced , dramatic and intense than the Portland concerts , partly because of the venue 's superior acoustics . Bash described the orchestra 's performance of The Unanswered Question as " compelling and auspicious " and wrote that Sylvan 's vocals during The Wound @-@ Dresser " conveyed the sensitive text superbly " . In addition to complimenting the Symphony overall , Bash singled out solo performers by name . After noting the audience 's enthusiastic response to the performance , including multiple bravos and particular recognition for Kalmar , Bash quipped " the Oregon Symphony may be regional in terms of size and budget , but they are world @-@ class when they play " .
Following the New York concert , music critic Alex Ross tweeted : " Triumphant Carnegie debut for the Oregon Symphony -- best of Spring for Music so far . Eloquent Sylvan , explosive Vaughan Williams . " On his blog , " The Rest Is Noise " , Ross called the Symphony 's performance " extraordinary " , one of the " most gripping events of the current season " . In his two @-@ page review of Spring for Music for The New Yorker , Ross devoted more coverage to the Oregon Symphony than the other featured ensembles and considered Music for a Time of War the festival 's highpoint . He complimented the orchestra for playing with " controlled intensity " and said of Symphony No. 4 : " The Oregonians ' furious rendition of that symphony would have been impressive in any context , but as the capstone to a brilliantly worked @-@ out program it had shattering force . " The review contained an illustration of Kalmar , " hair flying and all " . Sedgwick Clark of Musical America called the orchestra 's performance of the Williams ' piece " positively searing ... with fearless edge @-@ of @-@ seat tempos ... breathtakingly negotiated by all . " After Clark 's review was published , Ross posted on his blog that he and Clark concurred : the Symphony 's performance was the most " remarkable " of the season . Ross included the Symphony 's concert on his list of the most memorable classical performances of 2011 . Allan Kozinn , music critic for The New York Times , considered the program " pained " and " thought @-@ provoking " , and wrote that Sylvan performed with his " characteristic acuity " . He called the woodwind and brass playing in Sinfonia da Requiem " superb " , specifically highlighting the " pointed " percussion in " Dies Irae " and the " haunting " string tone in " Requiem Aeternam " . Like Ross , Kozinn thought Symphony No. 4 was performed " with a furious , incendiary energy " that made an ideal ending to the program .
Elaine Calder , then president of the Oregon Symphony , called the Carnegie Hall performance a " game changer " . She also confirmed that the Toledo Symphony Orchestra expressed interest in performing the Music for a Time of War program in the future . In September 2011 , the Symphony confirmed that Kalmar 's contract , previously set to expire in 2013 , had been extended until 2015 . According to the organization , his contract was renewed " in recognition of his significant accomplishments " , specifically acknowledging the Carnegie Hall performance . The orchestra was invited to perform again at the 2013 Spring for Music Festival as one of two returning ensembles . Kalmar said of the return invitation , " To be invited once is a thrill . To be invited twice is clear proof that we are in the artistic big leagues . " However , in October 2012 the Symphony announced it would not accept the invitation for financial reasons .
= = Album = =
Music for a Time of War was released on CD by the Dutch record label PentaTone Classics on October 25 , 2011 . It was recorded in hybrid multichannel ( surround sound ) Super Audio CD format . Blanton Alspaugh served as producer . John Newton and Jesse Lewis were the recording engineers ; mastering and authoring was conducted by Jesse Brayman . In addition to recording the performances , Soundmirror edited , mixed and mastered the audio .
The album contains nine tracks ( Sinfonia da Requiem and Symphony No. 4 are divided into separate tracks for each movement ) and totals just over 78 minutes in length . Program notes for the recording were written by Steven Kruger . The album 's cover art photo is credited to orchestra member Martha Warrington .
Music for a Time of War marked the orchestra 's first recording in eight years as well as Kalmar 's first with the Oregon Symphony . The recording is the first of four albums to be produced by the Symphony and PentaTone through the end of the 2014 – 2015 season , all under Kalmar 's artistic leadership .
= = = Reception ( album ) = = =
The album performed well commercially and received favorable reviews . Music for a Time of War debuted and peaked at number 31 on Billboard 's Classical Albums chart the week of November 19 , 2011 . On November 19 , BBC Radio 3 reviewed the album on its program " CD Review " , which discusses and recommends new classical music recordings . AllMusic 's Mike Brownell awarded the album 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars and wrote that the Symphony " prove [ d ] they can easily stand alongside the world 's great orchestras " . Audiophile Audition 's John Sunier thought the program was " well @-@ chosen to offer great variety in sound and compositional techniques " . Michael Miller of The Berkshire Review appreciated the " precision and sensitivity " of the playing and Karlmar 's " lucid , straightforward , and ... virile " approach to the program . Miller also complimented Sylvan 's performance and called the recording " memorable " and " thrilling " , recommending it for any classical music library . Brian Horay , a classical music critic for The Huffington Post , questioned Kalmar 's claim that his selections should not be interpreted as political , writing that listeners " [ encounter ] a more difficult and nuanced 20th @-@ century musical landscape of existential questions , gruesome descriptions , defiant submissions and cold dissonance . " Horay continued , " Music for a Time of War serves as a powerful acoustic journey of peaceful resistance and questioning of power " . Barry Forshaw of the Islington Gazette thought the war theme was " tendentious " but called the collection " enterprising " . James Bash of Oregon Music News called the album a " brilliant stunner " , mirroring his positive review of the Carnegie Hall performance .
Soundmirror also received compliments . Andrew Quint of The Absolute Sound described the sound as " vivid , highly detailed , and dynamic " as well as avoiding " digital steeliness " . Quint called the front @-@ to @-@ back layering outstanding . John Sunier said the recording 's " rich surround sonics " bring together excellent performances and " first @-@ rate fidelity " . He also noted the lack of audience interference , suggesting either good behavior by attendees or subtle work by audio engineers . Michael Miller complimented the quality of the recording for having " no problems of intonation or ensemble " and said the album " belongs in the reference collection of any audiophile , whether they are inclined to multichannel playback or not " . Miller specifically appreciated Alspaugh and the engineers for capturing the loudness and subtleties of Sinfonia da Requiem . International Record Review 's Nigel Simeone recommended the recording , calling it " impressive " and writing that the live sound is " exceptionally vibrant " . Kalman Rubinson of Stereophile commended the ensemble , PentaTone and Soundmirror for providing " spacious , transparent , powerful sound " . Rubinson , who designated the recording as the year 's best concept album , praised the program for being " thought @-@ provoking and restorative " and appreciated the range of emotions it summoned .
Several publications included Music for a Time of War on their lists of the best classical recordings of 2011 . Eugene Weekly recommended the album as a " stocking stuffer " on their list of the best Oregon classical music recordings of the year . Contributor Brett Campbell called the recording one of the year 's " most compelling " , with " blistering , committed , sharply etched performances " that illustrate the orchestra 's quality under Kalmar 's leadership . Similarly , Portland Monthly included Music for a Time of War on its list of fifteen " giftable " Portland albums . Alex Ross of The New Yorker included the album on his list of the ten most " exceptional " classical music recordings of the year . New York City 's Time Out included the album as number seven on their list of the ten " Best Classical Albums of 2011 " . The publication 's Steve Smith called the collection " greater than the sum of its parts " . James Manishen of the Winnipeg Free Press included Music for a Time of War as number three on his list of the ten best classical recordings of the year , calling the performances " superbly prepared " . The album received its second pressing in February 2012 .
Music for a Time of War earned three recognitions from the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences for the 2013 Grammy Awards . Kalmar and the Oregon Symphony were nominated in the categories Best Orchestral Performance and Best Engineered Album , Classical ( along with engineers Jesse Lewis and John Newton and mastering engineer Jesse Brayman ) . Producer Alspaugh received the award for Producer of the Year , Classical for his contributions to the album and other recordings . The nominations marked the orchestra 's first from the Grammy Awards since 2004 .
= = = Track listing = = =
The Unanswered Question ( Charles Ives ) – 5 : 44
The Wound @-@ Dresser ( John Adams ) – 20 : 18
Sinfonia da Requiem , Op. 20 ( Benjamin Britten )
" Lacrymosa ( Andante ben misurato ) " – 8 : 34
" Dies Irae ( Allegro con fuoco ) " – 4 : 53
" Requiem Aeternam ( Andante molto tranquillo ) " – 5 : 36
Symphony No. 4 in F minor ( Ralph Vaughan Williams )
" Allegro " – 8 : 57
" Andante moderato " – 10 : 01
" Scherzo : Allegro molto " – 5 : 22
" Finale con epilogo fugato : Allegro molto – con anima " – 8 : 33
Track listing adapted from AllMusic and the album 's liner notes .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from AllMusic .
= = = Orchestra roster = = =
Orchestra roster adapted from the album 's liner notes .
" * " designates acting orchestra members ; " * * " designates musicians on a leave of absence ; " * * * " designates guest musicians .
= Maurice Fernandes =
Maurius Pacheco " Maurice " Fernandes , ( 12 August 1897 – 8 May 1981 ) was a West Indian Test cricketer who played first @-@ class cricket for British Guiana between 1922 and 1932 . He made two Test appearances for the West Indies , in 1928 and 1930 . Fernandes played as a right @-@ handed top @-@ order batsman and occasional wicket @-@ keeper . He scored 2 @,@ 087 first @-@ class runs in 46 appearances at an average of 28 @.@ 20 .
Graduating from playing at the Demerara Cricket Club as a teenager , to play for British Guiana in 1922 , Fernandes took part in tours of England in 1923 and 1928 . He made his debut Test appearance during the 1928 tour , playing in the first of the three Tests . His next , and final Test match came during the English tour of the West Indies in 1930 . At the time , the West Indies had a practice of picking their captain from the colony that the match was being played in , and Fernandes was granted the honour for the match in British Guiana . The West Indies won the match , their maiden victory in Test cricket . After the match , Fernandes only played one further first @-@ class match , and retired from first @-@ class cricket in 1932 .
= = Early life and career = =
Maurius Pacheco Fernandes was born in Georgetown , Demerara , British Guiana on 12 August 1897 . He played for the Demerara Cricket Club as a teenager , gaining a reputation as a good cricketer , and made his debut for British Guiana during the 1922 Inter @-@ Colonial Tournament , facing Trinidad . Playing as an opening batsman , Fernandes scored a duck in his first innings , but made 25 runs in the second .
He was part of the West Indian team that toured England in 1923 , playing twenty first @-@ class matches against county and representative opposition . Fernandes played in over half of the matches , and passed fifty on three occasions against first @-@ class opposition . He had reached 83 not out when his side declared against Northamptonshire , and reached 73 runs in the second innings against Lancashire in the next match , having narrowly missed out in the first innings , when he scored 49 . His highest score of the tour , and his maiden first @-@ class century came against Leicestershire , when he hit 110 runs . In A History of Cricket , H. S. Altham and E. W. Swanton describe the touring side as one which " proved themselves equal to the best . " The team relied heavily on the batting of George Challenor , who struck six centuries , and it was only Challenor that Fernandes trailed in the batting averages on the tour : he scored 523 runs at an average of 34 @.@ 86 , and was one of only two players other than Challenor to score a century for the West Indies .
During the Inter @-@ Colonial Tournament in October 1925 , Fernandes made significant scores in each of British Guiana 's matches : he scored 89 runs in the first innings of their match against Barbados , helping his side to open up a 144 @-@ run first innings lead , which they converted into an eight wicket victory . In the subsequent match against Trinidad , he reached 124 , but lacked support from his teammates , three of whom fell just short of half @-@ centuries . British Guiana eventually lost the match by two wickets . In the following February , the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) toured the West Indies , playing matches in Barbados , Trinidad , British Guiana and Jamaica . Three of the matches , one in each location excluding Jamaica , was against representative West Indies sides : Fernandes played in the match held in British Guiana , but not in either of the others , and also played in both matches between British Guiana and the touring MCC . In the last of these matches , he was selected as captain of the British Guiana side , and marked the occasion by scoring 120 in his team 's only innings of a drawn match . He remained as captain for the colony 's 1927 match against Barbados , in which their opponents scored 715 / 9 declared : the second highest innings score made against the team .
= = Test cricket = =
Fernandes was part of the West Indian side which toured England in 1928 . After the success of their 1923 tour , three of the matches were granted Test status . The team played 30 first @-@ class matches , but in contrast to their previous tour , they won just five of them . Altham and Swanton describe the side as being " substantially less formidable combination than the West Indies of ' 23 . " The touring side lacked a regular wicket @-@ keeper , and as a result Fernandes and the West Indian captain Karl Nunes shared the duties , though Nunes kept in all three Tests . Both were expensive on occasion : against Ireland , Fernandes allowed 25 byes in one innings , and Nunes the same number against Nottinghamshire . Fernandes ' batting was significantly less effective than it had been five years before ; he passed fifty on only three occasions , making 73 against both Ireland , and Cambridge University , and 54 against Middlesex . He played in the first Test match , the West Indies ' first appearance in Test cricket , facing England at Lord 's . Batting at number three in each innings , he scored a duck in the first , and eight runs in the second after the West Indies had been forced to follow @-@ on . England won the match by an innings and 58 runs . Fernandes played 20 of the first @-@ class matches in the tour , and scored 581 runs at an average of 18 @.@ 15 .
During the 1929 Inter @-@ Colonial Tournament , Fernandes made the highest score of his first @-@ class career during a seven @-@ day match against Barbados . After the early dismissal of captain Maurice Green , Fernandes joined Jeremy McKenzie at the crease . The pair added 177 runs for the second wicket before McKenzie was run out for 74 . Fernandes then shared another century partnership with Frank de Caires , before being dismissed for 141 . British Guiana won the match by 391 runs to progress to the final , in which they faced Trinidad . Fernandes scored half @-@ centuries in both innings of the final , scoring 88 runs in the first and 54 runs in the second to help his side to a four wicket victory .
Early the following year , a weakened English cricket team toured the West Indies , playing four Tests and eight other first @-@ class matches . Fernandes captained British Guiana in both of their matches against the MCC , each of which was lost by an innings . Generally , the West Indies named a different captain for each of their home matches , commonly selecting a player from the host colony for the honour due to financial constraints . Fernandes was chosen as captain for the Test played at Bourda , Georgetown , British Guiana . The first two Tests had resulted in a draw and an English victory . Fernandes won the toss and elected to bat first . Clifford Roach and Errol Hunte opened the batting for the West Indies and scored 144 runs together for the opening partnership before Hunte was out for 53 . George Headley then joined Roach at the crease , and the pair took the score onto 336 before Roach was dismissed after reaching his double century . Fernandes and Headley took the score up to 400 , of which Fernandes added 22 . The remaining batsmen were dismissed for a combined 71 ; Headley scored a century and the West Indies were all out for 471 . The England team was then bowled out for 145 , a first innings deficit of 326 . Despite the healthy lead , Fernandes chose not to enforce the follow @-@ on , and the West Indies batted again to score 290 , leaving England requiring 617 runs in the fourth innings to achieve victory . Patsy Hendren scored a century for the visitors , but no other batsman reached 50 runs , and with just four minutes of the match remaining , the West Indies secured their maiden Test win by 289 runs .
= = Later career and life = =
After his single match as West Indies Test captain , Fernandes did not appear for the West Indies again , and only made one further appearance for British Guiana , scoring 78 and 7 against Trinidad in the 1932 Inter @-@ Colonial Tournament final . Fernandes is described in his Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack obituary as being " an obdurate batsman " , and was praised for his cutting and driving during the 1923 tour of England . He remained a private individual throughout his cricketing career , a characteristic which became stronger after his retirement from cricket . He had one son , Leslie , who played one first @-@ class match for Guyana in the 1960 – 61 season , and died in a car accident in 1978 aged 39 . After this , Fernandes ' health , already poor , deteriorated rapidly , and he died on 8 May 1981 , aged 83 .
= Jevons paradox =
In economics , the Jevons paradox ( / ˈdʒɛvənz / ; sometimes Jevons effect ) occurs when technological progress increases the efficiency with which a resource is used ( reducing the amount necessary for any one use ) , but the rate of consumption of that resource rises because of increasing demand . The Jevons paradox is perhaps the most widely known paradox in environmental economics . However , governments and environmentalists generally assume that efficiency gains will lower resource consumption , ignoring the possibility of the paradox arising .
In 1865 , the English economist William Stanley Jevons observed that technological improvements that increased the efficiency of coal @-@ use led to the increased consumption of coal in a wide range of industries . He argued that , contrary to common intuition , technological progress could not be relied upon to reduce fuel consumption .
The issue has been re @-@ examined by modern economists studying consumption rebound effects from improved energy efficiency . In addition to reducing the amount needed for a given use , improved efficiency also lowers the relative cost of using a resource , which increases the quantity demanded . This counteracts ( to some extent ) the reduction in use from improved efficiency . Additionally , improved efficiency accelerates economic growth , further increasing the demand for resources . The Jevons paradox occurs when the effect from increased demand predominates , and better efficiency leads to more resources being used .
Considerable debate exists about the size of the rebound in energy efficiency and the relevance of Jevons paradox to energy conservation . Some dismiss the paradox , while others worry that it may be self @-@ defeating to pursue sustainability by increasing energy efficiency . Environmental economists have proposed that efficiency gains be coupled with conservation policies that keep the cost of use the same ( or higher ) to avoid the Jevons paradox . Conservation policies ( such as cap and trade ) do not display the paradox , and can be used to control the rebound effect .
= = History = =
The Jevons paradox was first described by the English economist William Stanley Jevons in his 1865 book The Coal Question . Jevons observed that England 's consumption of coal soared after James Watt introduced the Watt steam engine , which greatly improved the efficiency of the coal @-@ fired steam engine from Thomas Newcomen 's earlier design . Watt 's innovations made coal a more cost @-@ effective power source , leading to the increased use of the steam engine in a wide range of industries . This in turn increased total coal consumption , even as the amount of coal required for any particular application fell . Jevons argued that improvements in fuel efficiency tend to increase ( rather than decrease ) fuel use , writing : " It is a confusion of ideas to suppose that the economical use of fuel is equivalent to diminished consumption . The very contrary is the truth . "
At that time , many in Britain worried that coal reserves were rapidly dwindling , but some experts opined that improving technology would reduce coal consumption . Jevons argued that this view was incorrect , as further increases in efficiency would tend to increase the use of coal . Hence , improving technology would tend to increase the rate at which England 's coal deposits were being depleted , and could not be relied upon to solve the problem .
Although Jevons originally focused on the issue of coal , the concept has since been extended to the use of any resource , including , for example , water usage . It is perhaps the most widely known paradox in environmental economics .
= = Cause = =
Economists have observed that consumers tend to travel more when their cars are more fuel efficient , causing a ' rebound ' in the demand for fuel . An increase in the efficiency with which a resource ( e.g. fuel ) is used , causes a decrease in the cost of using that resource when measured in terms of what it can achieve ( e.g. travel ) . Generally speaking , a decrease in the cost ( or price ) of a good or service will increase the quantity demanded ( the law of demand ) . With a lower cost for travel , consumers will travel more , increasing the demand for fuel . This increase in demand is known as the rebound effect , and it may or may not be large enough to offset the original drop in demand from the increased efficiency . The Jevons paradox occurs when the rebound effect is greater than 100 % , exceeding the original efficiency gains .
The size of the rebound effect is determined by the price elasticity of demand for the good . In a perfectly competitive market where fuel is the sole input used , if the price of fuel remains constant but efficiency is doubled , the effective price of travel would be halved ( twice as much travel can be purchased ) . If in response , the amount of travel purchased more than doubles ( i.e. demand is price elastic ) , then fuel consumption would increase , and the Jevons paradox would occur . If demand is price inelastic , the amount of travel purchased would less than double , and fuel consumption would decrease . However , goods and services generally use more than one type of input ( e.g. fuel , labour , machinery ) , and other factors besides input cost may also affect price . These factors tend to reduce the rebound effect , making the Jevons paradox less likely to occur .
= = Khazzoom – Brookes postulate = =
In the 1980s , economists Daniel Khazzoom and Leonard Brookes revisited the Jevons paradox for the case of society 's energy use . Brookes , then chief economist at the UK Atomic Energy Authority , argued that attempts to reduce energy consumption by increasing energy efficiency would simply raise demand for energy in the economy as a whole . Khazzoom focused on the narrower point that the potential for rebound was ignored in mandatory performance standards for domestic appliances being set by the California Energy Commission .
In 1992 , the economist Harry Saunders dubbed the hypothesis that improvements in energy efficiency work to increase ( rather than decrease ) energy consumption the Khazzoom – Brookes postulate , and argued that the hypothesis is broadly supported by neoclassical growth theory ( the mainstream economic theory of capital accumulation , technological progress and long @-@ run economic growth ) . Saunders showed that the Khazzoom – Brookes postulate occurs in the neoclassical growth model under a wide range of assumptions .
According to Saunders , increased energy efficiency tends to increase energy consumption by two means . First , increased energy efficiency makes the use of energy relatively cheaper , thus encouraging increased use ( the direct rebound effect ) . Second , increased energy efficiency leads to increased economic growth , which pulls up energy use for the whole economy . At the microeconomic level ( looking at an individual market ) , even with the rebound effect , improvements in energy efficiency usually result in reduced energy consumption . That is , the rebound effect is usually less than 100 % . However , at the macroeconomic level , more efficient ( and hence comparatively cheaper ) energy leads to faster economic growth , which increases energy use throughout the economy . Saunders argued that , taking into account both microeconomic and macroeconomic effects , technological progress that improves energy efficiency will tend to increase overall energy use .
= = Energy conservation policy = =
Jevons warned that fuel efficiency gains can lead to an increase in the use of fuel , which cancels out any efficiency gains . But this does not imply that improved fuel efficiency is worthless ; higher fuel efficiency enables greater production and a higher material quality of life . For example , a more efficient steam engine allowed the cheaper transportation of both goods and people who contributed to the Industrial Revolution . However , if the Khazzoom – Brookes postulate is correct , increased fuel efficiency , by itself , will not reduce the rate of depletion of fossil fuels .
There is considerable debate about whether the Khazzoom @-@ Brookes Postulate is correct , and of the relevance of Jevons paradox to energy conservation policy . Most governments , environmentalists and NGOs pursue policies that improve efficiency , holding that it will lower resource consumption and reduce environmental problems . Others , including many environmental economists , doubt this ' efficiency strategy ' towards sustainability , and worry that efficiency gains may in fact lead to higher production and consumption . They hold that for resource use to fall , efficiency gains should be coupled with other policies that limit resource use .
The Jevons paradox is sometimes used to argue that energy conservation efforts are futile , for example , that more efficient use of oil will lead to increased demand , and will not slow the arrival or the effects of peak oil . This argument is usually presented as a reason not to enact environmental policies or pursue fuel efficiency ( e.g. if cars are more efficient , it will simply lead to more driving ) . Several points have been raised against this argument . First , in the context of a mature market such as for oil in developed countries , the direct rebound effect is usually small , and so increased fuel efficiency usually reduces resource use , other conditions remaining constant . Second , even if increased efficiency does not reduce the total amount of fuel used , there remain other benefits associated with improved efficiency . For example , increased fuel efficiency may mitigate the price increases , shortages and disruptions in the global economy associated with peak oil . Third , environmental economists have pointed out that fuel use will unambiguously decrease if increased efficiency is coupled with an intervention ( e.g. a fuel tax ) that keeps the cost of fuel use the same or higher .
The Jevons paradox indicates that increased efficiency by itself may not reduce fuel use , and that sustainable energy policy must rely on other types of government interventions . As the Jevons paradox applies only to technological improvements that increase fuel efficiency , the imposition of conservation standards or other government interventions that increase costs do not display the paradox and can be used to control the rebound effect . To ensure that efficiency @-@ enhancing technological improvements reduce fuel use , efficiency gains can be paired with government intervention that reduces demand ( e.g. green taxes , cap and trade , or higher emissions standards ) . The ecological economists Mathis Wackernagel and William Rees have suggested that any cost savings from efficiency gains be " taxed away or otherwise removed from further economic circulation . Preferably they should be captured for reinvestment in natural capital rehabilitation . " By mitigating the economic effects of government interventions designed to promote ecologically sustainable activities , efficiency @-@ improving technological progress may make the imposition of these interventions more palatable , and more likely to be implemented .
= Mick Aston =
Michael Antony " Mick " Aston , FSA ( 1 July 1946 – 24 June 2013 ) was an English archaeologist who specialised in Early Medieval landscape archaeology . Over the course of his career , he lectured at both the University of Bristol and University of Oxford and published fifteen books on archaeological subjects . A keen populariser of the discipline , Aston was widely known for appearing as the resident academic on the Channel 4 television series Time Team from 1994 to 2011 .
Born in Oldbury , Worcestershire to a working @-@ class family , Aston developed an early interest in archaeology , studying it as a subsidiary to geography at the University of Birmingham . In 1970 , he began his career working for Oxford City and County Museum and there began his work in public outreach by running extramural classes in archaeology and presenting a series on the subject for Radio Oxford . In 1974 , he was appointed as the first County Archaeologist for Somerset , there developing an interest in aerial archaeology and establishing a reputation as a pioneer in landscape archaeology – a term that he co @-@ invented with Trevor Rowley – by authoring some of the earliest books on the subject . In 1978 he began lecturing at the University of Oxford and in 1979 became a tutor at the University of Bristol , supplementing these activities by working as an archaeological tour guide in Greece .
In 1988 , Aston teamed up with television producer Tim Taylor and together they created two shows which focused on bringing archaeology into British popular consciousness . The first was the short @-@ lived Time Signs ( 1991 ) , although this was followed by the more successful Time Team , which was produced for Channel 4 from 1994 to 2013 . Aston was responsible for identifying sites for excavation and for selecting specialists to appear on the show , and through the programme became well known to the viewing public for his trademark colourful jumpers and flowing , untidy hairstyle . In 1996 he was appointed to the specially @-@ created post of Professor of Landscape Archaeology at Bristol University , and undertook a ten @-@ year project investigating the manor at Shapwick , Somerset . He retired from his university posts in 2004 , but continued working on Time Team until 2011 and in 2006 commenced writing regular articles for British Archaeology magazine until his death . Although Aston did not believe that he would leave a significant legacy behind him , after his death various archaeologists claimed that he had a major impact in helping to popularise the discipline among the British public .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and education : 1946 – 69 = = =
Aston was born on 1 July 1946 into a working @-@ class family in Oldbury , West Midlands , to cabinet @-@ maker Harold Aston and his wife Gladys . He developed an early interest in archaeology , although teachers at Oldbury Grammar School attempted to dissuade him from pursuing it . His father gave him two books on archaeology as a Christmas present , and he subsequently spent much time visiting archaeological sites , sometimes playing truant to do so . The first of his family to attend university , Aston studied geography at the University of Birmingham , albeit with a subsidiary in archaeology , graduating in 1967 . He taught himself more about archaeology by enrolling in various excavations , and was influenced by such figures as his thesis supervisor Harry Thorpe , as well as the geographer Trevor Rowley and archaeologists Philip Rahtz and Philip Barker . His dissertation was on the development of settlement in the West Penwith peninsula .
= = = Early career : 1970 – 87 = = =
Aston first gained full @-@ time employment in 1970 , working as a field officer at the Oxford City and County Museum in Oxfordshire . For a time living in a tent , he worked on the sites and monuments record and taught several extramural classes while based at the museum . This extramural teaching fitted closely with Aston 's staunch belief that archaeology should be open to all who were interested in it . As part of this devotion to public outreach , he presented a radio series on archaeology that was broadcast on Radio Oxford . In 1974 he moved to Taunton to become the first County Archaeologist for Somerset , where he set up a new site record and oversaw the excavation of sites revealed by the construction of the M5 motorway . Again he also taught extramural adult education classes , this time for the University of Bristol . It was here that he developed a passion for aerial archaeology , and would often charter private planes in order to undertake aerial photography . Becoming a pioneer of landscape archaeology , along with Trevor Rowley he was responsible for coining the term in their 1974 book , Landscape Archaeology . With archaeologist James Bond he authored The Landscape of Towns ( 1976 ) , in which he extended his use of landscape archaeology to urban areas . Recognising his contribution to the discipline , in 1976 , he was elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London .
Tiring of his position as county archaeologist , finding it " too safe , pensionable and superannuable " , in 1978 he returned to Oxfordshire to take up a temporary position as a tutor in archaeology and local studies at Oxford University 's External Studies Department . That year he co @-@ ran his first study tour to Greece with Peter Hardy ; he would continue to run these annually for a number of years , most often visiting Santorini . In 1979 he returned to the West Country as tutor in archaeology at the University of Bristol 's Extra @-@ Mural Department , through which he organised weekend and evening courses throughout the region , introducing thousands of interested people to archaeology . During this period he also authored Interpreting the Landscape ( 1985 ) .
= = = Founding Time Team : 1988 – 95 = = =
In June 1988 the producer Tim Taylor invited Aston to work on a new four @-@ episode television series for Channel 4 called Time Signs , broadcast in June and July 1991 . The series focused on the historical development of the area about to be flooded by the Roadford Reservoir in Devon , making heavy use of archaeological data . Aston brought archaeologist Phil Harding into the project in order to explain techniques of experimental archaeology to the audience . Meanwhile , in August 1989 , Aston was promoted to the position of Reader in Landscape Archaeology at Bristol University . He also continued to write on the subject , authoring the book Monasteries ( 1993 ) ; he had initially planned to title the volume Monasteries in the Landscape but his publisher , Batsford , had insisted on the shorter title .
Aston and Taylor subsequently decided to work together on a new archaeological television series , devising the format for Time Team . Whilst Taylor organised the film production side of the project with Channel 4 , Aston located suitable sites to excavate , and gathered together a team of specialists to appear on the show , among them field archaeologists Harding and Carenza Lewis , artist Victor Ambrus , and historian Robin Bush . He knew the actor and television presenter Tony Robinson after they had met on an archaeological course in Greece , and successfully requested that he present the show . From an early stage , they had agreed that every episode would feature a practical process or a re @-@ enactment alongside the field archaeology .
Time Team was first broadcast in 1994 , and would attract around four million viewers per episode , with Aston becoming " an icon to the viewing public . " Writing in The Guardian , Christopher Dyer noted that Aston 's " unkempt hair and beard , multicoloured sweaters and Black Country accent made him instantly recognisable " to the British public , describing him as " a popular success " who had attracted " a large public following " . Aston acted as chief archaeological adviser to the programme until the end of series nineteen , starring in almost every episode , although he would later comment that when it first started he had no idea it would continue for so long . Aston enjoyed working with the Time Team crew , commenting that they were " a great gang ... There are some real party people . "
Aston saw Time Team as an extension of his work as an extramural tutor , telling a 2013 interviewer that it was " a way of reaching 3 million people rather than 30 people in the village hall . " Commenting on the popularity of Time Team , and its role in exposing the British public to archaeology , in a 2010 interview Aston remarked that " My motive was to get as many people as possible interested in archaeology , because we [ in the profession ] all enjoy it and think it interesting . That was my personal aim ... and on that basis I think it is a success . " Time Team encouraged wider public interest in archaeology and led to increasing numbers of students applying to study archaeological courses at British universities , while subscriptions to Current Archaeology magazine quadrupled to 18 @,@ 000 in the show 's first five years . In autumn 1998 , Channel 4 started a Time Team fan club , which had 16 @,@ 000 members within a few months , while Aston became a supporter of the Council for British Archaeology 's Young Archaeologists ' Club ( YAC ) , and with Harding gave regular talks to YAC branches . Aston found himself giving up to 20 public lectures a year on the subject of Time Team , describing the public feedback as " embarassingly encouraging " .
= = = Professorship : 1996 – 2011 = = =
In 1996 , Aston was appointed to the position of Professor of Landscape Archaeology at Bristol University 's Department of Continuing Education , a post designed explicitly for him . In 1998 the post was moved to the Centre for the Historic Environment within the Department of Archaeology . He would subsequently be instrumental in setting up the master 's degree in archaeology and screen media at the department . By 1996 , Aston was feeling " a bit frustrated " with Time Team , primarily because he was always " number two " to Robinson . He proceeded to present his own six @-@ episode series , Time Traveller , in which he explored various archaeological sites in the counties around Bristol . It was broadcast on HTV over July and August 1997 , and gained the largest local audiences for its time slot .
The archaeology students of King Alfred 's College , Winchester also participated in a 10 @-@ year project led by Aston to investigate the manor of Shapwick in Somerset . It became the " type site for the study of the development of medieval villages " . Aston published the results of the project in The Shapwick Project , Somerset : A Rural Landscape Explored ( 2007 ) , co @-@ written with Christopher Gerrard , and this was followed by a more popular account of the project , Interpreting the English Village , in 2013 .
Alongside his academic publications , Aston wrote two books on archaeology for a more general audience , both of which were published by Channel 4 Books as a spin @-@ off from the Time Team television series . The first of these was Time Team 's Timechester : A Companion to Archaeology , co @-@ written with Carenza Lewis and Phil Harding and first published in 2000 . Based around the fictional British town of Timechester , the book looks at how the settlement would have progressed from the Palaeolithic through to the modern day , and examines the remains that each period would have left behind in the archaeological record . This was followed in 2002 by Archaeology is Rubbish : A Beginner 's Guide , which Aston co @-@ wrote with Tony Robinson and dedicated to Harding . Archaeology is Rubbish describes a fictional excavation site in an ordinary suburban back garden , and discusses the evidence from different archaeological periods , the field methods and techniques used by the excavators , and the legal proceedings and problems that archaeologists in Britain face .
Aston retired from Bristol University in 2004 , subsequently becoming Professor Emeritus . He was also appointed an Honorary Visiting Professor at the University of Exeter , University of Durham , and the University of Worcester . That year , the University of Winchester awarded him an honorary Doctor of Letters . In 2006 Aston began writing a regular column , " Mick 's Travels " , for the bimonthly journal British Archaeology , the publication of the Council for British Archaeology . In 2007 , Worcester University awarded Aston an honorary doctorate ; that same year a number of his colleagues released a festschrift in his honour entitled People and Places : Essays in Honour of Michael Aston .
= = = Final years : 2012 – 13 = = =
In February 2012 it was reported that Aston had left Time Team . He explained his position to the Western Daily Press , stating that the show 's producers had made a number of changes to the series without consulting him , and that in the process Time Team had been " dumbed down " , something he considered bad for archaeology . He was annoyed that a number of archaeologists — including surveyor Stewart Ainsworth , small finds specialist Helen Geake and illustrator Victor Ambrus — had seen their roles diminished while a new co @-@ presenter , Mary @-@ Ann Ochota ( a former model with a bachelor 's degree in archaeology and anthropology ) , had been introduced , and that as a result the episodes now contained " a lot of faffing about . " In an interview with the magazine British Archaeology Aston said : " The time had come to leave . I never made any money out of it , but a lot of my soul went into it . I feel really , really angry about it . "
In July Aston received a lifetime achievement award at the British Archaeological Awards , with Bristol University 's Professor Mark Horton praising him for making " the past accessible to all " . In October , Channel 4 announced that the twentieth series of Time Team would be its last as the show was being axed . In December Aston signed a petition advocating his support for the revamp of the Somerset Rural Life Museum in Glastonbury , which was then seeking financial backers .
On 24 June 2013 it was announced that Aston had died unexpectedly at his home in Somerset .
Ralph Lee , head of Channel 4 's factual programming , announced that they had been " terribly saddened " by the news , and that they were planning a " tribute night " to Aston consisting of Time Team episodes to be screened on More4 on 13 July .
= = Selected works = =
= = Personal life = =
Aston was known for his " unfailing commitment and integrity " , with his life being dominated by " old @-@ fashioned idealism and loyalty " . He was a vegetarian and a naturist , as well as an anarchist and an atheist . Describing himself as " a keen European " , a friend of his noted that he " railed against right wing politics , reserving special venom for Margaret Thatcher , and fought against all manner of authority , including university paperwork , and most especially if it came in a uniform . "
His hobbies included gardening , pottery , astronomy , listening to classical music and cooking . He supported a number of charities and other causes , including Greenpeace , the Woodland Trust , Oxfam and Sightsavers International . He liked to live a private , hermit @-@ like life , and once commented that " For some of the time I feel I could be a monk " but that he " couldn 't cope with the celibacy . " A self @-@ described " solitary person " , he found it somewhat annoying being a television celebrity and being recognised by members of the public .
Aston had a son , James , and a stepdaughter , Kathryn , both children of his former partner Carinne Allinson , with whom he broke up in 1998 . He later entered into a relationship with landscape historian Teresa Hall , who survived him on his death . He lived in what he called " a rather grotty ' 60s bungalow " in Somerset . The reporter Steve Eggington visited Aston 's home in 2008 , where he noted that it was filled with " a labyrinth of books and maps , seemingly with different projects at different stages in each room . "
Aston commented that throughout his life he suffered from poor health ; he was afflicted with aspergillosis from the early 1980s , and was also asthmatic . He suffered a brain haemorrhage in March 2003 , and was hospitalised for two weeks . The experience sent him into depression for eighteen months , during which time he read the autobiography of actress Jane Lapotaire , who had gone through the same experience , something which he believed aided his recovery more than anything else .
= = Legacy = =
Aston did not believe that he would leave a significant legacy behind him . He commented that this was the case because Britain 's archaeological community had failed to develop the work that he had done with Time Team and with extramural teaching , and that all the public outreach he had accomplished would die with him . He felt that there was no " celebrity archaeologist " to replace him , and ultimately felt that the situation in British archaeology made him " angry and sad . "
In British Archaeology magazine , Aston was described as " the Mortimer Wheeler of our times " because , despite strong differences between their personalities , both had done much to bring archaeology to the British public . It went on to note that Aston reminded archaeologists that " their job is to do archaeology , and if that was an archaeology that meant nothing to ordinary people , there was no point in it – and government would be among the first to notice . " Two of Aston 's colleagues from Bristol University , Stuart Prior and Mark Horton , commented that " Mick brought archaeology into the living rooms of half the nation , and left a legacy that will shape the discipline for decades to come . " Writing for the website of Antiquity , Christopher Gerrard described him as " perhaps the best known face in British archaeology " , adding that " in so many different areas of medieval archaeology his legacy will live on " . Emma McFarnon described Aston as " Somerset 's premier archaeologist " in her obituary on the This is Somerset website .
Following Aston 's death , former colleague Francis Pryor noted that Aston was a " remarkable archaeologist who could really dig " , being a " warm , loving , nice man . " Another colleague , Phil Harding , commented on Aston 's " incredible knowledge " and " effortless way of making archaeology accessible to people . " Tony Robinson wrote of him : " Mick was a real child of the ' 60s and a bit of a rebel , but he was also a series of contradictions . He was one of the best academic archaeologists in the country , yet his real love was teaching ordinary people . He was the grumpiest old Black Country curmudgeon you could imagine , but he had a heart of absolute gold . " He also noted that " archaeology is now a subject that tens of thousands of people enjoy and value , and this is almost solely down to him . " Ralph Lee , head of Channel 4 's factual programming , described Aston as a " brilliant communicator " who helped make archaeology " so popular " in the UK .
= The Vinyl Conflict =
The Vinyl Conflict is a box set by the thrash metal band Slayer , released October 12 , 2010 . It includes all ten of Slayer 's studio albums since 1986 and their 1991 live album Decade of Aggression . The idea of releasing a second box set was made public in August 2010 . It was first released with a price of $ 199 @.@ 99 . The albums are all in vinyl and are remastered . It received generally positive reception from critics .
= = Conception = =
In August 2010 , it was announced that band would be releasing a second box set after Soundtrack to the Apocalypse ( 2003 ) , and would include every one of Slayer 's studio albums from 1986 's Reign In Blood to 2009 's World Painted Blood . It originally had a price tag of $ 199 @.@ 99 , but is now sold at retail price of $ 149 @.@ 98 . It was released through American Recordings and Sony . Blabbermouth.net noted that they are " treating the albums the way they would treat a great jazz , classical , Bob Dylan or Miles Davis record , something that isn 't normally done for metal records . " To increase quality , Lacquers were cut several times , and the original albums were remastered . It was released as a high @-@ quality 180 gram audiophile vinyl , pressed at RTI , an American pressing plant . The vinyl discs are packaged in a standard , clear inner sleeve to preserve the vinyl , and are also in high @-@ quality litho @-@ wrapped jackets , and boxed in a slipcase . Reproductions of the original albums inner sleeve artwork were converted to 12 inch square inserts to fit the standard vinyl disc covers .
Adam Farber of Sony Music Entertainment explained : " The vinyl box is a real treat for fans , especially with today 's renewed and increased interest in vinyl . " It is the first time that ten of Slayer 's studio albums have been mass @-@ produced on vinyl . Dino Paredes of American Records relates : " It 's been years and years since the Slayer vinyl has been in print — only the two most recent albums are currently available on vinyl , the rest have been out of print for years and very hard to find . These albums sound spectacular — they sound like you 've never heard them before . Everything about ' The Vinyl Conflict ' — the look of it , the feel of it — is very strong , very powerful , very Slayer , from the music to the dripping , bloody pentagram on the front of the box . It 's perfect . "
= = Reception = =
John Kosik of the Associated Press criticized its price , stating : " For $ 200 , casual fans may want to steer clear . " Kosik also said that what it " offers the hard @-@ core listener goes beyond the distinct romance of vinyl 's warm , earthy sound . " Bob Gendron of TONEAudio wrote that the box set was a " godsend " and also said that they were " amazingly produced LPs that bring to life several of the greatest metal records ever made … " Guitar World praised the box set for its mastering , saying the benefits of the treatment " are immediately clear when you drop the needle onto one of these babies . Basically all the songs Slayer fans lose their mind over are here , sounding heavier , livelier and more brutal than ever . " He also said that the remastering made a listener
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the sole proprietor from 1804 , having bought out his sleeping partner . Throughout its life , the navigation had almost been a monopoly , but Hollis planned to end this , and obtained an Act of Parliament in 1802 , to make it an open navigation , where anyone could use it on payment of the appropriate tolls . These were laid down in the Act , ending the setting of tolls by the Commissioners . The Act also specified that he had three years to put the river in order , which he appears to have achieved , since he then leased it to a group of merchants .
From 1808 , a number of detractors argued that the navigation was in a poor condition , hoping to force Hollis to concede water rights to mills , and traffic declined . Another Act of 1811 allowed Hollis to raise the tolls , and eight years later , he held a meeting at the Winchester Guildhall , explaining why he needed to raise the tolls further . The meeting asked him to postpone his next Bill for a year , in return for which they would give him £ 1 @,@ 200 for one year 's tolls , wharfage and rent , he would spend £ 600 on repairs , and the remaining £ 600 would amount to 5 per cent interest on the estimated value of the navigation , which was then £ 12 @,@ 000 . He obtained his Act of Parliament a year later , which raised the tolls , but the Commissioners reduced freight charges at the same time , resulting in the operation being more profitable for Hollis and less so for the barge owners .
= = = Decline = = =
Hollis raised mortgages to pay for improvements , but receipts were down to £ 1 @,@ 821 in 1839 , the last full year of operation before the London and Southampton Railway opened . The receipts were obtained from tolls , as all freight was moved by independent carriers . At this point , Hollis gave control of the navigation to members of his family . His son managed it until 1841 , when a banker called W. W. Bulpett , who was a mortgagee , took over . In 1847 he was given notice to quit by the Hollis family , despite having done a good job , but he refused . F. W. Hollis eventually obtained most of the shares from the other family members , and started legal action to remove Bulpett . Railway competition had caused a sharp drop in receipts , from £ 1 @,@ 012 in 1843 to £ 430 in 1861 , and payments to shareholders and mortgagees ceased in 1850 and 1857 . In 1863 , Bulpett was replaced by Mr Clarke , formerly the manager of the Andover Canal , but Bulpett returned when he won the action brought by Hollis .
However , his re @-@ instatement was short lived , as the navigation ceased to operate in January 1869 , the last month in which tolls were collected . Mortgages of £ 19 @,@ 708 were outstanding , of which £ 2 @,@ 607 dated from the original construction by Pyott . A plan to buy the waterway by J. R. Stebbings of Southampton in 1871 fell through . A further attempt to buy the navigation was made in 1909 by Patrick O 'Carroll , an estate agent from Southsea . He created a company called the Itchen Navigation Ltd , with a capital of £ 20 @,@ 000 , but they were unable to establish who owned it , and so the company never traded .
= = = Extensions = = =
During the life of the canal , there were several proposals to link the canal to the Basingstoke Canal , to provide an inland route between London and Southampton . The first was in 1788 , and was initiated by the Basingstoke Canal company , six months after they started work on their main line . A survey for a proposed route was made , but no further progress occurred .
The Basingstoke committee then investigated a link to the Andover Canal , but in December 1792 , interest switched back to a link with the Itchen . A meeting was held in Southampton , which was chaired by the mayor and included James D 'Arcy on the committee . It became part of a much grander scheme to link Bristol to Salisbury , and onwards to London , but although most of this soon died away , the Itchen to Basingstoke link was still being considered in 1796 , by which time it was called the London and Southampton Ports Junction Canal . Two routes were surveyed by different engineers , one costing £ 127 @,@ 000 and the other £ 157 @,@ 566 .
The main focus was on providing a safe route between London and Southampton , in view of the war with France at the time and the threat to shipping using a coastal route . However , prices were rising , and there were a number of other canal schemes in difficulty at the time , which resulted in it being put on hold until 1807 . Meanwhile , the Grand Surrey Canal was being proposed in 1800 , and Ralph Dodd the main promoter suggested that it could easily be extended to join the Itchen . The previous scheme received more attention in 1807 , by which time it had become the Portsmouth , Southampton and London Junction Canal . From Winchester it would pass through Alresford , Alton and Farnham , to join either the Basingstoke Canal at Aldershot or the Wey and Godalming Navigations at Godalming . To speed construction , it was suggested that the 2 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) summit tunnel could be replaced by a 7 @-@ mile ( 11 km ) railway , with the tunnel being built in due course .
Widely divergent costs for the project were discussed . The original estimate was £ 140 @,@ 000 if the railway was built , and £ 200 @,@ 000 if the tunnel was built . Opponents suggested the cost would be nearer £ 700 @,@ 000 , and John Rennie estimated the tunnel line would cost £ 440 @,@ 790 in 1809 . Opponents argued that the real intent was to improve the water supply for the Basingstoke Canal or to line the pockets of George Hollis , the owner of the Itchen Navigation . There was considerable interest in the scheme , as 1 @,@ 244 shares of £ 100 had been subscribed by early 1809 , but with opposition from land and mill owners , and Rennie 's report indicating much higher costs , the project was dropped .
One final proposal was made in 1902 . Experiments had been carried out on the Wey and Godalming using electric traction to pull the barges . The scheme was for a 64 @-@ mile ( 103 km ) canal from Ditton on the River Thames through Guildford , Godalming and Alton to join the Itchen at Winchester . 250 @-@ ton barges would be pulled along from the towpath by engines fed from overhead catenary wires . However , although such a system was operational in France , nothing came of the proposal .
= = = Closure = = =
Although the navigation ceased to operate from January 1869 , Woodmill Lock remained in use , to enable barges to reach Gaters Mill at West End , which was on the main river channel just above the start of the first cut . Most of the bridges over the navigation were owned by the navigation , and their condition deteriorated . The manager , Mr Bulpett , was notified that he had 21 days to repair Shawford Bridge in 1879 . He replied to the Winchester Highway Board that the navigation was insolvent , and he would help them to transfer responsibility for it to the county council . The Board carried out temporary repairs , when Bulpett agreed that the navigation would meet the full cost of repairing it properly if it ever reopened . The following year , Bulpett was threatened with legal action over the state of Bishopstoke Bridge , but at this point it was agreed that the navigation had no income , and could not be sold , and so the county would have to maintain the bridges .
In 1911 , a Mr Bowker from Shawford successfully applied for the towpath to be diverted , but this was overturned when Rev. J H Du Boulay appealed against the decision . The diversion was sanctioned in 1914 , although there have been doubts about the legality of the action , and subsequently two further diversions were made , at Chickenhall , near the southern end and at Hockley , near the northern end . No maintenance was carried out on the waterway until the formation of Catchment Boards . Thus responsibility for the waterway as a drainage channel passed to the Hampshire Catchment Board in 1942 , and some work was carried out to maintain the integrity of the waterway . These responsibilities later passed to the Southern Water Authority , and now reside with the Environment Agency .
In the 1960s , the value of the towpath as a leisure amenity began to be recognised . The Deputy County Clerk for Hampshire walked along the towpath from end to end in 1966 , together with members of the Ramblers Association . He decided that rather than challenge the legality of the towpath diversions , he would invite the local authorities through which the navigation ran to assume responsibility for maintaining the towpath . These organisations were Southampton County Borough Council , Eastleigh Borough Council , Winchester Rural District Council and Winchester City Council . The construction of weirs at most of the locks by the Southern Water Authority resulted in water levels being restored on significant parts of the navigation . The powers of the navigation were enshrined in Acts of Parliament obtained in 1665 , 1767 , 1795 , 1802 , 1811 and 1820 , none of which have been repealed .
= = = Restoration = = =
The newer technologies of road and rail led to the navigation falling into disuse . Some lengths of the system were drained or allowed to overgrow with vegetation . Increasingly the difference between the canal and the river became less obvious , although it is still possible to identify remains of the original locks . The threat to the remains which the construction of the M3 motorway posed spurred the Winchester Tenants and Residents Association and the local branch of the Inland Waterways Association into action in 1975 , with both suggesting that the waterway could be restored . The two groups later co @-@ operated , and the Itchen Navigation Preservation Society was formed .
Little progress was made , but in 2005 the Environment Agency and the Hampshire and Isle of Wight Wildlife Trust promoted the formation of the Itchen Navigation Trust . They were committed to conserving the remains , rather than a full restoration to navigable standards . A request was made to the Heritage Lottery Fund in the United Kingdom for funds to restore the watercourse . Known as The Itchen Navigation Heritage Trail Project , funding was granted and a five @-@ year restoration project began . Work has included widening the aperture at College Mead Lock and the construction of a bypass channel around Malm Lock to assist the movement of fish and other aquatic fauna . The navigation has been designated a European Special Area of Conservation as well as a Site of Special Scientific Interest , due to the rich diversity of wildlife found along the system , and its historical importance .
= = Route = =
The official head of the canal was at Blackbridge Wharf , Winchester , just to the south of Wharf Mill , a grade II listed water mill dating from 1885 , and College Walk , which spans the river at Blackbridge , an eighteenth @-@ century stone bridge which is also grade II listed . Below the bridge , the channel splits , with the river flowing to the west and the navigation to the east . Blackbridge Wharf was accessed by Wharf Bridge , the oldest surviving bridge over the navigation , dating from the 1760s . Close by , the manager 's house , a warehouse and some stables have also survived . The navigation flows past the grounds of Winchester College , which uses the waterway for rowing practice . The rowing eights use a winding basin just above the remains of St Catherine 's Hill Lock , which now contains a modern sluice mechanism , and was the location of a water @-@ powered sawmill , located to the west of the lock .
It passes St Catherine 's Hill , an Iron Age hill fort and some plague pits , which were common graves for victims of the 1666 plague . It then passes under the former Didcot , Newbury and Southampton Railway , whose line from Winchester to Shawford Junction was operational between 1891 and 1966 , before being diverted through a culvert under junction 11 of the M3 motorway . Originally this was the site of a bridge which carried the road from Winchester to Botley , but this was replaced by a full headroom concrete tunnel in the late 1930s , when the junction between that road and the new Winchester Bypass was built over the navigation . When the M3 motorway was constructed , following almost the same line as the bypass where it crossed the navigation , the tunnel was reduced to a culvert , although the original plans for the motorway would have destroyed most of the top pound . The building of the M3 across Twyford Down , a small area of ancient chalk downland , was controversial at the time , but the removal of the Winchester Bypass which ran to the west of St Catherine 's Hill close to the navigation and its conversion back to grassland has brought tranquility back to the valley . The canal is on the western edge of Twyford Down , and continues through Twyford Lane End Lock before it briefly rejoins the river . Some 220 yards ( 200 m ) south of the junction are Tumbling Bay Hatches , originally used to control levels in the water meadows to the east of the river . A modern sluice was installed just to the north of the 19th century hatches in 1971 , and controls flow to the Twyford Drain , the main channel to the east of the navigation , which follows the river channel almost to Shawford Bridge . Modern maps , however , label the drain as the River Itchen .
A leat from this stretch was created at around the time of the construction of the canal to provide water for the Twyford Mead water meadows . Farming of the water meadows continued until around 1930 , after the closure of the navigation itself . It was a labour @-@ intensive method of land management , but the controlled flooding of the meadows , with the deposition of silt from the water , enabled the land to produce two crops of hay per year , as well as grazing for sheep and cattle . Demonstrations of the techniques used to flood the meadows are still carried out occasionally .
= = = Below Twyford = = =
The next lock is Compton Lock , the only one built on a river section . It is also called Compton Place Lock or Twyford Lock , and the extra flow compared to other locks may explain the erosion that has taken place , resulting in a circular area of water between the upper and lower gates . Just above Shawford Bridge , the river and navigation diverged , with Shawford Mill just below the junction . The building still stands . The bridge is a modern construction , and is located at a point where the towpath crosses to the western bank . Just to the south is a weir at the site of Shawford Single Gates , which probably ensured the mill had an adequate head of water . The village of Twyford lies to the east , and the Twyford Drain splits , with the western channel rejoining the river below the mill , and the eastern channel continuing as a relief channel . There are two more locks on the navigation , called Malm Lock and College Mead Lock , before the navigation rejoins the river . By the junction is the intake for Otterbourne Water Treatment Works .
After some 450 yards ( 410 m ) , the river continues straight ahead , and another cut begins , turning sharply to the right . Soon the remains of Brambridge Lock are reached , which include an eel trap . The design of the gates , which included vents near the top of the structure , to allow surplus water to pass through , was clearly shown in a drawing dating from 1880 . Below it were Brambridge Single Gates , probably used to maintain water levels for a mill , of which some brickwork remains . There were hatches to allow water to return to the river channel either side of the gates , one of which is now a modern sluice . The navigation runs along an embankment for about 450 yards ( 410 m ) , which is 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) high , before it reaches Allbrook Lock . This was moved in 1838 , when the railway line was built , and was repaired in 1944 . It has a chamber built of bricks , whereas the other locks are turf @-@ sided . A bridge carries the B3335 over the tail of the lock , having been widened since it was first built . At the head of the lock is a gauging station , where the Environment Agency measure the flow and level of the water .
The navigation turns to the west , passing under the railway line , and then loops back to return to the eastern side of the railway . It runs along the northern edge of some railway sidings which form part of Eastleigh Works , to reach Withymead Lock . This was unusual , as it included a bypass channel to take excess water around the lock , whereas the other locks used vents in the gates . Just below the lock , the navigation rejoins the river channel . At Barton Bay , the Barton River leaves the navigation , following a course to the west of the channel . A horse bridge carried the towpath over the river , which used to supply water to Barton Peveril Mill . The next cut began a little further south , with Bishopstoke or Stoke Lock at the head of it . There are four bridges on Bishopstoke Road , as it crosses the Barton River , the navigation , the river channel and the tailrace of Shears Mill , Bishopstoke . The mill was a large four @-@ storey building , which was demolished in the 1920s . Four years before demolition , two water turbines of 20 @-@ inch ( 51 cm ) and 36 @-@ inch ( 91 cm ) diameter were installed , and were retained after the demise of the mill , in the hope that they could be used to generate DC power for the village . Several community groups are looking at the possibility of restoring the water turbines to generate electricity .
The next lock is Conegar Lock , which was also called Stoke Conegar or Coneygear Lock . Just above it are some hatches which supplied water to the adjacent water meadows . They were built of dressed stone , and are the best @-@ preserved of the original hatches . There is no modern sluice at Conegar Lock , and the change in level has resulted in fast @-@ flowing rapids which have cut back the channel above the lock . A little further south at Fish House Bay , the navigation crossed the Barton River diagonally , as the mill stream made its way back to the main river . A footbridge on the eastern bank carried the towpath over the Barton River , but the navigation below this point is dry , with its line occupied by a vegetable garden .
= = = Below Conegar = = =
The next section is the least preserved part of the navigation , which skirted to the east of Eastleigh Sewage Treatment Works , to a point where it was crossed by the railway from Eastleigh to Gosport . Two lengths have been filled in , and although there is a footpath , it follows the approximate route of the navigation , rather than the actual towpath . The railway bridge was built in 1841 and originally had two arches , one for the navigation , and another for the landowners . Replacement was necessary in 1979 , and the bridge was demolished . Part of it was replaced by an embankment , but a large @-@ diameter concrete tube was provided , or sufficient size to carry the navigation should it be reinstated . The next lock is Lock House Lock , which was also called Chickenhall Lock . The name reflects the fact that there was a lock @-@ keeper 's cottage by the structure , but this has long since disappeared .
The navigation then passes to the east of Southampton Airport , while further east is the river channel and the Itchen Valley Country Park . Between the two waterways is Decoy Covert , a small wood which contained a duck decoy . The lock nearby is called Decoy Pond Lock , below which is Sandy Lock . There is little water in this section , since its main supply has been cut off , and although there are springs along this section , the channel is periodically blocked where occupation bridges have been replaced by earth embankments . Sandy Lock has much barbed wire in it , possibly dumped when the wartime defences of the airport were dismantled . The final lock on this section is Mans Bridge Lock , shortly after the modern crossing by the M27 motorway . The cut then rejoins the main river , and passes under the A27 road . The current bridge was constructed in 1975 , and replaced a bailey bridge erected during the Second World War . Just below it is a single arched stone bridge dating from the early nineteenth century , which was the original course of the road . It has been restored and is used as a footbridge .
The final lock was the sea lock at Woodmill . There are no visible remains of it , although its location can still be seen . The mill was to the west , and now forms part of the Woodmill Outdoor Activities Centre , with the main building used as a canoe shop . The centre was set up in the late 1960s , and is a registered charity . The navigation officially continued downstream to a wharf at Northam , and although there was never a towpath on the tidal section , the Itchen Way long distance footpath follows the eastern bank of the river for most of the way . Nothing remains of Northam Quay , and the bridge has been rebuilt twice since the first construction of 1796 , the last time in 1954 . The river also passes under the A3035 Cobden Bridge , and a railway bridge built in 1866 , with two sets of round iron columns supporting the structure over the main channel , which retains most of its original appearance and now forms part of the West Coastway Line .
= = Flora and fauna = =
The Itchen Navigation supports a rich flora and fauna , and one benefit of the 5 @-@ year grant @-@ funded restoration project has been the regular monitoring and publishing of reports to document this . Annual reports on the populations of birds , bats , otters , water voles and butterflies , damselflies and dragonflies have been produced , with occasional reports on other aspects , while the Environment Agency has produces fisheries reports . As part of the project , a number of engineering works have been carried out to stabilise the banks , and trees have been cut back to reduce the amount of shade and encourage the growth of marginal vegetation . In the case of the water vole survey , this has been concentrated on the sections where work has been carried out , whereas the butterfly , damselfly and dragonfly survey has tended to cover the whole navigation . Vegetated berms containing marginal plants have been placed along the banks . The project has tried to avoid the installation of revetments , as the vertical faces prevent wildlife accessing the banks , but where a revetment is necessary to combat erosion , it has been built of oak and a berm placed in front of it to soften the edge .
In recognition of the fact that many people use the towpath to exercise their dogs , dog dips have been installed at Allbrook and Shawford . These provide easy access into the water for dogs , and owners are encouraged to only allow dogs to swim at these locations , to conserve the bank in other places . The water vole surveys have followed the best practice described in the Water Vole Conservation Handbook ( 2006 ) , and have also recorded evidence of otter , brown rat and American mink populations . While carrying out the work , the surveyors have also counted sightings of kingfisher , heron , moorhen and coot . The bat survey recorded common pipistrelle , soprano pipistrelle , Daubenton 's , noctule and serotine bats in 2011 . Bat boxes have been erected near Allbrook , and there was some evidence that they were being used . The 2009 fisheries survey recorded large numbers of young Atlantic salmon in the lower river , but although fish weirs have been provided , wild parr were not recorded near Winchester . Above there , a large population of brown trout thrives . Eels were monitored for the first time in 2009 , when their distribution was found to be variable .
= = Points of interest = =
= Stephanie McMahon =
Stephanie Marie McMahon Levesque ( born Stephanie Marie McMahon ; September 24 , 1976 ) is an American businesswoman , professional wrestling valet , professional wrestler , minority owner , and the Chief Brand Officer ( CBO ) of WWE .
A fourth @-@ generation wrestling promoter as a member of the McMahon family , she has worked for WWE since she was a teenager ( modeling T @-@ shirts and other merchandise for various WWE catalogs ) working her way up to receptionist , then in various front office jobs up to and including her current CBO position . She is the great @-@ granddaughter of Roderick " Jess " McMahon , granddaughter of Vincent J. McMahon , daughter of WWE Chairman and CEO Vince McMahon and retired CEO / United States Senate candidate Linda McMahon , the younger sister of WWE part @-@ owner / wrestler Shane McMahon , and wife of WWE executive / wrestler Paul " Triple H " Levesque .
McMahon began appearing regularly on @-@ air for WWE ( then WWF as the World Wrestling Federation ) in 1999 as a part of a storyline with The Undertaker . After a brief on @-@ screen relationship with Test , she was engaged to Triple H — whom she married both on @-@ screen and later in real life — which resulted in The McMahon @-@ Helmsley Faction storyline . She has held the WWF Women 's Championship once . In 2001 , she was the on @-@ screen owner of Extreme Championship Wrestling during The Invasion . The following year , she was the SmackDown General Manager , but stopped appearing regularly on television after an " I Quit " match with her father Vince .
After only making sporadic appearances for several years , McMahon began appearing regularly on Raw in 2008 as the Raw brand general manager before disappearing once again . By mid @-@ 2013 , McMahon returned to regular on @-@ air appearances in the WWE , this time under the gimmick of an unctuous , judgmental , bullying owner along with on @-@ screen chief operating officer , her husband , Triple H. From 2013 to 2016 , they acted as a power couple known as " The Authority , " making what were often shady decrees while claiming only to be concerned for " what 's best for business , " all the while romanticizing each other in the process with public displays of affection . The Authority would later expand into a stable with its co @-@ leaders Triple H and herself . In April 2016 , The Authority quietly disbanded . She is currently the Commisioner of Raw .
= = Early life = =
Stephanie Marie McMahon was born on September 24 , 1976 in Williamstown , New Jersey to Linda and Vince McMahon . She has one brother , Shane McMahon . Soon after her birth , the family moved to Greenwich , Connecticut . There , she attended the selective Greenwich Country Day School , throughout her elementary school years . At the age of 13 , McMahon appeared in World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) merchandise catalogs , modeling T @-@ shirts and hats . After graduating from Greenwich High School , she attended Boston University and in 1998 earned a degree in Communications . After graduating in 1998 , she began working for the WWF full @-@ time .
= = Business career = =
McMahon entered WWF as a model , for WWF Sales and merchandise , but started her WWF career as an Account Executive for the WWF sales office in New York . In her early years with the company , she did reception work , creative design , television production , and acted as a ring performer . After spending time as the director of creative writing , a job she had by 2002 , she was promoted to Senior Vice President of Creative Writing in 2006 .
= = = Executive Vice President = = =
McMahon was promoted to executive vice president of Creative in 2007 . She was responsible for overseeing the creative process ( Storylines ) for all television and pay @-@ per @-@ view programming . She oversaw all aspects of talent management and branding as well as live event booking and marketing , as well as all social and digital media properties .
As Executive vice @-@ president , Creative she was able to spearhead the upbringing of the WWE app , which has been downloaded over 20 million times . She was also able to launch a huge partnership with the USO metropolitan Washington , the social media company Tout , and was able to partner with Yahoo to bring WWE content . Stephanie also lead WWE 's Creative coalition for their Anti Bullying Campaigns . In addition to her duties , she was responsible for the day @-@ to @-@ day operations for WWE.com.
= = = Chief Brand Officer = = =
On December 4 , 2013 WWE announced the promotion of Stephanie to chief brand officer , where she will now lead efforts to further enhance WWE 's brand reputation among key constituents including advertisers , media , business partners , and investors . McMahon will also serve as the lead ambassador of WWE and work with business units to support key growth initiatives . Stephanie will also lead WWE 's targeted youth and moms marketing programs .
McMahon 's new position enabled her to spearhead the continued partnership with General Mills ' Totino 's brand . On February 5 , 2014 , Stephanie McMahon along with CMO and CRO Michelle Wilson announced a partnership between WWE and KaBOOM ! to build a playground for WWE 's annual WrestleMania week in Louisiana . McMahon earned a combined salary of over $ 775 @,@ 000 between her corporate role and as an on @-@ screen talent in 2013 . She also owns over $ 77 million in WWE stock . On April 15 , 2014 during WWE 's annual Business Partners Summit , Stephanie confirmed a new WWE logo that would debut the night after WWE SummerSlam although it 's already showing up on WWE products like the WWE Network and NXT . On August , 5th at the Needham fireside conference , Stephanie alongside with her husband Triple H , and WWE Chief strategy and financial officer George Barrios , discussed the Creative side of WWE , the WWE Network , and the difference between WWE and UFC .
= = Job titles = =
Account executive and receptionist – 1998 – 2002
Director , Creative Television – 2002 – 2006
Responsible for the creative design , plans , and initiatives for WWE television .
Senior vice @-@ president , Creative Writing – 2006 – 2007
Responsible for overseeing the creative writing process , development , and management of WWE creative team .
Executive vice @-@ president , Creative Development and Operations – 2007 – 2013
Responsible for the creative development for all of WWE television including live and televised events and pay per views , as well as event bookings . Stephanie also served as a backstage producer / director .
Chief brand officer 2013 – present
Responsible for leading WWE 's effort 's and brand reputation among key constituencies including investors , media , business partners , and advertisers . As well as marketing mom and kids initiatives .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment / WWE = = =
= = = = Relationship with Test ( 1999 ) = = = =
In early 1999 , at the suggestion of WWF writer Vince Russo McMahon debuted as the sweet daughter of Vince McMahon during an on @-@ screen storyline involving Vince and The Undertaker . The Undertaker stalked and abducted McMahon at the end of the April Backlash pay @-@ per @-@ view , which culminated in him almost marrying her in the middle of the ring the next night on Raw , before being rescued by Stone Cold Steve Austin .
McMahon then began an on @-@ screen relationship with wrestler Test , which led to a rivalry between him and her older brother Shane . After Test defeated Shane at SummerSlam in a " Love Her Or Leave Her Match " , McMahon and Test went on to team together in a match on September 20 , 1999 , with the couple defeating Jeff Jarrett and Debra . The couple were eventually engaged , but during the in @-@ ring ceremony , Triple H showed a video which revealed that he had drugged McMahon and taken her to Las Vegas , Nevada where they were married in a drive @-@ through ceremony . McMahon seemed to abhor Triple H at first , but at the inaugural Armageddon event , after Triple H defeated her father in a No Holds Barred Match , left with him after embracing . McMahon confronted Vince the next night on Raw and revealed the wedding was a planned event , which was a revenge plot against her father for the aforementioned kidnappings , thus turning her into a villain .
= = = = McMahon @-@ Helmsley era ( 2000 – 2001 ) = = = =
In late 1999 , with Vince McMahon absent as a result of injuries inflicted upon him by Triple H at the Armageddon Pay @-@ per @-@ view , Triple H and McMahon became the on @-@ screen owners of the WWF , a period known as the " McMahon @-@ Helmsley Era " ( slightly different from the modern era of " The Authority " ) and dominated by the McMahon @-@ Helmsley Faction . Triple H held the WWF Championship and McMahon held the WWF Women 's Championship after defeating champion Jacqueline with the help of Tori and D @-@ Generation X on the March 28 edition of SmackDown ! On the edition of June 6 of SmackDown , McMahon successfully defended her title against Lita and on the edition of June 16 of SmackDown . Stephanie reconciled with her father and brother at WrestleMania 2000 when they helped Triple H defend his title against The Rock , leaving Linda McMahon as the only fan @-@ favorite in the McMahon family .
In mid 2000 , a love triangle storyline began featuring McMahon , Triple H and Kurt Angle . The storyline continued at Unforgiven when Triple H defeated Angle with a Pedigree following a low blow from McMahon , proving her loyalty to him . McMahon later became Angle 's manager and was in his corner when he defeated The Rock for the WWF Championship at No Mercy . The alliance was short lived , however , as after The Rock performed his Rock Bottom maneuver on McMahon at No Mercy , Triple H attacked Angle , considering it his fault that McMahon was hurt due to her managing Angle at the time . On the August 21 , 2000 episode of Raw , McMahon lost the WWF 's Women 's Championship to Lita despite the interferences from Angle and Triple H after special referee , The Rock , performed a spinebuster on McMahon .
The internal disputes between the McMahons led to Linda McMahon being in a comatose and wheel @-@ chair bound state due to the stress of being asked for a divorce by Vince , who took the opportunity to have a public affair with Trish Stratus . McMahon briefly feuded with Stratus , defeating her at No Way Out . Over the next few weeks , Vince made it clear that he favored McMahon over Stratus , allowing McMahon to bully and verbally abuse Stratus . At WrestleMania X @-@ Seven , Shane McMahon defeated Vince in a street fight . During the match , Stratus slapped Vince and chased Stephanie from ringside , apparently upset with Vince 's constant misogynistic treatment of her .
= = = = The Invasion and divorce from triple H ( 2001 – 2002 ) = = = =
McMahon later revealed that she had purchased Extreme Championship Wrestling and intended to bankrupt the WWF ( in reality , the ownership of ECW assets at this time was highly disputed ) , along with her brother Shane , who had become the on @-@ screen owner of World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) , and the two rosters merged to form a " supergroup " known as The Alliance .
Her team " The Alliance " consisting of her brother Shane , former WCW Champion Booker T. , Rob Van Dam , Kurt Angle and Steve Austin were defeated by " Team WWF " consisting of The Undertaker , Kane , Big Show , Chris Jericho & The Rock at the Survivor Series in a five @-@ on @-@ five , Winner Takes All elimination match . The night after The Alliance was defeated , Shane and McMahon were banished from WWF television . McMahon returned in January 2002 when Triple H made a comeback as a fan @-@ favorite , but the good couple began having problems , as McMahon began acting like a nagging and clingy wife .
As part of the storyline , the couple " divorced " after McMahon claimed to be pregnant in order to trick Triple H into renewing their marital vows . Triple H later discovered that she was lying through and left her at the altar during the renewal ceremony . As a result , after Triple H won the Royal Rumble , McMahon appointed herself special guest referee in a match between Kurt Angle and Triple H at No Way Out with Triple H 's WrestleMania Undisputed WWF Championship shot on the line . Though Angle won thanks to McMahon 's biased officiating , Triple H defeated him the next night to regain his title shot . McMahon then aligned herself with former enemy , Chris Jericho . Despite interference by McMahon , Jericho lost to Triple H at WrestleMania X8 on March 17 . On the March 25 episode of Raw , Jericho and McMahon lost to Triple H in a Triple Threat match for the Undisputed Championship , with the stipulation that , if McMahon was pinned , she would be forced to leave the WWF ; In the match , Triple H pinned McMahon .
= = = = General manager of SmackDown ! ( 2002 – 2003 ) = = = =
On July 18 , 2002 , McMahon returned to the WWE ( formerly WWF until a lawsuit from the World Wildlife Fund ) as the general manager of SmackDown . In contrast to her McMahon @-@ Helmsley era villain character , Stephanie became a fan favorite , as she began to favor fan favorite wrestlers at that time . She feuded with Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff . On October 31 , 2002 at the Halloween party Stephanie McMahon and Eric Bischoff shared a kiss while McMahon was dressed as a witch and Bischoff was disguised as her father underneath a mask . McMahon was given credit for the return of the WWE United States Championship and for the creation of the WWE Tag Team Championship . She was also credited with signing Hulk Hogan back to SmackDown ! , which caused friction between herself and her father .
Meanwhile , Vince McMahon began to resent Stephanie 's attempts to stop him from pursuing an affair with Sable . The feud culminated in the controversial first ever " Father – Daughter ' I Quit ' match " at No Mercy . McMahon was accompanied by her mother , the CEO of WWE Linda McMahon , and Sable accompanied Vince McMahon in their match . McMahon lost when Linda , at ringside threw in a towel on her behalf because Vince would not release a choke he had on her with a lead pipe . As a result of losing the match , McMahon disappeared from WWE television for two years . The match was made to write Stephanie out of storylines as she was marrying Paul " Triple H " Levesque that week .
= = = = Sporadic appearances ( 2005 – 2007 ) = = = =
McMahon returned as a villain once again in October 2005 , she , along with her father and , in a surprise twist , her mother fired Raw announcer Jim Ross .
A visibly pregnant McMahon also returned on the March 6 , 2006 episode of Raw , approaching Shawn Michaels backstage and claiming to have abdominal pains . When Michaels left to get her some water , McMahon pulled out an unmarked substance out of her brassiere and poured it into his bottle of water . This substance caused him to become groggy during his match against Shane later in the night , which he lost as a result . McMahon also appeared at the WWE Hall of Fame induction ceremony on April 1 , 2006 and in a backstage vignette with her immediate family at WrestleMania 22 .
McMahon returned during a backstage segment in April 2007 at WrestleMania 23 , visiting her father before his " Battle of the Billionaires " match . After her father returned to Raw after faking his own death , McMahon publicly revealed that her father had an illegitimate child , who was among the WWE roster . On the taped edition of Raw that aired September 3 , 2007 , McMahon , along with her mother Linda and her brother Shane , made several appearances to confront Mr. McMahon about the child , who was later revealed to be Hornswoggle , turning into a fan favourite . On Raw 's 15 Year Anniversary episode , she appeared along with Shane in a segment — also involving her husband Triple H and Hornswoggle — which ended with her kissing her real life husband Triple H , to humiliate her father on Raw .
= = = = General manager of Raw ( 2008 – 2009 ) = = = =
After the severe injuries sustained by Vince on the June 23 , 3 @-@ hour edition of Raw , Shane appeared requesting for the Raw Superstars to stand together during what was a ' turbulent time ' . Shane 's plea was ignored , and subsequently , for the next two weeks , McMahon and Shane urged the superstars to show solidarity . The following week , Shane announced Mike Adamle as their choice to be the new Raw General Manager .
After Adamle stepped down as General Manager , Stephanie soon became in charge of the brand and ( reignited her feud ) and had altercations with Chris Jericho in the following weeks , which involved her firing him ( although he was later reinstated ) . After her father Vince returned , the family began a feud with Randy Orton , who began the storyline by punting Vince in the head . After a few weeks of feuding , Orton and his alliance , The Legacy , punted Shane in the head and performed an RKO on McMahon . Following the attack , he was chased out of the ring by Triple H , who is her real @-@ life husband . The rivalry between Orton , The Legacy and The Mcmahons heated up when Orton attacked and kissed Stephanie . Triple H and the Legacy rivalry continued at WrestleMania XXV , where Triple H defended the WWE Championship against Orton . The following month , Orton won the championship at Backlash . After Backlash McMahon left Raw and took a hiatus from WWE television .
= = = = Sporadic appearances ( 2010 – 2013 ) = = = =
McMahon appeared on the November 1 episode of Raw in a pre @-@ taped segment , where she dreams that Vince McMahon awoke from a coma after his doctor , played by actor and one @-@ time WWE employee Freddie Prinze Jr . , informed him that his wife Linda had invested millions in her campaign as she runs for senate . Vince 's heart rate elevated more and more as Prinze informed him on what was " wrong " with WWE since he went into a coma . After beginning to feel better , Vince realizes that he has a serious case of " the runs " , in which he gets out of bed and walks to the bathroom , in which he is covered in campaign signs , that block his backside . McMahon suddenly wakes up from her dream and asks her husband , Triple H ( off @-@ screen and voice work only ) , if Vince was still in a coma , in which Triple H replies " Yeah , he 's in a coma . I 'm pretty sure he 's brain dead . " ; McMahon responds by saying " thank God , " and then lays back down .
McMahon made an appearance as a guest speaker at the WrestleMania XXVII Press Conference . Several months later , she appeared in a backstage segment at SummerSlam to wish CM Punk luck in his match . Upon offering to shake his hand , Punk declined and insulted her : " I would , but ... I know where that hand 's been . " The following night on Raw , McMahon appeared backstage with CM Punk and threatened him : " ... in the end , people always get what they deserve . "
On July 23 , 2012 , McMahon made an appearance on the 1000th episode of Raw where she confronted and then slapped Paul Heyman to convince him to accept a match between Brock Lesnar and Triple H at SummerSlam . On April 6 , 2013 , McMahon inducted former on @-@ screen rival Trish Stratus into the WWE Hall of Fame .
On June 3 , 2013 , McMahon made an appearance to reveal her decision not to allow Triple H to compete that night . On the June 17 Raw , McMahon confronted new Divas Champion AJ Lee . On the July 8 Raw , McMahon fired Vickie Guerrero from the position of Raw Managing Supervisor when the WWE Universe voted " Failed " during Guerrero 's job evaluation .
= = = = The Authority ( 2013 – 2016 ) = = = =
On the August 19 episode of Raw , Stephanie turned heel when she interrupted Daniel Bryan and supported the actions of her husband at SummerSlam the previous night , telling Bryan that he wasn 't suitable to be the face of the company . Later in the night Stephanie stood beside Triple H and her father as they celebrated Randy Orton 's WWE Championship Coronation , during which Daniel Bryan was attacked by The Shield and subsequently by Orton . In November 2013 , McMahon signed a three @-@ year performers contract with the WWE , confirming her as a regular on its programming . She and Triple H continued to rule the company as a controlling " power couple " dubbed The Authority . Swearing that their actions were " best for business " , the pair would belittle and punish any talent that went against their ideology , and formed a particular vendetta against Daniel Bryan . McMahon was at ringside when Triple H lost to Bryan at WrestleMania XXX .
In June 2014 , as part of the ongoing storyline with Bryan , McMahon threatened to fire his wife Brie Bella if Bryan did not relinquish the WWE World Heavyweight Championship , which forced Brie to quit before slapping McMahon in the face . On the June 16 episode of Raw , Roman Reigns spiked the coffee Vickie Guerrero gave to McMahon , causing Stephanie to throw up on Vickie and leave with Triple H to the hospital . Vickie later gave Reigns a chance in the battle royal , which he would win . On the June 23 episode of Raw , Vickie lost in a pudding match against McMahon with her job on the line , after interference by Alicia Fox , Layla and Rosa Mendes . Vickie ultimately lost the match and was fired , however she got her retribution over McMahon by throwing her into the mud pool . After Brie quit , McMahon put Brie 's sister Nikki in several handicap matches as punishment . Brie returned to television on the July 21 episode of Raw , appearing in the crowd leading to confrontation between the two . McMahon got arrested with the assault of battery , because she slapped Brie , who was not a ( kayfabe ) WWE employee The following week , McMahon granted Brie her job back and a match at SummerSlam against her in order to get Brie to drop the lawsuit . On the August 4 episode of Raw , after their contract signing , Stephanie pedigreed both twins . At SummerSlam , Nikki turned on Brie , allowing Stephanie to hit a pedigree on Brie having Stephanie win her first pay per view match in over 10 years .
On the October 27 episode of Raw , after John Cena , the # 1 contender for the WWE World Heavyweight Championship , rejected an offer to join the Authority , Triple H announced a Traditional Survivor Series tag team elimination match , with a team representing the Authority facing a team captained by Cena . On the November 3 episode of Raw , Vince McMahon announced that if Team Authority loses at Survivor Series , the Authority will be ousted from power . During the match , Triple H tried to get the last member of Team Cena , Dolph Ziggler , eliminated by attacking two referees and placing Seth Rollins ( who was also the final member of Team Authority ) on top of Ziggler and calling crooked referee Scott Armstrong into the ring to make the count , however the debuting Sting came out and attacked Armstrong and Triple H , giving Team Cena the win and thus disbanding The Authority . Stephanie and Triple H appeared on the episode of Raw after Survivor Series stating that without them the company would be driven to the ground . They were then escorted out of the arena by the returning Daniel Bryan and only to be insulted by Mr.McMahon for letting him down and the McMahon family before exiting the arena . On the December 29 episode of Raw , The Authority was brought back in power by John Cena , and she and her husband entered and stepped on the entrance ramp celebrating their return with a glass of champagne and a kiss . Stephanie and Triple H then proceeded to fire Erick Rowan , Ryback and Dolph Ziggler .
On the July 13 episode of Raw , Stephanie interrupted Team Bella ( The Bella Twins and Alicia Fox ) to introduce Becky Lynch , Charlotte , and then @-@ NXT Women 's Champion Sasha Banks , calling for a " revolution " in the WWE Divas division . While Lynch and Charlotte allied with Paige , Banks would ally with Tamina and Naomi , leading to a brawl between the three teams .
= = = = Raw commissioner ( 2016 – present ) = = = =
On the July 11 episode of Raw , Mr. McMahon announced Stephanie as the commissioner of Raw , while Shane was named commissioner of SmackDown in order for them to compete against each other in the upcoming re @-@ established brand extension . The following week on Raw , Stephanie appointed Mick Foley as the Raw General Manager . The next week on Raw , Stephanie and Mick Foley announced the WWE Universal Championship would be the main championship on Raw .
= = Personal life = =
McMahon began dating Paul Levesque , better known as Triple H , in 2000 during their scripted romance . They were engaged on Valentine 's Day in 2003 and were married on October 25 , 2003 . In a radio interview with Opie and Anthony in 2004 , Levesque claimed he began dating McMahon after being apart from his previous girlfriend , Joanie " Chyna " Laurer , for some time , despite Laurer 's claims his relationship with McMahon began while they were still together . After their marriage , Stephanie took her husband 's surname and legally changed her middle name to ' McMahon ' .
She and Levesque have three daughters . On January 8 , 2006 , WWE announced McMahon and Levesque were expecting their first child , due on July 27 , 2006 . McMahon continued to work and travel with WWE throughout her pregnancy , giving birth to Aurora Rose Levesque on July 24 , 2006 . The couple had their second child , a daughter named Murphy Claire Levesque , on July 28 , 2008 , and their third daughter , Vaughn Evelyn Levesque , on August 24 , 2010 .
= = Other media = =
McMahon has appeared on The Howard Stern Show , Jimmy Kimmel Live ! , and Opie and Anthony . In May 2000 , Stephanie appeared at the WBCN River Rave on @-@ stage with friend , Cali , to introduce Godsmack and sign autographs in the festival area . In November 2001 , McMahon appeared on a special episode of NBC 's The Weakest Link where WWF personalities competed against each other for their respective charities . She made it to the final two but lost to Triple H. On August 14 , 2005 , McMahon along with Stacy Keibler , appeared on the season five finale of MTV 's Punk 'd , where she assisted with the prank played on Triple H.
On March 28 , 2009 , McMahon appeared alongside her mother on Business News Network 's The Market Morning Show . McMahon as well has made several appearances on various ESPN shows . On November 11 , 2009 , McMahon appeared on an episode of Food Network 's Dinner : Impossible alongside wrestler Big Show . In October 2013 , Stephanie became the honorary chairperson for the special Olympics of Connecticut .
Stephanie has also appeared in WWE video games WWF Wrestlemania 2000 , WWF SmackDown ! , WWF No Mercy , WWF SmackDown ! 2 : Know Your Role , WWF SmackDown ! Just Bring It , WWE RAW 2 , WWE Wrestlemania X8 , WWE SmackDown ! Shut Your Mouth , WWE Crush Hour , WWE Wrestlemania XIX , WWE SmackDown ! Here Comes The Pain , WWE ' 13 , WWE 2K14 , WWE 2K16 , and WWE 2K17. and was periodically featured during the first season of the E ! television series Total Divas . On December 2 , 2014 , WWE released the WWE Fit Series , starring McMahon as a trainer in a fitness video designed for women . Triple H starred in a similar video for men titled WWE Power Series .
McMahon , appeared in a voice over role as herself in the new direct @-@ to @-@ video animated film Scooby @-@ Doo ! and WWE : Curse of the Speed Demon .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Pedigree ( Double underhook facebuster ) – adopted from her husband
Signature moves
Clothesline
DDT
Hair @-@ pull snapmare
Lou Thesz press
Monkey flip
Neck snap
Powerbomb
Slap
Spear
Surfboard
Wrestlers managed
Triple H
Linda McMahon
Kurt Angle
Chris Jericho
Mr. America / Hulk Hogan / Hollywood Hulk Hogan
Zach Gowen
Ric Flair
Edge and Christian
Seth Rollins
Mr. McMahon
Shane McMahon
Nicknames
" The Billionaire Princess / Baroness "
" The Queen of Queens "
" The Billion Dollar Princess "
" Daddy 's Little Girl "
Entrance themes
" Break It Down " by The DX Band ( 2000 )
" My Time " by The DX Band ( 1999 – 2002 )
" Bodies " by Drowning Pool ( 2001 )
" No Chance in Hell " performed by Peter Bursuker and composed by Jim Johnston ( 1999 ; 2013 ; 2014 )
" The Game " by Motörhead ( January 8 , 2001 – 2013 )
" King of Kings " by Motörhead ( August 18 , 2013 – November 24 , 2014 ; December 29 , 2014 – May 2 , 2016 ; used while part of The Authority )
" All Grown Up " by Jacki @-@ O ( 2002 – 2013 )
" Welcome to the Queendom " by Jacki @-@ O ( 2013 – present )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Feud of the Year ( 2002 ) vs Eric Bischoff
Feud of the Year ( 2013 ) vs. Daniel Bryan As a member of The Authority
Most Hated Wrestler of the Year ( 2013 ) As a member of The Authority
Most Hated Wrestler of the Year ( 2014 ) With Triple H
Woman of the Year ( 2000 )
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Worst Non @-@ Wrestling Personality ( 2001 – 2003 )
Worst on Interviews ( 2001 – 2003 )
WWE / World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment
WWF Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
Slammy Awards ( 2 times )
Insult of the Year ( 2013 ) – for insulting Big Show
Rivalry of the Year ( 2014 ) – The Authority vs. Daniel Bryan
Vincent J. McMahon Legacy of Excellence Award ( 2016 )
= = = Other honors = = =
Four @-@ time Most Powerful Women in Cable honoree by Cable magazine – 2009 , 2011 , 2012 , and 2013
2010 : Fairfield County Business Journal 40 Under 40 Award
2013 : Multichannel News Woman to Watch
2013 : Honorary Chairperson of the Special Olympics of Connecticut .
2014 : Broadcasting and Cable and Multichannel News " Women in the Game "
2014 : Eisenhower USA fellow
2016 : Digital Entertainment Executives to watch
2016 : Multichannel News TV Wonder Woman
= Taunton by @-@ election , 1887 =
The Taunton by @-@ election of 1887 was held on 23 April 1887 in Taunton , Somerset , following the succession of the incumbent , Samuel Charles Allsopp , to the peerage upon the death of his father , becoming 2nd Baron Hindlip . One of Lord Hindlip 's brothers , Alfred Percy Allsopp , stood for the Conservative Party , while James Harris Sanders was the candidate for the Liberal Party . Allsopp was elected , with a majority of 536 votes ( 23 @.@ 1 % ) .
Although they had considered not contesting the election because the area was a Conservative stronghold , the Liberals decided to do so in order to generate a discussion on the issue of Home Rule for Ireland . Allsopp was in agreement with the Conservative policy , which was to maintain full governmental control over Ireland , and pass further Coercion Acts to reduce lawlessness in that country . Sanders , who had lost two previous elections for the Liberal Party , was in favour of devolution of powers to Ireland .
= = Background = =
= = = Vacancy and nominations = = =
At the 1886 general election , Samuel Allsopp held his seat in parliament unopposed for the Conservative Party . In April 1887 , his father , Henry Allsopp , 1st Baron Hindlip , died . As a result of this , Samuel Allsopp succeeded , entering the House of Lords as a peer . This left the parliamentary consistency of Taunton vacant . The Conservative Party offered Samuel Allsopp 's brother , Alfred Percy Allsopp ( commonly known as Percy Allsopp ) the chance to contest the vacancy . Initially it was reported that the Liberal Party would not contest the seat if Percy Allsopp was the only Conservative candidate , but a meeting of the local executive could not reach a consensus : some believed that as the area was so strongly Conservative , a large loss would be damaging to the party , while others wanted to generate a debate on Home Rule . Despite the Taunton executive of the Conservative Party selecting Percy Allsopp as their preferred candidate , the town 's Mayor , Samuel Farrant , declared that he would also stand for the Conservatives , which led to concern within that party that a split of the votes could result in a Liberal candidate being elected . Farrant later withdrew his candidacy , leaving Allsopp as the Conservative 's sole representative . After their initial uncertainty , the Liberals opted to give the Taunton electorate the opportunity to show their views on Home Rule , and chose James Harris Sanders , of London , as their candidate .
= = = Candidates = = =
Alfred Percy Allsopp was the seventh , and youngest , son of Henry Allsopp , 1st Baron Hindlip , and at the time of the election , was resident in Lichfield , Staffordshire . He often accompanied his brother during his time in office in Taunton , and had occasionally represented him in the town . The Taunton Courier noted that at one dinner , he " made a great impression by the perspicacity of his utterances , by the breadth of view they indicated , and by his fluency of speech . " He was a partner in Samuel Allsopp & Sons , which along with Guinness and Bass was one of the largest brewers in the world .
James Harris Sanders , commonly Harris Sanders , was born in Tavistock , Devon , the second son of Richard Sanders . Sanders had previously stood in the 1886 general election in Harborough , South Leicestershire , and in the King 's Lynn by @-@ election in the same year , losing both . The Western Times described him as " an unexceptionable candidate " , while the Taunton Courier elaborated on his past election performances , and commented that he was " becoming accustomed to acting as a political ninepin " .
= = = Home Rule = = =
Home Rule was the key issue in British politics in the late 1880s . The debate revolved around granting Ireland more powers to govern themselves . William Ewart Gladstone , the Liberal Prime Minister , proposed the First Home Rule Bill in April 1886 , aiming to devolve power to Ireland . The Conservatives were opposed to the Bill , and were joined by a number of Liberal members in defeating the Bill . This caused a split in the Liberal party , the creation of the Liberal Unionist Party , and a fresh general election , just a year after the last . At the 1886 general election , the Conservatives entered government with Lord Salibsury as Prime Minister . They formed a majority with the Liberal Unionists .
= = Election campaign = =
At the Conservative Assembly meeting at which Allsopp was formally nominated as the party 's candidate , one of his nominators , Mr J. Standfast , decried the situation in Ireland . He called upon the people of Taunton to show that they " disapproved of the murders , and robberies , and outrages which were so common in Ireland , and were not prepared to hand over to the instigators of those crimes the government of that island . " Allsopp did not initially campaign heavily , while he grieved for his father , but he did leave an advert in the Taunton Courier stating his support for the Conservative government 's position on the administration of Ireland . He noted that his views mirrored those of his brother , the previous MP . During his campaigning , Allsopp drew parallels between the 1881 Coercion Bill , which Gladstone had introduced , with the proposed Crimes Bill , which Gladstone and Sanders both opposed . He accused them of hypocrisy , and claimed that those in support of Home Rule did not understand what it meant . He spoke of his hope for the Crimes Bill to be passed , and his belief that it would end the " misery and distress " in Ireland .
At Sanders ' nomination , the Liberal candidate spoke of his " entire concurrence " with Gladstone 's proposals . At a meeting shortly thereafter , Sanders seconded a resolution raised by a fellow Liberal member protesting " against the attempt to impose coercion upon Ireland for ever . " Sanders then highlighted the Corrupt Practices Act , and appealed to the party members to not only avoid engaging in any corruption , but to remain honourable at all times . He spoke at length about the virtues of Liberalism , and what he described as the sad history of Ireland under English rule . The following Monday , which was Easter Monday , Sanders travelled to London to take part in demonstrations against the Perpetual Crimes Bill . As the election drew close , Sanders issued a statement that he had deposited £ 1 @,@ 500 in a local bank , of which £ 500 would be split as rewards if people presented evidence of bribery and corruption in the election that led to a conviction . The other £ 1 @,@ 000 was set aside for a possible petition against the election result .
The two sides both adopted mottoes during the election : the Conservatives called for people to " Vote for Allsopp and liberty " , while the Liberals used " No Coercion , vote for Sanders . " Cartoons were distributed by the Liberals , illustrating the recent evictions in Ireland . In reaction , the Conservatives posted pictures of " brutal outrages " that had been recently committed in that country .
= = Result = =
The vote was held on Saturday 23 April 1887 , with the booths open for twelve hours from eight in the morning . There were seven polling stations across Taunton , which was busy as it was market day . The Taunton Courier reported that party colours of both sides were on display , but that there was more " Conservative blue " than the tri @-@ colour and Union Jack of the Liberals . Campaigning continued throughout the day , but was conducted in a civil manner . Two hours into the voting it was announced that a third of the constituency had voted , and the Conservatives declared that they were leading by a ratio of two to one . Bad weather in the middle of the day caused a lull in the voting , but the polls were very busy throughout the afternoon when the weather cleared , as most of the town only worked half of the day . Based upon their polling on the day , the Conservatives continued to claim victory during the afternoon . The votes were counted in the Municipal Office , and the results were announced at quarter @-@ past nine in the evening . Allsopp received 1 @,@ 426 votes to Sanders ' 890 , granting him a 536 majority . Both Allsopp and Sanders spoke briefly to praise the Returning Officer , and Allsopp was then called upon to give a speech . During that speech , Allsopp thanked the people of Taunton , and gently mocked Sanders for the money he had banked in case of corruption .
= = Aftermath = =
Despite initial suggestions that a petition would be lodged against the result by Sanders , including an strong assertion in the Pall Mall Gazette , such a petition was eventually abandoned . Allsopp entered parliament , becoming the 18th new Member of Parliament to be elected since the general election in 1886 . Allsopp served as the Member for Taunton until the 1895 general election .
= Edward VIII =
Edward VIII ( Edward Albert Christian George Andrew Patrick David ; 23 June 1894 – 28 May 1972 ) was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Empire , and Emperor of India , from 20 January 1936 until his abdication on 11 December the same year .
Edward was the eldest son of King George V and Queen Mary . He was created Prince of Wales on his sixteenth birthday , nine weeks after his father succeeded as king . As a young man , he served in the British Army during the First World War and undertook several overseas tours on behalf of his father .
Edward became king on his father 's death in early 1936 . He showed impatience with court protocol , and caused concern among politicians by his apparent disregard for established constitutional conventions . Only months into his reign , he caused a constitutional crisis by proposing marriage to Wallis Simpson , an American who had divorced her first husband and was seeking a divorce from her second . The prime ministers of the United Kingdom and the Dominions opposed the marriage , arguing that the people would never accept a divorced woman with two living ex @-@ husbands as queen consort . Additionally , such a marriage would have conflicted with Edward 's status as the titular head of the Church of England , which at the time opposed the remarriage of divorced people if their former spouses were still alive . Edward knew that the British government , led by Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin , would resign if the marriage went ahead , which could have forced a general election and would ruin his status as a politically neutral constitutional monarch . Choosing not to end the relationship , Edward abdicated . He was succeeded by his younger brother Albert , who chose George VI as his regnal name . With a reign of 326 days , Edward was one of the shortest @-@ reigning monarchs in British history .
After his abdication , he was created Duke of Windsor . He married Simpson in France on 3 June 1937 , after her second divorce became final . Later that year , the couple toured Germany . During the Second World War , he was at first stationed with the British Military Mission to France but , after private accusations that he held Nazi sympathies , he was appointed Governor of the Bahamas . After the war , Edward spent the rest of his life in retirement in France .
= = Early life = =
Edward was born on 23 June 1894 at White Lodge , Richmond Park , on the outskirts of London during the reign of his great @-@ grandmother Queen Victoria . He was the eldest son of the Duke and Duchess of York ( later King George V and Queen Mary ) . His father was the son of the Prince and Princess of Wales ( later King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra ) . His mother was the eldest daughter of the Duke and Duchess of Teck ( Francis and Mary Adelaide ) . At the time of his birth , he was third in the line of succession to the throne , behind his grandfather and father . As a great @-@ grandson of the monarch in the male line , Edward was styled His Highness Prince Edward of York at birth .
He was baptised Edward Albert Christian George Andrew Patrick David in the Green Drawing Room of White Lodge on 16 July 1894 by Edward White Benson , Archbishop of Canterbury . The names were chosen in honour of Edward 's late uncle , who was known to his family as " Eddy " or Edward , and his great @-@ grandfather King Christian IX of Denmark . The name Albert was included at the behest of Queen Victoria for her late husband Albert , Prince Consort , and the last four names – George , Andrew , Patrick and David – came from the Patron Saints of England , Scotland , Ireland and Wales . He was always known to his family and close friends by his last given name , David .
As was common practice with upper @-@ class children of the time , Edward and his younger siblings were brought up by nannies rather than directly by their parents . One of Edward 's early nannies often abused him by pinching him before he was due to be presented to his parents . His subsequent crying and wailing would lead the Duke and Duchess to send him and the nanny away . The nanny was discharged after her mistreatment of the children was discovered .
Edward 's father , though a harsh disciplinarian , was demonstrably affectionate , and his mother displayed a frolicsome side with her children that belied her austere public image . She was amused by the children making tadpoles on toast for their French master , and encouraged them to confide in her .
= = Education = =
Initially Edward was tutored at home by Helen Bricka . When his parents travelled the British Empire for almost nine months following the death of Queen Victoria in 1901 , young Edward and his siblings stayed in Britain with their grandparents , Queen Alexandra and King Edward VII , who showered their grandchildren with affection . Upon his parents ' return , Edward was placed under the care of two men , Frederick Finch and Henry Hansell , who virtually brought up Edward and his brothers and sister for their remaining nursery years .
Edward was kept under the strict tutorship of Hansell until nearly 13 . He was taught German and French by private tutors . Edward took the examination to enter Osborne Naval College , and began there in 1907 . Hansell had wanted Edward to enter school earlier , but his father disagreed . Following two years at Osborne College , which he did not enjoy , Edward moved on to the Royal Naval College at Dartmouth . A course of two years followed by entry into the Royal Navy was planned . When his father ascended the throne on 6 May 1910 , following the death of Edward VII , Edward automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay , and he was created Prince of Wales a month later on 23 June 1910 , his 16th birthday . Preparations began in earnest for his future duties as king . He was withdrawn from his naval course before his formal graduation , served as midshipman for three months aboard the battleship Hindustan , then immediately entered Magdalen College , Oxford , for which , in the opinion of his biographers , he was underprepared intellectually . A keen horseman , he learned how to play polo with the university club . He left Oxford after eight terms without any academic qualifications .
= = Prince of Wales = =
Edward was officially invested as Prince of Wales in a special ceremony at Caernarvon Castle on 13 July 1911 . The investiture took place in Wales , at the instigation of the Welsh politician David Lloyd George , Constable of the Castle and Chancellor of the Exchequer in the Liberal government . Lloyd George invented a rather fanciful ceremony in the style of a Welsh pageant , and coached Edward to speak a few words in Welsh .
When the First World War broke out in 1914 , Edward had reached the minimum age for active service and was keen to participate . He had joined the Grenadier Guards in June 1914 , and although Edward was willing to serve on the front lines , Secretary of State for War Lord Kitchener refused to allow it , citing the immense harm that would occur if the heir to the throne were captured by the enemy .
Despite this , Edward witnessed trench warfare first @-@ hand and attempted to visit the front line as often as he could , for which he was awarded the Military Cross in 1916 . His role in the war , although limited , made him popular among veterans of the conflict . Edward undertook his first military flight in 1918 , and later gained a pilot 's licence .
Throughout the 1920s , Edward , as Prince of Wales , represented his father , King George V , at home and abroad on many occasions . His rank , travels , good looks , and unmarried status gained him much public attention , and at the height of his popularity , he was the most photographed celebrity of his time . He took a particular interest in science and in 1926 was president of the British Association for the Advancement of Science when his alma mater , Oxford University , hosted the society 's annual general meeting .
He also visited the poverty @-@ stricken areas of the country , and undertook 16 tours to various parts of the Empire between 1919 and 1935 . On a tour of Canada in 1919 , he acquired the Bedingfield ranch , near Pekisko , Alberta , and in 1924 , he donated the Prince of Wales Trophy to the National Hockey League . From January to April 1931 , he and his brother , Prince George , travelled 18 @,@ 000 miles on a tour of South America , voyaging out on the ocean liner Oropesa , and returning via Paris and an Imperial Airways flight from Paris – Le Bourget Airport that landed specially in Windsor Great Park .
His attitudes towards many of the Empire 's subjects and various foreign peoples , both during his time as Prince of Wales and later as Duke of Windsor , were little commented upon at the time , but have soured his reputation subsequently . In 1920 , he wrote of Indigenous Australians " they are the most revolting form of living creatures I 've ever seen ! ! They are the lowest known form of human beings & are the nearest thing to monkeys . "
In 1919 the Prince agreed to be President of the organising committee for the proposed British Empire Exhibition at Wembley Park , north @-@ west London . The Prince wished the Exhibition to include " a great national sports ground " , and so played a part in the creation of Wembley Stadium .
= = Romances = =
In 1917 , during the First World War , Edward began a love affair with Parisian courtesan Marguerite Alibert , who kept a collection of his indiscreet letters after he broke off the affair in 1918 to begin one with an English married woman , Freda Dudley Ward , a textile heiress . In 1923 , Alibert was acquitted in a spectacular murder trial after she shot her husband in the London Savoy .
Edward 's womanising and reckless behaviour during the 1920s and 1930s worried Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin , King George V , and those close to the prince . Alan Lascelles , Edward 's private secretary for eight years during this period , believed that " for some hereditary or physiological reason his normal mental development stopped dead when he reached adolescence " . George V was disappointed by Edward 's failure to settle down in life , disgusted by his affairs with married women , and was reluctant to see him inherit the Crown . " After I am dead , " George said , " the boy will ruin himself in 12 months . "
In 1929 , Time magazine reported that Edward teased his sister @-@ in @-@ law , Elizabeth , the wife of his younger brother Albert , by calling her " Queen Elizabeth " . The magazine asked if " she did not sometimes wonder how much truth there is in the story that he once said he would renounce his rights upon the death of George V – which would make her nickname come true " . Edward 's brother and sister @-@ in @-@ law had two children , including Princess Elizabeth , the future Queen Elizabeth II . George V favoured his son Albert ( " Bertie " ) , and granddaughter Elizabeth ( " Lilibet " ) , and told a courtier , " I pray to God that my eldest son [ Edward ] will never marry and have children , and that nothing will come between Bertie and Lilibet and the throne . "
In 1930 , George V gave Edward the lease of Fort Belvedere , in Windsor Great Park . There , Edward continued his relationships with a series of married women , including Freda Dudley Ward and Lady Furness , the American wife of a British peer , who introduced the prince to her friend and fellow American Wallis Simpson . Simpson had divorced her first husband , U.S. naval officer Win Spencer , in 1927 . Her second husband , Ernest Simpson , was a British @-@ American businessman . Wallis Simpson and the Prince of Wales , it is generally accepted , became lovers while Lady Furness travelled abroad , though Edward adamantly insisted to his father that he was not intimate with her , and that it was not appropriate to describe her as his mistress . Edward 's relationship with Simpson , however , further weakened his poor relationship with his father . Although King George V and Queen Mary met Simpson at Buckingham Palace in 1935 , they later refused to receive her .
Edward 's affair with an American divorcee led to such grave concern that the couple were followed by members of the Metropolitan Police Special Branch , who examined in secret the nature of their relationship . An undated report detailed a visit by the couple to an antique shop , where the proprietor later noted " that the lady seemed to have POW [ Prince of Wales ] completely under her thumb . " The prospect of having an American divorcee with a questionable past having such sway over the heir apparent led to anxiety among government and establishment figures .
= = Reign = =
King George V died on 20 January 1936 , and Edward ascended the throne as King Edward VIII . The next day , he broke royal protocol by watching the proclamation of his own accession from a window of St James 's Palace in the company of the then still @-@ married Simpson . He became the first monarch of the British Empire to fly in an aircraft when he flew from Sandringham to London for his Accession Council .
Edward caused unease in government circles with actions that were interpreted as interference in political matters . His comment during a tour of depressed villages in South Wales that " something must be done " for the unemployed coal miners was seen as an attempt to guide government policy , though it has never been clear what sort of remedy he had in mind . Government ministers were reluctant to send confidential documents and state papers to Fort Belvedere , because it was clear that Edward was paying little attention to them , and it was feared that Simpson and other house guests might read them , improperly or inadvertently disclosing information that could be detrimental to the national interest .
Edward 's unorthodox approach to his role also extended to the currency which bore his image . He broke with the tradition that on coinage each successive monarch faced in the opposite direction to his or her predecessor . Edward insisted that he face left ( as his father had done ) , to show the parting in his hair . Only a handful of test coins were struck before the abdication , and when George VI succeeded to the throne he also faced left , to maintain the tradition by suggesting that , had any coins been minted featuring Edward 's portrait , they would have shown him facing right .
On 16 July 1936 , an Irish fraudster called Jerome Bannigan , alias George Andrew McMahon , produced a loaded revolver as Edward rode on horseback at Constitution Hill , near Buckingham Palace . Police spotted the gun and pounced on him ; he was quickly arrested . At Bannigan 's trial , he alleged that " a foreign power " had approached him to kill Edward , that he had informed MI5 of the plan , and that he was merely seeing the plan through to help MI5 catch the real culprits . The court rejected the claims and sent him to jail for a year for " intent to alarm " . It is now thought that Bannigan had indeed been in contact with MI5 , but the veracity of the remainder of his claims remains open .
In August and September , Edward and Simpson cruised the Eastern Mediterranean on the steam yacht Nahlin . By October it was becoming clear that the new king planned to marry Simpson , especially when divorce proceedings between the Simpsons were brought at Ipswich Assizes . Preparations for all contingencies were made , including the prospect of the coronation of King Edward and Queen Wallis . Because of the religious implications of any marriage , plans were made to hold a secular coronation ceremony , not in the traditional religious location of Westminster Abbey , but in the Banqueting House in Whitehall .
Although gossip about his affair was widespread in the United States , the British media kept voluntarily silent , and the public knew nothing until early December .
= = Abdication = =
On 16 November 1936 , Edward invited British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin to Buckingham Palace and expressed his desire to marry Wallis Simpson when she became free to remarry . Baldwin informed him that his subjects would deem the marriage morally unacceptable , largely because remarriage after divorce was opposed by the Church of England , and the people would not tolerate Simpson as queen . As king , Edward was the titular head of the Church of England , and the clergy expected him to support the Church 's teachings .
Edward proposed an alternative solution of a morganatic marriage , in which he would remain king but Simpson would not become queen . She would enjoy some lesser title instead , and any children they might have would not inherit the throne . This too was rejected by the British Cabinet as well as other Dominion governments , whose views were sought pursuant to the Statute of Westminster 1931 , which provided in part that " any alteration in the law touching the Succession to the Throne or the Royal Style and Titles shall hereafter require the assent as well of the Parliaments of all the Dominions as of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . " The Prime Ministers of Australia ( Joseph Lyons ) , Canada ( Mackenzie King ) and South Africa ( J. B. M. Hertzog ) made clear their opposition to the king marrying a divorcee ; their Irish counterpart ( Éamon de Valera ) expressed indifference and detachment , while the Prime Minister of New Zealand ( Michael Joseph Savage ) , having never heard of Simpson before , vacillated in disbelief . Faced with this opposition , Edward at first responded that there were " not many people in Australia " and their opinion did not matter .
Edward informed Baldwin that he would abdicate if he could not marry Simpson . Baldwin then presented Edward with three choices : give up the idea of marriage ; marry against his ministers ' wishes ; or abdicate . It was clear that Edward was not prepared to give up Simpson , and he knew that if he married against the advice of his ministers , he would cause the government to resign , prompting a constitutional crisis . He chose to abdicate .
Edward duly signed the instruments of abdication at Fort Belvedere on 10 December 1936 in the presence of his younger brothers : Prince Albert , Duke of York , next in line for the throne ; Prince Henry , Duke of Gloucester ; and Prince George , Duke of Kent . The next day , the last act of his reign was the royal assent to His Majesty 's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936 . As required by the Statute of Westminster , all the Dominions consented to the abdication .
On the night of 11 December 1936 , Edward , now reverted to the title and style of a prince , explained his decision to abdicate in a worldwide radio broadcast . He famously said , " I have found it impossible to carry the heavy burden of responsibility and to discharge my duties as king as I would wish to do without the help and support of the woman I love . " Edward departed Britain for Austria the following day ; he was unable to join Simpson until her divorce became absolute , several months later . His brother , Prince Albert , Duke of York , succeeded to the throne as George VI . George VI 's elder daughter , Princess Elizabeth , became first in the line of succession , as heiress presumptive .
= = Duke of Windsor = =
On 12 December 1936 , at the accession meeting of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom , George VI announced he was to make his brother " His Royal Highness The Duke of Windsor " . He wanted this to be the first act of his reign , although the formal documents were not signed until 8 March the following year . During the interim , Edward was universally known as the Duke of Windsor . George VI 's decision to create Edward a royal duke ensured that he could neither stand for election to the House of Commons nor speak on political subjects in the House of Lords .
Letters Patent dated 27 May 1937 re @-@ conferred the " title , style , or attribute of Royal Highness " upon the Duke of Windsor , but specifically stated that " his wife and descendants , if any , shall not hold said title or attribute " . Some British ministers advised that the reconfirmation was unnecessary since Edward had retained the style automatically , and further that Simpson would automatically obtain the rank of wife of a prince with the style Her Royal Highness ; others maintained that he had lost all royal rank and should no longer carry any royal title or style as an abdicated king , and be referred to simply as " Mr Edward Windsor " . On 14 April 1937 , Attorney General Sir Donald Somervell submitted to Home Secretary Sir John Simon a memorandum summarising the views of Lord Advocate T. M. Cooper , Parliamentary Counsel Sir Granville Ram , and himself :
We incline to the view that on his abdication the Duke of Windsor could not have claimed the right to be described as a Royal Highness . In other words , no reasonable objection could have been taken if the King had decided that his exclusion from the lineal succession excluded him from the right to this title as conferred by the existing Letters Patent .
The question however has to be considered on the basis of the fact that , for reasons which are readily understandable , he with the express approval of His Majesty enjoys this title and has been referred to as a Royal Highness on a formal occasion and in formal documents . In the light of precedent it seems clear that the wife of a Royal Highness enjoys the same title unless some appropriate express step can be and is taken to deprive her of it .
We came to the conclusion that the wife could not claim this right on any legal basis . The right to use this style or title , in our view , is within the prerogative of His Majesty and he has the power to regulate it by Letters Patent generally or in particular circumstances .
The Duke of Windsor married Simpson , who had changed her name by deed poll to Wallis Warfield , in a private ceremony on 3 June 1937 , at Château de Candé , near Tours , France . When the Church of England refused to sanction the union , a County Durham clergyman , the Reverend Robert Anderson Jardine ( Vicar of St Paul 's , Darlington ) , offered to perform the ceremony , and the Duke accepted . The new king , George VI , forbade members of the Royal Family to attend to the lasting resentment of the Duke and Duchess of Windsor . Edward had particularly wanted his brothers the Dukes of Gloucester and Kent and his second cousin Louis Mountbatten to attend the ceremony .
The denial of the style Her Royal Highness to the Duchess of Windsor caused further conflict , as did the financial settlement – the Government declined to include the Duke or Duchess on the Civil List , and the Duke 's allowance was paid personally by George VI . The Duke compromised his position with his brother by concealing the extent of his financial worth when they informally agreed on the amount of the allowance . Edward 's wealth had accumulated from the revenues of the Duchy of Cornwall paid to him as Prince of Wales and ordinarily at the disposal of an incoming king . George VI also paid Edward for Sandringham House and Balmoral Castle , which were Edward 's personal property , inherited from his father , George V , and thus did not automatically pass to George VI on his accession . Relations between the Duke of Windsor and the rest of the Royal Family were strained for decades . Edward became embittered against his mother , Queen Mary , writing to her in 1939 : " [ your last letter ] destroy [ ed ] the last vestige of feeling I had left for you ... [ and has ] made further normal correspondence between us impossible . " In the early days of George VI 's reign the Duke telephoned daily , importuning for money and urging that the Duchess be granted the style of Royal Highness , until the harassed king ordered that the calls not be put through .
The Duke had assumed that he would settle in Britain after a year or two of exile in France . King George VI ( with the support of Queen Mary and his wife Queen Elizabeth ) threatened to cut off Edward 's allowance if he returned to Britain without an invitation .
= = Second World War = =
In October 1937 , the Duke and Duchess visited Germany , against the advice of the British government , and met Adolf Hitler at his Obersalzberg retreat . The visit was much publicised by the German media . During the visit the Duke gave full Nazi salutes . The former Austrian ambassador , Count Albert von Mensdorff @-@ Pouilly @-@ Dietrichstein , who was also a second cousin once removed and friend of George V , believed that Edward favoured German fascism as a bulwark against communism , and even that he initially favoured an alliance with Germany . According to the Duke of Windsor himself , the experience of " the unending scenes of horror " during the First World War led him to support appeasement . Hitler considered Edward to be friendly towards Nazi Germany and thought that Anglo @-@ German relations could have been improved through Edward if it were not for the abdication . Albert Speer quoted Hitler directly : " I am certain through him permanent friendly relations could have been achieved . If he had stayed , everything would have been different . His abdication was a severe loss for us . "
The Duke and Duchess settled in France . In May 1939 , the Duke was commissioned by NBC to give a radio broadcast ( his first since abdicating ) during a visit to the battlefields of Verdun . In it he appealed for peace , saying " I am deeply conscious of the presence of the great company of the dead , and I am convinced that could they make their voices heard they would be with me in what I am about to say . I speak simply as a soldier of the Last War whose most earnest prayer it is that such cruel and destructive madness shall never again overtake mankind . There is no land whose people want war . " The broadcast was heard across the world and by millions in America . It was widely seen as supporting appeasement , and the BBC refused to broadcast it . It was broadcast outside the United States on shortwave radio and was reported in full by British broadsheet newspapers .
On the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939 , they were brought back to Britain by Louis Mountbatten on board HMS Kelly , and the Duke , although an honorary field marshal , was made a major @-@ general attached to the British Military Mission in France . In February 1940 , the German ambassador in The Hague , Count Julius von Zech @-@ Burkersroda , claimed that the Duke had leaked the Allied war plans for the defence of Belgium , which the Duke later denied . When Germany invaded the north of France in May 1940 , the Windsors fled south , first to Biarritz , then in June to Spain . In July the pair moved to Lisbon , where they lived at first in the home of Ricardo de Espírito Santo , a Portuguese banker with both British and German contacts .
Under the code name Operation Willi , Nazi agents , principally Walter Schellenberg , plotted unsuccessfully to persuade the Duke to leave Portugal and return to Spain , kidnapping him if necessary . Lord Caldecote wrote a warning to Winston Churchill : " [ the Duke ] is well @-@ known to be pro @-@ Nazi and he may become a centre of intrigue . " Churchill threatened the Duke with a court @-@ martial if he did not return to British soil . In July 1940 , Edward was appointed Governor of the Bahamas and on 1 August the Duke and Duchess left Lisbon on the American Export Lines steamship Excalibur , which was specially diverted from its usual direct course to New York City so that they could be dropped off at Bermuda on the 9th . They left Bermuda for Nassau on the Canadian steamship Lady Somers on 15 August , arriving two days later .
The Duke did not enjoy being governor , and referred to the islands as " a third @-@ class British colony " . The British Foreign Office strenuously objected when the Duke and Duchess planned to cruise aboard a yacht belonging to a Swedish magnate , Axel Wenner @-@ Gren , whom American intelligence wrongly believed to be a close friend of Luftwaffe commander Hermann Göring . The Duke was praised for his efforts to combat poverty on the islands , although he was as contemptuous of the Bahamians as he was of most non @-@ white peoples of the Empire . He said of Étienne Dupuch , the editor of the Nassau Daily Tribune : " It must be remembered that Dupuch is more than half Negro , and due to the peculiar mentality of this Race , they seem unable to rise to prominence without losing their equilibrium . " He was praised , even by Dupuch , for his resolution of civil unrest over low wages in Nassau in 1942 , even though he blamed the trouble on " mischief makers – communists " and " men of Central European Jewish descent , who had secured jobs as a pretext for obtaining a deferment of draft " . He resigned the post on 16 March 1945 .
Many historians have suggested that Hitler was prepared to reinstate Edward as king in the hope of establishing a fascist Britain . It is widely believed that the Duke and Duchess sympathised with fascism before and during the Second World War , and were moved to the Bahamas to minimise their opportunities to act on those feelings . In 1940 he said : " In the past 10 years Germany has totally reorganised the order of its society ... Countries which were unwilling to accept such a reorganisation of society and its concomitant sacrifices should direct their policies accordingly . " During the occupation of France , the Duke asked the German forces to place guards at his Paris and Riviera homes ; they did so . In December 1940 , the Duke gave Fulton Oursler of Liberty magazine an interview at Government House in Nassau . The interview was published on 22 March 1941 and in it the Duke was reported to have said that " Hitler was the right and logical leader of the German people " and that the time was coming for President Franklin D. Roosevelt to mediate a peace settlement . Oursler conveyed the content of the interview to the President in a private meeting at the White House on 23 December 1940 . The Duke protested that he had been misquoted and misinterpreted .
The Allies became sufficiently disturbed by German plots revolving around the Duke that President Roosevelt ordered covert surveillance of the Duke and Duchess when they visited Palm Beach , Florida , in April 1941 . Duke Carl Alexander of Württemberg ( then a monk in an American monastery ) had told the Federal Bureau of Investigation that the Duchess had slept with the German ambassador in London , Joachim von Ribbentrop , in 1936 , had remained in constant contact with him , and had continued to leak secrets .
Author Charles Higham claimed that Anthony Blunt , an MI5 agent , acting on orders from the British Royal Family , made a successful secret trip to Schloss Friedrichshof in Germany towards the end of the war to retrieve sensitive letters between the Duke of Windsor and Adolf Hitler and other leading Nazis . What is certain is that George VI sent the Royal Librarian , Owen Morshead , accompanied by Blunt , then working part @-@ time in the Royal Library as well as for British intelligence , to Friedrichshof in March 1945 to secure papers relating to the German Empress Victoria , the eldest child of Queen Victoria . Looters had stolen part of the castle 's archive , including surviving letters between daughter and mother , as well as other valuables , some of which were recovered in Chicago after the war . The papers rescued by Morshead and Blunt , and those returned by the American authorities from Chicago , were deposited in the Royal Archives .
After the war , the Duke admitted in his memoirs that he admired the Germans , but he denied being pro @-@ Nazi . Of Hitler he wrote : " [ the ] Führer struck me as a somewhat ridiculous figure , with his theatrical posturings and his bombastic pretensions . " In the 1950s , journalist Frank Giles heard the Duke blame British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden for helping to " precipitate the war through his treatment of Mussolini ... that 's what [ Eden ] did , he helped to bring on the war ... and of course Roosevelt and the Jews " .
= = Later life = =
At the end of the war , the couple returned to France and spent the remainder of their lives essentially in retirement as the Duke never occupied another official role after his wartime governorship of the Bahamas . The Duke 's allowance was supplemented by government favours and illegal currency trading . The City of Paris provided the Duke with a house at 4 Route du Champ d 'Entraînement , on the Neuilly @-@ sur @-@ Seine side of the Bois de Boulogne , for a nominal rent . The French government exempted him from paying income tax , and the couple were able to buy goods duty @-@ free through the British embassy and the military commissary . In 1951 , the Duke produced a ghost @-@ written memoir , A King 's Story , in which he expresses disagreement with liberal politics . The royalties from the book added to their income . Nine years later , he penned a relatively unknown book , A Family Album , chiefly about the fashion and habits of the Royal Family throughout his life , from the time of Queen Victoria to that of his grandfather and father , and his own tastes .
The Duke and Duchess effectively took on the role of celebrities and were regarded as part of café society in the 1950s and 1960s . They hosted parties and shuttled between Paris and New York ; Gore Vidal , who met the Windsors socially , reported on the vacuity of the Duke 's conversation . The couple doted on the pug dogs they kept .
In June 1953 , instead of attending the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in London , the Duke and Duchess watched the ceremony on television in Paris . The Duke said that it was contrary to precedent for a Sovereign or former Sovereign to attend any coronation of another . The Duke was paid to write articles on the ceremony for the Sunday Express and Woman 's Home Companion , as well as a short book , The Crown and the People , 1902 – 1953 .
In 1955 , they visited President Dwight D. Eisenhower at the White House . The couple appeared on Edward R. Murrow 's television interview show Person to Person in 1956 , and a 50 @-@ minute BBC television interview in 1970 . That year , they were invited as guests of honour to a dinner at the White House by President Richard Nixon .
The Royal Family never fully accepted the Duchess . Queen Mary refused to receive her formally . However , the Duke sometimes met his mother and brother George VI , and attended George 's 1952 funeral . Queen Mary remained angry with Edward and indignant over his marriage to Wallis : " To give up all this for that " , she said . In 1965 , the Duke and Duchess returned to London . They were visited by Elizabeth II , Princess Marina , Duchess of Kent , and Mary , Princess Royal and Countess of Harewood . A week later , the Princess Royal died , and they attended her memorial service . In 1967 , they joined the Royal Family for the centenary of Queen Mary 's birth . The last royal ceremony the Duke attended was the funeral of Princess Marina in 1968 . He declined an invitation from Elizabeth II to attend the investiture of the Prince of Wales in 1969 , replying that Prince Charles would not want his " aged great @-@ uncle " there .
In the 1960s , the Duke 's health deteriorated . In December 1964 , he was operated on by Michael E. DeBakey in Houston for an aneurysm of the abdominal aorta , and in February 1965 a detached retina in his left eye was treated by Sir Stewart Duke @-@ Elder . In late 1971 , the Duke , who was a smoker from an early age , was diagnosed with throat cancer and underwent cobalt therapy . Queen Elizabeth II visited the Windsors in 1972 while on a state visit to France ; however , only the Duchess appeared with the royal party for a photocall .
= = = Death and legacy = = =
On 28 May 1972 , the Duke died at his home in Paris , less than a month before his 78th birthday . His body was returned to Britain , lying in state at St George 's Chapel , Windsor Castle . The funeral service was held in the chapel on 5 June in the presence of the Queen , the Royal Family , and the Duchess of Windsor , who stayed at Buckingham Palace during her visit . He was buried in the Royal Burial Ground behind the Royal Mausoleum of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert at Frogmore . Until a 1965 agreement with Queen Elizabeth II , the Duke and Duchess had planned for a burial in a cemetery plot they had purchased at Green Mount Cemetery in Baltimore , where the Duchess 's father was interred . Frail , and suffering increasingly from dementia , the Duchess died 14 years later , and was buried alongside her husband as " Wallis , Duchess of Windsor " .
In the view of historians such as Philip Williamson , the popular perception today that the abdication was driven by politics rather than religious morality is false , and arises because divorce has become much more common and socially acceptable . To modern sensibilities , the religious restrictions that prevented Edward from continuing as king while married to Simpson " seem , wrongly , to provide insufficient explanation " for his abdication .
= = Titles , styles , honours and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
23 June 1894 – 28 May 1898 : His Highness Prince Edward of York
28 May 1898 – 22 January 1901 : His Royal Highness Prince Edward of York
22 January – 9 November 1901 : His Royal Highness Prince Edward of Cornwall and York
9 November 1901 – 6 May 1910 : His Royal Highness Prince Edward of Wales
6 May – 23 June 1910 : His Royal Highness The Duke of Cornwall
23 June 1910 – 20 January 1936 : His Royal Highness The Prince of Wales
in Scotland : His Royal Highness The Prince Edward , Duke of Rothesay
20 January – 11 December 1936 : His Majesty The King
occasionally , with regard to India : His Majesty The King @-@ Emperor
11 December 1936 – 8 March 1937 : His Royal Highness The Prince Edward
8 March 1937 – 28 May 1972 : His Royal Highness The Duke of Windsor
Edward began use of the title immediately upon abdication , in accordance with George VI 's declaration to his Accession Council , but several months passed before the title was formalised by Letters Patent .
His full style as king was " His Majesty , Edward the Eighth , by the Grace of God , of Great Britain , Ireland , and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas , King , Defender of the Faith , Emperor of India " .
= = = Honours = = =
British Commonwealth and Empire honours
KG : Knight of the Garter , 1910
ISO : Companion of the Imperial Service Order , 1910
MC : Military Cross , 1916
GCMG : Grand Master and Knight Grand Cross of St Michael and St George , 1917
GBE : Grand Master and Knight Grand Cross of the British Empire , 1917
KStJ : Knight of Justice of St John , 1917
GCVO : Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order , 1920
PC : Privy Counsellor , ( United Kingdom ) 1920
GCSI : Knight Grand Commander of the Star of India , 1921
GCIE : Knight Grand Commander of the Indian Empire , 1921
RVC : Royal Victorian Chain , 1921
KT : Knight of the Thistle , 1922
KP : Knight of St Patrick , 1927
PC : Privy Counsellor ( Canada ) , 1927
GCB : Knight Grand Cross of the Bath , 1936
FRS : Royal Fellow of the Royal Society
Upon his accession , Edward became sovereign of the various orders of the British Commonwealth and Empire , including those he had been appointed to prior to becoming king . After his abdication , the King , Edward 's brother , reinstated his pre @-@ accession honours .
Foreign honours
Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour , 1912
Knight of the Golden Fleece , 1912
Knight of the Order of the Elephant , 1914
Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of St Olav , 1914
Knight of the Order of the Most Holy Annunciation , 1915
Croix de Guerre , 1915
Order of St George , 1916
Order of Michael the Brave , 1918
War Merit Cross , 1919
Grand Cordon of Mohamed Ali , 1922
Knight of the Order of the Seraphim , 1923
Collar of the Order of Carol I , 1924
Order of Merit , First Class , 1925
Grand Cross of the Order of the Condor of the Andes , 1931
Grand Cross of the Order of the Sun , 1931
Grand Cross of the United Orders of Christ and Aviz , 1931
Grand Cross of the Order of the Southern Cross , 1933
Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Agatha , 1935
= = = = Military = = = =
Mid . , 22 June 1911 : Midshipman , Royal Navy
Lt , 17 March 1913 : Lieutenant , Royal Navy
Lt , 18 November 1914 : Lieutenant , 1st Battalion , Grenadier Guards , British Army . ( First World War , Flanders and Italy )
Capt. , 10 March 1916 : Captain , British Army
Maj , 1918 : Temporary Major , British Army
Col. , 15 April 1919 : Colonel , British Army
Capt. , 8 July 1919 : Captain , Royal Navy
Gp Capt. , 5 December 1922 : Group Captain , Royal Air Force
Air Mshl , 1 September 1930 : Air Marshal , Royal Air Force
1 January 1935 : Admiral , Royal Navy ; General , British Army ; Air Chief Marshal , Royal Air Force
21 January 1936 : Admiral of the Fleet , Royal Navy ; Field Marshal , British Army ; Marshal of the Royal Air Force
Major @-@ Gen. , 3 September 1939 : Major @-@ General , British Army
= = = = Honorary degrees = = = =
Hon LLD : Edinburgh , Toronto , Alberta and Queen 's University Kingston ( Ontario ) 1919 , Melbourne 1920 , Cambridge and Calcutta 1921 , St Andrews and Hong Kong 1922 , Witwatersrand 1925
Hon DCL : Oxford 1921
DSc and Hon MCom : London 1921
DLitt : Benares 1921
= = = Arms = = =
As Prince of Wales , Edward 's arms were the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom , differenced with a label of three points argent , with an inescutcheon representing Wales surmounted by a coronet ( identical to those of Charles , the current Prince of Wales ) . As Sovereign , he bore the royal arms undifferenced . After his abdication , he used the arms again differenced by a label of three points argent , but this time with the centre point bearing an imperial crown .
= = Ancestry = =
= Operation Mistral 2 =
Operation Mistral 2 , officially codenamed Operation Maestral 2 , was a Croatian Army ( Hrvatska vojska – HV ) and Croatian Defence Council ( Hrvatsko vijeće obrane – HVO ) offensive in western Bosnia and Herzegovina on 8 – 15 September 1995 as part of the Bosnian War . Its objective was to create a security buffer between Croatia and positions held by the Bosnian Serb Army of Republika Srpska ( Vojska Republike Srpske – VRS ) and to put the largest Bosnian Serb @-@ held city , Banja Luka , in jeopardy by capturing the towns of Jajce , Šipovo and Drvar . The combined HV and HVO forces were under the overall command of HV Major General Ante Gotovina .
The operation commenced during a North Atlantic Treaty Organisation ( NATO ) air campaign against the VRS codenamed Operation Deliberate Force , targeting VRS air defences , artillery positions and storage facilities largely in the area of Sarajevo , but also elsewhere in the country . Days after commencement of the offensive , the VRS positions to the right and to the left of the HV and the HVO advance were also attacked by the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Armija Republike Bosne i Hercegovine – ARBiH ) in Operation Sana . The offensive achieved its objectives and set the stage for further advances of the HV , HVO and ARBiH towards Banja Luka , contributing to the resolution of the war .
The offensive , together with Operation Sana , caused controversy among military analysts regarding the issue of whether NATO airstrikes or the two ground offensives contributed more towards the resolution of the Bosnian War , and to what extent ARBiH , HVO and HV advances were helped by , or conversely the VRS hampered by , NATO bombing . In 2011 , five former Croatian military personnel were convicted of war crimes for the summary execution of five Bosnian Serb soldiers and an unknown civilian during the offensive .
= = Background = =
As the Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska narodna armija – JNA ) withdrew from Croatia following the acceptance and start of implementation of the Vance plan , its 55 @,@ 000 officers and soldiers born in Bosnia and Herzegovina were transferred to a new Bosnian Serb army , which was later renamed the Army of Republika Srpska ( Vojska Republike Srpske – VRS ) . This re @-@ organisation followed the declaration of the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 9 January 1992 , ahead of the referendum on the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina that took place between 29 February and 1 March 1992 . This declaration would later be cited by the Bosnian Serbs as a pretext for the Bosnian War . Bosnian Serbs began fortifying the capital , Sarajevo , and other areas on 1 March 1992 . On the following day , the first fatalities of the war were recorded in Sarajevo and Doboj . In the final days of March , Bosnian Serb forces bombarded Bosanski Brod with artillery , resulting in a cross @-@ border operation by the Croatian Army ( Hrvatska vojska – HV ) 108th Brigade . On 4 April 1992 , JNA artillery began shelling Sarajevo . There were other examples of the JNA directly supported the VRS , such as during the capture of Zvornik in early April 1992 , when the JNA provided artillery support from Serbia , firing across the Drina River . At the same time , the JNA attempted to defuse the situation and arrange negotiations elsewhere in the country .
The JNA and the VRS in Bosnia and Herzegovina faced the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Armija Republike Bosne i Hercegovine – ARBiH ) and the Croatian Defence Council ( Hrvatsko vijeće obrane – HVO ) , reporting to the Bosniak @-@ dominated central government and the Bosnian Croat leadership respectively , as well as the HV , which occasionally supported HVO operations . In late April 1992 , the VRS was able to deploy 200 @,@ 000 troops , hundreds of tanks , armoured personnel carriers ( APCs ) and artillery pieces . The HVO and the Croatian Defence Forces ( Hrvatske obrambene snage – HOS ) could field approximately 25 @,@ 000 soldiers and a handful of heavy weapons , while the ARBiH was largely unprepared with nearly 100 @,@ 000 troops , small arms for less than a half of their number and virtually no heavy weapons . Arming of the various forces was hampered by a United Nations ( UN ) arms embargo that had been introduced in September 1991 . By mid @-@ May 1992 , when those JNA units which had not been transferred to the VRS withdrew from Bosnia and Herzegovina to the newly declared Federal Republic of Yugoslavia , the VRS controlled approximately 60 percent of Bosnia and Herzegovina . The extent of VRS control was extended to about 70 percent of the country by the end of 1992 .
= = Prelude = =
By 1995 , the ARBiH and the HVO had developed into better @-@ organised forces employing comparably large numbers of artillery pieces and good defensive fortifications . The VRS was not capable of penetrating their defences even where its forces employed sound military tactics , for instance in the Battle of Orašje in May and June 1995 . After recapture of the bulk of the Republic of Serb Krajina ( the Croatian Serb @-@ controlled areas of Croatia ) in Operation Storm in August 1995 , the HV shifted its focus to western Bosnia and Herzegovina . The shift was motivated by a desire to create a security zone along the Croatian border , establish Croatia as a regional power and gain favours with the West by forcing an end to the Bosnian War . The government of Bosnia and Herzegovina welcomed the move as it contributed to their goal of gaining control over western Bosnia and the city of Banja Luka — the largest city in the Bosnian Serb @-@ held territory .
In the final days of August 1995 , NATO launched Operation Deliberate Force — an air campaign targeting the VRS . This campaign was launched in response to the second Markale massacre of 28 August , which came on the heels of the Srebrenica massacre . Airstrikes began on 30 August , initially targeting VRS air defences , and striking targets near Sarajevo . The campaign was briefly suspended on 1 September and its scope was expanded to target artillery and storage facilities around the city . The bombing resumed on 5 September , and its scope extended to VRS air defences near Banja Luka by 9 September as NATO had nearly exhausted its list of targets near Sarajevo . On 13 September , the Bosnian Serbs accepted NATO 's demand for the establishment of an exclusion zone around Sarajevo and the campaign ceased .
= = Order of battle = =
As the NATO bombing generally targeted VRS around Sarajevo , western Bosnia remained relatively calm following Operation Storm , except for probing attacks launched by the VRS , HVO or ARBiH near Bihać , Drvar and Glamoč . At the time the HV , HVO and ARBiH were planning a joint offensive in the region . The main portion of the offensive was codenamed Operation Maestral ( Croatian name for maestro wind ) , or more accurately Operation Maestral 2 . Within a month , the HV and HVO had planned an operation to capture the towns of Jajce , Šipovo and Drvar , and position their forces to threaten Banja Luka . Major General Ante Gotovina was placed in command of the combined HV and HVO forces earmarked for the offensive .
The forces were deployed in three groups . Operational Group ( OG ) North , tasked with capturing Šipovo and Jajce , consisted of 11 @,@ 000 troops and included the best units available to Gotovina — the 4th Guards and the 7th Guards Brigades , the 1st Croatian Guards Brigade ( 1 @.@ hrvatski gardijski zdrug – 1st HGZ ) of the HV and three HVO guards brigades . The rest of the force was organised into OG West and OG South , and consisted of five HV Home Guard regiments and three reserve infantry brigades . These two groups were to pin down the troops of the VRS 2nd Krajina Corps in the vicinity of Drvar , and attempt to advance on the town . Once OG North had completed its tasks , it was to turn back and capture Drvar . Gotovina 's forces were deployed between the ARBiH 5th Corps on their left , and the 7th Corps on their right . The ARBiH forces were to advance on the flanks of the HV and the HVO , in a separate but coordinated offensive codenamed Operation Sana .
In the area of the combined HV and HVO offensive , the VRS had its 2nd Krajina Corps , commanded by Major General Radivoje Tomanić , and the 30th Infantry Division of the 1st Krajina Corps , commanded by Major General Momir Zec . Tomanić , who set up his headquarters in Drvar , was in overall command in western Bosnia . Tomanić and Zec commanded a combined force of approximately 22 @,@ 000 troops . They considered the ARBiH to be a greater threat in the area and only deployed between 5 @,@ 000 and 6 @,@ 000 troops directly against the HV , consisting of one motorised and six infantry or light infantry brigades fielded along the frontline and one brigade in reserve .
= = Timeline = =
= = = First stage : 8 – 11 September = = =
The first stage of the offensive was planned to overcome VRS defences extending across mountains north of Glamoč , guarding southern approaches to Šipovo and Jajce . The attack was launched in the morning of 8 September . The 7th and the 4th Guards Brigades spearheaded the attack , striking towards the Mlinište Pass and Jastrebnjak Hill respectively . The first line of VRS defences was breached by 10 : 00 , which allowed the 1st HGZ to push through the 4th Guards Brigade and outflank Mount Vitorog and the particularly strong VRS defences there . The 1st HGZ was quickly reinforced by the 60th Guards Battalion and the special police in attacks against the VRS positions on Vitorog . The farthest advance achieved on the initial day of the offensive was achieved by the 4th Guards Brigade , which advanced 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 miles ) . The 7th Guards Brigade and the 1st HGZ advanced considerably less distance , while the supporting efforts of OG South and OG West launched that day against Drvar made little progress .
On 9 September , the HV and HVO defeated the bulk of the main VRS defences of the 3rd Serbian and 7th Motorised Brigades , achieving a key breakthrough . The 1st HGZ pushed back the VRS from Vitorog , and the 7th Guards Brigade advanced 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 miles ) , capturing the Mlinište Pass , while the 4th Guards Brigade secured Jastrebnjak Hill . The next day , the HV and the HVO were only able to advance 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 miles ) , as the VRS deployed a battalion of M @-@ 84 tanks detached from the 1st Armoured Brigade . At this point , the HV and the HVO had achieved the objectives of the first stage of the offensive . That day , the 7th Corps of the ARBiH launched its attack on the right flank of the HV and the HVO assault . It engaged VRS elements tenaciously defending Donji Vakuf .
On 11 September , OG North paused offensive operations while the 4th and 7th Guards Brigades moved into reserve . They were replaced with the 1st and the 2nd Guards Brigades of the HVO , which became the spearhead of OG North . A probing attack by the 2nd Guards Brigade achieved some gains towards Jajce along the rim of the Kupres Plateau . OGs South and West made another effort to capture Drvar , but were beaten back by VRS infantry supported by artillery and M @-@ 87 Orkan rockets .
= = = Second stage : 12 – 13 September = = =
The second stage of the offensive commenced on 12 September . Its objective was the capture of Šipovo and Jajce by OG North after it successfully breached the VRS defences north of Glamoč . As the 7th Motorised Brigade of the VRS was forced to withdrawn from positions near Vitorog in order to defend Šipovo , the rapid advance of the HV and the HVO meant the VRS could not consolidate a defensive line . On the same day , the HV deployed three Mil Mi @-@ 24 helicopter gunship sorties against VRS armour and artillery , and the HVO 1st Guards Brigade was able to reach Šipovo and capture the town . Its advance was also supported by the 1st HGZ , which advanced to outflank the VRS near Šipovo . The assault was also supported by the 60th Guards Battalion , the General Staff Reconnaissance Sabotage Company , heavy artillery and multiple rocket launchers . As the VRS positions around Šipovo began to give way , the 2nd Guards Brigade advanced against Jajce , reaching a point within 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 miles ) south of the town by the end of the day . Its advance was supported by the 22nd Sabotage Detachment and the special police .
On 13 September , as the 2nd Guards Brigade was approaching Jajce , the VRS withdrew from Donji Vakuf to avoid being surrounded , and the ARBiH captured the town . The 5th Corps of the ARBiH , on the left flank of the HV and HVO offensive , began its assault against the VRS 2nd Krajina Corps , moving south from Bihać towards Bosanski Petrovac . The HV 81st Guards Battalion was inserted into the operation to support the HVO exploitation forces , and when it approached Mrkonjić Grad it clashed with the VRS 7th Motorised Brigade defending the town . By the end of the day the 2nd Guards Brigade had reached Jajce . The civilian population of Jajce was evacuated when its capture appeared imminent . The 2nd Guards Brigade entered the deserted town , recapturing the townwhich had been lost to the VRS in Operation Vrbas ' 92 , nearly three years before . Its capture prevented the 7th Corps of the ARBiH from advancing any further as its frontline facing the VRS all but disappeared . The 7th Corps then detached a substantial part of its force and sent them as reinforcements to the 5th Corps .
= = = Third stage : 14 – 15 September = = =
The third stage of the operation centred on the capture of Drvar , the secondary objective of the overall offensive . VRS defences around the town held until 14 September , when Gotovina detached a reinforced battalion from the 7th Guards Brigade held in the reserve of OG North and deployed it against Drvar . A renewed push by OGs West and South , combined with a rapid advance by the ARBiH 5th Corps against Bosanski Petrovac threatened to isolate Drvar , and the VRS withdrew from the town .
The ARBiH 5th Corps captured Kulen Vakuf on 14 September , and Bosanski Petrovac the next day . It linked up with HV forces at the Oštrelj Pass , 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 miles ) southeast of the town on the road to Drvar . The link @-@ up was not smooth , as a friendly fire incident occurred , resulting in casualties .
= = Aftermath = =
The combined HV and HVO force penetrated VRS defences by up to 30 kilometres ( 19 miles ) capturing 2 @,@ 500 square kilometres ( 970 square miles ) , and demonstrating the improved skill of HV planners . More significantly , Operation Mistral 2 , as well as Operation Sana , as the first in a string of offensives launched shortly before the end of the Bosnian War , were crucial in applying pressure on the Bosnian Serbs . They also set the stage for further HV and HVO advances in Operation Southern Move .
The Central Intelligence Agency analysed the effects of Operation Deliberate Force and Operations Maestral 2 and Sana , and noted that the NATO air campaign did not degrade VRS combat capability as much as was expected , because the airstrikes were never primarily directed at field @-@ deployed units but at command and control infrastructure . This analysis noted that , while the NATO air campaign did degrade VRS capabilities , the final offensives by the HV , HVO and the ARBiH did the most damage . The analysis further concluded that the ground offensives , rather than the NATO bombardment , were responsible for bringing the Bosnian Serbs to the negotiation table and the war to its end . However , author Robert C. Owen argues that the HV would not have advanced as rapidly as it did had NATO not intervened and hampered the VRS defence by denying it long @-@ range communications .
Operation Mistral 2 , along with the near @-@ concurrent Operation Sana , created a large number of refugees from the areas previously controlled by the VRS . Their number was variously reported and the estimates range from 655 killed civilians and 125 @,@ 000 refugees , reported by Radio @-@ Television Republika Srpska in 2010 , to approximately 40 @,@ 000 refugees reported in 1995 — both by Bosnian Serb sources . The latter figure was reported to encompass the entire contemporary populations of the towns of Jajce , Šipovo , Mrkonjić Grad and Donji Vakuf fleeing or being evacuated . At the time , the UN spokesman in Sarajevo estimated the number of refugees at 20 @,@ 000 . The refugees fled to VRS @-@ controlled areas around Brčko and Banja Luka , adding to the 50 @,@ 000 refugees who had been sheltering in Banja Luka since Operation Storm .
During the Trial of Gotovina et al before the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia , Reynaud Theunens compared Operations Mistral 2 and Storm in his capacity as an expert witness for the prosecution . Theunens pointed out that civilian property and infrastructure at less risk in the aftermath of Operation Mistral 2 , as Gotovina had issued much more strict orders in that respect , establishing companies specifically tasked with security and imposing a curfew in Jajce . The HV and the HVO sustained losses of 74 killed and 226 wounded in the operation .
In 2007 , Croatian authorities received information that the commanding officer of the 7th Guards Brigade , Brigadier Ivan Korade , had ordered the killing of VRS prisoners of war during the offensive . Charges of war crimes were brought against seven soldiers of the brigade , specifying that they executed Korade 's orders to kill one VRS prisoner and one unknown man in the village of Halapić near Glamoč , and four VRS prisoners in the village of Mlinište . Five defendants were convicted and the remaining two acquitted in October 2011 . Two of them were sentenced to six years in prison , one of them to five years and the remaining two to two years ' imprisonment . Korade was never tried , as he committed suicide following a standoff with police officers who sought to apprehend him in relation to a quadruple murder committed in late March 2008 .
= Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event =
The Cretaceous – Paleogene ( K – Pg ) extinction event , also known as the Cretaceous – Tertiary ( K – T ) extinction , was a mass extinction of some three @-@ quarters of the plant and animal species on Earth — including all non @-@ avian dinosaurs — that occurred over a geologically short period of time approximately 66 million years ago . With the exception of some ectothermic species in aquatic ecosystems like the leatherback sea turtle and crocodiles , no tetrapods weighing more than 55 pounds ( 25 kilos ) survived . It marked the end of the Cretaceous period and with it , the entire Mesozoic Era , opening the Cenozoic Era that continues today .
In the geologic record , the K – Pg event is marked by a thin layer of sediment called the K – Pg boundary , which can be found throughout the world in marine and terrestrial rocks . The boundary clay shows high levels of the metal iridium , which is rare in the Earth 's crust but abundant in asteroids .
As originally proposed in 1980 by a team of scientists led by Luis Alvarez , it is now generally thought that the K – Pg extinction
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was triggered by a massive comet or asteroid impact 66 million years ago and its catastrophic effects on the global environment , including a lingering impact winter that made it impossible for plants and plankton to carry out photosynthesis . The impact hypothesis , also known as the Alvarez hypothesis , was bolstered by the discovery of the 180 @-@ kilometre @-@ wide ( 112 mi ) Chicxulub crater in the Gulf of Mexico in the early 1990s , which provided conclusive evidence that the K – Pg boundary clay represented debris from an asteroid impact . The fact that the extinctions occurred at the same time as the impact provides strong situational evidence that the K – Pg extinction was caused by the asteroid . It was possibly accelerated by the creation of the Deccan Traps . However , some scientists maintain the extinction was caused or exacerbated by other factors , such as volcanic eruptions , climate change , or sea level change , separately or together .
A wide range of species perished in the K – Pg extinction . The most well @-@ known victims are the non @-@ avian dinosaurs . However , the extinction also destroyed a plethora of other terrestrial organisms , including certain mammals , pterosaurs , birds , lizards , insects , and plants . In the oceans , the K – Pg extinction killed off plesiosaurs and the giant marine lizards ( Mosasauridae ) and devastated fish , sharks , mollusks ( especially ammonites , which became extinct ) and many species of plankton . It is estimated that 75 % or more of all species on Earth vanished . Yet the devastation caused by the extinction also provided evolutionary opportunities . In the wake of the extinction , many groups underwent remarkable adaptive radiations — a sudden and prolific divergence into new forms and species within the disrupted and emptied ecological niches resulting from the event . Mammals in particular diversified in the Paleogene , producing new forms such as horses , whales , bats , and primates . Birds , fish and perhaps lizards also radiated .
= = Microbiota = =
The K – Pg boundary represents one of the most dramatic turnovers in the fossil record for various calcareous nanoplankton that formed the calcium deposits that gave the Cretaceous its name . The turnover in this group is clearly marked at the species level . Statistical analysis of marine losses at this time suggests that the decrease in diversity was caused more by a sharp increase in extinctions than by a decrease in speciation . The K – Pg boundary record of dinoflagellates is not as well @-@ understood , mainly because only microbial cysts provide a fossil record , and not all dinoflagellate species have cyst @-@ forming stages , thereby likely causing diversity to be underestimated . Recent studies indicate that there were no major shifts in dinoflagellates through the boundary layer .
= = Extinction patterns = =
The K – Pg extinction event was severe , global , rapid , and selective . In terms of severity , the event eliminated a vast number of species . Based on marine fossils , it is estimated that 75 % or more of all species were made extinct by the K – Pg extinction event .
The event appears to have affected all continents at the same time . Non @-@ avian dinosaurs , for example , are known from the Maastrichtian of North America , Europe , Asia , Africa , South America and Antarctica , but are unknown from the Cenozoic anywhere in the world . Similarly , fossil pollen shows devastation of the plant communities in areas as far apart as New Mexico , Alaska , China , and New Zealand .
Even though the boundary event was severe , there was significant variability in the rate of extinction between and within different clades . Species that depended on photosynthesis declined or became extinct as atmospheric particles blocked sunlight and reduced the solar energy reaching the Earth 's surface . This plant extinction caused a major reshuffling of the dominant plant groups . Omnivores , insectivores and carrion @-@ eaters survived the extinction event , perhaps because of the increased availability of their food sources . No purely herbivorous or carnivorous mammals seem to have survived . Rather , the surviving mammals and birds fed on insects , worms , and snails , which in turn fed on dead plant and animal matter . Scientists hypothesize that these organisms survived the collapse of plant @-@ based food chains because they fed on detritus ( non @-@ living organic material ) .
In stream communities , few animal groups became extinct because such communities rely less directly on food from living plants and more on detritus that washes in from the land , buffering them from extinction . Similar , but more complex patterns have been found in the oceans . Extinction was more severe among animals living in the water column than among animals living on or in the sea floor . Animals in the water column are almost entirely dependent on primary production from living phytoplankton , while animals living on or in the ocean floor feed on detritus or can switch to detritus feeding . Coccolithophorids and mollusks ( including ammonites , rudists , freshwater snails and mussels ) , and those organisms whose food chain included these shell builders , became extinct or suffered heavy losses . For example , it is thought that ammonites were the principal food of mosasaurs , a group of giant marine reptiles that became extinct at the boundary . The largest air @-@ breathing survivors of the event , crocodyliforms and champsosaurs , were semi @-@ aquatic and had access to detritus . Modern crocodilians can live as scavengers and can survive for months without food , and their young are small , grow slowly , and feed largely on invertebrates and dead organisms or fragments of organisms for their first few years . These characteristics have been linked to crocodilian survival at the end of the Cretaceous .
After the K – Pg extinction event , biodiversity required substantial time to recover , despite the existence of abundant vacant ecological niches .
Radiolaria have left a geological record since at least the Ordovician times , and their mineral fossil skeletons can be tracked across the K – Pg boundary . There is no evidence of mass extinction of these organisms , and there is support for high productivity of these species in southern high latitudes as a result of cooling temperatures in the early Paleocene . Approximately 46 % of diatom species survived the transition from the Cretaceous to the Upper Paleocene . This suggests a significant turnover in species , but not a catastrophic extinction of diatoms , across the K – Pg boundary .
The occurrence of planktonic foraminifera across the K – Pg boundary has been studied since the 1930s . Research spurred by the possibility of an impact event at the K – Pg boundary resulted in numerous publications detailing planktonic foraminiferal extinction at the boundary . However , there is debate ongoing between groups that think the evidence indicates substantial extinction of these species at the K – Pg boundary , and those who think the evidence supports multiple extinctions and expansions through the boundary .
Numerous species of benthic foraminifera became extinct during the K – Pg extinction event , presumably because they depend on organic debris for nutrients , since the biomass in the ocean is thought to have decreased . However , as the marine microbiota recovered , it is thought that increased speciation of benthic foraminifera resulted from the increase in food sources . Phytoplankton recovery in the early Paleocene provided the food source to support large benthic foraminiferal assemblages , which are mainly detritus @-@ feeding . Ultimate recovery of the benthic populations occurred over several stages lasting several hundred thousand years into the early Paleocene .
= = = Marine invertebrates = = =
There is variability in the fossil record as to the extinction rate of marine invertebrates across the K – Pg boundary . The apparent rate is influenced by the lack of fossil records rather than actual extinction .
Ostracods , a class of small crustaceans that were prevalent in the upper Maastrichtian , left fossil deposits in a variety of locations . A review of these fossils shows that ostracod diversity was lower in the Paleocene than any other time in the Cenozoic . However , current research cannot ascertain whether the extinctions occurred prior to or during the boundary interval itself .
Approximately 60 % of late @-@ Cretaceous Scleractinia coral genera failed to cross the K – Pg boundary into the Paleocene . Further analysis of the coral extinctions shows that approximately 98 % of colonial species , ones that inhabit warm , shallow tropical waters , became extinct . The solitary corals , which generally do not form reefs and inhabit colder and deeper ( below the photic zone ) areas of the ocean were less impacted by the K – Pg boundary . Colonial coral species rely upon symbiosis with photosynthetic algae , which collapsed due to the events surrounding the K – Pg boundary . However , the use of data from coral fossils to support K – Pg extinction and subsequent Paleocene recovery must be weighed against the changes that occurred in coral ecosystems through the K – Pg boundary .
The numbers of cephalopod , echinoderm , and bivalve genera exhibited significant diminution after the K – Pg boundary . Most species of brachiopods , a small phylum of marine invertebrates , survived the K – Pg extinction event and diversified during the early Paleocene .
Except for nautiloids ( represented by the modern order Nautilida ) and coleoids ( which had already diverged into modern octopodes , squids , and cuttlefish ) all other species of the molluscan class Cephalopoda became extinct at the K – Pg boundary . These included the ecologically significant belemnoids , as well as the ammonoids , a group of highly diverse , numerous , and widely distributed shelled cephalopods . Researchers have pointed out that the reproductive strategy of the surviving nautiloids , which rely upon few and larger eggs , played a role in outsurviving their ammonoid counterparts through the extinction event . The ammonoids utilized a planktonic strategy of reproduction ( numerous eggs and planktonic larvae ) , which would have been devastated by the K – Pg extinction event . Additional research has shown that subsequent to this elimination of ammonoids from the global biota , nautiloids began an evolutionary radiation into shell shapes and complexities theretofore known only from ammonoids .
Approximately 35 % of echinoderm genera became extinct at the K – Pg boundary , although taxa that thrived in low @-@ latitude , shallow @-@ water environments during the late Cretaceous had the highest extinction rate . Mid @-@ latitude , deep @-@ water echinoderms were much less affected at the K – Pg boundary . The pattern of extinction points to habitat loss , specifically the drowning of carbonate platforms , the shallow @-@ water reefs in existence at that time , by the extinction event .
Other invertebrate groups , including rudists ( reef @-@ building clams ) and inoceramids ( giant relatives of modern scallops ) , also became extinct at the K – Pg boundary .
= = = Fish = = =
There are substantial fossil records of jawed fishes across the K – Pg boundary , which provides good evidence of extinction patterns of these classes of marine vertebrates . Within cartilaginous fish , approximately 7 out of the 41 families of Neoselachian , modern sharks , suffered during this event and Batoids , skates and rays , lost nearly all the identifiable species , while more than 90 % of teleost fish ( bony fish ) families survived .
While the deep sea realm was able to remain seemingly unaffected , there was an equal loss between the open marine apex predators and the durophagous demersal feeders on the continental shelf . The loss and origination of sharks and batoids at family level are more pronounced . Sharks and Batoids first appeared in the Danian Age 66 to 61 @.@ 6 million years ago , starting with two shark families ( Carcharhinidae , Isuridae ) and a single batoid family ( Torpedinidae ) , resulting in a total origination percentage of only 8 % of marine animals . Only 25 shark families and nine batoid families survived the K @-@ T boundary event . In the late cretaceous period , the Maastrichtian age , 28 shark families and 13 batoid families thrived , before the event occurred . Forty @-@ seven of all marine genera cross the K / T boundary , 85 % being sharks . Batoids display with 15 % a comparably low survival rate .
There is evidence of a mass kill of bony fishes at a fossil site immediately above the K – Pg boundary layer on Seymour Island near Antarctica , apparently precipitated by the K – Pg extinction event . However , the marine and freshwater environments of fishes mitigated environmental effects of the extinction event .
= = = Terrestrial invertebrates = = =
Insect damage to the fossilized leaves of flowering plants from fourteen sites in North America were used as a proxy for insect diversity across the K – Pg boundary and analyzed to determine the rate of extinction . Researchers found that Cretaceous sites , prior to the extinction event , had rich plant and insect @-@ feeding diversity . However , during the early Paleocene , flora were relatively diverse with little predation from insects , even 1 @.@ 7 million years after the extinction event .
= = = Terrestrial plants = = =
There is overwhelming evidence of global disruption of plant communities at the K – Pg boundary . Extinctions are seen both in studies of fossil pollen , and fossil leaves . In North America , the data suggests massive devastation and mass extinction of plants at the K – Pg boundary sections , although there were substantial megafloral changes before the boundary . In North America , approximately 57 % of plant species became extinct . In high southern hemisphere latitudes , such as New Zealand and Antarctica , the mass die @-@ off of flora caused no significant turnover in species , but dramatic and short @-@ term changes in the relative abundance of plant groups . In some regions , the Paleocene recovery of plants began with recolonizations by fern species , represented as a fern spike in the geologic record ; this same pattern of fern recolonization was observed after the 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption .
Due to the wholesale destruction of plants at the K – Pg boundary , there was a proliferation of saprotrophic organisms , such as fungi , that do not require photosynthesis and use nutrients from decaying vegetation . The dominance of fungal species lasted only a few years while the atmosphere cleared and there was plenty of organic matter to feed on . Once the atmosphere cleared , photosynthetic organisms , like ferns and other plants , returned . Polyploidy appears to have enhanced the ability of flowering plants to survive the extinction , probably because the additional copies of the genome such plants possessed allowed them to more readily adapt to the rapidly changing environmental conditions that followed the impact .
= = = Amphibians = = =
There is limited evidence for extinction of amphibians at the K – Pg boundary . A study of fossil vertebrates across the K – Pg boundary in Montana concluded that no species of amphibian became extinct . Yet there are several species of Maastrichtian amphibian , not included as part of this study , which are unknown from the Paleocene . These include the frog Theatonius lancensis and the albanerpetontid Albanerpeton galaktion ; therefore some amphibians do seem to have become extinct at the boundary . The relatively low levels of extinction seen among amphibians probably reflect the low extinction rates seen in freshwater animals .
= = = Non @-@ archosaur reptiles = = =
The two living non @-@ archosaurian reptile taxa , testudines ( turtles ) and lepidosaurians ( lizards and tuataras ) , along with choristoderes ( semi @-@ aquatic archosauromorphs that would die out in the early Miocene ) , survived across the K – Pg boundary . Over 80 % of Cretaceous turtle species passed through the K – Pg boundary . Additionally , all six turtle families in existence at the end of the Cretaceous survived into the Paleogene and are represented by living species . Living lepidosaurs include the tuataras ( the only living rhynchocephalians ) and the squamates . The rhynchocephalians were a widespread and relatively successful group of lepidosaurians during the early Mesozoic , but began to decline by the mid @-@ Cretaceous , though they were very successful in the Late Cretaceous of South America . They are represented today by a single genus located exclusively in New Zealand .
The order Squamata , which is represented today by lizards , including snakes and amphisbaenians ( worm lizards ) , radiated into various ecological niches during the Jurassic and was successful throughout the Cretaceous . They survived through the K – Pg boundary and are currently the most successful and diverse group of living reptiles with more than 6 @,@ 000 extant species . Many families of terrestrial squamates became extinct at the boundary , such as monstersaurians and polyglyphanodonts , and fossil evidence indicates they suffered very heavy losses in the KT event , only recovering 10 million years after it . Giant non @-@ archosaurian aquatic reptiles such as mosasaurs and plesiosaurs , which were the top marine predators of their time , became extinct by the end of the Cretaceous . The ichthyosaurs had already disappeared before the mass extinction occurred .
= = = Archosaurs = = =
The archosaur clade includes two surviving groups , crocodilians and birds , along with the various extinct groups of non @-@ avian dinosaurs and pterosaurs .
= = = = Crocodyliforms = = = =
Ten families of crocodilians or their close relatives are represented in the Maastrichtian fossil records , of which five died out prior to the K – Pg boundary . Five families have both Maastrichtian and Paleocene fossil representatives . All of the surviving families of crocodyliforms inhabited freshwater and terrestrial environments — except for the Dyrosauridae , which lived in freshwater and marine locations . Approximately 50 % of crocodyliform representatives survived across the K – Pg boundary , the only apparent trend being that no large crocodiles survived . Crocodyliform survivability across the boundary may have resulted from their aquatic niche and ability to burrow , which reduced susceptibility to negative environmental effects at the boundary . Jouve and colleagues suggested in 2008 that juvenile marine crocodyliforms lived in freshwater environments like modern marine crocodile juveniles , which would have helped them survive where other marine reptiles became extinct ; freshwater environments were not as strongly affected by the K – Pg extinction event as marine environments .
The Choristodera , a generally crocodile @-@ like group of uncertain phylogeny ( possibly archosaurian ) also survived the event , only to become extinct in the Miocene .
= = = = Pterosaurs = = = =
One family of pterosaurs , Azhdarchidae , was definitely present in the Maastrichtian , and it likely became extinct at the K – Pg boundary . These large pterosaurs were the last representatives of a declining group that contained 10 families during the mid @-@ Cretaceous . Several other pterosaur lineages may have been present during the Maastrichtian , such as the ornithocheirids , pteranodontids and / or nyctosaurids , as well as a possible tapejarid , though they are represented by fragmentary remains that are difficult to assign to any given group . While this was occurring , modern birds were undergoing diversification ; traditionally it was thought that they replaced archaic birds and pterosaur groups , possibly due to direct competition , or they simply filled empty niches , but there is no correlation between pterosaur and avian diversities that are conclusive to a competition hypothesis , and small pterosaurs were present in the Late Cretaceous .
= = = = Birds = = = =
Most paleontologists regard birds as the only surviving dinosaurs ( see Origin of birds ) . It is thought that all non @-@ avian theropods became extinct , including then @-@ flourishing groups like enantiornithines and hesperornithiforms . Several analyses of bird fossils show divergence of species prior to the K – Pg boundary , and that duck , chicken and ratite bird relatives coexisted with non @-@ avian dinosaurs . Large collections of bird fossils representing a range of different species provides definitive evidence for the persistence of archaic birds to within 300 @,@ 000 years of the K – Pg boundary . The absence of these birds in the Paleogene is evidence that a mass extinction of archaic birds took place there . A small fraction of the Cretaceous bird species survived the impact , giving rise to today 's birds . The only bird group known for certain to have survived the K – Pg boundary is the Aves . Avians may have been able to survive the extinction as a result of their abilities to dive , swim , or seek shelter in water and marshlands . Many species of avians can build burrows , or nest in tree holes or termite nests , all of which provided shelter from the environmental effects at the K – Pg boundary . Long @-@ term survival past the boundary was assured as a result of filling ecological niches left empty by extinction of non @-@ avian dinosaurs .
= = = = Non @-@ avian dinosaurs = = = =
Excluding a few controversial claims , scientists agree that all non @-@ avian dinosaurs became extinct at the K – Pg boundary . The dinosaur fossil record has been interpreted to show both a decline in diversity and no decline in diversity during the last few million years of the Cretaceous , and it may be that the quality of the dinosaur fossil record is simply not good enough to permit researchers to distinguish between the options . Since there is no evidence that late Maastrichtian non @-@ avian dinosaurs could burrow , swim or dive , they were unable to shelter themselves from the worst parts of any environmental stress that occurred at the K – Pg boundary . It is possible that small dinosaurs ( other than birds ) did survive , but they would have been deprived of food , as herbivorous dinosaurs would have found plant material scarce and carnivores would have quickly found prey in short supply .
The growing consensus about the endothermy of dinosaurs ( see dinosaur physiology ) helps to understand their full extinction in contrast with their close relatives , the crocodilians . Ectothermic ( " cold @-@ blooded " ) crocodiles have very limited needs for food ( they can survive several months without eating ) while endothermic ( " warm @-@ blooded " ) animals of similar size need much more food to sustain their faster metabolism . Thus , under the circumstances of food chain disruption previously mentioned , non @-@ avian dinosaurs died , while some crocodiles survived . In this context , the survival of other endothermic animals , such as some birds and mammals , could be due , among other reasons , to their smaller needs for food , related to their small size at the extinction epoch .
Whether the extinction occurred gradually or suddenly has been debated , as both views have support from the fossil record . A study of 29 fossil sites in Catalan Pyrenees of Europe in 2010 supports the view that dinosaurs there had great diversity until the asteroid impact , with over 100 living species . However , more recent research indicates that this figure is obscured by taphonomical biases and the sparsity of the continental fossil record . The results of this study , which were based on estimated real global biodiversity , showed that between 628 and 1078 non @-@ avian dinosaur species were alive at the end of the Cretaceous and underwent sudden extinction after the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event . Alternatively , interpretation based on the fossil @-@ bearing rocks along the Red Deer River in Alberta supports the gradual extinction of non @-@ avian dinosaurs ; during the last 10 million years of the Cretaceous layers there , the number of dinosaur species seems to have decreased from about 45 to about 12 . Other scientists have pointed out the same .
Several researchers support the existence of Paleocene dinosaurs . Evidence of this existence is based on the discovery of dinosaur remains in the Hell Creek Formation up to 1 @.@ 3 m ( 4 @.@ 3 ft ) above and 40 thousand years later than the K – Pg boundary . Pollen samples recovered near a fossilized hadrosaur femur recovered in the Ojo Alamo Sandstone at the San Juan River indicate that the animal lived during the Cenozoic , approximately 64 @.@ 5 Ma ( about 1 million years after the K – Pg extinction event ) . If their existence past the K – Pg boundary can be confirmed , these hadrosaurids would be considered a dead clade walking . Scientific consensus is that these fossils were eroded from their original locations and then re @-@ buried in much later sediments ( also known as reworked fossils ) .
= = = Mammals = = =
All major Cretaceous mammalian lineages , including monotremes ( egg @-@ laying mammals ) , multituberculates , marsupials and placentals , dryolestoideans , and gondwanatheres survived the K – Pg extinction event , although they suffered losses . In particular , marsupials largely disappeared from North America , and the Asian deltatheroidans , primitive relatives of extant marsupials , became extinct . In the Hell Creek beds of North America , at least half of the ten known multituberculate species and all eleven marsupial species are not found above the boundary . Multituberculates in Europe and North America survived relatively unscathed and quickly bounced back in the Palaeocene , but Asian forms were decimated , never again to represent a significant component on mammalian faunas .
Mammalian species began diversifying approximately 30 million years prior to the K – Pg boundary . Diversification of mammals stalled across the boundary . Current research indicates that mammals did not explosively diversify across the K – Pg boundary , despite the environment niches made available by the extinction of dinosaurs . Several mammalian orders have been interpreted as diversifying immediately after the K – Pg boundary , including Chiroptera ( bats ) and Cetartiodactyla ( a diverse group that today includes whales and dolphins and even @-@ toed ungulates ) , although recent research concludes that only marsupial orders diversified after the K – Pg boundary .
K – Pg boundary mammalian species were generally small , comparable in size to rats ; this small size would have helped them find shelter in protected environments . In addition , it is postulated that some early monotremes , marsupials , and placentals were semiaquatic or burrowing , as there are multiple mammalian lineages with such habits today . Any burrowing or semiaquatic mammal would have had additional protection from K – Pg boundary environmental stresses .
= = Evidence = =
= = = North American fossils = = =
In North American terrestrial sequences , the extinction event is best represented by the marked discrepancy between the rich and relatively abundant late @-@ Maastrichtian palynomorph record and the post @-@ boundary fern spike .
At present the most informative sequence of dinosaur @-@ bearing rocks in the world from the K – Pg boundary is found in western North America , particularly the late Maastrichtian @-@ age Hell Creek Formation of Montana . This formation , when compared with the older ( approximately 75 Ma ) Judith River / Dinosaur Park Formations ( from Montana and Alberta respectively ) provides information on the changes in dinosaur populations over the last 10 million years of the Cretaceous . These fossil beds are geographically limited , covering only part of one continent .
The middle – late Campanian formations show a greater diversity of dinosaurs than any other single group of rocks . The late Maastrichtian rocks contain the largest members of several major clades : Tyrannosaurus , Ankylosaurus , Pachycephalosaurus , Triceratops and Torosaurus , which suggests food was plentiful immediately prior to the extinction .
In addition to rich dinosaur fossils , there are also plant fossils that illustrate the reduction in plant species across the K – Pg boundary . In the sediments below the K – Pg boundary the dominant plant remains are angiosperm pollen grains , but the actual boundary layer contains little pollen and is dominated by fern spores . More usual pollen levels gradually resume above the boundary layer . This is reminiscent of areas blighted by modern volcanic eruptions , where the recovery is led by ferns , which are later replaced by larger angiosperm plants .
= = = Marine fossils = = =
The mass extinction of marine plankton appears to have been abrupt and right at the K – Pg boundary . Ammonite genera became extinct at or near the K – Pg boundary ; however , there was a smaller and slower extinction of ammonite genera prior to the boundary that was associated with a late Cretaceous marine regression . The gradual extinction of most inoceramid bivalves began well before the K – Pg boundary , and a small , gradual reduction in ammonite diversity occurred throughout the very late Cretaceous . Further analysis shows that several processes were in progress in the late Cretaceous seas and partially overlapped in time , then ended with the abrupt mass extinction . The diversity of marine life decreased when the climate near the K @-@ T boundary increased in temperature . The temperature increased about three to four degrees very rapidly between 65 @.@ 4 and 65 @.@ 2 million years ago , which is around the time of the extinction event . Not only did the climate temperature increase , but the water temperate decreased causing a drastic decrease in marine diversity .
= = = Megatsunamis = = =
The scientific consensus is that the asteroid impact at the K – Pg boundary left tsunami deposits and sediments around the area of the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico . These deposits have been identified in the La Popa basin in northeastern Mexico , platform carbonates in northeastern Brazil , and Atlantic deep @-@ sea sediments .
= = Duration = =
The length of time taken for the extinction to occur is a controversial issue , because some theories about the extinction 's causes require a rapid extinction over a relatively short period ( from a few years to a few thousand years ) while others require longer periods . The issue is difficult to resolve because of the Signor – Lipps effect ; that is , the fossil record is so incomplete that most extinct species probably died out long after the most recent fossil that has been found . Scientists have also found very few continuous beds of fossil @-@ bearing rock which cover a time range from several million years before the K – Pg extinction to a few million years after it . The sedimentation rate and thickness of K @-@ Pg clay from three sites suggest short duration of event , perhaps less than ten thousand years .
= = Chicxulub asteroid impact = =
= = = Evidence for impact = = =
In 1980 , a team of researchers consisting of Nobel prize @-@ winning physicist Luis Alvarez , his son geologist Walter Alvarez , and chemists Frank Asaro and Helen Michel discovered that sedimentary layers found all over the world at the Cretaceous – Paleogene boundary contain a concentration of iridium many times greater than normal ( 30 , 160 and 20 times in three sections originally studied ) . Iridium is extremely rare in Earth 's crust because it is a siderophile element , and therefore most of it traveled with the iron as it sank into Earth 's core during planetary differentiation . As iridium remains abundant in most asteroids and comets , the Alvarez team suggested that an asteroid struck the Earth at the time of the K – Pg boundary . There were earlier speculations on the possibility of an impact event , but this was the first hard evidence of an impact .
This hypothesis was viewed as radical when first proposed , but additional evidence soon emerged . The boundary clay was found to be full of minute spherules of rock , crystallized from droplets of molten rock formed by the impact . Shocked quartz and other minerals were also identified in the K – Pg boundary . Shocked minerals have their internal structure deformed , and are created by intense pressures such as those associated with nuclear blasts or meteorite impacts . The identification of giant tsunami beds along the Gulf Coast and the Caribbean also provided evidence for impact , and suggested that the impact may have occurred nearby — as did the discovery that the K – Pg boundary became thicker in the southern United States , with meter @-@ thick beds of debris occurring in northern New Mexico .
Further research identified the giant Chicxulub crater , buried under Chicxulub on the coast of Yucatán , as the source of the K – Pg boundary clay . Identified in 1990 based on work by geophysicist Glen Penfield in 1978 , the crater is oval , with an average diameter of roughly 180 kilometres ( 110 mi ) , about the size calculated by the Alvarez team . The discovery of the crater — a necessary prediction of the impact hypothesis — provided conclusive evidence for a K – Pg impact , and strengthened the hypothesis that the extinction was caused by an impact .
In 2007 , a hypothesis was put forth that argued the impactor that killed the dinosaurs belonged to the Baptistina family of asteroids . Concerns have been raised regarding the reputed link , in part because very few solid observational constraints exist of the asteroid or family . Indeed , it was recently discovered that 298 Baptistina does not share the same chemical signature as the source of the K – Pg impact . Although this finding may make the link between the Baptistina family and K – Pg impactor more difficult to substantiate , it does not preclude the possibility . A 2011 WISE study of reflected light from the asteroids of the family estimated the break @-@ up at 80 Ma , giving it insufficient time to shift orbits and impact the Earth by 66 Ma .
In a 2013 paper , Paul Renne of the Berkeley Geochronology Center reported that the date of the asteroid event is 66 @.@ 043 ± 0 @.@ 011 million years ago , based on argon – argon dating . He further posits that the mass extinction occurred within 32 @,@ 000 years of this date .
= = = Effects of impact = = =
In March 2010 , an international panel of scientists endorsed the asteroid hypothesis , specifically the Chicxulub impact , as being the cause of the extinction . A team of 41 scientists reviewed 20 years of scientific literature and in so doing also ruled out other theories such as massive volcanism . They had determined that a 10 @-@ to @-@ 15 @-@ kilometre ( 6 @.@ 2 to 9 @.@ 3 mi ) space rock hurtled into Earth at Chicxulub on Mexico 's Yucatán Peninsula . The collision would have released the same energy as 100 teratonnes of TNT ( 420 ZJ ) , over a billion times the energy of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki .
The consequences of the Chicxulub impact were of global extent . Some of these phenomena were brief occurrences that immediately followed the impact , but there were also long @-@ term geochemical and climatic disruptions that were catastrophic to the ecology .
The reentry of ejecta into Earth 's atmosphere would include a brief ( hours long ) but intense pulse of infrared radiation , killing exposed organisms . Global firestorms likely resulted from the heat pulse . Recent research indicates that the global debris layer deposited by the impact contained enough soot to suggest that the entire terrestrial biosphere had burned .
The impact would have inhibited photosynthesis by creating a dust cloud that blocked sunlight for up to a year . Further , the asteroid struck a region of sulfur @-@ rich carbonate rock , much of which was vaporized , thereby injecting sulfuric acid aerosols into the stratosphere , which might have reduced sunlight reaching the Earth 's surface by more than 50 % , and would have caused rain and ocean water to become acidic . The acidification of the oceans would kill many organisms that build shells from calcium carbonate . At Brazos section , the paleo @-@ sea surface temperature dropped as much as 7 ℃ for decades after the impact . It would take at least ten years for such aerosols to dissipate , and would account for the extinction of plants and phytoplankton , and of organisms dependent on them ( including predatory animals as well as herbivores ) . Some creatures whose food chains were based on detritus would have a reasonable chance of survival .
If widespread fires occurred , they would have increased the CO
2 content of the atmosphere and caused a temporary greenhouse effect once the dust clouds and aerosol settled , and this would have exterminated the most vulnerable organisms that survived the period immediately after the impact .
Most paleontologists now agree that an asteroid did hit the Earth at approximately the end of the Cretaceous , but there is an ongoing dispute whether the impact was the sole cause of the extinctions .
= = Alternative hypotheses = =
The fact that the extinctions occur at the same time as the Chicxulub asteroid impact strongly supports the impact hypothesis of extinction . However , some scientists continue to dispute the role of the Chicxulub impact in driving the extinction , and to suggest that other events may have contributed to the end @-@ Cretaceous mass extinction . In particular , volcanic eruptions , climate change , sea level change , and other impact events have been suggested to play a role in driving the K – Pg extinction .
= = = Deccan Traps = = =
Before 2000 , arguments that the Deccan Traps flood basalts caused the extinction were usually linked to the view that the extinction was gradual , as the flood basalt events were thought to have started around 68 Mya and lasted more than 2 million years . The most recent evidence shows that the traps erupted over a period of 800 @,@ 000 years spanning the K – Pg boundary , and therefore may be responsible for the extinction and the delayed biotic recovery thereafter .
The Deccan Traps could have caused extinction through several mechanisms , including the release of dust and sulfuric aerosols into the air , which might have blocked sunlight and thereby reduced photosynthesis in plants . In addition , Deccan Trap volcanism might have resulted in carbon dioxide emissions that increased the greenhouse effect when the dust and aerosols cleared from the atmosphere .
In the years when the Deccan Traps hypothesis was linked to a slower extinction , Luis Alvarez ( who died in 1988 ) replied that paleontologists were being misled by sparse data . While his assertion was not initially well @-@ received , later intensive field studies of fossil beds lent weight to his claim . Eventually , most paleontologists began to accept the idea that the mass extinctions at the end of the Cretaceous were largely or at least partly due to a massive Earth impact . However , even Walter Alvarez has acknowledged that there were other major changes on Earth even before the impact , such as a drop in sea level and massive volcanic eruptions that produced the Indian Deccan Traps , and these may have contributed to the extinctions . The duration of event was less than 10 ky , and the time span is too short to be explained by Deccan volcanism . Geophysical models and high @-@ precision radiometric dating suggest that the Chicxulub impact could have triggered some of the largest Deccan eruptions , and potentially could have triggered eruptions at active volcanoes anywhere on Earth .
= = = Multiple impact event = = =
One other crater also appears to have been formed at about the time of the K – Pg boundary . Other crater @-@ like topographic features have also been proposed as impact craters formed in connection with Creaceous @-@ Paleogene extinction . This suggests to some the possibility of near @-@ simultaneous multiple impacts , perhaps from a fragmented asteroidal object , similar to the Shoemaker – Levy 9 impact with Jupiter . In addition to the 180 km ( 110 mi ) Chicxulub Crater , there is the 24 km ( 15 mi ) Boltysh crater in Ukraine ( 65 @.@ 17 ± 0 @.@ 64 Ma ) , the 20 km ( 12 mi ) Silverpit crater in the North Sea ( 59 @.@ 5 ± 14 @.@ 5 Ma ) possibly formed by bolide impact , and the controversial and much larger 600 km ( 370 mi ) Shiva crater . Any other craters that might have formed in the Tethys Ocean would have been obscured by tectonic events like the northward drift of Africa and India .
= = = Maastrichtian sea @-@ level regression = = =
There is clear evidence that sea levels fell in the final stage of the Cretaceous by more than at any other time in the Mesozoic era . In some Maastrichtian stage rock layers from various parts of the world , the later layers are terrestrial ; earlier layers represent shorelines and the earliest layers represent seabeds . These layers do not show the tilting and distortion associated with mountain building , therefore , the likeliest explanation is a " regression " , that is , a drop in sea level . There is no direct evidence for the cause of the regression , but the explanation currently accepted as most likely is that the mid @-@ ocean ridges became less active and therefore sank under their own weight .
A severe regression would have greatly reduced the continental shelf area , which is the most species @-@ rich part of the sea , and therefore could have been enough to cause a marine mass extinction . However research concludes that this change would have been insufficient to cause the observed level of ammonite extinction . The regression would also have caused climate changes , partly by disrupting winds and ocean currents and partly by reducing the Earth 's albedo and therefore increasing global temperatures .
Marine regression also resulted in the loss of epeiric seas , such as the Western Interior Seaway of North America . The loss of these seas greatly altered habitats , removing coastal plains that ten million years before had been host to diverse communities such as are found in rocks of the Dinosaur Park Formation . Another consequence was an expansion of freshwater environments , since continental runoff now had longer distances to travel before reaching oceans . While this change was favorable to freshwater vertebrates , those that prefer marine environments , such as sharks , suffered .
= = = Multiple causes = = =
In a review article , J. David Archibald and David E. Fastovsky discussed a scenario combining three major postulated causes : volcanism , marine regression , and extraterrestrial impact . In this scenario , terrestrial and marine communities were stressed by the changes in and loss of habitats . Dinosaurs , as the largest vertebrates , were the first affected by environmental changes , and their diversity declined . At the same time , particulate materials from volcanism cooled and dried areas of the globe . Then , an impact event occurred , causing collapses in photosynthesis @-@ based food chains , both in the already @-@ stressed terrestrial food chains and in the marine food chains . The major difference between this hypothesis and the single @-@ cause hypotheses is that its proponents view the suggested single causes as either not sufficient in strength to cause the extinctions or not likely to produce the taxonomic pattern of the extinction .
= = Recovery and radiation = =
The K – Pg extinction had a profound effect on the evolution of life on Earth . The elimination of dominant Cretaceous groups allowed other organisms to take their place , spurring a remarkable series of adaptive radiations in the Paleogene . The most striking example is the replacement of dinosaurs by mammals . After the K – Pg extinction , mammals evolved rapidly to fill the niches left vacant by the dinosaurs . Within mammalian genera , new species were approximately 9 @.@ 1 % larger after the K – Pg boundary .
Other groups also underwent major radiations . Based on molecular sequencing and fossil dating , Neoaves appeared to radiate after the K – Pg boundary . They even produced giant , flightless forms , such as the herbivorous Gastornis and Dromornithidae , and the predatory Phorusrhacidae . The extinction of Cretaceous lizards and snakes may have led to the radiation of modern groups such as iguanas , monitor lizards , and boas . On land , giant boid and enormous madtsoiid snakes appeared , and in the seas , giant sea snakes radiated . Teleost fish diversified explosively , filling the niches left vacant by the extinction . Groups appearing in the Paleocene and Eocene include billfish , tunas , eels , and flatfish . Major changes are also seen in Paleogene insect communities . Many groups of ants were present in the Cretaceous , but in the Eocene ants became dominant and diverse , with larger colonies . Butterflies diversified as well , perhaps to take the place of leaf @-@ eating insects wiped out by the extinction . The advanced mound @-@ building termites , Termitidae , also appear to have risen in importance .
= Nala ( The Lion King ) =
Nala is a fictional lioness , a character who appears in the Disney Lion King franchise . Introduced in the animated film The Lion King in 1994 , Nala subsequently appears as a less prominent character in the film 's sequels The Lion King II : Simba 's Pride ( 1998 ) and The Lion King 1 ½ ( 2004 ) . In the original film , the adult Nala was voiced by American actress Moira Kelly . Young Nala 's speaking voice is provided by actress Niketa Calame , while singers Laura Williams and Sally Dworsky provide the singing voices of young and adult Nala respectively .
Nala is introduced as the childhood best friend of Simba , and ultimately becomes his wife by the end of The Lion King . Several years after Simba 's uncle Scar has killed Simba 's father Mufasa and usurped the throne , Nala desperately ventures into the jungle to find help . Upon unexpectedly reuniting with a grown Simba , who she had long been tricked by Scar into presuming dead , Nala encourages him to return to Pride Rock , overthrow his uncle and ultimately become king . As Simba 's queen , Nala has a daughter , Kiara , whose story is explored in The Lion King : Simba 's Pride .
Nala is the most significant female character in The Lion King . As the film was inspired by William Shakespeare 's tragedy Hamlet , Nala is considered to be The Lion King 's equivalent of Hamlet 's love interest Ophelia , although differences remain between the two characters . Many early concepts first developed for Nala were eventually abandoned , including a brother and father for the character , as well as her being romantically pursued by Scar . While critical reception towards Nala has been generally mixed – both film and feminist critics complained about the character 's lack of involvement in the story and supposedly submissive demeanor during the song " Can You Feel the Love Tonight " – Kelly 's vocal performance has been praised .
Nala appears in the Broadway musical adaptation of the film , first played by singer Heather Headley . The character also appears in the television series The Lion Guard , with Gabrielle Union replacing Kelly as the voice of Nala .
= = Development = =
= = = Conception and writing = = =
Film critic James Berardinelli identified Nala as The Lion King 's " sole significant female character . " Screenwriter Linda Woolverton conceived Nala " as part of a gradual progression ... which have driven recent public conversation about what young girls should be able to expect from their cinematic role models . " In early versions of the screenplay , Nala has a younger brother named Mheetu , who enjoys accompanying his sister and her best friend Simba on their adventures . Pronounced " me too " , the character 's name alludes to this personality trait . At one point , Simba was supposed to save the cub from a wildebeest stampede , and Nala would eventually become responsible for protecting Mheetu from Simba 's tyrannical uncle Scar . Nala also had a fox friend named Bhati . According to Woolverton , Mheetu and Bhati were eventually written out of the film because their stories were beginning to distract from Simba 's , in addition to the Mheetu @-@ Scar subplot making the film too dark when combined with the death of Simba 's father Mufasa . At one point , Nala also had a father ; the character was similarly abandoned .
Because The Lion King was originally conceived as a much more mature and adult @-@ oriented film , Nala was supposed to have been banished from the Pride Lands as punishment for rejecting Scar 's romantic advances . This idea was to have been further explored in Scar 's song " Be Prepared ( Reprise ) " , during which Scar demands that Nala become his queen , but the musical number was ultimately cut from the final film because the scene was considered too " creepy . " Matthew Roulette of TheFW believes that the scene was abandoned because of the characters ' significant age difference .
Nala means " gift " in Swahili . The character has a mother , whose name is never mentioned in the film ; however , she is credited as Sarafina during the film 's end credits . Candice Russel of the Sun @-@ Sentinel believes that Nala contributes to the film 's love story – " an indispensable factor in Disney cartoon features " – in addition to convincing Simba to return to Pride Rock . It has been observed that , unlike Disney 's three previous animated efforts ( The Little Mermaid ( 1989 ) , Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) and Aladdin ( 1992 ) , the romantic relationship between Nala and Simba is not main plot of the film . Ella Ceron of Thought Catalog observed that " At [ Simba 's ] return , she 's not exactly the friendliest little kitten , either ... but is willing to overlook her own hurt ego in the spirit of their friendship . She believes in Simba , and doesn ’ t understand why he wouldn ’ t want to fight for his right to rule . "
= = = Voice and music = = =
The speaking voice of adult Nala is provided by American actress Moira Kelly . Kelly was first informed that Disney was scheduling auditions for the role of Nala by her agent . Despite not having been the directors ' first choice for the role initially , Kelly was allowed to audition nonetheless because the filmmakers had been longing to hear different voices . Kelly believes that the directors were searching for a specific " quality of voice ... a sort of authoritative voice but with a lot of warmth " to compliment Nala 's sensible yet nurturing personality . After a series of callbacks , during which Kelly returned to Disney several times to read the character 's lines , the final decision eventually came down to be between Kelly and one other actress . It was not until several months after her audition that Kelly would finally be contacted and offered the part ; Disney 's initial first choice for the role remains undisclosed . Actor Matthew Broderick , voice of Simba , had already begun recording alongside another actress who had been cast as Nala before that actress was eventually replaced with Kelly . Broderick was not informed about his original co @-@ star being recast , and only learned that Nala was actually voiced by Kelly at the film 's premiere .
The film 's entire recording process took approximately three years to complete , during which Kelly 's sessions were held in both the United States and Canada , while her co @-@ stars Broderick and Jeremy Irons , voice of Scar , were recording in the United States and England , respectively . Each main cast member recorded their dialogue separately , which took Kelly some time to get used to because she had grown accustomed to working with several other actors at a time on the sets of live @-@ action films . For The Lion King , a director would often take the place of another actor for Kelly to act opposite of . Vocally , Kelly decided to approach the role as though she were reading to a child , explaining , " it 's kind of fun to play with different voices and try to color the lines for the child so they can imagine it more fully " , which she admitted is different than how the actress would approach a live @-@ action role . Because Nala is a " very straight character " , determining what kind of voice she would use for her was not a particularly challenging task . Additionally , the filmmakers would also film Kelly 's performances in order to incorporate her own facial expressions into her character 's design , the process of which impressed the actress . In her film debut , actress Niketa Calame voices young Nala . According to Calame 's official website , Nala remains the actress ' " biggest role to date " . A classically trained pianist and chorister , Laura Williams provides the singing voice of young Nala , which can be heard in the song " I Just Can 't Wait to Be King " ; the singer was 15 years old at the time . Meanwhile , singer @-@ songwriter Sally Dworsky provides the singing voice of adult Nala , which is heard during the song " Can You Feel the Love Tonight " . The film 's love theme , " Can You Feel the Love Tonight " ' s lyrics were re @-@ written approximately 15 times , according to lyricist Tim Rice , who wrote the song alongside composer Elton John . At one point , the producers wanted the song to be a comical duet performed by supporting characters Timon and Pumbaa , despite the fact that John had originally composed the song with Nala and Simba in mind . However , John lobbied in favor of " Can You Feel the Love Tonight " being a love song performed as a duet by Nala and Simba , with which the filmmakers ultimately agreed .
It is rare for the cast of a film to reprise their respective roles in its sequel , but The Lion King 's sequels hold the distinction of having the majority of its original cast return , including Kelly . When asked by Disney if she was interested in reprising her role as Nala in The Lion King II : Simba 's Pride , Kelly immediately accepted , joking , " Sure , you wanna do a third , fourth , fifth ? I 'm right there " . In the case of The Lion King 1 ½ , it took the actress only a few days to record her character 's dialogue due to Nala 's comparatively smaller role in the film ; much of Nala 's footage from the first film was simply reused accordingly . Elton John 's official website cites Kelly among the film 's cast of actors who " would grace any red carpet . " Kelly 's performance as Nala is responsible for introducing the actress to a younger audience . Previously , she had been better known for appearing in more adult @-@ oriented live @-@ action films at that time . In 2011 , Kelly revealed that fans of the film rarely recognize her speaking voice as the voice of Nala , although Robert DeSalvo of NextMovie.com claims that the actress " has a ... distinctive voice that The Lion King fans will instantly recognize as the voice of adult Nala . "
= = Characterization and themes = =
A straight woman character , Kelly described Nala as a sensible and nurturing yet authoritative character , while Amber Leab of Bitch Flicks described her as strong , independent and intelligent . According to Oh My Disney , Nala serves as " the proverbial glue that keeps The Lion King together " , from whose perspective the audience watches the film because she " says EXACTLY what we ’ re thinking " . Occupying the role of the film 's female lead , Nala is The Lion King 's most important female character , who contributes to the film 's " small romance element " . Often identified as the film 's deuteragonist , Taylor Orci of The Atlantic felt that " Nala is really the agent of change in The Lion King " , dismissing Simba as a " rich , lazy boyfriend . " Leab observed that The Lion King 's male characters tend to " take the center stage " while " female characters take a backseat to the action . " Lenka Křivánková of Masaryk University wrote in her thesis " 1990s Hollywood Break @-@ Away Hits : A Feminist Perspective " that she was not particularly surprised by the film 's lack of strong roles for women because of its Shakespearean source material , dubbing the film " an old traditional fairy tale with all its traditional features " , including patriarchy and monarchism . Writing for the University of Waterloo 's Kinema , Vicky Wong believes that Nala reinforces the film 's " take your place " motif , reminding main character Simba of his responsibilities . In his book Retelling Stories , Framing Culture : Traditional Story and Metanarratives in Children 's Literature , author John Stephens credits Nala with teaching Simba about responsibility – " the lesson the hero must learn before he can become an adult " .
Including Nala , The Lion King has only three major female characters in comparison to the film 's total of nine male ones . Shepherd University 's Emmylou Allen observed that Nala is introduced " as a dominating young girl " who ultimately matures into " a strong woman " by the film 's conclusion . Mouse Morality : The Rhetoric of Disney Animated Film author Annalee R. Ward wrote that Nala 's role in The Lion King reflected " a 1990s feminist reversal " . In her book Biblical Allusions , author Lindsay Bacher acknowledged that Nala is often depicted as a stronger and more responsible character than Simba , despite observations that The Lion King 's female characters lack agency . Leab identified Nala as Simba 's " equal " who is " a more naturally sound leader throughout the film , while Simba tends to be comparatively a bit more immature and in need of multiple characters propelling him into responsible / rightful action . " Physically , Nala is also a stronger and more skilled fighter than Simba , proven by the character 's ability to overwhelm him in battle , which is reminiscent " of the physical power of lionesses in the real nature . " However , as strong as she is , Nala has little impact elsewhere ; author Brian K. Pennington wrote in his book Teaching Religion and Violence that " Nala 's assertions of gender equality are clearly groundless , since only a male lion can stop Scar . " New York 's David Denbey dismissed Nala 's athleticism as nothing more than Disney 's attempt to " disguise [ the film 's ] essential boss @-@ daddy ethos . " Bacher believes that had The Lion King featured Nala as the Pride Lands ' hero as opposed to Simba , the film could have avoided having a " patriarchal structure . " Leab concluded that " the main and most problematic aspects of the film " remain that The Lion King " boils down to the fact that an entire group of strong female characters are unable to confront a single male oppressor ; to do so , they need to be led by a dominant male . " Leab continued , " It almost sucks more that Nala is such a strong ... female character and still ends up constrained by this plot device " , accusing the film of depicting women as weak .
Alongside Faline from Bambi ( 1942 ) and Maid Marian from Robin Hood ( 1973 ) added , Nala belongs to a trio of Disney heroines who , after having been separated from their love interests for several years , eventually reunite with them . Stephens believes that Nala and Simba 's separation allows the characters to fall in love " properly " upon reuniting as young adults . Because The Lion King is loosely based on William Shakespeare 's tragedy Hamlet , Nala is considered to be the film 's " representative " of the Hamlet character Ophelia , Hamlet 's love interest . Both characters ' relationships with and opinions of their love interests are similar , however , there are several differences between the two women . While identifying Nala as " the closest character in The Lion King to Ophelia , " Shepherd University 's Emmylou Allen acknowledged in her article " Shakespeare in the Pride Lands " that " their similarities are not as great as their contrasts . " Unlike Ophelia , Nala does not succumb to insanity , nor does she eventually die . Instead , Nala establishes herself as " a physically powerful ally " by encouraging Simba to return to Pride Rock , and helping the character overthrow Scar . Additionally , Nala is a more stubborn character than Ophelia , the latter of whom is quite passive and obedient . While Ophelia is raised by a single father , Nala is raised solely by her mother , which inspired Allen to believe that Nala is a manifestation of how Ophelia would have turned out had she been raised by a woman instead of a man , concluding , " Nala is able to show the potential that Ophelia could have had . " .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Film and television = = =
A young Nala debuted in The Lion King ( 1994 ) as the best friend of Simba , who she often accompanies on his adventures throughout the Pride Lands . Simba invites Nala to visit the forbidden Elephant Graveyard with him , despite his father Mufasa 's orders . The cubs are soon ambushed by Shenzi , Banzai and Ed , a trio of hyenas chosen by Simba 's treacherous uncle Scar to kill Simba in order to improve his own chances of becoming king , but are ultimately rescued by Mufasa . The following day , however , Nala is devastated to learn from Scar that both Simba and Mufasa have perished during a wildebeest stampede . With both Simba and Mufasa dead , Scar usurps the throne and becomes king . Several years into Scar 's tyrannical rule , which has left the kingdom barren and starving , a desperate Nala ventures into the jungle in search of help , where she attempts to eat a warthog named Pumbaa ; little does she know that the warthog is actually a friend of Simba 's , who is in fact alive and well . While defending Pumbaa from Nala , Simba recognizes Nala , and the two finally reunite only to argue over why Simba is refusing to face his responsibilities and return to Pride Rock . Upon learning that Simba has eventually decided to return to Pride Rock and face Scar , Nala travels back to the Pride Lands to assist him . Surprised to find Simba alive , Scar forces his guilt @-@ ridden nephew to " admit " to the pride that he is responsible for Mufasa 's death , which was in fact caused by Scar himself by throwing Mufasa off a cliff into the stampede . Upon learning the truth , Simba forces his uncle to admit his crime to the pride , and a battle ensues between the pride and Scar 's army of hyenas . Simba eventually defeats Scar and becomes king , with Nala ultimately becoming his queen .
In the film 's first direct @-@ to @-@ video sequel The Lion King II : Simba 's Pride ( 1998 ) , Nala appears in a less prominent role as Queen of the Pride Lands and mother of Kiara , the spirited daughter of her and Simba . Nala observes that Kiara , of whom Simba is very protective , has inherited her father 's rebellious personality and love of adventure . When Kiara befriends Zira 's son Kovu , a young lion from an exiled pride of Scar 's followers known as the Outsiders , Nala is much more tolerant of their relationship than Simba , and convinces him to offer Kovu a chance to prove himself trustworthy . In The Lion King 1 ½ ( 2004 ) , which focuses instead on Timon and Pumbaa 's friendship , Nala 's role is virtually identical to that of her appearance in The Lion King because filmmakers simply reused most of the character 's footage from the first film .
Voiced by actress Gabrielle Union , Nala reprises her role as Queen of the Pride Lands in the television series The Lion Guard , the 2016 premiere of which was preceded by the made @-@ for @-@ television film The Lion Guard : Return of the Roar ( 2015 ) . Set within the same time frame as The Lion King II : Simba 's Pride , the show revolves around Nala and Simba 's son Kion who , being their second @-@ born cub after Kiara , has been appointed The Lion Guard responsible for protecting the Pride Lands . Although a fan of the Lion King franchise , Union avoided watching previous Lion King films in preparation for the role because she wanted to " put [ her ] own stamp " on the character .
= = = Musical = = =
In the Broadway musical adaptation of The Lion King , the role of Nala was originated by Trinidadian @-@ American singer Heather Headley . Her Broadway debut , at first auditioning for the role proved a challenge for the singer due to her Ragtime contract , which her agent was eventually successful in getting her released from . Director Julie Taymor felt that Nala 's journey in the film was underdeveloped and among the story 's weaker elements , and thus decided to " strengthen " the character 's narrative for Broadway .
= = Reception = =
Critical reception towards Nala has been generally mixed ; both film and feminist critics have accused the film of lacking empowering roles for female characters , including Nala . James Berardinelli of ReelViews appreciated the fact that " after three animated motion pictures centered upon the love of two people from different worlds " , the love story between Nala and Simba has been relegated to that of " a subplot . " Desson Howe of The Washington Post advised parents to remind their daughters that despite the fact that Nala " pads in the supportive shadows , awaiting her inevitable marriage to Simba , it doesn 't mean human girls can 't grow up to be monarchs too . "
Nala 's role and demeanor during the film 's romantic " Can You Feel the Love Tonight " sequence has drawn criticism in regards to her " submissive behaviour " . The New York Times ' Janet Maslin cited the film 's lack of a strong heroine among its weaknesses , dismissing Nala and Simba 's interaction throughout " Can You Feel the Love Tonight " as " obligatory " and " gratuitous " . Joel W. Martin wrote in the Journal of Religion and Film , " One song later , [ Nala and Simba ] have fallen in love . Playing one day , they literally tumble down a hillside in the jungle , and he ends up on top of her . This time , she does not bear her teeth , but instead , shows ' bedroom eyes ' " . Martin ultimately accused the scene 's " reversal of positions " of " establish [ ing ] male dominance . " Criticizing the film for " being merely distracting when it could have been both meaningful and instructive " , Robert Humanick of Slant Magazine wrote , " Small potatoes , then , when Simba 's former childhood friend and betrothed queen Nala ... unexpectedly reappears in his duty @-@ free , protein @-@ rich life , demanding he return to his kingly responsibilities and coaxing the lion to sleep tonight with arguably the most blatant ' fuck me now ' face to ever appear in a PG @-@ rated film . "
However , the character has garnered positive reviews as well . Sara Franks @-@ Allen of ScreenCrush wrote that " If being a Disney princess is about being a good role model for little girls , then Nala has a lot in her favor " , elaborating , " She 's strong enough to take down Simba , ventures out on her own to find help for her pride and calls Simba out for ignoring his responsibilities . " Meanwhile , Ella Ceron of Thought Catalog ranked Nala 14th on her list of " The 16 Most Awesome Female Characters From Disney Movies " . Responsible for introducing the seasoned actress to a younger audience , Kelly 's vocal performance as Nala has garnered critical acclaim . Writing for The Washington Post , Desson Howe hailed Kelly 's voice acting as " terrific . " Jeremy Gerard of Variety commended Kelly for voicing the character " beautifully " . PopSugar ranked Kelly among the website 's " Favorite Animated Voices " , writing , " there are a lot of great voices in Disney 's The Lion King ... but Moira Kelly has a unique quality to her voice , and I remember reveling in it as a youngster anytime the adult Nala was on the screen . " Official Disney Blogs published an article entitled " We All Thought it … But Nala Actually Said It " , which cites the character 's most revered quotes . The blog also ranked Nala eighth on the website 's " Definitive Ranking of Disney Cats " list . In a 2014 interview , actor Eddie Redmayne admitted that Nala was his first " celebrity crush " , having been specifically attracted to the character 's " sweet " face and singing voice , referring to the experience as his " sexual awakening " .
= Born This Way : The Remix =
Born This Way : The Remix is the second remix album by American recording artist Lady Gaga , released on November 18 , 2011 by Interscope . This album contains remixes of multiple songs off of Gaga 's second studio album , Born This Way . It was also released as part of the Born This Way : The Collection , a special edition release including the 17 @-@ track version of Gaga 's second studio album and a DVD release of the HBO concert special Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden . Most of the remixes had been available in the remix EPs released alongside each single from Born This Way . Musically , the album is an electronic and dance record ; there are also influences of Europop , techno and dubstep within the composition .
Critics gave mixed reviews for the album , with their general complaint being that the release was unnecessary . Most of them , however , complimented The Weeknd , Twin Shadow and Guéna LG 's remixes . It earned an overall score of 57 out of 100 , on review aggregator site Metacritic . Commercially , Born This Way : The Remix achieved minor success , entering the charts in ten countries . Its highest position was attained in Japan , where it reached top @-@ twenty , while in the United States , it failed to reach the top @-@ 100 of the Billboard 200 albums chart .
= = Background = =
In October 2011 , Lady Gaga announced plans to release a remix album titled Born This Way : The Remix . The album contains fourteen remixes of tracks from her second studio album , Born This Way , only seven of which are unreleased . Born This Way : The Remix was also released as part of Born This Way : The Collection , a special edition release including the 17 @-@ track version of Gaga 's second studio album and a DVD release of the HBO concert special Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden . The remixers featured for the songs on the album include mainly techno musicians like Sultan & Ned Shepard , electropop producers like Goldfrapp and Metronomy , indie rock upstarts like Twin Shadow and Two Door Cinema Club , and remixer The Weeknd .
Most of the remixes had been available in the remix EPs released alongside each single from Born This Way . The first remix commissioned was the Twin Shadow remix of " Born This Way " , released in March 2011 . This was followed by the Goldfrapp remix of " Judas " in May 2011 , which was released to Gaga 's YouTube channel . The Wild Beasts remix of " You and I " was released in August 2011 , and the proceeds from the sales helped to raise awareness to the ways people can support independent labels that lost stock in the PIAS Recordings UK warehouse fire .
Regarding the inspiration behind the remix , Hayden Thorpe from Wild Beasts group told The Guardian : " The unlikeness of this match was perhaps what compelled us to take it on . Gaga in many ways is the epitome of what we are not . She is the butcher to our butter knife . The essential thrill is always to keep eluding what is expected of us and what we expect of ourselves . " The last of the remix to be released was The Weeknd 's take on " Marry the Night " which featured Illangelo , thus earning him a co @-@ producer credit on it .
= = Composition = =
The album opens with the Zedd remix of " Born This Way " which begins with some minimalist beat followed by loud synths , and consists of a techno breakdown . The Goldfrapp remix of " Judas " follows as the second track ; the remix consists of industrial music and Gaga 's vocals are converted to a slow , low @-@ key moan making it almost like a man 's voice . Foster the People remixed " The Edge of Glory " and introduced a new break down from the 3 : 20 time sequence . Producers The Weeknd and Illangelo kept the overall feel of " Marry the Night " intact , but introduced vocals by Abel Tesfaye of The Weeknd and a steely looping drum machine . Jason Lipshultz from Billboard described the addition as " directly conflict [ ing ] with Gaga 's M.O. But like so many of these remixes , the Weeknd marries his vision of the song to Gaga 's gorgeous voice without losing the original 's integrity . " Tesfaye 's voice can be heard in spots on the song , adding an occasional " Ooh yeah " and a moan ; ultimately at the 2 : 20 mark , the song collapses on itself and ditches the percussion for infrequent piano notes . The remix of " Black Jesus + Amen Fashion " retains the most of the composition of its original counterpart , although it introduces a new synth by Michael Woods , thus turning it into a rave @-@ trance track . The Horrors remix of Born This Way album track " Bloody Mary " consisted of Gaga 's vocals fading in and out of sequence . " Scheiße " featured influences from The Knife song " Heartbeats " ( 2003 ) as well as Vengaboys ' " We Like to Party " ( 1999 ) . " Electric Chapel " ' s composition is completely changed by Two Door Cinema , altering the dark mood of the song to a fun and engaging one . The Metronomy remix of " You and I " varies little from its original equivalent , while dubstep is introduced in the Hurts remix of " Judas " , with a different conclusion . Sultan & Ned Shepard 's remix of " The Edge of Glory " , the last track on the album , features pumping drums and slinking synths .
= = Critical reception = =
After its release , Born This Way : The Remix received mixed reviews from critics . It earned an overall score of 57 out of 100 , on review aggregator site Metacritic . Jason Lipshultz from Billboard commented that the album did not re @-@ invent anything new in terms of remix composition , but instead " gives less recognizable artists a platform to tinker with these complex pop schemes . " He added that the album is not essential listening for non @-@ Gaga diehards , " but electronica fans who have yet to drink the Mother Monster kool @-@ aid will find plenty of pristinely produced club tracks to groove to . The album is a great avenue for fans to digest new versions of their favorite songs of the year , as well as discover artists that are trying to command audiences the way Gaga so masterfully does . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic gave the album three out of five stars , commenting that " some remixes take considerable liberty , ditching verses or hooks , whatever catches their fancy . So , it ’ s a remix album not for fairweather travelers but rather the hardcore Little Monsters , the kind who love every gesture grand or small from Gaga , but it also displays enough imagination to appeal to those listeners who fall into neither camp and are only looking for some darkly elastic dance . " Harley Brown of Consequence of Sound website was impressed with the diversity of remixes on the album , prompting him to comment that " just in time for the holiday season , there ’ s something for everyone on Born This Way : The Remix . And , unlike many remix albums featuring one song reworked again and again , this Remix comprises a diverse tracklist to match the diverse list of remixers . "
Jody Rosen from Rolling Stone gave a mixed review of the album , wondering why the remix album was necessary to be released in the first place . She nevertheless added that " [ t ] he album has some diverting moments . Goldfrapp 's down @-@ tempo ' Judas ' is less a remix than a smart cover , and the Weeknd and Illangelo re @-@ imagine ' Marry the Night ' as a strobe @-@ y , atmospheric R & B epic . But there are two or three duds for each winner — like the bludgeoning ' Scheiße ' , a gratuitous exercise that strives to make a dance @-@ floor thumper out of a song that was born that way . " Rosen 's view was shared by Paul Rice from Slant Magazine , who gave the album a rating of two out of five stars . Rice 's main complaint was that " [ c ] ertain artists cry out for the remix treatment more than others , usually those whose vocal talents are relatively straightforward and could benefit from the extra fuss . " He added that Gaga was not such an artist and that the original Born This Way album " in particular , is too big and untamed , full of too many of its own references and styles , from Springsteen to Madonna . As such , it 's best enjoyed on its own flawed , bombastic terms . " Nick Levine , reviewing the album for BBC Music felt that most of the tracks are already available as digital downloads and CD singles , " so it 's easy to dismiss Born This Way : The Remix as inessential and , yes , a cash @-@ in . But taken as a whole , this release offers enough revelations to suggest the original album is worth revisiting . That additional purpose , whether intentional or not , feels at least partly fulfilled . " Levine complimented The Weeknd and Twin Shadow 's remixes , while criticizing Foster the People and Sultan & Ned Shepard for their predictable remixes .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United Kingdom , Born This Way : The Remix entered the UK Albums Chart at number 77 , for the issue dated December 12 , 2011 . In Japan , the album sold 12 @,@ 120 copies in its first week , and debuted at number 14 on the Japanese Albums Chart . In its second week , the album fell down to number 19 while selling 6 @,@ 650 copies . It has been certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for shipment of 100 @,@ 000 copies . In the United States , the album debuted outside the top 100 of the Billboard 200 albums chart , at number 105 , while debuting at number
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remained in solidarity that they were all good friends , " cared for each other a lot " and supported each other through difficult times in the group .
= = = 2000 – 01 : 7 = = =
In February 2000 , the group won the ' British Breakthrough Act ' award at the 2000 BRIT Awards . In April 2000 , S Club 's second TV series , L.A. 7 ( renamed S Club 7 in L.A. in the US ) , was released . The series saw the group depart from Miami and move to Los Angeles to seek a record deal . It introduced the song " Reach " , another retro @-@ styled uptempo track , which was co @-@ written by Cathy Dennis and aired as the main theme tune to the second series . " Reach " was released as a single in May 2000 and reached number @-@ two in the UK charts . It arguably became one of the group 's most successful singles , paving the way for the group 's second album , 7 which was released on 12 June 2000 . This album was a departure from the overtly pop stylings of S Club , with tracks styled more towards R & B than the traditional nineties pop sound of their debut album . It reached number @-@ one in the UK charts becoming certified Triple Platinum , and a certified Gold record in the US . The second single from the album , " Natural " , featured Stevens as lead vocalist . It reached number three in September 2000 .
S Club 7 took an active part in promoting several charities during their time as a band . As well as performing for Children in Need , the band launched , on 25 September 2000 , a new television series called S Club 7 Go Wild ! , which saw each band member support an endangered species . Teaming up with the World Wildlife Fund , each member travelled to different destinations worldwide with a hope to raise awareness about the seven endangered creatures , including the Siberian tiger and the hyacinth macaw . In October 2000 , they launched the annual Poppy Appeal Campaign with Dame Thora Hird and supported Woolworth 's Kids First Campaign throughout 1999 and 2000 . The group also recorded vocals for " It 's Only Rock ' N ' Roll " , which raised money for Children 's Promise , an alliance of seven children 's charities : Barnardo 's , Children in Need , ChildLine , The Children 's Society , Comic Relief , NCH and the NSPCC . A cover of The Rolling Stones song , the group contributed to the vocals alongside many popular artists , including Mary J. Blige , Natalie Imbruglia and the Spice Girls ; it entered the UK charts at number @-@ nineteen . Also , during that time they filmed two speciales : " Artistic Differences " and their " Christmas Special " .
In November 2000 , S Club 7 were invited to provide the official song for the UK 's BBC Children in Need Campaign 2000 , so a new song , the ballad " Never Had a Dream Come True " , was recorded . The song became popular in the US market eventually taking the group to appear on MTV 's TRL to perform the song and chosen to appear at the " Now That 's What I Call Music " US Edition . After topping the UK charts in December 2000 , the song was added to a re @-@ release of the 7 album , along with another new track , a cover of Stevie Wonder 's " Lately " .
= = = 2001 – 02 : Sunshine and Cattermole 's departure = = =
" Never Had a Dream Come True " had marked a more mature direction for the group whilst still retaining their pop sensibilities , a direction which continued into their third studio album , Sunshine . The album contained what was to become one of S Club 's most popular tracks , " Don 't Stop Movin ' " . The song was released in April 2001 , marked a high point for the group as the single went straight to number @-@ one , went Platinum and became the seventh best selling single of 2001 . McIntosh , who takes lead vocals with O 'Meara in the track , said he was " nervous " about taking lead vocals and was worried how people would react . However , after the song went in at number @-@ one , he felt as though he was " supported by the fans " and his fears were alleviated . McIntosh also remarked that the single had broken new ground for the group , and Cattermole thought it to be their " best song by miles " . The group won the Record of the Year award for the song , and in February 2002 , the single won the group their second BRIT Award for best British single . The song has since been covered by The Beautiful South for their 2004 album Golddiggas , Headnodders and Pholk Songs , as well as by Starsailor who recorded it for BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge .
By spring 2001 , the group were " desperate " to start touring ; it was something which they had always wanted to do , but couldn 't because things were " always so hectic " . After spending most of early 2001 rehearsing , the S Club Party 2001 tour began on 19 May 2001 . Describing the tour , Stevens remarked that seeing a crowd of over 13 @,@ 000 fans each night coming to see them was " such an unbelievable feeling " , and the other members of the group shared an " adrenaline rush " as well as a wave of emotion before going on stage . Once the tour was over , the group had to fly back to the United States in order to film the third series of their television show , Hollywood 7 . This third series , which was still set in Los Angeles , was the group 's favourite to film because they had more acting experience and could " drop their shoulders " and start to enjoy themselves . The group , however , had to continuously cope with intense schedules and early starts whilst recording for the programme , something which , although the group felt " laid back " about it at the time , was to eventually take its toll and lead to the demise of the band . Hollywood 7 began airing in September 2001 and dealt with the issue of an on @-@ screen kiss between Spearritt and Cattermole , who had begun dating in real life . Their relationship , which was kept secret for six months , was well received by the band who claimed it had made them all closer as friends . Hollywood 7 aired alongside a new CBBC reality show , S Club Search , which invited children to extend the S Club brand and audition to form a younger version of the band . The new group were to be chosen to sing with S Club 7 on Children in Need 2001 and go on tour with them on their future S Club 7 Carnival 2002 tour . The eight children who went on to form the band named themselves S Club Juniors and had six top ten UK hits .
The effects of the group 's charity single , " Never Had a Dream Come True " , were felt when the group handed over £ 200 @,@ 000 to Children in Need , from the sales of the CD after the release of " Don 't Stop Movin ' " in April 2001 . As a result , S Club 7 were invited back and asked to record a second consecutive Children in Need single , in November 2001 . It was decided that " Have You Ever " , a song co @-@ written by Chris Braide and Cathy Dennis , was to be released for the charity campaign . After the success of the previous year 's single , the performance on the night featured many primary school children who had pre @-@ recorded their own versions of the chorus , including the S Club Juniors who they made their first television appearance . The band felt " overjoyed " that they could , once again , contribute to the Children in Need campaign , feeling that it meant a lot to them to be involved and feeling privileged to be able to help ; they also commented that it was nice for British school children to be involved in raising money for charity . The single was another success for the group and became their fourth number @-@ one , as well as the 21st biggest selling single of 2001 .
In January 2002 , S Club 7 embarked upon their second arena tour , S Club 7 Carnival 2002 , which aimed to please fans by stylising their songs to fit with a carnival @-@ like theme with music styles from different countries of the world . Speaking about the tour , McIntosh described it as " older show " , a change from S Club Party 2001 , which was " more like bubblegum " , with Paul Cattermole comparing 2001 's " theatrical " tour with the Carnival tour as a more " glitzy , concert stage " . The tour was generally well received by the children 's media , describing the show as " diverse " and " dazzling " , whereas the group was criticised by the broadsheets as being " like a compilation of toddler @-@ friendly Eurovision entries " although conceding that it was a " slick , decent @-@ value show " . Cattermole was also criticised when he was dubbed overweight and a " heavy @-@ footed dancer " . After the success of their last three singles , all of which had made it to number @-@ one , S Club 7 failed to top the charts when they released their ninth single , " You " ; it reached number @-@ two in the UK . The single , which was described as a " candyfloss @-@ bright , tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek 50s pastiche " , was to be Paul Cattermole 's last single with the band and led the way for a series of events that was to unravel S Club 7 's time at the top of the charts , which would ultimately cause the band to split .
In March 2002 , Paul Cattermole told The Sun newspaper that it was time for him to " move on " from the group and he wanted to go back to his " rock roots " , which heralded back to the time he was part of a nu metal band formed at school in 1992 . Talking about his former musical venture three months before he left S Club 7 , Cattermole described the band — called Skua — as having a " Limp Bizkit vibe " as well as comparing their style to Rage Against the Machine . Cattermole 's resignation came as Skua had decided to reform , and he found it a perfect time to make the transition back from pop to rock as S Club 7 's record contracts were up for renewal . Skua released their first album in October 2014 titled Kneel Cattermole stayed with the band until June 2002 , featuring in four out of thirteen episodes of the group 's final television series , Viva S Club , and performing his final concert with the group for Party at the Palace , which was part of Queen Elizabeth II 's Golden Jubilee celebrations .
= = = 2002 – 03 : Seeing Double , Greatest Hits and break @-@ up = = =
After Cattermole 's departure , vowing to not disband , the remaining six members stayed together under the name S Club . Despite losing a member of the group , the future remained positive as , although they were very sad to see Cattermole leave the group , they were " delighted " to have extended their contracts meaning they could look forward to new material , a new series of their television show as well as their first feature film . However , media reports of the time weren 't so optimistic stating that , as neither the Spice Girls nor Take That had survived once they lost a member of their group , it would be difficult for S Club to remain together in an industry which has a " horrible habit of leaving bands in tatters once the first member has left " . After only peaking at number @-@ five in the UK charts with Alive , their first single as a six , was S Club 's positivism diminished . Although their progressive musical style was once again furthered with the release of their fourth studio album , Seeing Double , it failed to make an impact on the UK charts , stalling at number @-@ seventeen . S Club 's time at the top of the charts was slowly coming to an end , and when O 'Meara announced that she had an immobilising back condition which could have left her in a wheelchair , and she was unable to take part in television performances , the group was left devastated .
In April 2003 , S Club released their first feature film , Seeing Double , directed by music @-@ video director Nigel Dick , which was to be the last time the group would be seen on @-@ screen together . Unlike its television predecessors , the film moved into the realm of children 's fantasy , and saw the group fighting evil scientist Victor Gaghan in his quest to clone the world 's pop stars . The film 's release was marked by many rumours that the group were about to split , which were quickly denied by the six . However , ten days after the release of their movie , the rumours were confirmed when it was announced live on stage — during their S Club United tour on 21 April 2003 – that , after a final single and greatest hits album , S Club would part ways . The band cited a mutual split , expressing it was simply a time " to move on and face new challenges " . Many fans felt " betrayed " and " disappointed " by the breakup , as well as " angry " due to the group denying rumours only two weeks before at the Seeing Double premiere . Many compared the demise of the group to that of fellow pop band Steps , as they too had denied their intentions until the moment before their split , after which they were accused of acting out of " greed and cynicism " . Since the split , the members of S Club have commented on how exhausting being in the band was , due to hectic schedules and long filming days .
In 2003 S Club confirming the split " wasn 't a final straw " , Spearritt has remarked that the group had felt it appropriate wanting to do their own thing ; she had constantly felt " drained " whilst with S Club . The final single was a double A @-@ side , coupling " Love Ain 't Gonna Wait for You " , from their fourth album Seeing Double , with a new ballad , " Say Goodbye " . Returning to the style of their first single , " Say Goodbye " saw vocals shared around the group . The single reached number @-@ two in the UK , beaten to the top spot by R. Kelly 's " Ignition ( Remix ) " , and was included on S Club 's greatest hits album , Best : The Greatest Hits of S Club 7 , released in June 2003 . This compilation brought together the group 's releases with a previously unreleased track , " Everybody Get Pumped " and 7 track " Bring the House Down " . The album reached number @-@ two in the United Kingdom . S Club eventually disbanded after the release of " Say Goodbye " on 26 May 2003 .
On 27 April 2003 , it was reported that Spearritt 's parents had hired lawyers to chase payments owed to them by Simon Fuller and his management company . They claimed that out of the € 75 million fortune the band made for Fuller , they only received € 150 @,@ 000 a year of it . There was also controversy when the band had to travel economy class to America and when Fuller did not turn up for the premiere of Seeing Double . The criticism put to Fuller was similar of that in 1997 when the Spice Girls fired him for being too controlling . After the group split up , the S Club Juniors rebranded to " S Club 8 " , and went on to film CBBC show I Dream , releasing their third studio album under the same name . The group disbanded in 2005 .
= = = 2008 – 14 : S Club 3 , S Club 4 and S Club Party = = =
From October 2008 , O 'Meara , McIntosh , and Cattermole reunited and started performing in pubs and clubs across Britain . This was shortly after O 'Meara 's son Lenny was born . On 12 November 2008 , a bottle was thrown at O 'Meara during an S Club 3 performance in Bradford ; it left her with a severe cut to the head , requiring treatment at a nearby Hospital . A 20 @-@ year @-@ old man was arrested , and the attack was thought to have something to do with her performance on Celebrity Big Brother , where nearly 50 @,@ 000 complaints were received about her and two other female contestants ' apparent racist bullying toward Bollywood actress Shilpa Shetty . In late 2008 , some sources stated that Barrett and Lee were to start touring with the group sometime in the following year . It was also stated that a new greatest hits album , Ain 't No Party : The Ultimate Collection of S Club 7 was set for release later the following year . Both of these rumours turned out to be false . Lee was pursuing his acting career along with Spearritt , Barrett was on hiatus , and Stevens was starring in Strictly Come Dancing . Cattermole was absent from a gig at the Plug Club in Sheffield in February 2009 . On 12 November , S Club 3 turned on the Mansfield Christmas Lights . In early 2010 , the group decided to take their gigs further . They booked some venues in Egypt for April . On 19 April 2010 , S Club 3 were the headlining act at the Tottenham Carnival . The group made an appearance at Gay Prides in Doncaster and Yorkshire on 21 August .
In January 2011 , O 'Meara and McIntosh made several performances in Dublin without Cattermole . On 2 February 2011 , O 'Meara , McIntosh and Cattermole played at Keele University , followed by a guest appearance at Aberystwyth University on 20 February 2011 . On 18 March 2011 they played to a sellout crowd at the University of Hull , a move which saw local media refer to the show as " the comeback of the century " . The group subsequently performed at Butlin 's in Bognor Regis and various university Freshers ' Week events , with a scheduled tour of Australia in May 2012 . In March 2011 , O 'Meara stated on Facebook that all seven members would be reunited for the first time since 2002 . On 29 March 2011 , the group all went to see Lee perform as Frankie Valli in Jersey Boys on stage . They posed for photos afterwards . On 29 November 2011 it was revealed by several publications , that S Club had hopes to reunite in 2012 for a possible tour , following on the success from Steps . However , Barrett confirmed through her Twitter page that the rumours of a reunion were completely fabricated . However , on 12 December 2011 , she announced on Twitter in response to a fan : " right now i 'll just say anythings possible so we 'll see ! ! x " In an interview on ITV 's This Morning Spearritt stated that her and her former bandmates are just " too busy " for a reunion .
In March 2012 , it was speculated that all seven members would reform for seven one @-@ off gigs and appearances , with possibility of a two @-@ album record deal . On 30 April , Barrett spoke out about the speculations on Radio 5 . She revealed that the group had been " talking about it " and stated that a reunion is likely to happen if they come up with a " good plan " . She was also pursuing her solo career at that time , she was the only group member who didn 't during the break @-@ up . In spring 2012 the group , now renamed ' S Club Party ' set out on a tour of Australia with other noughties ' hit group , Big Brovaz . On 30 May 2012 , S Club featured on Australia 's Channel 7 The Morning Show , announcing they are in the country for a national tour from 23 May to 2 June 2012 . Subsequent to this appearance , a video of the performance was uploaded to YouTube , where the reaction was largely negative with many viewers expressing the opinion that the performance was uncomfortable to watch , with the absence of the four other members of the original band causing some disillusionment among childhood fans of the group .
On 12 June 2012 , Spearritt denied the reunion plans and stated that she will not return to S Club or continue her music career and will keep on pursuing her acting career . She stated " It 's cool that bands like Steps are getting back together , because it 's worked out for lots of people . But I don 't see it in my plans at all . In the future , I hope I 'll still be working and being able to do what I love . I feel very lucky at the minute , and doing theatre has really opened more doors for me . So as long as I can keep doing what I love , I 'm very lucky . " On 24 March 2013 , Stevens said to the Daily Mirror that a reunion could still happen : " We met up not long ago and we talked about it and we still are talking about it . We are all in the same head space , talking about how special it was and we do all want to celebrate what we had . So it 's definitely a possibility . "
In 2014 , Cattermole later re @-@ ignited reunion rumours following a tweet to his former group mates . Barrett performed with O 'Meara , McIntosh and Cattermole at Birmingham Pride 2014 and other gigs after that ; meaning that the group was known as ' S Club 4 ' . After this , Jo , Bradley and Tina have performed at a number of events as ' S Club Party ' .
= = = 2014 – present : Original line @-@ up reunion and Bring It All Back 2015 = = =
In August 2014 , it was reported that the band would be reforming under the backing of Simon Fuller . Cattermole denied these reports the next day , but said a reunion was " God damn close to happening " . On 22 October , it was confirmed that all seven members of S Club 7 would reunite for the BBC Children in Need telethon ; the reunion aired on 14 November 2014 , with S Club 7 performing a medley of four of their greatest hits : " S Club Party " , " Reach " , " Bring It All Back " and " Don 't Stop Movin ' " . Popjustice announced that the band plan on having a press conference on Monday , 17 November 2014 , where they are to unveil their " huge plans " for 2015 . On 17 November 2014 , S Club 7 announced their plans for an arena reunion tour , promptly titled Bring It All Back 2015 , which toured the UK in May 2015 .
In March 2015 , during an interview with Graham Norton on BBC Radio 2 , the group confirmed plans to re @-@ release their 2003 greatest hits , Best : The Greatest Hits of S Club 7 that forthcoming May , and that it may contain the previously unreleased track " Rain " . On 28 April 2015 , it was confirmed that the re @-@ issue of the Best album would release on 4 May , and would include " Rain " , as well as " Friday Night " from the S Club album .
= = Controversy = =
On 20 March 2001 , Cattermole , Lee and McIntosh were caught with cannabis in London 's Covent Garden ; they were cautioned by police at Charing Cross Police Station and released without charge . After the event , their publicity firm Henry 's House released a public apology stating they were " very stupid " and " very sorry " , admitting to having made a " stupid mistake " . At the time , BT and Cadbury , who had sponsorship deals with S Club 7 , said they were " very disappointed " to learn of the caution but said they would keep their contracts with the band . However , cereal firm Quaker Oats ended talks with 19 Entertainment after learning of the police caution . It was rumoured that merchandising company PMS International were to take out an £ 800 @,@ 000 lawsuit against the band for declining sales as a direct result of the drugs scandal . However , this came to nothing and any doubts over the future of sponsorship ended when Pepsi signed the band up less than a month after the drugs caution .
= = Musical style = =
The style of music S Club 7 normally falls under is pop , or more specifically bubblegum pop , as well as manufactured pop . This is certainly the case for their first album , S Club where simple lyrics , three @-@ chord structures and danceable beats define it so . Their first two singles saw vocals shared equally amongst the seven members of the group , and it was not until their third single , " Two in a Million " that O 'Meara became known as their lead vocalist . Although the band were to progressively change their style over the four years they were together , even their first album had many tracks atypical of the pop genre : " You 're My Number One " , " Love Train " and " Everybody Wants Ya " were motown driven whereas " Viva La Fiesta " and " It 's A Feel Good Thing " , were both " bouncy , salsa @-@ driven Latino songs " .
Over the years , their style and direction changed progressively with each new album . Their second album 7 , had songs which had styles far removed from the traditional pop songs rival pop bands of the nineties were releasing . With the release of " Natural " in 2000 , S Club 7 showcased a new , R & B @-@ lite sound . The release of their third album , Sunshine , gave audiences their biggest change : the album contained tracks such as the disco @-@ influenced , " Don 't Stop Movin ' " and the R & B ballad , " Show Me Your Colours " . The album marked a more mature approach for the band .
With the departure of Cattermole , S Club released their fourth and final album , Seeing Double which contained many songs with styles not yet explored by the group . The group released " Alive " which was a " power @-@ packed dance floor filler " , a style which matched that of their final single " Love Ain 't Gonna Wait for You " . The album also contained many other dance tracks and songs far removed from their original bubblegum pop stylings , such as the " sex for the CBBC generation " in " Hey Kitty Kitty " . Although , in one review , referring to " Gangsta Love " , " S Club 's spiritual home is the suburban disco , not urban underground clubs , and their attempt to go garage on " Gangsta Love " ends up amusing rather than authentic " . Throughout their releases , S Club 7 always kept their original pop roots , with songs such as " Reach " , " You " and " Say Goodbye "
= = Members = =
= = Discography = =
S Club ( 1999 )
7 ( 2000 )
Sunshine ( 2001 )
Seeing Double ( 2002 )
= = Filmography = =
= = Tours = =
= 1989 FA Charity Shield =
The 1989 FA Charity Shield ( also known as the Tennent 's Charity Shield for sponsorship reasons ) was the 67th Charity Shield , an annual English football match played between the winners of the previous season 's Football League and FA Cup . It was held at Wembley Stadium on 12 August 1989 . The match was contested by Arsenal , champions of the 1988 – 89 Football League and Liverpool , who beat Everton in the final of the 1988 – 89 FA Cup . Watched by a crowd of 63 @,@ 149 , Liverpool won the match 1 – 0 .
This was Arsenal 's 10th Shield appearance and Liverpool 's 14th . The two clubs had met in the last game of the previous season , in a title decider at Anfield which Arsenal won 2 – 0 with a late goal from Michael Thomas . Both clubs also faced each other in the Makita International Tournament at Wembley the previous month ; Arsenal won the match 1 – 0 . Journalists previewing the game argued this year 's Shield had lost its spectacle given Liverpool 's recent successes in the event as well as the prospect of Arsenal beating Liverpool for a third time .
New signing Glenn Hysén made his competitive debut for Liverpool and Ian Rush started ahead of fellow striker John Aldridge . For Arsenal , Gus Caesar replaced Steve Bould in the starting team . The only goal of the match came in the first half – a long ball from Barry Venison floated around the Arsenal defence and found Peter Beardsley in the penalty area to score . Afterwards Liverpool manager Kenny Dalglish spoke of his delight at his team 's performance and the Arsenal manager George Graham was complimentary of his opponents .
= = Background = =
The FA Charity Shield was founded in 1908 as a successor to the Sheriff of London Charity Shield . It was a contest between the respective champions of the Football League and Southern League , which then became an event for select teams of amateur and professional players by 1913 . In 1921 , it was played between the Football League champions and FA Cup winners for the first time ; this became standard practise from 1930 . Wembley Stadium acted as the host of the Shield from 1974 .
Arsenal qualified for the 1989 FA Charity Shield as winners of the 1988 – 89 Football League First Division . The team played Liverpool at Anfield in the final game of the season and needed to win by two clear goals to be crowned champions . Alan Smith scored for Arsenal early in the second half to make it 1 – 0 , and Michael Thomas 's goal with seconds left of the match ensured the team won the league title . Liverpool , days before the league encounter with Arsenal , defeated Everton to win the 1989 FA Cup Final which meant they obtained the other Charity Shield place .
This was Arsenal 's first appearance in the Charity Shield in 10 years ; prior to the game they had won seven Shields ( 1930 , 1931 , 1933 , 1934 , 1938 , 1948 and 1953 ) , and lost three ( 1935 , 1936 and 1979 ) . By contrast , Liverpool had won seven previous Shields outright ( 1966 , 1974 , 1976 , 1979 , 1980 , 1982 and 1988 ) , shared two with Manchester United ( 1965 and 1977 ) and one apiece with Everton ( 1986 ) and West Ham United ( 1984 ) . The club was runners @-@ up in three Shields ( 1971 , 1983 and 1984 ) .
= = Pre @-@ match = =
This was the second time in a fortnight that Arsenal and Liverpool had played each other ; at the end of July , the two teams competed in the Makita International Tournament at Wembley . Arsenal won the game by a single goal to win the tournament and then on their pre @-@ season travels beat Argentinian champions Independiente . The spectacle of the Charity Shield was lost on certain football journalists previewing the match , because of Liverpool 's recent successes in the Shield as well as the prospect of Arsenal beating Liverpool for a third time in succession . David Lacey wrote in The Guardian of 12 August 1989 : " The FA Charity Shield is now more of a pre @-@ season finale than a pipe opener for the main event , " and Stuart Jones of The Times went further in his assessment of its decline :
Whereas it was once an eagerly @-@ awaited showpiece , it resembles in the modern age little more than another public training exercise for sides who are increasingly being invited to practise for the season in more lucrative and prestigious events on foreign fields .
Liverpool striker Ian Rush , who in the previous season sustained a knee injury and was treated for shingles and hepatitis , said before the match : " I 'm in great shape . Fitter than I have been since I came back from Italy . "
= = Match = =
= = = Team selection = = =
Arsenal was without injured defender Steve Bould , but Nigel Winterburn returned to full action , as did Brian Marwood – he recovered from a successful Achilles tendon operation . Manager George Graham deployed a 5 – 3 – 2 formation ; Gus Caesar was brought into the defence to replace Bould .
Liverpool had no injury concerns for the game other than long @-@ term absentee Gary Gillespie ; New signing Glenn Hysén made his competitive debut for the club and striker John Aldridge was named on the substitutes bench ; manager Kenny Dalglish lined the team up in a 4 – 4 – 2 formation . Alan Hansen , who had missed Liverpool 's final nine matches of the previous season , was restored as captain .
= = = Summary = = =
Liverpool created the first chance of the game in the 20th minute . A pass from John Barnes sent Steve Nicol clear to shoot , but his effort saw the ball roll wide of the far post . Liverpool created a further opportunity six minutes after – from a free @-@ kick delivered by Barnes on the left , Rush managed to outjump his marker and head the ball in the direction of the Arsenal goal . It however hit the near post and rebounded in the direction of Arsenal goalkeeper John Lukic . Minutes after the half @-@ hour mark , Liverpool scored the opening goal – a long ball from Barry Venison went behind the Arsenal defence and reached Peter Beardsley . Unimpeded , he controlled the ball and shot it with his right foot to score . Arsenal 's Kevin Richardson missed a chance to level the scoreline after good play by Lee Dixon ; from outside the penalty box he scuffed his shot and the ball went over the crossbar .
Liverpool continued to dominate proceedings in the second half ; The Observer football correspondent Frank McGhee noted Arsenal 's " obvious need for a more adventurous approach . " The club 's fans demanded Marwood 's introduction to the match , and in the 58th minute the player came on for Caesar . This meant Arsenal 's formation was tweaked to 4 – 4 – 2 , with a flat back four defence . Arsenal found it hard to contain the Liverpool attack ; Lukic saved an effort from Beardsley one @-@ handed , but only could turn the ball out for a corner . A pass by Ronnie Whelan managed to split the Arsenal defence and find Nicol ; Winterburn however put an end to the move with a tackle . David Burrows 's attempt on goal was blocked by O 'Leary later on and Lukic did enough to save Rush 's shot with his legs .
= = = Details = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
Dalglish was pleased with Liverpool 's game and told the press : " The most important thing is that we got our own standard of football right . We were the better team in all departments and we know that if we get it right then we will be there or thereabouts . " Hysén , the man of the match , said of his centre @-@ back partner Hansen : " It is so easy playing alongside Alan . He tells you where to go and what position to take up . " He saw similarities with Liverpool and playing for a national team : " The standards are so amazingly high . I just want to win things with them . "
Graham praised his opponents – " There is no need to take anything away from Liverpool because they were terrific , " and felt his team could have been more clinical . He described Arsenal 's performance as " below par " and was upbeat about the season ahead : " This might have done us the world of good . We will be all right by next week – don 't worry about that . "
= Port of Rijeka =
The Port of Rijeka ( Croatian : Luka Rijeka ) is a seaport in Rijeka , Croatia , located on the shore of the Kvarner Gulf in the Adriatic Sea . The first records of the port date to 1281 . It was the main port of the Kingdom of Hungary in the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century , of Yugoslavia between World War II and 1991 , and of Croatia after its independence . Today , it is the largest port in Croatia with a cargo throughput of 10 @.@ 9 million tonnes ( 2015 ) , mostly oil , general cargo and bulk cargo , and 161 @,@ 883 Twenty @-@ foot equivalent units ( TEUs ) . In 2008 , the Port of Rijeka recorded 4 @,@ 376 ship arrivals . It is managed by the Port of Rijeka Authority .
In 2011 , Luka Rijeka d.d. , a concessionaire of the Port of Rijeka signed a contract of strategic partnership with International Container Terminal Services Inc . ( ICTSI ) and Jadranska vrata d.d. , the second concessionaire of the Port of Rijeka , to operate the container terminal . The partnership aims to expand the terminal 's capacity to 600 @,@ 000 TEUs . The development master plan , devised by Rotterdam Maritime Group , calls for further expansion of the port facilities by 2030 , including construction of a large container terminal in Omišalj on Krk Island . The third concessionaire is Jadranski naftovod ( JANAF ) , which operates an oil terminal in Omišalj .
= = History = =
The first record of a port in Rijeka dates back to 1281 , when the Great Council of the Republic of Venice reported a conflict of Venetian merchants and ship owners from Zadar and Rab . In 1719 , the Port of Rijeka was granted a charter as a free port by Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI , and the first road connecting the port to the hinterland , the Caroline road , was completed in 1728 . The inland connections were gradually improved by the construction of the Josephina and Louisiana roads in 1779 and 1810 respectively .
In 1776 , Rijeka became a corpus separatum within the Habsburg Monarchy , known under its Hungarian / Italian name of Fiume , and was transferred to the Kingdom of Hungary in order to foster trade . Following the Austro @-@ Hungarian Compromise of 1867 , Rijeka gained greater importance as the sole Hungarian seaport , and in the second half of the 19th century a new artificial harbor was completed , as well as railway lines to Budapest via Zagreb and to Pivka in present @-@ day Slovenia , where the railway joined the Austrian Southern Railway connecting Vienna and Trieste . The development in this period boosted the Port of Rijeka to rank tenth in transport volume among European ports as it reached a peak in 1913 . In the second half of the 19th century , a large breakwater was built along with wharfs in the city of Rijeka itself , moving the shoreline between 100 metres ( 330 feet ) and 200 metres ( 660 feet ) . In the period , railway infrastructure was also built to the north of the port , along with storage facilities , administrative buildings and other necessary structures . The railway facilities were designed by Jozsef Bainville , while the port itself was designed by Hilarion Pascal , who had previously designed the Port of Marseille , and Antal Hajnal . The design was presented as a model port at the Weltausstellung in Vienna in 1873 and at the Exposition Universelle in Paris in 1878 .
After the defeat of Austria @-@ Hungary in World War I and the Treaty of Rapallo of 1920 , Rijeka became an independent city @-@ state known as the Free State of Fiume . That marked the beginning of the port 's decline , as it lost a large portion of its major market , Hungary . Italy annexed Rijeka in 1924 by the Treaty of Rome , and the port became peripherally located , with no modern railway or road links to the rest of the country , further adding to the already obvious economic decline .
During World War II , Rijeka was targeted by around 30 Allied bombing raids , and in 1945 the retreating Germans damaged approximately 90 % of the port facilities . Among the ships sunk in the port was the German auxiliary cruiser Kiebitz , which would later be raised and repaired to become the Yugoslav Navy Yacht Galeb . The city of Rijeka purchased the ship , which was subsequently moored in the port and eventually opened as a museum in 2011 .
Following World War II and the Paris Peace Treaties , Rijeka became a part of Croatia and Yugoslavia . This provided the Port of Rijeka with a new market and sparked further development . A bulk cargo terminal was completed in 1967 , followed by warehouses in Škrljevo in 1978 . In 1979 , a container terminal in Sušak , a phosphate terminal in Rijeka and a timber terminal in Bršica were added . Joining them were a livestock terminal in Bršica and a general cargo terminal with a roll @-@ on / roll @-@ off ramp in the Bakar area in 1982 and 1983 respectively . The greatest volume of cargo was recorded in 1980 , when 20 @.@ 2 million tonnes , including 13 @.@ 1 million tonnes of liquid cargo , were transported . The port suffered another period of stagnation in the 1990s due to the Croatian War of Independence , when a portion of the port 's shipping switched to Trieste and Koper . Since 1996 , the volume of operations of the Port of Rijeka has again been gradually growing .
= = Port of Rijeka Authority = =
The Port of Rijeka Authority was founded in 1996 by the Republic of Croatia as the first port authority in the country . It is tasked with planning and strategic development , including the issuing of concessions and permits , supervision , safety of navigation in the port area , security and fire protection , as well as waste management . Business operations are managed by the port concessionaires : Luka Rijeka d.d. , Jadranski naftovod ( JANAF ) and Jadranska vrata d.d. and their subcontractors .
In March 2010 , the port authorities of Trieste , Ravenna , Venice and Koper established the North Adriatic Ports Association ( NAPA ) in Trieste with the aim of enhancing the position of the ports in the European Union and its transport patterns . The Port of Rijeka joined the NAPA in November 2010 . The NAPA aims to harmonize information systems and organizational setup of the member ports in order to attract shipping . The project is scheduled to be completed by 2013 . Besides the NAPA , the Port of Rijeka is also a member of the EcoPorts network of the European Sea Ports Organisation , the International Harbour Masters ' Association , Association Internationale Villes et Ports , the Croatian Association of Port Authorities and the International Association of Ports and Harbors .
The Port of Rijeka Authority operates a traffic control centre , located in the new passenger terminal . The traffic control system comprises an Electronic Chart Display and Information System using radar sensors and an Automatic Identification System , as well as additional systems such as a VHF system , hydrometeorological data , Closed @-@ circuit television monitoring of the port and data processing systems . In 2011 , the port authority was commended as one of top four port authorities of the year globally .
= = Transport facilities = =
The Port of Rijeka is located on the Kvarner Gulf in the northern Adriatic Sea , centered on the city of Rijeka . The facilities include terminals and other structures in the city and in the area reaching from the Bay of Bakar , where the bulk cargo terminal is located , approximately 13 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 1 miles ) east of Rijeka , to Bršica to the west of Rijeka , where there is a multi @-@ purpose terminal . The Port of Rijeka is at the southern terminus of the Pan @-@ European transport network Corridor Vb , representing a maritime extension of the rail and road routes leading to and from Rijeka . They include modern roads such as the A6 motorway , forming a part of the European route E65 and connecting Zagreb , Budapest and Vienna , and the A7 motorway , a part of the European route E61 and the E65 . Rail links comprise single @-@ track railway lines to Zagreb and to Pivka , Slovenia . There are plans to upgrade to a high @-@ performance , double @-@ track railway .
The port comprises several terminals :
Bulk Cargo Terminal – handles coal , iron ore and bulk cargo ; 4 million tonnes annual capacity ; accommodates Capesize ships ; located in the Bay of Bakar , 13 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 1 miles ) east of Rijeka
Cereal Terminal – handles and storage of cereals and oilseeds ; 1 million tonnes annual capacity ; western part of the Port of Rijeka
Container and Ro @-@ Ro Terminal – handles intermodal containers ; contains a roll @-@ on / roll @-@ off ramp ; accommodates Panamax ships , located in the eastern part of the port ; operated by Jadranska vrata d.d.
General Cargo Terminal – handles general cargo , salt and cement ; 2 million tonnes annual capacity ; western part of the port
Timber Terminal – handles , stores and processes timber ; 500 @,@ 000 tonnes annual capacity ; eastern part of the port
Škrljevo Terminal – cargo storage , processing and packaging facilities ; occupies 41 @.@ 7 hectares ( 103 acres ) 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 miles ) from Rijeka , providing motorway and rail access
Frigo Terminal – handles and stores refrigerated and frozen food ; 100 @,@ 000 tonnes annual capacity ; western part of the port
Bršica Terminal – handles livestock , timber and general cargo ; 60 @,@ 000 tonnes of annual capacity ; located 60 kilometres ( 37 miles ) to the west from Rijeka
Passenger Terminal – 11 piers ; serving 200 @,@ 000 passengers per year , largely traveling by lines serving nearby islands and other ports along the Adriatic coast .
Liquid Cargo Terminal – two Capesize berths ( 30 @-@ metre ( 98 ft ) draft ) ; located in Omišalj Bay ( operated by JANAF ) and Sepen Bay ( operated by DIOKI d.d. ) , both on Krk Island ; annual capacity of 24 million tonnes of oil ; 130 @,@ 000 tonnes storage capacity ; the terminal is linked to a pipeline operated by JANAF and the DINA petrochemical plant in Omišalj
The port has 58 berths and two additional berths in the Liquid Cargo Terminal , 150 @-@ hectare ( 370 @-@ acre ) total port area , and 335 @,@ 000 square metres ( 3 @,@ 610 @,@ 000 square feet ) of enclosed warehouses .
= = Business operations = =
The port of Rijeka is the largest port in Croatia , handling the largest portion of the country 's imports and exports . In 2008 , 2418 ships docked at Rijeka itself , 872 at Bršica , 818 at Bakar , and 268 at Omišalj — a total of 4376 . In 2010 , the Port of Rijeka transported 10 @.@ 2 million tonnes of cargo , a 9 % drop from 2009 . However the figure represents a 69 % increase of dry cargo transport volume compared to 2002 . The 2010 figure includes 5 @.@ 6 million tonnes of liquid cargo , 2 @.@ 3 million tonnes of general cargo , 2 @.@ 0 million tonnes of bulk cargo and 254 @,@ 000 tonnes of timber . The container terminal recorded a substantial growth of business in past years . 137 @,@ 048 TEUs were transported through the port in 2010 , marking a 5 % rise in turnover compared to 2009 and a ninefold increase over 2002 . The Port of Rijeka also serves passenger and ferry lines operated by Jadrolinija to the nearby islands of Cres , Mali Lošinj , Susak , Ilovik , Unije , Rab and Pag , as well as to Adriatic ports further south , such as Split and Dubrovnik . The line to Split and Dubrovnik also serves the islands of Hvar , Korčula and Mljet . The passenger terminal serves approximately 200 @,@ 000 passengers each year . As of August 2011 , there are three concessionaires operating in the Port of Rijeka : Luka Rijeka d.d. , Jadranska vrata d.d. and JANAF .
= = = Luka Rijeka = = =
In 2010 , Luka Rijeka d.d. reported a net profit of 32 @,@ 000 kuna ( 4 @,@ 300 euro ) , a sharp decline from 3 @.@ 5 million kuna ( 0 @.@ 47 million euro ) the previous year . Total income in 2010 reached 210 @.@ 4 million kuna ( 28 @.@ 4 million euro ) , down from 228 @.@ 9 million kuna ( 30 @.@ 9 million euro ) in 2009 . In 2010 , the company had 935 employees . It is listed at the Zagreb Stock Exchange , with a share capital of 598 million kuna ( 80 @.@ 8 million euro ) . Luka Rijeka d.d. is owned by the state ( 72 @.@ 7 % ) , Croatian Healthcare Fund ( 8 @.@ 1 % ) and other stockholders , none of which owns more than 5 % of the stock .
Denis Vukorepa has been the chairman of the board of the company since 2002 . The appointment is limited to a five @-@ year term , but in May 2011 , Vukorepa 's term was extended for the second time .
Luka Rijeka 's concession in the Port of Rijeka is valid until 2012 , and a request to renew the concession for another 30 years has been filed . Luka Rijeka uses 117 hectares ( 290 acres ) of land operated by the Port of Rijeka Authority .
= = = Jadranska vrata = = =
The Jadranska vrata d.d. company was founded as a Luka Rijeka d.d. subsidiary , and was tasked with operating the container cargo terminal located in the Brajdica district of Rijeka . As of August 2011 , International Container Terminal Services Inc . ( ICTSI ) acquired a 51 % share in the company , becoming a strategic partner . The company has also become prominent under its English name — Adriatic Gate Container Terminal . Jadranska vrata d.d. has acquired a separate concession to operate the container terminal in the Port of Rijeka until 2041 . Antonio P. Passaro was appointed as chief executive officer of Jadranska vrata d.d. by ICTSI in 2011 .
= = = Jadranski naftovod = = =
Jadranski naftovod ( JANAF ) operates an oil terminal at Omišalj , Krk Island . In 2010 , the JANAF transported 6 @.@ 4 million tonnes of oil , a 7 % drop from 6 @.@ 9 million tonnes in 2009 . In 2010 , JANAF recorded annual revenue of 464 @.@ 9 million kuna ( 62 @.@ 8 million euro ) , down less than 1 % from 2009 , and annual net profit of 118 @.@ 5 million kuna ( 16 million euro ) , up 11 % from the previous year . However , JANAF operations include other facilities and services besides the oil terminal concession in the Port of Rijeka . JANAF is a joint stock company owned by the Croatian Pension Insurance Institute ( 50 @.@ 5 % ) , INA ( 16 % ) , the Republic of Croatia ( 14 @.@ 5 % ) and other shareholders owning less than 10 % of stock each . JANAF 's chairman of the board is Ante Markov . As of March 31 , 2011 , JANAF had 383 employees working in the Omišalj terminal and other JANAF facilities in Croatia .
= = Future expansion = =
In 2011 , Luka Rijeka d.d. , operator of the Port of Rijeka , signed a contract of strategic partnership with the ICTSI and Jadranska vrata d.d .. The partnership aims to expand the capacity of the container terminal to 600 @,@ 000 TEUs . The contract also stipulates that the concession regarding operation of the terminal is to last for 30 years with an investment of 54 million euro . It is estimated that ICTSI and Luka Rijeka d.d. will invest up to one billion kuna ( 135 million euro ) in the Port of Rijeka . Upgrades of other port terminals are also planned , with investments through the World Bank and through build @-@ operate @-@ transfer and public – private partnership schemes . They include cargo terminals in the city of Rijeka and the new passenger terminal opened in October 2009 .
The Port of Rijeka development master plan , devised by Rotterdam Maritime Group , specifies further expansion of port facilities by 2030 , including the construction of a large container terminal in Omišalj on Krk Island , near the JANAF Omišalj oil terminal . The container terminal would increase the annual capacity of the port by 2 @.@ 5 million TEUs . The plan requires construction of a high performance railway to Zagreb and a rail link planned by Croatian Railways to the proposed island terminal . The new line entails building a new bridge to Krk Island in addition to the existing Krk Bridge . The plan also includes expansion of the existing terminals , and is estimated to require an additional US $ 150 million . Likewise , an expansion of the Liquid Cargo Terminal is planned , as well as an expansion of the Bakar Bay facility , where a car terminal is planned . The expansion of the port , improvement of transportation links and the strategic partnership are aimed at establishing Rijeka as the largest container port on the Adriatic Sea .
= Populous : The Beginning =
Populous : The Beginning is a strategy and god @-@ style video game . It is the third entry in the Populous video game series , developed by Bullfrog Productions in 1998 . The PC version of the game was released November 30 , 1998 and a PlayStation version was later developed and released on April 2 , 1999 .
Unlike earlier games in the series , which cast the player in the role of a god influencing loyal followers , The Beginning took a radical departure and placed the player in the role of a shaman , who directly leads her tribe against opponents . Throughout the twenty @-@ five missions of the campaign , the player leads their tribe across a solar system , dominating enemy tribes and tapping new sources of magic , with the ultimate goal of the shaman attaining godhood herself .
Populous : The Beginning was the first entry in the series to use true 3D computer graphics ; Bullfrog waited four years after Populous II : Trials of the Olympian Gods so that the graphics technology could catch up to their vision for a new and different game in the series . The developers considered the addition of terrain deformation and manipulation , combined with " smart " villagers who automatically attended to tasks , to add an entirely new dimension to the series . The game 's original title was Populous : The Third Coming before being changed prior to the beta release .
Populous : The Beginning plays very differently from earlier titles and received mixed reviews . Reviewers noted the excellent graphics , while complaints were directed at the artificial intelligence and the indecision in game design between being a real time strategy title and a god game . GamePro 's Peter Olafson wrote that Populous : The Beginning was a good game but was " without a quintessential quality that defined Populous . "
= = Gameplay = =
Populous : The Beginning places the player in control of a female shaman and the tribe which follows her . Unlike the previous games in the series , The Beginning allows the player to directly control the action of followers , by ordering them to build structures or attack enemies . In the campaign , the player must fight the opposing Dakini ( red ) , Chumara ( yellow ) and Matak ( green ) tribes for dominion over the solar system . Enemy tribes also have shamans , and on later levels all inhabit the same world . While the objective is almost always to eliminate all of the members of the other tribes , there are often specific ways this can be achieved . Sometimes the player must use magic spells gained from worship at special monuments such as stone heads or " Vaults of Knowledge " ; in other cases , the player only needs to overwhelm the enemies with superior numbers . The game has no formal resource management ; new units are created automatically at houses , and training new troops costs nothing except mana . Only wood from trees is required to build new structures .
The game is played from a 3D third person perspective with the camera at a variable height and capable of rotating 360 ° , enabling the player to quickly move across the planet 's terrain . While the terrain 's topology is a torus , the map is locally projected onto a sphere to give the illusion of a planet . On maps where there is no fog of war , players can see what opponents are doing at any time . Extensive support for 3D acceleration enables the player to view the game in 16 @-@ bit or 32 @-@ bit colour . The landscape and real @-@ time structure building and follower movement are also shown .
The player commands different types of followers , each of which has advantages and disadvantages in combat . The most basic unit is the Brave , which builds huts , towers , and military buildings . Braves are trained to become other units : tough melee Warriors ; weak , long @-@ range , Firewarriors ; Preachers , who convert enemy units and prevent enemy preachers from converting friendly troops ; and Spies , who perform espionage functions . Shamans are physically weaker than warriors , but can cast powerful spells and can be reincarnated if killed . Some spells will disappear after use . Other spells can slowly be replenished for continued use ; the rate of spell regeneration depends upon the player 's number of followers . Examples of spells include " Landbridge " , which raises the sea floor to create bridges across the sea ; " Swarm " , which sends a horde of insects to sow confusion in enemy ranks ; and " Tornado " , which creates a cyclone to destroy buildings . There are twenty @-@ six spells in total , which are slowly learned throughout the campaign .
Populous : The Beginning supports multiplayer , either by modem connection ( limited to two players ) , IPX , or over the Internet through an external matchmaking service . The game 's official web site provided a lobby service until January 8 , 2004 . Populous : The Beginning allows for a maximum game size of four players playing against each other .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Populous : The Beginning does not take place on Earth . Rather , the game takes place in a planetary system of twenty @-@ five unnamed planets . There is no indication as to whether the game takes place in the future or past , as the universe within the game is seemingly unconnected with reality . While many of the planets are predominantly grasslands dotted with trees , other worlds feature wildly different terrains , such as a volcanic world and a planet almost entirely covered by water . These worlds are inhabited by four human tribes , represented by their color : the green " Matak " , the yellow " Chumara " , and the red " Dakini " . The fourth blue tribe , controlled by the player , is never officially mentioned by name . Each of the tribes is generally hostile to one another , though alliances exist on some worlds . The reasoning for the hostilities is never explained other than the starting cutscene stating that the other ( non @-@ player ) tribes " would destroy us " . While all the tribes are ruled by a single female shaman , no other females are seen in the game , except in cutscenes ; all the followers recruited in the game are male . In addition to the organized tribes are ' wildmen ' , neutral characters who cluster in groups around trees and water . Though they cannot attack or be attacked , players can use the Shaman 's Convert spell to bring wildmen under her tribe 's control .
= = = Story = = =
Populous : The Beginning takes place before the first two games in the series . The player controls the Blue tribe , pitted against the three enemy tribes which control most of the solar system . The player 's destiny as Shaman is to become a deity ; only by defeating all the enemies in the system can the player 's shaman become omnipotent . The player begins on the planet furthest from the sun , and attacks each planet in sequence . Along the way , the Shaman can learn new skills and magic to defeat her ( usually ) much more powerful enemies . Victory requires the player to either destroy the opposition , or on occasion perform special actions . The player loses if his or her Shaman is killed and there are no remaining followers , if the Shaman is killed and there is no circle of reincarnation , or the player runs out of time on timed levels . Upon beating back the other tribes , the Shaman ascends to godhood , and further helps her people conquer the Matak , Chumara and Dakini in one final conflict .
= = Development = =
Populous : The Beginning was the first in the series developed with entirely 3D graphics . The game was published more than four years after Populous II : Trials of the Olympian Gods with developers stating the delay was due to waiting for the hardware specifications to come along enough that they would allow them to do something very different and new . Producer Stuart Whyte said of the work , " We 're really proud of what we 've done in software because it does look really nice . "
The Populous series inspired the term " god game " , with players assuming the role of an omniscient being who lead his people to new territories or into battle . Alan Wright , the game 's project leader , stressed both the departure Populous : The Beginning took from previous titles in the series , as well as distinguishing itself from similar games like Command & Conquer . The elements of smart villagers and terrain @-@ reforming , he said , " adds a whole level of gameplay not found in those titles . " Bullfrog representative Brian Allen asserted that these departures distinguished Populous : The Beginning from other real @-@ time strategy games on the market at the time . In some aspects , the developers were forced to remove features due to technical constraints ; for example , the " Plague " spell from previous Populous titles was dropped because in practice the spell was too frustrating .
Originally , the game was known as Populous : The Third Coming , but the name was changed by the time the game was shown in a fully playable beta form in late 1998 . The game was the first in the series to be made without Populous creator Peter Molyneux , who had left Bullfrog to create Lionhead Studios . The music was composed by Mark Knight , who had joined Bullfrog 's team in 1997 .
Bullfrog released the Populous : The Beginning — Undiscovered Worlds in 1999 . The expansion was only made available in the UK and US . The add @-@ on offered twelve new single @-@ player and twelve multiplayer levels , with a continuation of the storyline begun in the previous game , where the player takes on the role of a new shaman who must restore peace to the solar system .
= = Reception = =
Populous : The Beginning received generally favorable reviews on release with some strong criticisms to follow . IGN 's Ward Trent was especially smitten with the immersive 3D graphics . Edge stated , " previous Bullfrog games have always placed gameplay above graphical finesse , but that 's no longer the case . " GameSpot 's reviewer Ron Dulin appreciated how The Beginning was a daring revamp of the series , instead of a safe , slightly modified sequel ( like the earlier Populous II : Trials of the Olympian Gods ) . Computer and Video Games rated The Beginning as a " better play " than the original .
Complaints about the game centered on the difficulty of controlling followers , the simplicity of gameplay , and the tension between game styles . The game 's AI allowed followers to automatically construct buildings , but this led to problems directing them in the midst of a hectic battle . IGN noted that with the player 's followers automatically going about daily life , the replay value was lowered even with the multiplayer options . Others agreed that the automation rendered gameplay too simple , with no upgrades or serious resource management , a sentiment PC Gamer expressed when they wrote that the missions " become mind @-@ numbingly repetitive " .
Populous : The Beginning played very differently from earlier titles . Edge concluded that while the more rigid play format of The Beginning was new to the series , it had the effect of making the end result " less show @-@ stopping " ; Edge believed that the game was caught between the god game and RTS genres , and did not excel at either . PCGamer subsequently decided the game failed to live up to the previous games in the series . More charitably , GamePro 's Peter Olafson wrote : " Populous : The Beginning is not a bad game , in fact a good one ; but it 's a different game — one without a quintessential quality that defined Populous . "
= New Jersey Route 413 =
Route 413 is a 0 @.@ 76 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 22 km ) long state highway in New Jersey , United States . It is an eastward extension into New Jersey of the longer Pennsylvania Route 413 . The western terminus is in Burlington in the middle of the Burlington – Bristol Bridge crossing of the Delaware River at the New Jersey – Pennsylvania state border ; the eastern terminus is at an intersection with U.S. Route 130 . Despite the east – west orientation , Route 413 runs north – south , but PA Route 413 is signed north – south . Prior to the 1953 renumbering , Route 413 was Route S25 , a prefixed spur of Route 25 .
= = Route description = =
New Jersey Route 413 begins at the state line , midway along the Burlington – Bristol Bridge , as a continuation of Pennsylvania State Route 413 . The highway heads northward , heading along Reed Street , and there is an intersection with Delaware Avenue West , and soon after , intersections with West Pearl Street , and a local highway . Passing a few residences , Route 413 intersects with West Pearl Street , and enters a more commercial type of region . The next intersection with Brown Street is jammed with houses , and nearby is a large parking lot .
At the intersection with Veterans Drive and Conover Street , Route 413 splits into a divided highway , and the highway intersects with West Broad Street . After West Broad Street , Route 413 merges back in , passing several more commercial buildings and heading into John Fitzgerald Kennedy Park . The route parallels to the east of Washington Street , where it heads into a roundabout and terminates at an intersection with U.S. Route 130 ( Camden Avenue ) in Burlington .
= = History = =
In the 1927 renumbering of highways in New Jersey , U.S. Route 130 was assigned as a part of New Jersey State Highway Route 25 , which made up U.S. Route 1 and U.S. Route 9 as well . During that renumbering in 1927 , Route 413 was originally New Jersey State Highway Route S @-@ 25 , a prefixed spur of State Highway Route 25 . The highway remained intact along its alignment in Keim Road to the Burlington – Bristol Bridge until January 1 , 1953 .
On January 1 , 1953 , the New Jersey State Highway Department performed a second renumbering of state highways . State Highway Route 25 , which had run at the southern terminus with Route 130 , was decommissioned for the sole designation . Since State Highway Route 25 was decommissioned , State Highway Route S @-@ 25 would be orphaned and was decommissioned that day . The Highway Department renumbered S @-@ 25 's alignment to NJ 413 , which continued as Pennsylvania Route 413 .
= = Major intersections = =
= HMS Algerine ( J213 ) =
HMS Algerine was the lead ship of her namesake class of minesweepers built for the Royal Navy during World War II , the Algerine @-@ class minesweepers . Initially assigned to the North Sea , she was transferred to lead the 12th Minesweeping Flotilla . The Flotilla were posted to the Mediterranean to assist with Operation Torch . In 1942 , after a successful mine clearing operation off Bougie , she was torpedoed by the Italian submarine Ascianghi , causing Algerine to sink , leaving only eight survivors .
= = Description = =
Algerine displaced 850 long tons ( 860 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 125 long tons ( 1 @,@ 143 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 225 feet ( 68 @.@ 6 m ) , a beam of 35 feet 6 inches ( 10 @.@ 8 m ) and a draught of 8 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 6 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which gave a maximum speed of 16 @.@ 5 knots ( 30 @.@ 6 km / h ; 19 @.@ 0 mph ) .
The ship mounted one single 4 @-@ inch Mk XIX gun . Algerine had four single mounts for 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) Oerlikon 20 mm autocannon , and she was fitted with two depth charge rails , and four depth charge throwers .
= = Career = =
Algerine was laid down on 15 March 1941 , by Harland & Wolff , Belfast , and launched on 22 December 1941 . She was the eighth ship of the Royal Navy to be named Algerine . After being completed , the ship was commissioned on 24 March 1942 , and adopted by Sittingbourne due to a Warship Week campaign .
= = = 1942 = = =
Algerine joined the 9th Minesweeping Flotilla in May 1942 and began action in minesweeping , escorting , and patrolling duties on the east side of England . She was proposed as leader for the 12th Minesweeping Flotilla , which would participate in action abroad . Her sister ships from the 9th Flotilla , Alarm and Albacore , joined her , as did Acute , and Cadmus . In October , she was put forward to go to the Mediterranean to assist Operation Torch , but her departure was delayed due to repair work . The other four ships in her flotilla left for Gibraltar as escorts to a convoy . Four days after the other ships left , Algerine escorted convoy KMF1 to Oran .
In early November , she helped recover the escort destroyer Cowdray off Algiers after Cowdray was damaged by an aerial attack . On 15 November , Algerine and Alarm were positioned off Bougie , clearing mines . The mission had been successful , with 46 mines cleared ; but , Algerine was torpedoed by the Italian Adua @-@ class submarine Ascianghi , commanded by Lieutenant commander Rino Erler . The submarine had first fired two torpedoes at the middle ship in the trio , then fired another two torpedoes at the final ship , Algerine : Algerine suffered heavy casualties and sank . The converted merchant vessel Pozarica rescued 32 men , of whom only 8 survived , internal wounds killing 24 . The survivors had been on a Carley raft .
Algerine 's wreck lies at 1 @,@ 100 ft ( 340 m ) on the northern coast of Algeria .
= Daniel S. Schanck Observatory =
The Daniel S. Schanck Observatory is a former astronomical observatory on the Queens Campus of Rutgers University in New Brunswick , New Jersey , United States . It is located along George Street near the corner with Hamilton Street at the side of the car park to Kirkpatrick Chapel , to the northwest of Old Queens and Geology Hall .
The two @-@ story Greek Revival building of the observatory was designed by architect Willard Smith after the Tower of the Winds in Athens and was built in 1865 . It was named after New York City businessman Daniel S. Schanck , who donated a large portion of the funds to construct and equip the observatory . Outfitted with telescopes , clocks , and other scientific equipment donated to Rutgers , the Schanck Observatory served as the university 's first astronomical observatory and was used to provide instruction to its students through the nineteenth and early twentieth century .
The observatory has not been in use since the 1960s . As part of the Queens Campus , the Schanck Observatory was included on the New Jersey Register of Historic Places and the National Register of Historic Places in 1973 . The building was renovated in 2012 .
= = History , architecture , and use = =
In 1864 , Rutgers College was named New Jersey 's sole land grant college which provided federal funding under the Morrill Act of 1862 for the development of engineering , scientific , agricultural , and military education . Previously , the college 's curriculum focused on the classics and liberal arts . David Murray ( 1830 – 1905 ) , professor of mathematics , natural philosophy and astronomy , proposed building the school 's first astronomical observatory to the college 's president , William Henry Campbell ( 1808 – 1890 ) , and its board of trustees . It would be the college 's fourth building .
The cost of construction and equipment amounted to US $ 6 @,@ 166 ( 2013 : US $ 86 @,@ 845 @.@ 07 ) , of which US $ 2 @,@ 400 ( 2013 : US $ 33 @,@ 802 @.@ 82 ) was donated by Daniel S. Schanck ( 1812 – 1872 ) . Schanck , a New York City businessman with roots in Monmouth County , New Jersey , was not an alumnus of the college , but was convinced to donate after being approached by friends of the college . Several years later , his son , Daniel S. Schanck ( 1853 – 1901 ) , would enroll in the college 's scientific course , and earn a bachelor 's degree ( Sc.B ) in 1875 .
In 1865 , the trustees hired architect Willard Smith who provided a plan for a small two @-@ story octagonal Greek Revival building designed after the Tower of the Winds , a first @-@ century BC structure located in the agora of Athens , Greece that housed an ancient water clock and sundial . The observatory was constructed from " painted brick , with wood cornices and entrance porch , brownstone floor and steps " and featured a " small gable roofed Corinthian entrance porch with columns at the front corners , flat pilasters against the wall , entablature , and pediment . " Rutgers equipped the observatory with " a 6 @.@ 5 @-@ inch equatorial refracting telescope , a meridian circle with four @-@ inch object glass for transit observations , a sidereal clock , a mean solar clock ... chronograph , repeating circle , and other instruments . " Some of the equipment was donated by private individuals and by the college 's two literary societies , the Peithessophian and Philoclean Societies .
The Schanck Observatory was dedicated on June 18 , 1866 with an address given by Joseph P. Bradley ( 1813 – 1892 ) , a Rutgers College alumnus ( A.B. 1836 ) and prominent attorney who four years later was installed as an Associate Justice on the Supreme Court of the United States . The observatory would be used for the instruction of students into the early twentieth century . However , it fell out of use before 1960 . Physics and Astronomy professor Paul L. Leath indicated that the observatory very accurately measured time through precise measurements of the transit of the sun . However , in later years , as trees grew around the building , and as the light pollution was introduced from street lights and a neighboring parking deck , the building could no longer be used for observation . The university 's astronomy department operates a modern observatory — the Robert A. Schommer Astronomical Observatory — that is located on the roof of the Serin Physics Laboratory ( built 1963 ) on the Busch Campus . The Schommer Observatory houses a 0 @.@ 5 meter telescope that was installed in 1996 .
As one of the six extant buildings on the university 's Queens Campus , the oldest buildings at Rutgers , the Schanck Observatory was included on the New Jersey Register of Historic Places and the National Register of Historic Places in 1973 .
The building fell into disrepair , and its equipment was damaged after several acts of vandalism in which unknown persons illegally entered the building and stole key components of the telescope . A restoration of the observatory building by Wu & Associates of Cherry Hill , New Jersey , was completed in 2012 .
= The Almost Nearly Perfect People =
The Almost Nearly Perfect People : The Truth About the Nordic Miracle is a 2014 nonfiction book by British journalist Michael Booth . In the book , Booth focuses on the five Nordic countries — Denmark , Iceland , Norway , Finland and Sweden — dedicating a section of the book to each one . He began writing the book after migrating from England to Denmark , based on his perceptions of the Nordic region before and after moving . He wanted to present an alternative perspective to the extremely positive depiction of the region in British media . The book received mixed reviews : some critics found it to be overly critical with poor humour , others praised its tone and informativeness .
= = Background and release = =
Michael Booth began writing The Almost Nearly Perfect People when he moved from England to Denmark about 15 years before its publication in 2014 . Before moving , he had perceived Scandinavians to be a " bearded , woolly jumper @-@ wearing , recycling bunch of people " , but afterwards was surprised by how different each of the Nordic countries seemed to be . He wanted to write a book to explore these differences and to explain what he saw as a " fascinating dysfunctional family dynamic " between the five Nordic neighbors . He was further inspired by the " Nordic wave " phenomenon that gained popularity in the 2000s and 2010s when the western world became fascinated with the Nordic countries and their ways of life . In particular , he wanted to investigate Denmark 's consistently high scores on various happiness indexes , since these figures conflicted with his own observations that " they didn 't seem that happy " , and also challenge the perception that the Nordic nations as a group are " little jolly green countries in the north " .
Booth undertook four years of research while writing the book , including travelling to each of the countries and interviewing prominent political and cultural figures of each nationality . In writing about each country , he tried to examine both their successes and their weaknesses to " rebalance the utopian view " of Scandinavia held by many British people and to present a different perspective of the region than the extremely positive depiction in a lot of British media . The tone of the book was inspired by Simon Winder 's Germania , which combines humour with an historical and travel @-@ based narrative .
The book was published in English on 14 February 2014 by Jonathan Cape . Its first publication , however , was in September 2013 as a Danish translation . Although the manuscript was in English , it was translated and published first in Denmark . On 23 October 2014 , the book was translated into Finnish . The Polish translation came on 7 October 2015 . In addition , a Norwegian translation of the book is planned .
= = Content = =
The Almost Nearly Perfect People is divided into five sections for Denmark , Iceland , Norway , Finland and Sweden . Beginning with Denmark , Booth explains the Danish concept of hygge ( " cosy times " ) , which he sees as conformism . He criticises the Danish population 's environmental footprint and notes that their taxation rate and levels of personal debt are among the highest in the world . Moving to Iceland , Booth details the banking practices that led to the collapse of the country 's largest banks in the 2008 financial crisis , as well as the popular belief among Icelanders in the existence of Huldufólk ( elves ) .
In Norway , he highlights the rise of far @-@ right politics , the widespread opposition to immigration , and the multiple high @-@ profile Norwegian neo @-@ Nazis . He notes that despite having a " nature @-@ loving " reputation , Norway has a large ecological footprint , and that the sale of fossil fuels accounts for much of the country 's wealth . He recounts Finland 's history of heavy alcohol consumption and its high rates of murder , suicide , and antipsychotic drug use . He explains the Finnish concept of sisu and what he sees as the resulting obsession with machismo .
Sweden receives Booth 's strongest criticism , where consumerist influences are blamed for the apparent downfall of the Nordic model of social democracy and recurrent failures of the Swedish justice system . He argues that Sweden , with its strict rules of social etiquette , has a strong culture of conformity .
Denmark
Chapter 1 - Happiness
Chapter 2 - Bacon
Chapter 3 - Gini
Chapter 4 - Boffers
Chapter 5 - Chicken
Chapter 6 - Vikings
Chapter 7 - 72 per cent
Chapter 8 - Hot @-@ tub sanwiches
Chapter 9 - The bumblebee
Chapter 10 - Denim dungarees
Chapter 11 - The Law of Jante
Chapter 12 - Hygge
Chapter 13 - Legoland and Other Spiritual Sites
Chapter 14 - The happiness delusion
Iceland
Chapter 1 - Hakarl
Chapter 2 - Bankers
Chapter 3 - Denmark
Chapter 4 - Elves
Chapter 5 - Steam
Norway
Chapter 1 - Dirndls
Chapter 2 - Egoiste
Chapter 3 - The new Quislings
Chapter 4 - Friluftsliv
Chapter 5 - Bananas
Chapter 6 - Dutch disease
Chapter 7 - Butter
Finland
Chapter 1 - Santa
Chapter 2 - Silence
Chapter 3 - Alcohol
Chapter 4 - Sweden
Chapter 5 - Russia
Chapter 6 - School
Chapter 7 - Wives
Sweden
Chapter 1 - Crayfish
Chapter 2 - Donald Duck
Chapter 3 - Stockholm syndrome
Chapter 4 - Integration
Chapter 5 - Catalonians
Chapter 6 - Somali pizza
Chapter 7 - The party
Chapter 8 - Guilt
Chapter 9 - Hairnets
Chapter 10 - Class
Chapter 11 - Ball bearings
= = Reception = =
The Almost Nearly Perfect People received mixed reviews from critics :
Mariella Frostrup described the book for The Guardian as a " comprehensive and occasionally downright hilarious explanation of the Nordic miracle " and praised its " companionable , lightly mocking tone " .
Alwyn Turner gave the book 4 ( out of 5 ) stars in a review for The Daily Telegraph , writing that " if [ Booth 's ] tone is sometimes a little too jokey , his enthusiasm is contagious " and that " the real joy of the book " lay in the collection of interesting trivia .
The Literary Review 's Bernard Porter found the book to be " a thoroughly entertaining read , written brilliantly " , but criticised its largely impressionistic nature and the lack of sources and references .
Ian Thomson of The Guardian described the book as " informative , if strenuously humorous " , but felt that Booth 's " schoolboy humour " was at times " pretty embarrassing " .
Anna Vesterinen , writing for the Rationalist Association , felt that Booth relied too much on quoted studies and surveys and ought to have included more interviews with " ordinary locals " .
The Financial Times ' Richard Milne wrote that , despite Booth 's tendency to reinforce some stereotypes , " Behind the jokey tone is a lot of good material " , and described the book as " a welcome rejoinder to those who cling to the idea of the Nordic region as a promised land " .
Sara Steensig opined in the GB Times that the book 's section on Iceland was somewhat superficial and that Booth 's analysis of Sweden was too critical , but nevertheless , " while he does make a lot of fun of the Nordic countries , I think you can feel his affection for the inhabitants too . "
= Port Chicago disaster =
The Port Chicago disaster was a deadly munitions explosion that occurred on July 17 , 1944 , at the Port Chicago Naval Magazine in Port Chicago , California , United States . Munitions detonated while being loaded onto a cargo vessel bound for the Pacific Theater of Operations , killing 320 sailors and civilians and injuring 390 others . Most of the dead and injured were enlisted African @-@ American sailors .
A month later , unsafe conditions inspired hundreds of servicemen to refuse to load munitions , an act known as the Port Chicago Mutiny . Fifty men — called the " Port Chicago 50 " — were convicted of mutiny and sentenced to long prison terms . Forty @-@ seven of the 50 were released in January 1946 ; the remaining three served additional months in prison .
During and after the trial , questions were raised about the fairness and legality of the court @-@ martial proceedings . Due to public pressure , the United States Navy reconvened the courts @-@ martial board in 1945 ; the court affirmed the guilt of the convicted men . Widespread publicity surrounding the case turned it into a cause célèbre among certain Americans ; it and other race @-@ related Navy protests of 1944 – 45 led the Navy to change its practices and initiate the desegregation of its forces beginning in February 1946 . In 1994 , the Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial was dedicated to the lives lost in the disaster .
= = Background = =
The town of Port Chicago was located on Suisun Bay in the estuary of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers . Suisun Bay is connected to the Pacific Ocean by San Francisco Bay . In 1944 , the town was a little more than a mile from a U.S. Navy munitions depot , the Port Chicago Naval Magazine , which was later expanded and renamed the Concord Naval Weapons Station but is now called the Military Ocean Terminal Concord . The original magazine was planned in 1941 with construction beginning shortly after the attack on Pearl Harbor . The first ship to dock at Port Chicago was loaded on December 8 , 1942 .
Munitions transported through the magazine included bombs , shells , naval mines , torpedoes and small arms ammunition . The munitions , destined for the Pacific Theater of Operations , were delivered to the Port Chicago facility by rail then individually loaded by hand , crane and winch onto cargo ships for transport to the war zones . From the beginning , all the enlisted men employed as loaders at Port Chicago were African American ; all their commanding officers were White . Each of the enlisted men had been specifically trained for one of the naval ratings during his stay at Naval Station Great Lakes ( NSGL ) but the men were instead put to work as stevedores . None of the new recruits had been instructed in ammunition loading .
= = = Quality of men = = =
At NSGL , the enlisted African Americans who tested in the top 25 to 40 percent were selected for non @-@ labor battalion assignments . Port Chicago was manned by workers drawn from those remaining . The Navy determined that the quality of African @-@ American petty officers at Port Chicago suffered because of the absence of high @-@ scoring black men , and that overall levels of competence were further reduced by the occasional requirement for Port Chicago to supply drafts of men with clear records for transfer to other stations . The Navy 's General Classification Test ( GCT ) results for the enlisted men at Port Chicago averaged 31 , putting them in the lowest twelfth of the Navy . Officers at Port Chicago considered the enlisted men unreliable , emotional and lacking the capacity to understand or remember orders or instructions .
Black laborers at Port Chicago were led by black petty officers who were regarded by some workers as incompetent and ineffective in voicing their men 's concerns to higher authority . Petty officers were seen as having aims fundamentally different from those of their men — they were described later as " slave drivers " and " Uncle Toms " . They and their men sometimes struck an antagonistic relationship .
Captain Merrill T. Kinne — commander of the Port Chicago facility at the time of the explosion — had served in the Navy from 1915 to 1922 and had returned to the Navy from civilian life in 1941 to be posted aboard a general cargo ship . Prior to his being sent to command Port Chicago , Kinne had no training in the loading of munitions and very little experience in handling them . White loading officers serving underneath Kinne had not been trained in supervising enlisted personnel or in handling munitions until they had been posted to Mare Island Navy Yard , after which they were considered adequate to the task by the Navy .
= = = Speed contests and safety training = = =
Since April 1944 when Captain Kinne assumed command of Port Chicago , the loading officers had been pushing the enlisted men to load the explosive cargoes very quickly ; 10 short tons ( 9 @.@ 1 t ) per hatch per hour had been set as the desired level by Captain Nelson Goss , Commander Mare Island Navy Yard , whose jurisdiction included Port Chicago Naval Magazine . Most loading officers considered this goal too high . On a prominent chalkboard , Kinne tallied each crew 's average tonnage per hour . The junior officers placed bets with each other in support of their own 100 @-@ man crews — called " divisions " at Port Chicago — and coaxed their crews to load more than the others . The enlisted men were aware of the unsanctioned nature of the bets and knew to slow down to a more reasonable pace whenever a senior officer appeared . The average rate achieved at Port Chicago in the months leading up to July 1944 was 8 @.@ 2 short tons ( 7 @.@ 4 t ) per hatch per hour ; commercial stevedores at Mare Island performed only slightly better at 8 @.@ 7 short tons ( 7 @.@ 9 t ) per hatch per hour .
There was no system at Port Chicago for making sure officers and men were familiar with safety regulations . Two formal lectures and several informal lectures were given to the enlisted men by commanding officers , but follow @-@ up confirmation of retained knowledge did not take place . Safety regulations were posted at a single location at the pier but not within each of the barracks — Kinne did not think the enlisted men would be able to comprehend such a list . The International Longshore and Warehouse Union ( ILWU ) responded to word of unsafe practices by offering to bring in experienced men to train the battalion but Navy leadership declined the offer , fearing higher costs , slower pace , and possible sabotage from civilian longshoremen . No enlisted man stationed at Port Chicago had ever received formal training in the handling and loading of explosives into ships . Even the officers did not receive training : Lieutenant Commander Alexander Holman , loading officer at Port Chicago whose duties included officer training , had initiated a search for training materials and samples but failed to organize a training class before disaster struck .
= = = Winch maintenance = = =
Powered winches were used on cargo ships to speed the handling of heavy loads . One winch was operated at each of the ship 's five cargo holds . During loading operations , the winches were worked hard , requiring steady maintenance to remain operable . Winch brakes — a safety feature provided for stopping the load from falling if the winch 's main power was lost — were not often used by a skilled winch operator , as the load could be more quickly maneuvered using various power settings than by application of the brakes . Disused brakes sometimes seized up and stopped working . The winches on the SS E. A. Bryan were steam @-@ powered and showed signs of wear , even though the ship was only five months old .
On July 13 , 1944 , the day that the E. A. Bryan docked at Port Chicago , the ship 's No. 1 winch brakes were found stuck in the " off " position , meaning that the winch could be operated freely , but lacked the critical stopping capability if steam pressure was interrupted . The ship 's chief mate and chief engineer were called to examine the winch but it was never determined whether the brake was made operational . During loading operations on July 15 the winch at No. 2 hold began making a hammering noise . A steady application of grease quietened it through the night until its main bearing could be replaced the next morning on July 16 . On the afternoon of July 17 , a bleeder valve on winch No. 4 required immediate repair . Albert Carr , a civil service plumber from Pittsburg , California , was called to replace it ; it was his first day at Port Chicago . Carr pulled a broken nipple out of the bleeder valve and replaced both the nipple and the valve from new stock taken from Port Chicago 's shop . While at work he witnessed a man accidentally drop a naval artillery shell two feet onto the wooden pier but there was no detonation . Carr waited until the African @-@ American winch operator tested the newly repaired winch then hurriedly left the pier , thinking that the whole operation appeared unsafe .
= = = Munitions handling = = =
The enlisted men were leery of working with deadly explosives but were told by officers that the larger munitions were not active and could not explode — that they would be armed with their fuzes upon arrival at the combat theater . Handling of larger munitions , such as bombs and shells , involved using levers and crowbars from boxcars , in which they were packed tightly with dunnage — lifting the heavy , grease @-@ coated cylinders , rolling them along the wooden pier , packing them into nets , lifting them by winch and boom , lowering the bundle into the hold , then dropping individual munitions by hand a short distance into place . This series of actions was rough enough that damaged naval shells sometimes leaked identification dye from their ballistic caps .
Commander Paul B. Cronk , head of a Coast Guard explosives @-@ loading detail tasked with supervision of the working dock , warned the Navy that conditions were unsafe and ripe for disaster . The Navy refused to change its procedures and Cronk withdrew the detail .
= = Explosion = =
The Liberty ship SS E. A. Bryan docked at the inboard , landward side of Port Chicago 's single 1 @,@ 500 ft ( 460 m ) pier at 8 : 15 a.m. on July 13 , 1944 . The ship arrived at the dock with empty cargo holds but was carrying a full load of 5 @,@ 292 barrels ( 841 @,@ 360 liters ) of bunker C heavy fuel oil for its intended trip across the Pacific Ocean . At 10 a.m. that same day , seamen from the ordnance battalion began loading the ship with munitions . After four days of around @-@ the @-@ clock loading , about 4 @,@ 600 tons ( 4 @,@ 173 metric tons ) of explosives had been stored in its holds . The ship was about 40 % full by the evening of July 17 .
At 10 p.m. on July 17 , Division Three 's 98 men were loading E. A. Bryan with 1 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 450 kg ) bombs into No. 3 hold , 40 mm shells into No. 5 hold and fragmentation cluster bombs into No. 4 hold . Incendiary bombs were being loaded as well ; these bombs weighed 650 lb ( 290 kg ) each and were " live " — they had their fuzes installed . The incendiary bombs were being loaded carefully one at a time into No. 1 hold — the hold with a winch brake that might still have been inoperative .
A boxcar delivery containing a new airborne anti @-@ submarine depth charge design , the Mark 47 armed with 252 lb ( 114 kg ) of torpex , was being loaded into No. 2 hold . The torpex charges were more sensitive than TNT to external shock and container dents . On the pier , resting on three parallel rail spurs , were sixteen rail cars holding about 430 short tons ( 390 t ) of explosives . In all , the munitions on the pier and in the ship contained the equivalent of approximately 2 @,@ 000 short tons ( 1 @,@ 800 t ) of TNT .
One hundred and two men of the Sixth Division , many fresh from training at NSGL , were busy rigging the newly built Victory ship SS Quinault Victory ( also spelled Quinalt ) in preparation for loading it with explosives , a task that was to begin at midnight . The Quinault contained a partial load of fuel oil , some of which was of a type that released flammable fumes as it sat , or upon agitation . The fuel , taken aboard at Shell Oil Company 's Martinez refinery mid @-@ day on July 17 , would normally be sluiced to other fuel tanks in the following 24 hours .
Sixty @-@ seven officers and crew of the two ships were at their stations , and various support personnel were present such as the three @-@ man civilian train crew and a Marine sentry . Nine Navy officers and 29 armed guards watched over the procedure . A Coast Guard fire barge with a crew of five was docked at the pier . An officer who left the docks shortly after 10 p.m. noticed that the Quinault ′ s propeller was slowly turning over and that the men of Division Three were having trouble pulling munitions from the rail cars because they had been packed so tightly .
At 10 : 18 p.m. , witnesses reported hearing a noise described as " a metallic sound and rending timbers , such as made by a falling boom . " Immediately afterward , an explosion occurred on the pier and a fire started . Five to seven seconds later a more powerful explosion took place as the majority of the ordnance within and near the SS E. A. Bryan detonated in a fireball seen for miles . An Army Air Forces pilot flying in the area reported that the fireball was 3 mi ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) in diameter . Chunks of glowing hot metal and burning ordnance were flung over 12 @,@ 000 ft ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) into the air . The E. A. Bryan was completely destroyed and the Quinault was blown out of the water , torn into sections and thrown in several directions ; the stern landed upside down in the water 500 ft ( 150 m ) away . The Coast Guard fire boat CG @-@ 60014 @-@ F was thrown 600 ft ( 180 m ) upriver , where it sank . The pier , along with its boxcars , locomotive , rails , cargo , and men , was blasted into pieces . Nearby boxcars — waiting within their revetments to be unloaded at midnight — were bent inward and crumpled by the force of the shock . The port 's barracks and other buildings and much of the surrounding town were severely damaged . Shattering glass and a rain of jagged metal and undetonated munitions caused many more injuries among military personnel and civilians , although no one outside the immediate pier area was killed . Nearly $ 9 @.@ 9 million worth of damage ( $ 133 million in current value ) was caused to U.S. Government property . Seismographs at the University of California , Berkeley sensed the two shock waves traveling through the ground , determining the second , larger event to be equivalent to an earthquake measuring 3 @.@ 4 on the Richter magnitude scale .
All 320 of the men on duty at the pier died instantly , and 390 civilians and military personnel were injured , many seriously . Among the dead were all five Coast Guard personnel posted aboard the fire barge . African Americans hurt and killed totaled 202 dead and 233 injured , which accounted for 15 % of all African @-@ American naval casualties during World War II . Naval personnel worked quickly to contain the fires and to prevent other explosions . Injuries were treated , those seriously injured were hospitalized , and uninjured servicemen were evacuated to nearby stations .
= = Aftermath = =
After the fires had been contained there remained the gruesome task of cleaning up — body parts and corpses littered the bay and port . Of the 320 dead , only 51 could be identified . Most of the uninjured sailors volunteered to help clean up and rebuild the base ; Division Two was separated into a group that would stay and clean up and a group that would be moved out . This section of Division Two and all of Divisions Four and Eight were transferred to Camp Shoemaker , about 30 mi ( 48 km ) south , where they were assigned barracks duty until July 31 , 1944 . The men of Divisions One , Five and Seven were reassigned other duty in distant locations and shipped out . The cleanup detail from Division Two dug into the wreckage of the pier and began tearing out the damaged portions . Beginning in August , Divisions Four and Eight and both sections of Division Two moved to the Ryder Street Naval Barracks in Vallejo , California , across a short channel from Mare Island , where they were assigned barracks duties with no ship @-@ loading . The men were in a state of shock ; all were nervous . Many of them inquired about obtaining a 30 @-@ day " survivor 's leave " sometimes given by the Navy to sailors who had survived a serious incident where their friends or shipmates had died , but no 30 @-@ day leaves were granted , not even to those who had been hospitalized with injuries . White officers , however , received the leave , causing a major grievance among the enlisted men .
A Naval Board of Inquiry was convened on July 21 , 1944 , to find out what had happened . The official proceeding lasted for 39 days and included interviews with witnesses who were officers , civilians and enlisted men . Ordnance experts were questioned as well as inspectors who had overseen previous loading procedures . Five African Americans were questioned , none of whom were later to refuse to load ammunition . Captain Kinne 's posted division tonnage results came to light in the inquiry but Kinne stated that the competition to load the most tonnage did not make for unsafe conditions ; he implied that any junior officers who said so did not know what they were talking about .
The inquiry covered possible explosion scenarios involving sabotage , faulty fueling procedures , failure of the moorings of the Quinault Victory , defects in munitions , the presence of a super sensitive element in the ordnance , problems with steam winches and rigging , rough handling by loaders and organizational problems within the base . The Navy determined that the tonnage contest between divisions was not at fault , although the Judge Advocate warned that " the loading of explosives should never be a matter of competition . " The officers in charge were cleared of guilt . The report stated that the cause of the explosion could not be determined , but implied that a mistake made by the enlisted men in the handling of the ordnance was most likely at root . No mention was made of the men 's lack of training in the handling of explosives .
The Navy asked Congress to give each victim 's family $ 5 @,@ 000 . Representative John E. Rankin ( D @-@ Mississippi ) insisted the amount be reduced to $ 2 @,@ 000 when he learned most of the dead were black men . Congress settled on $ 3 @,@ 000 in compensation . Years later , on March 4 , 1949 , the heirs of eighteen merchant seamen killed in the explosion were granted a total of $ 390 @,@ 000 after gaining approval of their consent decrees in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California .
A memorial ceremony was held for the victims on July 31 , 1944 , at Port Chicago . Admiral Carleton H. Wright , Commander , 12th Naval District , spoke of the unfortunate deaths and the need to keep the base operating during a time of war . He gave Navy and Marine Corps Medals for bravery to four officers and men who had successfully fought a fire in a rail car parked within a revetment near the pier . The remains of 44 of the victims were interred at Golden Gate National Cemetery , Sections L and H , with 17 men identified by name and the rest provided with headstones reading " Unknown U.S. Sailor . "
Wright soon began implementing a plan to have two groups of white sailors load ammunition in rotation with black sailors : one division of 100 men at Mare Island and another at Port Chicago . No plan was forwarded to use black officers to command the black sailors , and no plan included any form of desegregation . Wright sent a report of the incident to Washington , DC , telling his superior officers that the men 's " refusal to perform the required work arises from a mass fear arising out of the Port Chicago explosion . " Wright 's report was passed to President Franklin D. Roosevelt by Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal who added his opinion that it was " mass fear " motivating the work stoppage . Forrestal told Roosevelt that white units of munitions loaders were to be added to the rotation " ... to avoid any semblance of discrimination against negroes [ sic ] . " Roosevelt forwarded a copy to his wife Eleanor , knowing of her ongoing advocacy of civil rights for African Americans .
= = Port Chicago mutiny = =
= = = Initial actions = = =
Divisions Two , Four and Eight — reinforced with replacement sailors fresh from training at NSGL — were taken to Mare Island Navy Yard where there was an ammunition depot and loading piers . On August 8 , 1944 , the USS Sangay docked to be loaded with naval mines and other munitions . 328 men were asked , not ordered , to resume the dangerous task of ammunition loading ; all said they were afraid and that they would not load munitions under the same officers and conditions as before . It was a mass work stoppage , which would have been called a strike if the workers had been civilians .
The Navy would not countenance such conduct , especially in time of war . Seventy of the men changed their minds after their superior officers made it clear that loading ammunition was their duty . On August 9 , 258 African @-@ American sailors in the ordnance battalion continued to refuse to load ammunition . These men were taken under guard to a barge that was used as a temporary military prison or " brig , " despite having been built to accommodate only 75 men . Most of the men in the brig had not been given a direct order — they had simply been asked if they were going to load ships or not , and to step to one side if not . All said they were afraid of another explosion . Civilian stevedore contractors were called to replace the imprisoned men in loading the Sangay .
Among the prisoners , Seaman First Class Joseph Randolph " Joe " Small , a winch operator in Division Four and a natural leader who called cadence when his division marched , was asked by officers to assemble a handful of reliable men as a team of acting petty officers and to keep the other prisoners on good behavior . On August 10 , there had been conflicts between the prisoners and their guards as the prisoners were marched to the mess hall for meals . There was also a brief fight in the mess hall , and some prisoners were seen sharpening spoons into makeshift knives . Small sensed a general air of rebelliousness among the prisoners . To counteract the rising tension and offset the disaster he saw coming , Small convened a short meeting that evening aboard the crowded barge and told the prisoners to " knock off the horseplay " , stay out of trouble and obey the shore patrol guards ( who were black ) and the officers , because the alternative ( white Marines as guards ) would be worse . He said to the men , " We 've got the officers by the balls — they can do nothing to us if we don 't do anything to them . If we stick together , they can 't do anything to us . "
On August 11 , 1944 , the 258 men from the prison barge were marched to a nearby sports field and lectured by Admiral Wright who told them that troops fighting on Saipan desperately needed the ammunition they were supposed to be loading and that continued refusal to work would be treated as mutinous conduct , which carried the death penalty in times of war . Wright , who had seen nearly 400 of his men killed in 1942 in the Battle of Tassafaronga , said that although loading ammunition was risky , death by firing squad was the greater hazard .
After the admiral departed , the men were ordered to separate themselves into two groups , one for those willing to obey all orders and one for those not willing . To a man , Division Eight chose to obey all orders . Divisions Two and Four were split by the decisions of their men : Small and 43 others chose to form a group unwilling to obey every order . These 44 were taken back to the brig and the remaining 214 were sent to barracks . On the morning of August 12 , six men from Divisions Two and Four who had put themselves in the obey @-@ all @-@ orders group failed to show up for work call ; these six were confined to the brig , making 50 prisoners in all . These 50 were identified by the Navy as mutineers .
Throughout August , all 258 sailors were taken to Camp Shoemaker and questioned . Forty @-@ nine of the 50 " mutineers " were imprisoned in the camp 's brig . Joe Small was placed in solitary confinement . Each of the men was interviewed by officers , sometimes in the presence of an armed guard . Questions focused on identifying " ringleaders " of the work @-@ stoppage and on what was said by whom at the meeting on the prison barge . The men were asked to sign statements summarizing the interrogation , but the officer 's version rarely matched the enlisted man 's recollection of the interview . Some men , upon seeing that the written statements did not reflect what they had said , refused to sign . Others felt they had no choice but to sign — they were being ordered to do so by an officer . Several men refused to give any statement at all . Others spoke freely , thinking that the officer was there as defense counsel .
After all the interviews concluded , the group of 208 men were convicted in summary courts @-@ martial of disobeying orders , Article 4 of the Articles for the Government of the United States Navy ( Rocks and Shoals ) . Each man was subject to forfeiture of three months ' pay . A few of them were held as witnesses in the upcoming mutiny trial . The rest were split into smaller groups and shipped out to various places in the Pacific Theater . Carl Tuggle , one of the 208 , said in 1998 that a group of prisoners including himself were assigned menial tasks such as cleaning latrines and picking up cigarette butts at a series of Pacific islands . After returning from active duty they each received bad conduct discharges , which meant the loss of virtually all veterans ' benefits .
= = = Port Chicago 50 = = =
The 50 remaining men — soon to be known as the " Port Chicago 50 " — were formally charged in early September 1944 with disobeying orders and making a mutiny " with a deliberate purpose and intent to override superior military authority " . This was a crime punishable by death since the United States was at war . Even if the men were not given death sentences , they could get prison terms of 15 years .
The Navy set up the court @-@ martial in a disused Marine barracks building at Treasure Island , halfway between Oakland and San Francisco . Reporters from the major and local newspapers were invited to watch the proceedings ; Navy public relations officers gave reporters copies of photographs and press statements describing the trial as the first mutiny trial in World War II and the largest mass trial the Navy had ever convened . Chosen to head the seven @-@ man court was Rear Admiral Hugo Wilson Osterhaus , United States Naval Academy , class of 1900 . The prosecution team was led by Lieutenant Commander James F. Coakley who had recently served as deputy chief prosecutor in Alameda County under district attorney Earl Warren . Defending the accused men were six Navy lawyers , one as leader of the team and one attorney for every 10 men . Lieutenant Gerald E. Veltmann headed the defense .
Veltmann and his team talked to the accused men prior to the trial to prepare their defense . They discovered that not all of the 50 were experienced ship loaders . Two of the men taken to the brig had never before loaded ammunition — they were permanently assigned as cooks because of physical conditions making them unsuited to loading . The two cooks had responded " no " when asked if they would load munitions . Another of the 50 , who had a broken wrist in a sling was also asked if he would load ammunition , to which he replied that he would not . More importantly , Veltmann sensed that the men had not conspired to seize command from their superior officers . In a pre @-@ trial brief , Veltmann cited the definition of mutiny from Winthrop 's Military Law and Precedents and asked that the mutiny charges be dismissed as the formal charges against the 50 men failed to allege that they conspired together deliberately to " usurp , subvert or override superior military authority " . Coakley opposed with a brief stating that , under military law , a persistent refusal to work by two or more men — something that might be called a " strike " among civilians — was sufficient proof of a conspiracy to override superior military authority and was equivalent to mutiny . Osterhaus agreed with Coakley and refused Veltmann 's motion ; the trial would proceed as planned .
= = = Prosecution = = =
The trial started on September 14 with each of the 50 men pleading " not guilty " . Coakley began his prosecution by calling officers from Port Chicago and Mare Island as witnesses . Commander Joseph R. Tobin of Ryder Street Naval Barracks said that he personally ordered six or seven of the men to load munitions on August 9 but was unable to verify if any others were so ordered . He said that the men he had spoken with were willing to follow any order except to load munitions ; that each man expressed fear of another explosion . Tobin verified that the men were not aggressive or disrespectful . Lieutenant Ernest Delucchi , Commander of Division Four at Port Chicago , testified that he personally ordered only four of the 50 defendants to load munitions . Delucchi described overhearing men of Division Eight say to his men , " Don 't go to work for the white motherfuckers " but , under cross @-@ examination , was unable to identify who said it . Veltmann objected to this hearsay but was overruled after Coakley explained it was evidence toward conspiracy .
On September 15 , Delucchi continued his testimony , saying that some of his men told him they would obey all orders and perform all work except loading ammunition because they were afraid of it . Delucchi confirmed that a cook and a man with a broken wrist were among the 25 men in his division that now sat among the 50 accused . Delucchi added that the cook and a second man were sailors he did not consider " up to par " ; the cook in particular was prone to nervous attacks and was seen as a liability at the pier .
Later in the trial , Lieutenant Carleton Morehouse — Commander of Division Eight at Port Chicago — took the stand to say that at the first sign of problems on August 9 , he assembled his men and read their names off alphabetically , ordering each man to work . Ninety @-@ six of 104 refused and were sent to the prison barge , but all of these men agreed to work after hearing Admiral Wright 's speech on August 11 ; none of Morehouse 's men were on trial for mutiny . Morehouse confirmed to Veltmann that some of his men had said they were afraid to handle ammunition . Following Morehouse , Lieutenant James E. Tobin , Commander of Division Two , took the stand . Lieutenant Tobin ( no relation to Commander Joseph R. Tobin ) related that 87 of his men initially refused to work but that number was reduced to 22 after Admiral Wright talked about the firing squad . Tobin said he put three additional men in the brig the next morning when they , too , refused to work , saying they were afraid . Tobin affirmed that one of the accused men from Division Two was permanently assigned the job of cook because he weighed 104 lb ( 47 kg ) and was considered too small to safely load ammo .
The next few days of testimony were filled with accounts from African @-@ American enlisted men from Divisions Two , Four and Eight , who were not standing accused of mutiny . Some of these men had already been convicted of disobeying orders in summary courts @-@ martial . The testimony of the men agreed on several points : that there had been talk among them of a mass work @-@ stoppage leading up to August 9 , that some men ( none of the accused 50 ) had passed around and signed a petition to avoid loading ammunition , and that Joe Small had spoken at the meeting on the prison barge and had urged the men to obey their officers and to conduct themselves in an orderly fashion . Some men said Small 's speech included words to the effect of having the officers " by the tail " or " by the ass " . Coakley was challenged by Veltmann when he attempted to bring the men 's signed statements in as evidence but the court allowed the statements to be used to refresh the men 's memories of their answers to interrogation .
Coakley summed up his prosecution case on September 22 . His aim was to show the court that a conspiracy had taken place — the mass of accounts from officers and men appeared to support the conclusion that ringleaders and agitators had forced a rebellion against authority . Veltmann pointed out that few of the accused had been ordered to load ammunition , meaning that they could not all be guilty of the charge of disobeying orders . Veltmann stressed that much of the testimony was hearsay and failed to establish a conspiracy or a mutiny . The court , however , seemed to side with Coakley on all points , settling each objection in favor of the prosecution .
= = = Defense = = =
Veltmann scored a victory at the beginning of his defense : he moved and was granted that each officer 's testimony could only be applied to the men they had specifically named as having been given the order to work . In principle , this ruling was favorable , but in practice it would only benefit the men if the court had been attentively keeping notes for each accused man . Instead , the court was observed by reporters to be drowsy at times , with one particular judge regularly nodding off .
Starting on September 23 and continuing for over three weeks , each of the accused men was brought to the witness stand to testify in his defense . The general trend of the men 's responses was that all of them were willing to obey any order except to load ammunition , all were afraid of another explosion , and none had been approached by " ringleaders " persuading them not to work — each had made his own decision . Each man said that he himself had not coerced others to refuse to work . Some of the men related how , following the official interrogation at Camp Shoemaker , they had been under great pressure to sign statements containing things they had not said . Some men said that , at the meeting on the barge , Joe Small had not urged a mutiny and had not uttered any phrase to the effect of having the officers " by the balls " . On the witness stand , Small himself denied saying any such thing , though he would admit to it decades later in interviews .
Coakley 's cross @-@ examinations began with an attempt to have the signed statements admitted as evidence . Veltmann objected that each statement was obtained under duress and was not voluntary . Coakley characterized the statements as not being confessions requiring voluntary conditions but merely " admissions " that had no such requirement . Osterhaus ruled that Coakley could not introduce the statements as evidence but that he could ask the defendants questions based on what each man 's signed statement contained .
Some of the men who had been named as having been given direct orders to work testified that they had not been given any such order . Seaman Ollie E. Green — who had accidentally broken his wrist one day prior to the first work @-@ stoppage on August 9 — said that though he had heard an officer in prior testimony name him as one who had been given a direct order , the officer had only asked him how his wrist was doing , to which he responded " not so good . "
At the end of his testimony , Green told the court that he was afraid to load ammunition because of " them officers racing each division to see who put on the most tonnage , and I knowed the way they was handling ammunition it was liable to go off again . If we didn 't want to work fast at that time , they wanted to put us in the brig , and when the exec came down on the docks , they wanted us to slow up . " This was the first that the newspaper reporters had heard of speed and tonnage competition between divisions at Port Chicago , and each reporter filed a story featuring this revelation to be published the next day . Naval authorities quickly issued a statement denying Green 's allegation .
Another one of the men gave the surprising testimony that Lieutenant Commander Coakley had threatened to have him shot after he refused to answer some questions during interrogation at Camp Shoemaker . Seaman Alphonso McPherson held fast to his testimony even when faced by Coakley in cross @-@ examination . Coakley denied threatening anyone , exclaiming that such an idea was a personal affront . Veltmann responded that this line of evidence was news to him , too . The next day , Coakley gave the press a statement accusing Veltmann of coaching McPherson .
October 9 , 1944 , was another in a string of days consisting of accused men testifying on the witness stand . This day , however , Thurgood Marshall , chief counsel for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) , sat in on the proceedings . Marshall had flown to the Bay Area on a special wartime travel priority arranged by Navy Secretary Forrestal . The NAACP had given the mutiny trial top importance due to the U.S. Navy 's policy of putting Negroes into dirty and dangerous jobs with no hope of advancement . Although Marshall was allowed to observe the trial , as a civilian he was ineligible to take an official role in the men 's defense . After hearing five of the men defend themselves , Marshall spoke to the 50 men and then conferred with Veltmann 's defense team . The next day , Marshall held a press conference , charging that Judge Advocate Coakley was handling the case in a prejudicial manner . Marshall said that , from a review of the proceedings and his conversations with the accused , he could only see these men being tried for lesser charges of individual insubordination , not mass mutiny .
The defense continued a few more days with testimony from a Navy psychiatrist who verified that the immense explosion would generate fear in each man . A black petty officer under Delucchi testified that he had heard no derogatory remarks or conspiratorial comments and that it had been a surprise to everybody when all of the men suddenly refused to march toward the docks on August 9 .
Marshall held another press conference on October 17 to announce that the NAACP was requesting a formal government investigation into the working conditions that had led the men to strike . He called attention to three aspects : the Navy policy that put the great majority of African Americans into segregated shore duty , the unsafe munitions handling practices and lack of training that had led to the catastrophic detonation — and the unfair manner in which 50 of 258 men had been singled out as mutineers. when their actions concerning loading ammunition after the explosion were not significantly different from the other 208 men . Marshall pointed to the men of Division One who had refused to load ammunition prior to August 9 , but had been shipped out and given other duty , not arrested and court @-@ martialled .
Coakley 's rebuttal witnesses consisted of officers who had interrogated the prisoners at Camp Shoemaker . The rebuttal fared poorly , as Veltmann was able to elicit from them that some of the accused men had not been informed they could refuse to make a statement , that some of the interrogations had taken place with an armed sentry standing guard , that very few of the prisoners ' explanations that they had been afraid of another explosion had been laid down in the statements , and that the officers had emphasized portions of the interrogations that would satisfy Coakley 's requirement for evidence of conspiracy . Coakley 's last rebuttal witness testified on October 19 , and the whole court took October 20 off to allow both sides to prepare closing arguments .
= = = Closing arguments = = =
In his closing argument , Coakley described a chronological sequence of mutinous occurrences , beginning at Camp Shoemaker shortly after the explosion when two and a half companies were mixed together for two weeks . Coakley stated that conspiratorial talk among the men about refusing to work and trying to get out of loading ammunition was the root of their August 9 mass refusal . Coakley described how the mutiny continued in the barge when Joe Small spoke to the men and asked them to stick together . Coakley entered into the record his definition of mutiny : " Collective insubordination , collective disobedience of lawful orders of a superior officer , is mutiny . " He gave his opinion that men who admitted in time of war that they were afraid to load ammunition were of a low moral character and were likely to give false testimony .
Veltmann denied that there was a mutinous conspiracy , saying the men were in a state of shock stemming from the horrific explosion and the subsequent cleanup of human body parts belonging to their former battalion mates . He said the conversations at Camp Shoemaker were simply those of men who were trying to understand what had happened , and that these discussions were not mutinous nor could they provide the groundwork for conspiracy . Veltmann argued that Small 's brief four- or five @-@ minute speech to the men on the barge was given in the performance of his duty to maintain order , a duty placed upon him by his superiors . Veltmann restated that the established legal definition of mutiny was a concerted effort to usurp , subvert or override military authority , and that there had been no such action or intent . Refusal to obey an order was not mutiny .
= = = Verdict = = =
On October 24 , 1944 , Admiral Osterhaus and the other six members of the court deliberated for 80 minutes and found all 50 defendants guilty of mutiny . Each man was reduced in rank to Seaman Apprentice and sentenced to 15 years of hard labor to be followed by dishonorable discharge . The men were held under guard while their sentences were passed to Admiral Wright for review . On November 15 , Wright reduced the sentences for 40 of the men : 24 were given 12 years , 11 were given 10 years and the five youngest sailors were given eight @-@ year sentences . The full 15 @-@ year sentences remained in place for ten of the men including Joe Small and Ollie Green . In late November , the 50 men were transferred to the Federal Correctional Institution , Terminal Island in San Pedro Bay near the Port of Los Angeles and the Port of Long Beach .
= = = Appeal and release = = =
During the 12 days that he watched the court @-@ martial proceedings , Thurgood Marshall began to formulate an appeal campaign . Marshall had noticed that none of the men 's grievances had been aired in court . Directly after the court closed the case , Marshall sent a letter to Secretary Forrestal asking why only blacks were assigned the task of loading munitions ; why had they not been trained for that task ; why were they forced to compete for speed ; why were they not given survivor 's leaves ; and why had they not been allowed to rise in rank . Forrestal replied weakly , saying that a predominance of black men were stationed at Port Chicago so of course they would be working there to load munitions . Forrestal pointed out that there was no discrimination because other naval weapons stations were manned by white crews loading munitions . The Navy Secretary said that the men had not been promoted because their time at Port Chicago had been a " trial period " , and that they were not given 30 @-@ day leaves because he thought it best for men to get quickly back to duty to prevent them from building up mental and emotional barriers .
Marshall — working as special counsel for the NAACP Legal Defense Fund — determined that the first course of action should be a publicity campaign mounted with the aim of gathering public support for the release of the men . In November 1944 , Marshall wrote an incendiary piece for The Crisis magazine , published by the NAACP . Pamphlets were printed and distributed , and editorials denouncing the trial appeared from African @-@ American publishers in January 1945 . Petitions began to circulate , collecting thousands of names of citizens who demanded a reversal of the mutiny verdict . Protest meetings were held and powerful people in sympathy to the cause were asked to bring pressure to bear . Eleanor Roosevelt sent Secretary Forrestal a copy of NAACP 's " Mutiny " pamphlet in April 1945 , asking him to take special care in this case .
Marshall obtained written permission from each of the 50 convicted men for him to appeal their case when it came up for review in Washington , DC in front of the Judge Advocate General of the Navy . On April 3 , 1945 , he appeared to present his arguments . Marshall 's appeal made the case that no direct order was given to all 50 of the defendants to load munitions and that even if orders had been given to certain individuals , disobeying the orders could not constitute mutiny . He said that Coakley deliberately misled the court on the definition of " mutiny " and that the mass of evidence he introduced was hearsay , thus inadmissible . Marshall wrote that " [ t ] he accused were made scapegoats in a situation brought about by a combination of circumstances . [ … ] Justice can only be done in this case by a complete reversal of the findings . " Marshall said " I can 't understand why whenever more than one Negro disobeys an order it is mutiny . "
The office of the Secretary of the Navy ordered Admiral Wright to reconvene the courts @-@ martial , this time with instructions to disregard the hearsay testimony . Admiral Osterhaus once again called the court to session for deliberation and on June 12 , 1945 , the court reaffirmed each of the mutiny convictions and sentences . Admiral Wright stuck by his reduced sentences .
After the surrender of Japan and the cessation of hostilities , the Navy was no longer able to justify such severe sentences as a warning to other potentially dissident servicemen and labor battalions . In September 1945 , the Navy shortened each of the 50 mutiny sentences by one year . Captain Harold Stassen recommended in October that the Navy reduce the sentences to just two years for men with good conduct records and three years for the rest , with credit for time served . Finally , on January 6 , 1946 , the Navy announced that 47 of the 50 men were being released . These 47 were paroled to active duty aboard Navy vessels in the Pacific Theater , where the men were assigned menial duties associated with post @-@ war base detail . Two of the 50 prisoners remained in the prison 's hospital for additional months recuperating from injuries , and one was not released because of a bad conduct record . Those of the 50 who had not committed later offenses were given a general discharge from the Navy " under honorable conditions " . In all , the Navy granted clemency to about 1 @,@ 700 imprisoned men at this time .
= = Political and social effect = =
The Port Chicago disaster highlighted systemic racial inequality in the Navy . A year before the disaster , in mid @-@ 1943 , the U.S. Navy had over 100 @,@ 000 African Americans in service but not one black officer . In the months following the disaster , the Pittsburgh Courier , a newspaper with a large nationwide subscription primarily of African Americans , related the incident and the subsequent mutiny trial in their Double V campaign , a push for victory over not just the Axis powers but also over racial inequality at home . The mutiny trial was seen as underscoring the tense race relations in the armed forces at the time .
Late in 1944 , under conditions of severe racism , a race riot broke out in Guam at a naval base . In March 1945 a Seabee battalion of 1 @,@ 000 African @-@ American men staged a hunger strike at their base , Naval Base Ventura County in Port Hueneme , California , in protest of discriminatory conditions . In the weeks following the latter incident , Fleet Admiral Ernest King and Secretary Forrestal worked with civilian expert Lester Granger on a plan for total integration of the races within the Navy . The Port Chicago disaster had helped catalyze the drive to implement new standards .
Beginning in 1990 , a campaign led by 25 U.S. Congressmen was unsuccessful in having the convicts exonerated . Gordon Koller , Chief Petty Officer at the time of the explosion , was interviewed in 1990 . Koller stated that the hundreds of men like him who continued to load ammunition in the face of danger were " the ones who should be recognized " . In 1994 , the Navy rejected a request by four California lawmakers to overturn the courts @-@ martial decisions . The Navy found that racial inequities were responsible for the sailors ' ammunition @-@ loading assignments but that no prejudice occurred at the courts @-@ martial .
In the 1990s , Freddie Meeks , one of the few still alive among the group of 50 , was urged to petition the President for a pardon . Others of the Port Chicago 50 had refused to ask for a pardon , reasoning that a pardon is for guilty people receiving forgiveness ; they continued to hold the position that they were not guilty of mutiny . Meeks pushed for a pardon as a way to get the story out , saying " I hope that all of America knows about it ... it 's something that 's been in the closet for so long . " In September 1999 , the petition by Meeks was bolstered by 37 members of Congress including George Miller , the U.S. representative for the district containing the disaster site . The 37 Congressmen sent a letter to President Bill Clinton and in December 1999 , Clinton pardoned Meeks , who died in June 2003 . Efforts to posthumously exonerate all 50 sailors have continued . In 2004 , author Robert L. Allen was reported as saying " ... even for today it 's important to have these convictions set aside . "
= = Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial = =
The Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial was dedicated in 1994 to the lives lost in the explosion . The National Park Service ( NPS ) was directed to design and maintain the memorial . Congressman George Miller pushed for the memorial to be upgraded to national park status in 2002 , in the knowledge that such status would help the site " become more competitive for federal funds to upgrade and enhance facilities and education materials " . This effort did not result in a change of status . In 2006 , a local newspaper article highlighted the precarious position of the disused chapel within the grounds of the Concord Naval Weapons Station , a chapel that had been previously dedicated to the memory of those fallen in the explosion . The 1980 chapel was said by local historian John Keibel to be unsalvageable due to lead paint and its dilapidated condition . Keibel called attention to the stained glass windows , which were crafted in 1991 as a tribute to the disaster , noting that they could be dismantled and remounted at the memorial site . In March 2008 , NPS was directed by Congress to manage the memorial , after passage of a bill introduced in 2007 by Miller . On July 10 , 2008 , Senator Barbara Boxer introduced legislation that would expand the memorial site by five acres ( two hectares ) , if the land was judged safe for human health and was excess to the Navy 's needs . The Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial Enhancement Act of 2008 was not put to a vote . On February 12 , 2009 , Miller introduced a similar bill , the Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial Enhancement Act of 2009 ( H.R. 1044 ) , which , in addition to calling for another five acres , allowed for the City of Concord and the East Bay Regional Park District " ... to establish and operate a facility for visitor orientation and parking , administrative offices , and curatorial storage for the Memorial . " President Barack Obama approved and signed the bill in December 2009 .
The site is contained within an active military base and requires prior reservation to visit . Visitors are asked to allow 90 minutes per visit and are shuttled to the site in NPS vehicles from the Concord Naval Weapons Station Identification Office .
= = Debunked nuclear bomb theory = =
The Port Chicago explosion was studied by the Los Alamos National Laboratory team working on the Manhattan project . The resulting damage was seen as being similar to the effects of a relatively small nuclear explosion with destructive power equivalent to 2 @,@ 000 tons of TNT . Paul Masters — a photo technician at Los Alamos — made copies of some of the study documents and stored them at his home . In 1980 , Peter Vogel discovered one of Masters ' documents in a rummage sale and noticed that one section of text read " Ball of fire mushroom out at 18 @,@ 000 ft in typical Port Chicago fashion " . Vogel — a New Mexican information officer @-@ turned @-@ journalist — began to research the possibility that the Port Chicago explosion was caused by a nuclear bomb . Beginning in 1982 , Vogel publicly voiced his theory , raising a storm of controversy in the Bay Area press .
Vogel continued to hunt for clues for the next 20 years , eventually writing a book and , in 2002 , establishing a website delineating various circumstantial reasons why the Port Chicago explosion could have been nuclear . After failing to find hard evidence to support his theory , Vogel abandoned it in 2005 . Vogel 's website was remounted in 2009 under a different URL .
Vogel 's theory has not had any traction among mainstream historians . Nuclear historians Lawrence Badash and Richard G. Hewlett , in an article from 1993 , took issue both with Vogel 's alleged evidence of weapons effects residues as well as Vogel 's proposed timetable for the production of the bomb itself . " It is impossible that there would have been no noticeable effects that later would have been identifiable as nuclear , " they wrote , " Yet rescue and investigating personnel combed the area immediately after the blast , and the ammunition depot , which was quickly rebuilt , is in use today . These activities , without any reported injuries resulting from residual radioactivity , clearly indicate that only conventional explosives were detonated . " They criticized Vogel for being " silent " about all of the evidence against his theory , and found the persistence in the propagation of the Vogel theory in the media " even in the face of evidence to the contrary " as exemplifying " ... the process by which conspiracy theories and other astounding knowledge claims gain popular attention . "
= = Media representations = =
In 1990 , Will Robinson and Ken Swartz produced the documentary Port Chicago Mutiny — A National Tragedy , about the explosion and trial . They interviewed mutiny convict Joe Small , his defense lawyer Gerald Veltmann , as well as Percy Robinson , a seaman who returned to loading ammunition after the first work @-@ stoppage , and Robert Routh , Jr . , a seaman who was blinded in the blast . Danny Glover provided narration for the story , which included dramatized scenes depicting events as they might have occurred in 1944 . The documentary was nominated for the Peabody Awards and won an Emmy .
In 1996
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, Dan Collison interviewed Port Chicago sailors for WBEZ radio 's PRI @-@ distributed program , This American Life . The men described how they were initially trained for action on ships and were disappointed when they were not assigned to ocean @-@ going ships . Collison interspersed interviews with contemporary news reports about the explosion .
The story of the Port Chicago 50 was the basis of Mutiny , a made @-@ for @-@ television movie written by James S. " Jim " Henerson and directed by Kevin Hooks , which included Morgan Freeman as one of three executive producers . Starring Michael Jai White , Duane Martin and David Ramsey as three fictional Navy seamen , the film aired on NBC on March 28 , 1999 .
The disaster was featured in " Port Chicago " , a 2002 episode of the NBC / CBS drama television series JAG .
The disaster featured prominently in the 2011 novel " Blue Skies Tomorrow " by Sarah Sundin ( the third book in her ' Wings of Glory ' trilogy ) . One of the lead characters , Helen Carlisle , works in the arsenal and assists the wife of an imprisoned ' mutineer ' in her fight for justice . The novel is set in the neighbouring town of Antioch. https : / / www.amazon.co.uk / Blue @-@ Skies @-@ Tomorrow @-@ Wings @-@ Glory @-@ ebook / dp / B0055PLW2K / ref = sr _ 1 _ 7 ? s = books & ie = UTF8 & qid = 1469215743 & sr = 1 @-@ 7 & keywords = sarah + sundin
In 2015 , award @-@ winning writer Steve Sheinkin ’ s The Port Chicago 50 : Disaster , Mutiny , and the Fight for Civil Rights was a Finalist for the 2014 National Book Award in Young People ’ s Literature . The New York Times called it " just as suitable for adults " and noted that the " seriousness and breadth of Sheinkin ’ s research can be seen in his footnotes and lists of sources , which include oral histories , documentaries and Navy documents . "
= 1943 Surprise Hurricane =
The 1943 Surprise hurricane was the first hurricane to be entered by a reconnaissance aircraft . The first tracked tropical cyclone of the 1943 Atlantic hurricane season , this system developed as a tropical storm while situated over the northeastern Gulf of Mexico on July 25 . The storm gradually strengthened while tracking westward and reached hurricane status late on July 26 . Thereafter , the hurricane curved slightly west @-@ northwestward and continued intensifying . Early on July 27 , it became a Category 2 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale and peaked with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . The system maintained this intensity until landfall on the Bolivar Peninsula in Texas late on July 27 . After moving inland , the storm initially weakened rapidly , but remained a tropical cyclone until dissipating over north @-@ central Texas on July 29 .
Because the storm occurred during World War II , information and reports were censored by the Government of the United States and news media . Advisories also had to be cleared through the Weather Bureau office in New Orleans , resulting in late releases . This in turn delayed preparations ahead of the storm . In Louisiana , the storm produced gusty winds and heavy rains , though no damage occurred . The storm was considered the worst in Texas since the 1915 Galveston hurricane . Wind gusts up to 132 mph ( 212 km / h ) were reported in the Galveston @-@ Houston area . Numerous buildings and houses were damaged or destroyed . The storm caused 19 fatalities , 14 of which occurred after two separate ships sunk . Overall , damage reached approximately $ 17 million ( 1943 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
A partial atmospheric circulation was observed over the extreme Southeastern United States and the eastern Gulf of Mexico as early as July 23 . However , an area of disturbed weather went unnoticed until July 25 , when wind shifts from southeast to northeast were observed in Burrwood and New Orleans in Louisiana , as well as Biloxi , Mississippi . Around 1800 UTC , a tropical storm developed approximately 110 miles ( 180 km ) southeast of the Mississippi River Delta . Moving westward at about 7 mph ( 11 km / h ) , the storm strengthened and became a hurricane late on July 26 . Early on the following day , the storm strengthened into a Category 2 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Around that time , the storm also attained its maximum sustained wind speed of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) .
Later on July 27 , the first ever reconnaissance aircraft flight into a hurricane occurred . An eye feature with a width of 9 – 10 miles ( 14 – 16 km ) was observed during the flight . Around 1800 UTC on July 27 , the storm made landfall on the Bolivar Peninsula in Texas with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . The system was described by the Weather Bureau as , " a small intense storm accompanied by full hurricane winds " . Around the time of landfall , a barometric pressure of 967 mbar ( 28 @.@ 6 inHg ) was observed . Early on July 28 , the system weakened to a Category 1 hurricane , then a tropical storm about six hours later . Later that day , the storm began curving northwestward over east @-@ central Texas . Early on July 29 , it weakened further to a tropical depression . Around 0000 UTC on the following day , the storm dissipated near Whitt , Texas .
= = Hurricane hunting = =
This was the first hurricane to be intentionally flown into by a reconnaissance aircraft . During the morning hours of July 27 , British pilots were training at Bryan Field in Bryan , Texas and were alerted about a hurricane approaching the Galveston area . Upon becoming informed that the planes would need to be flown away from the storm , they criticized this policy . Instead , Colonel Joe Duckworth made a bet with the British pilots that he could fly his AT @-@ 6 Texan trainer directly into the storm . Duckworth requested that Lt. Colonel Ralph O 'Hair , the only navigator at the field , fly into the hurricane with him . Because neither Duckworth nor O 'Hair believed that the headquarters would approve the flight , they decided to proceed without permission . Thus , Duckworth and O 'Hair became the first hurricane hunters . O 'Hair later compared the weather encountered during the flight to " being tossed about like a stick in a dog 's mouth " . After returning to Bryan Field , Lt. William Jones @-@ Burdick requested to fly into the hurricane with Duckworth , while O 'Hair decided to exit the aircraft .
= = Censorship = =
The hurricane occurred during World War II , with activity from a German U @-@ boat expected in the Gulf of Mexico . As a result , ship reports were silenced . At the time , the Weather Bureau relied primarily on ship and land weather station observations for issue storm warnings . Additionally , advisories had to be cleared through the Weather Bureau office in New Orleans , Louisiana , causing them to be released hours late ; moreover the advisories contained no forecast information , which would have allowed for preparation before the storm struck . The news media after the hurricane was heavily censored by the government due to national security , as information could not be leaked to the Axis powers about the loss of production of war materials . Reportedly , the Federal Bureau of Investigation shut down a telegraph office in La Porte after a telegram was sent containing information about damage from the hurricane . The only news of this storm was published in Texas and Louisiana . After the loss of life in this storm , the Government of the United States has never censored hurricane advisories again .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
In Louisiana , light winds were observed , with gusts of 36 mph ( 58 km / h ) at both Burrwood and Lake Charles . Locally heavy rains were reported in some areas , with a 24 @-@ hour precipitation total of 7 @.@ 65 inches ( 194 mm ) in DeQuincy on July 28 .
The storm brought strong winds to Texas , with gusts up to 132 mph ( 212 km / h ) reported at the cooling towers at the Shell Oil Refinery in Deer Park and the Humble Oil Refinery in Baytown . Four towers were destroyed at the latter , while other damage there reduced production of toluene , which is an ingredient of TNT . Some towers were also toppled at the Shell Oil Refinery in Deer Park . As these were the primary refineries producing aviation fuel for World War II , it was decided that news about this loss of production should be censored . A number of other oil derricks were destroyed throughout Chambers and Jefferson counties . At Ellington Field Joint Reserve Base near Houston , strong winds blew off the top of a hangar , destroyed five planes , and injured at least 22 cadets . Thousands in the Houston were left without telephone and electrical service , which caused all three radio stations in the area to go off air . The nearby Houston Yacht Club also suffered heavy damage . At Point Bolivar , located on the Bolivar Peninsula , nearly all homes were destroyed by the high winds . The high school 's physical education building in La Porte , which was originally a three story building , was reduced to only one floor after windows shattered and the support beams toppled , causing the roof to collapse . At nearby Morgan 's Point , a water tower was knocked over . On Galveston Island , a number of brick businesses , buildings , and churches collapsed .
Heavy rainfall was observed in some areas of eastern Texas , with up to 19 inches ( 480 mm ) in Port Arthur . There , numerous homes were flooded with 6 to 24 inches ( 150 to 610 mm ) of water , which included damage to furnishings , electric motors and automobiles . In downtown Galveston , a number of streets were inundated with rainwater , though flooding damage was relatively minor . Two children 's polio hospitals suffered leaking roofs and water damage , forcing patients to be evacuated by staff and University of Texas Medical Branch students . About 90 percent of all house and buildings in Texas City suffered either water damage or complete destruction , including plant sites producing war materials . However , they were discouraged from going to shelters due to a polio epidemic there . In Galveston Bay , wind @-@ driven waves flooded the western and southern shores . However , northerly winds across the bay resulted in tides being extremely low . On Galveston Island , a storm surge of 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) was observed . Offshore , the United States Army Corps of Engineers ’ s hopper dredge , Galveston , broke up after being smashed against the north jetty , causing 11 fatalities . The tug Titan began sinking offshore Port Arthur . Three members of the crew drowned after attempting to board a rubber raft , while another person died before the remainder of the crew reached the shore . Overall , the storm killed 19 people and caused $ 17 million ( 1943 USD ) in damage to the Houston area .
Following the storm , residents were warned to boil their water and be cautious of potential food contamination due to electrical outages . The War Production Board regional office in Dallas offered relief to the victims of the storm . In La Porte , a makeshift hospital was set up in city hall . At Point Bolivar , where nearly all houses were destroyed , the now @-@ destitute residents were transported by the Galveston chapter of the American Red Cross to Galveston for housing .
= Simon Favre =
Simon Favre ( May 31 , 1760 – July 3 , 1813 ) was an interpreter of the Muskogean languages , particularly Choctaw and Chickasaw , for the French , British , Spanish and Americans in the part of West Florida that became part of the states of Mississippi and Alabama . The son of another prominent interpreter , Favre spent the late 18th century in the vicinity of Mobile and the Tombigbee River , which changed hands from French to British , and then Spanish control . He became well versed in the language and culture of the Choctaws , and was involved with several treaties between the Europeans and natives . As a young man he had a Chocktaw mistress with whom he had six known children , then at the age of 41 he was legally married in Mobile to a woman of European descent . Within a few years of his marriage , he moved with his new family from the Tombigbee area to a plantation on the Pearl River .
As the power of the Choctaws diminished , Favre became less important as an interpreter , and more important as a facilitator of the political changes occurring along the Gulf Coast . Once the Louisiana Purchase was concluded between France and the United States , American settlers from both inside and outside Spanish West Florida increased pressure on Spain for American control of the territory . While the transfer did not officially take place until 1821 , the Spanish essentially put Florida under the trust of the United States in 1810 , and Favre played a major role in facilitating the transfer , and keeping the Indians informed of the events . Favre was considered the top interpreter in the region by men of prominence , including Governor William C. C. Claiborne of Louisiana who made Favre a justice of the peace , and recommended him for the position of United States agent to the Choctaws . A " talk " that Favre gave to the Choctaws on the eve of the War of 1812 was touted by historian Russell Guerin as a masterpiece of diplomacy , and displayed Favre 's deep understanding of the native language and culture .
Favre died in 1813 , leaving many minor children and a substantial estate of more than 5000 acres of land and 57 slaves . He had 13 known children with three different women , and leaves numerous descendants . A well @-@ known descendant is former National Football League quarterback Brett Favre . Simon Favre 's associations with property owners and prominent officials demonstrate that he was a person of very high social standing .
= = Life = =
= = = Ancestry = = =
Born near Mobile , then a part of French Louisiana , on May 31 , 1760 , Simon Favre was the son of Jean Claude Favre ( 1721 – 1782 ) and Marguerite Wiltz ( 1740 – 1805 ) . His grandfather , Jean Baptiste Favre , came from Royan , France , and by tradition was a cabin boy when Pierre D 'Iberville placed him on shore near Biloxi to make contact with the natives . His father was a government interpreter who was commissioned to explain the terms of the Treaty of Paris ( 1763 ) to the natives upon the conclusion of the French and Indian War . Favre 's mother was the daughter of a Swiss soldier .
= = = Early life = = =
Learning from his father , Favre became fluent in the languages of French , English , Spanish , and the Muskogean languages including Choctaw and Chickasaw . The lands along the Gulf coast were held by the British for nearly two decades following the 1763 Treaty of Paris , but their ability to maintain control diminished during that time . On September 3 , 1783 the British ceded their lands in both East and West Florida to Spain under the Treaty of Versailles . Favre 's father had just died the year before this treaty , and Simon Favre followed his father 's career , also inheriting his father 's plantation on the Pearl River , though continuing to reside in Mobile near his mother .
Favre spent his early adult years among the natives along the Tombigbee River , being initially employed by the French as an interpreter of the Choctaw language , but soon coming into the employ of the British and later the Spanish . Favre also understood the Chickasaw language , but at one point his translation was challenged by James Colbert ( grandfather of Holmes Colbert ) , who had married into the Chickasaw tribe , and was asked by the tribe to replace Favre as interpreter . Favre was said to be a confidante and personal friend of the celebrated Choctaw Indian chief Pushmataha . Genealogist Heitzmann relates that at one point Favre acted as the interpreter between Pushmataha and the military commanders Andrew Jackson and General Thomas Hinds .
In 1792 Juan De la Villebeuvre , who worked among the Indians on behalf of the Spanish government , was named a special commissioner to the Choctaws and Chickasaws . Favre 's reputation as a competent and valuable interpreter grew quickly , and in an undated letter to Governor Francisco Carondelet , De la Villebeuvre wrote , " ... I am going to reside with Favre , who is employed by the king [ of Spain ] and who will serve me as interpreter . He is the best one of the province , with a great influence over the minds of the Indians , and he knows how to lead them firmly whenever necessary . " Favre built a house for De la Villebeuvre about 12 miles from the village of the Choctaw chief Franchimastabee with whom Favre had become friendly .
Favre was present at Fort Nogales , located in Choctaw territory near the mouth of the Yazoo River , when the Treaty of Nogales was signed on October 28 , 1793 . The treaty was between Spain ( and signed by the king ) and the Alibamon , Cherokee , Chickasaw , Choctaw , Creek and Tallapoosa nations . Representing the Choctaws were chiefs Franchimastabee and Pushmataha , while Favre signed as a witness . In January 1794 Favre wrote a letter to Don Manuel Lanzos , Spanish commander at Natchez , warning of a great rumor among the Choctaws that the Americans were coming to destroy them . The Choctaws were in difficult straits at the time , from both the consumption of alcohol and from a corn crop failure brought on by an earlier drought . They were stealing horses from other tribes as well as from the Europeans , and Favre himself had three horses stolen while staying near the Tombigbee . De la Villebeuvre felt that these actions were being instigated by the Americans , and Favre was sent to the Choctaw villages to assess the feelings of the natives .
Following the Treaty of Boukfouka on May 10 , 1793 , the Spaniards built a fort on the location where the French had earlier built Fort Tombecbe , and named it Confederacion in honor of the alliance between the Spanish and Indians . In the late 1700s Favre was living near Fort Confederation , but sometime after 1797 moved to St. Stephens . He moved into a house across the road from Augustin Rochon , his future father @-@ in @-@ law . After spending time there and at various other locations along the Tombigbee , Favre returned to Mobile before 1800 where he occupied a house on Loyal Street . While there , he associated with other interpreters including J. B. Roussere and Simon Andry . Favre also maintained very close ties with New Orleans , and he called himself of that city in the 1800 baptismal record for his son Simon .
= = = Pearl River = = =
After having seven children with two other women , Favre was legally married in Mobile in 1801 to Celeste Rochon . Sometime between 1804 and 1806 , following the birth of two children in Mobile , he moved with his new family to one of his plantations on the Pearl River , near what became Pearlington , Mississippi . This was shortly following the Louisiana Purchase of 1803 , when the Americans were showing a great interest in West Florida , still governed by Spain . Favre then became an important interpreter in the service of the Americans , as well as continuing to work for the Spanish who were eventually compelled to give up control of their Florida lands .
While Favre 's importance had initially sprung from his influence with the native tribes , particularly the Choctaws , as the power of these people declined he became much more important as an intermediary during the turbulent times of transition from Spanish to American rule in West Florida . During this period early in the 19th century , the Spanish authorities were losing their hold on West Florida for a variety of reasons . One such reason was piracy , while another was American encroachment following the Louisiana Purchase . Many Americans felt that West Florida should have been included in the purchase . One means used by Spain to attempt to hold on to this region was to commission several important settlers to work for their government . In this regard , Favre was assigned to confirm land deeds that the Spanish were doling out at an accelerated rate , to attempt to stem the tide of American encroachment . Favre also provided intelligence and military maps to the Spanish concerning the activities of not only the Americans , who were applying pressure from outside the jurisdiction , but also rebels along the Pearl River and nearby coast . The rebels , led by Reuben Kemper and his brothers , were causing difficulties from within , and had been attempting to pull West Florida from Spanish control for several years . Under the Spanish , Favre became known as the commander of the District of Bay St. Louis . Many of the land titles that were awarded by Favre were later reviewed by the United States government and appear in the collection of American state papers .
With Americans in control of New Orleans , mail from Fort Stoddard , near Mobile , had to pass through Spanish territory to get there . In 1808 the United States Postmaster wrote to the Secretary of the Treasury that Favre , who was still a Spanish subject , served as an agent for the post office , forwarding the mail passing through Spanish lands .
Though West Florida was not officially ceded to the United States until 1819 under the provisions of the Adams @-@ Onis Treaty , in November 1810 Spanish governor Folach , demanding secrecy , essentially delivered both East and West Florida to the United States in trust . This was done in hopes that the " robberies and depredations " upon the citizens would cease , and under the realization that the transfer was inevitable . Soon thereafter American officials began managing the Florida lands , setting up administrative regions within them , and the western part of West Florida ( the part in present @-@ day Louisiana ) was absorbed into the United States under the proclamation of President James Madison . When Louisiana became a state in 1812 , the remainder of West Florida ( the panhandles of Mississippi and Alabama ) was absorbed by the United States . The western part of this newly annexed Mobile District was organized into Hancock and Harrison Counties ( soon a part of the Mississippi Territory ) , and in 1813 American federal troops were stationed there to formalize the transition .
= = = Late career and death = = =
Just as his father had made the transition from French to British rule , Favre likewise had little difficulty changing his allegiance from the Spanish to the Americans , and he continued to hold a prominent position in the region . In January 1811 Favre was chosen by the Orleans territorial governor William C. C. Claiborne as a magistrate of the " Parish of Biloxi " which was within the territory . When Claiborne became the Louisiana governor following statehood in 1812 , he commissioned Favre as a justice of the peace , and clearly admired him , calling him in a letter an educated and very agreeable man who would make an energetic officer .
At the outset of the War of 1812 , the Americans were interested in assessing the alignment of the native tribes in regards to their loyalty to Britain . In August 1812 Claiborne sent Favre to present a talk to the native tribes of West Florida . Favre 's carefully crafted words , presented under Claiborne 's name , provide an example of the diplomatic skill with which Favre was able to address the language and culture of the Muskogean tribes . While the goal of Favre and the governor was to keep the Choctaws and other tribes out of the " white man 's war " , ultimately the Creeks aligned themselves with the British , and the Americans requested assistance from the Choctaws . In a letter to Secretary of War John Armstrong , Claiborne recommended that " Colonel Simon Favre " become a United States agent for the Choctaws . Favre held the rank of Lieutenant Colonel in the Hancock County militia , and early in the War of 1812 he was able to negotiate with the Choctaws to provide assistance against Britain 's Creek allies .
Favre died in the summer of 1813 , and though he was living along the Pearl River , court testimony by Peter Moran in 1845 stated that he died in Mobile , and had not been there long before his death . A letter by Mississippi governor David Holmes , dated August 1 , 1813 , mentions the " absence of Colonel Favre at Mobile " and " his subsequent death " . Favre 's daughter Mary stated that he died on July 21 , but an obituary that appeared in a New Orleans newspaper on July 20 gives his death date as July 3 . Several years after his death , in 1817 or 1818 , his widow married Isaac Graves , with whom she had one additional child , and they lived in Pearlington , Mississippi . Graves had been the operator of Favre 's schooner , Pearl , and had very little estate , but following his marriage to Favre 's widow , he utilized Favre 's estate as his own , much to the disadvantage of Favre 's heirs .
= = Favre 's " wives " = =
While a young man , conducting his business among the Choctaws , Favre consummated a relationship with a native woman named Pistikiokonay , who may have been a daughter of the Choctaw Chief Pushmataha , since there was a documented relationship between Favre and this chief . Over a period of about 15 years Favre sired at least six chldren with this woman , the first of whom was born in about 1784 . Shortly before 1800 he then had a relationship with a woman whose first name has been given as Rebecca or Rosella , and whose last name has been written as Austin or Ostein , with other spelling variations . In 1800 he had an illegitimate son born of this union , and this son , Simon , Jr . , was later named prominently in his will . In 1801 a number of slave exchanges took place between Favre and Austin , as he prepared to marry another woman . On March 25 , 1801 he was legally married to Celeste Rochon , a daughter of Augustine Rochon and Luisa Fievre of Mobile , with whom he had six more children .
= = Land holdings and slaves = =
In 1806 Favre began cultivation of land on the Pearl River in what became Hancock County , Mississippi . Favre 's land holdings were extensive , and his will mentions eight different plantations totalling over 5000 acres in area . He also acquired 57 slaves shortly before his death , as they were not mentioned in his will , but later became prominently mentioned during the settlement of his estate . The October 1814 inventory of his personal property includes a list of the 57 slaves , giving the name , age , and value of each . The oldest was 80 and valued at $ 5 @.@ 00 , while the most valuable was a 30 @-@ year @-@ old " cow hunter " valued at $ 900 . Collectively , the slaves were valued at just under $ 15 @,@ 000 . The inventory also mentioned 6200 arpents ( 5247 acres ) of land valued at $ 2410 , a schooner named Pearl , and 450 head of cattle .
One of Favre 's properties on the Pearl River was originally settled by his father in 1767 , and was inherited by Favre upon his father 's death in 1782 . This plantation later became known as the town of Napoleon , and Favre kept a store there that later became a part of the community 's church . In 1961 all the residents of the town were moved when the property was declared within the buffer zone of the John C. Stennis Space Center . Another one of his Pearl River properties became the town of Pearlington , Mississippi , where many of his children , including those of his Choctaw mistress , lived .
Though Favre lived in Hancock County in West Florida , and died in Mobile , Mississippi Territory , documents concerning his estate were also filed in New Orleans , Louisiana , probably by his Hancock County attorney , Rutillius Pray of Pearlington . By 1826 the estate had been partially settled , and during the October court term Pray submitted a final settlement showing total sales from the estate of just under $ 27 @,@ 000 ( including nearly $ 22 @,@ 000 for slaves ) , while total debts amounted to nearly $ 33 @,@ 000 . However , taking into account unsold assets , the estate appears to have been solvent .
= = Family = =
Favre 's earliest known children were with his Choctaw mistress named Pistikiokonay . This woman lived in what later became Lauderdale County , Mississippi , though most of her children moved to Hancock County where Favre had two large plantations along the Pearl River . Favre had six known or suspected children with her , the earliest born about 1784 , and the last possibly born about 1805 , though without birth records there is uncertainty among most of the birth years . The oldest child was likely Alexis ( male ) , born about 1784 ( based on a deposition he made in 1844 , calling himself aged 60 ) ; he married a Choctaw named Cuna and had several children . A second child , Katherine , died after 1830 without issue . Louis , possibly the third child , had a wife named " Milisew " and four children ; he died between 1830 and 1835 . Charles , born about 1798 ( deposed in 1856 that he was 58 years old ) , married Carmelite LaFontaine , had several children , and died by 1868 . Mary , born about 1800 ( aged 70 in the 1870 census ) , never married , but was highly respected in the family and became the administratrix of her father 's estate . Favre 's youngest child with his Choctaw mistress appears to be Jean Baptiste , usually just called Baptiste , who was born about 1805 ( aged about 40 in 1845 ) , married a woman named Toshowahoke , and had two children .
In 1800 Favre had an illegitimate son with Rebecca Austin ( also called Rosella Ostein ) , a native of Tombigbee in the District of Mobile . The child , named Simon , was born February 5 , 1800 . Favre left a bequest to the child in 1812 so that he could " be taught to read and write and to learn a trade or profession . "
Favre had six children with his legal wife , Celeste Rochon , the oldest of whom was Jean ( John ) , born August 2 , 1802 , died January 7 , 1888 , and married Dianna Edwards . Augustine ( Gus ) was born July 17 , 1804 and had two wives , Eleanor and Mary Jane , whose maiden names are uncertain . The third child of this marriage , Onezan ( Nezan ) , was born December 23 , 1806 , died May 10 , 1875 , and married Mary Moody . Next was Louisa Eucharist , born May 15 , 1809 , who married first James Conerly , and then John L. Armstrong . The fifth child was Marguerite , born January 17 , 1812 , died February 6 , 1908 , and married James Murphy . The last child of this marriage was Carlota , who was confirmed in New Orleans in February 1813 , and thus does not appear in her father 's 1812 will . She is not mentioned as an heir of Simon , so may have died young .
Probably the best known of Favre 's descendants is former National Football League quarterback Brett Favre , who descends from Simon 's Choctaw mistress , through their son Louis .
= The Good @-@ Morrow =
" The Good @-@ Morrow " is a poem by John Donne , published in his 1633 collection Songs and Sonnets . Written while Donne was a student at Lincoln 's Inn , the poem is one of his earliest works and is thematically considered to be the " first " work in Songs and Sonnets . Although referred to as a sonnet , the work does not follow the most common rhyming scheme of such works — a 14 @-@ line poem , consisting of an eight @-@ line stanza followed by a six @-@ line conclusion — but is instead 21 lines long , divided into three stanzas . " The Good @-@ Morrow " is written from the point of view of an awaking lover and describes the lover 's thoughts as he wakes next to his partner . The lover 's musings move from discussing sensual love to spiritual love as he realises that , with spiritual love , the couple are liberated from fear and the need to seek adventure . The poem makes use of biblical and Catholic writings , indirectly referencing the legend of the Seven Sleepers and Paul the Apostle 's description of divine , agapic love – two concepts with which , as a practising Catholic , Donne would have been familiar .
Donne 's cartographic references in the third stanza have been the subject of much analysis , although academics have differed in their interpretation of their meaning and what the lines reference . Robert L. Sharp argues that these references can be logically interpreted as yet another reference to love ; the maps Donne with which would have been familiar were not the Mercator @-@ style maps that are common in the modern era , but instead cordiform maps , which appear in the shape of a heart and allow for the display of multiple worlds , which Donne alludes to in lines 11 to 18 . Julia M. Walker , while noting that Sharp 's work is " essential to an intelligent discussion of this extended image " , disagrees with his conclusions and argues that Donne is actually referring to a map showing one world .
= = Background and structure = =
Poet John Donne was born on 21 January 1572 to John Donne , a wealthy ironmonger and one of the wardens of the Worshipful Company of Ironmongers , and his wife Elizabeth . After his father 's death when he was four , Donne was , instead of being prepared to enter a trade , trained as a gentleman scholar ; his family used the money his father had made from ironmongering to hire private tutors who trained him in grammar , rhetoric , mathematics , history and foreign languages . Elizabeth was soon remarried to a wealthy doctor , ensuring that the family remained comfortable ; as a result , despite being the son of an ironmonger and portraying himself in his early poetry as an outsider , Donne refused to accept that he was anything other than a gentleman . After study at Hart Hall , Oxford , Donne 's private education eventually saw him study at Lincoln 's Inn , one of the Inns of Court , where he occupied his time with history , poetry , theology and " Humane learning and languages " . It was at Lincoln 's Inn that Donne first began writing poetry , looking upon it as " a life @-@ sign or minor irritation " rather than something which defined him . This early poetry included " The Good @-@ Morrow " as well as many other works which later went on to comprise his collection Songs and Sonnets , published in 1633 , two years after his death ; " The Good @-@ Morrow " is considered , in terms of its theme and maturity , to be the first of this collection 's poems .
Sonnets are , canonically , poems of 14 lines with assorted rhyming schemes . Originating in the 14th century works of Petrarch , the most common form of the sonnet is known as the Italian Sonnet : a stanza of eight lines in which the writer lays out a complex thought , followed by a pause and a six @-@ line conclusion " which is characteristically both unpredictable and intense " . This was interlinked with the idea of courtly love , in which the goal of a romance is not simply passion , but a more significant moral perfection . " The Good @-@ Morrow " , although identified by Donne as a sonnet , does not follow this structural layout , although it does follow the thematic one ; Donne used " sonnet " simply to refer to any piece of love poetry , ignoring the fact that " The Good @-@ Morrow " was a 21 @-@ line work divided into three stanzas .
= = Poem = =
The poem opens with a reference to a Catholic legend as Donne says :
I wonder by my troth , what thou and I
Did , till we loved ? were we not wean 'd till then ?
But suck 'd on country pleasures , childishly ?
Or snorted we in the Seven Sleepers ' den ? ( lines 1 – 4 )
This refers to the Seven Sleepers , the Catholic legend of seven Christian children , persecuted for their faith during the reign of the Roman emperor Decius , who fled to the shelter of a cave where they slept for more than 200 years . Donne , one of six or seven children and a baptised Catholic during a time of strong anti @-@ Catholic sentiment from both the populace and the government , would certainly have been familiar with the story .
And now good @-@ morrow to our waking souls ,
Which watch not one another out of fear ;
For love all love of other sights controls ,
And makes one little room an everywhere .
Let sea @-@ discoverers to new worlds have gone ;
Let maps to other , worlds on worlds have shown ;
Let us possess one world ; each hath one , and is one . ( lines 8 – 14 )
In this passage , the speaker experiences a sense of wonder , having awoken in bed with his lover ; he makes the discovery that their love makes finding " new worlds " pale in importance . " [ S ] ouls " also awake , not just bodies , " as if called by love from the sleep of ordinary life and mere lust " .
My face in thine eye , thine in mine appears ,
And true plain hearts do in the faces rest ;
Where can we find two better hemispheres
Without sharp north , without declining west ?
Whatever dies , was not mix 'd equally ; ( lines 15 – 19 )
This passage shows the speaker communicating to his lover that they have proceeded from their former " childish " pleasures to this moment , where their souls have finally awakened ; something " miraculous " has happened , because the speaker feels the sort of love that Paul the Apostle claimed would only be encountered in heaven .
If our two loves be one , or thou and I
Love so alike that none can slacken , none can die . ( lines 20 – 21 )
While the version found in Songs and Sonnets includes this passage as the last two lines , other manuscripts and a later volume of poetry give the last lines as , " If our two loves be one , both thou and I / Love just alike in all , none of these loves can die " .
= = Themes = =
A love poem , " The Good @-@ Morrow " is thematically centred on several concepts . The poem is primarily to do with evolving love ; the movement from pure lust , in the first stanza , to a nascent and evolving spirituality which liberates the lovers because they no longer " watch each other out of fear " but can instead see clearly . The lovers ' faith in each other allows them to be brave , unlike the Seven Sleepers , who were forced out of fear to hide their beliefs ; with love , the lovers can allow others to pursue their own dreams , accepting that " Let us possess one world ; each hath one , and is one " – with each other , there is no need to search further for adventure . Harold Bloom notes the intertwining of both sensual and spiritual love , arguing that Donne is suggesting that it is impossible for those buried in sensual love , " busying themselves in mundane matters " , to experience true love . Donne 's emphasis on the importance of spiritual love can be seen from the biblical allusions ; Achsah Guibbory states that the tone and wording of the poem is an intentional reference to Paul the Apostle 's description of divine , agapic love ; " At moments like these ... eros merges with agape . Walls collapse , the veil parts , we know as we are known ; our deepest , truest selves exposed " . Alfred W. Satterthwaite , writing in The Explicator , argues that the story of the Seven Sleepers itself contains this theme ; in the story , the Sleepers awoke to find themselves " thunderstruck " in their new environment , something analogous to " the radiant revelation love grants to the lovers in the poem " .
Some scholars , such as William Empson , maintain that the poem also indicates that Donne seriously believed in separate planets and planes , and also the existence of more than one Christ – a belief that Donne later abandoned . Academics also see the poem as a more general allegory of the evolution of minds from childishness , as typified by the first stanza where the lovers " suck 'd on country pleasures , childishly " , towards a more mature form of love . Much has also been made of Donne 's references to compasses and maps in the third stanza . Robert L. Sharp , writing in Modern Language Notes , argues that these references can be logically interpreted as yet another reference to love . The maps Donne would have been familiar with are not the Mercator @-@ style maps , but instead cordiform maps , which appear in the shape of a heart . More than simply heart @-@ shaped , cordiform maps also allow the display of multiple worlds , with opposing hemispheres – and Sharp argues that Donne 's work references such a multiple world map in lines 11 to 18 .
Julia M. Walker , writing in The Review of English Studies , notes that Sharp 's work is " essential to an intelligent discussion of this extended image " , but disagrees with his conclusions . In particular , she argues that Sharp 's conclusions are incorrect , and that the actual words of the poem refer to a cordiform map showing a single world rather than one showing two worlds ; " my face on thine eye " , for example , not " eyes " . Instead , Walker suggests that Donne was basing his work on William Cunningham 's Cosmographical Glasse , a 1559 book which showed a single @-@ leafed cordiform map . More importantly , it gave a way to draw a two @-@ leafed , heart @-@ shaped map that displayed only a single world ; this interpretation would " reconcile and unify " the problems with interpreting " The Good @-@ Morrow " . The essential distinction is thus that , while both interpret Donne 's work as referencing cordiform maps , Sharp sees it as referencing a map showing two worlds , while Walker maintains that the reference is to a map showing only one .
= Hot Potato ( video game ) =
Hot Potato ! is an action puzzle video game developed by Pukka Games and published by BAM ! Entertainment for the Game Boy Advance . It was released in Europe on June 29 , 2001 , and in North America on July 1 , 2001 .
In the game the player must simultaneously drive a bus and clear roads of alien potato beings . The beings are scattered across the street , and by shooting out rows of alien potatoes , they can be cleared from the player 's path . The player must clear a set number of aliens to proceed in the game . Hot Potato received mostly above average reviews from critics ; it received 66 @.@ 42 % and 74 % ratings on review aggregate websites GameRankings and Metacritic respectively .
= = Gameplay = =
The game tasks the player with navigating a bus through roads filled with alien potato beings . The player 's bus holds female members of the alien race , and the player can shoot the females from the front of the bus in order to clear the alien potatoes . The aliens come in two colors : red and blue . Aliens are cleared from the road when two like @-@ colored potatoes touch each other , but aliens begin to pile up in the road if two aliens hit each other that are not of the same color . The road is continuously scrolling downwards , forcing the player to make holes in the road wide enough to fit the bus through . The game can end prematurely if the player runs into too many aliens and loses all their lives .
Hot Potato features seven missions and seven score challenges . Mission mode requires the player to clear out a set number of an alien species . There are multiple alien species in the mode and the mission does not finish until the player gets rid of enough of a certain species chosen by the game from the road . Score challenge mode tasks the player with clearing away a certain number of aliens in order to reach a pre @-@ determined score . The game contains bonus levels which are longer than normal levels if the player is able to complete missions under a certain time period .
= = Development = =
Hot Potato was developed for over four years by game designer Dima Pavlovsky before development was picked up by Pukka Games . The game was designed to emulate the success of Tetris with an addictive and original puzzle design . Pukka included the humorous storyline about potato alien beings in the game mostly for laughs and to give the game " charm " . The game was first displayed at the 2001 E3 .
The game 's release at a $ 39 @.@ 99 price in the United States was seen by some reviewers as being too expensive .
= = Reception = =
Hot Potato garnered above mostly positive reception from critics ; it received 66 @.@ 42 % and 74 % ratings on review aggregate websites GameRankings and Metacritic respectively . Eurogamer 's John Bye called the game " curiously amusing " and felt that kids would enjoy the game . IGN 's Craig Harris noted that the game was surprisingly fun to play , and that the game would appeal to a unique niche in the video game market . He criticized it for failing to introduce the player to the point of the game , forcing the player to figure out how to play on their own . Allgame 's Jay Semerad commented that the game provided a surprising amount of challenge , which increased the game 's replayability . GameSpot 's Frank Provo praised the game 's visuals and sound effects , noting that they added to the experience of the game . He felt that the game was not as addictive as some other contemporary puzzle games , but he praised the game nonetheless . Bob Tedeschi of The New York Times commented that Toys ' R ' Us had originally chosen to not distribute Hot Potato , but began to stock the game after it looked like a big seller .
= Nunca Voy a Olvidarte =
" Nunca Voy a Olvidarte " ( English : " I Am Never Going to Forget You " ) is a song written by Roberto Belester and first recorded by Mexican norteño band Bronco for their album Salvaje y Tierno ( 1991 ) . In the song , the protagonist is leaving and vows to never forget the time he spent with his lover . In 1993 , Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Cristian Castro covered the song on his album , Un Segundo en el Tiempo . Castro 's version peaked at number @-@ one on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart in the United States became his first number @-@ one single .
The song received a Lo Nuestro and a Billboard Latin Music award for Pop Song of the Year . It earned an award for Latin Pop Song of the Year at the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers Awards of 1994 . In the following year , Puerto Rican @-@ American recording artist La India covered the song as the lead single from her album Dicen Que Soy which peaked at number eleven on the Hot Latin Songs chart , number thirteen on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs chart , and number @-@ one on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart .
= = Background and recording = =
" Nunca Voy a Olvidarte " was written by Mexican songwriter Roberto Belester for Bronco 's album Salvaje y Tierno ( 1991 ) . Belester composed songs for several well @-@ known Mexican bands such as Los Yonic 's and Los Bukis . The song tells of a protagonist who is leaving his lover and tells her that he is never going to forget her . In 1993 , Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Cristian Castro covered the song on his second studio album , Un Segundo en el Tiempo , which was produced by Alex Zepeda and released as the lead single from the album . According to Castro , he bought Salvaje y Tierno after hearing " Que No Quede Huella " on the radio and wanted to cover " Nunca Voy a Olvidarte " when he listened to it on the CD . The music video for Castro 's cover was produced by Jorge Guerrero Fox Garza and filmed in Cuernavaca which features shots of Castro alone in an old country house near the fireplace and outside on the field remembering a woman he loved .
= = Reception = =
" Nunca Voy a Olvidarte " debuted in the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart at number 31 in the week of August 14 , 1993 , climbing to the top ten two weeks later . The song peaked atop the chart September 18 , 1993 , replacing " Mi Tierra " by Gloria Estefan and was succeeded by " Guadalupe " , by José & Durval , three weeks later . " Nunca Voy a Olvidarte " ended 1993 as the fourth best performing Latin single of the year in the United States . In Mexico City , the song reached number one on the ballads hit parade chart .
At the 6th Lo Nuestro Awards in 1994 , " Nunca Voy a Olvidarte " won the award for Pop Song of the Year . In the same year , it was the Pop Song of the Year at the inaugural Billboard Latin Music awards . " Nunca Voy a Olvidarte " was also the " Song of the Year " at the 1994 Eres Awards . At the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers Awards of 1994 , the song was awarded Latin Pop Song of the Year . In 2005 , the title was used for a compilation album titled Nunca Voy a Olvidarte ... Los Exitos . In 2009 , the song was included on the compilation album La Historia de los Exitos by Fonovisa Records to celebrate the record label 's 25th anniversary . In 2013 , Castro re @-@ recorded the song for his first live album En Primera Fila : Día 1 .
= = Charts = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the Allmusic .
Cristian Castro – vocals
Roberto Belester – songwriting
Alejandro " Alex " Zepeda – producer , arranger
= = La India version = =
In 1994 , Puerto Rican @-@ American recording artist La India covered the song on her album , Dicen Que Soy which was produced by Sergio George and released as the album 's first single . It was picked by George for India to cover as he felt it was something women could relate to . India 's version was included on the soundtrack for The 24 Hour Woman .
= = = Reception = = =
On the Hot Latin Songs chart , the song debuted at number twenty @-@ one on the week of October 15 , 1994 and peaked at number eleven three weeks later . On the Billboard Latin Pop Songs chart , the song debuted at number fifteen on the week of November 5 , 1994 and peaked at number thirteen a week later . On the Billboard Tropical Songs , the song peaked at number @-@ one on the week of October 29 , 1994 replacing " Quien Eres Tú " by Luis Enrique and was succeeded by " En Las Nubes " by Edgar Joel two weeks later .
David Wilson 's found that the melody and arrangements of the song were " generic " . An editor for Latina magazine remarked India 's cover as " sensational " and that it " flattens " Castro 's version of the song .
= = = Charts = = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the Allmusic and Dicen Que Soy liner notes .
= Within You Without You =
" Within You Without You " is a song written by George Harrison and released on the Beatles ' 1967 album Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band . It was Harrison 's second composition in the Indian classical style , after " Love You To " , and was inspired by his six @-@ week stay in India with his mentor and sitar teacher , Ravi Shankar , over September – October 1966 . Recorded in London without the other Beatles , the song features Indian instrumentation such as sitar , dilruba and tabla , and was performed by Harrison and members of the Asian Music Circle . The recording marked a significant departure from the Beatles ' previous work ; musically , it evokes the Indian devotional tradition , while the overtly spiritual quality of the lyrics reflects Harrison 's absorption in Hindu philosophy and the teachings of the Vedas . Although the song was his only composition on Sgt. Pepper , Harrison 's endorsement of Indian culture was further reflected in the inclusion of yogis such as Paramahansa Yogananda among the crowd depicted on the album cover .
With the worldwide success of the album , " Within You Without You " presented Indian classical music to a new audience in the West and contributed to the genre 's peak in international popularity . It also influenced the philosophical direction of many of Harrison 's peers during an era of utopian idealism marked by the Summer of Love . The song has traditionally received a varied response from music critics , some of whom find it lacklustre and pretentious , while others admire its musical authenticity and consider the message to be the most meaningful on Sgt. Pepper . Writing for Rolling Stone , David Fricke described the track as being " at once beautiful and severe , a magnetic sermon about materialism and communal responsibility in the middle of a record devoted to gentle Technicolor anarchy " .
On the Beatles ' 2006 remix album Love , the song was mixed with the John Lennon @-@ written " Tomorrow Never Knows " , creating what some reviewers consider to be that project 's most successful mashup . Sonic Youth , Rainer Ptacek , Oasis , Patti Smith , Cheap Trick and the Flaming Lips are among the artists who have covered " Within You Without You " .
= = Background and inspiration = =
George Harrison began writing " Within You Without You " in early 1967 while at the house of musician and artist Klaus Voormann , in the north London suburb of Hampstead . Harrison 's immediate inspiration for the song came from a conversation they had shared over dinner , regarding the metaphysical space that prevents individuals from recognising the natural forces uniting the world . Following this discussion , Harrison worked out the song 's melody on a harmonium and came up with the opening line : " We were talking about the space between us all " .
The song was Harrison 's second composition to be explicitly influenced by Indian classical music , after " Love You To " , which featured Indian instruments such as sitar , tabla and tambura . Since recording the latter track for the Beatles ' Revolver album in April 1966 , Harrison had continued to look outside of his role as the band 's lead guitarist , further immersing himself in studying the sitar , partly under the tutelage of master sitarist Ravi Shankar . Harrison later said that the tune for " Within You Without You " came about through his regularly performing musical exercises known as sargam , which use the same scales as those found in Indian ragas .
" Within You Without You " is the first of many songs in which Harrison espouses Hindu spiritual concepts in his lyrics . Having incorporated elements of Eastern philosophy in " Love You To " , Harrison became fascinated by ancient Hindu teachings after he and his wife , Pattie Boyd , visited Shankar in India over September – October 1966 . Intent on mastering the sitar , Harrison first joined other students of Shankar 's in Bombay , until local fans and the press learned of his arrival . Harrison , Boyd , Shankar and the latter 's partner , Kamala Chakravarty , then relocated to a houseboat on Dal Lake in Srinagar , Kashmir . There , Harrison received personal tuition from Shankar while absorbing religious texts such as Paramahansa Yogananda 's Autobiography of a Yogi and Swami Vivekananda 's Raja Yoga . This period coincided with his introduction to meditation and , during their visit to Vrindavan , he witnessed communal chanting for the first time .
The education he received in India , particularly regarding the illusory nature of the material world , resonated with Harrison following his experiences with the hallucinogenic drug LSD ( commonly known as " acid " ) and informed his lyrics to " Within You Without You " . Having considered leaving the Beatles after the completion of their third US tour , on 29 August 1966 , he also gained a philosophical perspective on the effects of the band 's international fame . He later attributed " Within You Without You " to his having " fallen under the spell of the country " after experiencing the " pure essence of India " through Shankar 's guidance .
= = Composition = =
= = = Music = = =
The song follows the pitches of Khamaj thaat , the Indian equivalent of Mixolydian mode . Written and performed in the tonic key of C ( but subsequently sped up to C # on the official recording ) , it features what musicologist Dominic Pedler terms an " exotic " melody over a constant C @-@ G " root @-@ fifth " drone , which is neither obviously major nor minor in scale . Based on a musical piece that Shankar had written for All India Radio , the structure of the composition adheres to the Hindustani musical tradition and demonstrates Harrison 's advances in the Indian classical genre since " Love You To " .
Following a brief alap , which serves to introduce the song 's main musical themes , " Within You Without You " comprises three distinct sections : two verses and a chorus ; an extended instrumental passage ; and a final verse and chorus . The alap consists of tambura drone , over which the main melody is outlined on dilruba , a bow @-@ played string instrument that Boyd began learning in India . Throughout the vocal section of the song – the gat , in traditional Indian composition – the rhythm is a 16 @-@ beat tintal in madhya laya ( medium tempo ) . The vocal line is supported throughout by dilruba , in the manner of a sarangi echoing the melody in a khyal piece . The first three words of each verse ( " We were talking " ) have a tritone interval ( E to B ♭ ) , which , in Pedler 's view , enhances the spiritual dissonance that Harrison expresses in his lyrics .
Over the instrumental passage , the tabla rhythm switches to a 10 @-@ beat jhaptal cycle . A musical dialogue ensues in 5 / 4 time , first between the dilruba and sitar , then between a Western string section and sitar , resolving in melodic unison and together stating a rhythmic cadence , known as a tihai , to close the middle segment . After this , the drone is again prominent as the rhythm returns to 16 @-@ beat tintal for the final verse and chorus . On the finished recording , the tonal and spiritual tension is relieved by the inclusion of muted canned laughter .
In his book Indian Music and the West , Gerry Farrell writes of " Within You Without You " : " The overall effect is of several disparate strands of Indian music being woven together to create a new form . It is a quintessential fusion of pop and Indian music . " Peter Lavezzoli , author of The Dawn of Indian Music in the West , describes the song as " a survey of Indian classical and semiclassical styles " in which " the diverse elements ... are skillfully woven together into an interesting hybrid . If anything , the closest comparison that might be made is to the Hindu devotional song form known as bhajan . "
= = = Lyrics = = =
According to Religion News Service writer Steve Rabey , " Within You Without You " " contrast [ s ] Western individualism with Eastern monism " . The lyrics convey basic tenets of Vedanta philosophy , particularly in Harrison 's reference to the concept of maya ( the illusory nature of existence ) , in the lines " And the people who hide themselves behind a wall of illusion / Never glimpse the truth " . Author Joshua Greene paraphrases the song @-@ wide message as : " A wall of illusion separates us from each other … which only turns our love for one another cold . Peace will come when we learn to see past the illusion of differences and come to know that we are one … " The solution espoused by Harrison is for individuals to see beyond the self and each seek change within , further to Vivekananda 's contention in Raja Yoga that " Each soul is potentially divine . The goal is to manifest that divinity … "
At times in the song , Harrison distances himself from those who live in ignorance of these apparent truths – saying , " If they only knew " and asking the listener , " Are you one of them ? " In the final verse , he quotes from the gospels of St Matthew and St Mark , lamenting those who " gain the world and lose their soul " . Author Ian MacDonald defends the " accusatory finger " behind such statements , saying : " this is a token of what was then felt to be a revolution in progress : an inner revolution against materialism . "
In the context of 1967 , the transcendental theme of Harrison 's lyrics aligned with the philosophy behind the Summer of Love – namely , the search for universality and an ego @-@ less existence . Author Ian Inglis considers the line " With our love we could save the world " to be a " cogent reflection " of the Summer of Love ethos , anticipating the utopian message of Harrison 's composition " It 's All Too Much " and the John Lennon @-@ written " All You Need Is Love " . He adds , with reference to the chorus : " The lyrics are given greater depth by the double meaning of without – ' in the absence of ' and ' outside ' – each of which is perfectly applicable to the song 's sentiments . "
= = Production = =
= = = Recording = = =
Harrison recorded " Within You Without You " for the Beatles ' Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band , an album based around Paul McCartney 's vision of a fictitious band that would serve as the Beatles ' alter egos , after their decision to quit touring . Harrison had little interest in McCartney 's concept ; he later admitted that , following his return from India , " my heart was still out there " , and working with the Beatles again " felt like going backwards " . After it was decided to omit " Only a Northern Song " from the album , the song became Harrison 's sole composition on Sgt. Pepper .
The recording features musical contributions from only Harrison , Beatles aide Neil Aspinall , and a group of uncredited Indian musicians . As with his Indian accompanists on " Love You To " , Harrison sourced these musicians through the Asian Music Circle in north London . According to author Alan Clayson , Harrison missed a Beatles recording session to attend one of Shankar 's London concerts , an absence that served as " fieldwork " for " Within You Without You " .
MacDonald describes the song as " Stylistically … the most distant departure from the staple Beatles sound in their discography " . The basic track was recorded on 15 March 1967 at EMI 's Abbey Road studio 2 in London . The participants sat on a carpet in the studio , which was decorated with Indian tapestries on the walls , with the lights turned low and incense burning . Harrison and Aspinall each played a tambura , while the Indian musicians contributed on tabla , dilruba , tambura and swarmandal . A type of zither , the swarmandal provided the glissando flourishes that introduce the tabla during the alap and signal the return to 16 @-@ beat tintal before the final verse .
The session was also attended by Lennon , artist Peter Blake , and John Barham , an English classical pianist and student of Shankar who shared Harrison 's desire to promote Indian music to Western audiences . In Barham 's recollection , Harrison " had the entire structure of the song mapped out in his head " and sung the melody that he wanted the dilruba player to follow . The twin hand @-@ drums of the tabla were close @-@ miked by recording engineer Geoff Emerick , in order to capture what he later described as " the texture and the lovely low resonances " of the instrument .
= = = Overdubbing and mixing = = =
The first of two overdubbing sessions for " Within You Without You " took place at Abbey Road on 22 March . Two more dilruba parts were added that day , played by an outside musician , after which a reduction mix was carried out , to allow for further overdubs onto the four @-@ track recording .
Producer George Martin then arranged the string orchestration , for eight violins and three cellos , based on Harrison 's instructions . The pair worked hard together on the arrangement , ensuring that Martin 's score imitated the slides and bends of the dilrubas . The orchestral parts , performed by members of the London Symphony Orchestra , were added on 3 April . During the same session , Harrison recorded his vocal and a sitar part , the solo of which , in the description of music critic David Fricke , " sings and swings with the clarity and phrasing of his best rockabilly @-@ fired guitar work " . Harrison also overdubbed occasional interjections on acoustic guitar .
On 4 April , while preparing the final mixes of the song , in stereo and mono , Harrison added crowd laughter taken from a sound effects tape in the Abbey Road library . Martin and Emerick were both opposed to this addition but deferred to Harrison , who later said that the laughter provided " some light relief " , adding : " You were supposed to hear the audience anyway , as they listen to Sergeant Pepper 's Show . " The completed recording was enhanced in the mixes through the liberal application of automatic double tracking . Before Harrison recorded his vocals the previous day , the track had been edited and sped up sufficiently to reduce it in length from an original 6 : 25 to 5 : 05 . In the process , the song 's key was raised a semitone , to C # .
= = Release = =
Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band was released on 1 June 1967 , with " Within You Without You " sequenced as the opening track on side two of the LP . Greene notes that for many listeners at the time , the song provided their " first meaningful contact with meditative sound " . In his 1977 book The Beatles Forever , Nicholas Schaffner likened " Within You Without You " to Hermann Hesse 's Siddhartha – an influential novel among the emerging counterculture during the Summer of Love – in terms of the song 's evocation of Hesse 's " idealization of individuality " and " vision of a mysterious East " . Eager to separate the song 's message from the LSD experience at a time when the drug had grown in popularity and influence , Harrison told an interviewer : " It 's nothing to do with pills … It 's just in your own head , the realisation . "
Although Harrison later spoke dismissively of the Sgt. Pepper project and its legacy , he conceded that he had enjoyed working on the record 's iconic cover . For this , he asked Blake to include pictures of Indian yogis and religious leaders – including Yogananda , Mahavatar Babaji , Lahiri Mahasaya and Sri Yukteswar – to feature beside images of the Beatles . Among the song 's lyrics , printed on the back cover , the positioning of the words " Without You " behind McCartney 's head served as a clue in the Paul Is Dead rumour , which grew in the United States partly as a result of the Beatles ' failure to perform live after 1966 .
In 1971 the song was issued as the title track of an EP release in Mexico . Part of a series of Beatles releases sequenced by Lennon , the EP also included the Harrison @-@ written tracks " Love You To " , " The Inner Light " and " I Want to Tell You " . In 1978 " Within You Without You " appeared as the B @-@ side to the " Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band " / " With a Little Help from My Friends " medley , on singles released in West Germany and some other European countries . An instrumental version of the track , at the original speed and in the key of C , appeared on the Beatles ' 1996 outtakes compilation Anthology 2 .
= = Critical reception = =
= = = Contemporary reviews = = =
Recalling the song 's release in his book The Beatles Diary , Barry Miles writes : " Some thought it a masterpiece , some a prime example of mock @-@ philosophical babble . Either way , it was pure Harrison . " David Griffiths of Record Mirror praised the album 's musical and lyrical scope , which included " life @-@ enhancing philosophy " , and added : " George Harrison 's ' Within You Without You ' is a beautifully successful and adventurous statement in song of a Yoga truth . " The Times of India 's music critic similarly admired the Beatles for " explor [ ing ] farther reaches in the musical firmament " and described Harrison 's composition as a " memorable " track . In one of the few unfavourable reviews for Sgt. Pepper , Richard Goldstein , writing in The New York Times , said the song was " remarkable " musically and a highlight of the album , yet he considered the lyrics " dismal " and full of " the very clichés the Beatles helped bury " . Allen Evans of the NME found the " deep , rich rhythm " of the tabla " most appealing " , although he bemoaned that it was difficult to decipher the lyrics " because they merge with the sitar music so closely " .
According to the Beatles ' official biographer , Hunter Davies , writing in 1968 , some contemporary reviewers speculated that the burst of laughter at the end of " Within You Without You " was inserted by Harrison 's bandmates to mock the song . Davies corrected this misconception , saying : " It was completely George 's idea . " In a review published five months after the release of Sgt. Pepper , Hit Parader considered that the album had not endured as well as the Beatles ' previous works , and opined : " Harrison has produced a soothing , sinuous , exotic sound for ' Within You Without You ' . But even though his repetitious recitation of elementary Far Eastern philosophy is probably intended to reflect the infinity of the universe , it soon becomes a bit monotonous . The laughter at the end seems to be deflating the pretentiousness of the lyrics . "
= = = Retrospective assessment = = =
The song has continued to invite widely diverse opinions . Writing in 1988 , author and critic Tim Riley dismissed " Within You Without You " as dull and " directionless " , adding that it was " the most dated piece on the record ... [ and ] could easily have been left off with little to no effect " on the album . Conversely , Ian Inglis considers the song to be " absolutely central to the form and content " of its parent album . Among other Beatles biographers , Ian MacDonald views " Within You Without You " as the " conscience " of Sgt. Pepper and " the necessary sermon that comes with the community singing " , and Kenneth Womack terms it " quite arguably , the album 's ethical soul " .
Writing for Rough Guides , Chris Ingham admires the track as " beautifully put together " ; he describes it as both " some of the most exotic music released under The Beatles ' name " and a " philosophical meditation on life and love beyond self ... [ that ] , once surrendered to , is a central part of the Pepper experience " . Harrison and Lennon biographer Gary Tillery echoes these sentiments , saying : " ' Within You Without You ' was one of the most original and distinctive songs the Beatles ever created , a gem in the album generally considered the pinnacle of their career . And only one Beatle could be given credit for it . " In his book on the history of ambient music , Mark Prendergast includes " Within You Without You " among the album 's " three outstanding cuts " and deems it to be " the most timeless piece of dronal psychedelia ever recorded " .
Musicologist Allan Moore considers that Harrison 's " command of the quasi @-@ Indian medium is of a very high order " and , with regard to the song 's message , he states : " In its explicit , prescient call to the me @-@ generation , perhaps ' Within You Without You ' is a key track [ on the album ] ... expressing the deepest commitment to the counter @-@ culture . " Writing for PopMatters in November 2009 , Ross Langager attributed a similar significance to the track :
Sgt. Pepper is about Britain , and the Summer of Love was always about America . The only song on the album that approaches the ideology and rhetoric of the hippie counterculture was George Harrison 's sole contribution , the lush sitar @-@ washed " Within You Without You " , and it follows that Harrison was the only Beatle to have visited Haight @-@ Ashbury at the peak of the scene . Even then , Eastern philosophy informed the lyric more deeply than did acid culture , and it 's still a dense and stunning composition no matter its ideology .
Among reviews of the 2009 remastered Beatles catalogue , Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph described " Within You Without You " as " dour , droning " and Consequence of Sound grouped it with the " major clunkers " on Sgt. Pepper ; by contrast , Sputnikmusic deemed it to be " vital to the album 's diversity of instrumental material " . AllMusic critic Richie Unterberger admires the " nice haunting melody " , but he considers the track overlong and notes the potential for offence in this , " the first Beatles song where [ Harrison 's ] Indian religious beliefs affected the lyrics with full force " . Writing for Ultimate Classic Rock in 2013 , Dave Swanson described it as a " heady masterpiece of ethereal drone " that captures the " pure bliss of 1967 ... in full bloom " while musically exploring " previously uncharted pop group waters " . In his Harrison obituary for Salon.com , in December 2001 , Ira Robbins considered " Within You Without You " to be " the song that most clearly articulated his devotion , both artistic and philosophical , to India " , with a lyric that " pairs worldview and personality in lines that now seem prophetic " . Robbins concluded : " Whether he was warning others or testing his own conviction , the admonition stands . ' The time will come when you see we 're all one / And life flows on within you and without you . ' "
Joe Bosso of MusicRadar wrote in 2011 that although Harrison had already introduced Indian instrumentation to the Beatles ' sound , the song served as " his Indian music coming @-@ out party " , and he praised the recording as " a glorious , David Lean @-@ like panorama " . Writing for Rolling Stone in 2002 , David Fricke included the track on his list of the " 25 Essential Harrison Performances " . He described it as , variously , the Beatles ' " purest excursion ... into raga " , and " at once beautiful and severe , a magnetic sermon about materialism and communal responsibility in the middle of a record devoted to gentle Technicolor anarchy " .
= = Cultural influence and legacy = =
According to Mikal Gilmore of Rolling Stone , Harrison 's interest in Indian culture " spread like wildfire " among his peers as well as their audience . Author Simon Leng writes that " [ ' Within You Without You ' ] , and Harrison 's leadership of the Beatles into Vedic philosophy , sparked the entire fashion for Indian music and a million backpackers ' pilgrimages to Kashmir ... " Juan Mascaró , a professor in Sanskrit studies at Cambridge University , wrote to Harrison after the song 's release , saying : " it is a moving song , and may it move the souls of millions . And there is more to come , as you are only beginning on the great journey . "
In the opinion of New Yorker journalist Mark Hertsgaard , the lyrics to " Within You Without You " " contained the album 's most overt expression of the Beatles ' shared belief in spiritual awareness and social change " . Harrison 's espousal of Eastern philosophy dominated the band 's extracurricular activities by mid 1967 , such that , author Peter Doggett writes , with Harrison 's " emerge [ ence ] as the champion of all things Indian ... his power within the group increased " . This in turn led to the Beatles ' endorsement of Transcendental Meditation and their highly publicised attendance at Maharishi Mahesh Yogi 's spiritual retreat in Rishikesh , India , early the following year .
Music journalist Rip Rense cites the lyrics to " Within You Without You " as an example of how , in comparison to Lennon and McCartney , " Harrison was deliberately , forthrightly trying to say something [ in his songwriting ] , and often something vast … " Among other contemporary rock musicians , Stephen Stills was so taken with the song that he had its lyrics carved on a stone monument in his yard . Lennon also admired the track , saying of Harrison : " His mind and his music are clear . There is his innate talent , he brought that sound together . " David Crosby – whom Harrison acknowledged as having introduced him to Shankar 's music – described Harrison 's fusion of ideas as " utterly brilliant " , adding : " He did it beautifully and tastefully ... He did it at absolutely the highest level that he could , and I was extremely proud of him for that . " Music critic Ken Hunt describes the song as an " early landmark " in Harrison 's championing of Shankar , and Indian classical music generally , which gained " real global attention " for the first time through the Beatle 's commitment . Peter Lavezzoli also highlights the effect of Sgt. Pepper and its " spiritual centerpiece [ ' Within You Without You ' ] " on Shankar 's popularity , during a year that served as " the annus mirabilis " for Indian music and " a watershed moment in the West when the search for higher consciousness and an alternative world view had reached critical mass " . Musicologist Walter Everett lists Spirit 's " Mechanical World " and the Incredible String Band 's " Maya " , both released in 1968 , and much of the Moody Blues ' 1969 album To Our Children 's Children 's Children as works that were directly influenced by the Beatles ' song .
American musician Gary Wright recalls listening to " Within You Without You " repeatedly in the summer of 1967 while touring Europe for the first time , and he says : " I was transported to another place of consciousness . I 'd never heard such sound textures before . " Writing in the " 100 Rock Icons " issue of Classic Rock , in 2006 , singer Paul Rodgers cited the track to support Harrison 's standing as what the magazine called " the Beatles ' musical medicine man " . Rodgers said : " He introduced me and a generation of people worldwide to the wisdom of the East . His thought @-@ provoking ' Within You Without You ' – with sitars , tablas and deep lyrics – was something completely different , even in a world full of unique music . "
= = Love remix = =
" Within You Without You " was included on the 2006 remix album Love , which was created for the Cirque du Soleil stage show of the same name . Harrison 's vocal appears over the rhythm section from " Tomorrow Never Knows " , after the track opens with Lennon 's lyric from the latter song . Reviewing the album for PopMatters , Zeth Lundy writes : " The ' Within You Without You ' / ' Tomorrow Never Knows ' mash @-@ up , perhaps the most thrilling and effective track on the entire disc , fuses two especially transcendental songs into one : ... a union of two ambiguous , open @-@ ended declarations of spiritual pursuit . " Paul Moody of Uncut similarly considers it to be the " best of all " the mashups on Love , with the two tracks ' " cosmic drones ... fitted together like a glove " .
Remixed and remastered by George Martin and his son Giles , " Within You Without You " / " Tomorrow Never Knows " was the first track prepared for Love . Speaking to Mojo magazine in December 2006 , Giles Martin said that he had first created a demo combining the two songs , which he then nervously presented to McCartney and Ringo Starr for their approval . In Martin 's recollection , " they loved it " , which allowed the project to proceed . The Love remix is one of the songs in The Beatles : Rock Band .
= = Cover versions = =
Big Jim Sullivan , a British session guitarist who became proficient on the sitar , included " Within You Without You " on his album of Indian music @-@ style recordings , titled Sitar Beat and first released in 1967 . In the same year , the Soulful Strings recorded the song for their album Groovin ' with the Soulful Strings , a version that also appeared on the B @-@ side of their most successful single , " Burning Spear " .
In 1988 Sonic Youth recorded " Within You Without You " for the NME 's multi @-@ artist tribute Sgt. Pepper Knew My Father . Fricke highlights this recording as an example of how , regardless of its Indian origins , the composition can be interpreted on electric guitar effectively and " with transportive force " . Big Daddy covered the song on their 1992 Sgt. Pepper tribute album , a release that Moore recognises as " the most audacious " of the many interpretations of the Beatles ' 1967 LP , with " Within You Without You " serving as " the cleverest pastiche " , performed in a free jazz style reminiscent of Ornette Coleman or Don Cherry . Other acts who have covered it for Sgt. Pepper tributes include Oasis , on a BBC Radio 2 project celebrating the album 's 40th anniversary ( 2007 ) ; Easy Star All @-@ Stars ( featuring Matisyahu ) , on Easy Star 's Lonely Hearts Dub Band ( 2009 ) ; and Cheap Trick , on their Sgt. Pepper Live DVD ( 2009 ) . In 2014 , the Flaming Lips , with featured guests Birdflower and Morgan Delt , recorded it for their Sgt. Pepper tribute , With a Little Help from My Fwends .
Guitarist Rainer Ptacek opened his 1994 album Nocturnes with what AllMusic critic Bob Gottlieb describes as a " stunning instrumental " reading of the song , recorded live in a chapel in Tucson . A version by Angels of Venice appeared on their self @-@ titled album , released in 1999 , and Big Head Todd and the Monsters contributed a recording for Songs from the Material World : A Tribute to George Harrison in 2003 . The following year , Thievery Corporation covered the track on their album The Outernational Sound . Patti Smith included it on her 2007 covers album Twelve , a version that , according to BBC music critic Chris Jones , " sounds like [ the song ] could have been written for her " . Peter Knight and his Orchestra , Firefall , Glenn Mercer , R. Stevie Moore and Les Fradkin are among the other artists who have recorded the song .
Dead Can Dance 's 1996 album Spiritchaser includes the track " Indus " , the melody of which was found to be very similar to that of " Within You Without You " . The duo 's singer , Lisa Gerrard , told The Boston Globe that they had subsequently obtained Harrison 's blessing but " the [ record company ] pushed it " , with the result that they were forced to give the former Beatle a partial songwriting credit . In 1978 , the Rutles parodied " Within You Without You " on the track " Nevertheless " , performed by Rikki Fataar .
= = Personnel = =
According to Ian MacDonald :
George Harrison – lead vocals , tambura , sitar , acoustic guitar
Uncredited Indian musicians – dilrubas , tabla , swarmandal , tambura
Neil Aspinall – tambura
Erich Gruenberg , Alan Loveday , Julien Gaillard , Paul Scherman , Ralph Elman , David Wolfsthal , Jack Rothstein , Jack Greene – violins
Reginald Kilbey , Allen Ford , Peter Halling – cellos
= Herbert J. Ray =
Rear Admiral Herbert James Ray ( 1 February 1893 – 3 December 1970 ) was an officer in the United States Navy who served in World War I and World War II . A 1914 graduate of the Naval Academy , he served on the submarines USS H @-@ 2 and N @-@ 3 during World War I. In March 1942 , as Chief of Staff and Aide to the Commandant of the Sixteenth Naval District , Rear Admiral Francis W. Rockwell , he participated in General Douglas MacArthur 's escape from the Philippines . In Australia , he served with MacArthur 's General Headquarters , Southwest Pacific Area staff . In September 1943 , he became Captain of the battleship USS Maryland , which he commanded in the Battle of Tarawa , Battle of Kwajalein , Battle of Saipan and the Battle of Peleliu . In October 1944 , he participated in the Battle of Surigao Strait , in which Maryland joined the other battleships in engaging the Japanese battleships Fusō and Yamashiro and their escorts . Ray left Maryland in December 1944 , and was appointed Deputy Director of the Naval Division of the US Control Group Council for Germany . After VE Day , he became the Junior United States Member of the Tripartite Naval Commission in Berlin . He retired from the Navy on 30 June 1949 , and received a tombstone promotion to rear admiral due to his combat decorations .
= = Early life = =
Herbert James Ray was born in Milwaukee , Wisconsin , on 1 February 1893 , the son of James Herbert Ray and his wife Mary née Rosseler . He was educated at Rhea County High School . In 1910 , he was appointed to the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis , from which he graduated on 6 June 1914 .
On graduation , he was commissioned as an ensign , and joined the crew of the battleship USS Minnesota . In July 1915 , he became an instructor for enlisted ratings in Norfolk , Virginia . He then became part of the crew that was assembled for the new battleship USS Nevada in January 1916 , and served on it when it was commissioned in March 1916 . After the United States declared war on Germany , he underwent submariner training on board the submarine tender USS Fulton from June to November 1917 . During the war he served on the submarines USS H @-@ 2 and N @-@ 3 .
= = Between the wars = =
After the war , Ray was posted to the battleship USS Pennsylvania in March 1919 , the submarine tender USS Savannah in July 1919 , and the destroyer USS Meyer February 1920 . He then became the Executive Officer of the destroyer USS Walker . In November 1920 , he helped fit out the destroyer USS Young , and served on it until April 1921 , when he was transferred to the crew of another new destroyer , the USS Macdonough . He helped fit it out , and then served with it until September 1921 .
Ray returned to Annapolis as an instructor with the Electrical Engineering and Physics Department from September 1921 to June 1923 . He then served on the transport USS Argonne until December 1924 , when he became the Executive Officer of the destroyer USS Wood . In 1926 , he assumed command of the destroyer USS Farenholt . In July , he became Officer in Charge of the Branch Hydrographic Office in Honolulu . He was Aide and Flag Secretary to the Commander Light Cruiser 2 from May 1928 to June 1930 ; Light Cruiser Divisions , Scouting Fleet from June to September 1930 ; and Light Cruiser 3 from September 1930 to July 1931 . Ray married Helen Louise Jacobs from La Plata , Maryland in 1930 . They had two daughters and two sons .
Ray was the Navy Representative on the Joint Army @-@ Navy Selective Services Committee at the War Department in Washington , D.C. , from July 1931 to September 1933 . He then helped fit out the new cruiser USS New Orleans , and became first he First Lieutenant and Damage Control Officer , and then , in February 1935 , he Executive Officer . Following the usual pattern of alternating duty afloat and ashore , he returned to Annapolis in July 1936 for a second two @-@ year tour as an instructor , this time in the Department of English and History . In June 1938 he entered the Naval War College at Newport , Rhode Island . After graduating in June 1939 , he became the Executive Officer of the USS Quincy .
= = World War II = =
= = = Southwest Pacific = = =
In March 1941 , Raybecame Chief of Staff and Aide to the Commandant of the Sixteenth Naval District , Rear Admiral Francis W. Rockwell , at Cavite , where he was promoted to captain on 1 July 1941 . He was serving in this capacity when the Pacific War began . He was awarded the Legion of Merit for his part in the fighting . His citation read :
For exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding services to the Government of the United States as Chief of Staff in the Sixteenth Naval District at the outbreak of World War II . Captain Ray continuously performed duties of great responsibility during and after the bombing and destruction of Cavite Navy Yard on 10 December 1941 . In the direction of fire fighting at Cavite , in the evacuation of personnel and material to Corregidor , and in the administration of Naval Facilities at Mariveles on Bataan Peninsula , he displayed courage and marked leadership . His close personal contact with the personnel of Motor Torpedo Boat Squadron Three and constant concern with their problems was an outstanding example of leadership and exceptional efficiency in his profession . During this entire period of great stress , he performed exceptionally meritorious service to the government in duties of great responsibility . Captain Ray was sent to Mariveles on 14 December to supervise the work there and Commander Grandfield temporarily assumed the duties of Chief of Staff . On completion of a reorganization at Mariveles , Captain Ray was ordered to Queen Tunnel Corregidor and resumed his duties as Chief of Staff .
In March 1942 , he participated in General Douglas MacArthur 's escape from the Philippines , for which Ray was awarded the Silver Star . His citation read :
For extraordinary heroism and distinguished service in the line of his profession while serving on the Staff of Rear Admiral Francis Rockwell , Commandant , Sixteenth Naval District , during the period 11 to 13 March 1942 , in the Philippine Islands during an extraordinary action a retrograde maneuver involving General Douglas MacArthur . Captain Ray made detailed plans involving exacting preparations for a movement of major strategic importance and of the most hazardous nature , then executed the mission with marked skill and coolness in the face of greatly superior enemy forces .
In Australia , Ray served with MacArthur 's General Headquarters , Southwest Pacific Area . One of his sons , Lieutenant James H. Ray , was on the destroyer USS Jarvis when it was lost with all hands on 9 August 1942 . When Ray was ordered back to the United States in January 1943 , MacArthur awarded him the Army Distinguished Service Medal . His citation read :
For exceptionally meritorious and distinguished services to the Government of the United States , in a duty of great responsibility in the Southwest Pacific Area during the period from 18 April 1942 to 26 April 1943 . Captain Ray was assigned to General Headquarters , Southwest Pacific Area , upon its establishment , 18 April 1942 , serving as Naval Advisor to the Operations and Intelligence sections of the General Staff from 18 April 1942 to 9 January 1943 . Upon the establishment of the Planning Section of G @-@ 3 , 9 January 1943 , he was assigned as Chief of that section . The accomplishment of the service for which this award is recommended has been completed . This officer has been transferred to another assignment . The entire service of Captain Ray has , since the rendering by him of the service upon which this recommendation is based , been honorable .
= = = USS Maryland = = =
Ray served in the office of the Commander in Chief United States Fleet , Admiral Ernest J. King from April to September 1943 . He then became Captain of the battleship USS Maryland . The ship had been damaged in the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 but returned to service . Maryland participated in the Battle of Tarawa in November 1943 as the flagship of Rear Admiral Harry W. Hill 's V Amphibious Force and Southern Attack Force , and her guns participated in the shore bombardment . In February 1944 , she joined in the Battle of Kwajalein , firing at pillboxes and blockhouses on Roi Island . Maryland 's guns supported the Battle of Saipan , silencing a pair of coastal guns . On 22 June , she was torpedoed by a Mitsubishi G4M " Betty " bomber , but was repaired in time to join Rear Admiral Jesse B. Oldendorf ’ s Western Fire Support Group in the Battle of Peleliu . Still with Oldendorff 's group , but now part of the Vice Admiral Thomas C. Kinkaid 's Seventh Fleet , Maryland participated in the Battle of Leyte in October . In the Battle of Surigao Strait , it joined the other battleships in engaging the Japanese battleships Fusō and Yamashiro and their escorts . Ray was awarded a second Silver Star . His citation read :
for gallantry and intrepidity in action as Commanding Officer of the USS Maryland ( BB @-@ 46 ) , which contributed materially to the annihilation of enemy surface forces , including two battleships , on 25 October 1944 , in Surigao Straits , Philippine Islands . Captain Ray , by his capable direction , caused his ship to deliver prolonged and effective gunfire against the enemy 's ships .
On 29 November , Maryland was attacked and severely damaged by kamikaze aircraft , and forced to return to Pearl Harbor for repairs . For his services as captain , he was awarded the Bronze Star .
= = = Germany = = =
Ray left Maryland in December 1944 . He was appointed Deputy Director of the Naval Division of the US Control Group Council for Germany . After VE Day , he became the Junior United States Member of the Tripartite Naval Commission in Berlin . He was promoted to the wartime rank of commodore on 26 June 1945 . He returned to the United States in April 1946 . For his services in Europe , he was awarded a second Legion of Merit . His citation read :
For exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding services to the Government of the United States in Germany from 1 March 1945 to 20 December 1945 . Commodore Ray distinguished himself by unusually meritorious accomplishments as Deputy Director of the Naval Division , U.S. Group Control Council for Germany , and later , as Deputy Naval Advisor to the Office of Military Government for Germany ( U.S. ) , and as junior member of the Tri @-@ Partite Naval Commission meeting in Berlin from 15 August 1945 until 8 December 1945 . In this duty , he contributed in a high degree to the successful conclusion to the Tri @-@ Partite Naval Commission . He was instrumental in coordinating the Naval work of the U.S. Group Control Council , and other divisions of the U.S. Group Control Council , and in coordinating the efforts of the four powers represented on the Naval Directorate of the Group Control Council for Germany .
= = Later life = =
Ray became Commander of the San Francisco Group of the Nineteenth Fleet in June 1946 . On 10 July , like many other commodores , he was reduced in rank to captain again . He served in this capacity until he retired on 30 June 1949 , at which point he received a tombstone promotion to rear admiral due to his combat decorations . He died on 3 December 1970 at Beale Air Force Base Hospital in California .
= Fountain of Time =
Fountain of Time , or simply Time , is a sculpture by Lorado Taft , measuring 126 feet 10 inches ( 38 @.@ 66 m ) in length , situated at the western edge of the Midway Plaisance within Washington Park in Chicago , Illinois , in the United States . This location is in the Washington Park community area on Chicago 's South Side . Inspired by Henry Austin Dobson 's poem , " Paradox of Time " , and with its 100 figures passing before Father Time , the work was created as a monument to the first 100 years of peace between the United States and Great Britain , resulting from the Treaty of Ghent in 1814 . Although the fountain 's water began running in 1920 , the sculpture was not dedicated to the city until 1922 . The sculpture is a contributing structure to the Washington Park United States Registered Historic District , which is a National Register of Historic Places listing .
Part of a larger beautification plan for the Midway Plaisance , Time was constructed from a new type of molded , steel @-@ reinforced concrete that was claimed to be more durable and cheaper than alternatives . It was said to be the first of any kind of finished work of art made of concrete . Before the completion of Millennium Park in 2004 , it was considered the most important installation in the Chicago Park District . Time is one of several Chicago works of art funded by Benjamin Ferguson 's trust fund .
Time has undergone several restorations because of deterioration and decline caused by natural and urban elements . During the late 1990s and the first few years of the 21st century it underwent repairs that corrected many of the problems caused by these earlier restorations . Although extensive renovation of the sculpture was completed as recently as 2005 , the supporters of Time continue to seek resources for additional lighting , and the National Trust for Historic Preservation has nominated it for further funding .
= = Planning = =
Time , along with many other public works in Chicago , was funded by Benjamin Ferguson 's 1905 gift of $ 1 million ( $ 26 @.@ 3 million today ) , to a charitable trust formed to " memorialize events in American History " . Lorado Taft initially conceived a sculpture carved from granite ; an alternative plan was to have it chiseled out of Georgia marble , which it is estimated would have cost $ 30 @,@ 000 ( $ 718 @,@ 283 ) a year for five years . The planned work was intended as part of a Midway beautification which was to include a stream , lagoons , and a series of bridges : a Bridge of Arts at Woodlawn Avenue , a Bridge of Religion at the intersection of Ellis Avenue , and a Bridge of Science at Dorchester Avenue ( formerly Madison Avenue ) . As part of the plan , the two ends of the Midway were to be connected by a canal in the deep depressions linking lagoons in Jackson and Washington Parks .
In 1907 , Taft had won the first commission from the Ferguson Fund to create the Fountain of the Great Lakes at the Art Institute of Chicago . Immediately afterwards , inspired by Daniel Burnham 's " Make no little plans " quote , he begin lobbying for a grand Midway beautification plan . In 1912 , Art Institute Trustee Frank G. Logan formally presented Taft 's plans to the fund 's administrators at the Art Institute of Chicago . Taft 's proposed Midway Plaisance beautification plan included two possible commemoration themes . His first choice was to honor the memory of the World 's Columbian Exposition that had been held in Jackson Park in 1893 . His alternative was to commemorate the centennial of the 1814 Treaty of Ghent " marking a century of perfect understanding between England and America " . Since other plans to commemorate the Exposition were under way , the second theme choice was adopted as the justification for a second Taft commission from the Ferguson Fund . Contemporary newspaper accounts anticipated that Taft 's entire Midway beautification plan would be approved easily .
Taft 's initial commission from the trust was limited to the creation of a full @-@ sized plaster model of Fountain of Time , under a five @-@ year $ 10 @,@ 000 ( $ 239 @,@ 428 ) annual installment contract signed on February 6 , 1913 . This would enable the model to be evaluated in 1918 . Taft first created a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) quarter @-@ scale model which received the Trustees ' approval in May 1915 . He eventually produced his full @-@ scale plaster model , 100 feet ( 30 @.@ 5 m ) in width peaking in the center , with an equestrian warrior and a robed model of Father Time with a height of 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) . The installation of this model near its intended location was delayed by Taft 's World War I service with the Y.M.C.A. in France as part of a corps of entertainers and lecturers , but was completed in 1920 . However , Taft 's wider vision of a Chicago school of sculpture , analogous to other philosophical Chicago schools such as the contemporaneous Chicago school of architecture style , had lost momentum after the 1913 dedication of his Fountain of the Great Lakes . The Beaux Arts style had become dated ; instead of funding Taft 's large @-@ scale Midway Plaisance beautification plan , and providing the originally planned granite , bronze or Georgia marble materials , the trust only allocated sufficient funds and support for a concrete sculpture .
= = Location and installation = =
Time is in the Chicago Park District , in the Washington Park community area on Chicago 's South Side , near the Midway Plaisance . This location , adjoining the University of Chicago campus directly to the East , makes the sculpture a contributing structure to the Washington Park federal Registered Historic District , listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Time is considered to be the most important piece of monumental art in the Park District , which hosts over 100 art works . Its importance stems from its sculptor , its message , the era in which it was created , and the design of its reflecting pool by Howard Van Doren Shaw . Robert Jones , director of design and construction for the Art Institute of Chicago at the time , stated in 1999 that Time was the first finished art piece to be made of any type of concrete .
The sculpture is located a few blocks from Taft 's studio , the Lorado Taft Midway Studios , now a Chicago Landmark and National Historic Landmark , located at 60th Street and Ingleside Avenue . Other notable sculptures nearby include Henry Moore 's National Historic Landmark Nuclear Energy , which is on the site of the first self @-@ sustaining nuclear reaction at the University of Chicago . Jackson Park , connected to Washington Park and Time by the Midway Plaisance , hosts the Chicago Landmark Statue of the Republic ; at one time the Midway Plaisance , Jackson Park and Washington Park were jointly known as " South Park " .
There is little agreement on the dimensions of Time , with various sources describing it as between 102 to 127 feet ( 31 @.@ 1 to 38 @.@ 7 m ) long . One of the few precise estimates describes it as 126 feet 10 inches ( 38 @.@ 7 m ) long , 23 feet 6 inches ( 7 @.@ 2 m ) wide and 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) tall . The sources are often unclear about whether they are describing the width of the reflecting pool from exterior wall to exterior wall , the width of the water within the reflecting pool 's interior walls , the width of the base of the sculpted mass of humanity , the width of the sculpted masses themselves , or the width of the parcel of land upon which Time is built .
Water began running in the completed sculpture on September 1 , 1920 , although it was not dedicated to the city until November 15 , 1922 . University of Chicago President Harry Pratt Judson delivered an address at the dedication ceremony at the Midway Plaisance , before contributions from Taft . President of the B.F. Ferguson Trust Charles Hutchinson , and John Barton Payne , President of the South Park Board .
= = Design and realization = =
The sculpture is made of a form of hollow @-@ cast concrete , reinforced with steel . It was cast in a 4 @,@ 500 @-@ piece mold , using 250 short tons ( 230 t ) of a material described as " concrete @-@ like " , which incorporated pebbles from the Potomac River . This composite material was an innovation at the time . For years , John Joseph Earley of Washington , DC , had used pebbless that seemed durable in the face of elements such as the weather and urban soot and grime . He had determined that by adding crushed pebbles he could create a new concrete mixture more durable than limestone but cheaper than marble or bronze . The reflection from the silica of the crushed stones complemented the durability with artistic beauty ; the same material was used at Chicago 's Fine Arts Building .
The sculpture depicts a hooded Father Time carrying a scythe , and watching over a parade of 100 figures arranged in an ellipse , with an overall pyramidal geometry . The allegorical procession depicts the entire spectrum of humanity at various stages of life . The contemporary 1920s Chicago Daily Tribune described the figures as " heroic " , and that choice of adjective has stayed with the piece . The figures are said to be passing in review as they rush through the stages of life , and include soldiers , frolicking children and kissing couples . Father Time is described in various newspaper articles as " huge " , " weird " , and " dominant " . Other Tribune critics described Time as a " pet atrocity " of Taft in large part due to its ugliness . One critic described the white figures as reminiscent of false teeth smiling across the end of the Midway .
Time commemorates the first 100 years of peace between the United States and Great Britain after the Treaty of Ghent concluded the War of 1812 on December 24 , 1814 . The design was inspired by the poem " Paradox of Time " by Henry Austin Dobson : " Time goes , you say ? Ah no , Alas , time stays , we go " . Time 's theme has been compared to Shakespeare 's All the world 's a stage monologue in As You Like It , which describes the seven ages of man : infant , schoolboy , lover , soldier , justice , old age , and dementia . Taft 's figures represent birth , the struggle for existence , love , family life , religion , poetry , and war .
Although most of the figures are generic representations of human forms in various walks and stages of life , Taft included himself , with one of his assistants following him , along the west side of the sculpture . He is portrayed wearing a smock , with his head bowed and hands clasped behind his back . His daughters served as models for some of the figures .
Taft is now better remembered for his books , such as The History of American Sculpture ( 1903 ) , regarded as the first comprehensive work on the subject . However , in his day he was well known for portraits and allegorical public sculpture , of which Fountain of Time is a prime example . It was produced in the period following his assignment to design sculptures for William Le Baron Jenney 's 1893 Horticultural Building for the World 's Columbian Exposition . During this period he designed several large @-@ scale public works , including Fountain of the Great Lakes . Taft resided in Illinois for most of his life and worked in the Midway Studios starting in 1906 .
= = Restoration = =
Designed without expansion joints , Time is one of a small number of outdoor sculptures made of reinforced pebble / concrete aggregate , few of which have been created since the 1930s . In 1936 , Time 's weather @-@ related cracks were repaired ; further work occurred in 1955 . The sculpture 's subsequent repairs were followed by a rededication celebration in 1966 . Although the sculpture received regular maintenance , early repair crews often did more harm than good , by using techniques such as sandblasting and patching cracks with rigid materials .
By the 1980s the sculpture was crumbling ; cracks had developed , details of the figures had worn away , and moisture had eroded the internal structure . In wintertime the fountain had to be protected by a tarp . Weather , air pollution , and vandalism meant that hundreds of thousands of dollars were now needed for restoration . The Chicago Park District , University of Chicago , and Art Institute of Chicago conservators all sponsored restoration work , including drying out the cavity of the hollow sculpture , removal of the deteriorated substructure , a newly designed ventilation system within the piece , a protective exterior coating , and repairs to the reflecting pool . In 1989 Chicago Park District allocated $ 150 @,@ 000 to the repair project , which amount was matched by the Ferguson fund . By the end of 1991 , the Park District had collected $ 320 @,@ 000 of the $ 520 @,@ 000 estimated repair costs from public and private funds , although in 1994 the sculpture still awaited repair .
By early 1997 , after almost two decades of activity , the only repairs completed were phase one of the air ventilation system to dehumidify the hollow base , the drainage pipes and a new inner roof . Plans now included the erection of a temporary two @-@ story metal building to protect all but the giant Father Time from the harsh winters and to facilitate year @-@ round repair ; the reinforcement of corroded steel interior portions ; the replacement of inconsistent patches ; the substitution of engineered spacing for natural cracks , and finally , hand @-@ brushed concrete recoating . The temporary building was budgeted at $ 270 @,@ 000 ; the city spent a total of $ 450 @,@ 000 on repairs approved by the Park District that year .
On April 19 , 1999 , the $ 1 @.@ 6 million , two @-@ year phase two restoration began , scheduled for completion by May 2001 . Five workers began repairing the cracks , killing biological growth , removing calcium deposits and pollution @-@ blackened gypsum , and coating the 10 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 930 m2 ) surface with a combination of lime putty , adobe cement and sand . The inoperable reflecting pool was not repaired in this phase . Although this phase was completed in 2001 , its effects were not visible until the following year , when the temporary protective structure was unveiled . The repairs were expected to sustain the sculpture for about 30 – 50 years before any further repairs would be necessary .
In 2003 , the National Endowment for the Arts committed $ 250 @,@ 000 to the Park District for the conservation and restoration of the reflecting pool . In 2004 , the University of Chicago contributed $ 100 @,@ 000 and the Park District Board $ 845 @,@ 000 to repair the pool and its water circulation system . This work was carried out in the summer of 2005 at a slightly reduced budget , and the fountain was filled with water for the first time in over fifty years . In 2007 , efforts began to add lighting . That same year the sculpture was nominated by Partners in Preservation , a fund for the preservation of historic sites , backed by the National Trust for Historic Preservation and American Express . In a widely publicized contest that included open house events where the public could tour and learn about the competing historic sites , $ 1 million was available for preservation efforts in the Chicago metropolitan area , but the fountain was not one of the 15 winning candidates .
= = Gallery = =
' ' Fountain of Time , ' ' before restoration
' ' Fountain of Time , ' ' after restoration ( August 2007 )
= = Fountain of Creation = =
Time was intended to be matched by a sister fountain , Fountain of Creation , on the opposite end of the Midway . Work was begun but was never completed . The finished portions of Fountain of Creation , depicting figures from the Greek legend of the repopulation of earth after the great flood , are considered Taft 's final work , and were given to University of Illinois at Urbana @-@ Champaign , his alma mater . The four surviving elements are figures ranging in height from 5 to 7 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 1 m ) , and are collectively named Sons and Daughters of Ducalion and Pyrrha . Two of these elements stand outside the entrance to the university 's Main Library , and two others are located at the south side of Foellinger Auditorium .
= Blowing from a gun =
Blowing from a gun was a method of execution in which the victim is typically tied to the mouth of a cannon and the cannon is fired . George Carter Stent describes the process as follows :
The prisoner is generally tied to a gun with the upper part of the small of his back resting against the muzzle . When the gun is fired , his head is seen to go straight up into the air some forty or fifty feet ; the arms fly off right and left , high up in the air , and fall at , perhaps , a hundred yards distance ; the legs drop to the ground beneath the muzzle of the gun ; and the body is literally blown away altogether , not a vestige being seen .
Blowing from a gun was a reported means of execution as long ago as the 16th century , by the Mughal Empire , and was used until the 20th century . The method was utilized by Portuguese colonialists in the 16th and 17th centuries , from as early as 1509 across their empire from Ceylon ( modern day Sri Lanka ) to Mozambique to Brazil . The Mughals used the method throughout the 17th century and into the 18th , particularly against rebels .
Arguably , the nation most well known to have implemented this type of execution was the British Empire , in its role as paramount power in India , and in particular as a punishment for native soldiers found guilty of mutiny or desertion . Using the methods previously practised by the Mughals , the British began implementing blowing from guns in the latter half of the 18th century , with the most intense period of use being during the 1857 sepoy mutiny , when both the British and the rebelling sepoys used it frequently .
The practice is said to have been exceptionally used in Afghanistan in 1930 , against 11 Panjshiri rebels .
= = Rituals = =
A commonly reported method of blowing a man from a gun is to tie him in front of the muzzle of the gun and then have him shot . Loading the cannon with an actual cannonball is on occasion reported ; but , more commonly , the use of blank cartridge or grapeshot is attested . The following description of the manner of tying up the convicted is from Afghanistan , 7 July 1839 , ordered by Shuja Shah , during the campaign against Dost Mohammad Khan :
The three men were then tied with ropes to the guns , their backs against the muzzle . The rope , fastened to one of the spokes of the wheel , passed with a knot round the arms , over the muzzle of the gun , round the other arm , and then to the spoke of the opposite wheel , which kept the body fixed .
Although immobilizing a victim in front of a gun before firing the cannon is by far the most reported method , a case from Istanbul in 1596 alleges that the victim was actually put into the gun and executed in that manner . Some reports exist that attest that on occasion , people were fastened to rockets and blown into the air . This is said to have occurred for a Brahmin under Hyder Ali 's reign ( 1761 – 1782 ) , and also , in an 1800 treason case , in the Maratha Empire .
= = Problems with the method = =
Things did not always work out according to plan at such executions ; at a mass execution at Firozpur in 1857 , there was an order that blank cartridge should be used , but some loaded with grapeshot instead . Several of the spectators facing the cannons were hit by the grapeshot and some had to amputate limbs as a result . In addition , some of the soldiers had not been withdrawn properly and sustained damages by being hit by whizzing pieces of flesh and bone . In another case , a soldier who was to be shot managed to fall down just as the shot went off , with the resulting scene taking place :
One wretched fellow slipped from the rope by which he was tied to the guns just before the explosion , and his arm was nearly set on fire . While hanging in his agony under the gun , a sergeant applied a pistol to his head ; and three times the cap snapped , the man each time wincing from the expected shot . At last a rifle was fired into the
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( 461 N · m ) was made available in October 2009 after several delays . The kit can be installed by the owner of the car , but final alteration of the vehicle 's engine control unit must take place at a GM dealer .
= = = SS Naturally aspirated = = =
Chevrolet introduced a naturally aspirated Cobalt SS in the fall of 2005 , as a 2006 model available as both a coupe and sedan . It featured the 2 @.@ 4 L LE5 Ecotec engine with variable valve timing , making 171 hp at 5 @,@ 600 rpm and 163 lb @-@ ft at 5000 rpm , later upped to 167 lb · ft ( 226 N · m ) at 4500 rpm . The LE5 engine was new for 2006 and was introduced on both the FWD Delta platform and RWD Kappa platform . For the 2006 and 2007 model years the car was called SS , or " 1SS " , but was replaced with the moniker " Cobalt Sport " for 2008 with the anticipated introduction of the turbocharged super sport car later on in the model year . For the first time , a 4 @-@ speed automatic transmission was offered , the 4T45 . The 5 @-@ speed manual is also different from the Cobalt SS Supercharged , it is the Getrag F23 transmission with different ratios that is offered for the 2 @.@ 2 L L61 engine in the Cobalt LS and LT .
Other changes over the supercharged car are notable but not drastic ; 17 @-@ inch broad @-@ spoke wheels with narrower P205 / 50R17 all @-@ season Pirelli tires are standard , as is the low profile spoiler . 2 @.@ 4 L and 2 @.@ 2 L Sport Package Cobalts have a 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) speedometer with optional white face gauges . The car rides on the FE3 suspension , superior and more sport @-@ tuned to that of base Cobalts but less refined than the FE5 on the supercharged and turbocharged cars . Brakes on the 2.4L naturally aspirated and supercharged model are identical , but the turbocharged model receives an upgraded Brembo braking system The front and rear bumpers are the same , but the front lacks a lip accessory and the bottom of the rear fascia is slightly different . With the negligible exception of exterior styling and some interior trims , the vehicle is identical to the Pontiac G5 GT .
= = Reception = =
Reviews of the supercharged Cobalt SS were generally positive . While the Cavalier received very negative reviews , the supercharged Cobalt was seen as an improvement , and a worthy first entry for GM into the tuner market . However , the general fit and finish was poor , and power levels were not up to par with other competitors . Journalist Thom Blackett said , " When compared with more contemporary cars including the Dodge Neon SRT @-@ 4 and the Subaru WRX , that SS badge seems to lose some of its luster . " The F35 transmission has also been deemed inferior to that in the newest of generation of Honda 's Civic Si . Critics also disliked the heavy wheels which negatively affected handling , as well as the spoiler which obstructed rearward visibility . Speaking of the high profile aero wing , automotive journalist Alexandra Straub said , " the deck @-@ lid spoiler was directly in my line @-@ of @-@ sight when looking out of the rearview mirror . It 's almost like it cut everything in half . " Some Cobalt SS owners have traded spoilers with lower trim owners to obtain a less aggressive look , or traded the entire trunklid with Cobalt LS owners , for whom a rear spoiler is merely optional . The naturally aspirated Cobalt SS has been seen as an improvement over the base models with its slightly more potent 2 @.@ 4 L engine , but notably inferior to the supercharged car . The powertrain of the 2008 turbocharged Cobalt SS received rave reviews . John Neff of Autoblog said , " The GM Performance Division completely reworked the Cobalt SS for 2008 , swapping in a more powerful turbocharged engine , upgrading the rest of the mechanicals , and tweaking the entire package on the world 's most demanding race tracks , including the famed Nürburgring in Germany . The result is – and we 're not kidding here – the most impressive performance car to wear a bow @-@ tie badge on sale today . " Journalists were impressed with the performance of the car in relation to the price ; Neff added that the " 2009 Cobalt SS Turbo is freakishly good at going fast and the best bang @-@ for @-@ the @-@ buck value below $ 30 @,@ 000 . " Ron Kiino of Motor Trend said , " at only $ 22 @,@ 995 , the SS could stand for Super Steal . " The MSRP was raised to $ 24 @,@ 095 for the 2009 model year .
The Nürburgring @-@ tuned suspension gives the SS some of the best handling characteristics of any General Motors front wheel drive vehicle , and the suspension is stiffer and more refined than the supercharged car . Since the interior is hardly changed other than the seats , those criticisms remain . Of the interior in the turbocharged sedan , Car and Driver said it " is constructed primarily of plastics cheap enough to be rejected from a Chinese toy factory ; the Tata Nano probably has a fancier parking @-@ brake lever . " The new Cobalt was the winner in its price class ( under $ 30 @,@ 000 ) of Car and Driver 's 2008 Lightning Lap competition at Virginia International Raceway , beating lap times of several cars in the $ 30,000- $ 60 @,@ 000 class , including the Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution X.
= = Racing = =
Four Chevrolet Cobalt SS 's were used in the Continental Challenge Street Tuner class in 2009 .
= New Jersey Route 5 =
Route 5 is a 3 @.@ 18 @-@ mile ( 5 @.@ 12 km ) state highway located entirely in Bergen County , New Jersey , United States . It runs from U.S. Route 1 / 9 in Ridgefield east down the New Jersey Palisades to end at County Route 505 ( River Road ) at the Hudson River in Edgewater . The route is a two- to four @-@ lane undivided highway its entire length , passing mostly through wooded residential neighborhoods . The route passes under Route 63 in Palisades Park , with access to that route provided by Bergen Boulevard , and intersects the southern terminus of Route 67 in Fort Lee .
The route was designated in 1916 as part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 10 , which was to run from Paterson east to the terminal of the Fort Lee Ferry in Edgewater , using the Paterson and Hackensack Turnpike between Paterson and Hackensack , the Bergen Turnpike from Hackensack to Ridgefield , and a new alignment between Ridgefield and Edgewater . In 1927 , the route was renumbered to Route 5 , with initial plans to build a new alignment for the route between Ridgefield and Little Ferry . Route 5 was also planned to run concurrent with Route 6 ( now U.S. Route 46 ) between Paterson and Ridgefield . However , the plans were modified in 1929 to build Route 6 on a new alignment and have Route 5 end at Route 1 ( now U.S. Route 1 / 9 ) in Ridgefield . The former alignment was designated as Route 10N with maintenance eventually turned over to the county . The eastern terminus of Route 5 was moved to its current location by the 2000s . In 2007 , construction began to improve the route in Palisades Park by replacing bridges and widening the road , with work expected to be completed in later 2009 .
= = Route description = =
Route 5 begins at an intersection with U.S. Route 1 / 9 ( North Broad Avenue ) in Ridgefield , heading east as a two @-@ lane undivided road through residential areas . It crosses County Route 31 ( Maple Avenue ) and enters Palisades Park . In Palisades Park , the road passes over Delia Avenue and turns south as it heads through wooded residential neighborhoods . Route 5 passes under Route 63 and enters Fort Lee , where the route immediately intersects Bergen Boulevard , which provides access to Route 63 . From there , the road heads east through wooded neighborhoods before turning north onto Glen Road .
Route 5 comes to an intersection with County Route 29 ( Anderson Avenue ) and County Route 54 ( Central Boulevard ) , where the route continues east on Central Boulevard as a four @-@ lane undivided road through inhabited areas . It meets the southern terminus of Route 67 ( Palisade Avenue ) and continues south along that road . After 0 @.@ 36 mi ( 0 @.@ 58 km ) of following Palisade Avenue , Route 5 makes a left turn onto a two @-@ lane road , with County Route 27 continuing south on Palisade Avenue . The route descends the New Jersey Palisades on a winding road with hairpin turns , crossing into Edgewater . In Edgewater , the road briefly heads through commercial areas before ending at County Route 505 ( River Road ) along the Hudson River .
= = History = =
Pre @-@ 1927 Route 10 was legislated in 1916 to run from Paterson east by way of Hackensack and Ridgefield to the Public Service Railway 's Fort Lee Ferry at Edgewater . From Paterson it used the existing Paterson and Hackensack Turnpike ( Market Street and Essex Street ) to Hackensack and the Bergen Turnpike ( Hudson Street ) to Ridgefield . Rather than use existing roads from Ridgefield down the Palisades to Edgewater , a whole new route was surveyed with better grades . This road was built by 1922 . At its east end , Route 10 ran south several blocks on River Road to the ferry , just south of Dempsey Avenue . In Ridgefield , Broad Avenue was used to get between the new alignment and Bergen Turnpike .
In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 10 was renumbered to Route 5 . Plans at the time were to build a new alignment from east of Ridgefield to Little Ferry southeast of Hackensack and form Route S5 ( now Route 93 ) along the old road from Little Ferry to Ridgefield . The new Route 6 would share the alignment of Route 5 from Paterson to west of Hackensack , where it would turn southeast onto a new alignment to Little Ferry , then run with Route 5 again to east of Ridgefield and split onto its own alignment to the George Washington Bridge .
In 1929 , the routes were redefined . Route 6 would be a completely new alignment from Paterson to the George Washington Bridge , and Route 5 would only run east from Route 1 ( Broad Avenue , now U.S. Route 1 / 9 ) in Ridgefield . The alignment of Route 10 west of Ridgefield was designated Route 10N until it was eventually turned over to the county . Route 5 retained its routing in the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering . By the 2000s , the section of Route 5 along River Road to the former ferry was removed . In June 2007 , construction began on a $ 24 @.@ 6 million project to improve the route through Palisades Park . This project , which is to be completed later in 2009 , will involve the replacement of the bridge over Delia Avenue , the removal of a bridge over an abandoned rail line , and the widening of the two @-@ lane road to include a shoulder .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Bergen County .
= Lisa Hannigan =
Lisa Margaret Hannigan ( born 12 February 1981 ) is an Irish singer , songwriter , and musician . She began her musical career as a member of Damien Rice 's band . Since beginning her solo career in 2007 she has released two albums : Sea Sew ( 2008 ) and Passenger ( 2011 ) . Hannigan 's music has received award nominations both in Ireland and the USA .
= = Early life and education = =
Hannigan was born in Dublin but grew up in Kilcloon , County Meath , Ireland . She attended primary school at Scoil Oilibhéir Naofa in Kilcloon and secondary school at The King 's Hospital in Palmerstown and enrolled at Trinity College , Dublin to study Art History .
= = Career = =
While still in college , Hannigan met Damien Rice at a concert in Dublin in early 2001 . Rice enlisted Hannigan to sing on his 2002 album O and his later album " 9 " , featured in the hit " 9 Crimes " . She toured with Rice as part of his band during that period , lending vocal support and occasionally playing electric guitar , bass guitar or drums .
In 2007 , Hannigan returned to Dublin and began a solo career . Some of Hannigan 's live recordings were made available through trading networks radio shows . These recordings included : " Willy " by Joni Mitchell , " Be My Husband " by Nina Simone ( from the 1965 album Pastel Blues ) , " Mercedes Benz " by Janis Joplin and " Love Hurts " by Roy Orbison . Hannigan also performed live with her own band , called The Daisy Okell Quartet and contributed guest vocals to the recordings of Mic Christopher , The Frames and Herbie Hancock .
= = = Sea Sew = = =
Lisa Hannigan 's debut solo album , titled Sea Sew , was rehearsed in a barn in Thomastown and recorded in Dublin before being released in Ireland in September 2008 . The lead single , " Lille " , was made available as a free Internet download and other tracks were available for preview on her Myspace page . The sleeve featured needle @-@ work by Hannigan . Some music critics called the recording one of the best Irish albums of the year .
Sea Sew received favourable reviews in the Los Angeles Times and The New York Times . The single " Lille " , released in August 2008 on Irish and American radio stations . Hannigan performed at Electric Picnic 2008 . Hannigan was the opening act for singer @-@ songwriter Jason Mraz on his U.S. tour in 2008 .
That year , she appeared on the charity album Even Better Than the Disco Thing and performed a duet of Mick Flannery 's new song " Christmas Past " with Flannery on Tony Fenton 's Christmas Special on Today FM . In December 2008 , she made her UK solo debut at St Johns Church in London . Hannigan signed with ATO Records in the U.S. , where her album was released in February 2009 .
Sea Sew was nominated for the Choice Music Prize and Best Irish Album at the Meteor Music Awards in January 2009 .
That year , Hannigan appeared on the American television shows Jay Leno and The Colbert Report . In 2009 , Hannigan also appeared on the BBC 's Later ... with Jools Holland , performing her song " I Don 't Know " . Sea Sew rose in the UK charts following this appearance and she performed at Glastonbury 2009 music festival and went on tour later in the year . She performed at the nomination ceremony and she was greeted by confused journalists wondering " Lisa who ? " .
Hannigan performed at Electric Picnic 2009 Later in 2009 , she toured the United States with David Gray and performed solo shows in New York , Los Angeles and London . She then began a tour of Ireland to finish the year . Hannigan 's song " An Ocean and a Rock " was used in a 2009 Irish video supporting same @-@ sex marriage entitled " Sinéad 's Hand " . As part of an advertisement campaign for Oxfam 's Make Trade Fair , Hannigan was drenched in melted chocolate and she participated in the Irish musical collective The Cake Sale with lead vocal on the track Some Surprise , which was played on the US television series Grey 's Anatomy .
Hannigan also contributed to the 2009 charity album , Sparks n ' Mind , released in aid of Aware .
In 2009 , a broadcast of Other Voices was recorded .
" Braille " from the album Sea Sew was also used in the film Ondine in 2009 .
= = = Passenger = = =
Hannigan recorded her second album , titled Passenger , at Bryn Derwen Studios in North Wales with producer Joe Henry and engineer Ryan Freeland . The album was released in the US and Canada on 20 September 2011 , and on 7 October in Ireland and the UK .
Hannigan performed at the Eurosonic Festival in 2012 when Ireland was the " Spotlight Country " .
= = = At Swim = = =
Hannigan announced on her website that her third album - produced in collaboration with Aaron Dessner - would be released during 2016 . The album is titled At Swim and is expected to be released on August 19 , 2016 . On May 24 , 2016 Hannigan revealed a short teaser in relation to the albums launch . " Prayer To The Dying " and " Ora " are two tracks which have appeared among promotional material in the lead up to the release . Lisa will tour Ireland extensively in the lead up to the album release . " Praying To The Dying " appeared on iTunes ( only on pre @-@ orders ) and Spotify on June 9 and 10 respectively . It appeared on the New Music Friday playlist on Spotify Germany , Ireland , Sweden and UK .
= = = Soundtracks and film work = = =
In 2004 Hannigan credited on soundtrack for " Closer " ( song : Cold Water , arranged and performed by Damien Rice and Lisa Hannigan , featuring Vyvienne Long ) .
In 2007 Hannigan credited on soundtrack for " Shrek the Third " ( song : 9 Crimes , performed by Damien Rice and Lisa Hannigan ) .
In 2009 Hannigan credited on soundtrack for " Ondine " ( songs : Braille , Lille , written and performed by Lisa Hannigan ) .
In 2013 Hannigan contributed vocals to the soundtrack for Alfonso Cuarón 's film Gravity .
In 2014 Hannigan provided vocals along with John Smith for the Steven Price conducted soundtrack for the Brad Pitt blockbuster ' Fury ' . On September 14 , Lisa performed in the Roundhouse for the iTunes Concert Series .
In 2014 she voiced the character of Bronagh , the Selkie mother of the main characters in the animated film Song of the Sea , and provided several songs to the film 's soundtrack .
In 2015 , she sang a version of " Danny Boy " for the seventh episode of the second season of Fargo .
= = Reception = =
Her music has received critical praise , airplay and award nominations both in her native Ireland and the United States . In 2008 , her debut album Sea Sew spawned the single " Lille " , a Choice Music Prize nomination , two Meteor Music Awards nominations and a Mercury Prize nomination .
Hannigan performs using " broken @-@ down , wheezy old instruments " . Herbie Hancock said of her vocals , " there 's so much jazz in the notes and phrases that she picks . She was singing the ninths , the elevenths of the chords ... I mean some of the things sound like choices that Miles would have made . "
= = Discography = =
Sea Sew ( 2008 )
Passenger ( 2011 )
At Swim ( 2016 )
= = Awards = =
= = = Hot Press Readers ' Poll = = =
Hannigan has four Hot Press Readers ' Poll awards . She won Best Debut Album , Best Irish Album , Best Irish Track and Best Female in 2009 .
= = = Choice Music Prize = = =
Hannigan 's debut album , Sea Sew , was nominated for the Choice Music Prize in January 2009 .
Hannigan 's second album , Passenger , was nominated for the Choice Music Prize in January 2012 and she also lost out to Jape that year .
= = = Meteor Music Awards = = =
Hannigan and her work was nominated in the Best Irish Female and Best Irish Album categories at the Meteor Music Awards in 2009 . She was the only solo artist nominated in more than one category at the awards . She lost to Imelda May and The Script 's self @-@ titled album respectively .
= = = Mercury Prize = = =
Sea Sew was nominated for the Mercury Prize on 21 July 2009 . It was Hannigan 's first nomination .
Hannigan was referred to as 2009 's " token folk nominee " in the UK , with the NME calling her a " token folkie " . One British journalist even claimed she was " truly obscure " and part of the " moribund sensitive singer @-@ songwriter genre " . Ed Power , writing in the Irish Independent , criticised such claims , wondering if Jape ( whose album Ritual beat Hannigan to the Choice Music Prize ) had come close to receiving a Mercury nomination — " Or , for that matter , how many of the judges had even heard of him " .
= Leslie Morshead =
Lieutenant General Sir Leslie James Morshead , KCB , KBE , CMG , DSO , ED ( 18 September 1889 – 26 September 1959 ) was an Australian soldier , teacher , businessman , and farmer , whose military career spanned both world wars . During the Second World War , he led the Australian and British troops at the Siege of Tobruk ( 1941 ) and at the Second Battle of El Alamein , achieving decisive victories over Erwin Rommel 's Afrika Korps . A strict and demanding officer , his soldiers nicknamed him " Ming the Merciless " , later simply " Ming " , after the villain in the Flash Gordon comics .
When the First World War broke out in August 1914 , Morshead resigned his teaching position and his commission in the Cadet Corps to travel to Sydney and enlist as a private in the 2nd Infantry Battalion of the First Australian Imperial Force . He was commissioned as a lieutenant in September . He landed at Anzac on 25 April 1915 , and his battalion made the farthest advance of any Australian unit that day . Invalided to Australia , he became commander of the 33rd Infantry Battalion , which he led on the Western Front at Messines , Passchendaele , Villers @-@ Bretonneux , and Amiens .
Between the wars Morshead made a successful business career with the Orient Steam Navigation Company , and remained active in the part @-@ time Militia , commanding battalions and brigades . In 1939 , he was appointed to command the 18th Infantry Brigade of the 6th Division in the Second Australian Imperial Force . In 1941 , he became commander of the 9th Division , which he led in the Siege of Tobruk and the Second Battle of El Alamein . He returned to Australia in 1943 , where he was appointed to command II Corps , which he led during the New Guinea campaign . In 1945 , he commanded I Corps in the Borneo campaign .
= = Early life = =
Morshead was born on 18 September 1889 in Ballarat , Victoria , the sixth of seven children of William Morshead , a gold miner who had emigrated from Cornwall via Canada , and his wife Mary Eliza Morshead , formerly Rennison , the Australian @-@ born daughter of a fellow Cornish immigrant . William died when Morshead was six years old . He was educated at Mount Pleasant High School , where he was appointed a junior teacher in 1906 .
In 1909 , he became a student at the Melbourne Teachers Training College to obtain formal teaching qualifications . After his graduation in December 1910 , he was awarded a scholarship to complete an education diploma at the University of Melbourne , but decided to defer for a year in order to teach at schools in country Victoria . He became a schoolteacher , teaching first at Tragowell in the Swan Hill district , and then at Fine View State School in the Horsham district . In 1911 he entered Trinity College at the University of Melbourne . After failing an exam in deductive logic , he decided to quit the state school system , and in 1912 took up a position at The Armidale School in the New England district of New South Wales . In 1914 he moved to the prestigious Melbourne Grammar School .
Morshead had been commissioned as a lieutenant in the Australian Army Cadets in 1908 . At Armidale , he was appointed commander of the school cadet unit , and was commissioned as a lieutenant in the Militia on 10 February 1913 . He was promoted to captain in September . At Melbourne Grammar he commanded a company in that school 's much larger cadet unit . While at Melbourne Grammar , he met Myrtle Catherine Woodside , the daughter of a Happy Valley , Victoria , grazier , and the sister of one of Morshead 's pupils .
= = First World War = =
= = = Gallipoli = = =
Morshead 's teaching career was interrupted by the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 . He resigned both his teaching position and his commission in the Cadet Corps and travelled up to Sydney to enlist as a private in the 2nd Infantry Battalion of the First Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) because it was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel George Braund , whom Morshead knew well from his time teaching in Armidale . Morshead 's time in the ranks was brief , as he was commissioned as a lieutenant in the AIF on 19 September . He embarked for Egypt on the transport Suffolk on 18 October 1914 . While his battalion was in training there , he was promoted to captain on 8 January 1915 .
The 2nd Infantry Battalion landed at Anzac Cove on 25 April 1915 . Morshead 's platoon transferred from the transport Derfflinger to the destroyer HMS Usk , which took it to within 500 yards ( 460 m ) of the shore . They then transferred to wooden boats which were towed to the shore , arriving at around 09 : 30 . The battalion made the farthest advance of any Australian unit that day , reaching the slopes of Baby 700 , but was driven back by a Turkish counter @-@ attack in the afternoon . It beat off further counter @-@ attacks over the next three days . Morshead assumed command of C Company on 28 April . The battalion defeated major Turkish attacks on its position on 18 May and 8 June .
Promoted to major on 8 June , Morshead distinguished himself in the Battle of Lone Pine on 6 August . So intense was the fighting that of the 22 officers in the battalion , Morshead was the only one who did not become a casualty . However , on 16 September , like many others , he succumbed to dysentery and paratyphoid fever . He was evacuated to the 3rd General Hospital on Lemnos , and then to England on the hospital ship Aquitania , where he was admitted to the 3rd London General Hospital in Wandsworth , England . For his services in the Gallipoli campaign , he was mentioned in despatches .
= = = Western Front = = =
Morshead returned to Australia on 22 January 1916 where he was treated at the 4th General Hospital at Randwick , New South Wales . After he recovered , he was posted to the 33rd Infantry Battalion , which was being raised in Armidale as part of the 3rd Division . He became its commander on 16 April , and was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel three days later . He embarked for England again with his battalion on 4 May 1916 .
The 33rd Infantry Battalion trained at Larkhill on the Salisbury Plain in England until November 1916 , when it embarked at Southampton for France . On 7 December it relieved a British battalion in the quiet " nursery " sector of the Western Front around Armentières . Morshead was mentioned in despatches , and awarded the Distinguished Service Order . His citation , written by his division commander , Major General John Monash , read :
This officer has displayed conspicuous ability in administration and organisation of his battalion , which has attained a high standard of fighting efficiency . His energetic attention to the training of his officers and men prior to embarkation was responsible for the smoothness and despatch with which his battalion relieved a British battalion in the line a few days after arriving at the front . Since the battalion has taken its place in the line it has proved itself to be an efficient fighting unit due to this officer 's personality and marked capacity for command . He organised and controlled two raids on the enemy 's trenches and carried them out successfully . His courage and strong personality has created an excellent spirit in all ranks of the battalion . This officer previously served at Gallipoli .
Official historian Charles Bean described Morshead as :
a dapper little schoolmaster , only 28 years of age , in whom the traditions of the British Army had been bottled from his childhood like tight @-@ corked champagne ; the nearest approach to a martinet among all the young Australian colonels , but able to distinguish the valuable from the worthless in the old army practice ; insistent on punctiliousness throughout the battalion as in the officers ’ mess , with the assistance of a fine adjutant , Lieutenant Jones : and an imperturbable second @-@ in @-@ command , Major White , and with his own experience of fighting as a junior captain of the 2nd Battalion upon Baby 700 in the Anzac Landing , he had turned out a battalion which anyone acquainted with the whole force recognised , even before Messines , as one of the very best .
Morshead subsequently led the 33rd Infantry Battalion through the Battle of Messines in June 1917 , and the disastrous Battle of Passchendaele in October , where the 3rd Division suffered heavy losses . In March 1918 , the 3rd Division was sent to the Somme sector to help halt the German Spring Offensive . The 9th Infantry Brigade , of which the 33rd Infantry battalion was a part , was detached from the 3rd Division and sent to Villers @-@ Bretonneux . On 30 March , the 9th Infantry Brigade 's commander , Brigadier General Charles Rosenthal , ordered Morshead to restore the front around Aubercourt . With the aid of the British 12th Lancers , the battalion was able to restore the line , although it was unable to advance as far as Rosenthal hoped . The 33rd Infantry Battalion was then relieved , and withdrawn to Villers @-@ Bretonneux to rest . However , on 4 April , Morshead was astonished to find that the line had again been broken and Villers @-@ Bretonneux threatened . In the First Battle of Villers @-@ Bretonneux , the battalion participated in halting the advance , and prevented the Germans from capturing the town . On 18 April , the 33rd Infantry Battalion was still in the town when it was heavily shelled with poison gas . Many men , including Morshead , became mustard gas casualties . He did not return to his unit until June .
Morshead again led the 33rd Infantry Battalion in the Battle of Amiens . For the fighting in August 1918 , he was awarded the French Légion d 'honneur in the grade of Chevalier . His citation , written by his new division commander , Major General John Gellibrand , read :
For gallantry , initiative and ability in action during the operations on SOMME in August 1918 . On 8 August 1918 , during the attack east of Hamel , Lieutenant Colonel Morshead was in command of the special force for the purpose of clearing Accroche Wood . He executed this task with great skill , and then fought his battalion to its objectives , capturing 500 prisoners , many guns and a large quantity of materiel at very little cost to his own force .
Subsequently during the advance north of Bray on 22 to 24 August 1918 , when the situation on his left flank was uncertain , Lieutenant Colonel Morshead gallantly maintained his position refusing his left flank , thus enabling the remainder of his brigade to maintain its position .
On 30 / 31 August , north of Cléry , he again fought his battalion with great ability and success .
His military ability , fine fighting spirit and cheerfulness under all circumstances had a most inspiring effect upon all ranks and contributed greatly to the success of the operation .
For his service on the Western Front , Morshead was made a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George in December 1919 , and was mentioned in despatches three more times .
= = Between the wars = =
Morshead returned to Australia in November 1919 and his AIF appointment was terminated in March 1920 . He considered applying for a regular army commission , but found that these were reserved for graduates of the Royal Military College , Duntroon . He tried farming , accepting a soldier settlement block of 23 @,@ 000 acres ( 9 @,@ 300 ha ) near Quilpie , Queensland , but this venture was a failure , and he returned to Melbourne , where he married Myrtle at Scots Church , on 17 November 1921 . They had a daughter , Elizabeth in 1923 .
After working in odd jobs he joined the Orient Line in Sydney on 24 October 1924 . He was appointed passenger manager of the Sydney office in 1926 . Many Orient Line appointments followed . He became publicity manager in January 1927 , acting manager of the Melbourne office in May 1928 , passenger and publicity superintendent , and then temporary business manager of the Brisbane office in April 1931 . He returned to Sydney , and then moved to the Melbourne office , where he became temporary office manager , a position which became permanent in December 1933 ; in 1937 he went back to the Sydney office .
All this time , he remained active in the part @-@ time Militia , commanding the 19th Infantry Battalion from 1921 to 1925 . He became commander of the 36th Infantry Battalion on 1 August 1926 . He was promoted to colonel in 1933 , and was appointed to command the 14th Infantry Brigade on 1 January 1933 . When he moved to Melbourne in 1934 , he transferred to command of the 15th Infantry Brigade , then part of the 3rd Division under Major General Sir Thomas Blamey . On returning to Sydney in 1937 he assumed command of the 5th Infantry Brigade . During a visit to England in 1937 as part of his duties with the Orient Line , he had occasion to observe the British Army on manoeuvres in East Anglia , and was impressed by the pace of modern mechanised forces . He also realised that the Australian Army was lagging a long way behind in both human and technical resources . He was promoted to brigadier in 1938 . Known for his right @-@ wing views even before the war , he was also a member of the clandestine far @-@ right wing paramilitary organisation the New Guard .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Britain = = =
On 6 October 1939 , Morshead was selected by Blamey to command the 18th Infantry Brigade in the new 6th Division . This brigade was composed of four battalions from the smaller states , and would have been a natural assignment for a regular officer had Prime Minister Robert Menzies not restricted commands to senior posts to Militia officers , few of whom had much experience of the Army outside their home states . Morshead met with Blamey on 13 October to select officers for the new brigade . Like the other brigadiers , he was given a regular officer as Brigade Major , in this case Major Ragnar Garrett .
Morshead formally enlisted in the Second Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) on 10 October 1939 and was given the AIF serial number NX8 . He was given the rank of colonel and made temporary brigadier three days later . A delay in preparing 18th Infantry Brigade 's camp in the Hunter Region meant that it was not concentrated there until December . In the meantime its battalions trained in their home states . After the 16th Infantry Brigade departed for Palestine in January 1940 , the 18th Infantry Brigade moved into its vacated accommodation at Ingleburn , New South Wales . As a consequence , its training proceeded more slowly than that of the 16th and 17th Infantry Brigades .
The 18th Infantry Brigade finally embarked from Sydney on the Mauretania on 5 May 1940 but en route was diverted to the United Kingdom owing to the dangerous military situation there following the Battle of France . It moved into camps on the Salisbury Plain , where the 3rd Division had trained back in 1916 . The Australian force there under Major General Henry Wynter was poorly equipped but the 18th Infantry Brigade was nonetheless given an important role in the defence of Southern England . In September 1940 , Wynter was informed that his force would become the nucleus of a new 9th Division , which he was appointed to command . Morshead and his 18th Infantry Brigade embarked for the Middle East on 15 November , reaching Alexandria on 31 December . Morshead was made a Commander of Order of the British Empire on 1 January 1941 . Before his other two brigades could arrive from England and Australia , Wynter became seriously ill . Blamey decided to send him home and appointed Morshead to command the 9th Division on 29 January 1941 .
According to Official Historian Barton Maughan :
Morshead was every inch a general . His slight build and seemingly mild facial expression masked a strong personality , the impact of which , even on a slight acquaintance , was quickly felt . The precise , incisive speech and flint @-@ like , piercing scrutiny acutely conveyed impressions of authority , resoluteness and ruthlessness . If battles , as Montgomery was later to declare , were contests of wills , Morshead was not likely to be found wanting .
= = = Tobruk = = =
In February 1941 , the 9th Division was completely reorganised , with its 18th and 25th Infantry Brigades transferred to the 7th Division . In return , it received the 20th and 24th Infantry Brigades , the latter short one battalion which was on garrison duty in Darwin . The 9th Division , less its partly trained and equipped artillery , was ordered to move to the Tobruk – Derna area where it would relieve the 6th Division , so that formation could participate in the Battle of Greece . The half @-@ trained and half @-@ equipped 9th Division was pitched into the thick of the action almost immediately , steadying the retreat of Commonwealth forces from the newly arrived German Afrika Korps , under General Erwin Rommel , and occupying the vital port of Tobruk . Morshead was given command of the Tobruk garrison which , as the retreat ( known to the Australians as the " Benghazi handicap " ) continued , became surrounded , hundreds of miles behind enemy lines . Lieutenant General John Lavarack determined that Tobruk could be held and ordered Morshead to defend it . He also ordered the 18th Infantry Brigade to reinforce the garrison , bringing it up to four brigades , with British artillery and tank units brought up to provide support .
General Sir Archibald Wavell instructed Morshead to hold the fortress for two months while the rest of Wavell 's forces reorganised and mounted a relief mission . With the 9th Division , 18th Infantry Brigade and supporting forces from various Allied nations , Morshead 's force decisively defeated Rommel 's powerful initial assaults , and retained possession of the fortress . His strategy for the defence of Tobruk is still mentioned in officer training colleges around the world as an example of how to arrange and conduct in @-@ depth defences against a superior armoured force . An important part of Morshead 's tactics was conducting offensive operations when these were possible . His attitude was summed up in a reported remark , made when his attention was drawn to a British propaganda article entitled " Tobruk can take it ! " Morshead commented : " we 're not here to take it , we 're here to give it . "
Aggressive use of snipers , artillery and counter @-@ attacks achieved surprise at crucial junctures , and kept Rommel 's forces off balance . The Axis troops learned to fear the aggressive patrolling of the Australian infantry who dominated no @-@ man 's @-@ land and made constant raids on enemy forward positions for intelligence , to take prisoners , to disrupt attack preparations and minelaying operations , even to steal supplies that were not available in Tobruk . The troops were backed up by well @-@ sited artillery and mobile reserves . The 9th Division held Tobruk not for eight weeks , but for eight months , during which time three separate relief campaigns by the main Allied force in Egypt failed . Axis propagandists described Morshead as " Ali Baba Morshead and his 20 @,@ 000 thieves " , and branded the defenders of the port as the " Rats of Tobruk " , a sobriquet that they seized on and wore as a badge of pride . Morshead 's men referred to him humorously as " Ming the Merciless " , and later simply as " Ming " , after the villain in Flash Gordon comics .
By July 1941 , Morshead had become convinced that his troops were becoming tired . Their health was deteriorating and , in spite of his efforts , their morale and discipline were slipping . He informed Generals Blamey and Auchinleck that they should be relieved . Auchinleck arranged for the 18th Infantry Brigade to be relieved by the Polish Carpathian Brigade so that it could rejoin the 7th Division in August but baulked at relieving the 9th Division . At this point , political considerations came into play . The newly installed government of Prime Minister John Curtin in Australia , on Blamey 's advice , took up the matter with Prime Minister Winston Churchill , who protested that the relief would cause a postponement of Operation Crusader . As it turned out , the operation had to be postponed anyway . In October 1941 , Morshead and most of the 9th Division was replaced by the British 6th Division . The 9th Division moved to Syria to serve as an occupation force , as well as resting , re @-@ equipping and training reinforcements .
The Battle of Tobruk marked a rare defeat for German armoured forces at this stage of the war . For his part in the battle , Morshead was made a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire on 6 January 1942 . He was also awarded the Virtuti Militari by the Polish government in Exile and was decorated by Generał broni Władysław Sikorski on 21 November 1941 .
= = = El Alamein = = =
The outbreak of war with Japan in December 1941 , and the imminent threat of invasion saw the 6th and 7th Divisions transferred to the Far East in early 1942 . In March , Morshead was given command of all Australian forces in the Mediterranean theatre , and was promoted to lieutenant general , while still remaining commander of the 9th Division .
Morshead was one of only a few Allied divisional commanders with a distinct record of success at this stage of the war and had been acting commander of the British XXX Corps , a formation largely composed of Commonwealth troops , on two occasions . He had hopes that he might be given command of a corps , as Harry Chauvel had been in the Great War . Many war correspondents , including Gavin Long , thought that Morshead would be an excellent choice , but disagreements with Auchinleck had led to the latter labelling Morshead " a difficult subordinate " , who , while an excellent division commander , was not up to the demands of commanding a corps . Moreover , while Chauvel had been an Australian , he had been a regular officer , while Morshead was not . The new commander of the British Eighth Army , Lieutenant General Bernard Montgomery felt that a reservist could not " possess the requisite training and experience " to command a corps . Morshead was passed over in favour of Oliver Leese , a British regular officer , who was junior to him and had never commanded a division in action .
At the Second Battle of El Alamein , the 9th Division was given responsibility for clearing a corridor through the German and Italian forces in the North and threatening to cut off those between the coastal road and the sea . In the initial assault the division hacked its way through the enemy defences but failed to clear the minefields . As the British attack faltered , the main effort switched to the 9th Division , which punched a massive dent into the German and Italian position over the next five days at great cost , " crumbling " the Afrika Korps in the process , and ultimately forcing Rommel to retreat . " I am quite certain " , Leese informed Morshead , " that this breakout was made possible by Homeric fighting over your divisional sector . " During the El Alamein Campaign , the 9th Division suffered 22 % of the British Eighth Army 's casualties ; 1 @,@ 177 Australians were killed , while 3 @,@ 629 were wounded , 795 were captured and 193 were missing . Morshead received yet another mention in despatches in June 1942 , and in November 1942 he was also created a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath .
= = = New Guinea Campaign = = =
After El Alamein , Morshead and the 9th Division were recalled to the South West Pacific Area ( SWPA ) . Morshead arrived in Fremantle on 19 February 1943 where he was welcomed home by Lieutenant General Gordon Bennett , who had been his divisional commander in Sydney between the wars . Morshead then flew to Melbourne where he was met by Lady Morshead , Sir Winston Dugan and Sir Thomas Blamey , who informed Morshead that he would take over command of a corps . In March 1943 , Morshead became commander of II Corps , handing over command of the 9th Division to Major General George Wootten . The association between Morshead and the 9th Division was not entirely broken however , as it formed part of his corps , along with the 6th and 7th Divisions , all three of which were undergoing jungle warfare training on the Atherton Tableland for upcoming battles in New Guinea . It was Blamey 's intention that Morshead would spend some time learning the art of jungle warfare before his II Corps replaced Lieutenant General Sir Edmund Herring 's I Corps in New Guinea . Morshead 's chief of staff at II Corps was Brigadier Henry Wells , who had been his chief of staff at El Alamein .
In late September 1943 , Morshead was summoned to New Guinea to relieve Herring by Lieutenant General Sir Iven Mackay , the commander of New Guinea Force , which he did on 7 October 1943 . Morshead found a difficult situation . The Japanese not only held the high ground overlooking the Australian beachhead at Finschhafen , they were rapidly reinforcing their position and were about to mount a major counterattack . Morshead demanded and got critical reinforcements , including Matilda tanks of the 1st Tank Battalion . The Japanese counterattack was crushed . Morshead relieved Brigadier Bernard Evans of command of the 24th Infantry Brigade , replacing him with Brigadier Selwyn Porter , who had commanded a brigade in the Kokoda Track campaign . Unlike most reliefs of senior officers in SWPA this relief , while controversial at the time , has attracted little attention since .
Adjusting to jungle warfare was a challenge for both Morshead and his men . Gavin Long recalled that
Morshead picked up the day 's Intelligence Summary and read something like : " The gun at 965476 is now identified as a light AA gun . A Jap was killed by a booby trap at 543267 " , and gestured as much as to say what kind of war is this ? He has come back from a war in which divisions fought divisions , and artillery barrages on the maximum scale were used to one in which it is news that there is one Jap gun in a certain area , and a scout is killed at a certain point .
On 7 November 1943 , Morshead became acting commander of New Guinea Force and Second Army on Mackay 's departure to become the Australian High Commissioner to India . This became permanent on 20 January 1944 . Major General Frank Berryman became commander of II Corps . Because of some sensitivities concerning the relative seniority of Berryman and Major General George Alan Vasey , Blamey placed Vasey 's 7th Division directly under Morshead 's command . Vasey soon chafed under Morshead 's command , feeling that " he has too many favourites both individually and collectively " , with men who had served at El Alamein receiving preferential treatment . Morshead was in overall charge of the forces in New Guinea in the battles of Sattelberg , Jivevaneng , Sio and Shaggy Ridge . His perseverance was rewarded with the capture of Madang in April 1944 .
= = = Borneo Campaign = = =
Morshead handed over command of New Guinea Force to Lieutenant General Stanley Savige on 6 May 1944 , and returned to Australia , where he remained the commander of the Second Army . Despite the fact that Morshead had been in command in an active area , some critics of the government picked up on the public announcement in November that Morshead would command Second Army , and charged that he had been " shelved " . On the contrary , Blamey had recommended to Curtin that Morshead should succeed him as Commander in Chief in the event that he became incapacitated . However , dealing with the politicians held little appeal for Morshead , and while he was pleased at the recognition , hoped that this would not occur .
In the event , this was not the end of Morshead 's wartime service , just a respite . In July 1944 , Morshead was appointed as commander of I Corps on the Atherton Tableland . Although nominally a lesser command , it would be the spearhead of the Australian Army in subsequent operations . The staff was that of Morshead 's former II Corps , as the I and II Corps headquarters had exchanged names . In February 1945 , Morshead received word that his objective would be Borneo . General Douglas MacArthur placed I Corps under his direct command for the operation . Morshead had to make a series of landings at Tarakan , North Borneo and Balikpapan on the east and north west coasts of the island . These were carried out with great efficiency , achieving their objectives with low casualties .
The British government proposed that British Lieutenant General Sir Charles Keightley be given command of a Commonwealth Corps for Operation Coronet , the proposed invasion of Honshu , the main island of Japan , but the Australian government had no intention of concurring with the appointment of an officer with no experience fighting the Japanese , and counter @-@ proposed Morshead for the command . The war ended before the issue was resolved .
= = Post @-@ war life = =
After the war Morshead returned to civilian life , becoming the Orient Steam Navigation Company 's Australian general manager on 31 December 1947 . He continued to receive honours for his military service , including a further mention in despatches in 1947 and the American Medal of Freedom with Silver Palm . He was president of the Bank of New South Wales , the chairman of David Jones , and director of several companies . From 1950 Morshead headed ' The Association ' , a secret organization similar to the New Guard movement with which he had been involved in the mid @-@ 1920s , and which was prepared to oppose communist attempts at subversion . It was quietly disbanded in 1952 .
In later life , Morshead turned down various offers of military and diplomatic posts , as well as the governorship of Queensland . He did serve as president of the Boy Scouts Association of New South Wales and the Big Brother Movement , a British youth emigration support scheme , and was a trustee of the Gowrie scholarship trust fund , which provided assistance to the descendants of Second World War veterans . In 1957 he was appointed chairman of a committee which reviewed the group of departments concerned with defence . The Menzies government accepted the committee 's recommendation that Supply and Defence Production be amalgamated , but dropped the key proposal that the Department of Defence absorb the Departments of Army , Navy and Air . This reform was finally carried out by the Whitlam government in 1975 .
Morshead died of cancer on 26 September 1959 at St Vincent 's Hospital , Sydney . He was given a military funeral at which former soldiers of the 9th Division paid their respects , after which his body was cremated . He was survived by his wife and daughter . Morshead was commemorated in several ways . The road Morshead Drive which runs past the Royal Military College , Duntroon , in Canberra is named after him . In the Canberra suburb of Lyneham is the Morshead War Veterans Home , with high @-@ dependency care and associated self @-@ care two @-@ bedroom houses . His portrait by Ivor Hele is held by the Australian War Memorial , as are his wartime papers .
= Jim Thome =
James Howard " Jim " Thome ( / ˈtoʊmi / ; born August 27 , 1970 ) is a retired American baseball player who played 22 seasons in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) , from 1991 to 2012 . He played for six different teams , most notably the Cleveland Indians during the 1990s and the Philadelphia Phillies in the early 2000s . A prolific power hitter , Thome hit 612 home runs during his career — the seventh @-@ most all time — along with 2 @,@ 328 hits , 1 @,@ 699 runs batted in ( RBIs ) , and a .276 batting average . He was a member of five All @-@ Star teams and won a Silver Slugger Award in 1996 .
Thome grew up in Peoria , Illinois , as part of a large blue @-@ collar family of athletes , who predominantly played baseball and basketball . After attending Illinois Central College , he was drafted by the Indians in 1989 and made his major league debut in 1991 . Early in his career , he played third base before eventually becoming a first baseman . With the Indians , Thome was part of a core of players that led the franchise to two World Series appearances in three years during the mid @-@ 1990s . He spent over a decade with Cleveland before leaving via free agency after the 2002 season to join the Philadelphia Phillies , with whom he spent the following three seasons . Traded to the Chicago White Sox before the 2006 season , Thome won the American League Comeback Player of the Year Award that year and reached the 500 home run club during his three @-@ season tenure with the team . By this point in his career , back pain limited Thome to being a designated hitter . After stints with the Los Angeles Dodgers and Minnesota Twins , he made brief returns to Cleveland and Philadelphia before ending his career with the Baltimore Orioles . Upon retiring , Thome accepted an executive position with the White Sox .
Throughout his career , Thome 's strength was power hitting . In six different seasons , he hit more than 40 home runs , and in 2003 , he led the National League in home runs with 47 . His career on @-@ base plus slugging ( OPS ) of .956 is 19th all time . In 2011 , he became the eighth MLB player to hit 600 home runs . One of Thome 's trademarks was his unique batting stance , in which he held the bat out with his right hand and pointed it at right field before the pitcher threw , something he first saw in The Natural . Thome was known for his consistently positive attitude and " gregarious " personality . An active philanthropist during his playing career , he was honored with two Marvin Miller Man of the Year Awards and a Lou Gehrig Memorial Award for his community involvement .
= = Early life = =
Thome was born in Peoria , Illinois , on August 27 , 1970 , the youngest of five children . Everyone within the blue @-@ collar Thome family played sports : Jim 's grandmother was hired at a local Caterpillar plant solely to play for the company 's softball team ; his father built bulldozers for Caterpillar and played slow @-@ pitch softball ; his aunt is a member of the Women 's Softball Hall of Fame ; and his two older brothers , Chuck III and Randy , played baseball at Limestone High School . Thome learned to play baseball from his father on a tennis court , and also played basketball in what he described as the " ghetto " of Peoria , noting that he was the only white kid there but that he earned the respect of his fellow players . One day during his youth , Thome sneaked into the Cubs ' clubhouse at Wrigley Field in an unsuccessful attempt to obtain an autograph from his favorite player , Dave Kingman . Though Thome received signatures from several other players , this experience influenced him to be generous with signing autographs for fans during his playing career .
Like his older brothers , Thome attended Limestone High School where he achieved all @-@ state honors in basketball and as a baseball shortstop . Although he had hoped to draw the attention of scouts , at just 175 pounds ( 79 kg ) he was relatively underweight for his 6 @-@ foot @-@ 2 @-@ inch ( 188 cm ) height , meaning that he attracted only passing interest — the average Major League Baseball ( MLB ) player weighed 195 pounds ( 88 kg ) in 1993 . Thome graduated in 1988 and , after not being drafted , enrolled at Illinois Central College where he continued his baseball and basketball careers . After one season , he was drafted by MLB 's Cleveland Indians as an " afterthought " in the 13th round of the 1989 MLB draft .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Minor leagues ( 1989 – 1991 ) = = =
For the 1989 season , Thome was assigned to the Gulf Coast League Indians , a minor league affiliate of the Cleveland Indians . He finished the year with a .237 batting average , no home runs , and 22 runs batted in ( RBIs ) . After his rookie season , he met " hitting guru " Charlie Manuel , who later became his manager and mentor . Unlike most Indians staff , Manuel saw potential in Thome and worked hard with him , particularly on his hip motion while swinging the bat . Thome later said , " [ Manuel ] saw something in me I didn 't . " During this work , Manuel suggested to Thome that he point his bat out to center field before the pitch to relax himself like Roy Hobbs did when batting in the baseball film The Natural . The work paid off ; in 1990 , Thome hit .340 and totaled 16 home runs and 50 RBIs playing at both the Rookie and Class A levels of the minor leagues . Thome spent most of the 1991 season splitting time between Double @-@ A ( Minor League Baseball ) and Triple @-@ A ( Minor League Baseball ) where , in combination , he hit .319 with 7 home runs and 73 RBIs .
= = = Cleveland Indians ( 1991 – 2002 ) = = =
= = = = 1991 – 1997 = = = =
Thome made his MLB debut on September 4 , 1991 , as a third baseman against the Minnesota Twins . In the game , he recorded two hits in four at bats ( 2 @-@ for @-@ 4 ) . He hit his first career home run on October 4 . Injuries shortened his 1992 campaign , during which he played for both the Indians and their Triple @-@ A affiliate , the Colorado Springs Sky Sox . Across the minor and major leagues that year , he combined to hit .236 with 4 home runs and 26 RBIs in 52 games . In 1993 , playing mostly for the Charlotte Knights , the Indians ' new Triple @-@ A affiliate , he led the International League with a .332 batting average and 102 RBIs , complemented by 25 home runs . This performance earned him a late season promotion to the major league , where he hit .266 with 7 home runs and 22 RBIs in 47 games .
After seven consecutive seasons with a losing record , " a new ballpark and a few offseason acquisitions coupled with rising young stars have made the Indians legitimate contenders " for the division title during their 1994 season . The Indians ' core of offensive players included Carlos Baerga , Kenny Lofton , Sandy Alomar , Jr . , Thome , and Eddie Murray . A " promising youngster " , for the first time in his career , Thome spent the entire 1994 season with Cleveland , playing in 98 games while hitting .268 with 20 home runs and 52 RBIs . With help from the aforementioned core , the Indians held the wild card spot in the American League ( AL ) and were one game behind the Chicago White Sox in the standings for the AL Central Division lead before the 1994 players ' strike forced cancellation of the season 's remaining games . During the strike @-@ shortened season , Thome had his first career multi @-@ home run game , hitting two solo home runs on June 22 , 1994 , against Detroit Tigers ' pitcher John Doherty . It was not until 1995 that the Indians ' success led to a playoff berth . Thome was among the team 's leaders at the plate , hitting .314 with 25 home runs and 73 RBIs , and the Indians finished with a 100 – 44 record to win the AL Central but lost the 1995 World Series to the Atlanta Braves in six games . Thome hit .211 in the World Series with one home run and two RBIs . Preceding the Indians ' 1996 season , sportswriters predicted that Thome would be moved up in the batting order and bat in the sixth position ( he had hit anywhere from the fifth to the eighth positions during his first two seasons ) . During the 1996 season , Thome hit 38 home runs , once hitting a 511 @-@ foot ( 156 m ) homer at Cleveland 's Jacobs Field , the longest home run ever at a Cleveland ballpark .
Before their 1997 season , the Indians moved Thome , originally a third baseman , to first base after acquiring third baseman Matt Williams from the San Francisco Giants . That year , Thome helped the Indians set a new franchise single @-@ season record for home runs ( 220 ) , contributing 40 of them . Thome also totaled an AL @-@ high 120 walks to go along with 102 RBIs . Cleveland returned to the World Series , but they lost to the Florida Marlins in seven games ; Thome hit .286 with two home runs and four RBIs in the World Series .
= = = = 1998 – 2002 = = = =
The next three seasons were not as successful as the previous three for either Thome or the Indians . In July 1998 , Thome hit his 24th home run of that season while helping the Indians end the Yankees ' 10 @-@ game winning streak . An article in Sports Illustrated published in July 1998 commented that despite Thome 's early career success ( two All @-@ Star Games and appearances in two of the previous three World Series ) , he was only " faintly famous " nationally and was not particularly well @-@ known outside of Cleveland or his hometown , Peoria . His former teammate Jeromy Burnitz said , " You can 't really say he 's underrated , because everybody considers him one of the top hitters in the American League , but he 's surrounded by so many good players , it 's hard to stand out on that team . "
In August , Thome broke a bone in his right hand and spent several weeks on the disabled list , missing 35 games . He finished the year with 30 home runs and 85 RBIs while posting a .293 batting average . In Game 3 of the AL Championship Series against the New York Yankees , he hit two home runs off Andy Pettitte en route to a 6 – 1 Cleveland victory . Cleveland subsequently lost the series to the Yankees .
Headed into Cleveland 's 1999 season , there were high hopes for the Indians ; writers expected Thome to bat in the cleanup spot of the batting order . In May 1999 , Thome hit a grand slam against Yankees pitcher Orlando Hernández , which helped Cleveland to a 7 – 1 victory . In total , his batting average fell to .277 , but he increased both his home run and RBI totals to 33 and 108 , respectively . In Game 1 of the AL Division Series , Thome hit a game @-@ tying two @-@ run home run off of Derek Lowe that sprung Cleveland 's defeat of the Boston Red Sox by a score of 3 – 2 . However , after leading two @-@ games @-@ to @-@ none , Cleveland lost the five @-@ game series .
During the 2000 season , Thome hit .269 with 37 home runs and 106 RBIs . On June 21 , he hit his 20th home run of the year against the Chicago White Sox , marking the seventh consecutive season in which he hit 20 or more home runs . On September 29 , while in the midst of a tight race for the AL Wild Card spot , Thome led the Indians to an 8 – 4 victory against the Toronto Blue Jays by hitting a two @-@ run home run . After the game , Thome was quoted as saying , " This team has battled all year , so this was nothing new . Here we are , and we 're here tomorrow to play another day . " Despite finishing with a record of 90 – 72 , the Indians missed the playoffs . For the 2001 Indians ' season , he finished second in the AL with 49 home runs . In addition , Thome had 124 RBIs and 111 walks . However , he led the league with 185 strikeouts . He and Juan González , who totaled 140 RBIs , powered the Indians to another division title . Despite these numbers , the Indians could once again only reach the AL Division Series , where they lost in five games to the Seattle Mariners .
Thome had his best season with Cleveland in 2002 , leading the AL in walks ( 122 ) , slugging percentage ( .677 ) and on @-@ base plus slugging ( OPS ) ( 1 @.@ 122 ) , while batting .304 ( 16th in AL ) with a .445 on @-@ base percentage ( second in AL ) . He also hit a career @-@ high 52 home runs ( 2nd in AL ) and collected 118 RBIs ( seventh in AL ) . The 52 home runs set a new Cleveland Indians ' single @-@ season record and made Thome the 21st major league player to join the 50 home run club .
At the conclusion of the 2002 season , Thome , who was a free agent , rejected the Indians ' " generous , long @-@ term contract " offer ( despite their offer to build a statue of him ) to instead sign a six @-@ year , $ 85 million contract with the Philadelphia Phillies – he thought the Phillies were closer to winning a championship than the Indians . With the Phillies , Thome 's salary rose from $ 8 million per year to $ 11 million per year . Thome hit a franchise record 334 home runs in his first stint with the Indians .
= = = Philadelphia Phillies ( 2003 – 2005 ) = = =
Thome hit 47 home runs in his first season with the Phillies , finishing one behind Mike Schmidt 's single @-@ season team record of 48 in 1980 , and tied with Alex Rodriguez for the MLB lead in 2003 . On June 14 , 2004 at Citizens Bank Park , Thome hit his 400th career home run , surpassing Al Kaline for 37th on the all @-@ time home run list . He ended the 2004 Phillies season with 42 home runs . In 2004 , Thome won the Lou Gehrig Memorial Award , which is given to players who best exemplify Gehrig 's character and integrity both on and off the field .
Thome missed a significant portion of the first half of the Phillies ' 2005 season due to injury ; he compiled only a .207 batting average with 7 home runs and 30 RBIs going into the All @-@ Star break . He was only sporadically effective ; one result was that Phillies fans booed him and cheered for replacement Ryan Howard instead . He had season @-@ ending surgery on his right elbow in August , while Howard won the NL Rookie of the Year Award . The Phillies traded Thome and cash considerations to the Chicago White Sox on November 25 , 2005 , for outfielder Aaron Rowand and minor league pitching prospects Gio Gonzalez and Daniel Haigwood . Though the emergence of Howard made Thome more expendable to the squad , another factor in his trade to the White Sox was his family situation – Thome 's mother , the " go @-@ to lady " in his family and his biggest fan , had died a year earlier , and he worried about his father . Since Philadelphia was willing to trade him , Thome waived the no @-@ trade clause in his contract for the good of the team and requested that if possible , they trade him to Chicago so he could be with his father .
= = = Chicago White Sox ( 2006 – 2009 ) = = =
Thome became Chicago 's regular designated hitter in April 2006 and flourished in his first season in Chicago . He set the team record for most home runs in the month of April ( 10 ) , overtaking Frank Thomas 's previous record by one . He also set a major league record by scoring in each of Chicago 's first 17 games . For the season , Thome hit 42 home runs , drove in 109 runs , and hit .288 , though he struck out in 30 % of his plate appearances , the highest percentage in the AL . On May 1 , 2006 , Thome returned to Cleveland to play against the Indians in his first game as a visitor at Jacobs Field , and received an unenthusiastic reception .
On September 16 , 2007 , Thome joined the 500 home run club by hitting a walk @-@ off home run against Los Angeles Angels pitcher Dustin Moseley . Thome became the 23rd major leaguer to reach the milestone and the third in the 2007 MLB season ( the others were Frank Thomas and Alex Rodriguez ) , as well as the first ever to do it with a walk @-@ off home run . Several family members including his father were on hand to witness the accomplishment , which occurred at a game during which the White Sox distributed free Thome bobbleheads to fans . Thome celebrated by pointing upward in homage to his late mother as he rounded the bases .
On June 4 , 2008 , Thome hit a 464 @-@ foot ( 141 m ) home run — which at the time was the ninth @-@ longest home run in U.S. Cellular Field history — against Kansas City Royals pitcher Luke Hochevar in a 6 – 4 White Sox victory . He hit a solo home run in the AL Central Tiebreaker game , which proved to be the difference as the White Sox defeated the Minnesota Twins , 1 – 0 . Thome 's hitting remained strong during Chicago 's 2009 season – he hit his 550th career home run . On July 17 , 2009 , he hit a grand slam and a three @-@ run home run for a single @-@ game career @-@ high seven RBIs . By the conclusion of the season , he had passed Reggie Jackson for 11th place on the all @-@ time home run list with 564 home runs .
= = = Los Angeles Dodgers ( 2009 ) = = =
On August 31 , 2009 , the White Sox traded Thome to the Los Angeles Dodgers along with financial considerations for minor league infielder Justin Fuller . Thome waived his no @-@ trade clause because he thought the Dodgers could win the World Series , something he had never done during his career , but Thome 's only appearances with the Dodgers were as a pinch hitter , due to chronic foot injuries that limited his mobility . An additional reason for Thome to come to Los Angeles was the opportunity to reunite with former Cleveland teammates Manny Ramirez and Casey Blake . He hit .235 with no home runs and three RBIs while with the Dodgers ( 4 @-@ for @
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ie was an afternoon loss to the Miami Marlins on June 30 . After the game ( which coincided with Howard 's return from the disabled list ) , the team announced that Thome had been traded to Baltimore to serve as their designated hitter .
= = = Baltimore Orioles ( 2012 ) = = =
The Orioles cited Thome 's veteran experience on a playoff @-@ bound team as a primary factor in acquiring him . Orioles catcher Matt Wieters said of Thome ,
" I think you look at him and say : This is a guy who loves the game more than anyone . He 's the first guy to the park , the first guy to the weight room , the first guy hitting . "
On July 20 , Thome hit his first home run with the Orioles , his 610th of all time moving him past Sosa for seventh place all @-@ time , against the Indians at Progressive Field . On August 6 , Thome was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list with a herniated disk ; he remained on the DL until September 21 . In his first game back , he drove in the game @-@ winning RBI in extra innings against the Boston Red Sox . After beating the Indians in a game where he hit his 611th career home run , Thome said , " There 's a lot [ of ] memories . I 've had great memories on that side and then coming in here as an opponent against them . Any time you come home , they say , it 's very special . It 's even more special to get the W 's . That 's , I think , the main thing . The bottom line is I played here a long time . " Orioles teammates remarked at Thome 's commitment to talking about the game while in the dugout . Thome remarked , " I talk the game . When I set in the dugout during games I talk baseball to these guys . They 'll ask , ' Hey , what 's this pitcher like ? ' or ' What about the game ? ' ' What about all those Indians teams you were on ? ' I did it to Eddie Murray when he was in his 40s . " The Orioles made the playoffs , but lost in five games to the Yankees during the AL Division Series . Thome hit .133 in the playoffs with no home runs or RBIs .
= = Post @-@ playing career = =
On July 2 , 2013 , Thome joined the White Sox organization as special assistant to the general manager . In the future , Thome aspires to be a manager , an aspiration that White Sox chairman Jerry Reinsdorf wholeheartedly supports ; Reinsdorf commented , " He can be a batting coach . He 'd be a great batting coach , but someday he 'll be a manager . " In March 2014 , Thome clarified that he is not officially retired ; while he " loves " his front office job with the White Sox , he would " have to take " a call about him playing again . However , on August 2 , 2014 , he signed a one @-@ day contract with the Cleveland Indians to retire officially as a member of the team .
= = Player profile = =
= = = Offense = = =
Thome is regarded as a great example of a " pure " power hitter , as indicated by his .278 Isolated Power ( ISO ) rating . Thome 's consistency was a draw for clubs to continue to sign him , even toward the very end of his 22 @-@ year career and after most sluggers ' productivity fades . In 2011 , he was ranked the sixth @-@ best designated hitter in MLB history by Fox Sports . During his career , he compiled a .284 batting average against fastballs but compiled just a .170 batting average against sliders . Since Thome was a pull hitter , opposing teams often employed a defensive shift against him ; by playing three infielders on the right side of the field and the outfielders towards his pull side , teams put themselves in better position to field batted balls . In 2011 , Lindy 's Sports described him as an " extremely patient veteran slugger who launches cripple fastballs and breaking @-@ ball mistakes to all fields " , though they did note that he struck out frequently , had poor speed , and should serve only as a designated hitter . During his career , he had strong power numbers ; in 15 of his 22 seasons , he had a slugging percentage of over .500 . He is an example of a " three @-@ true @-@ outcome " player ; 47 @.@ 6 % of his career plate appearances resulted in either home runs , strikeouts , or walks , the highest of all time by nearly seven percentage points . He is a self @-@ described slow runner , but has said that he always hustled . He stole only 19 bases after 1994 .
= = = Defense = = =
Thome began his career playing third base and did so until the 1997 season , when he converted to first base to make room at third after the Indians traded for Williams . Injuries , however , took their toll and confined him almost exclusively to being a designated hitter in the latter stages of his career . Overall , he spent 10 separate stints on the disabled list , mostly for his back . By the end of Thome 's career , his back prevented him from playing the field effectively – he played first base four times with the Phillies in 2012 which marked the first time he played the field since 2007 with the White Sox . By the end of his career , writers described him as being a " huge liability in the field " .
= = = Playing characteristics = = =
Thome was known throughout the baseball world for wearing high socks and for his unique batting stance . In 1997 , the Indians wore high socks for his birthday in August , but ended up wearing them for the remainder of the season out of superstition and eventually reached the World Series . Upon his return to the Indians in 2011 , the club again sported the high socks as a tribute . His batting stance featured him pointing his bat to center field prior to the pitch . Thome adopted this stance from Charlie Manuel , who was the Indians hitting coach , and since then Ryan Howard has also adopted it . Thome credits his calm demeanor to his role model during his early playing years , Eddie Murray , once commenting ,
" Eddie taught me to play the game exactly the same when you fail and when you succeed . Hit a home run , hey , enjoy the moment , but then let it go . If you strike out with the bases loaded , same thing , let it go . I don 't smash helmets when I strike out , because it 's not the helmet 's fault , it 's my fault . "
= = = Personality = = =
Thome 's friendly personality has been the subject of much attention . In a 2007 poll of 464 MLB players , he tied with Mike Sweeney for second @-@ friendliest player , behind Sean Casey . After Thome hit his 600th home run , Twins closer Joe Nathan said , " He is the world 's nicest man . " Teammate Michael Cuddyer added , " He is the nicest , gentlest , kindest guy you will ever meet ... to everything except the baseball , he still hits that really hard . " His kindness comes up in conversations with many MLB players . When he signed with the Phillies in the offseason before the 2012 season , Phillies general manager Rubén Amaro , Jr. cited Thome 's constant positive attitude as a main reason for his signing . As an exercise in remaining humble , he annually visited his high school prior to spring training . A Sports Illustrated article said that Thome frequently signs autographs for fans and that he is " endlessly patient with requests " . In a piece for Philadelphia magazine discussing Thome 's Baseball Hall of Fame prospects , sportswriter Stephen Silver wrote ,
" It 's not just the numbers . Thanks to his gregarious personality , Thome is the rare athlete who played in several cities and was beloved everywhere he went . I saw the Twins and Phillies play each other in Philadelphia when Thome was with the Twins , and the same two teams in Minnesota two years later when Thome was a Phillie , and the opposing crowd cheered Thome both times , even when he hit home runs for the road team . Thome was similarly loved in his long stints in Cleveland and Chicago , as well as shorter runs in Los Angeles and Baltimore . "
A fan poll in The Plain Dealer in 2003 named him the most popular athlete in Cleveland sports history .
= = = Career legacy = = =
Despite his injuries throughout his later years , Thome totaled , according to Fangraphs , 71 @.@ 6 Wins Above Replacement ( WAR ) , a sabermetrics baseball statistic intended to quantify a player 's total contributions to a team . He was one of few players whose prime was during the steroid era and was not suspected of using steroids ; Thome adamantly denies ever using performance @-@ enhancing drugs . Soon after the announcement of his front office position ( which signified the end of his playing career ) , writers began to speculate as to whether or not Thome would make it to the Baseball Hall of Fame , and more specifically , whether he would gain entrance in his first year of eligibility in 2018 . Writers also questioned whether Thome 's candidacy would be hindered by his lack of self @-@ promotion and others ' tendency to overlook him .
= = Personal life = =
Thome and his wife , Andrea , have two children , Lila Grace and Landon . He has also established funds to put his 10 nieces and nephews through college . During the offseason he lives in Burr Ridge , Illinois . ESPN 's SportsCenter reported that shortly after his nephew , Brandon , was paralyzed in an accident , he asked Thome to hit a home run for him ; Thome obliged , hitting two in the subsequent game . Thome is also a philanthropist and provided help to the communities surrounding the teams for which he played . In recognition of his community involvement , he was given the Marvin Miller Man of the Year Award in 2001 and 2004 , and the Lou Gehrig Memorial Award in 2004 . In 2013 , after the November 17 , 2013 tornado outbreak struck Washington , Illinois , just 15 miles from his hometown , he and his wife pledged to donate $ 100 @,@ 000 to relief efforts . Among the philanthropic endeavors Thome and his wife heavily support are Children 's Home + Aid , which strives to help underprivileged children predominantly with finding care ( e.g. , foster care , adoption , etc . ) , and an annual benefit to raise money for the Children 's Hospital of Illinois , continuing a tradition his mother started years ago . Moreover , the Thomes try " to stay connected with at least one or two organizations in each of the cities " that Thome has played .
= House of Rufus =
House of Rufus is a collection of six studio albums , two live albums ( one being a double album ) , four additional albums of previously unreleased material , and six DVDs recorded by Canadian @-@ American singer @-@ songwriter Rufus Wainwright , reissued as a 19 @-@ disc box set in the United Kingdom on July 18 , 2011 . Wainwright 's official site claimed that the collection " spans Rufus ' entire career and represents the most complete collection of Rufus Wainwright recordings to date . "
The box set 's title commemorates his five @-@ night residency of the same name at London 's Royal Opera House during July 18 – 23 , 2011 . Only 3 @,@ 000 copies were produced for worldwide distribution . The collection contains " hard @-@ to @-@ find " tracks and is encased in a red velvet @-@ covered book . While some reviewers questioned the need for such an extensive collection , critical reception of the box set was mostly positive .
= = Background = =
The box set 's release was confirmed on Wainwright 's official site on March 21 , 2011 . Only 3 @,@ 000 copies were produced for worldwide distribution . Box sets were sold for £ 150 in the United Kingdom , € 170 throughout Europe , and were available as imports in the United States for $ 350 . As part of the marketing strategy to promote the collection and concert series , Universal Music Catalogue developed a " treasure hunt " video for YouTube where visitors identified clues , and navigated links within a collage of Wainwright 's music videos . According to Wainwright , the rarities box set was a " little Rufus blast " before he began work on his next pop album . Wainwright also said the following of the collection : " There 's my old demos , a lot of them were recorded in Montreal ... when I had a very , very different voice , I kind of sounded like a little old man . There 's that and there 's a lot of fabulous collaborations with my mother , my father and some other great artists . " Wainwright had originally intended to call the box set The Rufus Cycle . After being told the title was " too sophisticated " , he went with House of Rufus , partly inspired by Lady Gaga 's Haus of Gaga . Wainwright claimed the box set 's release shortly after his father 's ( Loudon Wainwright III ) box set 40 Odd Years was " totally serendipitous " .
The box set 's title commemorates Wainwright 's five @-@ night residency at London 's Royal Opera House during July 18 – 23 , 2011 , also referred to as the " House of Rufus " ( sometimes the " Haus of Rufus " ) or billed as " Five Nights of Velvet , Glamour and Guilt " . During the first night , Wainwright performed his tribute concert to Judy Garland , recorded previously in June 2006 , and released as Rufus Does Judy at Carnegie Hall in 2007 . The production was repeated on July 22 , the fourth concert of the series . The July 19 and 21st shows included performances alongside his sister Martha Wainwright and father Loudon . The residency 's final night included a program called " Rufus Does Rufus " , and featured Wainwright performing selections from his 2009 opera Prima Donna . Stephen Oremus conducted the Britten Sinfonia for three of the performances , and soprano Janis Kelly was featured in the " concert version " of Prima Donna . Reception of the residency performances was mixed .
= = Contents = =
The box set contains six studio albums : Rufus Wainwright ( 1998 ) , Poses ( 2001 ) , Want One ( 2003 ) , Want Two ( 2004 ) , Release the Stars ( 2007 ) , and All Days Are Nights : Songs for Lulu ( 2010 ) . Each of the albums contain material that was not released previously . Also included are two live albums — the Grammy @-@ nominated 2007 double album Rufus Does Judy at Carnegie Hall , and Milwaukee at Last ! ! ! , released in 2009 — each with previously unreleased tracks , along with four additional albums of rarities and six DVDs . Musicians described as " friends and family members " who appear on one disc of collaborations include Kate & Anna McGarrigle , The Pet Shop Boys , Teddy Thompson , Martha Wainwright , and Loudon Wainwright III . Another disc contains demo tracks from the tape which earned Wainwright a recording contract . DVD recordings include : Live at the Fillmore , Rufus ! Rufus ! Rufus ! Does Judy ! Judy ! Judy ! : Live from the London Palladium , Milwaukee at Last ! ! ! , a collection of Release the Stars commentary and live performances , All I Want and Prima Donna : The Making of an Opera . House of Rufus contains approximately thirty unreleased or " hard @-@ to @-@ find " tracks . The collection is encased in a " red velvet @-@ covered 90 @-@ page hardback book " featuring lyrics , photos , hand @-@ drawn tour posters , art prints , and liner notes by Neil Tennant , Linda Thompson , Lenny Waronker , Martha Wainwright , and Rufus himself . Wainwright dedicated the box set to publicist Barbara Charone , " without whom it wouldn 't have been possible " .
= = Reception = =
Critical reception of the box set was mostly positive , though some reviewers questioned the necessity for such an elaborate collection , especially given Wainwright 's age , and the higher @-@ than @-@ expected price . Will Hodgkinson of The Times wrote that a box set for Wainwright , whom he described as a " not yet middle @-@ aged artist " , was unnecessary , but that the collection " shine [ s ] a spotlight on its creator 's rare , remarkable songwriting " . Hodgkinson called Wainwright and the box set " charming " overall , but thought that the " excess of material stops the great moments from really shining out " . Hive magazine contributor Luke Hannaford complimented Rufus and Loudon 's performance of Richard Thompson 's " Down Where the Drunkards Roll " , which was recorded specifically for this collection , describing it as " achingly beautiful " . Martin Aston 's review for BBC Music was positive ; in addition to other tracks , Aston complimented " Get Out of Town " ( Cole Porter , 1938 ) and " Sweet Repose " , both demos he considered to be " unreleased stunners that betray [ Wainwright 's ] show tune soul " .
Though she noted the higher @-@ than @-@ expected cost of the box set , Helen Brown of The Daily Telegraph wrote that it served as an " impressive array " that showcased Wainwright 's range and hard work . Evening Standard contributor David Smyth wrote that " this luxurious treasure chest will be too deep for almost anyone apart from its creator " . Smyth found the Rufus Family and Friends album to be " most charming " , specifically " What 'll I Do " which features the whole Wainwright family . Brian Boyd of The Irish Times considered the box set to be " sensory overload " , and thought that the quality of the previously unreleased material appearing on the studio albums varied , but called the collection " magnificent ... from a delightfully unorthodox and consistently engaging performer " . Boyd also noted the cost of the box set , but complimented the quality of its packaging and " extras " .
= = Track listing = =
Studio albums
Live albums
DVDs
Box set albums
( * ) designates previously unreleased material
Track listings adapted from Allmusic , Hive magazine and Universal Music .
= Port Macquarie @-@ Hastings Council dismissal , 2008 =
The dismissal of the Port Macquarie @-@ Hastings Council on 27 February 2008 marked the end of a series of events involving a project which was initiated in 2001 in the New South Wales coastal town of Port Macquarie to build a cultural and entertainment centre , known to locals as the Glasshouse . The project , initially a joint venture with the management of the neighbouring shopping centre , Port Central , was originally expected to cost the Council A $ 7 @.@ 3 million . However , by late 2007 , despite the centre not yet having opened , the costs had blown out to over A $ 41 @.@ 7 million , with interest repayments likely to extend the Council 's liability to A $ 66 million .
On 27 July 2007 , a full public inquiry was announced by the Minister for Local Government , Paul Lynch . The inquiry reported its findings in February 2008 . It found that the Council had failed to provide appropriate financial and project management and had lost control of the costs , that the project costs had harmed the Council 's ability to provide services and amenities to the community , and that the Council 's communications management strategy had resulted in inadequate consultation with the public and inappropriate regard to their concerns . The Minister for Local Government dismissed the Council and its Mayor , Rob Drew , and appointed an administrator upon receiving the inquiry 's report . Drew was critical of the process throughout , maintaining that errors had been made and misinformation had been accepted as fact ; however , the New South Wales Urban Task Force , a property development lobby group , believed the sacking served as a warning to other Councils to stick to " core responsibilities " .
The events continued to impact upon the community and the individuals involved . At a federal by @-@ election for the normally safe National Party seat of Lyne in which Port Macquarie is located , the former mayor , who was the endorsed National candidate , failed to win against Rob Oakeshott , an independent politician , and a former state member of parliament who had been openly critical of the Council throughout the drama . During the period under administration , voluntary redundancies were offered to 27 staff in order to improve the Council 's financial position .
In 2012 , the community elected a representative Council and Mayor ; replacing the administrator appointed in 2008 .
= = Background = =
On 30 March 1999 , the Council met to initiate planning for a centre to house the visual and performing arts at the former Civic Centre site in the Port Macquarie central business district . It recommended a project plan be developed by 2001 . On 21 August 2000 a Cultural Facilities Taskforce was created . In December 2000 , the Council approached the management of the neighbouring shopping centre , Port Central , about a possible joint venture on the site , and the Council endorsed further negotiations on 28 May 2001 . The joint venture was expected to cost around A $ 13 @.@ 5 million , with the Council contributing A $ 7 @.@ 3 million . The joint venture collapsed in August 2002 because the Council was not prepared to accommodate the needs of their commercial partner to make the project viable , and decided to go it alone . The new centre became an icon building under the direction of the Council 's General Manager , managed by a Project Control group including the Mayor and Deputy Mayor . The costs blew out considerably by 28 June 2004 , when the Council unanimously backed the project , outlays had already reached A $ 15 – A $ 20 million , and by late 2007 they had reached A $ 41 @.@ 7 million . This was due to a range of factors including that the Council bought and demolished neighbouring shops to make the facility big enough to include meeting rooms and conference facilities , and a drain built by convicts in the 19th century and still in remarkably good condition was discovered by archaeologists and needed to be preserved .
= = The Payne report = =
In October 2006 , the NSW Department of Local Government announced it would investigate the Council 's financial management and would try to determine whether it properly considered the impact the added costs could have on its other functions . The investigation , which commenced on 6 November 2006 , was conducted under Section 430 of the Local Government Act , 1993 ( NSW ) , which allows the Director @-@ General of the Department to investigate any aspect of a Council or of its work or activities . The report , delivered in May 2007 to the Minister of Local Government , concluded that the Council did not exercise due diligence and that there had been a failure to scope the project , and recommended to the Minister that a Section 740 public inquiry , which would be independent and have some of the powers and protections of a Royal Commission , be held . A Section 740 inquiry is a necessary step before a Council can be dismissed .
On 21 May 2007 , Councillors Lisa Intemann and Jamie Harrison , who believed the Council had exceeded its mandate and failed to consult with the community , led a public rally in Port Macquarie . The Mayor , Rob Drew , believed the centre development should be an exciting time for Port Macquarie and was critical of opposition to the project , characterising it as " slanderous accusations " and " fomenting discontent " . He acknowledged the report raised concerns about the processes behind the project , but insisted the project itself was sound , saying in a press release , " I for one make no apologies that this is a multi @-@ purpose facility which will provide for performers , community groups , which will provide for conferences , seminars and meetings , which will provide for activities never seen before in Port Macquarie . " Harrison meanwhile told ABC News , " The report has said categorically that [ the ] Council has lied to the community about the cost of the arts centre at every opportunity it 's had and it 's put a gloss or a spin on it " .
By June , the mayor was looking for political support to avert a full public inquiry . The National Party , whose members were dominant on the Council , and MLC Melinda Pavey had been particularly critical of the actions of the Department of Local Government in the General Purpose Standing Committee . Local independent MP , Rob Oakeshott said , however , that the Council should instead address the findings of the report , and stop arguing about the facts or using emotional arguments in support of it . He also cautioned against getting politicians involved , stressing that this was a formal legal process .
= = The Willan inquiry = =
On 27 July 2007 , the Minister for Local Government announced a Section 740 inquiry into Port Macquarie @-@ Hastings Council and the Glasshouse project , with particular regard to aspects of financial and project management , the project 's impact on the Council to provide services and amenities to the community , and the openness and transparency of decisions made by the Council . He appointed Frank Willan , a former administrator of Glen Innes Severn Council in 2004 , as Commissioner . The mayor expressed disappointment , asserted the methodology of the earlier Section 430 investigation was faulty , and believed the Council 's management and decision @-@ making processes would be vindicated .
After 18 days of public hearings and a total of 765 submissions , Mr Willan released the inquiry report in February 2008 . The report contained a number of critical findings . The key finding was that the Council and its Councillors had not been rigorous in seeking accurate information about the project , had been swayed by developers and supporters and had failed to plan and manage the project and had lost control of the " uncontrollably escalating " cost . The result was an adverse impact upon works and services in other areas of the Council 's operation . The Glasshouse , in the commissioner 's view , would not have been able to generate the projected income once it opened . It further found that the community had been " consistently misled " , that the Council had improperly used its support group to campaign against critics and its " communication strategies have driven its processes " . The Council had therefore failed to meet its charter . Willan recommended to the Minister that all civic offices be declared vacant , an administrator be appointed , and that changes to the way Councils dealt with their own proposals be enacted .
= = Sacking and aftermath = =
Upon the report 's release , the Local Government Minister , Paul Lynch , concluded on 27 February 2008 that it gave him no choice but to dismiss the Council and appoint Dick Persson , who had administered Warringah Council in 2003 , to serve as administrator . He said of the development , " What seems to have happened is that a reasonable community facility has been treated by the Council as an icon which must be built come hell or high water , regardless of the cost to ratepayers . " He emphasised that in his view , incompetence rather than corruption was the reason for the cost blowout , which would reach A $ 66 million once interest repayments were accounted for . The outgoing Mayor , Rob Drew , criticised the dismissal , calling it " atrocious " .
The New South Wales Urban Task Force , a property development lobby group , believed the sacking served as a warning to other Councils to stick to " core responsibilities " , and in late March , the administrator adopted stricter financial measures listed in an independent review of the project .
In September and October 2008 , by @-@ elections in the Port Macquarie area at both federal and state level gave a new forum to some of the players in the controversy . When the member for the federal seat of Lyne , Mark Vaile , retired from politics on 30 July 2008 , Oakeshott and Drew , the latter standing as the endorsed National Party candidate , emerged as the major candidates in the resulting by @-@ election on 6 September . With the Glasshouse as a major issue , Oakeshott won 63 @.@ 80 % of the primary vote to Drew 's 22 @.@ 88 % , with a further 10 @.@ 07 % coming to Oakeshott via preferences . In Oakeshott 's old state seat of Port Macquarie , former Councillors Jamie Harrison and Lisa Intemann ran as independents , between them attracting 15 @.@ 8 % of the vote , whilst former Oakeshott staffer Peter Besseling went on to win the election against the endorsed National candidate .
On 17 December 2008 , the Council announced that some staff would be offered voluntary redundancies as part of a strategy to address the $ 7 @.@ 1 million deficit it faced for the 2008 – 2009 financial year without increasing Council rates . The following day , it set a deadline of 19 January 2009 and clarified that 27 positions were being made redundant , while 29 vacancies would not be filled . The redundancies proceeded as planned , although forced redundancies down the track were not ruled out .
On 20 January 2009 , administrator Dick Persson announced his decision to step down at the end of the month , largely due to the demands of being away from his Sydney home for several days a week . He described the Glasshouse project as a " wrong decision " by the Council , attributing it to " woolly thinking with the best of intentions from people not experienced with planning and delivering major capital works . " He was replaced in the role by Garry Payne , head of the Department of Local Government .
On 8 September 2012 , the community elected a Mayor and Councillors , to form a new Port Macquarie @-@ Hastings Council . Former State member for Port Macquarie , Peter Besseling , was elected Mayor and Lisa Intemann , the only member of the dismissed council to contest the 2012 election , was re @-@ elected as Councillor .
= White Plume Mountain =
White Plume Mountain is an adventure module for the Advanced Dungeons & Dragons fantasy role @-@ playing game , written by Lawrence Schick and published by TSR in 1979 . The 16 @-@ page adventure bears the code " S2 " ( " S " for " special " ) The adventure is a dungeon crawl where the players ' characters are hired to retrieve three " notorious " magical weapons : a trident , a war hammer and a sword , each possessing its own intelligence . The adventure contains art by Erol Otus , and a cover by Jeff Dee . A sequel , Return to White Plume Mountain , was published in 1999 , and an updated version conforming to v3.5 rules was released online in 2005 .
White Plume Mountain was well received by critics . It was ranked the 9th greatest Dungeons & Dragons adventure of all time by Dungeon magazine in 2004 . One judge , commenting on the ingenuity required to complete the adventure , described it as " the puzzle dungeon to end all puzzle dungeons . " A review for British magazine White Dwarf gave it an overall rating of 8 / 10 , noting that the adventure focuses on problem solving . It is also the favorite adventure of Wired magazine 's Ken Denmead , who described it as the " amusement park of dungeons " . Other adventures in the S series include Tomb of Horrors , Expedition to the Barrier Peaks , and Lost Caverns of Tsojcanth .
= = Plot summary = =
White Plume Mountain is set in the World of Greyhawk , a campaign setting for Dungeons & Dragons . The module is a dungeon crawl , precipitated by the theft of three magical , sentient weapons : a trident named Wave , a war hammer named Whelm , and a sword named Blackrazor ( all three were introduced in this adventure ) . The weapons ' former owners each received a copy of a taunting poem , instructing them that the weapons are located in White Plume Mountain . The poem is signed by the wizard Keraptis , who thirteen hundred years ago descended into the volcanic mountain with a company of gnomes and disappeared . The player characters goal is to follow the same path and retrieve the weapons from Keraptis ' lair .
The adventure is divided into 27 encounters across a 16 @-@ page module . Encounters are varied and each presents its own challenges . Encounter seven necessitates characters jumping from platform to platform above a sea of hot mud whilst evading erupting geysers ; this in turn leads to encounter eight and a room of permanent darkness where a vampire guards Whelm . Encounter 17 occurs in a giant but fragile bubble located above a boiling lake , with the players needing to defeat a giant crab and retrieve Wave without damaging the bubble . Encounter 26 involves negotiating a magical ziggurat populated by various monsters ( including sea lions , giant crayfish , giant scorpions , and manticores ) before encounter 28 , a battle against an ogre mage who possesses Blackrazor . A final challenge on departing is an encounter with two to four efreet if the characters have succeeded in taking two or three of the magical weapons .
= = Publication history = =
The original White Plume Mountain adventure was written by Lawrence Schick , and was published by TSR in 1979 . It features interior art by Erol Otus and David C. Sutherland III , calligraphy by Darlene Pekul , and a front cover by Sutherland . The module includes a 12 @-@ page booklet and an outer folder which featured a two @-@ color cover in the original printing ; the module was expanded to 16 pages and rereleased with a full @-@ color cover by Jeff Dee in 1981 . The adventure was included as part of the Realms of Horror abridged compilation produced in 1987 . To celebrate the 25th anniversary of the Dungeons & Dragons game in 1999 , a reprinting of the original adventure was made available in the Dungeons & Dragons Silver Anniversary Collector 's Edition boxed set , with slight modifications to make it distinguishable from the original ( for collecting purposes ) . Wizards of the Coast also released a sequel to the adventure in 1999 , Return to White Plume Mountain , as part of the TSR 25th Anniversary series of publications . The events in the sequel are assumed to take place 20 years following those in the original . It was made into a novel of the same name by Paul Kidd for the Greyhawk Classics series .
Schick wrote the module while applying for a job with TSR . He took what he felt were the best parts from his previously created dungeons and put them together to create White Plume Mountain . After looking at it , TSR hired him and published the module without making any changes . Looking back in an interview , Schick said that he was " a little embarrassed to this day by Blackrazor , inasmuch as it 's such a blatant rip @-@ off of Elric 's Stormbringer ; I would not have put it into the scenario if I ever thought it might be published . " Schick later admitted that it was gratifying to have his adventure published as @-@ is , " but also a little embarrassing , since the adventure was really just a sampler of clever ideas that were never fully fleshed out . Its central conceit , a ' funhouse ' dungeon full of tricky obstacles designed to challenge adventurers for the amusement of a mad wizard , was already a cliché even at that date . "
In 2005 , an online version of the adventure was released as a free download , updated to conform with v3.5 rules ( Wizards of the Coast periodically alters the rules of Dungeons & Dragons and releases a new version ) . The revised module is designed for characters of the seventh level of experience . Return to White Plume Mountain has also received a v3.5 update and is likewise available for free download on their website . In both of the revised modules , the classic weapons associated with them ( Blackrazor , Whelm and Wave for White Plume Mountain , Frostrazor for Return to White Plume Mountain ) have been converted into Legacy Weapons .
All four modules of the S @-@ series were included as part of the Dungeons of Dread hardcover collection , released on March 19 , 2013 . In the foreword , Schick wrote that " unlike Tomb of Horrors , the challenges in White Plume Mountain were designed to make players think , work together as a party , and ultimately win through and feel successful . Players liked that . "
= = Reception = =
White Plume Mountain was well received by critics . Dungeon Master for Dummies lists White Plume Mountain as one of the ten best classic adventures , referring to it as a " classic dungeon crawl . " It was ranked the 9th greatest Dungeons & Dragons adventure of all time by Dungeon magazine in 2004 , on the 30th anniversary of the Dungeons & Dragons game . Judge Mike Mearls commented on the ingenuity required to complete the adventure , describing it as " the puzzle dungeon to end all puzzle dungeons " . Further , when speaking to why it is one of the top adventures ever , he said that while it lacked the " sheer brutality " of Tomb of Horrors , it made up for it with " crazy , over the top , pure fun " . Another Judge , Clark Peterson , said that he liked the three magical weapons : Wave , Whelm , and Blackrazor . To Peterson , just the inclusion of Blackrazor makes White Plume Mountain a " classic " . The editors of Dungeon felt that the adventure was defined by the ziggurat and its monsters .
Kirby T. Griffis reviewed the adventure in The Space Gamer # 37 . Griffis found the background interesting , namely Keraptis having stolen the magical weapons from prominent dealers , and the player having been hired to get them back , with only a cryptic poem to help . He found the module well organized and its content more believable than most , and despite its shortness he stated , " This on the whole is a very good module . There are no real flaws . "
Jim Bambra reviewed White Plume Mountain for the British magazine White Dwarf , and rated it favorably at 8 / 10 overall . He gave playability , enjoyment , and skill ratings of 9 / 10 , and a complexity rating of 7 / 10 . He noted that the adventure focuses on problem solving , with " many interesting problems for players to overcome " . Comparing it to the challenges in the previous S series adventure Tomb of Horrors , Bambra found White Plume Mountain " quite lenient . " Where in Tomb of Horrors a wrong decision would leave the player 's character dead , in White Plume Mountain it merely leaves the player frustrated . The adventure 's tests are " designed to stretch a party to its limits , not deal death at every opportunity " .
Ken Denmead of Wired says that White Plume Mountain is his favorite adventure , if not necessarily the best . For him , it was the " amusement park of dungeons " . He describes the story arc , where the adventurers are hired to retrieve three magic items , as similar to the A @-@ Team or The Equalizer : " You 've been hired to help when no one else has been able . " He felt that while the sword Blackrazor was a " blatant ripoff of Elric " , it was " still way cool " .
Denmead commented on several of the adventure 's encounters . He felt the cavern with boiling mud , hanging disks , and geysers , was " just cruel " . Concerning the permanently dark room that houses a vampire , he commented on the ease with which one player 's character can easily hit that of another in the gloom . He describes the room where a giant crab guards the trident Wave as " basically a bubble inside a tank of boiling water " , noting the crab knows not to pierce the walls and asks , " Are you that smart ? " Also , if the players end the adventure with the magic weapons , they need to " bribe " their Dungeon Master to allow them to keep the items .
= Plectania nannfeldtii =
Plectania nannfeldtii , commonly known as Nannfeldt 's Plectania , the black felt cup , or the black snowbank cup fungus , is a species of fungus in the family Sarcosomataceae . The fruit bodies of this species resemble small , black , goblet @-@ shaped shallow cups up to 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) wide , with stems up to 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) long attached to black mycelia . Fruit bodies , which may appear alone or in groups on the ground in conifer duff , are usually attached to buried woody debris , and are commonly associated with melting snow . Plectania nannfeldtii is found in western North America and in Asia , often at higher elevations . Similar black cup fungi with which P. nannfeldtii may be confused include Pseudoplectania vogesiaca , P. nigrella , and Helvella corium .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described by British mycologist Fred Jay Seaver in 1928 , who called it Paxina nigrella in his monograph of the cup fungi of North America . The type specimens were found in 1914 in Tolland , Colorado , by mycologist Lee Oras Overholts ; further collections were reported from Colorado and California in 1930 . The species has also been referred to as Macropodia nigrella , Helvella nigrella , and Macroscyphus nigrellus .
In 1957 Richard Korf transferred the species to its current name , changing the specific epithet in the process as Plectania nigrella was already in use ( it is a synonym of Pseudoplectania nigrella ) . The name chosen by Korf honors the Swedish mycologist John Axel Nannfeldt , responsible for some early advances in the understanding of this fungus and other cup fungi . P. nannfeldtii is classified in Korf 's section Plectania of the genus Plectania because of its ellipsoid ascospores . Vernacular names for the species include the " black felt cup " , " Nannfeldt 's Plectania " , or the " black snowbank cup fungus " .
= = Description = =
The fruit body of Plectania nannfeldtii is shallowly cup- or goblet @-@ shaped and may be up to 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) in diameter . The edges of the cup are somewhat wavy , and remain curled inward until they flare out when they are very old . The external surface is covered with delicate blackish @-@ brown hairs , while the color of the surface underneath is also brownish @-@ black . The surface wrinkles when the fruit body is dry . The internal , convex surface of the cup contains the spore @-@ producing tissue layer known as the hymenium ; it is black . The stem is thin and may be up to 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) long with a diameter of 2 – 3 mm , tapering towards the base . Like the fruit body , it is covered in delicate brownish @-@ black hairs , and it is similar in color to the outer surface of the cup . The dense , coarse mycelium at the base of the stem is black . The flesh is thin and blackish @-@ gray .
Edibility has not been determined for this species .
= = = Microscopic features = = =
In mass , the spores are white . The spores are hyaline ( translucent ) , ellipsoid , with dimensions of 30 – 35 by 15 µm . Opinions are divided about the distribution of oil droplets in the spores : Miller says that the spores typically have two oil droplets at either end , Trudell and Ammirati , in their field guide to mushrooms of the Pacific Northwest , says that the spores " lack large oil drops " , while Evenson claims that there are " numerous tiny oil drops . " The walls of the spores have thin horizontal ridges that are cyanophilic , that is , they are visible with light microscopy when stained with methyl blue . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the asci , are about 500 µm long and 20 µm wide . The asci are operculate , that is , with a flap at one end that opens to discharge the spores . Interspersed between the asci are numerous sterile , filamentous dark @-@ brown cells called paraphyses that are slightly enlarged on one end , and 380 – 420 µm long by 4 – 5 µm wide .
= = = Similar species = = =
Based on external appearance , Plectania nannfeldtii is similar to Pseudoplectania vogesiaca . Although this latter species may be difficult to distinguish by its less hairy external fruit body surface , its microscopic characters identify it more definitively : P. vogesiaca has spores that are much smaller , typically with widths of 12 – 14 µm . Helvella corium is another black cup fungus that appears in the spring ; it has smaller spores , whitish margins on the cup edges , and shorter stems than P. nannfeldtii . Pseudoplectania nigrella is smaller , with a hairier outer surface , a darker inner cup surface , and a rudimentary stem .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Plectania nannfeldtii is typically found at higher elevations in coniferous forests growing on wet twigs or other rotting woody debris , often in or near snow . It often begins its development underneath the snow , reaching maturity as the snowbank recedes to expose it ; one source suggests that its metabolic heat may help it melt a path through snow as it grows . It may grow singly , scattered or in clusters , and has been noted to have a preference for the wood of Picea engelmannii and Abies lasiocarpa as well as other conifers . In North America , it is found in the Western United States and Canada , where it fruits from late May to early August ; it is common in the Sierra Nevada and in higher elevations of the Pacific Coast Ranges . Its distribution also includes China and Japan .
= 7 : 15 A.M. =
" 7 : 15 A.M. " is the tenth episode of the American fairy tale / drama television series Once Upon a Time . The series takes place in the fictional seaside town of Storybrooke , Maine , in which the residents are actually characters from various fairy tales that were transported to the " real world " town by a powerful curse . In this episode , Emma Swan ( Jennifer Morrison ) and Regina Mills ( Lana Parrilla ) become suspicious of the Stranger ( Eion Bailey ) and his visit to Storybrooke , while David ( Josh Dallas ) and Mary Margaret 's ( Ginnifer Goodwin ) feelings for each other grow , which parallels with Prince James ' ( Dallas ) search for Snow ( Goodwin ) after he falls for her .
The episode 's teleplay was written by executive story editor Daniel T. Thomsen , while co @-@ creators Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz wrote the story . Ralph Hemecker directed the installment . " 7 : 15 A.M. " was filmed in November 2011 in Vancouver and surrounding areas of British Columbia , where the crew endured difficult weather conditions . It featured the first full introductions of the Stranger and Red Riding Hood ( Meghan Ory ) .
" 7 : 15 A.M. " first aired in the United States on ABC on January 22 , 2012 to an estimated 9 @.@ 33 million viewers , placing second in its timeslot . Critical reception to the episode ranged from mixed to positive ; most critics positively focused on Snow and Charming 's storyline and praised Dallas and Goodwin for their performances and excellent chemistry . The episode was included in Reawakened : A Once Upon a Time Tale – a novelization of the first season – which was published by Hyperion Books in 2013 .
= = Plot = =
= = = In the Opening Sequence = = =
Snow White is seen in her thief cloak walking through the forest .
= = = In the Characters ' Past = = =
In the Enchanted Forest , Red Riding Hood ( Meghan Ory ) brings supplies and news to her friend , Snow White ( Ginnifer Goodwin ) . Prince Charming ( Josh Dallas ) is set to marry Abigail ( Anastasia Griffith ) in two days . Snow White wishes there were a way to get Charming out of her head as she is still in love with him . Red suggests she see Rumpelstiltskin ( Robert Carlyle ) and Snow takes her advice . Rumpelstiltskin takes some water and a piece of Snow 's hair to make a potion that will make her forget Charming . He warns that love is a powerful disease and the cure must be extreme .
At the palace , Charming struggles with his feelings for Snow . The King ( Alan Dale ) commands him to forget her because the marriage to Abigail is worth great wealth to the kingdom . Charming sends a letter by carrier pigeon to Snow begging her to come and see him so they can be together . The letter reaches her just before she can take the potion . Snow makes it to the palace but she is seized by the guards and thrown into the dungeon . There she meets a dwarf named Grumpy ( Lee Arenberg ) , who was falsely imprisoned for stealing a diamond that he wanted to give to his girlfriend . Another dwarf , Stealthy ( Geoff Gustafson ) , shows up to rescue Grumpy , who asks Stealthy to free Snow as well . The guards kill Stealthy as they try to escape and try to recapture Grumpy . Snow threatens to burn down the palace unless they let Grumpy go and take her in his place . The King tells Snow he will not let her interfere with the wedding . She must tell Charming she does not love him , or the King will kill him . Snow obeys because she loves Charming too much to let him die , but both are left heartbroken . Snow leaves and is soon joined by Grumpy and six other dwarfs , who offer her a place to stay . She considers the potion but Grumpy warns her that those feelings however painful , are part of her . Charming calls off the wedding to look for Snow and the dwarves hear about it from Red Riding Hood . Grumpy joyfully tells Snow the good news , but she has forgotten about Charming . The pain was too great to bear and she drank the potion .
= = = In Storybrooke = = =
In Storybrooke , Henry ( Jared S. Gilmore ) leaves for school and notices the Stranger ( Eion Bailey ) fixing his motorcycle . Henry asks him about why he was in town , but the Stranger only mentions that a storm is brewing . Regina ( Lana Parrilla ) notices the interaction so she asks Emma Swan ( Jennifer Morrison ) to find out about the Stranger . Emma catches up with him at Granny 's and asks him what he is doing in town , and what 's in his box . He agrees to tell , on the condition he can buy Emma a drink sometime . She agrees so the Stranger reveals a typewriter . He is a writer in town for inspiration . Emma inquires about the drink , and he reminds her she agreed to " sometime . "
The same day , Mary Margaret ( Goodwin ) rushes out the door and gives Emma an excuse that she has to make a volcano . In truth she has been going to Granny 's at 7 : 15 every morning to see David ( Dallas ) getting coffee for himself and Kathryn ( Griffith ) . Emma , who can always spot a lie , follows Mary Margaret to call out her stalking behavior and suggests she stop seeing him . Mary Margaret buys some chocolate to drown her woes and runs right into Kathryn , who is picking up a pregnancy test . Regina notices this , and warns Mary Margaret to stay away from David , and it was their personal life .
Later on in the day , Mary Margaret finds a dove in the forest trapped in some wire mesh . The town vet ( Kwesi Ameyew ) at the shelter where David works tells her the bird will be okay but only if she returns to her flock . David offers to help Mary Margaret return the dove but she declines . He follows her anyway and is able to save her from falling off a cliff . It starts to pour so the two take shelter in an empty cabin . David asks Mary Margaret what is wrong and she admits she still has feelings for him , and he is the reason she goes to Granny 's at 7 : 15 . David replies that he goes to Granny 's to see her . They nearly kiss but Mary Margaret stops it because she knows about Kathryn 's pregnancy test . David explains that his feelings for Kathryn are memories but his feelings for Mary Margaret are real . She says they have to forget each other . The next day Mary Margaret and David try to avoid seeing each other by going to Granny 's at 7 : 45 . Ultimately , they realize they cannot stay apart , and they kiss . Regina watches them from a distance .
= = Production = =
The episode 's teleplay was written by executive story editor Daniel T. Thomsen , while co @-@ creators Adam Horowitz and Edward Kitsis co @-@ wrote the story . Renegade veteran Ralph Hemecker , directed the installment in November 2011 . As with the rest of the first season , all exterior shots of the town of Storybrooke were filmed in the small town of Steveston , British Columbia . Interior shots were mainly shot on sound stages in their Vancouver studio , often with green screens . Goodwin stated in the episode 's DVD audio commentary that she preferred practical sets to green screens , as she found the former easier to act with . She also mentioned her hatred of her character 's short hair throughout the episode , variously describing it as boyish , a mullet , and a Jewfro .
According to Dallas , it rained on days that were supposed to be sunny , while other days of production lacked rain when they were supposed to be rainy . Goodwin added that the scene of Snow and Charming releasing the birds was freezing because of the heavy rain . Their scene in the cabin took place on the first day of the episode 's production . Her near @-@ death scene involved a real cliff , though the height was exaggerated later using CGI and a green screen ; a stunt double stood in for some of the shots .
" 7 : 15 A.M. " featured the first full introduction of Red Riding Hood ( Meghan Ory ) – though she appears briefly in four earlier episodes – as well as the first full appearance of the Stranger ( Eion Bailey ) . Bailey 's multi @-@ episode casting was first announced in October 2011 , and he appeared briefly during the conclusion of the previous episode . The episode was included in Reawakened : A Once Upon a Time Tale – a novelization of the first season – which was published by Hyperion Books in 2013 .
= = Cultural references = =
Producer Damon Lindelof had an uncredited voice cameo as the Storybrooke weatherman . Apollo bars from Lindelof 's series Lost were also featured in the episode . Mary Margaret is seen reading The Mysterious Island by Jules Verne , which is a book also featured in TRON : Legacy , a film written by Horowitz and Kitsis .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" 7 : 15 A.M. " first aired on January 22 , 2012 in the United States . An estimated 9 @.@ 30 million viewers watched the episode , placing second in its timeslot behind a NFC Championship Game between the New York Giants and the San Francisco 49ers . The episode earned a ratings share of 3 @.@ 2 / 7 among adults aged 18 to 49 and a 5 @.@ 4 / 8 score overall . The episode 's ratings and viewership made the series the number one non @-@ sports program among viewers and young adults on Sunday nights .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mixed to positive reviews from television critics .
Writing for IGN , Amy Ratcliffe gave " 7 : 15 A.M. " a score of 7 out of 10 , an indication of a " good " episode . She felt that Goodwin and Dallas had good chemistry , making the audience root for them despite David 's married status . Entertainment Weekly writer Hilary Busis praised Goodwin 's performance , especially when her character tells Charming she no longer loves him . Tor.com 's Teresa Jusino lauded the episode for containing a " beautifully @-@ written script that focuses on two of the most intriguing and endearing characters on the show , " effectively indicating to viewers " exactly why Mary Margaret and David ( and Snow and James ) are in love . " Jusino concluded that the episode provided " a great respite from the previous week ’ s lull , and provided not only a story that pulled viewers in , but one that provided some wonderful character detail . "
The Huffington Post 's Laura Prudom applauded the differences between the characters in Storybrooke and their fairytale counterparts ; she felt that this narrative device would help prevent viewers from getting frustrated if Snow and Charming grew further apart in one land but closer in the other . Prudom also enjoyed the writers ' decision to make David " indecisive and , as a result , also somewhat selfish , " while James is ready to leave his fiance for Snow . Prudom concluded that the episode " expertly combined all the elements that make Once Upon a Time one of the most addictive and heartfelt new shows of the season , blending emotion , mystery and narrative thrust while giving us a deeper understanding of our favorite characters . I hope the next batch of episodes can keep up the momentum established this week . "
The Wall Street Journal 's Gwen Orel wrote that " maybe it ’ s the curse wearing off , but the use of parallel worlds and stories is better and better , sometimes even gesture to gesture . It ’ s about Snow and thwarted love this week , and that ’ s always compelling . " Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club was more critical of the episode and gave it a C + . He felt that it was " the strongest episode of the series since Rumpelstiltskin ’ s first " flashback in " Desperate Souls " because it did a better job handling the fairytale storyline . However , Sava faulted it for containing predictable elements , having many of the characters acting stupidly , and for being " painfully obvious while trying to be clever , aiming for poignancy but getting laughs instead . " Sava praised Griffiths ' performance for " min [ ing ] her wooden dialogue for some real emotional weight . "
= Cora Cross =
Cora Cross is a fictional character from the BBC soap opera EastEnders , played by Ann Mitchell . Cora is the mother of Tanya Branning ( Jo Joyner ) and Rainie Cross ( Tanya Franks ) and the grandmother of Lauren ( Jacqueline Jossa ) and Abi Branning ( Lorna Fitzgerald ) . Cora initially appeared from 11 to 15 April 2011 , and returned as a regular character on 28 July . Cora is described as having " a brash , outspoken attitude and does not care who she offends " , deemed " an archetypal East End matriarch " and Inside Soap says that Cora is a " brash , loud lady who likes to tell everyone what she thinks and has absolute no shame . "
In May 2011 , when it was confirmed that Cora would be returning to EastEnders , executive producer Bryan Kirkwood said , " We all love Cora here — actress Ann Mitchell could be one of the Walford greats " . Kirkwood was keen to find a new matriarch for the show after the loss of Peggy Mitchell , played by Barbara Windsor and explained that Cora is a perfect fit . Kate White of Inside Soap praised Cora and added she could watch Ann Mitchell acting " her socks off " all day long .
Mitchell took hiatus in April 2015 , returned for a five @-@ month guest stint from July to December 2015 , and is due to make a full return in late 2016 .
= = Storylines = =
Cora turns up at her daughter Tanya Branning 's ( Jo Joyner ) house unannounced , and revealing that Tanya 's fiancé Greg Jessop ( Stefan Booth ) invited her to their wedding against Tanya 's wishes . Cora 's other daughter , Rainie Cross , ( Tanya Franks ) also arrives at Tanya 's house , which Tanya is initially unhappy about , but Cora vouches for her by promising that she is now clean from drugs and explains that Rainie 's counsellor thinks she should reconnect with her family . Tanya soon softens towards her mother and sister . On Tanya 's hen night , Cora takes a dislike to Vanessa Gold ( Zöe Lucker ) after Vanessa laughs about them living on a council estate . The next day , Tanya 's ex @-@ husband , Max , goes to Tanya 's house after tearing their daughter Abi Branning 's ( Lorna Fitzgerald ) bridesmaid dress ; Tanya does not want to see him so Cora attempts to sort him out . She tells Max that although the girls have his name , they are Crosses deep down . It is later revealed that Rainie is staying at Cora 's house . Cora then attends Tanya 's wedding , and finds it amusing when Jane Beale ( Laurie Brett ) says she kissed Greg the night before . Cora departs after the wedding on 15 April , and Rainie later reveals that she has moved out of her mother 's home .
Cora returns months later as she can no longer handle her abusive neighbours and asks to stay with Tanya for a few days . Tanya lets her stay longer , and on her birthday , she visits The Queen Victoria public house and meets Patrick Trueman ( Rudolph Walker ) and Alfie Moon ( Shane Richie ) . She gets drunk and confronts Tanya about forgetting her birthday and how she treats Rainie . Cora also guesses that Tanya does not love Greg , but Tanya denies this . Cora reveals she has been evicted from her home because her neighbour has an ASBO , but when Cora , Tanya and Rainie return there to empty the house , the neighbour reveals that Cora is the one with the ASBO . She looks after Tanya 's young son Oscar Branning ( Charlee and Neo Hall ) but he annoys her due to the noise he makes . She leaves him to play on the stairs but he falls down them , leaving him with minor injuries .
Eventually Cora is forced to move out of Tanya 's and convinces Dot Branning ( June Brown ) to let her stay with her and her sister Rose Cotton ( Polly Perkins ) . She asks Anthony Moon ( Matt Lapinskas ) to help her move her things , saying he can keep one of her belongings as payment . He asks for her candlesticks , but she says they are the only decent thing she owns , so she lets him buy them for £ 200 . She later finds out they could be worth £ 1000 , so convinces Anthony 's father Eddie ( David Essex ) to give her an extra £ 300 , but he believes them to be worth £ 8000 . Dot later kicks Cora out for laughing at her and using language that Dot dislikes . Cora arrives at Tanya 's house just as Shirley Carter ( Linda Henry ) is throttling Rainie so Cora fends Shirley off and threatens her . Tanya then lets Cora stay with her . When Max returns because Abi is worried about Tanya , it leads to Lauren revealing that Tanya has cervical cancer and has stopped her treatment . Tanya explains that she did not tell anyone because of how it was for her when her father , William , was dying of cancer . She then tells Cora and Rainie that William did not die peacefully as they thought , but he was in constant pain so Tanya helped him to die . Cora is initially horrified , but after Tanya explains further the circumstances surrounding William 's death , they reconcile .
Cora then vows to support Tanya through her illness . Cora starts voluntary work at a cancer charity shop , where she is quickly promoted to manager . Cora also returns to live with Dot and Rose . Cora suspects Max of having an affair with Roxy Mitchell ( Rita Simons ) . Max gets Roxy to admit to Cora that she attempted to seduce him , but that he refused her . Cora then warns Roxy to stay away from Max before throwing her out . Lucy Beale ( Hetti Bywater ) confides in Cora as she is unsure if she will see her father again . Having smashed Cora 's shop window , Sasha Dixon ( Rebecca Sanneh ) is made to do shifts in the shop to pay for the damage . Cora swindles funeral director Les Coker ( Roger Sloman ) as a means of increasing shop sales . When Lola Pearce ( Danielle Harold ) goes into labour , Cora helps deliver her baby daughter , Lexi .
Cora pretends to be in a relationship with Patrick at a funeral of one of his old friends . Tanya assumes the relationship is real , so Cora is angry that Tanya is interfering . Cora and Patrick then decide to start a real relationship , taking it slowly . Tanya tries to make up for upsetting Cora by replacing a bracelet she lost , but discovers a birth certificate for a sister she knew nothing about , Ava Anderton ( Clare Perkins ) . Cora refuses to discuss the matter , until later , when she burns the birth certificate and tells Tanya that Ava died shortly after birth . Tanya asks Cora find Rainie so she can be a bridesmaid at Tanya 's second wedding to Max . Rainie sends her addiction sponsor to meet Cora , who reveals that Rainie has been sober for six weeks , Rainie blames Cora for her bad behaviour and does not want any further contact with her . Cora bins Rainie 's bridesmaid dress and simply tells Tanya that Rainie refused to be a bridesmaid . Cora begins behaving strangely and angrily tells Tanya the truth about Rainie .
When Patrick questions Cora about a cake she is baking , she tells him it is for Ava 's birthday , she is in fact alive and she was forced to give her up for adoption by her parents because she was unmarried and the baby was mixed race . Her erratic behaviour continues and she is subsequently fired from the charity shop . Patrick reveals to Tanya that Ava is alive , so Tanya tracks her down to a school in Dalston where she works as a deputy headmistress . Tanya is shocked to discover that Ava is mixed @-@ race and decides to leave things . However , she leaves her purse behind , and Ava returns it to Tanya 's home , where Cora is horrified when she introduces herself by her name . Tanya reveals the truth , and Cora leaves after slapping Tanya for meddling in her private life . She is angry at Patrick when he says he told Tanya the truth and ends the relationship . Cora then speaks to Ava , and Ava has many questions . Ava says she thought about finding Cora before but decided against it as she wanted to keep the past in the past , and says that nothing has changed now , rejecting Cora . Ava leaves and Cora cries . Cora later goes to Ava 's workplace and gives her a Christmas card , and a short while later , Ava brings one for Cora . She also reconciles with Patrick but they stay friends .
As Christmas nears , Cora reunites with Tanya , and is invited for Christmas with the Brannings . At Derek Branning 's ( Jamie Foreman ) funeral , Cora delivers an honest eulogy . Cora comforts Tanya after she splits with Max . She befriends her grandson , Ava 's son Dexter Hartman ( Khali Best ) , who helps to bring Cora and Ava closer . Cora is a support to Tanya and Lauren while Lauren goes through alcoholism . Tanya takes Lauren away to a clinic , but Tanya does not return when Lauren does . When Dexter 's father Sam James ( Cornell S John ) arrives , he tries to win Cora over but she sees that Ava and Dexter are upset and warns him off . Ava and Sam reunite , and Cora eventually tells Dexter , who is initially angry but comes to terms with the relationship . Cora is jealous when Patrick picks Betty Spragg ( Tessa Wyatt ) as his dance partner , making fun of her behind her back and angering Patrick , putting a strain on their friendship . Abi and Kim Fox ( Tameka Empson ) plot to get Cora and Patrick back together , locking them in a shed . Patrick ends his friendship with Betty and resumes a relationship with Cora .
When Tanya moves away from Walford , Cora continues to live with Lauren and Abi , and they are later joined by Dexter when Ava moves to Newcastle . Cora supports her granddaughters when Max is in prison for attempted murder , but following his release from prison and separation from his third wife Kirsty ( Kierston Wareing ) , he buys 5 Albert Square , and throws Cora and Dexter out , as they do nothing around the house . They move in with Patrick , but he ends his relationship with Cora in March 2014 due to her insensitive comments that she makes to Dot following the death of her son Nick Cotton ( John Altman ) . He later tells her that she and Dexter have one month to find somewhere else . Cora steals money from the laundrette to rent a flat , but after Dot finds her stealing money from the washing machines , Cora loses hope until Stan Carter ( Timothy West ) , who she has recently befriended agrees to give her some cash . Cora and Dexter later move into a flat together . Lauren and Abi move in with her when Max is revealed to have been sleeping with Lauren 's best friend Lucy , before her recent murder . Cora becomes suspicious that Max is withholding information from the police and calls them to clarify his statement . She later warns him not to hurt Lauren and Abi any further .
Cora and Stan start dating and Stan , who has terminal prostate cancer , decides he wants to commit the time he has left with her . He surprises her with a Christmas dance , but things are ruined when Stan 's ex @-@ wife Sylvie Carter ( Linda Marlowe ) walks in on them together . Cora decides to move to Newcastle with Dexter and Ava , but after Stan apologises to her and goes with her to the station , she has a change of heart and decides to stay . Stan then takes Cora to a retro dance event , but Cora walks out when Sylvie arrives there . She goes back there with Babe Smith ( Annette Badland ) but leaves again after seeing Stan and Sylvie sharing a dance and a kiss and learning that Babe has had feelings for Stan all along .
Several weeks later , Stan invites Cora to a horse racing match in hopes of rekindling their relationship , but she turns him down as she feels she will lose him again . The same day , Stan collapses due to his cancer spreading leaving him paralysed from the waist down . Two days later , after much hesitation , Cora visits Stan in hospital to say goodbye to him , but is unperturbed by Babe 's presence in caring for Stan . After Babe privately recalls to Cora how much she loved Stan from the minute she met him , Cora is surprised when Stan proposes to her . She rejects his proposal , not wanting to hurt Babe 's feelings , but Babe , realising that her and Stan were never meant to be , encourages Cora to accept the proposal for his last chance of happiness , but told her that he 's love Sylvie more . Two weeks later , Stan passes away from his cancer , devastating Cora . After his funeral she departs , saying she will stay with Tanya in Exeter , and is then seen calling her and waiting for her to pick her up .
A few months later , a dishevelled Cora attends a charity drive for the homeless at the community centre , but ensures nobody sees her . When Abi calls Tanya , she discovers Cora has not visited Tanya . Abi is distressed and attempts to find her . Cora is found by Abi , Jane and Carol Jackson ( Lindsey Coulson ) sleeping rough in a bus shelter and at first does not recognise Abi , however , she soon returns to Walford and lives in an allotment shed and in alleyways . Babe continues to make fun of her homeless state and when Cora steals food from the Vic , she humilities Babe by exposing her past with Queenie Trott ( Judy Cornwell ) . Eventually , Cora 's friends and neighbours stage a protest , surprisingly led by Babe , at the local council 's Christmas party and they are forced to house Cora .
= = Character creation = =
= = = Casting = = =
Cora and her casting were announced on 21 March 2011 . It was announced that award @-@ winning actress , Ann Mitchell would be playing the role . Mitchell said of her casting " As a lifelong fan of EastEnders , I am thrilled to join the cast . I am a great fan of June Brown 's [ who plays Dot Branning ] and am looking forward to sharing some scenes with her . " Executive producer Bryan Kirkwood opined : " I 'm very excited to have the much @-@ loved Ann Mitchell joining us . Cora Cross is a formidable woman , cut from the same cloth as many glorious Walford women of the past , and Ann Mitchell is just perfect for the role . " It is Mitchell 's second role in EastEnders , having previously played Jane Williams from 2001 to 2002 . Cora initially appeared from 11 to 15 April 2011 . On 31 May 2011 , it was confirmed that Cora would be returning to EastEnders as a regular character . Kirkwood said , " We all love Cora here — actress Ann Mitchell could be one of the Walford greats . She 'll be returning late in the summer and is here to stay . " Kirkwood added that he was keen to establish the Cross women . Mitchell was originally a guest artiste , appearing from 11 April to 15 April but was brought back as a regular character as of 28 July 2011 .
In an interview with Inside Soap , the executive producer of EastEnders , Bryan Kirkwood commented : " With the loss of Barbara Windsor , I was keen to find a new matriarch for the show , and Ann Mitchell is a dream booking . I 've always been a fan of her work , and with the storyline we 've got planned , we 'll wonder how we ever did without Cora " . Discussing the permanent return of Cora , Tanya Franks commented : " Ann Mitchell isn 't that scary in real life ! It 'll be nice to see these three crazy women as a family unit . There 's room for lots more skeletons to fall out of the closet . "
= = = Personality = = =
Cora was described as having " a brash , outspoken attitude and does not care who she offends . She also quickly puts Tanya under scrutiny , believing that success has turned her into a snob " . It was said that she secretly wants to heal the rift between Tanya and Rainie . Cora has also been described as a " bolshie battleaxe " . The BBC website describes Cora as " tough as old boots " and to " cross her at your peril . " It continues to read : " Outwardly , Cora ’ s tough as old boots and doesn ’ t give a stuff what people think of her . But underneath all her bling and hair dye there is a sadness to her . She ’ s lonely , and wishes she had a relationship with her daughters Tanya and Rainie . Unpredictable Cora has lived on an estate all her life . She ’ s never really had any money and finds it impossible to hold down a job . Even though she ’ s always skint , she does enjoy the finer things in life . She ’ s a fan of gold , and her big earrings may even outshine some of Pat 's . This lary lady won ’ t back down from an argument and holds life long grudges . Cross Cora at your peril ! "
Inside Soap says that Cora is a " brash , loud lady who likes to tell everyone what she thinks and has absolute no shame . " An EastEnders informant says : " She 'll be a massive embarrassment to Tanya , who likes to think she 's risen above her roots and made a better life for herself . While Cora will be pretty impressed with Tanya 's lot , she 'll be quick to accuse her daughter of becoming snobby and stuck @-@ up . That 'll lead to plenty of drama and lots of comedy . " Mitchell said that Cora has a " gutsy spirit " and " thick skin " .
= = Development = =
In an interview with Digital Spy , Jake Wood was asked what kind of a dynamic he thinks that viewers could expect from Max and Cora . He replied : " If Max does move back home , they 'd potentially have to spend a lot of time together , so I think they 'd have to put their differences aside for Tanya 's sake . Ann Mitchell is a superb actor and Cora is a great character - a great addition to the show . I 'm very happy that she 's here . " Also in an interview with Digital Spy , Jo Joyner commented on the relationship between Tanya and Cora at present . She said : " I think that now we 've explored all of the history with Tanya 's father , the two of them are in a new territory . Cora can sometimes be distant and cold , but you have to remember that they hadn 't spoken for a long time . At the moment , because of Tanya 's illness , Cora is being supportive and quite ' mummy ' - but there 's always the possibility that things could take a turn for the worse with their relationship , so I think that could change . " Joyner later added : " There 's some really great stuff to come with Max , Cora and Tanya and her past . It all comes to a bit of a head . "
In October 2011 , Daniel Kilkelly of Digital Spy reported that Max would be returning to EastEnders with his brother Derek ( Jamie Foreman ) and teased that Tanya will reveal a long @-@ held family secret which will shock Cora . Tanya reveals to Cora and Rainie that she helped her father to die . Joyner stated that particularly enjoyed filming the scene where Tanya reveals the truth about her father 's death . Rudolph Walker revealed in July 2012 that Cora and Patrick Trueman are to embark on a fling with each other . Upon Tanya discovering that Cora had another daughter , Mitchell said that many twists and turns will follow . She added : " The whole situation has pierced her thick skin . "
= = = Ava Hartman = = =
In September 2012 , Kilkelly reported that Tanya would discover Cora has been keeping a secret from her for years . Tanya discovers that Cora once had a daughter by the name of Ava , after coming across a birth certificate by accident . Tanya questions Cora , but she remains secretive and refuses to talk to her daughter . Cora later opens up to Tanya and tells that her daughter was called Ava , but that she died shortly after birth . It was later announced that Ava would be introduced to the show and that actress Claire Perkins had been cast in the role . Mitchell said that Cora was " forced to give up Ava " adding " The baby 's father was black and he left Cora before he knew she was pregnant . She was 18 and unmarried , and at that time , having a baby in her situation was a social stigma . She was made to feel enormous shame by her parents , who forced her to give the baby up for adoption . " On the subject of Cora keeping the secret for a significant amount of time , Mitchell also said that it 's down to guilt and wanting things to be kept safe and uncomplicated . Mitchell added " It 's going to be mayhem . The implications will be huge . The family will want answers , and I 'm sure we won 't be seeing the back of Ava . "
= = Reception = =
Speaking of Cora 's arrival , Jane Simon of the Daily Mirror said " Tanya 's mum Cora provides a stark warning about the dangers of Botox . She turns up tonight looking like Ronald McDonald in drag - no wonder Tanya 's been avoiding her . " The Daily Mail 's Jaci Stephen deemed Cora " an archetypal East End matriarch " . Stephen wrote : " brash and blunt , what she lacks in diplomacy she makes up for in style , even if that 's not the way daughter Tanya always sees it . The role is a perfect fit for actress Ann who , as gangster Dolly Rawlins in Widows , was one of the Eighties ' most iconic TV females . Daniel Kilkelly from Digital Spy said of Cora 's guest stint , " During her brief stay on Albert Square , Cora quickly became known for her brash attitude and outspoken ways . " Kate Woodward from Inside Soap said the introduction of Cora and Sylvia Goodwin ( Stephanie Cole ) from Coronation Street proved that soap operas need more " outspoken older women " . She commented that the characters cannot resist a barb and say the things many people would not ; just like " famous battleaxe " Blanche Hunt ( Maggie Jones ) . Cora and Sylvia have the " edge " that cannot be achieved by younger characters . Woodward described Cora as rough and that she owned a " gob as scary as her slap @-@ plastered mug " . Woodward later said that " outrageous Rose is the perfect foil for caustic Cora " . She named them as " the best double @-@ act ever " and added that they deserved an whole episode dedicated to them .
Kate White from the publication later praised the character saying " All hail the new queen of soap — fabulous Cora is everything the discerning viewer could ever want . " White added she could watch Mitchell acting " her socks off " all day long . The writer later said that Cora has the " undisputed title of The Biggest Hair In Soap " . Michael Cregan of Inside Soap said that Cora has " proved that she isn 't a woman to be messed with " . He also admitted that " it was a real surprise " to see Cora 's vulnerable side as she listened to the truth of her husband 's supposed " peaceful death " . He added that it is clear that viewers still have a lot to learn about Cora . In October 2011 , Inside Soap readers voted Cora their " favourite soap battleaxe " over Sylvia Goodwin ( Stephanie Cole ) and Edna Birch ( Shirley Stelfox ) . Kevin O 'Sullivan of the Daily Mirror rated one of Cora 's lines his favourite . Cora said " I used to be able to walk down the street and stop traffic . " O 'Sullivan replied : " So she was a lollipop lady . " In Heat , Julie Emery called Cora " a bouffanted harridan of a mother " . Simon of the Daily Mirror later hinted that " Cora has a real soft spot for bad boy Derek Branning . " A writer for the Daily Mirror called Rose Cotton ( Polly Perkins ) , Patrick Trueman ( Rudolph Walker ) and Cora " diamond geezers " . Mitchell revealed in July 2012 that she was shocked to see that Cora has a young fanbase . She added that it is very interesting as people seem to believe there is great division between young and old people , and that youngsters respond to her because she is a tough mother and grandmother . A writer for Press Association called Cora a " larger @-@ than @-@ life pensioner " . Mitchell received a nomination in the " Funniest Female " category at the 2012 Inside Soap Awards for her portrayal of Cora . Upon receiving the nomination , Mitchell commented " I 'm chuffed to be nominated for this award , Cora 's sense of humour is so dry . I love her . She 's so much fun to play ! "
= Pipistrellus raceyi =
Pipistrellus raceyi , also known as Racey 's pipistrelle , is a bat from Madagascar , in the genus Pipistrellus . Although unidentified species of Pipistrellus had been previously reported from Madagascar since the 1990s , P. raceyi was not formally named until 2006 . It is apparently most closely related to the Asian species P. endoi , P. paterculus , and P. abramus , and its ancestors probably reached Madagascar from Asia . P. raceyi has been recorded at four sites , two in the eastern and two in the western lowlands . In the east , it is found in open areas and has been found roosting in a building ; in the west it occurs in dry forest . Because of uncertainties about its ecology , it is listed as " Data Deficient " on the IUCN Red List .
With a forearm length of 28 @.@ 0 to 31 @.@ 2 mm ( 1 @.@ 10 to 1 @.@ 23 in ) , Pipistrellus raceyi is small to medium @-@ sized for a species of Pipistrellus . The body is reddish above and yellow @-@ brown below . The wings are dark and the feet are small . Males have a long penis and baculum ( penis bone ) , which is somewhat similar to those of P. endoi , P. abramus and P. paterculus . In the skull , the rostrum ( front part ) is less flat than in related species and the supraorbital ridges ( above the eyes ) are prominent . The fourth upper premolar does not touch the upper canine and the second lower premolar is well @-@ developed .
= = Taxonomy = =
Since they were first recorded in 1905 , when Thomas and Schwann described the species Vespertilio matroka ( currently Neoromicia matroka ) , the classification and status of small vespertilionid bats ( " pipistrelles " ) from Madagascar have remained unclear . Although several species were recorded , they remained little known . A species of the genus Pipistrellus with affinities to Oriental ( southeastern Asian ) species was first recorded in 1995 , and several later authors recorded one or more unidentified Pipistrellus species .
In 2006 , Paul Bates and colleagues reported on a collection of 44 Malagasy " pipistrelles " received by the Harrison Institute , which included several species new to Madagascar , as well as a single species new to science . This species , a member of Pipistrellus , was described as Pipistrellus raceyi . In a 2007 article , Steven Goodman mentioned it as part of a flurry of new bat species from Madagascar ; the number of species increased from 27 in 1995 to 37 in 2007 . The specific name , raceyi , honors bat researcher Paul Racey and the describers suggested the common name " Racey 's pipistrelle bat " . P. raceyi closely resembles the Asian species P. endoi , P. paterculus , and P. abramus , and Bates and colleagues hypothesized that it may be related to these species . If this is true , the ancestors of P. raceyi presumably reached Madagascar from Asia , not from Africa like most of the island 's bat fauna . P. raceyi shares this distinction with a few other Malagasy bats : the large fruit bat Pteropus rufus and both species of the small insectivorous bat Emballonura recorded on Madagascar .
= = Description = =
Pipistrellus raceyi is a small to medium @-@ sized pipistrelle . It is long @-@ furred and the body is reddish above , with the head a trifle darker , and yellowish @-@ brown below . The glandular swellings on the muzzle , next to the nose , are hairless . The dark , short , round ears bear three to five ridges . The crescent @-@ shaped tragus ( a projection on the inner side of the outer ear ) is about half as long as the ear and contains a slight constriction on the back side of its base . The wings are dark . The third through fifth metacarpals ( hand bones ) are about equally long , but the first phalange ( finger bone ) on the third finger is short . P. endoi has a longer first phalange on the third metacarpal . P. raceyi has short tibiae ( lower leg bones ) and small feet and the tail is shorter than the head and body . Forearm length is 28 @.@ 0 to 31 @.@ 2 mm ( 1 @.@ 10 to 1 @.@ 23 in ) , tail length is 22 @.@ 9 to 30 @.@ 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 90 to 1 @.@ 19 in ) , hindfoot length is 5 @.@ 3 to 7 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 21 to 0 @.@ 30 in ) , and ear length is 7 @.@ 5 to 10 @.@ 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 30 to 0 @.@ 42 in ) in 13 measured specimens . Females average slightly larger than males .
Males have a long , straight penis with a notch between the shaft and the narrow , egg @-@ shaped glans penis . Near the top , the penis is haired , but the base is almost naked . In the baculum ( penis bone ) , the shaft is long and narrow and slightly curved . The length of the penis and baculum distinguish P. raceyi from all comparably sized African and Malagasy vespertilionids . P. endoi , P. paterculus , and P. abramus have more similar bacula , but that of P. abramus is more curved , the shaft and the tip are more robust in P. paterculus , and the proximal ( near ) end is more robust in P. endoi . In males , penis length is 9 @.@ 6 to 11 @.@ 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 38 to 0 @.@ 46 in ) and baculum length is 8 @.@ 8 to 10 @.@ 0 mm ( 0 @.@ 35 to 0 @.@ 39 in ) .
In the skull , there is a well @-@ defined lowered area in the middle of the rostrum ( front part ) , which nearly touches the back margin of the large , V @-@ shaped nasal aperture ( opening for the nose ) . Next to the aperture are two elevated areas , above the incisors . The zygomatic arches ( cheekbones ) are slender . The supraorbital ridges ( located above the eyes ) are well @-@ developed . P. abramus , P. endoi , and P. paterculus have a flatter rostrum and less prominent supraorbital ridges . The braincase is of average size and bears a poorly developed sagittal crest on its roof . The supraoccipital , the backmost part of the skull , is convex . The sides of the concave palate are about parallel .
The dental formula is 2 @.@ 1 @.@ 2 @.@ 33 @.@ 1 @.@ 2 @.@ 3 (
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classic funk . " The Ultimate Collection received particular acclaim from Allmusic writer Jason Birchmeier , who asserted that it was " a gem " that " you can 't go wrong with . "
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
Each Man Makes His Own Destiny ( 1972 , as Ice )
Soul Makossa ( 1973 )
Voodounon EP ( 1974 )
Malik ( 1975 ) - America Records
Tonight at the Discotheque ( 1975 , various artists )
Funky Flavored ( 1976 , as Crispy and Co . )
Frisco Disco ( 1976 , as Ice )
Afro Agban ( 1977 , as Ice )
= = = Singles = = =
Oglenon / Azeta ( 1974 )
Brazil / Love can ( 1975 , as Crispy & Co . , or Krispie & Compagny )
A.I.E. ( A Mwana ) / Super Queen ( 1975 , as Ice )
Get It Together / Down in St. Tropez ( 1975 , as Crispy & Co . , or Krispie & Compagny )
Sunara / Get It Together ( 1976 , same )
Dr. Beezar , Soul Frankenstein ( 1976 , as Captain Dax )
= = = Compilations = = =
Afon : Ten Unreleased Afro Funk Recordings ( 1978 )
Darkest Light : The Best of ( 1999 )
The Ultimate Collection ( 2001 )
= = Selected samples = =
= Great Dismal Swamp maroons =
The Great Dismal Swamp maroons were freed and escaped slaves who inhabited the marshlands of the Great Dismal Swamp in Virginia and North Carolina . Although conditions were harsh , research suggests that thousands lived there between about 1700 and the 1860s . Harriett Beecher Stowe told the maroon people 's story in her 1856 novel Dred : A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp . The most significant research on the settlements began in 2002 with a project by Dan Sayers of American University .
= = Location = =
The Great Dismal Swamp spans an area of southeastern Virginia and northeastern North Carolina between the James River near Norfolk , Virginia , and the Albemarle Sound near Edenton , North Carolina . The swamp is estimated to have originally been over 1 million acres ( 4 @,@ 000 km2 ) , but human encroachment has destroyed up to 90 % of the swampland . Today , the Great Dismal Swamp National Wildlife Refuge is just over 112 thousand acres ( 450 km2 ) .
= = History = =
The first African slaves brought to the British colonies in Virginia in 1619 came on a Dutch ship . At the time , slaves were treated similarly to indentured servants , becoming free with the passage of a certain period of time . Others gained freedom by converting to Christianity , since the English of that time did not typically enslave Christians . Slave labor was used in many efforts to drain and log the Great Dismal Swamp during the 18th and 19th centuries . Escaped slaves living in freedom came to be known as maroons or outlyers . The origin of the term " maroon " is uncertain , with competing theories linking it to Spanish , Arawak or Taino root words . Maroonage , runaway slaves in isolated or hidden settlements , existed in all the Southern states , and swamp @-@ based maroon communities existed in the Deep South , in Alabama , Florida , Georgia , Louisiana , and South Carolina . Maroonage in the Upper South was largely limited to Virginia and the Great Dismal Swamp .
At the beginning of the 18th century , maroons came to live in the Great Dismal Swamp . Most settled on mesic islands , the high and dry parts of the swamp . Inhabitants included slaves who had purchased their freedom as well as escaped slaves . Other escaped slaves used the swamp as a route on the Underground Railroad as they made their way further north . Some slaves lived there in semi @-@ free conditions , but how much independence slaves actually enjoyed there has been a topic of much debate . Nearby whites often left enslaved maroons alone so long as they paid a quota in logs or shingles , and businesses may have ignored the fugitive nature of escaped slaves who provided work in exchange for trade goods .
Herbert Aptheker stated already in 1939 , in " Maroons Within the Present Limits of the United States " , that likely " about two thousand Negroes , fugitives , or the descendants of fugitives " lived in the Great Dismal Swamp , trading with white people outside the swamp . Results of a study published in 2007 , " The Political Economy of Exile in the Great Dismal Swamp " , say that thousands of people lived in the swamp between 1630 and 1865 , Native Americans , maroons and enslaved laborers on the canal . A 2011 study speculated that thousands may have lived in the swamp between the 1600s and 1860 . While the precise number of maroons who lived in the swamp at that time is unknown , it is believed to have been one of the largest maroon colonies in the United States . It is established that " several thousand " were living there by the 19th century . However , fear of slave unrest and fugitive slaves living among maroon population caused concern amongst local whites . A militia with dogs went into the swamp in 1823 in an attempt to remove the maroons and destroy their community , but most people escaped . In 1847 , North Carolina passed a law specifically aimed at apprehending the maroons in the swamp . However , unlike other maroon communities , where local militias often captured the residents and destroyed their homes , those in the Great Dismal Swamp mostly avoided capture or the discovery of their homes .
Little is known of Native American activity in the area prior to 1600 , though the presence of hunting bolas indicates that the area may have served as a hunting ground as far back as 5 @,@ 000 years ago . Native American communities were already in existence in the swamp when the maroons began to settle there . Because leaving the area could inevitably lead to recapture , the inhabitants often used what was readily available in the swamp , even recycling tool remnants left by Native Americans . Since the maroons had few possessions , the few small artifacts that have been recovered have given historians little insight into their day @-@ to @-@ day lives . To date , excavation has yet to find any human remains . According to Sayers , historical archaeologist at American University who has led research on the maroons of the swamp , it is possible that the acidity of the water disintegrated any bones which may have been left behind .
Some maroons were born to escaped slaves and lived in the swamp for their entire lives despite the hardships of swamp life : dense underbrush , insects , poisonous snakes , and bears . The difficult conditions also made the swamp an ideal hiding place , not just for escaped slaves but also for free blacks , slaves who worked on the swamp 's canals , Native Americans , and outcast whites such as criminals . Maroons are known to have often interacted with slaves and poor whites to obtain work , food , clothes , and money . Some fugitive slaves plundered nearby farms and plantations , stole from anchored boats , and robbed travelers on nearby roads ; those caught were tried for murder or theft . Some maroon communities were set up near the Dismal Swamp Canal , built between 1793 – 1805 and still in operation . These maroons interacted more with the outside world than those who lived in the swamp 's interior , and had more contact with outsiders once canal construction began . Some took jobs on the canal , and with increased contact with the outside world , some people living in the swamp eventually moved away . During the American Civil War , the United States Colored Troops entered the swamp to liberate the people there , many of whom then joined the Union Army . Most of the maroons who remained in the swamp left after the Civil War .
= = Research = =
The Great Dismal Swamp Landscape Study began in 2002 and was led by Dan Sayers , a historical archaeologist at American University 's Department of Anthropology . In 2003 , he conducted the first excavation in the swamp , and in 2009 , in partnership with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service ( which manages the Great Dismal Swamp National Wildlife Refuge ) and American University , initiated the annual research program titled the Great Dismal Swamp Archaeology Field School . This effort continues the work of the landscape study . It examines the impact of colonialism , slavery , and development on the swamp , especially on the self @-@ sustaining maroon settlements in the swamp 's interior . It also studies native lifestyles before European contact . Prior to Sayers ' efforts , no field research had been done on the Great Dismal Swamp maroons . Even today , the swamp is impenetrable in places ; a research group gave up in 2003 because it lost its way so many times . Sites deep in the swamp 's interior are still so remote that a guide is needed to find them . The National Endowment for the Humanities gave the " We The People Award " of $ 200 @,@ 000 to the project in 2010 .
In fall 2011 , a permanent exhibit was opened by the National Park Service to commemorate those who lived in the swamp during pre @-@ Civil War times . Sayers summarizes : " These groups are very inspirational . As details unfold , we are increasingly able to show how people have the ability , as individuals and communities , to take control of their lives , even under oppressive conditions . "
= Proposed redefinition of SI base units =
A committee of the International Committee for Weights and Measures ( CIPM ) has proposed revised formal definitions of the SI base units , which are being examined by the CIPM and which will likely be adopted at the 26th General Conference on Weights and Measures ( CGPM ) in the fall of 2018 . The metric system was originally conceived as a system of measurement that was derivable from nature . When the metric system was first introduced in France in 1799 technical problems necessitated the use of artifacts such as the prototype metre and kilogram . In 1960 the metre was redefined in terms of the wavelength of light from a specified source , making it derivable from nature , leaving the kilogram as the only unit still defined by an artifact . If the proposed redefinition is accepted , the metric system ( SI ) will , for the first time , be wholly derivable from nature .
The proposal can be summarised as follows :
There will still be the same seven base units ( second , metre , kilogram , ampere , kelvin , mole , and candela ) . Of these , the kilogram , ampere , kelvin and mole will be redefined by choosing exact numerical values for the Planck constant , the elementary electric charge , the Boltzmann constant , and the Avogadro constant , respectively . The second , metre and candela are already defined by physical constants and it is only necessary to edit their present definitions . The new definitions will improve the SI without changing the size of any units , thus ensuring continuity with present measurements .
Further details are found in the draft chapter of the Ninth SI Units Brochure .
The last major overhaul of the metric system was in 1960 when the International System of Units ( SI ) was formally published as a coherent set of units of measure . SI is structured around seven base units that have apparently " arbitrary " definitions and another twenty units that are derived from these base units . Although the units themselves form a coherent system , the definitions do not . The proposal before the CIPM seeks to remedy this by using the fundamental quantities of nature as the basis for deriving the base units . This will mean , amongst other things , that the prototype kilogram will cease to be used as the definitive replica of the kilogram . The second and the metre are already defined in such a manner .
A number of authors have published criticisms of the revised definitions — in particular that proposal had failed to address the impact of breaking the link between the mole and the kilogram , the dalton and the unified atomic mass unit , and the Avogadro constant and Avogadro 's number .
= = Background = =
The basic structure of SI was developed over a period of about 170 years ( 1791 to 1960 ) . Since 1960 technological advances have made it possible to address various weaknesses in SI , notably the dependence on an artifact to define the kilogram .
= = = Development of SI = = =
During the early years of the French Revolution , the leaders of the French National Constituent Assembly decided to introduce a completely new system of measurement based on the principles of logic and natural phenomena . The resulting mètre des Archives and kilogramme des Archives were defined in terms of artefacts that were a " best attempt " at fulfilling these principles .
In 1875 , by which time the use of the metric system had become widespread in Europe and in Latin America , twenty industrially developed nations met for the Convention of the Metre . The result was the signing of the Treaty of the Metre under which three bodies were set up to take custody of the international prototype kilogram and metre and to regulate comparisons with national prototypes . They were :
CGPM ( General Conference on Weights and Measures / Conférence générale des poids et mesures ) — The Conference meets every four to six years and consists of delegates of the nations who had signed the convention . It discusses and examines the arrangements required to ensure the propagation and improvement of the International System of Units and it endorses the results of new fundamental metrological determinations .
CIPM ( International Committee for Weights and Measures / Comité international des poids et mesures ) — The Committee consists of eighteen eminent scientists , each from a different country , nominated by the CGPM . The CIPM meets annually and is tasked to advise the CGPM . The CIPM has set up a number of sub @-@ committees , each charged with a particular area of interest . One of these , the Consultative Committee for Units ( CCU ) , amongst other things , advises the CIPM on matters concerning units of measurement .
BIPM ( International Bureau for Weights and Measures / Bureau international des poids et mesures ) — The Bureau provides safe keeping of the international prototype kilogram and metre , provides laboratory facilities for regular comparisons of the national prototypes with the international prototype and is the secretariat for the CIPM and the CGPM .
The first CGPM ( 1889 ) formally approved the use of 40 prototype metres and 40 prototype kilograms from the British firm Johnson Matthey as the standards mandated by the Convention of the Metre . One of each of these was nominated by lot as the international prototypes , other copies were retained by the CGPM as working copies and the rest were distributed to member nations for use as their national prototypes . At regular intervals the national prototypes were compared with and recalibrated against the international prototype . In 1921 the Convention of the Metre was revised and the mandate of the CGPM was extended to provide standards for all units of measure , not just mass and length . In the ensuing years the CGPM took on responsibility for providing standards of electric current ( 1946 ) , luminosity ( 1946 ) , temperature ( 1948 ) , time ( 1956 ) and molar mass ( 1971 ) .
The 9th CGPM ( 1948 ) instructed the CIPM " to make recommendations for a single practical system of units of measurement , suitable for adoption by all countries adhering to the Metre Convention " . The recommendations based on this mandate were presented to the 11th CGPM ( 1960 ) where they were formally accepted and given the name " Système International d 'Unités " and its abbreviation " SI " .
= = = Impetus for change = = =
Changing the underlying principles behind the definition of the SI base units is not without precedent . The 11th CGPM ( 1960 ) defined the SI metre in terms of the wavelength of krypton @-@ 86 radiation , replacing the pre @-@ SI metre bar . The 13th CGPM ( 1967 ) replaced the original definition of the second ( which was based on a back @-@ calculation of the Earth 's rotation in the year 1900 ) with a definition based on the frequency of the radiation emitted between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom . And the 17th CGPM ( 1983 ) replaced the 1960 definition of the metre with one based on the second , by giving an exact definition of the speed of light in units of metres per second .
Over the years , drifts of up to 2 × 10 − 8 kilograms per annum in the national prototype kilograms relative to the international prototype kilogram have been detected . There was no way of determining whether the national prototypes were gaining mass or whether the IPK was losing mass . At the 21st meeting of the CGPM ( 1999 ) , national laboratories were urged to investigate ways of breaking the link between the kilogram and a specific artefact . Newcastle University metrologist Peter Cumpson has since identified mercury vapour absorption or carbonaceous contamination as possible causes of this drift .
Independently of this drift having been identified , the Avogadro project and development of the Watt balance promised methods of indirectly measuring mass with a very high precision . These projects provided tools that would enable alternative means of redefining the kilogram .
A report published in 2007 by the Consultative Committee for Thermometry ( CCT ) to the CIPM noted that their current definition of temperature has proved to be unsatisfactory for temperatures below 20 kelvins and for temperatures above 1300 kelvins . The committee was of the view that the Boltzmann constant provided a better basis for temperature measurement than did the triple point of water , as it overcame these difficulties .
At its 23rd meeting ( 2007 ) , the GCPM mandated the CIPM to investigate the use of natural constants as the basis for all units of measure rather than the artefacts that were then in use . The following year this was endorsed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics ( IUPAP ) . At a meeting of the CCU held in Reading , United Kingdom , in September 2010 , a resolution and draft changes to the SI brochure that were to be presented to the next meeting of the CIPM in October 2010 were agreed to in principle . The CIPM meeting of October 2010 found that " the conditions set by the General Conference at its 23rd meeting have not yet been fully met . For this reason the CIPM does not propose a revision of the SI at the present time " ; however , the CIPM presented a resolution for consideration at the 24th CGPM ( 17 – 21 October 2011 ) to agree the new definitions in principle , but not to implement them until the details have been finalised . This resolution was accepted by the conference , and in addition the CGPM moved the date of the 25th meeting forward from 2015 to 2014 . At the 25th meeting ( 18 – 20 November 2014 ) , it was found that " despite [ the progress in the necessary requirements ] the data do not yet appear to be sufficiently robust for the CGPM to adopt the revised SI at its 25th meeting " , thus postponing the revision to the next meeting in 2018 .
= = Proposal = =
In this section , an " X " at the end of a number means one or more final digits yet to be agreed upon .
In 2011 the CCU published a draft of the proposed change in the form of an amendment that should be made to the 8th edition of the SI Brochure . In it they proposed that in addition to the speed of light , four further constants of nature should be defined to have exact values :
The Planck constant h is exactly 6.62606X × 10 − 34joule second ( J · s ) .
The elementary charge e is exactly 1.60217X × 10 − 19coulomb ( C ) .
The Boltzmann constant k is exactly 1.38065X × 10 − 23joule per kelvin ( J · K − 1 ) .
The Avogadro constant NA is exactly 6.02214X × 1023reciprocal mole ( mol − 1 ) .
These constants were described in the 2006 version of the SI manual ; the latter three were defined as " constants to be obtained by experiment " .
The CCU also proposed that the numerical values associated with the following constants of nature be retained unchanged :
The speed of light c is exactly 299792458metres per second ( m · s − 1 ) .
The ground state hyperfine splitting frequency of the caesium @-@ 133 atom Δν ( 133Cs ) hfs is exactly 9192631770 hertz ( Hz ) .
The luminous efficacy Kcd of monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 1012Hz is exactly 683 lumen per watt ( lm · W − 1 ) .
The seven definitions above are rewritten below after converting the derived units ( joule , coulomb , hertz , lumen and watt ) into the seven base units ( second , metre , kilogram , ampere , kelvin , mole and candela ) . In the list that follows , the symbol sr stands for the dimensionless unit steradian .
Δν ( 133Cs ) hfs
= 9192631770s − 1
c =
299792458m · s − 1
h
= 6.62606X × 10 − 34kg · m2 · s − 1
e =
1.60217X × 10 − 19A · s
k
= 1.38065X × 10 − 23kg · m2 · K − 1 · s − 2
NA =
6.02214X × 1023mol − 1
Kcd = 683 cd · sr · s3 · kg − 1 · m − 2
In addition the CCU proposed that
the international prototype kilogram be retired and that the current definition of the kilogram be abrogated ,
the current definition of the ampere be abrogated ,
the current definition of the kelvin be abrogated and
the current definition of the mole be revised .
These changes will have the effect of redefining the SI base units , though the definitions of the derived SI units will remain the same .
= = Impact on base unit definitions = =
The CCU proposal recommended that the text of the definitions of all the base units be either refined or rewritten changing the emphasis from explicit @-@ unit to explicit @-@ constant type definitions . Explicit @-@ unit type definitions define a unit in terms of a specific example of that unit — for example in 1324 Edward II defined the inch as being the length of three barleycorns and since 1889 the kilogram has been defined as being the mass of the International Prototype Kilogram . In explicit @-@ constant definitions , a constant of nature is given a specified value and the definition of the unit emerges as a consequence . For example , in 1983 , the speed of light was defined to be exactly 299792458 metres per second and as long as the second has already been defined , the length of the metre can be derived .
The current ( 2008 ) and proposed ( 2011 ) definitions are given below . In many cases the final digit of any constant is yet to be agreed , so it has been represented by an " X " .
= = = Second = = =
The proposed definition of the second is effectively the same as the current definition , the only difference being that the conditions under which the measurements are made are more rigorously defined .
Current definition : The second is the duration of 9192631770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium @-@ 133 atom .
Proposed definition : The second , s , is the unit of time ; its magnitude is set by fixing the numerical value of the ground state hyperfine splitting frequency of the caesium @-@ 133 atom , at rest and at a temperature of 0 K , to be equal to exactly 9192631770 when it is expressed in the unit s − 1 , which is equal to Hz .
= = = Metre = = =
The proposed definition of the metre is effectively the same as the current definition , the only difference being that the additional rigour in the definition of the second will propagate to the metre .
Current definition : The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1 / 299792458 of a second .
Proposed definition : The metre , m , is the unit of length ; its magnitude is set by fixing the numerical value of the speed of light in vacuum to be equal to exactly 299792458 when it is expressed in the unit m · s − 1 .
= = = Kilogram = = =
The definition of the kilogram is undergoing a fundamental change — the current definition defines the kilogram as being the mass of the international prototype kilogram which is an artifact , not a constant of nature while the new definition relates it to the equivalent energy of a photon via the Planck constant .
Current definition : The kilogram is the unit of mass ; it is equal to the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram .
Proposed definition : The kilogram , kg , is the unit of mass ; its magnitude is set by fixing the numerical value of the Planck constant to be equal to exactly 6.62606X × 10 − 34 when it is expressed in the unit s − 1 · m2 · kg , which is equal to J · s .
One consequence of this change is that the new definition makes the definition of the kilogram dependent on the definitions of the second and the metre .
= = = Ampere = = =
The definition of the ampere is undergoing a major overhaul — the current definition , which is difficult to realise with high precision in practice , is being replaced by a definition that is more intuitive and that is easier to realise .
Current definition : The ampere is that constant current which , if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length , of negligible circular cross @-@ section , and placed 1 m apart in vacuum , would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 × 10 − 7 newton per metre of length .
Proposed definition : The ampere , A , is the unit of electric current ; its magnitude is set by fixing the numerical value of the elementary charge to be equal to exactly 1.60217X × 10 − 19 when it is expressed in the unit A · s , which is equal to C.
Since the current definition contains a reference to force which has the dimensions MLT − 2 it follows that in SI the kilogram , metre and second , the base units representing these dimensions , must be defined before the ampere can be defined . Other consequences of this definition are that in SI the value of vacuum permeability ( μ0 ) is fixed at exactly 4π × 10 − 7 H · m − 1 . Since the speed of light in vacuum ( c ) is also fixed , it follows from the relationship
<formula>
that the vacuum permittivity ( ε0 ) has a fixed value and from
<formula>
that the impedance of free space ( Z0 ) likewise has a fixed value .
One consequence of the proposed changes to the definition of the ampere is that the definition will no longer be dependent on the definitions of the kilogram and the metre , but will still be dependent on the definition of the second . In addition the vacuum permeability , vacuum permittivity and impedance of free space , which , in the current definition have exact values will , in the future , be subject to experimental error .
= = = Kelvin = = =
The definition of the kelvin will undergo a fundamental change if the proposal is accepted . Rather than using the triple point of water to fix the temperature scale the proposal recommends that the energy equivalent as given by Boltzmann 's equation be used .
Current definition : The kelvin , unit of thermodynamic temperature , is 1 / 273 @.@ 16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water .
Proposed definition : The kelvin , K , is the unit of thermodynamic temperature ; its magnitude is set by fixing the numerical value of the Boltzmann constant to be equal to exactly 1.38065X × 10 − 23 when it is expressed in the unit s − 2 · m2 · kg · K − 1 , which is equal to J · K − 1 .
For a physical interpretation of this new definition , consider an ideal gas concentrated such that the average volume per molecule is 1.38065X × 10 − 23 m3 . That is the volume of a cube with a side length of about 24 nm . The ratio of the gas 's temperature and pressure would be defined exactly equal to 1 K / Pa .
One consequence of this change is that the new definition makes the definition of the kelvin depend on the definitions of the second , the metre , and the kilogram .
= = = Mole = = =
The current definition of the mole links it to the kilogram . The proposed definition will break that link by making a mole a specific number of entities of the substance in question .
Current definition : The mole is the amount of substance of a system that contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0 @.@ 012 kilogram of carbon @-@ 12 . When the mole is used , the elementary entities must be specified and may be atoms , molecules , ions , electrons , other particles , or specified groups of such particles .
Proposed definition : The mole , mol , is the unit of amount of substance of a specified elementary entity , which may be an atom , molecule , ion , electron , any other particle or a specified group of such particles ; its magnitude is set by fixing the numerical value of the Avogadro constant to be equal to exactly 6.02214X × 1023 when it is expressed in the unit mol − 1 .
One consequence of this change is that the current defined relationship between the mass of the 12C atom , the dalton , the kilogram , and Avogadro 's number will no longer be valid . One of the following must change :
the mass of a 12C atom is exactly 12 dalton
the number of dalton in a gram is exactly the numerical value of Avogadro 's constant
The draft SI brochure assumes the first will remain true , which would mean that the second will no longer be true . The molar mass constant , while still with great accuracy remaining equal to 1 g / mol , will no longer be exactly equal to that .
= = = Candela = = =
The proposed definition of the candela is effectively the same as the current definition , but has been rephrased .
Current definition : The candela is the luminous intensity , in a given direction , of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 1012 Hz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1 / 683 watt per steradian .
Proposed definition : The candela , cd , is the unit of luminous intensity in a given direction ; its magnitude is set by fixing the numerical value of the luminous efficacy of monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 1012 Hz to be equal to exactly 683 when it is expressed in the unit s3 · m − 2 · kg − 1 · cd · sr , or cd · sr · W − 1 , which is equal to lm · W − 1 .
= = Impact on reproducibility = =
Apart from the candela , all the base units will be defined in terms of universal physical constants , but without an explicit one @-@ to @-@ one correspondence between the constants and the base units . Thus six physical constants will be needed to define the six base units .
When the New SI was first designed , there were more than six suitable physical constants from which the designers could choose . For example , once length and time had been established , the universal gravitational constant G could , from a dimensional point of view , be used to define mass . It should be noted that in practice G can only be measured with a relative uncertainty of the order of 10 − 5 which would have resulted in upper limit of the kilogram 's reproducibility being around 10 − 5 whereas the current international prototype kilogram can be measured with a reproducability of 1 @.@ 2 × 10 − 8 . The choice of physical constants was made on the basis of minimal uncertainty associated with measuring the constant and the degree of independence of the constant in respect of other constants that were being used . Although the BIPM has developed a standard mise en pratique ( practical technique ) for each type of measurement , the mise en pratique used to make the measurement is not part of the measurement 's definition — it is merely an assurance that the measurement can be done without exceeding the specified maximum uncertainty .
= = = Uncertainty of fundamental physical constants = = =
Fundamental physical constants are often highly dependent upon each other . This implies that the best value of a fundamental physical constant , one with the least uncertainty , often can be determined by directly measuring other fundamental physical constants , from which the value can be calculated . The uncertainty in these constants is then determined from the uncertainty of the others by the propagation of uncertainty . Constants whose value is fixed , for determining the units in which they are expressed , don 't have an uncertainty associated with them , so they do not account for any extra uncertainty in the value of the calculated constant . One of the reasons the SI unit system will be changed is that determination of values can often be greatly improved if expressed in these new units . This is due to the dependence of these values on physicals constants .
The following table catalogues the notable changes in determination of fundamental physical constants . The constants are expressed in direct measurements and fixed constants to minimize and determine the uncertainty . Some constants in that expression do not contribute significantly to the uncertainty , thus the only significant factors are noted . The value of the relative uncertainty by the data of CODATA of 2014 is given , and is expressed in the relative uncertainty of the significant factors , noted with ur ( constant ) . An approximately equals sign ( ≈ ) is used if an uncertainty is only approximated by the expression . This is due to unsignificant factors or rounding errors .
It should be noted that the relative atomic mass of the electron Ar ( e ) is measured relative to the mass of a carbon @-@ 12 atom ( divided by 12 ) . When the Avogadro constant is set in the new SI , atomic masses might be measured in dalton ( by fixing the Avogadro constant ) , instead of atomic mass units ( by fixing the mass of carbon @-@ 12 ) , thus resulting in a difference between the values of the relative atomic mass and the atomic mass in units of dalton .
= = = Dalton = = =
In 1993 , the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC ) approved the use of the dalton as an alternative to the unified atomic mass unit with the qualification that the GCPM had not given its approval . This approval has since been given . Following the proposal to redefine the mole by fixing the value of the Avogadro number , Brian Leonard of the University of Akron , writing in Metrologia proposed that the dalton ( Da ) be redefined as an SI derived unit exactly equal to ( 1 / 1000NA ) kg ; but that the unified atomic mass unit ( mu ) retain its current definition based on the mass of 12C , ceasing to be SI . This would result in the dalton and the atomic mass unit potentially differing from each other with a relative uncertainty of the order of 10 − 10 .
= = Acceptance = =
Much of the work done by the CIPM is delegated to consultative committees . The CIPM Consultative Committee for Units ( CCU ) has made the proposed changes while other committees have examined the proposal in detail and have made recommendations regarding their acceptance by the GCPM in 2014 . The various consultative committees have laid down a number of criteria that must be met before they will support the CCU 's proposal , including :
At least three separate experiments be carried out yielding values having a relative expanded ( 95 % ) uncertainty of no more than 5 × 10 − 8 and at least one of these values should be better than 2 × 10 − 8 . Both the Watt balance and the Avogadro project should be included in the experiments and any differences between these be reconciled .
The relative uncertainty of Boltzmann constant derived from two fundamentally different methods such as acoustic gas thermometry and dielectric constant gas thermometry be better than one part in 10 − 6 and that these values be corroborated by other measurements .
As at March 2011 , the International Avogadro Coordination ( IAC ) group had obtained an uncertainty of 3 @.@ 0 × 10 − 8 and NIST had obtained an uncertainty of 3 @.@ 6 × 10 − 8 in their measurements .
On 1 September 2012 the European Association of National Metrology Institutes ( EURAMET ) launched a formal project to reduce the relative difference between the watt @-@ balance and the silicon sphere approach to measuring the kilogram from 17 ± 5 × 10 − 8 to within 2 × 10 − 8 .
As of March 2013 the proposed redefinition is known as the " New SI " , but Mohr , in a paper following the CGPM proposal but predating the formal CCU proposal , suggested that since the proposed system makes use of atomic scale phenomena rather than macroscopic phenomena , it should be called the " Quantum SI System " .
= = Comment = =
In 2010 Marcus Foster of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation published a wide @-@ ranging critique of SI in which he raised numerous issues ranging from basic issues such as the absence of the symbol " Ω " from most Western keyboards to the abstract issues such as inadequate formalism in the metrological concepts on which SI is based . The changes proposed in the New SI only addressed issues regarding the definition of the base units including new definitions of the candela and the mole — units that Foster argued were not true base units . Other issues raised by Foster fell outside the scope of the proposal .
= = = Explicit @-@ unit and explicit @-@ constant definitions = = =
Concerns have been expressed that the use of explicit @-@ constant definitions of the unit being defined that are not related to an example of its quantity will have many adverse effects . Although this criticism applies to the proposed linking of the kilogram to the Planck constant via a route that requires a knowledge of both special relativity and quantum mechanics it does not apply to the proposed definition of the ampere which is closer to an example of its quantity than is the current definition . Some observers have welcomed the proposal to base the definition of electric current on the charge of the electron rather than the current definition of a force between two parallel current @-@ carrying wires — since the nature of the electromagnetic interaction between two bodies at the quantum electrodynamics level is somewhat different from the nature at classical electrodynamic levels , it is considered inappropriate to use classical electrodynamics to define quantities that exist at quantum electrodynamic levels .
= = = Mass and the Avogadro constant = = =
When the scale of the divergence between the IPK and national kilogram prototypes was reported in 2005 , a debate arose on how best to redefine the kilogram - should the kilogram be defined in terms of the mass of the silicon @-@ 28 atom or should it be determined using the watt balance ? The mass of a silicon atom could be determined using the Avogadro project and using the Avogadro Number be linked directly to the kilogram .
Concern has also been expressed that the authors of the proposal had failed to address the impact of breaking the link between the mole , kilogram , the dalton ( Da ) , the Avogadro constant ( NA ) and Avogadro 's number ( NN ) . This direct link has caused many to argue that the mole is not a true physical unit , but , in the words of the Swedish philosopher Johansson , the mole is a " scaling factor " .
The SI Brochure ( 8th edition ) implicitly defines the dalton as 0 @.@ 001 ÷ NN kg where the value of NN is determined by experiment . The proposal fixes NA , so if the Avogadro constant and Avogadro 's number are to be numerically identical , the dalton must be related to either the mass of a single carbon atom or to the kilogram — it cannot be related to both .
= = = Temperature = = =
Temperature is somewhat of an enigma - room temperature can be measured by means of expansion and contraction of a liquid in a thermometer , but high temperatures are often associated with a colour . Wojciech T. Chyla , approaching the structure of SI from a philosophical point of view in the Journal of the Polish Physical Society , argued that temperature is not a real base unit but is rather an average of the thermal energies of the individual particles that make up the body concerned . He noted that in many theoretical papers , temperature is represented by the quantities Θ or β where
<formula>
and kb is the Boltzmann constant .
Chyla acknowledged however that in the macroscopic world temperature plays the role of a base unit as much of the theory of thermodynamics is based on temperature . Foster , writing from the point of view of quality control argued that the introduction of the Boltzmann constant into the definition of temperature was an unnecessary complication .
The Consultative Committee for Thermometry , part of the International Committee for Weights and Measures publishes a mise en pratique ( practical technique ) , last updated in 1990 , for measuring temperature which , at very low and at very high temperatures , makes great use of linking energy to temperature via the Boltzmann constant .
= = = Luminous intensity = = =
Foster argued that " luminous intensity [ the candela ] is not a physical quantity , but a photobiological quantity that exists in human perception " thereby questioning whether or not the candela should be a base unit .
= DW Stadium =
The DW Stadium is a sports stadium in Wigan , Greater Manchester , England . The ground is owned and managed by Wigan Football Company Limited , and it is used by Wigan Athletic football club and Wigan Warriors rugby league club . Built and opened in 1999 , it is named after its main sponsor , DW Sports Fitness . In UEFA matches , it is called Wigan Athletic Stadium due to UEFA regulations on sponsorship .
The stadium was designed by Alfred McAlpine . Wigan Athletic and Wigan Warriors moved into it from their long @-@ term homes of Springfield Park and Central Park respectively . International rugby league matches have also taken place at the venue .
Its current capacity is 25 @,@ 138 — seated in four single @-@ tier stands — and its record attendance was on 11 May 2008 when 25 @,@ 133 people watched Wigan Athletic play Manchester United in the title @-@ deciding match of the 2007 – 08 Premier League season .
= = History = =
The stadium was designed by Alfred McAlpine and completed in August 1999 .
Wigan Athletic had spent the previous 67 years playing at Springfield Park , and their first match at the stadium was a friendly against Morecambe , just before the stadium 's official opening .
The stadium 's inauguration was marked with a friendly between Wigan Athletic and neighbours Manchester United — who were then reigning European champions , Premier League title and FA Cup holders — with United 's manager Sir Alex Ferguson officially opening the stadium .
The first competitive football match there took place on 7 August 1999 , with Wigan Athletic facing Scunthorpe United in a Second Division match . Simon Haworth scored twice , including the first competitive goal at the new stadium , as Athletic triumphed 3 – 0 .
Wigan Warriors moved to the stadium a month after it opened , once they had played their final home game of the 1999 regular season at Central Park , which had been the club 's home since 1902 . After their former ground was sold , the possibility of ground sharing with Bolton Wanderers F.C. at the Reebok Stadium ( now Macron Stadium ) was presented , but the new stadium in Wigan was chosen instead . Their first game there was a play @-@ off match against Castleford Tigers , which they lost , on 19 September . The Warriors did not lose a competitive match at the stadium in 2001 .
The first away team to win a competitive football match at the stadium was Wigan Athletic . A first round FA Cup tie against non @-@ league Cambridge City was played there due to City 's ground being deemed unsuitable to host the tie . Wigan played in their changed strip and used the away dressing room since it was technically a ' home ' game for Cambridge City . A Stuart Barlow brace secured the win for Wigan . Wigan subsequently lost at home to Wolverhampton Wanderers in the third round of the FA Cup on 11 December 1999 . Oldham Athletic became the first team to beat Wigan in a league fixture at the JJB on 7 January 2000 . The game was shown live on sky sports and finished 1 – 0 thanks to an 86th @-@ minute header from Lee Duxbury .
Whilst Wigan Warriors and Wigan Athletic flourished in the new stadium ( Wigan Athletic in particular would achieve significant success , rising up the English football pyramid to the Premier League by 2005 ) , Orrell R.U.F.C. did not . Dave Whelan and Maurice Lindsay decided to invest heavily in the club , with the aim of having the club play in rugby union 's Guinness Premiership at the stadium . After failing to win 2004 's National Division Two , Whelan pulled a large amount of investment from the club , to a more modest GB £ 30 @,@ 000 a year . This was the beginning of Orrell 's demise , as players left during the summer of that year and the club were consequently relegated the season after . Ownership eventually passed from Lindsay back to the club 's members , but by this point , Orrell had sold their former Edge Hall Road ground to Dave Whelan 's company , Whelco Holdings , and therefore had no assets apart from their rebuilt clubhouse following a fire in 2002 . Orrell never settled at the JJB Stadium , and were eventually de @-@ professionalised at the end of the 2006 – 07 season .
On 7 March 2005 Greater Manchester police announced that they would stop policing Wigan Athletic matches at the stadium from 2 April . This move would almost certainly have resulted in the stadium 's safety certificate being revoked , effectively forcing the team to play behind closed doors . The move was part of an ongoing dispute between the police force and Dave Whelan surrounding GB £ 300 @,@ 000 in unpaid policing costs . The police 's decision would not have affected Wigan Warriors , whose games are stewarded instead of policed . The situation was temporarily resolved on 8 March with both sides reaching an agreement that would allow Athletic to play at the ground until the end of the season . Four months later , Wigan Athletic , facing the prospect of playing their home games in the Premier League in an empty stadium , grudgingly paid the money they owed to the police . The club successfully appealed against the payments in court and won damages from the police .
On 7 September 2008 , Wigan Warriors revealed plans to take their Super League Play @-@ Off against Bradford Bulls to a neutral venue . The controversial relocation was forced due to a fixture clash , with a match between football clubs Wigan Athletic and Sunderland to take place less than 24 hours after the Super League match . Whelan , who controlled Wigan Athletic , refused permission for the Warriors to stage their elimination at the stadium , citing concerns over the playing surface . The game was relocated to Widnes Vikings home ground , the Stobart Stadium . In the same season , JJB Sports announced they would not continue to sponsor Wigan Warriors , leaving them without a main shirt sponsor .
The stadium 's average attendance has increased significantly since its opening in 1999 . The Wigan Warriors ' average attendance has increased by 32 @.@ 5 % from its first full season at the stadium in 2000 , and Wigan Athletic 's average attendance has increased by 181 @.@ 2 % from the 2000 – 01 season . The highest recorded attendance for a rugby league match is shared between three fixtures ; the Wigan Warriors ' fixture against St Helens RLFC on 25 March 2005 ; Game 4 of the 2005 Tri @-@ Nations series between Great Britain and Australia on 6 November ; and Game 5 of the 2004 Tri @-@ Nations series between Great Britain and Australia on 13 November at 25 @,@ 004 each . The highest recorded football attendance at the stadium was Wigan Athletic 's home fixture against Manchester United on 11 May 2008 — the final day of the 2007 – 08 Premier League season — with 25 @,@ 133 fans attending . This is the stadium 's highest recorded overall attendance to date , and was the match where Manchester United were crowned Premier League champions for that season .
In March 2009 , Dave Whelan acquired a chain of fitness clubs from JJB Sports . In the process , Whelan used the business to set up a new venture , DWSportsfitness and announced that the stadium name would change to the DW Stadium in August . Whelan also announced that at the same time the stadium was renamed , its ownership would pass from himself to Wigan Athletic . Concerns about the future of Wigan Warriors were arrested in the same announcement , as Whelan extended the lease on the stadium by 50 years for the rugby league team . Before their match against Leeds Rhinos in July 2009 , both clubs were given the opportunity to rename one stand , with the intention of renaming them in honour to a recognised player from each club 's history . The rugby league club were granted the East Stand , which they renamed ' The Boston Stand ' in tribute to the Welsh winger Billy Boston , As Wigan Athletic had spent many years in the lower leagues it was recognised that most of their players were not known , so the West Stand was renamed ' The Springfield Stand ' after the club 's former ground .
= = Structure and facilities = =
The stadium design is based on cantilevered , prefabricated steel roof and terrace structuring . It is an all @-@ seater arena with a seating capacity of 24 @,@ 826 . The stands are rectangular and both the northern and southern stands have supporting steel girders suspended from beneath the roof . The four stands are of approximately the same height , however the stadium is not totally enclosed , leaving four exposed corners .
At both Wigan Athletic and Wigan Warriors matches , away supporters are situated in the North Stand behind the goal . Occasionally , during rugby games which attract low away support , the 5 @,@ 418 capacity North Stand is closed altogether , and the away fans who attend are put into an alternative stand . The eastern stand , known as ' The Boston Stand ' , and the western ' Springfield Stand ' run across the longer sides of the pitch . The Boston Stand is the largest , capable of seating up to 8 @,@ 238 fans and holding an electronic scoreboard . The Springfield Stand contains the stadium 's vital facilities ; four dressing rooms , benches , a doping control room and a treatment room for the players , as well as four executive boxes , ten radio commentary points and a designated TV studio , in addition to holding 6 @,@ 100 fans . The North Stand and South Stand have a seating capacity of 5 @,@ 418 and 5 @,@ 412 respectively . The stadium also has facilities and access for up to 278 fans with disabilities , with facilities for partially sighted fans . The seats are a mixture of both resident teams ' main colours — cherry red and blue . The stadium is fully compliant with safety guidelines for a sports ground .
The pitch is large enough to conform with both FIFA and the standard rugby league requirements , at 110 by 60 metres ( 120 yd × 66 yd ) . This leaves an in @-@ goal area just 5 metres ( 5 @.@ 5 yd ) deep for rugby matches . It is mostly made of natural grass , with 2 % of the pitch composed of synthetics to provide stability . The ground has irrigation , and an under @-@ heating system to resist icy weather .
= = Attendances = =
= = = Wigan Warriors = = =
Wigan Warriors moved from Central Park to the stadium in 1999 after the end of Super League IV 's regular season . Since moving to the new stadium , Wigan Warriors ' success in rugby league has not been as high as it was at their old Central Park ground , however the good times do seem to be back for the club after they won the Super League Grand Final and League Leaders shield in 2010 under the guidance of coach Michael Maguire and chairman Ian Lenagan .
Attendances have generally risen for the Wigan Warriors since the start of the 2002 season , averaging around 14 @,@ 000 over the three seasons from 2006 to 2009 . Aside from Grand Finals , the largest Super League attendance was recorded at the stadium in 2005 when Wigan Warriors played their local rivals , St Helens RLFC .
This match is also the highest home attendance in the Wigan Warriors ' history at the stadium . The twenty thousand mark has been broken ten times since moving to the new stadium in 1999 — eight times against St Helens RLFC , once against local rivals Warrington Wolves in the opening round of the 2008 Super League XIII season , and once in July 2009 against the Leeds Rhinos following a campaign advertising the game as the ' Big One ' . In 2010 , the Warriors were officially the biggest supported team in the Super League .
= = = Wigan Athletic F.C. = = =
Wigan Athletic 's success has improved considerably since their move to the stadium from Springfield Park in 1999 . The club subsequently climbed up two divisions to play in the Premier League from 2005 until 2013 .
Rising success on the pitch has been met with increased attendances . Promotion into the Premier League meant that in their first season of English top @-@ flight football , Wigan Athletic 's average home attendance almost doubled from the season before . Over three times more fans attended matches at the stadium during Wigan 's 2007 – 08 season in the Premier League than had attended in the 2001 – 02 season when Wigan Athletic were in the Football League Second Division . Wigan Athletic 's average home attendance for 2007 – 08 was the lowest out of all 20 teams in the Premier League , failing to make the top 30 English clubs in terms of attendance . The same season saw the highest ever attendance at the stadium , when 25 @,@ 133 people witnessed Wigan play Manchester United on the final day of the season .
Wigan Athletic 's average attendance was again the lowest in the league for the Premier League 2008 – 09 season . Premier League attendances fell on average by around 426 per club during the 2008 – 09 season . Wigan Athletic 's home attendance fell by more than this , with their average attendance for the 2008 – 09 season falling by 633 from the season before . The highest attendance at the stadium for this season was a match between Wigan Athletic and Arsenal F.C. , in which 22 @,@ 954 people were counted . This attendance was 2 @,@ 357 fans lower than the highest attendance in the season before .
= = Other events = =
The stadium 's numerous lounges provide a venue for small musical acts to perform , and the stadium plays host to minor bands and tribute acts . They are also available to book for private parties . During match days , bands may provide pre @-@ match entertainment on the pitch .
As well as the fixtures for the two domestic teams , the stadium is a venue for international rugby league . Since the stadium 's construction in 1999 , it has been an ever @-@ present venue whenever International series have been played in England .
Its first involvement came during the 2004 series , where the home Great Britain and Ireland national team defeated the Australians 24 – 12 , with Terry Newton and Andy Farrell both scoring in their home town of Wigan . The venue was again selected for the 2005 series , and again the match was between Great Britain and Australia — this time the home team lost 6 – 20 — with Greater Manchester born Adrian Morley scoring Great Britain 's solitary try . Both matches were complete sell @-@ outs , each having attendances above 25 @,@ 000 . The match in 2004 was the third highest attendance of the series , coming behind a match at the City of Manchester Stadium between Great Britain and Australia , and the series final between the same two teams at Elland Road .
In addition to the Tri @-@ Nations , the stadium has also played host to visiting nations during their European tours . Australia played Great Britain in front of a sell @-@ out crowd during the 2001 Kangaroo tour , with the home side losing 8 – 28 . Australia narrowly defeated Great Britain again in 2003 at the stadium , winning by a margin of four points during their 2003 European Tour . New Zealand have also played at the stadium during their tours . In 2002 , a try scored in his home town by Martin Gleeson helped Great Britain to defeat the ' Kiwis ' 16 – 10 . The visitors lost again during their 2007 tour , this time 28 – 22 in a closely fought game in which Wigan @-@ born second @-@ rower Sean O 'Loughlin featured .
The stadium has hosted the World Club Challenge four times , in 2000 , between St Helens and the Melbourne Storm in 2011 when Wigan took on St. George Illawarra Dragons. and in 2015 and 2016 when Wigan Warriors hosted the Brisbane Brochos .
= = = Rugby league test matches = = =
Since its opening in 1999 , it hosted six Great Britain internationals .
Since the Great Britain national rugby league team has split into individual home nations , it has hosted three England internationals .
= = Surroundings = =
The stadium 's surroundings are mostly urban , as it is located in the north of Wigan 's Robin Park retail complex in the western suburb of Newtown , on the south bank of the Leeds and Liverpool Canal , west of the Miry Lane industrial estate . The stadium 's car parks are situated around the canal , and can hold up to 2 @,@ 500 cars .
Next to the stadium 's South Stand lies the Robin Park Arena , which is operated by Wigan Sports Development Unit and is capable of seating 1 @,@ 000 spectators . The arena is mainly used for athletics , as well as functions for : North West Counties Football League side Wigan Robin Park , and Wigan Athletic Reserves . The arena was formerly used by the Wigan Warriors ' junior academy , before they moved to Edge Hall Road to join the reserve side . Robin Park Sports Centre is situated directly opposite the Stadium and Arena .
The main road serving the complex is the A49 , running west @-@ bound 750 metres ( 820 yd ) south of the stadium . Both of Wigan 's railway stations , Wigan Wallgate and Wigan North Western lie 1 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 0 mi ) east of the stadium .
= Amazing Stories =
Amazing Stories is an American science fiction magazine launched in April 1926 by Hugo Gernsback 's Experimenter Publishing . It was the first magazine devoted solely to science fiction . Before Amazing , science fiction stories had made regular appearances in other magazines , including some published by Gernsback , but Amazing helped define and launch a new genre of pulp fiction .
Amazing was published , with some interruptions , for almost eighty years , going through a half @-@ dozen owners and many editors as it struggled to be profitable . Gernsback was forced into bankruptcy and lost control of the magazine in 1929 , and by 1938 it was purchased by Ziff @-@ Davis , who hired Raymond A. Palmer as editor . Palmer made the magazine successful though it was not regarded as a quality magazine within the science fiction community . In the late 1940s Amazing presented as fact stories about the Shaver Mystery , a lurid mythos that explained accidents and disaster as the work of robots named deros , which led to dramatically increased circulation but also widespread ridicule . Amazing switched to a digest size format in 1953 , shortly before the end of the pulp @-@ magazine era . It was sold to Sol Cohen 's Universal Publishing Company in 1965 , which filled it with reprinted stories but did not pay a reprint fee to the authors , creating a conflict with the newly formed Science Fiction Writers of America . Ted White took over as editor in 1969 , eliminated the reprints and made the magazine respected again : Amazing was nominated for the prestigious Hugo award three times during his tenure in the 1970s . Several other owners attempted to create a modern incarnation of the magazine in the following decades , but publication was suspended after the March 2005 issue . A new incarnation appeared in July 2012 as an online magazine .
Gernsback 's initial editorial approach was to blend instruction with entertainment ; he believed science fiction could educate readers . His audience rapidly showed a preference for implausible adventures , however , and the movement away from Gernsback 's idealism accelerated when the magazine changed hands in 1929 . Despite this , Gernsback had an enormous impact on the field : the creation of a specialist magazine for science fiction spawned an entire genre publishing industry . The letter columns in Amazing , where fans could make contact with each other , led to the formation of science fiction fandom , which in turn had a strong influence on the development of the field . Writers whose first story was published in the magazine include Isaac Asimov , Howard Fast , Ursula K. Le Guin , Roger Zelazny , and Thomas M. Disch . Overall , though , Amazing itself was rarely an influential magazine within the genre . Some critics have commented that by " ghettoizing " science fiction , Gernsback in fact did harm to its literary growth , but this viewpoint has been countered by the argument that science fiction needed an independent market to develop in to reach its potential .
= = Origins = =
By the end of the 19th century , stories centered on scientific inventions , and stories set in the future , were appearing regularly in popular fiction magazines . The market for short stories lent itself to tales of invention in the tradition of Jules Verne . Magazines such as Munsey 's Magazine and The Argosy , launched in 1889 and 1896 respectively , carried a few science fiction stories each year . Some upmarket " slick " magazines such as McClure 's , which paid well and were aimed at a more literary audience , also carried scientific stories , but by the early years of the 20th century , science fiction ( though it was not yet called that ) was appearing more often in the pulp magazines than in the slicks .
In 1908 , Hugo Gernsback published the first issue of Modern Electrics , a magazine aimed at the scientific hobbyist . It was an immediate success , and Gernsback began to include articles on imaginative uses of science , such as " Wireless on Saturn " ( December 1908 ) . In April 1911 , Gernsback began the serialization of his science fiction novel , Ralph 124C 41 + , but in 1913 he sold his interest in the magazine to his partner and launched a new magazine , Electrical Experimenter , which soon began to publish scientific fiction . In 1920 Gernsback retitled the magazine Science and Invention , and through the early 1920s he published much scientific fiction in its pages , along with non @-@ fiction scientific articles .
Gernsback had started another magazine called Practical Electrics in 1921 . In 1924 , he changed its name to The Experimenter , and sent a letter to 25 @,@ 000 people to gauge interest in the possibility of a magazine devoted to scientific fiction ; in his words , " the response was such that the idea was given up for two years . " However , in 1926 he decided to go ahead , and ceased publication of The Experimenter to make room in his publishing schedule for a new magazine . The editor of The Experimenter , T. O 'Conor Sloane , became the editor of Amazing Stories . The first issue appeared on 10 March 1926 , with a cover date of April 1926 .
= = Publishing history = =
= = = Early years = = =
The editorial work was largely done by Sloane , but Gernsback retained final say over the fiction content . Two consultants , Conrad A. Brandt and Wilbur C. Whitehead , were hired to help find fiction to reprint . Frank R. Paul , who had worked with Gernsback as early as 1914 , became the cover artist ; Paul had produced many illustrations for the fiction in The Electrical Experimenter . Amazing was issued in the large bedsheet format , 8 @.@ 5 × 11 @.@ 75 in ( 216 × 298 mm ) , the same size as the technical magazines . It was an immediate success and soon reached a very respectable circulation of 100 @,@ 000 . Gernsback saw there was an enthusiastic readership for " scientifiction " ( the term " science fiction " had not yet been coined ) , and in 1927 he issued Amazing Stories Annual . The annual sold out , and in January 1928 , Gernsback launched a quarterly magazine , Amazing Stories Quarterly , as a regular companion to Amazing . It continued on a fairly regular schedule for 22 issues .
Gernsback was slow to pay his authors and creditors ; the extent of his investments limited his liquidity . On 20 February 1929 his printer and paper supplier opened bankruptcy proceedings against him . It has been suggested that Bernarr Macfadden , another magazine publisher , maneuvered to force the bankruptcy because Gernsback would not sell his titles to Macfadden , but this is unproven . Experimenter Publishing did not file any defence and was declared bankrupt by default on 6 March 1929 ; Amazing survived with its existing staff , but Hugo and his brother , Sidney , were forced out as directors . Arthur H. Lynch took over as editor @-@ in @-@ chief , though Sloane continued to have effective control of the magazine 's contents . The receivers , Irving Trust , sold the magazine to Bergan A. Mackinnon on 3 April 1929 .
In August 1931 , Amazing was acquired by Teck Publications , a subsidiary of Bernarr Macfadden 's Macfadden Publications . Macfadden 's deep pockets helped insulate Amazing from the financial strain caused by the Great Depression . The schedule of Amazing Stories Quarterly began to slip , but Amazing did not miss an issue in the early 1930s . However , it became unprofitable to publish over the next few years . Circulation dropped to little more than 25 @,@ 000 in 1934 , and in October 1935 it switched to a bimonthly schedule .
By 1938 , with Amazing 's circulation down to only 15 @,@ 000 , Teck Publications was having financial problems . In January 1938 Ziff @-@ Davis took over the magazine ; the April issue was assembled by Sloane but published by Ziff @-@ Davis . Bernard Davis , who ran Ziff @-@ Davis 's editorial department , attempted to hire Roger Sherman Hoar as editor ; Hoar turned down the job but suggested Raymond A. Palmer , an active local science fiction fan . Palmer was hired that February , taking over editorial duties with the June 1938 issue . Ziff @-@ Davis launched Fantastic Adventures , a fantasy companion to Amazing , in May 1939 , also under Palmer 's editorship . Palmer quickly managed to improve Amazing 's circulation , and in November 1938 , the magazine went monthly again , though this did not last throughout Palmer 's tenure : between 1944 and 1946 the magazine was bimonthly and then quarterly for a while before returning to a longer @-@ lasting monthly schedule .
= = = 1940s = = =
In September 1943 Richard Shaver , an Amazing reader , began to correspond with Palmer , who soon asked him to write stories for the magazine . Shaver responded with a story called " I Remember Lemuria " , published in the March 1945 issue , which was presented by Palmer as a mixture of truth and fiction . The story , about prehistoric civilizations , dramatically boosted Amazing 's circulation , and Palmer ran a new Shaver story in every issue , culminating in a special issue in June 1947 devoted entirely to the Shaver Mystery , as it was called . Amazing soon drew ridicule for these stories . A derisive article by William S. Baring @-@ Gould in the September 1946 issue of Harper 's prompted William Ziff to tell Palmer to limit the amount of Shaver @-@ related material in the magazine ; Palmer complied , but his interest ( and possibly belief ) in this sort of material was now significant , and he soon began planning to leave Ziff @-@ Davis . In 1947 he formed Clark Publications , launching Fate the following year , and in 1949 he resigned from Ziff @-@ Davis to edit that and other magazines .
Howard Browne , who had been on a leave of absence from Ziff @-@ Davis to write fiction , took over as editor and began by throwing away 300 @,@ 000 words of inventory that Palmer had acquired before he left . Browne had ambitions of moving Amazing upmarket , and his argument was strengthened by Street & Smith , one of the longest established and most respected publishers , who shut down all of their pulp magazines in the summer of 1949 . The pulps were dying , largely as a result of the success of pocketbooks , and Street & Smith decided to concentrate on their slick magazines . Some pulps struggled on for a few more years , but Browne was able to persuade Ziff and Davis that the future was in the slicks , and they raised his fiction budget from one cent to a ceiling of five cents per word . Browne managed to get promises of new stories from many well @-@ known authors , including Isaac Asimov and Theodore Sturgeon . He produced a dummy issue in April 1950 , and planned to launch the new incarnation of Amazing in April 1951 , the 25th anniversary of the first issue . However , the economic impact of the Korean War , which broke out in June 1950 , led to budget cuts . The plans were cancelled , and Ziff @-@ Davis never revived the idea .
= = = 1950s = = =
Browne 's interest in Amazing declined when the project to turn it into a slick magazine was derailed . Although he stayed involved with Fantastic Adventures , another Ziff @-@ Davis magazine , he left the editing work on Amazing to William Hamling and Lila Shaffer . In December 1950 , when Ziff @-@ Davis moved their offices from Chicago to New York , Hamling stayed behind in Chicago , and Browne revived his involvement with the magazine .
In 1952 , Browne convinced Ziff @-@ Davis to try a high @-@ quality digest fantasy magazine . Fantastic , which appeared in the summer of that year , focused on fantasy rather than science fiction and was so successful that it persuaded Ziff @-@ Davis to switch Amazing from pulp format to digest in early 1953 ( while also switching to a bimonthly schedule ) . Circulation fell , however , and subsequent budget cuts limited the story quality in both Amazing and Fantastic . Fantastic began to print science fiction as well as fantasy . Circulation increased as a result , but Browne , who was not a science fiction aficionado , once again lost interest in the magazines .
Paul W. Fairman replaced Browne as editor in September 1956 . Early in Fairman 's tenure , Bernard Davis decided to try issuing a companion series of novels , titled Amazing Stories Science Fiction Novels . Readers ' letters in Amazing had indicated a desire for novels , which Amazing did not have room to run . The novel series did not last ; only one , Henry Slesar 's 20 Million Miles to Earth , appeared . However , in response to readers ' interest in longer fiction , Ziff @-@ Davis expanded Amazing by 16 pages , starting with the March 1958 issue , and the magazine began to run complete novels .
Fairman left to edit Ellery Queen 's Mystery Magazine at the end of 1958 , and his place was taken by Cele Goldsmith . Goldsmith had been hired in 1955 as a secretary and became assistant editor to help cope with the additional work created when Ziff @-@ Davis launched two short @-@ lived magazines , Dream World and Pen Pals , in 1956 . Ziff @-@ Davis were not confident of Goldsmith 's abilities as an editor , so when Fairman left , a consultant , Norman Lobsenz , was hired to work with her . She performed well , however , and Lobsenz 's involvement soon became minimal .
= = = 1960s = = =
Goldsmith is well regarded by science fiction historians for her innovation , and the impact she had on the early careers of writers such as Ursula K. Le Guin and Roger Zelazny , but circulation lagged during her tenure . By 1964 Fantastic 's circulation was down to 27 @,@ 000 , with Amazing doing little better . The following March both magazines were sold .
March 1965 saw both Amazing and Fantastic sold to Ultimate Publishing Company , run by Sol Cohen and Arthur Bernhard . Goldsmith was given the choice of going with the magazines or staying with Ziff @-@ Davis ; she stayed , and Cohen hired Joseph Wrzos to edit the magazines , starting with the August and September 1965 issues of Amazing and Fantastic , respectively . Wrzos used the name " Joseph Ross " on the mastheads to avoid mis @-@ spellings . Both magazines immediately moved to a bi @-@ monthly schedule .
Cohen had acquired reprint rights to the magazines ' back issues , although Wrzos did get Cohen to agree to print one new story every issue . Cohen was also producing reprint magazines such as Great Science Fiction and Science Fiction Classics , but no payment was made to authors for any of these reprints . This brought Cohen into conflict with the Science Fiction Writers of America ( SFWA ) , a professional writers ' organization formed in 1965 . Soon SFWA called for a boycott of Ultimate 's magazines until Cohen agreed to make payments . Cohen agreed to pay a flat fee for all stories , and then in August 1967 this was changed to a graduated rate , depending on the length of the story . Harry Harrison had acted as an intermediary in Cohen 's negotiations with SFWA , and when Wrzos left in 1967 , Cohen asked Harrison to take over . SF Impulse , which Harrison had been editing , had folded in February 1967 , so Harrison was available . He secured Cohen 's agreement that the policy of printing almost nothing but reprinted stories would be phased out by the end of the year , and took over as editor with the September 1967 issue .
By February 1968 Harrison decided to leave , as Cohen was showing no signs of abandoning the reprints . He resigned , and suggested Barry Malzberg to Cohen as a possible successor . Cohen knew Malzberg from his work at the Scott Meredith Literary Agency , and thought that he might be more amenable than Harrison to continuing the reprint policy . Malzberg took over in April 1968 , but immediately came into conflict with Cohen over the reprints , and then threatened to resign in October 1968 over a disagreement about artwork Malzberg had commissioned for a cover . Cohen contacted Robert Silverberg , then the president of SFWA , and told him ( falsely ) that Malzberg had actually resigned . Silverberg recommended Ted White as a replacement . Cohen secured White 's agreement and then fired Malzberg ; White assumed control with the May 1969 issue .
= = = 1970s = = =
When White took over as editor , Amazing 's circulation was about 38 @,@ 500 , only about 4 % of which were subscribers ( as opposed to newsstand sales ) . This was a very low ebb for subscriptions ; Analog , by comparison , sold about 35 % of its circulation through subscriptions . Cohen 's wife mailed out the subscription copies from home , and Cohen had never tried to increase the subscriber base as this would have increased the burden on his wife . White worked hard to increase the circulation despite Cohen 's lack of support , but met with limited success . One of his first changes was to reduce the typeface to increase the amount of fiction in the magazine . To pay for this he increased the price of both Fantastic and Amazing to 60 cents , but this had a strong negative effect on circulation , which fell about 10 % from 1969 to 1970 .
In 1972 , White changed the title to Amazing Science Fiction , distancing the magazine slightly from some of the pulp connotations of " Amazing Stories " . White worked at a low wage , and his friends often read manuscripts for free , but despite his efforts the circulation continued to fall . From near 40 @,@ 000 when White joined the magazine , the circulation fell to about 23 @,@ 000 in October 1975 . White was unwilling to continue with the very limited financial backing that Cohen provided , and he resigned in 1975 . Cohen was able to convince White to remain ; White promised to stay for one more year , but in the event remained as editor until late 1978 .
Amazing raised its price from 75 cents to $ 1 @.@ 00 with the November 1975 issue . The schedule switched to quarterly beginning with the March 1976 issue ; as a result , the 50th anniversary issue had a cover date of June 1976 . In 1977 , Cohen announced that Amazing and Fantastic had lost $ 15 @,@ 000 , though Amazing 's circulation ( at nearly 26 @,@ 000 ) was as good as it had been for several years . Cohen looked for a new publisher to buy the magazines , but in September of the following year sold his half @-@ share in the company to his partner , Arthur Bernhard . White had occasionally suggested to Cohen that Amazing would benefit from a redesign and investment ; he made the same suggestions to Bernhard in early October . According to White , Bernhard not only said no , but told him he would not receive a salary until the next issue was turned in . White resigned , and returned all manuscripts in his possession to their authors , even if copy @-@ edited and ready for publication . White claimed Bernhard had told him to do this , though Bernhard denied it .
= = = 1980s to 2000s = = =
Elinor Mavor took over as editor in early 1979 . She had worked for Bernhard as an illustrator and in the production department of several of his magazines , though not for Amazing . She had also been an editor at Bill of Fare , a restaurant trade magazine . Mavor had read a good deal of science fiction but knew nothing about the world of science fiction magazines when she took over . She was not confident that a woman would be accepted as the editor of a science fiction magazine , so she initially used the pseudonym " Omar Gohagen " for both Amazing and Fantastic , dropping it late in 1980 . Circulation continued to fall , and Bernhard refused to consider Mavor 's request to undertake a subscription drive , which might have helped . Instead , in late 1980 , Bernhard decided to merge the two magazines . Fantastic 's last independent issue was October 1980 ; thereafter the combined magazine returned to a bimonthly schedule . At the same time the title was changed to Amazing Science Fiction Stories . Bernhard cut Mavor 's salary after the merger , as she was editing only one magazine . Despite this , she stayed with Amazing , but was unable to prevent circulation from dropping again , down to only 11 @,@ 000 newsstand sales in 1982 .
Shortly after the merger , Bernhard decided to retire , and approached Edward Ferman , the editor of Fantasy and Science Fiction , and Joel Davis , at Ziff @-@ Davis , among others , about a possible sale of Amazing . Jonathan Post , of Emerald City Publishing , believed he had concluded a deal with Bernhard , and began to advertise for submissions , but the negotiations failed . Bernhard also approached George H. Scithers , who declined , but put Bernhard in touch with Gary Gygax of TSR . On 27 May 1982 TSR , Inc. acquired the trademarks and copyrights of Amazing Stories . Scithers was taken on by TSR as editor beginning with the November 1982 issue . He was replaced by Patrick Lucien Price in September 1986 , and then by Kim Mohan in May 1991 . TSR ceased publication of Amazing with the Winter 1995 issue , but in 1997 , shortly after they were acquired by Wizards of the Coast , the magazine was relaunched , again with Mohan as editor . This version only lasted for ten issues , though it did include a special celebratory 600th issue in early 2000 . The science fiction trade journal Locus commented in an early review that distribution of the magazine seemed to be weak . The title proved unable to survive : the last issue of this version was dated Summer 2000 . The title was then acquired by Paizo Publishing , who launched a new monthly version in September 2004 . The February 2005 issue was the last printed ; a March 2005 issue was released in PDF format , and in March 2006 Paizo announced that it would no longer publish Amazing . In September , 2011 , the trademark for Amazing Stories was acquired by Steve Davidson , and online publication began in 2012 with two issues in July and August .
= = Contents and reception = =
= = = Gernsback 's Amazing = = =
Gernsback 's editorial in the first issue asserted that " Not only do these amazing tales make tremendously interesting reading — they are also always instructive " . He had always believed that " scientifiction " , as he called these stories , had educational power , but he now understood that the fiction had to entertain as well as to instruct . His continued belief in the instructional value of science fiction was not in keeping with the general attitude of the public towards pulp magazines , which was that they were " trash . "
The first issue of Amazing contained only reprints , beginning with a serialization of Off on a Comet , by Jules Verne . In keeping with Gernsback 's new approach , this was one of Verne 's least scientifically plausible novels . Also included were H. G. Wells 's " The New Accelerator " , and Edgar Allan Poe 's " The Facts in the Case of M. Valdemar " ; Gernsback put the names of all three authors on the cover . He also reprinted three more recent stories . Two came from his own magazine , Science and Invention ; these were " The Man from the Atom " by G. Peyton Wertenbaker and " The Thing from — ' Outside ' " by George Allan England . The third was Austin Hall 's The Man Who Saved the Earth , which had appeared in All @-@ Story Weekly .
In the June 1926 issue Gernsback announced a competition to write a short story to suit a cover drawn by illustrator Frank R. Paul , with a first prize of $ 250 . The competition drew over 360 entries , seven of which were eventually printed in Amazing . The winner was Cyril G. Wates , who sold three more stories to Gernsback in the late 1920s . Two other entrants went on to become successful writers : one was Clare Winger Harris , whose story , " The Fate of the Poseidonia " , took third place in the competition , and was published in the June 1927 issue as by " Mrs. F.C. Harris " . The other notable entrant was A. Hyatt Verrill , with The Voice from the Inner World , which appeared in July 1927 .
A letter column , titled Discussions soon appeared , and became a regular feature with the January 1927 issue . Many science fiction readers were isolated in small communities , knowing nobody else who liked the same fiction . Gernsback 's habit of publishing the full address of all his correspondents meant that the letter column allowed fans to correspond with each other directly . Science fiction fandom traces its beginnings to the letter column in Amazing and its competitors , and one historian of the field , author Lester del Rey , has commented that the introduction of this letter column " may have been one of the most important events in the history of science fiction " .
For the first year , Amazing contained primarily reprinted material . It was proving difficult to attract new , high @-@ quality material , and Gernsback 's slowness at paying his authors did not help . Writers such as H.P. Lovecraft , H.G. Wells , and Murray Leinster all avoided Amazing because Gernsback took so long to pay for the stories he printed . The slow payments were probably known to many of the other active pulp writers , which would have further limited the volume of submissions . New writers did appear , but the quality of their stories was often weak .
Gernsback discovered that the audience he had attracted was less interested in scientific invention stories than in fantastical adventures . A. Merritt 's The Moon Pool , which began serialization in May 1927 , was an early success ; there was little or no scientific basis to the story , but it was very popular with Amazing 's readers . The covers , all of which were painted by Paul , were garish and juvenile , leading some readers to complain . Raymond Palmer , later to become an editor of the magazine , wrote that a friend of his was forced to stop buying Amazing " by reason of his parents ' dislike of the cover illustrations " . Gernsback experimented with a more sober cover for the September 1928 issue , but it sold poorly , and so the lurid covers continued . The combination of poor quality fiction with garish artwork has led some critics to comment that Gernsback created a " ghetto " for science fiction , though it has also been argued that the creation of a specialized market allowed science fiction to develop and mature as a genre .
Among the regular writers for Amazing by the end of the 1920s were several who were influential and popular at the time , such as David H. Keller and Stanton Coblentz , and some who would continue to be successful for much longer , most notably Edward E. Smith and Jack Williamson . Smith 's The Skylark of Space , written between 1915 and 1920 , was a seminal space opera that found no ready market when Argosy stopped printing science fiction . When Smith saw a copy of the April 1927 issue of Amazing , he submitted it to Sloane , and it appeared in the August – October 1928 issues . It was such a success that Sloane requested a sequel before the second installment had been published . It was also in the August 1928 issue that " Armageddon – 2419 AD " , by Philip Francis Nowlan , appeared ; this was the first appearance of Buck Rogers in print .
= = = Sloane , Palmer , Browne and Fairman = = =
Sloane took over full control of the content of Amazing when Gernsback left in 1929 . He was infamous for his slow response to manuscripts , and when Astounding Stories was launched in January 1930 , with better rates and faster editorial response , some of Sloane 's writers quickly defected . Nevertheless , he published first stories by luminaries such as Jack Williamson , John W. Campbell , Jr . , Clifford D. Simak , and E.E. " Doc " Smith . Little more of quality appeared in Amazing during Sloane 's tenure , though Howard Fast 's first story appeared in the October 1932 issue , and " The Lost Machine " , an early story by John Wyndham , appeared in April 1932 , under Wyndham 's real name of John Beynon Harris .
Raymond Palmer , who took over in 1938 , was less interested in the educational possibilities of science fiction than Sloane had been . He wanted the magazine to provide escapist entertainment , and had no interest in scientific accuracy . His terse instruction — " Gimme Bang @-@ Bang " — to one pulp writer sums up his approach . Palmer disposed of almost all of Sloane 's accumulated inventory , instead acquiring stories from local Chicago writers he knew through his connections with science fiction fandom . He also added features such as a " Correspondence Corner " and a " Collectors ' Corner " to appeal to fans , and introduced a " Meet the Authors " feature , though on at least one occasion the featured author was a pseudonym , and the biographical details were invented . An illustrated back cover was tried , and soon became standard . In 1939 Palmer acquired Isaac Asimov 's first sale , " Marooned off Vesta " .
In the 1940s , several writers established themselves as a stable of reliable contributors to Amazing . These included David Wright O 'Brien and William P. McGivern , both of whom wrote an immense amount for Ziff @-@ Davis , much of it under house names such as Alexander Blade . John Russell Fearn became a prolific contributor , using the pseudonyms " Thornton Ayre " and " Polton Cross " . Palmer also encouraged long @-@ time science fiction writers to return , publishing pulp authors such as Ed Earl Repp and Eando Binder . This policy did not always meet with approval from Amazing 's readers , who , despite a clear preference for action and adventure stories , could not stomach the work of some of the early pulp writers such as Harry Bates .
The first Shaver Mystery story , " I Remember Lemuria " , by Richard S. Shaver , appeared in the March 1945 issue . Shaver claimed that all the world 's accidents and disasters were caused by an ancient race of " detrimental robots " who lived in underground cities . This explanation for the world 's ills , coming towards the end of World War II , struck a chord with Amazing 's readership . Palmer received over 2 @,@ 500 letters , instead of the usual 40 or 50 , and proceeded to print a Shaver story in every issue . The June 1947 issue was given over entirely to the Shaver Mystery . From March 1948 the Shaver Mystery was dropped as a regular feature of the magazine , at Ziff 's insistence . Palmer left the following year , and Browne , his successor , " was determined to make sure that the lunatics were no longer in charge of the asylum " , in the words of science fiction historian Mike Ashley .
Browne had acquired some good @-@ quality material in the process of planning the launch of a new slick version of Amazing , and when the plan was abandoned this material appeared in the continuing pulp version . This included " Operation RSVP " by H. Beam Piper , and " Satisfaction Guaranteed " , by Isaac Asimov . Despite the cancellation of the planned change to a slick format , news had reached the writing community of Amazing 's new approach , and Browne began to receive much better material than Palmer had been able to publish . The existing stable of Amazing writers , such as Rog Phillips and Chester S. Geier , were replaced by writers such as Fritz Leiber , Fredric Brown , and Clifford D. Simak . Browne also discovered several writers who went on to success in the field , publishing first stories by Walter M. Miller , Mack Reynolds , John Jakes , Milton Lesser and Charles Beaumont , all within the space of nine months in late 1950 and early 1951 . Browne was disappointed by the cancellation of the planned slick version , however , and to some extent reverted to Palmer 's policy of publishing sensational fiction . In 1952 , for example , he serialized the anonymous Master of the Universe , which purported to be a history of the future from 1975 to 2575 .
With the change to digest size in 1953 , Browne once again attempted to use higher @-@ quality fiction . The first digest issue , dated April – May 1953 , included stories by Ray Bradbury , Robert Heinlein , Richard Matheson , Theodore Sturgeon , and Murray Leinster . Further well @-@ regarded stories appeared over the course of 1953 , including Arthur C. Clarke 's " Encounter in the Dawn " , and Henry Kuttner 's " Or Else " . Subsequent budget cuts meant that Browne was unable to sustain this level . As in the 1940s , Amazing gained a stable of writers who appeared frequently , though this time the quality of the writers was rather higher — it included Harlan Ellison , Robert Silverberg , and Randall Garrett — and the regular writers were not appearing only in Ziff @-@ Davis magazines . This remained the situation after Browne 's departure in 1956 and through Paul Fairman 's tenure .
= = = Cele Goldsmith = = =
Cele Goldsmith 's tenure as editor began with the opportunity to showcase two very well @-@ established writers : E.E. Smith and Isaac Asimov . Smith 's The Galaxy Primes began serialization in March 1959 . Asimov 's first published story , " Marooned Off Vesta " , had appeared in the March 1939 issue of Amazing , and Goldsmith reprinted it in March 1959 along with a sequel and Asimov 's comments on the story . She soon began to publish some of the better new writers . Cordwainer Smith 's " Golden the Ship Was — Oh ! Oh ! Oh ! " appeared in April ; and by the middle of the following year she had managed to attract stories from Robert Sheckley , Alan E. Nourse , Fritz Leiber , Gordon R. Dickson , Robert Bloch , and James Blish . The changes she made were enough to bring Robert Heinlein back as a subscriber ; Heinlein read a copy of the June 1961 issue , which , he said , " ... caused me to think I had been missing something . "
In September 1960 Amazing began to carry Sam Moskowitz 's series of author profiles , which had begun in Fantastic , the sister magazine . The following month the cover and logo were redesigned . In April 1961 , the 35th anniversary of the first issue , Goldsmith ran several reprints , including stories by Ray Bradbury and Edgar Rice Burroughs . Goldsmith had little previous experience with science fiction , and bought what she liked , rather than trying to conform to a notion of what science fiction should be . The result was the debut of more significant writers in her magazines than anywhere else at that time . She published the first stories of Ursula K. Le Guin , Roger Zelazny , Piers Anthony and Thomas M. Disch , among many others . Award @-@ winning stories published during Goldsmith 's editorship include Zelazny 's " He Who Shapes " , a story about the use of dream therapy to cure phobias . It was serialized in the January and February 1965 issues , and won a Nebula Award , an annual award voted on by science fiction writers . Goldsmith often wrote long , helpful letters to her authors : Zelazny commented in a letter to her that " Most of anything I have learned was stimulated by those first sales , and then I learned , and possibly even learned more , from some of the later rejections " . Disch and Le Guin have also acknowledged the influence Goldsmith had on their early careers .
The cover art for Amazing had been largely supplied by Ed Valigursky during the late fifties , but during the early sixties a much wider variety of artists appeared , including Alex Schomburg , Leo Summers and Ed Emshwiller . Frank Paul , who had painted all the covers for the first few years of Amazing , contributed a wraparound cover for the April 1961 35th anniversary issue ; this was his last cover art for a science fiction magazine .
Goldsmith 's open @-@ minded approach meant that Amazing and Fantastic published some writers who did not fit into the other magazines . Philip K. Dick 's sales to magazines had dropped , but his work began to appear in Amazing , and Goldsmith also regularly published David R. Bunch 's stories of Moderan , a world whose inhabitants were part human and part metal . Bunch , whose stories were " bewildering , exotic word pictures " according to Mike Ashley , had been unable to sell regularly elsewhere .
= = = Reprint era and Ted White = = =
When Sol Cohen bought both Amazing and Fantastic in early 1965 , he decided to maximize profits by filling the magazines almost entirely with reprints . Cohen had acquired second serial rights from Ziff @-@ Davis to all stories that had been printed in both magazines , and also in the companion magazines such as Fantastic Adventures . Joseph Wrzos , the new editor , persuaded Cohen that at least one new story should appear in each issue ; there was sufficient inventory left over from Goldsmith 's tenure for this to be done without acquiring new material . Readers initially approved of the policy , since it made available some well @-@ loved stories from earlier decades that had not been reprinted elsewhere . Both of Wrzos 's successors , Harry Harrison and Barry Malzberg , were unable to persuade Cohen to use more new fiction .
When Ted White took over , it was on condition that the reprints be phased out . This took some time : for a while both Amazing and Fantastic continued to include one reprint every issue . With the May 1972 issue , however , the transformation was complete , and all stories were new . In addition to eliminating the reprints , White reintroduced several features such as a letter column and " The Clubhouse , " a fanzine review and fannish news column , and continued the book review column , as well as a series of science articles by Gregory Benford and David Book . He also redesigned the look of the magazine , making it , in science fiction historian Mike Ashley 's words , " far more modern and sophisticated " .
White was willing to print a variety of fiction , with traditional stories side @-@ by @-@ side with more experimental material that was influenced by the British New Wave or by 1960s psychedelia . In 1971 he serialized Ursula K. Le Guin 's The Lathe of Heaven , about a man whose dreams can modify reality . One writer who was influenced by this was James Tiptree , Jr . , who later wrote that " after first plowing into the first pulpy pages of the 1971 Amazing in which Lathe came out , my toe @-@ nails began to curl under and my spine hair stood up . " White 's willingness to experiment led to Amazing running more stories with sexual content than other magazines . One such story , White 's own " Growing Up Fast in the City " , was criticized as pornographic by some of Amazing 's readers . Other stories , such as Rich Brown 's " Two of a Kind " , about the violent rape of a black woman and the subsequent death of her rapists , also led to controversy . White also printed more conventional fiction , however , much of it of high quality . The magazine was nominated for the Hugo award ( a readers ' award , named for Hugo Gernsback ) for best editor three times during his tenure ( 1970 , 1971 and 1972 ) , finishing third each time .
White 's ability to attract new writers suffered because of the low rates he paid : one cent per word , as compared to three or five cents per word at the leading competitive magazines . To compensate , White cultivated new writers whose experimental work was not selling elsewhere . White made a deal in 1971 with Gordon Eklund , who was hesitating to become a full @-@ time writer because of the financial risks . White agreed to buy anything Eklund wrote , on condition that Eklund himself believed it was a good story . The result was that much of Eklund 's fiction appeared in Amazing and Fantastic over the next few years .
Amazing 's reputation had been for formulaic science fiction almost since it began , but White was able to bring the magazine to a higher standard than any other editor except Cele Goldsmith , and gave Amazing a respectable position in the field . His successors were not able to maintain the level of quality that he achieved .
= = = After Ted White = = =
When Elinor Mavor took over , in early 1979 , she had no experience with science fiction magazines , and was unaware of the history of bad feeling within the science fiction community about the poor payments for reprinted stories . She was given an extremely limited budget to work with , and had few stories on hand to work with initially , and as a result her first issues contained several reprints . Mavor experimented in her first year with some new ideas , such as starting a story on the back cover in order to hook readers into buying the magazine to finish the story . She also began a serial story in graphic format that used reader input to continue its plot . It was not a success and " thankfully , " according to Mike Ashley , the experiment was terminated after only three episodes .
Over time Mavor was to some extent able to reverse the negative perceptions of Amazing among established authors , but she was initially forced to work primarily with newer writers . Early discoveries of hers include Michael P. Kube @-@ McDowell , John E. Stith and Richard Paul Russo . In a notice published in her first issue , she asked readers for help in assembling news , reviews and fan information , and soon added columns that covered these areas . In 1981 Robert Silverberg began a series of opinion columns . The artwork was of high quality , including work by Stephen Fabian , and later by David Mattingly .
After the merger with Fantastic , Mavor continued to draw well @-@ known writers to the magazine , including Orson Scott Card , George R. R. Martin , and Roger Zelazny . Brad Linaweaver 's Moon of Ice , which appeared in March 1982 , was nominated for a Nebula award ; Martin 's Unsound Variations , which had appeared the issue before , was nominated for both a Nebula and a Hugo award .
Historian James Gunn 's assessment of Amazing in the 1980s is that Mavor , Scithers and Price , who between them edited Amazing for a decade , were unable to sustain the standards established by Ted White in the 1970s . Brian Stableford , by contrast , comments that both Scithers and Price made efforts to publish good material , and that the packaging , from 1991 onwards , was perhaps the best presented of any science fiction magazine .
With the Wizards of the Coast relaunch in 1998 the contents , under editor Kim Mohan , became more media @-@ focused . The initial plan was to have two or three stories per issue based on films , TV , and games . The 600th issue , in early 2000 , included a Harlan Ellison story , as well as a story from the 100th issue , the 200th issue , and so on , up to the 500th issue . Pamela Sargent also contributed a story . The Paizo publishing relaunch , in 2004 , was even more focused on media content than the Wizards of the Coast version had been , with much more movie and comics @-@ related material than science fiction . Several well @-@ known authors appeared in the first issue , including Harlan Ellison , Bruce Sterling , and Gene Wolfe . Paizo also ran a blog for the magazine . The fiction received positive reviews , but Paizo soon put the magazine on temporary hold , and canceled it permanently the following year .
In 2012 , entrepreneur Steve Davidson announced plans to relaunch the magazine . A " relaunch prelaunch " was published in July 2012 . In 2013 , the magazine was retooled into what Davidson called a " social magazine " that employs bloggers to write about various niche topics .
= = = Influence on the field = = =
Amazing Stories was influential simply by being the first of its kind . In the words of science fiction writer and critic Damon Knight , the magazine was " a snag in the stream of history , from which a V @-@ shape spread out in dozens and then in hundreds of altered lives " . Many early fans of the field began to communicate with each other through the letter column , and to publish fanzines — amateur fan publications that helped establish connections among fans across the country . Many of these fans in turn became successful writers ; and the existence of an organized science fiction fandom , and of writers such as Ray Bradbury , Arthur C. Clarke , and Isaac Asimov , who came to writing directly from fandom , can be dated to the creation of Amazing Stories . After the first few years , when there was little or no competition , Amazing Stories never again led the field in the eyes of critics or fans . Despite its long history , the magazine rarely contributed much to science fiction beyond the initial creation of the genre , though Gernsback himself is commemorated in the name Hugo , which is the almost universally used term for the World Science Fiction Society 's annually presented Science Fiction Achievement Awards . Gernsback has also been called the " Father of Science Fiction " for his role in creating Amazing Stories .
= = Publication details = =
= = = Editors = = =
Bibliographers do not always agree who should be listed as editor of any given issue of Amazing . For example , Gernsback was in control for the first three years , but Sloane performed all the editorial duties related to fiction , and he is sometimes described as the editor . Similarly , later editors were sometimes under the supervision of editorial directors . The table below , and the charts above , generally follow the mastheads in the magazines , with short notes added . More details are given in the publishing history section , above , which focuses on when the editors involved actually obtained control of the magazine contents , instead of when their names appeared on the masthead .
Hugo Gernsback ( April 1926 – April 1929 ) . Sloane performed almost all the editorial duties related to fiction .
Arthur Lynch ( May 1929 – October 1929 ) . As under Gernsback , Sloane was essentially the editor during Lynch 's tenure .
T. O 'Conor Sloane ( November 1929 – May 1938 )
Raymond A. Palmer ( June 1938 – December 1949 )
Howard Browne ( January 1950 – August 1956 ) . Fairman actually took over editorial duties with the May or June 1956 issue .
Paul W. Fairman ( September 1956 – November 1958 )
Cele Goldsmith Lalli ( December 1958 – June 1965 ) . Norman Lobsenz was introduced as editor , but in fact Cele Goldsmith did all the editorial work . When she married she used her married name of Cele Lalli .
Joseph Ross ( August 1965 – October 1967 ) . A pseudonym for Joseph Wrzos .
Harry Harrison ( December 1967 – September 1968 )
Barry N. Malzberg ( November 1968 – January 1969 )
Ted White ( March 1969 – February 1979 )
Elinor Mavor ( May 1979 – September 1982 ) . From May 1979 – August 1981 Mavor used the pseudonym Omar Gohagen ; subsequently she used her real name .
George H. Scithers ( November 1982 – July 1986 )
Patrick Lucien Price ( September 1986 – March 1991 )
Kim Mohan ( May 1991 – Winter 1995 and Summer 1998 – Summer 2000 )
Dave Gross ( September 2004 – December 2004 )
Jeff Berkwits ( January 2005 – March 2005 )
Steve Davidson ( July 2012 – Present )
= = = Other bibliographic details = = =
Amazing began as a bedsheet format magazine and remained so until October 1933 , when it switched to pulp size . With the April – May 1953 issue Amazing became a digest . Seven issues in the early 1980s , from November 1980 to November 1981 , were a half @-@ inch taller than the regular digest size , but thereafter the magazine reverted to the standard digest format . In May 1991 the magazine returned to a large format , but this only lasted until the Winter 1994 issue , and the next three issues were digest @-@ sized again . When the magazine reappeared in 1998 , it was in bedsheet format and remained that size until the very end . The last issue , March 2005 , was only distributed as a PDF download , never as a physical magazine . The volume numbering contained some irregularities : the numbering given in the tables above appears to be in error for the period from 1979 to 1983 , but in fact it is given correctly in the table . Note also that vol . 27 no . 8 was a single issue , not two , as it seems to be from the table ; it was dated Dec 1953 / Jan 1954 .
The title of the magazine changed several times :
Two different series of reprints of Amazing appeared in the United Kingdom . First came a single undated issue from Ziff @-@ Davis , in November 1946 . In June 1950 , Thorpe & Porter began a second series that lasted until 1954 , and totalled 32 issues . The Ziff @-@ Davis issue and the first 24 issues from Thorpe & Porter were pulp @-@ sized ; the last eight were digests . The Thorpe & Porter issues were undated , but the pulp issues were numbered from 1 to 24 , and were initially bimonthly . The March 1951 issue was followed by April and November , however , and in 1952 issues appeared in February , March , April , June , July , September and November . 1953 saw nine pulp issues , omitting only March and May ; and with December came the change to digest @-@ size and a perfectly regular bimonthly schedule that lasted until February 1955 . These last eight issues were numbered volume 1 , numbers 1 to 8 . There was also a Canadian edition , which lasted for 24 issues , from September 1933 to August 1935 , from Teck Publications ; these were identical to the US editions except that the front covers were overprinted with " Printed in Canada on Canadian Paper " . A Japanese edition ran for seven issues in mid @-@ 1950 , selecting stories from Fantastic Adventures as well as from Amazing .
From 1940 to 1943 , and again from 1947 to 1951 , copies of Amazing Stories were rebound
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, three at a time , and resold as Amazing Stories Quarterly . A total of 27 of these issues appeared ; they should not be confused with the magazine of the same name which ran from 1928 to 1934 as a companion to Amazing Stories .
Several anthologies of stories from Amazing have been published , including :
= = = Media crossovers = = =
Director Steven Spielberg licensed the title for use on an American television show called Amazing Stories that ran from 1985 to 1987 . Between 1998 and 2000 , Amazing Stories published a series of short stories based upon the Star Trek franchise . In 2002 , these stories were reissued by Pocket Books in the collection Star Trek : The Amazing Stories .
= Ennis Whitehead =
Ennis Clement Whitehead ( 3 September 1895 – 12 October 1964 ) was an early United States Army aviator and a United States Army Air Forces general during World War II . Whitehead joined the U. S. Army after the United States entered World War I in 1917 . He trained as an aviator and served in France , where he was posted to the 3d Aviation Instruction Center and became a qualified test pilot . After the war , Whitehead returned to school at the University of Kansas . After he graduated , he was commissioned as a first lieutenant in 1920 .
Over the following twenty years , Whitehead participated in Billy Mitchell 's aerial bombing demonstration and served as commander of the 94th and 36th Pursuit Squadrons among other assignments . After the U.S. entered World War II , Whitehead was promoted to brigadier general and sent to the Southwest Pacific Area . In the course of the war , he earned a Distinguished Service Cross and was named an honorary Commander of the Order of the British Empire as he rose to command the Fifth Air Force .
After the war , he commanded the Far East Air Forces , the Continental Air Command , and the Air Defense Command . He retired in 1951 after he was passed over for Vice Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force . Both his son , Ennis Whitehead , Jr . , and his grandson , Ennis Whitehead III , became generals as well , rising to major general and brigadier general respectively .
= = Early life = =
Whitehead was born on a farm near Westphalia , Kansas , on 3 September 1895 , the eldest of three children of J. E. Whitehead , a farmer , and his wife Celia . He was educated at Glenwood District School and Burlington High School . In 1914 , he entered the University of Kansas , intending to obtain a law degree .
= = World War I = =
His plans were changed by the United States ' entry into World War I during April 1917 . Whitehead enlisted on 16 August 1917 as a private in the Aviation Section , Signal Enlisted Reserve Corps at Fort Riley , Kansas . On 10 February 1918 he became an aviation cadet , training at a wartime Army School of Military Aeronautics at the University of Illinois at Urbana @-@ Champaign and at an Air Service flight school at Chanute Field , Illinois . He qualified for a rating of " Reserve Military Aviator " on 19 October 1917 and was commissioned a first lieutenant , Signal Officer Reserve Corps . He sailed for France on 14 November 1917 . There , he was posted to the 3rd Aviation Instruction Center at Issoudun for more training . He attended gunnery school at Bordeaux and became a test pilot . He spent the rest of the war as a test pilot .
= = Between the wars = =
Whitehead was demobilized from the Army in January 1919 , and returned to the University of Kansas , earning a Bachelor of Engineering degree in 1920 . After graduation , he took a job with The Wichita Eagle as a reporter in order to earn enough money for law school . In the end though , he decided that he preferred flying . He applied for a commission in the Regular Army , and was re @-@ commissioned as a first lieutenant in the Air Service , on 11 September 1920 . On 25 September 1920 , he married Mary Nicholson , whom he had known while at the University of Kansas . They had two children : a daughter , Margaret , born in 1921 , who later became a lieutenant in the United States Air Force , and a son , Ennis C. Whitehead , Jr . , who was born in 1926 and graduated from West Point in 1948 .
Whitehead was initially stationed at March Field , where he served as a flying instructor . In 1921 , he was transferred to Kelly Field where he assumed command of the 94th Pursuit Squadron of the 1st Pursuit Group . On 20 July 1921 , he participated in Brigadier General Billy Mitchell 's demonstration bombing attack of the ex @-@ German dreadnought Ostfriesland . The 1st Pursuit Group moved to Selfridge Field , Michigan in July 1922 . In 1926 , Whitehead attended the Air Service Engineering School at McCook Field , graduating first in his class .
In December 1926 , Whitehead was assigned as the co @-@ pilot for Major Herbert A. Dargue , leading the 22 @,@ 000 @-@ mile ( 35 @,@ 000 km ) Pan American Good Will Flight touring South America . During a landing at Buenos Aires in March 1927 , their aircraft , a Loening OA @-@ 1A float plane nicknamed New York , was involved in a mid @-@ air collision with the Detroit , another OA @-@ 1A , forcing both Dargue and Whitehead to bail out . Whitehead suffered only a sprained ankle , but the pilot and co @-@ pilot of the Detroit were killed . The remaining four planes of the flight completed the tour , for which all ten airmen including Whitehead received the first awards of the Distinguished Flying Cross .
After three years as an engineering officer with the Air Corps Materiel Division at Wright Field , Ohio , he attended the Air Corps Tactical School at Langley Field from September 1930 to June 1931 . While there , he was promoted to captain . Returning to the 1st Pursuit Group , he took command of the 36th Pursuit Squadron . He did staff duty tours at Albrook Field , Panama Canal Zone with the 16th Pursuit Group , at Barksdale Field with the 20th Pursuit Group , and at the headquarters of the General Headquarters ( GHQ ) Air Force at Langley Field . He was promoted to temporary major in April 1935 and attended the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth in 1938 .
= = World War II = =
On graduation from the Command and General Staff School , Whitehead was posted to the G @-@ 2 ( Intelligence ) Division of the War Department . He was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 3 December 1940 . In February 1941 , he was transferred to Luke Field , a new training base , where he was promoted to colonel on 5 January 1942 .
In May 1942 , Lieutenant General George Brett , the Allied Air Forces commander in the South West Pacific Area ( SWPA ) , lodged a request with Lieutenant General Henry H. Arnold , the Commanding General of the U.S. Army Air Forces , for Whitehead to be sent out in the grade of brigadier general as a replacement for Brigadier General Harold Huston George , who had been killed in an air crash near Darwin , Northern Territory on 29 April 1942 . Whitehead was promoted on 16 June 1942 and ordered to the Southwest Pacific . He flew there with Kenneth Walker , a bomber expert , who had also recently been promoted to brigadier general . Arriving in Australia on 11 July 1942 , Whitehead was shocked by the confusion and lack of organization he found . The next day , he reported to General Douglas MacArthur at GHQ SWPA in Melbourne ; the two men would get along well . MacArthur later praised Whitehead for his " masterful generalship ... brilliant judgement and inexhaustible energy " .
At this time , the stocks of the air force in SWPA were low . At the recent Battle of Milne Bay , a Japanese invasion force had managed to sail past all but a few RAAF P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk and Lockheed Hudson aircraft , suffering only limited damage . Opinion at MacArthur 's General Headquarters ( GHQ ) was that " the failure of the Air in this situation is deplorable ; it will encourage the enemy to attempt further landings , with the assurance of impunity " . Unable to provide MacArthur with what he most needed — more and better aircraft and the crews to man them — Arnold decided to replace Brett with Major General George C. Kenney . Arnold hoped that Kenney and the two newly minted brigadier generals could make the best use of what was available . Major General George Kenney arrived in the theater on 28 July . Kenney knew Whitehead well , having served with him at Issoudun , the Air Corps Tactical School and GHQ Air Force , and had also served with Walker at the Air Corps Tactical School . " I had known them both for over twenty years , " Kenney later wrote . " They had brains , leadership , loyalty , and liked to work . If Brett had had them about three months earlier his luck might have been a lot better . "
Kenney assumed command of the Allied Air Forces on 4 August . Three days later , he instituted a sweeping reorganization of the Allied Air Forces . The Australian components were assigned to RAAF Command under Air Vice Marshal William Bostock , while the American components were consolidated into the reformed Fifth Air Force under Kenney 's personal command . On paper , the organization followed the orthodox pattern , consisting of V Fighter Command under Brigadier General Paul Wurtsmith , V Bomber Command under Walker , and an Air Services Command under Major General Rush B. Lincoln . But Kenney realized that he would have to maintain his headquarters near MacArthur 's GHQ , which moved to Brisbane on 20 July , while the fighting was thousands of miles away in New Guinea , with the Fifth Air Force 's principal forward bases around Port Moresby . Moreover , Walker 's headquarters was in Townsville , as heavy and medium bombers were based there and only staged through Port Moresby . Accordingly , Kenney appointed Whitehead as deputy Fifth Air Force commander , and commander of the Advanced Echelon ( ADVON ) in Port Moresby .
In his first months in New Guinea , Whitehead concentrated on building up the infrastructure there . He obtained additional engineer units and construction equipment . New airfields were developed , along with roads , housing , taxiways and revetments to protect his aircraft from the frequent Japanese air raids . He also attempted to build up the morale and leadership of his units . These months coincided with the Kokoda Track campaign . For a time , despite the efforts of his airmen and the ground troops , the Japanese advanced steadily on Port Moresby , but they ultimately turned back short of it . For his part in the Papuan campaign , Whitehead was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross . The Australian government made him an honorary Commander of the Order of the British Empire .
Building up Allied air power required ingenuity , improvisation , and innovation . Skip bombing was a new tactic adopted by the Fifth Air Force that enabled its bombers to attack ships at low level . The parachute fragmentation ( parafrag ) bomb gave the light bombers increased accuracy for close air support missions . Although the B @-@ 25 Mitchell was originally designed to bomb from medium altitudes in level flight , Major Paul " Pappy " Gunn had additional guns installed in the nose of the aircraft to enable it to perform in a low @-@ level strafing role . Whitehead consistently gave his full support to such innovations .
At the Battle of the Bismarck Sea in March 1943 , Whitehead was rewarded with an important victory over the Japanese . The battle caused the Japanese to abandon all further attempts to bring supplies and reinforcements in to Lae by the direct sea route from Rabaul . Whitehead was promoted to major general on 15 March 1943 .
Whitehead 's attitude earned him high marks with the Allied land commanders . Lieutenant General Sir Iven Mackay , commander of New Guinea Force , reported on 4 February 1943 that " I have found Brigadier General Whitehead of the USAAF extremely cooperative . In fact there is no question of asking for help — he takes the initiative . "
As the Allied offensive gained steam , Whitehead 's main task was to shift his aircraft forward , advancing the bomb line incrementally towards Japan . When the P @-@ 38 Lightning arrived in the theater in late 1942 , Whitehead at last received a fighter that could match the Japanese A6M Zero . To speed up the Allied advance , the Fifth Air Force developed a number of technical and tactical innovations that extended the range of its aircraft , thus increasing the distance of each Allied advance , which was dependent on the range of Whitehead 's aircraft .
Whitehead assumed command of the Fifth Air Force in June 1944 , although he remained subordinate to Kenney . In the Battle of Leyte , MacArthur attempted to move forward beyond the range of land @-@ based aircraft . A long battle of attrition then began on the ground and in the air , as the Fifth Air Force struggled to gain the upper hand with inadequate numbers of aircraft that could be based on Leyte . Gradually , Whitehead gained the upper hand . He was promoted to lieutenant general on 5 June 1945 .
= = Post @-@ war = =
Whitehead continued in command of the Fifth Air Force , participating in the occupation of Japan . He succeeded Kenney as commander of the Far East Air Forces in December 1945 . He commanded it until March 1949 , when he returned to the United States to command the Continental Air Command . Whitehead was instrumental in splitting this organization into the Tactical Air Command and Air Defense Command , commanding the latter from January 1951 . He was seen by some in the Air Force hierarchy as " too attached to Kenney and MacArthur , too political , too outspoken , and too tactically focused " to be Vice Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force . Whitehead was dismayed by the appointment of Hoyt Vandenberg rather than Kenney as Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force in 1948 and lost his mentor when the new chief relieved Kenney as commander of Strategic Air Command in October 1948 . Whitehead was also disappointed at not receiving a fourth star . These feelings , combined with ill health , caused him to retire on 31 July 1951 .
In retirement , Whitehead testified before the United States Senate 's Preparedness Subcommittee on the State of the Nation 's Air Defenses . He pleaded for the fastest possible creation of an air force with an atomic " strike force " ready to take off on retaliatory raids within a few hours of an attack on the United States , enough transports to service the strike force at overseas bases , fighters to escort the bombers on their missions , and at least 30 wings of all @-@ weather jet fighters to intercept enemy bombers . He urged that , until this was achieved , the Army and Navy should be cut back to " token " appropriations . Whitehead pointed out that the United States mainland was defended against atomic attack by fewer than 100 all @-@ weather fighters , which could not have destroyed more than 10 to 15 percent of a force attacking in daylight . At night , or during instrument meteorological conditions , interceptors would have shot down less than 5 percent . He argued that a well @-@ executed surprise atomic air attack would likely succeed .
He died of emphysema in Newton , Kansas , on 12 October 1964 , and was buried in Arlington Cemetery . His son , Ennis Whitehead , Jr . , later became a major general in the U.S. Army in the late 1970s , and in March 2003 , his grandson Ennis Whitehead III was promoted to brigadier general in the Army Reserve , making three generations of general officers .
= Beiyue Temple =
Beiyue Temple ( Chinese : 北岳庙 ) is a Daoist temple located in Quyang , Hebei Province , China . The temple was used to make sacrifices to Mount Heng by the emperors of the Song Dynasty while the mountain was occupied by the Liao Dynasty . The Dening Hall of the temple is the largest , earliest and one of the most important extant wooden buildings built in the Yuan Dynasty . The temple also contains three gates , an octagonal pavilion and many ancient stelae .
= = History = =
The Beiyue Temple was first established either during the Northern Wei Dynasty ( 386 @-@ 584 ) or the Tang Dynasty ( 618 @-@ 907 ) , but the site may have been in use as early as the 2nd century BCE of the Han Dynasty . The temple has been rebuilt twice , first in 991 after having been destroyed by the Khitan during the 950s , and then in 1270 . According to a surviving image of the temple dating from a local history of Quyang written in 1672 , the temple had by this time achieved its present layout .
During the Song Dynasty , Beiyue Temple was used as an alternate site to make sacrifices to the Northern Peak , Mount Heng , one of the sacred mountains of Daoism . During this time , Mount Heng was controlled by the Liao Dynasty ( 916 @-@ 1125 ) . In order to maintain political legitimacy and receive Daoist support , Beiyue Temple was chosen by the Song Emperor as the location to make sacrifices to Hengshan . Even though the mountain was not controlled by the Song , they believed that a ' geomantic vein ' that would direct their sacrifices could be cut through enemy @-@ controlled territory and reach it .
= = Architecture = =
The Beiyue temple is laid out on a north @-@ south axis featuring six extant buildings . From south to north , the buildings are : a gate , an octagonal building called the Tianyi Pavilion ( 天一阁 ) that was built during the Ming Dynasty , two more gates , and the Dening Hall ( 德宁殿 ) . A large platform in front of the Dening Hall now features the remains of stone sculptures , but was formerly the site of another hall . According to signs at the temple , many of the buildings were rebuilt in the late 20th century .
The wall surrounding the temple was formerly part of a city wall that surrounded Quyang . The south gate of the temple once served as one of the main gates for the town . Apart from the remnant that is part of the temple , nothing more survives of this wall . The temple grounds are also home to over 137 stelae , dating from the Northern Wei Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty .
= = = Dening Hall = = =
The Dening Hall is the main hall of the temple , and was built in 1270 during the Yuan Dynasty . The hall is fronted by a massive platform known as a yuetai ( 月台 , literally moon platform ) , which measures 25 by 20 meters . Built on a very high platform itself , the Dening Hall can be accessed by either a center front staircases or one of two side staircases attached to the yuetai . Enclosing the perimeter of the platform is a white marble balustrade capped by lions . The hall itself measures seven by four bays and is surrounded by a covered arcade . According to the Yingzao Fashi , a Song Dynasty architectural treatise , the Dening Hall has 6th puzuo type column bracketing to support its roof . This type of bracketing has three transverse and three horizontal bracket arms . The 6th puzuo brackets are the most complex that survive from the Yuan Dynasty . Based on the complex bracketing , the marble balustrade and the height of the platform , Steinhardt identifies the Dening Hall as one of the two most eminent and important extant wooden halls that date from the Yuan period . These characteristics also closely match descriptions of the architecture at the capital , meaning that Dening Hall is representative of the architecture at the Yuan dynasty capital of Dadu ( currently Beijing ) .
The Dening Hall has Daoist murals painted on three of its walls . The western wall 's mural , said to have been painted in the Tang Dynasty , measures 17 by 7 meters and features a local water deity with a winged being at the top . With similar dimensions to the western mural , the eastern mural portrays the Dragon King . The hall contains nine statues , all dating from a more recent period than the hall .
= Spruce Production Division =
The Spruce Production Division was a unit of the United States Army that was established in 1917 to produce high @-@ quality Sitka spruce timber and other wood products needed to make aircraft for the United States ' efforts in World War I. The division was part of the Army Signal Corps 's Aviation Section . Its headquarters were in Portland , Oregon , and its main operations center was at Vancouver Barracks in Vancouver , Washington . Workers in the division were members of the Loyal Legion of Loggers and Lumbermen , a union specifically established to support the army 's wood production operations .
The division produced nearly 150 million board feet ( 350 @,@ 000 m3 ) of spruce in just 15 months , halting work almost as soon as the war ended . Col. Brice Disque was then put on trial for accusations that he had wasted millions of tax dollars . He was found not guilty of malfeasance .
The division had a large impact on logging in the Pacific Northwest . Logging companies adopted working conditions similar to those the division had , and they took advantage of new logging roads and rail lines that the division had built to access more timber .
= = Activation = =
From the beginning of World War I , wood products were in great demand for war production . Sitka spruce was the most important tree species because its combination of lightness , strength , and resiliency was ideal for aircraft production . In addition , its long , tough fibers did not splinter when struck by bullets . Even before the United States entered the war , the Pacific Northwest had become the main supplier of spruce for aircraft production in Great Britain , France , and Italy . Northwest lumber mills , however , were never able to meet Europe 's demand for spruce . The government wanted a monthly production of 10 million board feet ( 24 @,@ 000 m3 ) of spruce , but before the division was activated , only 2 million board feet ( 4 @,@ 700 m3 ) were produced monthly .
When the United States entered the war in 1917 , General John J. Pershing sent Brice P. Disque , a former army captain , to the Pacific Northwest to determine if local labor issues within the forest products industry could be quickly resolved . Disque met with mill owners and representatives of the Industrial Workers of the World , the union that was trying to organize loggers and sawmill workers in the Pacific Northwest . After studying the situation for several months , Disque determined that the long @-@ standing labor management dispute could not be resolved without direct intervention by the army . Based on Disque 's report , the United States Army Signal Corps was given the job of reorganizing the forest products industry in the Pacific Northwest to support United States war production .
On 29 September 1917 , Disque was brought back into the army as a lieutenant colonel and was assigned to develop plans for an army unit to produce wood products for the war effort . On 6 November , Disque was promoted to colonel and given command of the newly formed Spruce Production Division , a part of the United States Army Signal Corps . The headquarters of the new unit were in Downtown Portland , which was " the centre of the great spruce area of the Pacific Northwest , " while the division 's induction , training , and operations center was established at Vancouver Barracks across the Columbia River in Vancouver , Washington , where it employed about 19 @,@ 000 soldiers .
= = Production = =
Originally , the Spruce Production Division was authorized to induct 10 @,@ 317 troops , including both officers and enlisted men . The Spruce Production Division quickly recruited several thousand experienced loggers and mill workers , many of whom were above the military draft age of 40 . In May 1918 , the division was authorized to grow to 28 @,@ 825 personnel .
Initially , both the mill owners and local unions were against the army 's takeover of lumber production . The mill owners disliked having the army overseeing their businesses , and the unions saw soldiers ' labor as a form of strikebreaking . Disque , however , called on everyone to support war production . He was also careful not to favor either owners or unions as he increased production , helping both sides achieve their goals . For the mill owners , military manpower kept mills open and running at full capacity ; in addition , it prevented radicals from sabotaging facilities or equipment . The unions benefited because military rules stabilized wages and improved working conditions for loggers and sawmill workers throughout the Pacific Northwest . Among the improved conditions was a standard eight @-@ hour day .
To counter the influence of union radicals in the Industrial Workers of the World , Disque sponsored an alternative union based on patriotism and labor – management cooperation . The new union , the Loyal Legion of Loggers and Lumbermen , was established in 1917 and put under the leadership of Portland attorney Captain Maurice E. Crumpacker , who would later serve as a U.S. Congressman . The union was initially opposed by both labor and mill owners , but due to Disque 's strong advocacy , within six months nearly all of the mill owners had agreed to support the union ; by October 1918 , it had 125 @,@ 000 members . In fact , the union lasted 20 years longer than the Spruce Production Division .
The Spruce Production Division established approximately 60 military logging camps throughout the Pacific Northwest , usually near existing sawmills . While privately owned , these mills were operated under the direction of the army . On 20 December 1917 , Disque reported that the division was only meeting 40 percent of the demand for spruce . He said that the production must be increased from 3 million board feet ( 7 @,@ 100 m3 ) to 11 million board feet ( 26 @,@ 000 m3 ) to meet the demand . In early 1918 , the division opened a sawmill at Vancouver Barracks , the largest spruce sawmill in the world , " producing more than one million feet of spruce lumber each day . " The mill complex covered 50 acres ( 20 ha ) and was operated by 2 @,@ 400 soldiers from the division . The army also built sawmills in Coquille and Toledo , Oregon , and in Port Angeles , Washington . A 3 @,@ 000 @-@ worker community in Washington was designed as a company town by architect Carl F. Gould . The 0 @.@ 5 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 3 km2 ) townsite was laid out with bunkhouses , and with dining and recreation halls styled after Adirondack lodges . The division also built 13 railroads with over 130 miles ( 210 km ) of track to link logging areas to sawmills . At the peak of construction , there were 10 @,@ 000 soldiers building railroads in Oregon and Washington forests . All wire rope manufactured in the west , as well as anything shipped in , was controlled by the spruce division per Colonel Disque . As the Los Angeles Times reported in February 1918 , " There was a serious shortage of wire rope when Col. Disque took charge of the spruce production campaign . "
The division lasted only 15 months , during which it produced a total of 143 @,@ 008 @,@ 961 board feet ( 337 @,@ 463 @.@ 57 m3 ) of spruce . It produced nearly 54 million board feet ( 130 @,@ 000 m3 ) for aircraft construction from Oregon forests alone . Before the Pacific Northwest began logging spruce for the war , much of the lumber came from the eastern United States , where production amounted to just 15 percent of demand . Logging techniques in the east were not as advanced or as efficient with wood .
The network of roads and railroads that the division had built allowed for future development of the forests , which facilitated the growth of the lumber industry in the Pacific Northwest for the remainder of the 20th century .
= = Demobilization = =
The armistice that ended World War I was signed on 11 November 1918 . The next day , all Spruce Production Division logging ended , most construction projects were stopped , and sawmill operations were curtailed . Government machinery and equipment from all over the Northwest was shipped back to Vancouver Barracks , and division personnel were quickly discharged from military service . Over $ 12 million worth of logging equipment , sawmill machinery , and other property was eventually sold in a government auction .
While the Spruce Production Division was quickly demobilized after the war , there was some post @-@ war controversy over the cost of its operations . Disque , by then a brigadier general , spent months answering to charges that his division had wasted taxpayers ' money . Congress was particularly critical of the $ 4 million spent on an unfinished railroad located in the Olympic Peninsula of Washington . Disque responded that it was to be used for transporting spruce lumber . Eventually , the charges proved to be unfounded .
Disque was discharged from the army in March 1919 to be " appointed chairman of the export and import branch of the American International Corporation with headquarters at New York . "
= = Legacy = =
Lt. Col. Cuthbert Stearns compiled a history of the Spruce Production Division , The Spruce Production Division , United States Army and Spruce Production Corporation , that was published in 1919 . This detailed record of the division 's operations helped General Disque defend the cost of spruce production in his debate with members of Congress . The U.S. National Archives in Seattle holds approximately 187 cubic feet ( 5 @.@ 3 m3 ) of records related to the division , as well as " a complete roster of all military personnel in the Spruce Production Division as of 1 November 1918 . "
The effects of the Spruce Production Division continued long after the unit was demobilized . Not only did the division dramatically increase the production of forest products for the war effort , but the transportation network that it built helped open up Pacific Northwest forests to greater use in the decades that followed . In addition , the division 's work rules became the standard for logging and sawmill operations throughout the Pacific Northwest well into the 1930s .
= Adrian S. Fisher =
Adrian Sanford Fisher ( January 21 , 1914 – March 18 , 1983 ) was an American lawyer and federal public servant , who served from the late 1930s through the early 1980s . He was associated with the Department of War and Department of State throughout his professional career . He participated in the U.S. government 's decision to carry out Japanese @-@ American internment and the international ( 1945 – 46 ) Nuremberg trial , and in State Department Cold War activities during the Harry S. Truman administration . He was the State Department Legal Adviser under Secretary of State Dean Acheson . During the John F. Kennedy , Lyndon B. Johnson and Jimmy Carter administrations , Fisher was directly involved in the negotiations of international nuclear testing and non @-@ proliferation agreements .
= = Early life and early government career = =
Fisher was born in Memphis , Tennessee , to Hubert Fisher and Louise Sanford Fisher . He attended elite schools such as Saint Albans and Choate , Princeton University ( BA 1934 ) and Harvard Law School ( LLB 1937 ) . Fisher was known throughout his life by his nickname " Butch " , from his early days as a football player for Princeton , lettering in 1933 .
In the late 1930s Fisher lived in Arlington , Virginia , in an estate known by the name of Hockley Hall . This house was a semi @-@ famous " bachelor 's house , " with rooms rented by Fisher and various housemates such as William Bundy , William Sheldon , John Ferguson , John Oakes , Donald Hiss , Edward Prichard , Jr. and Philip Graham . Also , Hockley Hall was known as a social venue for the likes of Dean Acheson , Archibald MacLeish and Francis Biddle .
Fisher was admitted to the Tennessee Bar in 1938 , and had the distinction of clerking for two U.S. Supreme Court Justices , Louis Brandeis ( 1938 – 39 ) and Felix Frankfurter ( 1939 – 40 ) . Fisher began his legal career with his appointment as Law Clerk to Supreme Court Justice Louis Brandeis , who was then 82 years old . In early 1939 , Brandeis announced his retirement from the Supreme Court , and Fisher was invited to transfer to the chambers of the recently appointed Supreme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter . Following his term as Frankfurter 's clerk in 1940 , Fisher joined the United States Department of State as the assistant chief of the Foreign Funds Control Division of the State Department , where he served until shortly after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor .
= = World War II government and military service = =
In early 1942 , Fisher and John J. McCloy were assigned to assist implementation of the United States War Department 's legal activities for the Japanese American internment programs shortly after the United States entered World War II . In late 1942 , Fisher received an officer 's commission , and trained as a bomber navigator in the United States Army Air Forces from 1942 to 1943 , with missions over France , Belgium and Germany . In 1944 , he returned to Washington , D.C. as an assistant to the Assistant Secretary of War , John J. McCloy .
= = = Korematsu Supreme Court Case = = =
In 1944 , Fisher again was required to become involved in the U.S. 1942 @-@ 43 internment of Japanese Americans on the West Coast of the United States upon his return from Europe . At that time , the case of Korematsu v. United States , challenging the U.S. government ’ s power to exclude citizens of Japanese ancestry from military zones , came before the United States Supreme Court . While the Department of Justice 's Herbert Wechsler ( an Assistant Attorney General ) was in charge of defending the government 's position before the Supreme Court , significant consultation with Fisher was required , as he was again with the legal affairs section of the War Department . During this period , Fisher was involved in critical drafting of the government 's brief submitted to the Supreme Court .
= = = Nuremberg international trial = = =
In 1945 and 1946 , Captain Fisher served , along with James Rowe , as a legal advisor to former U.S. Attorney General Francis Biddle , the United States member of the International Military Tribunal ( Nuremberg Trial ) . Fisher was principal drafter of the Tribunal 's memorandum on the Nazi leadership 's " conspiracies to engage in crimes against peace . " This document , covering the period from 1920 to November 1937 , demonstrated that the pace of re @-@ armament under Adolf Hitler showed that the Germans " were developing an economic system which was only sensible only if there should be a war . "
= = Return to Washington , D.C. and service with Dean Acheson = =
Upon his return from Europe and exit from the Army Air Force , Fisher served as Solicitor for the U.S. Department of Commerce from 1947 to 1948 . Thereafter , Fisher became general counsel of the Atomic Energy Commission from 1948 @-@ 49 . He then served as legal advisor ( with the rank of Assistant Secretary of State ) to the Department of State ( serving in the office of Secretary of State Dean Acheson ) from 1949 to 1953 . During 1952 , Mr. Fisher also served as legal advisor to the U.S. Delegation to the United Nations in Paris .
In 1952 , Fisher was also appointed by President Harry S. Truman as an original commissioner to the President 's Commission on Immigration and Naturalization . The Commission was established in the Executive Office of the President by Executive Order 10392 " Establishing the President 's Commission on Immigration and Naturalization " . The specific context for the 1952 commission was the enactment of the McCarren @-@ Walter Act , which was passed over President Truman 's veto . Truman 's main disagreement with the Act was its retention of the quota system that began in 1924 . After Congress passed the Act over his veto , he formed the Commission and charged it with looking into new options for immigration and naturalization policy .
Secretary of State Acheson 's appointment of Fisher as the State Department 's Legal Adviser was unique at the time , because of the closeness of the Acheson / Fisher professional relationship . Fisher 's role as Acheson 's legal adviser was explained by Michael H. Cordozo , the State Department 's Assistant Legal Adviser for Economic Affairs , 1950 @-@ 52 :
( Acheson ) insisted on having , as a legal adviser , a lawyer whose ability as a lawyer and whose judgment in politics and statesmanship could be greatly respected . He got Adrian Fisher for that , and he involved him in all of the political and other activities that he himself was involved in . The Secretary of State always is involved in a lot of controversial things , and here we had the McCarthy era , the attack on the whole concept of Foreign Service and the State Department , and a terrific controversy over what to do about China , who had " lost China . " Fisher was always at Acheson 's right hand when he was dealing with other people about these things . Wherever he went , Fisher 's office was backstopping him , getting all the necessary background information so he 'd be prepared for any kind of question that came up . Of course , Acheson 's own approach to being Secretary of State was such that when you took an agreement to him to be signed , his chief question was " By what authority do I sign this ? " And whoever brought it to him to get it signed , had to be ready with the answer that would satisfy a lawyer -- " by what legal authority " -- as well as what it provides and so forth .
= = = Building the H @-@ bomb = = =
In late 1949 , President Truman asked Dean Acheson to concentrate on the question of whether the United States should develop the hydrogen bomb . Acheson formed a working group under the United States National Security Council ( NSC ) executive secretary Sidney Souers , consisting of R. Gordon Arneson , Paul Nitze and Fisher , who served as the State Department 's legal adviser on the project . It was Arneson 's view that each member of the working group were of one mind . He said , " The four principals in the State Department were Acheson , Nitze , Fisher and myself . I don 't think it was necessary for any one of us to persuade anybody else ; we all were of a mind that there really wasn 't any choice . "
Fisher was part of this same working group which recommended that an internal NSC study be conducted on the overall U.S. foreign policy as it pertained to the newly developing Cold War . This classified study ( declassified in 1977 ) called NSC @-@ 68 , was the blueprint for the Truman Doctrine for containment of communism , which provided the overall policy concepts for the U.S. participation in the Cold War throughout the 1950s .
= = = Congressional Hearings on the firing of General Douglas MacArthur = = =
On April 11 , 1951 , President Truman announced the dismissal of General Douglas MacArthur from his duties as Allied Commander of United Nations forces in the Far East . Following MacArthur 's firing and the subsequent public outcry , the Joint Committee on Armed Services and Foreign Relations of the United States Senate conducted an inquiry into removal of MacArthur . Fisher was assigned the responsibility for the coordination of the State Department Congressional testimony regarding the firing of General MacArthur .
= = = Fisher and the Acheson Capitol Hill fist @-@ fight = = =
In August 1950 , Fisher was involved in an incident between Secretary of State Dean Acheson and Senator Kenneth S. Wherry , Nebraska Republican and minority whip of the United States Senate , during a hearing before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee . During the hearing , Senator Wherry began to harangue Acheson about events in Korea . Suddenly , Acheson jumped out of his chair towards Wherry , with fists raised . Fisher was required to physically hold Acheson back from striking Wherry . As the incident was told by eye @-@ witness John H. Ohly , then the Assistant Director , Office of International Security Affairs , Department of State ,
" The next day the administration threw in its big guns -- Secretary Acheson , Louis Johnson , and , from ECA , William Foster . This time the going was really rough from the Republican side of the table and Acheson consciously lost his temper over some of Wherry 's remarks and got up and tried to slug him . Adrian Fisher , State Department Legal Adviser and a close friend of Acheson , caught his arm , fortunately , because Acheson would have missed Wherry by about three feet and probably fallen flat on his face on the floor . It was a great show . "
This scene was portrayed in the film " The Manchurian Candidate " , with Frank Sinatra ( as Major Marco ) taking on Fisher 's role of restraining ( in that instance ) the United States Secretary of Defense .
= = Nuclear arms control and disarmament activities = =
From 1961 to 1968 , Fisher served as the Deputy Director of the U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency in which he took a primary negotiations role during the Atomic Test Ban Treaty of 1963 between the U.S. and the Soviet Union . At that time he was Deputy to John J. McCloy , Adviser to the President on Disarmament . In 1968 , Fisher served as one of the chief U.S. negotiators of the Nuclear Non @-@ Proliferation Treaty , which was signed by the United States , the United Kingdom , the Soviet Union , and 59 other countries on July 1 , 1968 . A collection of letters from Adrian Fisher to President Johnson and Secretary of State Dean Rusk regarding his perception and activities on arms control and disarmament is maintained by the Federation of American Scientists .
= = Return to private law practice and academics = =
In 1968 , Fisher re @-@ entered private law practice , again with Covington & Burling ( during the Dwight D. Eisenhower Administration ( 1953 – 60 ) Fisher joined the Covington firm , with Dean Acheson , for the first time ) and became General Counsel to the Washington Post . Fisher 's connection with the Washington Post arose because of his close friendship with the Post 's then @-@ owner Phillip Graham since his early days in Washington , D.C. Both Fisher and Graham had clerked for Supreme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter and had shared a rented house ( belonging to future Secretary of State Dean Acheson ) , together with Donald Hiss ( brother of Alger Hiss ) . From 1969 to 1975 , Fisher served as Dean of Georgetown University Law Center , Washington , D.C. According to a report in the Georgetown student newspaper " The Hoya " , Fisher was not solicited as a candidate for the position , but simply submitted his own name . " I heard they were looking around for a new person , so I called up and asked to be considered . " Dean Fisher was installed as the first occupant of the Francis Cabell Brown Chair in International Law of the center on January 25 , 1977 , and served as law professor from 1977 to 1980 .
= = U.S. Disarmament Representative = =
President Jimmy Carter nominated Fisher for the rank of Ambassador while serving as the U.S. Representative to the Conference of the Committee on Disarmament in 1977 , where he served through 1981 . With the United States represented by Fisher , the first Special Session on Disarmament of the United Nations General Assembly was held in 1978 and led to the established in 1979 of the U.N. Conference on Disarmament as the single multilateral disarmament negotiating forum of the international community .
= = Return to academics = =
In 1981 , Fisher joined the faculty of George Mason University School of Law in Arlington , Virginia , teaching various seminars on negotiation tactics . The George Mason Law Review named its annual award for best student article in honor of Mr. Fisher . From 1981 to 1982 , Mr. Fisher also served as an advisor to John J. McCloy during the hearings of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians ( established by Congress in 1980 ) . This commission reviewed the impact of Executive Order 9066 on Japanese @-@ Americans and determined that they were the victims of discrimination by the Federal government . Fisher died on March 18 , 1983 , aged 69 , from cancer at his home in Washington , D.C.
= Leave Home =
Leave Home is the second studio album by American punk rock band the Ramones . It was released on January 10 , 1977 , through Sire Records , with the expanded CD being released through Rhino Entertainment on June 19 , 2001 . Songs on the album were written immediately after the band 's first album 's writing process , which demonstrated the band 's progression . The album had a higher production value than their debut Ramones and featured faster tempos . The front photo was taken by Moshe Brakha and the back cover , which would become the band 's logo , was designed by Arturo Vega . The album spawned three singles , but only one succeeded in charting . It was also promoted with several tour dates in the United States and Europe .
The songs in Leave Home concentrate on various themes , with the musical tones being diverse as well . Some tunes were more pop @-@ oriented , while others , like " Gimme Gimme Shock Treatment " and " Pinhead " were loaded with distorted guitars and had a more punk rock sound . The song " Carbona Not Glue " was taken off the album because it potentially violated the trademark of the stain @-@ removal product Carbona . The track was replaced with " Babysitter " in the United Kingdom and " Sheena Is a Punk Rocker " in the United States ( prior to its inclusion on Rocket to Russia ) ; both " Carbona " and " Babysitter " were included on the 2001 expanded edition .
Critical reception for the album was generally favorable , with several reviewers pointing out the fact that it highly resembled the band 's debut album . Critics also said the album was less groundbreaking than their debut , but had humorous and enjoyable pieces . The album peaked at 148 on the Billboard 200 despite its critical acclaim as well as the band members expecting more commercial success .
= = Background = =
The writing and structure are both somewhat more sophisticated than the songs on their previous record . Guitarist Johnny Ramone relates : " We recorded them in the order they were written ; we wanted to show a slight progression in song structure . " Most of the songs were written in the band member 's homes , rather than at a studio ; " Suzy Is a Headbanger " was written in drummer Tommy Ramone 's loft apartment .
" I wrote most of the stuff I contributed at my apartment in Forest Hills , before I left and moved back to a place in the city . I had no amp at home , just an electric guitar . I recorded it onto a cassette and played that back at rehearsal . We had better production , we were playing a little faster , and we had a lot of songs accumulated . We were in really good shape for that album . "
Recorded October 1976 in New York City at Sundragon Studios through Sire Records , Leave Home featured increased sound quality through more advanced output methods . Sire set their budget at about $ 10 @,@ 000 hiring Tony Bongiovi to produce the album , and Tommy Ramone to co @-@ produce . More emphasis was placed on the album 's mixing and engineering than their debut album , which received merely $ 6 @,@ 400 to record and produce . With a more fine @-@ tuned and exceptional sound , Leave Home also presented a production value superior to other punk rock bands at the time . Author Joe S. Harrington called the band 's production " brilliant , " and noted that it " put them ahead of the run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill garage band . "
The title Leave Home refers to the Ramones leaving New York City to go on tour around the world . The album cover was designed by Moshe Brakha , who had worked with the Rolling Stones to yield the Black and Blue ( 1976 ) cover art , and would later work with artists like Devo and Iron Maiden . The back cover of the album was a drawing of a bald eagle by graphic designer Arturo Vega . The image would soon become the band 's logo .
= = = Carbona controversy = = =
The original release included " Carbona Not Glue " as the fifth track . However , a month before the band released Leave Home , Ramones ' manager Danny Fields announced to the band that Carbona was a registered trademark and that their record label had to remove the song from the album 's track listing . Legs McNeil recalled : " I was shocked . It was such a great song , so radio @-@ friendly — like a song the Beatles or the Rolling Stones would have written if they were just starting out in 1976 , with great harmonies and catchy lyrics . " Although early purchasers of the Sire release got an album that included the song , " Carbona Not Glue " was later replaced by " Sheena Is a Punk Rocker " for the US release , and " Babysitter " for the UK release . In the early 90 's , after being unavailable for years , the song was bootlegged as a 45 RPM single with " I Can 't Be " as the B @-@ side . The single 's cover sported a faux Sub Pop Singles design , despite not actually being released by the label . The song was revived on the 2001 Extended Edition of the album , which also included " Babysitter " .
= = Promotion = =
There were three singles released from Leave Home : " I Remember You , " " Swallow My Pride , " and " Carbona Not Glue , " released respectively . " Swallow My Pride " was the only single from Leave Home that charted , peaking at thirty @-@ six on the United Kingdom singles chart . The album 's final single , " Carbona Not Glue " / " I Can 't Be , " was released in 1991 under Sub Pop Records . The single was given four out of five stars by Allmusic 's Matt Whalley , who said that the song " could have been one of the Ramones ' most popular tracks if it was not pulled from the album due to legal reasons . " Whalley called the B @-@ side " I Can 't Be " " simple , " describing it as " in the same vein as ' Carbona Not Glue , ' only shifting focus to relationships . "
After the album came out in February , the band began a four @-@ week tour of the United States starting with Los Angeles . On February 4 , the band played at the Nassau Coliseum with Blue Öyster Cult , and played with Suicide the next day at CBGB . A week after this , the band played with Blue Öyster Cult again in Poughkeepsie , to which Johnny relates : " Those arena shows were a little better for us , although we would have more bad experiences in those big places . I never really enjoyed playing them . " The band used their newly designed logo as a backdrop at concerts . They also had more advanced lighting techniques , but still only used white lights .
In April 1977 , the band left the United States to begin their tour of Europe . Ramones co @-@ headlined with Talking Heads , who were a new wave band formed in 1975 . During a Marseilles gig , the Ramones caused a power outage to a quarter of the city during a sound check . The gig was cancelled when police arrived and dispersed the fans . When their tour manager arranged for a stop at Stonehenge in Wiltshire , Johnny refused to leave the bus , saying he refused to see " a bunch of old rocks . " The band 's Europe tour came to an end on June 6 , 1977 .
= = Compositions = =
Leave Home has various lyrical themes throughout its track list . The opening song , " Glad to See You Go , " is rather uptempo and frenetic . The track was about Dee Dee 's then @-@ girlfriend Connie , who was well known in the punk rock scene , as had once dated New York Dolls bassist Arthur Kane and cut his finger off with a knife . Connie also harmed Dee Dee in several ways , such as slicing his buttocks with a beer bottle . At the time , every other member of the band despised Dee Dee 's girlfriend and he eventually broke up with her . Joey recalls : " Dee [ Dee ] and I came up with the song ' Glad to See You Go , ' about Connie 's leaving . " In the mid @-@ 1980s , Connie died from a drug overdose . " Gimme Gimme Shock Treatment " utilizes Joey 's singing abilities with its vocal @-@ demanding melody . Author Scott Schinder called the song a " sing @-@ along mental @-@ illness ode . " The next song , " I Remember You " was said by author Greil Marcus to be all about the moment where " Joey 's voice turns the single word " you " into pure poetry . " " Oh , Oh , I Love Her So " pays homage to the 1950s doo @-@ wop genre , and consists of a three @-@ chord barrage . The song was written solely by Joey , where in the song he humorously tells of how he met a girl at Burger King and they fell in love by a soda machine .
" Carbona Not Glue " was written as a follow @-@ up to " Now I Wanna Sniff Some Glue " from their debut album . The song was Legs McNeil 's favorite song from Leave Home , who relates : " [ The song ] was meant to clarify that while glue might not be good for you , the cleaning fluid Carbona was definitely a better high . " The song contemplates around Beach Boys harmonies , and it uses a " bouncy " guitar riffs . " Suzy Is a Headbanger " was inspired by the 1947 film noir Nightmare Alley , with the lyrics detailing a female involved in the punk rock scene .
The lines " Gabba Gabba Hey " at the end of " Pinhead " were taken from the horror film Freaks , which the band saw in Cleveland , Ohio after their gig was cancelled . Joey 's brother Mickey Leigh said that it was specifically taken from the scene where " the midget groom does a dance on the banquet table and sings ' Gobble gobble , we accept you , one of us ' to his bride . " The song is an audience participation song , and during live performances , Leigh appears on stage holding a sign that bore the text " Gabba Gabba Hey . " " Pinhead , " the album 's longest piece , leads into " Now I Wanna Be a Good Boy , " which portrays a confused adolescent wanting to be good , yet also yearning to run away from home . The next song on the album , " Swallow My Pride , " was a piece written solely by lead singer Joey Ramone , who states that the concept deals with their record company Sire Records ; Tommy used the expression " you gotta swallow your pride " when signing to their record company . " What 's Your Game " is one of the band 's most melodic songs and was called " wistful " by Marcus . It was written by Joey about how he yearns for a girl to be herself instead of something she 's not .
The album 's only cover song , " California Sun " , was originally written by Henry Glover and Morris Levy , and performed by The Rivieras . While the lyrics and musical structure remain the same throughout the piece , Joey 's pronunciation upon words significantly lessened the similarity to the original song . The sound output tone also differs from the original , with more distortion as well as a faster tempo . Author Steve Waksman relates : " From the opening bars , ' California Sun ' becomes subject to the Ramones ' distinctive brand of musical minimalism paired with sonic excess . The chords go by in a blur of distortion ; the drums and bass kick at seemingly twice the speed of the Rivieras . " The twelfth track " Commando " has a theme which deals with war movies and contains multiple military references . Author Avram Mednick said the song was a successor to " Blitzkrieg Bop " , released on the band 's debut album . He also noted that it has a " bouncy melody and an infectious call @-@ and @-@ response chorus . " " You 're Gonna Kill that Girl , " which was written very early in the band 's career , was also rooted in doo @-@ wop genre . Mednick commented that it appealed highly to those tuning into the Ramones in the UK , and also said it has a " lovely misogynistic tune . " The final guitar chord on the track is played by drummer Tommy since Johnny rarely played acoustic . The album 's final track , " You Should Never Have Opened That Door , " was written by Dee Dee and Johnny , and circles themes of horror film 's and hints that people in these movies tend to be naive and unintelligent .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
Leave Home was released on January 10 , 1977 and was well received by critics . Although the album did not receive much initial reception , Ken Tucker of Rolling Stone magazine gave the album a favorable review in 1977 , saying that it is very similar to their debut yet more experienced sounding . He sums up the album with : " The Ramones are as direct and witty as before . They 've also lost just a pinch of their studied rawness : whether this is a sign of maturity or sellout is a matter for debate . The Ramones make rousing music and damn good jokes , but they 're in a bind : the hard rock of this group is so pure it may be perceived as a freak novelty by an awful lot of people . " In the 1979 book The Rolling Stone Album Guide , the album was given 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars .
Stephen Thomas Erlewine , a music critic for AllMusic , gave the album 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars as well , noting that the album was very similar to their debut . Though he did consider it to be slightly more pop music oriented , Erlewine writes that despite being " weaker " than its predecessing album , Leave Home " deliver [ s ] at breakneck speed and conclude [ s ] in under a half @-@ hour . " April Long from NME praised the album , rewarding it a perfect score of 10 out of 10 . She especially favored " Sheena Is A Punk Rocker , " calling it " a punk @-@ surf @-@ pop crossover that has never been rivalled . " It was given a favorable review by PopMatters editor Adrien Begrand , who called it his favorite Ramones album , saying : " In this album , the Ramones are witty , menacing , goofy , cynical , and head @-@ over @-@ heels in love , all at the same time . " During his extensive review , he called " I Remember You " a " perfect bubblegum pop song , " while saying that " Pinhead " urges " all the freaks of the world to unite as one " with the lines " D @-@ U @-@ M @-@ B / Everyone 's accusing me . " Music critic Robert Christgau gave the album an A , noting that the lyrics contained a good amount of humor .
= = = Charts = = =
The album did not chart as well in the United States as its predecessor , peaking at number 148 on the Billboard 200 . It was , however , the band 's first album to chart on the UK Albums Chart , debuting at number 45 . Many of the songs on Leave Home were not considered by Mickey Leigh to be " radio – friendly " because " Carbona Not Glue " was about Intoxicative inhalant . Joey relates : " We thought we had a lotta songs that should 've been hits . If you grew up in the sixties , things would just get played and be hits right off the bat . So we thought since our music was doin ' something unique that everyone would pick up on that . What really happened was we were so alien that no one wanted to touch us . And so we wouldn 't get played "
= = Track listing = =
Writing credits are credited to Mickey Leigh 's book I Slept with Joey Ramone : A Family Memoir .
Original release
United States reissue
United Kingdom reissue
2001 Expanded Edition CD
Tracks 16 @-@ 31 recorded live at The Roxy in Hollywood , CA ( 8 / 12 / 76 ) .
= = Personnel = =
The following personnel can be verified with AllMusic .
Joey Ramone – Lead vocals
Johnny Ramone – Lead guitar
Dee Dee Ramone – Bass guitar , backing vocals
Tommy Ramone – drums , producer
Tony Bongiovi – producer
Ed Stasium – engineer
Greg Calbi – mastering
Moshe Brakha – front cover photography
Arturo Vega – back cover art
John Gillespie - art direction
Pat Chiono - design
= Burt Hummel =
Burt Hummel is a fictional character from the Fox musical comedy @-@ drama series Glee . The character is portrayed by actor Mike O 'Malley , and first appeared on Glee in the fourth episode of the first season , " Preggers " . Burt was developed by Glee creators Ryan Murphy , Brad Falchuk and Ian Brennan . He is the father of gay glee club member Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) , and works as a mechanic in Lima , Ohio where the series is set . He eventually begins a relationship with Carole Hudson ( Romy Rosemont ) , the mother of another glee club member , and the two marry in the second season episode " Furt " . In the third season , Burt runs in a special congressional election and wins . O 'Malley was a recurring cast member during the first season , and was upgraded to a series regular for the second season of the show , but returned to the recurring cast for the third season .
The character has been well received by critics . James Poniewozik of Time wrote , " the fact that Dad ( Mike O 'Malley , who has turned out to be a pretty good character actor ) ends up not being the boor we think he 's going to be is one of the first signs that Glee is growing up as a series , that having established a world of primary @-@ color stereotypes , it 's now willing to subvert those expectations . " IGN 's Robert Canning commented that the Hummels ' relationship is " the most affecting " of the show , and praised O 'Malley 's " outstandingly nuanced " performance as Burt . Murphy has said , " Mike 's talent is deep . I will always write for Mike O 'Malley . " O 'Malley was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor – Comedy Series in 2010 for his portrayal of Burt .
= = Storylines = =
= = = Season 1 = = =
Burt first appears in " Preggers " , the show 's fourth episode . He catches his son Kurt dancing to Beyoncé Knowles 's " Single Ladies " , and Kurt claims that it is a football exercise , and that he is now a kicker on the William McKinley High football team . Fortunately for Kurt , fellow glee club member and football quarterback Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) helps him get a tryout for the team , and he becomes its kicker in truth . Burt attends Kurt 's first game , and after a final @-@ second touchdown ties the game , Kurt kicks the extra point to win it . Buoyed by his success , Kurt comes out to his father . Burt tells him he knew all along Kurt was gay and loves him just as much .
When Kurt is upset at not being considered for the solo on " Defying Gravity " in the episode " Wheels " — the song , originally written for a female character in the musical Wicked , is initially given to Rachel ( Lea Michele ) — Burt complains to Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) that his son is being discriminated against , and Kurt is allowed to audition . Burt receives an anonymous abusive phone call about his son 's sexual orientation , and when Kurt sees how upset his father is , he deliberately sabotages his audition to spare Burt more pain .
Kurt sets up Burt with Finn 's widowed mother Carole ( Romy Rosemont ) in the episode " Home " , hoping it will help him become closer to Finn , who he has a crush on . The relationship has become serious before Finn finds out about it , and he is initially hostile to it , but begins to bond with Burt over sports when the two families go out to dinner . It is implied that Burt 's motivation to build a connection with Finn is more out of his knowledge that Finn never had a father to do things with , and not favoritism over his own son . However , Kurt feels left out , and later asks Finn to help him break up their parents . Finn initially agrees , but changes his mind after Burt tells him that he loves Carole and would never hurt her . In " Laryngitis " , Kurt feels increasingly jealous of how much time Burt is spending with Finn , so he attempts to emulate Burt 's personality to regain Burt 's attention . When Burt takes Finn to yet another event without including Kurt , a hurt and angry Kurt drops his emulation of his father and sings " Rose 's Turn " . Burt overhears his performance , praises Kurt 's singing and apologizes for not spending enough time with him . He assures Kurt that he still loves him and always will , no matter what his son chooses to be .
In the episode " Theatricality " , Burt invites Carole and Finn to move in with him and Kurt . Aware of Kurt 's attraction to him , Finn is uncomfortable with sharing a bedroom with Kurt . In the hopes of pleasing Finn , Kurt redecorates their bedroom , but Finn is appalled by its fancy appearance and lack of privacy . During the ensuing argument , when Kurt refuses to acknowledge his infatuation , Finn loses his temper and calls the new furnishings " faggy " . Burt overhears Finn 's homophobic words , delivers a stinging reprimand , and throws him out , even though doing so risks costing Burt his relationship with Carole . However , later on Burt is also disappointed with Kurt when he finds out from Carole that his ulterior motive for setting them up was so he could get closer to Finn , and that while he accepts him for being gay , doesn 't accept him going after a straight boy who he knows doesn 't feel the same way .
= = = Season 2 = = =
Burt suffers a heart attack brought on by a severe arrhythmia in the third episode of the second season , " Grilled Cheesus " , and is in a coma for several days before recovering consciousness . Kurt is at his bedside when he finally wakes , and takes charge of his father 's recovery once Burt is back home . The eighth episode , entitled " Furt " , opens with Burt and Carole telling their sons that they are engaged . Kurt insists that New Directions perform at the wedding and reception . At the wedding , New Directions perform " Marry You " by Bruno Mars as they , and then Burt and Carole , dance down the aisle . The couple marry , but use their honeymoon savings to transfer Kurt to Dalton Academy when a homophobic bully who has threatened Kurt 's life is allowed to resume attending McKinley High .
The Hummel and Hudson households combine subsequent to the marriage . After Kurt and his friend Blaine ( Darren Criss ) attend a party where Blaine gets drunk , Kurt drives them to his own house , and the two sleep , fully clothed , in Kurt 's bed . Burt discovers Blaine there in the morning , and later tells Kurt that this was inappropriate behavior . Kurt apologizes , but asks Burt to learn about homosexual relationships so if Kurt has questions , he can ask Burt like a boy would normally ask his father . As it turns out , Kurt is quite ignorant about sexual matters and refuses to educate himself ; this so alarms Blaine that he asks Burt to consider broaching the subject with Kurt , citing safety concerns . Burt subsequently gives Kurt " the talk " about sex . He later reluctantly agrees to Kurt 's return to McKinley High , and recommends that Kurt dress less flamboyantly for the McKinley junior prom , a suggestion endorsed by Kurt 's new boyfriend and date , Blaine . Their advice is rejected , and at the prom Kurt is appalled to discover that he has been named prom queen .
= = = Season 3 = = =
In the third season , Kurt 's senior year at McKinley , cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) runs for Congress on a platform of defunding the arts in schools . In " Pot o ' Gold " , she causes official funding for the school musical — which Kurt has been cast in — to be withdrawn , but Burt arranges for alternative funding from businesses in the community , and rescues the musical from cancellation . Burt decides to wage a write @-@ in campaign against Sue , who has built up a considerable lead against her rivals in the special congressional election , and makes clear his support for the arts . Sue wages a highly negative campaign , airing outrageous ads about Burt , but doing so ultimately backfires when another candidate in the race airs attack ads against her . Burt wins the election in " I Kissed a Girl " . After the election , he divides his time between Washington and Lima . He intervenes twice with his stepson Finn : first , to find out why Finn wants to enlist in the army , and again when Finn later becomes engaged to Rachel , in the hopes of causing the two to reconsider , or at least to delay their wedding plans . He and Kurt celebrate when the latter becomes a drama school finalist , and attends with Carole both the Regionals show choir competition and the graduation of their two sons .
= = = Season 4 = = =
In the first episode of the fourth season , Burt gives Kurt an emotional sendoff when his son leaves for New York City . Burt travels to New York to surprise Kurt at Christmas in " Glee , Actually " , bringing Blaine with him , and the three spend Christmas together . During his visit , Burt reveals that he has been diagnosed with prostate cancer , but his chances of survival are very high as the diagnosis was made early and treatment appears to have been successful . Several months later , his doctor confirms that he is cancer free . During the season finale , he is approached by Blaine who wants his permission to marry Kurt . Burt tells him that he while he does understand why he wants to get married , he believes that both Blaine and his son are too young to make that kind of step .
= = = Season 5 = = =
Burt drives Kurt to Blaine 's " secret " marriage proposal at Dalton Academy in the season premiere . Kurt , who is aware of the proposal , asks his father for advice on what he should do . He tells Kurt the story about how he met his mother when he was twenty @-@ two , and married her six months later . While married life was not easy , he says there is nothing he would change . In " The Quarterback " , Burt is shown with Kurt and Carole after the death of Finn as they attempt to clean out Finn 's room . He decides to keep the football from Kurt 's first game , and the lamp from Kurt 's basement re @-@ decoration . He expresses his grief by saying that he should have hugged Finn more , and comforts Carole when she starts to break down . When New Directions dedicates their Nationals Show Choir Competition performance to Finn , they invite Carole and Burt to accompany them to Los Angeles for the event .
= = = Season 6 = = =
Burt first appears in " A Wedding " . Rachel doesn 't want to sit next to Sam Evans ( Chord Overstreet ) at Santana Lopez ( Naya Rivera ) and Brittany Pierce 's ( Heather Morris ) wedding . She states that Burt and Carole will be there , and that she hasn ’ t been talking with them recently ( presumbably since Finn 's death ) , and doesn ’ t want to hurt them . Mercedes Jones ( Amber Riley ) reassure her that they ’ ll want her to move on , just like they did with their first spouses ’ death . They both indeed support her to find love again with Sam . He officiates the wedding , which much to his surprise , his son is also getting married . He is in the flashback episode " 2009 " , which is set during the same time period as the show 's pilot episode . Burt is contacted by McKinley High counsellor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) to tell him that Kurt seemed to be isolated and had shown interest in a pamphlet on suicide . Burt tells Kurt that he must join a school team within a week , or face punishment . Although Burt had meant a sports team , when Kurt enthusiastically tells Burt that he has join the glee club , he accepts this as an adequate substitute in part due to its competitive aspect . In the show 's final episode , " Dreams Come True " , Burt and Carole attend the rededication ceremony of the McKinley High auditorium in the year 2020 , when it is renamed the " Finn Hudson Memorial Auditorium " . He enjoys the final performance from the New Directions of all generations and take a bow with the other Glee Cast members .
= = Development = =
= = = Creation and characterization = = =
Murphy created Burt as " a working @-@ class dude who 's not okay with his son being gay , a guy who 's having a tough time . " The character is loosely based on his own father . He had O 'Malley in mind when casting the role , and felt confident about his capability : " It 's a real tour de force role and I knew what Mike could do . This isn 't an after @-@ school special . ... It 's heavy and Mike has the ability to cut through the sentiment . " He went on to say , " Mike 's talent is deep . I will always write for Mike O 'Malley . " The actor did not have to audition , and was invited to read for the part by Murphy personally . The two men , along with Falchuk , had previously worked together on the television movie Pretty / Handsome . While reading the first twenty pages of script , O 'Malley was not initially enthusiastic about playing the role , as the character appeared to be an intolerant stereotype . He changed his mind , however , after realizing that Burt was to be portrayed as a more accepting man , with " grace and love that comes first for his son . "
After appearing in five Glee episodes over the course of the first season , O 'Malley was upgraded to a series regular along with Heather Morris and Naya Rivera in the show 's second season . Murphy confirmed this fact on July 13 , 2010 , in the wake of O 'Malley 's nomination for an Emmy Award for his work in the role of Burt . He appeared in eight season two episodes , and is guaranteed at least six episodes during the third season . In early 2011 , O 'Malley was cast in the lead role in a comedy pilot entitled Family Album , which prompted media speculation that his role as Burt might need to be reduced . In actuality , the actor ensured that he would be able to meet his six @-@ episode commitment to Glee should the pilot be picked up for a full series run , and commented : " [ Burt ] is one of the best parts I 've ever had in my life . I don ’ t want to leave it behind until it 's run its course or the story has run its course . " On August 11 , 2011 , Fox announced that Family Album would not be made into a series . Although there was no announcement about a change in O 'Malley 's status on Glee , the press release for the first episode of the show 's third season omitted O 'Malley 's name from the regular cast , and the one for the second episode has him listed as part of the guest cast .
Burt is a mechanic , and has several times been shown working on cars . He is the majority owner of his tire business , Hummel Tires & Lube . When he was younger , he went to junior college , where he played football before injuring his knee in an accident . He is a sports enthusiast , and also likes basketball and baseball in addition to football . Arts critic Ken Tucker detailed Burt 's early development in the series with the observation :
" Burt Hummel is a working @-@ class guy who , we 've come to think , has overcome what must have been a lifetime of casual conversational gay @-@ bashing to fully accept his son Kurt 's sexuality . Early on in Glee , Burt was a red @-@ herring character : We thought he was there to be a boorish lumpenproletariat who 'd provide dramatic friction between father and son . But the producers went in another direction , one reflecting the idea that being a good parent means learning a lot from your child , as well as the other way around . "
= = = Relationships = = =
Burt is the father of glee club member Kurt Hummel . Colfer has credited his off @-@ screen relationship with O 'Malley with improving the quality of their scenes together , and O 'Malley has said the same about working with Colfer . Burt loves Kurt , and openly accepts his son after Kurt tells him that he is gay in the show 's fourth episode , " Preggers " . Murphy took the scene verbatim from his own experience of coming out to his father . He called the father @-@ son relationship " One of the stories that we really love on the show " , and one that is " very personal " to him , as he wishes his own father had acted more like Burt . During the first season , Kurt has cause to wonder whether his father truly accepts him . Colfer offered the insight that his character is " more concerned with being OK in his dad 's eyes than with anyone else " , and said that the bond between them would continue to strengthen as the series progressed . From O 'Malley 's point of view , " There 's a lot at stake in their relationship and [ we 're ] trying to show other people how it can be , in a positive way . I 'm not saying hey , let 's go to Greenwich Village and be in the parade . This is very very difficult , but he loves his son . "
Burt is shown to have deeply loved his first wife , Kurt 's mother , a strong woman who died eight years prior to the premiere of the show . He later characterizes his life after losing her as " being asleep " . Kurt introduces him to Carole Hudson , Finn 's widowed mother , and they begin dating . He falls in love with her and she with him : he tells Finn that she is an " angel who came down to wake me up after all these years " . At Carole 's behest , Burt becomes something of a father figure to Finn , taking him to ball games , though this development does not sit well with Kurt , who works to win his father 's attention back from Finn by emulating his father 's dress and interests before Burt realizes how hurt Kurt is . The relationship between Burt and Carole progresses to the point that they decide to live together , and she and Finn move in with the Hummels , since their house is the larger of the two . However , after Finn uses a homophobic slur against Kurt , Burt tells Finn that his behavior is unacceptable and he cannot live in the house any more , imperiling his romance with Carole . Following his appearance in this episode , O 'Malley spoke of future reconciliation between Burt and Finn . He stated , " One of the things I think is really important in life and for human beings is to forgive and be able to rise up from our mistakes . I 'm hoping that Finn and Burt are able to cross that chasm . "
The couple apparently continues to date , however — Carole visits Burt 's bedside when he is comatose in the hospital after his heart attack — and in " Furt " he proposes to Carole , she accepts , and they wed . The families combine under the same roof soon thereafter .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The character of Burt has been extremely well received by critics . James Poniewozik of Time deemed Kurt 's coming out " beautifully handled " , and wrote , " the fact that Dad ( Mike O 'Malley , who has turned out to be a pretty good character actor ) ends up not being the boor we think he 's going to be is one of the first signs that Glee is growing up as a series , that having established a world of primary @-@ color stereotypes , it 's now willing to subvert those expectations . "
Burt 's defense of Kurt from a slur by Finn in " Theatricality " was called " one of the heaviest scenes Glee has ever delved into " by Eric Goldman of IGN . Tim Stack of Entertainment Weekly called the scene " utterly heartbreaking and lovely " . He added , " it was an amazing moment for Glee , capped off by the simple gesture of Burt grabbing his son 's shoulder in an act of support . Mike O 'Malley is completely Emmy @-@ worthy . We 've never seen a character like this before on television or seen such a relationship between a father and son . " Poniewozik wrote , " Mike O 'Malley , as always , made me believe that Burt was not speaking out of some false enlightenment but out of a desire to protect his family and a struggle to do the right thing . " BuddyTV 's Henrik Batallones said O 'Malley was " the star of the show " .
While the second season episode " Grilled Cheesus " received mixed reviews from television critics , O 'Malley was praised for his contribution . Robert Canning of IGN commented that the Hummels ' relationship is " the most affecting " of the show , and praised O 'Malley 's " outstandingly nuanced " performance as Burt . Stack lauded the performances by Colfer and O 'Malley as being Emmy @-@ worthy , and observed that in the wake of a spate of suicides by gay youths , " the social importance of a show that promotes a message of tolerance and support — and of characters who drive that message home as powerfully as Kurt and Burt Hummel — cannot be underestimated . "
Burt and Carole 's wedding featured in an Entertainment Weekly piece on " 23 Wonderful TV Weddings " . Stack called their dance down the aisle " utterly joyous and sweet , a showcase for how music can transform everyday events . " He added that their " individual vows [ were ] really lovely , even though they did seem to be more about their kids than their significant others " . TV Guide listed it amongst " The Most Memorable TV Weddings " , and commented " If you made it through the vows without shedding a tear you have no soul . " Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club praised the " genuinely sweet chemistry " between O 'Malley and Rosemont , and found the processional dance " nicely moving " though unoriginal . He too commented on the focus on Kurt and Finn in their vows , but conceded , " if you 'd been a single parent that long , you 'd probably talk about your kids a lot too . " He expanded :
" What rang through this scene was always the sense that these two people had given up on having something like this for themselves again until they abruptly found it staring them in the face . O 'Malley and Rosemont emanate that sense of stunned luckiness , of finding the love of your life all over again after you 've stopped looking , and the whole act featuring the wedding is one of the show 's finest accomplishments . "
In the episode " Sexy " , reviewers acclaimed the scene where Burt gives Kurt " the talk " about sex . Poniewozik wrote , " O 'Malley , who really seems to exist in a different emotional dimension from most of Glee 's adults , sells both Burt 's determination and awkwardness in helping his son " , and Entertainment Weekly 's Sandra Gonzalez declared , " I 've never loved a father @-@ son pair on television more than I love these two " . She also noted , " Awkward to watch as it was , it was another really great moment between the two " .
= = = Accolades = = =
On July 8 , 2010 , O 'Malley received a nomination for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor – Comedy Series for playing Burt . On August 8 , 2010 , he was named the winner in the 2010 Teen Choice Awards , Choice TV : Parental Unit category . At the 17th Screen Actors Guild Awards , O 'Malley was included in the Glee cast 's ensemble nomination for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series .
= Michael Walker , Baron Walker of Aldringham =
Field Marshal Michael John Dawson Walker , Baron Walker of Aldringham , GCB , CMG , CBE , DL ( born 7 July 1944 ) is a retired British Army officer . Commissioned in 1966 , he served in Cyprus , Northern Ireland , and in a variety of staff posts in the United Kingdom until 1984 . After being given command of a battalion , he was mentioned in despatches for his service during a second tour of duty in Northern Ireland , this time in Derry , and subsequently served a tour on Gibraltar . He was promoted to brigadier , unusually having never held the rank of colonel , and took command of 20th Armoured Brigade in Germany before becoming I Corps chief of staff .
As a major general , Walker was appointed General Officer Commanding , Eastern District , before becoming Assistant Chief of the Defence Staff at the Ministry of Defence . He took command of NATO 's Allied Rapid Reaction Corps ( ARRC ) , which deployed to the Balkans in 1995 , Walker becoming the first officer to command the land component of the NATO @-@ led Implementation Force . For his service with the multi @-@ national forces in the Balkans , he was awarded the American Legion of Merit . After relinquishing command of the ARRC , Walker spent three years as Commander in Chief , Land Command , before being appointed Chief of the General Staff — the professional head of the British Army — in 2000 . In 2003 , he was promoted to Chief of the Defence Staff ( CDS ) — the professional head of all the British Armed Forces . While CDS , Walker attracted controversy during the modernisation of the armed forces , over allegations of prisoner abuse during the Iraq War , and over comments that the media coverage of Iraq may have endangered British troops .
Walker retired in 2006 and was subsequently appointed Governor of the Royal Hospital Chelsea , a post he held until 2011 . He is married and has three children .
= = Early and personal life = =
Born in Salisbury in the British colony of Southern Rhodesia ( modern @-@ day Zimbabwe ) to William Hampden Dawson Walker and Dorothy Helena Walker ( née Shiach ) , Walker was educated both in Southern Rhodesia and in Yorkshire , first at Milton School , Bulawayo , and then at Woodhouse Grove School , West Yorkshire . He spent 18 months teaching in a Preparatory School before joining the British Army . Walker married Victoria ( " Tor " , née Holme ) , in 1973 and the couple have three children — two sons and one daughter . He lists his interests as sailing , shooting , tennis , skiing and golf .
= = Early military career = =
After attending the Royal Military Academy , Sandhurst , Walker was commissioned into the Royal Anglian Regiment as a second lieutenant on 29 July 1966 . He served as a platoon commander with the 1st Battalion and was promoted to lieutenant on 29 January 1968 . In 1969 he was posted to Cyprus for a two @-@ year tour , and served in Northern Ireland during The Troubles , before attending the Staff College , Camberley . He was promoted to captain on 29 July 1972 .
After serving in a staff position at the Ministry of Defence ( MoD ) , Walker was promoted to major at the end of 1976 , and rejoined 1st Battalion , to become a company commander , based in Tidworth , Wiltshire . In 1979 , he took up another staff post at the MoD , after which he was promoted to lieutenant colonel in 1982 . Until 1985 , he served as Military Assistant ( MA ) to the Chief of the General Staff . He was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the New Year Honours List in December 1984 .
In command of the 1st Battalion from 1985 to 1987 , Walker served another tour in Northern Ireland , this time in Derry , and later a tour on Gibraltar . He was mentioned in despatches in 1987 " in recognition of gallant and distinguished service " in Northern Ireland . Unusually , Walker was promoted directly to brigadier at the end of 1987 , without having held the rank of colonel . He took command of 20th Armoured Brigade , based in Germany , from 1987 to 1989 , before holding the post of Chief of Staff , I Corps between 1989 and 1991 .
= = High command = =
Walker attained general officer status with promotion to acting major general in 1991 and took command of North East District and 2nd Infantry Division . Having served in the Gulf War , he was promoted to Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) later in 1991 . He was granted the substantive rank of major general on 2 December 1991 , with seniority from 14 February 1991 , going on to serve as General Officer Commanding of the Eastern District and then as Assistant Chief of the General Staff from 11 December 1992 to 3 October 1994 .
On 8 December 1994 , Walker was appointed commander of NATO 's Allied Rapid Reaction Corps ( ARRC ) , which had its headquarters in Rheindahlen , Germany , and promoted to acting lieutenant general . He was granted the substantive rank of lieutenant general on 15 March 1995 , and knighted in the 1995 Queen 's Birthday Honours when he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath . Under Walker 's command , the ARRC deployed to the Balkans in December 1995 . There , he became the first commander of the land component of the NATO @-@ led Implementation Force ( IFOR ) , until his return to the UK in November 1996 .
His IFOR command in Bosnia was indirectly criticised by Richard Holbrooke for his refusal to use his authority to also perform nonmilitary implementation tasks , including arresting indicted war criminals :
Based on Shalikashvili 's statement at White House meetings , Christopher and I had assumed that the IFOR commander would use his authority to do substantially more than he was obligated to do . The meeting with [ Admiral Leighton ] Smith shattered that hope . Smith and his British deputy , General Michael Walker , made clear that they intended to take a minimalist approach to all aspects of implementation other than force protection . Smith signalled this in his first extensive public statement to the Bosnian people , during a live call @-@ in program on Pale Television – an odd choice for his first local media appearance .
He was appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George at the end of 1996 .
Succeeded as COMARRC by Sir Mike Jackson , Walker was promoted to acting general and appointed Commander in Chief , Land Command on 27 January 1997 . He was granted the substantive rank of general on 2 April 1997 . In recognition of his service with IFOR between 1995 and 1996 , Walker was awarded the American Legion of Merit ( Degree of Commander ) , and granted unrestricted permission to wear the decoration , in May 1997 . In September 1997 , he was appointed Aide @-@ de @-@ Camp General to Queen Elizabeth II , succeeding General Sir Michael Rose , until he in turn was succeeded by General Sir Richard Dannatt . He was promoted to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in the New Year Honours List at the end of 1999 .
Having served just over three years as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Walker was appointed Chief of the General Staff ( CGS ) — the professional head of the British Army — on 17 April 2000 , taking over from General Sir Roger Wheeler . He remained CGS for three years , after which he was promoted to Chief of the Defence Staff ( CDS ) — the professional head of all the British Armed Forces — on 2 May 2003 , succeeding Admiral Sir Michael Boyce ( later Lord Boyce ) . As CDS , Walker criticised some of the media coverage of British deployments in Iraq . In particular , he claimed that attacks on the Black Watch were " enhanced " due to news reports on their location . He went on to say that " [ as a result of the media coverage ] , there could well have been a response by those who wished us ill to go and meet us with something like a bomb " . His comments were rejected by a spokesman for the National Union of Journalists , who retaliated " When generals turn around and start blaming reporters for their own mistakes , it is a sign they aren 't doing their own jobs properly " . Also in 2004 , Walker , along with General Sir Mike Jackson , then Chief of the General Staff , attracted controversy over reforms of the armed forces , which included the amalgamation of several army regiments to form larger regiments , leading to the loss of historic names .
In an interview with the BBC in October 2005 , Walker suggested that the army 's recruitment had been adversely affected by the Iraq War . He also commented on the war in Afghanistan , on which he said " There 's a lot of work to be done , of which the military is only a very small part . Ten years , 15 years , long @-@ term . This is not going to be solved in a short term " . In the same month , he gave an interview for The Sunday Times , in which he said that soldiers ' morale had been damaged by the unpopularity of the war among the British public . Later in 2005 , Walker was instrumental in drawing up new procedures for the treatment of British service personnel accused of abusing Iraqi prisoners , following claims that the army had abandoned those soldiers charged in connection with the prisoner abuses . In February 2006 , Walker headed up a military delegation to Bulgaria to discuss military cooperation between the British and Bulgarian governments .
Walker gave evidence to the Iraq Inquiry on 1 February 2010 , in which he spoke about funding for the invasion of Iraq and subsequent planning .
= = = Honorary roles = = =
Lord Walker has held a variety of honorary and ceremonial roles in different regiments . He was granted the honorary titles of Colonel Commandant and Deputy Colonel of Queen 's Division ( of which the Royal Anglian Regiment is part ) in April 1992 and Honorary Colonel , 3rd Battalion Duke of Wellington 's Regiment ( West Riding ) ( Yorkshire Volunteers ) , in October 1993 , which he relinquished on 30 June 1999 . In 1994 , he succeeded General Sir John Learmont as Colonel Commandant of the Army Air Corps and held the title until April 2004 , when he was relieved by then Lieutenant General Sir Richard
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Dannatt ( later General Lord Dannatt ) . In 1997 , he was appointed honorary Colonel , The Royal Anglian Regiment , in succession to Major General Patrick Stone , and was himself succeeded as Deputy Colonel by Brigadier John Sutherell . Sutherell , then a major general , went on to succeed Walker as Honorary Colonel in February 2000 .
= = Retirement = =
Walker relinquished his appointment as Chief of the Defence Staff in April 2006 and retired from the Army , succeeded as CDS by Air Chief Marshal Jock Stirrup . In September 2006 , Walker was appointed Governor of the Royal Hospital Chelsea , holding the post until February 2011 when he resigned suddenly . On 24 November 2006 , it was announced that he would receive a life peerage , and , on 19 December , he was created Baron Walker of Aldringham , of Aldringham in the county of Suffolk , sitting in the House of Lords as a crossbencher . He was given the ceremonial appointment of Deputy Lieutenant of Greater London in 2007 . Walker was appointed as an honorary field marshal in the Queen 's 2014 Birthday Honours .
= = Arms = =
= Manche Ch 'ol =
The Manche Ch 'ol were a former Ch 'ol @-@ speaking Maya people inhabiting the extreme south of what is now the Petén Department of modern Guatemala , the area around the Lake Izabal ( also known as the Golfo Dulce ) , and southern Belize . The Manche Ch 'ol took the name Manche from the name of their main settlement . They were the last group of eastern Cholan @-@ speakers to remain independent and ethnically distinct . It is likely that they were descended from the inhabitants of Classic period ( c . 250 @-@ 900 AD ) Maya cities in the southeastern Maya region , such as Nim Li Punit , Copán and Quiriguá .
The first Spanish contact with the Manche Ch 'ol was in 1525 , when an expedition led by Hernán Cortés crossed their territory . From the early 17th century onwards , Dominican friars attempted their concentration into mission towns and their conversion to Christianity . These attempts alarmed their warlike Itza neighbours to the northwest , who attacked the mission towns and fomented rebellion among the Manche . The Manche Ch 'ol in the mission towns were badly affected by disease , which also encouraged them to flee the towns .
In the late 17th century , Franciscan missionaries argued that further attempts at peaceful pacification of the Ch 'ol were useless and argued for armed intervention against the Manche Ch 'ol and their Lakandon Ch 'ol neighbours . The Manche were forcibly relocated in the Guatemalan Highlands , where they did not prosper . By 1770 , most of the Manche Ch 'ol were extinct . The few survivors were soon absorbed into the surrounding Q 'eqch 'i Maya population .
= = Language = =
Spanish colonial documents refer to the inhabitants of a broad swathe of territory as Chols or Cholans ; this territory extended from the Laguna de Términos through the Lacandon Jungle across the foothills of the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes eastwards to southern Belize . A number of distinct Chol- or Cholan @-@ speaking groups inhabited this area ; the Manche Ch 'ol were just one of these groups and spoke the now extinct Ch 'olti ' language . Ch 'olti ' was descended from the Classic Maya language used in hieroglyphic texts . Ch 'olti ' was very closely related to the Ch 'ol , Cholan and Ch 'orti ' languages . The Ch 'olti ' language is evidenced from a single document written in the late 17th century in the Manche Ch 'ol territory ; it has been held in the library of the American Philosophical Society since the 19th century . The document is the Arte y vocabulario de la lengua Cholti , 1695 by Spanish friar Francisco Morán , with the catalogue number Mss.497.4.M79. It was compiled in the Manche village San Lucas Tzalac . The term manche , is derived from the elements men , meaning " artisan " , and che , meaning either " tribe " or " tree " ; it was the name of a large Manche Ch 'ol settlement .
= = Territory = =
The Manche Ch 'ol inhabited the southern Petén Basin , southern Belize , and the area around Lake Izabal . Their territory consisted of tropical rainforest upon a low @-@ lying limestone plain , crossed by fast @-@ flowing rivers . It also featured small areas of savannah and extensive swamps . The Manche Ch 'ol occupied a frontier region between the jurisdictions of the Spanish colonial authorities in Yucatán and Guatemala . The Manche Ch 'ol had frequent contact with the inhabitants of Cahabón , to the southwest , which continued after Cahabón was incorporated into the Spanish Empire . The Manche Ch 'ol were bordered to the north by the Mopan Maya and to the west by the Acala Maya , who were probably another Ch 'ol @-@ speaking group . Further west were the Lakandon Ch 'ol , occupying land around the tributaries of the upper Usumacinta River . To the northwest of the Manche Ch 'ol were the Itza , with their territory centered upon their island capital of Nojpetén , upon Lake Petén Itzá . To the east , the Manche Ch 'ol bordered the Caribbean Sea , and in the 17th century Dominican friar Joseph Delgado mentioned that the Manche Ch 'ol had settlements scattered along the Caribbean coast almost as far north as Bacalar , now within the borders of Quintana Roo state in southeastern Mexico . Settlements on the Caribbean coast in the early 17th century included Yaxhal , Paliac , Campin and Tzoite . There were further towns in the Cancuén River drainage , including Manche ( renamed San Miguel Manché by the Spanish ) , Chocahau , Yaxha ( colonial San Pablo Yaxhá ) and Yol ( colonial Santo Domingo Yol ) . The closest Manche town to colonial Verapaz was Tzalac ( referred to as San Lucas Salac by the Spanish ) , 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) from Cahabón . This was a large Manche settlement on the Sarstoon River , close to the Gracias a Díos rapids .
= = Society = =
Men either went naked or wore cloths covering their lower regions ; women wore fine skirts woven from cotton , and some used a fine white cloth to cover their head and chest . The Manche Ch 'ol , based on their distinctive attire , in particular their turban @-@ style headdresses , were probably descended from the Classic period inhabitants of the region ; similar headdresses were illustrated in Classic Maya art from Nim Li Punit and such headdresses were restricted to the southeastern Maya lowlands and were used at cities such as Copán , Quiriguá , and their satellites . Manche Ch 'ol men grew their hair long ; they were forced to cut it short upon their evangelisation and this caused much ill @-@ feeling .
The Manche Ch 'ol practised polygamy ; converted Manche men were forced to give up all their wives except one . This was said to have caused such distress among some Manche men relocated to the Guatemalan Highlands that they were reported to have died .
The Manche Ch 'ol subsisted upon a maize @-@ based diet ; maize was mostly consumed in liquid form , such as in posole , and was probably eaten as tamales . The Manche diet also included beans , chilli , sweet potato and turkey . Plantain and sugar cane were introduced to the Manche after European contact .
The Manche Ch 'ol used a variation of the Maya calendar , using a 365 @-@ day year divided into eighteen 20 @-@ day " months " and ending with a 5 @-@ day unlucky period . They worshipped a number of nature @-@ based Maya deities , particularly gods of mountains and dangerous mountain passes , gods of rivers and whirlpools , and of crossroads . One named god was Escurruchan or Xcarruchan , a mountain god that was said to inhabit a mountain top close to the Gracias a Díos waterfall on the Sarstoon River . On top of the mountain was a well @-@ kept plaza with a fire that was kept permanently lit so travellers could make offerings of copal incense . Another mountain god was called Vatanchu , which translates as " straight god " , who inhabited a peak on the road from Chulul to Manche . The Manche Ch 'ol god of death and the underworld was called Cizin . In 1635 Martín Tovilla , governor of Verapaz , related that the principal gods of the Manche were called Canam , Man , and Chuemexchel . He reported that Manche priests dressed in finely painted vestments fashioned from tree bark . Priests were served during rituals by young women wearing feathers , garlands and necklaces . The Manche offered sacrifices to their deities that included copal incense , turkeys and human blood , both from personal bloodletting and from human sacrifice .
= = Organisation and commerce = =
The Manche Ch 'ol lacked a complex political organisation , and possessed no large towns within their territory . Their largest settlement was Manche itself , with about one hundred multi @-@ family houses . Manche was also the name of the principal lineage at Manche and this lineage was the origin of the populations of the other Manche Ch 'ol towns . Nito was another principal settlement , and an important port for maritime trade that maintained strong links with places as far away as the province of Acalan in what is now southern Campeche in Mexico . Otherwise , the Manche Ch 'ol lived in generally small settlements governed by one or more chieftains ; they were less politically complex than their Lakandon and Itza neighbours , and were not ruled by a principal king or chieftain . They grew relatively little maize , rather concentrating their agricultural production upon the prestige crops of cacao , annatto and vanilla . All the main settlements , both on the coast and inland , were noted for their prodigious cacao and annatto plantations .
The Manche Ch 'ol were integrated into a regional trade network that included their Itza and Lakandon Ch 'ol neighbours , and involved the exchange of Manche produce such as cacao , annatto and vanilla for salt , the only Maya source of which was controlled by the Itza after the Spanish conquest of the province of Acalan . This trade monopoly was maintained by force on the part of the Itza , who vigorously ensured that the Manche Ch 'ol remained subservient to them . After the Manche towns on the coast of Belize fell under Spanish control in the 16th century , they continued to have close links with the independent inland Manche settlements . Trade continued and intermarriage was common . The towns in the Cancuén River drainage traded via land and riverine routes with both the independent Itza ( notably with Nojpetén ) and with colonial Verapaz ( principally with Cobán and Cahabón ) .
There were two main trade routes used by the Manche Ch 'ol ; the first went north along the Mopan River to Chacchilan , then overland to Nojpetén . The second followed the Cancuén River to Yol , and there joined the Pasión River northwards , leaving the river when it turned west and continuing overland to Nojpetén . Xocmo , on the Sacapulas River , was a trading port where the Manche and Lakandon Ch 'ols met to trade cacao and annatto . Xocmo had a major fair , still taking place as late as 1676 , where traders arrived from various colonial and independent settlements ; these included Nojpetén and the towns of Cobán , San Agustín Lanquín and Sacapulas in colonial Verapaz . The Chols traded cacao and annatto into the encomienda towns of Verapaz in exchange for metal tools ( particularly axes and machetes ) and salt . Other products traded to the Manche by the Q 'eqchi ' of colonial Verapaz included cotton textiles and quetzal feathers . The Q 'eqchi ' used this trade to supply products demanded by their Spanish overlords under the repartimiento system . The Manche produced a number of products for trade , manufactured from resources in the southern Maya Mountains of Belize ; these included blowguns , bows and arrows , finely sculpted greenstone axes , hammocks , manos and metates , pottery , and cane , all of which were traded across the southern Maya region .
= = Spanish contact = =
Conquistador Hernán Cortés passed through Manche Ch 'ol territory in 1525 , and described it as sparsely populated . In the 16th century , the coastal towns of Campin and Tzoite were given in encomienda to Hernando Sánchez de Aguilar ; they fell within the jurisdiction of colonial Bacalar , on the Yucatán coast near Chetumal . Although some Manche Ch 'ols visited the Dominican friars in Cobán , Verapaz , in 1564 , the central Manche were not contacted by the Spanish again until 1603 , when Dominican missionaries first attempted to evangelise them , and started to gather the scattered inhabitants into towns . In the second half of the 16th century , the still @-@ independent Manche Ch 'ol became a refuge for Christianised Maya living under Spanish domination in Verapaz , who wished to escape and live as apostates among them and their Lakandon Ch 'ol neighbours . In 1596 , Dominican friar Juan Esguerra reported seeing eleven Manche traders in Cahabón ; he claimed that the Manche Ch 'ol were frequent visitors to the town . In 1600 the regular presence of Manche Ch 'ol traders in Cahabón was again reported , and they were said to arrive in greater numbers for the town 's festivities in honour of its patron saint . Friar Esguerra complained in 1605 of the great number of Christianised Q 'eqchi ' Maya of Cahabón that were fleeing the town to live as apostates among the Manche Ch 'ol .
By 1606 the missionaries had concentrated many Manche Ch 'ols in nine new mission towns , and had started to penetrate the territory of the neighbouring Mopan Maya , who were on the borders of the fiercely independent Itza of central Petén . By 1628 the Dominicans were tending to 6 @,@ 000 Maya in the part of Manche Ch 'ol territory that they had gained access to . This figure included some apostate refugees from Spanish @-@ controlled Cahabón . Estimates of the total Manche Ch 'ol population in the mid @-@ 17th century vary from 10 @,@ 000 to 30 @,@ 000 , with prominent 20th @-@ century Mayanist J. Eric S. Thompson preferring the lower figure as opposed to the high @-@ end estimates by 17th @-@ century chroniclers . The Dominican penetration of Mopan territory alarmed the Itza , who started to harass the Manche Ch 'ol , driving them away from the mission towns .
In spite of the Dominicans ' successes among the Manche in the early 17th century , they suffered a serious setback in the early 1630s when the Itza and Mopan attacked the Manche Ch 'ol mission towns , driving out the Dominicans for decades . The Dominicans returned in the 1670s and were able to re @-@ establish several missions in the region . In the late 17th century , the Spanish friars complained of the infidelity of the Manche ; that they were quick to adopt Christianity and equally quick to abandon it . Friar Francisco Gallegos complained that trying to concentrate the Manche in mission towns was " like keeping birds in the forest without a cage " . Due to the historical links between the Manche Ch 'ol and the inhabitants of Spanish Cahabón , the Spanish colonial authorities used the Maya inhabitants of Cahabón as guides , interpreters and lay preachers in their attempts to bring the Manche within the empire . By the 1670s the Manche Ch 'ol were in a difficult position , on the one side forced to bow to Itza trade demands under the threat of armed reprisals , and on the other side forced into extortionate trade with the Spanish encomienda towns . In the late 1670s , Sebastián de Olivera , alcalde mayor ( governor ) of Verapaz , imposed compulsory trade prices upon the Manche Ch 'ol , forcing one town to buy 70 machetes at 2 @.@ 5 times the going price , paid in cacao . Refusal to trade was met with violence , and if the Manche could not afford the price demanded then Olivera 's representatives would seize goods , clothing , poultry and previously traded metal tools . In 1684 three Franciscan friars were killed during an attempt to evangelise the inhabitants of Paliac . The three missionaries had been accompanying a Spanish expedition to collect valuable cacao ; the expedition is likely to have involved considerable Spanish violence . It is likely that the friars were sacrificed by cutting out their hearts .
= = Extinction = =
In 1678 the Manche Ch 'ol population was devastated by disease ; in the area around the town of San Lucas Tzalac it killed every child under six years old and almost all of those under the age of ten . Total deaths , including adults , numbered over 400 and the epidemic prompted all the Manche Ch 'ol in the affected region to abandon the mission towns and flee into the forest . The Spanish made a number of further attempts to pacify the Manche Ch 'ol , but these were ultimately unsuccessful , and the Manche Ch 'ol rebelled in 1689 . In that year many Manche Ch 'ol were forcibly relocated to the Urrán Valley in the highlands , resulting in the abandonment of many of the Manche orchards ; this eventually led to the collapse of the regional trade network that by then had been fully linked with colonial Guatemala and supplied it with unknown quantities of cacao .
In 1694 , two Franciscan friars set out from Guatemala to see if they could succeed where the Dominicans had failed . Antonio Margil and Melchor López left Cobán in August 1693 to seek out the hostile Lakandon Ch 'ols in the depths of the rainforest . Antionio Margil had already spent two years among the Manche Ch 'ol . Although they found the Lakandon , the mission was a failure and the friars were forced to flee . Disappointed by their failure , in April 1694 the friars wrote a letter to the president of the Audiencia Real of Guatemala , Jacinto de Barrios Leal , stating their belief that any further peaceful attempts at converting the Ch 'ol peoples were pointless , and that the time had come for military action .
The conquering Spanish carried out several operations to relocate the Manche to Alta Verapaz , with their relocation being completed in 1697 , a short time after the Spanish finally defeated their Itza Maya neighbours to the northwest . Most of the surviving Manche Ch 'ol were forcibly resettled in the Guatemalan Highlands , in the villages of El Chol and Belén , in the Urran Valley near Rabinal . The resettled Manche Ch 'ol suffered from the abrupt change of climate from tropical lowland rain forest to the cold highlands . They were often not provided with suitable clothing by their Spanish overlords , and many died . The depopulation of the Manche and Lakandon Ch 'ol lands , and the resulting collapse of long @-@ standing trade routes , resulted in the gradual impoverishment of colonial Verapaz .
In 1699 a Spanish expedition under the command of sergeant Martín de Montoya was sent from the Spanish garrison at Nuestra Señora de los Remedios y San Pablo , Laguna del Itza ( formerly Nojpetén ) to investigate Indian activity in the former Ch 'ol and Mopan territories . He found evidence that there were still surviving Maya in all the lands he crossed , as evidenced by the carefully tended cacao and vanilla orchards . At this time there were said to be 400 relocated Maya from the same area living in Belén .
By 1710 the population of Manche Ch 'ol in Belén had fallen to just four ; everyone else had died as a result of disease , hunger and melancholy . By 1770 the Manche Ch 'ol were all but extinct ; their original territory had been abandoned and had reverted to wilderness , and the few survivors relocated to the highlands numbered not more than 300 in the whole Urran Valley , where there were almost as many Spanish and ladinos . Many Manche Ch 'ol in Verapaz were absorbed into the expanding Q 'eqchi ' Maya population , which gradually occupied the vacated Manche lands . It is possible that a few Manche Ch 'ol survived in the forested interior of Toledo District in Belize , to be later absorbed by incoming Q 'eqchi ' in the late 19th century . In the very early part of the 19th century , a handful of Maya were still recorded as speaking Ch 'ol in Cobán .
= = Legacy = =
The highly specialised Manche production methods for annatto , cacao and vanilla were adopted by the incoming Q 'eqchi ' and are still applied on a small scale . Among the modern @-@ day Q 'eqchi ' , a tradition still exists that these orchards belong to their ancestors , the ch 'olcuink spirits , who lack salt and swap cacao for it .
= British Asian Cup =
The British Asian Cup was a day / night Twenty20 cricket charity match played between the 2008 Indian Premier League ( IPL ) champion Rajasthan Royals and the 2008 Twenty20 Cup champion Middlesex Panthers played at the Lord 's Cricket Ground , London , England . A portion of the earnings of the match went to the British Asian Trust . It ended as the Royals defeated the Panthers by 46 runs .
Shaun Udal and Shane Warne were the captains for the Panthers and the Royals respectively . The Royals played a warm @-@ up game with the Middlesex Second XI before the match , and won it by 28 runs . The match attracted a crowd of 20 @,@ 000 people , but was delayed due to rain .
Winning the toss , the Panthers opted to bowl first . The Royals scored 162 runs for five wickets , and Swapnil Asnodkar and Mohammad Kaif top @-@ scored with 41 run each . Dawid Malan took two wickets for 23 runs . In reply , the Panthers made 116 runs for seven wickets , as the Royals won by 46 runs . Sohail Tanvir took three wickets for 20 runs , and Dimitri Mascarenhas was named the man of the match for his all @-@ round performance .
= = Background = =
On 14 May 2009 , it was announced that 2008 IPL champion Rajasthan Royals and 2008 Twenty20 Cup champion Middlesex Panthers will play a charity match on 6 July 2009 under the name of the British Asian Cup , a portion of the earnings of which will go to the British Asian Trust . The two teams would have played each other in the 2008 Champions League Twenty20 , but the tournament was cancelled due to security reasons . The then IPL chairman Lalit Modi said , " We have shown this year that the IPL truly has global appeal , and for one of our teams to be playing at the ' home of cricket [ Lords ] ' in front of the wonderfully passionate British fans is very exciting . " He also welcomed the association with the British Asian Trust . Marlyebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) chief executive Keith Bradshaw said , " It is a great honour to be hosting the first year of this competition , and demonstrates the MCC commitment to globalising our brand and venue . " It was planned that the British Asian Cup will be an annual series played between the IPL and Twenty20 Cup winners , and will consist of three matches in future .
= = Build up = =
Udal and Warne captained the Panthers and the Royals respectively . Tyron Henderson , who had played for the Royals in the IPL , decided to play for the Panthers . Sohail Tanvir played for the Royals after getting the permission of the Pakistan Cricket Board . Tanvir was not able to play in the 2009 IPL due to tense relations between India and Pakistan after the 2008 Mumbai attacks . However it was later decided to move the 2009 edition to South Africa due to 2009 Indian general election , but till then the Pakistani players were either terminated or suspended by their franchisees due to their unavailability . Kamran Akmal could not play for the Royals in the match because of Sri Lanka 's tour of Pakistan . It was also the last competitive game played by Warne at the Lord 's Cricket Ground .
The Royals played a warm @-@ up game with the Middlesex Second XI at Denis Compton Oval on 5 July 2009 . Captained by Mohammad Kaif , the Royals won the toss elected to bat first . The scored 139 runs at a loss of seven wickets , and Faiz Fazal top scored with 47 runs . Batting second , the Middlesex Second XI got all out at 111 runs in the last over . Munaf Patel took three wickets , and the Royals won by 28 runs .
= = Match = =
The match attracted a crowd of 20 @,@ 000 people and was a day / night event . The match was scheduled to start at 4 : 21 GMT , but it started raining heavily and the play was stopped . However the rain stopped at 4 : 25 GMT and the toss took place . The Panthers won the toss and decided to bowl first . Fazal and Swapnil Asnodkar opened for the Royals and Gareth Berg bowled the first over . Murali Karthik came to the attack in the seventh over . In the first ball of the over , a shot by Ashnodkar was deflected by the wicket @-@ keeper 's helmet , and the Royals got five penalty runs . In the same over , Fazal and Asnodkar reached to a 50 runs partnership in 38 balls . However Karthik took the wicket of Fazal in the fifth ball . Fazal tried to hit play the ball towards extra cover , but it went high in the air and Billy Godleman took the catch . Fazal went out making 27 runs off 22 balls , hitting two sixes . Karthik slowed down the run rate , and no boundary was hit in the next six overs . Kaif and Ashnodkar added 50 runs in 45 balls for the second wicket , but Ashnodkar got dismissed in the very next ball . Dawid Malan bowled a full toss and Ashnodkar hit it towards deep mid @-@ wicket , however Shah took " well judged " catch . Ashnodkar made 41 runs off 40 balls . In the next over , Eoin Morgan dropped Naman Ojha on Shaun Udal . However Ojha got caught by Steven Finn on the next ball . Ojha made 10 run off 5 balls . In the next over , Malan bowled Justin Langer , who scored one run in two balls . The next over , bowled by Henderson , came out to be the most expensive over of the innings ; 15 runs were scored in the over . Mascarenhas hit a four and a six , and the Royals reached to 145 runs . The next over was bowled by Berg , who gave seven runs . In the last ball of the innings , Kaif got ran out on 41 runs . The Royals scored 162 runs at a loss of five wickets in 20 overs . Mascarenhas remained not out on 32 runs off 16 balls . Malan took two wickets for the Panthers giving 23 runs .
The Panthers opened with Godleman and Neil Dexter . The first wicket felt in the fourth over ; Tanvir bowled Godleman , who went on four runs . Mascarenhas took the important wicket of Owais Shah in the next over , as Shah went for one run . In the first ball of the seventh over , Ojha dropped Dexter , however Mascarenhas bowled him on 26 runs on the third ball of the same over . Mascarenhas took two wickets for 24 runs in his four over spell . Malan and Morgan scored 45 runs for the fourth wicket partnership , before Ojha caught Morgan on Tanvir . Morgan went out making 15 runs on 19 balls . Henderson got out in the same over , getting caught by Mascarenhas ; he went out scoring one run . Ojha stumped Malan on Warne in the next over , and he went for 34 runs . The Panthers required 79 runs in the last four overs . Berg , who scored 26 runs , went out in the last over as Fazal caught him on Abhishek Raut . The Panthers could only manage to 116 runs for even wickets , and the Royals won by 46 runs . Tanvir took three wickets for 20 runs . Mascarenhas was named the man of the match for his " all @-@ round effort " .
= = = Scorecard = = =
On @-@ field umpires : Trevor Jesty ( England ) , David Millns ( England )
Third umpire : Stephen Gale ( England )
Toss : Panthers elected to field first
Result : Royals won by 46 wickets
Key
* – Captain
– Wicket @-@ keeper
c Fielder – the batsman was dismissed by a catch by the named fielder
b Bowler – the bowler who gains credit for the dismissal
b – the batsman was dismissed by bowled
lbw – the batsman was dismissed leg before wicket
Total runs are in the format : score / wickets
= The Great Stagnation =
The Great Stagnation : How America Ate All the Low @-@ Hanging Fruit of Modern History , Got Sick , and Will ( Eventually ) Feel Better is a pamphlet by Tyler Cowen published in 2011 . It argues that the American economy has reached a historical technological plateau and the factors which drove economic growth for most of America 's history are mostly spent . These figurative " low @-@ hanging fruit " from the title include the cultivation of much free , previously unused land ; the application and spread of technological breakthroughs , particularly during the period 1880 – 1940 , including transport , refrigeration , electricity , mass communications , and sanitation ; and the education of large numbers of smart people who previously received none .
Cowen , a professor of Economics at George Mason University , looks to these factors to explain the stagnation in the median , or middle , American wage since 1973 . Analysis has set the " Great Stagnation " idea against the " Great Divergence " , a set of explanations which blame rising income inequality and globalization for the stall . Related debates have examined whether the internet 's effect has yet been fully realized in production , if its users enjoy a significant consumer surplus , and how it might be further integrated into the economy . The final set of questions concerns appropriate policy responses to the problem .
The pamphlet is 15 @,@ 000 words long and was first published in January 2011 as an electronic book , priced at USD $ 4 . A hardback version , which Cowen dubbed " the retrogression " , was published in June 2011 . While not all reviewers agreed with Cowen 's thesis and arguments , the book was largely welcomed as timely and skilled in framing the debate around the future of the American economy .
= = Synopsis = =
The main thesis is that economic growth has slowed in the United States and in other advanced economies , as a result of falling rates of innovation . In Chapter 1 , Cowen describes the three major forms of " low @-@ hanging fruit " : the ease of cultivating free and unused land , rapid invention from 1880 to 1940 which capitalized on the scientific breakthroughs of the 18th and 19th centuries and the large returns from sending intelligent but uneducated children to school and university . There are potentially two further minor forms : cheap fossil fuels and the strength of the American constitution . Cowen concludes , " You could say , ' The modern United States was built at five forms of low @-@ hanging fruit , and at most only two of those are still with us . ' Fair enough . " While they produced extremely large returns , future advances will be much more incremental . He offers anecdotal and statistical illustrations for this slowdown . First , he compares the changes witnessed by his grandmother with those of his own generation . Then , he cites median income statistics : the rate of growth drastically slowed from 1973 onwards . He further argues that the failure to diagnose the trend has led to a degradation in political discourse since left and right leaning actors blame the policies of " the other side " and " what I like to call the ' honest middle ' cannot be heard above the din . "
Chapter 2 examines productivity in the contemporary economy . Cowen describes spurts in productivity growth , 2 @.@ 8 % between 1996 and 2000 and 3 @.@ 8 % from 2000 to 2004 , and he asks if they disprove the stagnation thesis . He concedes that there have been gains in certain areas , such as information technology , but argues that in other important areas such as finance , which is 8 % of GDP , there has been less value created .
Also , whilst productivity figures have improved , median incomes and stock market prices , and thus the returns to capital and labor , have not improved . Furthermore , government consumption ( government activity excluding transfer payments ) represents between 15 – 20 % of GDP , but since the sector is measured at cost it becomes less and less productive as it grows larger . Thus , the more government consumption there is , the more published GDP figures tend to overestimate growth in living standards .
In health care ( 17 % of GDP ) , the problems of asymmetric information and moral hazard mean that increased spending results in little or no improvement in health outcomes . A similar result is observed in education , 6 % of GDP , where outcomes have not improved in the last 40 years .
Chapter 3 considers whether the internet and other computing technologies disprove the argument . Cowen writes that while the internet has been fantastic for the intellectually curious , it has done little to raise material standards of living . The biggest Internet companies employ at most a few thousand people , and relatively few services are paying : " We have a collective historical memory that technological progress brings a big and predictable stream of revenue growth across most of the economy . When it comes to the web , those assumptions are turning out to be wrong or misleading . "
Chapter 4 examines American politics in light of the thesis . Cowen says Paul Krugman 's The Conscience of a Liberal ( 2007 ) puts the " cart before the horse " in asking for high marginal tax rates , unionization , and an egalitarian distribution of income and wealth . The policies worked in the 1950ss precisely because the real income growth was there to support them . Cowen argues that the failure to recognize the stagnation has led to poor policy ideas from the right ( such as " revenue generating tax cuts " ) and the left ( redistribution of incomes ) . Cowen laments the " exaggeration " of both sides and the influence of political lobbying on economic policy . The growth in government , he says , was affordable during the period of lowhanging fruit , and the advances in transportation , industrial production , electronic communications and scientific management even facilitated it .
Chapter 5 proposes a simple cause for the 2008 financial crisis " We thought we were richer than we were . " He argues that despite a series of regular , smaller crises since the 1980s , the crash was ultimately caused by investors taking too much risk across the economy , " housing and sub @-@ prime loans were the proverbial canary in the coalmine . "
Chapter 6 looks at solutions to the problem . Cowen praises the development of India and China as producers and consumers , the role of the internet in enlarging the scientific community , and a growing consensus for the reform of educational policy in the US . He further suggests for the social status of scientists to be raised to at least as strong a motivating factor as money can .
= = Analysis = =
= = = Place in the growth literature = = =
Matthew Yglesias described the book 's themes as a continuation and expansion of those developed by Paul Krugman in The Age of Diminished Expectations , Third Edition : U.S. Economic Policy in the 1990s ( 1997 ) . Both books treat the diminishing rate of return from basic science and the effects that it has on politics , specifically " that a growing share of innovative energy is going into rent @-@ seeking or otherwise unproductive activities " .
Timothy Noah compared it to Prosperity : The Coming Twenty Year Boom and What it Means to You by Bob Davis and David Wessel , an enormously popular book at the time ( 1998 ) which today resells for a penny . He described how both Prosperity and The Great Stagnation examine the puzzle of stagnant median wages though offer starkly different opinions about the prospects for future growth and in particular the role of information technologies in that . He concluded by calling Cowen 's appeal to " realistic expectations " about growth a " weird conservative echo " of the Club of Rome 's liberal " era of limits gospel from the 1970s " . In the summer of 2012 , Robert Gordon 's paper , " Is U.S. Economic Growth Over ? " prompted comparisons to Cowen 's thesis . Gordon also points out that the easy gains of increased labor force participation , schooling or land use have been spent , while other major innovations or industries — such as transport or sanitation — have enjoyed only gradual improvement .
= = = The internet , growth , and quality of life = = =
Annie Lowrey , writing in Slate , compares Cowen 's treatment of the internet to the " productivity paradox " first postulated by economists in the 1980s . She quoted Robert Solow , a growth theorist , who wrote in 1987 " You can see the computer age everywhere but in the productivity statistics . " To explain why growth had not picked up strongly after the boom in computing products from the 1970s onwards , they suggested that the changes advantaged some firms and disadvantaged others leaving little net gain . The problem also may be partly because of deficiencies in the measurement of income and well @-@ being . The internet promotes more free culture , the consumption of which provides utility and happiness to people but cannot be captured through GDP figures that measure revenue .
The Economist 's Free Exchange blog argued that Cowen " undersold " recent innovations in digital technologies and that society was still in the process of re @-@ organising itself around them . A growth spurt should be expected but this could take anything from years to decades , it warned . Furthermore , there are particularly large gains to be had in the area " cognition @-@ augmenting innovations ( as opposed to labor @-@ augmenting innovations ) " . Writing in Forbes , Steve Denning described Cowen 's " low @-@ hanging fruit theory " as " folkloric nonsense " . The world of 1953 , when Denning was young , is inconceivable to a young person today , he wrote , adding that the qualification " apart from the Internet " is equivalent to saying " apart from the wheel " when discussing transport . The Financial Times reviewer recognized that Cowen , a prominent blogger , " is no Luddite ... he thinks life is more fun and interesting with the internet around " . He argued that most economists do not look at consumer technology to find the internet 's effect on productivity but rather organizations : super @-@ efficient retailers such as Wal @-@ mart and Tesco have already incorporated it into their logistics . Furthermore , the pace of change means it could be a generation at least before we see the full implementation . Timothy Noah seizes upon Cowen 's " concession " that the internet could well increase scientific output by allowing better communication between scientists in remote places . Just as Davis and Wessel incorrectly predicted a coming boom in middle class incomes due to computers , Cowen " seems equally wrong to suggest that computer technology is not on the verge of doing so . "
= = = Education and employment = = =
Denning writes that the real challenge is keeping up with technological change , and in this sense , scientific management was the key American technological advance in the 20th century . It allowed American companies to provide large numbers of jobs to semi @-@ skilled workers through supply @-@ chain management , hierarchies , and rule @-@ based systems . Businesses must now adjust to well @-@ informed consumers who disdain profiteering and wish to be " delighted " . A related challenge is shifting from managing semi @-@ skilled to knowledge workers . The Economist contrasted the " Great Stagnation " thesis with the " Great Divergence " which traces the pay gap to an increasing demand for skilled workers . Timothy Noah , writing in Slate , did not share Cowen 's optimism about the future of American educational attainment on the basis that President Obama " is getting tough " on teachers ' unions . There have been many reforms implemented in the last thirty years that the unions initially opposed , and the United States has poorer outcomes than many OECD countries with stronger unions . Noah reminds us that the earlier authors were optimistic about increased third level enrollment and that has since fallen as have graduation rates . The United States remains significantly behind other advanced countries in educational outcomes offering a perverse hope for improvement .
David Brooks argued that a more fundamental shift from a materialist to a post @-@ materialist mindset has occurred in recent generations . While for generations born early in the century increased income was the same as improvements in lifestyle this is no longer true for people born into an affluent , information driven world . Younger generations live much more intellectually diverse lives and cites much user generated content , including Wikipedia , as being mostly produced outside of the monetary economy . He affirms Cowen 's acknowledgment that this has brought large increases in human happiness with correspondingly little economic activity .
= = = Relationship to the 2008 financial crisis and recession = = =
The Economist criticized Cowen for associating the economic problems resulting from the 2008 financial crisis to his broader thesis , arguing instead that this was mostly caused by a demand shock and mostly preventable . Some scholars , such as Jim Rickards , Howard Qi , Hongbin Song , etc . , point out that the demand shock was only the phenomenon , a result of a more serious underlying structural problem in the American economy . Furthermore , Howard Qi argues that the education in the US is not conducive to producing high quality scientists and engineers from the American citizens . Instead , the US is becoming increasingly and vitally relying on foreign students in the US universities to support the intellectual need in the US 's science and engineering . Matthew Yglesias also disagreed with the link : " Rich countries have experienced very divergent fates over the past 36 months when the key evidence for the technological stagnation thesis is that rich countries have experienced a broadly similar fate over the past 36 years " , he writes .
= = = Policy responses = = =
Cowen writes that one way to improve innovation is to raise the social status of scientists , a suggestion described as " a bit empty " and not fully congruent with the problem of recent innovations being private goods , such as financial sector innovation , rather than public ones such as penicillin or the rail @-@ road . Noah described Cowen 's prescriptions , encouragement of free trade , more higher status for scientists , and resignation to the " new normal " as " absurdly half @-@ hearted " .
R.A. , writing on The Economist 's Free Exchange blog , concluded that Cowen 's analysis of education suggested that the rich world would do better by aiding mass education programs in developing countries rather than pursuing the diminishing returns in domestic education and research , in contrary to President Obama 's State of the Union speech in 2011 . Looser immigration law would also allow rich and poor countries to exploit this source of growth . Secondly , it proposed to harvest " policy low @-@ hanging fruit " i.e. reforming or abolishing foolish and costly policies . It proposed taxing " bads " such as traffic congestion and pollution rather than " goods " such as income , reducing spending on medical treatments with no clear benefits , and removing agricultural subsidies and mortgage interest reduction . In The Economist , two different sets of policy responses were considered depending on whether the true cause is ailing technological innovation or a decline in workers ' bargaining power in the face of emerging @-@ market industrialization . Progressive taxation and redistribution would offset labor 's position of weakness whilst a limited state would reduce commitments it cannot expect to fulfill in a stagnating economy .
= = Publication and reception = =
The book is 15 @,@ 000 words long and was first published in January 2011 as an electronic book only , priced at USD $ 4 . The Economist noted that the " publishing model is fascinating in its own right " . A hardback version , which Cowen dubbed " the retrogression " , was published in June 2011 . Yglesias described the publication as an innovation in " current affairs publishing " and " much shorter and cheaper than a conventional book in a way that actually leaves you wanting to read more once you finish it . My guess is that this is the future of books . " The book has been compared to economic and political pamphlets of the 17th century , which were frequently used to quickly get ideas about current affairs into circulation .
The Economist welcomed The Great Stagnation as " an important [ book ] that will have a profound impact on the way people think about the last thirty years " . It praised " the trains of thought it suggests " and said the book merited " a rigorous debate " which should encourage different policy choices across the political spectrum . Matthew Yglesias described the book as a " bravua performance from one of the most interesting thinkers out there " . Though he said it was remarkably silent on intellectual property law and the implications for society of a world in which most of the increase in output comes from catch @-@ up growth from poor countries . The Wall Street Journal described the book as Cowen 's most impactful book due to the direction in which he leads the debate . " What is exciting is to imagine students , economists , and scientists across the country reading the book , coming to terms with the depth of our challenge and pursuing new ways of trying to ' fix ' things or generally improve our lot . " " A small book but a big , worthwhile question " , concluded The Economist . In the New York Times , David Brooks praised The Great Stagnation as " the most debated non @-@ fiction book so far this year " , which Timothy Noah described as a great favor to the book 's marketing though an exaggeration considering the discussion surrounding Battle Hymn of the Tiger Mother by Amy Chua .
= = Sequel = =
In September 2013 , a sequel by Cowen , titled Average is Over : Powering America Beyond the Age of the Great Stagnation , was published by Dutton Books . The sequel focused on Cowen 's vision for how the United States economy would recover and grow over the coming decades , and the types of jobs that would exist in the new economy .
= Rush ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Rush " is the fifth episode of the seventh season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files , and the 144th episode overall . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 5 , 1999 . It was written by David Amann and directed by Robert Lieberman . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Rush " earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 9 , being watched by 12 @.@ 71 million viewers in its initial broadcast . The episode received mostly mixed @-@ to @-@ negative reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Mulder and Scully investigate a high school student who is the prime suspect in the bizarre murder of a police officer . They discover that the boy and a couple of friends have been playing with the ability to accelerate their movements to a frequency the human eye can ’ t perceive .
The idea for " Rush " had been proposed as far back as the sixth season of The X @-@ Files . However , the original plot of the episode — the effects of having super speed — eventually delved into " deeper " themes , such as drug abuse , boredom , and the teenage experience . Although the episode relied on special effects , many of the scenes were created by manipulating the speed of the camera during filming .
= = Plot = =
In Pittsfield , Virginia , Tony Reed and two other teenagers meet in the woods late at night , but they are interrupted by a sheriff 's deputy . Moments later the deputy is murdered , killed with his own flashlight . Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) later examine the deputy 's body : the blow that killed the man was so ferocious that his glasses were pushed through the back of his skull . They question the suspect , teenager Tony Reed , whose fingerprints were found on the flash light , but he denies any part in the murder . Mulder and Scully agree that Tony is innocent , although Mulder 's theory of spirit involvement is not shared by Scully . Scully , on the other hand , suggests they question Tony 's friends . Mulder and Scully visit Tony 's school and speak with the two teenagers who were with Tony in the woods : the sheriff 's son , Max Harden , and his girlfriend Chastity . Chastity seems concerned about Tony when Mulder and Scully tell her he may go to jail . However , Tony is later released when the murder weapon mysteriously goes missing from the evidence room . Mulder and Scully review video footage from the evidence room that shows the flashlight simply disappear . However , a blur on the video footage attracts Mulder 's attention and later analysis by an expert reveals the blurred object is solid and matches the local high school 's colors .
When one of the teachers at the high school who was strongly despised by Max is attacked and murdered by an unseen force in front of many witnesses , Mulder suspects Max possesses some kind of paranormal ability and is using it to kill . Mulder believes Harden 's changing teenage hormones are giving him paranormal abilities that allow him to attack people without touching them .
Meanwhile , Tony follows Chastity into a cave in the woods and stumbles upon a bizarre shaft of light . Once Tony steps into the light , he is possessed with the same abilities that Max and Chastity have , the ability to vibrate at high frequencies , allowing Tony to move faster than normal vision can detect . At the same time , however , Max collapses and is sent to the hospital where it is found he is suffering from exhaustion , withdrawal , a concussion , muscular tears and skeletal fractures - basically , his abilities are killing him . Mulder eventually deduces that he possesses superhuman speed . Chastity sneaks Max out of the hospital where he returns to the cave ( even though she suggested they go somewhere else for help but Max refused ) . Later , the sheriff finds the flashlight in Max 's room and confronts his son about the murders . Max confesses and then attempts to kill his father , but Tony intervenes , taking the sheriff 's gun ; the sheriff is promptly taken to the hospital . That night , Tony and Chastity head to the cave so that Max won 't use up any more of the remaining power . Once there , Chastity has been knocked unconscious by Max , who then confronts Tony , using his abilities to take back the gun before throwing it away . However , Chastity ( having come to and using her abilities ) takes the gun and shoots Max from behind , then allows herself to be shot by the same bullet ; she tells Tony that she can 't go back to the way things were before . Afterwards , Tony is seen in the hospital recuperating while numerous geological experts examined the cave , but were unable to identify anything unusual . The city then fills the cave with concrete , sealing it forever , leaving the question as to what caused the teenager @-@ related ability a mystery .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and casting = = =
The basic concept behind " Rush " had been coming together since the sixth season . According to series creator Chris Carter , the way in which to portray the teenagers on screen was " tricky " . He noted , " it had been a long time since we had dealt with teenage angst . [ But ] it was being done everywhere else and we wanted to take a run at it . " David Amman , who wrote the episode , later explained that the original idea for the episode was simply " [ the ] effect having the power of super speed would have on troubled teens . " However , the story quickly developed " deeper " meanings : drug abuse , boredom , and the teenage experience .
According to casting director Rick Millikan , choosing actors and actresses for the episode was more difficult than usual . He explained , " it was all teenagers , but this being The X @-@ Files we were looking for something other than the typical 90210 @-@ type kids . " Millikan eventually cast individuals who could play a " subtle kind of evil " , as well as display " arrogance " and " vulnerability " . Rodney Scott was cast as Tony Reed . Scott , at the time , was more notable for his roles as David Cassidy in the 1999 television movie Come On , Get Happy : The Partridge Family Story , and for his role as William " Will " Krudski on the popular show Dawson 's Creek .
= = = Special effects = = =
The episode , most notably the scenes featuring the teenagers moving at high speed , relied heavily on special effects . However , instead of creating them on a computer , director Robert Lieberman was able to create many of the necessary scenes using different camera speeds . In order to get the proper feel for the rush effects , test footage of assistant director Xochi Blymyer was filmed at 24 frames per second ( FPS ) , 12 FPS , 6 FPS and 3 FPS . After filming , a digital " blur effect " was added to make the shot look unfocused . During the scene where the teenagers stumble into the light and receive the speed power , the special effects crew shot two separate shots : one of the teens ' bodies and one of the teens ' heads rapidly flailing . The special effects crew then " pull [ ed ] the head [ s ] off " of the shots featuring the teens moving rapidly , and used them to replace the heads on the shots of the teens ' still bodies . This method kept their bodies in focus but allowed their heads to rapidly move .
The crew used several different styles for the " bullet time " scene . In order to create the shot , a matte of the bullet emerging from Max 's chest was combined with smoke and " phony CGI bullets " , according to producer Paul Rabwin . The crew tried different tracking devices for the bullet , including a pronounced blur effect , which was later removed in favor of a more realistic " smoke " pathway . The production crew had a difficult time deciding whether or not the bullet should remain at Chastity 's speed as she walked towards it , or whether she should pass the bullet ; the group eventually went with the latter .
Stunt coordinator Danny Wesiles helped arrange the more frantic shots , such as the scene wherein a lunch table kills a teacher . Executive producer Frank Spotnitz later called the scene , " probably one of the most horrific things we 've ever done . " Due to the violent nature of the episode — and the table scene in particular — Fox 's Standards and Practices department had an issue with the series showing " the impact between the table and the man " . In order to comply , the impact was removed , but the rest of the scene stayed intact . Spotnitz later noted that , " when you take out the impact , the audience 's imagination is ten times worse . "
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Rush " first aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 5 , 1999 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 9 , with an 11 share , meaning that roughly 7 @.@ 9 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 11 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 12 @.@ 71 million viewers . The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on April 16 , 2000 and received 0 @.@ 79 million viewers , making it the sixth most watched episode that week . The episode was later nominated for an Emmy for Outstanding Special Visual Effects for a Dramatic Series as well as an International Monitor Award for Best Achievement in Visual Effects .
The episode received mostly mixed to negative reviews from critics . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a mixed review and awarded it two stars out of four . She noted that the episode suffered from a " bland story " filled with " bland teens " , noting that the actors playing the three main teenagers were " as generic as can be " . Vitaris ultimately concluded that " ' Rush ' is hardly the worst of The X @-@ Files ; it 's merely forgettable . " Kenneth Silber from Space.com was critical of the episode , arguing that the show was re @-@ using plot lines and that the personalities of the teenagers were wholly uninteresting . He wrote , " This episode unfolds with a bland sense of familiarity . Once again , troubled adolescents are toying with paranormal forces that can only get them into further trouble . Sadly , these adolescents lack interesting personalities , and the force in question remains wholly mysterious . " Rich Rosell from Digitally Obsessed awarded the episode 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars and wrote that the episode was " Not brilliant , but moderately entertaining . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode two stars out of five . Despite praising the episode 's set pieces , they ultimately concluded that " The X @-@ Files just isn 't cool anymore daddio . "
Not all reviews were so negative . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B – " . While enjoying the premise , he criticized the entry for featuring a guest cast that " mostly sucks " . He did , however , positively comment on the scene wherein Max kills his teacher , noting that it " is a brutal , visceral sequence " that the episode could have used more of . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations , gave the episode a largely positive review , writing , " ' Rush ' was sufficiently creepy and had some wonderful character interaction between Mulder and Scully . " Furthermore , he noted that the characterization " helped make it a very enjoyable entry into what is quickly becoming a very enjoyable season . "
= Stapleton Road railway station =
Stapleton Road railway station is on the Severn Beach Line and Cross Country Route , serving the inner @-@ city district of Easton in Bristol , England . It is 1 @.@ 6 miles ( 2 @.@ 6 km ) from Bristol Temple Meads . Its three letter station code is SRD . As of 2015 , the station has two platforms , two running lines and minimal facilities . It is managed by Great Western Railway , the seventh company to be responsible for the station , and the third franchise since privatisation in 1997 . They provide all train services at the station , the standard service being a train every 40 minutes along the Severn Beach Line , an hourly service to Bristol Parkway , and another hourly service to Westbury .
The station was opened in 1863 by the Bristol and South Wales Union Railway , with a single track and platform . The line was doubled in 1874 when the Clifton Extension Railway opened , then expanded to four tracks and platforms in 1888 . There were buildings on all platforms and a goods yard to the north . Stapleton Road became one of Bristol 's busiest stations , but service levels reduced significantly in the 1960s when reversing trains at Bristol Temple Meads became common . The goods facilities were closed in 1965 , staff were withdrawn in 1967 and the line was reduced to two tracks in 1984 .
The line is due to be electrified as part of the 21st @-@ century modernisation of the Great Western Main Line , which will also see the addition of two new running lines to increase capacity , although no platforms will be built for these lines . Service frequency will however be improved as part of the Greater Bristol Metro scheme .
= = Description = =
Stapleton Road railway station is located in the Easton area of Bristol . The surrounding area is primarily residential , with the M32 motorway to the north of the station , and an industrial and commercial area north of that . The station is named after the A432 Stapleton Road just north of the station . The station can be accessed by Belmont Street to the west , an unnamed access road to the east , or by a set of steps from Stapleton Road . Access to the southbound platform is via a slope of gradient greater than 1 in 12 . The station is on the Cross Country Route between Bristol Temple Meads and Bristol Parkway , and on the Severn Beach Line from Bristol Temple Meads to Severn Beach . It is 1 mile 50 chains ( 2 @.@ 6 km ) from Bristol Temple Meads . Directly to the north of the station is a bridge over the A432 , then a bridge over the M32 , then Narroways Hill Junction , where the Severn Beach Line diverges from the Cross Country Route . The next station north along the Cross Country Route is Filton Abbey Wood , the next station north along the Severn Beach Line is Montpelier , and the next station south is Lawrence Hill .
The station is on an alignment of 150 degrees , curving towards the east . There are two active platforms : the western platform , platform 1 , serves northbound trains ; the eastern platform , platform 2 , serves southbound trains . Platform 1 is 216 metres ( 236 yd ) long ; platform 2 is 211 metres ( 231 yd ) long , however both have the southern 100 metres ( 110 yd ) fenced off . The southern end of the platforms bridge the residential street St Mark 's Road . Platform 2 is part of an " island " platform , the other face of which served the northbound " up fast " line through the station , which was removed in 1984 along with the southbound " down fast " and fourth platform which served it . The disused trackbed and fourth platform are home to the Eastside Roots community garden , part of the Bristol Permaculture Group . Access between the platforms is by an open , stepped footbridge .
As of 2013 , facilities at the station are minimal – there is a metal and glass shelter on each of the two platforms , and a row of seats on the northbound platform . The station is completely unstaffed , and there are no facilities for buying tickets . There are customer help points , giving next train information for both platforms . There is no car park or taxi rank , and the nearest bus stop is 120 metres ( 130 yd ) away on the A432 Stapleton Road . There are eight bicycle stands on the platform . A mural depicting local life and history is painted on the wall of platform 1 .
The line through Stapleton Road has a speed limit of 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) northbound and 75 miles per hour ( 121 km / h ) southbound . The loading gauge is W8 , and the line handles over 15 million train tonnes per year . It is not electrified , though it is planned that it will be electrified by 2017 as part of the 21st @-@ century modernisation of the Great Western Main Line .
= = Services = =
Services at Stapleton Road are all operated by Great Western Railway . As of the December 2013 timetable , Monday to Friday , three trains every two hours run along the Severn Beach Line from Bristol Temple Meads to Avonmouth via Clifton Down , with one extended to St Andrew 's Road and Severn Beach . Most services start at Bristol , but one evening service to Avonmouth begins at Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare . On Saturdays there is a similar level of service , but more trains continue to Severn Beach . Sunday sees a roughly hourly service to and from Bristol , with only two services extending to Severn Beach , except during the May – September timetable period , when all services are extended . The first and last Sunday trains towards Bristol are extended to Taunton via Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , and there are similar workings in the other direction . Most trains call at all stations , but some services omit Lawrence Hill . In 2012 , the single fare to Clifton Down or Bristol was £ 1 @.@ 50 , and £ 3 return for the whole line .
Southbound services from Great Malvern and Gloucester to Westbury and Weymouth call at Stapleton road , with one train per hour . Hourly northbound services from Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare to Bristol Parkway also call , as do some peak northbound services from Taunton to Cardiff Central and two evening southbound services from Cardiff to Bristol . All trains southbound call at Bristol Temple Meads , although this requires Gloucester @-@ Westbury trains to reverse . CrossCountry trains pass Stapleton Road non @-@ stop throughout the day , operating two trains per hour each direction between the South West , Bristol , Manchester and Scotland .
Services from Stapleton Road are operated using a mix of Class 150 Sprinter , Class 153 Super Sprinter and Class 158 Express Sprinter diesel multiple units . Until 2012 , Class 143 Pacer units were a regular sight , but these have mostly been moved south to work in Devon and Cornwall following a cascade of Class 150 / 1 units from London Midland and London Overground .
The standard journey time to Bristol Temple Meads is 7 minutes , to Bristol Parkway 13 minutes , and to Avonmouth 23 minutes .
= = History = =
Stapleton Road opened on 8 September 1863 when services began on the Bristol and South Wales Union Railway ( BSWUR ) , which ran from Bristol Temple Meads to New Passage Pier , north of Bristol on the banks of the River Severn . At New Passage , passengers were transferred to a ferry to cross the Severn to continue on in to Wales . The line , engineered by Isambard Kingdom Brunel , was built as single track 7 ft 1 ⁄ 4 in ( 2 @,@ 140 mm ) broad gauge , with a platform on the west side of the track . The BSWUR was amalgamated with the Great Western Railway , which had from the beginning operated all BSWUR services , in 1868 ; and in 1873 the line was converted to 1 @,@ 435 mm ( 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ) standard gauge . In 1874 , the Clifton Extension Railway opened , connecting the Bristol Port Railway and Pier to the Great Western Railway at Narroways Hill Junction , north of Stapleton Road . To cope with the expected increase in traffic , the line was doubled , and a second platform was added to the east of the two tracks . Two more tracks were added in 1888 , giving a layout of two sets of two tracks , with platforms on the outside and on an island in the middle . Trains to and from Clifton Down and Avonmouth used the western platforms while trains to and from South Wales used the eastern platforms . There were buildings on all the platforms , with the booking office on the eastern outer platform , at the head of the access road . The refreshment room was on the island platform , and a covered footbridge connected the platforms . There was a yard to the north of the station , on the other side of Stapleton Road , which handled goods traffic including coal and other minerals .
Stapleton Road became one of Bristol 's busiest stations . The opening of the Clifton Extension Railway meant that Stapleton Road became a junction station , and when the Severn Tunnel was opened in 1886 , replacing the ferry from New Passage , trains from London to Wales began to run via Bristol instead of Gloucester . Many would call at Stapleton Road instead of Bristol Temple Meads because this avoided having to run the locomotive around the train . In 1886 , the daily Great Western service along the Clifton Extension Railway was 6 trains each way between Avonmouth and Temple Meads , 24 trains from Clifton Down to Temple Meads and 26 the other direction . By 1910 there were 17 services daily from Avonmouth to Temple Meads and 15 the other way , a further 20 trains each day operating between Clifton Down and Temple Meads . For many passengers on the Clifton Extension Railway , Stapleton Road was where they would change for services to South Wales and the South Coast of England , and by 1912 the station name boards showed " Stapleton Road Junction for Clifton and Avonmouth " , although the station was never officially renamed . By this time however , the number of services to Wales had decreased due to the opening of the " Badminton Line " from Wootton Bassett to Patchway , now part of the South Wales Main Line , which allowed trains from London to avoid central Bristol entirely . From 1924 , many trains to Avonmouth were extended to Severn Beach , a growing seaside resort , and some on to Pilning , then back to Temple Meads via Patchway . Circular trips via Henbury were also common , and by 1930 a total of 350 trains would pass the station each day . The station was also used by excursion trains , and by trains of evacuees during the Second World War . By 1947 , just before the start of the British Rail era , there were 33 daily services each direction between Avonmouth and Temple Meads , and 18 on Sundays . The station also saw the arrival of Prime Minister David Lloyd George in the 1920s .
When the railways were nationalised in 1948 , Stapleton Road came under the aegis of the Western Region of British Railways . A gradual decline of services at Stapleton Road began . While as late as 1963 name boards at the station read " Bristol Stapleton Road " , trains between South Wales and the South Coast were eventually re @-@ routed via Bristol Temple Meads – the introduction of diesel multiple units making it easier for the trains to reverse – and no longer called at Stapleton Road . Passenger numbers along the Clifton Extension Railway , now known as the Severn Beach Line , also dropped , and in 1963 the Beeching report suggested that all services along the line be withdrawn . In the end , services continued to Severn Beach but were discontinued via Henbury and Pilning . The goods yard was closed on 29 November 1965 , and staff were withdrawn from the station from 17 July 1967 as a cost @-@ saving measure . In 1975 the M32 motorway was opened north of the station , passing through the southern end of the goods yard . The eastern tracks were removed in 1984 , although the bridge which carried the line across the A432 and M32 was left intact . The remaining station buildings were demolished at the same time , the buildings on the island platform having already been removed by 1958 . Plans to use the disused trackbed as part of a light rail scheme linking the city centre to the northern suburbs were formed in the late 1990s , with the aim of an operational scheme by 2008 , but the plans had been shelved by 2004 . It was suggested in 2008 that the trackbed could be used as a cycle path to join together communities which had been separated by the construction of the M32 motorway , however this was dropped due to Network Rail asserting that the trackbed might be necessary for future rail expansion .
British Rail was split into business @-@ led sectors in the 1980s , at which time operations at Stapleton Road passed to Regional Railways . All trains along the Severn Beach Line ran to Severn Beach , but the service pattern was irregular . This was changed in the mid @-@ 1990s , with a more frequent service to Avonmouth but very few on to Severn Beach and no Sunday services . Services at Stapleton Road were boosted due to the proximity of Eastville Stadium , but this use ended in 1986 when Bristol Rovers F.C. moved to Twerton Park in Bath .
When the railway was privatised in 1997 , local services were franchised to Wales & West , which was succeeded by Wessex Trains , an arm of National Express , in 2001 . The station was brightened in 1999 when a mural illustrating local life was painted on the wall of the western platform by Bill Guilding . Services along the Severn Beach Line were increased to 10 per day in each direction by 2005 , with Bristol City Council providing a subsidy to Wessex Trains . The Wessex franchise was amalgamated with the Great Western franchise into the Greater Western franchise from 2006 , and responsibility passed to First Great Western , a subsidiary company of FirstGroup , rebranded in 2015 as Great Western Railway . A minimum service requirement was written into the franchise agreement , ensuring an hourly service along the Severn Beach Line . Passenger traffic increased significantly , and in 2010 , Sunday services to Severn Beach were restored .
By 2005 , the disused eastern trackbed was filled with rubble , brambles and weeds , and the station had acquired a bad reputation due to muggings and the use of illegal drugs on the station premises . A community garden project , Eastside Roots , was set up in the disused trackbed by local permaculture enthusiast Nick Ward . It was built using sustainable materials , including bricks dug out during the construction of the Cabot Circus shopping centre . The project led to a general improvement of the station ambience , and residents were more willing to use it . The footbridge was replaced in 2013 to allow for electrification of the line , but the new , higher , bridge angered local residents who felt it infringed on their privacy .
= = Future = =
First Great Western declined a contractual option to continue the Greater Western passenger franchise beyond 2013 , citing a desire for a longer @-@ term contract due to the impending upgrade to the Great Western Main Line . The franchise was put out to tender , but the process was halted and later scrapped due to the fallout from the collapse of the InterCity West Coast franchise competition . A two @-@ year franchise extension until September 2015 was agreed in October 2013 , and subsequently extended until March 2019 .
The line through Stapleton Road is due to be electrified by 2017 as part of the Great Western Main Line electrification project . However , the Severn Beach Line , the Cross Country Route , the Bristol to Exeter Line and the Heart of Wessex Line will not be electrified , so services at Stapleton Road will still be provided by diesel trains , with " Sprinter " units expected to be replaced by Class 165 and 166 " Turbo " units . The group Friends of Suburban Bristol Railways supports the electrification continuing beyond the main lines , as does MP for Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare John Penrose . The electrification scheme also includes the four @-@ tracking of Filton Bank , including the reinstatement of the disused trackbed at Stapleton Road , to allow more services between Parkway and Bristol Temple Meads and separate fast inter @-@ city services from local stopping services . The two eastern platforms at Stapleton Road will be demolished to allow trains to run faster , although it has been suggested that they be kept for use in case of service disruptions .
Stapleton Road is on the Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare / Yate corridor , one of the main axes of the Greater Bristol Metro , a rail transport plan which aims to enhance transport capacity in the Bristol area , including half @-@ hourly services along the Severn Beach Line . The scheme could see the reopening of the Henbury Loop Line to passengers , with the possibility of services from Bristol Temple Meads to Bristol Parkway via Clifton Down and Henbury . Plans for a loop were rejected by the West of England Joint Transport Board , however Bristol City Councillors voted to send the decision back to the board for further discussion .
= Sebright chicken =
The Sebright / ˈsiːbraɪt / is a breed of chicken named after its developer , Sir John Saunders Sebright . The Sebright is one of the oldest recorded British ' true ' bantam ( meaning it is a miniature bird with no corresponding large version of the breed ) , created in the 19th century through a selective breeding program designed to produce an ornamental breed .
The first poultry breed to have its own specialist club for enthusiasts , Sebrights were admitted to poultry exhibition standards not long after their establishment . Today , they are among the most popular of bantam breeds . Despite their popularity , Sebrights are often difficult to breed , and the inheritance of certain unique characteristics the breed carries has been studied scientifically . As a largely ornamental chicken , they lay tiny , white eggs and are not kept for meat production .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Sir John Saunders Sebright ( 1767 – 1846 ) was the 7th Sebright Baronet , and a Member of Parliament for Hertfordshire . In addition to breeding chickens , cattle and other animals , Sir John wrote several influential pamphlets on animal keeping and breeding : The Art of Improving the Breeds of Domestic Animals ( 1809 ) , Observations upon Hawking ( 1826 ) , and Observations upon the Instinct of Animals ( 1836 ) .
Charles Darwin read Sir John 's 1809 pamphlet , and was impressed with a passage that elaborated on how " the weak and the unhealthy do not live to propagate their infirmities " . These writings , along with Darwin 's correspondence via their mutual friend William Yarrell , aided Darwin in the inception of Darwin 's theory of natural selection . Darwin 's seminal work On the Origin of Species , first published in 1859 , cited Sir John 's experiments in pigeon breeding , and recalled " That most skilful breeder , Sir John Sebright , used to say , with respect to pigeons , that ' he would produce any given feather in three years , but it would take him six years to obtain head and beak . ' " Darwin also cited Sir John extensively regarding the Sebright bantam , as well as pigeon and dog breeding , in his 1868 work Variation of Plants and Animals Under Domestication , his 1871 The Descent of Man , and Selection in Relation to Sex , and his book on Natural Selection ( which was not published in his lifetime ) .
= = = Development = = =
With the breed that carries his name , John Sebright intentionally set out to create a very small bantam chicken with laced plumage similar to the laced variety of Polish chickens . Although the exact makeup of the breed is uncertain , he is thought to have crossed British , Hamburgh , Nankin and Polish birds with a base of Rosecombs before achieving a laced chicken that would breed true . After the breed 's establishment circa 1810 , Sebright founded The Sebright Bantam Club , which was the very first individual breed association for chickens . The breed has appeared in the American Poultry Association 's Standard of Perfection since the first edition in 1874 . Today , the breed is one of the ten most popular bantam chickens , according to the American Bantam Association .
= = Characteristics = =
In accordance with the intentions of their creator , the Sebright is an ornamental bantam , and is commonly seen in competitive poultry shows . As a true bantam , all Sebrights are very small in stature ; males weigh an average of 22 ounces ( 625 grams ) and females 20 oz ( 570 g ) . Their short backs , proportionally large breasts , and downward – pointing wings combine to create an angular , jaunty look .
All Sebrights have plumage that is laced around the edges evenly with black , on a base of either dark gold or whitish silver . Sebrights have unfeathered legs with slate – blue skin , and their beaks are ideally a dark horn color . Sebright roosters carry a rose comb covered with fine points , and a small spike that sweeps back from the head ( called a leader ) . Combs , earlobes and wattles were originally a purple colour referred to in the fancy as mulberry , but today are often bright red though mulberry is still desired according to the standards in most countries . Some breeders consider hen feathering to have an adverse effect on the fertility of male Sebrights , and may use roosters that don 't carry the trait for breeding purposes , despite their automatic disqualification in shows .
Characteristically , Sebrights are only one of a few chicken breeds in which the roosters are hen feathered , meaning they have none of the long , sickle – shaped feathers common in most roosters that appear in the tail , neck and saddle . Due to the unique characteristic hen feathering , molecular biologists have found the Sebright bantam a useful model organism in the study of sex hormones . This is because they carry a mutation that causes the tissues of their skin to convert an unusually large amount of male sex hormones ( androgens ) into female sex hormones ( estrogens ) .
They are kind birds but the male Sebright may get protective around hens and may turn on its own owners like all roosters may do . And due to their light , flighty nature it might be best to keep them contained to a smaller , fenced off area . Sebrights often will live happily living amongst other breeds as well . Sebrights are not prolific egglayers and hens are only expected to produce 60 @-@ 80 creamy @-@ white eggs each season .
= = = Husbandry = = =
Sebrights are neither prolific egg layers , nor outstanding meat birds . They can prove to be particularly difficult to raise , especially for beginners . Hens rarely go broody and chicks usually have high mortality rates . Adults are generally hardy birds , but are especially susceptible to Marek 's disease .
In temperament , Sebrights are friendly and actively social birds . Males are not known to be aggressive , but Sebrights in general , like most small chickens , are somewhat skittish birds . Due to their small size and relatively large wings , they are one of a minority of chicken breeds that retains a strong flying ability . Thus , most keepers keep Sebrights in confinement rather than allowing them to free range . Due to their genetic make @-@ up , males may on occasion be born infertile , further complicating breeding .
= Frank Chance =
Frank Leroy Chance ( September 9 , 1876 – September 15 , 1924 ) was an American professional baseball player . A first baseman , Chance played in Major League Baseball for the Chicago Cubs ( initially named the " Orphans " ) and New York Yankees from 1898 through 1914 . He also served as manager of the Cubs , Yankees , and Boston Red Sox .
Discovered by the Cubs as he played semi @-@ professional baseball while attending college , Chance debuted with the Cubs in 1898 , serving as a part @-@ time player . In 1903 , Chance became the Cubs ' regular first baseman , and in 1905 , he succeeded Frank Selee as the team 's manager . Chance led the Cubs to four National League championships in the span of five years ( 1906 – 1910 ) and won the World Series championships in 1907 and 1908 . With Joe Tinker and Johnny Evers , Chance formed a strong double play combination , which was immortalized as " Tinker @-@ to @-@ Evers @-@ to @-@ Chance " in " Baseball 's Sad Lexicon " .
Let go by the Cubs after the 1912 season , Chance signed with the Yankees , serving as a player – manager for two seasons . He joined the Los Angeles Angels of the Pacific Coast League as a player – manager , returning to MLB in 1923 as manager of the Red Sox . Chance was named the manager of the Chicago White Sox in 1924 , but never took control of the team as he became ill . He died later that year .
Noted for his leadership abilities , Chance earned the nickname " Peerless Leader . " He is the all @-@ time leader in managerial winning percentage in Cubs history . Chance was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in the 1946 balloting by the Veterans Committee , along with Tinker and Evers .
= = Early life = =
Chance was born in Salida , California , in Stanislaus County , on September 9 , 1876 . His family was of English and Scottish descent . He was raised in Fresno , California and attended Fresno High School . His father was president of the first national bank in Fresno .
Chance enrolled at the University of California , where he pursued a degree in dentistry . He transferred to Washington College in Irvington , California . While playing baseball for the school 's baseball team , he received an offer to play semi @-@ professional baseball for a team in Sullivan , Illinois , for $ 40 a month ( $ 1 @,@ 138 in current dollar terms ) , which he accepted .
Returning to college the next year , Chance led his team to a third @-@ place finish in an amateur tournament of 50 teams . Bill Lange of the Chicago Cubs discovered Chance and convinced the Cubs to sign him as a backup catcher and outfielder , receiving $ 1 @,@ 200 a year ( $ 34 @,@ 133 in current dollar terms ) . Chance was scouted by other teams , but chose the Cubs as Tim Donohue was the only catcher ahead of him on the Cubs ' depth chart .
= = Career = =
= = = Chicago Cubs = = =
Chance began his career in 1898 with the Chicago Cubs , serving as a reserve catcher and outfielder . He played irregularly through the 1902 season . Due in part to finger injuries suffered while catching , Chance played in no more than 75 games in a season through 1902 . In 1903 , Johnny Kling became the Cubs ' full @-@ time catcher . As Bill Hanlon , the Cubs ' first baseman , left the team , manager Frank Selee moved Chance to first base . Though Chance initially balked at the position change , he agreed when he received a pay raise .
In 125 games during the 1903 season , Chance recorded a .327 batting average , and 67 stolen bases ; the latter mark led the National League ( NL ) . His .439 on @-@ base percentage was third @-@ best in the league , behind Roy Thomas and Roger Bresnahan , and his 81 runs batted in ( RBIs ) tied Jake Beckley for sixth @-@ best . Chance had a .310 batting average in 1904 , good for sixth place in the NL . His .382 on @-@ base percentage was the fourth @-@ best in the league , and his .430 slugging percentage was fifth @-@ best . Chance also hit six home runs , tying him with Dan McGann , Red Dooin , and Cozy Dolan for third place , his 42 stolen bases tied McGann for fourth place , and his 89 runs scored were seventh @-@ best .
Selee fell ill in 1905 , and Chance was selected to succeed him as manager . That year , he also batted .316 with 92 runs scored and 70 RBIs . His batting average was sixth @-@ best in the NL , while he led the league with a .450 on @-@ base percentage , and finished seventh with a .434 slugging percentage . His 38 stolen bases were sixth @-@ best in the league . In 1906 , Chance batted .319 and led the NL in runs scored ( 103 ) and stolen bases ( 57 ) . His batting average was fifth @-@ best in the league , while his .419 on @-@ base percentage finished in third , and his .430 slugging percentage placed him in fifth . When Chance stole home from second base in a tie game against the Cincinnati Reds , team owner Charles W. Murphy granted him a ten @-@ percent ownership stake in the club to show his gratitude . Chance later sold his share of the franchise for approximately $ 150 @,@ 000 . Meanwhile , The Cubs won 116 games during the 1906 season , taking the NL pennant . The Chicago White Sox of the American League defeated the Cubs in the 1906 World Series .
Chance batted .293 during the 1907 season , finishing sixth in the NL , while his .395 on @-@ base percentage was third @-@ best . He tied Ed Abbaticchio for seventh with 35 stolen bases . The Cubs returned to the World Series in 1907 . Though Chance only batted .154 in the 1907 World Series , the Cubs defeated the Tigers in four games .
Chance began to decline during the 1908 season . Though he finished third in the NL with 27 doubles , he did not finish among the ten best in the categories of batting average , on @-@ base percentage , or stolen bases in 1908 , 1909 , or 1910 . Chance batted .425 in the 1908 World Series , as the Cubs again defeated the Tigers , this time in five games .
By 1910 , Chance began to groom Fred Luderus as his successor at first base . He rebuilt the team in 1911 after Evers 's nervous breakdown and the departure of Harry Steinfeldt , replacing them with Heinie Zimmerman and Jim Doyle respectively . The Cubs returned to the World Series in 1910 , against the Philadelphia Athletics . Chance batted .353 in the 1910 World Series , though the Athletics won the series in five games . Chance was ejected in game three , becoming the first player ever ejected from a World Series game . Chance continued to transition himself out of the Cubs ' lineup in 1911 , as he played in only 31 games .
= = = New York Yankees = = =
In 1912 , Chance endured surgeries to correct blood clots in his brain that were caused by being hit by pitches in his head . Meanwhile , Chance argued with Murphy , who had been releasing expensive players from the Cubs in an effort to save the team money . The New York Yankees negotiated for Chance 's release from the Cubs after the 1912 season . The Cubs released Chance while he was hospitalized , and in January 1913 , Chance signed a three @-@ year contract with the Yankees , worth $ 120 @,@ 000 ( $ 2 @,@ 873 @,@ 131 in current dollar terms ) , to serve as the Yankees ' manager . He also played first base for the Yankees and served as field captain , though he played in no more than 12 games in a season . The Yankees sat in last place on the next @-@ to @-@ last day of the 1913 season , but won their final game to finish in seventh place . In 1914 , Chance named Roger Peckinpaugh the Yankees ' new captain .
After struggling during the 1914 season , Chance criticized the talent brought to him by Yankees scout Arthur Irwin . After repeatedly seeking to have Irwin fired , he offered his resignation from the team late in the season on the condition that he still was to receive his 1915 salary . After this was accepted by team owner Frank J. Farrell , Chance resigned with three weeks remaining in the season , and Peckinpaugh served as player – manager for the remainder of the season .
= = = Later career = = =
Chance returned to his native California , and was named manager of the Los Angeles Angels of the Pacific Coast League in 1916 . Chance won the league championship in 1916 . He re @-@ signed with the Angels for the 1917 season and was also granted a part ownership in the Angels from the majority owner , John F. Powers . Powers and Chance remained good friends for the rest of his life . He resigned during the 1917 season due to his declining health . He then served as president of the California Winter League , continuing to instill discipline in players : he fined Ty Cobb for " abusing an umpire " .
Chance managed the Boston Red Sox in 1923 . The Red Sox did not retain Chance after the season . But some sources noted that Chance had only agreed to a one @-@ year contract and was not necessarily interested in returning to the Red Sox , a team described by one sportswriter as no better than a minor league club . After his relationship with the Red Sox was severed , he was named the Chicago White Sox manager for the 1924 season but developed severe influenza before he could take the helm . He soon developed other respiratory complications , including asthma . Chance submitted his resignation to owner Charles Comiskey , but Comiskey refused to accept it , giving him the opportunity to return to the team when his health improved . He returned to Chicago briefly in April , but was unable to take charge of the team . Chance returned to Los Angeles where he underwent emergency surgery in April 1924 . Evers was named the White Sox acting manager for the 1924 season .
= = = Career summary = = =
= = = = Overview = = = =
Chance was part of the trio of infielders remembered for their double @-@ play ability , with Joe Tinker and Johnny Evers . The trio were immortalized as " Tinker @-@ to @-@ Evers @-@ to @-@ Chance " , also known as " Baseball 's Sad Lexicon " , written by the 28 @-@ year @-@ old New York Evening Mail newspaper columnist Franklin Pierce Adams in July 1910 . Chance helped Evers develop an underhanded throw .
Chance took over as Chicago 's manager in 1905 . His playing time decreased towards the end of the decade . The Cubs won the NL pennant in 1906 , 1907 , 1908 and 1910 , and won the World Series in 1907 and 1908 , to date , the Cubs ' last World Series victory . He became the highest paid player in baseball , earning as much as $ 25 @,@ 000 ( $ 634 @,@ 911 in current dollar terms ) in 1910 .
Chance 's lifetime record as a manager was 946 – 648 ( .593 winning percentage ) ; his .667 winning percentage as manager of the Cubs is the highest in franchise history . As a player , Chance is the Cubs ' all @-@ time career leader in stolen bases , with 400 . He led the Cubs in batting average in 1903 , 1904 , 1905 and 1907 . In World Series play , Chance batted .310 , recording 22 hits , scoring 11 runs , and stealing 10 bases .
Chance was a disciplinarian . He preached moderation in socializing , including avoiding alcohol , to his players . Chance fined his players for shaking hands with members of the opposing team and forced Solly Hofman to delay his wedding until after the baseball season , lest marriage impair his abilities on the playing field . In August 1911 , Chance suspended Tinker for the remainder of the season for using profanity , though he reinstated Tinker two days later .
= = = = Managerial record = = = =
= = Personal = =
During the baseball offseasons , Chance worked as a prizefighter . James J. Corbett and John L. Sullivan , among the best fighters of the era , both considered Chance " the greatest amateur brawler of all time . " Chance owned a ranch in Glendora , California , which he sold prior to becoming manager of the Red Sox .
Chance married Edythe Pancake on October 3 , 1903 . Edythe became an advocate for baseball , imploring women to attend baseball games .
Chance died at age 48 . Some sources simply said that he died of a " long illness " , while others attributed it to heart disease brought on by severe spasms of bronchial asthma . He was survived by his wife , mother , sister , and three brothers . Chance was interred in the Angelus @-@ Rosedale Cemetery , Los Angeles . His death was greatly mourned , and his funeral received widespread publicity in Los Angeles and Chicago . Among his pallbearers were Powers and race car driver Barney Oldfield . His estate was valued at $ 170 @,@ 000 .
= = Honors = =
After falling short of induction in the Hall of Fame by seven votes in 1945 , Chance was elected to the Hall of Fame in 1946 . Tinker and Evers were elected the same year . Chance was also elected to the Fresno Athletic Hall of Fame .
A baseball field in Fresno named after Chance operated from 1935 to 1941 . Joe DiMaggio played in the first @-@ ever game at Frank Chance Field . Retired players participated in an exhibition game in Chance 's honor in 1937 . John McGraw , a contemporary and rival of Chance , considered Chance one of the greatest players he ever saw .
The City of Hope National Medical Center created the Frank L. Chance Research Fellowship Foundation in his memory .
= Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man =
" Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man " is the seventh episode of the fourth season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network in the United States on November 17 , 1996 . It was written by Glen Morgan , directed by James Wong , and featured the first guest appearance by Chris Owens , appearing as a younger Smoking Man . " Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man " earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 7 , being watched by 17 @.@ 09 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mostly positive reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Lone Gunman Melvin Frohike ( Tom Braidwood ) finds a tell @-@ tale magazine story supposedly revealing the history of The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) . The episode illustrates his possible involvement in several historical events and assassinations , although the reliability of the source is unresolved at the end of the episode .
Executive producer Frank Spotnitz later noted that , while parts of " Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man " may indeed be factual , the majority is not actual canon . The production of the episode did not require extensive use of Duchovny and Anderson on screen . The former 's voice is only heard and the latter appears only in archival footage . Davis , who portrayed the title character , was pleased with the episode , although confused with some of the contradictions in the script . Although not directly furthering the series ' overarching mythology , the episode involves several of its events and characters .
= = Plot = =
The Smoking Man , armed with a sniper rifle and surveillance equipment , spies on a meeting between Fox Mulder , Dana Scully , and the Lone Gunmen . Frohike claims to have discovered information about the Smoking Man 's mysterious past , stating that his father was an executed communist spy and that his mother died of lung cancer , causing him to be raised in various Midwest orphanages .
The narrative changes to 1962 . The Smoking Man is an Army captain stationed at Fort Bragg in North Carolina . He talks to a friend and fellow soldier , Bill Mulder , who shows him a photo of his infant son , Fox . The Smoking Man is summoned to attend a meeting with a general and several strange men in suits . They assign him to assassinate President John F. Kennedy . In 1963 , posing as a " Mr. Hunt , " the Smoking Man shoots Kennedy and frames Lee Harvey Oswald . Afterwards , he smokes his first cigarette from a pack previously given to him by Oswald .
Five years later , the Smoking Man writes a novel entitled Take a Chance : A Jack Colquitt Adventure , using the pen name " Raul Bloodworth " . After hearing Martin Luther King , Jr. give a speech criticizing America 's attitude towards the distribution of wealth at home and social revolutions abroad , the Smoking Man meets with a group of men , including J. Edgar Hoover . The Smoking Man convinces the group to have King assassinated and volunteers to perform the task . Shortly thereafter , a publishing company rejects his novel .
In 1991 , the Smoking Man meets with subordinates , discussing his orchestration of the Anita Hill controversy and the Rodney King trial . He orders that the Buffalo Bills not win the Super Bowl . He further reveals his drugging of a Soviet goaltender to ensure the outcome of the " Miracle on Ice " hockey match . One of the Smoking Man 's subordinates invites him for a family dinner . Although flattered , the Smoking Man declines the invitation and states that he is scheduled to visit family . On his way out of the meeting , he distributes his Christmas presents to each of the subordinates- all receive the same gift . The gift is a striped tie . He is next seen walking past Fox Mulder 's office .
Later , while at home , the Smoking Man receives an urgent phone call from Deep Throat , who meets him near the site of a UFO wreck . An alien from the UFO is alive . Deep Throat and Smoking Man reminisce about the multiple times they changed the course of history . They flip a coin over who is tasked to kill the alien survivor . Deep Throat loses , and thus reluctantly shoots the alien .
A few months later , in March 1992 , the Smoking Man attends the meeting where Scully is assigned to the X @-@ Files and eavesdrops on the agents ' first meeting . In 1996 , he receives a letter telling him that his novel will be serialized in the magazine Roman a Clef . He types up a resignation letter , and excitedly finds the magazine at a newsstand . However , he finds that the ending has been changed . Bitter , the Smoking Man sits on a bench with a homeless man , giving a monologue on how " life is like a box of chocolates " . He tears up his resignation letter and leaves the magazine at the bench .
Back in the present , Frohike tells Mulder and Scully that what he 's told them is based on a story he found in a magazine he subscribes to . He leaves to verify the story . As he leaves , the Smoking Man has a clear shot . However , he decides not to kill him and quotes the last line from his unpublished novel : " I can kill you whenever I please , but not today " .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The episode was inspired by the DC Graphic Novel Lex Luthor : The Unauthorized Biography . Glen Morgan stated that he wanted the episode to show that The Smoking Man was the most dangerous human being alive . The episode was originally intended to end with The Smoking Man killing Melvin Frohike , but the show 's executive staff vetoed the idea .
The episode contains several references to Morgan and Wong 's former series Space : Above and Beyond including the name of The Smoking Man 's novel , Take a Chance , the reference to " classified compartmentalized " , and the name Jack Colquitt . In addition , Morgan Weisser , who played Lee Harvey Oswald , was an actor who appeared on that show . U.N. Resolution 1013 , quoted by Deep Throat , is a reference to Carter 's birthday and production company . Walden Roth , the editor who buys The Smoking Man 's novel , is a reference to 20th Century Fox executives Dana Walden and Peter Roth . The Smoking Man 's ambition to be a novelist was based on E. Howard Hunt .
Davis was happy to have an episode of his own , but was puzzled at some of the contradictions in the script , such as having him assassinate John F. Kennedy and Martin Luther King , Jr . , but being concerned with something as minor as keeping the Buffalo Bills from winning the Super Bowl . Chris Carter said " I had to speak with Bill several times ; I spent hours with him on the telephone talking about the character , because the actor felt that the episode really made the character something that it wasn 't . I tried to explain to him , as I think Jim and Glen were trying to express , that even if your mission in life is a destroyer , that you still have some hope in the back of your mind that you can be a creator — and that this all of a sudden , this vanity , is his vanity . And we see that so clearly here and it makes him sort of a silly person " .
= = = Filming = = =
Davis later said " Jim Wong [ ... ] was a big help , too . A lot of the stage directions point toward farce , but Jim told me to play against that and just let the situation play out . The Forrest Gump scene was difficult , too . When I prepared it and did it the first time , I was almost Shakespearean in my approach . Jim made me toss it off more , and it worked fine " . Chris Owens who portrayed the Young Smoking Man spent time watching how Davis smokes to ensure that he did it just like him . Owens later appeared as a young version of The Smoking Man again in the episode " Demons " , and as his son Jeffrey Spender .
The episode was the first in the series that did not feature Mulder , and featured Scully only in archival footage from " Pilot " . The episode was not intended to give the actors a week off , but ended up that way , which Duchovny was very pleased with . Producer J.P. Finn coordinated the sequence where The Smoking Man assassinates John F. Kennedy . It was filmed in a downtown Vancouver location doubling for Dealey Plaza . The show 's costume designer contacted the costume designer for the film JFK and borrowed a reproduction of Jackie Kennedy 's pink suit used in the film . The presidential limousine ridden by Kennedy was created by picture vehicle coordinator Nigel Habgood .
= = Reception = =
" Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man " premiered on the Fox network on November 17 , 1996 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 7 , with a 15 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 7 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 15 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 17 @.@ 09 million viewers . James Wong earned the show 's first ever Emmy nomination for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for this episode , although he later lost to NYPD Blue 's Mark Tinker .
Few viewers picked up on the notion that the events of this episode were not necessarily factual . Story editor Frank Spotnitz said " In the closing scene Frohike tells Mulder and Scully that the whole story was something he read in a crummy magazine . A lot of people didn 't pick up on that subtlety . They thought that this was indeed the factual history of the CSM . As far as I 'm concerned , it 's not . Some of it may indeed be true , and some of it may — well , never mind " .
" Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man " received mostly positive praise from critics . Entertainment Weekly gave the episode an " A – " , noting that " one has to wonder to what extent this episode is intended as information , and to what extent sheer entertainment " . Reviewer Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club spoke positively of the episode , saying " I love this ... and watching it now , I still do " . He ultimately gave the episode an " A " and wrote , " ' Musings ' is great because it transforms CSM from a living ghost into the walking dead — still horrifying , still dangerous , but pitiable just the same " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , named the episode " one of The X @-@ Files ' true masterpieces " and awarded it five stars out of five . The two praised Morgan and Wong 's combination of mythological story elements with more dry and dark humor . Furthermore , Shearman and Pearson wrote positively of the ambiguousness of the episode 's authenticity , noting that " the answers that the viewers are craving are handed out here on such a large plate , you can only take them as a delicious parody . " Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a glowing review and awarded it four stars out of four . She praised the way that the viewer is able to see the " barren emotional landscape in which the Cigarette Smoking Man dwells " via the " tone of the script " . Furthermore , Vitaris applauded the Forrest Gump @-@ esque rant , calling it " a comic high point of verbal venom " .
Not all reviews were so positive . Author Phil Farrand was critical of the episode , rating it his fifth least favorite episode of the first four seasons . He criticized the entry for having an uninteresting first half , and relying on the " cliche " of the John F. Kennedy assassination . Furthermore , he was unhappy with the fact that viewers did not have any way of knowing whether the content of the episode really happened . Alan Kurtz criticized the episode for being inconsistent with the timetable of The X @-@ Files , pointing to the fact that the episode contradicts canon that was established in the third season episode " Apocrypha " . Furthermore , he derided the show for too closely mirroring the plots of the 1979 movie Apocalypse Now as well as Forrest Gump .
= Tiverton Preedy =
Tiverton Preedy ( 22 January 1863 – 26 April 1928 ) was an English clergyman who worked in Yorkshire and London from 1887 until his death , where he was noted for his work with the poor . He was particularly interested in the use of sport within ministry , and founded a church football team in the town of Barnsley which became the modern Barnsley F.C.
In 1883 he moved to London to become curate of a church in Islington , and later opened a nearby mission . He opened a boxing club at the mission and organised dances for local flower sellers . In recognition of his work , he was appointed a prebendary of St. Pauls Cathedral in 1926 . He died two years later and is buried in Islington Cemetery . In the 1990s , supporters of Barnsley F.C. located and restored his grave .
= = Early life = =
Preedy was born in Hunstanton in the county of Norfolk in 1863 , the second son of a local estate agent . He attended Bloxham School near Sleaford , Lincolnshire before entering Lincoln Theological College in 1885 , where he trained to become a minister in the Church of England . In 1887 he was ordained as a deacon , and in the same year was appointed to the position of Assistant Stipendiary Curate at St Peter 's church in the centre of Barnsley . The church had originally been set up as a mission to tend to the people of the poverty @-@ stricken area , but was licensed as a parish in its own right in 1887 . Preedy was engaged to assist the vicar , John Lloyd Brereton .
During his time at Theological College , Preedy had become keen on the concept of using sport to engender moral values , an idea much in vogue at the time and known as muscular Christianity . To this end , he decided to join a local sporting club , through which he hoped to come into closer contact with the local people . He initially joined a rugby football club , but resigned in protest at the team 's decision to play a match on Good Friday .
= = Formation of Barnsley Football Club = =
Shortly after his split from the rugby club , Preedy encountered by chance a group of young men discussing the idea of forming an association football club . Preedy was taken with the idea , not least because football was seen in the area as the " poor man 's sport " and his involvement would therefore bring him into greater contact with the poor people he wished to help through his ministry . To this end he formed a football club in September 1887 . Preedy acted as principal fundraiser and organiser of the club , dubbed Barnsley St Peter 's F.C. , and even played in its first match . A keen supporter of the Temperance movement , Preedy demanded high standards of behaviour from his players , and once refused to allow St Peter 's to play a match against local rivals Ardsley Old due to the conduct of the latter 's supporters .
Preedy was also responsible for securing the use of the land on which the Oakwell stadium still stands . After being refused permission to hire a field belonging to the owners of the Barnsley Brewery , Preedy 's appeal to the wife of one of the owners ultimately led to the club being granted permission to play at Oakwell . In 1891 Preedy was instrumental in the formation of the Barnsley Charity Football Association and the creation of the Barnsley Charity Cup . St. Peter 's reached the inaugural final but were surprisingly defeated by underdogs Ecclesfield .
= = Departure from Barnsley = =
In 1893 Preedy moved to London to become curate of St. Clement 's Church in Islington . Such was the regard in which the clergyman was held in the town that a civic reception was held to mark his departure , and tributes were printed in the Barnsley Chronicle . The St. Peter 's players presented him with a walking stick , a pipe and a tobacco pouch . Four years after his departure , the club severed its links to the church and became known simply as Barnsley F.C.
Preedy spent four years at St. Clement 's before being appointed to run a nearby mission in what was then an extremely deprived area of the city . At the time of his appointment the mission operated out of converted cowsheds and the house with which Preedy was provided had no furniture . Preedy once again endeavoured to use sport as part of his ministry and opened a boxing club at the mission . Future world champion Terry Allen boxed at the club as a youngster , and among the wrestlers who trained there was future British champion and Olympic Games competitor George MacKenzie . Preedy also organised dances for the girls who sold flowers on local streets .
Preedy remained in contact with the football club he had founded in Barnsley and was a guest of honour at the 1912 FA Cup Final , in which Barnsley defeated West Bromwich Albion to lift the trophy . The victorious team presented him with the match ball , which he displayed in his study until his death .
= = Later years = =
In 1926 Preedy was appointed a prebendary at St. Pauls Cathedral , in recognition of his work in Islington . At around the same time he began to suffer from heart problems , and died in his sleep in April 1928 . His funeral was attended by several thousand mourners , and he was buried at Islington Cemetery in Finchley . His obituary in the Islington Gazette described him as " a generous friend to the poor " and the Bishop of Stepney in his eulogy called him " a wonderful parish priest and a splendid friend " , and made particular reference to his use of sport in his ministry .
In 1997 representatives of the club he founded located his grave in London and laid wreaths in the club 's colours . Full restoration of the grave was later carried out by the Barnsley F.C. Supporters ' Trust .
= James II of England =
James II and VII ( 14 October 1633O.S. – 16 September 1701 ) was King of England and Ireland as James II and King of Scotland as James VII , from 6 February 1685 until he was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 . He was the last Roman Catholic monarch to reign over the Kingdoms of England , Scotland and Ireland .
The second surviving son of Charles I , he ascended the throne upon the death of his brother , Charles II . Members of Britain 's Protestant political elite increasingly suspected him of being pro @-@ French and pro @-@ Catholic and of having designs on becoming an absolute monarch . When he produced a Catholic heir , leading nobles called on his Protestant son @-@ in @-@ law and nephew William of Orange to land an invasion army from the Netherlands , which he did in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 . James fled England ( and thus was held to have abdicated ) . He was replaced by his eldest , Protestant daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange . James made one serious attempt to recover his crowns from William and Mary when he landed in Ireland in 1689 . After the defeat of the Jacobite forces by the Williamites at the Battle of the Boyne in July 1690 , James returned to France . He lived out the rest of his life as a pretender at a court sponsored by his cousin and ally , King Louis XIV .
James is best known for his struggles with the English Parliament and his attempts to create religious liberty for English Roman Catholics and Protestant nonconformists , against the wishes of the Anglican establishment . However , he also continued the persecution of the Presbyterian Covenanters in Scotland . Parliament , opposed to the growth of absolutism that was occurring in other European countries , as well as to the loss of legal supremacy of the Church of England , saw their opposition as a way to preserve what they regarded as traditional English liberties . This tension made James 's four @-@ year reign a struggle for supremacy between the English Parliament and the Crown , resulting in his deposition , the passage of the Bill of Rights , and the accession of his daughter and her husband as king and queen .
= = Early life = =
= = = Birth = = =
James , the second surviving son of King Charles I and his wife , Henrietta Maria of France , was born at St. James 's Palace in London on 14 October 1633 . Later that same year , he was baptised by William Laud , the Anglican Archbishop of Canterbury . He was educated by private tutors , along with his brother , the future King Charles II , and the two sons of the Duke of Buckingham , George and Francis Villiers . At the age of three , James was appointed Lord High Admiral ; the position was initially honorary , but would become a substantive office after the Restoration , when James was an adult .
He was designated Duke of York at birth , invested with the Order of the Garter in 1642 , and formally created Duke of York in January 1644 .
= = = Civil War = = =
As the King 's disputes with the English Parliament grew into the English Civil War , James stayed in Oxford , a Royalist stronghold . When the city surrendered after the siege of Oxford in 1646 , Parliamentary leaders ordered the Duke of York to be confined in St. James 's Palace . In 1648 , he escaped from the Palace , aided by Joseph Bampfield , and from there he went to The Hague in disguise . When Charles I was executed by the rebels in 1649 , monarchists proclaimed James 's older brother as Charles II of England . Charles II was recognised as king by the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of Ireland , and was crowned King of Scotland at Scone in 1651 . Although he was proclaimed King in Jersey , Charles was unable to secure the crown of England and consequently fled to France and exile .
= = = Exile in France = = =
Like his brother , James sought refuge in France , serving in the French army under Turenne against the Fronde , and later against their Spanish allies . In the French army James had his first true experience of battle where , according to one observer , he " ventures himself and chargeth gallantly where anything is to be done " .
In the meantime , Charles was attempting to reclaim his throne , but France , although hosting the exiles , had allied itself with Oliver Cromwell . In 1656 , Charles turned instead to Spain – an enemy of France – for support , and an alliance was made . In consequence , James was
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and then , on 24 April , his friend Lützow was posted missing . On 21 April , Galland was credited with his 100th aerial victory . He was the 103rd and last Luftwaffe pilot to achieve the century mark . On 26 April , Galland claimed his 103rd and 104th aerial victories against B @-@ 26s , escorted by the 27th Fighter Group and 50th Fighter Group . Galland again made a mistake ; he stopped to make sure his second victory was going to crash and he was hit by a USAAF P @-@ 47 Thunderbolt piloted by James Finnegan . Galland nursed his crippled Me 262 to the airfield , only to find it was under attack by more P @-@ 47s . Galland landed under fire and abandoned his jet on the runway . The battle was his last operational mission . Soon afterward , he was sent to hospital for a knee wound sustained during his last mission . The Americans lost four B @-@ 26s and another six damaged . In return two Me 262s were shot down : the other pilot surviving .
In the 1970s , a San Jose State University graduate student came across Galland 's memoirs The First and the Last while researching records of United States Army Air Forces records and matching them to German victory claims . He found that James Finnegan , a P @-@ 47 Thunderbolt pilot of the 50th Fighter Group , Ninth Air Force , had made a " probable " claim on 26 April 1945 , the day of Galland 's last mission . The details of the engagement matched . Galland and Finnegan met for the first time at an Air Force Association meeting in San Francisco in 1979 .
= = = Surrender = = =
By late April , the war was effectively over . On 1 May 1945 , Galland attempted to make contact with United States Army forces to negotiate the surrender of his unit . The act itself was dangerous . SS forces roamed the countryside and towns executing anyone who was considering capitulation . The Americans requested that Galland fly his unit and Me 262s to a USAAF controlled airfield . Galland declined citing poor weather and technical problems . In reality , Galland was not going to hand over Me 262 jets to the Americans . Galland had harboured the belief that the Western Alliance would soon be at war with the Soviet Union , and he wanted to join American forces and to use his unit in the coming war to free Germany from Communist occupation . Galland replied , making his whereabouts known to the Americans , and offering his surrender once they arrived at the Tegernsee hospital where he was being treated . Galland then ordered his unit , which had then moved to Salzburg and Innsbruck , to destroy their Me 262s . At the time of his surrender , Galland had filed claims for 104 Allied aircraft shot down . His claims included seven with the Me 262 .
On 14 May 1945 , Galland was flown to England and interrogated by RAF personnel about the Luftwaffe , its organisation , his role in it and technical questions . Galland returned to Germany on 24 August and was imprisoned at Hohenpeissenberg . On 7 October , Galland was returned to England for further interrogation . Galland was eventually released on 28 April 1947 .
= = Post @-@ war = =
= = = Argentina = = =
After his release , he travelled to Schleswig @-@ Holstein to join Baroness Gisela von Donner , an earlier acquaintance , on her estate and lived with her three children . During this time , Galland found work as a forestry worker . There he convalesced and came to terms with his career and alleged knowledge of Nazi war crimes . Galland began to hunt for the family and traded the kills in the local markets to supplement meagre meat rations . Soon Galland rediscovered his love of flying . Kurt Tank , the designer of the Fw 190 , requested that he go to his home in Minden to discuss a proposal . Tank had been asked to work for the British and Soviets , and had narrowly avoided being forcibly kidnapped by the latter . Tank , through a contact in Denmark , informed Galland about the possibility of the Argentine Government employing him as a test pilot for Tank ’ s new generation of fighters . Galland accepted and flew to Argentina . He settled with Gisela in El Palomar , Buenos Aires . Galland enjoyed the slow life . His time there , aside from work commitments , were taken up with Gisela and the active Buenos Aires night life . Galland found South America a world away from post @-@ war shortages of Germany . Soon , he took up gliding again .
In a professional capacity , Galland spoke fluent Spanish which eased his instruction on new pilots . During his time with the Argentine Air Force ( AAF ) he flew the British Gloster Meteor . Galland commented , mindful it was a contemporary to the Me 262 , that it was a fine aircraft . He claimed that if he could have fit the Meteor engines to the Me 262 airframe he would have had the best fighter in the world . Galland continued training , lecturing and consulting for the AAF until 1955 . During his later years in Argentina Galland returned to Europe to test fly new types . While there , he teamed up with Eduard Neumann , the former Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 27 and mentor of Hans @-@ Joachim Marseille " The Star of Africa " . Neumann had joined Galland 's staff in April 1943 . They flew a Piaggio P.149 in an international air rally across Italy . The weather was appalling and seven aircraft crashed taking two lives . Galland and Neumann came in second place .
= = = Return to Germany = = =
Galland 's time in Argentina was running out . For his services , he was awarded a pilot 's wings badge and the title Honorary Argentine Military Pilot . Later that year Galland left South America . By that time , he had begun writing his autobiography , The First and the Last ( Die Ersten und die Letzten ) , and it was published in 1954 by Franz Schneekluth . It was a best @-@ seller in 14 languages and sold three million copies . It was very well received by the RAF and USAF as a frank and honest statement . Galland returned to Germany and was approached by a commissioner for Chancellor Konrad Adenauer for the purpose of joining the new Bundeswehr now that West Germany was to join NATO as a military power . Galland joined with Steinhoff , and went over the proposal . However , France objected to West Germany 's proposal for a pan @-@ European defence pact and chose to go its own way . That changed the organisation structure of the German armed forces . Galland got on with his life as the months rolled by . In 1956 Josef Kammhuber , the leader of the German Nachtjagdgeschwader ( Night Fighter Wings ) during the war , became the new commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Bundesluftwaffe . Galland now accepted he had been turned down as a potential leader of , or in , the new air force . Galland suspected that it was more to do with his technically illegal departure from Germany in 1948 and his association with Argentina , a state which was on poor terms with the United States , the dominant partner of NATO .
In the summer of 1957 , Galland moved to Bonn and rented an office on Koblenzerstrasse , beginning his own aircraft consultancy there . Galland worked hard but continued flying , taking part in national air shows . In 1956 , he was appointed honorary chairman of the Gemeinschaft der Jagdflieger , the Association of Fighter Pilots . Through this , he came into contact with contemporaries in Britain and America . In 1961 , he joined the Gerling Group of Cologne who contracted Galland to help develop their aviation business . With business going well , Galland bought his own aircraft on 19 March 1962 , his 50th birthday . The aircraft was a Beechcraft Bonanza , registered D @-@ EHEX , which he named Die Dicke ( Fatty ) .
In 1969 , he served as technical adviser for the film Battle of Britain , in which the character Major Falke is based on Galland . Galland was upset about the director 's decision not to use the real names . While making the film , Galland was joined by his friend Robert Stanford Tuck . In 1973 , Galland appeared in the British television documentary series The World at War , in episodes four and twelve , " Alone ( May 1940 – May 1941 ) " and " Whirlwind : Bombing Germany ( September 1939 – April 1944 ) " .
Galland took part in many engagements throughout the 1960s and 1970s . In 1974 , he was part of the remaining German General Staff that took part in the Operation Sea Lion wargame at Sandhurst in the United Kingdom , replicating the planned German invasion of Britain in 1940 ( which the German side lost ) . In 1975 , he was a guest at the RAF Museum Hendon , during the unveiling of the Battle of Britain Hall , where he was entertained by Prince Charles . In 1980 , Galland 's eyesight became too poor for him to fly and he retired as a pilot . However , he continued to attend numerous aviation events , to include being a periodic guest of the U.S. Air Force for their annual " Gathering of Eagles " program at the Air Command and Staff College at Maxwell AFB , Alabama , USA . On 16 October , he was reunited with two Merkel shotguns stolen by American soldiers after his capture in 1945 . Galland had located them before and had tried to buy them back , only to be told no , as they would be worth more after his death . Towards the end of the 1980s , Galland 's health began to fail .
= = = Personal life = = =
Baroness Gisela von Donner had refused to marry Galland as the restrictions imposed upon her former husband 's will would deny her the wealth and freedom she had enjoyed . She left for Germany in 1954 . Galland married Sylvinia von Dönhoff on 12 February 1954 . However , she was unable to have children and they divorced on 10 September 1963 .
On 10 September 1963 , Galland married his secretary , Hannelies Ladwein . They had two children : a son , Andreas Hubertus ( nicknamed " Andus " ) born 7 November 1966 ; and a daughter , Alexandra @-@ Isabelle born 29 July 1969 . The RAF ace Robert Stanford Tuck was the godfather of his son Andreas . Galland remained friends with Tuck until the latter 's death on 5 May 1987 . Galland felt his loss greatly . Galland 's marriage to Hannelies did not last and on 10 February 1984 , he married his third wife , Heidi Horn , who remained with him until his death .
By the 1980s , Galland was now regularly attending the funerals of friends like Tuck , and also Douglas Bader , who had died on 5 September 1982 after speaking at a dinner for Arthur Harris . In June 1983 he attended the funeral of Gerhard Barkhorn and his wife Christl , who had died in a traffic accident .
Later that year , Galland tracked down his mechanic , Gerhard Meyer , who had installed the armour that saved his life in 1941 . On 25 June 1983 , he entertained them at his home in Oberwinter outside Bonn on the River Rhine . They were invited every year until Galland 's death . In early February 1996 , Galland was taken seriously ill . He had wanted to die at home and so was released from hospital and returned to his own house . With his wife Heidi , son and daughter present , he was given the last rites . Adolf Galland died at 01 : 15 in the morning of Tuesday , 9 February 1996 . Galland was buried at St Laurentius Church , Remagen @-@ Oberwinter on 21 February . A memorial service was held on 31 March .
= = Awards = =
Medal for the Campaign of 1936 − 1939 ( Medalla de la Campaña 1936 − 1939 or Medalla de la Campaña , Spain )
Military Medal ( Spain ) with Diamonds
Spanish Cross in Gold with Swords and Diamonds ( 6 June 1939 )
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe in Gold with Pennant " 400 "
Wound Badge in Black
Pilot / Observer Badge in Gold with Diamonds ( August 1940 )
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 13 September 1939 )
1st Class ( 22 May 1940 )
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds
Knight 's Cross on 29 July 1940 as Major and Gruppenkommandeur of the III . / JG 26 " Schlageter "
3rd Oak Leaves on 24 September 1940 as Major and Geschwaderkommodore of JG 26 " Schlageter "
1st Swords ( 21 June 1941 ) as Oberstleutnant and Geschwaderkommodore of JG 26 " Schlageter "
2nd Diamonds ( 28 January 1942 ) as Oberst and Geschwaderkommodore of JG 26 " Schlageter "
Mentioned seven times in the Wehrmachtbericht ( 16 August 1940 , 25 September 1940 , 2 November 1940 , 18 April 1941 , 22 June 1941 30 October 1941 and 15 February 1942 )
Wehrmacht Long Service Award , 4th class
= = Wehrmachtbericht references = =
= William Henry Leonard Poe =
William Henry Leonard Poe , often referred to as Henry Poe , ( January 30 , 1807 – August 1 , 1831 ) was a sailor , amateur poet and the older brother of Edgar Allan Poe and Rosalie Poe .
After the death of their parents , the three Poe children were split up : Henry lived with family in Baltimore , Maryland , while Edgar and Rosalie were cared for by two different families in Richmond , Virginia . Before the age of 20 , Henry traveled around the globe by sea before returning to Baltimore and becoming a published poet and author . One of his works , " The Pirate " , was a fictionalized account of his brother 's first relationship with Sarah Elmira Royster in Richmond . Henry died of tuberculosis in 1831 at the age of twenty @-@ four .
Henry Poe was an inspiration to his brother 's life and writings and the two had similar writing styles . Edgar Allan Poe for a time used the alias " Henri Le Rennet " , a name inspired by Henry . Henry 's influence on Edgar 's writing include a character in the novel The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket and possibly the name of the title character in the poem " Lenore " .
= = Biography = =
William Henry Leonard , who went by the name Henry , was born circa January 30 , 1807 , to traveling actors Eliza Poe and David Poe , Jr . , four months after their troupe began performing in Boston . Their second son , Edgar , was born on January 19 , 1809 , and a daughter , Rosalie , was born in December 1810 . Some time before July 1809 , however , David Poe had deserted his family , though little is known about his disappearance . He may have died in Norfolk , Virginia on December 11 , 1811 . Eliza Poe died of tuberculosis on December 8 , 1811 , leaving her three children as orphans .
During their mother 's illness , Henry had been left in the care of his paternal grandparents , while Edgar and Rosalie had been cared for by actor friends of their parents , namely Mr. and Mrs. Luke Usher . The children were likely at Eliza 's side as she died . In one of his poems , Henry described her " long ... last farewell " to them and was given a lock of her hair to remember her . After the death of Eliza , the three children were split up . Henry went back to his grandparents in Baltimore , Maryland while Edgar went to live with a foster family , the Allans of Richmond . Rosalie was adopted by the Mackenzies , also of Richmond .
Henry was raised by his grandparents , Elizabeth Cairnes Poe and David Poe , Sr. David Poe , Sr. had been a quartermaster in the American Revolutionary War and paid for supplies out of his own pocket , including $ 500 for clothing for the troops . His commitment had earned the respect and friendship of the Marquis de LaFayette and the honorary title of " General " . David Poe , Sr. died in 1816 , and his wife , Elizabeth Cairnes Poe , though sickly and bedridden , outlived her grandson and died on July 7 , 1835 .
Henry kept in touch with his younger brother Edgar sporadically as they grew up , often through letters but once he even visited Edgar in Richmond in the 1820s . There , Edgar introduced his brother to his childhood sweetheart , Sarah Elmira Royster . Edgar 's foster @-@ father John Allan also corresponded with Henry . In one letter , dated November 1 , 1824 , Allan apologized that Edgar was slow in writing a letter to Henry , complaining that his foster @-@ son " had little else to do , for he does nothing ... The boy possesses not a Spark of affection for us , not a particle of gratitude for all my care and kindness towards him . "
Before the age of twenty , Henry served in South America and elsewhere on board the USS Macedonian . As a crewman aboard the Macedonian , a frigate , he also visited the West Indies , the Mediterranean , and Russia . In 1827 , he returned to Baltimore to live with his grandmother , his aunt Maria Clemm , and his two cousins Henry Clemm and Virginia Clemm . Around this time , Henry was described as a " slim , feeble , young man with dark inexpressive eyes " who possessed a " singular personal beauty " .
= = = Writings = = =
In Baltimore , while working at a law office , Henry developed his interest in writing . He wrote verse inspired by Lord Byron into the albums of local young women and gave recitations . The May 19 , 1827 , issue of Baltimore 's North American , or , Weekly Journal of Politics , Science , and Literature published Henry 's " Dreams " , a poem which laments the difference between the dream world and reality . The October 27 issue of the same periodical published Henry 's short story " The Pirate " , a fictionalization of his brother 's love affair with Royster . The main character was named Edgar Leonard , a combination of the names of the two brothers , who pursues a woman named Rosalie , a name borrowed from their sister . The Edgar Leonard character says : " I lost my parents at an early age ... and was left to the care of a relation . "
One of Henry 's poems , titled " Original " , was virtually identical to one of Edgar 's early poems published in Tamerlane and Other Poems , now known as " The Happiest Day , The Happiest Hour " . It is likely that this poem and another called " Dreams " were Edgar 's and incorrectly credited to Henry . Edgar wrote " The Happiest Day , The Happiest Hour " while he was serving in the Army . He sent the poem to Henry , who had it published in the September 15 , 1827 , issue of the North American , which included Henry 's name .
Another poem published by Henry was " Lines on a Pocket Book " , in which he considers John Allan 's accusations that younger sister Rosalie Poe was illegitimate . Henry 's poems generally have themes of melancholy , despair , and feature women who die and abandon their loved ones who dream of their reunion . Many are so similar to Poe 's early work that they may have been collaborative efforts . His writing career ended in 1827 when the North American Review ceased publication .
= = = Death = = =
Henry , who was a heavy drinker and may have been an alcoholic , died of tuberculosis on August 1 , 1831 , in Baltimore , likely in the same room or even the same bed which he shared with his brother Edgar . He was twenty @-@ four . Henry was buried at what is now Westminster Hall and Burying Ground , where his brother would be buried several years later . Henry 's obituary misspelled his name as " W. H. Hope " .
= = Influence = =
Edgar Allan Poe was very close to his brother , as he wrote : " there can be no tie more strong than that of brother for brother — it is not so much that they love one another as that they both love the same parent . " Edgar occasionally used the alias " Henri Le Rennet " , a French version of his older brother 's name . He was also inspired by his brother Henry 's travels , often incorporating some of his stories from overseas into tellings of his own life story . The character of August Barnard in Edgar 's novel The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket ( 1838 ) seems to be inspired by Henry , especially in his travels across the sea and his drinking . Poe may have also transformed his brother 's name into the title character in his poem " Lenore " .
= Cortina d 'Ampezzo =
Cortina d 'Ampezzo ( pronounced [ korˈtiːna damˈpɛttso ] ; Ladin : Anpezo , Ampëz ) , commonly referred to as Cortina , is a town and comune in the heart of the southern ( Dolomitic ) Alps in the Veneto region of Northern Italy . Situated on the Boite river , in an alpine valley , it is a popular winter sport resort known for its skiing trails , scenery , accommodation , shops and après @-@ ski scene , and for its jet set and aristocratic European crowd .
In the Middle Ages , Ampezzo fell under the jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Aquileia , and of the Holy Roman Empire . In 1420 , it was conquered by the Republic of Venice . It then spent much of its history under Austrian rule , briefly undergoing some territorial changes under Napoleon , before being returned to Austria , who held it until 1918 . From the nineteenth century , Ampezzo became a notable regional centre for crafts . The local handmade products were appreciated by early British and German holidaymakers as tourism emerged late nineteenth century . Among the specializations of the town were crafting wood for furniture , the production of tiled stoves and iron , copper and glass items . Today , the local economy thrives on tourism , particularly during the winter season , when the population of the town typically increases from about 7 @,@ 000 to 40 @,@ 000 . The Basilica Minore dei Santi Filippo e Giacomo was built between 1769 and 1775 on the site of two former thirteenth and sixteenth @-@ century churches ; it is home to the parish and the deanery of Cortina d 'Ampezzo . The town also contains the Rinaldo Zardini Palaeontology Museum , established in 1975 , the Mario Rimoldi Modern Art Museum , and the Regole of Ampezzo Ethnographic Museum .
Although Cortina was unable to go ahead with the scheduled 1944 Winter Olympics because of the Second World War , it hosted the Winter Olympics in 1956 and subsequently a number of world winter @-@ sports events . The town is home to SG Cortina , a top league professional ice hockey team , and Cortina is also the start and end point of the annual Dolomites Gold Cup Race . Several films have been shot in the town , mostly notably The Pink Panther ( 1963 ) , For Your Eyes Only ( 1981 ) and Cliffhanger ( 1993 ) . Every year , from the end of July to early August , Cortina hosts the Dino Ciani Festival and Academy , which attracts pianists from around the world .
= = History = =
= = = Prehistory = = =
The discovery in 1987 of a primitive tomb at Mondeval de Sora high up in the mountains to the south of Cortina testifies to the presence of Mesolithic man in the area as far back as the 6th millennium B.C. In the 6th century B.C. , Etruscan writing was introduced in the province of Cadore , in whose possession is remained until the early 15th century . From the 3rd century B.C. , the Romans assimilated the Veneti people , giving the area the name of Amplitium ( from amplus meaning wide ) , today 's Ampezzo .
= = = Middle Ages to 19th century = = =
No historical information exists on the Cadore region from the fall of the Roman Empire until the Lombard period . It is assumed that during the Barbarian invasions , the inhabitants fled to the Fassa , Badia , Cordevole and Ampezzo valleys .
In the Middle Ages , Ampezzo fell under the jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Aquileia , and of the Holy Roman Empire . In 1420 , the village was conquered by the Republic of Venice . In 1508 it was conquered by Austria , and by 1511 people of Ampezzo swore loyalty to the Emperor Maximilian , and is subsequently fell to the Pusterthal . In 1797 , when the Treaty of Campo Formio was signed , Napoleon initially permitted Austria to retain it , but in 1810 he added Ampezzo to the Department of Piave , following an attack on the town in which it was burned by the French . It was short @-@ lived ; Austria reclaimed it in 1813 , and it remained in Austrian possession even after the battles of Custozza and Sadowa in 1866 when Venice was ceded to Italy . The town gained a reputation as a health resort ; it was reportedly free of diseases such as cholera .
In 1874 the Ampezzo forest became the property of the Carnic Woods Consortium . Although remaining a Habsburg possession until 1920 , aside from being home for an ethnic German @-@ speaking minority , Ampezzo never became a German @-@ speaking territory and conserved its original language , Ladin , a Rhaeto @-@ Romance language .
Until 1918 , the town came under the Austrian monarchy ( in Austrian region after the compromise of 1867 ) , head of the district of Ampezzo , one of the 21 Bezirkshauptmannschaften in the Tyrol province . The coat of arms features a tower flanked by two trees , with a two @-@ headed eagle flying above .
= = = 20th century = = =
When Italy entered World War I in 1915 , most of the male inhabitants were fighting for Austria on the Russian front . 669 male inhabitants ( most of them under 16 or over 50 ) tried to fight the Italian troops . Outnumbered by the Italians , they had to retreat . After the Austrian recovery in 1917 , the town was occupied again by the Tyrolean Standschützen . Following Italy 's victory in World War I , Ampezzo was finally given to Italy in 1923 .
After the war the city was renamed " Cortina d 'Ampezzo " ( Curtain of the Ampezzo Valley ) , adopting the name of one of the six villages that made up the territory of Ampezzo , located in the middle of the Ampezzo valley .
Already an elite destination for the first British tourists in the late 18th and early 20th century , after World War I Cortina d 'Ampezzo became a popular resort for upper @-@ class Italians too . Cortina d 'Ampezzo was chosen as the venue of the 1944 winter Olympics , which did not take place due to World War II . Thanks to finally hosting the winter Olympics in 1956 , Cortina grew into a world @-@ famous resort , with a substantial increase in tourists . With a resident population of 6 @,@ 150 people in 2008 , Cortina has a temporary population of around 50 @,@ 000 during peak periods such as the Christmas holidays and mid @-@ August .
= = = 21st century politics = = =
The town voted in October 2007 to secede from the region of Veneto and join the neighbouring region , Trentino @-@ Alto Adige / Südtirol . This was motivated by improved cultural ties with the small Ladin @-@ speaking community in South Tyrol and the attraction of lower taxes . The referendum is not executive and a final decision on the matter can only be taken by law of the Italian parliament with consent of both regional councils of Veneto and Trentino @-@ Alto Adige .
In the European elections of 2014 , the leading party was the Democratic Party with 30 @.@ 4 % of the vote , followed by Forza Italia ( 19 @.@ 4 % ) and the autonomous Südtiroler Volkspartei with 14 @.@ 1 % .
= = Geography and climate = =
Cortina is situated more or less in the centre of the Ampezzo valley , at the top of the Valle del Boite in the Dolomites , which encircle the town . The Boite river flows directly through the town of Cortina itself . The mountains in the area are described as " craggy " and " soaring " , " unmistakable ; like a massive coral reef ripped from the sea , strung with conifers and laced with snow " . The town is positioned between Cadore ( to the south ) and the Puster Valley ( to the north ) , Val d 'Ansiei ( to the east ) and Agordo ( to the west ) . Originally it consisted of numerous frazioni , isolated villages and hamlets , but from the 1950s it grew rapidly as a result of tourism . Only the most remote villages have remained isolated from the main town . San Vito di Cadore is 9 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) to the south of Cortina d 'Ampezzo .
Among the surrounding mountains are Tofane to the west , Pomagagnon to the north , Cristallo to the northeast , Faloria and Sorapiss to the east , and Becco di Mezzodì , Croda da Lago and Cinque Torri to the south . The town centre is located at an elevation of 1 @,@ 224 metres ( 4 @,@ 016 ft ) , although the highest summit is that of the Tofana di Mezzo , which towers at 3 @,@ 244 metres ( 10 @,@ 643 ft ) . There are numerous fast flowing rivers , streams and small lakes in the territory , such as the Ghedina , Pianozes and d 'Ajal , which fill particularly during the summer snow @-@ melt season . Fauna include marmots , roe deer , chamois and hares and , on occasion , wolves , bears and lynx .
= = = Frazioni = = =
The comune contains the following frazioni ( parishes / wards ) with their Ladino names in parentheses : Acquabona ( Agabòna ) , Alverà , Bigontina ( Begontina ) , Cadelverzo ( Cadelvèrzo ) , Cademai , Cadin ( Ciadìn ) , Campo ( Ciànpo ) , Chiamulera ( Ciamulèra ) , Chiave ( Ciàe ) , Cianderìes , Coiana ( Cojana ) , Col , Cortina , Crìgnes , Doneà , Fiames ( Fiàmes ) , Fraìna , Gilardon ( Jilardòn ) , Gnòche o Gràa , Guargné , Lacedel ( Lazedèl ) , Manaigo , Majon , Melères , Mortisa ( Mortìja ) , Pecol ( Pecòl ) , Pezié , Pian da Lago , Pocol ( Pocòl ) , Rònco , Salieto , Socol , Staulin ( Staulìn ) , Val , Verocai , Vera ( Vèra ) , Zuel ( Zuèl ) .
= = = Climate = = =
The Ampezzano climate is typically alpine , with short summers and long winters that vacillate between frigid , snowy , unsettled , and temperate . In late December and early January , some of Italy 's lowest recorded temperatures are to be found in the region , especially at the top of the Cimabanche Pass on the border between the provinces of Belluno and Bolzano . The other seasons are generally rainy , cold , and very windy .
= = Demographics = =
Cortina 's population grew steadily from the time when it was annexed to the Italian State until the 1960s . Thereafter , it underwent a sharp decline ( down by 2 @,@ 099 inhabitants over a 30 @-@ year period ) , with signs of recovery only in the very last few years . Nevertheless , with 6 @,@ 112 inhabitants , Cortina d 'Ampezzo is the seventh most populous place in the province following Belluno ( 36 @,@ 509 ) , Feltre ( 20 @,@ 688 ) , Sedico ( 9 @,@ 734 ) , Ponte nelle Alpi ( 8 @,@ 521 ) , Santa Giustina ( 6 @,@ 795 ) and Mel ( 6 @,@ 272 ) . In 2008 , there were 44 births ( 7 @.@ 1 ‰ ) and 67 deaths ( 10 @.@ 9 % ) , resulting in an overall reduction of 23 inhabitants ( -3.8 ‰ ) . The town 's 2 @,@ 808 families consisted on average of 2 @.@ 2 persons .
The presence of foreign residents in Cortina d 'Ampezzo is a fairly recent phenomenon , accounting for only a small number of inhabitants in what in any case is a fairly small town . There are 298 resident foreigners in the town , representing 4 @.@ 9 % of the total population . This compares with 7 @.@ 0 % in the town Belluno , 6 @.@ 4 % in the entire province of Belluno , and 10 @.@ 2 % in the Veneto region .
= = = Language and dialects = = =
In addition to Italian , the majority of the population speak fluent Ampezzano , a local variant of Ladin , now recognized as a language rather than a dialect . Ladin comes from Latin ( like Italian , French and Spanish ) and resembles Romansh which is spoken in Switzerland . Maintaining the local language , which is not only spoken by the older people but also by many of Cortina 's younger inhabitants , has become a symbol of their attachment to the local mountainous heritage . The community is also proud of its Ladin or Tyrolean culture , which continues to survive despite the increasing pressure it has faced in recent years . Its importance is even beginning to be recognized by the local authorities who in December 2007 decided to use Ladin on signs for the names of streets and villages , in compliance with regulations for the protection of linguistic minorities in force since 1999 .
= = Economy = =
From the nineteenth century , Ampezzo became a notable regional centre for crafts . The growing importance of this sector led the Austrian Ministry of Commerce to authorize the opening of a State Industrial School in 1874 , which later became the Art Institute . It became a reputable institution in teaching wood and metal work , admitted boys from the age of 13 and up to four years of study . The local handmade products were appreciated by early British and German holidaymakers as tourism emerged late nineteenth century . Some of the local items were said to have mythical qualities ; the Austrian journalist and anthropologist Karl Felix Wolff , for example , stated in 1935 that according to legend a local man " once made a sword that was so flexible that you could bend it over , tie it up , and then allow it to straighten out again " . Among the specializations of the town were crafting wood for furniture , the production of tiled stoves and iron , copper and glass items .
Today , the local economy thrives on tourism , particularly during the winter season , when the population of the town typically increases from about 7 @,@ 000 to 40 @,@ 000 . Lonely Planet refers to Cortina d 'Ampezzo as " one of Italy 's most famous , fashionable and expensive ski resorts " , which " boasts first @-@ class facilities ( skiing , skating , sledding , climbing ) and superb hiking " .
Cortina is home to some of the most prestigious names in fashion , including Bulgari , Benetton , Gucci and Geox , and various artisan shops , antiquarians , and craft stores . It is also home to many stores specializing in mountaineering equipment . The symbol of Cortina shopping remains La Cooperativa di Cortina , founded on June 28 , 1893 as Consumverein Ampezzo . In this shopping centre many trades can be found , from confectioners to newspaper vendors , toys , gift shops , skiing stores and blacksmiths . The building is divided into three levels ( more a raised plan and a balcony ) . The cooperative in Cortina was one of the first cooperatives founded in the Italian Peninsula , and currently provides employment to approximately 200 people .
The five @-@ star Miramonti Majestic Grand Hotel , of James Bond fame , is more than 100 years old . Previously an Austro @-@ Hungarian hunting lodge , it contains 105 rooms . Other hotels of note include Hotel Cornelio on Via Cantore , Hotel Montana on Corso Italia , Hotel Menardi on Via Majom and Hotel Villa Gaiai on Via Guide Alpine . There are several mountain hostels in the vicinity , including Rifugio Faloria , Rifugio son Forca , Rifugio Capanna Tondi and Rifugio duca D 'Aosta , which contains restaurants .
= = Landmarks = =
Near the bridge on the Bigontina River is the Town Hall , a palace in the Tyrolean style . Piazza Venezia houses several popular landmarks . The Ciasa de ra Regoles is one of the more important legal buildings in Cortina , where the " regolieri " — a council for the local villages that stood before the town merged — trained the community and gave administrative orders . It was at one time the center of Ampezzo 's administration . Currently , it contains the offices of Comunanza Regole and the Modern Art Museum " Mario Rimoldi " . The building also contains the office of the Scuola Sci Cortina , Cortina 's skiing school .
= = = Museums = = =
Le Regole d 'Ampezzo administers the Musei delle Regole d 'Ampezzo , which covers three museums ; Rinaldo Zardini Palaeontology Museum , Regole of Ampezzo Ethnographic Museum and Mario Rimoldi Modern Art Museum . Rinaldo Zardini Palaeontology Museum , established in 1975 , is a paleontological museum with a collection of hundreds of fossils of all colors , shapes and sizes , found , gathered and cataloged by photographer Ampezzo Rinaldo Zardini . All of the exhibits were found in the Dolomites and tell of a time when these high mountain peaks were still on the bottom of a large tropical sea , populated by marine invertebrates , fish , corals and sponges . Regole of Ampezzo Ethnographic Museum is an ethnographic museum situated in an old restored Venetian sawmill on the confluence of the Boite and Felizon rivers to the north of the town . There are objects related to everyday life , rural and pastoral practices in the vicinity , agricultural tools , techniques , materials processing and clothing typical of this valley etc . Mario Rimoldi Modern Art Museum is an art gallery , established in 1941 , which preserves over 800 works by major Italian artists of the twentieth century including Filippo De Pisis , Felice Carena , Pio Semeghini , Renato Guttuso , Tullio Garbari , Massimo Campigli and many others . It also hosts temporary exhibitions on various topics .
The Great War Tour stretches over 80 km ( 50 mi ) across the mountains between Lagazuoi and Sass de Stria . It includes the Great War Open Air Museum with its trenches and tunnels . In winter it is accessible to skiers but it is easier to visit on foot or by mountain bike in the summer months .
= = = Churches = = =
The Basilica Minore dei Santi Filippo e Giacomo was built between 1769 and 1775 on the site of two former thirteenth and sixteenth @-@ century churches ; it is home to the parish and the deanery of Cortina d 'Ampezzo . It high wooden altar , crowned by a figure of Christ the Redeemer was carved by Andrea Brustolon . On the ceiling are three frescoes by Luigi Ghedina : " Christ Purifying the Temple " , " The Martyrdom of St. Philip and " The Beheading of St. James " . The Chiesa della Madonna della Difesa was built in 1750 on the site of a ruined fourteenth century building . Its façade features an intricate fresco depicting the Madonna della Difesa , and the interior is decorated with a wealth of statues , paintings , polychrome marble and gold leaf .
The Cappella della Beata Vergine di Lourdes ( Chapel of Our Lady of Lourdes ) was completed in 1907 . Decorated by artist Corrado Pitscheider of the Val Gardena , it is a small church of particular interest given the reconstruction sculpture . The Cappella di Sant 'Antonio da Padova in the village of Chiave was completed in 1791 but the interior was renovated in 1809 after serious fire damage caused by the Napoleonic troops . The furnishings include two wooden busts ( Christ and St Catherine ) and a richly worked altar .
Sacrario militare di Pocol ( also known as Ossario di Pocol ) is a cemetery and shrine located at an altitude of 1 @,@ 535 metres ( 5 @,@ 036 ft ) towards Passo Falzarego , in the locality of Pocol . The small church and cemetery was built in 1916 as a military cemetery by the 5th Alpine group . A shrine was built in 1935 as memorial to the thousands who lost their lives during World War I on the Dolomite front . It is a massive square tower of stone , clearly visible from the entire Ampezzo valley below . In a crypt in the centre of the structure rests the body of general Antonio Cantore , who was awarded the gold medal for military valor .
= = = Castles and forts = = =
The Castello de Zanna is a small fortress , situated in the frazione of Majon . It consists of low white outer walls and two white corner towers , with a small chapel dedicated to the Holy Trinity . The construction of the castle began in 1694 , but on August 19 , 1696 the works were interrupted ; the building remained unfinished in 1809 when it was burned by French revolutionary troops who had invaded Ampezzo . Since then the castle has undergone restoration .
Forte Tre Sassi ( or Forte Tra i Sassi ) is a fortress constructed in 1897 during the Austro @-@ Hungarian period on the Passo Valparola . It lies between Sass de Stria and Piccolo Lagazuoi , dominating the passage between the Passo Falzarego and Val Badia in South Tyrol ( Alto Adige ) . It was part of the large complex of Austrian fortifications built on the Italian border in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century . Rendered unusable due to a bombing by the Italians on 5 July 1915 , the ruins remained in a state of disrepair until the advent of the 21st century , when it was restored by the local administration of Ampezzo , with the assistance of the Lacedelli family . The fort houses a museum containing relics related to the First World War .
Castello di Botestagno ( also known as Podestagno ) was a medieval fort perched on a rock in the valley of the river Boite , a little further north of Cortina , in the town of Prà del Caštel . It is believed that it was first erected as a stakeout during conflict with the Lombards between the seventh and eighth centuries , with the aim of dominating the three valleys that converge beneath it : the Boite , the Val di Fanes and the Val Felizon . The corner stone , however , probably dates to the 11th century . It was held by the Germans until 1077 , and then by the patriarchs of Aquileia ( 12th century ) and Camino ( 13th century ) , until Botestagno became the seat of a captaincy . It then passed into Venetian hands and finally to the Habsburgs . During the eighteenth century the castle lost importance gradually , until it was auctioned in 1782 by order of Emperor Joseph II . Today the fort has now almost completely disappeared ; only the remnants of what must have been the wine cellars and the foundations remain , now weathered and largely covered up by vegetation .
= = Culture = =
Cortina has a long tradition in hosting writers , intellectuals , poets and editors from all over the world . Ernest Hemingway , Saul Bellow , Dino Buzzati , as well as Vittorio Gassman , Leonardo Sciascia , Leonardo Mondadori and many others , spent their vacations in the town and took part in the cultural life of the city . Through the years , this led to a continuous activity of literature festivals and book presentations , like Una Montagna di Libri ( " A Mountain of Books " ) , held twice a year since 2009 . The festival attracted to Cortina writers as Azar Nafisi , Peter Cameron , Emmanuel Carrère .
Music is important to the locals of Cortina , with a guitar found in most houses , and young musicians are often found walking the streets . Every year , from the end of July to early August , Cortina hosts the Dino Ciani Festival and Academy . It is held in honour of the celebrated Italian pianist Dino Ciani ( 1941 – 1974 ) who died when he was only 32 . The festival attracts young pianists from around the world who are able to benefit from classes with some of the world 's leading performers . The Festival of the Bands is another annual musical event featuring brass bands from Italy and beyond during the last week of August . Cortina 's own band , parading in traditional costumes , is a central attraction dating back to 1861 . Cortina d 'Ampezzo hosted the 1953 Miss Italia contest , won by Marcella Mariani . Traditionally , on the eves of the festivals of Ascension , Pentecost , Trinity and St Philip and St James , the youth of the town would climb the hills at sunset and light fires .
After Ernest Hemingway 's wife Hadley lost a suitcase filled with Hemingway 's manuscripts at the Gare de Lyon in Paris , he took a time off . He began writing that same year in Cortina d 'Ampezzo , writing Out of Season .
The dominant religion in the comune of Cortina d 'Ampezzo is Roman Catholicism . Among the religious minorities , mainly a result of recent immigration , there is a small community of Orthodox Christians and Muslims . There is also a congregation of Jehovah 's Witnesses , which has its headquarters in Pian da Lago .
The surroundings of Cortina have been the location for a number of movies , including mountain climbing scenes for Cliffhanger , Krull and The Pink Panther . The resort was the primary area for location shooting in Sergio Corbucci 's Revisionist Spaghetti Western The Great Silence ; the resort was used to represent Utah in the winter of 1898 . It was also a major location for the 1981 James Bond film For Your Eyes Only . Aside from Roger Moore 's James Bond meeting the character Luigi Ferrara ( John Moreno ) at the peak of Tofana , and a stay at the Hotel Miramonti , a number of action sequences were shot in the town involving Bond and Erich Kriegler ( John Wyman ) , as Kriegler competes in the biathlon . The battle culminates in one of the famous ski chase sequences in film , where Bond has to escape Kriegler and a crew of assassins on a spike @-@ wheeled motorcycles , his route taking them all onto the bobsleigh run . The actual town centre was also the scene of the first attack on Bond and his partner Melina Havelock ( Carole Bouquet ) by two motorcyclists who attempted to run them over , only for Bond to eliminate them both , putting one of them through the window of a local florist .
= = Sports = =
Cortina d 'Ampezzo was the host town of the 1956 Winter Olympics . The 1944 Winter Olympics were also scheduled to be held in Cortina , but were cancelled because of World War II . The 1927 Nordic , 1941 Nordic and 1941 Alpine World Skiing Championships were held in Cortina as well , although the 1941 Nordic championships were withdrawn by the FIS in 1946 . The region lost the bid for the 1988 Winter Olympics to Calgary , Canada and the 1992 Winter Olympics to Albertville , France .
The town is home to SG Cortina , a professional ice hockey team currently playing in the country 's top division , Serie A1 . Cortina is also the start and end point of the annual Dolomites Gold Cup Race , a historic reevocation event for production cars on public roads . The town hosted the Red Bull Road Rage in 2009 .
Cortina also offers excellent skiing facilities for amateurs , thanks to its central position among the 12 resorts of the Dolomiti Superski area . Cortina itself has 115 km ( 71 mi ) of ski pistes with 34 ski lifts and guaranteed snow coverage of over 95 % from December to April . There are six ski schools ( two for cross @-@ country ) and some 300 instructors . The Faloria @-@ Cristallo @-@ Mietres ski @-@ area with spectacular views over the Ampezzo Valley is suitable for skiers of all levels including children . The Tofane area offers more challenging opportunities from an altitude of 2 @,@ 500 m ( 8 @,@ 200 ft ) with the Canalone and Schuss ski runs . The longest and most spectacular ski run , the Armentarola piste in the Lagazuoi @-@ 5 Torri area , starts next to the Lagazuoi refuge at a height of 2 @,@ 752 m ( 9 @,@ 029 ft ) and can be reached by cable car .
Facilities also exist for cross @-@ country skiing , including a long stretch of the old railway line . In and around Cortina , there are opportunities to participate in many other winter sports such as curling , ski mountaineering , snowboarding , sledding and extreme skiing . In the summer months , sports include trekking , biking , rock climbing , tennis , golf , swimming and ice skiing .
= = Transport = =
Cortina Airport was built for the 1956 Winter Olympics , but is currently closed . The town has its own bus service , connecting the centre to surrounding villages and cable car lifts . The nearest airports are those serving Venice : the distance to Treviso is 138 km ( 86 mi ) while that to Venice Marco Polo Airport is 148 km ( 92 mi ) . Both can be reached in about two and a quarter hours by road . The railway station for Cortina is Calalzo di Cadore , 37 km ( 23 mi ) to the south east , with rail connections to Venice and a bus service to Cortina . The total journey time to Venice is about three and a half hours . There are also direct bus links from Venice Mestre and Padova railway stations , coordinated with the arrivals and departures of Eurostar trains .
Cortina was the principal intermediate station on the narrow @-@ gauge ( 950mm ) Dolomites Railway from Calalzo to Toblach . When the line was electrified in 1929 the only sub @-@ station was established at Cortina . The line closed in 1964 but in February 2016 the regional governments of Veneto and Trentino @-@ Alto Adige announced that they are to commission a feasibility study to build a new line between Calalzo , Cortina and Toblach .
= = Notable people = =
Cortina has attracted many distinguished guests , often inspiring them in their creative work . They include the Italian novelists Dino Buzzati ( 1906 – 1972 ) , author of The Tartar Steppe , Goffredo Parise ( 1929 – 1986 ) and Fernanda Pivano ( 1917 – 2009 ) . Ernest Hemingway , author of A Farewell to Arms , also arrived in the area in 1918 as a young ambulance driver . Other notable visitors include John Ball ( 1818 – 1889 ) , the Irish mountaineer and naturalist who climbed Monte Pelmo in 1857 , the Italian mountaineers Emilio Comici ( 1901 – 1940 ) , Angelo Dibona ( 1879 – 1956 ) and Lino Lacedelli ( 1925 – 2009 ) , the Italian skier Kristian Ghedina ( born 1969 ) , the Italian bobsledder Eugenio Monti ( 1928 – 2003 ) , the Austrian mountaineer Paul Grohmann ( 1838 – 1908 ) and the Austrian skier Toni Sailer ( 1935 – 2009 ) . Frequent visitors include the Italian businessman and former racing driver Paolo Barilla ( born 1961 ) and the journalist and writer Indro Montanelli ( 1909 – 2001 ) .
Among the distinguished sportsmen from Cortina itself are the skiers Enrico Colli , his younger brother Vincenzo , and Giuseppe Ghedina who competed in the 1924 Winter Olympics , and Severino Menardi who participated in the 1932 and 1936 Winter Olympics . Other local citizens include the climbers Angelo Dibona ( 1879 – 1956 ) and Lino Lacedelli ( 1925 – 2009 ) , and the painter Luigi Gillarduzzi ( 1822 – 1856 ) .
= = International relations = =
= = = Twin towns / sister cities = = =
Cortina is twinned with :
Cattolica , Italy ( since 16 March 1971 )
Skardu , Pakistan
= Hurricane Ernesto ( 2006 ) =
Hurricane Ernesto was the costliest tropical cyclone of the 2006 Atlantic hurricane season . The sixth tropical storm and first hurricane of the season , Ernesto developed from a tropical wave on August 24 in the eastern Caribbean Sea . Ernesto first affected the northern Caribbean , reaching minimal hurricane status near Haiti before weakening and moving across eastern Cuba as a tropical storm . Despite initial predictions for it to track through the eastern Gulf of Mexico as a major hurricane , Ernesto moved across eastern Florida as a weak tropical storm . After turning to the northeast , it re @-@ intensified and made landfall on August 31 on the North Carolina coast just below hurricane status . Late the next day , Ernesto became extratropical after entering southern Virginia . The remnants spread moisture across the northeastern United States before dissipating over eastern Canada on September 4 .
The deaths of at least eleven people were attributed to Ernesto , which dumped heavy rains throughout its path , especially in the Mid @-@ Atlantic region of the United States . While moving across the Caribbean , it affected several countries , and initially Ernesto posed a threat to the Gulf Coast of the United States around the one @-@ year anniversary of Hurricane Katrina . Damage in Virginia was estimated at over $ 118 million ( 2006 USD ) , prompting the declaration of a federal disaster area . Total damage in the United States was estimated at $ 500 million ( 2006 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 18 , a tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa . It tracked westward , and its convection began organizing and concentrating on August 22 . The next day , convection increased along the wave axis , and Dvorak classifications from the Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch of the National Hurricane Center began at 1200 UTC on August 23 . As it approached the Lesser Antilles , a surface low developed , and with the confirmation of a closed low @-@ level circulation from the Hurricane Hunters , it is estimated the system developed into Tropical Depression Five on August 24 about 50 mi ( 80 km ) north @-@ northwest of Grenada .
Located to the south of a ridge across the southwestern Atlantic Ocean , the depression tracked west @-@ northwestward through an area of dry air and westerly wind shear . Despite the shear , convection intensified near the center as banding features improved , and on August 24 , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Ernesto . Convection deepened and expanded , though wind shear displaced the low @-@ level center to the west of the convection . By August 26 , the structure had become much better @-@ defined , and within five days Ernesto was forecast to be located about 275 mi ( 445 km ) south of the Gulf Coast of the United States as a powerful hurricane . The center reformed under the deepest convection after wind shear decreased , and at the same time outflow increased in all quadrants . Turning northwestward , a small eye formed , and early on August 27 Ernesto attained hurricane status about 95 mi ( 200 km ) south @-@ southwest of the border between Haiti and the Dominican Republic .
Upon becoming a hurricane , Ernesto was believed to be undergoing rapid intensification . However , the small inner core deteriorated as the circulation interacted with the mountainous terrain of southwest Haiti , and it quickly weakened back to tropical storm status . The center became broad and ill @-@ defined , though it was forecast to re @-@ intensify to hurricane status before striking Cuba . It continued to weaken due to land interaction , and early on August 28 Ernesto passed just offshore of the southwestern tip of Haiti with winds of 45 mph ( 70 km / h ) . Hindered by increased wind shear from an upper @-@ level low over the Bahamas , the storm weakened further before striking just west of Guantánamo Bay in Cuba as a minimal tropical storm . With very warm water temperatures and a favorable upper @-@ level environment , one forecast remarked the possibility of Ernesto strengthening greatly over the Straits of Florida and eastern Gulf of Mexico to hit western Florida as a major hurricane . Ernesto remained over land as a minimal tropical storm for about 18 hours before reaching the Straits of Florida . Convection gradually increased over the warm waters , though Ernesto failed to strengthen significantly due to its disrupted inner core . An eastward @-@ moving high pressure system over the southeastern United States allowed a continued northwest movement , and at 0300 UTC on August 30 the storm struck Plantation Key in the upper Florida Keys with winds of 45 mph ( 70 km / h ) . Two hours later , Ernesto made landfall on the Florida mainland in southwestern Miami @-@ Dade County .
Moving through a weakness in the subtropical ridge , the storm turned to the north through the state . Operationally , the National Hurricane Center downgraded Ernesto to tropical depression status while over the state , though post @-@ analysis indicated the system maintained tropical storm status . Ernesto retained a well @-@ organized cloud pattern over land , and after emerging over the Atlantic Ocean near Cape Canaveral , convection again increased and began wrapping into the circulation . Upon reaching the Atlantic Ocean , Ernesto accelerated north @-@ northeastward ahead of an approaching deep layer trough . The convection increased as the storm strengthened over warm waters , and late on August 31 Ernesto attained an intensity of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) while located about 170 mi ( 270 km ) south @-@ southwest of Wilmington , North Carolina . Shortly prior to moving ashore , an eye began to develop , and early on September 1 the storm made landfall on Oak Island , North Carolina very near the threshold between tropical storm and hurricane status . The National Hurricane Center remarked the possibility that Ernesto could have been a hurricane at landfall , due to the possibility that the strongest maximum wind was not sampled .
After landfall the storm rapidly weakened , and about eight hours after moving ashore , Ernesto deteriorated to tropical depression status . Interacting with a pre @-@ existing frontal zone that extended eastward through Virginia , Ernesto quickly lost its tropical characteristics , and late on September 1 it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . It re @-@ intensified to a gale over the Mid @-@ Atlantic states , only to weaken to an extratropical depression near Pennsylvania . With a large high pressure area to its east , the remnants turned to the north @-@ northwest , reaching southern Ontario on September 3 . After turning northeastward , the extratropical remnants of Ernesto were absorbed into a larger storm over Quebec on September 4 .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Caribbean = = =
About nine hours after Ernesto became a tropical storm , the government of Haiti issued a tropical storm watch from its border with the Dominican Republic to the southwestern tip of the country . As the storm strengthened , the watch was replaced with a tropical storm warning , and about 15 hours prior to its closest approach the warning was replaced with a hurricane warning . Several low @-@ lying citizens in Gonaïves were evacuated after local meteorologists anticipated up to 20 inches ( 500 mm ) of rain in some mountainous areas . Additionally , authorities advised residents in shantytowns near the ocean to evacuate to emergency shelters .
Jamaican officials issued radio and television advisories for residents in low @-@ lying areas , urging them to be ready and evacuate if necessary . The Jamaican government opened all shelters on the island and placed its armed forces on standby . Long lines for storm supplies were reported at local businesses ahead of the storm as residents rushed to obtain supplies in preparation for Ernesto 's onslaught . When a tropical storm warning was put in effect for Jamaica and the central Bahamas , cruise ship companies indicated they were diverting several liners to avoid the storm .
Hurricane warnings were put in effect for six provinces in southeastern Cuba , where significant precipitation ranging up to 20 inches ( 500 mm ) across the mountainous south was expected as the center of Ernesto tracked slowly across Cuba . Cuban officials evacuated 300 @,@ 000 people and brought its fishing fleet into harbors . The Cuban state television broadcast extensive warnings about the storm , urging precautions . Cattle were moved to higher ground , tourists were evacuated from hotels in the southeastern province of Granma , and baseball games scheduled for the evening of August 27 in Havana were played earlier in the day . The threat of the storm caused domestic flights to be canceled .
= = = United States = = =
On August 26 , about four days prior to Ernesto striking the state , the government of Florida activated its Emergency Operations Center , while the National Guard was placed on standby , following a " warning order " to its commanders . On August 27 , the Governor of Florida , Jeb Bush , issued a state of emergency because of the high risk of impact from Ernesto on the state . Officials issued a mandatory evacuation order for all visitors and non @-@ residents in the Florida Keys about three days before the storm passed through the area . Mandatory evacuations were later issued for mobile homes and low @-@ lying areas of Monroe , Broward , St. Lucie , and Martin counties ; voluntary evacuations were also issued for barrier islands in Miami @-@ Dade and Palm Beach counties . On August 28 , forecasters issued a hurricane watch for southern Florida through the Florida Keys . When Ernesto was downgraded to tropical storm status , Governor Jeb Bush urged Florida residents to continue preparations and not wait until it regained hurricane status , as it was forecast to do by the National Hurricane Center . At least 30 shelters were opened , and tolls on four turnpike were lifted . Several schools were closed across southern Florida . The threat of the storm caused NASA to postpone the launch of Space Shuttle Atlantis at Kennedy Space Center to avoid risking damage from the storm .
The storm was initially expected to move into the Gulf of Mexico and affect people recovering from hurricanes Katrina , Rita , and Wilma in the previous year , which caused hundreds of billion in damage and left thousands of houses damaged or destroyed . There were initial fears that Ernesto would make landfall days after Hurricane Katrina 's one @-@ year anniversary , and that the levees in New Orleans might not be able to withstand a strong storm surge . Officials in New Orleans prepared buses and trains in the event that people needed to evacuate but could not . A possible path over the Gulf of Mexico oil fields , as well as tension with Iran , caused the price of oil to increase , although the prices receded when the threat of the storm receded .
On August 29 , a hurricane watch was issued from the mouth of the Altamaha River in Georgia to Cape Fear , North Carolina . The next day , the watch was replaced with a tropical storm warning , which was later extended to Currituck Beach Light in Corolla , North Carolina before the storm moved ashore . In South Carolina , voluntary evacuations occurred in Charleston and Colleton counties .
On August 31 before the storm 's arrival , Virginia Governor Tim Kaine declared a state of emergency , putting the Virginia National Guard and state agencies on alert and opening the state 's new Emergency Operations Center in suburban Richmond . North Carolina Governor Mike Easley activated 200 National Guard troops and had other emergency teams on standby . Washington D.C. and parts of Maryland and Delaware were put on a Coastal Flood Watch and Flash Flood Watch by the National Weather Service in preparation for Ernesto .
= = Impact = =
= = = Caribbean = = =
Shortly before Ernesto developed into a tropical cyclone , the precursor tropical wave produced sustained winds of 37 mph ( 60 km / h ) in Barbados in association with a convective downburst . On the island , the winds downed some trees , and some flooding was reported . Strong winds and rough seas damaged six fishing boats in the southern portion of the island . Squalls in Trinidad left about 12 people injured after winds destroyed several tents . Also on Trinidad , the system produced widespread flooding , which resulted in some crop damage .
Puerto Rico experienced peripheral rainfall from the cyclone as it tracked through the eastern Caribbean Sea . A two @-@ day storm total of 4 @.@ 69 inches ( 119 mm ) occurred in Sabana Grande .
In the Dominican Republic , heavy rainfall caused river flooding and mudslides , resulting in damage to several houses . The highest rainfall report noted was 7 @.@ 01 inches ( 178 mm ) at Barahona . The rainfall also downed trees , and caused flooding to enter over 400 houses near Santo Domingo , which forced the evacuation of over 1 @,@ 600 people . In Haiti , the storm caused heavy rainfall of over 11 inches ( 300 mm ) and strong winds , causing flooding and destroying 13 homes on the island of La Gonave . In Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , rainfall severely damaged a bridge , isolating the southern portion of the region . Across the country , 59 homes were damaged , of which six destroyed , and a total of five deaths were reported .
Ernesto produced heavy rainfall in eastern Cuba , with Guantanamo reporting 3 inches ( 75 mm ) in four hours . Gusty winds left some towns in the Camagüey Province without power , though overall damage was minor . There were no reports from Cuba of deaths , injuries , or major damage attributed to the storm .
= = = Southeastern United States = = =
In the Florida Keys , Ernesto produced tropical storm force wind gusts and light rainfall , causing minor flooding . Upon making landfall in southern Florida , the storm produced a storm tide of about 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 3 m ) above astronomical tide levels , though no beach erosion was reported . Winds were fairly minor across the state , reaching 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) at a station on Lake Okeechobee . Ernesto dropped heavy rainfall across southwest Florida , with a state maximum of 8 @.@ 72 inches ( 221 mm ) recorded at South Golden Gate . The rainfall caused the Fisheating Creek to overflow , and some flooding also occurred in portions of Collier County . Floodwaters entered at least 13 homes in Palmdale . The storm resulted in more than 150 canceled flights at Orlando International Airport , stranding several travelers . While moving through the state , Ernesto spawned two F0 tornadoes in Osceola County . One person died in each in Broward and Miami @-@ Dade counties from traffic accidents ; the deaths are considered indirectly related to Ernesto . Overall damage in the state was minor .
Passing to the east of Georgia , the storm produced light winds and rainfall near the coast . In South Carolina , the storm brought over 7 inches ( 175 mm ) of precipitation to North Myrtle Beach , which caused ponding on roadways . Winds were generally light , peaking at around 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) , which caused isolated power outages ; about 2 @,@ 700 people across the state lost power . Near Charleston , the passage of the storm caused moderate flooding that left some roads closed . No significant damage was reported in the state .
Tropical Storm Ernesto made landfall in Brunswick County in the southern portion of North Carolina , producing a moderate storm surge along the Pamlico River which forced several evacuations . The storm surge reached 4 – 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 8 m ) in Beaufort County , flooding many homes and businesses . Just east of where it moved ashore , the storm dropped 14 @.@ 6 inches ( 371 mm ) of rainfall in Wrightsville Beach ; this was the highest rainfall total associated with Ernesto in the United States . Much of the eastern portion of the state received over 3 inches ( 75 mm ) of precipitation , and in the northeastern portion of the state , the precipitation caused flash flooding . The rainfall caused freshwater flooding in low @-@ lying areas , as well as along major and minor roadways ; the floodwaters left a 12 mi ( 19 km ) portion of Interstate 40 closed in Duplin County . Subsequent to the storm 's passage , the rainfall caused severe river flooding , with many streams and rivers overflowing their banks for several days . The Northeast Cape Fear River at Chinquapin remained in major flood stage for a week , flooding about 300 homes .
The storm moved ashore just below hurricane strength , though wind gusts near the coast were generally around 40 – 60 mph ( 65 – 95 km / h ) . Gusts peaked at 62 mph ( 100 km / h ) in Wilmington , and the strong winds downed trees and power lines across the coastal region ; about 69 @,@ 000 people were left without power . Minor property damage was caused by three tornadoes spawned by the storm in eastern North Carolina . The passage of the storm caused a traffic fatality in the state . Overall damage was estimated at $ 80 million ( 2006 USD ) , all but $ 4 million of which from crop damage .
= = = Mid @-@ Atlantic States and Canada = = =
Ernesto transitioned into an extratropical cyclone as it entered southern Virginia , bringing heavy rainfall which peaked at 10 @.@ 6 inches ( 270 mm ) in Wakefield . The precipitation caused flash flooding , which closed several roads but did not cause serious damage . The interaction between Ernesto and a strong ridge over the western Atlantic produced a tight pressure gradient , resulting in strong winds across the state ; wind gusts peaked at 87 mph ( 141 km / h ) at a station near the mouth of the York River . Strong winds downed numerous trees , including in Gloucester where two people died after a tree hit their home . The winds caused widespread power outages ; Dominion Virginia Power reported about 600 @,@ 000 customers as losing power some time during the storm . The storm produced a storm tide of 6 @.@ 12 feet ( 1 @.@ 86 m ) near Virginia Beach ; along the Chesapeake Bay , tidal flooding in combination with strong waves damaged boats and piers , and left a few homes flooded . Storm surge flooding also occurred along the Potomac River , with heavy beach erosion , light property damage , and flooded roadways reported in Alexandria . Across the state , the storm damaged or destroyed 609 houses , with damage totaling at least $ 118 million ( 2006 USD ) . Seven people were killed in the state , of which two directly to the storm ; three of the deaths were from traffic accidents , and one person died from carbon monoxide poisoning , due to operating a power generator inside after a power outage .
In Washington , D.C. , the storm produced wind gusts of up to 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) which , in combination with heavy rainfall , resulted in a few downed tree branches and power lines . High tides left moderate damage in St. Mary 's County , Maryland of about $ 4 @.@ 4 million ( 2006 USD ) , with the damage to trees and power lines considered worse than the impact in Hurricane Isabel in 2003 . In neighboring Charles County , storm surge flooding forced the evacuations of houses along the waterfront . The interaction between Ernesto and a high pressure area over eastern Canada produced high winds , heavy rainfall , tidal flooding , and high waves across the Mid @-@ Atlantic and New England . In Delaware , the winds left 151 @,@ 000 people without power , and the adverse conditions canceled several Labor Day Weekend events . A buoy in the Delaware Bay recorded a record @-@ high wave height of 22 @.@ 3 ft ( 6 @.@ 8 m ) . In southern New Jersey , 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) winds left over 200 @,@ 000 buildings without power , while high waves flooded or closed several roads and bridges . Further north , between 2 @-@ 4 inches ( 50 – 100 mm ) of rain fell across Pennsylvania and New York . In Pennsylvania , there were two deaths . A seven @-@ year @-@ old boy died at a hospital , after a tree limb fell on him . A man was trying to rescue his golden retriever from a drainage steam , while he was sucked into an outflow pipe , and was found dead after being pulled out of a manhole . The rain in New York caused delays in the play at the 2006 U.S. Open , and washed out a whole day 's play .
The extratropical remnants of Ernesto moved across southern Ontario , dropping moderate rainfall of up to 2 @.@ 1 inches ( 54 mm ) . Wind gusts reached 37 mph ( 60 km / h ) near Toronto , and the winds in combination with the rainfall caused power outages when lines snapped . Hundreds were left without power , though the outages were quickly restored .
= = Aftermath = =
On September 22 , following a request from Virginia governor Tim Kaine , President George W. Bush declared 19 counties in Virginia as disaster areas , along with the cities of Richmond and Poquoson . The declaration allocated federal funding to assist in paying for debris removal and the rebuilding of public infrastructure damaged by Ernesto 's flooding , including roads , parks , and government buildings . The city of Newport News and four additional counties were added later in the areas eligible for federal funding . In all , FEMA provided about $ 7 @.@ 3 million ( 2006 USD ) in assistance . Although the state of Virginia applied for individual assistance , the federal government denied the request .
Due to debris and waste being carried into waterways by flooding from Ernesto , Virginia officials closed the Chesapeake Bay to shellfishing for four days from the Chesapeake Bay Bridge @-@ Tunnel to the mouth of the Potomac River . In Richmond , officials condemned 70 homes , prompting city workers to establish temporary homes . By five days after the storm 's passage through the state , most of the 600 @,@ 000 people who experienced power outages had their electricity restored . Dominion Resources 's Tidewater Virginia area was among the most affected , requiring 2 – 3 days to restore all areas . By two days after the storm moved through the area , all major roadways were opened , though secondary roadways took longer to be cleared from debris .
Outside of Virginia , the Emergency Operation Centers in Pennsylvania , Delaware , and the District of Columbia were closed . Power crews worked to restore electricity to the affected areas across the region .
= Texas State Highway 211 =
State Highway 211 or SH 211 ( Hill Country Parkway ) is a 11 @.@ 184 @-@ mile ( 17 @.@ 999 km ) state highway west of the city of San Antonio in the U.S. state of Texas . This route was designated in 1986 as an access route to the Texas Research Park . Portions of the route were built , but significant landowner opposition kept the connecting section from being completed . The completed sections of the route consist of a southern section from U.S. Highway 90 ( US 90 ) north to Farm to Market Road 1957 ( FM 1957 ) and a northern section from FM 471 north to SH 16 . The Texas Transportation Commission has approved a pass @-@ through toll agreement that Bexar County submitted in October 2008 . This proposal will allow for development of a segment of SH 211 ( Hill Country Parkway ) from 1 @.@ 33 miles south of FM 1957 to FM 471 and improvements to FM 1957 ( Potranco Road ) from Loop 1604 to the Medina County line . The completion of the section between FM 1957 ( Potranco Road ) to FM 471 ( Culebra Road ) will finally allow for seamless travel from Hwy 90 at the south end , north to SH 16 ( Bandera Road ) . The improvements to FM 1957 ( Potranco Road ) will allow for the necessary widening of the two @-@ lane roadway which is dealing with new suburban growth and traffic for which it wasn 't built to handle .
= = History = =
The current alignment was designated in March 1986 from US 90 northward to SH 16 . In November 1988 , the designation was extended northeastward from SH 16 to FM 3351 . Construction of the current segments of the highway were completed in the early 1990s . The southern portion was the first to be completed with the interchange at US 90 and the bridge over Lucas Creek completed in 1990 . The northern portion was completed the following year in 1991 with the completion of the bridges over San Geronimo Creek .
SH 211 was previously designated between 1933 and 1935 on a route from Brenham northward to Independence . This route was transferred in 1942 to Farm to Market Road 50 and State Highway Spur 197 .
= = Route description = =
SH 211 currently exists in two separate sections west of San Antonio . The southern section begins at a diamond interchange with US 90 in western Bexar County . The route travels to the north as a two @-@ lane highway with a northbound passing lane for the majority of the route and is known as either the Texas Research Parkway or the Hill Country Parkway ( once it 's finally completed ) , providing access to the Texas Research Park and a Citi service center . This 3 @.@ 7 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 0 km ) section of the highway ends at FM 1957 just east of the Bexar / Medina county line .
The northern section ( Hill Country Parkway ) begins at FM 471 in Medina County and heads north as a two @-@ lane highway , crossing back over into Bexar County and passes briefly through the San Antonio city limits before ending at SH 16 . The northern section of the highway features the occasional passing lane in both directions . This 7 @.@ 4 @-@ mile ( 11 @.@ 9 km ) section of the roadway includes a design to provide protection to the Edwards Aquifer , the drinking water supply of San Antonio . To prevent runoff from the highway entering the aquifer , a 555 @-@ foot ( 169 m ) long bridge was sealed to prevent it from leaking and an aqueduct was constructed nearby to carry the runoff .
There are plans to connect the two segments , but there are insufficient funds available to complete the nearly 8 @-@ mile ( 12 @.@ 9 km ) project and right @-@ of @-@ way needs to be acquired . TxDOT only has $ 7 @.@ 7 million of the $ 30 million required for construction costs . Bexar County will pay for the balance of the project costs with TxDOT reimbursing the County when funds become available . Relocation assistance is being provided to landowners to persuade them to sell their property for the highway . With a shortage of funds and the right @-@ of @-@ way not purchased , there is no time table for construction . Local opposition to the extension cite greater highway needs elsewhere , environmental concerns in the corridor , and a reluctance to sell land needed for the highway as chief concerns of the highway . Once completed , the highway is believed to provide relief to nearby Loop 1604 .
The traffic volume of the highway is dramatically different between the southern and northern sections . The southern section sees traffic volumes six times of that of the northern section . The traffic volume of the southern section saw a slight increase from 2005 to 2006 . In 2005 , it had a traffic volume of 6 @,@ 450 annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , which increased to 6 @,@ 700 AADT in 2006 . The traffic volume of the northern section saw a slight increase from 2005 to 2006 as well . In 2005 , it had a traffic volume of 1 @,@ 000 AADT near the southern end of the road and 1 @,@ 300 AADT near the northern end . In 2006 , these numbers had increased to 1 @,@ 050 and 1 @,@ 550 AADT respectively .
= = Major intersections = =
= Nueces Bay =
Nueces Bay is a northwestern extension of Corpus Christi Bay in the San Patricio and Nueces counties of Texas . The bay is fed by the Nueces River , forming a natural estuary , which renders it ecologically and economically vital to the surrounding area . It serves as a habitat for the propagation of fish and shellfish , which sustain diverse species of birds and other wildlife . The bay is threatened by pollution from the heavy industry on its southern shore , which prevents oyster farming . Petrochemical production and oil are important to the surrounding economies of the major settlements of Corpus Christi and Portland , found on the eastern shore and connected by the Nueces Bay Causeway at the bay 's confluence with Corpus Christi Bay .
Agriculture dominates the northern shore , where many plots of land are still owned by the descendants of early settlers . The largely abandoned historical communities of Rosita and West Portland are also located in this area . To the west , the Odem Bay extension is formed , and is fed by Rincon Bayou and a large complex of marsh formed by the Nueces River delta . Just south of the mouth , are the remains of the abandoned Nuecestown settlement , which is now included in the Corpus Christi city limits .
= = History = =
Nueces Bay formed approximately 9 @,@ 000 years ago , as the sea level rose at the conclusion of the last ice age . The sea level stabilized 6 @,@ 000 years later , shaping the present @-@ day Nueces Bay . The first human inhabitants were the nomadic Aransas Indians , who settled between the Copano and Baffin bays about 8 @,@ 000 years ago , until 1300 CE . In the next century , the Karankawa Indians arrived , and were present when Europeans came ashore .
Nueces is Spanish for " nuts " , and refers to the pecan trees that grew along the banks of the Nueces River , noted by Spanish explorer Alonso De León in 1689 . It is unclear when the name was given to the bay ; it was called San Miguel Arcángel by Spanish captain Joaquín de Orobio y Basterra in 1747 , and an 1835 map of Texas identified it as Papelote or " wastepaper " Bay . It appears to have been first noted on a Spanish map in 1527 as the mouth of the Río Escondido or hidden river , which is believed to be the Nueces . French explorer René Robert Cavelier , Sieur de La Salle sailed into the bay in 1685 , mistakenly believing it was the Mississippi River . Spanish colonial governor José de Escandón planned a villa on the mouth of the Nueces River named Villa de Vedoya . Fifty families were sent the site in 1749 , but failed to establish a settlement , due to a lack of sufficient supplies . Later that century , missionaries discussed the possibility of moving Nuestra Señora del Refugio Mission to the site , but decided against the idea due to conflict with the Lipan Apaches . Germans attempted to settle the same area , but were turned away by the French during the Pastry War in the 1830s . The next decade , a colony for freed slaves was proposed by abolitionist Benjamin Lundy , who had to cancel after the outbreak of the Texas Revolution .
Corpus Christi , which was founded as a trading post on the southeastern shore in 1839 , is believed to be
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its infancy . That year the U.S. Conference of Mayors penned an influential report which concluded , in part , that Americans suffered from a sense of " rootlessness . " They recommended historic preservation to help provide Americans with a sense of orientation . The creation of the National Register of Historic Places in 1966 , on the heels of the report , helped to instill that sense of orientation the mayors were looking for . The mayors also recommended that any historic preservation program not focus solely on individual properties but also on " areas and districts which contain special meaning for the community . " Local , state and federal historic districts now account for thousands of historic property listings at all levels of government .
= Keith Elliott =
Keith Elliott VC ( 25 April 1916 – 7 October 1989 ) was a New Zealand soldier who served with the New Zealand Military Forces during the Second World War . He was awarded the Victoria Cross , the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces , for his actions in the First Battle of El Alamein .
Born in Apiti , Elliott was a farm manager when the Second World War began . He volunteered for service abroad with the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( 2NZEF ) and was posted to the 22nd Battalion . He saw action during the Battles of Greece and Crete and then in North Africa . By now a sergeant , during Operation Crusader in November 1941 , he was one of 700 New Zealanders made prisoners of war when their position was overrun by the Germans . Freed two months later , he was serving as a platoon commander during the First Battle of El Alamein . After he was awarded his VC , he was promoted to second lieutenant , sent home to New Zealand and discharged from the 2NZEF .
Returning to civilian life , he resumed his farming career , but in 1948 became a priest . He shifted around the lower half of the North Island for the next several years , serving in a number of churches . He was also a chaplain in the Territorial Force . He retired from the priesthood in 1981 and died eight years later at the age of 73 .
= = Early life = =
Keith Elliott was born on 25 April 1916 in Apiti , New Zealand , one of nine children of a farmer and his wife . He was educated in nearby Feilding , firstly at Lytton Street School and then at Feilding Agricultural High School . He was unable to complete his formal schooling because in 1933 , he had to drop out to work on the family farm . Two years later , he began managing a large farm at Marima .
= = Second World War = =
Elliott tried to enlist in the New Zealand Military Forces on hearing of the outbreak of the Second World War but was initially declined due to the poor state of his teeth . He was successful on a later attempt and in January 1940 he joined the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( 2NZEF ) that was raised for service overseas . He was posted to 22nd Battalion , commanded by a Victoria Cross winner of the First World War , Lieutenant Colonel Leslie Andrew . The battalion embarked for the Middle East as part of the Second Echelon of the 2NZEF but was diverted to England during transit . It arrived in England in June 1940 , where it remained for the rest of the year on garrison duty . While in England , Elliott was promoted to lance corporal .
In early 1941 , the Second Echelon was redesignated the 5th Infantry Brigade , 2nd New Zealand Division , and was sent to Greece as part of an Allied contingent set to counter a likely invasion by the Germans . His battalion was positioned at the Olympus Pass , and shortly after the invasion commenced , engaged advancing German tanks . The New Zealanders withdrew after a day , beginning a gradual retreat from the country . Evacuated to Crete on 25 April , 22nd Battalion was defending Maleme airfield when German paratroopers attacked on 20 May . The airfield was abandoned that evening much to Elliott 's displeasure as his platoon was holding their positions . The Allies were eventually evacuated to Egypt a week later , but not before Elliott was wounded in the arm in a skirmish with enemy paratroopers .
= = = North Africa = = =
While the division was refitting and rearming following the fighting in Greece and Crete , Elliott was promoted to lance sergeant , then platoon sergeant . In November 1941 , during Operation Crusader , his platoon was attached to the headquarters of the 5th Infantry Brigade for security . On 27 November , he , along with 700 other men , were captured when the headquarters was overrun by elements of Generalleutnant ( Lieutenant General ) Erwin Rommel 's Afrika Corps , which had outflanked the Allies . He spent two months under harsh conditions in captivity before being liberated by South African troops . He lost a considerable amount of weight during his time as a prisoner of war . He rejoined the 2nd New Zealand Division which was refitting in Syria , but then contracted malaria and missed out on its hasty recall to Egypt and the subsequent fighting at Minqar Qaim .
On his recovery , Elliott rejoined the 22nd Battalion on 13 July 1942 , in time for the First Battle of Alamein . The battalion was short of commissioned officers , and he found himself acting platoon commander for the forthcoming operation to capture Ruweisat Ridge . After commencing the attack early in the morning of 15 July , the battalion reached the ridge and began digging in . At daybreak , it was discovered that the New Zealanders had passed several German tanks during their advance the previous evening . Elliott spotted the tanks when they began advancing towards the 22nd Battalion 's position at dawn and notified the commanders of nearby platoons . However , they believed the tanks to be British and disregarded Elliott 's warning until the German tanks began attacking the battalion 's positions . It was then that Elliott performed the actions that led to the award of the Victoria Cross ( VC ) . The citation for his VC read :
At dawn on 15 July 1942 the battalion to which Sergeant Elliot belonged was attacked on three flanks by tanks . Under heavy tank , machine @-@ gun and shell fire , Sergeant Elliott led the platoon he was commanding to the cover of a ridge three hundred yards away , during which he sustained a chest wound . Here he re @-@ formed his men and led them to a dominating ridge a further five hundred yards away , where they came under heavy enemy machine @-@ gun and mortar fire . He located enemy machine @-@ gun posts to his front and right flank , and while one section attacked on the right flank , Sergeant Elliott led seven men in a bayonet charge across five hundred yards of open ground in the face of heavy fire and captured four enemy machine @-@ gun posts and an anti @-@ tank gun , killing a number of the enemy and taking fifty prisoners . His section then came under fire from a machine @-@ gun post on the left flank . He immediately charged this post single @-@ handed and succeeded in capturing it , killing several of the enemy and taking fifteen prisoners . During these two assaults he sustained three more wounds in the back and legs . Although badly wounded in four places , Sergeant Elliott refused to leave his men until he had reformed them , handed over his prisoners , which were now increased to one hundred and thirty , and arranged for his men to rejoin the battalion . Owing to Sergeant Elliott 's quick grasp of the situation , great personal courage and leadership , nineteen men , who were the only survivors of B Company of his battalion , captured and destroyed five machine @-@ guns , one anti @-@ tank gun , killed a great number of the enemy and captured one hundred and thirty prisoners . Sergeant Elliott sustained only one casualty amongst his men , and brought him back to the nearest advanced dressing station .
All of the 22nd Battalion , bar Elliott 's platoon , were killed or captured during the fighting at Ruweisat Ridge . Some of the other battalions that participated in the battle also incurred heavy losses . Elliott managed to link up with elements of the 21st Battalion , the commander of which recommended him for the VC . Elliott was evacuated to hospital where he spent three months recovering from his various wounds before he returned to his battalion in September .
His VC was gazetted on 24 September 1942 , but Elliott had learnt of his award the previous day . His divisional commander , Major General Bernard Freyberg , commissioned Elliott in the field as a second lieutenant shortly afterwards . He was presented with his VC ribbon by Lieutenant General Bernard Montgomery and was ordered to return to New Zealand . It is likely that this was due the desire of military authorities to keep him out of harm 's way following the recent capture of the division 's other VC winner , Charles Upham , at Ruweisat . Elliott was unhappy at being sent home while his friends remained in the field . He was also uncomfortable with the attention he received from the public when he arrived back in New Zealand and remained modest about his achievements . He was discharged from the 2NZEF in December 1943 and resumed farming .
= = Later life = =
In February 1944 , Elliott married Margaret Rachel Markham . The couple had first met before the war and would go on to have five children . Although he continued farming , he became interested in a career in the Anglican Church . Encouraged by a friend who had been a chaplain in the military , he began training for the priesthood in February 1946 . He became a priest in 1948 and took up a curate in Palmerston North , before becoming chaplain at the nearby Linton Military Camp . This entailed him joining the New Zealand Territorial Force with the rank of chaplain , 4th class .
For the next several years , Elliott moved around a number of parishes in the lower North Island . He also spent periods of time at the City Mission in Wellington . He was present at the unveiling of the Alamein Memorial in Egypt in 1954 , and two years later attended VC centenary celebrations in London . In 1967 , he co @-@ authored a book of his life , From Cowshed to Dog Collar . He retired from the priesthood in April 1981 and moved to Raumati .
He died of cancer on 7 October 1989 , survived by his wife and five children . He was buried with full military honours at Paraparaumu Cemetery .
= = Medal = =
Elliott donated his Victoria Cross to his former school , Fielding Agricultural High School , in 1972 . It was later loaned to the QEII Army Memorial Museum in Waiouru for display . It was one of nine Victoria Crosses that were among a hundred medals stolen from the museum on 2 December 2007 . On 16 February 2008 , the New Zealand Police announced all the medals had been recovered as a result of a NZ $ 300 @,@ 000 reward offered by Michael Ashcroft and Tom Sturgess .
= Blackrock ( film ) =
Blackrock is a 1997 Australian drama thriller film directed by Steven Vidler and written by Nick Enright . Marking Vidler 's directorial debut , the film was adapted from the play of the same name , also written by Enright , which was inspired by the murder of Leigh Leigh . The film stars Laurence Breuls , Simon Lyndon and Linda Cropper , and also features the first credited film performance of Heath Ledger . The film follows Jared ( Breuls ) , a young surfer who witnesses his friends raping a girl . When she is found murdered the next day , Jared is torn between revealing what he saw and protecting his friends .
Leigh 's family opposed the fictionalisation of her murder , though protests against the film were abandoned after it received financial backing from the New South Wales Film and Television Office . Blackrock was filmed over a period of two weeks at locations including Stockton , where Leigh was murdered , a decision that was opposed by local residents who said that memories of the murder were still fresh . While the film was never marketed as being based on a true story , numerous comparisons between the murder and the film were made , and many viewers believed it to be a factual account of the murder .
The film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival , and was also shown at the Boston Film Festival , though it never found an American distributor . It was nominated for five AACTA Awards , including Best Film , and won the Feature Film – Adaptation award as well as the Major Award at the 1997 AWGIE Awards . It received generally positive reviews in Australia , where it grossed $ 1 @.@ 1 million at the box office . Outside Australia , where audiences were less familiar with Leigh 's murder , it received mixed reviews .
= = Plot = =
Blackrock is an Australian beachside working @-@ class suburb where surfing is popular among youths like Jared ( Laurence Breuls ) . His first serious girlfriend is Rachel ( Jessica Napier ) , who comes from a much wealthier part of the city . One day , Ricko ( Simon Lyndon ) , a surfer popular among the local youths , returns from an eleven @-@ month trip . Jared 's mother Diane ( Linda Cropper ) attempts to tell Jared that she has been diagnosed with breast cancer , though Jared insists on talking to her later as he is busy arranging a " welcome home " party for Ricko at the local surf club . Rachel 's father , a photographer who takes provocative images of women , forbids her from attending the party , though he allows her older brother Toby ( Heath Ledger ) to attend .
While driving to the party , Toby sees Tracy ( Bojana Novakovic ) , Cherie ( Rebecca Smart ) and two other girls , and gives them a ride . Jared flirts with Tracy at the party and subsequently gets into a fight with Toby . Ricko comes to Jared 's defence , though Jared breaks up the fight after Ricko has hit Toby several times . Tracy comes to comfort Toby and Jared leaves the party to head to the beach alone . Jared sees Toby having consensual sex with Tracy on the beach . He then witnesses three of his male friends interrupting the couple and raping Tracy . Tracy calls out for help , though Jared , who is visibly disturbed by what he is witnessing , does not intervene . Toby and the other three boys , who never noticed Jared was watching , flee the area . Jared also runs away , leaving Tracy alone and distressed . Later that night Rachel , who has snuck out of home to attend the party , finds Tracy 's beaten corpse on the beach .
Jared initially tells the police nothing of what he saw . He is torn between the need to tell the truth and the desire to protect his friends ; his anger leads to the breakdown of his relationships with both Rachel and Diane . Despite Jared 's silence , police arrest Toby and the three other boys within a few days . Jared decides to tell the police what he saw , as he believes Toby and the other boys will be charged with Tracy 's murder ; however , on his way into the police station he is confronted by Ricko . Ricko confesses to Jared that he killed Tracy , but claims it was an accident – that she hit her head on a rock when he attempted to have sex with her . He has already told police that he was with Jared all night and asks Jared to confirm his alibi in the name of mateship . Diane , who still has not been able to tell Jared that she has cancer due to his behaviour , goes in to have surgery .
Jared tells the police that he was with Ricko ; when he tries to suggest Tracy 's death may have been an accident , the police show him the photos of Tracy 's battered body . Jared aggressively confronts Ricko at the beach and Ricko confesses that Tracy 's death was not an accident . He had found her walking on the beach after the rape and she asked him to take her home . He agreed , but wanted to have sex with her first . She tried to fight him off and bit him in the process , which enraged him enough to beat her to death .
As Ricko finishes his confession , the police arrive and he realises that Jared has turned him in . He attempts to escape but the police give chase and corner him on a cliff . Rather than go to jail , and ignoring Jared 's screams of protest , he jumps to his death . In the weeks that follow , Jared 's life collapses . Despite learning of Diane 's illness , he moves out of her house , choosing instead to be homeless . Jared returns home one day to collect his belongings ; after arguing with Diane , he confesses that he witnessed Tracy 's rape and could have saved her life if he had intervened or helped her afterwards . Later that day , Jared joins Diane and Cherie in cleaning graffiti from Tracy 's grave .
= = Cast = =
= = Themes = =
Writing in the journal Antipodes , academics Felicity Holland and Jane O 'Sullivan credit the film with exploring the themes of Australian masculinity , mateship , violence and sexuality . The film 's portrayal of a rape and murder at a teenage party suggests that serious crime can arise from drinking and fun simply getting out of hand . The violence , they say , erupts from extreme larikkinism rather than the archetypal psychopathy seen in other films featuring violence towards women . The film 's critique of criminal masculinity undermines the status of previously celebrated masculine lawbreakers in Australian history and cinema , such as Ned Kelly and Mick Dundee . The authors believe that the focus on masculinity leaves the female victim largely out of the film ; they consider the " near erasure " of Tracy to be a troubling aspect ; the film instead focuses on portraying the males as victims of their class , masculinity and mateship .
Director Steven Vidler said the film was not about a rape , rather it was " about the culture that allowed it to happen . " Vidler defended the choice to give the rape victim a minor role , stating , " It was important to show that this could have happened to anyone . We didn 't want to give away too much about the victim so we could maintain that suspense . " Producer David Elfick said that the film was about contemporary Australia ; about " kids who have all their life to enjoy , then a deadly mixture of drugs , alcohol , sexual tension , and desire add up to a tragedy . "
= = Production = =
= = = Theatrical origins = = =
Brian Joyce , the director of Newcastle 's Freewheels Theatre in Education , approached playwright Nick Enright , encouraging him to create a play that explored themes around the 1989 rape and murder of Leigh Leigh in Stockton , a beach area of Newcastle . Leigh 's family objected to the fictionalisation of her murder . Titled A Property of the Clan , the 45 @-@ minute play premiered at the Freewheels Theatre in 1992 and was performed at the National Institute of Dramatic Art in 1993 . The play was shown at various high @-@ schools in the Newcastle area and , following its positive reception , was shown nationally at high schools across the country over a period of eighteen months .
In 1994 , the Sydney Theatre Company commissioned Enright to develop the play into a feature @-@ length production . The resulting play was titled Blackrock . Blackrock retained the original four characters from A Property of the Clan , and added nine others ; it was considered a more fictionalised version of Leigh 's murder . The narrative and emphasis were reshaped for an adult audience rather than for a specifically educational environment .
= = = Film adaptation = = =
While the revisions to the play Blackrock were still being finalised , Enright started working with first @-@ time director Steven Vidler to direct a film version , which would also be titled Blackrock . By December 1995 , Vidler was working with Enright as an unofficial script editor , although they were having trouble finding financing for the film . Vidler said he considered directing the film Blackrock after having watched and been moved by the theatrical version , saying the play was " absolutely what it was like [ for him ] growing up in the Western Suburbs ... It 's about keeping bonded with your mates . Nothing else matters ... It 's about the unbelievable lengths boys will go to keep those bonds solid . " Leigh 's mother Robyn campaigned to have production of the film halted , but her attempts failed after the film received government financial backing from the New South Wales Film and Television Office .
Blackrock was filmed over a period of two weeks with a cast and crew of about 70 . A call for extras received an enthusiastic response by many teenagers in the Newcastle area . Filming locations included Stockton , Maroubra Beach , Caves Beach , and NESCA House . Notable Stockton landmarks seen in the film include the Stockton Ferry and Stockton Bridge .
The community of Stockton opposed filming in the area , as memories of Leigh 's murder were still fresh and the details of the script were " too close for comfort " . When filmmakers arrived in Stockton in late August 1996 , locations that had previously been reserved were suddenly no longer available . The local media treated them with hostility . Former Newcastle deputy mayor and Stockton resident Frank Rigby criticised the film during production , saying " I would just love it to go away and so would everybody else . " Brian Joyce was also critical of the decision to film in the area , saying the filmmakers had to acknowledge the choice they had made in doing so . The situation was exacerbated by the filmmakers ' denial that the film was specifically about Leigh , despite their choice of Stockton for filming . During production in September 1996 , Elfick told The Newcastle Herald that he was " getting a bit bored " of people mentioning Leigh 's murder . While acknowledging that the comments were understandable , Elfick concluded , " Unfortunately , that event happens all over Australia . We wanted to take the events of that murder and many other murders " . He was also quoted in The Sydney Morning Herald as saying , " The movie is bigger than the Leigh Leigh thing " . Elfick hoped that people viewing the film would see it as a positive way of looking at the circumstances that led to Leigh 's death , and that it would make people think and maybe stop something like that happening to someone in the future . Leigh 's family were vehemently opposed to the film , saying that the filmmakers were " feasting on an unfortunate situation " , insensitively trivialising and exploiting her death , and portraying her negatively while doing so . One of Leigh 's aunts wrote to The Newcastle Herald later that month , saying " David Elfick doesn 't seem to mind free publicity even if it comes from the tragic and brutal assault , rape , and murder of a fourteen @-@ year @-@ old virgin , not as he called it : ' the Leigh Leigh thing which happens all over Australia . ' " Enright said that while Leigh 's murder served as the inspiration , the completed film is about the way a small town reacts when one of its own members murders another .
= = = Casting = = =
Sandy George from Australian Screen Online said that Vidler 's long career as an actor helped him " draw the terrific performances " from the film 's young actors . 17 @-@ year @-@ old Laurence Breuls was literally the first person to audition for the role of Jared . Hundred of others auditioned though Breuls remained the favourite choice . Vidler chose Simon Lyndon , who played the role of Jared in the original stage production of Blackrock , for the role of Ricko , stating that Lyndon had the looks , charisma , and complexity to play the role . Rebecca Smart , who also portrayed Cherie in the original stage production , was the only person to reprise their role from the play . Blackrock is often considered to be Heath Ledger 's debut film , but he had an uncredited minor role in the 1991 film Clowning Around . While Ledger 's role in Blackrock is small , it is credited with garnering him attention in Australia , leading to more prominent acting roles . 15 @-@ year @-@ old Bojana Novakovic was given the role of Tracy partly because she was a competitive gymnast and was considered mentally and physically strong enough to film the rape scene . Vidler discussed the role with her parents before filming commenced , who despite initial reservations , eventually gave permission for her to film the scene . Novakovic said the experience was traumatic and she began to tremble uncontrollably once the shoot ended , though recovered shortly afterwards , concluding , " In a way , I feel lucky to have had such a role at the beginning of my career . I don 't think I 'll ever be scared by an emotional scene again . " The boys involved in the scene showed up at her door the following day and gave her a bunch of flowers and a T @-@ shirt that said " shit happens " . Vidler said he found the performance so powerful that when he first watched the rushes of the scene alone , he burst into tears .
= = Soundtrack = =
The soundtrack to the film was released on 28 April 1997 on Mercury Records Australia . Vidler said a lot of time was spend sifting through hundred of CDs " trying to find stuff that was not only appropriate for the film but would also be appealing to the audiences and hopefully , you know , would be released around the same time as the film , which isn 't as easy as it sounds ! " Jonathan Lewis from AllMusic gave the album four and a half out of five stars , concluding that it was " A fine collection of songs that , given the diversity of artists featured , is surprisingly cohesive as an album . "
= = = Track listing = = =
" The Way of All Things " by Rebecca 's Empire
" Teach Me " by The Cruel Sea
" Saturated " by Beasts of Bourbon
" Portable Walt Whitman " by Ben Lee
" Gonna Make You " by The Troggs
" Titanic Days " by Sidewinder
" A Day Away " by Shihad
" Bound for the Floor " by Local H
" Ghost of Love Returned " by Clouds
" Not Coming Home " by Sidewinder
" No Need to Argue " by The Cranberries
" Tailor 's Eye " by Swirl
" Kisses " by Tracy Bonham
" State of Graceful Mourning " by Died Pretty
" Blackrock Antitheme " by Steve Kilbey
= = Release = =
The film debuted at the Sundance Film Festival on 24 January 1997 . It was also shown at the Boston Film Festival in September 1997 . The version of the film shown outside Australia was around 100 minutes long ; upon reviewing this version the Australian Classification Board gave it an ' R ' rating , stating the rape scene was " too harrowing and confronting " for an MA15 + rating . Vidler subsequently cut about 10 minutes of footage out of the film so it could receive an MA15 + rating and reach its target audience of 15- to 18 @-@ year @-@ olds . Blackrock opened in cinemas in Australia on 1 May 1997 . It grossed $ 1 @,@ 136 @,@ 983 at the Australian box office .
= = = Reception = = =
In anticipation of the film 's debut at Sundance , John Brodie from Variety said the film could be the " thunder from Down Under the way Shine was last year . " Having watched the film at Sundance , David Rooney from Variety praised several of the actors ' performances and said the film " should score with kids the protagonists ' age , but its soap @-@ opera @-@ style plotting and overwritten dialogue will limit wider acceptance " . Premiere also gave a negative review of the film 's debut , commenting that audiences had been expecting to see another Shine , though left the screening disappointed . Elfick acknowledged that the initial screening of Blackrock at Sundance was less well received , which he blamed on sound problems . He stated that the issue was rectified for the second and third screenings , which were much more successful . Diane Carmen of The Denver Post gave the film a positive review of the film , which she said left audiences at Sundance " reeling with its intensity " , concluding it was " almost guaranteed to find a distributor in the U.S " , though in the event the film never received American distribution . Having viewed the film at the Boston Film Festival , Chris Wright from The Phoenix concluded , " Even with its slightly over @-@ the @-@ top dénouement , Blackrock is a believable , touching teen drama . It 's also a gripping thriller " .
R.S. Murthi from the Malaysian newspaper New Straits Times gave the film two out of five stars , concluding it is " an unflattering but somewhat forced look at the wild side of teen life that at times seems dangerously tolerant of unrestrained teen behaviour . " Associate professor Donna Lee Brien of Central Queensland University said that when shown outside Australia , the film lacks the " poignant and powerful narrative support of Leigh 's tragedy " and was deemed by critics to be " shallow and clichéd " .
Australian novelist and critic Robert Drewe gave a positive review , praising the performance of Breuls , the cinematography by Martin McGrath , and director Steven Vidler 's choice of such a controversial subject for a first film . Upon noting that the filmmakers deliberately insisted that their characters be portrayed as different from the actual people involved in the Leigh Leigh murder as possible , Drewe said the film is " asking a lot of Australian audiences to expunge reality from their memories " , though he concluded that the film should be " compulsory viewing for all Australian teenagers . " Rob Lowing from The Sun @-@ Herald noted that the film belonged to a slew of Australasian films that focused on middle class life and ultimately gave the film 3 ½ stars out of 4 , stating , " if you went to see Romper Stomper , Metal Skin , Idiot Box or Once Were Warriors , this gritty , punchy social drama ably fits into that class . "
In her book Who Killed Leigh Leigh ? , Kerry Carrington , a criminologist and prominent researcher of Leigh 's murder , had both criticism and praise for the film . She praised it for dispelling " the myth " that sexual violence is confined to one social class , for illustrating how boys model their sexual conduct on their fathers ' treatment of women , and how the culture of sex segregation in workplaces can carry over into the public life of a town , exacerbating sexist beliefs and behaviours . She criticised the film , however , for the " strong impression " it makes that ineffectual mothers are part of the underlying problem and for several differences between Leigh 's murder and the film that she considered to be disrespectful to Leigh 's memory , in particular the film 's " Hollywood ending " .
Donna Lee Brien stated that just as the filmmakers attempted to distance themselves from Leigh 's murder , the city of Newcastle attempted to distance itself from Blackrock . A 1999 feature in The Sydney Morning Herald discussing cinematic production in Newcastle mentioned everything from Mel Gibson 's 1977 debut film Summer City to a short film festival that year , but made no mention of Blackrock . Brien theorised that some of the condemnation the film received may have been due to public frustration with the legal system , as the film achieves justice for the victim , whereas no one was ever convicted of raping Leigh . Brien cited the film as an example of why sensitivity and care must be taken when fictionalising an actual crime .
= = = Home media = = =
A region 1 DVD was released on 29 October 2002 containing the original version of the film . A region 4 DVD was released on 19 November 2003 containing the edited version . Special features included a four @-@ minute featurette , cast and crew interviews , a ' goof reel ' which included footage of a bonding trip made by Simon Lyndon , Laurence Bruels and Cameron Nugent to Lennox Head , and the film 's original trailer and television advertisement . According to Andrew L. Urban from Urban Cinefile the featurette was " overburdened " with clips from the film , but was otherwise of interest . Urban also praised the seven @-@ minute interview with Nick Enright .
= = Historical accuracy = =
None of the promotional material for the film mentioned Leigh and the film was not marketed as being " based on a true story " . The film 's credits state that it is a work of fiction and that resemblance to " actual events or persons living or dead is entirely coincidental " . Nevertheless , numerous comparisons between the film and Leigh 's murder were made . Just like the play it was based on , Blackrock was often incorrectly considered by viewers to be a factual account of Leigh 's murder . Conflation between the two subjects was high ; the film was described by Miriam Davis on radio station FM 91 @.@ 5 as being the true story of " the murder of Leigh Warner at Blackrock Beach near Newcastle . " Donna Lee Brien stated that every review of both the film and the play it was based on at least mentioned Leigh , with some going into great detail on the subject . Kerry Carrington stated that the film was very accurate in some aspects of the murder , yet very distant in others , as if the film was " having a bet each way " .
Jared is an entirely fictional character , though he has been interpreted as a metaphor for everyone who witnessed Leigh being publicly assaulted yet did nothing . In the film , Tracy does not ask her parents for permission to attend the party as she knows this would be denied , whereas Leigh obtained permission from her parents , who were told the party would be supervised . Tracy wears a short skirt , tight @-@ fitting top , and high @-@ heels to the party , while Leigh wore ordinary shorts , a jumper , and sand @-@ shoes . Tracy 's body is found that night by a girl ; Leigh 's body was found the next day by a boy . Tracy 's mother packs up her daughter 's bedroom the following day , whereas Leigh 's mother left her room untouched for months . In the film , police labour until every boy involved in the rape and murder is punished , whereas no one was convicted for raping Leigh and police received criticism for alleged incompetence . Tracy 's murderer was 22 years old , well @-@ toned , and committed suicide , while Leigh 's was 18 years old , 120 kg ( 265 lb ) , and was jailed .
Both murderers , however , were high @-@ school dropouts who were interested in mechanics , were considered to have no emotional depth , and were prone to violence . The party in the film was considered to be " an almost perfect re @-@ creation " of the party in Stockton ; a surf club is hired for the night with teenage attendees being entertained by a high @-@ school band . The party spills out into the surrounding area where there are fights , and teenagers are seen stumbling , vomiting and unconscious . Tracy 's funeral was also considered to be " a direct re @-@ staging " of Leigh 's service ; both Leigh and Tracy 's friends placed red roses on her coffin and then plant a tree in her memory . Both Leigh and Tracy 's mothers worked at a nursing home and both their fathers called for the death penalty for her murderer . Parents are blamed for neglecting their children in both cases .
Details that were considered to be undoubtedly taken from Leigh 's murder included the filming location of Stockton , the presence of the song " If I Could Turn Back Time " featured at Leigh 's funeral appearing in the original script ( though it did not appear in the finished film ) , and posters reading " Shame Blackrock Shame " seen on telegraph poles following Tracy 's murder ; posters appeared around Stockton following Leigh 's murder stating " Shame Stockton Shame : Dob the gutless bastards in " .
= = Accolades = =
Blackrock received five nominations at the 1997 AACTA Awards , though did not win any awards . It won both the ' Feature Film – Adaptation ' award and the Major Award at the 1997 AWGIE Awards .
= The Headphone Masterpiece =
The Headphone Masterpiece is the debut album by American recording artist Cody Chesnutt . He recorded the album in his home bedroom with a 4 @-@ track recorder and played guitar , bass , keyboard , and an organ . A 36 @-@ song double album , The Headphone Masterpiece features neo soul and lo @-@ fi music , and distorted , overdubbed production . It was written and arranged by Chesnutt , whose ironic and sincere lyrics reflect on personal experiences such as falling in love with his wife and reconciling his love for rock and roll with the drawbacks of the rock lifestyle .
After unsuccessfully shopping the album to record companies , Chesnutt released it himself on his website in September 2002 before releasing it on September 24 through his own label Ready , Set , Go ! . The album charted for one week on the Billboard 200 and had sold 25 @,@ 000 copies by March 30 , 2003 , according to Nielsen SoundScan . The Headphone Masterpiece was well received by music critics , who found it musically adventurous , albeit indulgent .
= = Recording and composition = =
After his band The Crosswalk was dropped from Hollywood Records in 1997 , Cody Chesnutt spent several months recording The Headphone Masterpiece in his bedroom , which he used as a makeshift studio called the Sonic Promiseland , in Valley Village , California . He used a 4 @-@ track recorder , and recorded the songs entirely by himself with equipment worth $ 10 @,@ 000 , including one microphone , an organ , a guitar , bass , and keyboard . He used a pair of Sony MDR @-@ 7506 headphones as a studio monitor in order not to wake up his roommate . It was subsequently mastered by Brian Gardner .
A 36 @-@ song double album , The Headphone Masterpiece has overdubbed , distorted production , and incorporates pop rock , soul , R & B , and hip hop styles . Music journalist Philip Sherburne said that it explores British Invasion music on songs such as " Upstarts in a Blowout " , synthpop on " The World Is Coming to My Party " , and " cheerfully misogynist " hip hop on " Bitch , I 'm Broke " , but the album 's " core is classic soul " . Jared Levy of Tiny Mix Tapes called it a neo soul album , while The Fader magazine 's Knox Robinson categorized it as lo @-@ fi music .
Chesnutt 's lyrics mix irony and sincerity . He wrote the album to express the complexity of his personal experiences , such as falling in love with his wife , rock and roll , and reconciling his love for the music with the trappings of the rock lifestyle . Pitchfork Media 's Rob Mitchum wrote that " Serve This Royalty " celebrates Chesnutt 's " cultural sect " , and " The Seed " mixes his " hypersexual egotism " with " a tone of evolutionary bravado . " On the former song , Chesnutt sings " Thank you Jesus / For my mama / Thank you bitches / For my money " . He said of recording the song , " I woke up , went to the organ , and played these chords " . Following " Bitch , I 'm Broke " , the album features a suite of songs written about Chesnutt 's wife and the pleasures of monogamy .
= = Release and promotion = =
Chesnutt shopped the album around to record companies , but they mistook it for a demo and rejected it . They encouraged him to reproduce it smoothly , rearrange the drums , and rerecord his vocals . He said in an interview for Vibe at the time , " I refuse to re @-@ record it @-@ that defeats the purpose . What about the experience I had in my bedroom ? To go back to the studio , I 'd be chasing something . If you 're listening to it and you love it , then it 's already done what it 's supposed to do . " In September 2002 , Chesnutt made the album available through his website , and released it on September 24 on his own label Ready , Set , Go ! .
Chesnutt performed at clubs in Los Angeles in the album 's promotion . He subsequently toured with Macy Gray , Erykah Badu , and The Roots , who covered his song " The Seed " on their 2002 album Phrenology . The band released a music video for the song featuring Chesnutt , which received airplay on MTV . Consequently , The Headphone Masterpiece entered the Billboard 200 at number 128 with sales of 8 @,@ 000 copies . By March 30 , 2003 , it had sold 25 @,@ 000 copies , according to Nielsen SoundScan . It spent one week on the Billboard 200 .
= = Critical reception = =
In a positive review , AllMusic editor Mike Gowan called The Headphone Masterpiece a " lo @-@ fi gem " and " an eclectic celebration of sound " , while Rolling Stone magazine 's Tom Moon hailed it as " one of the most emotionally raw albums of the year " ; Moon wrote that the record " gathered musical strands from all over the pop universe into unadorned , remarkably intimate stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness musings on love , money and responsibility " . Uncut called the album " an awesome declaration of intent " and stated , " Although decidedly lo @-@ fi , this epic , adventurous and mischievous album bears comparison with Prince and Todd Rundgren ( at their respective peaks ) . " Matt Diehl from Spin called it " indie soul that traverses the chasm between Shuggie Otis and Guided by Voices " . Dream Hampton , writing in Vibe , said that the album is " everything that many roots and retro artists have reached for , pure and straightforward ; yet it is thoroughly modern in its outlook , inventive and unsentimental , with both feet in the future . "
Mojo was somewhat less enthusiastic , finding the record " at once engaging and aloof " , with " its often hamfisted production and errant vocals adding to its ramshackle , rusticated charms " . In The A.V. Club , Nathan Rabin said the album was " musically uneven in the best way " , calling it " a brilliant , self @-@ indulgent , kaleidoscopic , contradictory mess " . Pitchfork Media 's Rob Mitchum observed " a surplus of uniqueness overshadows a respectable aptitude " and remarked that its " self @-@ indulgence , lack of focus , and unbridled sonic and lyrical crudity " made the album " so frustrating , yet compelling . " Village Voice critic Robert Christgau gave the record an honorable mention , citing " Family on Blast " , " The World Is Coming to My Party " , and " My Woman , My Guitars " as highlights while writing , " just what alt @-@ r & b needed — loads of ideas , considerable talent , and all the stern self @-@ discipline of a trust fund baby " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs were written , arranged , and produced by Cody Chesnutt .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from liner notes .
Cody Chesnutt – arranger , composer , engineer , mixing , vocals
Brian Gardner – mastering
RH – saxophone ( track 6 )
Sonja Marie – vocals ( track 2 )
Talley Thomas – background vocals ( track 27 ) , dialogue ( track 24 )
= = Charts = =
= Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge =
The Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge ( local / keɪpən / ) , formerly known as South Branch Bridge or Romney Bridge , is a historic Whipple truss bridge in Capon Lake , West Virginia . It is located off Carpers Pike ( West Virginia Route 259 ) and crosses the Cacapon River . The bridge formerly carried Capon Springs Road ( West Virginia Secondary Route 16 ) over the river , connecting Capon Springs and Capon Lake .
The bridge 's Whipple truss technology was developed by civil engineer Squire Whipple in 1847 . J. W. Murphy further modified Whipple 's truss design in 1859 by designing the first truss bridge with pinned eyebar connections . The design of the Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge incorporates Murphy 's later modifications with double @-@ intersections and horizontal chords , and is therefore considered a Whipple – Murphy truss bridge . The Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge is West Virginia 's oldest remaining example of a Whipple truss bridge and its oldest extant metal truss bridge .
The Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge was originally constructed in 1874 as part of the South Branch Bridge ( or alternatively , the Romney Bridge ) , a larger two @-@ span Whipple truss bridge conveying the Northwestern Turnpike ( U.S. Route 50 ) across the South Branch Potomac River near Romney . The larger Whipple truss bridge replaced an 1838 wooden covered bridge that was destroyed during the American Civil War . In 1874 , T. B. White and Sons were charged with the construction of a Whipple truss bridge over the South Branch ; that bridge served travelers along the Northwestern Turnpike for 63 years until a new bridge was constructed in 1937 .
Dismantled in 1937 , the bridge was relocated to Capon Lake in southeastern Hampshire County to carry Capon Springs Road ( West Virginia Secondary Route 16 ) between West Virginia Route 259 and Capon Springs . The bridge was dedicated on August 20 , 1938 . In 1991 , a new bridge was completed to the south , and the Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge was preserved in place by the West Virginia Division of Highways , due to its rarity , age , and engineering significance . The Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on December 15 , 2011 .
= = Geography and setting = =
The Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge is located in a predominantly rural agricultural and forested area of southeastern Hampshire County within the Cacapon River valley . Baker Mountain , a forested narrow anticlinal mountain ridge , rises to the immediate west , and the western rolling foothills of the anticlinal Great North Mountain rise to the bridge 's east . The confluence of Capon Springs Run with the Cacapon River lies just north ( downstream ) of the bridge . George Washington National Forest is located to the bridge 's southeast , covering the forested area south of Capon Springs Road .
The bridge is located along Carpers Pike ( West Virginia Route 259 ) in the unincorporated community of Capon Lake , 2 @.@ 05 miles ( 3 @.@ 30 km ) southwest of Yellow Spring and 6 @.@ 77 miles ( 10 @.@ 90 km ) northeast of the town of Wardensville . The historic Capon Springs Resort and the unincorporated community of Capon Springs are located 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) east of Capon Lake on Capon Springs Road ( West Virginia Secondary Route 16 ) . The bridge is located immediately north ( downstream ) of the intersection of Carpers Pike with Capon Springs Road , which is carried across the Cacapon River via the current Capon Lake Bridge , a steel stringer bridge built in 1991 to replace the Whipple truss bridge for conveying vehicle traffic . The property containing the Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge is less than 1 acre ( 0 @.@ 40 ha ) in size .
= = Architecture = =
The Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge is an early example of the use of metal truss bridge load @-@ bearing superstructure technology , which defined highway bridge design well into the 20th century . Because of " its uncommon innovative design and age " , the bridge is one of West Virginia 's most historically significant bridges . It is the oldest remaining example of a Whipple truss bridge in West Virginia , and the oldest extant metal truss bridge in the state . The metal truss technology of the bridge displays distinctive innovations developed by the prominent civil engineers and bridge designers Squire Whipple and J. W. Murphy ; the innovations are evident in the bridge 's double @-@ intersection diagonals and counter @-@ diagonals with pin connections .
Approximately 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) in width and 176 feet ( 54 m ) in length , the bridge is built atop a reinforced concrete abutment and pier . Its truss structure exhibits a double @-@ intersection configuration , constructed of 14 bays , each measuring approximately 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) wide and 23 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) in height , with the diagonals extending across two bays each . The bridge is fabricated of wrought iron bracketed with pins . Spanning the full length of the bridge is a wooden pedestrian walkway that consists of an observation deck and wooden seating near the bridge 's midspan .
= = History = =
= = = Whipple truss development = = =
The bridge 's Whipple truss technology was developed in 1847 by civil engineer Squire Whipple , who received a patent from the U.S. Patent Office the same year . Whipple was one of the first structural engineers to use scientific and mathematical methods analyzing the forces and stresses in framed structures to design the bridge , and his groundbreaking 1847 book , A Work on Bridge Building , had a significant influence on bridge engineering . Whipple 's truss bridge design incorporated double @-@ intersection diagonals into the standard Pratt truss , thus allowing the diagonals to extend across two truss bays . Engineer J. W. Murphy further modified Whipple 's truss design in 1859 when he designed the first truss bridge with pinned eyebar connections , which utilized pins instead of trunnions . Murphy 's design removed the need for riveted connections and allowed for easier and more widespread construction of truss bridges . In 1863 , Murphy designed the first pin @-@ connected truss bridge with both wrought iron tension and compression components and cast iron joint blocks and pedestals . Murphy 's truss design consisted of double @-@ intersection counter @-@ diagonals , and along with the eyebar and pin connections , permitted longer iron bridge spans .
The technological design advances made by Whipple and Murphy , in addition to further advances in steel and iron fabrication , made wrought iron truss bridges a major industry in the United States . The Capon Lake bridge was a Whipple – Murphy truss bridge , since it incorporated Murphy 's later modifications with double @-@ intersections and horizontal chords . At the time of the bridge 's original fabrication in 1874 , metal truss bridges were ordered from catalogs by county courts and other entities responsible for transportation construction and maintenance . These entities provided the desired width , length , and other specifications , and the truss materials were shipped to the construction site and assembled by local construction teams . Metal truss bridges were more economically feasible , could span longer distances , and were simpler to construct than stone bridges , and they were more durable than wooden bridges . They were also marketed as detachable and transportable structures that could be dismantled and reassembled . The technology used in the Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge revolutionized transport throughout West Virginia . While the Whipple truss bridge had waned in popularity by the 1890s , the bridges were commonly disassembled and re @-@ erected for use on secondary roads , as was the case with the Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge in 1938 .
= = = T. B. White and Sons = = =
The construction company that built the Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge , T. B. White and Sons , was established in 1868 . Its founder Timothy B. White had been a carpenter and contractor in New Brighton , Pennsylvania since the 1840s . White also operated factories for iron cars and woolen mill machinery until 1859 , when he began to concentrate solely on bridge construction . White 's bridge company operated from a factory on the Beaver River in New Brighton until the factory was destroyed by fire in 1878 . After the fire , the company relocated across the river to Beaver Falls and restructured as the Penn Bridge and Machine Works . In addition to iron truss bridges , the company produced a range of structural and architectural components and continued to expand ; it employed over 500 workers by 1908 . Penn Bridge and Machine Works fended off purchase by the American Bridge Company and continued to operate independently , unlike similar small bridge companies founded in the 19th century . The most prolific of its kind in the Pittsburgh region , the company was responsible for the construction of bridges throughout the United States .
= = = South Branch Bridge = = =
The Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge was originally constructed in 1874 as part of the South Branch Bridge ( or the Romney Bridge ) , a larger two @-@ span Whipple truss bridge conveying the Northwestern Turnpike ( U.S. Route 50 ) across the South Branch Potomac River 0 @.@ 57 miles ( 0 @.@ 92 km ) west of Romney . The 1874 Whipple truss bridge across the South Branch replaced an 1838 wooden covered bridge that had been chartered by the Virginia General Assembly during the construction of the Northwestern Turnpike . Before the construction of the covered bridge in 1838 , a public ferry conveyed traffic across the river . Isaac Parsons ( 1752 – 1796 ) operated a ferry there following its establishment by an act of the Virginia General Assembly in October 1786 . The 1838 covered bridge remained in use until it was destroyed by retreating Confederate forces during the American Civil War . Throughout the course of the war , Romney reportedly changed hands 56 times between Confederate and Union forces , and the crossing of the South Branch Potomac River served as a strategic point due to its position along the Northwestern Turnpike , an important east – west route .
Following the conclusion of the war , nearly all bridges along the Northwestern Turnpike had been destroyed , including the South Branch Bridge . In order to restore local businesses and industry , Hampshire County citizens called a meeting and steps were taken at the local level to proceed with the construction of new bridges . Local citizens and the South Branch Intelligencer newspaper of Romney campaigned for the immediate replacement of the bridge because of " continual risk , danger and inconveniences arising from want of the South Branch Bridge at Col. Gibson 's ( destroyed during the war ) ... " . Hampshire County began issuing bonds for the construction of a new bridge over the South Branch in 1868 , and by 1874 , construction of the Whipple truss bridge had commenced . T. B. White and Sons were charged with the bridge 's construction .
The South Branch Intelligencer published periodic updates on the progress of the South Branch Bridge 's construction . According to the newspaper , the bridge was scheduled to be completed by July 1875 . During the course of construction , John Ridenour lost a finger while working on the bridge . The new South Branch Bridge was completed well ahead of schedule in October 1874 . The October 12 , 1874 , edition of the South Branch Intelligencer characterized the new bridge as a " complete , handsome and durable structure " , and further recounted that " the contractors , Messrs. White & Sons , New Brighton , Pennsylvania ' Penn Bridge & Machine Works , ' have given us , in general opinion , a first rate , durable work , and deserve our best commendations .... We are confident that ours will realize a very handsome income and fully vindicate the wisdom of the County Court in voting its construction . "
Following its construction in 1874 , the Whipple truss bridge over the South Branch Potomac River served Romney and travelers along the Northwestern Turnpike for 63 years . In 1935 , the West Virginia State Road Commission began organizing a project to replace the Whipple truss bridge , and construction of the new bridge had begun by 1936 . In November of that year , a car collided with the south side of the eastern Whipple truss span , which knocked the span completely off its eastern abutment . The car plunged into the South Branch Potomac River , followed by the compromised truss span , which collapsed on top of the car . Unaware of the span 's collapse , a car traveling from the west drove off the end of the west span at the bridge 's center pier , and fell onto the collapsed span . According to the Hampshire Review , the only serious injury sustained was a broken wooden leg . Following the collapse of the eastern Whipple truss span , a temporary wooden span was hastily constructed between the western truss span and the eastern abutment , so that traffic was uninterrupted until the new bridge was completed and opened on June 21 , 1937 . The 1937 bridge was used until 2010 when it was replaced by the current South Branch Bridge .
= = = Capon Lake Bridge = = =
Because Whipple truss bridges were easily disassembled and re @-@ erected , the remaining western span of the Whipple truss over the South Branch was dismantled in 1937 and relocated to Capon Lake in southeastern Hampshire County to convey Capon Springs Road ( West Virginia Secondary Route 16 ) between West Virginia Route 259 and Capon Springs . According to Branson Himelwright , a Capon Springs resident who had been a construction worker involved in the re @-@ erection of the Whipple truss span at Capon Lake , the only two ways to cross the Cacapon River to reach Capon Springs were to cross a swinging footbridge or ford the river . During the bridge 's construction , a new pier and abutments were constructed to carry the Whipple truss span and a connected Pratt truss that had been salvaged from an unknown bridge . Himelwright and Jacob " Moss " Rudolph , who had also participated in the bridge 's construction , stated in interviews that both the site excavation and concrete work for the pier and abutments were completed by hand .
The newly erected Capon Lake Bridge was dedicated on August 20 , 1938 , with a ceremony including musical performances by the Romney High School and Capon Springs Resort bands . Former West Virginia Governor and Capon Springs native Herman G. Kump , West Virginia State Road Commission Secretary Cy Hammill , and numerous other state officials were in attendance at the dedication .
In 1991 , the new steel stringer Capon Lake Bridge was constructed 187 feet ( 57 m ) to the southwest of the Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge , after which the Whipple truss bridge was closed to vehicle traffic . Due to its rarity , age , and engineering significance , West Virginia Division of Highways District 5 decided to preserve the Whipple truss bridge . During the bridge 's restoration , the Pratt truss span was removed due to significant deterioration , and the roadway deck was also removed . A wooden pedestrian walkway and observation deck were constructed across the full span of the remaining truss bridge .
The Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on December 15 , 2011 , for its " engineering significance as an excellent example of a Whipple / Murphy Truss bridge . " Since its listing , the bridge has been maintained as a historic site for pedestrians by the West Virginia Division of Highways District 5 . In 2012 , the West Virginia Division of Highways , in association with the West Virginia Archives and the history department of the West Virginia Division of Culture and History , installed a historical marker at the northwestern entry to the bridge as part of the West Virginia Highway Historical Marker Program . The marker reads :
First erected in 1874 as a two span bridge on US 50 near Romney , one span was moved here in 1938 and re @-@ erected on a new foundation . The 17 ' wide by 176 ' long bridge is a Whipple – Murphy Truss . The state 's oldest extant metal truss , the bridge is one of a few of its type in WV . Listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 2011 .
= Elastic Heart =
" Elastic Heart " is a song by Australian singer Sia featuring Canadian singer The Weeknd and American producer Diplo , taken from the soundtrack for the 2013 American film The Hunger Games : Catching Fire . Andrew Swanson assisted the artists in writing the song , with production handled by Diplo and American producer Greg Kurstin . It was released on 1 October 2013 as a single from Catching Fire by RCA , Republic and Lionsgate .
" Elastic Heart " was well received by music critics and peaked at number 7 on the singles chart of New Zealand and was certified gold by the Recorded Music NZ . It also appeared on the charts of Australia , Belgium , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . In 2014 , Sia re @-@ recorded a solo version of " Elastic Heart " for her sixth studio album 1000 Forms of Fear . The solo version was released in 2015 as a single from the album and was accompanied by a controversial music video that features actor Shia LaBeouf and dancer Maddie Ziegler . The video was the 8th most viewed YouTube music video in 2015 .
= = Release and composition = =
" Elastic Heart " was released as the second single from the soundtrack for The Hunger Games : Catching Fire ( 2013 ) . The song was made available for digital download on 1 October 2013 . It was sent to US rhythmic contemporary radio by RCA Records , Republic Records and Lionsgate Films on 8 October 2013 .
A power ballad , Hilary Hughes of The Village Voice named " Elastic Heart " a " grand , full electropop production , " while Aimee Cliff from Fact characterised the song as " a pop song that bounces like rubber . " Meanwhile , Rolling Stone reviewer Julianne Shepherd called it a trap song . Its lyrics address " the overwhelming strength [ Sia ] needed to convince herself that life was worth living after coming out of a crushing relationship . " Having the chord progression of D – A – E – F ♯ m , the song is composed in the key of F # minor .
In the deluxe version of 1000 Forms of Fear , this song was released as Elastic Heart ( piano version ) as a piano ballad .
= = Reception = =
Blue Sullivan of Slant Magazine wrote that " ' Elastic Heart ' is a seamless and highly successful team @-@ up that reads like a grimier after @-@ market version of Lady Gaga 's ' Do What U Want ' . " Spin magazine 's Chris Martins stated that " Sia soared " and it was a " bubbling ballad , " and Bradley Stern of MuuMuse claimed it was " a perfectly chaotic combination . " " Elastic Heart " debuted at number 67 on the Australian ARIA Singles Charts on the chart issue dated 14 October 2013 . The single also charted at number 27 on the Walloon Ultratip , and number 36 in Switzerland . The song fared better in New Zealand , peaking at number 7 on the national singles chart and was certified gold by the Recorded Music NZ ( RMNZ ) . In the United Kingdom , " Elastic Heart " debuted at number 79 on the UK Singles Chart on 12 October 2013 . On 17 January 2015 , the single re @-@ entered the chart at number 61 .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for " Elastic Heart " are adapted from The Hunger Games : Catching Fire soundtrack digital inlay cover .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= = Sia solo version = =
In 2014 , Sia recorded a solo version of " Elastic Heart " for her sixth studio album , 1000 Forms of Fear . It was released on 9 January 2015 by RCA as the fourth single from the album . Annie Zaleski from The AV Club labelled " Elastic Heart " a " striking power ballad , " while AllMusic 's Heather Phares picked the song as one of the three standouts from the album , alongside " Chandelier " and " Eye of the Needle " . Aimee Cliff from Fact named it a " great example of how only Sia can truly rock a song written for ( rather than by ) Sia . "
In Italy , " Elastic Heart " impacted contemporary hit radio on 9 January 2015 . " Elastic Heart " debuted at number 8 on the ARIA Singles Chart on the chart issue dated 19 January 2015 . The following week , the song rose to number 5 . The Australian Recording Industry Association certified it 3 × Platinum , which denotes shipments exceeding 210 @,@ 000 copies in Australia . In the United States , " Elastic Heart " debuted at number 17 on the Billboard Hot 100 on the issue chart dated 24 January 2015 , becoming the week 's " Hot Shot Debut " . The song was later certified double platinum for digital sales of two million copies in the United States . In the United Kingdom , the single peaked at number 10 on the UK Singles Chart on 5 April 2015 and has since been certified Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry .
= = = Music video = = =
On 7 January 2015 , the music video for the song was released . Directed by Sia and Daniel Askill and choreographed by Ryan Heffington , the video features Maddie Ziegler , who previously appeared in the video for Sia 's single " Chandelier " , and actor Shia LaBeouf . In the video , Ziegler and LaBeouf wear nude and dirt @-@ smeared outfits . Justine Harman from Elle likened the concept of the video to the plot of Titanic . Jason Lipshutz from Billboard summarised : " The entirety of the video features the surprising pair interpreting the song through various body contortions : they dance @-@ fight , collapse in the middle of the cage , crawl toward and away from each other , and make some wildly fantastic facial expressions . "
The video was nominated for the 2015 VMA Award for Best Female Video . Billboard selected the video as one " of the 10 best music videos of 2015 ( so far ) " , as did PopCrush , commenting that the video 's " lopsided choreography and filthy warfare yields a raw , junkyard beauty that doesn ’ t ask who will make it out alive , but whether escape is ever really on the table . " New York magazine 's Vulture.com ranked it # 6 on its list of 2015 's top 10 music videos . As of July 2016 , the video had received more than 650 million views on YouTube . It was the 8th most viewed YouTube video in 2015 .
= = = = Controversy = = = =
Upon its release , the video faced criticism due to the depiction of an adult and child dancing together , clad only in beige dancewear . Some commentators perceived the piece as pedophilic , and Sia later apologized on Twitter : " All I can say is Maddie and Shia are two of the only actors I felt could play these two warring ' Sia ' self states . I apologize to those who feel triggered by ' Elastic Heart ' . My intention was to create some emotional content , not to upset anybody . "
= = = Live performances = = =
On 17 January 2015 , Sia performed " Elastic Heart " on Saturday Night Live . For the performance , Sia sang the song with a short black veil covering the top half of her face , while Ziegler recreated the dance routine in the music video wearing a nude leotard and blonde wig . Later that month , Sia made a live rendition of the song on The Ellen DeGeneres Show . She also performed the song on The Voice UK on 28 March and The Voice US on 7 April 2015 .
= = = Charts = = =
= = = Release history = = =
= Delorentos =
Delorentos are a critically acclaimed Dublin @-@ based Irish alternative rock band , formed in 2005 . The band consist of four members : Ró ( vocals , guitar , piano ) , Kier ( vocals , guitar ) , Níal ( Bass , Keys , backing vocals ) and Ross ( drums , backing vocals ) .
The band 's sound is based around having four singer @-@ songwriters , with each member taking lead vocals on various albums ' tracks and singles . In 2013 they won the Choice Music Prize Irish Album of the Year for " Little Sparks " .
The band 's early sound was rooted in post @-@ punk and pop but eventually grew to incorporate influences from many genres of popular music . In 2010 , they began experimenting with acoustic music , ( obvious in 2014 release " Unbroken , Untied " ) a theme that would expand and develop their sound and audience .
The band have released five critically acclaimed albums ; 2007 's In Love with Detail , 2009 's You Can Make Sound , 2012 's Little Sparks , 2014 's Acoustic album , Unbroken , Untied , and 2014 's Night Becomes Light .
The band 's debut album In Love with Detail was critically acclaimed in Ireland , being nominated for the Choice Music Prize and in the Best Irish Album category at the 2007 Meteor Awards , at which Delorentos were also nominated for Best New Irish Band . Delorentos spent much of 2008 working on their second album , playing few live shows . By early 2009 , they were reported to be performing with Director as both bands showcased material from their second albums . However , on 17 February 2009 , Delorentos announced on their MySpace and official website that Rónan Yourell had decided to leave the band . The entire band subsequently announced a split but rescinded this decision two months later . Their second album You Can Make Sound was released on 9 October 2009 and led to two more Meteor nominations for Delorentos in 2010 . Since then , their third album Little Sparks was released with much fanfare and an innovative release and went on to win Irelands ' Choice Music Prize .
Aside from headline shows , Delorentos have opened a number of high @-@ profile shows throughout their career , including 2013 support slots for Bruce Springsteen in Kilkenny , in 2007 with Sinéad O 'Connor at Heineken Green Energy , the Dave Matthews Band at the Point Theatre and Arctic Monkeys , Supergrass and The Coral at Malahide Castle . The band have also played with the likes of Idlewild , Gang of Four , Bell X1 and The Futureheads in locations such as London , New York City , Chicago , Madrid and Toronto . They have featured at numerous major festivals and tours including Electric Picnic , Oxegen , Bennicassim , CMJ , Eurosonic and South by Southwest . Delorentos were invited to play a set at the 2006 edition of Other Voices : Songs From a Room and were also regular performers on The Cafe . They have built up a small fanbase in the neighboring United Kingdom through appearances on television shows such as CD : UK . They have also had several songs feature on the PlayStation 3 karaoke video game , SingStar .
The band announced on 31 July 2014 that they had signed a deal with Universal Music to release their new album Night Becomes Light .
Delorentos are also well known for their Irish speaking ; they have released several songs in Irish , performed a set in Irish in 2011 , and in 2012 were heavily featured in Bernard Dunne 's Brod Club on RTÉ TV in Ireland .
= = Career = =
= = = Formation = = =
Each of the band members were in other bands prior to Delorentos , sometimes playing together , in what Conlan once described as " a weird web of bands through schools and colleges , until the four of us came together " . McGuinness started playing with McCormick 's school band around 1999 , with Conlan joining the band soon after that . After this band failed , McCormick played with Yourell for a while , with McCormick and Conlan having played in a band together as well . Yourell then worked in France for a time but later returned to Ireland . Eventually the four grouped together to form Delorentos , whose name was taken from an older band in which a number of them featured . They were , by their own admission , " shite " until they went to Chicago to play " a rake of gigs " . McCormick and Conlan were in college in the earlier days of the band 's career .
= = = Early career = = =
Their first release , the EP , Leave It On , was an entirely independent one and was launched in Whelan 's in Dublin . The band collectively provided an amount of cash to record it at the start of 2005 . McGuinness had a job so provided the money , with the rest of the band paying him back . Leave It On was released on the band 's Delo Records label , with Cottage Records distributing it . Produced by Marc Carolan the four @-@ track EP was released in Ireland in November 2005 , entering the Top 30 of the Irish Singles Chart . The single , " Leave it On " , went straight to number one in the Irish Singles Chart . Delorentos followed this with a tour which included an appearance at the UK industry show In The City ( festival ) and they were invited to participate in the 2006 series of RTÉ 's annual Other Voices music show . This was followed in May 2006 by another single , " The Rules " , which debuted in the Irish Singles Chart at number fourteen and spent a total of three weeks in this chart .
Just prior to this , Delorentos had come to wider attention when they represented Ireland at the National Student Music Awards ( NSMA ) in Dublin on 31 March 2005 , where they were chosen as the Best Student Artist in the UK and Ireland . As part of their prize , they received free recording time at the BBC 's Maida Vale recording studios and were invited onto the UK television show CD : UK , on which they confirmed the UK release date of their debut EP Leave It On . The band followed this with another Irish tour and appeared on The Cafe in 2006 and 2007 . They toured with other more established bands such as Idlewild , Bell X1 , Whitey , The Futureheads , Gang of Four and Tapes ' n Tapes in locations such as London , New York City , Chicago and Toronto . Delorentos featured at both Oxegen and Electric Picnic in 2006 , becoming the first unsigned act to perform at both festivals . In February 2007 , they released the single , " Basis of Everything " , to coincide with US dates in New York City and a series of performances at South by South West .
= = = In Love with Detail = = =
Delorentos recorded their debut album in Dublin 's Sun and Apollo Studios with Gareth Mannix . In Love with Detail was released on their own Cottage Records label on 20 April 2007 . The album entered the Irish Albums Chart at number seven , spending five weeks in that chart , and later received a nomination for the Choice Music Prize . The majority of the album was written over the previous year . Later that year , Delorentos had festival slots at Oxegen , Electric Picnic and Cois Fharraige . At that year 's Heineken Green Energy , the band supported Sinéad O 'Connor and Kíla , they supported the Dave Matthews Band at the Point Theatre on 23 May 2007 , and went on to open for Arctic Monkeys at Malahide Castle on two separate dates in June 2007 . The single " Stop " was released in July . A second EP , Do You Realise , was released in November , spending two weeks in the Irish Singles Chart and peaking at number thirty @-@ four .
Delorentos twice toured the United States during this time , including several dates in March 2008 . The Irish Times selected their South by Southwest performance in Austin , Texas in March 2008 as the best by any Irish act at the event . The band also performed at the Razz Club in Barcelona , Spain . However , they kept a low enough profile on the Irish live circuit for much of the year , only performing at a small number of festivals , including Oxegen , the Bandon Music Festival and the Drogheda Arts Festival . The Irish Times noted their performance in Pet Sounds on the Sunday of Oxegen 2008 by reminiscing upon their performance from two years previously in front of a smaller crowd early on a Sunday morning . Performances of the singles " Basis of Everything " and " The Rules " at Oxegen 2008 were described as having " the kind of hummable sheen that sounds as perfect at a festival as on the radio " . Two extended plays were also been released to accompany their debut ; their debut release , titled Leave It On , in October 2005 , and the follow @-@ up EP , titled Do You Realise , came out in November 2007 .
= = = Brief split = = =
The band 's overall low profile in 2008 was initially thought to be due to them spending time working on their second album . However , in December 2008 , Delorentos explained in their MySpace blog that a potential record deal had fallen through due to the prospective label encountering financial problems . Added to this , the collapse of Pinnacle , their distribution company , denied the band a chance to release their album in the United Kingdom . Their blog entry stated that " these are strange times for everyone , and for us in the music industry there has been a lot of uncertainty . It just happened that our opportunity coincided with this extraordinary time . " After performing a number of shows with fellow Dubliners Director , Delorentos announced their break @-@ up on 17 February 2009 . The split came about after Yourell decided to leave the band due to his desire to " do other things " . A MySpace entry stated : " It 's with a very heavy heart that we have to let you know that Ronan has decided to leave the band . He feels its best for him to move on and do other things . The three of us will still be making music and will let you know about what happens next " . However , they still planned to record their second album , believed to be titled You Can Make Sound , in March 2009 – it would contain all the songs they had written in the previous year – and play " a gig or two " as part of a farewell tour . The band 's farewell tour includes shows in Whelan 's in Dublin and Cyprus Avenue in Cork . Reaction to the split was generally one of shock – The Kinetiks were amongst the neighbouring bands they had influenced , Jacqui Carroll attributed her discovery of Irish music to an early Delorentos show , whilst blogger UnaRocks , John Walshe of State , Jonnie Craig and others had recently been championing the band 's sound . On 22 April 2009 , the band announced they would not split after all , citing a newfound excitement for recording as their reason . Yourell later explained that the band signing away their independent stance only to be let down by their record company had " knocked us out of our stride " and had led to him considering his future .
= = = You Can Make Sound = = =
The second album by Delorentos , You Can Make Sound , was released on DeloRecords on Friday 9 October 2009 in Ireland . The band released the title track as a free download and the single " Secret " was released on 16 October . They co @-@ presented an edition of The Last Splash with Alison Curtis on Today FM on 20 December . In 2010 , they appeared on TG4 music series Ceol Ar An Imeall . They represented Ireland in the Eurosonic Festival in Groningen , Netherlands in January 2010 . You Can Make Sound is to be released in the Netherlands in March 2010 . On March 19 , the band were announced as one of the first acts expected to perform at 2010 's Indiependence . They headlined Livestock in Kells , County Meath on 5 June 2010 .
= = = Little Sparks = = =
Delorentos ' third album was released on 27 January 2012 . It had been recorded over the summer of 2011 with producer Rob Kirwan in Grouse Lodge studios , Westmeath and Exchequer Studios Dublin . The album was different as Kirwan insisted on two weeks ' Preproduction beforehand , something the band had not down before . The record was recorded over three months with engineer Colin Murphy , and Cenzo Townsend additionally mixing a number of tracks . The First single from the record , " Did we ever really Try " was released in October 2011 with an accompanying EP Magazine - written by the band with contributions from other artists and musicians . It reached number 10 on the charts , despite not being available in record stores , only the band 's own " pop @-@ up stores " .
The release was notable for its inventive release campaign : they toured acoustically to release the preceding EP , " Little Sparks EP " ( which was released as part of a full @-@ colour 40 @-@ page creative magazine ) , they slowly released their songs on YouTube as part of an Acoustic project , and they opened up their own pop @-@ up record shops to perform in on the week of release . The latter idea proved to be very popular - with the band visiting cities around Ireland and opening up one @-@ day stores in empty shops . The band discussed this radical new idea on RTÉ 's " the Business with George Lee " and Today FM 's " The Last Word with Matt cooper " , and the shops were also written about in the Irish Times . The critical reception to the record was the best of the band 's career , with five @-@ star reviews from State.ie , Mail on Sunday , the Star and Heinekenmusic.ie , and 4 @.@ 5 stars from Entertainment.ie , and 4 stars from Hotpress , Irish Times , Irish Independent , Sunday Times , Metro , RTÉ guide , Goldenplec.ie and many more . It was described by entertainment.ie : “ Little Sparks is not only an album which is Delorentos ’ best work to date , but one of the finest Irish releases of recent times " and by the Irish Times as " Full of brave , bracing and emotionally direct songs , it ’ s the sound of a band who have found their musical and lyrical groove . " , and by hotpress as “ An early bid for Irish album of the year … Little sparks is the sound of a group striving to write the flab @-@ free , solid @-@ gold pop record of their lives , mission accomplished . ”
= = = Unbroken , Untied = = =
On April 19 , 2014 Delorentos released Unbroken , Untied a self @-@ recorded and produced Acoustic album . A collection of 13 acoustic tracks , nine of which are completely reworked versions of previous releases while there are four brand new tracks . The physical release was contained in a handmade individually stamped boxes , limited to 147 copies . These sold out in hours on Record Store Day , 2014 .
= = = Night Becomes Light = = =
Released in Autumn 2014 , Night Becomes Light went straight into the Irish top 5 . It was named of the best albums of 2014 by the ' Choice Music Prize ' . The album received the best reviews of an already critically acclaimed career .
= = Style and influences = =
Delorentos are known for their attractive guitar sound full of hooks and harmonies . The band 's influences include Arcade Fire , Pixies , The Cure and The Clash . Their musical output has been likened to many modern British bands . The style of their single " Eustace Street " , about a troubled love affair set in Dublin 's Temple Bar , has been compared to that of Editors , and another single " Stop " , influenced by a post @-@ punk sound , has been likened to Bloc Party . The band 's second single " The Rules " has been called " a sharp comment on the culture of casual racism " . Conlan and Yourell like The Band , whilst Conlan and McCormick like The Redneck Manifesto . Conlan has stated that their earlier music had " a lot more dancey beats to it , but we 're always chopping and changing " . For instance , at one point the oldest song in the band 's set list was " Leave It On " and that was only about eight months old at the time .
= = Discography = =
= = Awards = =
In 2013 Delorentos won Choice Music Prize Irish album of the year for " Little Sparks " in Vicar St , Dublin
The Sunday Tribune 's Una Mullally said their debut album was " Best Hope For 2007 " .
Delorentos were chosen as the Best Student Artist in the UK and Ireland at the National Student Music Awards on 31 March 2005 . The band were nominated for four Meteor Music Awards – " Hope for 2006 " in 2005 , " Best New Band " in 2006 , as well as " Best Irish Band " and " Best Irish Album " in 2008 . They lost out on the 2008 Best Irish Band award to veteran rockers Aslan . In Love with Detail was nominated for the Choice Music Prize in 2007 , losing out to Super Extra Bonus Party 's self @-@ titled LP . The album also won 2007 's Róisín Dubh Album of the Year , given by the Róisín Dubh in Galway . In February 2008 they won The Irish World 's " Best New Band " Award in London .
They were nominated in two categories at the 2010 Meteor Awards : Best Irish Band and Best Irish Pop Act . That same year the band were successful in the Entertainment.ie Annual Awards picking up the Best Album of the previous year award .
= Disappearance of Madeleine McCann =
Madeleine Beth McCann ( b . 12 May 2003 ) disappeared on the evening of 3 May 2007 from her bed in a holiday apartment in Praia da Luz , a resort in the Algarve region of Portugal , sparking what one newspaper called " the most heavily reported missing @-@ person case in modern history . " Her whereabouts remain unknown .
Madeleine was on holiday from the UK with her parents , Kate and Gerry McCann , her younger twin siblings , and a group of family friends and their children . She and the twins had been left asleep at 20 : 30 in the ground @-@ floor apartment , while the McCanns and friends dined in a restaurant 50 metres ( 160 ft ) away . The parents checked on the children throughout the evening , until Madeleine 's mother discovered she was missing at 22 : 00 . At first the Portuguese police seemed to accept that it was an abduction , but after misinterpreting a British DNA analysis they came to believe that Madeleine had died in the apartment . The McCanns were declared arguidos ( suspects ) in September 2007 but were cleared when Portugal 's attorney @-@ general archived the case in July 2008 .
The parents continued the investigation using private detectives until Scotland Yard opened its own inquiry , Operation Grange , in 2011 . In 2013 Scotland Yard released e @-@ fit images of men they wanted to trace , including one of a man seen carrying a child toward the beach that night . Shortly after this the Portuguese police reopened their inquiry . Operation Grange was scaled back in 2015 .
The disappearance attracted sustained international interest and saturation coverage in the UK reminiscent of the death of Diana in 1997 . The McCanns were subjected to intense scrutiny and false allegations of involvement in their daughter 's death , particularly in the tabloid press and on Twitter . They received damages and front @-@ page apologies in 2008 from Express Newspapers , In 2011 they testified before the Leveson Inquiry into British press misconduct , lending support to those arguing for tighter press regulation .
= = People = =
= = = Madeleine McCann = = =
Madeleine was born in Leicester and lived with her family in Rothley , also in Leicestershire . At the request of her parents , she was made a ward of court in England shortly after the disappearance , which gave the court statutory powers to act on her behalf . Interpol described Madeleine as having blonde hair , blue and green eyes , a small brown spot on her left calf , and a distinctive dark strip on the iris of her right eye . In 2009 the McCanns released age @-@ progressed images of how she may have looked at age six , and in 2012 Scotland Yard commissioned one of her at age nine .
= = = Kate and Gerry McCann = = =
Madeleine 's parents are both physicians and practising Roman Catholics . Kate Marie McCann , née Healy ( born 1968 , Huyton , near Liverpool ) attended All Saints School in Anfield , then Notre Dame High School , Everton Valley , graduating in 1992 with a degree in medicine from the University of Dundee . She moved briefly into obstetrics and gynaecology , then anaesthesiology , and finally general practice .
Gerald Patrick McCann ( born 1968 in Glasgow ) attended Holyrood Secondary School . He obtained a BSc in physiology / sports science from the University of Glasgow in 1989 , qualifying in medicine in 1992 . In 2002 he obtained his MD , a research degree , also from Glasgow . Since 2005 he has been a consultant cardiologist at Glenfield Hospital , Leicester . The McCanns met in 1993 in Glasgow and were married in 1998 . Madeleine was born in 2003 and the twins , a boy and girl , two years later .
= = = Tapas Seven = = =
The McCanns were on holiday with seven friends and eight children in all , including the McCanns ' three . The nine adults dined together most evenings at 20 : 30 in the resort 's tapas restaurant , as a result of which the media dubbed the friends the Tapas Seven . The group consisted of marketing manager Jane Tanner and her partner , physician Russell O 'Brien , who were there with their two children ; physician Matthew Oldfield and his wife , recruitment consultant Rachael Oldfield , along with their daughter ; and physicians Fiona and David Payne , their two children , and Fiona Payne 's mother , Dianne Webster . Jane Tanner became an important witness , when she reported seeing a man carry a young girl away from the resort 50 minutes before Madeleine was reported missing .
= = 5A Rua Dr Agostinho da Silva , Praia da Luz = =
The McCanns arrived on Saturday , 28 April 2007 , for their seven @-@ night spring break in Praia da Luz , a village with a population of 1 @,@ 000 , known as a " little Britain " because of the concentration of British homeowners and holidaymakers . They had booked through the British holiday company Mark Warner Ltd , and were placed in 5A Rua Dr Agostinho da Silva , an apartment owned by a retired teacher from Liverpool , one of several privately owned properties rented by the company .
5A was a two @-@ bedroom , ground @-@ floor apartment in the fifth block of a group of apartments known as Waterside Village , which lay on the perimeter of part of Mark Warner 's Ocean Club resort . ( The resort 's facilities were scattered throughout the town . ) Matthew and Rachel Oldfield were next door in 5B , Jane Tanner and Russell O 'Brien in 5D , and the Paynes and Dianne Webster on the first floor .
Located on the corner of Rua Dr Agostinho da Silva and Rua Dr Francisco Gentil Martins , 5A was accessible to the public from at least two sides . Sliding glass patio doors in the living room at the back overlooked the Ocean Club 's ostensibly private pool , tennis courts , tapas restaurant and bar . The patio doors could be accessed via the ( public ) Rua Dr Francisco Gentil Martins , where a small gate and set of steps led up to 5A 's balcony and living room . 5A 's front door was on the opposite side of the block from the Ocean Club , on Rua Dr Agostinho da Silva .
The McCanns ' three children slept in a bedroom next to the front door , which the McCanns kept locked . The bedroom had one waist @-@ high window with curtains and a metal exterior shutter , the latter controlled by a cord inside the window ; the McCanns kept the curtains and shutter closed throughout the holiday . The window overlooked a narrow walkway and residents ' car park , which was separated by a low wall from the street . Madeleine slept in a single bed next to the bedroom door , on the opposite side of the room from the window , while the twins were in travel cots in the middle of the room . There was another , empty , single bed underneath the window .
= = Thursday , 3 May 2007 = =
= = = Tapas restaurant = = =
Thursday , 3 May , was the penultimate day of the family 's holiday . Over breakfast Madeleine asked : " Why didn 't you come when [ her brother ] and I cried last night ? " After the disappearance , her parents wondered whether this meant someone had entered the children 's bedroom . Her mother also noticed a large brown stain on Madeleine 's Eeyore pyjama top .
The children spent the morning in the resort 's Kids ' Club , then the family lunched at their apartment before heading to the pool . Madeleine 's mother took the last known photograph of Madeleine that afternoon , sitting by the pool next to her father and two @-@ year @-@ old sister . The children returned to Kids ' Club , and at 18 : 00 their mother took them back to 5A , while their father went for a tennis lesson .
The McCanns put the children to bed around 19 : 00 . Madeleine was left asleep in short @-@ sleeved , pink @-@ and @-@ white Marks and Spencer 's Eeyore pyjamas , next to her comfort blanket and soft toy Cuddle Cat . At 20 : 30 the parents left 5A to dine with their friends in the Ocean Club 's open @-@ air tapas restaurant , 50 metres ( 160 ft ) as the crow flies on the other side of the pool , a walk of 30 – 45 seconds , according to Madeleine 's mother . The staff had left a note in a message book at the swimming @-@ pool reception area , asking that the same table , which overlooked the apartments , be block @-@ booked for 20 : 30 for the McCanns and friends . The message said the group 's children were asleep in the apartments . Madeleine 's mother believes the abductor may have seen the note .
The McCanns and their friends left the restaurant roughly every half @-@ hour to check on their children . 5A 's patio doors could only be locked from the inside , so to allow them to enter that way , the McCanns had left the patio curtains drawn and the doors closed but unlocked . They had also closed the child @-@ safety gate at the top of the patio stairs and the gate at the bottom leading to the street . Madeleine 's father carried out the first check on 5A at around 21 : 05 . The children were asleep and all was well , except that he recalled having left the children 's bedroom door slightly ajar , and now it stood almost wide open ; he pulled it nearly closed again before returning to the restaurant . This was the last time either of the McCanns saw Madeleine .
= = = Tanner sighting = = =
The sighting by Jane Tanner , one of the Tapas Seven , of a man carrying a child that night became an important part of the early investigation . She had left the restaurant just after 21 : 00 to check on her own daughter , passing Madeleine 's father on Rua Dr Francisco Gentil Martins on his way back to the restaurant from his 21 : 05 check . He had stopped to chat to a British holidaymaker , but neither man recalled having seen Tanner . This became an issue that puzzled the Portuguese police , given how narrow the street was , and led them to accuse Tanner of having invented the sighting .
At c . 21 : 10 Tanner noticed a man with a child cross the junction of Rua Dr Francisco Gentil Martins and Rua Dr Agostinho da Silva just ahead of her , heading east , away from the Ocean Club . He was carrying a barefoot child wearing light @-@ coloured pink pyjamas with a floral pattern and cuffs on the legs . She described the man as white , dark @-@ haired , 5 ft 7 in ( 1 @.@ 70 m ) tall , of southern European or Mediterranean appearance , 35 – 40 years old , wearing gold or beige trousers and a dark jacket , and said he did not look like a tourist . Tanner told the Portuguese police , but they did not pass the description to the media until 25 May . Madeleine 's Fund hired a forensic artist to create an image of the man ( right ) , which was released in October 2007 .
Although Tanner had not seen the man 's face , the sighting became important because it offered investigators a time frame for the abduction , but Scotland Yard came to view it as a red herring . In October 2013 they said that a British holidaymaker had been identified as the man Tanner had seen , and that he had been returning to his apartment after collecting his daughter from the Ocean Club night creche . Scotland Yard took photographs of the man wearing the same or similar clothes to the ones he was wearing on the night , and standing in a pose similar to the one Tanner reported . The pyjamas his daughter had been wearing also matched Tanner 's report . Scotland Yard said they were " almost certain " the Tanner sighting was not related to the abduction .
= = = Smith sighting = = =
Another sighting of a man carrying a child that night was reported by Martin and Mary Smith , on holiday from Ireland . Scotland Yard concluded in 2013 that the Smith sighting offered the approximate time of Madeleine 's kidnap .
The Smiths saw the man at around 22 : 00 on Rua da Escola Primária , 500 yards ( 457 m ) from the McCanns ' apartment , walking toward Rua 25 de Abril and the beach . He was carrying a girl aged 3 – 4 years . She had blonde hair and pale skin , was wearing light @-@ coloured pyjamas and had bare feet . The man was mid @-@ 30s , 5 ft 7 in – 5 ft 9 in ( 1 @.@ 75 – 1 @.@ 80 m ) , slim @-@ to @-@ normal build , with short brown hair , wearing cream or beige trousers . He did not look like a tourist , according to the Smiths , and had seemed uncomfortable carrying the child .
= = = Reported missing = = =
Madeleine 's mother had intended to check on the children at 21 : 30 , but Matthew Oldfield , one of the Tapas Seven , offered to do it when he checked on his own children in the apartment next door . He noticed that the McCanns ' children 's bedroom door was wide open , but after hearing no noise he left their apartment without looking far enough into the room to see whether Madeleine was in bed . He could not recall whether the bedroom window and its exterior shutter were open at that point . Early on in the investigation the Portuguese police accused Oldfield of involvement because he had volunteered to do the check , suggesting to him that he had handed Madeleine to someone through the bedroom window .
Kate made her own check at around 22 : 00 . Scotland Yard said in 2013 that Madeleine was probably taken moments before this . Kate recalled entering the apartment through the patio doors at the back , and noticed that the children 's bedroom door was wide open . When she tried to close the door it slammed shut as though there was a draught , which is when she found that the bedroom window and its shutter were open . Madeleine 's Cuddle Cat and pink blanket were still on the bed , but Madeleine was gone . After briefly searching the apartment Kate ran back towards the restaurant , screaming that someone had taken Madeleine .
At around 22 : 10 Madeleine 's father sent Matthew Oldfield to ask the resort 's reception desk to call the police , and at 22 : 30 the resort activated its missing @-@ child search protocol . Sixty staff and guests searched until 04 : 30 , at first assuming that Madeleine had wandered off . One of them told Channel 4 's Dispatches that , from one end of Luz to the other , you could hear people shouting her name .
= = Early response = =
= = = Police = = =
Two officers from the gendarmerie , the Guarda Nacional Republicana ( GNR ) , arrived at the resort at 23 : 10 from Lagos , five miles ( 8 km ) away . At midnight , after briefly searching , they alerted the criminal police , the Polícia Judiciária ; the latter said their officers arrived within 10 minutes of that alert . Two patrol dogs were brought to the resort at 2 am and four search @-@ and @-@ rescue dogs at 8 am . Police officers had their leave cancelled and started searching waterways , wells , caves , sewers and ruins .
It was widely acknowledged that mistakes were made , perhaps the most serious of which was that the crime scene was not secured . Around 20 people entered apartment 5A before it was closed off , according to Chief Inspector Olegário de Sousa of the Polícia Judiciária . According to Madeleine 's mother , an officer placed tape across the doorway of the children 's bedroom , but left at 3 am without securing the apartment . The Polícia Judiciária case file , released in 2008 , showed that 5A lay empty for a month after the disappearance , then was let out to tourists before being sealed off in August 2007 for more forensic tests .
A similar situation arose outside the apartment . A crowd gathered by the front door of 5A , including next to the children 's bedroom window through which an abductor may have entered or left , trampling on potentially important evidence . An officer dusted the bedroom window 's exterior shutter for fingerprints without wearing gloves or other protective clothing .
Neither border nor marine police were given descriptions of Madeleine for many hours , and officers did not appear to make extensive door @-@ to @-@ door inquiries . According to Madeleine 's mother , roadblocks were first put in place at 10 am the next morning . Police did not request motorway surveillance pictures of vehicles leaving Praia da Luz that night , or of the road between Lagos and Vila Real de Santo António on the Spanish border ; the company that monitors the road , Euroscut , said they were not approached for information . It took Interpol five days to issue a global missing @-@ person alert .
= = = Media = = =
Criminal investigations in Portugal are governed by a secrecy clause in its penal code , which means there are no official press briefings . One journalist wrote that this leads to a culture of " leak , not speak " and a proliferation of gossip that is hard for others to counter without breaking the law . A Polícia Judiciária officer acknowledged in 2010 that they had been suspicious of the McCanns from the start , because the couple turned the inquiry into what the officer called a " media circus . " Owen Jones described it as " something approaching mass hysteria . "
Bell Pottinger , representing Mark Warner Ltd , dealt with the media for the first ten days , then the British government sent in press officers . The first was Sheree Dodd , a former Daily Mirror journalist , then Clarence Mitchell , director of media monitoring for the Central Office of Information . When the government withdrew Mitchell , Justine McGuinness , a non @-@ government PR representative , took over until September 2007 , then another PR company , Hanover , was briefly involved . In September Brian Kennedy of Everest Windows stepped forward as a benefactor , and offered to cover Clarence Mitchell 's salary ( later paid by Madeleine 's Fund ) ; Mitchell resigned from his position and started working for the McCanns .
Madeleine appeared on the cover of People magazine on 28 May 2007 , and on 30 May the McCanns and a group of journalists flew to Rome , in a Learjet belonging to British businessman Sir Philip Green , to meet Pope Benedict XVI . Placing Madeleine on the front page of a British newspaper would sell up to 30 @,@ 000 extra copies . She was on the front page of several British tabloids every day for almost six months and became one of Sky News 's menu options . The Portuguese tabloid Correio da Manhã published 384 articles about her between May 2007 and July 2008 . By June 2008 over seven million posts and 3 @,@ 700 videos were returned in a search for her name on YouTube .
= = First Portuguese inquiry ( 2007 – 2008 ) = =
= = = Witness statements = = =
Witnesses described men behaving oddly near apartment 5A on the day of the disappearance , Thursday , 3 May 2007 , and in the days leading up to it . Scotland Yard believe the men may have been engaged in reconnaissance for an abduction or burglary .
Between 15 : 30 and 17 : 30 on 3 May , two black @-@ haired men visited apartments close to 5A , ostensibly collecting for orphanages . One was seen in the McCanns ' block at 16 : 00 . On 20 April a bedraggled @-@ looking man rang on a tourist 's doorbell to say in broken English that he was collecting money for an orphanage . She described him as 38 – 45 years old , with a sallow complexion , lank dark hair , moustache and large teeth .
On 3 May a man was seen walking through a gate leading away from the apartments ; he tried to close the gate quietly , with both hands , and looked around as he left . At 14 : 30 two blonde @-@ haired men were seen on the balcony of 5C , an empty apartment two doors from 5A . At 16 : 00 – 17 : 00 a blonde @-@ haired man was seen near 5A . At 18 : 00 the same or another blonde @-@ haired man was seen standing in the stairwell of the McCanns ' block . At 23 : 00 , an hour after the disappearance was reported , two blonde @-@ haired men were seen in a nearby street speaking in raised voices . When they realized they had been noticed , they reportedly lowered their voices and walked away .
A witness reported seeing a blonde @-@ haired man on 29 April on Rua do Ramelhete , and again on 2 May across the road from 5A . She remembered him because he made her uneasy : she described him as " ugly , " with pitted skin and a large nose . That day or the next a different witness saw a man standing by a wall near the car park next to the pool . He was staring at the McCanns ' apartment block , where a white van was parked .
At 8 am on Monday , 30 April , a girl whose grandparents used to own 5A saw a blonde @-@ haired man leaning against a wall on a path behind the apartments , and saw him again on 2 May near the car park by the pool and Tapas restaurant , looking at 5A . She described him as Caucasian , mid @-@ 30s , short cropped hair , " ugly " with spots . He was wearing a black leather jacket , a light @-@ coloured T @-@ shirt , jeans with a belt , trainers , and thick @-@ framed sunglasses .
= = = First arguido = = =
The first person given arguido ( suspect ) status , 12 days after the disappearance , was a local British @-@ Portuguese property consultant , Robert Murat . As with the McCanns , Murat found himself at the centre of media allegations that continued for months . Murat lived in his mother 's home , 150 yards ( 137 m ) from apartment 5A in the direction the man in the Tanner sighting had walked . He was made an arguido after a British tabloid journalist told police he had been asking questions about the case . The police had briefly signed him up as an official interpreter .
Three members of the Tapas Seven said they had seen Murat near the resort on the evening Madeleine disappeared , although he and his mother said he had been at home all evening . The house was searched , the pool drained , his cars , computers , phones and video tapes examined , his garden searched using ground radar and sniffer dogs , and two of his associates were questioned . There was nothing to link him to the disappearance , and he was cleared on 21 July 2008 when the case was archived . The Portuguese case was re @-@ opened in 2013 , and in 2014 Murat was questioned as a witness by the Polícia Judiciária , this time on behalf of Scotland Yard .
= = = McCanns as arguidos = = =
= = = = Early suspicion = = = =
An early indication for the McCanns that the tide was turning against them publicly came on 6 June 2007 , when a German journalist asked them during a press conference in Berlin whether they were involved in Madeleine 's disappearance . On 30 June the first of a series of articles critical of the couple appeared in Sol , a Portuguese weekly . The reporters had the names and mobile numbers of the Tapas Seven and at least one other witness , so there appeared to have been a leak from within the inquiry .
This and later articles in the Portuguese press , almost invariably followed up in the UK , made several allegations , based on no evidence , that would engulf the McCanns for years on social media . They included that the McCanns and Tapas Seven were " swingers , " that there was a " pact of silence " between them regarding what happened the night of the disappearance , and that the McCanns had been sedating their children .
Much was made of apparent inconsistencies within and between the McCanns ' and Tapas Seven 's statements , perhaps the result of translation problems . The police had asked questions in Portuguese , the interviewees had replied in English , and an interpreter had translated . The officer had then typed up a statement in Portuguese , which was verbally translated into English for the interviewee to sign . The likelihood that misunderstandings would emerge was high .
Among the inconsistencies was whether the McCanns had entered the apartment by the front or back door when checking on the children . According to the Polícia Judiciária case file , Gerry McCann told them during his first interview on 4 May 2007 that they had entered 5A through the locked front door for his 21 : 05 and her 22 : 00 checks , and in a second interview on 10 May that he had entered through the unlocked patio doors at the back . There was also an inconsistency regarding whether the front door had been locked that night . He told the Sunday Times in December 2007 that the couple had used the front door during their checks earlier in the week , but it was next to the children 's bedroom so they had started using the patio doors instead .
Another issue was whether the exterior shutter over Madeleine 's bedroom window could be opened from outside . Kate McCann said the shutter and window were closed when Madeleine was put to bed , and both were open when she discovered Madeleine was missing . Her husband told the Polícia Judiciária that , when he was first alerted to the disappearance , he had lowered the shutter , then had gone outside and discovered that it could be raised from the outside .
Against this , the police said the shutter could not be raised from the outside without being forced , but there was no sign of forced entry . According to journalist Danny Collins , the shutter was made of non @-@ ferrous metal slats linked together on a roller blind that was housed in a box at the top of the inside window , controlled by pulling on a strap . He writes that the shutter was gravity @-@ fed ; once rolled down , the slats locked in place outside the window and could only be raised using the strap on the inside .
The discrepancy contributed to the view of the Polícia Judiciária that there had been no abduction . Even Kate 's shout of " they 've taken her " was viewed with suspicion , as though she had been paving the way for an abduction story . The suspicions developed into the theory that Madeleine had died in the apartment as a result of an accident — perhaps after being sedated to help her stay asleep — and that her parents had hidden her body for a month , before retrieving her and driving her to an unknown place in a car they had hired over three weeks after the disappearance .
= = = = British sniffer dogs = = = =
In July 2007 Mark Harrison , the national search adviser to the British National Policing Improvement Agency arrived in Praia da Luz to help with the ground search , and recommended bringing in Keela and Eddie , two Springer spaniel sniffer dogs from South Yorkshire . Keela was a crime @-@ scene @-@ investigation ( CSI ) dog trained to alert her handler , Martin Grime , to traces of human blood . Eddie was an enhanced @-@ victim @-@ recovery dog ( EVRD ) , who alerted to the scent of human cadavers .
The dogs were taken to two beaches , Robert Murat 's house and several Ocean Club apartments . Both dogs gave alerts only in apartment 5A , including behind the sofa in the living room , and on and under the veranda in the bedroom Madeleine 's parents had used . On 2 August the Polícia Judiciária told the McCanns that an anomaly had arisen , and removed boxes and suitcases of clothes from the house the McCanns had rented on Rua das Flores , as well as Madeleine 's Cuddle Cat . They also took a diary that Kate McCann had started after the disappearance and a friend 's Bible she had borrowed . A passage the Bible 's owner had marked from 2 Samuel , about the death of a child , became another item of interest ; it was copied into the police case file along with a Portuguese translation . On 6 August they took the Renault Scenic the couple had hired 24 days after Madeleine went missing .
Keela and Eddie were placed in a room with the clothes and other items , and taken to an underground public car park where the McCanns ' car was parked alongside others , including Robert Murat 's . Eddie , the cadaver dog , gave an alert outside the McCanns ' car and inside the boot ( trunk ) . One or both dogs gave alerts at Cuddle Cat , Kate McCann 's clothes and the Bible . According to the Sunday Times , it seemed apparent from a video released by the Ministério Público that the handler was directing the dogs to particular spots inside the apartment and to the McCanns ' car . The McCanns ' lawyer said that , if there was indeed a smell of corpses on Kate 's clothes , it might have been caused by her contact with the deceased as a family doctor .
= = = = British DNA analysis = = = =
Hair and other fibres were collected from areas in the apartment and car that Keela and Eddie had reacted to , and sent to the Forensic Science Service ( FSS ) in Birmingham for DNA profiling , arriving around 8 August 2007 . The FSS used a technique known as low copy number ( LCN ) DNA analysis . This is used when only a few cells are available ; the test is controversial because it is vulnerable to contamination and misinterpretation .
On 3 September John Lowe of the FSS emailed Detective Superintendent Stuart Prior of the Leicestershire police , the liaison between the British and Portuguese police . Lowe told Prior that a sample from the car boot contained 15 out of 19 of Madeleine 's DNA components , and that the result was " too complex for meaningful interpretation " :
A complex LCN [ low copy number ] DNA result which appeared to have originated from at least three people was obtained from cellular material recovered from the luggage compartment section ... Within the DNA profile of Madeleine McCann there are 20 DNA components represented by 19 peaks on a chart . ... Of these 19 components 15 are present within the result from this item ; there are 37 components in total . There are 37 components because there are at least 3 contributors ; but there could be up to five contributors . In my opinion therefore this result is too complex for meaningful interpretation / inclusion .
At this point , according to the Sunday Times , the Polícia Judiciária " abandoned the abduction theory . " The FSS email was translated into Portuguese on 4 September . The next day , according to Madeleine 's mother , the Polícia Judiciária proposed that , if she were to admit that Madeleine had died in an accident in the apartment and that she had hidden the body , she might only serve a two @-@ year sentence ; her husband would not be charged and would be free to leave . Both parents were given arguido status on 7 September . They were interviewed that day and were advised by their lawyer not to answer questions ; Gerry did answer them , but Kate declined . The Polícia Judiciária told Gerry that Madeleine 's DNA had been found in the car boot and behind the sofa in the apartment .
Journalists in Portugal were told that the DNA evidence was a " 100 percent match . " British tabloid headlines included " Corpse in McCann Car " ( London Evening Standard ) and " Brit Lab Bombshell : Car DNA is 100 % Maddie 's " ( Sun ) , while another reported that " a clump of Maddie 's hair " had been found in the car . Jerry Lawton , a reporter with the Daily Star , a British tabloid , told the Leveson Inquiry in March 2012 that the leaks had come directly from the Portuguese police . Matt Baggott , who when Madeleine disappeared was chief constable of Leicestershire police , the force that coordinated the British input , told the inquiry that he knew the DNA evidence was being wrongly interpreted , but because the Portuguese were in charge of the inquiry , he made a decision not to correct reporters who had been told the McCanns were involved . His force 's priority , he said , was to maintain a good relationship with the Polícia Judiciária with a view to finding Madeleine .
= = = = McCanns return to the UK = = = =
Despite their arguido status , the McCanns were allowed to leave Portugal and arrived back in England on 9 September 2007 . The following day Tavares de Almeida , head of the Polícia Judiciária in Portimão , signed a police report concluding that Madeleine had died in apartment 5A as a result of an accident , and that the McCanns had concealed the body and faked an abduction . On 11 September the 10 @-@ volume case file was passed to a judge , Pedro Miguel dos Anjos Frias , who authorized the seizure of Madeleine 's mother 's diary and her father 's laptop . The McCanns had taken both items back to England , although the police had retained a copy of the diary .
On 24 September Control Risks , a British security company , took hair samples from the McCann twins at their parents ' request . An anonymous donor paid for Control Risks ' services . The McCanns were concerned that the abductor might have given the children sedatives ; the twins had slept through the commotion in apartment 5A after Madeleine was reported missing , but despite requests the Portuguese police had not taken samples . Control Risks took a sample from Kate McCann too , to rebut allegations that she was on medication . No trace of drugs was found .
In October 2007 Gonçalo Amaral , the inquiry 's coordinator in Portugal , was removed from his post after telling a newspaper that the British police only pursued leads that were helpful to the McCanns . He was replaced by Paulo Rebelo , deputy national director of the Polícia Judiciária . The team of detectives was expanded and a case review began . On 29 November four members of the Portuguese investigation , including Francisco Corte @-@ Real , vice @-@ president of Portugal 's forensic crime service , were briefed at Leicestershire police headquarters by the Forensic Science Service .
= = = Investigation closed ( July 2008 ) = = =
The Tapas Seven were interviewed by Leicestershire police in England in April 2008 , with the Polícia Judiciária , including Paulo Rebelo , in attendance . The Polícia Judiciária planned the following month to hold a reconstruction in Praia da Luz , using the McCanns and Tapas Seven rather than actors , but it was cancelled when the Tapas Seven declined to participate . The poor relationship between the McCanns and the Portuguese police was evident again that month when , on the day the couple were at the European Parliament in Brussels to promote a monitoring system for missing children , transcripts of their interviews with the Polícia Judiciária were leaked to Spanish television . The national director of the Polícia Judiciária , Alípio Ribeiro , resigned not long after this , citing media pressure from the investigation ; he had publicly said the police had been hasty in naming the McCanns as suspects .
As of May 2008 Portuguese prosecutors were examining several charges against the McCanns , including abandonment of a child , abduction , homicide and concealment of a corpse . Two months later , on 21 July , the Portuguese Attorney General announced that there was no evidence to link the McCanns or Robert Murat to the disappearance , that their arguido status had been lifted and the case closed . On 4 August Ministério Público released 11 @,@ 233 pages of the case file to the media on CD @-@ ROM .
Days after the case closed , excerpts from Kate McCann 's diary , which had been taken by the Polícia Judiciária in August 2007 for the sniffer dogs , were published without her permission by a Portuguese tabloid , Correio da Manhã , translated from English to Portuguese , despite a Portuguese judge 's ruling in June 2008 that the seizure had been a privacy violation and that any copies must be destroyed . On 14 September 2008 one of the News International tabloids , the News of the World , also published the extracts , again without permission and now translated poorly back into English .
= = = Gonçalo Amaral book = = =
The bad feeling between the McCanns and the Polícia Judiciária reached such a height that the officer who had coordinated the investigation from May to October 2007 , Chief Inspector Gonçalo Amaral , resigned in June 2008 to write a book alleging that Madeleine had died in an accident in the apartment and that the McCanns had faked an abduction . The McCanns had had little or no contact with Amaral , then @-@ head of the Polícia Judiciária in Portimão , during the Madeleine inquiry . After telling a Portuguese newspaper in October 2007 that the British police only pursued leads helpful to the McCanns , he had been transferred to Faro . Three days after the case closed in July 2008 , his book , Maddie : A Verdade da Mentira ( " Maddie : The Truth of the Lie " ) , was published in Portugal by Guerra & Paz . By November 2008 it had sold 180 @,@ 000 copies .
The McCanns began a libel action in 2009 and in 2015 were awarded over € 600 @,@ 000 in damages and interest by a court in Lisbon . The decision was overturned in 2016 . A judge issued an injunction against further publication or sales of the book in 2009 , but the Court of Appeal in Lisbon overturned the ban in 2010 , stating that it violated Amaral 's freedom of expression . The ban was reinstated as part of the libel ruling , and was lifted when Amaral 's appeal succeeded in 2016 .
Amaral was himself an arguido in another case during the McCann inquiry . A month after she went missing , he and four other officers were charged with offences related to their investigation into the disappearance of Joana Cipriano , an eight @-@ year @-@ old Portuguese girl who vanished in 2004 from Figueira , seven miles ( 11 km ) from Praia da Luz . Her body was never found , and no murder weapon was identified . Her mother , Leonor Cipriano , launched a campaign to find her daughter , but she and her brother were convicted of murder after confessing to the killing . The mother retracted her confession , saying she had been beaten by police ; the police accounted for bruising on her face and body by saying she had thrown herself down stairs in the police station . Amaral was not present when the beating is alleged to have taken place , but was accused of having covered up for others . He was convicted in 2009 of perjury related to that investigation and received an 18 @-@ month suspended sentence .
= = Parents ' campaign = =
= = = Madeleine 's Fund , private detectives = = =
The family set up a limited company in May 2007 to finance the search , Madeleine 's Fund : Leaving No Stone Unturned . Brian Kennedy of Everest Windows stepped forward in September that year to help the McCanns financially . Appeals were made by public figures and screened at football matches across Britain . Over £ 2 @.@ 6 million was raised , and the News of the World offered a reward of £ 1 @
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ex @-@ husband ; a 30 @-@ year @-@ old former tourist @-@ bus driver for the Ocean Club ; and the former driver 's 24 @-@ year @-@ old and 53 @-@ year @-@ old associates . The latter three men had telephoned or texted each other near the Ocean Club around the time of the disappearance . They admitted having broken into Ocean Club apartments but denied having taken Madeleine .
= = = Other inquiries = = =
Other Scotland Yard inquiries included an effort to trace 12 manual workers who were at the Ocean Club when Madeleine disappeared , including six British cleaners in a white van who were offering their services to British expats . They made inquiries about two convicted paedophiles in jail in Scotland since 2010 for murder ; the men were running a window @-@ cleaning service in the Canary Islands when Madeleine went missing , and one was said to resemble the Smith sighting . Another focus of the inquiry was Urs Hans von Aesch , a deceased Swiss man implicated in the July 2007 murder of five @-@ year @-@ old Ylenia Lenhard . Von Aesch was living in Spain when Madeleine disappeared .
Scotland Yard issued another appeal in March 2014 about a man who had entered holiday homes occupied by British families in 12 incidents in the western Algarve between 2004 and 2010 , two of them in Praia da Luz . On four occasions he had sexually assaulted five white girls , aged 7 – 10 , in their beds . The man spoke English with a foreign accent , his speech was slow and perhaps slurred , and he had short , dark unkempt hair , tanned skin , and in the view of three victims a distinctive smell . He may have worn a long @-@ sleeved burgundy top , perhaps with a white circle on the back . The Polícia Judiciária said they believed the intruder was the former Ocean Club employee from Cape Verde who died in the 2009 tractor accident .
= = Media coverage = =
= = = Tabloids = = =
The disappearance turned a harsh spotlight on the McCanns , one that became increasingly intrusive as familiarity bred contempt . The case had everything the media could latch onto , according to feminist scholar Nicola Rehling : a whodunnit involving a white , middle @-@ class family caught up in a nightmare of evil abroad . While the News of the World offered a £ 1 @.@ 5 million reward for Madeleine , another News International tabloid , The Sun , offered £ 20 @,@ 000 for information about Shannon Matthews , who disappeared from a council estate and whose mother had seven children by five men .
The McCanns ' middle @-@ class status , at first protective , turned into a weapon against them . They were harshly criticized for having left their children alone , despite the availability of Ocean Club babysitters . Seventeen thousand people signed an online petition in June 2007 asking Leicestershire Social Services to investigate . The argument ran that a working @-@ class couple would have faced child @-@ abandonment charges , but doctors on a posh holiday had been let off the hook .
Kate McCann — or " Hot Lips Healy , " as one tabloid called her after digging up a university nickname — was deemed too attractive , thin , well @-@ dressed , intense , controlled and not mumsy enough , according to media analyst Caroline Bainbridge . Much of the commentary came from female journalists . Journalism professor Nicola Goc wrote that Kate joined a long list of women the media sought to transform into Medea figures , including Lindy Chamberlain , Sally Clark , Trupti Patel , Angela Cannings and Donna Anthony . There was even a similar ( false ) story about supposedly relevant Bible passages Lindy Chamberlin and Kate McCann were said to have highlighted . Several tabloids criticized Kate for not crying in public , despite her obvious distress ; Correio da Manhã in Portugal complained that she had not " shed a single tear , " and called her " cynical and strange " while relying on Portuguese police sources to portray her as hysterical .
= = = Leveson Inquiry = = =
In November 2011 the McCanns testified before the Leveson Inquiry into British press standards . The inquiry heard that the editor of the Daily Express , in particular , had become " obsessed " with the McCanns . Lord Justice Leveson called the Express articles " complete piffle " ; Roy Greenslade described them as " a sustained campaign of vitriol . " Kate told the inquiry that photographers would bang on her car as she left home with the twins to obtain a startled expression for a photograph . British tabloids simply repeated Portuguese tabloid stories , which in turn made no mention of sources . " Maddie ' Sold ' By Hard @-@ Up McCanns " ran a headline in the Daily Star .
= = = Libel actions = = =
The McCanns and Tapas Seven brought libel actions against several newspapers . The Daily Express , Daily Star and their sister Sunday papers published front @-@ page apologies in 2008 and donated £ 550 @,@ 000 to Madeleine 's Fund . The Tapas Seven were awarded £ 375 @,@ 000 against the Express Group , also donated to Madeleine 's Fund , along with an apology in the Daily Express .
Robert Murat and his two associates sued 11 newspapers for libel in relation to 100 articles published by Associated Newspapers , Northern & Shell ( Express group ) , Mirror Group Newspapers and News Group Newspapers ( News International ) . According to The Observer , it was the largest number of separate libel actions brought in the UK by the same person in relation to one issue . Murat was awarded £ 600 @,@ 000 in 2008 and the others $ 100 @,@ 000 ; all three received public apologies . The British Sky Broadcasting Group , which owns Sky News , also paid Murat undisclosed damages in 2008 and agreed that Sky News would host an apology on its website for 12 months .
= = = Social media = = =
Nicola Rehling writes that the narrative around the disappearance was shaped by social media . Twitter , one year old when Madeleine went missing , was the source of much of the vitriol . Social media 's attacks on the McCanns reportedly included threats to kidnap one of their twins , and when Scotland Yard and Crimewatch staged their reconstruction in 2013 , there was talk of phoning in with false information to sabotage the appeal .
One man who ran a website devoted to criticizing the couple received a three @-@ month suspended sentence in 2013 after leafleting their village with his allegations , and the following year a Twitter user was found dead from a helium overdose after Sky News confronted her about her McCann tweets . Eilis O 'Hanlon wrote that the disappearance " could almost stand as a metaphor for the rise of social media as the predominant mode of public discourse . "
= Hurricane Henriette ( 1995 ) =
Hurricane Henriette was the ninth tropical cyclone , eight named storm and fifth hurricane of the 1995 Pacific hurricane season . Henriette developed from a tropical wave that emerged from the west coast of Africa on August 15 . After crossing the Atlantic and moving into the eastern Pacific on August 29 , it developed a low @-@ level circulation that was designated a tropical depression on September 1 . The next day , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Henriette , and it was further upgraded to a hurricane on September 3 . The storm peaked as a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , and crossed the southern tip of Baja California Peninsula . On land , wind gusts of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) were reported , knocking out power and water supplies . Heavy rainfall and strong storm surge contributed to flooding that damaged many roads ; throughout the region , 800 people were forced from their homes .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 15 . It traversed westward and entered the eastern Pacific Ocean on August 29 . The system quickly developed deep convection and a low @-@ level circulation , and on September 1 it organized into Tropical Depression Nine @-@ E while located about 170 miles ( 270 km ) off the southwest coast of Mexico . The depression initially moved west @-@ northwestward , and shortly after forming it turned to the north @-@ northwest . Under favorable conditions , the depression slowly strengthened to become Tropical Storm Henriette on September 2 while located 220 miles ( 350 km ) west of Manzanillo . By later that day , the convection wrapped around the center of circulation . Henriette quickly organized and intensified into a hurricane on September 3 while located 135 miles ( 235 km ) west @-@ southwest of Puerto Vallarta in Jalisco . Upon reaching hurricane status , one computer model predicted Henriette to continue moving northward through the Gulf of California , though most forecast a turn to the northwest .
Late on September 3 , an eye began to form in the center of the deep convection as Henriette turned to the northwest . The eye became better defined the next day , and Henriette attained a peak intensity of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) as the northern portion of the eyewall moved over southern Baja California Peninsula . The hurricane quickly crossed the southern tip of Baja California Peninsula and emerged into the Pacific Ocean again as a weakened 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) cyclone with disrupted convection near the center . Convection gradually waned as the hurricane moved over progressively colder waters , and on September 6 Henriette weakened to a tropical depression . The storm turned to the west , and gradually weakened until dissipating on September 8 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
On September 2 , a few hours after Henriette became a tropical storm , the government of Mexico issued a tropical storm watch for Baja California Peninsula from La Paz southward . Early the next day it was changed to a hurricane watch , and 18 hours before Henriette made landfall the watch was upgraded to a hurricane warning . Early on September 4 , the hurricane warning was extended northward to 25 ° N. The threat of Hurricane Henriette prompted a Carnival Cruise Line ship to alter their route . Originally planned to tour Mexican ports , the captain turned the ship to tour the southern California coastline . Many upset passengers demanded refunds , to which the cruise line offered discounts for future cruises and a $ 40 credit card during their cruise .
Winds of up to 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) in southern Baja California Sur left much of Cabo San Lucas without water or power . Overall , 2 @,@ 000 people were directly affected by the hurricane . A strong storm surge produced flooding and heavy road damage in the state . Approximately 800 people were forced from their homes , and crop damage was reported . Generally up to 10 inches ( 250 mm ) of rain fell on land , though peak precipitation exceeded 13 inches ( 330 mm ) . No damage estimates are available , and no deaths were reported .
= Robert Ford ( politician ) =
Robert Ford ( born December 26 , 1948 ) is an American politician who served as a Democratic member of the South Carolina Senate since 1993 , representing District 42 , which is located in Charleston . From 1974 to 1992 , he served as a member of the Charleston City Council .
Originally involved in the civil rights movement , several of Ford 's public statements and legislative proposals as senator attracted media attention and controversy . He finished in third place in the June 2010 Democratic primary election for Governor of South Carolina . He resigned on May 31 , 2013 , in the midst of a political scandal on public funds spent in adult establishments .
= = Personal life = =
Ford was born in New Orleans , Louisiana ; his parents were leaders in the African American community . Ford attended Wayne State University and Grambling State University , from which he was expelled in 1969 before graduating for leading civil rights demonstrations . He was expelled by the university , despite it being historically black , because it relied on public funds which were controlled by a state government opposed to desegregation . Ford was a member of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference staff from 1966 to 1972 and worked for Martin Luther King , Jr. as a member of an advance team of the Poor People 's Campaign . He was arrested 73 times for participating in protests during the civil rights movement . In 1973 , he won a draft evasion trial on basis of conscientious objection . Ford worked as a car salesman and later became a full @-@ time legislator . Ford is a lifelong bachelor .
= = Political career = =
Ford was elected to serve on the Charleston City Council , where he served from 1974 to 1992 , and ran for the State Senate and was elected on November 3 , 1992 , taking office in 1993 . He was reelected in 1996 , 2000 , 2004 , and 2008 . He served on the Senate Committees on Banking and Insurance , Corrections and Penology , General , Invitations , Judiciary , and Labor , Commerce and Industry , and was the ranking Democrat on several committees . Ford is a member of the South Carolina Legislative Black Caucus . Ford resigned on May 31 , 2013 during a brewing campaign finance scandal .
Ford has been described as entertaining , controversial , and politically incorrect . He supported Hillary Clinton in the 2008 Democratic presidential primaries and questioned Barack Obama 's appeal to white voters . Ford later apologized for his comments , stating that any Democrat could win and that he had supported other African American candidates for president in the past . Ford 's comments prompted a primary challenge in 2008 from Charleston lawyer Dwayne Green . In the beginning of his campaign , Green managed to raise double the amount of campaign funds Ford raised , and although Ford 's fundraising improved he for the first time attended a candidate forum to receive free publicity , because his campaign had financial difficulty resulting from the contested primary and a fire in his home . Green was defeated in the primary election by a wide margin . Ford praised Obama 's election in November 2008 , but criticized South Carolina Congressman James Clyburn 's family for allegedly attempting to profit off Obama 's victory .
= = = Political positions = = =
As senator , Ford has introduced many bills with only a small number becoming law , but has been more successful in contributing to compromise bills . After becoming senator , Ford attempted to have the Confederate flag removed from the South Carolina State House . It was the last state capitol to display a Confederate battle flag , and Ford had picketed the building in the 1960s as a symbol of discrimination . Following years of debate , the flag was moved to a nearby monument with the adoption of a compromise bill authored by Ford . He was responsible for the passage of a 1998 bill that paired Martin Luther King , Jr . Day with Confederate Memorial Day as paid holidays . Ford stated that he hoped the legislation would improve race relations in South Carolina .
Ford described the election of judges by popular vote as a major goal and supported increasing the number of judges . He supported giving more authority to law enforcement , including the ability to search people on parole and probation without warrant , making attempted murder a crime with lifelong sentence , and increasing penalties for possession of illegal guns . Ford is a proponent of stricter regulations of the financial industry . He sponsored a 2006 ban on payday lending , which was shown to discriminate against African Americans . In 2008 , Ford blocked all House bills in the Senate until the bill was taken up . The bill failed in the Senate by a close vote and was heavily amended so lenders would not be banned but restricted . The bill then passed with Ford voting in favor but failed to advance after changes made in the House . A bill preventing consumers from taking out more than one loan at a time passed the House in 2009 . Ford supported offshore drilling , stating conservation was not a priority for most citizens of the state . Geologists believe there is little oil to be found off the South Carolina coast . Ford wants to prevent the widening of Interstate 26 through Charleston , calling instead for a study for transportation needs . Ford emphasized the need for more funding for school programs , which he claimed is necessary due to the small number of pupils attending college and to remedy lacks of knowledge in geography and civics , which he wants reinstated as a school subject . Ford was told about favoritism , intimidation and racism in the South Carolina Highway Patrol and publicized it with Glenn McConnell . Subsequently , director and deputy director of the South Carolina Department of Public Safety resigned under pressure from governor Mark Sanford .
Ford sponsored legislation defining a hate crime " as an assault , intimidation or threat based on ' actual or perceived ' race , religion , color , sex , age , national origin and sexual orientation . " He also introduced several bills concerning gay rights in lodging , hospital visitation rights and partnerships . His partnership bill would provide for civil unions in South Carolina . The effort was judged by state senator Mike Fair as predetermined to fail , but Ford cited the Democratic National Committee 's platform on the issue and argued that Barack Obama 's election showed that a change should be attempted . Even if passed , the measure would be unenforceable , due to a constitutional amendment banning unions similar to marriage in South Carolina . Ford worked to outlaw profanity and saggy pants and to keep music from minors that is " profane , vulgar , lewd , lascivious or indecent . " Ford argued he did not expect these proposals to be approved but wanted to start a discussion specifically targeting young African American men 's fashion as well as rap music . He stated : " You don 't have to emulate prisoners no more . You can emulate somebody like Barack Obama . "
Ford often opposed governor Mark Sanford 's political goals , arguing his proposed reforms were unwanted by the public , and he mostly opposed Sanford 's fiscal policy and worked to override budget vetoes by the governor , claiming he was removed from the interests of citizens . An exception were security measures for the State House complex which Ford agreed were too costly . He also opposed Sanford 's goal to increase the number of roll calls in the State Senate and voted against a 2008 immigration reform bill favored by Sanford , stating it would be an ineffective deterrent and would lead to less driving safety . The reform would have required all employers to use state driver 's licenses or a database from the U.S. Department of Homeland Security to check the legal status of workers . Ford co @-@ sponsored a bill with Glenn McConnell that would limit the governor 's authority to appoint and remove board members overseeing the Charleston port and increase required qualifications for board members . Ford opposed a bill giving Sanford authority over the South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control .
= = 2010 Gubernatorial candidacy = =
Ford ran to succeed Mark Sanford as Governor of South Carolina in the 2010 gubernatorial election . His platform included reinstating video poker to the state to generate returns from taxes on the gaming industry in an effort to balance the state budget , something he has proposed since the late 1990s . A law Ford sponsored in 2008 to make gambling legal failed to advance ; he planned a voter referendum to repeal the ban . Ford faced state senator Vincent A. Sheheen of Camden and State Superintendent of Education Jim Rex in a primary election . Sheheen 's campaign has raised $ 33 @,@ 000 as of January 2009 , while Ford 's campaign raised $ 6 @,@ 000 . On June 8 , 2010 , Ford finished in third place in the primary election with 18 percent of the vote .
= = Electoral history = =
South Carolina State Senator , 42nd Senatorial District , 1992
Primary election , August 25 , 1992
Threshold > 50 %
Ford won the general election unopposed on November 3 , 1992 .
South Carolina State Senator , 42nd Senatorial District , 1996
Ford did not have a primary opponent on June 11 , 1996 .
General election , November 5 , 1996
South Carolina State Senator , 42nd Senatorial District , 2000
Primary election
Threshold > 50 %
First Ballot , June 13 , 2000
Second Ballot , June 27 , 2000
Ford won the general election unopposed on November 7 , 2000 .
South Carolina State Senator , 42nd Senatorial District , 2004
Primary election , June 8 , 2004
Threshold > 50 %
General election , November 2 , 2004
South Carolina State Senator , 42nd Senatorial District , 2008
Primary election , June 10 , 2008
Threshold > 50 %
General election , November 4 , 2008
South Carolina State Senator , 42nd Senatorial District , 2012
Senator Ford was unopposed for reelection in both the Democratic primary and the general election .
General election , November 6 , 2012
= Maryland Route 657 =
Maryland Route 657 ( MD 657 ) was a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . The state highway ran 1 @.@ 82 miles ( 2 @.@ 93 km ) from MD 36 in Lonaconing north to the Garrett County line , where it continued north as Avilton – Lonaconing Road . MD 657 was designated in the late 1930s . As part of a road maintenance swap enacted in 2008 , the highway was reconstructed in 2010 , then turned over to Allegany County in 2011 .
= = Route description = =
MD 657 began at MD 36 ( Main Street ) within the Lonaconing Historic District . The state highway headed northwest as Douglas Avenue , a two @-@ lane road with a speed limit of 15 miles per hour ( 24 km / h ) maintained by the town of Lonaconing . After passing Old Beechwood Road , MD 657 left the town of Lonaconing , becoming state @-@ maintained with a new name , Skids Hill Road . The roadway narrowed to 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) and the speed limit increased to 25 miles per hour ( 40 km / h ) as the state highway climbed toward Big Savage Mountain high above Koontz Creek . At the Garrett County line , MD 657 ended and continued north as Avilton – Lonaconing Road toward the top of the ridge .
= = History = =
Skids Hill Road was improved as a county highway by the Maryland State Roads Commission in 1934 . MD 657 was designated when that county highway was brought into the state highway system in 1939 . In 2008 , the Maryland State Highway Administration ( MDSHA ) and Allegany County signed a road transfer agreement in which the state would take over maintenance of Messick Road and a portion of Williams Road near Cumberland . That stretch of highway became part of an extended MD 639 in 2008 . In exchange , the county would assume responsibility for the section of MD 657 outside of the town of Lonaconing . The town would continue to maintain the portion of the route within the town . The change of responsibility for MD 657 would not take place until after MDSHA reconstructed the highway , which was planned for 2010 . In March 2010 , a 50 @-@ foot ( 15 m ) section of the state highway was damaged by a torrent of water released from an abandoned mine following several days of rainfall , requiring an emergency repair project that reduced the roadway 's width at the site from 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) to 13 @.@ 5 feet ( 4 @.@ 1 m ) . MDSHA began its planned reconstruction of MD 657 from Old Beechwood Road to the Garrett County line , which included added retaining walls and widening the roadway , in April 2010 . The highway fully reopened in December 2010 . The official transfer of maintenance occurred and the MD 657 designation was removed in 2011 .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route was in Lonaconing , Allegany County .
= Steep Holm =
Steep Holm ( Welsh : Ynys Rhonech , Old English : Ronech and later Steopanreolice ) is an English island lying in the Bristol Channel . The island covers 48 @.@ 87 acres ( 19 @.@ 78 ha ) at high tide , expanding to 63 @.@ 26 acres ( 25 @.@ 60 ha ) at mean low water . At its highest point it is 78 metres ( 256 ft ) above mean sea level . It lies within the historic boundaries of Somerset and administratively forms part of North Somerset . Between 1 April 1974 and 1 April 1996 it was administered as part of Avon . Nearby is Flat Holm island ( Welsh : Ynys Echni ) , part of Wales .
The Carboniferous Limestone island rises to about 200 feet ( 61 m ) and serves as a wind and wave break , sheltering the upper reaches of the Bristol Channel . The island is now uninhabited , with the exception of the wardens . It is protected as a nature reserve and Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) with a large bird population and plants including wild peonies . There was a signal station or watchtower on the island in Roman times , but there may have been human habitation as early as the Iron Age . In the 6th century it was home to St Gildas and to a small Augustinian priory in the 12th and 13th centuries . An inn was built in 1832 and used for holidays in the 19th century . A bird sanctuary was established in 1931 and since 1951 has been leased to charitable trusts . It is now owned by the Kenneth Allsop Memorial Trust .
In the 1860s the island was fortified with ten 7 @-@ inch rifled muzzle loaders as one of the Palmerston Forts for the coastal defence of the Bristol Channel until it was abandoned in 1898 . The infrastructure was reused in World War I and II when Mark VII 6 @-@ inch breech @-@ loading guns and search lights were installed . To enable the movement of materials , soldiers from the Indian Army Service Corps initially used mules and then installed a cable @-@ operated winched switchback railway .
= = Geology and ecology = =
The island is formed of Carboniferous Limestone and is often described as geologically a continuation of the Mendip Hills at Brean Down ; however , the dip is at a different angle to that on Brean Down . On Steep Holm the dip is about 30 degrees to the north whereas at Brean Down it is 30 degrees to the south . There are some folds and fractures with dip angles up to 75 degrees created during the final phases of the Variscan orogeny near the end of the Carboniferous Period , 300 million years ago .
The island rises to about 200 feet ( 61 m ) from the surrounding sea and covers 49 acres ( 20 ha ) at high tide , whereas at low tide it expands to 63 acres ( 25 ha ) due to the tidal range of 43 feet ( 13 m ) , second only to the Bay of Fundy in Eastern Canada . There are many caves on the island , and pot holes up to 60 metres ( 200 ft ) deep in the surrounding sea bed that are believed to be the remnants of collapsed cave systems . The caves on the islands cliffs are at two different levels : the caves in the current inter @-@ tidal zone which are below the water table and are producing stalactites , and many others high up on the cliffs that were on the water line many thousands of years ago .
Steep Holm is protected as a nature reserve and Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) , notification having taken place in 1952 . There is a large bird population , particularly European herring gulls ( Larus argentatus ) and Lesser black @-@ backed gulls ( Larus fuscus ) . There has also been a small population of muntjac deer . The plateau at the top of the island has a layer of soil between 6 inches ( 150 mm ) and 12 inches ( 300 mm ) deep . It has a red colour from veins of iron in the rock and has arrived as sand particles less than 0 @.@ 0039 inches ( 0 @.@ 099 mm ) in diameter . The island is the only site in the UK on which wild peonies ( Paeonia mascula ) grow , although these have been damaged by the fungus botrytis . The wild peony was introduced to the island of Steep Holm , possibly by monks , or brought from the Mediterranean by the Romans . Alexanders ( Smyrnium olusatrum ) are also common along with golden samphire , buck 's @-@ horn plantain ( Plantago coronopus ) and wild leeks ( Allium ampeloprasum ) . The only reptiles on the island are slow worms ( Anguis fragilis ) .
= = History = =
= = = Prehistoric to Roman = = =
The earliest sign of human activity on the island are prehistoric vertebrae of red deer discovered in Five Johns ' Cave during an exploration in 1975 . Worked flints from the Mesolithic and scrapers from the Neolithic were uncovered as part of the Priory excavations carried out between 1977 and 1992 .
Roman remains , possibly a signal station or watchtower , have been identified on the island by an electrical resistance survey . Accurate exploration and interpretation of the site is difficult as it was reused by builders in both the Victorian era and during World War II . A carved stone head found on the island in 1991 is likely to be a Celtic head from the Romano @-@ British era , but may be from the Iron Age . In addition to shards of cooking pots from the Roman era , some luxury items have been identified including Arretine ware , La Tène style broaches , and an amphora dating from between 90 and 140 AD which was made in southern Spain . There have also been shards of Castor ware . Fragments of pottery roofing and box flue tiles have been identified signifying the presence of a heating system and possibly a bath house . Roman coins from the reigns of Claudius Gothicus ( 268 – 270 ) and Tetricus I ( 271 – 273 ) have also been found .
= = = Religious foundations = = =
According to legend , first recorded by John Leland in the 16th century , Saint Gildas , the author of De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae , lived on Steep Holm during the 6th century . He arrived on Steep Holm after visiting his friend Saint Cadoc , who lived on Flat Holm as a hermit . Gildas supposedly left the island , after pirates from the Orkneys carried off his servant and furniture , to become Abbot of Glastonbury . The Vikings took refuge on Steep Holm during the summer of 914 and then carried out raids on the coast of Somerset at Watchet and Porlock , according to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle . At the end of the 12th century , there was a small priory of Canons Regular of St Michael on the island . The only priory building fully excavated measured 73 feet ( 22 m ) long and 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) wide , with the cloisters and other structures still to be identified . The date of the original foundation of the priory is unclear ; however , in the early 13th century the patron was William I de Cantilupe . His family were also patrons of Studley Priory in Warwickshire . His grand @-@ daughter married Lord Robert de Tregoz who acquired the freehold of the whole island ; however , endowments for the upkeep of the priory were declining , which led to it being abandoned between 1260 and 1265 , the monks returning to Studley Priory . A Blue Lias memorial stone from the abbey , which has a Cross of Lorraine , was found in 1867 during the fortification of the island . It was incorporated into an armoury leading to the naming of the " tombstone battery " .
= = = Manorial ownership = = =
The island seems to have been held , in association with the local manors of Uphill and Christon , by the Bek family , who granted it to Henry de Lacy , 3rd Earl of Lincoln . Although the mechanism is unclear , it next passed to the Berkeley family with Maurice de Berkeley , the second Baron Berkeley , holding it in 1315 . The site was used again by warreners in the 14th and 15th centuries . They lived in one of the ruined priory buildings which was rebuilt . By 1453 the overlordship of the island was held by James Butler , 4th Earl of Ormond , and in 1460 the advowson was exercised by Margaret Talbot , Countess of Shrewsbury . In the years following , the ownership of a variety of estates , including Norton Beauchamp , to which Steep Holm was attached , was disputed . In the 16th century Edward Seymour , 1st Duke of Somerset took over , and then lost , large estates including Brean , to which Steep Holm was allied . The Seymour descendants recovered the estates , owning them into the 17th century , although the only activity on Steep Holm seems to have been the employment of gull watchers and fishermen . In 1684 the Norton Beauchamp estate was sold to Edward Ryder . It appears to have been auctioned by decree of the Court of Chancery 11 years later in 1695 , possibly because of difficulties in maintaining sea defenses along the Somerset coast ; however , this seems to have been disputed in the light of outstanding mortgages . In 1699 the estates , including Steep Holm , were sold to Philip Freke of Bristol , whose descendants held it for the next 130 years . Freke 's granddaughter married into the family of John Willes , who was Chief Justice of the Court of Common Pleas and Member of Parliament . During their ownership , probably around 1776 , a new cottage was built on Steep Holm for fishermen . It was built using stones from the ruined priory . In 1830 the island was sold again , according to some sources this was to a cousin of John Freke Willes named William Willes ; however , other sources suggest it was to a solicitor in Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare named John Baker .
In 1832 the island was leased to Colonel Tynte of Halswell House , who established an inn for sailors . The inn was run by the Harris family , using rum and tobacco bought from ships . They claimed that the island was outside the jurisdiction of the excise men until a court case in 1884 . After the Harris family , the inn was run by Mr W. L. Davies , who offered fishing , shooting and boating holidays . To make landing on the island easier , a new pier was built close to the inn . In 1835 clergyman John Ashley from Clevedon voluntarily ministered to the population of the island and the neighbouring Flat Holm . Ashley created the Bristol Channel Mission in order to serve seafarers on the 400 sailing vessels which used the Bristol Channel . The mission would later become the Mission to Seafarers , which still provides ministerial services to sailors in over 300 ports .
= = = Palmerston Fort = = =
Both Steep Holm and Flat Holm were fortified in the 1860s as a defence against invasion . They form part of a line of defences , known as Palmerston Forts , built across the channel to protect the approaches to Bristol and Cardiff . The island was fortified following a visit by Queen Victoria and Prince Albert to France , where they had been concerned at the strength of the French Navy . The Royal Commission on the Defence of the United Kingdom , under the direction of Lord Palmerston , recommended fortification of the coast , and the island formed part of this strategic coastal defence system . Construction began in 1865 and was completed in 1869 by John Perry of Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare . The work involved the creation of a perimeter road around the summit plateau and a lime kiln for the manufacture of lime mortar to build the barracks and gun emplacements with their ammunition stores .
The concrete gun emplacements were called Summit Battery , Laboratory Battery , Garden Battery and Tombstone Battery . Along with the barracks they have been designated as Grade II listed buildings . The facilities installed included a master @-@ gunners house , a small inn , and a water tank holding 49 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 220 @,@ 000 l ; 59 @,@ 000 US gal ) of rainwater . The water tank is beneath the barracks and collects rainwater from its roof . The brick tank is 16 @.@ 7 metres ( 55 ft ) long , 4 @.@ 8 metres ( 16 ft ) wide and 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 15 ft ) high with a vaulted roof . Armaments included ten 7 @-@ inch rifled muzzle loaders Mk III spread between six batteries . These were later replaced with Armstrong 6 @-@ inch RML guns . Some of the gun batteries are scheduled monuments , and there are the remains of a centralised group of brick @-@ built barrack blocks . In 1898 test firing by HMS Arrogant , an Arrogant @-@ class cruiser , on Rudder Rock battery showed that the fixed gun emplacements used on Steep Holm and other sites were susceptible to attack by modern warships , and the site was no longer active . The military control on the island was maintained until 1908 when it was leased to James Sleeman and his family . In 1927 the first test of the RAE Larynx ( from " Long Range Gun with Lynx engine " ) an early pilotless aircraft , to be used as a guided anti @-@ ship weapon , took place just off Steep Holm .
= = = World wars = = =
These facilities were updated in both World War I and World War II . From 1915 to 1919 the island was requisitioned by the Admiralty as a coastguard station . After the war the Sleemans returned to carry out farming and fishing and played host to occasional tourists . In World War II , search light batteries were built on Steep Holm . In 1940 the island 's warden , Harry Cox , who had developed the island into a bird sanctuary since 1931 , was appointed as a coastguard and was supported by Local Defence Volunteers from Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare . In 1940 and 1941 the battery was refortified by soldiers from the Indian Army Service Corps using mules to transport guns and equipment up the steep cliffs . The armament included Mark VII 6 @-@ inch breech @-@ loading guns taken from World War I naval vessels which had been scrapped , and also included Lewis automatic machine guns against air attack . The Garden Battery was built over two Victorian stone gun emplacements . Engineers from the Royal Pioneer Corps improved the infrastructure including importing sheep to feed the soldiers and , after a case of typhoid fever , shipping drinking water from south Wales . To enable the movement of equipment , the engineers built a new jetty . This was linked to the plateau with a cable @-@ operated winched switchback railway using prefabricated 60 centimetres ( 24 in ) gauge lines which had been captured from the Germans in World War I. The Steep Holm batteries were also connected , by underwater telegraph cable , to the Brean Down Fort batteries , but parts of the cable were stolen for scrap after the end of World War II .
= = = Post war = = =
In 1953 the island was leased by the Steep Holm Trust supported by four local organisations : the Somerset Archaeological and Natural History Society , Bristol Naturalists Society , Mid @-@ Somerset Naturalists and the Bristol Folk House Archaeological Club . They repaired some of the buildings and established a bird ringing programme . In 1974 their lease expired and was taken over by the Kenneth Allsop Memorial Trust , a charity formed in memory of the broadcaster and naturalist Kenneth Allsop . The Trust purchased the island in 1976 . The mission statement of the Trust is : " To protect , preserve and enhance for the benefit of the public the landscape , antiquities , flora , fauna , natural beauty and scientific interest of the island of Steep Holm in the County of North Somerset and to advance the education of the public in the natural sciences . "
Visits can be made to the island . The trust runs day @-@ long boat trips from Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare . One barrack block is in use to provide visitor facilities . In 1980 the Bollywood film Shaan was set and partially filmed on the island .
= Algoman orogeny =
The Algoman orogeny , known as the Kenoran orogeny in Canada , was an episode of mountain @-@ building ( orogeny ) during the Late Archean Eon that involved repeated episodes of continental collisions , compressions and subductions . The Superior province and the Minnesota River Valley terrane collided about 2 @,@ 700 to 2 @,@ 500 million years ago . The collision folded the Earth 's crust and produced enough heat and pressure to metamorphose the rock . Blocks were added to the Superior province along a 1 @,@ 200 km ( 750 mi ) boundary that stretches from present @-@ day eastern South Dakota into the Lake Huron area . The Algoman orogeny brought the Archaen Eon to a close , about 2 @,@ 500 million years ago ; it lasted less than 100 million years and marks a major change in the development of the earth ’ s crust .
The Canadian shield contains belts of metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks formed by the action of metamorphism on volcanic and sedimentary rock . The areas between individual belts consist of granites or granitic gneisses that form fault zones . These two types of belts can be seen in the Wabigoon , Quetico and Wawa subprovinces ; the Wabigoon and Wawa are of volcanic origin and the Quetico is of sedimentary origin . These three subprovinces lie linearly in southwestern- to northeastern @-@ oriented belts about 140 km ( 90 mi ) wide on the southern portion of the Superior Province .
The Slave province and portions of the Nain province were also affected . Between about 2 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 700 million years ago these combined with the Sask and Wyoming cratons to form the first supercontinent , the Kenorland supercontinent .
= = Overview = =
Through most of the Archean Eon , the Earth had a heat production at least twice that of the present , which caused tectonic processes to be more active . As a result , plates and continents were smaller . No broad blocks as old as 3 Ga are found in Precambrian shields . Toward the end of the Archean , however , some of these blocks or terranes came together to form larger blocks welded together by greenstone belts .
Two such terranes that now form part of the Canadian shield collided about 2 @,@ 700 to 2 @,@ 500 million years ago . These were the Superior province and the large Minnesota River Valley terrane , the former composed mainly of granite and the latter of gneiss . This led to the mountain @-@ building episode known as the Algoman orogeny in the U. S. ( named for Algoma , Kewaunee County , Wisconsin ) , and the Kenoran orogeny in Canada . Its duration is estimated at 50 to 100 million years . The current boundary between these terranes is known as the Great Lakes tectonic zone ( GLTZ ) . This zone is 50 km ( 30 mi ) wide and extends in a line roughly 1 @,@ 200 kilometers long from the middle of South Dakota , east through the middle of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan , into the Sudbury , Ontario region . The region remains slightly active today . Rifting in the GLTZ began about 2 @,@ 500 million years ago at the end of the Algoman orogeny .
The orogeny affected adjacent regions of northern Minnesota and Ontario in the Superior province as well as the Slave and the eastern part of the Nain province , a far wider region of influence than in subsequent orogenies . It is the earliest datable orogeny in North America and brought the Archean Eon to a close . The end of the Archean Eon marks a major change in the development of the Earth ’ s crust : the crust was essentially formed and achieved thicknesses of about 40 km ( 25 mi ) under the continents .
= = Tectonics = =
The collision between terranes folded the Earth 's crust , and produced enough heat and pressure to metamorphose then @-@ existing rock . Repeated continental collisions , compression along a north @-@ south axis , and subduction resulted in the uprising of the Algoman Mountains . This was followed by intrusions of granite plutons and batholithic domes within the gneisses about 2 @,@ 700 million years ago ; two examples are the Sacred Heart granite of southwestern Minnesota and the Watersmeet Domes metagabbros ( metamorphosed gabbros ) that straddle the border of Wisconsin and Michigan 's Upper Peninsula . After the intrusions solidified , new stresses on the greenstone belt caused movement horizontally along several faults and moved huge blocks of the crust vertically relative to adjacent blocks . This combination of folding , intrusion and faulting built mountain ranges throughout northern Minnesota , northern Wisconsin , Michigan 's Upper Peninsula and southernmost Ontario . Igneous and high @-@ grade metamorphic rocks are associated with the orogeny .
By extrapolating the now @-@ eroded and tilted beds upward , geologists have determined that these mountains were several kilometers high . Similar projections of the tilted beds downward , coupled with geophysical measurements on the greenstone belts in Canada , suggest the metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks of the belts project downward at least a few kilometers .
= = = Greenstone = = =
The action of metamorphism on the border between granite and gneiss bodies produces a succession of metamorphosed volcanic and sedimentary rocks called greenstone belts . Most Archean volcanic rocks are concentrated within greenstone belts ; the green color comes from minerals , such as chlorite , epidote and actinolite that formed during metamorphism . After metamorphism occurred , these rocks were folded and faulted into a system of mountains by the Algoman orogeny .
The volcanic beds are 8 to 9 km ( 26 @,@ 000 to 30 @,@ 000 ft ) thick . About 2 @,@ 700 million years ago the greenstone belt was subjected to new stresses that caused movement along several faults . Faulting on both small and large scales is typical of greenstone belt deformation . These faults show both vertical and horizontal movement relative to adjacent blocks . Large @-@ scale faults typically occur along the margins of the greenstone belts where they are in contact with enclosed granitic rocks . Vertical movement may be thousands of meters and horizontal movements of many kilometers occur along some fault zones .
Some time before 2 @,@ 600 million years ago , masses of magma intruded under and within the igneous and sedimentary rocks , heating and pressing the rocks to metamorphose them into hard greenish greenstones . They began with fissure eruptions of basalt , continued with intermediate and felsic rocks erupted from volcanic centers and ended with deposition of sediments from the erosion of the volcanic pile . The rising magma was extruded under a shallow ancient sea where it cooled to form pillowed greenstones . Some of Minnesota ’ s pillows probably cooled at depths as great as 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) and contain no gas cavities or vesicules .
Most greenstone belts , with all of their components , have been folded into troughlike synclines ; the original basaltic rock , which was on the bottom , occurs on the outer margins of the trough . The overlying , younger rock units – rhyolites and greywackes – occur closer to the center of the syncline . The rocks are so intensely folded that most have been tilted nearly 90 ° , with the tops of layers on one side of the synclinal belt facing those on the other side ; the rock sequences are in effect lying on their sides . The folding can be so complex that a single layer may be exposed at the surface many times by subsequent erosion .
= = = Volcanic activity = = =
As the greenstone belts were forming , volcanoes ejected tephra into the air which settled as sediments to become compacted into the greywackes and mudstones of the Knife Lake and Lake Vermilion formations . Greywackes are poorly sorted mixtures of clay , mica and quartz that may be derived from the decomposition of pyroclastic debris ; the presence of this debris suggests that some explosive volcanic activity had occurred in the area earlier . The volcanism took place on the surface and the other deformations took place at various depths . Numerous earthquakes accompanied the volcanism and faulting .
= = Superior province = =
The Superior province forms the core of both the North American continent and the Canadian shield , and has a thickness of at least 250 km ( 160 mi ) . Its granites date from 2 @,@ 700 to 2 @,@ 500 million years ago . It was formed by the welding together of many small terranes , the ages of which decrease away from the nucleus . This progression is illustrated by the age of the Wabigoon , Quetico and Wawa subprovinces , discussed in their individual sections . Later terranes docked on the periphery of continental masses with geosynclines developing between the fused nuclei and oceanic crust . In general the Superior province consists of east @-@ west trending belts of predominately volcanic rocks alternating with belts of sedimentary and gneissic rocks .
Due to down warping along elongate zones , each belt is essentially a large downfold or downfaulted block . The areas between individual belts are fault zones consisting of granite or granitic gneiss . Its western part contains a regional pattern of east @-@ west trending 100 to 200 km ( 60 to 120 mi ) wide granitic greenstone and metasedimentary belts ( subprovinces ) . Western Superior province 's mantle has remained intact since the 2 @,@ 700 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ ago accretion of the subprovinces .
Both folding and faulting can be seen in the Wabigoon , Quetico and Wawa subprovinces . These three subprovinces lie linearly in southwestern- to northeastern @-@ oriented belts of about 140 km ( 90 mi ) wide ( see figure on right ) . The northernmost and widest province is the Wabigoon . It begins in north @-@ central Minnesota and continues northeasterly into central Ontario ; it is partially interrupted by the Southern province . Immediately to the south , the Quetico subprovince extends as far west in north @-@ central Minnesota , and extends further to the northeast . It is completely interrupted by a narrow band of the 1,100- to 1 @,@ 550 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old Southern province to the northeast of Thunder Bay . The Wawa subprovince is the most southerly of the three ; it begins in central Minnesota , continues northeast to Thunder Bay , Ontario , Canada , ( where its southern border just skims north Thunder Bay ) and then extends east beyond Lake Superior . The northern boundary continues in a roughly northeasterly heading , while the southern border dips south to follow the northeast shore of Lake Superior .
= = = Fault zones = = =
The three subprovinces are separated by steeply dipping shear zones caused by continued compression that occurred during the Algoman orogeny . These boundaries are major fault zones .
The boundary between the Wabigoon and Quetico subprovinces seems to have been also controlled by colliding plates and subsequent transpressions . This Rainy Lake – Seine River fault zone is a major northeast @-@ southwest trending strike @-@ slip fault zone ; it trends N80 ° E to cut through the northwest part of Voyageurs National Park in Minnesota and extends westward to near International Falls , Minnesota and Fort Frances , Ontario . The fault has transported rocks in the greenstone belt a considerable distance from their origin . The greenstone belt is 2 to 3 km ( 0 to 0 mi ) wide at the Seven Sisters Islands ; to the west the greenstone interfingers with pods of anorthositic gabbro . Radiometric dating from the Rainy Lake area in Ontario show an age of about 2 @,@ 700 million years old , which favors a moving tectonic plate model for the formation of the boundary .
The largest fault is the Vermilion fault separating the Quetico and Wawa subprovinces . It has a N40 ° E trend and was caused by the introduction of masses of magma . The Vermilion fault can be traced westward to North Dakota . It has had a 19 km ( 12 mi ) horizontal movement with the northern block moving eastward and upward relative to the southern block . The junction between the Quetico and Wawa subprovinces has a zone of biotite @-@ rich migmatite , a rock that has characteristics of both igneous and metamorphic processes ; this indicates a zone of partial melting which is possible only under high temperature and pressure conditions . It is visible as a 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) wide belt . Most of the flattened large crystals in the fault indicate a simple compression rather than a wrenching , shearing or rotational event as the two subprovinces docked . This provides evidence that the Quetico and Wawa subprovinces were joined by the collision of two continental plates , about 2 @,@ 690 million years ago . Structures in the migmatite include folds and foliations ; the foliations cut across both limbs of earlier @-@ phase folds . These cross @-@ cutting foliations indicate that the migmatite has undergone at least two periods of ductile deformation .
= = = Wabigoon subprovince = = =
The Wabigoon subprovince is a formerly active volcanic island chain , made up of metavolcanic @-@ metasedimentary intrusions . These metamorphosed rocks are volcanically derived greenstone belts , and are surrounded and cut by granitic plutons and batholiths . The subprovince 's greenstone belts consist of felsic volcanics , felsic batholiths and felsic plutons aged from 3 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 670 million years old .
= = = Quetico subprovince = = =
The Quetico gneiss belt extends some 970 km ( 600 mi ) across Ontario and parts of Minnesota . The dominant rocks within the belt are schists and gneisses produced by intense metamorphism of greywackes and minor amounts of other sedimentary rocks . The sediments , alkalic plutons and felsic plutons are aged from 2 @,@ 690 to 2 @,@ 680 million years . The metamorphism is relatively low @-@ grade on the margins and high @-@ grade in the center . The low @-@ grade components of the greywackes were derived primarily from volcanic rocks ; the high @-@ grade rocks are coarser @-@ grained and contain minerals that reflect higher temperatures . The granitic intrusions within the high @-@ grade metasediments were produced by subduction of the ocean crust and partial melting of metasedimentary rocks . Immediately south of Voyageurs National Park and extending to the Vermilion fault is a broad transition zone that contains migmatite .
The Quetico gneiss belt represents an accretionary wedge that formed in a trench during the collision of several island arcs ( greenstone belts ) . Boundaries between the gneiss belt and the flanking greenstone belts to the north and south are major fault zones , the Vermilion and Rainy Lake – Seine River fault zones .
= = = Wawa subprovince = = =
The Wawa subprovince is a formerly active volcanic island chain , consisting of metamorphosed greenstone belts which are surrounded by and cut by granitic plutons and batholiths . These greenstone belts consist of felsic volcanics , felsic batholiths , felsic plutons and sediments aged from 2 @,@ 700 to 2 @,@ 670 million years old .
The predominate rock type is a white , coarse @-@ grained , foliated hornblende tonalite . Minerals in the tonalite are quartz , plagioclase , alkali feldspar and hornblende .
= = Slave province = =
In extensive regions of the Slave province of northern Canada , the magma that later became batholiths heated the surrounding rock to create metamorphic regions called aureoles about 2 @,@ 575 million years ago . These regions are typically 10 to 15 km ( 6 to 9 mi ) wide . The creation of aureoles was a continuous process , but three recognizable metamorphic phases can be correlated with established deformational phases . The cycle began with a deformation phase unaccompanied by metamorphism . This evolved into the second phase accompanied by broad regional metamorphism as thermal doming began . With continued updoming of the isotherms , the third phase produced minor folding but caused major metamorphic recrystallization , resulting in the emplacement of granite at the core of the thermal dome . This phase occurred at lower pressure because of erosional unloading , but the temperatures were more extreme , ranging up to about 700 ° C ( 1 @,@ 300 ° F ) . With deformation complete , the thermal dome decayed ; minor mineralogical changes occurred during this decay phase . The region has since been effectively stable .
Geochronology of several Archean rock units establishes a sequence of events , approximately 75 million years in duration , leading to the formation of a new crustal segment . The oldest rocks , at 2 @,@ 650 million years old , are basic metavolcanics with largely calc @-@ alkaline characteristics . Radiometric dating indicates ages of 2 @,@ 640 to 2 @,@ 620 million years are recorded for the syn @-@ kinematic quartz diorite batholiths and 2 @,@ 590 to 2 @,@ 100 million years for the major late @-@ kinematic bodies . Pegmatitic adamellites , at 2 @,@ 575 ± 25 million years , are the youngest plutonic units .
Metagreywackes and metapelites from two areas traversing one of these aureoles near Yellowknife have been studied . Most of the Slave province rocks are granitic with metamorphosed Yellowknife metasedimentary and volcanic rocks . Isotopic ages of these rocks is around 2 @,@ 500 million years ago , the time of the Kenoran orogeny . Rocks comprising the Slave province represent a high grade of metamorphism , intrusion and basement remobilization typical of Archean terranes . Migmatites , batholithic intrusive and granulitic metamorphic rocks show foliation and compositional banding ; the rocks are uniformly hard and so thoroughly deformed that little foliation exists . Most Yellowknife Supergroup metasediments are tightly folded ( isoclinal ) or occur in plunging anticlines .
= = Nain province = =
The Archean rocks forming the Nain province of northeastern Canada and Greenland are separated from the Superior terrane by a narrow band of remobilized rocks . Greenland separated from North America less than 100 million years ago and its Precambrian terranes align with Canada 's on the opposite side of Baffin Bay . The southern tip of Greenland is part of the Nain Province , this means it was connected to North America at the end of the Kenoran orogen .
= Stroudwater Navigation =
The Stroudwater Navigation is a canal which linked Stroud to the Severn Estuary in England and Wales . It was authorised in 1776 , although part had already been built , as the proprietors believed that an Act of Parliament obtained in 1730 gave them the necessary powers . Opened in 1779 , it was a commercial success , its main cargo being coal . It was 8 miles ( 13 km ) in length and had a rise of 102 feet 5 inches ( 31 @.@ 22 m ) through 12 locks . Following the opening of the Thames and Severn Canal in 1789 , it formed part of a through route from Bristol to London , although much of its trade vanished when the Kennet and Avon Canal provided a more direct route in 1810 . Despite competition from the railways , the canal continued to pay dividends to shareholders until 1922 , and was not finally abandoned until 1954 .
Even before its closure , there was interest in retaining the canal for its amenity value . The Stroudwater Canal Society , which later became the Cotswold Canals Trust , was formed in 1972 . Following initial hostility from the Proprietors , who had not been stripped of their powers when the canal had closed , agreement was reached and work began on restoration of the waterway . The project gained popularity , and in 2003 , a bid was made to the Heritage Lottery Fund for £ 82 million to restore both the Stroudwater Navigation and the Thames and Severn Canal . The project had to be split into smaller parts , and only the first phase has so far been funded in this way , when a grant of £ 11 @.@ 9 million was confirmed in 2006 . With match funding , this was to enable the section from ' The Ocean ' at Stonehouse to Wallbridge to be reopened , together with the Wallbridge to Brimscombe Port section of the Thames and Severn .
A second bid to the Heritage Lottery Fund for the connection from Stonehouse to the Gloucester and Sharpness Canal at Saul was rejected in 2007 . This section presents some engineering challenges , as it was severed by the construction of the M5 motorway and the A38 road . The roundabout where the A38 joins the A419 road was built over Bristol Road Lock , and part of the route was destroyed by flood relief work for the River Frome . At Stonehouse , the bridge carrying the Bristol and Gloucester Railway has been replaced by a culvert , but a bid has been made to the newly formed Gloucestershire Local Transport Board for its reinstatement , and to create a long @-@ distance footpath along the route . Outside of the main restoration , the Cotswold Canals Trust are gradually restoring many of the other structures , with the ultimate goal of re @-@ opening a link between the River Thames and the River Severn .
= = History = =
= = = Construction = = =
The first plans for making the small River Frome , also known as the Stroudwater , navigable date back to the last three years of the 17th century . The plan was to serve the woollen industry , by carrying coal from the Severn to Stroud and transporting the finished cloth away to markets , but it was opposed by mill owners , and it came to nothing . The idea was revived in 1728 , when John Hore , who had previously succeeded in making the River Kennett navigable , suggested a canal around 8 @.@ 2 miles ( 13 @.@ 2 km ) long , with 12 locks , suitable for 60 @-@ ton barges . An Act of Parliament was obtained in 1730 , with support from those who worked in the cloth industry , but opposition from some of the millers , but it seemed to ignore Hore 's recommendations , in that it was again based on making the river navigable . As the millers were given powers which would have effectively shut the navigation for two months each year , and the tolls were set at a level which would have discouraged traffic , no further action was taken .
John Dallaway , who had been appointed as a commissioner under the 1730 Act , commissioned the engineer Thomas Yeoman to make a new survey in 1754 , and his new plan was published the following year . It was for a navigation from Wallbridge to the Severn , estimated to cost £ 8 @,@ 145 , which would require 16 locks and four stanks ( which were probably half @-@ locks or staunches ) . In order to placate the millers , water for the operation of the locks would be provided by a reservoir below Wallbridge , which would cover 2 acres ( 0 @.@ 8 ha ) and be filled on Sundays , when the mills were inactive and would not be needing the water . Tolls were set at a more realistic level . While support and finance for the scheme were being gained , John Kemmett , Arthur Wynde , James Pynock and Thomas Bridge devised a scheme which used cranes at each mill weir to transfer cargo , stored in boxes , from a boat on one level to another on the other side of the weir . An Act was obtained in 1759 which authorized Kemmett and the others to construct the canal without any locks to avoid loss of water to the mills . The Act allowed two years for completion of the scheme , and although some progress had been made by April 1761 , Kemmett was given an extension of six years at that time . After about 5 miles ( 8 km ) of river had been improved , the works were abandoned as being too costly .
By 1774 , canal building was much better understood , and a new attempt was made . The plan was led by Dallaway 's son William , who asked Thomas Dadford , Jr . , the engineer on the Staffordshire and Worcestershire Canal and John Priddy , who had been the engineer on the Droitwich Canal during its construction , to carry out a survey . The cost of a canal which avoided the river and hence the mills , was put at £ 16 @,@ 750 , and soon £ 20 @,@ 000 had been raised . Deciding that they did not need a new Act of Parliament , since the powers of the 1730 Act were still valid , Yeoman , who had carried out the 1754 survey , was asked to survey the route again , and a route was selected , which would require 12 locks . Work started , with Samuel Jones as engineer , but he was replaced by Priddy within a month . A challenge to the legality of building a canal under the 1730 Act was mounted by landowners and millers in 1775 . An injunction was obtained , and the Gloucestershire Assizes ruled that the Act did not cover the work . A new Act was obtained on 25 March 1776 , authorising the raising of £ 20 @,@ 000 and an extra £ 10 @,@ 000 if required . Both sides commissioned the writing of poems to support their causes .
Work resumed under the supervision of Priddy , but he was soon replaced by Edmund Lingard , who had been the engineer for the Coventry Canal . The canal was opened in stages as it was completed . It reached Chippenham Platt at the end of 1777 , Ryeford in January 1779 , and it was open throughout to the Wallbridge terminus on 21 July 1779 . It had cost £ 40 @,@ 930 , which had been raised by calling £ 150 on each £ 100 share , by borrowing money from the shareholders , by running up debts , and by using the tolls from the parts of the canal which were already open . Traffic was around 16 @,@ 000 tons per year , which enabled the company to repay the debts and to declare a first dividend of five per cent in 1786 .
= = = Operation = = =
The locks were suitably sized for Severn Trows , which were 72 by 15 @.@ 5 feet ( 21 @.@ 9 by 4 @.@ 7 m ) , and could carry 60 tons . The canal was not provided with a towing path for horses . Some boats sailed along the canal , but most were bow @-@ hauled by men . Framilode lock at the entrance to the canal was a tide lock , with multiple gates to cope with all states of the tide . When a vessel arrived at the junction , a rope would be taken from it to the shore , and attached to a capstan , which would then be used to haul the boat into the lock . Once the canal was open , the Proprietors worked hard to improve the facilities , and a number of warehouses were built . Many of the shareholders were also involved with the Thames and Severn Canal scheme , which was completed in 1789 and provided a through route between Wallbridge and the River Thames at Lechlade . The navigation was seen as a commercial waterway ; pleasure boats were discouraged by the imposition of a charge of £ 1 ( 2012 : £ 109 @.@ 00 ) for the use of each lock .
The main cargo carried was coal . In 1788 , a group of shareholders set up a coal committee , and began trading . At first , the product came from the Staffordshire coalfields , travelling via the Staffordshire and Worcestershire Canal , or from the Shropshire coalfields , but this was later supplemented by coal from the south Gloucestershire mines and then the Forest of Dean . This profitable business continued until 1833 . Boats that worked the canal included Severn Trows , a type of sailing boat which was fitted with ketch , cutter or sloop rigging . Many were later converted for use as dumb barges by removing the masts , but none are known to have survived to the present day .
In 1794 , a basin was built above Framilode lock , so that vessels could wait there until the tide in the Severn was at a suitable level . This had been requested by the Thames and Severn Canal company , but requests for a horse towing path in 1799 and 1812 were dismissed as too expensive . They eventually provided one after the Gloucester and Berkeley Canal had been built , and the canal was the only part of the waterway from Shrewsbury on the Severn to Teddington on the Thames that did not have one . It was completed in August 1827 . The opening of the Gloucester and Berkeley Canal in 1825 required a slight diversion where they crossed at Saul , and the levels were adjusted by building a new lock on the Stroudwater below the junction , to ensure neither company lost water to the other . The new company paid for its construction . > After the Gloucester and Berkeley Canal opened to Sharpness in 1827 , the link between Saul and the Severn at Framilode was used much less , although coal from the Forest of Dean still used that route .
Traffic , receipts and dividends steadily increased . Tolls rose from £ 1 @,@ 468 in 1779 to £ 6 @,@ 807 in 1821 . The first dividend of 3 @.@ 75 per cent was paid in 1786 , and had reached 15 @.@ 78 per cent by 1821 . Figures for tonnage are not available for the early years , but were 79 @,@ 359 tons in 1821 . There was a dip in the carriage of merchandise in 1810 , when the Kennet and Avon Canal opened and provided a more convenient route from Bristol to London , but it picked up again after 1819 , when the North Wilts Canal opened , providing a link from Latton to Abingdon via Swindon and the Wilts and Berks Canal , which was easier than using the Thames . The highest dividend paid was in 1833 , when shareholders received 26 @.@ 33 per cent , after which receipts and dividends steadily dropped . In 1859 in order to allow the passage of a coal barge called the Queen Esther two of the locks were widened .
= = = Decline = = =
The first threat from a railway came in 1825 , when there was a proposal for a line from Framilode Passage to Brimscombe Port . The canal tolls were reduced as a bargaining tool , but the promoters went ahead with their bill . The Stroudwater Company opposed it and it was defeated in Parliament . The Great Western Railway opened a line from Swindon to Gloucester in 1845 , which passed through Stroud , but the effects on the canal were rather less than the effects on the Thames and Severn . However , in 1863 the Stonehouse and Nailsworth Railway Act was passed , allowing the construction of a railway from Stonehouse to Dudbridge and Nailsworth that directly competed with the canal . Dividends fell below 5 per cent after 1880 although they did not cease entirely until 1922 . Around the same time the connection to the Severn at Framilode became blocked leaving the connection to the Gloucester and Sharpness Canal as the only link between the canal and the River Severn . The last toll was paid in 1941 , and most of the canal was formally abandoned by an Act of Parliament granted in 1954 . Although this removed the need to maintain the waterway for navigation , the Company of Proprietors was not disbanded , and retained most of their other powers . It consists of those who now own the original shares , although over half of the shares were transferred to a Trust in the 1950s , which prevents hostile takeovers and ensures that the company will always be run for the benefit of the communities through which the canal passes . After the closure of the canal the canal company continued to generate income for many years through the sale of water and some monies produced by property holdings .
= = Restoration = =
Interest in maintaining the canal for its amenity value began before the canal closed , with the Inland Waterways Association mounting a campaign to retain it when plans to close it were first announced in 1952 . They were already formulating plans for the revival of the Thames and Severn Canal , which depended on the Stroudwater for its link to the River Severn . The National Parks Commission declared that it should be retained for its amenity value and beauty in 1954 , but it was closed nevertheless .
The publication in 1972 of Lost Canals of England and Wales , a book by Ronald Russell , resulted in a number of canal restoration societies being formed . The Stroudwater Canal Society was one of them , which was renamed the Stroudwater , Thames and Severn Canal Trust in April 1975 as the scope of the project expanded , and became the Cotswold Canals Trust in July 1990 . Although the Proprietors were initially hostile to the Trust , attitudes changed , and in 1979 granted them permission to start work on the section from Pike Mill Bridge to Ryeford , so that a trip @-@ boat could be used on it . As attitudes changed , the Proprietors bought back sections of the waterway which had previously been sold off .
= = = Funding = = =
In 2001 , the Cotswold Canals Partnership was established , drawing together people representing the Proprietors , the Cotswold Canals Trust , councils at district and county level , and a number of other interested parties . This provided a suitable structure to drive the restoration forwards . In 2002 , the waterway was identified as being of high priority in the Association of Inland Navigation Authorities report entitled Vision for Strategic Enhancement of Britain 's Inland Navigation Network , and was one of several new projects highlighted at British Waterways ' Unlocked and Unlimited conference held in March . The estimated cost of the project to restore both the Stroudwater Navigation and the Thames and Severn Canal was £ 82 million .
Having raised £ 100 @,@ 000 , the Cotswold Canals Trust lodged the money with the Waterways Trust , in the hope that it could be used as match funding for any grants that might be received . Andy Stumpf became the full @-@ time Regeneration Programme Manager , working on a major bid application to the Heritage Lottery Fund ( HLF ) to finance the restoration , and the canal was visited by Charles , Prince of Wales , in his capacity as Patron of the Waterways Trust . A Heritage Survey , which cost £ 60 @,@ 000 and was funded by the Inland Waterways Association , was carried out , as was a Community Development Plan and a Visitor Management Strategy , costing another £ 30 @,@ 000 , all of which were pre @-@ requisites for the main HLF bid . By the time the bid was ready for submission , the HLF were under pressure for the funds they had , and asked British Waterways , who were heading up the application , to break the bid and the project into smaller phases . At the end of 2003 , a provisional grant of £ 11 @.@ 3 million was awarded by the HLF , to enable the restoration of the Stroudwater Navigation between Stonehouse and Wallbridge , and the Thames and Severn Canal between Wallbridge and Brimscombe Port . An additional £ 2 @.@ 9 million was received from the European Inter @-@ Regional budget for this first phase . By the time the grant was awarded in January 2006 , it had risen to £ 11 @.@ 9 million , and a further £ 6 million of match funding was received from the South West of England Regional Development Agency .
As part of the process , the Proprietors leased the canal to British Waterways in 2005 . However , British Waterways had to withdraw from the scheme in 2008 , due to financial difficulties , and the role of project leaders was taken over by Stroud District Council . Following the re @-@ organisation , the Stroud Valleys Canal Company was established in March 2009 . It is a limited company , with two independent directors and three directors representing Stroud District Council , the Proprietors , and the Cotswold Canals Trust . Its purpose is to hold the assets for the canals , and its charitable status means that stamp duty land tax does not have to be paid . The company will be responsible for management and maintenance of the canal once it is re @-@ opened . The Department for Transport is in the process of reorganising how funding for major transport schemes is managed , and this has enabled Stroud District Council to submit a bid for £ 1 @.@ 5 million to the newly formed Gloucestershire Local Transport Board . This is to fund the replacement of Ocean railway culvert with a bridge . A second application for £ 650 @,@ 000 has been made to enable part of the Thames and Severn Way long distance footpath to be created . The funding is for the section from Saul Junction to Chalford .
= = = Development = = =
The length being restored in the first phase is around 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) long , and presents some of the biggest difficulties to restoration in the whole 36 @-@ mile ( 58 km ) route . Through Dudbridge , the channel has been used as part of a flood relief scheme by the Environment Agency . Water from the Slad Brook , which is culverted beneath Stroud , joins the Thames and Severn Canal a short distance above Lower Wallbridge Lock , the first on that canal , while the Painswick Stream joins above the Dudbridge locks , and the Ruscombe Brook joins between the two locks . The top gates of the locks were replaced with concrete dams , which maintained the water level at normal flows around 3 @.@ 3 feet ( 1 @.@ 0 m ) lower than the navigable levels . Below the A419 Dudbridge Road bridge , the water was discharged into the River Frome . As a consequence of its flood relief function , the channel here is classified as a " main river " . Designs for reinstatement of the canal have had to accommodate large flows on this section , and include underground bywash culverts , capable of carrying the full flood flow of all three streams . A new weir which carries a towpath bridge has been constructed where the water leaves the canal to enter the River Frome , and a set of floodgates has been constructed beyond the weir , to protect the canal from high water levels .
The second phase of the restoration project will be the section from Stonehouse to the Gloucester and Sharpness Canal at Saul , which has been blocked by both the M5 motorway and the A38 road . A bid was submitted to the Living Landmarks Fund in August 2006 . This is part of the Big Lottery Fund , and £ 16 million was requested . An interim award of £ 250 @,@ 000 was made , to allow the bid to be developed , but the application was rejected in November 2007 . Despite this setback , money for purchasing the land around the M5 and the A38 was part of the phase 1 grant by the HLF . Current proposals for the A38 involve tunnelling under the Whitminster roundabout . The original Bristol Road Lock was buried by the construction of the roundabout , and will be reconstructed to the east of it . There are two proposals for passing under the M5 motorway . One is for a new channel alongside the River Frome through an existing culvert , and the other is for a new wider culvert , nearer to the original line of the canal . Below this , the canal used to cross the River Frome at Lockham Aqueduct , but this was demolished in the 1970s , when the canal and river channel were combined as part of a flood defence scheme .
In November 2007 work started to clear the canal between Ryeford Double Lock and Oil Mills Bridge . Oil Mills Bridge itself has been rebuilt , with the brickwork left after its demolition being incorporated into the new bridge . By mid @-@ 2012 , when the Inland Waterways Association held a trailboat festival on the refurbished canal , as part of an event called " Stroud on Water " , over 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of canal from Ocean swingbridge to the bottom of Dudbridge Locks were open for navigation , as was a second section from the top of the locks to the bottom of Wallbridge Locks on the Thames and Severn Canal . As part of the restoration of the Dudbridge Locks , a hydro @-@ electric installation has been built . The scheme is expected to generate over 100 MWh per year , and income from the sale of the electricity to the national grid will help to fund ongoing maintenance of the canal .
In early 2016 , work began on a £ 210 @,@ 000 project to restore Junction Lock at Saul , after a grant of £ 75 @,@ 000 was received from the Heritage Lottery Fund . The lock will not be made navigable , as the canal if infilled beyond the bottom gates , but new lock gates will be fitted , interpretation signs erected , and access will be improved . The structure was on the English Heritage " Buildings at Risk " register prior to work starting .
= = Links to other canals = =
The canal had links to both the Thames and Severn Canal ( at Wallbridge ) and the Gloucester and Sharpness Canal ( at Saul ) .
= = Points of interest = =
= Rally to Restore Sanity and / or Fear =
The Rally to Restore Sanity and / or Fear was a gathering that took place on October 30 , 2010 at the National Mall in Washington , DC . The rally was led by Jon Stewart , host of the satirical news program The Daily Show , and Stephen Colbert , in @-@ character as a conservative political pundit . About 215 @,@ 000 people attended the rally , according to aerial photography analysis by AirPhotosLive.com for CBS News .
The rally was a combination of what initially were announced as separate events : Stewart 's " Rally to Restore Sanity " and Colbert 's counterpart , the " March to Keep Fear Alive . " Its stated purpose was to provide a venue for attendees to be heard above what Stewart described as the more vocal and extreme 15 – 20 % of Americans who " control the conversation " of American politics , the argument being that these extremes demonize each other and engage in counterproductive actions , with a return to sanity intended to promote reasoned discussion . Despite Stewart 's insistence to the contrary , news reports cast the rally as a spoof of Glenn Beck 's Restoring Honor rally and Al Sharpton 's Reclaim the Dream rally .
= = Origins = =
= = = Response to Restoring Honor rally = = =
On August 28 , 2010 , the Fox News Channel 's Glenn Beck held a " Restoring Honor " rally at the Lincoln Memorial . On the same day , Al Sharpton led a countermarch , called Reclaim the Dream , to mark the 47th anniversary of the historic Great March on Washington . According to New York Magazine , discussion for a satirical public event in response took place behind the scenes at Stewart 's The Daily Show as early as August 12 . Stewart has stated that the rally was never intended to be a means to counter Glenn Beck , but was simply another format for his and Colbert 's style of humor , saying " We saw [ the Restoring Honor rally ] and thought , ' What a beautiful outline . What a beautiful structure to fill with what we want to express in live form , festival form . ' " Before any public discussion by Stewart , Colbert , or their staffs , members of the social news website Reddit independently began to discuss the possibility of a Colbert @-@ led rally , often referred to as a " Restoring Truthiness Rally " ; after the rallies were announced , some news articles credited Reddit for the idea . The rally was produced by Stewart 's Busboy Productions .
= = = Announcement = = =
Stewart first hinted at the event on the September 7 episode of The Daily Show by declaring that " [ he would ] have an announcement sometime in the near to not so near future . " Colbert , in that night 's episode of The Report , said that he , too , had an announcement to make . In the following days , Stewart and Colbert used their shows to hype their respective announcements , competing over whose would be more significant . The banter finally culminated with Stewart formally announcing the " Rally to Restore Sanity " on the September 16 , 2010 episode of The Daily Show ; Colbert followed by announcing the " March to Keep Fear Alive " on the subsequent episode of The Colbert Report .
Stewart declared that his rally was intended for the majority of Americans , " the 70 – 80 percenters , " who do not hold extreme political views and lack a voice in the media . To illustrate the point , he unveiled a mock motto for the rally : " Take it down a notch for America . " A series of protest sign designs were proposed on the Daily Show featuring messages such as " I disagree with you , but I 'm pretty sure you 're not Hitler . " Colbert responded to Stewart 's proposal by challenging the theme of Stewart 's rally and justifying his own " March to Keep Fear Alive . " Noting that this was not the time to be reasonable , Colbert declared , " Now is the time for all good men to freak out for freedom ! "
Oprah Winfrey appeared on The Daily Show via video on October 14 , 2010 , to award the attending audience free airfare to the rally . The plane tickets were hidden under the audience members ' seats in the same fashion as she has given away prizes to her own audience members on The Oprah Winfrey Show . In the episode of the Colbert Report airing immediately afterward , Stephen Colbert also offered tickets to his rally . Without Oprah 's support to provide airfare , Colbert instead distributed vouchers for the low @-@ cost Chinatown bus from New York to Washington , D.C. During the show , Colbert also revealed to Stewart that he did not possess a permit to legally organize the " March to Keep Fear Alive , " leading Stewart to propose combining the two events into the " Rally to Restore Sanity and / or Fear " that would feature a new combined logo .
= = = Response to the announcement = = =
In the night following the announcement , the pledged number of attendees to the event reached 69 @,@ 000 on Facebook . This number far exceeded the 25 @,@ 000 that the rally organizers had indicated as the estimated number of attendees on the National Park Service application for a rally permit . The demand for hotels during the period of the Rally to Restore Sanity and / or Fear outpaced that of the " Restoring Honor " rally . The rally spawned several grassroots websites and Facebook groups for organizing and discussion , some with more than 10 @,@ 000 followers . Proposals were made for dozens of sister rallies in other major cities , such as Seattle , Chicago , Austin , and Los Angeles to take place on the same day as the demonstration in Washington , D.C. On September 28 , Arianna Huffington announced on The Daily Show that The Huffington Post would provide " as many buses as people to fill them " at a specified meeting place in Manhattan , although her plans were later scaled back and preregistration was imposed .
The Wall Street Journal characterized the Rally as a " send @-@ up " of the Washington Restoring Honor rally led by Glenn Beck and the " Reclaim the Dream " commemorative march led by Al Sharpton on August 28 , 2010 . The Canadian Press called the Stewart / Colbert rallies a " not @-@ so @-@ gentle " swipe at Glenn Beck 's " Restoring Honor " rally . During a town hall event on September 29 , President Obama cited the forthcoming rally as representing those people who are concerned with more than just the political beliefs of others , in contrast to " provocative " cable news programs .
Many news organizations sought media credentials to cover the rally . Anticipating staff interest in attending for non @-@ professional purposes , NPR barred staffers from attending the rally in a memo that stated : " NPR journalists may not participate in marches and rallies involving causes or issues that NPR covers , nor should they sign petitions or otherwise lend their name to such causes , or contribute money to them . This restriction applies to the upcoming Jon Stewart and Stephen Colbert rallies . " NBC and several other media outlets followed suit . Some barred employees from attending the rally outright , while others such as The Washington Post offered more latitude , telling newsroom managers to differentiate between " participating " and " observing . "
= = = Charity drive = = =
Prior to the announcement of the joint rally , supporters of the movement for a Colbert @-@ led march had begun a drive to raise money for educational charities through DonorsChoose.org , a charitable organization of which Colbert is a member of the Board of Directors . In the first 24 hours , supporters raised over $ 100 @,@ 000 . In the days that followed , that total increased to over $ 250 @,@ 000 , and by the day of the rally over $ 500 @,@ 000 had been contributed . Jon Stewart promoted the Trust for the National Mall , urging his viewers to make donations on behalf of the rally . As of October 31 , 2010 , over $ 188 @,@ 000 had been donated to the Trust .
= = Rally = =
= = = Setting = = =
As the number of expected participants grew , the rally was moved from the grounds of the Washington Monument to the east end of the Mall facing the Capitol . The stage was on the east side of the rally with an open back , allowing the Capitol building to provide the backdrop for the performances . In order to meet the public safety requirements of the National Park Service permit , the Mall between the Capitol and 14th Street was divided into sections , with access aisles lined by portable fences . Speakers and jumbotron television screens were placed along both the north and south edges to encourage the crowd to spread out rather than press against the main stage .
Portable toilets and first aid stations were also provided . Because the rally was held the day before the previously scheduled Marine Corps Marathon , the rally planners originally requested to share the portable toilets planned for the marathon runners . The marathon organizers refused , so a second set of portable toilets was ordered .
= = = Guests = = =
While both Colbert and Stewart were tight @-@ lipped as to the event 's schedule and guests , Metromix 's Washington DC website published a tentative schedule on October 27 , with guest performers said to be confirmed for the event including musicians Sheryl Crow , The Roots and Jeff Tweedy with Mavis Staples along with actors Don Novello ( appearing as Father Guido Sarducci ) and Sam Waterston . Other guests included 4troops , Yusuf Islam – formerly known as Cat Stevens , Ozzy Osbourne , The O 'Jays , John Legend , Kid Rock , Tony Bennett , Mythbusters hosts Adam Savage and Jamie Hyneman , basketball player Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar , and R2 @-@ D2 .
= = = Comedy = = =
Satirical comedy was woven throughout the rally with Colbert expressing , in parody , that fear was superior to Stewart 's reasonableness . The theme started with Colbert — costumed like Evel Knievel — emerging from his " fear bunker " in a capsule reminiscent of the 2010 Chilean miners ' rescue . Thereafter , Colbert challenged Stewart point by point , usually claiming victory .
One of their battles centered around songs about trains . Stewart started with Yusuf Islam singing " Peace Train , " which was interrupted continually by Colbert @-@ backed Ozzy Osbourne singing " Crazy Train . " The audience held up peace signs for " Peace Train " and horn signs for " Crazy Train . " Finally , Stewart and Colbert compromised singing " Love Train " with The O 'Jays .
Later , Stewart and Colbert donned matching American flag coats and sang an original song " The Greatest , Strongest Country in the World " with lyrics that reflected common liberal and conservative stereotypes , such as " I love NASCAR halftime shows with tons of TNT . ... My hybrid electric scooter does 100 m @-@ p @-@ g . From gay men who like football ... to straight men who like Glee ... "
In the finale , a giant papier @-@ mâché puppet of Colbert ( " Fearzilla " ) was brought on stage to symbolize his superiority . Peter Pan — played by John Oliver — then appeared and led the crowd in a chant that caused Colbert and his puppet to melt into the stage , thereby handing final victory to Stewart .
= = = Medals = = =
Stewart gave out " Medals of Reasonableness " cast in bronze with an image of an owl and the Latin motto Sit vis nobiscum , liberally translated by Stewart as " May the Force be with you , " to :
Armando Galarraga for his calm response to the blown call that cost him a perfect game .
Mick Foley for his contributions outside of wrestling , including his defense of a child mocked for being seen as gay .
Velma Hart for her reasoned critical questions delivered to President Barack Obama at a town hall .
Jacob Isom for preventing an evangelist from burning a Qur 'an .
Colbert awarded " Medals of Fear " cast with an image of a naked man running with scissors and the Latin motto Cave ne cadmium sit , which Colbert translated as " Warning : May contain Cadmium , " to :
Several news media outlets , collectively , for barring employees from attending the rally on their own time .
A " tight black T @-@ shirt " that Colbert said belonged to CNN 's Anderson Cooper , for always appearing during natural disasters reported on by Cooper .
Mark Zuckerberg for making Facebook increase fear with regard to Internet privacy .
Zuckerberg 's award was presented in absentia . The media outlets ' award was accepted on their behalf by " someone with more courage — a seven @-@ year @-@ old girl . " Also , videotaped messages were shown of Steven Slater , known from the 2010 JetBlue flight attendant incident , and reality TV star Teresa Giudice , both apologizing for public acts of " unreasonableness . "
= = = " A Moment of Sincerity " speech = = =
After defeating Colbert 's " Fearzilla " , Stewart closed the rally with a " moment ... for some sincerity " to explain his intentions for the rally :
This was not a rally to ridicule people of faith , or people of activism , or look down our noses at the heartland , or passionate argument , or to suggest that times are not difficult and that we have nothing to fear . They are , and we do . But we live now in hard times , not end times .
He criticized the role the press plays in polarizing political debates , stating that the media — which he described as " the country ’ s 24 @-@ hour politico – pundit perpetual panic ' conflict @-@ inator ' " — only amplifies problems and no longer makes a distinction between " hav [ ing ] animus " and " be [ ing ] enemies . " He warned that demonizing opponents and accepting propaganda makes people " less safe , not more " and that " it is an insult , not only to those people , but to the racists themselves who have put in the exhausting effort it takes to hate . "
Much of the speech was devoted to the idea that " [ m ] ost Americans don ’ t live their lives solely as Democrats , Republicans , liberals or conservatives . " He spoke on the subject of " reasonable compromises " that happen " every day " between persons of different beliefs , citing as an example traffic merging at the entrance to the Holland Tunnel connecting New York City and Jersey City .
= = = Crowd size and television broadcast = = =
An aerial photography analysis commissioned by CBS News and carried out by AirPhotosLive.com estimated the crowd at 215 @,@ 000 people , plus or minus 10 % . In comparison , their estimate for the Restoring Honor rally made using the same methods was 87 @,@ 000 people , plus or minus 9 @,@ 000 . USA Today , Voice of America and ABC News all referred to the crowd as tens of thousands of people , with Voice of America noting , " the crowd filled the Mall , from almost in front of the Capitol to the Washington Monument . "
According to local news outlet TBD TV , " Massive turnout for Saturday 's rally quickly overwhelmed the Mall , forcing thousands of people into nearby streets and , eventually , just giving up and leaving . " The PA system was criticized for being inadequate for those farther back to hear , with the crowd chanting " louder " several times . Jon Stewart , speaking from the stage , jokingly said there were over 10 million people there , and Stephen Colbert satirically tweeted an estimate of 6 billion .
The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority , which maintained its normal Saturday service schedule , announced that Metrorail ridership set a Saturday record of 825 @,@ 437 trips , as compared to about 350 @,@ 000 on a normal Saturday , and beating out the previous record set in 1991 of 786 @,@ 358 trips during the Desert Storm rally .
The rally was broadcast live on Comedy Central and C @-@ SPAN . The Comedy Central live broadcast reportedly drew 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 total viewers , with an additional 570 @,@ 000 live video streams on the Internet .
= = Response to rally = =
Keith Olbermann was prominently featured in a video montage shown at the rally that focused on the anger present in cable news . Two days after the rally , he decided to suspend his " Worst Person in the World " segment on Countdown with Keith Olbermann in the interest of turning down the volume and anger . However , he defended the content of his show by claiming that MSNBC ( the network that hosted Countdown at the time ) differs from Fox News in that " sticking up for the powerless is not the moral equivalent of sticking up for the powerful . " After tallying an online vote among his viewers , Olbermann announced that the segment would return on the November 17 broadcast as the " Not Really Worst Persons in the World . "
On Real Time with Bill Maher , Bill Maher criticized the rally , saying that while Stewart and Colbert meant well , the message of the rally promoted a false equivalency between the left and the right , noting , " the big mistake of modern media has been this notion of balance for balance 's sake . That the Left is just as violent and cruel as the Right ... there 's a difference between a mad man and a madman . "
On November 11 , Stewart appeared on The Rachel Maddow Show and clarified the message he intended to convey at the rally : that too many have " bought into the idea that the conflict [ in America ] is left versus right " when the conflict is actually " corruption versus not @-@ corruption " and that " both sides have their ways of shutting down debate . "
Several websites , including The Huffington Post , dedicated a page to collecting " the funniest signs from the rally . "
In the weeks after the rally , the controversy from 20 years earlier over Cat Stevens ' comments about Salman Rushdie was re @-@ ignited , as commentators debated the decision to invite Cat Stevens / Yusuf to perform at the rally . Ben Smith of Politico said that some found Stevens ' appearance at the rally to be a " dissonant note " . Professor Akbar Ahmed said the debate was yet another example of " controversies being dug up and taken out of context to be aired simply because of a rather poisonous environment around Islam . " Salman Rushdie called Stewart after the rally to speak with him about Yusuf 's appearance , but said Stewart " said he was sorry it upset me , but really , it was plain that he was fine with it . Depressing . " Stewart gave his perspective two years later . Stewart , saying that he didn ’ t know about Yusuf ’ s comments at the time , explained : " I ’ m sure he doesn ’ t believe that people should be put to death for apostasy . I said , ‘ look , I ’ m sorry you ’ re upset , but I ’ m sure the guy isn ’ t really like that . Let me talk to him . ' " Yusuf characterized the 1989 episode as a " misunderstanding " , but added , " although why do you have to insult the Prophet ? " Stewart continued , " We get into a whole conversation , and it becomes very clear to me that he is straddling two worlds in a very difficult way . And that he actually still – and it broke my heart a little bit . ... If I had known that , I wouldn ’ t have done it . Because that to me is a deal breaker . Death for free speech is a deal breaker . " In 2014 , as he had in 2010 , conservative talk show host Sean Hannity criticized Jon Stewart for inviting Yusuf . Stewart responded , " point taken on that one ... correct , Mr. Hannity , mistake ! I should have looked into it more ... ... I 'm just not sure you 're the best guy to make the guilt @-@ by @-@ musician @-@ association point . "
= = Awards and nominations = =
The rally was nominated for four Daytime Emmy Awards :
Outstanding Special Class Special
Outstanding Special Class Writing
Outstanding Achievement in Technical Direction / Electronic Camera / Video Control
Outstanding Achievement in Live & Direct To Tape Sound Mixing
= = = Official websites = = =
Rally to Restore Sanity and / or Fear
Rally to Restore Sanity
March to Keep Fear Alive
Rally to Restore Sanity and / or Fear Videos at Comedy Central
= = = Images = = =
Rally to Restore Sanity – slideshow by Life magazine
The Funniest Signs At The Rally To Restore Sanity – slideshow by The Huffington Post
Satellite view of the crowd
= = = Video = = =
Stewart / Colbert Rally to Restore Sanity and / or Fear – full event video recording by C @-@ SPAN ( requires Adobe Flash Player )
= Tijani Babangida =
Tijani Babangida ( born 25 September 1973 in Kaduna ) is a retired Nigerian footballer , who played as a winger . Known for his pace , his playing style was sometimes compared to that of Marc Overmars . Babangida spent the majority of his playing career at Ajax . Overall , he played in five different countries on three different continents . At club level , Babangida spent nine years in Netherlands , playing for VVV @-@ Venlo , Roda JC and Ajax , winning the Eredivisie plus KNVB Cup double with the latter side .
He played over 30 games for his national side , including four at the 1998 World Cup in France . He participated in two Africa Cup of Nations tournaments and won the 1996 Olympics with Nigeria . Babangida made his international debut in 1994 . He lost his place in the squad right before the 2002 World Cup . After a two @-@ year lay @-@ off from international football , Babangida was recalled to the Nigeria team for the 2004 African Cup of Nations preparations in Tunisia .
= = Personal life = =
Babangida , sometimes nicknamed " TJ " , was born into a large family in the city of Kaduna in 1970 . He was married to Rabah ( now his ex ) , the sister of Daniel Amokachi 's wife . Two of his nine brothers , Ibrahim and Haruna are also footballers . The former spent five years at Volendam , while the latter became the youngest ever player in the history of Spanish football to have a buy @-@ out clause in his contract and the second youngest player to appear for FC Barcelona , when he made his debut in 1998 as a fifteen @-@ year @-@ old . In 1996 Babangida acted in a commercial add for ABN @-@ AMRO in which he points out his hesitations about a contract of some sort . In 2004 , Babangida signed a $ 2 million contract to bring new footballs to Nigeria . The same year , he opened a shopping mall in Kaduna . Upon retiring from professional football , Babangida has been working as a football agent .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
In 1991 , Babangida , at the age of seventeen , left local club Niger Tornadoes to sign with Dutch Eredivisie side Roda JC , after performing well at the 1991 All @-@ Africa Games . He was loaned out to Roda 's league rivals VVV @-@ Venlo until the end of the season . Babangida made a total of six league appearances , scoring three times in the 1991 – 92 season . Despite Venlo 's relegation to Eerste Divisie , Babangida remained at the club for another year .
Babangida received his breakthrough in the 1992 – 93 season as he scored 16 goals , helping Venlo to achieve promotion to Eredivisie . The following season , Babangida returned to Roda , immediately becoming a first @-@ team regular with the Kerkrade side . Babangida made a total of 29 league appearances for Roda that season , scoring 11 goals .
Babangida spent two more seasons at Roda JC . Babangida 's 10 league goals in 1995 – 96 , made him the club 's top scorer that season . In 1995 , Babangida made his European debut , scoring a goal in the UEFA Cup first @-@ round win over Olimpija Ljubljana , Roda 's first European campaign in five years . Roda went on to beat the Slovenian side 5 – 2 on aggregate , but lost to Benfica in the second round . Solid performances at both international and club level led to interest from Dutch side Ajax , as Louis van Gaal was looking to replace Babangida 's compatriot Finidi George , who had recently departed to Real Betis .
= = = Ajax = = =
Babangida joined Ajax in the summer of 1996 in a long @-@ anticipated € 5 million move . He appeared in 29 league games , scoring four goals in his first season with Ajax . Babangida played an important role in Ajax 's European campaign , scoring three goals , including one against Auxerre in the group stages , and the winning goal in the second leg of the UEFA Champions League encounter with Atlético Madrid at the Vicente Calderón Stadium , that put Ajax through to the semi @-@ finals of the competition .
Babangida had a successful second season with the club as he helped Ajax to another Eredivisie title with a 39 @-@ point gap over PSV Eindhoven , while his 13 league goals in 26 games made him the club 's third top scorer , behind Shota Arveladze and Jari Litmanen . Ajax clinched the second title of the season with a 5 – 0 victory over PSV in the KNVB Cup final , with the Nigerian scoring the first goal .
Babangida 's fortunes started to change towards the end of 1998 . Having missed the start of the season with malaria , Babangida gradually lost his starting line @-@ up position as Morten Olsen was looking to improve on the team 's inconsistent performances both in the domestic league and in Europe . Babangida started two of his team 's opening Champions League games . The European season , however , ended in disappointment as Ajax finished bottom of their group behind Olympiacos , Dinamo Zagreb and Porto . Overall , Babangida appeared in 18 league games for Ajax that season , starting only seven . He didn 't feature in the Dutch Cup final where Ajax managed to retain the trophy after beating Fortuna Sittard in the final .
Babangida saw even less playing time after the 1999 season , as he made a mere eight appearances the following year and didn 't play a single game in the first half of the 2000 – 01 season . In an attempt to offload the player , Ajax came to an agreement with the Turkish Süper Lig side Gençlerbirliği , who signed Babangida on a half @-@ year loan deal until the end of the season .
= = = Later career = = =
The spell in Turkey , however , proved to be an unhappy time for Babangida and the Ankara side chose no to pursue their interest in the player once the loan deal expired . Looking for a move away from Netherlands , Babangida came close to signing with AJ Auxerre , but received a last @-@ minute call from Ronald Koeman and agreed to join him at Vitesse instead . Another loan move followed . First team player under Koeman , Babangida subsequently lost his place in the starting line @-@ up , when Ronald Koeman left for Ajax and was replaced by Edward Sturing .
He then signed a six @-@ month loan deal with Al @-@ Ittihad of Saudi Arabia in 2002 , joining Bebeto and Titi Camara , but walked out of the team in November after disagreements with José Oscar Bernardi . Looking to resolve the deadlock with Ajax , Babangida returned to Amsterdam to continue negotiating a termination of his contract with the club . On 30 April 2003 , three years since Babangida played his last game for the club , it was announced that both sides had come to an agreement and the player 's contract was finally terminated .
As a free agent , Babangida underwent a successful trial at Chinese side Tianjin Teda in the summer of 2003 . The move , however , was put off due to the outbreak of SARS in China , and Babangida signed with the second @-@ tier side Changchun Yatai shortly after . His four goals in the second part of the season helped his team to the Jia B title and earned him a recall to the national team for their preparations for the 2004 African Cup of Nations . Babangida scored four more goals for Yatai the following season before retiring in 2004 .
= = International career = =
Babangida received his first call @-@ up to the senior Nigeria national team for a pre @-@ World Cup friendly against Romania in 1994 . He then played in a friendly against Georgia , but did not make the final squad for 1994 World Cup .
Babangida 's international chances were partly limited due to the fact that he often found himself behind Finidi George in the pecking order . He played an important role in his team 's Olympic triumph in Atlanta in 1996 , as Nigeria overcame tough resistance from Brazil and Argentina , packed with the likes of Dida , Roberto Carlos , Bebeto , Ronaldo , Rivaldo , Hernan Crespo , Claudio López , Ariel Ortega and Diego Simeone among others . Babangida took part in Nigeria 's 1998 World Cup campaign , playing a total of 120 minutes as he started one game and came on as a sub in the other three . He scored his team 's only goal in the second @-@ round defeat to Denmark . In January 2001 , Babangida appeared in an exhibition game at the Yokohama International Stadium ( known as the Nissan Stadium nowadays ) , playing for FIFA XI in a game against the unified team of Japan and South Korea .
Babangida only made his African Nations Cup debut in 2000 as Nigeria withdrew from the 1996 edition in South Africa due to political reasons and missed out on 1998 African Cup of Nations through disqualification . Babangida scored two spectacular goals against South Africa to put Nigeria through to the final against Cameroon , where they drew 2 – 2 , before being narrowly defeated 3 – 4 on penalties . He appeared in all of his team 's five games , starting two .
He then featured in Nigeria 's run to the 2002 World Cup finals , scoring two important first @-@ half goals against Ghana on the final day of the 2002 World Cup qualification , helping Nigeria seal the final African region World Cup berth . Babangida played in all of his team 's games at the 2002 Nations Cup , but was dropped ahead of the World Cup , alongside several other experienced players like Sunday Oliseh and Finidi George . He was recalled to the national team for the pre @-@ Nations Cup training camp in Faro , Portugal in 2004 , but did not make the final squad , making the 2002 Cup of Nations his last major international tournament .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = National team statistics = = =
= = = = International goals = = = =
Scores and results list Nigeria 's goal tally first .
= = Honours = =
Olympic Games : 1996
Eredivisie : 1998
KNVB Cup : 1998 , 1999
Turkish Cup : 2001
= Ready , Set , Don 't Go =
" Ready , Set , Don 't Go " is a country song performed by American recording artists Billy Ray Cyrus and Miley Cyrus . It was released as the lead single from Home at Last , Cyrus ' tenth studio album . The song is a soft country ballad with some use of pop and soft rock elements . The song has received different interpretations though , in actuality , Cyrus wrote the song several years before its release when his middle daughter , Miley , moved to Los Angeles in order to pursue an acting career with an audition for the Disney Channel Original Series Hannah Montana . " Ready , Set , Don 't Go " received critical praise , with reviewers complimenting its lyrical content . It also reached positive commercial responses for Cyrus , compared to his downfall in previous years . Peaking at number 85 on the Billboard Hot 100 , it became Cyrus ' first entry on the chart since " You Won 't Be Lonely Now " ( 2000 ) .
The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Elliot Lester and features some of Cyrus ' home videos ; it received a CMT Music Award nomination at the 2008 CMT Music Awards . The song eventually became re @-@ released as a duet with his daughter , pop star Miley Cyrus . At the time of the single 's release , she was 14 and enjoying the success of her debut album Meet Miley Cyrus . The duet version became Miley 's debut in country music and received better commercial outcomes . It reached its highest international peak in the Billboard Hot 100 at number 37 and became Cyrus ' first international chart entry since " Could 've Been Me " ( 1992 ) . Cyrus , with and without his daughter , performed the song at several venues , most notably Miley 's first headlining concert tour , the Best of Both Worlds Tour .
= = Background and reception = =
" Ready , Set , Don 't Go " is a country pop song which some of merges Home at Last 's adult contemporary style . It is set in common time with a ballad tempo of 76 beats per minute . The song is written in a key of D major . Cyrus ' and Miley 's vocals each span two octaves , from B2 to B4 . The verses use a chord progression of D @-@ Bm7 @-@ G twice , followed by Em and A , while the chorus uses G @-@ A @-@ D twice followed by G @-@ Bm @-@ Em @-@ A @-@ D.
The song 's lyrics were written by Cyrus and Casey Beathard . Cyrus discussed Home at Last in an interview with Calvin Gilbert of CMT News in which he said the song was about children growing up and moving on , from his own experience of moving his family to Los Angeles to help Miley with her acting and singing career .
Amazon.com 's Tammy La Gorce commented , " Hannah fans will fall for ' Ready , Set , Don 't Go , ' a dad @-@ to @-@ daughter song that sweetly underscores the love in Cyrus ' real @-@ life heart . " Jeffrey B. Remz of Country Standard Time wrote that the song " finds Cyrus in good form . "
= = Chart performance = =
= = = Solo version = = =
" Ready , Set , Don 't Go " debuted at number sixty @-@ seven on Billboard 's Hot Digital Songs Chart which led to an appearance on the Billboard Hot 100 for the week ending August 4 , 2007 . The solo version debuted and peaked at number eighty @-@ five on the Billboard Hot 100 . " Ready , Set , Don 't Go " became Cyrus ' first appearance on the Hot 100 since " You Won 't Be Lonely Now " ( 2000 ) , which peaked at number eighty
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local district court , which typically valued the land at a lesser amount ; this methodology was not without criticism . During the construction period , the state highway department suffered a " brain drain " as many staffers resigned to take up KTA jobs , which paid better salaries ( Chairman Moss 's KTA salary was three times that of his salary as director of highways ) and offered more exciting challenges .
After almost 22 months of construction , the road was opened for a day of free travel on October 20 , 1956 between 6 a.m. and 2 p.m. An estimated 12 @,@ 000 to 15 @,@ 000 cars traveled on the turnpike . Many of those motorists traveled to Lawrence for a football game between the University of Kansas and University of Oklahoma . Official opening ceremonies were held at interchanges in each of the three major cities on October 25 . The Kansas City celebration included Gene Autry jumping his horse through a large paper map of the turnpike . John Masefield , the British Poet Laureate , wrote a tribute to commemorate the occasion . On the first day after the official opening , 7 @,@ 197 vehicles traveled the turnpike , with 81 toll collectors and 50 maintenance workers on duty . The turnpike originally had 14 interchanges ; by 2012 , there were 22 .
= = = The southern terminus = = =
Despite Oklahoma 's role in instigating the construction of the Kansas Turnpike , its plans for a connecting turnpike fell through . The Oklahoma Turnpike Authority ( OTA ) had not performed a traffic study , as KTA had , to prove that the proposed Oklahoma turnpike would be profitable . Oklahoma also suffered from a poorer credit rating than did Kansas . Additionally , by this time many states ' turnpike authorities were competing in the bond markets for investor dollars . All of these issues combined made it difficult for OTA to issue bonds for its toll road . When funding had been obtained , political issues stalled the proposed toll road further .
With no counterpart to the south , the Kansas Turnpike ended at the state line , at an at @-@ grade intersection with E0010 Road . Just across the state line was an oat field , into which many inattentive motorists crashed . This abrupt end became nationally famous after Wyoming governor Milward L. Simpson and his wife crashed in mid @-@ 1957 . The oat farmer plowed the field to provide a safer landing , and the KTA was persuaded to install a huge wooden barrier at the end of the highway . However , within a day , three more drivers had crashed and destroyed the barrier , so the KTA closed the turnpike south of the South Haven interchange . KTA provided the state of Oklahoma with financial aid to construct its portion of a temporary road leading to the interchange . The lack of continuity in the highway was one of the primary reasons that the road did not generate much revenue in the years following the opening ; another reason was a lack of education on the part of motorists as to the concept of a toll road .
Although Oklahoma 's plans to construct a toll road from the southern end of the Kansas Turnpike at the state line to Oklahoma City did not materialize , a year and a half after the opening of the turnpike , a 5 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) connection to US 177 was put into service . Eventually I @-@ 35 was completed south to Oklahoma City .
= = = Recent history = = =
While the initial turnpike was still being built , the KTA authorized four feasibility studies in October 1954 . Three of them — a spur to Leavenworth and Saint Joseph , Missouri , a spur from Wichita to Hutchinson , Great Bend and Hays , and a new Intercity Viaduct to Kansas City , Missouri — did not go anywhere . But the fourth proposal , a toll bridge on 18th Street in Kansas City , was pushed through , and the KTA agreed to build the turnpike in early 1956 . The 18th Street Expressway , running south from the turnpike 's east end over the Kansas River , opened in 1959 , improving access to northeast Johnson County .
As the turnpike did not use any state tax revenue for maintenance , the pavement began to deteriorate rapidly , and crews faced difficulty keeping up with the snow in winter conditions in a winter storm during 1960 . In the early 1960s , many senior positions in the Kansas Turnpike Authority were cut , and thanks to this and other austerity measures such as targeting maintenance to save costs in the future , the turnpike slowly became profitable . By 1966 , it was clear that the turnpike had not been built to the higher standards of the Interstate Highway system ; the roadway had developed ruts and other issues due to deferred maintenance . To temporarily fix the problem , a layer of asphalt oil and a layer of sand and asphalt was used to fill in the ruts , and graded rock coated with asphalt was used to seal the road . Since the road had been originally constructed at the same time , and not built in segments over a period of time , similar maintenance issues appeared along the whole length of the road at the same time . Bridges and pavement were repaired on a rotating basis , to stagger the cost of needed repairs . The bridge over the Kansas River was widened and replaced after 1973 . As economic conditions improved for the Authority , equipment was slowly replaced , and workers were given pay increases , both of which were badly needed .
In June 1956 , the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 was signed into law , granting funding to the nationwide Interstate Highway System . Without its Oklahoma link , the Kansas Turnpike was in danger of being bypassed by the Interstate System entirely . However , at the end of 1956 , the Bureau of Public Roads and the state of Kansas agreed to route I @-@ 35 along the turnpike south of Emporia and I @-@ 70 along the piece east of Topeka . The state insisted on a separate Emporia – Kansas City alignment , and the mileage that would have been used to build I @-@ 35 from Wichita to Emporia via Newton was instead used for Interstate 35W ( now Interstate 135 ) from Wichita via Newton to Salina . Oklahoma 's first piece of Interstate 35 , from the state line to U.S. Highway 177 at Braman , opened April 22 , 1958 .
The East Topeka interchange was completely rebuilt in the late 1990s , with a goal of rerouting I @-@ 70 and improving access to the turnpike . The design was completed in 1997 , and the project was finished in 2001 at a cost of $ 98 @.@ 6 million in 1999 dollars .
On the evening of April 6 , 2002 , a grease fire broke out in the Hardee 's restaurant at the Belle Plaine service plaza . Exacerbated by heavy winds , the fire destroyed the building , which also contained a travel information center . Four fire departments responded to the scene . The assistant fire chief and fire chief of the Wellington Fire Department gave conflicting statements on whether the unavailability of the Wellington water tower , which had been emptied while it was being repainted , had hampered efforts to extinguish the blaze . The fire burned for three hours , with hot spots still smoldering the following day . No injuries were reported . The fire caused $ 2 million in damages . The service plaza was rebuilt , with a reopening celebration occurring on July 24 , 2003 .
A 390 @-@ year flood event took place on the night of August 30 , 2003 , at the Kansas Turnpike 's crossing of Jacobs Creek , a tributary of the Cottonwood River 11 miles ( 18 km ) southwest of Emporia ( turnpike milepost 116 ) . A thunderstorm that evening dropped large amounts of rain in the area , with a gauge at Plymouth reporting 7 @.@ 1 inches ( 18 cm ) of rainfall in a 24 @-@ hour period . The culvert carrying Jacobs Creek under the turnpike quickly exceeded its capacity , and water rose onto the turnpike . A pool of water four feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) deep formed on the northbound lanes ; the concrete median barrier initially prevented most of the water from crossing to the southbound lanes . Seven cars , all headed northbound , stalled in the floodwater . The median barrier then gave way , sweeping the stalled cars across the southbound lanes and down the creek as far as 1 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) from the highway . Six people died in the flood .
= = Tolls = =
As of 2014 , the passenger or passengers of two @-@ axle vehicles ( such as cars and motorcycles ) pay a total of $ 12 @.@ 00 to travel the entire length of the turnpike . Tolls are calculated based on the length of the route traveled , and the toll is as little as 30 ¢ for motorists driving only a short distance ( 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) , for example ) on the turnpike . Drivers in vehicles with more than two axles , such as truckers , pay higher tolls .
The turnpike runs on a ticket @-@ based collection system . When entering the turnpike , either at one of the termini or at an interchange , a driver is issued a ticket which indicates the toll plaza at which they entered . When leaving the turnpike , this ticket is used to determine the amount of the toll . If a motorist presents a ticket at the same toll plaza it was issued from , the KTA charges a " per @-@ minute " fare if the trip was more than fifteen minutes . Should the ticket be lost , or should the trip take over eighteen hours to complete , the driver must pay the highest possible toll for that exit .
As an alternative to using tickets , motorists can order a transponder , known as a K @-@ TAG . K @-@ TAG customers can proceed slowly through the toll plaza without stopping to collect a ticket or pay toll . The toll is instead paid through one of two payment plans . K @-@ TAG Classic , intended for frequent turnpike users , requires the customer to maintain a prepaid account , from which funds are drawn as needed . The plan intended for intermittent users , My K @-@ TAG , requires an active credit card . My K @-@ TAG keeps track of the tolls accrued by the customer , and automatically charges the user 's credit card monthly . K @-@ TAG Classic accounts are subject to a $ 1 monthly fee per tag , while My K @-@ TAG account holders can get up to five tags for free . Tolls for K @-@ TAG users are lower than for cash customers , so a two @-@ axle vehicle with a K @-@ TAG is charged only $ 10 @.@ 20 to travel the entire length of the turnpike . K @-@ TAG Classic users also receive an additional 10 @-@ percent discount on tolls . K @-@ TAGs are available for purchase at select Walgreens , Dillons , and AAA locations . K @-@ TAG is compatible with PikePass in neighboring Oklahoma . However , K @-@ TAG is not compatible with any other systems , including the E @-@ ZPass system in the Eastern United States .
K @-@ TAG was introduced in 1995 ; the system was internally designed and is internally run , instead of being contracted to another company , saving additional overhead costs . The Kansas Turnpike is completely self @-@ sustaining . All costs are paid for by the tolls collected ; no tax money is used for construction , maintenance , or administration . KTA estimates that 120 @,@ 000 drivers use the turnpike each day .
= = Route description = =
The Kansas Turnpike is 236 miles ( 380 km ) long . As of 2014 the Kansas Turnpike has 22 interchanges and two barrier toll plazas . Many of the interchanges are designed as trumpet interchanges with a connector road to the crossroad , for easy placement of a single toll plaza on the connector .
Exit numbers were originally sequential but are assigned today by mileage from south to east , the same numbering system used by the majority of U.S. states for their Interstate Highways as well . After passing the Bonner Springs interchange , exit numbers change to match the mileage of Interstate 70 ( I @-@ 70 ) east from the Colorado border , which is also used on I @-@ 70 west of the turnpike . This results in discontinuous exit numbers on I @-@ 70 .
= = = Oklahoma state line to Emporia = = =
The first 127 miles ( 204 km ) of the highway , between its southern terminus at the Oklahoma border and Emporia , Kansas , are designated as Interstate 35 ( I @-@ 35 ) . The Kansas Turnpike is the only tolled section on this Interstate . The turnpike runs due north and south between its southern terminus and Wichita . This stretch of the highway runs parallel to U.S. Route 81 ( US @-@ 81 ) , which lies to the west of the turnpike .
The Kansas Turnpike begins at the Oklahoma state line north of Braman , Oklahoma . This is also the point at which I @-@ 35 crosses from Kay County to Sumner County . The turnpike proceeds due north from the state line , with no interchanges for its first four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) in Kansas . The southernmost interchange on the turnpike is Exit 4 ( South Haven ) , which serves US @-@ 166 . US @-@ 166 heads east to Arkansas City and west to US @-@ 81 at South Haven . This interchange is a four @-@ ramp folded diamond with ramps in the southeast and northwest quadrants . It has no toll plazas , as it lies south of the southern barrier toll . Northbound traffic must exit at US @-@ 166 to avoid paying a toll . Initially , the interchange provided only a southbound exit and northbound entrance , forcing drivers who did not wish to pay a toll to leave I @-@ 35 in Oklahoma . By 1976 the other two ramps had been added .
From Exit 4 , the turnpike continues on a due north course , crossing Slate Creek , before coming to the Southern Terminal barrier toll plaza , where tickets are issued for all northbound traffic and fares are collected from southbound traffic . The next interchange north of the toll plaza is Exit 19 ( Wellington ) , serving US @-@ 160 , which heads west to Wellington , the county seat of Sumner County , and east to Winfield , the seat of adjoining Cowley County . It is the first of many trumpet interchanges , serving the surface road via a connector road with a toll plaza . When the turnpike first opened , the US @-@ 160 interchange was a reversed diamond with four loop ramps , so that all traffic using the interchange had to pass under the bridge and thus through the toll plaza . The new configuration was built c . 1988 .
The freeway takes a brief jog to the northeast before crossing over a Burlington Northern Santa Fe rail line southeast of Riverdale . In the median at mile 26 is the Belle Plaine Service Area . North of the service plaza , the highway bridges the Ninnescah River and then K @-@ 55 . No interchange is present to allow turnpike travelers to connect to the K @-@ 55 .
The turnpike 's next interchange is Exit 33 ( Mulvane ) , which connects to K @-@ 53 via a trumpet ramp , just east of the west end of K @-@ 53 at US @-@ 81 . The interchange was built c . 1985 . It was reconstructed in 2011 to serve the Kansas Star Casino with roundabouts on each side of the flyover . The east roundabout directs traffic to K @-@ 53 . The west roundabout directs traffic to the casino . There is now a toll booth on the casino side of the intersection as well as the one on the entrance to K @-@ 53 . This interchange straddles the Sumner – Sedgwick county line .
In southern Sedgwick County , the Kansas Turnpike enters the Wichita metropolitan area . Exit 39 ( Haysville ) serves two of Wichita 's southern suburbs . This exit is a diamond interchange with a connector road to Grand Avenue , which runs west to U.S. Route 81 and Haysville and east to Derby . It was built c . 1989 . Now in Wichita proper , the highway reaches exit 42 ( South Wichita ) , which is the south end of Interstate 135 . I @-@ 135 heads north through Wichita , the largest city in Kansas , toward Salina ; US @-@ 81 joins at the first interchange and I @-@ 235 begins at the second . The interchange is a simple trumpet with I @-@ 135 , and opened in 1956 with the turnpike , but the connector ended at 47th Street ( now US @-@ 81 ) until c . 1961 .
After passing exit 42 , the turnpike curves away from US @-@ 81 , turning northeast toward El Dorado and Emporia . It crosses the Arkansas River between Exits 42 and 45 . Exit 45 ( Wichita , K @-@ 15 ) ) is a trumpet connection to K @-@ 15 in southern Wichita . It opened in 1956 as one of the original interchanges . As the highway continues northeast through Wichita , it comes to Exit 50 ( East Wichita ) , a double @-@ trumpet connection to the parallel Kellogg Avenue , which carries US @-@ 54 and US @-@ 400 . It is one of the original 1956 interchanges . Exit 53 , the final Wichita exit , is a trumpet connection to the K @-@ 96 freeway . The connector road junctions K @-@ 96 at a four @-@ ramp partial cloverleaf interchange and ends at 127th Street East . The interchange opened c . 1994 along with the nearby piece of K @-@ 96 .
East of Exit 53 , the turnpike passes into Butler County . Exit 57 ( Andover ) connects to 21st Street northeast of downtown Andover , an eastern suburb of Wichita . ( This is the same " 21st Street " that runs through Wichita . ) The turnpike uses a diamond interchange with the connector road to 70th Street . This interchange opened c . 1985 . It crosses the Whitewater River southwest of the Towanda Service Area , located in the median at mile 65 . From the service area , the highway proceeds north east to Exit 71 ( El Dorado ) , a trumpet connection to K @-@ 254 just east of its junction with K @-@ 196 . The connector originally directly intersected K @-@ 254 , but it now ends between K @-@ 254 and West 6th Avenue , just north of K @-@ 254 . Exit 71 opened with the original turnpike in 1956 . North of El Dorado , Exit 76 ( El Dorado ) connects the Kansas Turnpike to U.S. Route 77 via a trumpet ramp . It opened c . 1986 .
After passing through El Dorado , the Kansas Turnpike crosses the northernmost arms of El Dorado Lake . This marks the turnpike 's entry into the Flint Hills , a band of hills in eastern Kansas . The turnpike does not leave this region completely until it reaches Topeka . As the highway continues northeast past El Dorado Lake , it runs roughly parallel to the Walnut River to the west , which feeds the reservoir , and K @-@ 177 to the east . Northwest of the town of Cassoday , K @-@ 177 finally crosses the turnpike , with Exit 92 ( Cassoday ) , a diamond interchange , providing a connector to the state highway . The interchange was not present when the turnpike opened in 1956 , but was built soon after as an east @-@ facing folded diamond with two separate toll plazas . The present configuration was built c . 1995 . Near this interchange , the turnpike crosses the Walnut River .
Northeast of the Cassoday interchange , the Kansas Turnpike enters Chase County . In the median at mile 97 , just north of the county line , is the Matfield Green Service Area . Approximately 13 @.@ 7 miles ( 22 @.@ 0 km ) northeast of the service area , an interchange provides access to a set of cattle pens southeast of Bazaar . Other than these two service exits , there are no interchanges within Chase County ; upon leaving it , the turnpike passes into Lyon County .
The next interchange along the turnpike is Exit 127 ( Emporia ) . At this trumpet interchange , Interstate 35 leaves the turnpike to head east through Emporia , the county seat of Lyon County , on its way northeast to Kansas City via Ottawa . Interstate 35 and U.S. Route 50 . The interchange , as opened in 1956 with the original turnpike , connected directly to US @-@ 50 at Overlander Street ; a different configuration opened c . 1966 along with the connecting piece of I @-@ 35 . In 2005 , KTA approved reconstruction of the Emporia interchange to improve connections to US @-@ 50 , I @-@ 35 , and the city of Emporia , resulting in the present configuration . This project , funded by the Turnpike Authority , the Kansas Department of Transportation , and the city of Emporia , was completed in 2008 .
= = = Emporia to Topeka = = =
After the split with I @-@ 35 , the Kansas Turnpike continues northeast as I @-@ 335 . However , its exits are numbered as if I @-@ 35 had continued along it . This highway exists entirely as a part of the Kansas Turnpike . In fact , until 1987 , this stretch of the turnpike was designated solely as the Kansas Turnpike without an Interstate number . It was only after a change in the National Maximum Speed Law , when state legislators were given the authority to raise the speed limits on rural Interstate Highways to 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) , that this segment of the Kansas Turnpike was given the I @-@ 335 designation so that it could fall under the new law .
Northeast of Emporia , the Emporia service area is located in the median at mile 132 . The turnpike continues northeast through the northern reaches of the Flint Hills , coming to an interchange with US @-@ 56 near Admire . This interchange , Exit 147 , is the only interchange along the I @-@ 335 section of the turnpike other than the two end junctions . It is a trumpet connection to US @-@ 56 , which heads west to Council Grove and east to Osage City , and was one of the original 1956 interchanges .
From the Admire exit , the Kansas Turnpike continues northeast , passing through the southeast corner of Wabaunsee County and the northwestern part of Osage County . The turnpike enters Shawnee County and continues through rural land before it heads into the Topeka area . Here , the roadway has an interchange that serves I @-@ 470 and US @-@ 75 . At this point , I @-@ 335 ends and I @-@ 470 joins the turnpike as it passes through suburban development in the southeastern part of Topeka . In the eastern portion of the city , the highway reaches an interchange with I @-@ 70 , US @-@ 40 , and K @-@ 4 .
= = = Topeka to Kansas City = = =
The remainder of the turnpike runs on I @-@ 70 from Topeka to the turnpike 's eastern terminus in Kansas City . This is one of only two tolled sections of I @-@ 70 ; the other is on the Pennsylvania Turnpike with I @-@ 76 .
The turnpike continues east along I @-@ 70 and crosses Tecumseh Creek . The Topeka Service Area is located on the north side of the road east of here at mile 188 . It is accessed by ramps on the right side of the highway in both directions . Just east of the service area , the turnpike enters Douglas County while passing over US @-@ 40 without an interchange . The route then curves to the southeast and runs roughly parallel to US @-@ 40 . A series of curves takes the turnpike farther east as it reaches Exit 197 ( Lecompton ) , a folded diamond interchange with the western terminus of K @-@ 10 . After this , the highway continues farther east and enters the city of Lawrence , where it shares a diamond interchange with McDonald Drive at Exit 202 ( West Lawrence ) . McDonald Drive leads to US @-@ 59 south of the turnpike . East of here , the highway bends east @-@ northeasterly , crosses the Kansas River , and then intersects US @-@ 40 and US @-@ 59 , which run concurrently , at Exit 204 ( East Lawrence ) .
The Kansas Turnpike then leaves Lawrence and bends to the northeast before leaving Douglas County and entering Leavenworth . It overpasses Mud Creek before passing under K @-@ 32 . Northeast of here at mile 209 , the Lawrence Service Area is located in the median . Afterward , the turnpike has a diamond interchange with 222nd Street , which is signed as Leavenworth County Road 1 , at Exit 212 ( Tonganoxie / Eudora ) . The highway then travels northeast and passes through it eastern terminal toll booth . This is the final toll booth on the route travelling east and all vehicles must pay their final toll before continuing . The turnpike then enters Bonner Springs . It crosses Wolf Creek before leaving Leavenworth County and entering Wyandotte County . In Bonner Springs , the turnpike intersects K @-@ 7 , westbound US @-@ 24 , westbound US @-@ 40 , and the southern terminus of US @-@ 73 at Exit 224 ( Bonner Springs , formerly Exit 223 ) with a trumpet interchange . The mileposts on the route switch to match those of I @-@ 70 after this interchange .
US @-@ 24 and US @-@ 40 run concurrently with I @-@ 70 and the Kansas Turnpike as it heads east toward Kansas City . The first free exit on the turnpike is a diamond interchange with 110th Street at Exit 410 . This interchange is located just south of the Kansas Speedway . Just east of here , the route intersects I @-@ 435 at Exit 411 . This exit uses a cloverleaf interchange with one directional ramp and collector – distributor roads to avoid issues with traffic exiting immediately north of the turnpike . After this interchange , the highway enters Kansas City .
The turnpike 's first exit in the city is Exit 414 , a diamond interchange with 78th Street . Next , the highway curves slightly to the northeast and intersects the Turner Diagonal at Exit 415 , an interchange consisting of a half @-@ cloverleaf for the western ramps and a Y @-@ connection for the eastern ramps that intersects the Turner Diagonal at a trumpet interchange north of the turnpike . East of here , the route has a diamond interchange with 57th Street at Exit 417 . Directly east of 57th Street , the turnpike crosses Brenner Heights Creek . After this , the turnpike continues due east to a fully directional interchange with I @-@ 635 at Exit 418 .
After this interchange , the freeway bends in a southeastern direction and reaches its final exit , Exit 420 . This exit is a cloverleaf interchange with US @-@ 69 , which is also known as the 18th Street Expressway . At this interchange , US @-@ 69 turns east to overlap I @-@ 70 , US @-@ 40 , and US @-@ 24 , and the highways continue east of Exit 420 toward Kansas City , Missouri .
= = Design = =
Because the Kansas Turnpike was built before the Interstate Highway System , it is not engineered to current Interstate Highway standards . The turnpike was originally constructed with lanes only 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) wide . Notably , the turnpike was built without a 36 @-@ foot ( 11 m ) median . When it opened , the central reservation was a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) depressed median . Starting in 1985 , Jersey barriers were installed along its entire length . As with all other toll roads that predated the Interstate Highway System , the highway is grandfathered from Interstate standards .
Kansas Turnpike mileposts are continuous along the entire length of the turnpike . Mile markers begin at the point where I @-@ 35 enters Kansas at the southern border . These numbers are continued along the other three Interstates that make up the turnpike , rather than numbering each Interstate individually , leading to discontinuous numbering on I @-@ 70 — the exit numbers on tolled I @-@ 70 are much lower than those on free I @-@ 70 .
The majority of the Kansas Turnpike , from the Oklahoma state line to Topeka , was constructed with four @-@ inch ( 100 mm ) asphalt . The 55 miles ( 89 km ) from Topeka to Kansas City was built with Portland cement concrete . Curves along the turnpike are limited to 3 ° and grades limited to 3 % . Early reports said that curves were designed to accommodate speeds of 70 to 75 mph ( 115 to 120 km / h ) . When built , the turnpike was designed to allow 18 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 8 @,@ 200 kg ) axle loads . Minimum sight distances were kept at 725 feet ( 221 m ) . The 300 @-@ foot ( 91 m ) right of way featured fenced edges to prevent cattle from entering the roadway and to discourage toll evasion .
= = = Speed limits = = =
When the turnpike was originally opened , it had no posted speed limit , however " drivers [ would ] be ' hailed down ' if they exceed 80 miles an hour [ 130 km / h ] . " In 1970 , the speed limit was reduced to 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) during the day and 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) at night ; authorities cited accidents caused by excess speed . Nationwide , the speed limit was reduced to 55 mph ( 90 km / h ) on January 2 , 1974 ; Kansas delayed implementing the reduction until the deadline on March 2 , 1974 .
When Congress allowed states to increase their speed limits to 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) , Kansas increased the speed limit on most of the turnpike ; the Emporia – Topeka segment did not have an Interstate designation to allow for an increase there . Other sections through urban areas remained at the lower limits as well . The Kansas Department of Transportation requested an Interstate designation for the Emporia – Topeka segment of the turnpike by May 1987 , which they received on October 23 , 1987 , when that section was given the I @-@ 335 designation to allow for a 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) speed limit . Later in November 1995 , Congress repealed the National Maximum Speed Limit ; Kansas initially left their limits alone after the repeal . Legislation that raised the speed limits to 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) took effect on March 22 , 1996 .
On July 1 , 2011 , the speed limit on most of the Kansas Turnpike was raised once again to 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) as part of a set of speed limit increases affecting several rural Interstates and U.S. routes throughout Kansas . The minimum speed is 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) .
= = Services = =
The Kansas Turnpike Authority provides a number of services to help motorists and provide incentives for using the turnpike . KTA broadcasts a travel radio station at 1610 AM from Wellington , Wichita , El Dorado , Cassoday , Emporia , Admire , East Topeka , and West Lawrence . Law enforcement is provided by a separate Turnpike Division of the Kansas Highway Patrol . Motorists needing assistance can use a roadside assistance hotline by dialing * KTA ( * 582 ) on a mobile phone . Statewide weather and traffic conditions can be accessed by dialing 511 . KTA also provides weather and traffic information on their website . The original service areas were spaced 45 miles ( 72 km ) apart .
There are six service areas located along the highway :
The Belle Plaine service area ( mile 26 ) opened on July 24 , 2003 , replacing a previous structure at the site that had been destroyed by a grease fire . It contains a 24 @-@ hour gas station and convenience store , a fast food restaurant , a weather kiosk , a Kansas Travel Information Center , and a gift shop .
The Towanda service area ( mile 65 ) provides a 24 @-@ hour gas station and convenience store , a fast food restaurant , and a weather kiosk .
The Matfield Green service area ( mile 97 ) shares the design of the Towanda service area , and also provides a 24 @-@ hour gas station and convenience store , a fast food restaurant , and a weather kiosk . The service area at Matfield Green also contains a 175 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 16 @.@ 3 m2 ) memorial to Notre Dame football coach Knute Rockne , who died in a 1931 plane crash near Bazaar , Kansas , a few miles north of the service area .
The Emporia service area ( mile 132 ) , like the two service areas to the south , includes a 24 @-@ hour gas station and convenience store and a fast food restaurant . Additionally , the facility provides an outdoor exercise area and playground for children .
The Topeka service area ( mile 188 ) opened in May 2002 . This service plaza features a choice of five restaurants ( one of which is open 24 hours ) , as well as a gift shop and a 24 @-@ hour gas station and convenience store . Prior to this plaza 's opening , a service area was located in the median between exits 182 and 183 . It closed in May 2002 when the present Topeka Service Area opened .
The Lawrence service area ( mile 209 ) consists of a 24 @-@ hour gas station and convenience store , in addition to a 24 @-@ hour fast food restaurant .
= = Exit list = =
= Myōjin Yahiko =
Myōjin Yahiko ( 明神 弥彦 ) , known as Yahiko Myojin in the Media Blasters English @-@ language dub and Yoshi Myojin in the English Sony Samurai X dub , is a fictional character from the Rurouni Kenshin manga and anime series authored by Nobuhiro Watsuki . The character of Yahiko is based on the author 's childhood experiences practicing kendo ; since Watsuki 's experienced frustration during kendo classes , the author wrote Yahiko as experiencing frustration with his kendo skills . Watsuki liked Yahiko , and while writing the manga , he began to develop the character so that readers would enjoy him .
The fictional setting takes place during the pre @-@ Meiji period of Japan . Yahiko is an orphan from a samurai family who was forced to work as a thief to repay the debt he had presumably owed , as his parents died before they could repay it . When he is rescued by the main character of the story Himura Kenshin , he decides that he will grow up to be just like Kenshin . But because of his strong beliefs , Kenshin is no longer teaching the sword style he had learned . Therefore , Kenshin arranges for Yahiko to be trained by Kamiya Kaoru , the teacher of the Kamiya Kasshin @-@ ryū ( 神谷活心流 , lit . " Gods ' Valley Alive Heart Style " ) . As the series progresses , Yahiko becomes skilled at swordsmanship and faces many opponents .
Yahiko appears in the featured movie of the series , as well as other media relating to the franchise , including a wide range of electronic games and an original video animations ( OVAs ) series . His character has been very popular with readers from Rurouni Kenshin , ranking near the top of the series ' popularity polls . His character is featured in various types of merchandising developed for the series , such as figurines and key @-@ chains . Several publications have commented on his character . While he was initially criticized for his lack of action in the plot , his further development in the series has been praised .
= = Creation and conception = =
Nobuhiro Watsuki , creator of Rurouni Kenshin , says that he used no particular logic when drawing Yahiko except for the " defiant " eyes and " mussed " hair . ( Watsuki describes these traits as " a must " in a shōnen comic . ) Watsuki enjoyed practicing kendo " almost as much as drawing manga " . To create Yahiko , Watsuki drew on his emotions from junior high school . He has described himself then as " weak " and " an embarrassment to my 183 centimeters of height " ( 183 centimeters is equivalent to 6 feet ) . He says he was a member of the kendo starting squad only because the school suspended another student originally intended to be a starter . However , he failed to win in a league tournament , experienced frustration and felt he was " awful " despite his desire to succeed ; he yearned to improve his kendo skills . As an " outlet " for Watsuki 's kendo emotions , Yahiko " knows a pain that hero @-@ types like Himura Kenshin and Sagara Sanosuke can never know " . As Watsuki further developed the story , Yahiko becomes a comedic character . Watsuki wanted to draw Yahiko in a way that readers could envision him as being a " great " swordsman five to ten years later .
During the last story arc from the manga , the story takes a darker tone than those from other shōnen series published by Shueisha . As the series was aimed at teenagers , Watsuki made Yahiko the main character during the time when Kenshin thought that Kamiya Kaoru was dead ; his role was to serve as the identifying character for readers . However , the author found this hard to do , as the more time Kenshin was unwilling to continue to live , the worse Yahiko felt , leaving Watsuki a more negative feeling concerning the story . By the end of the series as Yahiko becomes a teenager , Watsuki had redesigned his appearance . He wanted Yahiko to impress manga readers so that he could be a protagonist for a possible series sequel . He said this goal influenced his design of Yahiko , with Kenshin 's physical appearance as well as Sanosuke 's personality . He added Sanosuke 's kanji of " evil " ( 惡 , aku ) to the back of his clothes , and was pleased that various readers recognized it . Although he suggested he was not going to make a sequel , he said the main characters would be Yahiko , Sanjō Tsubame and Tsukayama Yutarō . Watsuki thought about writing a story in which Yahiko and Tsubame would have a son , Myōjin Shinya , who would become a skilled swordsman .
In the 20th volume from the Rurouni Kenshin kanzenban edition , Watsuki again redesigned Yahiko 's appearance to show how he would appear at that time . His hair was not as spiky as it was originally , and he had new clothes . He wore a dark jacket , a white short @-@ sleeved T @-@ shirt and short trousers . He did not have socks under his sandals and he had bandages on his hands in order hold a swords . He had two swords — a shinai and a katana — with the latter tied on his back .
In the anime adaptation of Rurouni Kenshin , Watsuki 's designs were combined with the voice talents of Miina Tominaga , a voice actress . In producing the English dub version of the series , Media Blasters chose Wendee Lee to voice Yahiko , but she was credited as Elyse Floyd .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In Rurouni Kenshin = = =
Born January 1869 in Tokyo , Yahiko is arrogant , cheeky , bad @-@ mannered and a user of profanity ; he has already bestowed upon himself the title " Tokyo Samurai " , as his father was a samurai who died during the Battle of Ueno in the Boshin War , slain at the Keneiji Temple . Because Yahiko respected his parents , he becomes a thief before the start of the series , to pay back their debt . Yahiko first appears trying to rob Kenshin , who stops him but lets him go . As his yakuza bosses are about to beat him to death for his desire to quit , Kenshin arrives to save him and take him to Kaoru 's dojo to learn swordsmanship . Yahiko 's dream is to be as strong as Kenshin so he will be able to protect himself and the people he loves . Despite his young age and his short time of training , as the series continues Kenshin allows Yahiko to fight with him , noting that he is too mature for his age . He becomes a witness to many of Kenshin 's later battles to the point which Yahiko becomes adept at imitating some of Kenshin 's Hiten Mitsurugi @-@ ryū ( 飛天御剣流 , lit . " Flying Heaven Honorable Sword Style " ) techniques , combining them to perform many other powerful sword techniques . Yahiko also learns the principles of Kamiya Kasshin @-@ ryū ( 神谷活心流 , lit . " Gods ' Valley Alive Heart Style " ) , which matches Kenshin 's ideal of saving lives . When Kenshin goes to Kyoto to fight Shishio Makoto who wanted to conquer Japan , Yahiko accompanies Kaoru to find and aid Kenshin . While Kenshin goes to have his final fight against Shishio , he stays in Kyoto to defend their base , a hotel named Aoi @-@ ya , from Shishio 's forces along with Kaoru and the Oniwabanshū . They are successful in doing it , and Yahiko manages to defeat one of Shishio 's strongest soldiers , Henya .
Back in Tokyo after Shishio 's defeat , Yahiko notices Yukishiro Enishi 's revenge plot against Kenshin . Sensing his own inability to help , he trains much harder to learn the two succession techniques in Kamiya Kasshin @-@ ryū . Such moves allow him to block an opponent 's attack and then hit him with his weapon . He successfully learns both of this techniques and becomes so adept at using them , that Yahiko starts performing several variations . He uses these moves against one of Enishi 's partners Otowa Hyōko and defeats him . While Yahiko rests from to his injuries , Kaoru is kidnapped by Enishi , and Yahiko and his friends start searching for her . When another of Enishi 's comrades , Kujiranami Hyōgo escapes from jail and goes on a rampage , Yahiko stands up against him . However , he is not strong enough on his own to defeat him and Kenshin saves him at the last moment . After he and Kenshin recover from their fight injuries , they go to rescue Kaoru from Enishi . While on his island fortress , Yahiko defeats one of the four bodyguards from Enishi 's partner , Heishin , and witnesses Kenshin 's fight against Enishi , which Kenshin wins . Five years later , he is the acting instructor at the Kamiya Kasshin @-@ ryū dojo . One day Kenshin calls him to test his skills ; when he lands a hit on Kenshin , he gives Yahiko his own reverse @-@ blade sword as a sign that he has become a true samurai .
= = = In other media = = =
In Rurouni , Meiji Swordsman Romantic Story , he is known as Kamiya Yahiko ( 神谷 弥彦 ) and is the brother of Takani Megumi and Kaoru . Yahiko also appears in all of the Rurouni Kenshin video games , including the crossover game Jump Ultimate Stars . After the manga serialization ended , Watsuki authored one @-@ shot chapter from the series in which Yahiko goes to take care from the people of dojo , but ends confronting a former soldier from Shishio who takes as hostages the students from the dojo . In Samurai X The Motion Picture , Yahiko joins the samurai Takimi Shigure 's group in their attempt to overthrow the Meiji Government , but Shigure later knocks Yahiko out to make him stay out of danger . In Samurai X : Reflection , set various years after the manga 's end , a now adult Yahiko lives with Sanjō Tsubame , a childhood friend he met works at a restaurant where both worked together . He starts taking care of Kaoru when she suffers from an illness while Kenshin went to assist people injured in wars . Due to Kaoru 's suffering , Yahiko goes to Kyoto to request Kenshin and Kaoru 's son , Himura Kenji , to accompany his mother . In order to make him accept , both have a duel , and Yahiko wins .
In the reboot Rurouni Kenshin : Restoration , he works for Takeda Kanryu . As Kanryu plans to kill Kaoru who is fighting for her dojo , Yahiko requests Kenshin 's help to save her . After Kanryu 's defeat , Yahiko stays in Kaoru 's dojo alongside her and Kenshin .
Yahiko was featured in the live action film portrayed by Taketo Tanaka and in the sequel portrayed by Kaito Ōyagi . He appears as the only student in Kaoru 's dojo , instead of starting as a thief from the streets in the original series . Also , in the film , he doesn 't join Kenshin and Sanosuke in rescuing Megumi from Kanryuu 's mansion as he does in the manga .
= = Reception = =
The character from Yahiko has been well received by manga readers , having consistently placed highly in the Weekly Shōnen Jump popularity polls of the series , usually in the top ten characters and once taking third place . A plethora of merchandise have been released in Yahiko 's image , including key @-@ chains wall scrolls , and action figures in both his child and teenager appearances . In an interview with Miina Tominaga , the voice actress for the character , has said that she was a bit afraid when performing the voice of Yahiko in the OVAs since the character was now an adult , but she ended up happy with her performance . Watsuki described Minami Takayama , the CD voice actor , as having " a lot of energy " and as being a " great fit " for Yahiko .
Various publications for manga , anime and other media have provided acclaim and criticism of Yahiko 's character . While reviewing the volume 8 from the manga , Mania Entertainment writer Megan Lavey applauded the way Yahiko starts acting much stronger after Kenshin 's departure to Kyoto and noted that , along with the other characters starring in the volume , he is seen more in @-@ depth . While reviewing volume 15 , Lavey praised Yahiko 's development during the series as he becomes a good fighter and his courage shows a remarkable potential to become a powerful swordsman . However , Carlos Ross from T.H.E.M. Anime Reviews criticized Yahiko for being " a bit annoying " during the start of the series but noted that he has his enjoyable moments . His design in the OVA series has drawn acclaim as one of the few to be well translated from his original manga design by Mike Crandol from Anime News Network . In the second review from the OVA , Crandol liked that Yahiko appeared several times in contrast to the previous OVA in which he was " written out " so that the story would focus more in Kamiya Kaoru and Kenshin 's relationship . He also noted his battle against Himura Kenji to be very entertaining , but not as much as the previous fight which was between Kenshin and Yukishiro Enishi .
= Francis Birch ( geophysicist ) =
Francis Birch ( August 22 , 1903 – January 30 , 1992 ) was an American geophysicist . He is considered one of the founders of solid Earth geophysics . He is also known for his part in the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki .
During World War II , Birch participated in the Manhattan Project , working on the design and development of the gun @-@ type nuclear weapon known as Little Boy . He oversaw its manufacture , and went to Tinian to supervise its assembly and loading into Enola Gay , the Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress tasked with dropping the bomb .
A graduate of Harvard University , Birch began working on geophysics as a research assistant . He subsequently spent his entire career at Harvard working in the field , becoming an Associate Professor of Geology in 1943 , a professor in 1946 , and Sturgis Hooper Professor of Geology in 1949 , and professor emeritus in 1974 .
Birch published over 100 papers . He developed what is now known as the Birch @-@ Murnaghan equation of state in 1947 . In 1952 he demonstrated that Earth 's mantle is chiefly composed of silicate minerals , with an inner and outer core of molten iron . In two 1961 papers on compressional wave velocities , he established what is now called Birch 's law .
= = Early life = =
Albert Francis Birch was born in Washington , D.C. , on August 22 , 1903 , the son of George Albert Birch , who was involved in banking and real estate , and Mary Hemmick Birch , a church choir singer and soloist at St. Matthew 's Cathedral in Washington , D.C. He had three younger brothers : David , who became a banker ; John , who became a diplomat ; and Robert , who became a songwriter . He was educated at Washington , D.C. , schools , and Western High School , where he joined the High School Cadets in 1916 .
In 1920 Birch entered Harvard University on a scholarship . While there he served in Harvard 's Reserve Officers ' Training Corps Field Artillery Battalion . He graduated magna cum laude in 1924 , and received his bachelor of science ( S.B. ) degree in electrical engineering .
Birch went to work in the Engineering Department of the New York Telephone Company . He applied for and received an American Field Service Fellowship in 1926 , which he used to travel to Strasbourg , and study at the University of Strasbourg 's Institut de Physique under the tutelage of Pierre Weiss . There , he wrote or co @-@ wrote four papers , in French , on topics such as the paramagnetic properties of potassium cyanide , and the magnetic moment of Cu + + ions .
On returning to the United States in 1928 , Birch went back to Harvard to pursue physics . He was awarded his master of arts ( A.M. ) degree in 1929 , and then commenced work on his 1932 doctor of philosophy ( Ph.D. ) degree under the supervision of Percy Bridgman , who would receive the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1946 . For his thesis , Birch measured the vapor @-@ liquid critical point of mercury . He determined this as 1460 ± 20 ° C and 1640 ± 50 kg / cm2 , results he published in 1932 in the Physical Review .
Around this time , there was an increased interest in geophysics at Harvard University , and Reginald Aldworth Daly established a Committee for Experimental Geology and Geophysics that included Bridgman , astronomer Harlow Shapley , geologists Louis Caryl Graton and D. H. McLaughlin and chemist G. P. Baxter . William Zisman , another one of Bridgman 's Ph.D. students , was hired as the committee 's research associate , but , having little interest in the study of rocks , he resigned in 1932 . The position was then offered to Birch , who had little interest or experience in geology either , but with the advent of the Great Depression , jobs were hard to find , and he accepted .
On July 15 , 1933 , Birch married Barbara Channing , a Bryn Mawr College alumna , and a collateral descendant of the theologian William Ellery Channing . They had three children : Anne Campaspe , Francis ( Frank ) Sylvanus and Mary Narcissa . Frank later became a professor of geophysics at the University of New Hampshire .
= = World War II = =
In 1942 , during World War II , Birch took a leave of absence from Harvard , in order to work at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Radiation Laboratory , which was developing radar . He worked on the proximity fuze , a radar @-@ triggered fuze that would explode a shell in the proximity of a target . The following year he accepted a commission in the United States Navy as a lieutenant commander , and was posted to the Bureau of Ships in Washington , D.C.
Later that year he was assigned to the Manhattan Project , and moved with his family to Los Alamos , New Mexico . There he joined the Los Alamos Laboratory 's Ordnance ( O ) Division , which was under the command of another Naval officer , Captain William S. Parsons . Initially the goal of the O Division was to design a gun @-@ type nuclear weapon known as Thin Man . This proved to be impractical due to contamination of the reactor @-@ bred plutonium with plutonium @-@ 240 , and in February 1944 , the Division switched its attention to the development of the Little Boy , a smaller device using uranium @-@ 235 . Birch used unenriched uranium to create scale models and later full @-@ scale mock @-@ ups of the device .
Birch supervised the manufacture of the Little Boy , and went to Tinian to supervise its assembly and loading it onto Enola Gay , the Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress tasked with dropping the bomb . He devised the ' double plug ' system that allowed for actually arming the bomb after Enola Gay took off so that if it crashed , there would not be a nuclear explosion . He was awarded the Legion of Merit . His citation read :
for exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding services to the Government of the United States in connection with the development of the greatest military weapon of all time , the atomic bomb . His initial assignment was the instrumentation of laboratory and field tests . He carried out this assignment in such outstanding fashion that he was placed in charge of the engineering and development of the first atomic bomb . He carried out this assignment with outstanding judgment and skill , and finally , went with the bomb to the advanced base where he insured , by his care and leadership , that the bomb was adequately prepared in every respect . Commander Birch 's engineering ability , understanding of all principles involved , professional skill and devotion to duty throughout the development and delivery of the atomic bomb were outstanding and were in keeping with the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service .
= = Post @-@ war = =
Birch returned to Harvard after the war ended , having been promoted to Associate Professor of Geology in 1943 while he was away . He would remain at Harvard for the rest of his career , becoming a professor in 1946 , and Sturgis Hooper Professor of Geology in 1949 , and professor emeritus in 1974 . Professor Birch published over 100 papers .
In 1947 , he adapted the isothermal Murnaghan equation of state , which had been developed for infinitesimal strain , for Eulerian finite strain , developing what is now known as the Birch @-@ Murnaghan equation of state .
Albert Francis Birch is known for his experimental work on the properties of Earth @-@ forming minerals at high pressure and temperature , in 1952 he published a well @-@ known paper in the Journal of Geophysical Research , where he demonstrated that the mantle is chiefly composed of silicate minerals , the upper and lower mantle are separated by a thin transition zone associated with silicate phase transitions , and the inner and outer core are alloys of crystalline and molten iron . His conclusions are still accepted as correct today . The most famous portion of the paper , however , is a humorous footnote he included in the introduction :
Unwary readers should take warning that ordinary language undergoes modification to a high @-@ pressure form when applied to the interior of the Earth . A few examples of equivalents follow :
In 1961 , Birch published two papers on compressional wave velocities establishing a linear relation of the compressional wave velocity Vp of rocks and minerals of a constant average atomic weight <formula> with density <formula> as :
<formula> .
This relationship became known as Birch 's law . Birch was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1950 , and served as the president of the Geological Society of America in 1963 and 1964 . He received numerous honors in his career , including the Geological Society of America 's Arthur L. Day Medal on 1950 and Penrose Medal in 1969 , the American Geophysical Union 's William Bowie Medal in 1960 , the National Medal of Science from President Lyndon Johnson in 1967 , the Vetlesen Prize ( shared with Sir Edward Bullard ) in 1968 , the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1973 , and the International Association for the Advancement of High Pressure Research 's Bridgman Medal in 1983 . Since 1992 , the American Geophysical Union 's Tectonophysics section has sponsored a Francis Birch Lecture , given at its annual meeting by a noted researcher in this field .
Birch died of prostate cancer at his home in Cambridge , Massachusetts , on January 30 , 1992 . He was survived by wife Barbara , his three children and his three brothers . His papers are in the Harvard University Archives .
= Ir Ovot =
Ir Ovot ( Hebrew : עִיר אֹבֹת , עיר אובות , Ir Obot ; lit . City of Oboth ) , was an agricultural cooperative ( kibbutz ) in Israel 1967 – 1980s , located in the northeastern Negev 's Arava region , and still refers to a small , group of homes near New Ein Hatzeva .
It is the site of an extensive archaeological complex known as Tamar Fortress or Hatzevah Fortress ( Hebrew : מצודת חצבה ) which dates to the 10th century BCE ( United Monarchy / First Temple period ) .
= = Geography = =
Ir Ovot is located south of the Dead Sea and southeast of Dimona in the Arabah valley , an arid plain located below the Negev plateau and south of the Jordan Rift Valley within the larger Great Rift Valley . The settlement abuts the Ein Hatzeva bloc of agricultural villages on the opposite side of Highway 90 near the Jordanian border , and is within the boundaries of the Arava Regional Council .
= = = History of the kibbutz and modern village = = =
Originally the site of the Ein Husub police station during the British Mandate of Palestine , the location was captured by the Israel Defense Forces in 1948 . The village of Ir Ovot was founded in 1967 , in an area deserted apart from a small military base and roadside cafe on the way to Eilat . It was founded by a group of American Jews led by former law student and court clerk Simcha Pearlmutter , a Jew from Miami , Florida
= = History of the Hatzeva Fortress = =
First observed and documented by Alois Musil in 1902 , the Roman fortress was identified on Fritz Frank 's 1932 travels in the region . In 1934 , Nelson Glueck identified the location as a Nabatæan caravanserai coopted by the Romans , but the site 's true significance was noted by Benjamin Mazar and Michael Avi @-@ Yonah 's 1950 discovery of sherds from the First Temple period . In the 1960s , it was first suggested by Yohanan Aharoni that the site might be the same as Tamar of the Book of Ezekiel 47 : 19 and 48 : 28 , and Eusebius of Caesarea 's Tamara .
The first salvage excavation took place in 1972 under Aharoni and Rudolph Cohen 's direction , but much of the work was carried out by Cohen , Yigal Yisrael , and recently Tali Erickson @-@ Gini , following the 1986 involvement of " Blossoming Rose " in partnership with the Israel Antiquities Authority , Jewish National Fund and Tamar Regional Council . Known in addition to Tamar as the Hatzeva Fortress , or alternatively identified with Solomon 's Tadmor , the site has six strata which indicate Early Israelite , Nabatæan , Edomite , Roman , and Early Arab occupations . It includes a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old shade tree , and the largest Paliurus spina @-@ christi in Israel .
The area was used for training crews in site conservation before their work on the Masada site .
= = = 10th century BCE = = =
The earliest remains , dating to the Solomonic period of the 10th century BCE , resembles other contemporary Negev plateau fortresses and included period Negevite pottery . Ranging from tenth to sixth centuries BCE , Negevite was also uncovered at Tel Kadesh Barnea and Tel el @-@ Kheleifeh ; it is probable that this level was destroyed by Pharaoh Shishaq like other sites of that period .
= = = 9th – 8th century BCE = = =
The second layer consists of a very large Iron Age fortification surrounded by a casemate wall . This First Temple period building of the Kingdom of Judah is almost as large as contemporary cities such as Tel Be 'er Sheva , and is four times larger than other fortified Negev cities at 10 @,@ 000 square metres .
Excavation revealed a four @-@ chambered , north @-@ facing gate complex near the northeastern corner and three storerooms , a pair of granaries , a moat and a defensive wall . The city was possibly constructed by King Amaziah of Judah , an 8th @-@ century BCE ruler who fortified the Judean kingdom and went to war with neighbouring Edom in the northern Arabah , or his son Uzziah whose construction of towers in the desert is mentioned by the second Book of Chronicles .
= = = 7th – 6th century BCE = = =
A third fortress from the Late First Temple period from the 7th – 6th centuries BCE was found , though because only the walls ' foundations remain , reconstructing the floor plan has been difficult . However , an eastern wall with two towers set 14 metres ( 46 ft ) apart was reconstructed .
A pit full of smashed clay and stone , which were reassembled into 74 cultic vessels , was also found , indicating a probable Edomite shrine . Censers , chalices , altars and human figurines were unearthed outside the fortress wall on the site 's northern edge in 1993 , near the foundations of a small building that seems to have been a shrine . Some of the sherds resemble vessels found in an Edomite shrine at Horvat Qitmit , about 45 kilometres ( 28 mi ) to the northwest . A circular stone stamp seal discovered inside the fortress , picturing two men in long robes on either side of an altar , provides another indicator of Edomite origin . The pit recoveries dating to the end of the seventh century could possibly have been destroyed in the campaign of religious reforms spearheaded by King Josiah mentioned in Book of Kings II .
= = = 1st – 4th century CE = = =
Evidence of Roman administrative and military presence is plentiful , and the junction of the east – west Incense Road to Gaza and the north – south route to the Red Sea probably made it an economically valuable frontier outpost .
The Roman fortress ' layout is similar to other imperial outposts in the region . An official Latin inscription that dates several area strongholds to the 3rd century CE was discovered on a large limestone slab at nearby Yotvata bears . This site was the largest in the area at 46 square metres ( 495 sq ft ) , and included four projecting towers on the fortress ' corners . Artefacts tell of probably destruction in the middle of the fourth century CE , perhaps by a 344 earthquake , though it was promptly rebuilt with improved , stone flooring and again destroyed two decades later , probably from an earthquake in 363 .
A thermæ and caravanserai of the same period were also found , and is similar to the thermæ at Ashkelon and others in the nearby country . A row of rooms from an earlier , 1st century BCE to 1st century CE fortress revealed artefacts pointing to a Nabatæan occupation predating Roman annexation . Coins bearing the likeness of Nabatæan kings were found , along with storage jars and other vessels .
= = = 7th – 8th century CE = = =
A building fragment stratum from the Early Arab period was uncovered immediately beneath the ground surface , along with evidence of a farm located above the Roman thermæ 's remains and below the modern structures .
= Jos Buttler =
Joseph Charles " Jos " Buttler ( born 8 September 1990 ) is an English cricketer who plays for Lancashire County Cricket Club and England . He is a right @-@ handed batsman who also plays as a wicket @-@ keeper and is the current Vice @-@ Captain of the England ODI team . He also captained single T20I on 27 November 2015 against Pakistan , where England won the match by 3 runs .
Buttler enjoyed a prolific cricket record while at school , sharing a record @-@ breaking opening partnership while at King 's College , Taunton in 2008 , and the following season his school lost only one of seventeen matches under his captaincy , and he was named 2010 Young Wisden Schools Cricketer of the Year . He made his Somerset first @-@ team debut in 2009 . His performances led him to be selected to play for England at Under @-@ 19 level , touring Bangladesh , and then travelling to New Zealand for the 2010 Under @-@ 19 Cricket World Cup .
= = Domestic career = =
= = = Early life and career = = =
Buttler played extensively for Somerset 's youth teams , appearing at Under @-@ 13 , Under @-@ 15 and Under @-@ 17 level . He made his senior club cricket debut for Cheddar before moving to Glastonbury in the 2006 season , aged just 15 , taking three catches and fifteen runs as wicket @-@ keeper . Later in the same season , he made his first appearance for Somerset Second XI , scoring 71 in the second @-@ innings , and taking six catches in the three @-@ day match against Nottinghamshire Second XI . Playing for King 's College , Taunton , he finished the 2006 season with the school 's leading batting average , scoring 447 runs at an average of 49 @.@ 66 . The following season he played regularly for Glastonbury in the West of England Premier League , and for Somerset Under @-@ 17s , for whom he scored two centuries ; an unbeaten 119 during a two @-@ day match against Surrey Under @-@ 17s , and 110 against Sussex Under @-@ 17s . He once again led the batting averages for King 's College , with his 358 runs coming at 51 @.@ 14 .
The highlight of his school career came in April 2008 , when he scored 227 not out during a record @-@ breaking opening stand in a 50 @-@ over national schools game , adding 340 with Alex Barrow . He captained King 's during the 2008 season , and improved on his batting totals from the previous two years , scoring 851 runs , over 250 more than any other member of the team . His batting average of 94 @.@ 55 was the sixth highest amongst all school 's batsmen reported in Wisden , while his high @-@ score of 227 * was the highest score they recorded . During that 2008 season , Buttler also played for Somerset Second XI . With captain Carl Gazzard keeping wicket in the majority of these matches , Buttler played purely as a batsman , although in his final match of the season for the team , he kept wicket and took six catches in the first @-@ innings against Worcestershire Second XI . In the previous match , against Hampshire Second XI , Buttler had made 140 batting from number four .
He made his first @-@ class debut for Somerset in September 2009 , replacing the injured Justin Langer for the County Championship match against Lancashire , scoring 30 in his only innings . He retained his place in the team for the following Pro40 match against Hampshire , making his List A debut , although he was not required to bat . Selected as part of the Somerset squad for the 2009 Champions League Twenty20 , Buttler made his debut in the 20 @-@ over format of the game in Somerset 's final match of the league stage , remaining six not out at the close of the innings . Buttler again captained King 's in 2009 , and in the seventeen matches under his leadership they lost only once , and also won the Western School Twenty20 competition . Coupled with his 554 runs for the school at an average of 61 @.@ 55 , and his performances for Somerset , he was named 2010 Young Wisden Schools Cricketer of the Year .
= = = First @-@ team opportunity = = =
When Craig Kieswetter was called up into the England one @-@ day side in 2010 , Buttler was given the chance of a prolonged run in Somerset 's first team . Brian Rose , Somerset 's Director of Cricket , chose not to bring in an experienced keeper to deputise , explaining that Kieswetter had been in a similar position three years earlier , and that he had good reports of Buttler 's ability . In his first match of the 2010 season , Buttler remained 22 not out at the close of Somerset 's innings , posting his first runs in List A cricket , and he followed this up with two catches to help Somerset beat Glamorgan in their opening Clydesdale Bank 40 fixture . He made his maiden first @-@ class century in his fourth County Championship match , scoring 144 runs in an innings characterised by " dogged determination and [ a ] decent range of shots " . In his next match , he scored his debut List A half @-@ century against Sussex . Buttler joined James Hildreth at the crease with Somerset at 109 / 4 , requiring 183 more runs to win off 129 balls . The pair put on a partnership of 158 runs " to turn the game on its head " , with Buttler making 69 in 53 balls . In doing so , they set a new record partnership for the fifth @-@ wicket against Sussex . His continued batting form , which also saw him make scores of 52 and 31 * in a County Championship match against Yorkshire , saw him retain his place in the Somerset team upon Kieswetter 's return .
Buttler was named man of the match in Somerset 's Friends Provident T20 semi @-@ final victory over Nottinghamshire at the Rose Bowl , hitting an unbeaten 55 off 23 balls in a partnership of 75 with Kieron Pollard .
At the end of the 2013 English cricket season , Somerset announced that Buttler would be leaving the county at the end of his contract . On 30 September 2013 , Lancashire County Cricket Club announced they had signed Buttler after he left Somerset . He extended his stay with Lancashire County Cricket Club announcing a new three year contract on the 27th May 2016
= = International career = =
Buttler 's first taste of international cricket came in July 2008 , when he represented England Under @-@ 17s in two warm @-@ up matches against New Zealand Under @-@ 19s . Batting at number five , he scored a rapid 77 not out in the 50 @-@ over contest , hitting 11 fours and 2 sixes during the 49 deliveries he faced . He also played in the two @-@ day match between the two teams , scoring 45 in the first @-@ innings as the match was drawn . In 2009 , Buttler played four matches for England Under @-@ 18s , two each against Scotland A and Scotland Development XI . He scored 103 not out in the first of these matches , and made starts in each of the following matches , reaching double figures on each occasion , but not scoring higher than 28 . Two months later , Buttler made his England Under @-@ 19 debut , appearing in the first Twenty20 against Bangladesh Under @-@ 19s . Playing as a specialist batsman , he scored 33 runs off 17 balls as England won by five wickets .
During the 2009 – 10 English winter , Buttler toured with the England Under @-@ 19 team . He joined up with the squad in Bangladesh following Somerset 's elimination from the Champions League Twenty20 for the seven @-@ match youth ODI series . As with his previous appearance for the Under @-@ 19s , Buttler played as a specialist batsman , but failed to make a significant impact until the final match when he scored 42 runs , though Bangladesh still won the match to claim the series 5 – 2 . He remained with the team for the Under @-@ 19 World Cup , where he played all but one of England 's six matches , keeping wicket in three of them . He scored 91 runs in three innings , with a top @-@ score of 78 against India in the fifth @-@ place play @-@ off semi @-@ final . His batting average of 30 @.@ 33 ranked him fifth on the England team .
= = = 2011 India , West Indies and Pakistan = = =
In 2011 , he was called up to the England Twenty20 International squad for the match against India , but was not required to bat in a six wicket England victory .
Buttler was again called up to the Twenty20 International squad for the two matches against the West Indies in September 2011 , Buttler again was not required to bat in the first match . The second match of the series saw Buttler score just 13 runs as England lost by 25 runs .
In September 2011 , Buttler was called up to the Twenty20 International squad for the match against India in the return series. he was not required to bat as England won by six wickets . He was included in the squad to play Pakistan and played in all three games , although he only scored 17 runs in the entire series , which England won 2 @-@ 1 . He played in the 7 wicket win over the West Indies .
During the winter of 2011 , Buttler was called into the England winter performance programme for a batting and wicket @-@ keeping focussed programme in India , he was also called up for the England Lions tour of Bangladesh . The Lions lost the ODI series 3 – 2 with Buttler topping the Lions runs and averages charts with 161 runs at and average of 53 @.@ 66 and also taking the most catches 6 and most stumpings 3 . Following his impressive individual performances in Bangladesh Buttler was called up for the Lions tour of Sri Lanka .
He was included in the squad to play Pakistan and played in all three games , although he only scored 17 runs in the entire series , which England won 2 @-@ 1 . He played in the 7 wicket win over the West Indies .
= = = 2012 South Africa , T20 World Cup and India = = =
Buttler was called up to the England Twenty20 squad for the series against South Africa . In the final Edgbaston game , Buttler joined Somerset team mate Craig Kieswetter with England on 64 – 3 with only 16 balls remaining . The pair gave a brutal display of power hitting , raising the final score to 118 – 5 , with Buttler hitting 32 off one over from bowler Wayne Parnell ( including two no @-@ balls ) , the second most expensive over in International Twenty20 behind the 36 of Yuvraj Singh off of Stuart Broad in Durban in 2007 .
Buttler was selected in the England squad for the ICC T20 World Cup . After making 15 against Afghanistan , he made 11 against India . Although England lost to India they qualified for the Super Eights . He scored 5 not out against New Zealand as England won by six wickets . However , defeat in the next game against Sri Lanka , in which Buttler made 8 , meant that England was knocked out of the competition .
He was selected for the two T20 internationals against India , and was also given the responsibility of wicketkeeping . He made 33 in the first match , although England lost by 5 wickets . He made an unbeaten 15 in the second match to guide England to a 6 wicket victory . Buttler made his ODI debut in 2012 against Pakistan , but was dismissed for a duck .
= = = 2013 New Zealand , Champions Trophy and Australia = = =
He played in two further games against India but again failed to make an impression , scoring 14 runs in his only innings . He was selected as wicket keeper for the ODI series against New Zealand , but again disappointed , scoring just 24 runs in the series . He did significantly better in the T20 series , making scores of 54 and an unbeaten 32 . His place looked in doubt when he only managed scores of 14 and 2 in the return series against New Zealand . However , on 5 June 2013 , Buttler scored 47 runs in just 16 balls in the 50 over match against New Zealand , coming at the end of the innings , the contribution proved vital in securing a 34 run victory for England . He made a quickfire 17 in the T20 series against New Zealand .
Buttler was involved in the 2013 IC Champions Trophy after being called up to the squad . However , in the first two group games he made just 1 run . In the final group game against New Zealand he made 14 as England qualified for the semifinals . Buttler did not bat in the semifinal against Sri Lanka which England won , and was out for a duck in the final against India .
Buttler showed good form in the first T20 International against Australia , making 27 , although he was out for a duck in the second match . Buttler was selected in the England ODI squad to face Australia in 2013 . In the second match of the series , Buttler made 75 , his highest ODI score and his first international fifty . In the fourth match , Butter hit an unbeaten 65 to guide England to victory and level the series 1 @-@ 1 . In the final match of the series . Buttler made 42 , making him one of England 's most consistent performers of the series . In the return series in Australia , Buttler made 34 in the first ODI and followed this up with 49 from 36 balls in the second . He helped England win the first match of the tour in the fourth ODI , hitting 71 from 43 balls . England lost all three of their T20 games , with Buttler making scores of 20 and 22 in the first two games . In the final match of the series , England were bowled out for just 84 , with Buttler scoring 8 .
= = = 2014 West Indies , T20 World Cup and Sri Lanka = = =
Buttler was selected on the One Day tour of the West Indies . After making scores of 12 and 0 , Buttler hit a magnificent 99 off just 64 balls to guide England to victory and hand them a 2 @-@ 1 series win . In the T20 series , Buttler could only manage 3 in the first game , but then hit 67 in the second match , although it was not enough to win the game . England won the final match before the World Cup , although Buttler could only manage 3 runs .
In the 2013 ICC T20 World Cup , Buttler made 32 in an opening defeat to New Zealand . England managed to chase down 190 against Sri Lanka to keep their hopes of qualification alive , although Buttler managed just 2 runs . In the must @-@ win match against South Africa , Buttler hit 34 but England fell three runs short of their target . England suffered further humiliation when they lost to the Netherlands , with Buttler making just 6 runs .
Buttler managed just 30 runs in the first two ODIs against Sri Lanka . Butler scored his maiden One Day International century against Sri Lanka at Lord 's on 31 May 2014 , in the fourth ODI . He scored it in 61 balls with nine fours and four sixes scoring the fastest century by any England batsman . He was controversially run out by Sachithra Senanayake in the final match of the series after he backed up at the bowlers end . The incident proved controversial , with many England players saying the Sri Lankans did not play within the spirit of the game .
= = = 2014 India and Sri Lanka = = =
After Matt Prior stood down after injury on the 22 July 2014 , Buttler was called up for the England squad for the third Test against India . He made 85 from 83 balls on debut to help England win the match and level the series . In the next match he again batted well , making 70 to help set up an innings victory for England as they took a 2 @-@ 1 lead in the series . He made 45 in the final match of the series to help England win their third consecutive match and win the series 3 @-@ 1 . He also took 11 catches in the series following doubts about his wicket keeping capabilities .
In the opening match of the ODI series against India , Buttler could only make 2 . However , he performed better in the next match , making 42 . Despite this , England lost the match to go 2 @-@ 0 down in the series . After making 11 in the third match , which England again lost to go 3 @-@ 0 down in the series , Buttler performed better in the final match of the series , hitting 49 to help England win their first match of the series . In the only T20 match between the two sides , Buttler could only make 10 but England went on to win the match .
Buttler was selected for the ODI tour of Sri Lanka and played in the first two games , making scores of 21 and 7 as England lost the first two games . In the third ODI he guided England over the line with an unbeaten 55 . He made 15 in the next match , before hitting the winning runs in the fifth ODI to keep England in the series . In the game , Buttler got off to a decent start but was unable to make a big score , being dismissed for 22 . It was a similar story in the final game of the tour , with Buttler being dismissed for 23 as England lost the match and the series 5 @-@ 2 .
= = = 2015 Tri @-@ series = = =
In the opening game of the tri- series against Australia , Buttler made 28 but England lost the game . In the following match against India he was not needed to bat as England secured a comfortable win . In the match Buttler made four catches and also made a stumping . After making 25 in another defeat against Australia , Buttler made his first half century of the tournament against India , making 67 to help England win and qualify for the final . In the final Buttler made 17 but England lost to Australia yet again .
= = = 2015 World Cup = = =
Butler made just ten as England lost their opening match of the World Cup against Australia . In the following match he was dismissed for three as England were bowled out for just 123 against New Zealand , to lose their second consecutive match . He made 24 against Scotland as England won their first match of the tournament , but pundits argued he should have been moved up the order . This sentiment was repeated after he scored a brisk unbeaten 39 against Sri Lanka . However , England were unable to defend their score and Sri Lanka won the match by nine wickets . In their must win game against Bangladesh , Buttler scored 65 but was not able to get England over the line and they were eliminated from the competition . In the final game against Afghanistan Buttler was not need to bat as England secured a nine wicket win .
= = = 2015 West Indies and New Zealand = = =
Buttler was included in the squad that toured the West Indies , cementing his place as England 's first choice Test wicket @-@ keeper . In the first innings of the first Test he was dismissed for a duck , but then hit an unbeaten 59 in the second innings to help put England in a strong position . However , the West Indies batted out the match to secure a draw . In the second match Buttler made 13 in the first innings , and was not required to bat again as England secured a comprehensive nine wicket victory . In the third Test Buttler remained not out on three in the first innings as England 's tail collapsed . He was again left stranded in the second innings on 35 not out . England went on to lose the match as the West Indies chased down their target to win the match by five wickets and level the series at 1 @-@ 1 .
In the two @-@ Test series at home against New Zealand , Buttler made 67 in England 's first innings to help them recover to post 389 . He made 14 in the second innings as England went on to win the game to take a 1 @-@ 0 series lead . In the second Test he could only manage ten in the first innings , but did top score in England 's second innings with 73 . England went on to lose the game and the series was tied at 1 @-@ 1 .
Buttler continued in his role as wicket @-@ keeper in the five @-@ game ODI series against New Zealand . He started the series strongly , scoring 129 off only 77 balls and taking one catch as England won by 210 runs . Buttler made 41 and took one catch in England 's subsequent defeat by 13 runs ( D / L method ) in a very close match . He then had an unsuccessful third match , scoring only 13 and taking no catches as England lost again . In the fourth game he was not needed to bat as England secured a convincing seven wicket vicyptory to level the series . Injury ruled Buttler out of the deciding match , which England won , and the only T20 match between the sides , which England also won .
= = = 2015 Ashes = = =
Buttler had a generally poor Ashes series with the bat . In the first Test he scored 27 in the first innings but was dismissed for just seven in England 's second innings . Despite this , England recorded a comfortable win . In the next Test England lost by 405 runs and Buttler failed to make an impression with the bat , scoring just 24 runs in the match . He scored nine in the first innings of the third Test and was not need to bat in the second innings as England secured an eight wicket win . In the fourth Test Buttler made 12 in the first innings as England won by an innings and 78 runs . Buttler only made one in England 's first innings of the final Test , but scored 42 in the his final innings of the series , which also proved to be his highest score of the series . England went on to lose the game but won the series 3 @-@ 2 . Buttler 's batting during the Ashes series was criticised by Boycott , saying " Jos Buttler is like a rabbit caught in the headlights of Ashes cricket . A seven @-@ year @-@ old schoolboy would have played better . He hasn 't made a run all series . He hasn 't shown any application whatsoever . It looks to me like his mind and confidence is shot for Test cricket - it 's pathetic . "
Buttler played in the only T20 between the two sides , scoring 11 as England won by 5 runs . Buttler appeared in the first two ODI games against Australia , before injury ruled him out of the rest of the series . England lost both games , with Buttler failing to make a significant score in either match , being dismissed for 0 and 4 .
= = = 2015 Pakistan = = =
Buttler played in the first Test against Pakistan , but struggled in both innings as the match ended in a draw . Buttler was promoted to opener in the second innings as England tried to chase down a score with little time left in the match , but Buttler was dismissed for 4 . In the second test Buttler was out for a duck in the first innings before making seven in the second innings , as England sufeered a defeat by 78 runs . After a poor run of from , Buttler was dropped for the third Test .
Buttler played in all four ODI matches against Pakistan . He struggled in the first game , scoring just one as England lost the opening match . However , after scoring eleven in the second match , Buttler hit an unbeaten 49 in the third ODI to send England on their way to a 6 wicket victory . He scored a fantastic unbeaten 116 in the final match of the series , helping England to score 355 @-@ 5 . Pakistan could not get near the victory target and lost by 95 runs , meaning England won the series 3 @-@ 1 . He played in two of the three T20Is , making scores of 33 and 2 as England won both games .
= = = 2015 / 16 South Africa = = =
Buttler played in the ODI series against South Africa , and he scored his second consecutive ODI hundred as he hit 105 in England ’ s score of 399 against the hosts , and England went on to win the match comfortably . He hit an unbeaten 48 in the second match as England went 2 @-@ 0 up in the series . However , Buttler then suffered a loss of form , scoring just one run in his final three innings of the series , and England went on to lose all three games to hand the series to South Africa 3 @-@ 2 .
= = = 2016 T20 World Cup = = =
In the T20 World Cup , Buttler made a score of 30 in the opening game defeat against the West Indies . He followed this up with 21 against South Africa as England chased down 230 to secure a historic win . He was out for just six against Afghanistan , although England won the match to keep their qualification hopes alive , and he then hit 66 against Sri Lanka to help England reach 171 @-@ 4 and qualify for the semi @-@ finals . In the semi @-@ final he hit an unbeaten 32 to help guide England to a seven wicket victory . England lost the final against the West Indies , with Buttler making 36 .
= = = 2016 Sri Lanka = = =
Buttler scored 93 in England 's first match against Sri Lanka , helping them tie the match . He did not bat in the second match as England won by ten wickets , and was also not able to bat in the third ODI , as rain ended England 's innings early and the match ended in a draw . He scored an unbeaten 17 in the fourth match of the series to help England over the line to record a six wicket victory , and he made 70 in the final match of the series to help England reach 324 and win the match by 122 runs . In the only T20I between the two sides , Buttler opened the batting and scored an unbeaten 73 to help England to an eight wicket victory .
= = Personality and style = =
A tall and strongly built cricketer , Buttler has an upright stance in the crease . During his century against Hampshire in 2010 , he " hit the ball hard and straight " , " moving his feet decisively , playing with his bat close to his body and selecting the right balls to attack " . After that innings , his Somerset captain Marcus Trescothick suggested that Buttler could challenge team @-@ mate Craig Kieswetter 's place in the England team .
With Kieswetter 's and Matt Prior 's retirements in 2015 , Buttler became the no.1 wicketkeeper for all forms of the game . However , due to Alec Stewart 's precedence of poor test averages as a wicketkeeper , and many other former wicketkeepers having better test averages after being relieved of their wicketkeeping duties ( Sangakkara , McCullum ) , there has been suggestions for Buttler to give up keeping for tests , with Sam Billings ( who has yet to make his test debut as of 10 June 2016 ) or Jonny Bairstow replacing him . Ironically , despite Buttler 's improved glove @-@ work , Bairstow replaced him for the third ODI for Australia 's English and Irish Tour due to his poor form with the bat throughout the Australian series . Bairstow eventually became the outright wicketkeeper for Tests in December 2015 for the series against South Africa . He was dropped from tests altogether in 2016 during Sri Lanka 's tour of England and Ireland , while Bairstow 's test centuries started piling up for county ( Yorkshire ) and country in 2016 , despite Bairstow 's problems with worse glove work and dropped catches .
= = Statistics = =
= = = Career Best Performances = = =
= = International centuries = =
= = = One Day International centuries = = =
= = International Recognition = =
2010
NBC Denis Compton Award
Young Wisden Schools Cricketer of the Year
2011
NBC Denis Compton Award
= = International Awards = =
= = = ODI awards = = =
= = = = Man of the Match award = = = =
= = = = Player of the series awards = = = =
= = = T20I awards = = =
= = = = Man of the Match award = = = =
= Unicorn ( spider ) =
Unicorn ( " one horn " , in Latin ) is a genus of goblin spiders ( family Oonopidae ) from South America , containing seven species that occur predominantly in high elevation , semi @-@ desert regions of Bolivia , Chile , and Argentina . Individuals are relatively large for goblin spiders , measuring up to 3 @.@ 0 mm ( 0 @.@ 12 in ) in body length . The genus name refers to a characteristic pointed projection between the eyes and jaws of males . In at least one species , broken @-@ off tips of the male pedipalps have been found within the genitalia of females , postulated as a means of sperm competition . Unicorn possesses several traits that suggest it is a relatively " primitive " member of the Oonopidae , and is classified with other similar , soft @-@ bodied goblin spiders in the subfamily Sulsulinae .
= = Description = =
Species of Unicorn range from 2 @.@ 2 to 3 @.@ 0 mm in body length ( from tip of the cephalothorax to end of abdomen , excluding legs ) . The cephalothorax , yellow in color , ranges from 1 to 1 @.@ 2 mm long ( around 40 – 49 % of body length depending on species ) and often possesses a central grey patch with four lines radiating towards the eyes . The abdomen is white with dark chevron patterns on the dorsal surface , and in some species a pair of dark lines on the underside .
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Hungarian forces being hard @-@ pressed by the Russian Brusilov Offensive . In July , Mikl 's regiment was used as a " fire brigade " within the Army Group , and helped prevent the penetration of the Russian offensive through the Jablonika Pass . Their task completed , Mikl 's regiment was promptly transferred back to fight the Italians on the Southern Front . Mikl 's regiment arrived on the Isonzo Front on 20 August , and remained there until late autumn 1917 , fighting in the 8th , 9th , 10th and 11th Battles of the Isonzo . During the Eighth Battle of the Isonzo on 10 October 1916 , Mikl was wounded once again , and was hospitalised . When he recovered , he was assigned to the regimental replacement battalion until spring 1917 . For three months during the summer of 1917 , Mikl was employed as an instructor at the VII Corps Reserve Officer 's School , preparing young officers for service at the front . In January 1917 , he was awarded the silver Military Merit Medal on the ribbon of the Bravery Medal with War Decoration . In August 1917 , Mikl was appointed to command a machine gun company , and served in the Battle of Caporetto and the subsequent advance to the Piave river . On 12 November 1917 , Mikl 's regiment was the first to establish a bridgehead over the Piave at Zenson di Piave , and he was instrumental in rallying the troops of his regiment when they came under heavy fire as they landed on the Italian side of river . For his leadership at this crucial stage of the river crossing , he was awarded a bar to his silver Military Merit Medal . On 15 May 1918 , Mikl began a preparatory course for future attendance at the War College ( German : Kriegsschule ) in Vienna , and when the war ended he was posted to the 54th Rifle Division in Galicia .
= = Between the wars = =
Before the war , nationalism had been largely absent in officers of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Army , but this changed during the war , and by the end of the war , the propaganda of the Entente had combined with wider aspirations to encourage nationalist sentiment . In some cases , this resulted in mutiny among units of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Army in the last months of the war . The states that would succeed Austria @-@ Hungary were approved by the Allies on 28 October 1918 , and the dual monarchy of Austria @-@ Hungary was dissolved three days later . Many new nation states emerged in the territory formerly belonging to the realm , as nationalist movements called for greater autonomy or full independence . The Duchy of Styria was divided between the new states of German @-@ Austria and the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes , but the exact line of the new border was unclear . In November 1918 , Mikl had returned to his hometown of Radkersburg , an important railway junction point , which was of economic importance to both sides . The Slovenes occupied the city on 1 December 1918 . In 1919 , Mikl served as adjutant in the 1st Battalion of the Volkswehr militia , which used arms provided by the provincial government of Carinthia to make an unsuccessful attempt to recapture Radkersburg from forces of the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes to ensure it remained part of German @-@ Austria . The provincial government of Styria , which had not supported these actions , subsequently issued a warrant ordering Mikl 's arrest for treason . Despite his failure , his actions were very important in demonstrating to those negotiating the final border that towns along the northern bank of the Mura river were German . When the Treaty of Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye was signed later in 1919 , Radkersburg was retained within what became the First Austrian Republic .
In 1920 , Mikl was accepted by the new Austrian Army ( German : Bundesheer ) , joining the 11th Alpenjäger Regiment . During 1920 – 21 he was rapidly promoted to Hauptmann ( captain ) , and on 20 October 1920 he was posted to the 5th Cyclist Battalion in Villach , Carinthia . In 1921 , his battalion was deployed to Burgenland to assist in the transfer of that region from Hungary to Austria . In 1922 , he changed his name to the more Germanised Mickl . According to his biographers Richter and Kobe , at this time the Austrian police wanted to speak to Mikl regarding alleged arms trafficking offences , and his decision to change his name may have related to the police inquiries . On 2 May 1922 , Mickl married Helene Zischka in Klagenfurt ; their only child , Manfred , was born in 1923 . That same year , he was promoted to the rank of Major , having worked on the frontier with Italy , trained border guards and proving an accomplished mountaineer .
In 1925 , Mickl passed the examinations for the general staff . On 26 July 1930 , Mickl was appointed an honorary citizen ( German : Ehrenbürger ) of the town of Radkersburg . During fifteen years with the 5th Cyclist Battalion , Mickl had attended ski courses and mountain leadership courses , and had also developed an interest in automotive technology . In 1934 , he briefly served on the military headquarters for Carinthia in Klagenfurt . In February of the following year , he was placed on the general staff officer list , and posted to the headquarters of the 3rd Brigade at St. Pölten . His promotion to Oberstleutnant ( lieutenant colonel ) followed in 1936 . In the same year , Mickl 's son Manfred entered the military cadet school at Enns . On 14 March 1938 , following the Anschluss , Mickl was absorbed at his rank into the German Army , but as a troop officer , not a general staff officer . From 12 May to mid @-@ August 1938 , he attended training at the Panzertruppenschule II ( Armoured Troops School No. 2 ) in Wünsdorf south of Berlin , before being given command of the 42nd Panzerjäger ( Anti @-@ tank ) Battalion of the 2nd Light Division . Helene soon moved to Gera in Thuringia to join Mickl , leaving the 15 @-@ year @-@ old Manfred at the cadet school until his graduation .
= = World War II = =
= = = Poland and France = = =
Mickl commanded the 42nd Panzerjäger Battalion of Generalmajor ( brigadier ) Georg Stumme 's 2nd Light Division during the September 1939 invasion of Poland , during which the division was involved in difficult fighting through Kielce and Radom in central Poland to Modlin on the Vistula . The following month , Mickl was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class . During the winter of 1939 / 40 , the 2nd Light Division was reclassified and converted into the 7th Panzer Division , in preparation for the invasion of France and the Low Countries . In February 1940 , Generalmajor Erwin Rommel arrived to take command of the division .
Mickl remained in charge of the 42nd Panzerjäger Battalion during the invasion . He got along well with Rommel , and his battalion fought well but suffered serious casualties during the Battle of Arras on 21 May while trying to stop the heavily armoured tanks of the British 1st Army Tank Brigade with its 37 mm anti @-@ tank guns . His soldiers derided their guns as Panzeranklopfgerät ( tank @-@ door knocker ) , due to their failure to penetrate the British Matilda I and Matilda II tanks . Mickl 's battalion tried to protect the exposed flank of the division , but was overrun . The situation was saved by anti @-@ aircraft guns and field artillery which were able to knock out the British tanks with direct fire .
Rommel received reports of Mickl 's personal courage during the battle , and recognised aspects of his subordinate 's leadership style that mirrored his own . On 1 June , he promoted Mickl to Oberst and on 21 June awarded him the Iron Cross 1st Class . After the French surrender , Mickl was attached to the division 's 25th Panzer Regiment to gain more knowledge about armoured tactics , and on 10 December 1940 was appointed to command the 7th Rifle Regiment of the division . Rommel did not remain with the division long , being transferred to command the Afrika Corps . He was replaced by Generalmajor Hans Freiherr von Funck , with whom Mickl had some difficulty working . Mickl remained in command of the 7th Rifle Regiment during occupation duties in southwestern France , redeployment to Germany , and during the division 's preparation for the invasion of the Soviet Union . In May 1941 , through the intervention of Rommel 's adjutant Major Hans @-@ Joachim Schraepler , Mickl was posted to a new role in Germany , raising the headquarters of the 155th Rifle Regiment for service in North Africa . Despite the difference in age and rank , Mickl , Schraepler and their wives had become firm friends . The 155th Rifle Regiment was to be a motorised formation of three battalions , one drawn from each of the 106th , 112th and 113th Infantry Divisions .
= = = North Africa = = =
In August 1941 , Panzergruppe Afrika was raised , and the newly promoted General der Panzertruppe Rommel was placed in command . The Afrikakorps was handed over to Generalleutnant Ludwig Crüwell . Soon after , Mickl followed the battalions of his regiment to North Africa , arriving there in early September 1941 . He found them to be under @-@ equipped , having been furnished with only a few vehicles and only two 37 mm anti @-@ tank guns per battalion . He considered that this would be sufficient for an attack on defensive positions , but completely inadequate for mobile operations . On 6 September , his regiment joined the Siege of Tobruk taking up positions at Ras el Mdauuar until the end of October , when it became part of the composite Afrika ( Special Purpose ) Division and prepared for an attack on the fortress . When a strong British reconnaissance force was reported far to the south , moving west from the Egyptian border at Sidi Omar , Mickl was placed in command of a kampfgruppe which was sent to meet the British . The force consisted of Mickl 's regiment , along with the 361st Afrika Regiment and the 605th Panzerjäger Battalion . The Afrika Regiment had only just arrived in theatre , and had no heavy weapons , insufficient ammunition and almost no vehicles .
By the following day , Mickl 's kampfgruppe was deployed on the high ground on either side of the airfield at Sidi Rezegh . That afternoon , British armoured cars and tanks appeared , and Mickl 's force was hard @-@ pressed to hold its positions barring the British approach to Tobruk from the south and south @-@ east , as little tank support was available . In the face of a superior force , Mickl 's kampfgruppe fought hard in what became known as the Battle of Sidi Rezegh , with their commander often forward rallying his troops , and in the thick of counter @-@ attacks launched to regain ground . Mickl and around 800 of his troops were captured by elements of the New Zealand Division on 26 November 1941 , the captured troops being mainly from the Afrika Regiment .
After two days under guard at a temporary collection point , Mickl observed elements of the 15th Panzer Division travelling on the Trigh Capuzzo ( Capuzzo Track ) , returning from their sortie against the rear of the British assault . The prisoners of war were surrounded by a largely " symbolic " barbed wire fence , and in addition to the small guard force , the makeshift camp was surrounded by scattered British headquarters and logistic units . Mickl approached the officer in charge , who was watching the progress of the German tanks through binoculars , and knocked him to the ground . Seeing this , the German soldiers subdued the guards and took off on foot towards the nearby German column . Taking the keys to a vehicle , Mickl drove towards the distant German tanks to warn them of his approaching men . Rommel 's staff were soon apprised of Mickl 's actions by Crüwell . The British soon lifted the siege , and Mickl 's regiment acted as rearguard during the withdrawal of Axis forces to El Agheila , where on 11 December , his previously 2 @,@ 000 @-@ strong regiment could only muster seven officers and 492 men . During the withdrawal , his ally and friend Schraepler was killed in a vehicle accident .
When the commander of the newly renamed 90th Light Afrika Division , Generalmajor Max Sümmermann , was killed in an Allied air raid on 10 December 1941 , Mickl was appointed to temporarily command the division . During December , Mickl was wounded in the head and hand , but remained at his post . Rommel recommended Mickl for the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross , for his leadership at Sidi Rezegh , and it was duly awarded on 13 December 1941 . The harsh conditions of desert warfare had begun to affect Mickl 's health , so at the end of December he was sent home on convalescent leave .
= = = Eastern Front = = =
= = = = 12th Rifle Brigade = = = =
On 25 March 1942 , Mickl was appointed to command the 12th Rifle Brigade of Generalmajor Walter Wessel 's 12th Panzer Division on the Eastern Front . The division was the main reserve formation of Army Group North , and when Mickl joined his brigade headquarters it was located on the coast near Narva west of Leningrad . The 12th Rifle Brigade consisted of the 5th and 25th Motorised Infantry Regiments . As a subordinate formation of General der Kavallerie Georg Lindemann 's 18th Army , during the Red Army Winter Campaign of 1941 – 42 it had fought on the Volkhov Front , during which the Lyuban Offensive Operation had penetrated deep into its area of operations in an attempt to relieve Leningrad . When Mickl arrived to take command , elements of his command were fighting as part of a total of twenty 18th Army kampfgruppen engaged in encircling and destroying cut @-@ off Soviet units . It was not until May that Mickl was able to start gather his brigade together . At the end of June , Mickl was still collecting and re @-@ organising his brigade when he received news that his son Manfred had been seriously wounded in the leg during the Axis capture of Tobruk . Manfred was a Leutnant in the Pioneers , and had already been decorated with the Iron Cross 1st Class .
By 17 July , the 12th Panzer Division was finally concentrating near Mga , 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) south @-@ east of Leningrad , and Mickl 's brigade was reclassified as a Panzergrenadier brigade . Mickl found this change mildly amusing , noting that his transport consisted mainly of peasant carts and train carriages . He nevertheless attacked the task of retraining his regiments and battalions with vigour , conducting a series of tank @-@ infantry co @-@ operation exercises . Between 25 August and 16 September , Mickl visited Manfred in hospital in Naples while on leave , but he returned to find that his brigade had again been parceled out in kampfgruppen used as " fire brigades " along the Neva River . Frustrated , he complained that he and his staff did not appear to have a purpose , as they were usually bypassed by the division commander and staff . It was not until 17 October that he was able to collect his scattered troops and arrange for them to be transported south to an area west of Nevel near the boundary with Army Group Centre . By this time , it had become apparent that Mickl 's brigade headquarters was being not employed as originally intended , and along with the brigade staff of all Panzer divisions , it was disestablished .
= = = = 25th Panzergrenadier Regiment = = = =
Without a command , Mickl remained with the 12th Panzer Division , taking over the 25th Panzergrenadier Regiment , whose commander had fallen ill . In the new area , Mickl concentrated on training and getting to know his men , before conducting an anti @-@ partisan operation named Affenkäfig ( Monkey Cage ) between 11 and 14 November 1942 . Lacking experience in counter @-@ insurgency , the regiment achieved little . Mickl then concentrated his troops ' efforts on securing winter quarters and building shelters for the regiment 's vehicles . On the frontlines , 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) east of Nevel , Soviet forces were threatening to break through around the Rzhev salient and encircle the German 9th Army , and on 21 November the 12th Panzer Division received orders to march for the front . The march east , undertaken in freezing conditions and heavy snow , was very difficult . The men lit small stoves in the rear of the trucks to keep warm , and often had to clear the snow @-@ clogged roads with shovels .
Initially they were ordered to Roslavl , south @-@ east of Smolensk , but this was soon changed to Yelnya , east of Smolensk . When they reached Smolensk , they marched on through Yartsevo to Safonovo before being ordered to turn north towards Bely to help stop a Soviet breakthrough south of Rzhev . At the head of the division , the 25th Panzergrenadier Regiment attacked off the route of march towards elements of the 1st Panzer Division holding out around the village of Komary . The fighting continued in snowstorms and extreme cold until 16 December , with Mickl forward directing the battle , which ended with the destruction of eight Soviet tank and rifle brigades in the Bely area . After a few days rest , on 23 December Mickl 's regiment marched to the north @-@ east of Bely to stop Soviet forces moving into the Luchesa river valley . In the difficult terrain and weather conditions , the regiment was exhausted from constant fighting over hamlets that often changed hands . On 30 December , the fighting escalated as the Red Army forces in the sector were reinforced , and Mickl 's II Battalion was forced to temporarily withdraw into the surrounding forest . Fierce fighting continued until the 12th Panzer Division was detached at short notice on 14 January 1943 , but not before the divisional staff had reported Mickl 's brave leadership in the fighting to the Oberkommando des Heeres ( German Army High Command ) . On 16 January 1943 , the division was on the move , this time headed north @-@ west to Velikiye Luki , but its move to the front was countermanded .
= = = = Führerreserve = = = =
On 26 January 1943 , Mickl received orders to report to Berlin on 2 February , although Wessel was reluctant to lose his outstanding regimental commander . In a formal assessment on 20 November 1942 , Wessel had assessed Mickl as having the aptitude to command a Panzer division , and he supplemented this on 28 January , extolling his " almost unparalleled bravery and boldness " in command of the 25th Panzergrenadier Regiment . On 30 January , Mickl arrived in Gera on leave to visit his wife Helene , and spent the next three months in the Army Headquarters officers ' reserve pool ( German : Oberkommando des Heeres Führerreserve ' ) .
On 1 March he was promoted to Generalmajor , and five days later he became the 205th recipient of the Oak Leaves to the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross , in recognition of his outstanding commitment as the commander of the 25th Panzergrenadier Regiment during winter 1942 – 43 . Of modest habits , Mickl had rarely worn the Knight 's Cross itself , usually wearing only the ribbon around his neck , and now he merely added the Oak Leaves device to the ribbon . During his time in the Führerreserve , he also had the opportunity to meet with his mentor Rommel , now a Generalfeldmarschall , and he also attended a course for divisional commanders , which he referred to as a " fool 's course " . In early May , Mickl was summoned to Berlin and advised that he was to be entrusted with the command of the 11th Panzer Division during the absence of Generalleutnant Dietrich von Choltitz , who had been suffering with heart problems . Despite the good news of being appointed to a divisional command , Mickl expressed his disappointment that he was being allocated a division in need of re @-@ organisation , rather than a fully equipped and full @-@ strength modern division .
= = = = 11th Panzer Division = = = =
When Mickl took command , the 11th Panzer Division had not yet finished rebuilding after suffering serious losses during the attempted relief of Stalingrad in December 1942 and during the Third Battle of Kharkov in February and March 1943 . The 11th Panzer Division formed part of General der Panzertruppe Otto von Knobelsdorff 's XLVIII Panzer Corps under the operation control of Generaloberst Hermann Hoth 's 4th Panzer Army , which was itself a component of Generalfeldmarschall Erich von Manstein 's Army Group South . Prior to the launching of Operation Citadel targeting the Soviet salient at Kursk , the XLVIII Panzer Corps was quartered southwest of a line between Bohodukhov and Akhtyrka .
For the main assault , Army Group South was the southern pincer of a manoevre aimed at cutting off all Red Army forces within the Kursk salient . It was to attack north out of the areas west of Belgorod , and link up with Generalfeldmarschall Günther von Kluge 's Army Group Centre , which was to attack south from the Orel region . On the afternoon of 4 July , the 4th Panzer Army successfully conducted a preliminary operation to breach minefields and secure the heights overlooking the nearly 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) deep Soviet defensive positions near Kursk , which were essentially a series of staggered defensive positions and minefields reinforced with anti @-@ tank weapons .
Mickl 's division achieved its objectives during the preliminary operation , and commenced its main assault at 06 : 00 on 5 July . The 11th Panzer Division advanced on the right flank of the XLVIII Panzer Corps , and on the left of the powerful Panzergrenadier Division Großdeutschland . Its progress was hampered by minimal air support , difficult terrain and constant Soviet counterattacks . Fighting alongside a Panzerkampfgruppe of the Großdeutschland Division led by Oberst Theodor Graf Schimmelmann von Lindenburg , it had captured the heavily fortified village of Cherkasskoye . By the evening of 6 July , XLVIII Panzer Corps had breached the first belt of the formidable Soviet defences , and Mickl 's division had reached the Pena river north and northeast of Cherkasskoye . This was 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) short of the objective Hoth had set for 6 July , the bridge over the Psel River at Oboyan .
XLVIII Panzer Corps regrouped during the night of 6 / 7 July , and the 11th Panzer Division continued its advance towards Oboyan on 7 July , alongside the Großdeutschland Division . Over the next few days , the two divisions overcame resistance from a series of Soviet strongpoints , along with their desperate counterattacks . By 10 July they had reached a position east of the Kursk @-@ Kharkov road , on the heights 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) south of Oboyan , having defeated advanced elements of the Soviet 10th Tank Corps . At this point the previously rough terrain opened up , and with the aid of binoculars the men of the division could see the vast plain behind Oboyan in which the two pincers of Operation Citadel were planned to meet . But the northern pincer had been stalled north of Kursk in heavy fighting , and the 11th Panzer Division had gained the most northern penetration into the Soviet salient achieved by Army Group South during the operation .
Twice in the next few days , XLVIII Panzer Corps attempted to punch through the Soviet defences to the north , while to the east the II SS Panzer Corps and German Army Detachment Kempf fought the tanks of the Soviet Steppe Front . The 11th Panzer Division was then ordered to attack towards the upper reaches of the Psel , some 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) to the east , followed by the Großdeutschland Division once it had captured Oboyan . The two divisions were then to link up with the II SS Panzer Corps and defeat the Soviet forces concentrated around Prokhorovka . On 17 July , these orders were cancelled , and over the next week , Mickl 's division fought defensive battles against the Red Army , and conflict arose with his subordinate commanders and his key staff , who did not support his style of leadership , which was modelled on that of his mentor Rommel . For nearly that whole week , Mickl 's division bore the brunt of the Soviet attacks on the XLVIII Panzer Corps .
On 21 July , Mickl wrote a letter in which he stated that he wished to again be a battalion or regimental commander , so as to not have to deal with such a large frontline . That day he had been told that the next day he should expect Choltitz to return and take over command , but instead he spent a further three weeks commanding the 11th Panzer Division in heavy fighting against Soviet attacks . Finally , on 12 August he received a message advising that he was to be relieved by Generalmajor Wend von Wietersheim , who arrived that same day . Four days later , Mickl returned to Gera , disappointed and resentful about the demotion , as he felt that he had made a good enough impression during the fighting to be retained as commander of the division . The reason behind his relief is unclear . His performance commanding the division had not been markedly worse than comparable divisional commanders during the preceding battles , and it is possible that Wehrmacht or Army Headquarters had decided Mickl was better suited to fighting insurgents in his native Balkans , especially given his fluency in several local languages .
= = = Yugoslavia = = =
= = = = A new division = = = =
After three weeks leave , Mickl was sent to Austria to train and command the 392nd ( Croatian ) Infantry Division . He was appointed to this command on 13 August 1943 , and according to his biographers Richter and Kobe , he must have been aware of this eventuality when he was appointed to temporarily command the 11th Panzer Division earlier that year , although he never got over his disappointment at not being given permanent command of a Panzer division . Commencing from 17 August , the 392nd was assembled and trained in Austria as the third and last Croatian division raised for service in the Wehrmacht , following its sister divisions the 369th and the 373rd . One infantry regiment and the divisional artillery regiment formed in Döllersheim , the other infantry regiment in Zwettl , the signals battalion in Stockerau and the pioneer battalion in Krems . It was built around a cadre of 3 @,@ 500 German officers , NCOs and specialists , and 8 @,@ 500 soldiers of the Croatian Home Guard , the regular army of the Independent State of Croatia ( Croatian : Nezavisna Država Hrvatska , NDH ) . The former Home Guard troops included a few young officers and NCOs , but the division was commanded by Germans down to battalion and even company level in nearly all cases , and was commonly referred to as a " legionnaire division " . The division wore Wehrmacht uniform with the shield chequy argent et gules of the NDH on the upper right sleeve and right side of the steel helmet . Although originally intended for use on the Eastern Front , not long after its formation the Germans decided that the division would not be utilised outside the NDH . Richter and Kobe observed that , given his experience and fluency in Balkan languages , no @-@ one would have been more suitable to command the division than Mickl . Mickl had four months to whip the division into shape , and ensure that it was equipped , staffed and resourced to do the tasks that lay ahead . Soon the Croatian soldiers became familiar with the tall frame of their commander , whose Austro @-@ Hungarian decorations were familiar to them , but who also wore the Oakleaves and spoke their language . During the training , Mickl once remarked to the assembled officers :
" Gentlemen , I know that you have been discussing whether or not we can still win this war . All of you have fought on several fronts and some have come from the battlefields of Russia . It should therefore be clear to you that there will be no victory for us . But I will not tolerate such discussions . Most of us are career officers . When we joined , no @-@ one guaranteed that we would win any war . We fight not only when victory is guaranteed , but we do our duty and fight where we are , even if that means our inevitable doom . To fight on without a chance of victory is not pointless , because it serves to avert as much damage as possible to Germany . Preventing the advance of Tito 's communist @-@ oriented partisans to the north is part of this struggle .
These comments were extremely dangerous , as Mickl did not know all his officers or their allegiances , and many officers and men had been court @-@ martialled and shot for similar pronouncements that revealed the speaker did not believe in " ultimate victory " . Mickl recognised the difficulties he faced , with " volunteers " who were really conscripts , and the Croats ' allegiance divided between the Ustaše regime and the Partisans . As a young officer in World War I , Mickl had commanded Croatian soldiers , and knew them to be brave fighters . In that war , Croats had served in a multi @-@ ethnic army under Austrian officers , and they all spoke German well enough to understand and be understood . In contrast , his new command consisted of Croatian soldiers who hardly understood German , and whose patriotism could not be assumed . Mickl saw that instilling German discipline and standards was a second order of business , and that the main role of his officers was to " awaken and maintain their will to fight " . Despite an understaffed headquarters , he was fortunate to have Hauptmann der Reserve Bransch as the commander of the divisional reconnaissance battalion . Bransch had served with Mickl since Africa . Mickl decided that he needed a reliable , proven officer as his divisional chief of operations , so he arranged for Bransch to be promoted to Major , and appointed him to lead his operations staff . However , a few days later , Major im Generalstab Gerd Kobe arrived fresh from the Eastern Front . Kobe had served in the operations departments at both corps and army @-@ level , and had experience in working for brave but difficult commanders .
Kobe 's introduction to Mickl was abrupt , as the general was very angry at having been left without a chief of operations for so long . Mickl encapsulated his approach to command in this way :
My place is with the guns ! You will maintain the division for me . From time to time we will speak by telephone or radio . If we have an understanding on this , everything will be good . If not , then you will have to go .
Mickl 's first order to Kobe was to contact the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem , Haj Amin al @-@ Husseini , who lived in Berlin , to request an imam for the division , as the division included a company of infantry and a battery of artillery staffed by Bosnian Muslims . Soon after Kobe arrived , Mickl departed on leave for the Christmas and New Year period , leaving Kobe to arrange the rail transport of the division to its initial deployment area , 50 km ( 31 mi ) southwest of Zagreb .
= = = = Initial clearing operations = = = =
The division was deployed to the NDH by rail between 5 and 10 January 1944 , to combat the Partisans in the western parts of the puppet state . It became known as the " Blue Division " ( German : Blaue Division , Croatian : Plava divizija ) , as its first deployment was within view of the Adriatic . Mickl 's task was well known to the Partisans , and focused on securing the Adriatic coastline along the Croatian Littoral between Rijeka and Karlobag ( including all islands except Krk ) and about 60 km ( 37 mi ) inland . This task included securing the crucial supply route between Karlovac and Senj . These areas , and in particular the port of Senj , had been largely dominated by the Partisans since the Italian capitulation in autumn 1943 . Mickl 's division was placed under the command of the XV Mountain Corps as part of the 2nd Panzer Army , with its headquarters to be established in Karlovac . The division was also to take over responsibility for the security of the Zagreb – Karlovac railway line from the 1st Cossack Division . Before the division had completed detraining at Zagreb , its lead elements had been pressed into service to clear the Partisans from the nearby village of Žumberak .
When Mickl arrived by train in Zagreb on 12 January , Kobe met him at the station and informed him that he was ready for Mickl to decide the time that an attack against Partisan forces besieging the NDH garrison at Ogulin near Karlovac should be launched . In response , Mickl grinned and shook Kobe 's hand , and according to Kobe , " the spell was broken " , and from that time on , Mickl and his chief of operations had a very good working relationship . The operation involved a drive southwest from Karlovac between 13 and 16 January 1944 initially led by the 847th Infantry Regiment . In their first engagements with the Partisan 8th Division , the Croatian soldiers panicked and their German leaders were quickly wounded or killed , but Mickl went forward and ensured that his troops pressed home their attacks . On 16 January , Ogulin was relieved , but the advance was continued south to Skradnik , and villages in that area were also secured . When the bodies of those that had been killed were recovered , they were often found stripped of equipment and some were even found naked . This success in their first operation gave the inexperienced Croat soldiers greater confidence in themselves and their commanders .
This was followed by Operation Drežnica , a push through to the coast , forcing passes through the Velika Kapela mountain range , part of the Dinaric Alps . Both passes were more than 750 metres ( 2 @,@ 460 ft ) above sea level and the snow was often knee or thigh @-@ deep . Delayed by mines and roadblocks , the division captured the Kapela and Vratnik passes with Mickl ensuring that his troops worked carefully in order to minimise casualties . After the first few days of fighting , XV Mountain Corps and 2nd Panzer Army began to urge Mickl to advance faster , but he resisted this , knowing that his division was inexperienced . This was followed by a series of engagements along the road to the coast , and after some close quarter fighting with the Partisan 13th Division , they captured and destroyed most of that division 's supply dump northwest of Lokve and secured Senj . The 847th Infantry Regiment was then allocated the task of securing the coastline up the coast as far as Bakar , and southward to the village of Jablanac , and the 846th Infantry Regiment was directed to secure the divisional supply route from Senj to Generalski Stol . They started improving bases along the road , including Italian forts that had been established in the Kapela and Vratnik passes . The 847th Infantry Regiment then spread out along the coastline between Karlobag and Crikvenica , and supported by elements of the divisional artillery and pioneers they began building fortifications against a feared Allied invasion . The troops in Karlobag linked up with the 264th Infantry Division who were responsible for the coast further to the southeast . The supply situation quickly became difficult due to Partisan interdiction of the route from Karlovac , and Allied bombing of coastal shipping and Senj harbour .
= = = = Fighting during 1944 = = = =
In late February or early March the 847th Infantry Regiment , supported by an Ustaše battalion , advanced on Plaški ( south of Ogulin ) when they were stopped by deep snow . Partisans then attacked their supply lines , killing 30 soldiers . Some of the bodies of the dead soldiers were looted or mutilated . After Plaški was captured , the Ustaše battalion independently pursued the Partisans and returned to Plaški with many of the looted items . In March , the 847th Regiment occupied the Adriatic islands of Rab and Pag without encountering any Partisan resistance . In the same month , the 846th Regiment conducted an operation in the Gacka river valley around Otočac , and assisted the Croatian Home Guard in enforcing conscription orders on their own population in the divisional area . Through the spring of 1944 , the 846th Regiment used jadgkommandos , lightly armed and mobile " hunter teams " of company or battalion strength , to conduct follow @-@ up of sightings of Partisans , and transport moving through the Kapela Pass had to travel in convoy for security . The division was able to restore a land connection with the NDH garrison of Gospić which had been reliant on supply from the sea since the Italian surrender , and drove three Partisan battalions out of the outskirts of Otočac . One of the difficulties faced by the division in fighting in the mountains was the lack of mountain artillery which could accompany the battalions in the field . The divisional artillery was equipped with field howitzers with a range of 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) which seriously limited the artillery cover that could be provided during mobile operations .
In March , the 847th Regiment occupied the Adriatic islands of Rab and Pag without encountering any Partisan resistance . In the same month , the 846th Regiment conducted an operation in the Gacka river valley around Otočac , and assisted the Croatian Home Guard in enforcing conscription orders on their own population in the divisional area . Through the spring of 1944 , the 846th Regiment used jadgkommandos , lightly armed and mobile " hunter teams " of company or battalion strength , to conduct follow @-@ up of sightings of Partisans , and transport moving through the Kapela Pass had to travel in convoy for security . The division was able to restore a land connection with the NDH garrison of Gospić which had been reliant on supply from the sea since the Italian surrender , and drove three Partisan battalions out of the outskirts of Otočac . One of the difficulties faced by the division in fighting in the mountains was the lack of mountain artillery which could accompany the battalions in the field . The divisional artillery was equipped with field howitzers with a range of 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) which seriously limited the artillery cover that could be provided during mobile operations .
On 1 April 1944 , Mickl was promoted to Generalleutnant . He identified that the Partisan 13th Division was using the Drežnica valley as a huge armoury , hiding captured Italian arms and ammunition in villages , basements , and even in fake graves in cemeteries . This was of major concern if the feared Allied landing eventuated . In mid @-@ April , Mickl ordered Operation Keulenschlag ( Mace Blow ) to clear the area , using the 846th Infantry Regiment and parts of the 847th Infantry Regiment , supported by the divisional artillery and flak battalion . Over the next two weeks , the division pushed the Partisan 13th Division north to the area of Mrkopalj and Delnice , and captured sufficient material to equip two divisions , including 30 tons of small arms ammunition and 15 tons of artillery ammunition .
The Partisan 35th Division attacked from the Plitvice Lakes area on 5 May and captured the village of Ramljane . Partisans also interdicted the Otočac @-@ Gospić road . In response , Mickl planned Operation Morgenstern ( Morning Star ) to clear Partisan forces from the Krbavsko Polje region around Udbina . From 7 to 16 May 1944 , along with elements of the 373rd ( Croatian ) Infantry Division , the 92nd Motorised Regiment , a battalion of the 1st Regiment of the Brandenburg Division , and Ustaše units , were involved in Operation Morgenstern . According to German sources , Operation Morgenstern resulted in significant Partisan losses , including 438 killed , 56 captured , and 18 defectors , as well as capturing weapons , ammunition , vehicles , animals and large amounts of equipment . For its efforts in this operation , the division received its first mention in the Wehrmachtbericht ( armed forces daily radio broadcast ) . Also in May , the division received 500 German reinforcements , and formed a field replacement battalion .
The population of some areas secured by the division had a high proportion of Serbs , a situation that had arisen when the area was part of the Military Frontier between the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire . Once the division had secured its area of responsibility , it became clear to the members of the division that a fratricidal war had been raging between Croats and Serbs . Both Roman Catholic and Serbian Orthodox churches had been destroyed , and elements of the division would observe smoke in the valleys occupied by Serbs , and upon investigation , would find burned houses and dead and wounded Serb civilians . Mickl was indignant about these attacks , and summoned all the Croatian civil and military leadership in the divisional area to his headquarters . In the meantime , he ordered two battalions of the division away from their positions on the eastern side of Otočac . When the Croatian officials arrived at his headquarters , they protested that he had exposed Otočac to attack . Incensed , Mickl shouted at them , " Are you officers and soldiers , or robbers and murderers ? " , and threatened to withdraw the whole division to the coast , leaving the whole area undefended . The Croatian functionaries swore that the perpetrators of the attacks had been punished and that they would ensure that they would not occur in future . Nevertheless , Mickl kept garrisons in the Serb @-@ populated valleys for many weeks in order to protect the Serbs from their Croat neighbours .
The division saw action against the Partisans until the end of the war , often fighting alongside a grouping of Ustaše units that numbered up to 12 @,@ 000 troops .
= = Death and legacy = =
During the last few months of the war , the division was engaged in the defence of the northern Adriatic coast and Lika . On 8 April 1945 , the city of Senj fell to the Partisans . The following day , during desperate fighting to control the Vratnik pass through the mountains from Senj to Brinje , Mickl personally took part in the fighting and was shot in the head around noon . He was transported to hospital in Rijeka on a tank , but died the following day .
Oberstleutnant Kobe , the chief operations officer of the 392nd Division , described Mickl as " a giant in stature , lean and muscular despite his 50 years " , a very demanding commander who was also very demanding of himself . Kobe stated that Mickl was frequently at the forefront of the fighting , carrying a Gewehr 43 carbine . In 1967 , the Austrian Armed Forces barracks ( Mickl @-@ Kaserne ) in Bad Radkersburg were named after him , and they were used continuously by the Austrian Armed Forces for 44 years until 30 September 2008 .
= = Promotions = =
Leutnant – 1 August 1914
Oberleutnant – 1 May 1915
Hauptmann – 1921
Major – 1928
Oberstleutnant – 16 January 1936
Oberst – 1 June 1940
Generalmajor – 1 March 1943
Generalleutnant – 1 April 1944
= = Awards and decorations = =
= = = Austria @-@ Hungary = = =
Military Merit Cross 3rd Class ( 16 October 1915 )
Order of the Iron Crown 3rd Class ( 22 March 1916 )
Military Merit Medal for Bravery
in Bronze ( 26 August 1916 )
1st in Silver ( 20 January 1917 )
2nd in Silver ( 24 January 1918 )
Karl Troop Cross ( 8 September 1917 )
Wound Medal with 5 Stripes ( 10 March 1918 )
= = = Carinthia = = =
Common Carinthian Cross for Bravery ( 5 December 1919 )
Special Carinthian Cross for Bravery ( 3 April 1920 )
= = = Federal State of Austria = = =
Medal of Merit in Gold ( 7 October 1934 )
= = = Third Reich = = =
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 1 October 1939 )
1st Class ( 15 June 1940 )
Panzer Badge in Bronze ( 24 September 1940 )
Wound Badge in Black ( 25 December 1941 )
Infantry Assault Badge ( 22 July 1942 )
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves
Knight 's Cross on 13 December 1941 as Oberst and commander of Schützen @-@ Regiment 155
205th Oak Leaves on 6 March 1943 as Oberst and commander of Panzergrenadier @-@ Regiment 25
= Ambrose Channel pilot cable =
The Ambrose Channel pilot cable , also called the Ambrose Channel leader cable , was a cable laid in Ambrose Channel at the entrance to the Port of New York and New Jersey that provided an audio tone for guiding ships in and out of port at times of low visibility . The cable was laid during 1919 and 1920 ; it had been removed from the Channel and replaced by wireless technology by the end of the 1920s .
= = Background = =
Ambrose Channel is the main shipping channel in and out of the Port of New York and New Jersey , making it the only means of accessing an important commercial port . Delays posed a major problem for shipping en route to New York City , and bad weather could close the Channel for days . Ships were forced to wait at the Harbor 's entrance for conditions to clear . These delays cost shipping companies substantial amounts of money , with each ship costing between $ 500 and $ 4000 per hour it was stopped ( roughly $ 5 @,@ 700 to $ 46 @,@ 000 in 2013 dollars ) .
= = Description and operation = =
The Ambrose leader cable was an armored cable with a single internal conductor ( see picture ) that acted like a long radio antenna laid on the Channel floor . It originated at Fort Lafayette ( near the present day Verrazano @-@ Narrows Bridge ) , then extended 16 miles down the Ambrose Channel to the vicinity of Lightship Ambrose offshore . It was powered by a generator at Fort Lafayette that produced 500 Hz ( cycles per second ) current at 400 volts , resulting in an alternating electromagnetic field along the length of the cable that could be detected to approximately a thousand yards away . The current was mechanically keyed to send the word " NAVY " in Morse Code .
A ship received by a pair of induction coils hung on opposite sides of the ship , and fed through an amplifier into a headset ( see diagram , below ) . By switching between coils , the relative strength of the signal on each side could be compared . The ship maintained a course parallel to the cable by maneuvering to keep the signal strength constant .
= = Research and development = =
The pilot cable required a series of prior discoveries and inventions . In 1882 , A. R. Sennett patented the use of a submerged electrical cable to communicate with a ship at a fixed location . Around the same time Charles Stevenson patented a means of navigating ships over an electrically charge cable using a galvanometer . The method became practical when Earl Hanson adapted early vacuum tube circuits to amplify the signal .
Robert H. Marriott was a radio pioneer employed by the Navy in Puget Sound , where he conducted early experiments with underwater pilot cables . His results were sufficiently promising that he recommended further development to Commander Stanford C. Hooper . In October , 1919 Commander Hooper instructed A. Crossley , an expert radio aid , to develop and test the concept on a larger scale at the New London Naval Base . Crossley installed a longer version of the cable that Marriott had designed . He used a wooden hulled launch for the first round of tests before moving to a steel @-@ hulled submarine for later tests . Both types of vessel picked up the signal and followed the underwater test cable without problem .
= = Installation and testing = =
Following the successful tests at New London , the Navy proceeded to large scale testing in Ambrose Channel late in 1919 . The minelayer Ord laid a pilot cable composed of 2 @,@ 000 feet of leaded and armored cable , 2 @,@ 000 feet of leaded cable , and 83 @,@ 000 feet of standard rubber @-@ insulated cable . The USS O 'Brien was fitted with receiving equipment and attempted to follow the cable out of the Channel . Unfortunately , it was unable to detect a signal past the 1 @,@ 000 foot mark , where a break in the cable prevented the signal from continuing . The break in the cable was repaired , but over the course of the winter of 1919 @-@ 1920 , crews found that the cable had broken in a total of fifty @-@ two different places due to the strain placed on it while it was being laid . The damage was irreparable . Going back to the drawing board , engineers tested 150 @-@ foot segments of three different types of cable and used the results to design a new full @-@ size pilot cable . The Navy ordered 87 @,@ 000 feet of cable from the Simplex Wire and Cable Company in Boston .
Once complete , the cable was loaded onto the USS Pequot in the Boston Navy Yard . The ship arrived in New York on July 31 , 1920 . Ambrose Channel was already crossed by three telegraph cables owned respectively by Western Union , the Army , and the police , all of which had to be raised to the surface so the pilot cable could be laid underneath them . The installation of the cable was completed on August 6 , 1920 , and by August 28 , electrical tests showed that both the sending and receiving circuits were functioning properly . The Navy tested the cable using the seagoing tug USS Algorma . It then invited " representatives of various radio companies , shipping interests , pilots ' associations , governmental bureaus , naval attaches , and others " for a public demonstration on board the destroyer USS Semmes from October 6 through October 9 . The ship 's windows were covered with canvas and the captains took turns navigating using only the audio cues from the cable .
The cable was well received . Even before the New London tests , the Washington Post called it " the greatest development in marine travel since the invention of the steam turbine " and the Los Angeles Times declared the technology to be " one of the greatest peacetime gifts that science has devised . " Once operational , the latter newspaper called it " the greatest safeguard devised for shipping in modern history " . According to a 1921 trade magazine , leader cables had five functions : " to enable a ship to make a good landfall in thick weather , to lead a ship up the harbor , to lead a ship from open water through a restricted channel to open water on the far side , to give warning of outlying dangers , and to assist a vessel to keep a straight course from port to port and thus save fuel . " In 1922 , the publication Radio World stated that the cable 's first two years of operation had been successful . Also in 1922 , Radio Broadcast boasted about the money saved by the cable as well as the ease of using it . The cable itself was paid for using public funds , but it was the responsibility of ship owners to outfit their vessels with receiving equipment . Installation of the cable cost roughly $ 50 @,@ 000 and the listening apparatus installed on each ship using the channel cost $ 1 @,@ 200 , compared with hourly costs of delays that ranged from $ 500 to $ 4 @,@ 000 . Radio Broadcast expressed the belief that navigation cables would become common for both ships and aircraft : " ... there is a future for the audio cable ... Its fullest usefulness at American ports and elsewhere waits , however , on that large appreciation of radio devices for sea as well as air navigation which pilots , both on the sea and in the air , expect , but do not as yet demand . "
= = Obsolescence and legacy = =
Despite the media hype described above , it appears that the Ambrose Channel pilot cable never met with large scale commercial success . Initially , some contemporaries of the cable proposed that it be extended several miles past the Ambrose light . Such plans never came to fruition , as advances in technology rendered the pilot cable obsolete . By 1929 the Baltimore Sun reported ships navigating the Channel blindly without making any reference to the cable . In that year , Marriott publicly complained that navigation cables still had unrealized potential for guiding ships . Leader cable systems appear to have been obsoleted by the refinement of radio direction finding and the placement of radio beacons ( low @-@ power radios broadcasting an identifiable signal ) at strategic locations . They are analogous to lighthouses , but can be " seen " in all weather , and are used for navigation in the same way as regular lighthouses . The first successful application of these radio beacons as " radio fog signals " were three stations installed near New York in 1921 . In 1924 , there were eleven stations in operation in the United States and nearly three hundred ships suitably equipped . By 1930 , an article in the Journal of the Royal Society of Arts declared that " wireless aids and echo sounding have superseded [ the leader cable ] " . Today , more modern navigation tools such as radar , GPS , and lighted buoys help ships navigate Ambrose Channel .
Writing for Popular Mechanics , one of the key players in designing the Ambrose Channel cable viewed it as a step toward applying radio cable technology in vast swaths of everyday life , including guiding aircraft and navigating and powering automobiles . The Ambrose Channel cable was removed from the Channel and used in testing an early system of autolanding . The cable found no more success in that role than it did in guiding ships . The Blind Landing Experimental Unit later tried a similar system briefly before also abandoning it in favor of wireless .
= Thunderball ( film ) =
Thunderball ( 1965 ) is the fourth spy film in the James Bond series starring Sean Connery as the fictional MI6 agent James Bond . It is an adaptation of the novel of the same name by Ian Fleming , which in turn was based on an original screenplay by Jack Whittingham . It was directed by Terence Young with its screenplay by Richard Maibaum and John Hopkins .
The film follows Bond 's mission to find two NATO atomic bombs stolen by SPECTRE , which holds the world to ransom for £ 100 million in diamonds , in exchange for not destroying an unspecified major city in either England or the United States ( later revealed to be Miami ) . The search leads Bond to the Bahamas , where he encounters Emilio Largo , the card @-@ playing , eye patch @-@ wearing SPECTRE Number Two . Backed by CIA agent Felix Leiter and Largo 's mistress , Domino Derval , Bond 's search culminates in an underwater battle with Largo 's henchmen . The film had a complex production , with four different units and about a quarter of the film consisting of underwater scenes . Thunderball was the first Bond film shot in widescreen Panavision and the first to have running time of over two hours .
Thunderball was associated with a legal dispute in 1961 when former Ian Fleming collaborators Kevin McClory and Jack Whittingham sued him shortly after the 1961 publication of the novel , claiming he based it upon the screenplay the trio had earlier written in a failed cinematic translation of James Bond . The lawsuit was settled out of court and Bond film series producers Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman , fearing a rival McClory film , allowed him to retain certain screen rights to the novel 's story , plot , and characters , and for McClory to receive sole producer credit on this film ; Broccoli and Salzman were instead credited as Executive Producers .
The film was a success , earning a total of $ 141 @.@ 2 million worldwide , exceeding the earnings of the three previous Bond films . In 1966 , John Stears won the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects and production designer Ken Adam was also nominated for a BAFTA award . Thunderball is the most financially successful film of the series after adjusting for inflation . Some critics and viewers showered praise on the film and branded it a welcome addition to the series , while others complained of the repetitively monotonous aquatic action and prolonged length . In 1983 , Warner Bros. released a second film adaptation of the novel under the title Never Say Never Again , with McClory as executive producer .
= = Plot = =
James Bond — MI6 agent 007 and sometimes simply " 007 " — attends the funeral of Colonel Jacques Bouvar , a SPECTRE operative ( Number 6 ) . Bouvar is alive and disguised as his own widow , but Bond identifies him . Following him to a château , Bond fights and kills him , escaping using a jetpack and his Aston Martin DB5 .
Bond is sent by M to the Shrublands clinic to improve his health . While being massaged by physiotherapist Patricia Fearing , he notices Count Lippe , a suspicious man with a criminal tattoo ( from a Tong ) . He searches Lippe 's room , but is seen leaving by Lippe 's clinic neighbour who is bandaged after plastic surgery . Lippe tries to murder Bond with a spinal traction machine , but is foiled by Fearing , whom Bond then seduces . Bond finds a dead bandaged man , François Derval . Derval was a French NATO pilot deployed to fly aboard an Avro Vulcan loaded with two atomic bombs for a training mission . He had been murdered by Angelo , a SPECTRE henchman surgically altered to match his appearance .
Angelo takes Derval 's place on the flight , sabotaging the plane and sinking it near the Bahamas . He is then killed by Emilio Largo ( SPECTRE No. 2 ) for trying to extort more money than offered to him . Largo and his henchmen retrieve the stolen atomic bombs from the seabed . After leaving the clinic for a conference , Bond is pursued by Count Lippe through the countryside roads until Lippe and his car are destroyed by SPECTRE agent Fiona Volpe for failing to kill Bond . SPECTRE has demanded £ 100 million in white flawless uncut diamonds from NATO in exchange for returning the bombs . If their demands are not met , SPECTRE will destroy a major city in the United States or the United Kingdom . At the meeting , Bond recognises Derval from a photograph . Since Derval 's sister , Domino , is in Nassau , Bond asks M to send him there , where he discovers Domino is Largo 's mistress .
Bond takes a boat to where Domino is snorkelling . After Bond saves her life , the two have lunch together . Later , Bond goes to a party , where he sees Largo and Domino gambling . Bond enters the game against Largo and wins , and subsequently takes Domino to a dance . Recognising each other as adversaries , Bond and Largo begin a tense cat @-@ and @-@ mouse game of attempting to gain advantage over each other while still pretending ignorance of their adversary 's true nature .
Bond meets Felix Leiter and Q , and is issued a collection of gadgets , including an underwater infrared camera , a distress beacon , underwater breathing apparatus , a flare gun , and a Geiger counter . Bond attempts to swim underwater beneath Largo 's boat , but is nearly killed . Bond visits Largo at his estate , Palmyra . Bond 's assistant , Paula , is later abducted by Largo for questioning and kills herself before Bond can rescue her .
Bond is kidnapped by Fiona but escapes . He is chased through a Junkanoo celebration and enters the Kiss Kiss club . Fiona finds and attempts to kill him , but she is shot by her own bodyguard . Bond and Felix search for the Vulcan , finding it underwater . Bond meets Domino scuba @-@ diving and tells her that Largo killed her brother , asking for help finding the bombs . She tells him where to go to replace a henchman on Largo 's mission to retrieve them from an underwater bunker . Bond gives her his Geiger counter , asking her to look for them on Largo 's ship . She is discovered and captured . Disguised as Largo 's henchman , Bond uncovers Largo 's plan to destroy Miami Beach .
Bond is discovered and rescued by Leiter , who orders United States Navy SEALs to parachute to the area . After an underwater battle , the henchmen surrender . Largo escapes to his ship , the Disco Volante , which has one of the bombs on board . Largo attempts to escape by jettisoning the rear of the ship . The front section , a hydrofoil , escapes . Bond , also aboard , and Largo fight ; Largo is about to shoot him when Domino , freed by Largo 's nuclear physicist Ladislav Kutze , kills Largo with a harpoon . Bond and Domino jump overboard , the boat runs aground and explodes . A sky hook @-@ equipped US Navy aeroplane rescues them .
= = Cast = =
Sean Connery as James Bond ( 007 ) : An MI6 agent assigned to retrieve two stolen nuclear weapons .
Adolfo Celi as Emilio Largo ( voice dubbed by Robert Rietty ) : Main antagonist . SPECTRE 's Number Two , he creates a scheme to steal two atomic bombs .
Claudine Auger as Dominique " Domino " Derval ( voice dubbed by Nikki van der Zyl ) : Largo 's mistress . In early drafts of the screenplay Domino 's name was Dominetta Palazzi . When Claudine Auger was cast as Domino the name was changed to Derval to reflect her nationality . The character 's wardrobe reflects her name , as she is usually dressed in black and / or white .
Luciana Paluzzi as Fiona Volpe : SPECTRE agent , who becomes François Derval 's mistress and kills him before being sent to Nassau .
Rik Van Nutter as Felix Leiter : CIA agent who helps Bond .
Bernard Lee as M : Head of MI6 .
Martine Beswick as Paula Caplan : Bond 's ally in Nassau who is kidnapped by Vargas and Janni .
Guy Doleman as Count Lippe : SPECTRE agent who tries to kill Bond in the health clinic .
Molly Peters as Patricia Fearing : a physiotherapist at the health clinic .
Earl Cameron as Pinder , Bond and Felix Leiter 's assistant in The Bahamas .
Paul Stassino as François Derval and Angelo Palazzi : Derval is a NATO pilot , who is also Domino 's brother . He is killed by SPECTRE agent Angelo Palazzi , who impersonates him . Palazzi is later killed by Largo .
Desmond Llewelyn as Q : MI6 's " quartermaster " who supplies Bond with multi @-@ purpose vehicles and gadgets useful for the latter 's missions .
Roland Culver as the Foreign Secretary : British Minister who briefs the " 00 " agents for Operation Thunderball and has doubts about Bond 's efficiency .
Lois Maxwell as Miss Moneypenny : M 's secretary .
Philip Locke as Vargas : Largo 's personal assistant and henchman who abstains from alcohol , smoking and sexual intercourse , emphasising his devotion as a killer . He is killed by Bond with a spear gun on the beach .
George Pravda as Ladislav Kutze : Emilio Largo 's chief nuclear physicist who aids his boss with the captured bombs . He rescues Domino , pitying her when Largo was torturing her . He later escapes the boat with a life saver and swims away .
Michael Brennan as Janni : One of Largo 's thugs who is usually paired with Vargas .
Anthony Dawson as Ernst Stavro Blofeld , voiced by Eric Pohlmann ( both un @-@ credited ) : The head of SPECTRE ( uncredited )
Bill Cummings as Quist : Another of Largo 's inefficient thugs who , after failing to assassinate 007 , is thrown into a shark pool under orders from his boss . ( uncredited )
André Maranne cameos as SPECTRE No. 10 . ( uncredited )
Rose Alba as Madame Boitier .
Leonard Sachs as Group Captain .
Edward Underdown as Air Vice Marshal .
Reginald Beckwith as Kenniston .
= = Production = =
= = = Legal disputes = = =
Originally meant as the first James Bond film , Thunderball was the centre of legal disputes that began in 1961 and ran until 2006 . Former Ian Fleming collaborators Kevin McClory and Jack Whittingham sued Fleming shortly after the 1961 publication of the Thunderball novel , claiming he based it upon the screenplay the trio had earlier written in a failed cinematic translation of James Bond . The lawsuit was settled out of court ; McClory retained certain screen rights to the novel 's story , plot , and characters . By then , James Bond was a box office success , and series producers Broccoli and Saltzman feared a rival McClory film beyond their control ; they agreed to McClory 's producer 's credit of a cinematic Thunderball , with them as executive producers .
The sources for Thunderball are controversial among film aficionados . In 1961 , Ian Fleming published his novel based upon a television screenplay that he , and others developed into the film screenplay ; the efforts were unproductive , and Fleming expanded the script into his ninth James Bond novel . Consequently , one of his collaborators , Kevin McClory , sued him for plagiarism ; they settled out of court in 1963 .
Later , in 1964 , Eon producers Broccoli and Saltzman agreed with McClory to cinematically adapt the novel ; it was promoted as " Ian Fleming 's Thunderball " . Yet , along with the official credits to screenwriters Richard Maibaum and John Hopkins , the screenplay is also identified as based on an original screenplay by Jack Whittingham and as based on the original story by Kevin McClory , Jack Whittingham , and Ian Fleming . To date , the novel has twice been adapted cinematically ; the 1983 Jack Schwartzman @-@ produced Never Say Never Again , features Sean Connery as James Bond , but is not an Eon production .
= = = Casting = = =
Broccoli 's original choice for the role of Domino Derval was Julie Christie following her performance in Billy Liar in 1963 . Upon meeting her personally , however , he was disappointed and turned his attentions towards Raquel Welch after seeing her on the cover of the October 1964 issue of Life . Welch , however , was hired by Richard Zanuck of 20th Century Fox to appear in the film Fantastic Voyage the same year instead . Faye Dunaway was also considered for the role and came close to signing for the part . Saltzman and Broccoli auditioned an extensive list of relatively unknown European actresses and models including former Miss Italy Maria Grazia Buccella , Yvonne Monlaur of the Hammer horror films and Gloria Paul . Eventually former Miss France Claudine Auger was cast , and the script was rewritten to make her character French rather than Italian , although her lines was redubbed for the final cut . Nevertheless , director Young would cast her once again in his next film , Triple Cross ( 1966 ) . One of the actresses that tried for Domino , Luciana Paluzzi , later accepted the role as the redheaded femme fatale assassin Fiona Kelly who originally was intended by Maibaum to be Irish . The surname was changed to Volpe in co @-@ ordination with Paluzzi 's nationality .
= = = Filming = = =
Guy Hamilton was invited to direct , but considered himself worn out and " creatively drained " after the production of Goldfinger . Terence Young , director of the first two Bond films , returned to the series . Coincidentally , when Saltzman invited him to direct Dr. No , Young expressed interest in directing adaptations of Dr. No , From Russia with Love and Thunderball . Years later , Young said Thunderball was filmed " at the right time " , considering that if it was the first film in the series , the low budget ( Dr. No cost only $ 1 million ) would not have yielded good results . Thunderball was the final James Bond film directed by Young .
Filming commenced on 16 February 1965 , with principal photography of the opening scene in Paris . Filming then moved to the Château d 'Anet , near Dreux , France for the fight in pre @-@ credit sequence . Much of the film was shot in the Bahamas ; Thunderball is widely known for its extensive underwater action scenes which are played out through much of the latter half of the film . The rest of the film was shot at Pinewood Studios , Buckinghamshire , Silverstone racing circuit for the chase involving Count Lippe , Fiona Volpe and James Bond 's Aston Martin DB5 before moving to Nassau , and Paradise Island in the Bahamas ( where most of the footage was shot ) , and Miami . Huntington Hartford gave permission to shoot footage on his Paradise Island and is thanked at the end of the film .
On arriving in Nassau McClory searched for possible locations to shoot many of the key sequences of the film and used the home of a local millionaire couple , the Sullivans , for Largo 's estate , Palmyra . Part of the SPECTRE underwater assault was also shot on the coastal grounds of another millionaire 's home on the island . The most difficult sequences to film were the underwater action scenes ; the first to be shot underwater was at a depth of 50 feet to shoot the scene where SPECTRE divers remove the atomic bombs from the sunken Vulcan bomber . Peter Lamont had previously visited a Royal Air Force bomber station carrying a concealed camera which he used to get close @-@ up shots of secret missiles ( those appearing in the film were not actually present ) . Most of the underwater scenes had to be done at lower tides due to the sharks in the Bahamian sea .
Connery 's life was in danger in the sequence with the sharks in Largo 's pool . He had been in fear of this risk when he read the script . He insisted that production designer Ken Adam build a special Plexiglas partition inside the pool , but it was not a fixed structure and one of the sharks managed to pass through it . Connery had to abandon the pool immediately , seconds away from attack . Ken Adam later told UK daily newspaper The Guardian ,
" We had to use special effects but , unlike special effects today , they were real . The jet pack we used in Thunderball was real - it was invented for the United States army . Bloody dangerous , and it only lasted a couple of minutes . The ejector seat in the Aston Martin was real and Emilio Largo 's boat , the Disco Volante , was real . You had power boats at that time but there were no good @-@ sized yachts that were able to travel at 40 to 50 knots so it was quite a problem . But by combining a hydrofoil , which we bought in Puerto Rico for $ 10 @,@ 000 , and a catamaran , it at least looked like a big yacht . We combined the two hulls with a one @-@ inch slip bolt and when they split it worked like a dream . We used lots of sharks for this movie . I 'd rented a villa in the Bahamas with a salt @-@ water pool which we filled with sharks and used for underwater filming . The smell was horrendous . This was where Sean Connery came close to being bitten . We had a plexiglass corridor to protect him but I didn 't have quite enough plexiglass and one of the sharks got through . He never got out of a pool faster in his life - he was walking on water . "
Another dangerous situation occurred when special effects coordinator John Stears brought in a supposed dead shark carcass to be towed around the pool . The shark , however , was not dead and revived at one point . Due to the dangers on the set , stuntman Bill Cummings demanded an extra fee of £ 250 to double for Largo 's sidekick Quist as he was dropped into the pool of sharks .
The climactic underwater battle was shot at Clifton Pier and was choreographed by Hollywood expert Ricou Browning , who had worked on many films previously such as Creature From the Black Lagoon in 1954 . He was responsible for the staging of the cave sequence and the battle scenes beneath the Disco Volante and called in his specialist team of divers who posed as those engaged in the onslaught . Voit provided much of the underwater gear in exchange for product placement and film tie @-@ in merchandise . Lamar Boren , an underwater photographer , was brought in to shoot all of the sequences . United States Air Force Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Charles Russhon , who had already helped alliance Eon productions with the local authorities in Turkey for From Russia with Love ( 1963 ) and at Fort Knox for Goldfinger ( 1964 ) , stood by and was able to supply the experimental rocket fuel used to destroy the Disco Volante . Russhon , using his position , was also able to gain access to the United States Navy 's Fulton surface @-@ to @-@ air recovery system , used to lift Bond and Domino from the water at the end of the film . Filming ceased in May 1965 and the final scene shot was the physical fight on the bridge of the Disco Volante .
While in Nassau , during the final shooting days , special effects supervisor John Stears was supplied experimental rocket fuel to use in exploding Largo 's yacht , the Disco Volante . Ignoring the true power of the volatile liquid , Stears doused the entire yacht with it , took cover , and then detonated the boat . The resultant massive explosion shattered windows along Bay Street in Nassau roughly 30 miles away . Stears went on to win an Academy Award for his work on Thunderball .
As the filming neared its conclusion , Connery had become increasingly agitated with press intrusion and was distracted with difficulties in his marriage of 32 months to actress Diane Cilento . Connery refused to speak to journalists and photographers who followed him in Nassau stating his frustration with the harassment that came with the role ; " I find that fame tends to turn one from an actor and a human being into a piece of merchandise , a public institution . Well , I don 't intend to undergo that metamorphosis . " In the end he gave only a single interview , to Playboy , as filming was wrapped up , and even turned down a substantial fee to appear in a promotional TV special made by Wolper Productions for NBC The Incredible World of James Bond . According to editor Peter R. Hunt , Thunderball 's release was delayed for three months , from September until December 1965 , after he met David Picker of United Artists , and convinced him it would be impossible to edit the film to a high enough standard without the extra time .
= = = Effects = = =
Thanks to special @-@ effects man John Stears , Thunderball 's pre @-@ title teaser , the Aston Martin DB5 ( introduced in Goldfinger ) , reappears armed with rear @-@ firing water cannon , seeming noticeably weathered – just dust and dirt , raised moments earlier by Bond 's landing with the Bell Rocket Belt ( developed by Bell Aircraft Corporation ) . The rocket belt Bond uses to escape the château actually worked , and was used many times , before and after , for entertainment , most notably at Super Bowl I and at scheduled performances at the 1964 – 1965 New York World 's Fair .
Bond receives a spear gun @-@ armed underwater jet pack scuba ( allowing the frogman to manoeuvre faster than other frogmen ) . Designed by Jordan Klein , green dye was meant to be used by Bond as a smoke screen to escape pursuers . Instead Ricou Browning , the film 's underwater director , used it to make Bond 's arrival more dramatic .
The sky hook , used to rescue Bond at the end of the film , was a rescue system used by the United States military at the time . At Thunderball 's release , there was confusion as to whether a rebreather such as the one that appears in the film existed ; most Bond gadgets , while implausible , often are based upon real technology . In the real world , a rebreather could not be so small , as it has no room for the breathing bag , while the alternative open @-@ circuit scuba releases exhalation bubbles , which the film device does not . It was made with two CO2 bottles glued together and painted , with a small mouthpiece attached . For this reason , when the Royal Corps of Engineers asked Peter Lamont how long a man could use the device underwater , the answer was " As long as you can hold your breath . "
Maurice Binder was hired to design the title sequence , and was involved in a dispute with Eon Production to have his name credited in the film . As Thunderball was the first James Bond film shot in Panavision , Binder had to reshoot the iconic gun barrel scene which permitted him to not only incorporate pinhole photographic techniques to shoot inside a genuine gun barrel , but also made Connery appearing in the sequence for the first time a reality , as stunt man Bob Simmons had doubled for him in the three previous films . Binder gained access to the tank at Pinewood which he used to film the silhouetted title girls who appeared naked in the opening sequence , which was the first time actual nudity ( although concealed ) had ever been seen in a Bond film .
On 26 June 2013 Christie 's auction house sold the Breitling SA Top Time watch worn in the film by Sean Connery for over £ 100 @,@ 000 ; given to Bond by Q , it was also a Geiger counter in the plot .
= = = Music = = =
Thunderball was the third James Bond score composed by John Barry , after From Russia with Love and Goldfinger . The original title song was entitled " Mr. Kiss Kiss , Bang Bang " , taken from an Italian journalist who in 1962 dubbed agent 007 as Mr. Kiss Kiss , Bang Bang . The title theme was written by Barry and Leslie Bricusse ; the song was originally recorded by Shirley Bassey , and later rerecorded by Dionne Warwick , whose version was not released until the 1990s . The song was removed from the title credits after producers Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman were worried that a theme song to a James Bond film would not work well if the song did not have the title of the film in its lyrics . Barry then teamed up with lyricist Don Black and wrote " Thunderball " , which was sung by Tom Jones who , according to Bond production legend , fainted in the recording booth when singing the song 's final note . Jones said of it , " I closed my eyes and I held the note for so long when I opened my eyes the room was spinning . "
Country musician Johnny Cash also submitted a song to Eon productions titled " Thunderball " , but it went unused .
= = Release and reception = =
The film premiered on 9 December 1965 in Tokyo and opened on 29 December 1965 in the UK . It was a major success at the box office with record @-@ breaking earnings . Variety reported that Thunderball was the No. 1 money maker of 1966 at the North American box office by a large margin , with a net profit of $ 26 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 . The second highest money maker of 1966 was Doctor Zhivago at $ 15 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ; in third place was Who 's Afraid of Virginia Woolf ? at $ 10 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 . It eventually grossed $ 63 @.@ 6 million in the United States , equating to roughly 58 @.@ 1 million admissions . In total , the film has earned $ 141 @.@ 2 million worldwide , surpassing the earnings of the three preceding films in the series — easily recouping its $ 9 million budget — and remained the highest @-@ grossing Bond film until Live and Let Die ( 1973 ) assumed the record . After adjusting its earnings to 2011 prices , it has made approximately $ 1 billion , making it the second most financially successful Bond film after Skyfall .
Thunderball won an Academy Award for Best Visual Effects awarded to John Stears in 1966 . Ken Adam the production director was also nominated for a Best Production Design BAFTA award . The film won the Golden Screen Award in Germany and the Golden Laurel Action Drama award at the 1966 Laurel Awards . The film was also nominated for an Edgar Best Foreign Film award at the Edgar Allan Poe Awards .
= = = Contemporary reviews = = =
Upon its release the film received generally positive reviews . Dilys Powell of The Sunday Times remarked after seeing the film that " The cinema was a duller place before 007 . " David Robinson of The Financial Times criticised the appearance of Connery and his effectiveness to play Bond in the film remarking : " It 's not just that Sean Connery looks a lot more haggard and less heroic than he did two or three years ago ; but there is much less effort to establish him as connoisseur playboy . Apart from the off @-@ handed order for Beluga , there is little of that comic display of bon viveur @-@ manship that was one of the charms of Connery 's almost @-@ a @-@ gentleman 007 . "
= = = Reflective reviews = = =
According to Danny Peary , Thunderball " takes forever to get started and has too many long underwater sequences during which it 's impossible to tell what 's going on . Nevertheless , it 's an enjoyable entry in the Bond series . Sean Connery is particularly appealing as Bond – I think he projects more confidence than in other films in the series . Film has no great scene , but it 's entertaining as long as the actors stay above water . " .
Critics such as James Berardinelli praised Connery 's performance , the femme fatale character of Fiona Volpe and the underwater action sequences , remarking that they were well choreographed and clearly shot . He criticised the length of the scenes , however , and believed they were too long and in need of editing , particularly during the film 's climax . At Rotten Tomatoes , the film received an 86 % " fresh " rating . In 2014 Time Out polled several film critics , directors , actors and stunt actors to list their top action films ; Thunderball was listed at number 73 .
= The Messenger : The Story of Joan of Arc =
The Messenger : The Story of Joan of Arc ( French : Jeanne d 'Arc ) is a 1999 French historical drama film directed by Luc Besson . The film stars Milla Jovovich , John Malkovich , Faye Dunaway and Dustin Hoffman . The screenplay was written by Besson and Andrew Birkin , and the original music score was composed by Éric Serra .
The Messenger portrays the story of St. Joan of Arc , the French war heroine and religious martyr of the 15th century . The story begins with young Joan as she witnesses the atrocities of the English against her family , and she is portrayed as having visions that inspire her to lead the French in battle against the occupying English forces . Her success in routing the English allows Charles VII to take the throne . Eventually Joan is tried and executed for heresy .
Besson 's previous film , The Fifth Element , which also starred Jovovich , was a critical and financial success , and it had a positive influence on both their careers . The Messenger was intended to follow up that success and cement the status of Besson and Jovovich in film . However , the film received mixed reviews from critics and underperformed at the box office , earning just under $ 67 million on an $ 60 million budget .
= = Plot = =
As a child , Joan has a violent and supernatural vision . She returns home to find her village burning . Her sister Catherine tries to protect her by hiding her from the attacking English forces , part of a longstanding rivalry with France . Joan , while hiding , witnesses the brutal murder and rape of her sister . Afterward , Joan is taken in by distant relatives .
Several years later at Chinon , the Dauphin and soon to be King of France , Charles VII ( John Malkovich ) , receives a message from the now adult Joan ( Milla Jovovich ) , asking him to provide an army to lead into battle against the occupying English . After meeting him and his mother @-@ in @-@ law Yolande of Aragon ( Faye Dunaway ) she describes her visions . Desperate , he believes her prophecy .
Clad in armor , Joan leads the French army to the besieged city of Orléans . She gives the English a chance to surrender , which they refuse . The armies ' commanders , skeptical of Joan 's leadership , initiate the next morning 's battle to take over the stockade at St. Loup without her . By the time she arrives on the battlefield , the French soldiers are retreating . Joan ends the retreat and leads another charge , successfully capturing the fort . They proceed to the enemy stronghold called the " Tourelles " . Joan gives the English another chance to surrender , but they refuse . Joan leads the French soldiers to attack the Tourelles , though the English defenders inflict heavy casualties , also wounding Joan . Nevertheless , Joan leads a second attack the following day . As the English army regroups , the French army moves to face them across an open field . Joan rides alone toward the English and offers them a final chance to surrender and return to England . The English accept her offer and retreat .
Joan returns to Rheims to witness the coronation of Charles VII of France . Her military campaigns then continue to the walls of Paris , though she does not receive her requested reinforcements , and the siege is a failure . Joan tells King Charles VII to give her another army , but he refuses , saying he now prefers diplomacy over warfare . Believing she threatens his position , Charles conspires to get rid of Joan by allowing her to be captured by enemy forces . She is taken prisoner by the pro @-@ English Burgundians at Compiègne , who sell her to the English .
Charged with the crime of heresy , based on her claim of visions and signs from God , she is tried in an ecclesiastical court proceeding , which is forced by the English occupation government . The English wish to quickly condemn and execute Joan since English soldiers are afraid to fight while she remains alive , based on their belief that she could supernaturally affect battles even while in prison . Bishop Cauchon expresses his fear of wrongfully executing someone who might have received visions from God . About to be burned for heresy , Joan is distraught that she will be executed without making a final confession . The Bishop tells her she must recant her visions before he can hear her confession . Joan signs the recantation . The relieved Bishop shows the paper to the English , saying that Joan can no longer be burned as a heretic . Whilst in her cell , Joan in confronted by an unnamed cloaked man ( Dustin Hoffman ) , who is implied to be Joan 's conscience . The man makes Joan question whether she was actually receiving messages from God .
The frustrated English devise another way to have Joan executed by the church . English soldiers go into Joan 's cell room , rip her clothes and give her men 's clothing to wear . They then state she conjured a spell to make the new clothing appear , suggesting that she is a witch who must be burned . Although suspecting the English are lying , the Bishop abandons Joan to her fate , and she is burned alive in the marketplace of Rouen .
= = Cast = =
Milla Jovovich as Joan of Arc
John Malkovich as Charles VII of France
Faye Dunaway as Yolande of Aragon
Dustin Hoffman as The Conscience
Andrew Birkin as John Talbot
Vincent Cassel as Gilles de Rais
Pascal Greggory as John II , Duke of Alençon
Richard Ridings as La Hire
Desmond Harrington as Jean d 'Aulon
Timothy West as Pierre Cauchon
Gina McKee as Duchess of Bedford
Tchéky Karyo as Jean de Dunois
= = Themes = =
Luc Besson stated that he was not interested in narrating the history of Joan of Arc ; rather , he wanted to pull a message out of history that is relevant for today . Besson states that in order to achieve this he stepped away from the factual narrative of the 15th century , instead trying to get behind the " exterior envelope " and into both the emotional effect and affect of Joan . In the book The Films of Luc Besson , Susan Hayward interprets this as meaning Besson sought to follow Joan emotionally , revealing her doubts and demonstrating that one cannot return intact from the experience of war .
As the medievalist Gwendolyn Morgan observes , Joan 's sanity is a continuing theme throughout the film , beginning with the priest questioning her as a child and ending with her conversations with ' The Conscience ' in the film 's final scenes . Scholars view The Conscience as providing a postmodern explanation of Joan 's visions . At the time that Joan lived , her voices and visions would not have been doubted . John Aberth , writing in the book A Knight at the Movies stated the filmmakers invented The Conscience to satisfy a modern audience that is aware of mental illness . The film was also said to have " feminist undercurrents " ; after Joan witnesses the rape of her sister , her crusade is said to become " a fight against male domination and the abuse of women . " Writing in Exemplaria , Nickolas Haydock also considered the witnessing of her sister 's murder and rape to be an alternate psychological motivation for Joan to want to fight the English , rather than just her visions .
Haydock also considered a theme in the film to be the inability of the church to fulfill individual spiritual needs . This is said to be shown through many of Joan 's encounters with the church ; as a girl she is scolded for going to confession too often , denied communion and forced to sneak into the church to take it herself , and during her trial , where she is denied confession until The Conscience confesses her instead .
Writing in Studies in Medievalism XIII , Christa Canitz considered anti @-@ intellectualism to be present in The Messenger ; Joan admits to not knowing how to read or write and has not received any formal education , military or otherwise , yet triumphs over those who have . Haydock commented that Joan possesses a quick wit which she uses against the unrelenting accusatory questions provided by her " intellectual superiors " during the trial . Joan also manages to triumph in battle where those with more experience and knowledge could not , made especially apparent by her use of a siege weapon backward to force open a gate .
= = Production = =
Luc Besson was originally hired as executive producer for a film that was to be directed by Kathryn Bigelow . Bigelow had been developing ideas for a Joan of Arc film for about a decade . Her film was to be entitled Company of Angels , with Jay Cocks hired to write the script . The film was to be made with Besson 's assistance and financial backing . In July 1996 contracts between Bigelow and Besson were exchanged , which gave Besson the right to be consulted on casting in addition to his personal fee . According to Bigelow , eight weeks prior to filming , Besson realised that his then wife , Milla Jovovich , was not going to be cast as Joan , and he subsequently withdrew his support from the film , and with it the support of his financial backers . Bigelow threatened legal action for breach of contract and " stealing her research " ; the matter was settled out of court . After Besson left , he commenced production of his own Joan of Arc project , The Messenger , with Jovovich given the lead role ; the production of Company of Angels disbanded shortly thereafter . The Messenger was intended to follow up the success Besson and Jovovich achieved with their previous collaboration , The Fifth Element .
Filming took place in the Czech Republic . A stuntman died in an accident during the first weeks of filming . Besson was said to have become completely uncommunicative after the incident , only appearing on set to shout orders at people .
= = Soundtrack = =
The soundtrack for the film was composed by Éric Serra and released as an album via Sony Music Entertainment . It was Serra 's eighth collaboration with director Luc Besson , having composed soundtracks for seven of Besson 's previous films including La Femme Nikita and Léon : The Professional . The album runs for about 64 minutes , and some form of music is playing during about 90 percent of the film . Commentators noted the change in Serra 's work , which had traditionally relied heavily on synthesizer effects . The Messenger , on the other hand , is a primarily orchestral score as justified by the film 's historical context , though synthesized effects are still used in some tracks . Writing in The Films of Luc Besson , Mark Brownrigg stated Serra 's score completed his " evolution " from pop @-@ score writer to orchestral film composer ; Serra 's previous score for The Fifth Element had also used orchestral elements . They gave a favourable review of the score , though criticised the music that is heard during Joan 's death , describing it as an unimaginative paraphrasing of Carmina Burana . Heather Phares from Allmusic gave the album 3 out of 5 stars , stating it " combines orchestral , rock , and electronic elements for a sweeping , cinematic experience . " Dan Goldwasser from Soundtrack.net gave the soundtrack 4 out of 5 , stating it was " very satisfying to listen to " , though he expressed disappointment with the absence on the soundtrack of a particular piece of music present during Joan 's discussion with The Conscience .
= = Historical accuracy = =
The scene in which Joan witnesses her sister 's murder and posthumous rape by English soldiers in their village is entirely a fictional construction . Joan and her family fled their village before it was attacked , and it was actually attacked by the Burgundians , not the English . In the film Joan is seen experiencing visions as a young child when the historical Joan asserted that these visions began around the age of 13 . Joan is also seen finding her sword in a field as a child , whereas historically it was uncovered many years later on her journey to Chinon .
Hayward credits Besson with showing the collaboration between the Burgundians and the English more accurately than previous filmmakers . Many lines during scenes of Joan 's trial are taken verbatim from Joan 's real trial transcript . Joan is shown receiving both wounds she was given in real life ( an arrow above the breast and later an arrow to the leg ) , and the film includes some of the 15th @-@ century accounts associated with Joan , such as being able to pick out Charles VII from among a group of his courtiers at Chinon . The examining of Joan 's virginity was a real test Joan had to complete to prove her merit .
Joan 's visions are portrayed as being of a tatty Christ on a derelict wooden throne . Joan 's own description of them was that she saw St. Michael , St. Catherine and St. Margaret in their glory . The most glaring inconsistency is the androgynous portrayal of Joan by Mila Jovovich . Several eyewitnesses said that the real Joan was " beautiful and shapely " and similar descriptions of her femininity . However other writers have come to the conclusion that she must have been sexually unattractive to survive her military career .
= = Release = =
= = = Box office = = =
The film grossed US $ 14 @,@ 276 @,@ 317 in the US , plus $ 52 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 from the rest of the world for a combined gross of $ 66 @,@ 976 @,@ 317 .
= = = Critical response = = =
The Messenger received mixed to negative reviews . On Rotten Tomatoes , the film has a score of 30 % based on reviews from 73 critics , with the consensus : " The heavy @-@ handed narrative collapses under its own weight . " At Metacritic the film holds a score of 54 based on 33 reviews , indicating " mixed or average " reception .
Roger Ebert gave the film 2 out of 4 stars , stating , " The movie is a mess : a gassy costume epic with nobody at the center . " Ebert stated the film may have been educational for the test audience participants who wrote , " Why does she have to die at the end ? " on their evaluation cards . In a review entitled Vivid Action Can 't Save Miscast ' Joan ' , Todd McCarthy praised the film 's action scenes and technical aspects , including Thierry Arbogast 's cinematography , though overall gave a negative review . He criticised the casting of Jovovich , stating the only thing she brought to the film was " her strikingly tall and skinny physicality , which is not exactly how one has been led to picture [ Joan ] " . Ron Wells from Film Threat , however , gave the film four out of five stars . Also praising the action scenes , Wells stated that the film 's main strength was its " adult ambiguities and relationships " ; its decision not to portray Joan as a " super @-@ hero " , but rather to let the audience decide whether she was a prophet or merely bipolar , concluding , " This film , as most things that involve religion , is better understood if you learn not to take everything so literally . "
= = Accolades = =
The Messenger was nominated for eight awards at the 25th César Awards and won two of these : one for Costume Design and one for Best Sound . The film also won two Lumières Award for Best Director and Best Film . It was nominated for ' Most Original ' trailer at the 1999 Golden Trailer Awards , Best Costume Design and Best Production Design at the 1999 Las Vegas Film Critics Society Awards , and won the Golden Reel Award for Best Sound Editing .
Conversely , Milla Jovovich 's performance was nominated for a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Actress .
= = Home media = =
The Messenger was released on DVD on 4 April 2000 . The DVD version presented the film in its original 2 @.@ 35 : 1 format , and contained several minutes of footage that did not appear in the US theatrical version . It featured English subtitles , interactive menus , ' talent files ' , a 2 @-@ page production booklet , a 24 @-@ minute HBO First Look special entitled The Messenger : The Search for the Real Joan of Arc , the film 's theatrical trailer as well as trailers for Run Lola Run , Léon : The Professional and Orlando . The DVD also containted Éric Serra 's original score for the film , which was presented in Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 Surround Sound , as was the film itself . Whilst criticising the film itself , Heather Picker of DVD Talk gave a favourable review of the DVD release .
The Blu @-@ ray version was released on 2 December 2008 . It contains audio in English , French , Portuguese , Spanish , and Thai , and subtitles in 10 languages . Glenn Erickson of DVD Talk also criticized the film , yet praised the Blu @-@ ray release , rating it 4 ½ stars out of 5 for its video quality and 4 out of 5 for its audio , though only giving it 1 ½ stars for its extras , noting the lack of special features . A review from Blu @-@ Ray.com also gave a favourable review of both the audio and visual quality , stating " I don 't think that there is much here one could be dissatisfied with . " High @-@ Def Digest , however , gave a more negative review . Whilst praising the audio quality , the lack of special features was criticized , as was the video quality , which was described as being " smothered " with edge enhancement . The reviewer concluded , " Sony is practically begging people not to buy it . "
= Moorish Gibraltar =
The history of Moorish Gibraltar began with the landing of the Muslims in Hispania and the fall of the Visigothic Kingdom of Toledo in 711 and ended with the fall of Gibraltar to Christian hands 751 years later , in 1462 , with an interregnum during the early 14th century .
The Muslim presence in Gibraltar began on 27 April 711 when the Berber general Tariq ibn @-@ Ziyad led the initial incursion into Iberia in advance of the main Moorish force under the command of Musa ibn Nusayr , Umayyad governor of Ifriqiya . Gibraltar was named after Tariq , who was traditionally said to have landed on the shores of the Rock of Gibraltar , though it seems more likely that he landed somewhere nearby . Muslim sources claimed that Tariq established some kind of fortification on the Rock , but no evidence has been found and it is not considered credible . It was not until 1160 that a first fortified settlement was built there .
The Madinat al @-@ Fath ( English : City of Victory ) was intended to be a major city furnished with palaces and mosques , but it seems to have fallen well short of the ambitions of its founder , the Almohad caliph Abd al @-@ Mu 'min , by the time it was captured by the Kingdom of Castile in 1309 after a short siege . Muslim control was restored in 1333 after another , much longer , siege . The city subsequently underwent a major expansion and refortification . A number of buildings and structures from this period still exist , including the Moorish Castle , parts of the Moorish walls , a bath @-@ house and a subterranean reservoir .
Gibraltar was subjected to several more sieges before its final fall on 20 August 1462 ( feast of St. Bernard ) to Christian forces under the 1st Duke of Medina Sidonia . The population , Muslim and Jewish , was expelled en masse and replaced by Christian settlers .
= = Early years of Muslim conquest = =
Gibraltar 's Islamic history began with the arrival of Tariq ibn @-@ Ziyad on 27 April 711 at the start of the Umayyad conquest of Hispania . Traditionally , Tariq was said to have landed on the shores of the Rock of Gibraltar , which was henceforth named after him ( Jabal @-@ ı Tārıq ( جبل طارق ) , English : " Mountain of Tariq " – a name which was later corrupted into " Gibraltar " by the Spanish ) . However , according to one early Islamic account , Tariq " cast anchor close to a mountain which received his name " , rather than actually landing at Gibraltar . Another account , by the 9th @-@ century Egyptian historian Ibn ' Abd al @-@ Hakam , describes Gibraltar as lying between the points of departure and disembarkation rather than being the actual landing place . According to this account , the possibly legendary Julian , Count of Ceuta – an ally of Tariq who was estranged from Roderic , the Visigothic king of Hispania – transported the Muslim forces in ships which " in no way seemed different from " those which " plied across the Strait for trade . " Spanish accounts corroborate this with the detail that the invasion force was transported " in merchant ships that the reason for their crossing should not be apperceived . " Gibraltar would have been a poor place to land due to its relative isolation and difficult rocky terrain , and it is more likely that Tariq either landed in the vicinity of the former Roman colony of Carteia at the head of the Bay of Gibraltar or on the Alboran coast north of Gibraltar around La Tunara ( now a barrio of La Línea de la Concepción in Spain ) , where a landing would have been less conspicuous .
It has been argued that some kind of fortification was probably constructed at Gibraltar thereafter . According to the 13th century Kurdish historian Ali ibn al @-@ Athir , Tariq built a fort on The Rock , but this was " only for temporary use , and after he had captured the area of Algeciras , he abandoned it ... He descended from the mountains to the desert tract and conquered Algeciras and other places , and he abandoned the fort which was in the mountain . " The " fort " probably consisted of no more than a look @-@ out post on the Rock to observe movements in and around the bay during the period of landing ; there would have been little need for anything more substantial ( as better landing points such as Algeciras or Tarifa were in his hands ) , and Tariq would not have had the manpower to construct a sizeable fortification . No mention to a permanent occupation of Gibraltar is found in Arab or Christian chronicles , nor archaeological evidence is found until the 12th century .
As the rest of Al @-@ Andalus , Gibraltar was initially part of the territory of the Umayyad Caliphate before passing to the Spanish branch of the Umayyads , which broke away from the main Caliphate after the Abbasid Revolution . Around 1035 , the Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba splintered into a series of independent taifa kingdoms . The Taifa of Algeciras included Gibraltar and managed to maintain its own independence only until 1056 , when it was forcibly absorbed into the Taifa of Seville . By the mid @-@ 1060s Seville faced the threat of invasion from the Almoravids of North Africa . The kingdom 's ruler , Abbad II al @-@ Mu 'tadid , was conscious that the Almoravids could repeat Tariq 's feat of three centuries earlier and bring an invasion force across the Strait before the garrison at Algeciras could react . In 1068 he ordered the Governor of Algeciras to " build a fort on Gibraltar , and to be on guard and watch events on the other side of the straits . "
However , nothing seems to have been done before the death of Abbad II in 1069 . The Almoravids did come , in 1086 , but at the invitation of the taifa kings whose territories were threatened by the expansionist Christian king Alfonso VI of León and Castile . Yusuf ibn Tashfin incorporated the taifas into the Almoravid realm in 1090 , but they reemerged 50 years later following the political disintegration of the Almoravid state . The Almoravids ' successors , the Almohads , returned to Spain in 1146 and gained control of the taifas once again . Incursions by Alfonso VII of León and Castile and Alfonso I of Aragon into Muslim @-@ held territory in Al @-@ Andalus had shown that the area around Algeciras needed to be more strongly defended . The Almohad caliph Abd al @-@ Mu 'min therefore ordered the construction of a fortified city on Gibraltar , to be called the Madinat al @-@ Fath ( the " City of Victory " ) .
= = Madinat al @-@ Fath = =
Abd al @-@ Mu 'min 's order , issued on 19 March 1160 , charged two of the most important architects of the day with the task of building Madinat al @-@ Fath . Al @-@ Hajj Ya 'is of Málaga , a renowned mathematician , was assisted by Ahmad ibn Baso , an experienced architect . Abd al @-@ Mu 'min ordered that the city should have a mosque , several palaces for himself and his sons , and reservoirs to provide a supply of water . It was to be protected by a " wall of fine build " with a single gate known as the Bab al @-@ Fath ( English : Gate of Victory ) facing towards the isthmus connecting Gibraltar with the mainland . A harbour was also to be constructed , and windmills were to be constructed on the Rock .
It is unclear how much of Madinat al @-@ Fath was actually built , since after the death of Abd al @-@ Mu 'min , his son and successor Abu Yaqub Yusuf preferred Seville as his capital . A portion of wall some 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) long still survives to the south of the main part of the city of Gibraltar , of similar design to defensive walls in Morocco . It may have protected a settlement on the upper part of the Rock , around where the modern Queen 's Road is , but firm archaeological evidence is lacking . In fact , there is no mention of any settlement in Gibraltar either in Arabic or Spanish contemporary sources between the project of Madinat al @-@ Fath and the capture of the town by the Christians in 1309 .
= = The Battle for the Strait = =
In the late thirteen and early fourteenth centuries , Castile , the Marinids of Morocco and the Nasrids of Granada fought for the control of the Strait of Gibraltar . This " battle " ( Spanish : la Cuestión del Estrecho ) is a major chapter in the history of the Christian reconquest of Spain . It was within this framework of clashes between said powers to bring under control such a strategic area when Gibraltar definitely appeared on the scene .
With the implosion of the Almohad Caliphate and the Reconquista onslaught of the 1220 – 40s , the north shore of the Strait of Gibraltar came under the jurisdiction of the Nasrid Emirate of Granada , a reduced successor state to al @-@ Andalus . As a dependency of nearby Algeciras , Gibraltar was probably given along with Algeciras in 1274 , by the Nasrid sultan Muhammad II to Abu Yusuf Yaqub , the Marinid sultan of Morocco , as payment for his intervention in Spain on Granada 's behalf against Castilian encroachments . ( other sources mention 1275 as the date when the Sultan of Granada handed over Tarifa , Algeciras and Gibraltar to the Marinids for their use as base ports ) . In 1292 , in his pursuit of controlling the Strait , the troops of Sancho IV of Castile laid siege to Tarifa and easily took it . Under the governorship of Guzmán el Bueno , " the Good " , Tarifa was unsuccessfully besieged by the Marinids two years later . As a result , the North African rulers decided to retreated to Magreb and sell their remaining ports to the sultans of Granada .
Although no documentary account of Gibraltar is available for the period following the Madinat al @-@ Fath project , there are reasons to believe that a small fortified town existed in Gibraltar , and that its existence was the direct consequence of the fall of Tarifa in 1292 . After the capture of the city , it was expected that Sancho would lay siege to Algeciras ( it did not eventually happen ) in order to sever the most direct links of the Marinids with the Iberian peninsula . The threatening presence of a Christian stronghold to the west would have led to the establishment of a garrison to the east of Algeciras . That way , Gibraltar would have protected the rearguard of Algeciras and provide a fallback position should Algeciras have fallen . At the same time , and with the increased presence of the Christian fleets in the Straits , Gibraltar provided an excellent lookout post .
Some years after the events in Tarifa , a quarrel erupted between the Marinids and the Nasrids , in 1306 . The Nasrids promptly sponsored the rebellion of Uthman ibn Idris , a pretender to the Marinid throne in Morocco . Uthman was landed by a Nasrid force in Ceuta , and quickly carved out an enclave . The rebels continued to receive support across the strait from the Nasrid garrisons . It is believed that the Marinid sultan Abu al @-@ Rabi Sulayman , unable to dislodge the rebel from Ceuta , intrigued with the Castilians , whose truce with Granada was about to expire , encouraging them to take Algeciras and Gibraltar and cut the rebel off . The first siege of Gibraltar was a side @-@ operation of the main Castilian siege of Algeciras in 1309 – 10 .
The siege was brief . It seems clear that the defences of Madinat al @-@ Fath were lacking as the Castilians succeeded in capturing Gibraltar in 1309 . The Castilian account of the First Siege of Gibraltar indicates that it was only a small place , with " one thousand one hundred and twenty @-@ five Moors " within at the time of its fall . Only two siege engines and a few hundred men were needed to reduce it . After the conquest and the expulsion of the town 's population , Ferdinand IV of Castile ordered the defences to be strengthened with the walls repaired , a keep constructed above the town and a dockyard ( atarazana ) to be built to house galleys . However , the main siege of Algeciras failed , and the Castilians struck a deal with the Granadan sultan allowing them to hold on to Gibraltar .
The loss of Gibraltar led to the deposition of the Nasrid sultan of Granada by his brother Nasr , who quickly reversed policy , abandoned the rebels in Ceuta and gave Algeciras ( and thus the claim on Gibraltar ) to the Marinids in 1310 , as part of a new treaty , hoping they might recover it . But too busy elsewhere for any entanglements in Spain , the Marinids gave Algeciras back to Granada almost immediately after . The Granadans launched an attempt to recover Gibraltar by themselves in 1315 , but without Marinid support , the Second Siege of Gibraltar faltered and failed .
The Castilians held Gibraltar for over twenty years , until a new deal was struck in 1333 between the Nasrid sultan Muhammad IV of Granada and the Marinid sultan Abu al @-@ Hasan Ali ibn Othman of Morocco . Moroccan forces crossed the strait to Algeciras and began the third siege of Gibraltar in 1333 . This was a much more serious effort , lasting four and a half months , and was mounted by a combined Granadan @-@ Moroccan force . The population of Spanish Christians was reduced to eating their own shoes and belts before the town 's governor , Vasco Pérez de Meira , surrendered on 17 June 1333 . However , Muhammad IV was assassinated almost immediately after , in a conspiracy organized by enemies of the Marinids in the Granadan court . The Marinid sultan Abu al @-@ Hasan retained both Algeciras and Gibraltar in Moroccan hands .
The Castilians immediately mounted an unsuccessful fourth siege which ended after two months . Following the restoration of peace , Abu al @-@ Hasan ordered a refortification of Gibraltar " with strong walls as a halo surrounds the crescent moon " . Many details of the rebuilt city are known due to the work of Abu al @-@ Hasan 's biographer , Ibn Marzuq , whose Musnad ( written around 1370 – 1 ) describes the reconstruction of Gibraltar . The city was expanded , and a new defensive wall was built to cover the western and southern flanks , with towers and connecting passages added to strengthen them . The existing fortifications were also strengthened and repaired . The weak points that the Castilians had exploited were improved .
= = Final century of Moorish Gibraltar = =
The refortified city – the final incarnation of Moorish Gibraltar – stood in the north @-@ eastern part of the present @-@ day city , reaching from the area of Grand Casemates Square up to Upper Castle Road . It was divided into three main quarters . At the top was the Tower of Homage ( just part of the Moorish Castle but usually referred to as such ) , a formidable square keep situated within a kasbah . The tower had the largest footprint of all the towers to be built in Al @-@ Andalus ( 320 square metres ( 3 @,@ 400 sq ft ) ) . It was a much @-@ strengthened rebuilding of an earlier tower and still bears scars on its eastern wall from projectiles shot by the Castilians during the siege of 1333 . The kasbah could only be accessed via a single gate , which still survives ; an inscription visible up to the 18th century recorded that it had been dedicated to Yusuf I , Sultan of Granada .
Below the kasbah was an area later called the Villa Vieja ( English : Old Town ) by the Spanish , accessed via the Bab el @-@ Granada ( English : Granada Gate ) , and below that was a port area called La Barcina by the Spanish , which may have taken its name from the Galley House ( Arabic : Dar el @-@ Sinaha ) built there by the Moors . It had three separate access gates : the Land Gate ( now the Landport Gate ) , the Sea Gate ( now the Grand Casemates Gates ) and a southern gate , the Barcina Gate . The core of the city was surrounded by substantial defensive walls with tall towers topped by merlons . Other than the Tower of Homage , two such towers still survive ; one square based which was fitted with a clock in Victorian times and another constructed en bec ( beaked , a design intended to resist mining ) . The walls were at first built using tapia , a lime @-@ based mortar made with the local sand and faced with decorative brickwork to simulate masonry . The builders later changed their construction methods to utilise stone interlaced with brick , a rather stronger structure . The southern flank of the walls has survived relatively intact , and vestiges of the other walls are most likely still to be found underlying the modern defensive walls constructed by the British . To the south of the fortified city was an urban area known as the Turba al Hamra , literally the " red sands " , named after the predominant colouration of the soil in that area . Ibn Battuta visited the city in 1353 – 4 and wrote :
I walked round the mountain and saw the marvellous works executed on it by our master , the late Sultan of Morocco , and the armament with which he equipped it , together with the additions made thereto by our master Abu Inan , may God strengthen him ... [ He ] strengthened the wall of the extremity of the mount , which is the most formidable and useful of its walls .
A number of other Moorish remnants are still visible in Gibraltar today . A hamam or bath @-@ house , similar to examples in Fez in Morocco , was built in the lower town ; its remnants can still be seen today incorporated into the Gibraltar Museum . It was built using Roman and Visigothic capitals , perhaps salvaged from the nearby ruined city of Carteia . The bath @-@ house may have been part of the Moorish governor 's house . A mosque was built in the city centre and was later converted by the Spanish into a Catholic church ( now the Cathedral of St. Mary the Crowned ) . A small mosque was built near Europa Point at the southern tip of Gibraltar and was later converted into the Christian Shrine of Our Lady of Europe . A subterranean reservoir , now known as the Nun 's Well , was also built at Europa Point for the supply of water to the city . An existing 12th @-@ century wall along the sea shore was extended to Europa Point to block access to places where landings could be made by sea . Much of the remainder of Moorish Gibraltar was obliterated by the destruction caused by the Great Siege of Gibraltar in 1779 – 83 and is now buried below the strengthened fortifications and rebuilding implemented by the British afterwards .
= = Fall of the city = =
The powerful Marinid sultan Abu al @-@ Hasan was severely defeated by the Christian kings at the Battle of Río Salado in
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the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart based on digital sales .
= = Background and development = =
" Love a Woman " was written by Mary J. Blige , Beyoncé , Sean Garrett and Menardini Timothee while production was handled by Garrett . Team S. Dot served as the co @-@ producer of the song while BridgeTown served as the additional producer for it . On November 9 , 2011 , a snippet of " Love a Woman " appeared online . It was officially premiered on November 17 , prior to the release of the album . The song was initially recorded by Beyoncé for her fourth studio album 4 ( 2011 ) , but she thought that it would be a better fit as a duet with Blige . Blige further revealed in an interview that the song was sent to her after Beyoncé thought that it didn 't fit her album and it was sent through her A & R people . She further added , " When the song came , her voice was on it completely and it was just amazing and I wasn 't sure that they wanted to give me this record because it was so amazing . " Blige further spoke about how she started the collaboration with Beyoncé on the song :
" The song was so amazing I had to be sure , as an artist , that she really was trying to give it to me . I was like ' is she really trying to give me this song , because it 's pretty amazing . ' They were like ' yes , but she wants to stay on it with you . ' And I was like , ' Wow ! Beyoncé ? Thanks ! ' And you know I love and respect her to death so I wouldn 't pass that chance up . "
Blige further revealed that the song would be released as a single but was delayed due to Beyoncé 's pregnancy at that time adding that , " whenever she 's ready , if she 's ever ready , I 'm ready and it 'll be great . " During an interview with Rap @-@ Up magazine , Garrett further spoke about the collaboration , saying , " I initially did the record for Beyoncé and then we just felt it would be an even bigger record with Beyoncé and Mary J. Blige ... Both these women are two iconic female figures in the world , and what would be better than putting those two on a record ? We felt it would be a really iconic move . "
= = Composition = =
" Love a Woman " is a down @-@ tempo soulful R & B ballad with a female empowerment theme and live @-@ sounding instruments . The soothing track starts off with Blige singing with a dark voice , " So you think you know how to love a woman / But I think it 's still some things you need to know . " As the flowery instrumental builds with a serene piano melody and accentuating horns , Blige goes on to warn that a woman needs more than material things . A writer of Billboard magazine further noted that the song was schooling men on just how good to love a woman . During her lines , Beyoncé sings with a vibrato voice , " A woman / Needs you to make love to her / She needs more than sex / Oh , a real woman needs a real man / They don ’ t talk about it , be about it / Put that work in , still shows his woman real romance " . According to Rob Markman of MTV News , " From there , the song plays as a lyrical how @-@ to . Communication is a must , as is respect , but coming home late and being a one @-@ minute man is a no @-@ no . " Writers further noted that the duet was inspired by the music from the 1990s including a New jack swing @-@ era R & B production . Beyoncé and Blige further sing the lines " She doesn ’ t want makeup sex , she wants your respect . " The song also has an extended bridge section during the 2 : 30 mark where Blige sings the lines " Pick up your phone … just to say you 're still in love from time to time … " with a vocal styling which was compared to Michael Jackson 's " Off the Wall " era . It ends with the sound of sparkler synths.Jada Gomez @-@ Lacayo of HipHopDx compared the song with Aaron Hall 's material . Ayanna Guyhto of Yahoo ! Music compared the first minute of the song with Busta Rhymes ' songs due to the speedy wordplay . She further noted that it was similar to the songs by Keith Sweat from the 1990s .
= = Critical reception = =
Rob Markman of MTV News wrote that the singers " display good chemistry on the song " . The Washington Post 's Sarah Godfrey classified " Love a Woman " as one of the best tracks on the album adding that " The ballad , with its cheesy , delightful ... R & B production , blasts the notion that MJB is all raw power and Beyoncé is all chilly technique — the women are both bold and great here , with a slight advantage going to Blige . " Becky Bain of the website Idolator commented that Garrett who served as a writer for the song " clearly knows how to love a woman right " . A writer of Rap @-@ Up magazine noted that Blige and Beyoncé " showcase their powerful pipes " as they tell their men what they want from a relationship . Brooklyne Gipson of Black Entertainment Television wrote that the song was one of the most appealing on the album , further describing it as a " breathtaking duet " . Martyn Young of the website musicOMH described the song as " a classy duet between two of contemporary RnB ’ s most striking voices " . Siobhan Kane of the website Consequence of Sound noted that Blige and Beyoncé obviously enjoyed " the soaring nature of the song " , while Alex Young of the same publication described it as a " lesson in love " . Nathan S. of DJBooth described the song as an " inter @-@ generational diva duet that sounds so ‘ 90s I half expected Keith Sweat to jump in " . Trent Fitzgerald of PopCrush graded the song with four out of five stars and commented , " ' Love a Woman ' is a melodic song with a ’ 90s @-@ sounding feel that will surely get spins on urban radio and quiet storm formats . Forget Dr. Phil , MJB and Ms. B is all you need to help you maintain a loving relationship with your partner . "
Ayanna Guyhto of Yahoo ! Music commented that Blige and Beyoncé combined their " superpowers " in the studio to make the " forceful ballad " . She further commented , " The breakdown is where the listener really gets to hear the symmetry of these two powerhouse vocals . Neither diva overpowers the other . Right where [ Beyoncé ] leaves off , Mary J. picks up . And vice versa ... Although either of these R & B divas could carry ' Love a Woman ' with no problem , some might say that the song makes more of an impact with their deliveries combined . Blige 's seasoned soul coupled with Bey 's creamy delivery is a mood to behold . " Andy Gill of The Independent wrote that Beyoncé " act [ s ] as a Greek chorus " to the song . Joey Guerra of the Houston Chronicle noted that " Love a Woman " is a soulful , old @-@ school ballad " that brings out the best in both singers " . Writing that Blige is " particularly heavy " on the R & B vibes of the song , Andrew Martin of Prefix Magazine further commented that " without a doubt , it 's sure to gain some stream whenever radio DJs catch wind of it . Why ? Because ' Love a Woman ' features silky production , strong harmonies , and guest vocals from Beyoncé . Yeah , there 's no stopping this one . " Katie Hasty of HitFix commented that " It 's actually a pretty standard list of grievances and explanations , but the real guts of the thing is when the two light up , to bring out the best vocal performances in each other , shooting you straight back to the 1990s . " Kevin Ritchie of Now gave a mixed review for the song saying that it aims " for posterity rather than chemistry " . Similarly , Adam Markovitz of Entertainment Weekly described the duet as " snoozy " .
= = Charts = =
The song peaked at number eighty nine on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart and spent three weeks in total on that ranking . It also peaked at number 50 on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Digital Songs chart .
= Mount Hope Bay raids =
The Mount Hope Bay raids were a series of military raids conducted by British troops during the American Revolutionary War against communities on the shores of Mount Hope Bay on May 25 and 30 , 1778 . The towns of Bristol and Warren , Rhode Island were significantly damaged , and Freetown , Massachusetts ( present @-@ day Fall River ) was also attacked , although its militia resisted British activities . The British destroyed military defenses in the area , including supplies that had been cached by the Continental Army in anticipation of an assault on British @-@ occupied Newport , Rhode Island . Homes as well as municipal and religious buildings were also destroyed in the raids .
On May 25 , 500 British and Hessian soldiers , under orders from General Sir Robert Pigot , the commander of the British garrison at Newport , Rhode Island , landed between Bristol and Warren , destroyed boats and other supplies , and plundered Bristol . Local resistance was minimal and ineffective in stopping the British activities . Five days later 100 soldiers descended on Freetown , where less damage was done because local defenders prevented the British from crossing a bridge .
= = Background = =
In December 1776 , after completing the conquest of New York City , British Lieutenant General William Howe detached a body of troops from his army which occupied Newport , Rhode Island without significant opposition . The Newport garrison came under the command of Brigadier General Sir Robert Pigot when the original commander , Brigadier General Richard Prescott , was captured in the summer of 1777 in a daring commando operation led by Continental Army Major and Warren , Rhode Island , native William Barton .
Since the British occupation began American and British forces had been in a standoff . Major General Joseph Spencer had been ordered by Major General George Washington to launch an assault on Newport in 1777 , but he had not done so , and was removed from command of the Rhode Island defenses . In March 1778 Congress approved the appointment of Major General John Sullivan to Rhode Island . By early May , Sullivan had arrived in the state and produced a detailed report on the situation there . He also began logistical preparations for an attack on Newport , caching equipment and supplies on the eastern shore of Narragansett Bay and the Taunton River . General Pigot was alerted to Sullivan 's preparations by a local Loyalist , and organized an expedition to raid Bristol and Warren . On the evening of May 24 he ordered a force of 500 British and Hessian soldiers under the command of the 22nd Regiment 's Lieutenant Colonel James Campbell to march to the northern end of Aquidneck Island , from where they took whaleboats across to the mainland .
= = Warren and Bristol raid = =
Arriving early on May 25 , Campbell 's forces landed on Bristol Neck , between Bristol and Warren . Campbell divided his force in two , sending one detachment into Warren , and the other to areas along the Kickemuit River where boats and other supplies were cached . The latter force destroyed 58 of 70 small boats that General Spencer had originally stored there , along with other military supplies and a corn mill . They burned down a bridge that crossed the river , and set fire to a sloop . After the British left , locals put out the fire on the sloop , which only suffered minor damage .
The Warren detachment had expected some resistance upon reaching the town , but Continental Army forces , numbering about 300 under the command of Colonel Archibald Clary , had fled the town upon rumors that the British force was much larger than it actually was . The British destroyed military supplies , and set fire to the local powder magazine . The ensuing explosion destroyed six homes and the town 's meeting house . The troops also burned a sloop and destroyed five cannon . As they marched from the town , the first signs of organized resistance began to appear . The two British detachments rejoined and headed for Bristol .
Word of the British landing had reached Providence , and Colonel Barton immediately sprang into action . Recruiting about 200 volunteers , he rushed south , turned Clary 's retreating force around , and caught up with the British shortly after they left Warren , heading for Bristol . The two forces skirmished as the British marched southward , with both sides incurring minor casualties . The notable exception was Colonel Barton , who took a musket ball that did him sufficient damage that it effectively ended his military career , although he continued to fight on that day . Campbell 's men reached Bristol in good order despite the ongoing skirmishes , and engaged in a destructive rampage . In addition to military supplies and cannon , they destroyed 22 homes and a church , and looted everywhere , making , according to one account , " no distinction between their Friends and Foes " .
Their work completed around noon , the British returned to their boats . They embarked , covered by the guns of the frigate HMS Flora and HM galley Pigot , and returned to Aquidneck Island and Newport . The raid prompted General Sullivan to renew calls to area governors for increased militia assistance . This recruiting did not have material effect before the next raid occurred .
= = Freetown raid = =
Pigot next organized a smaller raiding force to go to lower Freetown ( a portion that was later separated to form Fall River ) . On May 30 , a force of 100 men led by Major Edmund Eyre ( who had served under Campbell in the previous raid ) sailed up the Taunton River into lower Freetown , where they landed near the mouth of the Quequechan River . The local militia was under the command of Colonel Joseph Durfee , a Continental Army veteran , and had established a watch . The British landing was spotted by a sentinel and the alarm was raised . Forty men , including militia from Freetown and nearby Tiverton , mustered to give resistance . Eyre 's men fired grapeshot from a small cannon and slowly pushed the militiamen uphill . As this took place , some of his men proceeded to burn a house , grist mill and sawmill , nine boats , and 15 @,@ 000 feet of planking . The militia eventually reached a bridge across a stream , where about 25 men established a defensive line behind a stone wall on the far side . In a battle lasting about 90 minutes , Durfee 's men repulsed repeated attempts by Eyre 's men to gain control of the bridge . The British soldiers then took one local resident prisoner , set fire to his property , and retreated to their boats . The militia followed , harassing the soldiers with musket fire . The prisoner was eventually released several days later . The British suffered two killed and five wounded in the battle , while the Americans suffered no casualties beyond the one captive .
= = Aftermath = =
The destruction of the boats and supplies was a minor setback to American plans . In mid @-@ July , General Washington informed Sullivan that a French fleet was available to assist in operations against Newport . This had a galvanizing effect on recruiting , and local shipbuilders embarked on a crash boatbuilding program to replace the boats destroyed in the raid . By early August , the French fleet of the Comte d 'Estaing had arrived off Newport , and Sullivan commanded a force of 10 @,@ 000 militia and regular army troops . Bad weather and the timely arrival of a British fleet to oppose d 'Estaing frustrated allied plans . Sullivan , who had occupied the northern part of Aquidneck Island , was forced to retreat by the mass desertion of militia after the French withdrew their fleet and troops . General Pigot then broke out of his lines in pursuit , but Sullivan successfully fought off his attack in the Battle of Rhode Island on August 29 before retreating off Aquidneck Island .
The British occupied Newport until October 1779 , when the garrison was withdrawn for operations elsewhere . The raided communities continued to contribute to the American war effort despite the damage and difficulties caused by the raids .
Major Edmund Eyre , leader of the Freetown raid , was by 1781 promoted to lieutenant colonel , when he again led British forces during a raid on New London and Groton , Connecticut . He was wounded early in the Battle of Groton Heights , and his troops were accused of engaging in atrocities in the aftermath of the battle .
= Goblin shark =
The goblin shark ( Mitsukurina owstoni ) is a rare species of deep @-@ sea shark . Sometimes called a " living fossil " , it is the only extant representative of the family Mitsukurinidae , a lineage some 125 million years old . This pink @-@ skinned animal has a distinctive profile with an elongated , flattened snout , and highly protrusible jaws containing prominent nail @-@ like teeth . It is usually between 3 and 4 m ( 10 and 13 ft ) long when mature , though it can grow considerably larger . Goblin sharks inhabit upper continental slopes , submarine canyons , and seamounts throughout the world at depths greater than 100 m ( 330 ft ) , with adults found deeper than juveniles .
Various anatomical features of the goblin shark , such as its flabby body and small fins , suggest that it is sluggish in nature . This species hunts for teleost fishes , cephalopods , and crustaceans both near the sea floor and in the middle of the water column . Its long snout is covered with ampullae of Lorenzini that enable it to sense minute electric fields produced by nearby prey , which it can snatch up by rapidly extending its jaws . Small numbers of goblin sharks are unintentionally caught by deepwater fisheries . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed it as Least Concern , despite of its rarity , citing its wide distribution and low incidence of capture .
= = Taxonomy = =
American ichthyologist David Starr Jordan described the goblin shark in an 1898 issue of Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences , recognizing the peculiar fish not only as a new species , but also a new genus and family . He based his account on an immature male 107 cm ( 42 in ) long caught in Sagami Bay near Yokohama , Japan . The specimen had been acquired by shipmaster and naturalist Alan Owston , who had given it to Professor Kakichi Mitsukuri at the University of Tokyo , who in turn had brought it to Jordan . Thus , Jordan named the shark Mitsukurina owstoni in honor of these two men . The common name " goblin shark " is a translation of its old Japanese name tenguzame , a tengu being a Japanese mythical creature often depicted with a long nose and red face . Another name for this species is elfin shark .
Shortly after Jordan 's description was published , several scientists noted the similarity between Mitsukurina and the extinct Mesozoic shark Scapanorhynchus . For a time , the prevailing view was to treat Mitsukurina as a junior synonym of Scapanorhynchus . Eventually , more complete fossils revealed many anatomical differences between Scapanorhynchus and Mitsukurina , leading modern authors to again regard them as distinct genera . Several goblin shark specimens were described as separate species from 1904 to 1937 , none of which are now considered valid . This taxonomic confusion arose because the specimens ' jaws were fixed at varying degrees of protrusion during preservation , giving the appearance of proportional differences in the head .
= = Phylogeny and evolution = =
Phylogenetic studies based on morphology have generally placed the goblin shark as the most basal member of the order Lamniformes , known as mackerel sharks . Studies using genetic data have also supported a basal position for this species . The family Mitsukurinidae , represented by Mitsukurina , Scapanorhynchus , and Anomotodon , dates back to the Aptian age of the Cretaceous period ( c . 125 – 113 Ma ) . Mitsukurina itself first appears in the fossil record during the Middle Eocene ( c . 49 – 37 Ma ) ; extinct species include M. lineata and M. maslinensis . Striatolamia macrota , which lived in warm shallow waters during the Paleogene ( c . 66 – 23 Ma ) , may also be a Mitsukurina species . As the last member of an ancient lineage , and one that retains several " primitive " traits , the goblin shark has been described as a " living fossil " .
= = Description = =
The goblin shark has a distinctively long and flat snout , resembling a sword blade . The proportional length of the snout decreases with age . The eyes are small and lack protective nictitating membranes ; behind the eyes are spiracles . The large mouth is parabolic in shape . The jaws are highly protrusible and can be extended almost to the end of the snout , though normally they are held flush against the underside of the head . It has 35 – 53 upper and 31 – 62 lower tooth rows . The teeth in the main part of the jaws are long and narrow , particularly those near the symphysis ( jaw midpoint ) , and are finely grooved lengthwise . The rear teeth near the corners of the jaw are small and have a flattened shape for crushing . Much individual variation in tooth length and width occurs , in whether the teeth have a smaller cusplet on each side of the main cusp , and in the presence of toothless gaps at the symphysis or between the main and rear teeth . The five pairs of gill slits are short , with the gill filaments inside partly exposed ; the fifth pair is above the origin of the pectoral fins .
The body is fairly slender and flabby . The two dorsal fins are similar in size and shape , both being small and rounded . The pectoral fins are also rather small and rounded . The pelvic and anal fins have long bases and are larger than the dorsal fins . The caudal peduncle is flattened from side @-@ to @-@ side and lacks keels or notches . The asymmetric caudal fin has a long upper lobe with a shallow ventral notch near the tip , and an indistinct lower lobe . The soft , semitranslucent skin has a rough texture from a covering of dermal denticles , each shaped like a short upright spine with lengthwise ridges . In life , this species is pink or tan due to visible blood vessels beneath the skin ; the color deepens with age , and young sharks may be almost white . The fins ' margins are translucent gray or blue , and the eyes are black with bluish streaks in the iris . After death , the coloration quickly fades to dull gray or brown . Adult sharks usually measure between 3 and 4 m ( 9 @.@ 8 and 13 @.@ 1 ft ) long . However , the capture of an enormous female estimated at 5 @.@ 4 – 6 @.@ 2 m ( 18 – 20 ft ) long in 2000 showed this species can grow far larger than previously suspected . The maximum weight on record is 210 kg ( 460 lb ) for a 3 @.@ 8 @-@ m @-@ long shark .
= = = Etymology = = =
The generic name honors Keigo Mitsukuri , a Japanese zoologist who studied at University College London during the 1860s . The specific name honors Alan Owston , an English collector of Asian wildlife .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The goblin shark has been caught in all three major oceans , indicating a wide global distribution . In the Atlantic Ocean , it has been recorded from the northern Gulf of Mexico , Suriname , French Guiana , and southern Brazil in the west , and France , Portugal , Madeira , and Senegal in the east . It has also been collected from seamounts along the Mid @-@ Atlantic Ridge . In the Indo @-@ Pacific and Oceania , it has been found off South Africa , Mozambique , Japan , Taiwan , Australia and New Zealand . A single eastern Pacific specimen is known , collected off southern California . This species is most often found over the upper continental slope at depths of 270 – 960 m ( 890 – 3 @,@ 150 ft ) . It has been caught as deep as 1 @,@ 300 m ( 4 @,@ 300 ft ) , and a tooth has been found lodged in an undersea cable at a depth of 1 @,@ 370 m ( 4 @,@ 490 ft ) . Adults inhabit greater depths than juveniles . Immature goblin sharks frequent the submarine canyons off southern Japan at depths of 100 – 350 m ( 330 – 1 @,@ 150 ft ) , with individuals occasionally wandering into inshore waters as shallow as 40 m ( 130 ft ) . In April 2014 , fishermen in Key West , Florida , while fishing in the Gulf of Mexico caught a goblin shark in their fishing net , only the second one ever to be caught in the Gulf . The shark was photographed and released back into the water .
In July 2014 , a goblin shark was found in a fishery net in Sri Lanka , reported in Valaichchenai eastern coastal line in Sri Lanka . The shark was about 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) long and weighed about 7 @.@ 5 kg ( 17 lb ) The shark was given to the NARA ( National Aquatic Resource Research & Development Agency ) for further research .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Although observations of living goblin sharks are scant , its anatomy suggests its lifestyle is inactive and sluggish . Its skeleton is reduced and poorly calcified , the muscle blocks along its sides ( myomeres ) are weakly developed , and its fins are soft and small . Its long caudal fin , held at a low angle , is also typical of a slow @-@ swimming shark . The long snout appears to have a sensory function , as it bears numerous ampullae of Lorenzini that can detect the weak electric fields produced by other animals . Due to the snout 's lack of rigidity , it is unlikely to be used for stirring up prey from the bottom as has been proposed . Vision seems to be less important than other senses , considering the relatively small optic tectum in the shark 's brain . Yet unlike most deep @-@ sea sharks , it can change the size of its pupils , thus probably does use its sight in some situations . Goblin sharks may fall prey to the blue shark ( Prionace glauca ) . Parasites documented from this species include the copepod Echthrogaleus mitsukurinae , and the tapeworms Litobothrium amsichensis and Marsupiobothrium gobelinus .
= = = Feeding = = =
The goblin shark feeds mainly on teleost fishes such as rattails and dragonfishes . It also consumes cephalopods and crustaceans , including decapods and isopods . Garbage has been recorded from the stomachs of some specimens . Its known prey includes bottom @-@ dwelling species such as the blackbelly rosefish ( Helicolenus dactylopterus ) , and midwater species such as the squid Teuthowenia pellucida and the ostracod Macrocypridina castanea rotunda . Thus , the goblin shark appears to forage for food both near the sea floor and far above it .
Since it is not a fast swimmer , the goblin shark may be an ambush predator . Its low @-@ density flesh and large oily liver make it neutrally buoyant , allowing it to drift towards its prey with minimal motions so as to avoid detection . Once prey comes into range , the shark 's specialized jaws can snap forward to capture it . The protrusion of the jaw is assisted by two pairs of elastic ligaments associated with the mandibular joint , which are pulled taut when the jaws are in their normal retracted position ; when the shark bites , the ligaments release their tension and essentially " catapult " the jaws forward . At the same time , the well @-@ developed basihyal ( analogous to a tongue ) on the floor of the mouth drops , expanding the oral cavity and sucking in water and prey .
= = = Life history = = =
Little is known about goblin shark reproduction because a pregnant female has yet to be found and studied . It likely shares the reproductive characteristics of other mackerel sharks , which are viviparous with small litter sizes and embryos that grow during gestation by eating undeveloped eggs ( oophagy ) . The birth size is probably close to 82 cm ( 32 in ) , the length of the smallest known specimen . Males mature sexually at about 2 @.@ 6 m ( 8 @.@ 5 ft ) long , while female maturation size is unknown . No data is available on growth and aging .
= = Human interactions = =
Given the depths at which it lives , the goblin shark poses no danger to humans . A few specimens have been collected alive and brought to public aquariums , though they survived only a short time . One was kept at Tokai University and lived for a week , while another was kept at Tokyo Sea Life Park and lived for two days . Its economic significance is minimal ; the meat may be dried and salted , while the jaws fetch high prices from collectors . At one time , the Japanese also used it for liver oil and fertilizer . This shark is not targeted by any fisheries , but is occasionally found as bycatch in bottom gillnets and trawls , hooked on longlines , or entangled in fishing gear . Most captures are isolated incidents ; one of the few areas where it is caught regularly is off southern Japan , where around 30 individuals ( mostly juveniles ) are taken each year . A black scabbardfish ( Aphanopus carbo ) fishery off Madeira also takes two or three goblin sharks annually . In April 2003 , over a hundred goblin sharks were caught off northwestern Taiwan ; the cause of the event was unknown , though observers noted it was preceded by a major earthquake . The species had never been recorded in the area before , nor has it been found in such numbers since . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed the goblin shark under Least Concern . In addition to its wide range , most of its population is thought to reside in unfished environments because few adults are caught . Therefore , it is not believed to be threatened by human activity .
= Facundo =
Facundo : Civilization and Barbarism ( original Spanish title : Facundo : Civilización y Barbarie ) is a book written in 1845 by Domingo Faustino Sarmiento , a writer and journalist who became the seventh president of Argentina . It is a cornerstone of Latin American literature : a work of creative non @-@ fiction that helped to define the parameters for thinking about the region 's development , modernization , power , and culture . Subtitled Civilization and Barbarism , Facundo contrasts civilization and barbarism as seen in early 19th @-@ century Argentina . Literary critic Roberto González Echevarría calls the work " the most important book written by a Latin American in any discipline or genre " .
Facundo describes the life of Juan Facundo Quiroga , a gaucho who had terrorized provincial Argentina in the 1820s and 1830s . Kathleen Ross , one of Facundo 's English translators , points out that the author also published Facundo to " denounce the tyranny of the Argentine dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas " . Juan Manuel de Rosas ruled Argentina from 1829 to 1832 and again from 1835 to 1852 ; it was because of Rosas that Sarmiento was in exile in Chile , where he wrote the book . Sarmiento sees Rosas as heir to Facundo : both are caudillos and representatives of a barbarism that derives from the nature of the Argentine countryside . As Ross explains , Sarmiento 's book is therefore engaged in describing the " Argentine national character , explaining the effects of Argentina 's geographical conditions on personality , the ' barbaric ' nature of the countryside versus the ' civilizing ' influence of the city , and the great future awaiting Argentina when it opened its doors wide to European immigration " .
Throughout the text , Sarmiento explores the dichotomy between civilization and barbarism . As Kimberly Ball observes , " civilization is identified with northern Europe , North America , cities , Unitarians , Paz , and Rivadavia " , while " barbarism is identified with Latin America , Spain , Asia , the Middle East , the countryside , Federalists , Facundo , and Rosas " . It is in the way that Facundo articulates this opposition that Sarmiento 's book has had such a profound influence . In the words of González Echevarría : " in proposing the dialectic between civilization and barbarism as the central conflict in Latin American culture Facundo gave shape to a polemic that began in the colonial period and continues to the present day " .
The first edition of Facundo was published in instalments in 1845 . Sarmiento removed the last two chapters of the second edition ( 1851 ) , but restored them in the 1874 edition , deciding that they were important to the book 's development .
The first translation into English , by Mary Mann , was published in 1868 . A modern and complete translation by Kathleen Ross appeared in 2003 from the University of California Press .
= = Background = =
While exiled in Chile , Sarmiento wrote Facundo in 1845 as an attack on Juan Manuel de Rosas , the Argentine dictator at the time . The book was a critical analysis of Argentine culture as he saw it , represented in men such as Rosas and the regional leader Juan Facundo Quiroga , a warlord from La Rioja . For Sarmiento , Rosas and Quiroga were caudillos — strongmen who did not submit to the law . However , if Facundo 's portrait is linked to the wild nature of the countryside , Rosas is depicted as an opportunist who exploits the situation to perpetuate himself in power .
Sarmiento 's book is a critique and also a symptom of Argentina 's cultural conflicts . In 1810 , the country had gained independence from the Spanish Empire , but Sarmiento complains that Argentina had yet to cohere as a unified entity . The country 's chief political division saw the Unitarists ( or Unitarians , with whom Sarmiento sided ) , who favored centralization , counterposed against the Federalists , who believed that the regions should maintain a good measure of autonomy . This division was in part a split between the city and the countryside . Then as now , Buenos Aires was the country ’ s largest and wealthiest city as a result of its access to river trade routes and the South Atlantic . Buenos Aires was exposed not only to trade but to fresh ideas and European culture . These economic and cultural differences caused tension between Buenos Aires and the land @-@ locked regions of the country . Despite his Unitarian sympathies , Sarmiento himself came from the provinces , a native of the Western town of San Juan .
= = = Argentine civil war = = =
Argentina 's divisions led to a civil war that began in 1814 . A frail agreement was reached in the early 1820s , which led to the unification of the Republic just in time to wage the Cisplatine War against the Empire of Brazil , but the relations between the Provinces reached again the point of breaking @-@ off in 1826 , when Unitarist Bernardino Rivadavia was elected president and tried to enforce a newly enacted centralist Constitution . Supporters of decentralized government challenged the Unitarist Party , leading to the outbreak of violence . Federalists Juan Facundo Quiroga and Manuel Dorrego wanted more autonomy for the provinces and were inclined to reject European culture . The Unitarists defended Rivadavia ’ s presidency , as it created educational opportunities for rural inhabitants through a European @-@ staffed university program . However , under Rivadavia 's rule , the salaries of common laborers were subjected to government wage ceilings , and the gauchos ( " cattle @-@ wrangling horsemen of the pampas " ) were either imprisoned or forced to work without pay .
A series of governors were installed and replaced beginning in 1828 with the appointment of Federalist Manuel Dorrego as the governor of Buenos Aires . However , Dorrego 's government was very soon overthrown and replaced by that of Unitarist Juan Lavalle . Lavalle 's rule ended when he was defeated by a militia of gauchos led by Rosas . By the end of 1829 , the legislature had appointed Rosas as governor of Buenos Aires . Under Rosas 's rule , many intellectuals fled either to Chile , as did Sarmiento , or to Uruguay , as Sarmiento himself notes .
= = = Juan Manuel de Rosas = = =
According to Latin American historian John Lynch , Juan Manuel de Rosas was " a landowner , a rural caudillo , and the dictator of Buenos Aires from 1829 to 1852 " . He was born into a wealthy family of high social status , but Rosas 's strict upbringing had a deep psychological influence on him . Sarmiento asserts that because of Rosas 's mother , " the spectacle of authority and servitude must have left lasting impressions on him " . Shortly after reaching puberty , Rosas was sent to an estancia and stayed there for about thirty years . In time , he learned how to manage the ranch and he established an authoritarian government in the area . While in power , Rosas incarcerated residents for unspecified reasons , acts which Sarmiento argues were similar to Rosas 's treatment of cattle . Sarmiento argues that this was one method of making his citizens like the " tamest , most orderly cattle known " .
Juan Manuel de Rosas 's first term as governor lasted only three years . His rule , assisted by Juan Facundo Quiroga and Estanislao López , was respected and he was praised for his ability to maintain harmony between Buenos Aires and the rural areas . The country fell into disorder after Rosas 's resignation in 1832 , and in 1835 he was once again called to lead the country . He ruled the country not as he did during his first term as governor , but as a dictator , forcing all citizens to support his Federalist regime . According to Nicolas Shumway , Rosas " forced the citizens to wear the red Federalist insignia , and his picture appeared in all public places ... Rosas 's enemies , real and imagined , were increasingly imprisoned , tortured , murdered , or driven into exile by the mazorca , a band of spies and thugs supervised personally by Rosas . Publications were censored , and porteño newspapers became tedious apologizers for the regime " .
= = = Domingo Faustino Sarmiento = = =
In Facundo , Sarmiento is both the narrator and a main character . The book contains autobiographical elements from Sarmiento ’ s life , and he comments on the entire Argentine circumstance . He also expresses and analyzes his own opinion and chronicles some historic events . Within the book 's dichotomy between civilization and barbarism , Sarmiento 's character represents civilization , steeped as he is in European and North American ideas ; he stands for education and development , as opposed to Rosas and Facundo , who symbolize barbarism .
Sarmiento was an educator , a civilized man who was a militant adherent to the Unitarist movement . During the Argentine civil war he fought against Facundo several times , and while in Spain he became a member of the Literary Society of Professors . Exiled to Chile by Rosas when he started to write Facundo , Sarmiento would later return as a politician . He was a member of the Senate after Rosas 's fall and president of Argentina for six years ( 1868 – 1874 ) . During his presidency , Sarmiento concentrated on migration , sciences , and culture . His ideas were based on European civilization ; for him , the development of a country was rooted in education . To this end , he founded Argentina 's military and naval colleges .
= = Synopsis = =
After a lengthy introduction , Facundo 's fifteen chapters divide broadly into three sections : chapters one to four outline Argentine geography , anthropology , and history ; chapters five to fourteen recount the life of Juan Facundo Quiroga ; and the concluding chapter expounds Sarmiento 's vision of a future for Argentina under a Unitarist government . In Sarmiento 's words , the reason why he chose to provide Argentine context and use Facundo Quiroga to condemn Rosas 's dictatorship is that " in Facundo Quiroga I do not only see simply a caudillo , but rather a manifestation of Argentine life as it has been made by colonization and the peculiarities of the land " .
= = = Argentine context = = =
Facundo begins with a geographical description of Argentina , from the Andes in the west to the eastern Atlantic coast , where two main river systems converge at the boundary between Argentina and Uruguay . This river estuary , called the Rio de Plata , is the location of Buenos Aires , the capital . Through his discussion of Argentina 's geography , Sarmiento demonstrates Buenos Aires ' advantages ; the river systems were communications arteries which , by enabling trade , helped the city to achieve civilization . Buenos Aires failed to spread civilization to the rural areas and as a result , much of the rest of Argentina was doomed to barbarism . Sarmiento also argues that the pampas , Argentina ’ s wide and empty plains , provided " no place for people to escape and hide for defense and this prohibits civilization in most parts of Argentina " . Despite the barriers to civilization caused by Argentina ’ s geography , Sarmiento argues that many of the country 's problems were caused by gauchos like Juan Manuel de Rosas , who were barbaric , uneducated , ignorant , and arrogant ; their character prevented Argentine society 's progress toward civilization . Sarmiento then describes the four main types of gaucho and these characterizations aid in understanding Argentine leaders , such as Juan Manuel de Rosas . Sarmiento argues that without an understanding of these Argentine character types , " it is impossible to understand our political personages , or the primordial , American character of the bloody struggle that tears apart the Argentine Republic " .
Sarmiento then moves on to the Argentine peasants , who are " independent of all need , free of all subjection , with no idea of government " . The peasants gather at taverns , where they spend their time drinking and gambling . They display their eagerness to prove their physical strength with horsemanship and knife fights . Rarely these displays led to deaths , and Sarmiento notes that Rosas 's residence was sometimes used as a refuge on such occasions , before he became politically powerful .
According to Sarmiento , these elements are crucial to an understanding of the Argentine Revolution , in which Argentina gained independence from Spain . Although Argentina ’ s war of independence was prompted by the influence of European ideas , Buenos Aires was the only city that could achieve civilization . Rural people participated in the war to demonstrate their physical strengths rather than because they wanted to civilize the country . In the end , the revolution was a failure because the barbaric instincts of the rural population led to the loss and dishonor of the civilized city — Buenos Aires .
= = = Life of Juan Facundo Quiroga = = =
The second section of Facundo explores the life of its titular character , Juan Facundo Quiroga — the " Tiger of the Plains " . Despite being born into a wealthy family , Facundo received only a basic education in reading and writing . He loved gambling , being called el jugador ( the player ) — in fact , Sarmiento describes his gambling as " an ardent passion burning in his belly " . As a youth Facundo was antisocial and rebellious , refusing to mix with other children , and these traits became more pronounced as he matured . Sarmiento describes an incident in which Facundo killed a man , writing that this type of behaviour " marked his passage through the world " . Sarmiento gives a physical description of the man he considers to personify the caudillo : " [ he had a ] short and well built stature ; his broad shoulders supported , on a short neck , a well @-@ formed head covered with very thick , black and curly hair " , with " eyes ... full of fire " .
Facundo 's relations with his family eventually broke down , and , taking on the life of a gaucho , he joined the caudillos in the province of Entre Ríos . His killing of two Spaniards after a jailbreak saw him acclaimed as a hero among the gauchos , and on relocating to La Rioja , Facundo was appointed to a leadership position in the Llanos Militia . He built his reputation and won his comrades ' respect through his fierce battlefield performances , but hated and tried to destroy those who differed from him by being civilized and well @-@ educated .
In 1825 , when Unitarist Bernardino Rivadavia became the governor of the Buenos Aires province , he held a meeting with representatives from all provinces in Argentina . Facundo was present as the governor of La Rioja . Rivadavia was soon overthrown , and Manuel Dorrego became the new governor . Sarmiento contends that Dorrego , a Federalist , was interested neither in social progress nor in ending barbaric behaviour in Argentina by improving the level of civilization and education of its rural inhabitants . In the turmoil that characterized Argentine politics at the time , Dorrego was assassinated by Unitarists and Facundo was defeated by Unitarist General José María Paz . Facundo escaped to Buenos Aires and joined the Federalist government of Juan Manuel de Rosas . During the ensuing civil war between the two ideologies , Facundo conquered the provinces of San Luis , Cordoba and Mendoza .
On return to his San Juan home , which Sarmiento says Facundo governed " solely with his terrifying name " , he realized that his government lacked support from Rosas . He went to Buenos Aires to confront Rosas , who sent him on another political mission . On his way back , Facundo was shot and killed at Barranca Yaco , Córdoba . According to Sarmiento , the murder was plotted by Rosas : " An impartial history still awaits facts and revelations , in order to point its finger at the instigator of the assassins " .
= = = Consequences of Facundo 's death = = =
In the book 's final chapters , Sarmiento explores the consequences of Facundo 's death for the history and politics of the Argentine Republic . He further analyzes Rosas 's government and personality , commenting on dictatorship , tyranny , the role of popular support , and the use of force to maintain order . Sarmiento criticizes Rosas by using the words of the dictator , making sarcastic remarks about Rosas 's actions , and describing the " terror " established during the dictatorship , the contradictions of the government , and the situation in the provinces that were ruled by Facundo . Sarmiento writes , " The red ribbon is a materialization of the terror that accompanies you everywhere , in the streets , in the bosom of the family ; it must be thought about when dressing , when undressing , and ideas are always engraved upon us by association " .
Finally , Sarmiento examines the legacy of Rosas 's government by attacking the dictator and widening the civilization – barbarism dichotomy . By setting France against Argentina — representing civilization and barbarism respectively — Sarmiento contrasts culture and savagery :
France 's blockade had lasted for two years , and the ' American ' government , inspired by ' American ' spirit , was facing off with France , European principles , European pretensions . The social results of the French blockade , however , had been fruitful for the Argentine Republic , and served to demonstrate in all their nakedness the current state of mind and the new elements of struggle , which were to ignite a fierce war that can end only with the fall of that monstrous government .
= = Genre and style = =
Spanish critic and philosopher Miguel de Unamuno comments of the book , " I never took Facundo by Sarmiento as a historical work , nor do I think it can be very valued in that regard . I always thought of it as a literary work , as a historical novel " . However , Facundo cannot be classified as a novel or a specific genre of literature . According to González Echevarría , the book is at once an " essay , biography , autobiography , novel , epic , memoir , confession , political pamphlet , diatribe , scientific treatise , [ and ] travelogue " . Sarmiento 's style and his exploration of the life of Facundo unify the three distinct parts of his work . Even the first section , describing Argentina 's geography , follows this pattern , since Sarmiento contends that Facundo is a natural product of this environment .
The book is partly fictional , as well : Sarmiento draws on his imagination in addition to historical fact in describing Rosas . In Facundo , Sarmiento outlines his argument that Rosas 's dictatorship is the main cause of Argentina 's problems . The themes of barbarism and savagery that run through the book are , to Sarmiento , consequences of Rosas 's dictatorial government . To make his case , Sarmiento often has recourse to strategies drawn from literature .
= = Themes = =
= = = Civilization and barbarism = = =
Facundo is not only a critique of Rosas 's dictatorship , but a broader investigation into Argentine history and culture , which Sarmiento charts through the rise , controversial rule , and downfall of Juan Facundo Quiroga , an archetypical Argentine caudillo . Sarmiento summarizes the book 's message in the phrase " That is the point : to be or not to be savages " . The dichotomy between civilization and barbarism is the book 's central idea ; Facundo Quiroga is portrayed as wild , untamed , and standing opposed to true progress through his rejection of European cultural ideals — found at that time in the metropolitan society of Buenos Aires .
The conflict between civilization and barbarism mirrors Latin America 's difficulties in the post @-@ Independence era . Literary critic Sorensen Goodrich argues that although Sarmiento was not the first to articulate this dichotomy , he forged it into a powerful and prominent theme that would impact Latin American literature . He explores the issue of civilization versus the cruder aspects of a caudillo culture of brutality and absolute power . Facundo set forth an oppositional message that promoted a more beneficial alternative for society at large . Although Sarmiento advocated various changes , such as honest officials who understood enlightenment ideas of European and Classical origin , for him education was the key . Caudillos like Facundo Quiroga are seen , at the beginning of the book , as the antithesis of education , high culture , and civil stability ; barbarism was like a never ending litany of social ills . They are the agents of instability and chaos , destroying societies through their blatant disregard for humanity and social progress .
If Sarmiento viewed himself as civilized , Rosas was barbaric . Historian David Rock argues that " contemporary opponents reviled Rosas as a bloody tyrant and a symbol of barbarism " . Sarmiento attacked Rosas through his book by promoting education and " civilized " status , whereas Rosas used political power and brute force to dispose of any kind of hindrance . In linking Europe with civilization , and civilization with education , Sarmiento conveyed an admiration of European culture and civilization which at the same time gave him a sense of dissatisfaction with his own culture , motivating him to drive it towards civilization . Using the wilderness of the pampas to reinforce his social analysis , he characterizes those who were isolated and opposed to political dialogue as ignorant and anarchic — symbolized by Argentina 's desolate physical geography . Conversely , Latin America was connected to barbarism , which Sarmiento used mainly to illustrate the way in which Argentina was disconnected from the numerous resources surrounding it , limiting the growth of the country .
American critic Doris Sommer sees a connection between Facundo 's ideology and Sarmiento 's readings of Fenimore Cooper . She links Sarmiento 's remarks on modernization and culture to the American discourse of expansion and progress of the 19th century .
= = = Writing and power = = =
In the history of post @-@ independence Latin America , dictatorships have been relatively common — examples range from Paraguay 's José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia in the 19th century to Chile 's Augusto Pinochet in the 20th . In this context , Latin American literature has been distinguished by the protest novel , or dictator novel ; the main story is based around the dictator figure , his behaviour , characteristics and the situation of the people under his regime . Writers such as Sarmiento used the power of the written word in order to criticize government , using literature as a tool , an instance of resistance and as a weapon against repression .
Making use of the connection between writing and power was one of Sarmiento 's strategies . For him , writing was intended to be a catalyst for action . While the gauchos fought with physical weapons , Sarmiento used his voice and language . Sorensen states that Sarmiento used " text as [ a ] weapon " . Sarmiento was writing not only for Argentina but for a wider audience too , especially the United States and Europe ; in his view , these regions were close to civilization ; his purpose was to seduce his readers toward his own political viewpoint . In the numerous translations of Facundo , Sarmiento 's association of writing with power and conquest is apparent .
Since his books often serve as vehicles for his political manifesto , Sarmiento 's writings commonly mock governments , with Facundo being the most prominent example . He elevates his own status at the expense of the ruling elite , almost portraying himself as invincible due to the power of writing . Toward the end of 1840 , Sarmiento was exiled for his political views . Covered with bruises received the day before from unruly soldiers , he wrote in French , " On ne tue point les idees " ( misquoted from " on ne tire pas des coups de fusil aux idees " , which means " ideas cannot be killed by guns " ) . The government decided to decipher the message , and on learning the translation , said , " So ! What does this mean ? " . With the failure of his oppressors to understand his meaning , Sarmiento is able to illustrate their ineptitude . His words are presented as a " code " that needs to be " deciphered " , and unlike Sarmiento those in power are barbaric and uneducated . Their bafflement not only demonstrates their general ignorance , but also , according to Sorensen , illustrates " the fundamental displacement which any cultural transplantation brings about " , since Argentine rural inhabitants and Rosas 's associates were unable to accept the civilized culture which Sarmiento believed would lead to progress in Argentina .
= = Legacy = =
For translator Kathleen Ross , Facundo is " one of the foundational works of Spanish American literary history " . It has been enormously influential in setting out a " blueprint for modernization " , with its practical message enhanced by a " tremendous beauty and passion " . However , according to literary critic González Echevarría it is not only a powerful founding text but " the first Latin American classic , and the most important book written about Latin America by a Latin American in any discipline or genre " . The book 's political influence can be seen in Sarmiento ’ s eventual rise to power . He became president of Argentina in 1868 and was finally able to apply his theories to ensure that his nation achieved civilization . Although Sarmiento wrote several books , he viewed Facundo as authorizing his political views .
According to Sorensen , " early readers of Facundo were deeply influenced by the struggles that preceded and followed Rosas 's dictatorship , and their views sprang from their relationship to the strife for interpretive and political hegemony " . González Echevarría notes that Facundo provided the impetus for other writers to examine dictatorship in Latin America , and contends that it is still read today because Sarmiento created " a voice for modern Latin American authors " . The reason for this , according to González Echevarría , is that " Latin American authors struggle with its legacy , rewriting Facundo in their works even as they try to untangle themselves from its discourse " . Subsequent dictator novels , such as El Señor Presidente by Miguel Ángel Asturias and The Feast of the Goat by Mario Vargas Llosa , drew upon its ideas , and a knowledge of Facundo enhances the reader ’ s understanding of these later books .
One irony of the impact of Sarmiento 's essay genre and fictional literature is that , according to González Echevarría , the gaucho has become " an object of nostalgia , a lost origin around which to build a national mythology " . While Sarmiento was trying to eliminate the gaucho , he also transformed him into a " national symbol " . González Echevarría further argues that Juan Facundo Quiroga also continues to exist , since he represents " our unresolved struggle between good and evil and our lives ' inexorable drive toward death " . According to translator Kathleen Ross , " Facundo continues to inspire controversy and debate because it contributes to national myths of modernization , anti @-@ populism , and racist ideology " .
= = Publication and translation history = =
The first edition of Facundo was published in instalments in 1845 , in the literary supplement of the Chilean newspaper El Progreso . The second edition , also published in Chile ( in 1851 ) , contained significant alterations — Sarmiento removed the last two chapters on the advice of Valentín Alsina , an exiled Argentinian lawyer and politician . However the missing sections reappeared in 1874 in a later edition , because Sarmiento saw them as crucial to the book 's development .
Facundo was first translated in 1868 , by Mary Mann , with the title Life in the Argentine Republic in the Days of the Tyrants ; or , Civilization and Barbarism . More recently , Kathleen Ross has undertaken a modern and complete translation , published in 2003 by the University of California Press . In Ross 's " Translator 's Introduction , " she notes that Mann 's 19th @-@ century version of the text was influenced by Mann 's friendship with Sarmiento and by the fact that he was at the time a candidate in the Argentine presidential election : " Mann wished to further her friend 's cause abroad by presenting Sarmiento as an admirer and emulator of United States political and cultural institutions " . Hence this translation cut much of what made Sarmiento 's work distinctively part of the Hispanic tradition . Ross continues : " Mann 's elimination of metaphor , the stylistic device perhaps most characteristic of Sarmiento 's prose , is especially striking " .
= 1981 Pacific typhoon season =
The 1981 Pacific typhoon season has no official bounds ; it ran year @-@ round in 1981 , but most tropical cyclones tend to form in the northwestern Pacific Ocean between May and November . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northwestern Pacific Ocean . Tropical Storms formed in the entire west pacific basin were assigned a name by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center . Tropical depressions that enter or form in the Philippine area of responsibility are assigned a name by the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration or PAGASA . This can often result in the same storm having two names .
A total of 35 tropical depressions formed this year in the Western Pacific , of which 29 became tropical storms . Of the 29 , 13 storms reached typhoon intensity , of which 2 reached super typhoon strength . Seven tropical cyclones moved through the Philippines this season . The first tropical cyclone formed on March 11 , with the final tropical cyclone dissipating December 28 . Tropical cyclones only accounted for 12 percent of the rainfall in Hong Kong this season , the lowest percentage for the protectorate since 1972 .
= = Season summary = =
The season started with Freda , which became the fourth March typhoon for the basin since 1959 . The system passed west of Wake Island before dissipating on March 17 . Gerald formed in mid @-@ April near an upper level low , and recurved just east of Guam bringing the island heavy rainfall . Holly formed in the middle of the tropical Pacific ocean in late April , and dissipated far from land on May 7 . Ike was the first system to form in the South China Sea , living during the second week of June before recurving across Taiwan and becoming an extratropical cyclone . June formed during the third week of June , and moved just east of Taiwan before approaching Japan as a nontropical cyclone . Kelly crossed the Philippines on July 1 , moving into Vietnam on July 4 . Lynn moved nearby the northern Philippines before making landfall in mainland China on July 7 . Maury tracked near Taiwan , China , and eventually Vietnam as a remnant low during the third and fourth weeks of July . Nina formed on the northeast fringe of Maury , also moving into mainland China on July 23 , three days after Maury . Ogden moved into Japan at the end of July , approaching Korea early in August .
Tropical Depression 11 formed in the tropical west Pacific , dissipating well east of Asia on August 2 . Phyllis formed and remained southeast of Japan on August 3 and August 4 . Roy meandered around the South China Sea between August 3 and August 9 . Susan moved northwest through the open western Pacific during the second week of August . Thad moved north @-@ northeast through its life cycle , moving through Japan on August 23 . Vanessa moved northeast through the open western Pacific in mid @-@ August . Warren moved west @-@ northwest through Hainan Island and northern Vietnam during the third week of August . Agnes moved extremely close to eastern China before dissipating on September 1 . Bill recurved southeast of Japan during the first week of September . Clara moved west @-@ northwest near Luzon and into mainland China during the third week of September .
Doyle moved through the central Pacific during the third week of September . Elsie recurved south of Japan during the beginning of October . Fabian moved westward through the Philippines into Vietnam during the second week of October . Gay recurved near the Japanese coast on October 21 and 22 . A tropical depression moved west @-@ northwest into Vietnam on November 11 . Hazen moved across the Central Philippines into mainland China by November 23 . Irma moved across the northern Philippines and then south of Taiwan during late November . Jeff recurved east of mainland Asia during late November . Kit moved erratically westward towards the Philippines during mid @-@ December . Lee moved across the central Philippines , dissipating across the South China Sea on December 28 .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Depression Atring = = =
= = = Typhoon Freda = = =
Freda was the first tropical cyclone in the western Pacific in 1981 and the fourth typhoon to occur in March since 1959 . The incipient disturbance was nearly stationary near the Gilbert Islands for a few days , before drifting northwest and slowly intensifying . During the morning of the March 11 it was upgraded to a tropical depression . It tracked along the periphery of the subtropical ridge with slow development for the next few days . On March 14 intensification became more rapid and Freda became a typhoon . Passing 120 kilometres ( 75 mi ) west of Wake Island with maximum sustained winds of 100 knots ( 190 km / h ) intensity , the island sustained wind gusts to typhoon force and waves to 6 metres ( 20 ft ) . As the typhoon moved more northeast , the cyclone weakened , and Freda was absorbed by March 17 into another extratropical cyclone .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Gerald = = =
This cyclone initially formed in response to a mid to upper level cyclone southeast of Ponape on April 12 . Thunderstorms developed near the upper level system , and an outflow pattern was present on satellite imagery , but a surface circulation did not materialize until April 15 . The system became a tropical depression by that night . Steady intensification was seen until around midday on April 17 when a new upper level high formed to its east , inducing southerly vertical wind shear . Weakening began while the storm was located about 130 kilometres ( 81 mi ) east of Guam late on April 18 . Moderate to heavy rainfall did occur on the island , with 76 @.@ 2 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 00 in ) to 127 millimetres ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) being measured . After passing Guam , the remaining thunderstorm activity sheared away , leaving a low @-@ level swirl which moved northwest . The cyclone was absorbed by a system approaching in the main belt in the Westerlies on April 19 .
= = = Tropical Storm Holly = = =
A broad area of thunderstorm straddled the equator around the International Date Line beginning on April 21 . A tropical system in the southern hemisphere was interacting with a strong system in the main belt of the Westerlies . Around this time , convective increased north of the equator , with a low level circulation forming near 4 ° N 169 ° E late on April 25 . By midday on April 29 it had become a tropical depression as it continued to move westward . Holly became a tropical storm on April 30 and almost became a typhoon late on May 1 . Southwesterly vertical wind shear began to weaken the cyclone thereafter , causing Holly to dissipate over the open Pacific ocean .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Ike ( Bining ) = = =
This cyclone formed in the South China Sea at the end of the monsoon transition season . Around noon on June 8 a broad area of lowered pressures was seen west of the Philippines . Moderate northeast wind shear displaced its mid @-@ level center as far as 110 kilometres ( 68 mi ) from the surface center , which retarded development . By midday on June 9 , Ike strengthened into a tropical storm . On its closest approach to Hong Kong , winds gusted to 42 knots ( 78 km / h ) at Tate 's Cairn .
An upper trough in the main belt of the Westerlies moved across Asia , which turned Ike to the northeast . Intensification continued as it accelerated , and Ike became a typhoon late on June 12 . The cyclone reached its peak intensity as it made landfall on the island of Taiwan . Weakening substantially over the mountainous island , Ike attempted slight tropical redevelopment before it became an extratropical cyclone late on the morning of June 14 . Eight perished due to Ike , four from Taiwan and four from the Philippines .
= = = Typhoon June ( Kuring ) = = =
A tropical upper tropospheric trough ( TUTT ) was located over the Philippine Sea early in June . In response , a tropical disturbance formed in Palau . An upper cyclone to the disturbance 's northeast led to development of the disturbance . As the TUTT cell moved to the disturbance 's northwest , intensification sped up and a low level circulation center formed on June 15 about 320 kilometres ( 200 mi ) north of Palau . By the afternoon of June 17 , the cyclone had become a tropical storm . June tracked northwest towards Taiwan , and by late on June 19 , had reached its maximum intensity as a typhoon . About 75 kilometres ( 47 mi ) southeast of Taipei , June recurved to the north , and gradually weakened . While approaching Japan , the cyclone linked up with a frontal boundary and became an extratropical cyclone late on June 22 .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Kelly ( Daling ) = = =
A tropical disturbance organized into a tropical depression east of the Philippines on June 28 . It tracked westward , reaching tropical storm on June 30 before hitting the central Philippines . Kelly weakened over the islands , but restrengthened in the South China Sea , attaining typhoon status on July 2 . The typhoon hit southern Hainan Island on July 3 , bringing wind gusts to 54 knots ( 100 km / h ) at Tate 's Cairn in Hong Kong . The cyclone then crossed the Gulf of Tonkin as a weakening tropical storm , and made landfall on northern Vietnam on July 4 as a tropical storm with maximum sustained winds of 35 knots ( 65 km / h ) . Kelly dissipated the next day , after causing torrential flooding and mudslides , resulting in 200 casualties and leaving thousands homeless .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Lynn ( Elang ) = = =
On the morning of June 27 , an area of enhanced thunderstorm activity was spotted just south of Ponape along a weak portion of the monsoon trough . As Tropical Storm Kelly led to some vertical wind shear over the system , the disturbance was slow to organize . A low pressure area formed late on June 29 . By late on July 2 , Kelly 's negative influence on the disturbance abated , allowing for further development . Early on July 3 , the system developed into a tropical depression , and by afternoon Lynn was a tropical storm . Previously moving at a fast pace to the west , the cyclone slowed as it passed by the northern fringe of the Philippines . Inflow from the South China Sea led to convection focusing in the terrain of the Philippines , which distorted Lynn 's convective pattern . Lynn was the second tropical cyclone is three days to impact the Philippines . The cyclone took 30 hours to track across the northern portion of the archipelago .
It took until late on July 4 for the storm to recover from its Philippine interaction and redevelop a central dense overcast and quicken its pace to the west across Luzon . Turning northwest across the South China Sea , light to moderate easterly wind shear prevented Lynn 's development into a typhoon . The cyclone struck Chuan @-@ Tao , China early on July 7 . Very heavy rainfall led to mudslides which took 22 lives and left tens of thousands homeless . In Hong Kong , winds gusted to 78 knots ( 144 km / h ) at Tai O , and a total of 118 @.@ 0 millimetres ( 4 @.@ 65 in ) of rainfall was recorded at Cheung Chau .
= = = Tropical Depression Goring = = =
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Maury ( Huling ) = = =
On the morning of July 14 , satellite imagery revealed an area of convection about 205 kilometres ( 127 mi ) north @-@ northwest of Yap . By late on July 16 , a mid @-@ level center has formed in association with the thunderstorm complex , which was moving northwest . Ship reports indicated the system had become a tropical storm by the morning of July 18 . Southwesterly vertical wind shear impacted Maury , which led to its tilting to the northeast with height . By early on July 19 the wind shear lessened , and the cyclone 's structure improved . While approaching China , a strong ridge to its northwest deflected the storm on a more westerly heading , sending the center toward Taiwan . This ridge also led to weak east @-@ northeasterly vertical wind shear , which halted development . By late on July 19 , the cyclone 's center moved ashore northern Taiwan . Heavy rains led to significant flooding and the loss of 38 lives . Moving through the Formosa Strait as a weak tropical storm , Maury made a second landfall near Fu @-@ Chou , China on the morning of July 20 . Its remains were dragged southwest by an upper cyclone to its southeast back into the Gulf of Tonkin . By late on July 23 , the circulation center moved back to the north near Yin @-@ Chou , China and dissipated inland late on July 24 . Its former thunderstorm activity decoupled from the surface center while still offshore and moved inland near Nam Dinh , Vietnam before dissipating over Laos late on July 24 .
= = = Tropical Storm Nina ( Ibiang ) = = =
The eastern portion of the large convective mass from Maury led to Nina 's formation . It was first noted late on July 20 to the east of Taiwan . As it moved northwest around northern Taiwan late on the morning of July 22 . By late afternoon a surface low formed with enough convective activity to be designated a tropical depression . Moving northwest at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ) , the cyclone briefly became a tropical storm before nearly land and weakening back into a tropical depression . Early on the morning of July 23 , its center made landfall northwest of Hsia @-@ p 'u , China before quickly dissipating in mountainous terrain inland .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Ogden = = =
An area of convection active for the previous 48 hours led to the formation of a low level circulation near 23 ° N 151 ° E early on July 27 . Gradual intensification ensued , and the system developed into a tropical depression that evening , a tropical storm on July 28 , and a typhoon by July 31 as it moved west @-@ northwest . The cyclone struck southern Kyūshū , in Japan , early on July 31 which weakened the cyclone . The tropical storm then moved into the East China Sea which continuing to spin down . Upper level wind shear took its toll , leading to its weakening into a tropical depression and its ultimate dissipation in the Yellow Sea along the west coast of Korea .
= = = Tropical Depression Luming = = =
= = = Tropical Storm 11W = = =
Both Tropical Depression 11W and Tropical Storm Phyllis were associated with the same synoptic scale feature , similar to Maury and Nina . On July 30 the monsoon trough extended from the Northern Marianas islands southeast toward Palau . Two circulations were at opposite ends of the trough . Tropical Depression 11W formed north of Guam late on July 31 . Moving northeast , the tropical depression experienced vertical wind shear as the upper anticyclone fostering development accelerated faster than the tropical depression . This led to dissipation by late morning on August 2 .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Phyllis = = =
A second circulation along the monsoon trough which spawned Tropical Depression 11W was noted north of Palau . By late on August 3 it had developed into Tropical Storm Phyllis . Tracking northward at 11 knots ( 20 km / h ) , the cyclone intensified slowly due to westerly vertical wind shear . Increased vertical wind shear from the southeast and cooler sea surface temperatures led to the decline of Phyllis late on August 4 , and it dissipated as a tropical cyclone early on August 5 . Its remains tracked northeast , merging with an extratropical cyclone offshore Japan . Eleven perished during Phyllis , with 22 @,@ 500 people being left homeless across Japan .
= = = Tropical Storm Roy ( Miling ) = = =
The initial disturbance formed east of Vietnam during the first few days of August . By August 2 , a low level circulation was present . Moving slowly to the north , the low pressure area developed central convection . By late on August 4 , the disturbance strengthened into a tropical depression before reaching tropical storm strength on August 5 . Easterly shear began soon afterwards , and Roy 's circulation center became exposed well to the east of the main convection . This caused its subsequent weakening and dissipation before reaching Hainan Island . Winds gusted to 41 knots ( 76 km / h ) on the northwest side of Hong Kong 's airport .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Susan = = =
The monsoon trough became well @-@ established along 20 degrees north latitude . To the east of Phyllis , part of the monsoon trough shifted east towards Wake Island while the western portion moved north with Phyllis . Early on August 7 , a tropical disturbance was noted about 110 kilometres ( 68 mi ) north of Wake Island . During this time , Wake experienced gale @-@ force winds and heavy rainfall . The low level center became exposed for a time , though gales continued . By late on August 8 , convection at the edge of the surface low strengthened as the vertical wind shear weakened . At this point , the gale center was deemed to be a tropical cyclone , and was named Susan . The storm tracked north until reaching 30 degrees north latitude , before turning northwest towards a weak cold front . Early on August 11 , Susan entrained cooler and drier air from behind the frontal zone which led to a significant reduction in thunderstorm activity . A warm core ridge building to its northeast forced the storm on a more west @-@ northwest course , and as a second cold front approached , Susan recurved into the boundary , becoming an extratropical cyclone during the late morning of August 13 .
= = = Tropical Depression Narsing = = =
= = = Typhoon Thad ( Openg ) = = =
An active monsoon trough spawned three tropical cyclones within 48 hours beginning on August 16 . Thad was the first of the trio , initially noted on August 10 near 18 ° N 130 ° E. On August 15 , limited outflow was witnessed over its low level circulation . The system developed into a tropical depression late on August 16 . Thad moved north and northeast , maturing into a typhoon by late morning on August 18 . On August 22 Thad accelerated northward between a subtropical ridge to its east and a deepening shortwave to its west , striking eastern Japan with a forward motion near 45 knots ( 83 km / h ) . Thereafter , the cyclone rapidly transitioned into an extratropical cyclone by late on August 23 . Twenty died during Thad 's passage of Japan .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Vanessa = = =
This system developed about 110 kilometres ( 68 mi ) south of Marcus Island near the merger of the monsoon trough and a sharp surface trough brought into the region by Susan . Thunderstorm activity increased in the area on August 12 , the next system up the monsoon trough from Thad . Once Vanessa freed itself from nearby troughs of low pressure , it lost one of its primary outflow channels and its northeastward movement subsequently exposed the system to the main belt of the westerlies . Within two days of formation as a tropical cyclone , Vanessa was already devoid of convection and transitioning to an extratropical cyclone on the morning of August 19 . The exposed surface circulation was tracked an additional couple days , merging with a mid @-@ latitude system near 40 ° N 165 ° E on the morning of August 21 .
= = = Tropical Storm Warren = = =
The initial disturbance which led to Warren 's formation formed within the monsoon trough on August 14 . Strong northeasterly wind shear halted further development for the next few days . By August 17 the vertical wind shear relaxed , and thunderstorms increased south of the center . Moving slowly westward , the system became a tropical storm on the afternoon of August 18 . Warren tracked over Hainan Island , and into the Gulf of Tonkin . Intensification renewed , but maximum sustained winds leveled off at 45 knots ( 83 km / h ) . The cyclone made its final landfall near Nam Dinh , Vietnam on August 20 and dissipated rapidly that evening .
= = = Typhoon Agnes ( Pining ) = = =
On August 23 , a well @-@ defined Tropical Upper Tropospheric Trough moved westward from the International Date Line . On August 24 , a surface cyclone developed in its vicinity near Wake Island . An extensive area of disorganized thunderstorm activity developed on its southwest side initially . As the convection moved westward , upper level outflow improved northeast of Guam . A well @-@ defined mid @-@ level cyclone passed just north of the island on the morning of August 26 . A low level center began to form as the area moved northwest of Guam . By the early morning of August 27 , a tropical depression had formed about 600 kilometres ( 370 mi ) west @-@ northwest of Guam . Development continued , and the system became a tropical storm that evening . Moving west @-@ northwestward , Agnes became a typhoon on the morning of August 29 . The following day , the intensifying typhoon passed 165 kilometres ( 103 mi ) southwest of Okinawa . Entering a region of hostile northerly vertical wind shear , Agnes began to weaken . Its central convection was almost completely gone by the morning of September 2 . Agnes remained well south of Korea until September 3 , when it unleashed a torrent of rainfall , the heaviest of the 20th century up to that time , when 711 @.@ 2 millimetres ( 28 @.@ 00 in ) fell upon the peninsula . Agnes ' remains passed through the Korea Strait into the Sea of Japan by September 4 . A total of 139 lives were taken by Agnes .
= = = Typhoon Bill = = =
The initial disturbance formed about 550 kilometres ( 340 mi ) east @-@ southeast of Marcus Island on September 1 . A compact system , with an area of central convection 280 kilometres ( 170 mi ) wide , Bill rapidly spun up into a tropical storm on September 3 , and typhoon on September 4 . Its central pressure was quite high for winds of that intensity due to the pressure gradient between the cyclone and the subtropical ridge to its northeast . The typhoon followed a classic parabolic track around the periphery of the subtropical ridge east of Japan , weakening back into a tropical storm on September 7 . Rapid extratropical transition occurred as Bill interacted with the main belt of the Westerlies , and by midnight , Bill became an extratropical cyclone .
= = = Typhoon Clara ( Rubing ) = = =
The monsoon trough spawned a tropical depression on September 13 well east of the Philippines . The depression moved to the west @-@ northwest , strengthening into a tropical storm on September 16 and a typhoon on September 18 . Clara rapidly intensified to peak winds of 120 knots ( 220 km / h ) on September 19 before brushing northern Luzon . Its circulation disrupted , Clara steadily weakened as it continued to the northwest , hitting southeast China on the 21st as a typhoon with winds of 70 knots ( 130 km / h ) . In Hong Kong , winds gusted to 51 knots ( 94 km / h ) at Cheung Chau . Clara caused extensive damage and 141 deaths , leaving thousands homeless from the heavy rains .
= = = Typhoon Doyle = = =
Like Bill , Doyle was a midget typhoon that spent its life out over the open Pacific ocean . Its initial disturbance was first detected near 25 ° N 178 ° E on September 18 . The cyclone built down to the surface while moving westward , and Doyle became a tropical storm on the afternoon of September 20 and a typhoon the following day . Recurving around the subtropical ridge , Doyle accelerated rapidly northeastward , weakening over cool waters as it was merging with a frontal zone and becoming an extratropical cyclone during the early morning of September 24 near 39 ° N 172 ° E.
= = = Super Typhoon Elsie ( Tasing ) = = =
The monsoon trough became diffuse on September 19 and September 20 in the wake of Typhoons Clara and Doyle . A small thunderstorm area formed near 8 ° N 150 ° E late on the morning of September 22 , which slowly developed into a tropical depression early on September 25 . Development was steady into a tropical storm later that day , a typhoon on the morning of September 26 , and a super typhoon during the afternoon of September 27 , maintaining that intensity into September 30 . Elsie moved on a parabolic curve around the subtropical ridge to its northeast and east , moving offshore Japan as a typhoon on October 1 and October 2 . By October 2 , interaction with the upper trough which led to its recurvature also transitioned the typhoon into an extratropical cyclone .
= = = Tropical Depression Saling = = =
= = = Tropical Storm Fabian ( Unsing ) = = =
An area of active yet disorganized thunderstorm activity was located northeast of Palau on October 6 . Moving westward over the next several days , there was little change in organization until is approached Samar Island . Passing over the Philippines , it lost what convection it did have near the center , yet let to very heavy rainfall and flooding though a surface circulation was not apparent . Once the disturbance entered the South China Sea , it redeveloped and reached tropical depression strength on the afternoon of October 13 . It crossed the sea and struck Cam Ranh Bay , Vietnam . By October 15 , the cyclone had dissipated inland .
= = = Typhoon Gay ( Walding ) = = =
The system formed within a very large area of thunderstorm activity . The system originally had a large circulation center , which led to problems in fixing its center via satellite imagery . The development of a large eye on October 20 finally led to the tracking of a more definitive , well @-@ defined , circulation center . The typhoon brought relief to drought conditions in Okinawa , when 150 millimetres ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) of rainfall fell there are the circulation center of Gay moved by about 175 kilometres ( 109 mi ) to their southeast . As it continued moving towards Japan , the center passed only 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) from Tokyo , bringing significant rainfall to central portions of the island archipelago . The typhoon ultimately merged with a second low pressure system moving eastward to the north of Japan .
= = = Tropical Depression = = =
This system was recognized by the Hong Kong Royal Observatory . A tropical depression formed in the South China Sea on November 7 , and moved inland into Vietnam on the 10th .
= = = Typhoon Hazen ( Yeyeng ) = = =
A tropical disturbance developed along a trough east of Guam . Its circulation improved , and a low pressure center formed on November 13 . It became a tropical depression by the morning of November 14 , and a tropical storm that evening . Moving on a general westward track across the western Pacific , it moved over northern Saipan on the afternoon of November 15 , bringing gusts approaching typhoon force . Hazen moved about 110 kilometres ( 68 mi ) north of Guam before reaching typhoon strength on early on November 16 . Its intensity fluctuated on November 17 and November 18 as Hazen interacted with a nearby frontal zone . Weakening as it neared the Philippines , Hazen moved just south of Catanduanes Island , entering the South China Sea . Never recovering from the mountainous archipelago , Hazen struck Vietnam about 280 kilometres ( 170 mi ) east @-@ northeast of Hanoi , and dissipated as it entered southeast China .
= = = Super Typhoon Irma ( Anding ) = = =
Super Typhoon Irma developed from the near @-@ equatorial trough on November 17 . As a tropical depression , it headed westward , and steadily intensified , first to a tropical storm on November 19 , later to a typhoon on November 20 . Irma quickly strengthened on November 22 to a super typhoon with maximum winds of 135 knots ( 250 km / h ) , but its outflow was disrupted by the Philippines to the southwest . Irma hit the northern Philippines on November 24 with maximum sustained winds of 85 knots ( 157 km / h ) , and rapidly weakened over the country . As a weakened tropical storm , Irma turned northeastward , where it was absorbed by a cold front on November 27 . A total of 409 fatalities and $ 9 million in damage ( 1981 USD ) can be attributed to the typhoon .
= = = Tropical Storm Jeff ( Binang ) = = =
A distinct surface circulation formed by November 18 . Jeff became a tropical storm on November 23 on the heels of Irma and approaching Guam . It navigating through a break in the subtropical ridge and dissipated over cooler waters on November 26 due to increasing vertical wind shear well to the south of Japan .
= = = Typhoon Kit ( Kadiang ) = = =
A strong and long lived tropical cyclone for December , the initial low level center for the system formed southwest of Ponape on December 4 . By December 7 , it had moved southwest of Truk without further development . By the morning of December 10 , its structure was improving , and by the next afternoon a tropical depressions had formed . Late on December 11 , it had evolved into a tropical storm . A slow moving system , Kit shifted from the northwest to a westerly heading , passing just south of Guam without any further development . Intensification resumed on the following two days reaching its first peak in intensity on December 16 . The storm moved sharply northward for a second time at a slow rate of motion before resuming its westward motion due to a northeast surge in the trade winds . Reintensification occurred as the upper trough to its north acted as an outflow channel . Kit reached its peak intensity on the evening of December 17 before increasing westerlies aloft began to weaken the cyclone . On December 20 , the surface circulation began to emerge south of its central convection . Thereafter , Kit was steered the low @-@ level flow to the south and southwest as a deck of stratocumulus . On December 21 . Kit became a tropical depression once more and by afternoon no longer qualified as a tropical cyclone . Late on December 22 , the low level cloud swirl moved into Mindanao before dissipating .
= = = Typhoon Lee ( Dinang ) = = =
While Kit was dissipating in the western Philippine Sea on December 21 , a disturbed area of weather organized west of Truk . Strong northerlies previously diverted into Kit closed off a portion of the monsoon trough , with near gale @-@ force winds wrapping around the convection . Development continued , and by the afternoon of December 22 , the system became classified as a tropical depression . Tropical storm status was achieved that night . Moving west @-@ northwest , Lee intensified rapidly into a typhoon on December 23 and reaching its peak intensity by December 24 . Rapid weakening began as Lee crossed the Philippines , and the cyclone was once again a tropical storm by December 25 ( Christmas Day ) . On December 28 , all of the cyclone 's convection was removed well east of the circulation center due to moderate to strong westerly vertical wind shear . Turning to the north , Lee dissipated as a tropical cyclone around 280 kilometres ( 170 mi ) south of Hong Kong . A total of 188 perished during the cyclone 's passage .
= = Storm names = =
During the season 28 named tropical cyclones developed in the Western Pacific and were named by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center , when it was determined that they had become tropical storms . These names were contributed to a revised list which started on 1979 .
= = = Philippines = = =
The Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration uses its own naming scheme for tropical cyclones in their area of responsibility . PAGASA assigns names to tropical depressions that form within their area of responsibility and any tropical cyclone that might move into their area of responsibility . Should the list of names for a given year prove to be insufficient , names are taken from an auxiliary list , the first 6 of which are published each year before the season starts . Names not retired from this list will be used again in the 1985 season . This is the same list used for the 1977 season . PAGASA uses its own naming scheme that starts in the Filipino alphabet , with names of Filipino female names ending with " ng " ( A , B , K , D , etc . ) . Names that were not assigned / going to use are marked in gray .
= = = Retirement = = =
It is unknown , but possibly due to damage , the name Hazen was retired and was later replaced by Hal , which was first used in the 1985 season .
= = Season effects = =
This table will list all the storms that developed in the northwestern Pacific Ocean west of the International Date Line and north of the equator during 1981 . It will include their intensity , duration , name , areas affected , deaths , and damage totals . Classification and intensity values will be based on estimations conducted by the JMA , the JTWC , and / or PAGASA . Peak wind speeds are in ten @-@ minute sustained standards unless otherwise noted . All damage figures will be in 1981 USD . Damages and deaths from a storm will include when the storm was a precursor wave or an extratropical low .
= 1928 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1928 Atlantic hurricane season featured the Okeechobee hurricane , which was second deadliest tropical cyclone in the history of the United States . Only eight tropical cyclones developed during the season . Of these eight tropical systems , seven of them intensified into a tropical storm and four further strengthened into hurricanes . One hurricane deepened into a major hurricane , which is Category 3 or higher on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . The first system , the Fort Pierce hurricane , developed near the Lesser Antilles on August 3 . The storm crossed the Bahamas and made landfall in Florida . Two fatalities and approximately $ 235 @,@ 000 in damage was reported . A few days after the first storm developed , the Haiti hurricane , formed near the southern Windward Islands on August 7 . The storm went on to strike Haiti , Cuba , and Florida . This storm left about $ 2 million in damage and at least 210 deaths . Impacts from the third system are unknown .
The most significant storm of the season was Hurricane Four , nicknamed the Okeechobee hurricane . Becoming a Category 5 hurricane , the hurricane struck Puerto Rico at that intensity . Several islands of the Greater and Lesser Antilles suffered " great destruction " , especially Guadeloupe and Puerto Rico . The storm then crossed the Bahamas as a Category 4 hurricane , leaving deaths and severe damage on some islands . Also as a Category 4 , the cyclone struck West Palm Beach , Florida , resulting in catastrophic wind damage . Inland flooding and storm surge resulted in Lake Okeechobee overflowing its banks , flooding nearby towns and leaving at least 2 @,@ 500 deaths , making it the second deadliest hurricane in the United States after the 1900 Galveston hurricane . Overall , this storm caused at least $ 100 million in damage and 4 @,@ 079 deaths . The three remaining systems did not impact land . Collectively , the storms of this season left over $ 102 million in damage and at least 4 @,@ 289 fatalities .
The season 's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 83 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) , which is tropical storm strength .
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane One = = =
This storm developed from a tropical wave north of the Virgin Islands on August 3 . The system paralleled the Greater Antilles throughout much of its early existence . On August 6 , the tropical storm strengthened to the equivalent of a Category 1 hurricane while positioned over the Bahamas . The hurricane continued to intensify , and after reaching Category 2 hurricane strength , peaked with sustained winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) on August 7 . Shortly thereafter , the hurricane made landfall as a slightly weaker storm near Fort Pierce , Florida , at 07 : 00 UTC on August 8 . Weakening as it moved across Florida over the course of the next day , the storm briefly moved over the Gulf of Mexico before recurving northwards . It made a second landfall on the Florida Panhandle on August 10 as a tropical storm . Once inland , the system continued to weaken , degenerating to tropical depression strength before transitioning into an extratropical storm later that day . The extratropical remnants progressed outwards into the Atlantic Ocean before dissipating on August 14 .
In its early developmental stages north of the Greater Antilles , the storm disrupted shipping routes through the Bahamas and generated rough seas offshore Cuba . At its first landfall on Fort Pierce , the hurricane caused property damage in several areas , particularly in coastal regions , where numerous homes were unroofed . Central Florida 's citrus crop was hampered by the strong winds and heavy rain . Several of Florida 's lakes , including Lake Okeechobee , rose past their banks , inundating coastal areas . Damage to infrastructure was less in inland regions than at the coast , though power outages caused a widespread loss of communication . At the hurricane 's second landfall , wind damage was relatively minor , though torrential rainfall , aided by orthographic lift , caused extensive flooding as far north as the Mid @-@ Atlantic states . Overall , the hurricane caused $ 235 @,@ 000 in damages , primarily in Florida , and two deaths .
= = = Hurricane Two = = =
A tropical wave developed into a tropical depression near Tobago on August 7 . The system then passed through the Windward Islands just south of Carriacou and Petite Martinique . Upon entering the Caribbean Sea early on August 8 , the tropical depression strengthened into a tropical storm . On August 9 , the storm strengthened to the equivalent of a Category 1 hurricane , while positioned south of Dominican Republic . The next day , the hurricane peaked with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) . After striking the Tiburon Peninsula of Haiti , the cyclone began weakening and fell to tropical storm intensity on August 12 . By midday on the following day , the storm made landfall near Cienfuegos , Cuba . Upon emerging into the Straits of Florida , the storm began to re @-@ strengthen . Early on August 13 , it struck Big Pine Key , Florida , as a strong tropical storm . Weakening slowly while moving north @-@ northwestward , the system made another landfall near St. George Island . After moving inland , the tropical storm slowly deteriorated , falling to tropical depression intensity on August 15 and dissipating over West Virginia on August 17 .
In Haiti , the storm completely wiped out live stock and many crops , particularly coffee , cocoa , and sugar . Several villages were also destroyed , rendering approximately 10 @,@ 000 people homeless . The damage totaled $ 1 million and at least 200 deaths were reported . The only impact in Cuba was downed banana trees . In Florida , the storm left minor wind damage along the coast . A Seaboard Air Line Railroad station was destroyed in Boca Grande , while signs , trees , and telephone poles were knocked down in Sarasota . Several streets in St. Petersburg were closed due to flooding or debris . Between Cedar Key and the Florida Panhandle , several vessels capsized . Water washed up along the side of roads and in wooded areas . The storm contributed to flooding onset by the previous hurricane , with rainfall peaking at 13 @.@ 5 in ( 340 mm ) in Caesars Head , South Carolina . The worst impact from flooding occurred in North Carolina , where several houses were demolished . Six people were killed in the state , of which four due to flooding . Property damage in the state totaled over $ 1 million . Overall , the storm caused at least $ 2 million in damage and 210 fatalities .
= = = Tropical Storm Three = = =
A tropical storm formed on September 1 just south of Hispaniola . Moving just north of due west , the system brushed the south coast of Jamaica as a 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) tropical storm on September 2 before slowly beginning to intensify on September 3 . The strengthening tropical storm reached its peak of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) on September 4 shortly before making landfall on the Yucatan Peninsula near Playa del Carmen near its peak intensity early on September 5 . The system deteriorated after crossing the peninsula and entering the Bay of Campeche early on September 6 as a weak tropical storm . Later , the storm restrengthened slightly to winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) while nearing mainland Mexico on September 7 . The tropical storm then weakened slightly shortly before making landfall north of Tampico early on September 8 as a weak 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) tropical storm . After moving inland , the system weakened quickly to a depression and dissipated . The storm brought 2 @.@ 18 in ( 55 mm ) of rain to Brownsville , Texas .
= = = Hurricane Four = = =
This system developed as a tropical depression just offshore the west coast of Africa on September 6 . The depression strengthened into a tropical storm later that day , shortly before passing south of the Cape Verde Islands . Further intensification was slow and halted by late on September 7 . However , about 48 hours later , the storm resumed strengthening and became a Category 1 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Still moving westward , the system reached Category 4 intensity before striking Guadeloupe on September 12 . There , the storm brought 1 @,@ 200 deaths and extensive damage , including the destruction of approximately 85 % – 95 % of banana crops , the severe damage dealt to 70 % – 80 % of tree crops , and the roughly 40 % of the sugar cane crops ruined . Martinique , Montserrat , and Nevis also reported damage and fatalities , but the impacts at those locations were not nearly as severe as in Guadeloupe .
Around midday on September 13 , the storm strengthened into a Category 5 hurricane , based on the anemometer at San Juan observing sustained winds of 160 mph ( 268 km / h ) . The hurricane peaked with sustained winds at the intensity . About six hours later , the system made landfall in Puerto Rico ; it was the only recorded tropical cyclone to strike the island as a Category 5 . Very strong winds resulted in severe damage in Puerto Rico . Throughout the island , 24 @,@ 728 homes were destroyed and 192 @,@ 444 were damaged , leaving over 500 @,@ 000 people homeless . Heavy rainfall also led to extreme damage to vegetation and agriculture . On Puerto Rico alone , there were 312 deaths and about $ 50 million in damage . After emerging into the Atlantic , the storm weakened slightly , falling to Category 4 intensity . It began crossing through the Bahamas on September 16 . Many buildings and houses were damaged or destroyed , especially on Bimini , Eleuthera , New Providence , and San Salvador Island . Nineteen deaths were reported , eighteen from a sloop disappearing and one due to drowning .
Early on September 17 , the storm made landfall near West Palm Beach , Florida , with winds of 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) . In the city , more than 1 @,@ 711 homes were destroyed . Elsewhere in Palm Beach County , impact was severest around Lake Okeechobee . The storm surge caused water to pour out of the southern edge of the lake , flooding hundreds of square miles as high as 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) above ground . Numerous houses and buildings were swept away in the cities of Belle Glade , Canal Point , Chosen , Pahokee , and South Bay . At least 2 @,@ 500 people drowned , while damage was estimated at $ 25 million . While crossing Florida , the system weakened significantly , falling to Category 1 intensity late on September 17 . It curved north @-@ northeastward and briefly re @-@ emerged into the Atlantic on September 18 , but soon made another landfall near Edisto Island , South Carolina with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Early on the following day , the system weakened to a tropical storm and became extratropical over North Carolina hours later . Overall , the system caused $ 100 million in damage and at least 4 @,@ 079 deaths .
= = = Tropical Storm Five = = =
A tropical storm developed about 835 mi ( 1 @,@ 345 km ) northeast of Barbados on September 8 . The storm moved rapidly north @-@ northwestward and slowly strengthened . Upon turning northward on September 10 , the system attained its peak intensity as a strong tropical storm with maximum sustained winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and a high minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 015 mbar ( 30 @.@ 0 inHg ) , both of which were measured by ships . Shortly thereafter , it began losing tropical characteristics and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone later that day while located about 700 mi ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) south @-@ southeast of Cape Race , Newfoundland and Labrador . The extratropical remnants continued to move rapidly northeastward until being absorbed by an extratropical low pressure .
= = = Tropical Depression = = =
A low pressure area previously associated with a frontal system developed into a tropical depression near Bermuda on September 22 . The depression had sustained winds of 30 mph ( 45 km / h ) and failed to strengthen further . It became extratropical on September 23 .
= = = Hurricane Six = = =
The final cyclone of the season developed about 740 mi ( 1 @,@ 190 km ) west @-@ northwest of the easternmost islands of Cape Verde on October 10 . Moving north @-@ northwest , the system maintained intensity on October 11 , before beginning to intensify more rapidly on October 12 . Early the next day , it strengthened into a Category 1 hurricane and peaked with maximum sustained winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) . After turning northeastward , the hurricane weakened to a tropical storm on October 14 . Around 06 : 00 UTC on October 15 , the cyclone transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while situated approximately 285 mi ( 460 km ) northwest of Flores Island in the Azores .
= Sisters at Heart =
" Sisters at Heart " is the thirteenth episode of the seventh season , and 213th episode overall , of the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) fantasy television sitcom Bewitched . This Christmas episode aired on ABC on December 24 , 1970 , and again the following December .
The narrative follows Lisa Wilson ( Venetta Rogers ) , an African @-@ American girl , as she visits her friend Tabitha Stephens ( Erin Murphy ) , a white girl . Meanwhile , Tabitha 's father Darrin Stephens ( Dick Sargent ) , who works at an advertising agency , fails to land a million @-@ dollar account with toy company owner Mr. Brockway ( Parley Baer ) because Mr. Brockway is racist and incorrectly believes Darrin to be married to Lisa 's mother Dorothy ( Janee Michelle ) . In an attempt to convince Mr. Brockway to overcome his bigotry , Darrin 's wife Samantha ( Elizabeth Montgomery ) , who is a witch , casts a spell on Mr. Brockway so he sees everyone , including himself , as having black skin .
The story of " Sisters at Heart " was written by 22 African @-@ American students from a tenth grade English class at Jefferson High School after Montgomery and her husband William Asher , the director of the episode , had the students visit the set of Bewitched . Most students at the school were unable to read , write , or comprehend at a high school level , with 44 % reading at a third grade level and very few students reading at a level much higher than that . Sargent said that the students , " who might have been stuck in the ghetto for the rest of their lives , loved Bewitched , and with just a little approval and motivation , came alive on the set . " Montgomery considered " Sisters at Heart " her favorite episode of the series , and said that it " was created in the true spirit of Christmas ... conceived in the image of innocence and filled with truth . " The episode received the Governors Award at the 23rd Primetime Emmy Awards ceremony in 1971 . Montgomery 's biographer Herbie Pilato wrote that " no episode of the series more clearly represented [ the ] cry against prejudice " than " Sisters at Heart " . Critic Walter Metz praised Asher 's choice of camera angles , but denounced the episode 's liberalism as excessively sentimental and simplistic .
= = Plot = =
Keith Wilson ( Don Marshall ) , his wife Dorothy ( Janee Michelle ) , their daughter Lisa ( Venetta Rogers ) , and Keith 's boss , Larry Tate ( David White ) , visit the home of the Stephens family , with whom Lisa is to spend a few days while Keith is away on a business trip for Larry . The Wilsons are African @-@ American and all of the other characters are white , including the Stephens family : Darrin ( Dick Sargent ) , his wife Samantha ( Elizabeth Montgomery ) , their daughter Tabitha ( Erin Murphy ) , and their son Adam ( David Lawrence ) . Tabitha is glad to be able to spend a few days with Lisa and says they will temporarily be sisters . Darrin is another of Larry 's employees at advertising agency McMann and Tate . Darrin is trying to land a million @-@ dollar account from Mr. Brockway ( Parley Baer ) , who owns a toy company . Mr. Brockway visits the Stephens residence unannounced to find out if Darrin has any dark secrets . When Mr. Brockway arrives , Samantha is tending to Adam upstairs , so Lisa answers the door . When Lisa says her father works for McMann and Tate and that she is Tabitha 's sister , Mr. Brockway leaves , saying he has seen enough .
Samantha takes the children to the park , where another child tells Lisa and Tabitha that they cannot be sisters because they have different skin colors . When they arrive home , Tabitha casts a spell on herself and Lisa so that Tabitha 's skin has black spots and Lisa 's skin has white spots . Lisa thereby discovers that Tabitha and Samantha are witches . When Samantha finds the two girls polka @-@ dotted , she tells Tabitha to reverse the spell , which Tabitha unsuccessfully tries to do . Eventually , Samantha realizes that Tabitha 's attempt was unsuccessful because Tabitha subconsciously wants the spots to remain so she and Lisa will continue to be sisters . Samantha tells the girls that differences in appearance won 't prevent them from being sisters , and Tabitha then successfully reverses the spell just as Lisa 's parents arrive to pick up Lisa .
Larry tells Darrin that Mr. Brockway has insisted that Darrin be removed from the account . Darrin and Samantha host a Christmas party which Larry , Keith , and Dorothy attend . When Mr. Brockway arrives , he sees Darrin and Dorothy standing next to each other and assumes they are married to each other . When Mr. Brockway realizes his mistake , and that Darrin is instead married to Samantha , Mr. Brockway tells Larry that he is willing to allow Darrin back on the account . After discovering that Mr. Brockway initially was unwilling because he thought Darrin was married to an African @-@ American woman , Larry rejects Mr. Brockway 's offer . Mr. Brockway expresses disbelief that anyone would reject such a lucrative account . Through witchcraft , Samantha causes Mr. Brockway to see everyone in the room , including himself , as having black skin . On Christmas Day , while the Wilsons are visiting the Stephens , Mr. Brockway arrives , apologizes for his previous actions , and repents of his racism . Samantha invites Mr. Brockway to join them for Christmas dinner , and he accepts .
= = Production = =
In 1969 , Marcella Saunders , a 23 @-@ year @-@ old teacher at Jefferson High School in Los Angeles , found that her ninth @-@ grade students were unable to read the short stories and poetry in the class textbook . She thought that , because her students were more familiar with television than poetry or short stories , she would have more success in teaching her students if she taught them by way of a television series . She found that her students liked Bewitched , Room 222 , and Julia , so she contacted the corresponding television studios to tell them about her idea . Only Bewitched responded . Having gained an audience with Montgomery and her husband William Asher , Saunders told the couple that most students at the school were unable to read , write , or comprehend at a high school level , with 44 % reading at a third grade level and very few students reading at a level much higher than that ; less than 1 % were reading at a ninth grade level . Saunders added that Bewitched was the students ' favorite television series .
Out of concern for the students in Saunders ' English class , Montgomery and Asher invited Saunders ' class of 22 African @-@ American students to visit the set of Bewitched . Because many of these teenagers , now in the tenth grade , did not have the financial means to make their way to Hollywood , Montgomery and Asher paid for all 22 to be transported there and back by chartered bus . The students were impressed by the visit and later collaborated to write a teleplay for a Bewitched episode under Saunders ' supervision . The teleplay was called " Sisters at Heart . " At Christmas in 1969 , they presented Montgomery and Asher with the teleplay , gift @-@ wrapped . Montgomery and Asher were impressed with the quality of the script . Montgomery later said , " We 've had bad scripts submitted by professional writers that weren 't as well written or creative . "
Asher told Barbara Avedon about the students ' script , saying that it only needed a little reworking , and he asked if she would help the students with the rewrite . Avedon , who had written for The Donna Reed Show and been a regular writer for Bewitched , accepted his request . Avedon visited Jefferson High School and later said of the experience , " I was horrified . Locker doors were hanging off their hinges . There wasn 't a blade of grass in sight . " Avedon expressed amazement over the script the students produced and helped them revise it and expand its length so it would sustain a full half @-@ hour episode . She promised the students that no changes would be made to the script unless they approved . It was because of her recommendation that the story was reformulated as a Christmas episode , which she suggested because the script " was so imbued with the spirit . " She said that one of the students indicated a desire to write for Bewitched because the series deals with miscegenation by way of a marriage between a witch and a mortal .
All 22 students attended a production and rehearsal meeting for the episode . The government of California gave Jefferson High School a grant to support a program to allow the students to be part of the filming and post @-@ production of the episode . Film production company Screen Gems joined Montgomery and Asher in making donations to the program as well . The students donated the money they received for writing the episode to a foundation to keep the program going . Two more trips were organized , bringing a total of fifty Jefferson High School students to the set of Bewitched . Asher sent copies of thirty scripts of other Bewitched episodes to the school for use in classrooms . Saunders found the program a great success , saying " kids who could never write before were now writing three pages . Kids who could not read were now doubling up on scripts and fighting over who would be able to play the leads . " Asher also expressed pleasure with the program 's success , and recommended that other white businesspeople invite minority groups into their lives . Sargent considered Saunders the main reason for the success of the program , saying , " She was interested in innovative forms of teaching . These kids , who might have been stuck in the ghetto for the rest of their lives , loved Bewitched , and with just a little approval and motivation , came alive on the set . "
Asher produced and directed the episode . A high school student who was granted the role of assistant director at one point screamed " Quiet on the set ! " , a memory that Sargent later recalled fondly . For the scene in which Samantha casts a spell that makes Mr. Brockway see everyone as having black skin , the white actors , including Sargent and White , appeared in blackface . The name of Mr. Brockway 's toy company is never mentioned . Samantha 's statement at the end of the episode , " We 're having integrated turkey : white meat and dark " , was repeated in Spike Lee 's 1986 film She 's Gotta Have It . The final shot of the episode , which zooms out from the scene of Samantha and Darrin kissing to reveal the French doors at the back of their house as " Silent Night " plays in the background , is the only shot in any episode of Bewitched to depict the interior of the house from the perspective of the backyard . " Sisters at Heart " is the only episode of the series in which Lisa appears . Seven years before acting together in " Sisters at Heart " , Montgomery and Baer appeared together in an episode of the CBS television series Rawhide called " Incident at El Crucero " , which aired when the pilot episode of Bewitched was in pre @-@ production . In 1970 , Montgomery appeared on The Merv Griffin Show to promote " Sisters at Heart " , thereby making one of the only three talk show appearances of her career . After Griffin left the network , CBS wiped all episodes of The Merv Griffin Show produced between 1969 and 1972 , but a copy of the episode featuring Montgomery 's promotion of " Sisters at Heart " was later discovered when it became known that relevant kinescopes and master tapes had survived .
Endorsed by meat production company Oscar Mayer , " Sisters at Heart " is a half @-@ hour , color episode that aired on December 24 , 1970 , as the 213th episode of Bewitched to be aired . As an introduction and conclusion to the episode , Montgomery briefly spoke to the camera about the episode , saying that it " was created in the true spirit of Christmas ... conceived in the image of innocence and filled with truth . " ABC aired the episode only once more , in December 1971 . Unlike many of the other episodes in the season , it was neither a remake of an episode from a previous season nor part of the Salem , Massachusetts , story arc that was filmed in the area where the 17th @-@ century Salem witch trials took place . Don Marshall , who made a guest appearance in " Sisters at Heart " as Keith Wilson , was known for his role in Land of the Giants , while Janee Michelle , who portrayed Dorothy Wilson in " Sisters at Heart " , later became best known for her role in the 1974 horror film The House on Skull Mountain . " Sisters at Heart " was Montgomery 's favorite episode of the series . Reflecting on the episode in 1989 , she said , " Yeah , this is what I want Bewitched to be all about . " Sony Pictures Home Entertainment eventually released the episode on a VHS collection called A Bewitched Christmas 2 . On June 16 , 2005 , the episode was screened in Salem as the first entry in " The Art and Politics of Elizabeth Montgomery " , a film @-@ watching and discussion group that met at First Church in Salem .
= = Reception = =
" Sisters at Heart " received the Governors Award at the 23rd Primetime Emmy Awards ceremony in 1971 . Montgomery 's biographer Herbie Pilato wrote that the theme of overcoming prejudice is central to Bewitched because of the prominence of the marriage between a witch and a mortal , and that " no episode of the series more clearly represented this cry against prejudice than the holiday story , ' Sisters at Heart . ' " A reviewer from the Australian newspaper the Daily Liberal wrote that " Sisters at Heart " is " very thoughtful " and argued that it is the sole episode of the series that is not simply a " lightweight offering " reflective of " the United States ' post @-@ war society of new consumerism and advertising . " When the seventh season of Bewitched was released on DVD in 2009 , DVD Talk reviewer Paul Mavis wrote that " Sisters at Heart " has a more overt message than any other episode of the season . He praised the actors ' performances in the episode and wrote that , because of the episode 's obvious @-@ yet @-@ effective critique of racism , " what 's highly ironic about Sisters at Heart today is that it would most likely be dubbed politically incorrect and ' insensitive ' by some because the cast wear blackface at one point . "
Hal Erickson of AllMovie called the episode " refreshingly free of the patronization which usually attended ' racially sensitive ' TV episodes of the period . " In his book about Bewitched , critic Walter Metz writes that " Sisters at Heart " exemplifies the liberalism endorsed by the series , which he argues is excessively sentimental and simplistic . He praises Asher for his " skillful understanding of film aesthetics " , calling particular attention to Asher 's choice of camera angles in the scene in which Mr. Brockway first meets Lisa . Metz argues that the Stephens ' foyer is an important location in the series , and that this importance is exemplified in the episode both by the scene of Mr. Brockway 's first encounter with Lisa as well as in the epilogue when Mr. Brockway revisits the house and apologizes for his prior racism . Metz criticizes Mr. Brockway 's " magically found soft @-@ heartedness " as a " paternalistic approach to liberal racial tolerance [ that ] implies that only white patriarchs have the cultural authority to declare that racism is wrong . " Metz further argues that the episode problematically figures Samantha as the protector and provider for black people , a role that he says Samantha also fills in " Samantha at the Keyboard " , another Bewitched episode .
= Rock Bottom ( SpongeBob SquarePants ) =
" Rock Bottom " is the 17th episode of the first season of the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants . It originally was produced in 1999 and aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on March 15 , 2000 . The series follows the adventures of the title character in the underwater city of Bikini Bottom . In the episode , SpongeBob becomes stranded in a hadopelagic zone called Rock Bottom .
The episode was written by Paul Tibbitt , Ennio Torresan , Jr . , and David Fain , and was directed by Tom Yasumi . Upon release , " Rock Bottom " was viewed by two million households and received positive reviews from media critics .
= = Plot summary = =
SpongeBob and Patrick board a bus to go home from Glove World , which is a glove @-@ themed amusement park . They accidentally board the wrong bus , which then takes them to a 90 @-@ degree cliff . The cliff leads to a hadopelagic zone called Rock Bottom , which is inhabited by many strange deep @-@ sea animals .
Patrick gets on the bus to go home but accidentally leaves SpongeBob behind . After several unsuccessful attempts to get on the bus , SpongeBob heads to a bus station and waits in a very long line . By the time he gets to the front , he finds out that the last bus to leave for the night is already gone , and he is stuck there until morning . He gets scared by a raspberry sound coming from nowhere , and he dashes back to the cliff . The raspberry sound 's maker reveals himself to be a friendly @-@ looking anglerfish creature , who has SpongeBob 's balloon from Glove World . The creature blows up the balloon , ties it to SpongeBob 's wrist , and allows him to rise up the cliff and back to Bikini Bottom . The episode concludes with Patrick on his way back to Rock Bottom , thinking SpongeBob is still there .
= = Production = =
" Rock Bottom " was written by Paul Tibbitt , Ennio Torresan , and David Fain , with Tom Yasumi serving as animation director . Tibbitt and Torresan also worked as storyboard directors . The episode originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on March 15 , 2000 , with a TV @-@ Y7 parental rating .
Series head writer of the first season Merriwether Williams said the episode 's story is " so simple . " She remarked " To me , it 's one of the best episodes . It just stayed with one idea . " The episode was about " how he [ SpongeBob ] keeps missing the bus and how that makes him feel . " Williams said the episode was " so small that you could explore gags and opportunities for gags . " The episode was an example of " a good outline " in the series where the storyboards and humor were done easily . Williams said " it was great for the board guys . " She added " In many ways , my job was to create situations where the board guys could be funny , to create a situation that could be funny , and let them go for the actual , specific jokes . "
" Rock Bottom " was released on the DVD compilation called SpongeBob SquarePants : The Complete 1st Season DVD on October 28 , 2003 . On September 22 , 2009 , the episode was released on the SpongeBob SquarePants : The First 100 Episodes DVD , alongside all the episodes of seasons one through five .
= = Reception = =
" Rock Bottom " was watched by 2 @.@ 1 million viewers upon its release . It received very positive reviews from media critics . Nancy Basile of About.com gave the episode a positive response and ranked it No. 4 on her " Best SpongeBob SquarePants Episodes " list . Basile said " The raspberries and SpongeBob 's increasing frustration make this an hilarious episode . " She cited the episode as a " running up against Murphy 's law over and over again " and said " so it 's very relatable . " Basile 's favorite scene was " SpongeBob tries to extract a snack from the vending machine before the bus across the road drives away . "
Emily Estep of WeGotThisCovered.com ranked the episode No. 5 on her " Top 10 Episodes of SpongeBob SquarePants " list . She said " While Rock Bottom is mostly a goofy episode , it 's also one of the scarier episodes of SpongeBob . " She also said the episode has " the ideal balance of cuteness and sheer terror – like SpongeBob running from a mysterious character , saying , ' Well , that place will be there tomorrow . I guess I 'd better keep walking . Running . Better start running . Running . Sprinting ! Yes , I just gotta keep sprinting ! ' ( Before he hits a wall ; ' Sitting , sitting , bleeding . ' ) " that made the episode " so well @-@ remembered . " Bill Treadway of DVD Talk gave the episode a 3 out of 5 rating .
= = Other media = =
" Rock Bottom " served as an inspiration for the SpongeBob SquarePants Rock Bottom Plunge ride . The ride first opened on March 15 , 2008 at the Mall of America 's Nickelodeon theme park re @-@ branded from the Mall of America 's Park at MOA , formerly Camp Snoopy , to Nickelodeon Universe in the Minneapolis @-@ St. Paul suburb of Bloomington , Minnesota .
The SpongeBob SquarePants Rock Bottom Plunge features vertical lifts and 90 @-@ degree turns providing the riders a 60 @-@ plus foot drop , a maximum speed of over 40 miles per hour and a 4 @.@ 4 maximum G @-@ force rating . The ride time is approximately two minutes and is the shortest Gerstlauer roller coaster built yet .
= 2010 Pichilemu earthquake =
The 2010 Pichilemu earthquake ( Spanish : Terremoto de Pichilemu de 2010 ) , also known as the Libertador O 'Higgins earthquake , was a 6 @.@ 9 MW intraplate earthquake that struck Chile 's O 'Higgins Region on 11 March 2010 . The earthquake was centred 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) northwest of the city of Pichilemu , according to the University of Chile Seismological Service .
The earthquake was caused by increased regional stress arising from an earthquake on 27 February , centered offshore Maule Region , which was felt throughout central Chile . The 11 March earthquake was at first thought to be an aftershock from the 27 February event , but University of Chile Seismologist Jaime Campos identified it as an " independent earthquake " . The Hawaii @-@ based Pacific Tsunami Warning Center pointed out the possibility of local tsunamis within 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) of the epicentre , although small , but violent waves were seen in the Pichilemu and Bucalemu area . One person was reported dead . At least eleven aftershocks immediately followed , causing panic throughout coastal towns between the Coquimbo and Los Lagos regions .
The earthquake was specially destructive in the epicentre town , Pichilemu , capital of Cardenal Caro Province . The city hosts five National Monuments of Chile , of which two , the Agustín Ross Park and the Agustín Ross Cultural Centre , were seriously damaged by the earthquake . It also damaged the villages of La Aguada and Cardonal de Panilonco . Rancagua , the capital of O 'Higgins Region , was also damaged , leading President Sebastián Piñera to declare a catastrophe state in O 'Higgins Region .
= = Background = =
Nearly all of the territory of Chile is subject to earthquakes , arising from strains in the subducting Nazca and South American Plates or shallow strike @-@ slip faults . The subduction zone along the Chilean coast produced the most powerful earthquake ever recorded , the 1960 Valdivia earthquake . Some earthquakes which occurred near the epicentre of the 11 March 2010 event are the 1985 Algarrobo and Rapel Lake earthquakes .
On 27 February 2010 , a strong earthquake , which reached a magnitude of 8 @.@ 8 on the moment magnitude scale , hit central Chile . The earthquake occurred in the region of the plate boundary between the Nazca and South American plates , offshore Maule Region . The earthquake produced a tsunami which caused great damage in cities and towns along the Chilean coast ; Pichilemu was " devastated " after the earthquake and tsunami struck .
The 6 @.@ 9 earthquake of 11 March 2010 occurred two weeks after the 27 February event . Chilean seismologists , including Sergio Barrientos from the University of Chile Seismological Service , were worried about the " absence of an earthquake around magnitude 7 following the February 27 quake . " Two foreshocks of the 11 March event occurred on 5 March : one reached magnitude 5 @.@ 7 , and the other magnitude 5 @.@ 2 ; both were felt between the Valparaíso and Maule regions .
= = Geology = =
The Pichilemu earthquake was caused by the change in regional stress from the 27 February earthquake . Preliminary analyses by the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) of the 11 March earthquake locations and seismic @-@ wave radiation patterns suggested that the event resulted from normal faulting within the subducting Nazca plate or the overriding South America plate , unlike the 27 February earthquake , which occurred as thrust faulting on the interface between the two plates . Later in 2010 , University of Chile Seismologist Sergio Barrientos stated that the earthquake was produced inside the South American plate . While news media reported the earthquake as an aftershock of the February earthquake in Chile , a preliminary geological summary issued by the USGS considered it to be an independent earthquake , a conclusion which seismologist Jaime Campos of the University of Chile also reached .
The earthquake has been given three different locations : the University of Chile Seismological Service ( Servicio Sismológico de la Universidad de Chile ) stated that the event occurred 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) northwest of Pichilemu , at a depth of 33 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 20 @.@ 6 mi ) ; the United States Geological Service reported the earthquake occurred 105 kilometres ( 65 mi ) west of Rancagua , capital of O 'Higgins Region , at a depth of 11 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) ; and local online newspaper Pichilemu News reported the earthquake occurred 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) northeast of Pichilemu , between the villages of Panilonco and La Aguada , and reached a moment magnitude of 7 @.@ 2 .
On 15 March 2010 , seismologist Mario Pardo from the University of Chile Seismological Service ruled out that Pichilemu was experiencing a seismic swarm , after public concerns about the continued aftershocks in the area ; as of that date , more than 50 aftershocks had occurred in the area , the strongest of them measuring 6 @.@ 7 in the moment magnitude scale , minutes after the initial quake . From the pattern of aftershocks , it has been suggested that this earthquake originated from rupture along a previously unknown geological fault , the Pichilemu Fault , between Pichilemu and the commune of Vichuquén in Maule Region , at 15 km depth , 40 km in length and 20 km wide . At first it was not known whether this fault was formed during the earthquake or if it was just reactivated , however geologist José Cembrano from the University of Chile affirmed that " [ the fault ] corresponds to a long life fault , in a million years time , whose activity had not been detected before . "
In a 2012 publication titled Aftershock Seismicity of the 27 February 2010 Mw 8 @.@ 8 Maule Earthquake Rupture Zone , it was stated that , in total , 10 @,@ 000 aftershocks were located in the Pichilemu area for the first six months after the mainshock ; this pronounced crustal aftershock activity with mainly normal faulting mechanisms found in approximately a 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) wide region , with sharp inclined borders and oriented oblique to the trench .
= = Reaction = =
The earthquake took place minutes before the new President of Chile , Sebastián Piñera , was sworn in , at about 12 : 15 local time , at the Chilean congress in Valparaíso , where the shaking was clearly felt . Piñera was at the Palace of Cerro Castillo at the time of the earthquake , and as he left the place , he was seen " looking worried " ; Michelle Bachelet , the outgoing president , was also seen " worried " by the earthquake as she entered the Congress . La Nación newspaper reported some journalists attempted to flee the Congress building . According to Spanish newspaper El Mundo , there was " nervousness " at the ceremony , and the ceremony narrator called for calm , adding that the Congress building could even stand stronger earthquakes .
Presidents Néstor Kirchner of Argentina , Evo Morales of Bolivia , Álvaro Uribe of Colombia , Rafael Correa of Ecuador , and Fernando Lugo of Paraguay were present at the ceremony , but television footage showed that the inauguration was not interrupted , even though there was a tsunami warning in place ; however , it was reported the ceremony was " speeded . "
President Piñera cancelled the ceremonial lunch with his visitors and traveled to Rancagua , one of the cities most affected by the earthquake ; Piñera subsequently declared a catastrophe state in O 'Higgins Region as a result of the earthquake , and appointed Army General Antonio Yackcich as Area Commander in Chief ( Jefe de Plaza ) for the region , while he was visiting Rancagua that day . The declaration meant that " the military would occupy the area to keep order and prevent the kind of looting that occurred in Concepción during the first two to three days after last month 's quake " , according to The New York Times .
= = Tsunami = =
A Pacific @-@ wide tsunami warning was not issued by the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center , although the organization pointed out the possibility of local tsunamis within 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) of the epicentre , roughly the area between La Serena and Concepción . Half an hour after the earthquake , the Hydrographic and Oceanographic Service of the Chilean Navy ( Servicio Hidrográfico y Oceanográfico de la Armada , SHOA ) issued a tsunami warning for the area between Coquimbo and Los Lagos regions , as a way of " keeping people protected " against the possible occurrence of new tsunamis . President Piñera urged coastal residents to move to higher ground in case of a tsunami . Following the tsunami alert , thousands of residents of central Pichilemu fled to La Cruz Hill , with some of them staying them for several days , and received advice from members of the Army . People from the village of Cáhuil stayed at Cordón . The tsunami warning emitted by SHOA was lifted that same day at around 15 : 50 local time .
According to a preliminary report by the National Office of Emergency of the Interior Ministry ( Oficina Nacional de Emergencias del Ministerio del Interior , ONEMI ) on 11 March 2010 , only ' small waves , without any [ special ] kind of characteristics ' were seen in the area surrounding Pichilemu , while the USGS reported a small tsunami , with sea wave heights of 16 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 525 ft ) at Valparaíso , and 29 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 951 ft ) at San Antonio . Interior Minister Rodrigo Hinzpeter reported violent waves in Pichilemu and Bucalemu .
= = Damage and casualties = =
At Pichilemu , the epicentre town , the earthquake destroyed the balustres surrounding Agustín Ross Park , damaged severely the recently re @-@ inaugurated Agustín Ross Cultural Centre , and the Espinillo , and Rodeillo villages . The earthquake was accompanied by " great noise , " according to witnesses from the Pichilemu villages of Cardonal de Panilonco and La Aguada ; most of the already damaged buildings in La Aguada fell down , including the local church . The road to Cardonal de Panilonco was damaged , and many houses built with adobe did not resist the shaking .
Outside Pichilemu , in Rancagua , local mayor Eduardo Soto reported severe damage to homes in the town . The Santa Julia highway overpass located between Rancagua and Graneros collapsed , and part of the Pan @-@ American highway was damaged . A power outage affected Pichilemu for two days , beginning right after the earthquake struck , and there were partial power outages in Mostazal , San Fernando and Peumo . In Santiago , " windows rattled , buildings trembled and
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, which may help prevent similar disappearances in the future . It concludes by noting that Ocean Shield had spent two months searching 850 square kilometres ( 330 sq mi ) of ocean , but that it had searched far to the north of the Inmarsat " hotspot " on the final arc , at approximately 28 degrees south , where the aircraft was most likely to have crashed . On 8 October 2014 , a modified version of the Horizon programme was broadcast in the US by PBS as an episode of Nova , titled " Why Planes Vanish " , with a different narrator .
The first fictional account of the mystery was Scott Maka 's MH370 : A Novella , published three months after the aircraft 's disappearance .
The aviation disaster documentary television series Mayday ( also known as Air Crash Investigation or Air Emergency ) produced an episode on the disaster , titled " Malaysia 370 : What Happened ? " In the UK , it aired on the first anniversary of Flight 370 's disappearance , 8 March 2015 .
= = = Reports = = =
MH 370 Preliminary Report – Preliminary report issued by the Malaysia Ministry of Transport . Dated 9 April 2014 and released publicly on 1 May 2014 .
Factual Information : Safety Investigation for MH370 – Interim report released 8 March 2015 ( 584 pages ) .
MH370 – Definition of Underwater Search Areas ( 2014 ) – Report by the Australian Transport Safety Bureau , released 26 June 2014 , and the most comprehensive report on Flight 370 publicly released at that time . The report focuses on defining the search area for the fifth phase , but in doing so provides a comprehensive overview / examination of satellite data , the failed searches , and possible " end @-@ of @-@ flight scenarios " .
MH370 – Definition of Underwater Search Areas ( 2015 ) – Report by the Australian Transport Safety Bureau , released 3 December 2015 , covering the Bayesian method analysis made by Australia 's Defence Science and Technology Group and other developments since mid @-@ 2014 in defining the search area .
= = = Press releases / Media = = =
Australian Maritime Safety Authority
Australian Transport Safety Bureau
Malaysia Airlines
Malaysian Ministry of Transport
US Department of Defense
= The Black Mages =
The Black Mages was a Japanese instrumental rock / hard rock band formed in 2002 by Nobuo Uematsu , Kenichiro Fukui and Tsuyoshi Sekito - three composers for Square Enix . The band arranged Uematsu 's Final Fantasy video game series @-@ based compositions in a hard rock style often similar to progressive metal , achieved with the additional use of synthesizers . Since its inception , the band had expanded to six members with the addition of Keiji Kawamori , Michio Okamiya and Arata Hanyuda . On August 7 , 2010 , Nobuo Uematsu announced the band had disbanded , but he would continue to perform rock arrangements of his music as a part of another band , the Earthbound Papas .
The band has released three studio albums . Their first was released eponymously as The Black Mages in 2003 , and contained arrangements of Final Fantasy battle themes . The second album , The Black Mages II : The Skies Above , was released in 2004 and featured additional pieces besides battle themes including the group 's first original song , " Blue Blast ~ Winning the Rainbow " , which was created for Japanese K @-@ 1 fighter Takehiro Murahama . The third album , The Black Mages III : Darkness and Starlight , was released on March 19 , 2008 . Music from the group has also appeared in other albums , including one track in Dark Chronicle Premium Arrange , an album of arranged music from the video game Dark Chronicle , a piece in the animated film Final Fantasy VII Advent Children and its corresponding soundtrack album , and one track on Final Fantasy III Original Soundtrack , the soundtrack album for the Nintendo DS version of Final Fantasy III .
The Black Mages did not tour as a band , but performed several concerts to promote their album releases . For their first album they performed in Shibuya and Kanagawa , Japan in 2003 and later released a live video of the first concert on DVD exclusively to Uematsu fanclub members . They repeated this for the release of their second album , performing in Kawasaki and Osaka , Japan in 2005 and similarly released on DVD to fanclub members . The third album saw a performance in Yokohama , Japan in 2008 ; a DVD of the show was released commercially on March 25 , 2009 . In addition to these concerts , The Black Mages made live appearances at two Final Fantasy concerts , More Friends : Music from Final Fantasy and Voices - Music from Final Fantasy , as well as another video game music event , Extra : Hyper Game Music Event 2007 .
= = History = =
In 2000 , Square Enix employees Kenichiro Fukui and Tsuyoshi Sekito formed an experimental partnership to compose music for the video game All Star Pro @-@ Wrestling in a rock style . After the game 's success , the two continued to compose in the same style . In 2002 , Fukui and Sekito decided to arrange some of the compositions of Nobuo Uematsu , the primary composer for the music of the Final Fantasy series . Uematsu , a fan of rock music , enjoyed these arrangements , and Fukui and Sekito asked him to join them in making a rock band . Declining at first due to feeling too busy with his composing duties and attempts to become a music producer with his Smile Please label , Uematsu agreed to join them in a single live performance as a keyboardist . At the performance , Uematsu felt a " mix of stage fright and excitement , [ with ] all the crowds cheering , the audience paying full attention " , and decided to join the two in making a band ; Fukui and Sekito had refused to start one if Uematsu was not involved as one of the musicians .
The group has said they were " nervous " about forming a rock band , as they were all " middle @-@ aged " , but decided after the performance it would not be a problem . The name " The Black Mages " was chosen by an employee at Square Enix , Mr. Matsushita , and was decided to be in English because it " wouldn 't stand out " in Japanese . Square Enix owns the name " The Black Mages " , which means while using that name the band was essentially limited to playing Final Fantasy music and original pieces rather than arranging music from other game series that were not owned by the company .
In 2003 , Uematsu decided the band should produce an album of Final Fantasy arrangements . The trio arranged , interpreted , and sequenced ten battle themes from various Final Fantasy titles , with Uematsu as producer ; the album was released eponymously on February 19 , 2003 . To celebrate the success , Uematsu decided to organize a concert in tribute to the album ; Uematsu and Fukui served as the keyboardists , while Sekito was the guitarist . They needed more people to perform the arrangements live , however , and as such , several other members from Square Enix joined . Keiji Kawamori joined to play the bass guitar , Michio Okamiya to play the guitar , and Arata Hanyuda to play the drums . Since then , The Black Mages have released two additional albums , with all six members participating . The group performed concerts to promote both of these albums , and also participated in video game music @-@ themed concerts .
On August 7 , 2010 , Uematsu announced the band had formally disbanded . He did not directly state the reason for the decision , though in previous interviews he had noted the band was increasingly finding it difficult to find time to rehearse together . In an April 2011 interview he said the main reason was because The Black Mages had been formed as a " Square Enix " band , they were unable to perform arrangements of work he had composed after leaving Square Enix or to focus on original pieces . Uematsu continues to play rock arrangements of his music as a part of the band the Earthbound Papas , which performed at the Distant Worlds II concert in 2010 . He has been joined by fellow Black Mages band @-@ mates Michio Okamiya and Arata Hanyuda , both continuing on guitar and drums , respectively . They had also left Square Enix ; Uematsu built the new band to not include any current Square Enix employees so as to avoid the trademark and licensing problems of The Black Mages .
= = Discography = =
= = = The Black Mages = = =
The Black Mages is an arranged soundtrack album of video game music from the Final Fantasy series of role @-@ playing video games . The album contains a selection of musical tracks from the games , arranged and performed in a hybrid of power metal and progressive metal by The Black Mages . All the selected tracks are " battle themes " from the games . The pieces have been described as " hard @-@ rock " with " blazing synthesizers and guitars " . It was first released on February 19 , 2003 , by DigiCube , and subsequently re @-@ released on May 10 , 2004 , by Square Enix . It spans ten tracks and covers a duration of 51 : 29 .
The album reached No. 43 on the Japan Oricon charts . It was well received by critics like Andy Byus of RPGFan , who termed it " addicting " and " powerful " . He criticized the overuse of synthesizer as opposed to live instruments in some tracks , and that some of the arrangements stayed too close to the original tracks , especially " Dancing Mad " . Tetra of Square Enix Music Online also enjoyed the album , saying " all of the members are strong musicians , and Sekito and Fukui were equally strong arrangers " . His primary complaint with the album was he felt many of the songs followed the same general pattern in their arrangements .
= = = The Black Mages II : The Skies Above = = =
The Black Mages II : The Skies Above is an arranged soundtrack album of video game music from the Final Fantasy series of role @-@ playing video games . Like the previous album , it contains a selection of musical tracks from the games , arranged and performed in a hybrid of power metal and progressive metal by The Black Mages . Unlike their first album , The Skies Above includes other pieces besides battle themes ; the album also features songs , which were performed by Kazco Hamano , credited as " KAZCO " , and Tomoaki Watanabe , or " Mr. Goo " . It also includes a non @-@ Final Fantasy track , " Blue Blast — Winning the Rainbow " , an original piece that was created for Japanese K @-@ 1 fighter Takehiro Murahama . The Skies Above , as opposed to the first album , features real drums rather than sequenced drums , as the band had expanded from its original three members , none of whom played drums . The line " Maybe I 'm a Lion " in the track of the same name was spoken by Alexander O. Smith , a translator for Square Enix and close friend of Okamiya , one of the new members . It was released on December 22 , 2004 , by Universal Music Group . The album spans eleven tracks , and covers a duration of 50 : 56 .
The album received mixed reviews from critics ; Jesse Jones of RPGFan said that he was " simply amazed " by the album , though it was not without flaws . While terming the music overall as " excellent " , he disliked the vocal arrangements in " Otherworld " and " The Skies Above " , finding that the voices of the singers did not match with the songs ' instrumentals . Zane of Square Enix Music Online was less approving of the album , calling it " passable " and saying that the new arrangements gave " mixed results " . He blamed the " intolerable vocals " and occasional poor choices in instruments as the problems with the album , concluding that the second Black Mages album was inferior to the first .
= = = The Black Mages III : Darkness and Starlight = = =
The Black Mages III : Darkness and Starlight is the third arranged soundtrack album of video game music from the Final Fantasy series of role @-@ playing video games . The album contains a selection of musical tracks from the games , arranged and performed in a hybrid of power metal and progressive metal by The Black Mages in a similar manner to their previous albums . It was released on March 19 , 2008 , by Uematsu 's Dog Ear Records , spanning ten tracks and a duration of 60 : 40 . The Black Mages sing the chorus for the song " Darkness and Starlight " , the only vocal track on the album . The album has been described as being composed of a mix of " intense " symphonic metal pieces and rock opera . Like the previous album , Darkness and Starlight features an original piece , " Life ~ in memory of KEITEN ~ " , which was composed by Uematsu for Yoshitaka Tagawa , a boy he had met who died of leukemia .
The album was well received by websites like RPGFan , which said the album was " very much worth the over three year wait " and described the tracks as " enjoyable " and " inspiring " . He had few complaints with the album , only describing " Opening ~ Bombing Mission " and " Assault of the Silver Dragons " as " bland " , but still worth listening to . Square Enix Music Online was even more positive in its review of the album , calling it " a masterpiece " and " The Black Mages ' finest effort to date " , wishing only the album had been longer .
= = = Other appearances = = =
In addition to their own albums , pieces from The Black Mages have appeared on several other albums . The first of these was " Flame Demon Monster Gaspard " on Dark Chronicle Premium Arrange , an album of arranged music from the video game Dark Chronicle originally composed by Tomohito Nishiura . The album was released on April 21 , 2004 , by Team Entertainment . Their next appearance was in the animated film Final Fantasy VII Advent Children and its corresponding soundtrack album , where they played — together with orchestration conducted by Koji Haijima — " Advent : One @-@ Winged Angel " , an arrangement of " One @-@ Winged Angel " from Final Fantasy VII originally composed by Uematsu and arranged by Shirō Hamaguchi . Their third appearance was on the soundtrack album for the Nintendo DS version of Final Fantasy III , entitled Final Fantasy III Original Soundtrack , with one track then titled " Last Battle -THE BLACK MAGES Ver.- " , but later re @-@ titled " KURAYAMINOKUMO " on the Darkness and Starlight album .
= = Concerts = =
While The Black Mages never toured as a band , they participated in several concert events . These include promotional concerts for the release of their three albums and appearances at orchestral concerts devoted to Final Fantasy music .
= = = Promotional concerts = = =
The Black Mages held a concert to promote their first album on April 26 , 2003 , in the Shibuya @-@ AX concert hall in Shibuya , Tokyo , Japan . This overnight concert featured the full setlist from the album , and introduced the track " Matoya 's Cave " , which would be featured in their next album . While the band members were being introduced , Okamiya performed the Chocobo theme and Uematsu performed the intro to Deep Purple 's " Smoke on the Water . " A DVD recording of the show was made and given to Uematsu fanclub members that year . The concert was repeated on November 3 , 2003 , at Kanagawa University in Kanagawa , Japan . This free concert was part of the Kanagawa Jindai Festa . As Uematsu graduated from Kanagawa University , The Black Mages all wore the school 's student uniform .
For their second album , The Black Mages performed two promotional concerts . They performed all the songs from their second album , along with " The Decisive Battle " , " Those Who Fight Further " and " Clash on the Big Bridge " from their first album . These concerts featured Kenji Ito , who performed piano renditions of pieces from the SaGa series . Also featured were muZik , a group who performed seven techno and pop @-@ style Final Fantasy arrangements . The first concert set was at Club Citta in Kawasaki , Japan on January 22 and January 23 , 2005 , and the second one at Namba Hatch in Osaka , Japan on January 28 , 2005 . A DVD recording of the Kawasaki show was made and given to Uematsu fanclub members on February 1 , 2006 .
A live concert was performed for the release of The Black Mages ' third album as for their previous albums . Performed at the Yokohama Blitz in Yokohama , Japan , on August 9 , 2008 , the concert featured all the pieces from the album with the exception of " Life ~ in memory of KEITEN ~ " and with the addition of " Maybe I 'm a Lion " and " Clash on the Big Bridge " . A DVD recording of the show was made and released commercially in 2009 , a first for the band .
= = = Other concerts = = =
In addition to their own concerts , The Black Mages made appearances at official Final Fantasy concerts . The first of these was the More Friends : Music from Final Fantasy event , held in the Gibson Amphitheatre in Los Angeles , California , on May 16 , 2005 ; the concert was The Black Mages ' first appearance in North America . The band performed " The Rocking Grounds " and " Maybe I 'm a Lion " from their second album , and joined with the orchestra for " Advent : One @-@ Winged Angel " as an encore to the concert . A recorded album was released on February 15 , 2006 , by Square Enix , and included the pieces by The Black Mages .
The second Final Fantasy concert The Black Mages performed at was the Voices - Music from Final Fantasy concert held in Yokohama , Japan on February 18 , 2006 . This concert featured performances of various Final Fantasy songs . The Black Mages played " Advent : One @-@ Winged Angel " at the end of the concert along with the Prima Vista Philharmonic Orchestra ; the song was played a second time as an encore . A DVD of the concert was released on June 21 , 2006 , and included an interview with Uematsu .
On July 7 , 2007 , The Black Mages appeared at the Extra : Hyper Game Music Event at Shinkiba Studio Coast in Tokyo . They were the last of thirteen artists and groups to play at the six @-@ hour event , and performed " Last Battle " , " Those Who Fight Further " , " Maybe I 'm a Lion " and " Clash on the Big Bridge " . The music performed by The Black Mages did not appear on the official album for the concert .
= = Band members = =
Nobuo Uematsu – keyboards ( 2002 – 2010 )
Kenichiro Fukui – keyboards ( 2002 – 2010 )
Tsuyoshi Sekito – guitar ( 2002 – 2010 )
Keiji Kawamori – bass guitar ( 2003 – 2010 )
Arata Hanyuda – drums ( 2003 – 2010 )
Michio Okamiya – guitar ( 2003 – 2010 )
= Supreme Court of Indiana =
The Supreme Court of Indiana , established by Article 7 of the Indiana Constitution , is the highest judicial authority in the state of Indiana . Located in Indianapolis , the Court 's chambers are in the north wing of the Indiana Statehouse .
In December 1816 the Supreme Court of Indiana succeeded the General Court of the Indiana Territory as the state 's high court . During its long history the Court heard a number of high @-@ profile cases , including Lasselle v. State ( 1820 ) . Originally begun as a three member judicial panel , the Court underwent major reforms in 1852 and 1971 , as well as several other reorganizations . Court reforms led to a majority of Supreme Court cases being delegated to lower courts , an enlarged panel of justices , and employment of a large staff to assist as its caseload increases .
= = Organization and Jurisdiction = =
In 2008 the Court consisted of one chief justice and four associate justices , the constitutional minimum ; however , the Indiana General Assembly may increase the number of associate justices to a maximum of eight for a total of nine court justices . A board of five commissioners assists the Court in its administrative duties . Commissioners are nominated by the Judicial Nominating Commission and appointed by the governor . The Court offices and chambers are located on the third floor in the north wing of the Indiana Statehouse . The Court maintains a large legal library on the third floor that is open to the public .
The Court has no original jurisdiction in most cases , meaning that it can only hear cases appealed to the Court after having been previously heard in lower courts . Most cases begin in local circuit courts , where the initial trial is held and a jury decides the outcome of the case . The circuit court decision can be appealed to the Indiana Court of Appeals or the Indiana Tax Court , who can hear the case or enforce the lower court 's decision . If the parties still disagree with the outcome of the case , they can appeal the decision to the Indiana Supreme Court . The Court can choose to hear the case and possibly overturn the previous judgment , or it can decline to accept the case and uphold the decision of the lower courts .
The Supreme Court of Indiana has original and sole jurisdiction in certain specific areas , including the practice of law , discipline or disbarment of judges appointed to the lower state courts , and supervision over the exercise of jurisdiction by the other lower courts of the state . When the Court accepts a case , it reviews the documentation of the trials in the lower court and sometimes allows oral arguments before making a decision . In some cases the justices will issue a decision without hearing arguments from either side and will base their decision solely on evidence submitted in the lower courts . The Court can order a new trial to take place in the local court , overturn the decision of lower courts and enforce its own decision , or uphold the decision of lower courts .
The Court appoints three commissions to assist it in its exclusive jurisdiction over the practice of law in Indiana . The role of the Board of Law Examiners is to " inquire into and determine the character , fitness , and general qualifications to be admitted to practice law as a member of the bar of the Supreme Court of Indiana . " The Disciplinary Commission is responsible for investigating grievances filed against members of the bar for misconduct and making disciplinary recommendations to the Supreme Court . The Commission for Continuing Legal Education administers , develops , and regulates continuing legal education requirements , mediation training standards , and attorney specialization programs .
The Judicial Nominating Commission is responsible for recruiting and interviewing applicants to fill vacancies on the Indiana Supreme Court , the Court of Appeals , and the Tax Court . It then sends three nominees for each vacancy to the governor . The Judicial Qualification Commission investigates complaints of judicial misconduct and files charges where appropriate . Both commissions have the same members and are chaired by the chief justice .
The entire Court takes part in the annual Judicial Conference of Indiana , which is attended by all of the state 's judges , and recommends improvements to the Court and state judiciary . The Court is also responsible for implementing all laws passed by the Indiana General Assembly that affect the judiciary . The Division of Supreme Court Administration is staffed by clerks who oversee the fiscal management of the courts , including payroll and expenses . In addition , the division is responsible for maintaining the Court 's records and assists in its administrative functions .
= = Terms and elections = =
Article 7 of the Indiana Constitution governs the term length of Supreme Court Justices . When there is a vacancy on the Court , a new justice is nominated using a variation of the Missouri Plan . First , the Judicial Nominating Commission submits a list of three qualified nominees to the governor . The governor then selects the new Justice from the list . If the governor fails to choose a replacement within sixty days , the chief justice or the acting chief justice must do so . The Judicial Nomination Commission Chief Justice selects the chief justice from the sitting associate justices for a five @-@ year term . The chief justice presides over the Court . When the position of chief justice becomes vacant , the most senior member of the Court serves as the acting chief justice until a new one is chosen by the Judicial Nominating Commission . The chief justice also serves as chairman of the Judicial Nominating Commission .
Justices are appointed to a term that could potentially last for ten years . Once a new justice is chosen , he may serve for two years before being subjected to a retention election held during the first statewide election following the completion of the justice 's second year in office . The justice is listed on the ballot with the option to be retained or to be rejected from the Court . If retained , the justice may serve the remainder of his ten @-@ year term . When a term is completed , the justice must be reappointed with the same process originally used to appoint him to remain on the Court . A majority vote of both houses of the Indiana General Assembly may impeach a justice for misconduct . It is mandatory for a justice to retire at age seventy @-@ five , even if their term is incomplete .
= = = Qualification = = =
Eligibility requirements to be nominated as a justice of the Supreme Court are established in Article 7 of the Indiana Constitution . The candidate must be a citizen of the United States and reside within the state of Indiana before being considered for the office . The candidate must also have been admitted to the practice of law in Indiana for at least ten years prior to their candidacy or must have served as a judge of a circuit , superior , or criminal court of Indiana for five years . The candidate cannot be under an indictment in any court in the United States with a crime punishable as a felony . The Judicial Nominating Commission must also ensure that they are the " most highly qualified public candidates " available .
= = Current Justices = =
= = History = =
The Indiana Supreme Court was established in 1816 when Indiana was granted statehood . The new Court replaced the General Court of the Indiana Territory , which consisted of a three @-@ member panel . Housed in a three @-@ room building it shared with the Indiana legislature , the Court held its first session in Corydon on May 5 , 1817 . Under the state constitution of 1816 , the governor appointed justices with the state senate 's " advice and consent " for a term of seven years .
In December 1816 Jonathan Jennings , Indiana 's first governor , nominated John Johnson of Vincennes Knox County ; James Scott of Charlestown Clark County ; and Jesse Holman of Aurora Dearborn County , to serve as the first panel of judges on the Indiana Supreme Court . Johnson became the Court 's first chief justice . When Johnson died in 1817 , Jennings named Isaac Blackford to replace him . Blackford became the second chief justice of the Court and was the longest serving justice in the Court 's history , serving 36 years , 3 months , and 24 days . Blackford recorded all of the Court 's early decisions in a multivolume work titled Blackford 's Reports that served for many years as a foundational text on the interpretation of state laws .
In 1824 the Supreme Court relocated to Indianapolis with the rest of the state 's government . Initially the Court shared space on the second floor of the Marion County Courthouse , before moving to the third Indiana Statehouse . In 1865 the Court was given its own building on lot number one in Indianapolis , where it remained until 1888 , moving to its present location in the fifth Indiana Statehouse . As of 2012 the Court occupies the entire north wing of the third floor of the Indiana Statehouse .
In 1851 the Supreme Court was reorganized under the new state constitution . The position of justice was changed from an appointed position to an elected one . Judicial terms were changed to six years and the Court 's size was set to a minimum of three members and not more than five . The Court 's judges quickly became overwhelmed by an ever @-@ increasing caseload . In 1853 the minimum was increased to four members and in 1872 it was increased to five . The Court has remained at a minimum of five justices since that time . In 1867 the general assembly transferred all the law books in the Indiana State Library to the Court to create a Supreme Court Law Library . The library grew to become the primary legal library for the state and includes more than seventy @-@ thousand volumes .
The Court 's caseload continued to grow over time . In 1881 the general assembly approved the creation of a five @-@ member panel of commissioners to assist the justices in administrative tasks . Even this was not enough to handle the load . In 1891 the Appellate Court of Indiana was created to handle cases of lower importance . At first the appellate court only took a small portion of the Supreme Court 's caseload , but its responsibility gradually increased .
In 1970 state constitutional amendments reorganized the Court . The constitution renamed the Appellate Court the Indiana Court of Appeals . With the formation of the Court of Appeals , the Supreme Court could choose which cases it would hear and which cases it would leave to the lower courts . Constitutional amendments also lengthened judicial terms to ten years and changed the limits on the size of the Court to a minimum of five members and a maximum of nine . The method of selecting justices was changed from statewide election to appointment by the governor . The amendment also provided for a Judicial Nominating Commission to choose candidates . Justices also became subject to a retention election . In addition , the office of chief justice became permanent . Previously the title rotated among the justices . In 2004 the Indiana General Assembly created the Supreme Court Division of Administration , legalizing and expanding the role of the clerks of the Court .
= = = Landmark cases = = =
The Court has heard several cases that have had a major impact on Indiana as well as others that have set nationwide precedents . The first of these cases , Lasselle v. State ( 1820 ) , where the Court overturned a circuit court decision that tested slave ownership in the new state by stating " the framers of our constitution intended a total and entire prohibition of slavery , " and resulted in all slaves in Indiana being freed . In the Fall Creek Massacre case ( 1823 ) , State v. Hudson , the Court upheld a lower court 's finding that crimes committed against Native Americans were punishable under American laws . This decision lead to the first execution of a white man for crimes against natives . In the Falkenburg v. Jones case ( 1889 ) , Indiana became the first state to establish the right for a defendant to obtain court records free of charge . The 1909 case of Woessner v. Bullick established that the Court could invalidate a governor 's veto if proper veto procedures were not followed , in effect ruling the pocket @-@ veto as unconstitutional . In 1917 the state was among the first to adopt an Exclusionary rule , established in the case of Callendar v. State , which prevented illegally obtained evidence from be submitted in court . In William v. Smith , a case heard in 1921 , the Court overturned Indiana 's eugenics laws , the first of their kind in the nation .
= All Things Must Pass =
All Things Must Pass is a triple album by English musician George Harrison . Recorded and released in 1970 , the album was Harrison 's first solo work since the break @-@ up of the Beatles in April that year , and his third solo album overall . It includes the hit singles " My Sweet Lord " and " What Is Life " , as well as songs such as " Isn 't It a Pity " and the title track that were turned down by the Beatles . The album reflects the influence of his musical activities with artists such as Bob Dylan , the Band , Delaney & Bonnie and Billy Preston during 1968 – 70 , as well as Harrison 's growth as an artist beyond his supporting role to former bandmates John Lennon and Paul McCartney . All Things Must Pass introduced Harrison 's signature sound , the slide guitar , and the spiritual themes that would be present throughout his subsequent solo work . The original vinyl release consisted of two LPs of songs and a third disc of informal jams , titled Apple Jam . Commentators interpret Barry Feinstein 's album cover photo , showing Harrison surrounded by four garden gnomes , as a statement on his independence from the Beatles .
Production began at London 's Abbey Road Studios in May 1970 , with extensive overdubbing and mixing continuing through October . Among the large cast of backing musicians were Eric Clapton and Delaney & Bonnie 's Friends band – three of whom formed Derek and the Dominos with Clapton during the recording – as well as Ringo Starr , Gary Wright , Preston , Klaus Voormann , John Barham , Badfinger and Pete Drake . The sessions produced a double album 's worth of extra material , most of which remains unissued .
All Things Must Pass was critically and commercially successful on release , with long stays at number 1 on charts around the world . The album was co @-@ produced by Phil Spector and employs his Wall of Sound production technique to notable effect ; Ben Gerson of Rolling Stone described the sound as " Wagnerian , Brucknerian , the music of mountain tops and vast horizons " . Reflecting the widespread surprise at the assuredness of Harrison 's post @-@ Beatles debut , Melody Maker 's Richard Williams likened the album to Greta Garbo 's first role in a talking picture and declared : " Garbo talks ! – Harrison is free ! " According to Colin Larkin , writing in the 2011 edition of his Encyclopedia of Popular Music , All Things Must Pass is " generally rated " as the best of all the former Beatles ' solo albums .
During the final year of his life , Harrison oversaw a successful reissue campaign to mark the 30th anniversary of the album 's release . Following this reissue , in March 2001 , the set was certified six @-@ times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . Among its appearances in critics ' best @-@ album lists , All Things Must Pass was ranked 79th on The Times ' " The 100 Best Albums of All Time " in 1993 , while Rolling Stone currently places it 433rd on the magazine 's " 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " . In January 2014 , All Things Must Pass was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame .
= = Background = =
Music journalist John Harris has identified the start of George Harrison 's " journey " to making All Things Must Pass as his visit to America in late 1968 , following the acrimonious sessions for the Beatles ' White Album . While in Woodstock in November , Harrison established a long @-@ lasting friendship with Bob Dylan and experienced a creative equality among the Band that contrasted sharply with John Lennon and Paul McCartney 's domination in the Beatles . Coinciding with this visit was a surge in Harrison 's songwriting output , following his renewed interest in the guitar , after three years spent studying the Indian sitar . As well as being one of the few musicians to co @-@ write songs with Dylan , Harrison had recently collaborated with Eric Clapton on " Badge " , which became a hit single for Cream in the spring of 1969 .
Once back in London , and with his compositions continually overlooked for inclusion on releases by the Beatles , Harrison found creative fulfilment in extracurricular projects that , in the words of his musical biographer , Simon Leng , served as an " emancipating force " from the restrictions imposed on him in the band . His activities during 1969 included producing Apple signings Billy Preston and Doris Troy , two American singer @-@ songwriters whose soul and gospel roots proved as influential on All Things Must Pass as the music of the Band . He also recorded with artists such as Leon Russell and Jack Bruce , and accompanied Clapton on a short tour with Delaney Bramlett 's soul revue , Delaney & Bonnie and Friends . In addition , Harrison identified his involvement with the Hare Krishna movement as providing " another piece of a jigsaw puzzle " that represented the spiritual journey he had begun in 1966 . As well as embracing the Vaishnavist branch of Hinduism , Harrison produced two hit singles during 1969 – 70 by the UK @-@ based devotees , credited as Radha Krishna Temple ( London ) . In January 1970 , Harrison invited American producer Phil Spector to participate in the recording of Lennon 's Plastic Ono Band single " Instant Karma ! " This association led to Spector being given the task of salvaging the Beatles ' Get Back rehearsal tapes , released officially as the Let It Be album ( 1970 ) , and later co @-@ producing All Things Must Pass .
Harrison first discussed the possibility of making a solo album of his unused songs during the ill @-@ tempered Get Back sessions , held at Twickenham Film Studios in January 1969 . At Abbey Road Studios on 25 February , his 26th birthday , Harrison recorded demos of " All Things Must Pass " and two other compositions that had received little interest from Lennon and McCartney at Twickenham . With the inclusion of one of these songs – " Something " – and " Here Comes the Sun " on the Beatles ' Abbey Road album in September 1969 , music critics acknowledged that Harrison had bloomed into a songwriter to match Lennon and McCartney . Although he began talking publicly about recording his own album from the autumn of 1969 , it was only after McCartney announced that he was leaving the Beatles , in April 1970 , signalling the band 's break @-@ up , that Harrison committed to the idea . Despite having already made Wonderwall Music ( 1968 ) , a mostly instrumental soundtrack album , and the experimental Electronic Sound ( 1969 ) , Harrison considered All Things Must Pass to be his first solo album .
= = Album content = =
= = = Main body = = =
Spector first heard Harrison 's stockpile of unreleased compositions early in 1970 , when visiting his recently purchased home , Friar Park . " It was endless ! " Spector later recalled of the recital , noting the quantity and quality of Harrison 's material . Harrison had accumulated songs from as far back as 1966 ; both " Isn 't It a Pity " and " Art of Dying " date from that year . He co @-@ wrote at least two songs with Dylan while in Woodstock , one of which , " I 'd Have You Anytime " , appeared on All Things Must Pass . Harrison wrote " Let It Down " in late 1968 also .
He introduced the Band @-@ inspired " All Things Must Pass " , along with " Hear Me Lord " and " Let It Down " , at the Beatles ' Get Back rehearsals , only to have them rejected by Lennon and McCartney . The tense atmosphere at Twickenham fuelled another All Things Must Pass song , " Wah @-@ Wah " , which Harrison wrote in the wake of his temporary departure from the band on 10 January 1969 . " Run of the Mill " followed soon afterwards , its lyrics focusing on the failure of friendships within the Beatles amid the business problems surrounding their Apple organisation . Harrison 's musical activities outside the band during 1969 inspired other compositions on the album : " What Is Life " came to him while driving to a London session that spring for Preston 's That 's the Way God Planned It album ; " Behind That Locked Door " was Harrison 's message of encouragement to Dylan , written the night before the latter 's comeback performance at the Isle of Wight Festival ; and Harrison began " My Sweet Lord " as an exercise in writing a gospel song during Delaney & Bonnie 's stopover in Copenhagen in December 1969 .
" I Dig Love " resulted from Harrison 's early experiments with slide guitar , a technique that Bramlett had introduced him to , in order to cover for guitarist Dave Mason 's departure from the Friends line @-@ up . Other songs on All Things Must Pass , all written during the first half of 1970 , include " Awaiting on You All " , which reflected Harrison 's adoption of chanting through his involvement with the Hare Krishna movement ; " Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp ( Let It Roll ) " , a tribute to the original owner of Friar Park ; and " Beware of Darkness " . The latter was another composition influenced by Harrison 's association with the Radha Krishna Temple , and was written while some of the devotees were staying with him at Friar Park .
Shortly before beginning work on All Things Must Pass , Harrison attended a Dylan session in New York on 1 May 1970 , during which he acquired a new song of Dylan 's , " If Not for You " . Harrison wrote " Apple Scruffs " , which was one of a number of Dylan @-@ influenced compositions on the album , towards the end of production on All Things Must Pass , as a tribute to the diehard fans who had kept a vigil outside the studios where he was working .
According to Leng , All Things Must Pass represents the completion of Harrison 's " musical @-@ philosophical circle " , in which his 1966 – 68 immersion in Indian music found a Western equivalent in gospel music . While identifying hard rock , country and western , and Motown among the other genres on the album , Leng writes of the " plethora of new sounds and influences " that Harrison had absorbed through 1969 and now incorporated , including " Krishna chants , gospel ecstasy , Southern blues @-@ rock [ and ] slide guitar " . The melodies of " Isn 't It a Pity " and " Beware of Darkness " have aspects of Indian classical music , and on " My Sweet Lord " , Harrison combined the Hindu bhajan tradition with gospel . The recurrent lyrical themes on the album are Harrison 's spiritual quest , as it would be throughout his solo career , and friendship , particularly the failure of relationships among the Beatles . Rob Mitchum of Pitchfork Media describes the album as " dark @-@ tinged Krishna folk @-@ rock " .
= = = Apple Jam = = =
On the original LP 's third disc , entitled Apple Jam , four of the five tracks – " Out of the Blue " , " Plug Me In " , " I Remember Jeep " and " Thanks for the Pepperoni " – are improvised instrumentals built around minimal chord changes , or in the case of " Out of the Blue " , a single @-@ chord riff . The title for " I Remember Jeep " originated from the name of Clapton 's dog , Jeep , and " Thanks for the Pepperoni " came from a line on a Lenny Bruce comedy album . In a December 2000 interview with Billboard magazine , Harrison explained : " For the jams , I didn 't want to just throw [ them ] in the cupboard , and yet at the same time it wasn 't part of the record ; that 's why I put it on a separate label to go in the package as a kind of bonus . "
The only vocal selection on Apple Jam is " It 's Johnny 's Birthday " , sung to the tune of Cliff Richard 's 1968 hit " Congratulations " , and recorded as a gift from Harrison to Lennon to mark the latter 's 30th birthday . Like all the " free " tracks on the bonus disc , " It 's Johnny 's Birthday " carried a Harrison songwriting credit on the original UK release of All Things Must Pass , while on the first US copies , the only songwriting information on the record 's face labels was the standard inclusion of a performing rights organisation , BMI . In December 1970 , " Congratulations " songwriters Bill Martin and Phil Coulter claimed for royalties , with the result that the composer 's credit for Harrison 's track was swiftly changed to acknowledge Martin and Coulter .
= = = Demo tracks and outtakes = = =
Aside from the seventeen compositions issued on discs one and two of the original album , Harrison recorded at least twenty other songs – either in demo form for Spector 's benefit , just before recording got officially under way in late May , or as outtakes from the sessions . In a 1992 interview , Harrison commented on the volume of material : " I didn 't have many tunes on Beatles records , so doing an album like All Things Must Pass was like going to the bathroom and letting it out . " As well as " Wah @-@ Wah " , " Art of Dying " and others that would soon be developed in a band setting , Harrison 's solo performance for Spector included the following songs , all of which remain unreleased :
" Window , Window " – another composition turned down by the Beatles in January 1969
" Everybody , Nobody " – the melody of which Harrison adapted for " Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp "
" Nowhere to Go " – a second Harrison – Dylan collaboration from November 1968 , originally known as " When Everybody Comes to Town "
" Cosmic Empire " , " Mother Divine " and " Tell Me What Has Happened to You " .
Also from this performance were two tracks that Harrison returned to in later years . " Beautiful Girl " appeared on his 1976 album Thirty Three & 1 / 3 , and the Dylan @-@ written " I Don 't Want to Do It " was Harrison 's contribution to the soundtrack for Porky 's Revenge ! ( 1985 ) .
During the main sessions for All Things Must Pass , Harrison taped or routined early versions of " You " , " Try Some , Buy Some " and " When Every Song Is Sung " . Harrison offered these three songs to Ronnie Spector in February 1971 for her proposed ( and soon abandoned ) solo album on Apple Records . After releasing his own versions of " Try Some , Buy Some " and " You " between 1973 and 1975 , he offered " When Every Song Is Sung " ( since retitled " I 'll Still Love You " ) to former bandmate Ringo Starr for his 1976 album Ringo 's Rotogravure . " Woman Don 't You Cry for Me " , written in December 1969 as his first slide @-@ guitar composition , was another song that Harrison revisited on Thirty Three & 1 / 3 . Harrison included " I Live for You " as the only all @-@ new bonus track on the 2001 reissue of All Things Must Pass . " Down to the River " remained unused until he reworked it as " Rocking Chair in Hawaii " for his final studio album , the posthumously released Brainwashed ( 2002 ) .
Harrison recorded the following compositions during the All Things Must Pass sessions but they have never received an official release :
" Dehradun " – written during the Beatles ' stay in Rishikesh in early 1968 , and unveiled by Harrison in a brief performance on ukulele for the 1995 TV broadcast of The Beatles Anthology
" Gopala Krishna " – also known as " Om Hare Om " , with all @-@ Sanskrit lyrics , and described by Simon Leng as a " rocking companion " to " Awaiting on You All "
" Going Down to Golders Green " – a Sun Records @-@ era Presley parody based on the melody of " Baby Let 's Play House " .
= = Contributing musicians = =
The precise line @-@ up of contributing musicians is open to conjecture . Due to the album 's big sound and the many participants on the sessions , commentators have traditionally referred to the grand , orchestral nature of this line @-@ up . In 2002 , music critic Greg Kot described it as " a who 's who of the decade 's rock royalty " , while Harris writes of the cast taking on " a Cecil B. De Mille aspect " .
The musicians included Bobby Whitlock , Jim Gordon , Carl Radle , Bobby Keys , Jim Price and Dave Mason , all of whom had recently toured with Delaney & Bonnie . Along with Eric Clapton , there were also musicians whose link with Harrison went back some years , such as Ringo Starr and Billy Preston , and German bassist Klaus Voormann , formerly of Manfred Mann and a friend since the Beatles ' years in Hamburg . Handling much of the keyboard work with Whitlock was Gary Wright , who went on to collaborate regularly with Harrison throughout the 1970s .
From within Apple 's stable of musicians , Harrison recruited the band Badfinger , future Yes drummer Alan White , and Beatles assistant Mal Evans on percussion . Badfinger drummer Mike Gibbins ' powerful tambourine work led to Spector giving him the nickname " Mr Tambourine Man " , after the Dylan song , while bandmates Pete Ham , Tom Evans and Joey Molland provided rhythm acoustic @-@ guitar parts that , in keeping with Spector 's Wall of Sound principles , were to be " felt but not heard " . Orchestral arranger John Barham also sat in on the sessions , occasionally contributing on harmonium and vibraphone . Other guests included Nashville pedal steel player Pete Drake , Procol Harum 's Gary Brooker and a pre @-@ Genesis Phil Collins .
For contractual reasons , on UK pressings of All Things Must Pass , Clapton 's participation on the first two discs of the album remained unacknowledged for many years , although he was listed among the musicians appearing on the Apple Jam disc in Britain . Harrison was unaware of Collins 's contribution until putting together the 30th anniversary reissue of the album in 2000 , at which point he offered Collins his belated thanks . Clapton 's former bandmate in Cream and Blind Faith , Ginger Baker , participated in the session for " I Remember Jeep " only , according to the album 's sleeve notes .
Simon Leng consulted Voormann , Barham , Molland and Delaney Bramlett for his chapter covering the making of All Things Must Pass and credits Tony Ashton as one of the keyboard players on both versions of " Isn 't It a Pity " . Some sources suggest that Peter Frampton may have been among the rhythm guitarists on some songs , while similarly unsubstantiated claims exist regarding possible guest appearances from John Lennon , Maurice Gibb and Pink Floyd 's Richard Wright . In addition , for some years after the album 's release , rumours claimed that the Band backed Harrison on the country @-@ influenced " Behind That Locked Door " .
= = Production = =
= = = Initial recording = = =
The date for Harrison 's run @-@ through of songs for Spector , at Abbey Road Studios , is generally thought to have been 20 May 1970 , the same day as the Let It Be film 's world premiere , with recording sessions beginning on 26 May . With assistance from former Beatles engineers Ken Scott and Phil McDonald , Spector recorded most of the album 's backing tracks live , in some cases featuring multiple drummers and keyboard players , and as many as five rhythm guitarists .
According to authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter , the majority of these backing tracks were taped on 8 @-@ track at Abbey Road , with the first batch of sessions taking place from late May through to the second week of June . The first song recorded was " Wah @-@ Wah " ; " What Is Life " , versions one and two of " Isn 't It a Pity " , and the songs on which Drake participated , such as " All Things Must Pass " and " Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp " , were among the other tracks taped then . The Apple Jam instrumentals " Thanks for the Pepperoni " and " Plug Me In " , featuring Harrison , Clapton and Mason each taking extended guitar solos , were recorded later in June , at the Beatles ' Apple Studio , and marked the formation of Clapton , Whitlock , Radle and Gordon 's short @-@ lived band Derek and the Dominos . Harrison also contributed on guitar to both sides of the band 's debut single , " Tell the Truth " and " Roll It Over " , which were produced by Spector and recorded at Apple on 18 June . The eleven @-@ minute " Out of the Blue " featured contributions from Keys and Price , both of whom began working with the Rolling Stones around this time .
Although Harrison had estimated in a New York radio interview that the solo album would take no more than eight weeks to complete , recording , overdubbing and mixing on All Things Must Pass lasted for five months , until late October . Part of the reason for this was Harrison 's need to make regular visits to Liverpool to tend to his mother , who had been diagnosed with cancer . Participants at the recording sessions identify Spector 's erratic behaviour as another factor affecting progress on the album . Harrison later referred to Spector needing " eighteen cherry brandies " before he could start work , a situation that forced much of the production duties onto Harrison alone . In July 1970 , by which time sessions had resumed at Trident Studios , Spector fell over in the studio and broke his arm . Early that month , work on All Things Must Pass was temporarily brought to a halt as Harrison headed north to see his dying mother for the last time . EMI 's growing concerns regarding studio costs added to the pressure on Harrison , and a further complication , John Harris notes , was that Clapton had become infatuated with Harrison 's wife , Pattie Boyd , and adopted a heroin habit as a means of coping with his guilt .
= = = Overdubbing = = =
In Spector 's absence , Harrison had completed the album 's backing tracks and preliminary overdubs by 12 August . He then sent early mixes of many of the songs to his co @-@ producer , who was convalescing in Los Angeles , and Spector replied by letter dated 19 August with suggestions for further overdubs and final mixing . Among Spector 's comments were detailed suggestions regarding " Let It Down " , the released recording of which Madinger and Easter describe as " the best example of Spector running rampant with the ' Wall of Sound ' " , and an urging that he and Harrison carry out further work on the songs at the superior , 16 @-@ track Trident Studios facility . Spector then returned to oversee conversion of the 8 @-@ track recordings to 16 @-@ track masters , a process that allowed for more freedom when overdubbing new instruments .
John Barham 's orchestrations were recorded during the next phase of the album 's production , starting in early September , along with many further contributions from Harrison , such as his lead vocals , slide guitar parts and multi @-@ tracked backing vocals ( the latter credited to " the George O 'Hara @-@ Smith Singers " ) . Leng recognises Barham 's arrangements on " pivotal " songs such as " Isn 't It a Pity " , " My Sweet Lord " , " Beware of Darkness " and " All Things Must Pass " as important elements of the album 's sound , while Spector has praised Harrison 's guitar and vocal work on the overdubs , saying : " Perfectionist is not the right word . Anyone can be a perfectionist . He was beyond that ... " Harrison 's style of slide guitar playing incorporated aspects of both Indian music and the blues tradition ; from its introduction on All Things Must Pass , Leng writes , Harrison 's slide guitar became his musical signature – " as instantly recognisable as Dylan 's harmonica or Stevie Wonder 's " .
= = = Mixing and mastering = = =
On 9 October , while carrying out final mixing at Abbey Road , Harrison presented Lennon with the recently recorded " It 's Johnny 's Birthday " . The track featured Harrison on vocals , harmonium and all other instruments , and vocal contributions from Mal Evans and assistant engineer Eddie Klein . That same month , Harrison finished his production work on Starr 's 1971 single " It Don 't Come Easy " , the basic track for which they had recorded with Voormann in March at Trident . Aside from his contributions to projects by Starr , Clapton , Preston and Ashton during 1970 , over the following year Harrison would reciprocate the help that his fellow musicians on All Things Must Pass had given him by contributing to albums by Whitlock , Wright , Badfinger and Keys .
On 28 October , Harrison and Boyd arrived in New York , where he and Spector carried out final preparation for the album 's release , such as sequencing . Harrison harboured doubts about whether all the songs they had finished were worthy of inclusion ; Allan Steckler , Apple Records ' US manager , was " stunned " by the quality of the material and assured Harrison that he should issue all the songs . Spector 's signature production style gave All Things Must Pass a heavy , reverb @-@ oriented sound , which Harrison came to regret with the passage of time . Outtakes from the recording sessions became available on bootlegs in the 1990s . One such unofficial release , the three @-@ disc The Making of All Things Must Pass , contains multiple takes of some of the songs on the album , providing a work @-@ in @-@ progress on the sequence of overdubs onto the backing tracks .
= = Album artwork = =
Harrison commissioned Tom Wilkes to design a hinged box in which to house the three vinyl discs , rather than have them packaged in a triple gatefold cover . Apple insider Tony Bramwell later recalled : " It was a bloody big thing ... You needed arms like an orang @-@ utan to carry half a dozen . " The packaging caused some confusion among retailers , who , at that time , associated boxed albums with opera or classical works .
The stark black @-@ and @-@ white cover photo was taken on the main lawn at Friar Park by Wilkes ' Camouflage Productions partner , Barry Feinstein . Commentators interpret the photograph – showing Harrison seated in the centre of , and towering over , four comical @-@ looking garden gnomes – as representing his removal from the Beatles ' collective identity . The gnomes had recently been delivered to Friar Park and placed on the lawn ; seeing the four figures there , and mindful of the message in the album 's title , Feinstein immediately drew parallels with Harrison 's former band . Author and music journalist Mikal Gilmore has written that Lennon 's initial negativity regarding All Things Must Pass was possibly because he was " irritated " by this cover photo ; Harrison biographer Elliot Huntley attributes this reaction to envy on Lennon 's part during a time when " everything [ Harrison ] touched turned to gold " .
Apple included a poster with the album , showing Harrison in a darkened corridor of his home , standing in front of an iron @-@ framed window . Wilkes had designed a more adventurous poster , but according to Beatles author Bruce Spizer , Harrison was uncomfortable with the imagery . Some of the Feinstein photographs that Wilkes had incorporated into this original poster design appeared instead on the picture sleeves for the " My Sweet Lord " single and its follow @-@ up , " What Is Life " .
= = Release = =
EMI and its US counterpart , Capitol Records , had originally scheduled the album for release in October 1970 , and advance promotion began in September . An " intangible buzz " had been " in the air for months " regarding Harrison 's solo album , according to Alan Clayson , and " for reasons other than still @-@ potent loyalty to the Fab Four " . Harrison 's stature as an artist had grown over the past year through the acclaim afforded his songs on Abbey Road , as well as the speculation caused by his and Dylan 's joint recording session in New York . Noting also Harrison 's role in popularising new acts such as the Band and Delaney & Bonnie , and his association with Clapton and Cream , NME critic Bob Woffinden concluded in 1981 : " All in all , Harrison 's credibility was building to a peak . "
All Things Must Pass was released on 27 November 1970 in the United States , and on 30 November in Britain , with the rare distinction of having the same Apple catalogue number ( STCH 639 ) in both countries . Often credited as rock 's first triple album , it was the first triple set of previously unissued music by a single act , the multi @-@ artist Woodstock live album having preceded it by six months . Adding to the commercial appeal of Harrison 's songs , Clayson writes , All Things Must Pass appeared at a time when religion and spirituality had become " a turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ decade craze " among Western youth , just as the Twist had been in 1960 . Another factor behind the album 's first weeks of release was Harrison 's meeting with McCartney in New York , the failure of which led to McCartney filing suit in London 's High Court to dissolve the Beatles ' legal partnership .
Apple issued " My Sweet Lord " as the album 's first single , as a double A @-@ side with " Isn 't It a Pity " in the majority of countries . It was highly successful , topping singles charts around the world during the first few months of 1971 , on its way to becoming the most performed song of that year . Discussing the song 's cultural impact , Gilmore credits " My Sweet Lord " with being " as pervasive on radio and in youth consciousness as anything the Beatles had produced " . Issued in February 1971 , the second single , " What Is Life " backed with " Apple Scruffs " , was also successful .
All Things Must Pass was number 1 on the UK 's official albums chart for eight weeks , although until 2006 , chart records incorrectly stated that it had peaked at number 4 . On Melody Maker 's national chart , the album was also number 1 for eight weeks , from 6 February to 27 March , six of which coincided with " My Sweet Lord " topping the magazine 's singles chart . In America , All Things Must Pass spent seven weeks at number 1 on the Billboard Top LP 's chart , from 2 January until 20 February , and a similarly long period atop the listings compiled by Cash Box and Record World ; for three of those weeks , " My Sweet Lord " held the top spot on the Billboard Hot 100 . Writing in the April 2001 issue of Record Collector , managing editor Peter Doggett described Harrison as " arguably the most successful rock star on the planet " at the start of 1971 , with All Things Must Pass " easily outstripping other solo Beatles projects later in the year , such as [ McCartney 's ] Ram and [ Lennon 's ] Imagine " . Harrison 's so @-@ called " Billboard double " – whereby one artist simultaneously holds the top positions on the magazine 's albums and singles listings – was a feat that none of his former bandmates equalled until Paul McCartney and Wings repeated the achievement in June 1973 . At the 1972 Grammy Awards , All Things Must Pass was nominated for Album of the Year and " My Sweet Lord " for Record of the Year , but Harrison lost out in both categories to Carole King .
All Things Must Pass was awarded a gold disc by the Recording Industry Association of America on 17 December 1970 and it has since been certified six times platinum . According to John Bergstrom of PopMatters , as of January 2011 , All Things Must Pass had sold more than Imagine and McCartney and Wings ' Band on the Run ( 1973 ) combined . Also writing in 2011 , Lennon and Harrison biographer Gary Tillery describes it as " the most successful album ever released by an ex @-@ Beatle " . In his 2004 book The 100 Best @-@ Selling Albums of the 70s , Hamish Champ ranks it as the 36th best @-@ selling album of that decade .
= = Critical reception = =
= = = Contemporary reviews = = =
All Things Must Pass received almost universal critical acclaim on release – as much for the music and lyrical content as for the fact that , of all the former Beatles , it was the work of supposed junior partner George Harrison . Beatles author Robert Rodriguez has written of critics ' attention being centred on " a major talent unleashed , one who 'd been hidden in plain sight all those years " behind Lennon and McCartney . " That the Quiet Beatle was capable of such range , " Rodriguez continues , " from the joyful ' What Is Life ' to the meditative ' Isn 't It a Pity ' to the steamrolling ' Art of Dying ' to the playful ' I Dig Love ' – was revelatory . " Most reviewers tended to discount the third disc of studio jams , accepting that it was a " free " addition to justify the set 's high retail price , although Anthony DeCurtis recognises Apple Jam as further evidence of the album 's " bracing air of creative liberation " .
Ben Gerson of Rolling Stone deemed All Things Must Pass " both an intensely personal statement and a grandiose gesture , a triumph over artistic modesty " and referenced the three @-@ record set as an " extravaganza of piety and sacrifice and joy , whose sheer magnitude and ambition may dub it the War and Peace of rock and roll " . Gerson also lauded the album 's production as being " of classic Spectorian proportions , Wagnerian , Brucknerian , the music of mountain tops and vast horizons " . In the NME , Alan Smith referred to Harrison 's songs as " music of the mind " , adding : " they search and they wander , as if in the soft rhythms of a dream , and in the end he has set them to words which are often both profound and profoundly beautiful . " Billboard magazine hailed All Things Must Pass as " a masterful blend of rock and piety , technical brilliance and mystic mood , and relief from the tedium of everyday rock " .
Melody Maker 's Richard Williams summed up the surprise many felt at Harrison 's apparent transformation : All Things Must Pass , he said , provided " the rock equivalent of the shock felt by pre @-@ war moviegoers when Garbo first opened her mouth in a talkie : Garbo talks ! – Harrison is free ! " In another review , for The Times , Williams opined that , of all the Beatles ' solo releases thus far , Harrison 's album " makes far and away the best listening , perhaps because it is the one which most nearly continues the tradition they began eight years ago " . William Bender of Time magazine described it as an " expressive , classically executed personal statement ... one of the outstanding rock albums in years " , while Don Heckman wrote in The New York Times : " If anyone had any doubts that George Harrison was a major talent , they can relax ... This is a release that shouldn 't be missed . "
That the album sounded so contemporary in 1970 contributed to All Things Must Pass seeming dated and faddish later in the decade . Village Voice critic Robert Christgau , having bemoaned in 1971 that the album was characterised by " overblown fatuity " and uninteresting music , wrote in a 1981 review of its " featurelessness " , " right down to the anonymity of the multitracked vocals " . In their book The Beatles : An Illustrated Record , Roy Carr and Tony Tyler were likewise lukewarm in their assessment , criticising the " homogeneity " of the production and " the lugubrious nature of Harrison 's composing " . Writing in The Beatles Forever in 1977 , however , Nicholas Schaffner praised the album as the " crowning glory " of Harrison and Spector 's careers , and highlighted " All Things Must Pass " and " Beware of Darkness " as the " two most eloquent songs ... musically as well as lyrically " .
= = = Retrospective reviews and legacy = = =
AllMusic 's Richie Unterberger views All Things Must Pass as " [ Harrison 's ] best ... a very moving work " , while Roger Catlin of MusicHound describes the set as " epic and audacious " , its " dense production and rich songs topped off by the extra album of jamming " . Q magazine considers it to be an exemplary fusion of " rock and religion " , as well as " the single most satisfying collection of any solo Beatle " . Filmmaker Martin Scorsese has written of the " powerful sense of the ritualistic on the album " , adding : " I remember feeling that it had the grandeur of liturgical music , of the bells used in Tibetan Buddhist ceremonies . " Writing for Rolling Stone in 2002 , Greg Kot described this grandeur as an " echo @-@ laden cathedral of rock in excelsis " where the " real stars " are Harrison 's songs ; in the same publication , Mikal Gilmore labelled the album " the finest solo work any ex @-@ Beatle ever produced " . In his July 2001 feature for Mojo , John Harris called it " the inaugural solo album that still stands as the best Beatles solo record " , while earlier that year the magazine 's album review read in part : " This remains the best Beatles solo album ... oozing both the goggle @-@ eyed joy of creative emancipation and the sense of someone pushing himself to the limit ... "
In his PopMatters review , John Bergstrom likens All Things Must Pass to " the sound of Harrison exhaling " , noting : " He was quite possibly the only Beatle who was completely satisfied with the Beatles being gone . " Bergstrom credits the album with heavily influencing bands such as ELO , My Morning Jacket , Fleet Foxes and Grizzly Bear , as well as helping bring about the dream pop phenomenon . Another Rolling Stone critic , James Hunter , commented in 2001 on how All Things Must Pass " helped define the decade it ushered in " , in that " the cast , the length , the long hair falling on suede @-@ covered shoulders ... foretold the sprawl and sleepy ambition of the Seventies . " In The Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 2004 ) , Mac Randall writes that the album is exceptional , but " a tad overrated " by those critics who tend to overlook how its last 30 minutes comprise " a bunch of instrumental blues jams that nobody listens to more than once " . Unterberger similarly cites the inclusion of Apple Jam as " a very significant flaw " , while recognising that its content " proved to be of immense musical importance " , with the formation of Derek and the Dominos . Writing for Pitchfork Media in 2016 , Jayson Green said that Harrison was the only former Beatle who " changed the terms of what an album could be " since , although All Things Must Pass was not the first rock triple LP , " in the cultural imagination , it is the first triple album , the first one released as a pointed statement . "
Among Harrison 's biographers , Simon Leng views All Things Must Pass as a " paradox of an album " : as eager as Harrison was to break free from his identity as a Beatle , Leng suggests , many of the songs document the " Kafkaesque chain of events " of life within the band and so added to the " mythologized history " he was looking to escape . Ian Inglis notes 1970 's place in an era marking " the new supremacy of the singer @-@ songwriter " , through such memorable albums as Simon & Garfunkel 's Bridge Over Troubled Water , Neil Young 's After the Gold Rush , Van Morrison 's Moondance and Joni Mitchell 's Ladies of the Canyon , but that none of these " possessed the startling impact " of All Things Must Pass . Harrison 's triple album , Inglis writes , " [ would ] elevate ' the third Beatle ' into a position that , for a time at least , comfortably eclipsed that of his former bandmates " .
All Things Must Pass features in music reference books such as The Mojo Collection : The Greatest Albums of All Time , Robert Dimery 's 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die and Tom Moon 's 1 @,@ 000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die . In 1999 , All Things Must Pass appeared at number 9 on The Guardian 's " Alternative Top 100 Albums " list , where the editor described it as the " best , mellowest and most sophisticated " of all the Beatles ' solo efforts . In 2006 , Pitchfork Media placed it at number 82 on the site 's " Top 100 Albums of the 1970s " . Six year later , it was voted 433rd on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the " 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " . According to the website Acclaimed Music , All Things Must Pass has also appeared in the following critics ' best @-@ album books and lists , among others : Paul Gambaccini 's The World Critics Best Albums of All Time ( 1977 ; ranked number 79 ) , The Times ' " 100 Best Albums of All Time " ( 1993 ; number 79 ) , Allan Kozinn 's The 100 Greatest Pop Albums of the Century ( published in 2000 ) , Q 's " The 50 ( + 50 ) Best British Albums Ever " ( 2004 ) , Mojo 's " 70 of the Greatest Albums of the 70s " ( 2006 ) , the NME 's " 100 Greatest British Albums Ever " ( 2006 ; number 86 ) , Paste magazine 's " The 70 Best Albums of the 1970s " ( 2012 ; number 27 ) , and Craig Mathieson and Toby Creswell 's The 100 Best Albums of All Time ( 2013 ) . In January 2014 , All Things Must Pass was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame , an award bestowed by the Recording Academy " to honor recordings of lasting qualitative or historical significance that are at least 25 years old " .
= = Subsequent releases = =
= = = 2001 = = =
To mark the 30th anniversary of the album 's release , Harrison supervised a remastered edition of All Things Must Pass , which was issued in January 2001 , less than a year before his death from cancer at the age of 58 . The reissue appeared on Gnome Records , a label specifically set up by him for the project . Harrison oversaw revisions to Wilkes and Feinstein 's album artwork , which included a colorised " George & the Gnomes " front cover and , on the two CD sleeves and the album booklet , further examples of this cover image showing an imaginary , gradual encroachment of urbanisation on the Friar Park landscape . The latter series served to illustrate Harrison 's dismay at " the direction the world seemed headed at the start of the millennium " , Gary Tillery observes , a direction that was " so far afield from the Age of Aquarius that had been the dream of the sixties " . Harrison launched a website dedicated to the reissue , which offered , in the description of Chuck Miller of Goldmine magazine , " graphics and sounds and little Macromedia @-@ created gnomes dancing and giggling and playing guitars in a Terry Gilliam @-@ esque world " . As a further example of his willingness to embrace modern media , Harrison prepared an electronic press kit , which he described as " not exactly an EPK but it is a threat to world order as we know it " .
Titled All Things Must Pass : 30th Anniversary Edition , the new album contained five bonus tracks , including " I Live For You " , two of the songs performed for Spector at Abbey Road in May 1970 ( " Beware of Darkness " and " Let It Down " ) and " My Sweet Lord ( 2000 ) " , a partial re @-@ recording of Harrison 's biggest solo hit . In addition , Harrison resequenced the content of Apple Jam so that the album closed with " Out of the Blue " , as he had originally intended . Assisting Harrison with overdubs on the bonus tracks were his son , Dhani Harrison , singer Sam Brown and percussionist Ray Cooper , all of whom contributed to the recording of Brainwashed around this time .
With Harrison undertaking extensive promotional work , the 2001 reissue was a critical and commercial success . Having underestimated the album 's popularity , Capitol faced a back order of 20 @,@ 000 copies in America . There , the reissue debuted at number 4 on Billboard 's Top Pop Catalog Albums chart and topped the magazine 's Internet Album Sales listings . In the UK , it peaked at number 68 on the national albums chart . Writing in Record Collector , Doggett described this success as " a previously unheard @-@ of achievement for a reissue " .
Following Harrison 's death on 29 November 2001 , All Things Must Pass returned to the US charts , climbing to number 6 and number 7 , respectively , on the Top Pop Catalog and Internet Album Sales charts . With the release on iTunes of much of the Harrison catalogue , in October 2007 , the album re @-@ entered the US Top Pop Catalog chart , peaking at number 3 .
= = = 2010 = = =
For the 40th anniversary of All Things Must Pass , EMI reissued the album in its original configuration , in a limited @-@ edition box set of three vinyl LPs . Available via participating Record Store Day retailers , with each copy individually numbered , the release took place on 26 November 2010 . In what Bergstrom notes as a contrast to the more aggressive marketing campaign run simultaneously by John Lennon 's estate , to commemorate Lennon 's 70th birthday , a digitally remastered 24 @-@ bit version of the album was made available for download from Harrison 's official website . The reissue coincided with the Harrison estate 's similarly low @-@ key release of the Ravi Shankar – George Harrison box set Collaborations and East Meets West Music 's reissue of Raga , the long @-@ unavailable documentary on Shankar that Harrison had helped release through Apple Films in 1971 .
= = = 2014 = = =
All Things Must Pass was remastered again for inclusion in the eight @-@ disc Harrison box set The Apple Years 1968 – 75 , issued in September 2014 . Also available as a separate , double CD release , the reissue reproduces Harrison 's 2001 liner notes and includes the same five bonus tracks that appeared on the 30th anniversary edition . In addition , the box set 's DVD contains the promotional film created for the 2001 reissue .
= = Track listing = =
All tracks written by George Harrison , except where noted .
= = = Original release = = =
Side one
" I 'd Have You Anytime " ( Harrison , Bob Dylan ) – 2 : 56
" My Sweet Lord " – 4 : 38
" Wah @-@ Wah " – 5 : 35
" Isn 't It a Pity ( Version One ) " – 7 : 10
Side two
" What Is Life " – 4 : 22
" If Not for You " ( Dylan ) – 3 : 29
" Behind That Locked Door " – 3 : 05
" Let It Down " – 4 : 57
" Run of the Mill " – 2 : 49
Side three
" Beware of Darkness " – 3 : 48
" Apple Scruffs " – 3 : 04
" Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp ( Let It Roll ) " – 3 : 48
" Awaiting on You All " – 2 : 45
" All Things Must Pass " – 3 : 44
Side four
" I Dig Love " – 4 : 55
" Art of Dying " – 3 : 37
" Isn 't It a Pity ( Version Two ) " – 4 : 45
" Hear Me Lord " – 5 : 46
Side five ( Apple Jam )
" Out of the Blue " – 11 : 14
" It 's Johnny 's Birthday " ( Bill Martin , Phil Coulter , Harrison ) – 0 : 49
" Plug Me In " – 3 : 18
Side six ( Apple Jam )
" I Remember Jeep " – 8 : 07
" Thanks for the Pepperoni " – 5 : 31
= = = 2001 remaster = = =
Disc one
Tracks 1 – 9 as per sides one and two of original issue , with the following additional tracks :
" I Live for You " – 3 : 35
" Beware of Darkness " ( acoustic demo ) – 3 : 19
" Let It Down " ( alternate version ) – 3 : 54
" What Is Life " ( backing track / alternate mix ) – 4 : 27
" My Sweet Lord ( 2000 ) " – 4 : 57
Disc two
Tracks 1 – 9 as per sides three and four of original issue , followed by the reordered Apple Jam tracks , for which all participants are believed to now be credited as composers also .
" It 's Johnny 's Birthday " ( Martin , Coulter ; new lyrics by Mal Evans , Harrison , Eddie Klein ) – 0 : 49
" Plug Me In " ( Eric Clapton , Jim Gordon , Harrison , Dave Mason , Carl Radle , Bobby Whitlock ) – 3 : 18
" I Remember Jeep " ( Ginger Baker , Clapton , Harrison , Billy Preston , Klaus Voormann ) – 8 : 07
" Thanks for the Pepperoni " ( Clapton , Gordon , Harrison , Mason , Radle , Whitlock ) – 5 : 31
" Out of the Blue " ( Al Aronowitz , Clapton , Gordon , Harrison , Bobby Keys , Jim Price , Radle , Whitlock , Gary Wright ) – 11 : 16
= = Personnel = =
The following musicians are either credited on the 2001 reissue of All Things Must Pass or are acknowledged as having contributed after subsequent research :
= = Accolades = =
= = = Grammy Awards = = =
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = Certifications = =
= Treats ! =
treats ! ( often referred to as Treats , Treats ! , Treats Magazine or Treats ! Magazine ) is a limited @-@ edition erotica and fine arts magazine that is primarily available by subscription . The magazine , which debuted in 2011 , is described as a quarterly although it was initially only published twice per year .
= = Publication and format = =
The magazine offers both print and digital subscriptions and has back issues available for sale in both formats . It sells high quality fine art prints from its photo collection for several hundreds of dollars per print . Although it claims to be a quarterly magazine , treats has published just two issues per year for each calendar year of its existence to date : 2011 , 2012 , and 2013 . 2014 has had one issue so far .
The print editions are produced in oversized format on 70 lb. matte stock . The magazine is also available digitally in several formats such as on Zinio for iPad and as a mobile phone app as well as via the official website , a blog , and various social media websites .
= = Description = =
treats ! describes itself as " a limited edition , fine art print & digital publication available only by subscription & sold at select news @-@ stands , book stores & boutiques worldwide . " The literary content of the magazine has been described as " left @-@ of @-@ center " by Daily Beast . The magazine , which is based in Los Angeles , is described by USA Today , The Huffington Post , and The New York Times as an artistic erotica magazine . Adam Tschorn of the Los Angeles Times noted that his " copilot " felt that the magazine 's nude photography was " virtually indistinguishable " from Playboy 's despite the " fine arts quarterly " billing .
According to Steve Shaw , the magazine 's publisher , treats ! was founded to present content that was too risqué for magazines such as Vogue , Elle and InStyle . Shaw 's nickname for photos that could not be used because they pushed the borders too far was " treats " , and he decided to use the nickname as the title for the magazine . The magazine presents images that have not been airbrushed or photographically retouched .
= = History = =
Shaw has a background in celebrity glamour photography for Maxim , FHM , Playboy , and British Esquire . He claims he had become fed up with shooting restrictions such as " three quarters of one side of a boob ... You can only show one inch down from the bum crack ... " and with uncooperative subjects . Thus , he says , he created his own magazine with what Daily Beast described as " female full @-@ frontal nudity , luxe @-@ y aesthetic , and [ an ] underpinning of fashion @-@ world credibility " that has gotten " influential tastemakers and industry icons " to take notice .
Shaw 's initial investment for his magazine was $ 600 @,@ 000 . Within the first year of its launch photographers like Brett Ratner were volunteering to shoot for the magazine . As of 2014 , Duran , Mark Seliger , Ben Watts , Josh Ryan , and Bob Carlos Clarke are among the photographers who have been featured in the magazine .
The launch party for the magazine was held on Thursday , February
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However , After the " Rage Factor " celebratory show in Finsbury Park on June 6 , 2010 , after the campaign to get Killing in the Name to Christmas Number 1 , Zack de la Rocha stated that it was a " genuine possibility " . Stating that they may use the momentum from the campaign to get back into the studio and write a follow @-@ up record to 2000s Renegades after 10 years . When talking to NME , Zack de la Rocha said : " I think it 's a genuine possibility , We have to get our heads around what we ’ re going to do towards the end of the year and finish up on some other projects and we ’ ll take it from there . "
= = = 2009 @-@ 2015 : Killing in the Name campaign , European tour , and L.A. Rising = = =
In December 2009 , a campaign was launched on Facebook by Jon Morter and his wife Tracy , in order to stop , most notably , The X Factor hits from becoming almost automatic Christmas number ones on the UK Singles Chart . It generated nationwide publicity and took the track " Killing in the Name " to the coveted Christmas number one slot in the UK Singles Chart , which had been dominated for four consecutive years from 2005 by winners from the popular TV show The X Factor . Before the chart was announced on December 20 , 2009 , the Facebook group membership stood at over 950 @,@ 000 , and was acknowledged ( and supported ) by Tom Morello , Dave Grohl , Paul McCartney , Muse , Fightstar , NME , John Lydon , Bill Bailey , Lenny Henry , BBC Radio 1 , Hadouken ! , The Prodigy , Stereophonics , BBC Radio 5 Live , and even the 2004 X Factor winner Steve Brookstein , amongst numerous others . On the morning of December 17 , Rage Against the Machine played a slightly censored version of " Killing in the Name " live on Radio 5 Live , but four repeats of ' Fuck you I won 't do what you tell me ' were aired before the song was pulled . During the interview before the song they reiterated their support for the campaign and their intentions to support charity with the proceeds . The campaign was ultimately successful , and " Killing in the Name " became the number @-@ one single in the UK for Christmas 2009 . A similar campaign was run on Facebook in Ireland the same year but Killing in the Name placed 2nd that Christmas to X Factors 2010 single . Rage 's Zack de la Rocha spoke to BBC1 upon hearing the news , stating that :
The band also set a new record , achieving the biggest download sales total in a first week ever in the UK charts. de la Rocha also promised the band would perform a free concert in the UK sometime in 2010 to celebrate the achievement . True to their word , the band announced that they would be performing a free concert at Finsbury Park , London on June 6 , 2010 . The concert , dubbed " The Rage Factor " , gave away all the tickets by free photo registration to prevent touting over the weekend of the February 13 – 14 , followed by an online lottery on February 17 . This proved to be overwhelmingly popular , with many users facing connection issues . The tickets were all allocated by 13 : 30 that same day . After allowing ticket holders to vote for who they wanted to be the support acts for " The Rage Factor " , it was announced that Gogol Bordello , Gallows and Roots Manuva would support Rage Against the Machine at this concert .
In addition to the free gig at Finsbury Park , the band headlined European festivals in June 2010 including the Download Festival at Donington Park , England , Rock am Ring and Rock im Park in Germany and Rock in Rio Madrid in Spain . They also performed in Ireland on June 8 and The Netherlands on June 9 . Zack de la Rocha had stated that it was a definite possibility that the band would record a new album , the first time since 2000 's Renegades Morter confirmed this , stating the discussions he and the band had backstage before the Finsbury Park gig saying the band did write new material , but they had no motivation to release them until now . De la Rocha mentioned the very strong reaction from the Download Festival 2010 audience as an incentive for releasing new material . In addition , the band returned to Los Angeles on July 23 , 2010 for their first US show in two years and their first hometown show in 10 years . The concert benefited Arizona organizations that are fighting the SB1070 immigration law . On the night of the show , a spokesperson announced to the crowd that ticket sales — all of which are non @-@ profit to the bands — had raised $ 300 @,@ 000 . The band has been confirmed to do a short South American tour in October , performing at venues such as the SWU Festival in Brazil , the Maquinaria Festival in Chile , and Pepsi Music Festival in Argentina . It was the first time the band played on those countries .
During an interview with the Chilean newspaper La Tercera in October 2010 , Rage frontman Zack de la Rocha allegedly confirmed that a new album was in the works , with a possibility of a 2011 release . De la Rocha is reported as saying , “ We are all bigger and more mature and we do not fall into the problems we faced 10 or 15 years ago . This is different and we project a lot : we are working on a new album due out next year , perhaps summer for the northern hemisphere . " However , in early May 2011 , guitarist Tom Morello said that the band were not working on a new album , but would not rule out the possibility of future studio work . " The band is not writing songs , the band is not in the studio , " Morello told The Pulse of Radio . " We get along famously and we all , you know , intend to do more Rage Against the Machine stuff in the future , but beyond sort of working out a concert this year , there 's nothing else on the schedule ( for 2011 ) . " The band created its own festival , the L.A. Rising . As Morello stated , the only Rage appearance for 2011 was a performance on July 30 at the L.A. Rising festival with El Gran Silencio , Immortal Technique , Lauryn Hill , Rise Against and Muse . As of mid @-@ 2012 , there are no plans for any more shows . During an interview on July 30 , 2011 , Commerford seemingly contradicted Morello 's comments , stating that new material was being written , and specific plans for the next two years were in place .
In an October 2012 interview with TMZ , bassist Tim Commerford was asked if Rage Against the Machine was working on a new album . He simply responded , " maybe " . Asked by TMZ again in November 2012 whether a new album was being worked on , Commerford replied " definitely maybe ... anything 's possible . " Later that month , however , Morello denied that they were working on new material , and stated that Rage Against the Machine has " no plans beyond " the reissue of their self @-@ titled debut album . Morello said he would be open to recording new Rage Against the Machine material , but added that it is " not on the table right now . "
The band announced on October 9 via their Facebook page that they would be releasing a special 20th anniversary box set to commemorate the group 's debut album . The full box set contains never @-@ before @-@ released concert material , including the band 's 2010 Finsbury Park show and footage from early in their career , as well as a digitally @-@ remastered version of the album , b @-@ sides and the original demo tape ( on disc for the first time ) . The band released 3 @-@ disc and single @-@ disc versions . The collection was released on November 27 .
On April 30 , 2014 , drummer Brad Wilk stated that Rage Against the Machine 's 2011 performance at L.A. Rising may have been their final show . In February 2015 , Tim Commerford precised that uncertainty was typical of the band 's functioning , speculating : " It could be tomorrow ; it could be 10 years from now " .
On October 16 , 2015 , the 2010 gig in Finsbury Park was officially released as a DVD and Blu @-@ ray called Live at Finsbury Park .
= = = 2016 – present : Prophets of Rage = = =
In May 2016 , the band launched a mysterious countdown website , prophetsofrage.com , with a clock counting down to June 1 . Accompanying the clock was an image of a broken slash through a circle with silhouettes of five people all extending their arms and clenched fists with the hashtag " # takethepowerback " underneath the timer . This led to speculation of the return of the band later in the year . However , a source close to Rage Against the Machine told Rolling Stone that the Prophets of Rage website had nothing do with the announcement of a " Rage @-@ specific reunion " , but added that " some of the members " of the band have been working on a project that will include live shows .
Finally , it was confirmed that Prophets of Rage is a new supergroup formed by Morello , Wilk and Commerford , plus Chuck D of Public Enemy and B @-@ Real of Cypress Hill . The band will be on tour and play some songs of the three bands in which the members of this group participated before .
Despite Morello , Wilk and Commerford 's involvement in Prophets of Rage , Commerford confirmed in an interview with Rolling Stone that Rage Against the Machine has not split up , explaining , " We just do things our own way . Throughout our career , we never did what anyone wanted us to do . We never made the records people wanted us to make . We never played by the rules people wanted us to play by . And here we are , 25 years later , still a band . Clearly that means something . And if we did ever play or make new music or anything , it would be a very big deal . And there 's a lot of bands that I ’ ve seen come along during that 25 @-@ year period that did everything the record companies and the powers @-@ that @-@ be wanted them to do , and they sold millions of records . But where are they now ? They 're gone . " Morello added , " Right now ... the cold embers of Rage Against the Machine are now the burning fire of Prophets of Rage . Where Rage Against the Machine lives , is this summer in these songs that we are playing . And we have nothing but the greatest love and honor and respect for Zack de la Rocha , the brilliant lyricist of Rage Against The Machine , who is working on his own music , which I 'm sure will be fantastic — he 's a great artist in his own right . But where you 're going to hear Rage Against the Machine is in Prophets of Rage . "
= = Musical style and influences = =
Rage Against the Machine has been noted for its " fiercely polemical music , which brewed sloganeering leftist rants against corporate America , cultural imperialism , and government oppression into a Molotov cocktail of punk rock , hip @-@ hop , and thrash . " Zack de la Rocha 's lyrics and choruses are defined by a heavy use of sloganeering and repetition on songs like Bulls on Parade , Guerrilla Radio , Testify , and Down Rodeo . Guitarist Tom Morello , on the other hand , was considered the guitar player but also the DJ in Rage .
The band is associated with the 1990s alternative movement . They are also considered rap metal , rap rock and funk metal .
= = Political views and activism = =
The members of Rage Against the Machine are well known for their leftist and revolutionary political views , and almost all of the band 's songs focus on these views . Key to the band 's identity , Rage Against the Machine has voiced viewpoints highly critical of the domestic and foreign policies of current and previous US governments . Throughout its existence , RATM and its individual members participated in political protests and other activism to advocate these beliefs . The band sees its music as a vehicle for social activism ; De la Rocha explained that " I 'm interested in spreading those ideas through art , because music has the power to cross borders , to break military sieges and to establish real dialogue . " Morello said of wage slavery in America :
America touts itself as the land of the free , but the number one freedom that you and I have is the freedom to enter into a subservient role in the workplace . Once you exercise this freedom you 've lost all control over what you do , what is produced , and how it is produced . And in the end , the product doesn 't belong to you . The only way you can avoid bosses and jobs is if you don 't care about making a living . Which leads to the second freedom : the freedom to starve .
Some critics have accused the group of hypocrisy for voicing commitment to leftist causes while being millionaires signed to Epic Records , a subsidiary of media conglomerate Sony Records . Infectious Grooves released a song called " Do What I Tell Ya ! " which mocks lyrics from " Killing in the Name " , accusing the band of being hypocrites . In response to such critiques , Morello offered the rebuttal :
= = Members = =
Zack de la Rocha – lead vocals ( 1991 – 2000 , 2007 – 2011 )
Tom Morello – guitars ( 1991 – 2000 , 2007 – 2011 )
Tim Commerford – bass guitar , backing vocals ( 1991 – 2000 , 2007 – 2011 )
Brad Wilk – drums , percussion ( 1991 – 2000 , 2007 – 2011 )
= = Discography = =
Rage Against the Machine ( 1992 )
Evil Empire ( 1996 )
The Battle of Los Angeles ( 1999 )
Renegades ( 2000 )
= = Awards and nominations = =
Rage Against the Machine has received two Grammy Awards ; Best Metal Performance for the song " Tire Me " and Best Hard Rock Performance for " Guerrilla Radio " . The band has also received three nominations from the MTV Video Music Awards , but has yet to win an award . In 2008 the band were given a special " Hall of Fame " award from Kerrang ! .
Grammy Awards
MTV Video Music Awards
NME Awards
Kerrang ! Awards
Classic Rock Roll of Honour Awards
= French destroyer Mogador =
Mogador was the lead ship of the French Navy 's Mogador class of destroyers ( French : contre @-@ torpilleur ) . Named for the Moroccan town , she was built before the outbreak of World War II . The ship was heavily damaged during the British attack on Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir on 3 July 1940 , but was later repaired and sailed to Toulon . She was scuttled in Toulon Harbor when the Germans tried to seize her , along with the rest of the fleet , on 27 November 1942 .
She was the last contre @-@ torpilleur built by the French Navy , a not entirely successful attempt to build a ship capable of out @-@ fighting every other ship below her tonnage . " In technological terms Mogador and Volta were ships with the armament of a light cruiser in the hull of destroyer ; the contre @-@ torpilleur as a type had been pushed past the limits of its capabilities . "
= = Design and description = =
Mogador had an overall length of 137 @.@ 5 meters ( 451 ft 1 in ) , a beam of 12 @.@ 57 meters ( 41 ft 3 in ) , and a maximum draft of 4 @.@ 74 meters ( 15 ft 7 in ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 997 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 950 long tons ) at standard load and 4 @,@ 018 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 955 long tons ) at deep load . The Rateau @-@ Bretagne geared steam turbines were designed to produce 92 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 68 @,@ 604 kW ) , which would propel the ship at 39 knots ( 72 km / h ; 45 mph ) . However , during sea trials in March 1938 , Mogador 's turbines provided 118 @,@ 320 shp ( 88 @,@ 230 kW ) and she reached 43 @.@ 45 knots ( 80 @.@ 47 km / h ; 50 @.@ 00 mph ) for a single hour . The ship carried 360 metric tons ( 354 long tons ) of fuel oil at normal load and an additional 350 metric tons ( 340 long tons ) at deep load .
Mogador carried eight Canon de 138 mm Modèle 1929 in four twin turrets , two each superimposed , fore and aft . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of two 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Mle 1933 guns in a single mount positioned on the rear deck house forward of the rear turrets . She also mounted four 13 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 52 in ) Mle 1929 heavy machine guns in two twin mounts located between the forward superstructure and the forward guns . Mogador carried 10 above @-@ water 550 @-@ millimeter ( 22 in ) torpedo tubes : a pair of triple mounts between the funnels and a pair of double mounts aft of the rear funnel . A pair of depth charge chutes were built into Mogador 's stern ; these housed a total of 16 Guirard depth charges . Mine rails were fitted on the rear deck that had a maximum capacity of 40 mines .
= = Service history = =
Mogador , with her sister Volta , comprised the 6th Large Destroyer Division ( 6e Division de contre @-@ torpilleurs ) and was assigned to the Force de Raid based at Brest when the war began . This group 's purpose was to hunt German blockade runners and raiders and to escort convoys that might be in danger from the same . From 21 – 30 October 1939 the Force de Raid escorted the KJ.4 convoy to protect it against the German cruiser Deutschland which had sortied into the North Atlantic before the war began . A sortie by the Gneisenau and Scharnhorst into the North Atlantic on 21 November prompted the Force de Raid to sail from Brest to rendezvous with the British battlecruiser HMS Hood and patrol the area south of Iceland , but the German ships were able to return safely under the cover of heavy weather without being engaged .
Mogador was refitted at Lorient between January and March 1940 and a number of minor changes were made . The necessary improvements identified for the main armament during her sea trials a year prior were finally implemented , the canvas cover for the back of the turrets was replaced by a rolling door , new radios were installed , and shields were fitted to the anti @-@ aircraft machine guns and the searchlights . A SS @-@ 6 sonar was fitted in June 1940 , but proved to be ineffectual .
Mogador was present during the British attack on Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir on 3 July 1940 , but she was severely damaged by a hit from an armour @-@ piercing 15 @-@ inch ( 38 cm ) shell in the rear hull that detonated her ready depth charges although it failed to detonate itself . The explosion destroyed her upper rear hull , but , miraculously , the rear magazines failed to explode . One propeller shaft was undamaged and the other shaft and the two propellers were intact , albeit damaged . She was towed to Oran for repairs . She was dry docked on 17 July , the remains of her No. 4 turret were removed and the after bulkheads repaired and reinforced to make her seaworthy . She sailed for Toulon on 1 December where she was docked pending reconstruction .
The French Navy decided to reinforce her anti @-@ aircraft armament in light of its wartime experience . Her no . 3 gun turret was to be moved to the No. 4 position , its magazine converted for extra fuel storage , and a new twin 37 mm Mle 1933 mount would replace it on top of the rear deck house . Two more Mle 1933 mounts were to fitted on each side of the rear deckhouse and a fourth mount was to replace the 13 @.@ 2 Hotchkiss machine guns forward of the bridge . One 13 @.@ 2 mm Browning machine gun was to planned to be mounted on each side of the forward twin 37 mm guns . This plan was later amended to add a degaussing cable , replacement of the SS @-@ 6 sonar by a French copy of the British ASDIC and six of the new mitrailleuse de 25 mm contre @-@ aéroplanes Modèle 1940 anti @-@ aircraft guns , plus two more 13 @.@ 2 mm Brownings mounted on the forward corners of the center deck house .
The rebuilding was slowed by material shortages and she wasn 't taken into hand by the shipyard Forges et Chantiers de la Mediterranée at La Seyne @-@ sur @-@ Mer until late February 1942 . In October it was estimated that she wouldn 't be completed until Jul 1943 . She was scuttled in La Seyne @-@ sur @-@ Mer on 27 November 1942 to prevent her capture by the Germans . She was refloated by the Italians on 5 April 1943 , but not repaired . Mogador was sunk by Allied bombers in late 1944 , but was raised in 1949 and scrapped .
= 1901 Louisiana hurricane =
The 1901 Louisiana hurricane was the first hurricane to make landfall in Louisiana in the month of August or earlier since 1888 . The fourth tropical cyclone and second hurricane of the season , this storm developed southwest of the Azores on August 2 . Moving southwestward and later westward , the depression remained weak for several days , until strengthening into a tropical storm while approaching the Bahamas early on August 9 . It then crossed through the islands and intensified only slightly . Late on August 10 , the storm made landfall near Deerfield Beach , Florida . After reaching the Gulf of Mexico the next day , continuous intensifying occurred and by August 12 , the storm reached hurricane status . Peaking with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) , it struck Louisiana late on August 14 and then Mississippi less than 24 hours later . The system weakened to a tropical storm early on August 16 and became extratropical several hours later .
Along portions of the east coast of Florida , " considerable damage " was reported due to strong winds . In Alabama , trees were uprooted , houses were de @-@ roofed , and chimneys collapsed in Mobile . Some areas of the city were also inundated with up to 18 inches ( 460 mm ) of water due to storm tide . Several yachts , schooners , and ships were wrecked or sunk , resulting in at least $ 70 @,@ 000 ( 1901 USD ) in damage . However , due to warnings by the Weather Bureau , the Mobile Chamber of Commerce estimated that several millions of dollars in damage was evaded . All towns along the coast of Mississippi " suffered seriously " . In Louisiana , severe damage was reported at some towns due to strong winds and high tides . The community of Port Eads reported that only the lighthouse was not destroyed , while other sources state that an office building also remained standing . In New Orleans , overflowing levees inundated numerous streets . Outside the city , crops suffered severely , particularly rice . Overall , the storm caused 10 – 15 deaths and $ 1 million in damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical depression developed about 615 miles ( 990 km ) southwest of Flores Island , Azores at 0000 UTC on August 2 . The depression moved southwestward and remained weak for several days . On August 5 , it re @-@ curved west @-@ southwestward and then westward while passing north of the Lesser Antilles . The next day , the system curved west @-@ northwestward and briefly to the west on August 8 . Finally , the depression strengthened into a tropical storm at 0000 UTC on August 9 , while located about 50 miles ( 80 km ) northeast of Cat Island , Bahamas . Around that time , the Weather Bureau first observed a " feeble disturbance in the subtropical north of Cuba . " Between August 9 and August 10 , the storm strengthened slightly further and moved through the Bahamas , passing over Cat Island and the Berry Islands . Around 2200 UTC on August 10 , the system made landfall near Deerfield Beach , Florida with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) .
Early on August 11 , the storm weakened slightly while crossing Florida . It then decelerated and reached the eastern Gulf of Mexico several hours later . Thereafter , the system began to re @-@ strengthen and became a Category 1 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale at 1200 UTC on August 12 . Early the next day , the storm attained its maximum sustained wind speed of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) . It weakened slightly early on August 14 and curved northwestward while approaching the coast of Louisiana . At 2100 UTC , the storm made landfall near Buras with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Curving northeastward , the hurricane re @-@ emerged into the Gulf of Mexico early on August 15 . However , around 1700 UTC , it made another landfall near Ocean Springs , Mississippi at the same intensity . Early on August 16 , the system weakened to a tropical storm . It then weakened much quicker and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over Mississippi at 0000 UTC on August 17 . The remnant extratropical cyclone persisted until late the next day , at which time it dissipated over Indiana .
= = Preparations and impact = =
As the storm approached the east coast of Florida on August 10 , a warning was sent to all Weather Bureau stations in Florida , as well as Savannah , Georgia , and Charleston , South Carolina , regarding a " disturbance of moderate intensity " , which posed a threat to small crafts in Florida and the western Bahamas . The next day , as the storm was moving across Florida , another message sent to Weather Bureau stations from New Orleans to Charleston warned of the potential for severe squalls along the west coast of Florida . While approaching the Gulf Coast of the United States on August 13 , storm warnings were ordered for Alabama , Mississippi and Louisiana , as well as for the west coast of Florida . At the National Weather Service office in New Orleans , hurricane warnings were ordered in Louisiana from mouth of the Mississippi River westward on August 15 and expanded to eastern Texas later that day . In New Orleans , 500 men , who were city authorities or levee board members , worked to strengthen the levees along canals in the city . Throughout much of the Gulf Coast of the United States , vessels and ships were warned to take precautions and remain in port .
In Florida , " considerable damage " due to strong winds was reported along portions of the east coast . Wind gusts reached 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) in Pensacola . Offshore , the Portuguese bark Propheta , with a cargo of timber worth $ 5 @,@ 000 , was badly damaged . Strong winds up to 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) were observed in the Mobile area of Alabama , uprooting trees , unroofing houses , and toppling chimneys . Tides inundated the cotton exchange with up to 18 inches ( 460 mm ) of water , while the Western Union , post office , and electrical house for railroads were also flooded . The pleasure yacht Ariel , which was bound for the Fish River , was smashed into pieces at a wharf along the eastern end of Mobile Bay . Between 12 and 15 schooners from the F. F. Saunders company fishing fleet were badly damaged ; four of which sank , resulting in $ 70 @,@ 000 in damage . However , due to warnings by the Weather Bureau , the Chamber of Commerce estimated that several millions of dollars in damage was evaded . All towns along the coast of Mississippi " suffered seriously " .
High winds and rough seas were observed in Louisiana . In Port Eads , five @-@ minute sustained winds reached 56 mph ( 90 km / h ) , before the anemometer blew away . At the same location , a 24 @-@ hour rainfall record was set for the month of August , with 7 @.@ 64 inches ( 194 mm ) of precipitation observed . According to a contemporaneous report , the weather instrument shelter was swept away due to storm tides and the flag staff was broken . While the office building did weather the storm intact , documents in it were soaked . However , a report written in 2010 states that in Port Eads only the lighthouse remained standing in the aftermath of the devastation . Fifteen fatalities were reported after a house was swept away by storm tides . The 2010 report , however , states that a total of ten deaths were caused by the storm over its entire existence . In Pilottown , the large " lookout " tower was toppled and destroyed . The outhouse that displaymen used and slept in was blown over and then rapidly filled with water , due to tides rising to 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) in only 10 minutes . Additionally , property of the Weather Bureau was also damaged .
Buras reported 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) of water in town . River stages along the Mississippi River at New Orleans rose to a level of 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) during the storm , producing much flooding . The Carondelet Canal also overflowed , inundating streets in the neighborhood of Tremé with 1 to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 30 to 0 @.@ 91 m ) of water . Levee breaks around New Orleans flooded the city . Additionally , strong winds littered the streets with tree branches . The worst hit areas of New Orleans were the neighborhoods of Bucktown , Milneburg , West End , all of which are located on the shore of Lake Pontchartrain . In the New Orleans suburb of Shell Beach , severe crop damage was reported , particularly to rice . While sailing the Mississippi River just outside New Orleans , Dr. J. N. Thomas reported that a schooner and a small boat were wrecked , resulting in 60 deaths . However , this was not confirmed . Overall , damage in Louisiana reached $ 1 million , which excluded losses to crops .
= Jet stream =
Jet streams are fast flowing , narrow , meandering air currents found in the upper atmosphere or in troposphere of some planets , including Earth . The main jet streams are located near the altitude of the tropopause . The major jet streams on Earth are westerly winds ( flowing west to east ) . Their paths typically have a meandering shape . Jet streams may start , stop , split into two or more parts , combine into one stream , or flow in various directions including opposite to the direction of the remainder of the jet . The strongest jet streams are the polar jets , at 9 – 12 km ( 30 @,@ 000 – 39 @,@ 000 ft ) above sea level , and the higher altitude and somewhat weaker subtropical jets at 10 – 16 km ( 33 @,@ 000 – 52 @,@ 000 ft ) . The Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere each have a polar jet and a subtropical jet . The northern hemisphere polar jet flows over the middle to northern latitudes of North America , Europe , and Asia and their intervening oceans , while the southern hemisphere polar jet mostly circles Antarctica all year round .
Jet streams are the product of two factors : the atmospheric heating by solar radiation that produces the large scale Polar , Ferrel , and Hadley circulation cells , and the action of the Coriolis force acting on those moving masses . The Coriolis force is caused by the planet 's rotation on its axis . On other planets , internal heat drives their jet streams . The Polar jet stream forms near the interface of the Polar and Ferrel circulation cells ; while the subtropical jet forms near the boundary of the Ferrel and Hadley circulation cells .
Other jet streams also exist . During the Northern Hemisphere summer , easterly jets can form in tropical regions , typically where dry air encounters more humid air at high altitudes . Low @-@ level jets also are typical of various regions such as the central United States .
Meteorologists use the location of some of the jet streams as an aid in weather forecasting . The main commercial relevance of the jet streams is in air travel , as flight time can be dramatically affected by either flying with the flow or against . Clear @-@ air turbulence , a potential hazard to aircraft passenger safety , is often found in a jet stream 's vicinity , but it does not create a substantial alteration on flight times .
= = Discovery = =
After the 1883 eruption of the Krakatoa volcano , weather watchers tracked and mapped the effects on the sky over several years . They labelled the phenomenon the " equatorial smoke stream " . In the 1920s , a Japanese meteorologist , Wasaburo Oishi , detected the jet stream from a site near Mount Fuji . He tracked pilot balloons , also known as pibals ( balloons used to determine upper level winds ) , as they rose into the atmosphere . Oishi 's work largely went unnoticed outside Japan because it was published in Esperanto . American pilot Wiley Post , the first man to fly around the world solo in 1933 , is often given some credit for discovery of jet streams . Post invented a pressurized suit that let him fly above 6 @,@ 200 metres ( 20 @,@ 300 ft ) . In the year before his death , Post made several attempts at a high @-@ altitude transcontinental flight , and noticed that at times his ground speed greatly exceeded his air speed . German meteorologist Heinrich Seilkopf is credited with coining a special term , Strahlströmung ( literally " jet current " ) , for the phenomenon in 1939 . ( Modern German usage is " Strahlstrom " . ) Many sources credit real understanding of the nature of jet streams to regular and repeated flight @-@ path traversals during World War II . Flyers consistently noticed westerly tailwinds in excess of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) in flights , for example , from the US to the UK . Similarly in 1944 a team of American meteorologists in Guam , including Reid Bryson , had enough observations to forecast very high west winds that would slow bombers going to Japan .
= = Description = =
Polar jet streams are typically located near the 250 hPa ( about 1 / 4 atmosphere ) pressure level , or 7 to 12 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 to 7 @.@ 5 mi ) above sea level , while the weaker subtropical jet streams are much higher , between 10 and 16 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 and 9 @.@ 9 mi ) . Jet streams wander laterally dramatically , and have large changes in their altitude . The jet streams form near breaks in the tropopause , at the transitions between the Polar , Ferrel and Hadley circulation cells , and whose circulation , with the Coriolis force acting on those masses , drives the jet streams . The Polar jets , at lower altitude , and often intruding into mid @-@ latitudes , strongly affects weather and aviation . The polar jet stream is most commonly found between latitudes 30 ° and 60 ° ( closer to 60 ° ) , while the subtropical jet streams are located close to latitude 30 ° . The northern Polar jet stream is said to " follow the sun " as it slowly migrates northward as the hemisphere warms , and southward again as the hemisphere cools .
The width of a jet stream is typically a few hundred kilometres or miles and its vertical thickness often less than five kilometres ( 3 mi ) .
Jet streams are typically continuous over long distances , but discontinuities are common . The path of the jet typically has a meandering shape , and these meanders themselves propagate eastward , at lower speeds than that of the actual wind within the flow . Each large meander , or wave , within the jet stream is known as a Rossby wave ( planetary wave ) . Rossby waves are caused by changes in the Coriolis effect with latitude . Shortwave troughs , are smaller scale waves superimposed on the Rossby waves , with a scale of 1 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 620 – 2 @,@ 490 mi ) long , that move along through the flow pattern around large scale , or longwave , " ridges " and " troughs " within Rossby waves . Jet streams can split into two when it encounters an upper @-@ level low , that diverts a portion of the jet stream under its base , while the remainder of the jet moves by to its north .
The wind speeds are greatest where temperature differences ( gradient ) between air masses are greatest , and often exceed 92 km / h ( 50 kn ; 57 mph ) , to over 398 km / h ( 215 kn ; 247 mph ) have been measured .
The jet stream moves from West to East bringing changes of weather . Meteorologists now understand that the path of jet streams steers cyclonic storm systems at lower levels in the atmosphere , and so knowledge of their course has become an important part of weather forecasting . For example , in 2007 and 2012 , Britain experienced severe flooding as a result of the polar jet staying south for the summer .
The polar and subtropical jets merge at some locations and times , while at other times they are well separated .
= = Cause = =
In general , winds are strongest immediately under the tropopause ( except locally , during tornadoes , tropical cyclones or other anomalous situations ) . If two air masses of different temperatures or densities meet , the resulting pressure difference caused by the density difference ( which ultimately causes wind ) is highest within the transition zone . The wind does not flow directly from the hot to the cold area , but is deflected by the Coriolis effect and flows along the boundary of the two air masses .
All these facts are consequences of the thermal wind relation . The balance of forces acting on an atmospheric air parcel in the vertical direction is primarily between the gravitational force acting on the mass of the parcel and the buoyancy force , or the difference in pressure between the top and bottom surfaces of the parcel . Any imbalance between these forces results in the acceleration of the parcel in the imbalance direction : upward if the buoyant force exceeds the weight , and downward if the weight exceeds the buoyancy force . The balance in the vertical direction is referred to as hydrostatic . Beyond the tropics , the dominant forces act in the horizontal direction , and the primary struggle is between the Coriolis force and the pressure gradient force . Balance between these two forces is referred to as geostrophic . Given both hydrostatic and geostrophic balance , one can derive the thermal wind relation : the vertical gradient of the horizontal wind is proportional to the horizontal temperature gradient . If two air masses , one cold and dense to the North and the other hot and less dense to the South , are separated by a vertical boundary and that boundary should be removed , the difference in densities will result in the cold air mass slipping under the hotter and less dense air mass . The Coriolis effect will then cause poleward @-@ moving mass to deviate to the East , while equatorward @-@ moving mass will deviate toward the west . The general trend in the atmosphere is for temperatures to decrease in the poleward direction . As a result , winds develop an eastward component and that component grows with altitude . Therefore , the strong eastward moving jet streams are in part a simple consequence of the fact that the Equator is warmer than the North and South poles .
= = = Polar jet = = =
The thermal wind relation does not explain why the winds are organized into tight jets , rather than distributed more broadly over the hemisphere . One factor that contributes to the creation of a concentrated polar jet is the undercutting of sub @-@ tropical air masses by the more dense polar air masses at the polar front . This causes surface low pressure and higher pressure at altitude . At high altitudes , lack of friction allows air to respond freely to the steep pressure gradient with low pressure at high altitude over the pole . This results in the formation of planetary wind circulations that experience a strong Coriolis deflection and thus can be considered ' quasi @-@ geostrophic ' . The polar front jet stream is closely linked to the frontogenesis process in midlatitudes , as the acceleration / deceleration of the air flow induces areas of low / high pressure respectively , which link to the formation of cyclones and anticyclones along the polar front in a relatively narrow region .
= = = Subtropical jet = = =
A second factor which contributes to a concentrated jet , that is more applicable to the subtropical jet , which forms at the poleward limit of the tropical Hadley cell and to first order this circulation is symmetric with respect to longitude . Tropical air rises to the tropopause , and moves poleward before sinking ; this is the Hadley cell circulation . As it does so it tends to conserve angular momentum , since friction with the ground is significant . Air masses that begin moving northward are deflected to eastward by the Coriolis force ( true for either hemisphere ) , which for poleward moving air implies an increased eastward component of the winds ( note that leftward deflection in the southern hemisphere ) .
= = = Other planets = = =
Jupiter 's atmosphere has multiple jet streams , caused by the convection cells that form the familiar banded color structure ; on Jupiter , these convection cells are driven by internal heating . The factors that control the number of jet streams in a planetary atmosphere is an active area of research in dynamical meteorology . In models , as one increases the planetary radius , holding all other parameters fixed , the number of jet streams decreases .
= = Some effects = =
= = = Hurricane protection = = =
The subtropical jet stream rounding the base of the mid @-@ oceanic upper trough is thought to be one of the reasons most of the Hawaiian Islands have been resistant to the long list of Hawaii hurricanes that have approached . For example , when Hurricane Flossie approached and dissipated just before reaching landfall , NOAA cited vertical wind shear as evidenced in the photo .
= = Uses = =
On Earth , the northern polar jet stream is the most important one for aviation and weather forecasting , as it is much stronger and at a much lower altitude than the subtropical jet streams and also covers many countries in the Northern Hemisphere , while the southern polar jet stream mostly circles Antarctica and sometimes the southern tip of South America . The term jet stream in these contexts thus usually implies the northern polar jet stream .
= = = Aviation = = =
The location of the jet stream is extremely important for aviation . Commercial use of the jet stream began on 18 November 1952 , when Pan Am flew from Tokyo to Honolulu at an altitude of 7 @,@ 600 metres ( 24 @,@ 900 ft ) . It cut the trip time by over one @-@ third , from 18 to 11 @.@ 5 hours . Not only does it cut time off the flight , it also nets fuel savings for the airline industry . Within North America , the time needed to fly east across the continent can be decreased by about 30 minutes if an airplane can fly with the jet stream , or increased by more than that amount if it must fly west against it .
Associated with jet streams is a phenomenon known as clear @-@ air turbulence ( CAT ) , caused by vertical and horizontal wind shear caused by jet streams . The CAT is strongest on the cold air side of the jet , next to and just under the axis of the jet . Clear @-@ air turbulence can cause aircraft to plunge and so present a passenger safety hazard that has caused fatal accidents , such as the death of one passenger on United Airlines Flight 826 ( 1997 ) .
= = = Future power generation = = =
Scientists are investigating ways to harness the wind energy within the jet stream . According to one estimate , of the potential wind energy in the jet stream , only 1 percent would be needed to meet the world 's current energy needs . The required technology would reportedly take 10 – 20 years to develop . There are two major scientific articles about jet stream power . Archer & Caldeira claim that the jet streams can generate the total power of 1700 TW , and that the climatic impact will be negligible . Miller , Gans , & Kleidon claim that the jet streams can generate the total power of only 7 @.@ 5 TW , and that the climatic impact will be catastrophic .
= = = Unpowered aerial attack = = =
Near the end of World War II the Japanese fire balloon was designed as a cheap weapon intended to make use of the jet stream over the Pacific Ocean to reach the west coast of Canada and the United States . They were relatively ineffective as weapons , but they were used in one of the few attacks on North America during World War II , causing six deaths and a small amount of damage .
= = Changes due to climate cycles = =
= = = Effects of ENSO = = =
El Niño @-@ Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) influences the average location of upper @-@ level jet streams , and leads to cyclical variations in precipitation and temperature across North America , as well as affecting tropical cyclone development across the eastern Pacific and Atlantic basins . Combined with the Pacific Decadal Oscillation , ENSO can also impact cold season rainfall in Europe . Changes in ENSO also change the location of the jet stream over South America , which partially affects precipitation distribution over the continent .
= = = = El Niño = = = =
During El Niño events , increased precipitation is expected in California due to a more southerly , zonal , storm track . During the Niño portion of ENSO , increased precipitation falls along the Gulf coast and Southeast due to a stronger than normal , and more southerly , polar jet stream . Snowfall is greater than average across the southern Rockies and Sierra Nevada mountain range , and is well below normal across the Upper Midwest and Great Lakes states . The northern tier of the lower 48 exhibits above normal temperatures during the fall and winter , while the Gulf coast experiences below normal temperatures during the winter season . The subtropical jet stream across the deep tropics of the Northern Hemisphere is enhanced due to increased convection in the equatorial Pacific , which decreases tropical cyclogenesis within the Atlantic tropics below what is normal , and increases tropical cyclone activity across the eastern Pacific . In the Southern Hemisphere , the subtropical jet stream is displaced equatorward , or north , of its normal position , which diverts frontal systems and thunderstorm complexes from reaching central portions of the continent .
= = = = La Niña = = = =
Across North America during La Niña , increased precipitation is diverted into the Pacific Northwest due to a more northerly storm track and jet stream . The storm track shifts far enough northward to bring wetter than normal conditions ( in the form of increased snowfall ) to the Midwestern states , as well as hot and dry summers . Snowfall is above normal across the Pacific Northwest and western Great Lakes . Across the North Atlantic , the jet stream is stronger than normal , which directs stronger systems with increased precipitation towards Europe .
= = = Dust Bowl = = =
Evidence suggests the jet stream was at least partly responsible for the widespread drought conditions during the 1930s Dust Bowl in the Midwest United States . Normally , the jet stream flows east over the Gulf of Mexico and turns northward pulling up moisture and dumping rain onto the Great Plains . During the Dust Bowl , the jet stream weakened and changed course traveling farther south than normal . This starved the Great Plains and other areas of the Midwest of rainfall , causing extraordinary drought conditions .
= = Longer @-@ term climatic changes = =
Climate scientists have hypothesized that the jet stream will gradually weaken as a result of global warming . Trends such as Arctic sea ice decline , reduced snow cover , evapotranspiration patterns , and other weather anomalies are expected to make the Arctic heat up faster than other parts of the globe . This in turn reduces the temperature gradient that drives jet stream winds , causing the jet stream to become weaker and more variable in its course .
Since 2007 , and particularly in 2012 and early 2013 , the jet stream has been at an abnormally low latitude across the UK , lying closer to the English Channel , around 50 ° N rather than its more usual north of Scotland latitude of around 60 ° N. However , between 1979 and 2001 , it has been found that the average position of the jet stream has been moving northward at a rate of 2 @.@ 01 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 25 mi ) per year across the Northern Hemisphere . Across North America , this type of change could lead to drier conditions across the southern tier of the United States and more frequent and more intense tropical cyclones in the tropics . A similar slow poleward drift was found when studying the Southern Hemisphere jet stream over the same time frame .
= = Other upper @-@ level jets = =
= = = Polar night jet = = =
The polar @-@ night jet stream forms only during the winter months when the nights are much longer , hence polar nights , in their respective hemispheres at around 60 ° latitude . The polar night jet moves at a greater height of about 80 @,@ 000 feet ( 24 @,@ 000 m ) than it does during the summer . During these dark months the air high over the poles becomes much colder than the air over the equator . This difference in temperature gives rise to extreme air pressure differences in the stratosphere , which , when combined with the Coriolis effect , create the polar night jets , that race eastward at an altitude of about 30 miles ( 48 km ) . The polar vortex is circled by the polar night jet . The warmer air can only move along the edge of the polar vortex , but not enter it . Within the vortex , the cold polar air becomes increasingly cold with neither warmer air from lower latitudes nor energy from the Sun during the polar night .
= = Low level jets = =
There are wind maxima at lower levels of the atmosphere that are also referred to as jets .
= = = Barrier jet = = =
A barrier jet in the low levels forms just upstream of mountain chains , with the mountains forcing the jet to be oriented parallel to the mountains . The mountain barrier increases the strength of the low level wind by 45 percent . In the North American Great Plains a southerly low @-@ level jet helps fuel overnight thunderstorm activity during the warm season , normally in the form of mesoscale convective systems which form during the overnight hours . A similar phenomenon develops across Australia , which pulls moisture poleward from the Coral Sea towards cut @-@ off lows which form mainly across southwestern portions of the continent .
= = = Valley exit jet = = =
A valley exit jet is a strong , down @-@ valley , elevated air current that emerges above the intersection of the valley and its adjacent plain . These winds frequently reach a maximum of 20 m / s ( 45 mph ) at a height of 40 – 200 m above the ground . Surface winds below the jet may sway vegetation but are significantly weaker .
They are likely to be found in valley regions that exhibit diurnal mountain wind systems , such as those of the dry mountain ranges of the US . Deep valleys that terminate abruptly at a plain are more impacted by these factors than are those that gradually become shallower as downvalley distance increases .
= = = Africa = = =
The mid @-@ level African easterly jet occurs during the Northern Hemisphere summer between 10 ° N and 20 ° N above West Africa , and the nocturnal poleward low @-@ level jet occurs in the Great Plains of east and South Africa . The low @-@ level easterly African jet stream is considered to play a crucial role in the southwest monsoon of Africa , and helps form the tropical waves which move across the tropical Atlantic and eastern Pacific oceans during the warm season . The formation of the thermal low over northern Africa leads to a low @-@ level westerly jet stream from June into October .
= Ramón Emeterio Betances =
Ramón Emeterio Betances y Alacán ( April 8 , 1827 – September 16 , 1898 ) was a Puerto Rican nationalist . He was the primary instigator of the Grito de Lares revolution and is considered to be the father of the Puerto Rican independence movement . Since the Grito galvanized a burgeoning nationalist movement among Puerto Ricans , Betances is also considered " El Padre de la Patria " ( Father of the [ Puerto Rican ] Nation ) . Because of his charitable deeds for people in need , he also became known as " El Padre de los Pobres " ( " The Father of the Poor " ) .
Betances was also a medical doctor and surgeon in Puerto Rico , and one of its first social hygienists . He had established a successful surgery and ophthalmology practice . Betances was also an abolitionist , diplomat , public health administrator , poet , and novelist . He served as representative and contact for Cuba and the Dominican Republic in Paris , France .
An adherent of Freemasonry , his political and social activism was deeply influenced by the group 's philosophical beliefs .
= = Early years = =
= = = Ancestry = = =
Betances was born in Cabo Rojo , Puerto Rico , in the building that now houses the " Logia Cuna de Betances " ( " Betances ' Cradle Masonic Lodge " ) . Betances ' parents were Felipe Betanzos Ponce , a merchant born in Hispaniola ( in the part that would later become the Dominican Republic ; the surname Betanzos transformed into Betances while the family resided there ) , and María del Carmen Alacán de Montalvo , a native of Cabo Rojo and of French ancestry . They were married in 1812 .
Betances claimed in his lifetime that a relative of his , Pedro Betances , had revolted against the Spanish government of Hispaniola in 1808 and was tortured , executed , and his body burned and shown to the populace to dissuade them from further attempts . Meanwhile , Alacán 's father , a sailor , led a party of volunteers that tried to apprehend the pirate Roberto Cofresí y Ramírez de Arellano in 1824 and did arrest some of Cofresí 's crew , for which he was honored by the Spanish government .
Betances was the fourth of six children ; the oldest of which would die shortly after birth ; Betances was the only male among the surviving siblings . The family was described as being of mixed race in records of the day . His mother died in 1837 , when he was nine years old , and his father remarried in 1839 ; the five children he had with María del Carmen Torres Pagán included Ramón 's half @-@ brother Felipe Adolfo , who was not involved in politics ( according to Ramón ) but was nevertheless arrested following the Grito de Lares years later .
His father eventually bought the Hacienda Carmen in what would later become the nearby town of Hormigueros , and became a wealthy landowner . He owned 200 acres ( 0 @.@ 8 km2 ) of land , a small sugar mill , and some slaves , who shared their duties with free workers . There is speculation that he later freed his slaves , persuaded by his son Ramón .
= = = First years in France = = =
= = = = Primary education = = = =
The young Betances received his primary education from private tutors contracted by his father , a Freemason who owned the largest private library in town . His parents ' attitude towards religion and civil authority shaped his personal beliefs in both subjects . His father would eventually send him to France , to study at the then @-@ named " Collège Royal " ( later named the Lycée Pierre @-@ de @-@ Fermat ) in Toulouse when he was ten years old . A Franco @-@ Puerto Rican family , Jacques Maurice Prévost and María Cavalliery Bey ( who also was a native of Cabo Rojo ) were appointed as his tutors . Prévost opened a drug store in Mayagüez , Puerto Rico , but was forced to return to France ( particularly to his native town , Grisolles ) for not having finished his pharmacy studies . There is also speculation that Prévost was a Freemason , as was Betances ' father .
Betances accompanied the couple in Prévost 's return to his country , and would be under their indirect tutelage while boarding at the school . He showed interest in natural and exact sciences early on , and also became a good fencer .
= = = = Legal " whitening " of family = = = =
While Ramón was in France , his father sought to move the family 's registration from the " mixed race " to the " white " ( Caucasian ) classification of families in Cabo Rojo . The process , when successful , entitled the requester to further legal and property rights for him and his family , and was necessary to allow his daughter , Ana María , to marry José Tió , who was a Caucasian . In the case of Betances ' father , the process lasted two years , and was formalized in 1840 , but not before having to have the family 's lineage and religious affiliations exposed to the general public , something that embarrassed them all . Betances was considerably annoyed by the entire ordeal , since he was the first to acknowledge that he and his entire family were not " blancuzcos " ( " whitish " , a legal term ) but " prietuzcos " ( " blackish " , as Betances mocked it in his letters ) instead . To him the procedure reeked of hypocrisy .
= = = = Medicine studies = = = =
In 1846 , Betances obtained his baccalauréat ( high school diploma ) . After an extended vacation in Puerto Rico , he went on to study medicine at the Faculty of Medicine of Paris from 1848 until 1855 , with a short interlude at the Faculty of Medicine of Montpellier for specific courses in the summer of 1852 .
At the time of his arrival in Paris , Betances witnessed the aftermath of the 1848 Revolution and its backlash , the June Days Uprising , earlier that year . His future political views were directly shaped by what he saw and experienced at the time . He considered himself " an old soldier of the French Republic " . Inspired by the proclamation of the 2e République , he rejected Puerto Rican aspirations for autonomy ( sought from Spain by Puerto Rican politicians since 1810 ) in favor of Puerto Rican independence .
In 1856 , he graduated with the titles of Doctor in Medicine and Surgeon . He was the second Puerto Rican to graduate from the University ( after Pedro Gerónimo Goyco , a later political leader native of Mayagüez who would eventually interact with Betances when both returned to Puerto Rico ) . Among Betances ' teachers were : Charles @-@ Adolphe Wurtz , Jean Cruveilhier , Jean @-@ Baptiste Bouillaud , Armand Trousseau , Alfred @-@ Armand @-@ Louis @-@ Marie Velpeau and Auguste Nélaton .
= = = = Father 's death and family 's economic problems = = = =
While Betances was studying medicine in France , his father died ( in August 1854 ) and his sister Ana María would be forced to take over the Hacienda Carmen 's management . By 1857 the heirs were forced to give the operation 's output to a holding company headed by Guillermo Schröeder .
= = First return to Puerto Rico = =
= = = Cholera epidemic of 1856 = = =
Betances returned to Puerto Rico in April 1856 . At the time , a cholera epidemic was spreading across the island . The epidemic made its way to Puerto Rico 's western coast in July 1856 , and hit the city of Mayagüez particularly hard . At the time , Betances was one of five doctors that would have to take care of 24 @,@ 000 residents . Both he and Dr. José Francisco Basora ( who became lifelong friends and colleagues from that point on ) would alert the city government and press the city managers into taking preventive action .
An emergency subscription fund was established by some of the city 's wealthiest citizens . Betances and Basora had the city 's unsanitary slave barracks torched and a temporary camp set up for its dwellers . A large field at a corner of the city was set aside for a supplementary cemetery , and Betances set and managed a temporary hospital next to it ( which was later housed in a permanent structure and became the Hospital San Antonio , the Mayagüez municipal hospital , which still serves the city ) . However , the epidemic struck the city soon after ; Betances ' stepmother and one of his brothers @-@ in @-@ law would die from it . By October 1856 Betances would have to take care of the entire operation on his own temporarily .
At the time , he had his first confrontation with Spanish authorities , since Betances gave last priority of medical treatment to those Spanish @-@ born military rank and officers who were affected by the disease ( they demanded preferential and immediate treatment , and he openly despised them for it ) . For his hard work to save many Puerto Ricans from the ravages of the cholera epidemic of 1856 , Betances was commended by the city 's government . However , when the central government established a Chief Surgeon post for the city , Betances ( who was the acting chief surgeon ) was passed over , in favor of a Spanish newcomer .
Basora and Betances were eventually honored with streets named after each in the city of Mayagüez . The main thoroughfare that crosses the city from north to south is named after Betances ; a street that links the center of the city with the University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez is named after Dr. Basora .
= = Exile from and return to Puerto Rico = =
= = = Abolitionist = = =
Betances believed in the abolition of slavery , inspired not only on written works by Victor Schoelcher , John Brown , Lamartine and Tapia , but also on personal experience , based on what he saw at his father 's farm and in daily Puerto Rican life . Based on his beliefs , he founded a civic organization in 1856 , one of many others that were later called the Secret Abolitionist Societies by historians . Little is known about them due to their clandestine nature , but Betances and Salvador Brau ( a close friend who later became the official Historian of Puerto Rico ) describe them in their writings . Some of these societies sought the freedom and free passage of maroons from Puerto Rico to countries where slavery had been abolished already ; other societies sought to liberate as many slaves as possible by buying out their freedom .
The objective of the particular society Betances founded was to free children who were slaves , taking advantage of their need to receive the sacrament of Baptism at the town church , Nuestra Señora de la Candelaria , which is now the Roman Catholic Cathedral of Mayagüez . Since buying the freedom of slave children cost 50 pesos if the child had been baptized , and 25 pesos if the child had not , Betances , Basora , Segundo Ruiz Belvis and other members of the society waited next to the baptismal font on Sundays , expecting a master to take a slave family to baptize their child . Before the child was baptized , Betances or his partners gave money to the parents , which they in turn used to buy the child 's freedom from his master . The child , once freed , was baptized minutes after . This action was later described as having the child receive the " aguas de libertad " ( waters of liberty ) . Similar events occurred in the city of Ponce .
The baptismal font where these baptisms were performed still exists , and is owned by a local family of merchants , the Del Moral family , who keep it at their Mayagüez house .
As of 2007 the baptismal font has been donated to the Mayagüez Cathedral , Nuestra Señora de la Candelaria , by Doña Elda Del Moral . It had been in conservation from 1963 until donated .
= = = La vièrge de Boriquén ( The Boriquén Virgin ) = = =
The Spanish governor of Puerto Rico , Fernando Cotoner , threatened Betances with exile in 1858 because of his abolitionist tactics . Betances took a leave of absence from his duties as director of the local hospital and again left Puerto Rico for France , followed by Basora . Soon , his half @-@ sister Clara and her husband , Justine Hénri , would also leave for Paris with his niece , María del Carmen Hénri .
María del Carmen , nicknamed Lita , was born in 1838 . She had met Betances when she was 10 , and Betances became instantly fond of her . Once he returned to Puerto Rico from his medical studies he requested the necessary ecclesiastical permissions to marry her ( due to the degree of consanguinity between them ) , which were granted in Rome ( then part of the Papal States ) after an extended delay . Their marriage was supposed to occur on May 5 , 1859 in Paris , but Lita fell sick with typhus and died at the Mennecy house of Dr. Pierre Lamire , a friend from Betances ' medical school days , on April 22 , 1859 ( the Good Friday of that year ) .
Betances was psychologically devastated by Lita 's death . Accompanied by his sister , brother @-@ in @-@ law , local friends and a few Puerto Rican friends residing in Paris at the time ( which included Basora , Francisco Oller and another Cabo Rojo native , future political leader Salvador Carbonell ) , Betances had Lita buried on April 25 . Her body was later reburied in Mayagüez , on November 13 of that year . Salvador Brau , a historian and close friend , later wrote that once Betances returned to Puerto Rico with Lita 's body , he suspended all personal activities besides his medical work , spent a considerable amount of time caring for her tomb at the Mayagüez cemetery , and assumed the physical aspect that most people identify Betances with : dark suit , long unkempt beard , and " Quaker " hat .
Betances immersed himself in work , but later found time to write a short story in French , La Vièrge de Boriquén ( The Boriquén Virgin ) , inspired in his love for Lita and her later death , and somewhat influenced by Edgar Allan Poe 's writing style . Cayetano Coll y Toste later described the story of Lita and Betances in the story La Novia de Betances ,
= = = Return to Mayagüez and second exile = = =
= = = = Doctor and surgeon = = = =
After returning to Puerto Rico in 1859 , Betances established a very successful surgery and ophthalmology practice in Mayagüez . Even fierce political enemies such as Spanish pro @-@ monarchy journalist José Pérez Morís regarded Betances as the best surgeon in Puerto Rico at the time . His good reputation in Puerto Rico would survive his stay in the island nation for many years . In 1895 , while Betances was living in Paris , the manufacturers of the Emulsión de Scott ( a codfish liver oil product that is still sold today , manufactured by GlaxoSmithKline in modern times ) , paid an endorsement fee to Betances to have him appear on advertisements on Spanish language magazines and newspapers all over New York City and the Caribbean , based on his solid reputation as a doctor .
Betances introduced new surgical and aseptic procedures to Puerto Rico . With the assistance of Venezuelan anesthesiologist Pedro Arroyo , Betances performed the first ever surgical procedure under chloroform in Puerto Rico , in November 1862 .
At the same time he spent a considerable amount of time serving Mayagüez 's disadvantaged on a pro bono basis . He gave many donations to the poor , and because of this he became known as " The Father of the Poor " among " Mayagüezanos " according to his contemporary , Eugenio María de Hostos .
= = = = Exile in the Dominican Republic = = = =
The Dominican Republic had its second war for independence in 1844 , which was successful in obtaining independence from Haiti . Spain reannexed the country at the request of its then @-@ dictator , Gen. Pedro Santana ( who attempted to benefit personally from the event ) , in 1861 . A third revolt , the War of Restoration , sought independence from the Spanish in 1863 . Its leaders used Haiti as a guerrilla base , since the Haitian government feared a Spanish takeover and the restoration of slavery in the occupied territories , and was thus sympathetic to their cause . Their stronghold , however , was the Cibao valley in the northeastern part of Hispaniola .
At the same time , the Spanish government , which ruled over Puerto Rico , attempted to banish Betances for a second time , but he and Segundo Ruiz Belvis ( a lawyer and city administrator who became his closest friend and political companion ) fled the island before they were apprehended . Both fled to the northern city of Puerto Plata in the Dominican Republic in 1861 , where Betances established a close personal friendship with Gen. Gregorio Luperón , the military leader of the northern pro @-@ independence faction who led the efforts to restore Dominican sovereignty over their country . Betances was also a collaborator of Dominican priest ( and later Archbishop of Santo Domingo and one @-@ time president of the country ) , Fernando Arturo de Meriño , who was the revolt 's ideological leader ( as well as its delegate in Puerto Rico when he was himself exiled by the restored republican government ) . These two friendships would prove to be key to Betances ' own efforts to achieve Puerto Rican independence later on .
The volatility of the Dominican situation was severe at the time : Luperón fought a guerrilla war against the Spanish and Santana and became vice @-@ president of the country ( in 1863 ) , only to be exiled to Saint Thomas because of his opposition to president Buenaventura Báez ' wishes to annex the country to the United States ( in 1864 ) , to later return , provoke a coup d 'état and be part of a three @-@ way presidency ( 1866 ) , only to be exiled once again ( 1868 ) . Whenever Luperón was in the Dominican Republic , Betances could use it as a base of operations for his later political and military objectives , while offering Luperón logistical and financial assistance in return .
Since Betances ' exile depended on who was governing Puerto Rico at the time , a change in government allowed him to return to Mayagüez in 1862 . However , a few years later , ( 1868 ) Luperón and Betances would both end up exiled in Saint Thomas .
= = = = Second return to Mayagüez = = = =
After returning to Puerto Rico , Betances and Ruiz proposed the establishment of a municipal hospital to take care of the city 's poor . The hospital , named Hospital San Antonio , opened on January 18 , 1865 , with subscription funds and an assignment from the Spanish local government . The Hospital San Antonio is now an obstetrics and pediatrics hospital in the city .
Ruiz was a Freemason who invited Betances to join his lodge , the Logia Unión Germana in nearby San Germán . They both founded ( or revived , depending on the source ) the Logia Yagüez , so as to have a local lodge in Mayagüez . Based on his Masonic beliefs , Ruiz also attempted to establish a university in the city , for which he mortgaged his house . However , the Spanish government actively discouraged the founding of secondary education institutions in Puerto Rico ( so as not to have " seedlings for revolt " come out of them ) , and the project was canceled .
= = = = Simplicia Jiménez = = = =
Betances met his lifelong companion , Simplicia Isolina Jiménez Carlo , in 1864 . Jiménez apparently was born in what would later become the Dominican Republic , on July 28 , 1842 . Her mother 's last name , Carlo , rather common in Cabo Rojo , implies that her family had ties to the town . She worked for one of Betances ' sisters between 1863 and 1864 , and he met her once at his sister 's house . Apparently she was infatuated with him strongly enough to appear at his door with a pair of suitcases , asking him to give her shelter , since " no gentleman would leave a woman alone on the street at night . " Jiménez then became Betances ' common @-@ law wife for thirty @-@ five years , and survived his death in 1898 . They would not have any children . Their godchild , Magdalena Caraguel , was eventually adopted by the couple as their daughter . Little else is documented about Jiménez in history books , and Betances rarely mentions her in his works and correspondence .
While still living in Mayagüez , Betances built a house for himself and his wife , which they only lived in for less than two years ; the house , named the Casa de los Cinco Arcos ( House of the Five Arches ) , still stands on the street that bears his name near the corner with Luis Muñoz Rivera street , south of the city 's center . Apparently a single , elderly man lives in the house to this day .
= = = " Padre de la Patria " ( Father of the Puerto Rican Nation ) = = =
= = = = Seeds for revolt in Puerto Rico = = = =
The Spanish government was involved in several conflicts across Latin America : war with the Dominican Republic , Peru and Chile ( see below ) , slave revolts in Cuba , a bad economic situation in its colonies , among others . It attempted to appease the growing discontent of the citizens of its remaining colonies in the continent by setting up a board of review that would receive complaints from representatives of the colonies and attempt to adjust legislation that affected them . This board , the " Junta Informativa de Reformas de Ultramar " ( Overseas Informative Reform Board ) would be formed by representatives of each colony , in proportion to their collective population , and would meet in Madrid . The Junta would report to the then Minister of Foreign Affairs , Emilio Castelar .
The Puerto Rican delegation was freely elected by those eligible to vote ( male Caucasian property owners ) , in a rare exercise of political openness in the colony . Segundo Ruiz Belvis was elected to the Junta representing Mayagüez , something that horrified the then governor general of the island . To the frustration of the Puerto Rican delegates , including its leader , José Julián Acosta , the Junta had a majority of Spanish @-@ born delegates , which would vote down almost every measure they suggested . However , Acosta could convince the Junta that abolition could be achieved in Puerto Rico without disrupting the local economy ( including its Cuban members , who frowned upon implementing it in Cuba because of its much higher numbers of slave labor ) . Once he became prime minister in 1870 , Castelar did approve an abolition bill , praising the efforts of the Puerto Rico members , sincerely moved by Acosta 's arguments .
However , beyond abolition , proposals for autonomy were voted down , as were other petitions to limit the unlimited power the governor general would have upon virtually all aspects of life in Puerto Rico . Once the Junta members returned to Puerto Rico , they met with local community leaders in a famed meeting at the Hacienda El Cacao in Carolina , Puerto Rico in early 1865 . Betances was invited by Ruiz and did attend . After listening to the Junta members ' list of voted @-@ down measures , Betances stood up and retorted : " Nadie puede dar lo que no tiene " ( No one can give others what they don 't have for themselves ) , a phrase that he would constantly use through the rest of his life when referring to Spain 's unwillingness to grant Puerto Rico or Cuba any reforms . He would then suggest setting up a revolt and proclaim independence as soon as possible . Many of the meeting 's attendants sided with Betances , to the horror of Acosta .
= = = = Organizer of the Grito de Lares = = = =
In late June 1867 Betances and at least 12 more potential " revolutionaries " were exiled from Puerto Rico by then governor Gen. José María Marchessi y Oleaga as a preventive measure , including Goyco and Ruiz . A battalion of local soldiers had revolted in San Juan earlier , protesting about their poor pay , compared to that of their Spanish counterparts living in Puerto Rico . Betances later stated that the revolt ( called the " Motín de Artilleros " by historians ) was unrelated to his revolutionary plans , and that he actually did not mind the troops stationed in Puerto Rico that much , since they would have been ill @-@ prepared for stopping a well @-@ developed pro @-@ independence revolt at the time anyway . Marchesi feared that the United States , which had made an offer to purchase what were then the Danish Virgin Islands , would rather instigate a revolt in Puerto Rico so as to later annex the island — which would make a better military base in the Caribbean — at a lesser economic cost . His fears were not without base , since the then American consul in the island , Alexander Jourdan , suggested precisely this to then Secretary of State William H. Seward , but only after the expulsions ( September 1867 ) .
Some of the expelled ( such as Carlos Elías Lacroix and José Celis Aguilera ) set up camp in Saint Thomas . Betances and Ruiz , on the other hand , left for New York — where Basora had previously gone — soon after . They soon founded the " Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico " , along with other Puerto Ricans living in the city . After signing a letter that could serve as proof of his intentions of becoming a United States citizen ( mainly to prevent his arrest elsewhere ) Betances then returned to the Dominican Republic in September 1867 , where he attempted to organize an armed expedition that was to invade Puerto Rico . However , under threat of arrest by Buenaventura Báez — who saw Betances as siding with his enemies and wanted him executed — Betances took asylum at the United States embassy in Santo Domingo , and headed for Charlotte Amalie soon after .
= = = = The Ten Commandments of Free Men = = = =
Betances was responsible for numerous proclamations that attempted to arouse Puerto Rican nationalistic sentiment , written between 1861 and his death . The most famous of these is " Los Diez Mandamientos de los hombres libres " ( The Ten Commandments of Free Men ) , written in exile in Saint Thomas in November 1867 . It is directly based on the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen , adopted by France 's National Assembly in 1789 , which contained the principles that inspired the French Revolution .
= = = = The Grito and its aftermath = = = =
Meanwhile , Ruiz Belvis , who headed the Committee , was supposed to gather financial support for the incoming Puerto Rican revolution through a tour of South America . He had received an invitation from Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna , a Chilean diplomat , to coordinate a common front against Spanish interests in all of Latin America ( Spain was still threatening Chile after the Chincha Islands War , and any revolution in the Caribbean would have been a welcome distraction ) . Vicuña promised to gather necessary support in Chile , Peru , Ecuador and Venezuela to help the Puerto Rican independence cause .
However , Ruiz died in Valparaíso , Chile soon after his arrival in the country . He reportedly had uremia and a urethral obstruction , both of which deteriorated into Fournier gangrene , which killed him soon after . Later speculation that Ruiz had been poisoned or killed has been countered by three facts : that Ruiz 's brother , Mariano Ruiz Quiñones ( who was the coordinator of the revolution in Curaçao ) , died of the same condition soon after ( suggesting a genetic predisposition to it ) , that Betances had used a catheter on Ruiz before he left Saint Thomas to bring him some relief from his condition , and that Betances published a medical article in France twenty years later , in 1887 , that discussed the condition , out of what he had described as many years of second @-@ guessing what could have been done to save Ruiz 's life .
Betances was shaken psychologically by news of Ruiz 's death , and also literally soon after : he and his wife also experienced an earthquake and tsunami on November 18 , 1867 , while in Saint Thomas . According to a letter he wrote , he and his wife vacated the building just before it collapsed , and were forced to live in a camp while aftershocks kept shaking the island for close to a month .
Gregorio Luperón met Betances in Saint Thomas , and offered to assist the Puerto Rican revolution , in exchange for help to overthrow Báez once the right circumstances were met . As a consequence , Betances organized revolutionary cells in Puerto Rico from exile , which would be led by leaders such as Manuel Rojas and Mathias Brugman . Betances instructed Mariana Bracetti to knit a flag for the revolution using the colors and basic design similar to that of the Dominican Republic ( which in turn was almost identical to a French military standard ) . Betances was also supposed to send reinforcements to the Puerto Rican rebels through the use of a ship purchased by Puerto Rican and Dominican revolutionaries , " El Telégrafo " ( which was to be shared by both ) , but the ship was confiscated soon after arrival by the government of the then Danish ( later United States ) Virgin Islands .
Eventually all these factors led the way to the abortive insurrection known as the " Grito de Lares " , whose date had to be brought forward to September 23 , 1868 . The Grito found Betances between Curaçao and Saint Thomas , struggling to send reinforcements in time for the revolt .
After the failed insurrection , Betances did not return to Puerto Rico , except for " secret " visits , according to the obituary written about him by the New York Herald after his death . There is no evidence of these , although Betances suggests a visit did occur at some time between 1867 and 1869 , and perhaps again in the 1880s .
= = = = In New York = = = =
Betances fled to New York City in April 1869 , where he again joined Basora in his efforts to organize Puerto Rican revolutionaries into additional activities leading to independence . He joined the Cuban Revolutionary Junta , whose members were more successful at their drive for armed revolution for Cuba , which had started with the " Grito de Yara " , just two weeks after the Grito de Lares . He also lobbied the United States Congress successfully against an annexation of the Dominican Republic by the United States , requested in a vote by a majority of voters in a referendum in 1869 . He also befriended Venezuelan military leader and former president José Antonio Páez in his final days . Betances stayed in New York from April 1869 through February 1870 .
= = = = In Hispaniola = = = =
Somewhat disillusioned by his experience in New York City ( he had philosophical differences with some leaders of the Antillean liberation movements , particularly with Eugenio María de Hostos ) , Betances spent a short interlude in Jacmel , Haiti in 1870 at the request of its then @-@ president , Jean Nissage @-@ Saget , who supported Betances ' efforts to have a liberal government for the Dominican Republic take power . He later spent some time in the Cibao valley ( in both Santiago de los Caballeros and Puerto Plata ) where Luperón and Betances attempted to organize another revolt , this time against conservative elements in the Dominican Republic .
While in New York , Betances wrote and translated numerous political treatises , proclamations and works that were published in the newspaper " La Revolución " , under the pseudonym " El Antillano " ( The Antillean One ) . He was vehement about the need for natives of the Greater Antilles to unite into an Antillean Confederation , a regional entity that would seek to preserve the sovereignty and well @-@ being of Cuba , Haiti , the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico .
Betances also promoted direct intervention of Puerto Ricans in the Cuban independence struggle , which eventually happened in the Cuban War of Independence ( 1895 – 98 ) . Spain had promoted political reform in Puerto Rico , and the local political climate was not conducive to a second revolution at the time . Therefore , Betances and the Puerto Rican revolutionaries ceded their caches of firearms hidden in Saint Thomas , Curaçao and Haiti to the Cuban rebels in October 1871 , since their struggle was deemed as a priority .
Betances admired the United States of America for its ideals of freedom and democracy , but despised Manifest Destiny and the Monroe Doctrine , and sensed that both philosophies were being used as excuses for American interventions on the continent . When Cuban revolutionaries requested help from the United States for reinforcing their armed struggle against Spain , Betances warned them against giving too much away . He feared American interventionism in the affairs of a free Cuba , and vehemently attacked Cuban leaders who suggested the annexation of Cuba by the United States . Some of his fears became reality years later , when the Platt Amendment became a " de facto " part of the Cuban constitution ( 1901 ) .
= = Return to France = =
Expecting to bring some stability to his personal life , Betances had Simplicia Jiménez meet him again in Haiti ( she had been living in St. Croix since he was evicted from Saint Thomas , to ensure her safety ) , and returned with her to Paris where he continued to fight for Puerto Rico 's independence for close to 26 years . He established his medical office at 6 ( bis ) , Rue de Châteaudun ( 48 @.@ 875814 ° N 2 @.@ 341636 ° E / 48 @.@ 875814 ; 2 @.@ 341636 ( Betances medical office ) ) , four streets away from the city 's Palais Garnier .
One of the events that gave Betances great satisfaction was the abolition of slavery in Puerto Rico , which was made official on March 22 , 1873 . He reminded people that abolition would not have happened without the direct intervention of Puerto Ricans in the Spanish political process , and was thus hopeful that the islanders would assume a more proactive role in seeking their freedom from Spain . With time , Betances became essentially the representative of the liberal governments of the Dominican Republic for as long as they lasted , and the representative of the Cuban " government in arms " , or insurrection .
= = = Diplomatic and revolutionary activities = = =
= = = = Diplomat for the Dominican Republic = = = =
Soon after his return to France , Betances became the first secretary to the Dominican Republic 's diplomatic mission to France , but virtually assumed the role of ambassador . He also became the commercial representative of the Dominican government in Paris , Bern and London . At one time Betances attempted to be a venture capital partner on a failed enterprise that attempted to commercialize the use of Samaná Bay to benefit the Dominican Republic , and also to prevent foreign interests ( particularly the United States ) from taking over the bay , which was considered a primary strategic geographical feature of Hispaniola , in both commercial and military terms .
Luperón would eventually arrive in Paris as a named ambassador , but Betances ' connections in the city proved to be key to whatever success Luperón had as a diplomat in France . They would assume this role until political turmoil in the Dominican Republic forced Luperón to return and lead yet another revolt , which had another Puerto Plata native , Ulises Heureaux , installed as president . Betances sought support for Luperón 's efforts , and gave him tactical and financial assistance from France .
Heureaux , however , became a despot once he assumed the presidency . Luperón felt betrayed and went again into exile in Saint Thomas . Eventually he died of cancer , not before visiting Betances in France for a last time and being allowed to return to the Dominican Republic to die , as a gesture of good will from Heureaux . Due to Heureaux 's protracted presidency and blatant acts of corruption , Betances ( who had called Heureaux his " grandson " in letters he had previously written to him ) was forced to cut ties to the Dominican Republic for good ( two plots of land that he owned both there and in Panama were used for agricultural experiments , but were later left unattended ) . Betances writes in his letters that he had spent the equivalent of US $ 20 @,@ 000 ( in 1880 dollars , roughly equivalent to US $ 400 @,@ 000 in 2010 ) on expenditures on behalf of the Dominican diplomatic office . He did not expect the Dominican government to be able to reimburse him .
= = = = Support for Cuba 's independence and José Maceo 's freedom = = = =
Immediately after returning to Paris , Betances became a key contact for the Cuban insurgency in Paris . He made several fund raising efforts , including one that attempted to fund quinine shipments to the Cuban rebels , to ease their pain when infected by malaria in the island battlefields . These efforts outlasted the Pact of Zanjón , which ended the Ten Years ' War in 1878 . Betances also used his diplomatic contacts to guarantee humane treatment ( and eventually freedom from imprisonment ) to José Maceo , the brother of Antonio Maceo , the later military leader of the Cuban War of Independence , when both Antonio and José were arrested by the Spanish government in 1882 . The Maceo brothers both escaped imprisonment , were recaptured in Gibraltar and turned over to the Spanish authorities , but José remained in jail long after Antonio regained his liberty and fled to New York City . Betances even used Lord Gladstone as a mediator , and attempted to convince him of having Jamaica ( where his family had properties ) join an Antillean Federation .
= = = = Betances and Máximo Gómez = = = =
When Puerto Rico experienced a period of severe political repression in 1887 by the Spanish governor of the time , Romualdo Palacio ( which led to the arrest of many local political leaders , including Román Baldorioty de Castro ) , Máximo Gómez , who was living in Panama at the time ( at the time , he supervised a laborers ' brigade during the construction of the Panama Canal ) offered his services to Betances , sold most of his personal belongings to finance a revolt in Puerto Rico , and volunteered to lead any Puerto Rican troops had such revolt occur . The revolt was deemed unnecessary later in the year , when the Spanish government recalled Palacio from office to investigate charges of abuse of power from his part , but Gómez and Betances established a friendship and logistical relationship that lasted until Betances ' death in 1898 .
= = = = Betances and José Martí = = = =
Years later , due to Betances ' experience as a logistics facilitator of armed revolts , a fund raiser for the Cuban independence cause , and as a diplomat , José Martí asked Betances to become the leader of Cuban revolutionaries in France . Betances never met Martí personally , but Martí did know Betances ' younger sister , Eduviges , who lived in New York City and shared her brother 's revolutionary ideals . Martí assisted her financially in her final days , out of admiration for the Betances ' family . Betances accepted the assignment out of gratitude towards Martí . Soon after , Martí died in battle in Cuba in 1895 , an event that brought Tomás Estrada Palma to the leadership of the Cuban insurrection movement .
= = = = Betances and Tomás Estrada Palma = = = =
In April 1896 Betances was granted diplomatic credentials on behalf of the revolutionary government of Cuba . He became an active fund raiser and recruiter on behalf of the Cuban pro @-@ independence movement . He also served as press officer and intelligence contact for the Cuban rebels in exile , and attempted to coordinate support for the pro @-@ independence movement in the Philippines .
Betances openly hated Estrada when he first met him in the late 1870s , but grew more tolerant of him with time , and even defended Estrada 's actions as leader when he assumed control of the Cuban Revolutionary Party . The Puerto Rican affiliates to the Party viewed Estrada 's leadership with great skepticism , since Estrada sympathized with the idea of having the United States intervene in the Cuban independence war to have the Spanish evicted from Cuba . They suspected that his weak leadership allowed opportunists to profit from an invasion and even suggest that the United States keep Puerto Rico in exchange for independence for Cuba . Some written evidence points to the truth of their affirmations , at least to the extent of wanting to have the Puerto Rican section of the Cuban Revolutionary Party shut down , which eventually did happen .
= = = = The Intentona de Yauco = = = =
In 1897 , Antonio Mattei Lluveras , a wealthy coffee plantation owner from Yauco , visited the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee in New York City . There he met with Ramón Emeterio Betances , Juan de Mata Terreforte and Aurelio Méndez Martínez and together they proceeded to plan a major coup . The uprising , which became known as the Intentona de Yauco was to be directed by Betances , organized by Aurelio Mendez Mercado and the armed forces were to be commanded by General Juan Ríus Rivera . The coup , which was the second and last major revolt against Spanish rule in Puerto Rico failed .
Betances was also a government representative for some of the governments of Haiti while in Paris . He was also technically a diplomat for the United States of America once .
= = = = Morales Plan = = = =
Through coordination with Betances and local pro @-@ independence leaders in Puerto Rico , a Dominican military leader , Gen. José Morales , made plans to invade Puerto Rico in the late 1890s , to supply local revolutionaries with supplies and mercenaries , and take advantage of the weak Spanish military presence in Puerto Rico ( there were only 4 @,@ 500 Spanish soldiers in the island at the time , and 1 @,@ 000 of them were later redirected to Cuba to fight the Cuban insurrection ) . However , the Cuban Revolutionary Party rejected the plan as being too expensive .
Betances , who had collected more money in France for the Party than the plan 's potential cost , grew weary of the Cuban revolutionary movement 's diminishing support of the Puerto Rico independence cause . By then , some of the Party 's followers stationed in France wanted Betances to be stripped of his posts and assignments . At least two of them insulted him publicly , and even took advantage of Simplicia Jiménez 's mental health to have her harass her husband systematically .
Given the events happening in Cuba at the time , Betances thought that his diplomatic work was more important than ever . However , his failing health ( he had uremia , and since his lungs could not exchange oxygen properly this put extra burden to his heart and kidneys ) prevented Betances from performing further diplomatic work from France on behalf of Puerto Rico or Cuba . His illness , which lasted more than a year , prevented him from performing medical work , and forced the Party to approve a stipend for Betances during his long illness , until his death .
= = = The Cánovas Affair = = =
There is some speculation that the assassination of Spanish prime minister Antonio Cánovas del Castillo by Italian anarchist Michele Angiolillo in 1897 was at least supported or influenced by Betances , and possibly even planned by him ( although there is no physical link that can be established that might link Betances to the event itself ) .
Betances ' role in the Cánovas assassination is described by Puerto Rican ( born in France ) author Luis Bonafoux in his biography about Betances ( written in 1901 ) , and partially corroborated by later historians . These sources establish that Betances ' circle of friends at the time included various Italian anarchists exiled in Paris , Domenico Tosti being one of them . Tosti and his friends would hold regular social events , during one of which Angiolillo was introduced to Betances .
Impressed by Betances ' credentials , Angiolillo later approached Betances before the incident , and discussed his plans with him , which originally implied killing one or more young members of the Spanish royal family . Betances then dissuaded him from doing this . Angiolillo then apparently suggested Cánovas as a target instead . There is evidence that Betances financed Angiolillo 's travel to Spain , and used his contacts to have Angiolillo reach and enter Spanish territory under a false identity . Further speculation that Angiolillo used a firearm that Betances himself furnished for him appears to be unfounded ( although Betances , who was a fan of firearms himself — he taught a Cuban revolutionary leader on how to use a Remington machine gun once — gave at least one as a gift to one of his acquaintances ) .
Betances sympathized with anarchists like Angiolillo , and hated monarchists like Cánovas , but this alone would not justify direct action from Betances into taking Cánovas ' life . Betances did state at the time , however , that " in Spain theres is only one true retrograde and reactionary leader , and he is precisely the one who confronts Cuba with a policy of ' ( spending in a war up to ) the very last man and the very last peseta , ' the one who tries to suffocate all efforts that her patriots do to free her , and that man is Antonio Cánovas del Castillo . "
Angiolillo , in true solidarity with the European anarchist current , sought to avenge the execution and / or torture of those implicated in a bombing against a Roman Catholic religious procession in Barcelona , which occurred in 1896 , and for which Cánovas sought the maximum penalties allowed by law .
The truth is that Puerto Rican liberal interests benefited directly from the Cánovas assassination , since by Cánovas ' death a pact made ( previous to the event ) between the new Spanish prime minister , Práxedes Mateo Sagasta , and Puerto Rican liberals headed by Luis Muñoz Rivera would come into effect soon after . It allowed the establishment of a new autonomy charter for the island territory , which gave Puerto Rico broader political powers than at any other time before or since .
Before his execution , Angiolillo claimed sole responsibility for the assassination . When asked about his involvement in the Cánovas affair , Betances said : " No aplaudimos pero tampoco lloramos " ( " We don 't applaud it , but we don 't cry over it , either " ) , and added : " Los revolucionarios verdaderos hacen lo que deben hacer " ( " True revolutionaries do what they ought to do " ) . Betances ' ambiguous response blurs the true level of his involvement in the Cánovas assassination .
= = = Legion of Honor award = = =
Betances was awarded the rank of Chévalier ( Knight ) of the Legion of Honor by the French government in July 1887 , for his work as a diplomat for the Dominican Republic , and for his work as a medical doctor in France . He had been offered the award as early as 1882 , but had repeatedly declined the honor out of humility , until friends from Puerto Rico persuaded him to accept it as a tribute to Puerto Rico , and not as a personal award . The French Legion of Honor ( Légion d 'honneur ) is the premier order of France , and its award is one of great distinction .
= = = Efforts to counter the U.S. annexation of Puerto Rico = = =
In 1898 Betances attempted to use his diplomatic contacts to impede a Puerto Rico annexation by the United States , which was deemed imminent by the events following the sinking of the USS Maine . He knew that Puerto Ricans would welcome an American invasion , but was vehement about the possibility of the United States not conceding independence to Puerto Rico .
Betances was willing to accept some political concessions to the American government in exchange for independence , and exchanged some privileged intelligence information ( about the level of debt Spain had attained while fighting the Cuban insurrection ) with the then @-@ ambassador of the United States to France , Horace Porter , so as to show goodwill towards the United States .
Frustrated by what he perceived as the unwillingness of Puerto Ricans to demand their independence from the United States while the island territory was annexed ( the event occurred just days before his death ) , he uttered his final political stance : " No quiero colonia , ni con España , ni con los Estados Unidos " ( " I don 't want a colony status , neither with Spain nor with the United States " ) . When reminded by de Hostos through a letter of what was happening in the island , he responded , highly frustrated , with a phrase that has become famous since : " ¿ Y qué les pasa a los puertorriqueños que no se rebelan ? " ( " And what 's wrong with Puerto Ricans that they haven 't yet rebelled ? " )
Betances ' last days were chaotic , not only because of the events in the Caribbean , but also because of what happening in his own household . Jiménez ' mental state is reported as dubious by then . Some even suggest that she had become an alcoholic ( probably ) or even a morphine addict ( unlikely ) by then , and she even wished for her husband to die in tantrums reported by his doctors . Political foes attempted to gain possession of Betances ' intelligence dossiers , as did Spanish intelligence agents in Paris . Betances asked personal friends to keep personal guard of him , which they did until he died .
= = Death = =
Betances died at 10 : 00 a.m. , local time , in Neuilly @-@ sur @-@ Seine on Friday , September 16 , 1898 . His remains were cremated soon after and entombed at the Père Lachaise Cemetery of Paris on Monday , September 19 . He had requested that no formal ceremony be made for his funeral . His common law @-@ wife Simplicia survived him for over twenty years . A look at his will implies that , besides a life insurance policy payout and two parcels of land in the Dominican Republic , Betances died almost in poverty .
As early as in February 1913 , poet and lawyer Luis Lloréns Torres had publicly requested that Betances ' wishes to have his ashes returned to Puerto Rico be fulfilled . The Nationalist Association ( predecessor of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party ) , under the presidency of José Coll y Cuchí , was able to convince the Puerto Rican Legislative Assembly to approve an act that would allow the transfer of the mortal remains of Puerto Rican patriot Ramón Emeterio Betances from Paris , France to Puerto Rico . Seven years after the act 's approval , the Legislative Assembly commissioned one of its delegates , Alfonso Lastra Charriez , to serve as an emissary and bring Betances ' remains from France .
Betances ' remains arrived in San Juan , Puerto Rico on August 5 , 1920 , and were honored upon arrival by a crowd then estimated at 20 @,@ 000 mourners . The large crowd , which had assembled near the port of San Juan as early as 4 : 00 a.m. ( AST ) that morning , was the largest ever assembled for a funeral in Puerto Rico since the death of Luis Muñoz Rivera three years earlier . Media reporters of the day were surprised by the size of the crowd , given the fact that Betances had not visited Puerto Rico ( at least in the open ) for the 31 years before his death , and had been dead over 21 years afterwards .
A funeral caravan organized by the Nationalist Party transferred the remains from the capital to the town of Cabo Rojo . It took the caravan two days to make the 120 @-@ mile ( 193 km ) route . Once Betances ' remains reached the city of Mayagüez , 8 @,@ 000 mourners paid their respects . Betances ' remains were laid to rest in Cabo Rojo 's municipal cemetery . A few decades later his remains were moved to a monument designed to honor Betances in the town 's plaza . There is a bust created by the Italian sculptor Diego Montano alongside the Grito de Lares revolutionary flag and the Puerto Rican flag in the plaza , which is also named after Betances .
A marble plaque commemorating Betances was unveiled at his Paris house by a delegation of Puerto Rican , Cuban and French historians on the 100th. anniversary of his death , on September 16 , 1998 .
= = Legacy = =
According to Puerto Ricans and French historians in three different fields ( medicine , literature and politics ) , Betances left a legacy that has been considerably understated , and is only being assessed properly in recent times .
= = = Complete Works = = =
Betances ' two primary biographers , Paul Estrade and Félix Ojeda Reyes , have announced the publication of a compilation of Betances ' complete works , comprising 14 volumes . José Carvajal is the collection 's editor . The first two volumes were formally published in Mayagüez on April 8 , 2008 . The first volume features most of Betances ' written works about medicine ; the second features intimate letters and document excerpts Betances wrote to family and friends over a span of 39 years . A third volume , which compiles some of Betances ' literary works , was published in 2009 .
The Voz del Centro Foundation in Puerto Rico released a series of youth @-@ oriented books named " Voces de la Cultura - Edición Juvenil " that same year ; its first title being " Doctor Ramón Emeterio Betances : Luchador por la libertad y los pobres " ( " Doctor R. E. Betances , Fighter for Liberty and the Poor " ) .
= = = Landmarks = = =
= = = = In the United States = = = =
There is an elementary school in Hartford , Connecticut , named in honor of Betances and Hartford 's Puerto Rican community .
= = = = In Puerto Rico = = = =
As mentioned above , the main throroughfare that crosses Mayagüez from north to south is named after Betances . In Ponce there is a thoroughfare linking downtown Ponce and Puerto Rico highway 14 , PR @-@ 14 , which is named " Avenida Betances " .
= = = Political and sociological = = =
= = = = In Puerto Rico = = = =
The political and sociological consequences of Betances ' actions are definite and unequivocal . He was the first openly nationalistic political leader in Puerto Rico , and one of the first pro @-@ independence leaders in the island nation 's history ( Among Puerto Ricans , Antonio Valero de Bernabé and Andrés Vizcarrondo — earlier pro @-@ independence leaders for the Latin American revolutions — could not achieve the success Betances had years later within Puerto Rico ) . The Grito de Lares , using an often @-@ quoted phrase that dates from 1868 , " was the birth of Puerto Rican nationality , with Betances as its obstetrician " . Nationalistic expressions in Puerto Rico — be they public affirmations , newspaper articles , poems , town meetings or outright revolts — were almost nonexistent before the 1810s election of Ramón Power y Giralt to the Spanish Cortes , most of them were defined within the framework of loyalty to Spain as a metropolitan power ( and thus subordinate to Spanish rule over Puerto Rico ) , and many of them were quickly suppressed by the Spanish government , which feared an escalation of nationalistic sentiment that , in other countries , led to the independence movements of Latin America .
Although the seeds of both proactive government repression against the Puerto Rican independence movement had been planted before the Grito de Lares , and its aftermath only guaranteed the surge of autonomism as a political alternative in the island , the level of cultural and social development of a collective Puerto Rican conscience was almost a direct consequence of the event . To put it simply , if there is any nationalistic sentiment in Puerto Rico in the present day , almost all of it can be traced back to Betances and his political work .
Betances is considered a pioneer of Puerto Rican liberalism . His ideas resulted from his exposure to republicanism and social activism in France through the middle part of the 19th. century . These ideas , considered subversive in the severely restricted Puerto Rico of the era , had nevertheless a considerable impact in the island nation 's political and social history . His ideas on race relations alone had a major impact on economics and the social makeup of the island .
= = = = In the Greater Antilles = = = =
Political events in Puerto Rico and Cuba between the late 1860s and 1898 forced a liberalization of Spanish policy towards both territories , and Betances was directly involved as a protagonist in both circumstances . As a firm believer in " Antillanismo " ( the common improvement and unity of the countries that formed the Greater Antilles ) Betances was also a strong supporter of the sovereignty of the Dominican Republic and Haiti . A Dominican historian and political leader , Manuel Rodríguez Objío , likened Betances ' revolutionary work to that performed by Tadeusz Kościuszko for Poland , Lithuania and the United States of America . Paul Estrade , Betances ' French biographer , likens him to Simón Bolívar , Antonio José de Sucre , Bernardo O 'Higgins and José de San Martín .
José Martí considered Betances one of his " teachers " , or sources of political inspiration , and his diplomatic and intelligence work in France on behalf of the Cuban revolutionary junta greatly aided the cause , before it was directly influenced by the intervention of Gen. Valeriano Weyler as governor and commander of the Spanish forces in Cuba , and by the Maine incident later on .
Paul Estrade , Betances ' French biographer , assesses his legacy as an Antillean this way : " The Antilles have developed political , social and scientific ideas that have changed the world , and that Europe has used . Not everything has ( a European ) source . Betances is the maximum expression of this reality . "
= = = Medical = = =
Betances wrote two books and various medical treatises while living in France . His doctoral thesis , " Des Causes de l 'ávortement " ( The Causes for Miscarriage ) examines various possible causes for the spontaneous death of a fetus and / or its mother , was later used as a textbook on gynecology at some European universities . According to at least one medical practitioner who examined it in 1988 , his attempt to explain the theory behind spontaneous contractions leading to childbirth were not very different from modern @-@ day theories on the matter .
Betances ' experiences handling the Mayagüez cholera epidemic led to another book , " El Cólera : Historia , Medidas Profilácticas , Síntomas y Tratamiento " ( Cholera : History , Preventive Measures , Symptoms and Treatments ) , which he authored and published in Paris in 1884 and expanded in 1890 . The book was later used as a public health textbook in dealing with similar cholera epidemics in Latin America .
Betances also wrote several medical articles while in France . One of the articles examines elephantiasis ; another deals with surgical castration , called " oscheotomy " at the time . Both books were also based on personal experience : there is evidence about a surgery he performed in Mayagüez on a Spanish government official with an elephantiasis lesion of the scrotum the size of a grapefruit for which the costs were paid for by the local government ; another patient he operated upon had a lesion that weighed 26 lb ( 12 kg ) He also wrote an article on urethral obstructions in male patients ( see above ) .
= = = Literary = = =
Betances was also one of the first Puerto Rican " writers @-@ in @-@ exile " . In 1851 , a small group of Puerto Rican university students in Europe formed the " Sociedad Recolectora de Documentos Históricos de la Isla de San Juan Bautista de Puerto Rico " , a society that attempted to research and catalog historical documents about Puerto Rico from firsthand government sources . Betances became the Society 's researcher in France . The result of the Society 's research was published in an 1854 book , for which Betances contributed . Inspired by Alejandro Tapia y Rivera , the Society 's organizer , who had written a novel inspired in Puerto Rican indigenous themes while studying in Madrid , Betances writes his novel : " Les Deux Indiens : Épisode de la conquéte de Borinquen " ( The Two Indians : an episode of the conquest of Borinquen ) , and publishes it in Toulouse in 1853 , with a second edition published in 1857 under the pseudonym " Louis Raymond " . This novel would be the first of many literary works by Betances ( most of which were written in French ) , and is notable for its indirect praise of Puerto Rican nationhood which , he suggests , was already developed in pre @-@ Columbian Puerto Rico . This type of " indigenist literature " would become commonplace in Latin America in later years . He also wrote poetry in both French and Spanish for literary magazines in Paris , chiefly inspired by Alphonse de Lamartine and Victor Hugo .
= = Major works = =
Toussaint Louverture , Les Deux Indiéns ( 1852 )
Un premio de Luis XIV ( 1853 )
Las cortesanas en París ( 1853 )
La Vierge de Borinquén ( 1859 )
La botijuela ( a.k.a. Aulularia , translation from the Latin original by Plautus , 1863 )
El Partido Liberal , su progreso y porvenir ( translation from the French original by Édouard René de Laboulaye , 1869 )
Washington Haitiano ( essay about Alexandre Pétion , 1871 )
Los viajes de Scaldado ( 1890 )
Betances also wrote one of the two prologues of the book " Les détracteurs de la race noire et de la République d 'Haiti " ( The detractors of the black race and the Republic of Haiti , 1882 )
= Russian battleship Pobeda =
Pobeda , ( Russian : Победа , translit . Victory ) , was the last of the three Peresvet @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Russian Navy at the end of the nineteenth century . The ship was assigned to the Pacific Squadron upon completion and based at Port Arthur from 1903 . During the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 1905 , she participated in the battles of Port Arthur and the Yellow Sea . Having escaped serious damage in these engagements , Pobeda was sunk by gunfire during the Siege of Port Arthur , and then salvaged by the Japanese and placed into service under the name Suwo ( 周防 ) .
Rearmed and re @-@ boilered by the Japanese , Suwo was reclassified by the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) as a coastal defense ship in 1908 and served as a training ship for several years . She was the flagship of the Japanese squadron that participated in the Battle of Tsingtao at the beginning of World War I and continued in that role until she became a gunnery training ship in 1917 . The ship was disarmed in 1922 to comply with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty and probably scrapped around that time .
= = Design and description = =
The design of the Peresvet class was inspired by the British second @-@ class battleships ( typically faster , but with thinner armor and smaller guns than first @-@ class battleships ) of the Centurion class . The British ships were intended to defeat commerce @-@ raiding armored cruisers like the Russian ships Rossia and Rurik , and the Peresvet class was designed to support the armored cruisers . This role placed a premium on high speed and long range at the expense of heavy armament and armor .
Pobeda was 434 feet 5 inches ( 132 @.@ 4 m ) long overall , had a beam of 71 feet 6 inches ( 21 @.@ 79 m ) and a draft of 26 feet 3 inches ( 8 @.@ 0 m ) . Designed to displace 12 @,@ 674 long tons ( 12 @,@ 877 t ) , she was almost 600 long tons ( 610 t ) overweight and displaced 13 @,@ 320 long tons ( 13 @,@ 530 t ) . Her crew consisted of 27 officers and 744 enlisted men . The ship was powered by three vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines using steam generated by 30 Belleville boilers . The engines were rated at 14 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 800 kW ) , using forced draught , and designed to reach a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . Pobeda , however , reached a top speed of 18 @.@ 5 knots ( 34 @.@ 3 km / h ; 21 @.@ 3 mph ) from 15 @,@ 578 indicated horsepower ( 11 @,@ 617 kW ) during her sea trials in October 1901 . She carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 060 long tons ( 2 @,@ 090 t ) of coal , which allowed her to steam for 6 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 500 km ; 7 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The ship 's main battery consisted of four 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) guns mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one forward and one aft of the superstructure . The secondary armament consisted of eleven Canet 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns , mounted in casemates on the sides of the hull and in the bow , underneath the forecastle . Several smaller guns were carried for defense against torpedo boats . These included twenty 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) QF guns , twenty 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns and eight 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns . She was also armed with five 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) torpedo tubes , three above water and two submerged . The ship carried 45 mines to be used to protect her anchorage . Pobeda 's waterline armor belt consisted of Krupp cemented armor and was 4 – 9 inches ( 102 – 229 mm ) thick . The armor of her gun turrets had a maximum thickness of 9 in ( 229 mm ) and her deck ranged from 2 to 3 inches ( 51 to 76 mm ) in thickness .
= = Construction and service = =
Pobeda ( Victory ) was ordered on 26 April 1898 from the Baltic Works and construction began on 30 May 1898 at the company 's Saint Petersburg shipyard , well before the formal keel @-@ laying ceremony on 21 February 1899 . The ship was launched on 10 May 1900 and towed to Kronstadt on 31 August 1901 for fitting out . She made her machinery trials in October , well before she was completed the next year . She sailed to Reval ( modern Tallinn ) on 1 August to participate in the naval review held there a few days later to commemorate the visit of the German Kaiser , Wilhelm II , to Russia . Pobeda entered service upon completing her artillery trials on October 1902 , although she was not officially accepted until 10 March 1903 , at a cost of 10 @,@ 050 @,@ 000 rubles . She had already sailed from Libau on 13 November 1902 and arrived at Port Arthur on 13 June 1903 for assignment to the Pacific Squadron .
= = = Battle of Port Arthur = = =
After the Japanese victory in the First Sino @-@ Japanese War of 1894 – 95 , tensions had arisen between Russia and Japan over their ambitions to control both Manchuria and Korea . A further issue was the Russian failure to withdraw its troops from Manchuria in October 1903 , as it had promised . Japan had begun negotiations to ease the situation in 1901 , but the Russian government was slow and uncertain in its replies because it had not yet decided exactly how to resolve the problems . Japan interpreted these as deliberate prevarications designed to buy time to complete the Russian armament programs . The final straws were news of Russian timber concessions in northern Korea and the Russian refusal to acknowledge Japanese interests in Manchuria while continuing to place conditions on Japanese activities in Korea . These led the Japanese government to decide in December 1903 that war was now inevitable . The Pacific Squadron began mooring in the outer harbor at night as tensions with Japan increased , so as to react more quickly to any Japanese attempt to land troops in Korea .
On the night of 8 / 9 February 1904 , the IJN launched a surprise attack on the Russian fleet at Port Arthur . Pobeda was not hit in the initial torpedo @-@ boat attack , and sortied the following morning when the Combined Fleet , commanded by Vice Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō , attacked . Tōgō had expected the surprise night attack by his ships to be much more successful than it was , anticipating that the Russians would be badly disorganized and weakened , but they had recovered from their surprise and were ready for his attack . The Japanese ships were spotted by the protected cruiser Boyarin , which was patrolling offshore and alerted the Russian defenses . Tōgō chose to attack the Russian coastal defenses with his main armament and engage the ships with his secondary guns . Splitting his fire proved to be a poor decision as the Japanese 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) and six @-@ inch guns inflicted little damage on the Russian ships , which concentrated all their fire on the Japanese ships with some effect . Pobeda was hit once or twice amidships near the waterline , losing two men killed and four wounded , but the shell ( s ) failed to penetrate the ship 's armor and little damage was done .
On 22 March , Pobeda joined several other battleships firing indirectly at Japanese ships bombarding Port Arthur 's harbor and hit the Japanese battleship Fuji once , killing seven men . She participated in the action of 13 April , when Tōgō successfully lured out a portion of the Pacific Squadron , including Vice Admiral Stepan Makarov 's flagship , the battleship Petropavlovsk . When Makarov spotted the five Japanese battleships , he turned back for Port Arthur , and Petropavlovsk struck a mine laid by the Japanese the previous night . The ship sank in less than two minutes after one of her magazines exploded , and Makarov was one of the 677 killed . When Pobeda was returning to port after Petropavlovsk sank , she struck a mine herself , but was able to steam to the harbor under her own power despite an 11 ° list . Her repairs were completed on 9 June although some of her guns were removed during this time to reinforce the defenses of the port . Pobeda lost a total of three 6 @-@ inch , two 75 @-@ millimeter , one 47 @-@ millimeter and four 37 @-@ millimeter guns . She sailed with the rest of the Russian squadron on 23 June in an abortive attempt to reach Vladivostok . The new fleet commander , Vice Admiral Wilgelm Vitgeft , ordered the squadron to return to Port Arthur when it encountered the Japanese fleet shortly before sunset as he did not wish to engage the numerically superior Japanese in a night battle . Pobeda bombarded Japanese positions besieging the port on 28 July .
= = = Battle of the Yellow Sea = = =
The Japanese bombardment of 9 August , coupled with a direct order from Tsar Nicholas II , forced Vitgeft to make another attempt to reach Vladivostok . The squadron sortied in an attempt to escape to Vladivostok the next morning . At 12 : 25 , it was spotted by Japanese cruisers and intercepted by the Combined Fleet in what became the Battle of the Yellow Sea . Pobeda was third in line during the battle , and was not seriously damaged during the early long @-@ range stage of the action . Around 18 : 00 , two 12 @-@ inch shells from the battleship Asahi penetrated the conning tower of the Russian flagship Tsesarevich , killing Vitgeft and the helmsman , severely wounding the captain , and causing the ship to come to a dead stop after executing a sharp turn . Thinking that this was a maneuver planned by Vitgeft , the Russian battleline started to execute the same turn , causing all of the ships directly behind Tsesarevich , including Pobeda , to maneuver wildly to avoid hitting the stationary flagship .
As the Japanese ships continued to pound the Tsesarevich , the battleship Retvizan boldly charged Tōgō 's battleline in an attempt to divert the Japanese shellfire , followed shortly afterward by Peresvet , the flagship of the squadron 's second @-@ in @-@ command , Rear Admiral Prince Pavel Ukhtomsky . The Japanese battleline immediately shifted fire to the oncoming ships , badly damaging both and forcing them to turn away . Ukhtomsky signaled the other Russian ships to follow him back to Port Arthur , but the signal was hard to discern because the flags had to be hung from the bridge railings because Peresvet 's topmasts had been shot away and were only gradually recognized . Although Pobeda was struck by eleven large @-@ caliber hits that killed 4 men and wounded 29 , including one below the waterline , they failed to penetrate her armor and she reached Port Arthur without any difficulties . The hits did , however , knock out one 10 @-@ inch gun and three 75 @-@ millimeter guns .
= = = Siege of Port Arthur = = =
Returning to Port Arthur on 11 August , the Russian squadron found the city still under siege by the Japanese Third Army led by Baron Nogi Maresuke . The new commander , Rear Admiral Robert N. Viren , decided to use the men and guns of the Pacific Squadron to reinforce the defenses of Port Arthur and even more guns were stripped from the squadron 's ships . This proved to make little difference and Pobeda was struck by several 5 @.@ 9 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) and 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch shells on 28 September that did no significant damage . The Japanese bombardment with medium guns continued for the next month and a half and the ship was repeatedly struck , without much effect . Japanese troops were able to seize 203 Hill which overlooked the harbor on 5 December . This allowed the Imperial Japanese Army 's 28 @-@ centimeter ( 11 in ) siege guns to fire directly at the Russian ships ; they hit Pobeda approximately 30 times and sank her in shallow water on 7 December 1904 . Russian attempts to destroy the ship before they surrendered were frustrated because her vital parts were already underwater .
= = Japanese career = =
Pobeda was refloated by Japanese engineers on 17 October 1905 and was classified as a 1st @-@ class battleship by the IJN . She was renamed as Suwo on 25 October , after the eponymous ancient province . She steamed under her own power to Sasebo Naval Arsenal , where she arrived on 16 December and began temporary repairs . Her reconstruction at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal began in May 1906 and lasted until 10 October 1908 .
To improve her stability , Suwo 's forward fighting top was removed . The 6 @-@ inch bow gun was also removed and all of her light guns were replaced by 20 QF 12 @-@ pounder 12 cwt guns . Two above @-@ water 18 @-@ inch torpedo tubes replaced her original torpedo armament and her crew now numbered 791 officers and enlisted men .
Suwo was re @-@ designated as a 1st class coastal defense ship on 28 August 1912 and became a training ship for cadets and engineers . Initially assigned to the 1st Standing Squadron when World War I began , she shortly afterwards became the flagship of the 2nd Squadron , commanded by Vice Admiral Kato Sadakichi . The squadron was tasked to blockade the German @-@ owned port of Tsingtao , China , and to cooperate with the Imperial Japanese Army in capturing the city . Tango and the other ships of the squadron , reinforced by the British pre @-@ dreadnought HMS Triumph , bombarded German fortifications throughout the siege until the Germans surrendered on 7 November . Suwo served as flagship of the Second Squadron of the Second Fleet in 1915 – 16 before becoming a gunnery training ship at Yokosuka for the rest of the war . In April 1922 , in compliance with the Washington Naval Treaty , Suwo was disarmed at the Kure Naval Arsenal . While her armor was being removed , the ship capsized on 13 July . She was probably scrapped in 1922 – 23 , but at least one source suggests she was refloated and hulked , serving until being broken up at Kure in 1946 .
= Andreacarus voalavo =
Andreacarus voalavo is a parasitic mite found on the Malagasy rodent Voalavo gymnocaudus . First described in 2007 , it is closely related to Andreacarus gymnuromys and Andreacarus eliurus , which are found on other Malagasy rodents . The length of the idiosoma , the main body , is 630 to 670 μm in females and 450 to
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@-@ scale macroeconometric models that combined individual equations for factors such as consumption , investment , and money demand with empirically observed data . This line of research reached its height with the MIT @-@ Penn @-@ Social Science Research Council ( MPS ) model developed by Modigliani and his collaborators . MPS combined IS / LM with other aspects of the synthesis including the neoclassical growth model and the Phillips curve relation between inflation and output . Both large @-@ scale models and the Phillips curve became targets for critics of the synthesis .
= = = Phillips curve = = =
Keynes did not lay out an explicit theory of price level . Early Keynesian models assumed wage and other price levels were fixed . These assumptions caused little concern in the 1950s when inflation was stable , but by the mid @-@ 1960s inflation increased and became an issue for macroeconomic models . In 1958 A.W. Phillips set the basis for a price level theory when he made the empirical observation that inflation and unemployment seemed to be inversely related . In 1960 Richard Lipsey provided the first theoretical explanation of this correlation . Generally Keynesian explanations of the curve held that excess demand drove high inflation and low unemployment while an output gap raised unemployment and depressed prices . In the late 1960s and early 1970s , the Phillips curve faced attacks on both empirical and theoretical fronts . The presumed trade @-@ off between output and inflation represented by the curve was the weakest part of the Keynesian system .
= = = Disequilibrium macroeconomics = = =
Despite its prevalence , the neoclassical synthesis had its Keynesian critics . A strain of disequilibrium or " non @-@ Walrasian " theory developed that criticized the synthesis for apparent contradictions in allowing disequilibrium phenomena , especially involuntary unemployment , to be modeled in equilibrium models . Moreover , they argued , the presence of disequilibrium in one market must be associated with disequilibrium in another , so involuntary unemployment had to be tied to an excess supply in the goods market . Many see Don Patinkin 's work as the first in the disequilibrium vein . Robert W. Clower ( 1965 ) introduced his " dual @-@ decision hypothesis " that a person in a market may determine what he wants to buy , but is ultimately limited in how much he can buy based on how much he can sell . Clower and Axel Leijonhufvud ( 1968 ) argued that disequilibrium formed a fundamental part of Keynes 's theory and deserved greater attention . Robert Barro and Herschel Grossman formulated general disequilibrium models in which individual markets were locked into prices before there was a general equilibrium . These markets produced " false prices " resulting in disequilibrium . Soon after the work of Barro and Grossman , disequilibrium models fell out of favor in the United States , and Barro abandoned Keynesianism and adopted new classical , market clearing hypotheses .
While American economists quickly abandoned disequilibrium models , European economists were more open to models without market clearing . Europeans such as Edmond Malinvaud and Jacques Drèze expanded on the disequilibrium tradition and worked to explain price rigidity instead of simply assuming it . Malinvaud ( 1977 ) used disequilibrium analysis to develop a theory of unemployment . He argued that disequilibrium in the labor and goods markets could lead to rationing of goods and labor , leading to unemployment . Malinvaud adopted a fixprice framework and argued that pricing would be rigid in modern , industrial prices compared to the relatively flexible pricing systems of raw goods that dominate agricultural economies . Prices are fixed and only quantities adjust . Malinvaud considers an equilibrium state in classical and Keynesian unemployment as most likely . Work in the neoclassical tradition is confined as a special case of Malinvaud 's typology , the Walrasian equilibrium . In Malinvaud 's theory , reaching the Walrasian equilibrium case is almost impossible to achieve given the nature of industrial pricing .
= = Monetarism = =
Milton Friedman developed an alternative to Keynesian macroeconomics eventually labeled monetarism . Generally monetarism is the idea that the supply of money matters for the macroeconomy . When monetarism emerged in the 1950s and 1960s , Keynesians neglected the role money played in inflation and the business cycle , and monetarism directly challenged those points .
= = = Criticizing and augmenting the Phillips curve = = =
The Phillips curve appeared to reflect a clear , inverse relationship between inflation and output . The curve broke down in the 1970s as economies suffered simultaneous economic stagnation and inflation known as stagflation . The empirical implosion of the Phillips curve followed attacks mounted on theoretical grounds by Friedman and Edmund Phelps . Phelps , although not a monetarist , argued that only unexpected inflation or deflation impacted employment . Variations of Phelps 's " expectations @-@ augmented Phillips curve " became standard tools . Friedman and Phelps used models with no long @-@ run trade @-@ off between inflation and unemployment . Instead of the Phillips curve they used models based on the natural rate of unemployment where expansionary monetary policy can only temporarily shift unemployment below the natural rate . Eventually , firms will adjust their prices and wages for inflation based on real factors , ignoring nominal changes from monetary policy . The expansionary boost will be wiped out .
= = = Importance of money = = =
Anna Schwartz collaborated with Friedman to produce one of monetarism 's major works , A Monetary History of the United States ( 1963 ) , which linked money supply to the business cycle . The Keynesians of the 1950s and 60s had adopted the view that monetary policy does not impact aggregate output or the business cycle based on evidence that , during the Great Depression , interest rates had been extremely low but output remained depressed . Friedman and Schwartz argued that Keynesians only looked at nominal rates and neglected the role inflation plays in real interest rates , which had been high during much of the Depression . In real terms , monetary policy had effectively been contractionary , putting downward pressure on output and employment , even though economists looking only at nominal rates thought monetary policy had been stimulative .
Friedman developed his own quantity theory of money that referred to Irving Fisher 's but inherited much from Keynes . Friedman 's 1956 " The Quantity Theory of Money : A Restatement " incorporated Keynes 's demand for money and liquidity preference into an equation similar to the classical equation of exchange . Friedman 's updated quantity theory also allowed for the possibility of using monetary or fiscal policy to remedy a major downturn . Friedman broke with Keynes by arguing that money demand is relatively stable — even during a downturn . Monetarists argued that " fine @-@ tuning " through fiscal and monetary policy is counterproductive . They found money demand to be stable even during fiscal policy shifts , and both fiscal and monetary policies suffer from lags that made them too slow to prevent mild downturns .
= = = Prominence and decline = = =
Monetarism attracted the attention of policy makers in the late @-@ 1970s and 1980s . Friedman and Phelps 's version of the Phillips curve performed better during stagflation and gave monetarism a boost in credibility . By the mid @-@ 1970s monetarism had become the new orthodoxy in macroeconomics , and by the late @-@ 1970s central banks in the United Kingdom and United States had largely adopted a monetarist policy of targeting money supply instead of interest rates when setting policy . However , targeting monetary aggregates proved difficult for central banks because of measurement difficulties . Monetarism faced a major test when Paul Volcker took over the Federal Reserve Chairmanship in 1979 . Volcker tightened the money supply and brought inflation down , creating a severe recession in the process . The recession lessened monetarism 's popularity but clearly demonstrated the importance of money supply in the economy . Monetarism became less credible when once @-@ stable money velocity defied monetarist predictions and began to move erratically in the United States during the early 1980s . Monetarist methods of single @-@ equation models and non @-@ statistical analysis of plotted data also lost out to the simultaneous @-@ equation modeling favored by Keynesians . Monetarism 's policies and method of analysis lost influence among central bankers and academics , but its core tenets of the long @-@ run neutrality of money ( increases in money supply cannot have long @-@ term effects on real variables , such as output ) and use of monetary policy for stabilization became a part of the macroeconomic mainstream even among Keynesians .
= = New classical economics = =
" New classical economics " evolved from monetarism and presented other challenges to Keynesianism . Early new classicals considered themselves monetarists , but the new classical school evolved . New classicals abandoned the monetarist belief that monetary policy could systematically impact the economy , and eventually embraced real business cycle models that ignored monetary factors entirely .
New classicals broke with Keynesian economic theory completely while monetarists had built on Keynesian ideas . Despite discarding Keynesian theory , new classical economists did share the Keynesian focus on explaining short @-@ run fluctuations . New classicals replaced monetarists as the primary opponents to Keynesianism and changed the primary debate in macroeconomics from whether to look at short @-@ run fluctuations to whether macroeconomic models should be grounded in microeconomic theories . Like monetarism , new classical economics was rooted at the University of Chicago , principally with Robert Lucas . Other leaders in the development of new classical economics include Edward Prescott at University of Minnesota and Robert Barro at University of Rochester .
New classical economists wrote that earlier macroeconomic theory was based only tenuously on microeconomic theory and described its efforts as providing " microeconomic foundations for macroeconomics . " New classicals also introduced rational expectations and argued that governments had little ability to stabilize the economy given the rational expectations of economic agents . Most controversially , new classical economists revived the market clearing assumption , assuming both that prices are flexible and that the market should be modeled at equilibrium .
= = = Rational expectations and policy irrelevance = = =
Keynesians and monetarists recognized that people based their economic decisions on expectations about the future . However , until the 1970s , most models relied on adaptive expectations , which assumed that expectations were based on an average of past trends . For example , if inflation averaged 4 % over a period , economic agents were assumed to expect 4 % inflation the following year . In 1972 Lucas , influenced by a 1961 agricultural economics paper by John Muth , introduced rational expectations to macroeconomics . Essentially , adaptive expectations modeled behavior as if it were backward @-@ looking while rational expectations modeled economic agents ( consumers , producers and investors ) who were forward @-@ looking . New classical economists also claimed that an economic model would be internally inconsistent if it assumed that the agents it models behave as if they were unaware of the model . Under the assumption of rational expectations , models assume agents make predictions based on the optimal forecasts of the model itself . This did not imply that people have perfect foresight , but that they act with an informed understanding of economic theory and policy .
Thomas Sargent and Neil Wallace ( 1975 ) applied rational expectations to models with Phillips curve trade @-@ offs between inflation and output and found that monetary policy could not be used to systematically stabilize the economy . Sargent and Wallace 's policy ineffectiveness proposition found that economic agents would anticipate inflation and adjust to higher price levels before the influx of monetary stimulus could boost employment and output . Only unanticipated monetary policy could increase employment , and no central bank could systematically use monetary policy for expansion without economic agents catching on and anticipating price changes before they could have a stimulative impact .
Robert E. Hall applied rational expectations to Friedman 's permanent income hypothesis that people base the level of their current spending on their wealth and lifetime income rather than current income . Hall found that people will smooth their consumption over time and only alter their consumption patterns when their expectations about future income change . Both Hall 's and Friedman 's versions of the permanent income hypothesis challenged the Keynesian view that short @-@ term stabilization policies like tax cuts can stimulate the economy . The permanent income view suggests that consumers base their spending on wealth , so a temporary boost in income would only produce a moderate increase in consumption . Empirical tests of Hall 's hypothesis suggest it may understate boosts in consumption due to income increases ; however , Hall 's work helped to popularize Euler equation models of consumption .
= = = The Lucas critique and microfoundations = = =
In 1976 Lucas wrote a paper criticizing large @-@ scale Keynesian models used for forecasting and policy evaluation . Lucas argued that economic models based on empirical relationships between variables are unstable as policies change : a relationship under one policy regime may be invalid after the regime changes . The Lucas 's critique went further and argued that a policy 's impact is determined by how the policy alters the expectations of economic agents . No model is stable unless it accounts for expectations and how expectations relate to policy . New classical economists argued that abandoning the disequilibrium models of Keynesianism and focusing on structure- and behavior @-@ based equilibrium models would remedy these faults . Keynesian economists responded by building models with microfoundations grounded in stable theoretical relationships .
= = = Lucas supply theory and business cycle models = = =
Lucas and Leonard Rapping laid out the first new classical approach to aggregate supply in 1969 . Under their model , changes in employment are based on worker preferences for leisure time . Lucas and Rapping modeled decreases in employment as voluntary choices of workers to reduce their work effort in response to the prevailing wage .
Lucas ( 1973 ) proposed a business cycle theory based on rational expectations , imperfect information , and market clearing . While building this model , Lucas attempted to incorporate the empirical fact that there had been a trade @-@ off between inflation and output without ceding that money was non @-@ neutral in the short @-@ run . This model included the idea of money surprise : monetary policy only matters when it causes people to be surprised or confused by the price of goods changing relative to one another . Lucas hypothesized that producers become aware of changes in their own industries before they recognize changes in other industries . Given this assumption , a producer might perceive an increase in general price level as an increase in the demand for his goods . The producer responds by increasing production only to find the " surprise " that prices had increased across the economy generally rather than specifically for his goods . This " Lucas supply curve " models output as a function of the " price " or " money surprise , " the difference between expected and actual inflation . Lucas 's " surprise " business cycle theory fell out of favor after the 1970s when empirical evidence failed to support this model .
= = = Real business cycle theory = = =
While " money surprise " models floundered , efforts continued to develop a new classical model of the business cycle . A 1982 paper by Kydland and Prescott introduced real business cycle theory ( RBC ) . Under this theory business cycles could be explained entirely by the supply side , and models represented the economy with systems at constant equilibrium . RBC dismissed the need to explain business cycles with price surprise , market failure , price stickiness , uncertainty , and instability . Instead , Kydland and Prescott built parsimonious models that explained business cycles with changes in technology and productivity . Employment levels changed because these technological and productivity changes altered the desire of people to work . RBC rejected the idea of high involuntary unemployment in recessions and not only dismissed the idea that money could stabilize the economy but also the monetarist idea that money could destabilize it .
Real business cycle modelers sought to build macroeconomic models based on microfoundations of Arrow – Debreu general equilibrium . RBC models were one of the inspirations for dynamic stochastic general equilibrium ( DSGE ) models . DSGE models have become a common methodological tool for macroeconomists — even those who disagree with new classical theory .
= = New Keynesian economics = =
New classical economics had pointed out the inherent contradiction of the neoclassical synthesis : Walrasian microeconomics with market clearing and general equilibrium could not lead to Keynesian macroeconomics where markets failed to clear . New Keynesians recognized this paradox , but , while the new classicals abandoned Keynes , new Keynesians abandoned Walras and market clearing . During the late 1970s and 1980s , new Keynesian researchers investigated how market imperfections like monopolistic competition , nominal frictions like sticky prices , and other frictions made microeconomics consistent with Keynesian macroeconomics . New Keynesians often formulated models with rational expectations , which had been proposed by Lucas and adopted by new classical economists .
= = = Nominal and real rigidities = = =
Stanley Fischer ( 1977 ) responded to Thomas J. Sargent and Neil Wallace 's monetary ineffectiveness proposition and showed how monetary policy could stabilize an economy even in a model with rational expectations . Fischer 's model showed how monetary policy could have an impact in a model with long @-@ term nominal wage contracts . John B. Taylor expanded on Fischer 's work and found that monetary policy could have long @-@ lasting effects — even after wages and prices had adjusted . Taylor arrived at this result by building on Fischer 's model with the assumptions of staggered contract negotiations and contracts that fixed nominal prices and wage rates for extended periods . These early new Keynesian theories were based on the basic idea that , given fixed nominal wages , a monetary authority ( central bank ) can control the employment rate . Since wages are fixed at a nominal rate , the monetary authority can control the real wage ( wage values adjusted for inflation ) by changing the money supply and thus impact the employment rate .
By the 1980s new Keynesian economists became dissatisfied with these early nominal wage contract models since they predicted that real wages would be countercyclical ( real wages would rise when the economy fell ) , while empirical evidence showed that real wages tended to be independent of economic cycles or even slightly procyclical . These contract models also did not make sense from a microeconomic standpoint since it was unclear why firms would use long @-@ term contracts if they led to inefficiencies . Instead of looking for rigidities in the labor market , new Keynesians shifted their attention to the goods market and the sticky prices that resulted from " menu cost " models of price change . The term refers to the literal cost to a restaurant of printing new menus when it wants to change prices ; however , economists also use it to refer to more general costs associated with changing prices , including the expense of evaluating whether to make the change . Since firms must spend money to change prices , they do not always adjust them to the point where markets clear , and this lack of price adjustments can explain why the economy may be in disequilibrium . Studies using data from the United States Consumer Price Index confirmed that prices do tend to be sticky . A good 's price typically changes about every four to six months or , if sales are excluded , every eight to eleven months .
While some studies suggested that menu costs are too small to have much of an aggregate impact , Laurence Ball and David Romer ( 1990 ) showed that real rigidities could interact with nominal rigidities to create significant disequilibrium . Real rigidities occur whenever a firm is slow to adjust its real prices in response to a changing economic environment . For example , a firm can face real rigidities if it has market power or if its costs for inputs and wages are locked @-@ in by a contract . Ball and Romer argued that real rigidities in the labor market keep a firm 's costs high , which makes firms hesitant to cut prices and lose revenue . The expense created by real rigidities combined with the menu cost of changing prices makes it less likely that firm will cut prices to a market clearing level .
= = = Coordination failure = = =
Coordination failure is another potential explanation for recessions and unemployment . In recessions a factory can go idle even though there are people willing to work in it , and people willing to buy its production if they had jobs . In such a scenario , economic downturns appear to be the result of coordination failure : The invisible hand fails to coordinate the usual , optimal , flow of production and consumption . Russell Cooper and Andrew John ( 1988 ) expressed a general form of coordination as models with multiple equilibria where agents could coordinate to improve ( or at least not harm ) each of their respective situations . Cooper and John based their work on earlier models including Peter Diamond 's ( 1982 ) coconut model , which demonstrated a case of coordination failure involving search and matching theory . In Diamond 's model producers are more likely to produce if they see others producing . The increase in possible trading partners increases the likelihood of a given producer finding someone to trade with . As in other cases of coordination failure , Diamond 's model has multiple equilibria , and the welfare of one agent is dependent on the decisions of others . Diamond 's model is an example of a " thick @-@ market externality " that causes markets to function better when more people and firms participate in them . Other potential sources of coordination failure include self @-@ fulfilling prophecies . If a firm anticipates a fall in demand , they might cut back on hiring . A lack of job vacancies might worry workers who then cut back on their consumption . This fall in demand meets the firm 's expectations , but it is entirely due to the firm 's own actions .
= = = Labor market failures = = =
New Keynesians offered explanations for the failure of the labor market to clear . In a Walrasian market , unemployed workers bid down wages until the demand for workers meets the supply . If markets are Walrasian , the ranks of the unemployed would be limited to workers transitioning between jobs and workers who choose not to work because wages are too low to attract them . They developed several theories explaining why markets might leave willing workers unemployed . Of these theories , new Keynesians were especially associated with efficiency wages and the insider @-@ outsider model used to explain long @-@ term effects of previous unemployment , where short @-@ term increases in unemployment become permanent and lead to higher levels of unemployment in the long @-@ run .
= = = = Insider @-@ outsider model = = = =
Economists became interested in hysteresis when unemployment levels spiked with the 1979 oil shock and early 1980s recessions but did not return to the lower levels that had been considered the natural rate . Olivier Blanchard and Lawrence Summers ( 1986 ) explained hysteresis in unemployment with insider @-@ outsider models , which were also proposed by of Assar Lindbeck and Dennis Snower in a series of papers and then a book . Insiders , employees already working at a firm , are only concerned about their own welfare . They would rather keep their wages high than cut pay and expand employment . The unemployed , outsiders , do not have any voice in the wage bargaining process , so their interests are not represented . When unemployment increases , the number of outsiders increases as well . Even after the economy has recovered , outsiders continue to be disenfranchised from the bargaining process . The larger pool of outsiders created by periods of economic retraction can lead to persistently higher levels of unemployment . The presence of hysteresis in the labor market also raises the importance of monetary and fiscal policy . If temporary downturns in the economy can create long term increases in unemployment , stabilization policies do more than provide temporary relief ; they prevent short term shocks from becoming long term increases in unemployment .
= = = = Efficiency wages = = = =
In efficiency wage models , workers are paid at levels that maximize productivity instead of clearing the market . For example , in developing countries , firms might pay more than a market rate to ensure their workers can afford enough nutrition to be productive . Firms might also pay higher wages to increase loyalty and morale , possibly leading to better productivity . Firms can also pay higher than market wages to forestall shirking . Shirking models were particularly influential . Carl Shapiro and Joseph Stiglitz ( 1984 ) created a model where employees tend to avoid work unless firms can monitor worker effort and threaten slacking employees with unemployment . If the economy is at full employment , a fired shirker simply moves to a new job . Individual firms pay their workers a premium over the market rate to ensure their workers would rather work and keep their current job instead of shirking and risk having to move to a new job . Since each firm pays more than market clearing wages , the aggregated labor market fails to clear . This creates a pool of unemployed laborers and adds to the expense of getting fired . Workers not only risk a lower wage , they risk being stuck in the pool of unemployed . Keeping wages above market clearing levels creates a serious disincentive to shirk that makes workers more efficient even though it leaves some willing workers unemployed .
= = New growth theory = =
Following research on the neoclassical growth model in the 1950s and 1960s , little work on economic growth occurred until 1985 . Papers by Paul Romer were particularly influential in igniting the revival of growth research . Beginning in the mid @-@ 1980s and booming in the early 1990s many macroeconomists shifted their focus to the long @-@ run and started " new growth " theories , including endogenous growth . Growth economists sought to explain empirical facts including the failure of sub @-@ Saharan Africa to catch up in growth , the booming East Asian Tigers , and the slowdown in productivity growth in the United States prior to the technology boom of the 1990s . Convergence in growth rates had been predicted under the neoclassical growth model , and this apparent predictive failure inspired research into endogenous growth .
Three families of new growth models challenged neoclassical models . The first challenged the assumption of previous models that the economic benefits of capital would decrease over time . These early new growth models incorporated positive externalities to capital accumulation where one firm 's investment in technology generates spillover benefits to other firms because knowledge spreads . The second focused on the role of innovation in growth . These models focused on the need to encourage innovation through patents and other incentives . A third set , referred to as the " neoclassical revival " , expanded the definition of capital in exogenous growth theory to include human capital . This strain of research began with Mankiw , Romer , and Weil ( 1992 ) , which showed that 78 % of the cross @-@ country variance in growth could be explained by a Solow model augmented with human capital .
Endogenous growth theories implied that countries could experience rapid " catch @-@ up " growth through an open society that encouraged the inflow of technology and ideas from other nations . Endogenous growth theory also suggested that governments should intervene to encourage investment in research and development because the private sector might not invest at optimal levels .
= = New synthesis = =
A " new synthesis " or " new neoclassical synthesis " emerged in the 1990s drawing ideas from both the new Keynesian and new classical schools . From the new classical school , it adapted RBC hypotheses , including rational expectations , and methods ; from the new Keynesian school , it took nominal rigidities ( price stickiness ) and other market imperfections . New synthesis theory developed RBC models called dynamic stochastic general equilibrium ( DSGE ) models . DSGE models formulate hypotheses about the behaviors and preferences of firms and households ; numerical solutions of the resulting DSGE models are computed . These models also included a " stochastic " element created by shocks to the economy . In the original RBC models these shocks were limited to technological change , but more recent models have incorporated other real changes . DSGE models have a theoretical advantage , avoiding the Lucas critique . The new synthesis was adopted by academic economists and soon by policy makers , such as central bankers .
Econometric analysis of DSGE models suggested that real factors sometimes affect the economy . A paper by Frank Smets and Rafael Woulters ( 2007 ) stated that monetary policy explained only a small part of the fluctuations in economic output . In new synthesis models , shocks can affect both demand and supply . The new synthesis implies that monetary policy can have a stabilizing effect on the economy , contrary to new classical theory .
Under the synthesis , debates have become less ideological and more methodological . Business cycle modelers can be broken into two camps : those in favor of calibration and those in favor of estimation . When models are calibrated , the modeler selects parameter values based on other studies or casual empirical observation . Instead of using statistical diagnostics to evaluate models , the model 's operating characteristics determine the quality of the model . Kydland and Prescott ( 1982 ) offered no formal evaluation of their model , but noted how variables like hours worked did not match real data well while the variances of other elements of the model did . When estimation methods are used , models are evaluated based on standard statistical goodness of fit criteria . Calibration is generally associated with real business cycle modelers of the new classical school , but methodological differences cut across ideology . While Lucas , Prescott , and Kydland are calibration advocates , another prominent new classical , Sargent , favors estimation .
= = 2008 financial crisis , Great Recession , and the breakdown of consensus = =
The 2007 – 2008 financial crisis and subsequent Great Recession challenged macroeconomic theory . Few economists predicted the crisis , and , even afterwards , there was great disagreement on how to address it . The new synthesis consensus broke down as economists debated policy responses to deal with the deep recession . The new synthesis formed during the Great Moderation and had not been tested in a severe economic environment . Many economists agree that the crisis stemmed from an economic bubble , but neither of the major macroeconomic schools had paid much attention to finance or a theory of asset bubbles : how they form , how they can be recognized , and how they can be prevented . The failures of current economic theory to deal with the crisis spurred economists to reevaluate their thinking . Commentary ridiculed the mainstream and proposed a major reassessment .
Elements of modern macroeconomic consensus were criticized following the financial crisis . Robert Solow testified before the U.S. Congress that DSGE modeling " has nothing useful to say about anti @-@ recession policy because it has built into its essentially implausible assumptions the ' conclusion ' that there is nothing for macroeconomic policy to do . " Solow also criticized DSGE models for frequently assuming that a single , " representative agent " can represent the complex interaction of the many diverse agents that make up the real world . Robert Gordon criticized much of macroeconomics after 1978 . Gordon called for a renewal of disequilibrium theorizing and disequilibrium modeling . He disparaged both new classical and new Keynesian economists who assumed that markets clear ; he called for a renewal of economic models that could included both market clearing and sticky @-@ priced goods , such as oil and housing respectively . While criticizing DSGE models , Ricardo J. Caballero argues that recent work in finance shows progress and suggests that modern macroeconomics needed to be re @-@ centered but not scrapped in the wake of the financial crisis .
= = Heterodox theories = =
Heterodox economists adhere to theories sufficiently outside the mainstream to be marginalized and treated as irrelevant by the establishment . Initially , heterodox economists including Joan Robinson , worked alongside mainstream economists , but heterodox groups isolated themselves and created insular groups in the late 1960s and 1970s . Present day heterodox economists often publish in their own journals rather than those of the mainstream and eschew formal modeling in favor of more abstract theoretical work .
The 2008 financial crisis and subsequent recession highlighted limitations of existing macroeconomic theories , models , and econometrics . The popular press discussed post @-@ Keynesian economics and Austrian economics , two heterodox traditions that have little influence on mainstream economics .
= = = Post Keynesian economics = = =
While neo @-@ Keynesians integrated Keynes 's ideas with neoclassical theory , post @-@ Keynesians went in other directions . Post @-@ Keynesians opposed the neoclassical synthesis and shared a fundamentalist interpretation of Keynes that sought to develop economic theories without classical elements . The core of post @-@ Keynesian belief is the rejection of three axioms that are central to classical and mainstream Keynesian views : the neutrality of money , gross substitution , and the ergodic axiom . Post @-@ Keynesians not only reject the neutrality of money in the short @-@ run , they also see money as an important factor in the long @-@ run , a view other Keynesians dropped in the 1970s . Gross substitution implies that goods are interchangeable . Relative price changes cause people to shift their consumption in proportion to the change . The ergodic axiom asserts that the future of the economy can be predicted based on the past and present market conditions . Without the ergodic assumption , agents are unable to form rational expectations , undermining new classical theory . In a non @-@ ergodic economy , predictions are very hard to make and decision @-@ making is hampered by uncertainty . Partly because of uncertainty , post @-@ Keynesians take a different stance on sticky prices and wages than new Keynesians . They do not see nominal rigidities as an explanation for the failure of markets to clear . They instead think sticky prices and long @-@ term contracts anchor expectations and alleviate uncertainty that hinders efficient markets . Post Keynesian economic policies emphasize the need to reduce uncertainty in the economy including safety nets and price stability . Hyman Minsky applied post @-@ Keynesian notions of uncertainty and instability to a theory of financial crisis where investors increasingly take on debt until their returns can no longer pay the interest on leveraged assets , resulting in a financial crisis . The financial crisis of 2007 – 2008 brought mainstream attention to Minsky 's work .
= = = Austrian business cycle theory = = =
The Austrian School of economics began with Carl Menger 's 1871 Principles of Economics . Menger 's followers formed a distinct group of economists until around the World War II when the distinction between Austrian economics and other schools of thought had largely broken down . The Austrian tradition survived as a distinct school , however , through the works of Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek . Present @-@ day Austrians are distinguished by their interest in earlier Austrian works and abstention from standard empirical methodology including econometrics . Austrians also focus on market processes instead of equilibrium . Mainstream economists are generally critical of its methodology .
Hayek created the Austrian business cycle theory , which synthesizes Menger 's capital theory and Mises 's theory of money and credit . The theory proposes a model of inter @-@ temporal investment in which production plans precede the manufacture of the finished product . The producers revise production plans to adapt to changes in consumer preferences . Producers respond to " derived demand , " which is estimated demand for the future , instead of current demand . If consumers reduce their spending , producers believe that consumers are saving for additional spending later , so that production remains constant . Combined with a market of loanable funds ( which relates savings and investment through the interest rate ) , this theory of capital production leads to a model of the macroeconomy where markets reflect inter @-@ temporal preferences . Hayek 's model suggests that an economic bubble begins when cheap credit initiates a boom where resources are misallocated , so that early stages of production receive more resources than they should and overproduction begins ; the later stages of capital are not funded for maintenance to prevent depreciation . Overproduction in the early stages cannot be processed by poorly maintained later stage capital . The boom becomes a bust when a lack of finished goods leads to " forced saving " since fewer finished goods can be produced for sale .
= = = Articles = = =
de Vroey , Michel ( 2004 ) . " The History of Macroeconomics Viewed against the Background of the Marshall @-@ Walras Divide " . History of Political Economy 36 : 57 – 91 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1215 / 00182702 @-@ 36 @-@ suppl _ 1 @-@ 57 .
= = = Books = = =
Handbooks in Economics
Taylor , John B. ; Woodford , Michael , eds . ( 1999 ) . Handbook of macroeconomics . Handbooks in Economics 1 – 3 . North @-@ Holland . ISBN 0 @-@ 444 @-@ 50156 @-@ 8 .
Handbook of Monetary Economics , Elsevier .
Friedman , Benjamin M. , and Frank H. Hahn , ed . , 1990 @.@ v. 1 links for description & contents and chapter @-@ outline previews
_ _ _ _ _ , 1990 @.@ v. 2 links for description & contents and chapter @-@ outline previews .
Friedman , Benjamin , and Michael Woodford , 2010 @.@ v. 3A & 3B links for description & and chapter abstracts .
Leijonhufvud , Axel ( 1981 ) . Information and coordination : essays in macroeconomic theory . New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 502815 @-@ 7 .
Woodford , Michael ( 2003 ) . Interest and prices : Foundations of a theory of monetary policy . Princeton , New Jersey : Princeton University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 691 @-@ 01049 @-@ 8 .
= = = Podcasts and videos = = =
Related Nobel Prize lecture videos and other material
Thomas Sargent and Chris Sims ( 2011 ) " Empirical research on cause and effect in the macroeconomy "
Peter Diamond , Dale Mortensen , and Christopher Pissarides ( 2010 ) " Analysis of markets with search frictions "
Edmund Phelps ( 2006 ) " Analysis of intertemporal tradeoffs in macroeconomic policy "
Finn E. Kydland and Edward C. Prescott ( 2004 ) " Dynamic macroeconomics : the time consistency of economic policy and the driving forces behind business cycles "
George Akerlof , Michael Spence , and Joseph Stiglitz ( 2001 ) " Analyses of markets with asymmetric information " .
Institute for New Economic Thinking Conference Proceedings videos
Robert Skidelsky on " 1930 and the Challenge of the Depression for Economic Thinking : Friedrich Hayek versus John Maynard Keynes " – Keynes 's biographer on Keynesian theory and the economic crisis
Christopher Sims on " How empirical evidence does or does not influence economic thinking " – Sims defends DSGE models
EconTalk podcasts
Don Boudreaux on Macroeconomics and Austrian Business Cycle Theory
Ricardo Reis on Keynes , Macroeconomics , and Monetary Policy
Allan Meltzer on Inflation
Paul Romer on Growth
Milton Friedman on Money
= Hurricane Able ( 1951 ) =
Hurricane Able was a rare hurricane that formed outside of the typical North Atlantic hurricane season . The first tropical cyclone in 1951 , Able developed from a trough of low pressure on May 15 about 300 miles ( 480 km ) south of Bermuda . Initially subtropical in nature , Able acquired tropical characteristics as it moved over the warm waters of the Gulf Stream and attained hurricane status on May 17 off the coast of Florida . This made Able one of only four May Atlantic hurricanes on record . On May 22 Able reached peak winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) about 70 miles ( 115 km ) off of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . The hurricane weakened as it turned eastward , and became an extratropical cyclone on May 23 .
Hurricane Able did not affect land significantly . In Florida , the storm dropped light precipitation , while in the Bahamas it produced winds of up to 95 mph ( 152 km / h ) . From North Carolina through New England , Able produced higher than normal tides . No casualties were reported .
= = Meteorological history = =
An active trough of low pressure exited the East Coast of the United States on May 12 , and by the following day it passed near Bermuda . Initially the trough was located only near the surface , though as cold air from behind it advanced eastward , the trough extended into the mid- to upper @-@ levels of the atmosphere . By May 14 a closed low pressure area developed in seclusion from the westerlies . Continued cold air from behind the trough , about 12 ° F ( 7 ° C ) colder than usual for the time of year , extended across the low in conjunction with warm upper levels and warm sea surface temperatures , resulting in large amounts of instability . The polar trough gradually weakened as the low organized , and on May 15 it developed into a subtropical depression while located about 300 miles ( 480 km ) south of Bermuda .
Located under an upper @-@ level low , the depression initially tracked briskly to the northwest , followed by a turn to the west @-@ southwest on May 16 as the upper @-@ level low turned southwestward . Later on the 16th , the depression approached the warmest waters of the Gulf Stream . Strong divergence from the upper @-@ level low and a high pressure system to its northeast provided favorable conditions towards transitioning into a tropical cyclone , and late on the 16th the depression attained winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . The storm continued to intensify as it turned to the southwest , and early on May 17 a ship near the center reported about 55 mph ( 88 km / h ) winds and up to 30 foot ( 9 m ) waves while located about 125 miles ( 200 km ) east of Daytona Beach , Florida , indicating the system transitioned into a tropical storm . The Navy reconnaissance squadron flew into the system later that day , and reported a storm of full hurricane strength moving southward .
Receiving the name Able , the small hurricane turned to the southeast and to the east while passing near or over the Bahama Banks . Able subsequently turned to the northeast and later to the north , and finished executing its cyclonic loop on May 20 . The hurricane continued to intensify with an eye 20 miles ( 32 km ) in diameter , and on May 21 Reconnaissance Aircraft estimated the hurricane attained peak winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) . Shortly thereafter Able passed about 70 miles ( 110 km ) east of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina , and early on May 22 Able weakened from its peak intensity after turning to the east . On May 23 it deteriorated into a tropical storm while passing over cooler waters , and that night Able became an extratropical cyclone while located about 520 miles ( 840 km ) south of Halifax , Nova Scotia . The extratropical remnant turned to the northeast before losing its identity late on May 24 .
= = Impact and records = =
Storm warnings were issued from Savannah , Georgia to Fort Pierce , Florida subsequent to the discovery of the hurricane . The National Weather Bureau advised all small craft to remain at port and recommended residents in the northern Bahamas to take immediate precautions . On Grand Bahama , the threat of Hurricane Able resulted in a construction crew to evacuate further inland ; the crew was constructing an observation post for guiding long @-@ range missiles from Cape Canaveral . Fishermen on dozens of boats left the open ocean for safety on two Bahamian islands , while two airplanes safely rode out the hurricane . Small craft warnings and storm warnings were later issued from North Carolina through New England .
The outer rainbands of Able produced light rainfall and high seas along the Florida coastline . While moving slowly near the Bahamas , Able produced strong winds reaching 90 to 95 mph ( 145 to 152 km / h ) at Walker Cay , and minimal hurricane force on Grand Bahama and Little Abaco Island . The hurricane produced high surf in Wilmington , North Carolina and abnormally high tides northward through New England , though no damage was reported . A ship called " City of Eastbourne " sailed through the storm and reported hurricane @-@ force winds , along with " mountainous , confused seas and driving rain . "
Able is one of only four North Atlantic hurricanes on record to exist during the month of May , the others occurring in 1889 , 1908 , and 1970 . None of the others reached winds of more than 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . It was described as " wrong way , wrong time " , referring to its unusual motion to the southwest near the Bahamas , as well as its presence outside of the normal hurricane season . Additionally , the Weather Bureau described it as a " freak of freaks " .
= 1974 – 75 Buffalo Braves season =
The 1974 – 75 Buffalo Braves season was the fifth season for the expansion Buffalo Braves franchise in the National Basketball Association and its Atlantic Division . It was the team 's third season under head coach Jack Ramsay . The team 's official home arena was Buffalo Memorial Auditorium .
Despite losing three key players in Gar Heard , Jim McMillian and Ernie DiGregorio for long stretches , the Braves continued to improve . The Braves finished in 2nd place with a 49 – 33 record , as Bob McAdoo captured the NBA MVP Award . McAdoo led the league with 34 @.@ 5 points per game , while adding 14 @.@ 1 rebounds per game , which was 4th best in the league .
In the 1975 NBA Playoffs , the Braves earned the franchise 's second playoff berth , this time against the Washington Bullets . The series went to seven games . However , the Braves lost game seven 115 – 96 on the road . After the season , the team was occupied with legal wrangling surrounding the departure of minority owner and general manager Eddie Donovan .
= = Transactions = =
On August 29 , 1974 , the Braves purchased Dale Schlueter from the Atlanta Hawks . On September 4 , 1974 , Matt Guokas was traded along with a 1977 NBA Draft second round pick and a future second round draft pick to the Chicago Bulls for Bob Weiss . Bernie Harris was waived on January 20 , 1975 . Mike Macaluso did not return to play for the Braves and never played in the NBA again .
On March 21 , Braves general manager Eddie Donovan announced that he would resign effective April 1 . The resignation was controversial because there were rumors that he would return to work for his prior team , New York Knicks , but there were simultaneous rumors that the Knicks had unfairly tampered with Donovan while under contract with the Braves . Upon the announced resignation , NBA Commissioner Walter Kennedy announced that the league would conduct a hearing on the matter . The transition was complicated by Donovan 's 5 % ownership of the Braves . Incoming commissioner , Larry O 'Brien announced an amicable settlement as one of his first orders of business .
= = Offseason = =
Prior to the season the team lost Bob Kauffman to the New Orleans Jazz in the May 20 , 1974 NBA Expansion Draft .
= = = NBA Draft = = =
The following members of the 1974 – 75 Buffalo Braves were drafted during the 1974 NBA Draft . McMillen played for a year in Europe before joining the 1975 – 76 Buffalo Braves . He played for a team in Bologna , Italy .
= = Roster = =
= = Regular season = =
Overview
An early eleven @-@ game winning streak helped the Braves achieve a 16 – 4 record to start the season and a later seven @-@ game streak took them to 31 – 16 . Buffalo supplanted the New York Knicks as Boston 's closest competitor in the Atlantic foursome with 49 wins and 33 losses . Buffalo boasted high @-@ scoring super star Bob McAdoo , who posted a 34 @.@ 5 scoring average to lead the NBA , while making more field goals than any other player . He also led in minutes played , while also ranking among the best rebounders and shot blockers in the league . McAdoo also earned 798 free throw tries , another league high , converting 81 % of his attempts . The Braves lost reigning NBA Rookie of the Year Ernie DiGregorio to a knee injury that limited him to 31 games , watched former Laker Jim McMillian battle illness that caused him to miss 20 games , and also lost Gar Heard for 15 games , which dropped the team from the elite and put more of the load on their star . The Braves attendance increased by 40 @,@ 000 to 467 @,@ 267 in their 41 home games , but the team fell to 5th of 18 teams . The team defense improved sufficiently to create an average 2 @.@ 2 @-@ point scoring margin after a slight average deficit the year before .
McMillian ranked tenth in the league in field goal percentage . Heard ranked 9th in blocks per game ( 1 @.@ 8 ) . Jack Marin , who played in 81 games , ranked seventh in free throw percentage ( 86 @.@ 9 % ) . Randy Smith , who played in all 82 regular @-@ season games for the third consecutive season , finished fourth in assists per game ( 6 @.@ 5 ) . McAdoo , who also played all 82 games , led the NBA in minutes played , field goals , rebounds ( ranked fourth per game ) , points , and points per game . Meanwhile , he ranked sixth in blocks per game , second in total free throws , and fifth in field goal percentage . This performance earned him the league MVP and first team All @-@ NBA honors .
= = = October – November = = =
As he had the season before , DiGregorio had a tremendous opening night with 33 points . The Braves defeated the defending champion Boston Celtics 126 – 119 , giving them their first win in nine games against Boston as a visitor . The Celtics had eliminated the Braves from the 1975 NBA Playoffs . DiGregorio was sidelined after six games due to knee surgery . After a 4 – 3 start , the Braves won eleven in a row starting with a November 3 , 1974 , victory over the Los Angeles Lakers at the Los Angeles Forum and culminating with a November 23 victory over the Phoenix Suns at home . In order to win the eighth game of the streak , the Braves had to overcome a seventeen @-@ point deficit to earn a 111 – 106 victory against the Golden State Warriors . Even after losing to the Chicago Bulls on November 24 , their 15 – 4 record was the best in the NBA .
= = = December – January = = =
During December , the Braves dealt with injuries to McMillan , who required an emergency appendectomy , and DiGregorio . After their great start , the Braves compiled a 6 – 7 month of December . On December 19 , despite 49 points by McAdoo , the Braves lost to the Cleveland Cavaliers . On December 28 , the NBA 's smallest player , Calvin Murphy scored a career @-@ high 45 points to lead the Houston Rockets to a 125 – 117 victory over Buffalo . By January , Heard was suffering from a knee injury . As a result , in some games , the Braves only played seven players . In a January 3 game against the Detroit Pistons , Dale Schlueter was involved in two altercations that resulted in bench @-@ clearing brawls . In January 1975 , the Braves recorded a seven @-@ game winning streak starting with a January 10 win over the Cavaliers and ending with a January 24 victory over the New York Knicks . In the fifth game of the streak , McAdoo outscored Pete Maravich 43 – 40 at New Orleans .
= = = February – April = = =
Following an 11 – 4 January , the Braves struggled to a 7 – 7 record in February . On January 24 , DiGregorio returned to the active roster following his October 29 knee cartilage injury . The March 13 victory against the Golden State Warriors established the franchise record for most wins in a season at 43 , surpassing the prior season 's total of 42 . From March 14 to March 21 , the Braves posted their season @-@ worst four @-@ game losing streak . Donovan announced his April 1 resignation in late March . In late March , DiGregorio was sidelined for the rest of the season . The Braves then went on a five @-@ game winning streak from March 22 to March 29 , but the team lost three of four April regular @-@ season games .
= = = Season standings = = =
= = = Record vs. opponents = = =
= = = Season schedule = = =
Source : www.basketball @-@ reference.com
= = Playoffs = =
During the playoffs , the Braves captured home court advantage with a victory over the Washington Bullets in game 1 of the Eastern Conference Semifinals , but the Bullets returned the favor in game two . The home teams won the remaining games as Buffalo lost the series in seven games . DiGregorio missed the playoffs . McAdoo played 46 @.@ 7 minutes per game during the playoffs and averaged 37 @.@ 4 points , which both led the league . Heard averaged 11 @.@ 7 points and 10 @.@ 9 rebounds .
During the regular season the Bullets had been 36 – 5 ( which was an NBA single @-@ season record for home victories ) at home , but lost both games to the Braves . The Braves then opened the series at the Capital Centre with a 113 – 102 victory in game 1 . McAdoo was the game @-@ high scorer with 35 and game @-@ high rebounder with 14 . The Bullets rebounded for a 120 – 106 victory in game 2 in Buffalo . Wes Unseld totaled 25 rebounds and Elvin Hayes added 16 as well as 34 points . Meanwhile , McAdoo , who had averaged 14 @.@ 1 rebounds during the regular season only had 6 . In game 3 , Phil Chenier scored 18 points in the third quarter as the Bullets expanded a 53 – 52 lead to 81 – 70 . Unseld had 18 rebounds and Hayes had 16 to go along with his 30 points . McAdoo had a game @-@ high 34 and Smith added 26 in a losing effort . Before game 4 , McAdoo received his hardware for his league MVP and league scoring title and responded that night with a 50 @-@ point performance as the Braves evened the series 2 – 2 with a 108 – 102 victory . Two nights later Hayes responded with 46 points , including 16 in the fourth quarter , as the Bullets completed a 97 – 93 comeback victory to regain the series lead 3 – 2 . In the game , the score was tied at 89 with two minutes left when Nick Weatherspoon hit a 17 @-@ foot jumper to give the Bullets the lead for good . Chenier and Hayes built the lead up to 94 – 89 before McMillian made two short shots to bring the Braves back within 1 point in the final minute . An Unseld offensive rebound and putback of a Hayes miss gave the Bullets crucial points in the final seconds . On the night Hayes shot 19 @-@ for 26 and McAdoo countered with 34 points . In game 6 , the Braves earned a 102 – 96 victory as McAdoo scored 9 of his 37 points in the final five minutes . The game had 19 tie scores , with the last being at 89 . In game 7 , Washington jumped to a 28 – 13 lead after one quarter behind 14 points by Chenier . Washington expanded the lead to 42 – 19 before closing the first half with a 56 – 38 lead . On the night , Chenier had a career @-@ high 39 points in the 115 – 96 victory . McAdoo had 36 for Buffalo .
= = = Playoff schedule = = =
Source : www.basketball @-@ reference.com
= = Player stats = =
= = Awards and honors = =
Bob McAdoo , NBA Most Valuable Player
Bob McAdoo , NBA Scoring Champion
Bob McAdoo All @-@ NBA Team ( 1st team )
Bob McAdoo 1975 NBA All @-@ Star Game
= A Streetcar Named Marge =
" A Streetcar Named Marge " is the second episode of The Simpsons ' fourth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 1 , 1992 . In the episode , Marge wins the role of Blanche DuBois in a musical version of Tennessee Williams ' A Streetcar Named Desire . Homer offers little support for his wife 's acting pursuits , and Marge begins to see parallels between him and Stanley Kowalski , the play 's boorish lead male character . The episode contains a subplot in which Maggie Simpson attempts to retrieve her pacifier from a strict daycare owner .
Jeff Martin wrote the episode , and Rich Moore served as director . Jon Lovitz made his fourth guest appearance on The Simpsons , this time as musical director Llewellyn Sinclair , as well as Llewellyn 's sister , who runs the daycare . The episode generated controversy for its original song about New Orleans , which contains several unflattering lyrics about the city . One New Orleans newspaper published the lyrics before the episode aired , prompting numerous complaints to the local Fox affiliate . In response , the president of Fox Broadcasting issued an apology to anyone who was offended . Despite the controversial song , the episode was well received by many fans , and show creator Matt Groening has named it one of his favorite episodes .
= = Plot = =
While Homer , Bart and Lisa are watching television , Marge announces that she is going to audition for a local musical production of A Streetcar Named Desire , and she wants to meet new people because she usually spends all day caring for Maggie . The rest of the family pay no attention and continue to watch television .
The musical is called " Oh , Streetcar ! " , which is directed by Llewellyn Sinclair . After Ned Flanders is cast as Stanley Kowalski , Marge auditions for Blanche DuBois . Llewellyn immediately rejects Marge , explaining that Blanche is supposed to be a " delicate flower being trampled by an uncouth lout " . However , as a dejected Marge calls home and takes Homer 's dinner order , Llewellyn realizes that she is perfect for the role .
The next day , Maggie causes distractions when Marge brings her to rehearsal , so Llewellyn tells Marge to enroll the baby at the daycare center called Ayn Rand School for Tots which is run by his sister Ms. Sinclair , who immediately confiscates Maggie 's pacifier . Maggie and the other babies later engage in an attempt to retrieve their pacifiers , but Ms. Sinclair thwarts their efforts and sends Maggie to a playpen .
During rehearsal , Marge struggles with a scene in which Blanche is supposed to break a glass bottle and attack Stanley , but she cannot muster enough anger towards the Stanley character to break the bottle . After coming home , Marge asks Homer to help her learn her lines , but Homer is disinterested . The day before the performance , Marge and Ned are again practising the bottle scene as Homer arrives to drive Marge home . Homer repeatedly interrupts the rehearsal . Imagining that Stanley is Homer , Marge finally smashes the bottle and lunges at Ned .
The next day at the Ayn Rand School for Tots , Maggie again attempts to regain the pacifiers and this time succeeds . Homer arrives to pick her up and he and his children go to watch the musical . Homer immediately falls into boredom , but he perks up when Marge appears on stage and becomes saddened over the way Stanley treats Blanche . All the while Homer slowly picks up the plot and Marge 's feelings along with it . At the end of the musical , Marge receives a warm reaction from the crowd , but she misinterprets Homer 's sadness for boredom . Afterwards , she confronts him with hostility , but Homer is able to explain that he was genuinely moved by Blanche 's situation . Thus , he reacted with sadness because he wanted to be the husband that she deserves to have in her life who loved her , not like Stanley who neglects and mistreats her . Marge realizes that Homer really did watch the musical , and the two happily leave the theater .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and music = = =
" A Streetcar Named Marge " was conceived about two years before it aired on television . Jeff Martin first pitched the idea of Homer being in a theatrical production of 1776 . Producer James L. Brooks then suggested that Marge could play Blanche DuBois in A Streetcar Named Desire . Brooks saw that Marge 's relationship with Homer was similar to Blanche 's relationship with Stanley , and he wanted to use that fact to build the emotional arc for an episode . The estate of Tennessee Williams would not let the show use large excerpts from the actual play , since the work was copyrighted . However , Fox lawyer Anatole Klebanow said that original songs based on the play were acceptable . According to producer Mike Reiss , Klebanow even promised to " take [ their ] case to the Supreme Court to get [ the ] episode aired . " Martin later explained that while the songs made the episode funnier , they also made it harder to write .
The Maggie subplot was present in Jeff Martin 's episode pitch . The music in the sequence is Elmer Bernstein 's march theme from The Great Escape . Simpsons composer Alf Clausen secured the rights to the score , along with the original orchestra charts . The Great Escape had been Martin 's favorite film as child , and he said " it was so exciting and so stirring " to hear the music being performed by the Simpsons ' studio orchestra .
= = = Animation = = =
" A Streetcar Named Marge " posed a challenge to the show 's animation directors . The episode contains many long setpieces , especially during the third and final act , which includes the end of the Maggie subplot and the performance of the musical . Several scenes required the animators to draw dozens of background characters . Rich Moore , the head director , initially feared the episode would not be completed in time . David Silverman , the supervising director , also had doubts ; according to Jeff Martin , Moore sent back a cartoon of himself reading the script with his eyes popping out and his jaw dropped . Producer Al Jean said that Moore " worked himself to death " to produce the episode 's most elaborate sequences .
A number of scenes that appeared in the storyboard and animatic were reordered or dropped altogether in the final version of the episode . Much of the Maggie subplot , for example , was modified before the episode aired . A scene in which the babies lock Ms. Sinclair in her office is missing from the final version of the episode .
= = = Voice acting = = =
All the main Simpsons cast members lent their voices to the episode , along with semi @-@ regulars Maggie Roswell and Phil Hartman . Assistant producer Lona Williams also had a minor speaking role . Comedian Jon Lovitz , who played Llewellyn Sinclair and Ms. Sinclair , made his fourth guest appearance on The Simpsons . He had previously voiced characters in " The Way We Was " , " Brush with Greatness " , and " Homer Defined " . Lovitz later worked with Al Jean and Mike Reiss in the short @-@ lived animated sitcom The Critic , and returned to The Simpsons for the episodes " A Star Is Burns " , " Hurricane Neddy " , " Half @-@ Decent Proposal " , " The Ziff Who Came to Dinner " , and " Homerazzi " . In 2006 , Lovitz was named the eighth best Simpsons guest star by IGN .
= = Cultural references = =
Though " Oh , Streetcar ! " is based on A Streetcar Named Desire , the title of the musical alludes to the theatrical revue Oh ! Calcutta ! . Besides Blanche and Stanley , characters from A Streetcar Named Desire who appear in " Oh , Streetcar ! " include Stella ( played by Helen Lovejoy ) , the Young Collector ( played by Apu Nahasapeemapetilon ) , Mitch ( played by Lionel Hutz ) , the Doctor ( played by Chief Wiggum ) , Steve ( played by Jasper Beardley , although Apu originally said he was playing Steve ) , and Pablo ( originally played by Otto Mann but taken over by Llewellyn prior to curtain ) . The musical 's closing song , " Kindness of Strangers " , is a reference to Blanche 's last line in the original play : " I have always depended on the kindness of strangers . " However , the song is very cheery in tone , intentionally missing the point of Blanche 's line , which is meant to be ironic .
The episode contains multiple references to Ayn Rand 's novels and Objectivist philosophy . Maggie 's daycare center is called the " Ayn Rand School for Tots " , and Ms. Sinclair can be seen reading a book called The Fountainhead Diet , a reference to Rand 's novel The Fountainhead . On the wall of the daycare is a poster that reads " Helping is Futile " , an allusion to Rand 's rejection of the ethical doctrine of altruism . Another wall sign reads " A is A " , the law of identity , which plays a central role in Rand 's novel Atlas Shrugged . The Ayn Rand School for Tots is seen again in the 2012 short film The Longest Daycare .
The Maggie subplot uses the musical score of The Great Escape and contains several other allusions to the film . At one point , Ms. Sinclair punishes Maggie by sending her to a playpen called " The Box " , a play on " The Cooler " from the 1963 film . Maggie even bounces a ball against the wall of the playpen , as Steve McQueen 's character Virgil Hilts does throughout the film while he is in confinement .
In the scene when Homer , Bart and Lisa pick up Maggie from the daycare center , babies are perched all over the building , staring at the family and quietly sucking on pacifiers . This is a spoof of the final shot of Alfred Hitchcock 's The Birds . Indeed , a cartoon @-@ version of Hitchcock can be seen walking his dogs past the daycare , a reference to his own cameo appearance in the film . The episode also contains an allusion to the opera scene in Citizen Kane , in which Homer plays with a shredded playbill while he watches his wife in the musical .
= = Merchandise = =
All the songs from " A Streetcar Named Marge " were released on Walt Disney Records ' 2000 album Songs in the Key of Springfield . The episode was included in the 2005 VHS set The Simpsons Go Hollywood and released on DVD in 2004 as part of The Simpsons Complete Fourth Season . Jon Lovitz participated in the DVD 's audio commentary , alongside Matt Groening , Al Jean , Mike Reiss , Jeff Martin , and Hank Azaria .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " A Streetcar Named Marge " finished 32nd in ratings for the week of September 27 – October 4 , 1992 , with a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 8 , equivalent to approximately 11 @.@ 0 million viewing households . It was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following Married ... with Children . Since airing , it has received many positive reviews from fans and television critics . Michael Moran of The Times ranked the episode as the seventh best in the show 's history . Entertainment Weekly 's Dalton Ross lauded it as " the show 's best ever musical episode " , while Dave Kehr of The New York Times called it a " brilliant ... parody of Broadway musicals that should be required viewing for every Tony viewer . " In a list of his favorite episodes , Kevin Williamson of Canadian Online Explorer added , " As pitch @-@ perfect eviscerations of community theatre go , this tops Waiting for Guffman . " Series creator Matt Groening has listed it as one of his own favorites , calling the subplot " Maggie 's finest moment " , and future Simpsons guest star Trey Anastasio said the episode " may have been the best TV show ever " . Executive producer James L. Brooks also listed it as one of his favorites , saying it " showed we could go into areas no one thought we could go into " . Following the episode , the Ayn Rand Society called Groening to say they were amazed at the references to Rand . They also asked him if the show was making fun of them .
In 1993 , " A Streetcar Named Marge " and " Mr. Plow " were submitted for the Primetime Emmy Award for " Outstanding Comedy Series " . Before this season , the series had only been allowed to compete in the " Outstanding Animated Program " category , winning twice , but in early 1993 the rules were changed so that animated television shows would be able to submit nominations for " Outstanding Comedy Series " . However , the Emmy voters were hesitant to pit cartoons against live action programs , and The Simpsons did not receive a nomination . The Simpsons ' crew submitted episodes for Outstanding Comedy Series the next season , but again these were not nominated . Since then , the show has submitted episodes in the animation category and has won seven times .
= = = Controversy = = =
The musical within the episode contains a controversial song about New Orleans , which describes the city as a " home of pirates , drunks and whores " , among other things . Jeff Martin , the writer of the episode , had meant the song to be a parody of a song in Sweeney Todd , which speaks of London in unflattering terms ( " There 's No Place Like London " ) . Al Jean later explained that two Cajun characters were supposed to walk out of the theater in disgust , but none of the voice actors could provide a convincing Cajun accent . An early version of the scene can be seen in an animatic included in the DVD boxset .
Before the premiere of the fourth season , the producers sent two episodes to critics : " Kamp Krusty " and " A Streetcar Named Marge " . A New Orleans critic viewed " A Streetcar Named Marge " and published the song lyrics in his newspaper before the episode aired . Many readers took the lyrics out of context , and New Orleans ' then @-@ Fox affiliate , WNOL @-@ TV ( then @-@ owned by musician Quincy Jones ; the Fox affiliation for the area later moved to WVUE ) , received about one hundred complaints on the day the episode aired . Several local radio stations also held on @-@ air protests in response to the song .
At the urging of WNOL , Fox president Jamie Kellner released a statement on October 1 , 1992 :
The Simpsons ' producers rushed out a chalkboard gag for " Homer the Heretic " , which aired a week after " A Streetcar Named Marge " . It read , " I will not defame New Orleans . " The gag was their attempt to apologize for the song and hopefully bring the controversy to an end . " We didn 't realize people would get so mad , " said Al Jean . " It was the best apology we could come up with in eight words or less . " The issue passed quickly , and a person in a Bart Simpson costume even served as Krewe of Tucks Grand Marshal at the 1993 New Orleans Mardi Gras .
The episode generated further controversy in September 2005 , when Channel 4 in the United Kingdom decided to air the episode a week after Hurricane Katrina struck New Orleans . Arguing that the episode was an insensitive choice , given recent events , several viewers filed complaints with Ofcom . Two days later , Channel 4 apologized on @-@ air and directly contacted all those who had complained . Channel 4 had screened the episode for offensive content , but the reviews focused on the main content of the episode , and the song was not considered a key part of the plot . Channel 4 promised to update their review process to ensure that similar incidents would not occur .
= Cortana ( Halo ) =
Cortana is a fictional synthetic intelligence character in the Halo video game series . Voiced by Jen Taylor , she appears in Halo : Combat Evolved and its sequels , Halo 2 , Halo 3 , Halo 4 and Halo 5 : Guardians . She also appears in a cutscene and the epilogue of the prequel Halo : Reach , as well as in several of the franchise 's novels and comics . During gameplay , Cortana provides backstory and tactical information to the player , who assumes the role of Master Chief Petty Officer John @-@ 117 . In the story , she is instrumental in preventing the activation of the Halo installations , which would have destroyed all sentient life in the galaxy .
Cortana 's original design was based on the Egyptian queen Nefertiti ; the character 's holographic representation always takes the form of a woman . Bungie first introduced Cortana — and Halo — through the Cortana Letters , emails sent during Combat Evolved 's production in 1999 . Since then , the character has been used extensively to advertise the series . Cortana has been recognized for her sex appeal , believability , and character depth . The character was the inspiration for Microsoft 's intelligent personal assistant .
= = Character design = =
The first Cortana was designed and modelled by Bungie artist Chris Hughes . Cortana 's original Halo model 's face was based on the sculpture of Egyptian Queen Nefertiti .
Voice actress Jen Taylor said that she remained somewhat distanced from the character , and she attended only one fan convention in six years after the release of Halo : Combat Evolved . Despite her role in voicing other video game characters , including Princess Peach , she is not a gamer . She felt that portraying Cortana was occasionally challenging because the character lacks a physical form and is " a computer . " Interviewed about Cortana in Halo 3 , Taylor said that " There 's a lot more drama and a lot less technical jargon this time around . I actually just finished a couple of lines that nearly had me in tears . " When choosing a voice actor for the character , Bungie originally wanted Cortana to have a British accent . Although this idea was later discarded , Cortana still uses British colloquialisms in Halo : Combat Evolved .
Halo Effect : An Unauthorized Look at the Most Successful Video Game of All Time , an essay on references to mythology in Halo and previous Bungie games , analyzed the significance of Cortana 's name , stating is a variant of Curtana , the sword used by the legendary Ogier the Dane , just as the titular AI character of Marathon 2 : Durandal is apparently named after another legendary sword , Durendal . Curtana 's inscription reveals that the sword has the same " temper as Joyeuse and Durendal . " Accordingly , some speculated before the release of Halo 3 whether the " smart " Cortana would follow Marathon 's Durandal in succumbing to rampancy , a concept invented by Bungie in which an AI character becomes insane by gaining too much knowledge .
= = = Attributes = = =
Cortana is constructed from the cloned brain of Dr. Catherine Elizabeth Halsey , the creator of the SPARTAN Project ; Halsey 's synaptic networks became the basis for Cortana 's processors . According to the Halo novels , Cortana is classified as a " smart " AI , meaning that her creative matrix is allowed to expand , in contrast to the limited matrix of other " dumb " AI characters in the stories . This ability allows Cortana to learn and adapt beyond her basic parameters , but at the cost of a limited " lifespan " of only seven years ; eventually , she will fall to rampancy , a terminal state of being for Artificial intelligence constructs , in which the AI " develops delusions of godlike power " , as well as utter contempt for its mentally inferior makers . Rampant AI normally cannot return to their previous state and must be destroyed before they harm themselves and others around them , but Cortana could be saved if she and the Master Chief can get back to Dr. Halsey on Earth ; because she was created using the living tissue of Dr. Halsey .
Cortana is highly skilled and capable of hacking alien computer systems and decoding transmissions and occasionally smug about her abilities . In Halo : The Fall of Reach she hacks into Top Secret Office of Naval Intelligence ( ONI ) documents out of boredom . Her intellect occasionally causes her to be loquacious to a fault ; in The Fall of Reach , Halsey notes that if she were to let Cortana continue with her hypothesis , then the AI would talk all day . The Doctor also sees Cortana as a teenage version of herself : smarter than her parents , always " talking , learning , and eager to share her knowledge . " Cortana is also described as having a sardonic sense of humor ; she often cracks jokes or wryly comments , even during combat . Her high spirits and lack of programming restrictions give her a set of behavioral " quirks " unique among most AI characters in the Halo universe . For example , she becomes irate and impatient when the Master Chief doubts her judgment in Halo : First Strike .
As an artificial construct , Cortana has no physical form or being . Cortana always speaks with a smooth female voice , and she can communicate through comm systems and project a holographic image of herself from appropriate projectors , such as Holotanks , and appears holographically as a woman . Cortana is said to resemble her creator , Dr. Catherine Halsey , with a similar attitude " only unchecked by military and social protocol . " In Halo : The Fall of Reach , Cortana is described as slender , with close @-@ cropped hair and a skin hue that varies from navy blue to lavender , depending on her mood . Numbers and symbols flash across her form when she is thinking . In Halo 4 Cortana has become more human in appearance with more subtle additions being added to her character model such as a gap being visible between her front teeth . Cortana was played by actress Mackenzie Mason using advanced facial rendering technology to capture movements in her face while speaking to add a more human look .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In video games = = =
Cortana first appears during the introductory cutscene of Halo : Combat Evolved . In the 2003 novelization of the game , Halo : The Flood , Cortana likewise plays an important role . Controlling the Pillar of Autumn 's defenses , Cortana destroys four Covenant targets before the ship 's weapons are disabled . Under the Cole Protocol , Captain Keyes , the Autumn 's commanding officer , prepares to abandon ship : the protocol mandates the evacuation of any AI constructs , thereby charging the Master Chief with safeguarding Cortana from the Covenant . When the Master Chief arrives on Halo , Cortana monitors the communications channels , helps direct human survivors scattered across the ring , and assists the Master Chief in the rescue of Captain Keyes from the Covenant ship Truth and Reconciliation . Inserted into Halo 's Control Room , Cortana looks for a way to activate Halo to use as a weapon against the Covenant but becomes visibly agitated and sends the Master Chief to find Captain Keyes . Cortana stays in Halo 's computer core as the Master Chief encounters the parasitic Flood and is conscripted by the Forerunner construct 343 Guilty Spark to activate Halo 's defenses . The Master Chief and Guilty Spark return to the Control Room intent on using the Index , the key to Halo , to eliminate the Flood , but Cortana reveals the truth that she has learned : Halo does not kill Flood , but their food . Activating Halo would destroy all sentient life in the galaxy . She takes the Index — thus becoming a target for 343 Guilty Spark — and plans with Master Chief to destroy Halo . They succeed after Cortana helps the Chief to detonate the Pillar of Autumn 's fusion reactors , causing an explosion powerful enough to destabilize the ringworld . The two escape in a fighter and witness the ring 's destruction .
Cortana appears next in Halo 2 at an awards ceremony for the heroes of Halo : Combat Evolved on the Earth defense platform Cairo Station . A Covenant fleet arrives , and Cortana takes control of the Cairo 's coilgun , the Magnetic Accelerator Cannon , to repel the invaders ; she successfully deactivates a bomb that would have destroyed the station with the help of the Master Chief . Following the Master Chief 's decision to leave the station to " give the Covenant back their bomb " , Cortana chooses to accompany him despite thinking his plan crazy and guides him through New Mombasa in his attempt to capture the Prophet of Regret . Later , upon discovering Delta Halo , Cortana gives Commander Miranda Keyes access to all information on the original Halo and provides intelligence to the Chief and United Nations Space Command ( UNSC ) Marines on the surface of the ring . When sent by the Flood leader , Gravemind , to the Covenant city @-@ ship of High Charity , Cortana stays put as the Master Chief follows the Prophet of Truth . She promises to detonate the crashed In Amber Clad 's reactors to destroy the city and Halo if the ring is activated . The Arbiter , and Sergeant Major Avery Johnson avert the firing of Halo , but Cortana is left with Gravemind , who has by then overrun High Charity .
Cortana returns in the third installment in the Halo series , the 2007 Xbox 360 game Halo 3 . During gameplay , Cortana appears to the player in broken transmissions , often reciting lines from Fall of Reach and earlier games . Cortana manages to send a message to the Master Chief on Earth through a Flood @-@ infected ship . In her message , she states that Gravemind is unaware of the portal opened by a Forerunner artifact on Earth . Cortana continues to appear to the Chief , who later recovers her from Flood @-@ controlled High Charity . Surprised that the Chief has against all odds rescued her ( as promised ) Cortana produces the Index from Installation 04 , which she has kept as a souvenir . With it , Cortana activates a new ringworld being constructed . While the Flood are destroyed as planned , the slipspace portal through which Master Chief , the Arbiter , and Cortana attempt to escape collapses , thus stranding the Chief and Cortana . Cortana activates a distress beacon , but she knows that years could pass before rescue comes . As the Master Chief prepares to go into cryonic sleep to await rescue , Cortana confides to him that she will miss him . He replies to wake him when she needs him .
Cortana makes an appearance in the last levels of 2010 's Halo : Reach , which in the game 's universe takes place before Combat Evolved . When the Spartan group Noble Team receives orders to destroy important intelligence inside the military installation Sword Base , Cortana contacts Noble Team and sends them to an excavation site under the base . There , Halsey contacts the team and shows them a massive Forerunner structure buried beneath the surface . Halsey downloads Cortana and gives her to the soldier Noble 6 , instructing the team to bring the AI to the UNSC ship Pillar of Autumn . While most of Noble Team 's six soldiers were killed , Noble 6 hands Cortana over to Captain Keyes and elects to stay behind and protect the ship while it makes its escape .
In the fourth game , the Xbox exclusive Halo 4 , Cortana wakes the Chief when Covenant forces attack the remains of the UNSC Forward Unto Dawn , then crashes with him on Requiem . Over the course of the game , Cortana begins showing strange signs and behavior : vocal and graphic glitches , irrational behavior and a tendency to become irritable or angered . Their cause is soon revealed : Cortana 's operation beyond her seven @-@ year lifespan and her interaction with the Halo installations and the Flood have caused her to become Rampant , a state of over @-@ knowledge that makes AIs ' think ' themselves to death . Helped by the Master Chief and kept safe from the captain of the Infinity , who wishes to delete her , she helps in the battle against the Didact , a rogue Forerunner who hates humanity , and stops his scheme to convert the Earth and its people into his army using the Composer . In doing so , she has to fragment her various rampant personalities and upload them into the system , which first brings down the shields around the central core , then enables her to save Master Chief from the Didact . In a final act of love , she shields the Master Chief when he destroys the Composer , then , using the last of her energy to manifest as a solid hologram , she bids a final farewell to the Chief , managing to touch him for the first time .
Halo 5 shows Halsey explaining that Cortana has recovered from Rampancy and attained meta @-@ stability by gaining access to The Domain , a Forerunner database thought to have been destroyed after the firing of the Halo Array . How the UNSC and Halsey are aware that Cortana gained access to The Domain is unknown . She explains to Master Chief on Genesis that she survived by falling through slipspace , and likens the Domain to the " Water Of Life for AI 's " . Her goal now is to preserve an ever lasting peace by subjugating all biological life . Whether this is a direct reaction to her link with The Domain , influence from The Didact ( as their goals are now extremely similar ) or some other external influence is yet to be known . With all Promethean troops and most Forerunner tech now under her command , and believing she cannot trust the Chief , who tries to reason with her , she converts most , if not all of the UNSC 's AI constructs to her cause and begins her assault by plunging Humanity into a new Dark Age , using the Guardian 's EMP abilities to shut off most UNSC technology , except The Infinity which barely escapes with Roland , the ship 's AI , still intact and seemingly loyal . In the Legendary Ending , a Halo ring can be seen activating accompanied by Cortana humming . Whether she found it or built it is unknown although , considering she has access to the Domain , the Guardians , Forerunner tech and a multitude of different AI constructs at her disposal , building her own ring is not out of the realms of possibility .
= = = In novels = = =
The origin of Cortana is not explained in the video games , but in the Halo novels . Her first chronological appearance in the story is in Halo : The Fall of Reach , a 2001 prequel to the first Halo game . Dr. Halsey allows Cortana to choose which SPARTAN @-@ II soldier to accompany on an upcoming mission ; Cortana picks the Master Chief , whom she believes is her best match . Cortana makes a reference to this event via voiceover in Halo 3 during a cinematic before gameplay begins . Cortana and the Spartans are assigned a near @-@ suicidal mission : to take the cruiser Pillar of Autumn to the home world of the Covenant , an alliance of alien races , and capture one of their Prophets to force a truce . Cortana 's role is to act as a mission specialist , hacking the Covenant systems and piloting the captured Covenant ship . Before the mission , Cortana helps the Master Chief to survive the near @-@ lethal exercises designed to test the Chief 's MJOLNIR battle armor . Afterward , she plants incriminating evidence in the files of Colonel Ackerson , the ONI operative who nearly killed both of them , as revenge . When the Covenant attacks the planet Reach , one of the largest planetary military bases besides Earth , Cortana guides the Pillar of Autumn based on star charts on a Forerunner tablet , thus bringing them to Halo . During Halo : The Flood , Cortana serves the same role she did in Halo : Combat Evolved , but her role is expanded such as showing her saving the Master Chief 's life from a Flood Infection Form at one point .
Eric Nylund 's 2003 novel Halo : First Strike takes place immediately after the events of Halo : Combat Evolved . Cortana and the Master Chief , seemingly the sole survivors of the events of Halo , discover a small number of other UNSC personnel have in fact escaped the ring . Cortana helps to take control of a Covenant cruiser , Ascendant Justice , and later returns to Earth with the remaining survivors after destroying the Covenant space station Unyielding Hierophant . In this novel , Cortana gains the ability to create imperfect clones of her program . A clone that the Master Chief and his Spartan Blue Team bring to Unyielding Hierophant eventually re @-@ clones itself hundreds of times to aid the Spartans in completing their mission .
= = = In promotion = = =
Bungie first introduced the Halo series publicly in 1999 by sending the Cortana Letters , a series of cryptic email messages , to the maintainer of marathon.bungie.org , a fan site for one of Bungie 's previous series , the Marathon Trilogy . The strategic use of cryptic messages in a publicity campaign was repeated in I Love Bees , a promotion for Halo 2 . Although Bungie does not consider most of the letters to be canon , Cortana speaks many of the same lines in Halo 3 . According to C. J. Cowan , Bungie 's director of cinematics , the studio used the character here to give story clues without actually revealing the story .
Cortana has been turned into an action figure twice to promote Halo . The first was released as a seven @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) miniature as part of the Halo : Combat Evolved series of action figures . The character is also featured in the first series of Halo 3 action figures , distributed by McFarlane Toys . In an interview , McLees noted that the first action figure was supposed to convey an older appearance than was depicted in the games . This was accomplished by making the figure look a little buxom , despite McLees ' direct request to reduce the mass of the figure . She explains that the sculptor appeared reluctant to make the change and that time constraints ultimately left the design intact .
= = = Windows Digital Assistant = = =
Microsoft developed its virtual assistant for the Windows Phone operating system under the codename Cortana , but retained the name for the final product following a strong response in the developer community . The voice actor of Cortana in the games , Jen Taylor , provides the voice for the virtual assistant . Microsoft released a beta for Cortana in April 2014 with the developer release of Windows Phone 8 @.@ 1 . Microsoft also released Cortana virtual assistant on the Xbox One , Windows Phone 8 @.@ 1 , and Windows 10 .
= = Reception = =
When Cortana 's role greatly expanded in Halo 3 , Fairfax New Zealand noted that the character " has inexplicably had a sexy makeover . " According to Cinema Blend , the " love story " between Master Chief and Cortana in this game provides " a focus to the game that an epic war between species can not accomplish . As Chief , the player needs something to anchor them into the story , and that happens to be Cortana . "
Part of Cortana 's appeal has lain in her good looks . In 2007 , the character was ranked as ninth on the list of top " Xbox babes " by Team Xbox , featured by GameDaily 's " Babe of the Week " , and listed as the sixth most " disturbingly sexual game character " by Games.net. In 2008 , GameDaily ranked her as the 38th " hottest game babe . " In 2009 , 1UP.com ranked the character as the fifth best video game computer , noting that as Cortana 's sanity waned in the video games , her clothing appeared to decrease as well . In 2010 , GameTrailers included her on their countdown of the top 10 " babes who are out of your league " at number two . In 2011 , UGO.com included her on the list of the 50 " video game hotties " , calling her " a certified hottie " in spite of being " just ... a big pile of ones and zeroes . " In the " battle of the beauties " feature , Complex chose her over GLaDOS for her more human @-@ like voice . In 2012 , MSN included her among the 20 " hottest women in video game history " while Revision3 ranked her the third sexiest " video game girl . " Thanh Niên ranked her as the fourth most sexy female video game character in 2015 .
Aside from appearance , the media found other aspects to praise . In 2007 , Cortana was named one of the 50 greatest female characters by Tom 's Hardware for the character 's determination and fearlessness , which meshed perfectly with the game 's protagonist . In 2010 , Cracked.com ranked her as first on the list of the supporting characters in video games . In 2011 , UGO.com ranked her as the second best video game companion , while Maximum PC included her in the list of the 25 of gaming 's greatest sidekicks .
= SM UB @-@ 3 =
SM UB @-@ 3 was a German Type UB I submarine or U @-@ boat in the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) during World War I. She disappeared on her first patrol in May 1915 , and was the first of her class to be lost .
UB @-@ 3 was ordered in October 1914 and was laid down at the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel in November . UB @-@ 3 was a little more than 28 metres ( 92 ft ) in length and displaced between 127 and 142 metric tons ( 125 and 140 long tons ) , depending on whether surfaced or submerged . She carried two torpedoes for her two bow torpedo tubes and was also armed with a deck @-@ mounted machine gun . She was launched and commissioned as SM UB @-@ 3 in March 1915 .
UB @-@ 3 was broken into sections and shipped by rail to the Austro @-@ Hungarian port of Pola in April for reassembly . She officially joined the Pola Flotilla on 1 May and departed on her first patrol for temporary duty in Turkey on 23 May , and was never seen again . A postwar German study concluded that UB @-@ 3 was likely the victim of an unexplained technical problem in the absence of any minefields or enemy action .
= = Design and construction = =
After the German Army 's rapid advance along the North Sea coast in the earliest stages of World War I , the German Imperial Navy found itself without suitable submarines that could be operated in the narrow and shallow environment off Flanders . Project 34 , a design effort begun in mid @-@ August 1914 , produced the Type UB I design : a small submarine that could be shipped by rail to a port of operations and quickly assembled . Constrained by railroad size limitations , the UB I design called for a boat about 28 metres ( 92 ft ) long and displacing about 125 metric tons ( 123 long tons ) with two torpedo tubes . UB @-@ 3 was part of the initial allotment of eight submarines — numbered UB @-@ 1 to UB @-@ 8 — ordered on 15 October from Germaniawerft of Kiel , just shy of two months after planning for the class began .
UB @-@ 3 was laid down by Germaniawerft on 3 November and was launched on 5 March 1915 . As built , UB @-@ 3 was 92 feet 2 inches ( 28 @.@ 09 m ) long , 3 @.@ 15 metres ( 10 ft 4 in ) abeam , and had a draft of 3 @.@ 03 metres ( 9 ft 11 in ) . She had a single 59 @-@ brake @-@ horsepower ( 44 kW ) Daimler 4 @-@ cylinder diesel engine for surface travel , and a single 119 @-@ shaft @-@ horsepower ( 89 kW ) Siemens @-@ Schuckert electric motor for underwater travel , both attached to a single propeller shaft . Her top speeds were 6 @.@ 47 knots ( 11 @.@ 98 km / h ; 7 @.@ 45 mph ) , surfaced , and 5 @.@ 51 knots ( 10 @.@ 20 km / h ; 6 @.@ 34 mph ) , submerged . At more moderate speeds , she could sail up to 1 @,@ 650 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 060 km ; 1 @,@ 900 mi ) on the surface before refueling , and up to 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ; 52 mi ) submerged before recharging her batteries . Like all boats of the class , UB @-@ 3 was rated to a diving depth of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) , and could completely submerge in 33 seconds .
UB @-@ 3 was armed with two 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedoes in two bow torpedo tubes . She was also outfitted for a single 8 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun on deck . UB @-@ 3 's complement consisted of one officer and thirteen enlisted men .
= = Service career = =
The submarine was commissioned into the German Imperial Navy as SM UB @-@ 3 on 14 March under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Siegfried Schmidt , a 27 @-@ year @-@ old , first @-@ time U @-@ boat skipper , and underwent trials in German home waters .
As one of the UB I boats selected for Mediterranean duty , UB @-@ 3 was readied for rail shipment . The process of shipping a UB I boat involved breaking the submarine down into what was essentially a knock down kit . Each boat was broken into approximately fifteen pieces and loaded on to eight railway flatcars . UB @-@ 3 was shipped to the port of Pola , site of ally Austria – Hungary 's main naval base , on 15 April . After UB @-@ 3 's parts arrived at Pola , it took about two weeks to assemble them . UB @-@ 3 joined the Pola Flotilla ( German : Deutsche U @-@ Halbflotille Pola ) on 1 May .
By late May , UB @-@ 3 had made her way down the Adriatic to the Austro – Hungarian port of Cattaro , the base from which most boats of the Pola Flotilla actually operated . For her first patrol , UB @-@ 3 was loaded with ammunition for Turkish forces at İzmir , Turkey . Because of her limited range , UB @-@ 3 was towed by the light cruiser SMS Novara of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy through the Straits of Otranto and cast off near the island of Kérkira . UB @-@ 3 's planned route was south of the Ionian Islands , around the Peloponnese , through the Cyclades , north around Khios and Karaburun , and into the Gulf of İzmir . If all went well , UB @-@ 3 would have arrived at İzmir on 28 or 29 May with about half her fuel left . The Germans received a garbled radio message from UB @-@ 3 when she was about 80 nautical miles ( 150 km ; 92 mi ) from İzmir , but were unable to completely understand it . No trace of UB @-@ 3 has ever been found . UB @-@ 3 was the first of the UB I boats to be lost during the war .
A postwar German study concluded that UB @-@ 3 's loss was probably the result of some unexplained technical problem , because there were no minefields along UB @-@ 3 's route and no record of any attacks against U @-@ boats in the area . British records , and some sources based on them , give the particulars of UB @-@ 3 's demise as being in the North Sea on 24 April 1916 , which authors R. H. Gibson and Maurice Prendergast assert was actually the fate of UB @-@ 13 . They also point out that UB @-@ 3 had gone missing nearly a year before UB @-@ 3 's supposed sinking in the North Sea .
= London =
London / ˈlʌndən / is the capital and most populous city of England , Great Britain , and the United Kingdom . On the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain , London has been a major settlement for two millennia . It was founded by the Romans , who named it Londinium . London 's ancient core , the City of London , largely retains its 1 @.@ 12 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 9 km2 ) medieval boundaries . Since at least the 19th century , " London " has also referred to the metropolis around this core , which now forms the county of Greater London governed by the Mayor of London and the London Assembly , historically split between Middlesex , Essex , Surrey , Kent , and Hertfordshire .
London is a leading global city , in the arts , commerce , education , entertainment , fashion , finance , healthcare , media , professional services , research and development , tourism , and transport . It is one of the world 's leading financial centres and has the fifth @-@ or sixth @-@ largest metropolitan area GDP in the world . London is a world cultural capital . It is the world 's most @-@ visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the world 's largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic . London is one of the world 's leading investment destinations , hosting more international retailers and ultra high @-@ net @-@ worth individuals than any other city . London 's universities form the largest concentration of higher education institutes in Europe , and a 2014 report placed it first in the world university rankings . According to the report London also ranks first in the world in software , multimedia development and design , and shares first position in technology readiness . In 2012 , London became the first city to host the modern Summer Olympic Games three times .
London has a diverse range of peoples and cultures , and more than 300 languages are spoken within Greater London . Its estimated mid @-@ 2015 population was 8 @,@ 673 @,@ 713 , the largest of any city in the European Union , and accounting for 12 @.@ 5 per cent of the UK population . London 's urban area is the second most populous in the EU , after Paris , with 9 @,@ 787 @,@ 426 inhabitants at the 2011 census . The city 's metropolitan area is one of the most populous in Europe with 13 @,@ 879 @,@ 757 inhabitants , while the Greater London Authority states the population of the city @-@ region ( covering a large part of the south east ) as 22 @.@ 7 million . London was the world 's most populous city from around 1831 to 1925 .
London contains four World Heritage Sites : the Tower of London ; Kew Gardens ; the site comprising the Palace of Westminster , Westminster Abbey , and St Margaret 's Church ; and the historic settlement of Greenwich ( in which the Royal Observatory , Greenwich marks the Prime Meridian , 0 ° longitude , and GMT ) . Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace , the London Eye , Piccadilly Circus , St Paul 's Cathedral , Tower Bridge , Trafalgar Square , and The Shard . London is home to numerous museums , galleries , libraries , sporting events and other cultural institutions , including the British Museum , National Gallery , Natural History Museum , Tate Modern , British Library and West End theatres . The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
The etymology of London is uncertain . It is an ancient name , found in sources from the 2nd century . It is recorded c.121 as Londinium , which points to Romano @-@ British origin , and hand @-@ written Roman tablets recovered in the city from AD65 / 70 @-@ 80 include the word Londinio ( " in London " ) . The earliest attempted explanation , now disregarded , is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae . This had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud , who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud .
From 1898 , it was commonly accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called * Londinos ; this explanation has since been rejected . Richard Coates put forward an explanation in 1998 that it is derived from the pre @-@ Celtic Old European * ( p ) lowonida , meaning ' river too wide to ford ' , and suggested that this was a name given to the part of the River Thames which flows through London ; from this , the settlement gained the Celtic form of its name , * Lowonidonjon ; this requires quite a serious amendment however . The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain , which should demand a form * ( h ) lōndinion ( as opposed to * londīnion ) , from earlier * loundiniom . The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date , and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name .
Until 1889 , the name " London " officially applied only to the City of London , but since then it has also referred to the County of London and now Greater London .
= = = Prehistory = = =
Two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area . In 1999 , the remains of a Bronze Age bridge were found on the foreshore north of Vauxhall Bridge . This bridge either crossed the Thames , or went to a now lost island in the river . Dendrology dated the timbers to 1500 BC . In 2010 the foundations of a large timber structure , dated to 4500 BC , were found on the Thames foreshore , south of Vauxhall Bridge . The function of the mesolithic structure is not known . Both structures are on South Bank , at a natural crossing point where the River Effra flows into the River Thames .
= = = Roman London = = =
Although there is evidence of scattered Brythonic settlements in the area , the first major settlement was founded by the Romans after the invasion of 43 AD . This lasted only until around 61 , when the Iceni tribe led by Queen Boudica stormed it , burning it to the ground . The next , heavily planned , incarnation of Londinium prospered , and it superseded Colchester as the capital of the Roman province of Britannia in 100 . At its height in the 2nd century , Roman London had a population of around 60 @,@ 000 .
= = = Anglo @-@ Saxon London ( and Viking period ) = = =
With the collapse of Roman rule in the early 5th century , London ceased to be a capital and the walled city of Londinium was effectively abandoned , although Roman civilisation continued in the St Martin @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Fields area until around 450 . From around 500 , an Anglo @-@ Saxon settlement known as Lundenwic developed in the same area , slightly to the west of the old Roman city . By about 680 , it had revived sufficiently to become a major port , although there is little evidence of large @-@ scale production of goods . From the 820s the town declined because of repeated Viking invasions . There are three recorded Viking assaults on London ; two of which were successful in 851 and 886 AD , although they were defeated during the attack of 994 AD .
The Vikings established Danelaw over much of the eastern and northern part of England with its boundary roughly stretching from London to Chester . It was an area of political and geographical control imposed by the Viking incursions which was formally agreed to by the Danish warlord , Guthrum and west @-@ Saxon king , Alfred the Great in 886 AD . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle recorded that London was " refounded " by Alfred the Great in 886 . Archaeological research shows that this involved abandonment of Lundenwic and a revival of life and trade within the old Roman walls . London then grew slowly until about 950 , after which activity increased dramatically .
By the 11th century , London was beyond all comparison the largest town in England . Westminster Abbey , rebuilt in the Romanesque style by King Edward the Confessor , was one of the grandest churches in Europe . Winchester had previously been the capital of Anglo @-@ Saxon England , but from this time on , London became the main forum for foreign traders and the base for defence in time of war . In the view of Frank Stenton : " It had the resources , and it was rapidly developing the dignity and the political self @-@ consciousness appropriate to a national capital . "
= = = Middle Ages = = =
Following his victory in the Battle of Hastings , William , Duke of Normandy , was crowned King of England in the newly finished Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day 1066 . William constructed the Tower of London , the first of the many Norman castles in England to be rebuilt in stone , in the southeastern corner of the city , to intimidate the native inhabitants . In 1097 , William II began the building of Westminster Hall , close by the abbey of the same name . The hall became the basis of a new Palace of Westminster .
In the 12th century , the institutions of central government , which had hitherto accompanied the royal English court as it moved around the country , grew in size and sophistication and became increasingly fixed in one place . In most cases this was Westminster , although the royal treasury , having been moved from Winchester , came to rest in the Tower . While the City of Westminster developed into a true capital in governmental terms , its distinct neighbour , the City of London , remained England 's largest city and principal commercial centre , and it flourished under its own unique administration , the Corporation of London . In 1100 , its population was around 18 @,@ 000 ; by 1300 it had grown to nearly 100 @,@ 000 . Disaster struck during the Black Death in the mid @-@ 14th century , when London lost nearly a third of its population . London was the focus of the Peasants ' Revolt in 1381 .
= = = Early modern = = =
During the Tudor period the Reformation produced a gradual shift to Protestantism , much of London passing from church to private ownership . The traffic in woollen cloths shipped undyed and undressed from London to the nearby shores of the Low Countries , where it was considered indispensable . But the tentacles of English maritime enterprise hardly extended beyond the
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seas of north @-@ west Europe . The commercial route to Italy and the Mediterranean Sea normally lay through Antwerp and over the Alps ; any ships passing through the Strait of Gibraltar to or from England were likely to be Italian or Ragusan . Upon the re @-@ opening of the Netherlands to English shipping in January 1565 , there ensued a strong outburst of commercial activity . The Royal Exchange was founded . Mercantilism grew , and monopoly trading companies such as the East India Company were established , with trade expanding to the New World . London became the principal North Sea port , with migrants arriving from England and abroad . The population rose from an estimated 50 @,@ 000 in 1530 to about 225 @,@ 000 in 1605 .
In the 16th century William Shakespeare and his contemporaries lived in London at a time of hostility to the development of the theatre . By the end of the Tudor period in 1603 , London was still very compact . There was an assassination attempt on James I in Westminster , through the Gunpowder Plot on 5 November 1605 .
During the English Civil War the majority of Londoners supported the Parliamentary cause . After an initial advance by the Royalists in 1642 culminating in the battles of Brentford and Turnham Green , London was surrounded by defensive perimeter wall known as the Lines of Communication . The lines were built by an up to 20 @,@ 000 people , and were completed in under two months . The fortifications failed their only test when the New Model Army entered London in 1647 , and they were levelled by Parliament the same year .
London was plagued by disease in the early 17th century , culminating in the Great Plague of 1665 – 1666 , which killed up to 100 @,@ 000 people , or a fifth of the population .
The Great Fire of London broke out in 1666 in Pudding Lane in the city and quickly swept through the wooden buildings . Rebuilding took over ten years and was supervised by Robert Hooke as Surveyor of London . In 1708 Christopher Wren 's masterpiece , St Paul 's Cathedral was completed . During the Georgian era , new districts such as Mayfair were formed in the west ; new bridges over the Thames encouraged development in South London . In the east , the Port of London expanded downstream .
In 1762 , George III acquired Buckingham House and it was enlarged over the next 75 years . During the 18th century , London was dogged by crime , and the Bow Street Runners were established in 1750 as a professional police force . In total , more than 200 offences were punishable by death , including petty theft . Most children born in the city died before reaching their third birthday . The coffeehouse became a popular place to debate ideas , with growing literacy and the development of the printing press making news widely available ; and Fleet Street became the centre of the British press .
According to Samuel Johnson :
You find no man , at all intellectual , who is willing to leave London . No , Sir , when a man is tired of London , he is tired of life ; for there is in London all that life can afford .
= = = Late modern and contemporary = = =
London was the world 's largest city from about 1831 to 1925 . London 's overcrowded conditions led to cholera epidemics , claiming 14 @,@ 000 lives in 1848 , and 6 @,@ 000 in 1866 . Rising traffic congestion led to the creation of the world 's first local urban rail network . The Metropolitan Board of Works oversaw infrastructure expansion in the capital and some of the surrounding counties ; it was abolished in 1889 when the London County Council was created out of those areas of the counties surrounding the capital . London was bombed by the Germans during the First World War , and during the Second World War , the Blitz and other bombings by the German Luftwaffe killed over 30 @,@ 000 Londoners , destroying large tracts of housing and other buildings across the city . Immediately after the war , the 1948 Summer Olympics were held at the original Wembley Stadium , at a time when London had barely recovered from the war .
In 1951 , the Festival of Britain was held on the South Bank . The Great Smog of 1952 led to the Clean Air Act 1956 , which ended the " pea soup fogs " for which London had been notorious . From the 1940s onwards , London became home to a large number of immigrants , largely from Commonwealth countries such as Jamaica , India , Bangladesh and Pakistan , making London one of the most diverse cities in Europe .
Primarily starting in the mid @-@ 1960s , London became a centre for the worldwide youth culture , exemplified by the Swinging London subculture associated with the King 's Road , Chelsea and Carnaby Street . The role of trendsetter was revived during the punk era . In 1965 London 's political boundaries were expanded to take into account the growth of the urban area and a new Greater London Council was created . During The Troubles in Northern Ireland , London was subjected to bombing attacks by the Provisional IRA . Racial inequality was highlighted by the 1981 Brixton riot .
Greater London 's population declined steadily in the decades after the Second World War , from an estimated peak of 8 @.@ 6 million in 1939 to around 6 @.@ 8 million in the 1980s . The principal ports for London moved downstream to Felixstowe and Tilbury , with the London Docklands area becoming a focus for regeneration , including the Canary Wharf development . This was borne out of London 's ever @-@ increasing role as a major international financial centre during the 1980s . The Thames Barrier was completed in the 1980s to protect London against tidal surges from the North Sea .
The Greater London Council was abolished in 1986 , which left London as the only large metropolis in the world without a central administration . In 2000 , London @-@ wide government was restored , with the creation of the Greater London Authority . To celebrate the start of the 21st century , the Millennium Dome , London Eye and Millennium Bridge were constructed . On 6 July 2005 London was awarded the 2012 Summer Olympics , making London the first city to stage the Olympic Games three times . On 7 July 2005 , three London Underground trains and a double @-@ decker bus were bombed in a series of terrorist attacks . In January 2015 , Greater London 's population was estimated to be 8 @.@ 63 million , the highest level since 1939 .
During the Brexit referendum in 2016 , UK as a whole decided to leave the European Union , but London voted to remain in the EU . This led to over a hundred thousands of Londoners petitioning Mayor Sadiq Khan to declare London 's independence from the UK and rejoin the EU . Supporters cite London 's status as a " world city " and its demographic and economic differences from the rest of the United Kingdom , and argue that it should become a city @-@ state based on the model of Singapore , while remaining an EU member state .
= = Government = =
= = = Local government = = =
The administration of London is formed of two tiers — a city @-@ wide , strategic tier and a local tier . City @-@ wide administration is coordinated by the Greater London Authority ( GLA ) , while local administration is carried out by 33 smaller authorities . The GLA consists of two elected components ; the Mayor of London , who has executive powers , and the London Assembly , which scrutinises the mayor 's decisions and can accept or reject the mayor 's budget proposals each year . The headquarters of the GLA is City Hall , Southwark ; the mayor is Sadiq Khan . The mayor 's statutory planning strategy is published as the London Plan , which was most recently revised in 2011 . The local authorities are the councils of the 32 London boroughs and the City of London Corporation . They are responsible for most local services , such as local planning , schools , social services , local roads and refuse collection . Certain functions , such as waste management , are provided through joint arrangements . In 2009 – 2010 the combined revenue expenditure by London councils and the GLA amounted to just over £ 22 billion ( £ 14 @.@ 7 billion for the boroughs and £ 7 @.@ 4 billion for the GLA ) .
The London Fire Brigade is the statutory fire and rescue service for Greater London . It is run by the London Fire and Emergency Planning Authority and is the third largest fire service in the world . National Health Service ambulance services are provided by the London Ambulance Service ( LAS ) NHS Trust , the largest free @-@ at @-@ the @-@ point @-@ of @-@ use emergency ambulance service in the world . The London Air Ambulance charity operates in conjunction with the LAS where required . Her Majesty 's Coastguard and the Royal National Lifeboat Institution operate on the River Thames , which is under the jurisdiction of the Port of London Authority from Teddington Lock to the sea .
= = = National government = = =
London is the seat of the Government of the United Kingdom . Many government departments are based close to the Palace of Westminster , particularly along Whitehall , including the Prime Minister 's residence at 10 Downing Street . The British Parliament is often referred to as the " Mother of Parliaments " ( although this sobriquet was first applied to England itself by John Bright ) because it has been the model for most other parliamentary systems . There are 73 Members of Parliament ( MPs ) from London , who correspond to local parliamentary constituencies in the national Parliament . As of May 2015 , 45 are from the Labour Party , 27 are Conservatives , and one is a Liberal Democrat .
= = = Policing and crime = = =
Policing in Greater London , with the exception of the City of London , is provided by the Metropolitan Police Service , overseen by the Mayor through the Mayor 's Office for Policing and Crime ( MOPAC ) . The City of London has its own police force – the City of London Police . The British Transport Police are responsible for police services on National Rail , London Underground , Docklands Light Railway and Tramlink services . A fourth police force in London , the Ministry of Defence Police , do not generally become involved with policing the general public .
Crime rates vary widely by area , ranging from parts with serious issues to parts considered very safe . Today crime figures are made available nationally at Local Authority and Ward level . In 2015 there were 118 homicides , a 25 @.@ 5 % increase over 2014 . The Metropolitan Police have made detailed crime figures , broken down by category at borough and ward level , available on their website since 2000 .
= = Geography = =
= = = Scope = = =
London , also referred to as Greater London , is one of 9 regions of England and the top @-@ level subdivision covering most of the city 's metropolis . The small ancient City of London at its core once comprised the whole settlement , but as its urban area grew , the Corporation of London resisted attempts to amalgamate the city with its suburbs , causing " London " to be defined in a number ways for different purposes .
Forty per cent of Greater London is covered by the London post town , within which ' LONDON ' forms part of postal addresses . The London telephone area code ( 020 ) covers a larger area , similar in size to Greater London , although some outer districts are omitted and some places just outside are included . The Greater London boundary has been aligned to the M25 motorway in places .
Outward urban expansion is now prevented by the Metropolitan Green Belt , although the built @-@ up area extends beyond the boundary in places , resulting in a separately defined Greater London Urban Area . Beyond this is the vast London commuter belt . Greater London is split for some purposes into Inner London and Outer London . The city is split by the River Thames into North and South , with an informal central London area in its interior . The coordinates of the nominal centre of London , traditionally considered to be the original Eleanor Cross at Charing Cross near the junction of Trafalgar Square and Whitehall , are approximately 51 ° 30 ′ 26 ″ N 00 ° 07 ′ 39 ″ W. However the actual Geographical centre of London is in the London Borough of Lambeth , just 0 @.@ 1 miles to the northeast of Lambeth North tube station .
= = = Status = = =
Within London , both the City of London and the City of Westminster have city status and both the City of London and the remainder of Greater London are counties for the purposes of lieutenancies . The area of Greater London has incorporated areas that were once part of the historic counties of Middlesex , Kent , Surrey , Essex and Hertfordshire . London 's status as the capital of England , and later the United Kingdom , has never been granted or confirmed officially — by statute or in written form .
Its position was formed through constitutional convention , making its status as de facto capital a part of the UK 's unwritten constitution . The capital of England was moved to London from Winchester as the Palace of Westminster developed in the 12th and 13th centuries to become the permanent location of the royal court , and thus the political capital of the nation . More recently , Greater London has been defined as a region of England and in this context is known as London .
= = = Topography = = =
Greater London encompasses a total area of 1 @,@ 583 square kilometres ( 611 sq mi ) , an area which had a population of 7 @,@ 172 @,@ 036 in 2001 and a population density of 4 @,@ 542 inhabitants per square kilometre ( 11 @,@ 760 / sq mi ) . The extended area known as the London Metropolitan Region or the London Metropolitan Agglomeration , comprises a total area of 8 @,@ 382 square kilometres ( 3 @,@ 236 sq mi ) has a population of 13 @,@ 709 @,@ 000 and a population density of 1 @,@ 510 inhabitants per square kilometre ( 3 @,@ 900 / sq mi ) . Modern London stands on the Thames , its primary geographical feature , a navigable river which crosses the city from the south @-@ west to the east . The Thames Valley is a floodplain surrounded by gently rolling hills including Parliament Hill , Addington Hills , and Primrose Hill . The Thames was once a much broader , shallower river with extensive marshlands ; at high tide , its shores reached five times their present width .
Since the Victorian era the Thames has been extensively embanked , and many of its London tributaries now flow underground . The Thames is a tidal river , and London is vulnerable to flooding . The threat has increased over time because of a slow but continuous rise in high water level by the slow ' tilting ' of Britain ( up in the north and down in the south ) caused by post @-@ glacial rebound .
In 1974 , a decade of work began on the construction of the Thames Barrier across the Thames at Woolwich to deal with this threat . While the barrier is expected to function as designed until roughly 2070 , concepts for its future enlargement or redesign are already being discussed .
= = = Climate = = =
London has a temperate oceanic climate ( Köppen : Cfb ) , similar to all of southern Britain . Despite its reputation as being a rainy city , London receives less precipitation ( 601 mm ( 24 in ) in a year ) , than Rome , Bordeaux , Toulouse , Naples , Sydney and New York . Temperature extremes for all sites in the London area range from 38 @.@ 1 ° C ( 100 @.@ 6 ° F ) at Kew during August 2003 down to − 16 @.@ 1 ° C ( 3 @.@ 0 ° F ) at Northolt during January 1962 .
Summers are generally warm and sometimes hot . London 's average July high is 24 ° C ( 75 @.@ 2 ° F ) . On average London will see 31 days above 25 ° C ( 77 @.@ 0 ° F ) each year , and 4 @.@ 2 days above 30 @.@ 0 ° C ( 86 @.@ 0 ° F ) every year . During the 2003 European heat wave there were 14 consecutive days above 30 ° C ( 86 @.@ 0 ° F ) and 2 consecutive days where temperatures reached 38 ° C ( 100 @.@ 4 ° F ) , leading to hundreds of heat related deaths .
Winters are generally cool and damp with little temperature variation . Snowfall occurs occasionally and can cause travel disruption when this happens . Snowfall is more common in Outer London . Spring and autumn are mixed seasons and can be pleasant . As a large city , London has a considerable urban heat island effect , making the centre of London at times 5 ° C ( 9 ° F ) warmer than the suburbs and outskirts . The effect of this can be seen below when comparing London Heathrow , 15 miles west of London , with the London Weather Centre , in the city centre .
= = = Districts = = =
London 's vast urban area is often described using a set of district names , such as Bloomsbury , Mayfair , Wembley and Whitechapel . These are either informal designations , reflect the names of villages that have been absorbed by sprawl , or are superseded administrative units such as parishes or former boroughs .
Such names have remained in use through tradition , each referring to a local area with its own distinctive character , but without official boundaries . Since 1965 Greater London has been divided into 32 London boroughs in addition to the ancient City of London . The City of London is the main financial district , and Canary Wharf has recently developed into a new financial and commercial hub in the Docklands to the east .
The West End is London 's main entertainment and shopping district , attracting tourists . West London includes expensive residential areas where properties can sell for tens of millions of pounds . The average price for properties in Kensington and Chelsea is over £ 2 million with a similarly high outlay in most of central London .
The East End is the area closest to the original Port of London , known for its high immigrant population , as well as for being one of the poorest areas in London . The surrounding East London area saw much of London 's early industrial development ; now , brownfield sites throughout the area are being redeveloped as part of the Thames Gateway including the London Riverside and Lower Lea Valley , which was developed into the Olympic Park for the 2012 Olympics and Paralympics .
= = = Architecture = = =
London 's buildings are too diverse to be characterised by any particular architectural style , partly because of their varying ages . Many grand houses and public buildings , such as the National Gallery , are constructed from Portland stone . Some areas of the city , particularly those just west of the centre , are characterised by white stucco or whitewashed buildings . Few structures in central London pre @-@ date the Great Fire of 1666 , these being a few trace Roman remains , the Tower of London and a few scattered Tudor survivors in the City . Further out is , for example , the Tudor period Hampton Court Palace , England 's oldest surviving Tudor palace , built by Cardinal Thomas Wolsey c.1515.
Wren 's late 17th @-@ century churches and the financial institutions of the 18th and 19th centuries such as the Royal Exchange and the Bank of England , to the early 20th century Old Bailey and the 1960s Barbican Estate form part of the varied architectural heritage .
The disused , but soon to be rejuvenated , 1939 Battersea Power Station by the river in the south @-@ west is a local landmark , while some railway termini are excellent examples of Victorian architecture , most notably St. Pancras and Paddington . The density of London varies , with high employment density in the central area , high residential densities in inner London and lower densities in Outer London .
The Monument in the City of London provides views of the surrounding area while commemorating the Great Fire of London , which originated nearby . Marble Arch and Wellington Arch , at the north and south ends of Park Lane respectively , have royal connections , as do the Albert Memorial and Royal Albert Hall in Kensington . Nelson 's Column is a nationally recognised monument in Trafalgar Square , one of the focal points of central London . Older buildings are mainly brick built , most commonly the yellow London stock brick or a warm orange @-@ red variety , often decorated with carvings and white plaster mouldings .
In the dense areas , most of the concentration is via medium- and high @-@ rise buildings . London 's skyscrapers such as 30 St Mary Axe , Tower 42 , the Broadgate Tower and One Canada Square are mostly in the two financial districts , the City of London and Canary Wharf . High @-@ rise development is restricted at certain sites if it would obstruct protected views of St Paul 's Cathedral and other historic buildings . Nevertheless , there are a number of very tall skyscrapers in central London ( see Tall buildings in London ) , including the 95 @-@ storey Shard London Bridge , the tallest building in the European Union .
Other notable modern buildings include City Hall in Southwark with its distinctive oval shape , and the British Library in Somers Town / Kings Cross . What was formerly the Millennium Dome , by the Thames to the east of Canary Wharf , is now an entertainment venue called The O2 Arena .
= = = Natural history = = =
The London Natural History Society suggest that London is " one of the World 's Greenest Cities " with more than 40 percent green space or open water . They indicate that 2000 species of flowering plant have been found growing there and that the tidal Thames supports 120 species of fish . They also state that over 60 species of bird nest in central London and that their members have recorded 47 species of butterfly , 1173 moths and more than 270 kinds of spider around London . London 's wetland areas support nationally important populations of many water birds . London has 38 Sites of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSIs ) , two National Nature Reserves and 76 Local Nature Reserves .
Amphibians are common in the capital , including smooth newts living by the Tate Modern , and common frogs , common toads , palmate newts and great crested newts . On the other hand , native reptiles such as slow @-@ worms , common lizards , grass snakes and adders , are mostly only seen in Outer London .
Among other inhabitants of London are 10 @,@ 000 foxes , so that there are now 16 foxes for every square mile ( 2 @.@ 6 square kilometres ) of London . These urban foxes are noticeably bolder than their country cousins , sharing the pavement with pedestrians and raising cubs in people 's backyards . Foxes have even sneaked into the Houses of Parliament , where one was found asleep on a filing cabinet . Another broke into the grounds of Buckingham Palace , reportedly killing some of Queen Elizabeth II 's prized pink flamingos . Generally , however , foxes and city folk appear to get along . A survey in 2001 by the London @-@ based Mammal Society found that 80 percent of 3 @,@ 779 respondents who volunteered to keep a diary of garden mammal visits liked having them around . This sample cannot be taken to represent Londoners as a whole .
Other mammals found in Greater London are hedgehogs , rats , mice , rabbit , shrew , vole , and squirrels , In wilder areas of Outer London , such as Epping Forest , a wide variety of mammals are found including hare , badger , field , bank and water vole , wood mouse , yellow @-@ necked mouse , mole , shrew , and weasel , in addition to fox , squirrel and hedgehog . A dead otter was found at The Highway , in Wapping , about a mile from the Tower Bridge , which would suggest that they have begun to move back after being absent a hundred years from the city . Ten of England 's eighteen species of bats have been recorded in Epping Forest : soprano , nathusius and common pipistrelles , noctule , serotine , barbastelle , daubenton 's , brown Long @-@ eared , natterer 's and leisler 's .
Among the strange sights seen in London have been a whale in the Thames , while the BBC Two programme " Natural World : Unnatural History of London " shows pigeons using the London Underground to get around the city , a seal that takes fish from fishmongers outside Billingsgate Fish Market , and foxes that will " sit " if given sausages .
Herds of red and fallow deer also roam freely within much of Richmond and Bushy Park . A cull takes place each November and February to ensure numbers can be sustained . Epping Forest is also known for its fallow deer , which can frequently be seen in herds to the north of the Forest . A rare population of melanistic , black fallow deer is also maintained at the Deer Sanctuary near Theydon Bois . Muntjac deer , which escaped from deer parks at the turn of the twentieth century , are also found in the forest . While Londoners are accustomed to wildlife such as birds and foxes sharing the city , more recently urban deer have started becoming a regular feature , and whole herds of fallow and white @-@ tailed deer come into residential areas at night to take advantage of the London 's green spaces .
= = Demography = =
The 2011 census recorded that 2 @,@ 998 @,@ 264 people or 36 @.@ 7 % of London 's population are foreign @-@ born making London the city with the second largest immigrant population , behind New York City , in terms of absolute numbers . The table to the right shows the most common countries of birth of London residents . Note that some of the German @-@ born population , in 18th position , are British citizens from birth born to parents serving in the British Armed Forces in Germany . With increasing industrialisation , London 's population grew rapidly throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries , and it was for some time in the late 19th and early 20th centuries the most populous city in the world . Its population peaked at 8 @,@ 615 @,@ 245 in 1939 immediately before the outbreak of the Second World War , but had declined to 7 @,@ 192 @,@ 091 at the 2001 Census . However , the population then grew by just over a million between the 2001 and 2011 Censuses , to reach 8 @,@ 173 @,@ 941 in the latter enumeration .
However , London 's continuous urban area extends beyond the borders of Greater London and was home to 9 @,@ 787 @,@ 426 people in 2011 , while its wider metropolitan area has a population of between 12 and 14 million depending on the definition used . According to Eurostat , London is the most populous city and metropolitan area of the European Union and the second most populous in Europe ( or third if Istanbul is included ) . During the period 1991 – 2001 a net 726 @,@ 000 immigrants arrived in London .
The region covers an area of 1 @,@ 579 square kilometres ( 610 sq mi ) . The population density is 5 @,@ 177 inhabitants per square kilometre ( 13 @,@ 410 / sq mi ) , more than ten times that of any other British region . In terms of population , London is the 19th largest city and the 18th largest metropolitan region in the world . As of 2014 , London has the largest number of billionaires ( British Pound Sterling ) in the world , with 72 residing in the city . London ranks as one of the most expensive cities in the world , alongside Tokyo and Moscow .
= = = Ethnic groups = = =
According to the Office for National Statistics , based on the 2011 Census estimates , 59 @.@ 8 per cent of the 8 @,@ 173 @,@ 941 inhabitants of London were White , with 44 @.@ 9 per cent White British , 2 @.@ 2 per cent White Irish , 0 @.@ 1 per cent gypsy / Irish traveller and 12 @.@ 1 per cent classified as Other White .
20 @.@ 9 per cent of Londoners are of Asian and mixed @-@ Asian descent . 19 @.@ 7 per cent are of full Asian descent , with those of mixed @-@ Asian heritage comprising 1 @.@ 2 of the population . Indians account for 6 @.@ 6 per cent of the population , followed by Pakistanis and Bangladeshis at 2 @.@ 7 per cent each . Chinese peoples account for 1 @.@ 5 per cent of the population , with Arabs comprising 1 @.@ 3 per cent . A further 4 @.@ 9 per cent are classified as " Other Asian " .
15 @.@ 6 per cent of London 's population are of Black and mixed @-@ Black descent . 13 @.@ 3 per cent are of full Black descent , with those of mixed @-@ Black heritage comprising 2 @.@ 3 per cent . Black Africans account for 7 @.@ 0 per cent of London 's population , with 4 @.@ 2 per cent as Black Caribbean and 2 @.@ 1 per cent as " Other Black " . 5 @.@ 0 per cent are of mixed race .
Across London , Black and Asian children outnumber White British children by about six to four in state schools . Altogether at the 2011 census , of London 's 1 @,@ 624 @,@ 768 population aged 0 to 15 , 46 @.@ 4 per cent were White , 19 @.@ 8 per cent were Asian , 19 per cent were Black , 10 @.@ 8 per cent were Mixed and 4 per cent represented another ethnic group . In January 2005 , a survey of London 's ethnic and religious diversity claimed that there were more than 300 languages spoken in London and more than 50 non @-@ indigenous communities with a population of more than 10 @,@ 000 . Figures from the Office for National Statistics show that , in 2010 , London 's foreign @-@ born population was 2 @,@ 650 @,@ 000 ( 33 per cent ) , up from 1 @,@ 630 @,@ 000 in 1997 .
The 2011 census showed that 36 @.@ 7 per cent of Greater London 's population were born outside the UK . A portion of the German @-@ born population are likely to be British nationals born to parents serving in the British Armed Forces in Germany . Estimates produced by the Office for National Statistics indicate that the five largest foreign @-@ born groups living in London in the period July 2009 to June 2010 were those born in India , Poland , the Republic of Ireland , Bangladesh and Nigeria .
= = = Religion = = =
According to the 2011 Census , the largest religious groupings are Christians ( 48 @.@ 4 per cent ) , followed by those of no religion ( 20 @.@ 7 per cent ) , Muslims ( 12 @.@ 4 per cent ) , no response ( 8 @.@ 5 per cent ) , Hindus ( 5 @.@ 0 per cent ) , Jews ( 1 @.@ 8 per cent ) , Sikhs ( 1 @.@ 5 per cent ) , Buddhists ( 1 @.@ 0 per cent ) and other ( 0 @.@ 6 per cent ) .
London has traditionally been Christian , and has a large number of churches , particularly in the City of London . The well @-@ known St Paul 's Cathedral in the City and Southwark Cathedral south of the river are Anglican administrative centres , while the Archbishop of Canterbury , principal bishop of the Church of England and worldwide Anglican Communion , has his main residence at Lambeth Palace in the London Borough of Lambeth .
Important national and royal ceremonies are shared between St Paul 's and Westminster Abbey . The Abbey is not to be confused with nearby Westminster Cathedral , which is the largest Roman Catholic cathedral in England and Wales . Despite the prevalence of Anglican churches , observance is very low within the Anglican denomination . Church attendance continues on a long , slow , steady decline , according to Church of England statistics .
London is also home to sizeable Muslim , Hindu , Sikh , and Jewish communities . Notable mosques include the East London Mosque in Tower Hamlets , London Central Mosque on the edge of Regent 's Park and the Baitul Futuh Mosque of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community . Following the oil boom , increasing numbers of wealthy Hindus and Middle @-@ Eastern Muslims have based themselves around Mayfair and Knightsbridge in West London . There are large Muslim communities in the eastern boroughs of Tower Hamlets and Newham . Large Hindu communities are in the north @-@ western boroughs of Harrow and Brent , the latter of which is home to Europe 's largest Hindu temple , Neasden Temple . London is also home to 42 Hindu temples . There are Sikh communities in East and West London , particularly in Southall , home to one of the largest Sikh populations and the largest Sikh temple outside India .
The majority of British Jews live in London , with significant Jewish communities in Stamford Hill , Stanmore , Golders Green , Finchley , Hampstead , Hendon and Edgware in North London . Bevis Marks Synagogue in the City of London is affiliated to London 's historic Sephardic Jewish community . It is the only synagogue in Europe which has held regular services continuously for over 300 years . Stanmore and Canons Park Synagogue has the largest membership of any single Orthodox synagogue in the whole of Europe , overtaking Ilford synagogue ( also in London ) in 1998 . The community set up the London Jewish Forum in 2006 in response to the growing significance of devolved London Government .
= = = Accent = = =
There are many accents that are traditionally thought of as London accents . The most well known of the London accents long ago acquired the Cockney label , which is heard both in London itself , and across the wider South East England region more generally . The accent of a 21st @-@ century Londoner varies widely ; what is becoming more and more common amongst the under @-@ 30s however is some fusion of Cockney with a whole array of ethnic accents , in particular Caribbean , which form an accent labelled Multicultural London English ( MLE ) . The other widely heard and spoken accent is RP ( Received Pronunciation ) in various forms , which can often be heard in the media and many of other traditional professions and beyond , although this accent is not limited to London and South East England , and can also be heard selectively throughout the whole UK amongst certain social groupings .
= = Economy = =
London generates about 20 per cent of the UK 's GDP ( or $ 446 billion in 2005 ) ; while the economy of the London metropolitan area — the largest in Europe — generates about 30 per cent of the UK 's GDP ( or an estimated $ 669 billion in 2005 ) . London is one of the pre @-@ eminent financial centres of the world as the most important location for international finance . As of 2015 London tops the world rankings on the global financial centres index .
London 's largest industry is finance , and its financial exports make it a large contributor to the UK 's balance of payments . Around 325 @,@ 000 people were employed in financial services in London until mid @-@ 2007 . London has over 480 overseas banks , more than any other city in the world . Over 85 percent ( 3 @.@ 2 million ) of the employed population of greater London works in the services industries . Because of its prominent global role , London 's economy had been affected by the Late @-@ 2000s financial crisis . However , by 2010 the City has recovered ; put in place new regulatory powers , proceeded to regain lost ground and re @-@ established London 's economic dominance . The City of London is home to the Bank of England , London Stock Exchange , and Lloyd 's of London insurance market .
Over half of the UK 's top 100 listed companies ( the FTSE 100 ) and over 100 of Europe 's 500 largest companies have their headquarters in central London . Over 70 per cent of the FTSE 100 are within London 's metropolitan area , and 75 per cent of Fortune 500 companies have offices in London .
Along with professional services , media companies are concentrated in London and the media distribution industry is London 's second most competitive sector . The BBC is a significant employer , while other broadcasters also have headquarters around the City . Many national newspapers are edited in London . London is a major retail centre and in 2010 had the highest non @-@ food retail sales of any city in the world , with a total spend of around £ 64 @.@ 2 billion . The Port of London is the second @-@ largest in the United Kingdom , handling 45 million tonnes of cargo each year .
London has five major business districts : the City , Westminster , Canary Wharf , Camden & Islington and Lambeth & Southwark . One way to get an idea of their relative importance is to look at relative amounts of office space : Greater London had 27 million m2 of office space in 2001 , and the City contains the most space , with 8 million m2 of office space . London has some of the highest real estate prices in the world .
A growing number of technology companies are based in London notably in East London Tech City , also known as Silicon Roundabout . In April 2014 , the city was among the first to receive a geoTLD . In 2014 Forbes magazine ranked London as the most influential city in the world . In February 2014 London was ranked as the European City of the Future in the 2014 / 15 list by FDi Magazine .
London is the world 's most expensive office market for the last three years according to world property journal ( 2015 ) report . As of 2015 the residential property in London is worth $ 2 @.@ 2 trillion - same value as that of Brazil annual GDP . The city has the highest property prices of any European city according to the Office for National Statistics and the European Office of Statistics . On average the price per square metre in central London is € 24 @,@ 252 ( April 2014 ) . This is higher than the property prices in other G8 European capital cities ; Berlin € 3 @,@ 306 , Rome € 6 @,@ 188 and Paris € 11 @,@ 229 .
The gas and electricity distribution networks that manage and operate the towers , cables and pressure systems that deliver energy to consumers across the city are managed by National Grid plc , SGN and UK Power Networks .
= = = Tourism = = =
London is one of the leading tourist destinations in the world and in 2015 was ranked as the most visited city in the world with over 65 million visits . It is also the top city in the world by visitor cross @-@ border spending , estimated at US $ 20 @.@ 23 billion in 2015 Tourism is one of London 's prime industries , employing the equivalent of 350 @,@ 000 full @-@ time workers in 2003 , and the city accounts for 54 % of all inbound visitor spend in UK . As of 2016 London is rated as the world top ranked city destination by TripAdvisor users .
In 2010 the ten most @-@ visited attractions in London were :
British Museum
Tate Modern
National Gallery
Natural History Museum
Imperial War Museum
Science Museum
Victoria and Albert Museum
Madame Tussauds
National Maritime Museum
Tower of London
The number of hotel rooms in London in 2015 stands at 138 @,@ 769 which is expected to grow over the years .
= = = Housing crisis = = =
Thousands of homeless families find themselves stuck in emergency accommodation for at least two years . A growth in the number of UK households has led to the homeless charity Shelter stating : " This growth is a result of people living longer , more people living alone or in smaller households , and net migration . "
= = Transport = =
Transport is one of the four main areas of policy administered by the Mayor of London , however the mayor 's financial control does not extend to the longer distance rail network that enters London . In 2007 he assumed responsibility for some local lines , which now form the London Overground network , adding to the existing responsibility for the London Underground , trams and buses . The public transport network is administered by Transport for London ( TfL ) and is one of the most extensive in the world .
The lines that formed the London Underground , as well as trams and buses , became part of an integrated transport system in 1933 when the London Passenger Transport Board or London Transport was created . Transport for London is now the statutory corporation responsible for most aspects of the transport system in Greater London , and is run by a board and a commissioner appointed by the Mayor of London .
= = = Aviation = = =
London is a major international air transport hub with the busiest city airspace in the world . Eight airports use the word London in their name , but most traffic passes through six of these . London Heathrow Airport , in Hillingdon , West London , is the busiest airport in the world for international traffic , and is the major hub of the nation 's flag carrier , British Airways . In March 2008 its fifth terminal was opened . There were plans for a third runway and a sixth terminal ; however , these were cancelled by the Coalition Government on 12 May 2010 .
Similar traffic , with some cheap short @-@ haul flights , is also handled at Gatwick Airport , south of London in West Sussex .
Stansted Airport , north east of London in Essex , is a local UK hub and Luton Airport to the north of London in Bedfordshire , caters mostly for cheap short @-@ haul flights . London City Airport , the smallest and most central airport , in Newham , East London , is focused on business travellers , with a mixture of full service short @-@ haul scheduled flights and considerable business jet traffic . London Southend Airport , east of London in Essex , is a smaller , regional airport that mainly caters for cheap short @-@ haul flights .
= = = Rail = = =
= = = = Underground and DLR = = = =
The London Underground , commonly referred to as the Tube , is the oldest and second longest metro system in the world . The system serves 270 stations and was formed from several private companies , including the world 's first underground electric line , the City and South London Railway . It dates from 1863 .
Over three million journeys are made every day on the Underground network , over 1 billion each year . An investment programme is attempting to reduce congestion and improve reliability , including £ 6 @.@ 5 billion ( € 7 @.@ 7 billion ) spent before the 2012 Summer Olympics . The Docklands Light Railway ( DLR ) , which opened in 1987 , is a second , more local metro system using smaller and lighter tram @-@ type vehicles that serve the Docklands , Greenwich and Lewisham .
= = = = Suburban = = = =
There are 366 railway stations in the London Travelcard Zones on an extensive above @-@ ground suburban railway network . South London , particularly , has a high concentration of railways as it has fewer Underground lines . Most rail lines terminate around the centre of London , running into eighteen terminal stations , with the exception of the Thameslink trains connecting Bedford in the north and Brighton in the south via Luton and Gatwick airports . London has Britain 's busiest station by number of passengers – Waterloo , with over 184 million people using the interchange station complex ( which includes Waterloo East station ) each year . Clapham Junction is the busiest station in Europe by the number of trains passing .
With the need for more rail capacity in London , Crossrail is due to open in 2018 . It will be a new railway line running east to west through London and into the Home Counties with a branch to Heathrow Airport . It is Europe 's biggest construction project , with a £ 15 billion projected cost .
= = = = Inter @-@ city and international = = = =
London is the centre of the National Rail network , with 70 percent of rail journeys starting or ending in London . Like suburban rail services , regional and inter @-@ city trains depart from several termini around the city centre , linking London with the rest of Britain including Birmingham , Brighton , Reading , Bristol , Cardiff , Derby , Exeter , Sheffield , Southampton , Leeds , Manchester , Cambridge , Newcastle @-@ upon @-@ Tyne , Edinburgh and Glasgow .
Some international railway services to Continental Europe were operated during the 20th century as boat trains , such as the Admiraal de Ruijter to Amsterdam and the Night Ferry to Paris and Brussels . The opening of the Channel Tunnel in 1994 connected London directly to the continental rail network , allowing Eurostar services to begin . Since 2007 , high @-@ speed trains link St. Pancras International with Lille , Paris , Brussels and European tourist destinations via the High Speed 1 rail link and the Channel Tunnel . The first high @-@ speed domestic trains started in June 2009 linking Kent to London . There are plans for a second high speed line linking London to the Midlands , North West England , and Yorkshire .
= = = = Freight = = = =
Although rail freight levels are far down compared to their height , significant quantities of cargo are also carried into and out of London by rail ; chiefly building materials and landfill waste . As a major hub of the British railway network , London 's tracks also carry large amounts of freight for the other regions , such as container freight from the Channel Tunnel and English Channel ports , and nuclear waste for reprocessing at Sellafield .
= = = Buses and trams = = =
London 's bus network is one of the largest in the world , running 24 hours a day , with about 8 @,@ 500 buses , more than 700 bus routes and around 19 @,@ 500 bus stops . In 2013 , the network had more than 2 billion commuter trips per annum , more than the Underground . Around £ 850 million is taken in revenue each year . London has the largest wheelchair accessible network in the world and , from the 3rd quarter of 2007 , became more accessible to hearing and visually impaired passengers as audio @-@ visual announcements were introduced . The distinctive red double @-@ decker buses are an internationally recognised trademark of London transport along with black cabs and the Tube .
London has a modern tram network , known as Tramlink , centred on Croydon in South London . The network has 39 stops and four routes , and carried 28 million people in 2013 . Since June 2008 Transport for London has completely owned Tramlink , and it plans to spend £ 54m by 2015 on maintenance , renewals , upgrades and capacity enhancements .
= = = Cable car = = =
London 's first and only cable car , known as the Emirates Air Line , opened in June 2012 . Crossing the River Thames , linking Greenwich Peninsula and the Royal Docks in the east of the city , the cable car is integrated with London 's Oyster Card ticketing system , although special fares are charged . Costing £ 60 million to build , it carries over 3 @,@ 500 passengers every day , although this is very much lower than its capacity . Similar to the Santander Cycles bike hire scheme , the cable car is sponsored in a 10 @-@ year deal by the airline Emirates .
= = = Cycling = = =
Cycling is an increasingly popular way to get around London . The launch of a cycle hire scheme in July 2010 has been successful and generally well received . The London Cycling Campaign lobbies for better provision .
= = = Port and river boats = = =
From being the largest port in the world , the Port of London is now only the second @-@ largest in the United Kingdom , handling 45 million tonnes of cargo each year . Most of this actually passes through the Port of Tilbury , outside the boundary of Greater London .
London has frequent river boat services on the Thames known as Thames Clippers . These run up to every 20 minutes between Embankment Pier and North Greenwich Pier . The Woolwich Ferry , with 2 @.@ 5 million passengers every year , is a frequent service linking the North and South Circular Roads . Other operators run both commuter and tourist boat services in London .
= = = Roads = = =
Although the majority of journeys involving central London are made by public transport , car travel is common in the suburbs . The inner ring road ( around the city centre ) , the North and South Circular roads ( in the suburbs ) , and the outer orbital motorway ( the M25 , outside the built @-@ up area ) encircle the city and are intersected by a number of busy radial routes — but very few motorways penetrate into inner London . A plan for a comprehensive network of motorways throughout the city ( the Ringways Plan ) was prepared in the 1960s but was mostly cancelled in the early 1970s . The M25 is the longest ring @-@ road motorway in the world at 121 @.@ 5 mi ( 195 @.@ 5 km ) long . The A1 and M1 connect London to Leeds , and Newcastle and Edinburgh .
London is notorious for its traffic congestion , with the M25 motorway the busiest stretch in the country . The average speed of a car in the rush hour is 10 @.@ 6 mph ( 17 @.@ 1 km / h ) .
In 2003 , a congestion charge was introduced to reduce traffic volumes in the city centre . With a few exceptions , motorists are required to pay £ 10 per day to drive within a defined zone encompassing much of central London . Motorists who are residents of the defined zone can buy a greatly reduced season pass . London government initially expected the Congestion Charge Zone to increase daily peak period Underground and bus users by 20 @,@ 000 people , reduce road traffic by 10 to 15 per cent , increase traffic speeds by 10 to 15 per cent , and reduce queues by 20 to 30 per cent . Over the course of several years , the average number of cars entering the centre of London on a weekday was reduced from 195 @,@ 000 to 125 @,@ 000 cars – a 35 @-@ per @-@ cent reduction of vehicles driven per day .
= = Education = =
= = = Tertiary education = = =
London is a major global centre of higher education teaching and research and its 43 universities form the largest concentration of higher education institutes in Europe . According to the QS World University Rankings 2015 / 16 , London has the greatest concentration of top class universities in the world and the international student population around 110 @,@ 000 which is also more than any other city in the world . A 2014 PricewaterhouseCoopers report termed London as the global capital of higher education
A number of world @-@ leading education institutions are based in London . In the 2014 / 15 QS World University Rankings , Imperial College London is ranked joint 2nd in the world ( alongside The University of Cambridge ) , University College London ( UCL ) is ranked 5th , and King 's College London ( KCL ) is ranked 16th . The London School of Economics has been described as the world 's leading social science institution for both teaching and research . The London Business School is considered one of the world 's leading business schools and in 2015 its MBA programme was ranked second best in the world by the Financial Times .
With 120 @,@ 000 students in London , the federal University of London is the largest contact teaching university in the UK . It includes four large multi @-@ faculty universities – King 's College London , Queen Mary , Royal Holloway and UCL – and a number of smaller and more specialised institutions including Birkbeck , the Courtauld Institute of Art , Goldsmiths , Guildhall School of Music and Drama , the Institute of Education , the London Business School , the London School of Economics , the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine , the Royal Academy of Music , the Central School of Speech and Drama , the Royal Veterinary College and the School of Oriental and African Studies . Members of the University of London have their own admissions procedures , and some award their own degrees .
A number of universities in London are outside the University of London system , including Brunel University , City University London , Imperial College London , Kingston University , London Metropolitan University ( with over 34 @,@ 000 students , the largest unitary university in London ) , University of East London , University of West London , University of Westminster , London South Bank University , Middlesex University , and University of the Arts London ( the largest university of art , design , fashion , communication and the performing arts in Europe ) . In addition there are three international universities in London – Regent 's University London , Richmond , The American International University in London and Schiller International University .
London is home to five major medical schools – Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry ( part of Queen Mary ) , King 's College London School of Medicine ( the largest medical school in Europe ) , Imperial College School of Medicine , UCL Medical School and St George 's , University of London – and has a large number of affiliated teaching hospitals . It is also a major centre for biomedical research , and three of the UK 's five academic health science centres are based in the city – Imperial College Healthcare , King 's Health Partners and UCL Partners ( the largest such centre in Europe ) .
There are a number of business schools in London , including the London School of Business and Finance , Cass Business School ( part of City University London ) , Hult International Business School , ESCP Europe , European Business School London , Imperial College Business School and the London Business School . London is also home to many specialist arts education institutions , including the Academy of Live and Recorded Arts , Central School of Ballet , LAMDA , London College of Contemporary Arts ( LCCA ) , London Contemporary Dance School , National Centre for Circus Arts , RADA , Rambert School of Ballet and Contemporary Dance , the Royal College of Art , the Royal College of Music and Trinity Laban .
= = = Primary and secondary education = = =
The majority of primary and secondary schools and further @-@ education colleges in London are controlled by the London boroughs or otherwise state @-@ funded ; leading examples include City and Islington College , Ealing , Hammersmith and West London College , Leyton Sixth Form College , Tower Hamlets College and Bethnal Green Academy . There are also a number of private schools and colleges in London , some old and famous , such as City of London School , Harrow , St Paul 's School , Haberdashers ' Aske 's Boys ' School , University College School , The John Lyon School , Highgate School and Westminster School .
= = Culture = =
= = = Leisure and entertainment = = =
Leisure is major part of London economy with a 2003 report contributing a quarter of entire UK leisure economy to London . Globally , the city is amongst the big four fashion capital of the world and according to official statistics London is the world 's third busiest film production centre , presents more live comedy than any other city and has the biggest theatre audience of any city in the world .
Within the City of Westminster in London the entertainment district of the West End has its focus around Leicester Square , where London and world film premieres are held , and Piccadilly Circus , with its giant electronic advertisements . London 's theatre district is here , as are many cinemas , bars , clubs and restaurants , including the city 's Chinatown district ( in Soho ) , and just to the east is Covent Garden , an area housing speciality shops . The city is the home of Andrew Lloyd Webber , whose musicals have dominated the West End theatre since the late 20th century . The United Kingdom 's Royal Ballet , English National Ballet , Royal Opera and English National Opera are based in London and perform at the Royal Opera House , the London Coliseum , Sadler 's Wells Theatre and the Royal Albert Hall as well as touring the country .
Islington 's 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) long Upper Street , extending northwards from Angel , has more bars and restaurants than any other street in the United Kingdom . Europe 's busiest shopping area is Oxford Street , a shopping street nearly 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) long , making it the longest shopping street in the United Kingdom . Oxford Street is home to vast numbers of retailers and department stores , including the world @-@ famous Selfridges flagship store . Knightsbridge , home to the equally renowned Harrods department store , lies to the south @-@ west .
London is home to designers Vivienne Westwood , Galliano , Stella McCartney , Manolo Blahnik , and Jimmy Choo among others ; its renowned art and fashion schools make it an international centre of fashion alongside Paris , Milan , and New York City . London offers a great variety of cuisine as a result of its ethnically diverse population . Gastronomic centres include the Bangladeshi restaurants of Brick Lane and the Chinese food restaurants of Chinatown .
There is a variety of annual events , beginning with the relatively new New Year 's Day Parade , fireworks display at the London Eye , the world 's second largest street party , the Notting Hill Carnival is held during the late August Bank Holiday each year . Traditional parades include November 's Lord Mayor 's Show , a centuries @-@ old event celebrating the annual appointment of a new Lord Mayor of the City of London with a procession along the streets of the City , and June 's Trooping the Colour , a formal military pageant performed by regiments of the Commonwealth and British armies to celebrate the Queen 's Official Birthday .
= = = Literature , film and television = = =
London has been the setting for many works of literature . The literary centres of London have traditionally been hilly Hampstead and ( since the early 20th century ) Bloomsbury . Writers closely associated with the city are the diarist Samuel Pepys , noted for his eyewitness account of the Great Fire , Charles Dickens , whose representation of a foggy , snowy , grimy London of street sweepers and pickpockets has been a major influence on people 's vision of early Victorian London , and Virginia Woolf , regarded as one of the foremost modernist literary figures of the 20th century .
The pilgrims in Geoffrey Chaucer 's late 14th @-@ century Canterbury Tales set out for Canterbury from London – specifically , from the Tabard inn , Southwark . William Shakespeare spent a large part of his life living and working in London ; his contemporary Ben Jonson was also based there , and some of his work — most notably his play The Alchemist — was set in the city . A Journal of the Plague Year ( 1722 ) by Daniel Defoe is a fictionalisation of the events of the 1665 Great Plague . Later important depictions of London from the 19th and early 20th centuries are Dickens ' novels , and Arthur Conan Doyle 's Sherlock Holmes stories . Modern writers pervasively influenced by the city include Peter Ackroyd , author of a " biography " of London , and Iain Sinclair , who writes in the genre of psychogeography .
London has played a significant role in the film industry , and has major studios at Ealing and a special effects and post @-@ production community centred in Soho . Working Title Films has its headquarters in London . London has been the setting for films including Oliver Twist ( 1948 ) , Scrooge ( 1951 ) , Peter Pan ( 1953 ) , The 101 Dalmatians ( 1961 ) , My Fair Lady ( 1964 ) , Mary Poppins ( 1964 ) , Blowup ( 1966 ) , The Long Good Friday ( 1980 ) , Notting Hill ( 1999 ) , Love Actually ( 2003 ) , V For Vendetta ( 2005 ) , Sweeney Todd : The Demon Barber Of Fleet Street ( 2008 ) and The King 's Speech ( 2010 ) . Notable actors and filmmakers from London include ; Charlie Chaplin , Alfred Hitchcock , Michael Caine , Helen Mirren , Gary Oldman , Christopher Nolan , Jude Law , Tom Hardy , Keira Knightley and Daniel Day @-@ Lewis . As of 2008 , the British Academy Film Awards have taken place at the Royal Opera House . London is a major centre for television production , with studios including BBC Television Centre , The Fountain Studios and The London Studios . Many television programmes have been set in London , including the popular television soap opera EastEnders , broadcast by the BBC since 1985 .
= = = Museums and art galleries = = =
London is home to many museums , galleries , and other institutions , many of which are free of admission charges and are major tourist attractions as well as playing a research role . The first of these to be established was the British Museum in Bloomsbury , in 1753 . Originally containing antiquities , natural history specimens and the national library , the museum now has 7 million artefacts from around the globe . In 1824 the National Gallery was founded to house the British national collection of Western paintings ; this now occupies a prominent position in Trafalgar Square .
In the latter half of the 19th century the locale of South Kensington was developed as " Albertopolis " , a cultural and scientific quarter . Three major national museums are there : the Victoria and Albert Museum ( for the applied arts ) , the Natural History Museum and the Science Museum . The National Portrait Gallery was founded in 1856 to house depictions of figures from British history ; its holdings now comprise the world 's most extensive collection of portraits . The national gallery of British art is at Tate Britain , originally established as an annexe of the National Gallery in 1897 . The Tate Gallery , as it was formerly known , also became a major centre for modern art ; in 2000 this collection moved to Tate Modern , a new gallery housed in the former Bankside Power Station .
= = = Music = = =
London is one of the major classical and popular music capitals of the world and is home to major music corporations , such as Warner Music Group as well as countless bands , musicians and industry professionals . The city is also home to many orchestras and concert halls , such as the Barbican Arts Centre ( principal base of the London Symphony Orchestra and the London Symphony Chorus ) , Cadogan Hall ( Royal Philharmonic Orchestra ) and the Royal Albert Hall ( The Proms ) . London 's two main opera houses are the Royal Opera House and the London Coliseum . The UK 's largest pipe organ is at the Royal Albert Hall . Other significant instruments are at the cathedrals and major churches . Several conservatoires are within the city : Royal Academy of Music , Royal College of Music , Guildhall School of Music and Drama and Trinity Laban .
London has numerous venues for rock and pop concerts , including the world 's busiest arena the o2 arena and other large arenas such as Earls Court , Wembley Arena , as well as many mid @-@ sized venues , such as Brixton Academy , the Hammersmith Apollo and the Shepherd 's Bush Empire . Several music festivals , including the Wireless Festival , South West Four , Lovebox , and Hyde Park 's British Summer Time are all held in London . The city is home to the first and original Hard Rock Cafe and the Abbey Road Studios where The Beatles recorded many of their hits . In the 1960s , 1970s and 1980s , musicians and groups like Elton John , Pink Floyd , David Bowie , Queen , The Kinks , The Rolling Stones , The Who , Eric Clapton , Led Zeppelin , The Small Faces , Iron Maiden , Fleetwood Mac , Elvis Costello , Cat Stevens , The Police , The Cure , Madness , The Jam , Dusty Springfield , Phil Collins , Rod Stewart and Sade , derived their sound from the streets and rhythms vibrating through London .
London was instrumental in the development of punk music , with figures such as the Sex Pistols , The Clash , and Vivienne Westwood all based in the city . More recent artists to emerge from the London music scene include George Michael , Kate Bush , Seal , Siouxsie and the Banshees , Bush , the Spice Girls , Jamiroquai , Blur , The Prodigy , Gorillaz , Mumford & Sons , Coldplay , Amy Winehouse , Adele , Ed Sheeran and One Direction . London is also a centre for urban music . In particular the genres UK garage , drum and bass , dubstep and grime evolved in the city from the foreign genres of hip hop and reggae , alongside local drum and bass . Black music station BBC Radio 1Xtra was set up to support the rise of home @-@ grown urban music both in London and in the rest of the UK .
= = Notable people = =
= = Recreation = =
= = = Parks and open spaces = = =
The largest parks in the central area of London are three of the eight Royal Parks , namely Hyde Park and its neighbour Kensington Gardens in the west , and Regent 's Park to the north . Hyde Park in particular is popular for sports and sometimes hosts open @-@ air concerts . Regent 's Park contains London Zoo , the world 's oldest scientific zoo , and is near the tourist attraction of Madame Tussauds Wax Museum . Primrose Hill in the northern part of Regent 's Park at 256 feet ( 78 m ) is a popular spot to view the city skyline .
Close to Hyde Park are smaller Royal Parks , Green Park and St. James 's Park . A number of large parks lie outside the city centre , including the remaining Royal Parks of Greenwich Park to the south @-@ east and Bushy Park and Richmond Park ( the largest ) to the south @-@ west , Hampton Court Park is also a royal park , but , because it contains a palace , it is administered by the Historic Royal Palaces , unlike the eight Royal Parks .
Close to Richmond Park is Kew Gardens which has the world 's largest collection of living plants . In 2003 , the gardens were put on the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites . There are also numerous parks administered by London 's borough Councils , including Victoria Park in the East End and Battersea Park in the centre . Some more informal , semi @-@ natural open spaces also exist , including the 320 @-@ hectare ( 790 @-@ acre ) Hampstead Heath of North London , and Epping Forest , which covers 2 @,@ 476 hectares ( 6 @,@ 118 @.@ 32 acres ) in the east . Both are controlled by the City of London Corporation . Hampstead Heath incorporates Kenwood House , the former stately home and a popular location in the summer months where classical musical concerts are held by the lake , attracting thousands of people every weekend to enjoy the music , scenery and fireworks .
Epping Forest is a popular venue for various outdoor activities , including mountain biking , walking , horse riding , golf , angling , and orienteering .
= = = Walking = = =
Walking is a popular recreational activity in London . Areas that provide for walks include Wimbledon Common , Epping Forest , Hampton Court Park , Hampstead Heath , the eight Royal Parks , canals and disused railway tracks . Access to canals and rivers has improved recently , including the creation of the Thames Path , some 28 miles ( 45 km ) of which is within Greater London , and The Wandle Trail ; this runs 12 miles ( 19 km ) through South London along the River Wandle , a tributary of the River Thames . Other long distance paths , linking green spaces , have also been created , including the Capital Ring , the Green Chain Walk , London Outer Orbital Path ( " Loop " ) , Jubilee Walkway , Lea Valley Walk , and the Diana , Princess of Wales Memorial Walk .
= = Sport = =
London has hosted the Summer Olympics three times : in 1908 , 1948 , and 2012 . It was chosen in July 2005 to host the 2012 Olympics and Paralympics , making it the first city to host the modern Games three times . The city was also the host of the British Empire Games in 1934 . In 2017 London will host the World Championships in Athletics .
London 's most popular sport is football and it has fourteen Football League clubs , including five in the Premier League : Arsenal , Chelsea , Crystal Palace , Tottenham Hotspur , and West Ham United . Other professional teams in London are Fulham , Queens Park Rangers , Brentford , Millwall , Charlton Athletic , AFC Wimbledon , Barnet and Leyton Orient . In 2012 , Chelsea became the first London club to win the UEFA Champions League . Arsenal , Chelsea and Tottenham are the only London clubs to have won the League .
From 1924 , the original Wembley Stadium was the home of the English national football team . It hosted the 1966 FIFA World Cup Final , with England defeating West Germany , and served as the venue for the FA Cup Final as well as rugby league 's Challenge Cup final . The new Wembley Stadium serves exactly the same purposes and has a capacity of 90 @,@ 000 .
Three Aviva Premiership rugby union teams are based in London , ( London Irish , Saracens , and Harlequins ) , although currently only Harlequins and Saracens play their home games within Greater London . London Scottish and London Welsh play in the RFU Championship club and other rugby union clubs in the city include Richmond F.C. , Rosslyn Park F.C. , Westcombe Park R.F.C. and Blackheath F.C .. Twickenham Stadium in south @-@ west London is the national rugby union stadium , and has a capacity of 82 @,@ 000 now that the new south stand has been completed .
While rugby league is more popular in the north of England , there are two professional rugby league clubs in London – the second tier Championship One team , the London Broncos , who play at the Trailfinders Sports Ground in West Ealing , and the third tier League 1 team , the London Skolars from Wood Green , Haringey ; in addition , Hemel Stags from Hemel Hempstead north of London also play in League 1 .
One of London 's best @-@ known annual sports competitions is the Wimbledon Tennis Championships , held at the All England Club in the south @-@ western suburb of Wimbledon . Played in late June to early July , it is the oldest tennis tournament in the world , and widely considered the most prestigious .
London has two Test cricket grounds , Lord 's ( home of Middlesex C.C.C. ) in St John 's Wood and the Oval ( home of Surrey C.C.C. ) in Kennington . Lord 's has hosted four finals of the Cricket World Cup . Other key events are the annual mass @-@ participation London Marathon , in which some 35 @,@ 000 runners attempt a 26 @.@ 2 miles ( 42 @.@ 2 km ) course around the city , and the Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race on the River Thames between Putney and Mortlake .
= Fullmetal Alchemist the Movie : Conqueror of Shamballa =
Fullmetal Alchemist the Movie : Conqueror of Shamballa ( Japanese : 劇場版 鋼の錬金術師 シャンバラを征く者 , Hepburn : Gekijōban Hagane no Renkinjutsushi : Shanbara o Yuku Mono ) is a 2005 Japanese animated film directed by Seiji Mizushima and written by Sho Aikawa . A sequel to the first Fullmetal Alchemist television series , the film follows the story of alchemist Edward Elric as he attempts to return to his homeworld , having lived for two years on a parallel universe Earth , while his younger brother Alphonse is also trying to reunite with him by any means necessary . Edward 's search attracts the attention of the Thule Society , which seeks to enter his homeworld , believing it to be Shamballa , to obtain new weapons to help them in World War II .
Conqueror of Shamballa premiered in Japan on July 23 , 2005 . A CD soundtrack has also been published featuring music from the film developed by Michiru Oshima and L 'Arc @-@ en @-@ Ciel . In Japan , it has been edited in a standard DVD , as well as in a limited edition . It was later licensed in North America by Funimation that featured the film in cinemas for a short time , and also released it on DVD and Blu @-@ ray .
Most of the staff from the first Fullmetal Alchemist anime started development on Conqueror of Shamballa shortly after the anime 's ending . The original script had to be shortened to fit the film 's length of 105 minutes . During its premiere in Japan , Conqueror of Shamballa remained as one of the most popular films in the year . Critical reaction to the film has commonly been positive , with reviews praising the film 's story and graphics used .
On February 1 , 2016 , it was announced from the official Funimation blog mentioning that Fullmetal Alchemist the Movie : Conqueror of Shamballa along with Fullmetal Alchemist : Brotherhood that Funimation loses the Home Videos and Streaming rights by March 31 , 2016 and will be not be reprinting anymore copies from Funimation after March 31 , 2016 .
= = Plot = =
After Edward Elric recovers his arm and leg and his brother Alphonse 's body , Edward is dragged from his homeworld through the Gate of Alchemy — the source of alchemical energy — to a parallel world of Earth in 1923 . The world is fundamentally governed by the laws of modern science instead of alchemy . When Edward arrives there , he discovers that he has been stripped of his alchemical powers and his newly restored arm and leg .
Two years later , in Munich , Germany , Edward researches rocketry with his friend Alfons Heiderich , a young man who resembles Alphonse , in the hopes of returning to his world . Edward rescues a troubled , persecuted Romani woman named Noah from being sold . Noah is taken in by Edward to live with him and Alfons , and begins having visions concerning Edward 's life in his world . The next day , Edward meets Fritz Lang , a Jewish film director resembling King Bradley , who persuades Edward into helping him hunt down a dragon he has been seeking for inspiration for his next film . The dragon , which turns out to be homunculus Envy , attacks Edward , but is then weakened and captured by members of the Thule Society .
The Thule Society , led by Karl Haushofer and Dietlinde Eckhart , use Envy and Edward 's kidnapped father Hohenheim as catalysts to open a portal to Edward 's world , believing it to be the utopia Shamballa after learning about it from Hohenheim . A number of armored soldiers are sent through the portal , only to emerge on the other side in the city of Liore as mutated zombie @-@ like creatures . Alphonse , who had come to visit Liore , fights off the armored soldiers and merges parts of his soul to three of their suits to aid him in combat . Meanwhile , Edward breaks into the Thule Society headquarters and accidentally reopens the portal , returning the dead armored soldiers to Earth and allowing Alphonse 's armored form to briefly reunite with his brother before his soul returns to his body , increasing Edward 's determination to return to his world .
Alphonse is guided by the homunculus Wrath to the underground city beneath Amestris ' Central City to reopen the Gate of Alchemy . There , they are attacked by the homunculus Gluttony , who fights and mortally wounds Wrath . At Wrath 's insistence , Alphonse transmutes and sacrifices the two homunculi to use as material to open the Gate . Meanwhile , in Munich , the Thule Society persuades Noah into guiding them on how to correctly open the Gate based on what she had learned from reading Edward 's mind . Edward learns from Lang that the Thule Society plans to use the weapons from his world to help Adolf Hitler in his attempt to start a revolution , and heads to stop them . Hohenheim and Envy are both transmuted at the same time that Alphonse transmutes Gluttony and Wrath . With the Gate opened , Eckhart leads a fleet into the other world , where she gains the ability to use alchemy . However , she begins to go mad with power and fear of her new surroundings and launches an attack on Central City . Alfons launches Edward in a rocket @-@ powered plane to return him to his world before being gunned down .
Edward appears in his world , reunited with Alphonse and their friend Winry Rockbell , who fits Edward with new automail limbs . The Amestris military manages to stop most of Eckhart 's soldiers with the help of Roy Mustang . Edward battles Eckhart before Alphonse transmutes parts of his soul to a group of armors , which attack her and force her to retreat . Upon reappearing in her own world , Eckhart is covered with shadow creatures from the Gate and killed by an officer out of alarm of her new , monstrous appearance . Understanding the danger posed by the connection between the two worlds , Edward returns to Earth to seal the Gate on that side , knowing he will be trapped on Earth forever . Instead of sealing the Gate on the other world 's side as per Edward 's request , however , Alphonse has Mustang seal the Gate and follows Edward to remain with his brother . Following Alfons ' funeral , the Elric brothers leave Munich with Noah , intending to destroy the weapons meant to be used in Hitler 's attack and enjoy their new lives together on Earth .
= = New characters = =
Alfons Heiderich ( アルフォンス ・ ハイデリヒ , Arufonsu Haiderihi )
Voiced by : Shun Oguri ( Japanese ) ; Jason Liebrecht ( English )
A young German rocket scientist who Edward befriends some time after arriving in Munich . He is similar in name and appearance to Edward 's brother , Alphonse . He is easygoing and enjoys listening to Edward 's stories of his homeworld , and while he doubts whether or not they are true and is hurt by how distant Edward behaves , he is nonetheless supportive of his efforts . He suffers from a fatal lung disease and hopes to make a difference for the world before he dies . His wish is granted when he helps Edward return to his world through the opened Gate on a rocket before he is fatally shot by Rudolf Hess of the Thule Society .
Dietlinde Eckhart ( デートリンデ ・ エッカルト , Dētorinde Ekkaruto )
Voiced by : Kazuko Katō ( Japanese ) ; Kelly Manison ( English )
A member of the Thule Society and the main antagonist of the film who is based loosely on real @-@ life Thule Society member Dietrich Eckart . She is an ambitious young woman who desires to open the gate to Edward 's world , believing it to be the utopia " Shamballa " , so that she may harness the powers and weapons of that world and overthrow Hitler in contrast to her organization 's goal to support the Nazi Party . Upon seizing leadership of the Thule Society and entering the other world , however , her lust for power and shallow understanding of alchemy cause her to gradually go mad with fear of her new surroundings and try to destroy Amestris 's capital of Central City . When she is forced back into her world , she is covered with shadow creatures from the Gate of Truth and takes on a fearsome appearance , leading her to be shot to death ( before returning to her lifeless human form ) by an officer resembling Maes Hughes .
Noah ( ノーア , Nōa )
Voiced by : Miyū Sawai ( Japanese ) ; Leah Clark ( English )
A young traveling Romani girl who Edward saves from being sold to the Thule Society . On the surface , she is proud of her heritage and lifestyle , but is unable to bear being discriminated for it . She has the ability to read the minds of others , and becomes fascinated with Edward 's world after witnessing his memories of it . Believing she wouldn 't be discriminated in Edward 's world , Noah assists the Thule Society in opening the Gate based on information from Edward 's memories , but relents once Edward points out that his home is no utopia , and leaves Munich together with the Elric brothers . She is also similar in appearance to Rose , a character from the original anime .
Several historic figures appear in supporting roles including Fritz Lang ( physically based on King Bradley ) , Rudolf Hess , Karl Haushofer , and Adolf Hitler . The Earth counterparts of Maes Hughes and his wife Gracia appear in supporting roles , along with cameos from other characters .
= = Production = =
Production of the film began shortly after the television series finishing its original broadcasting on Japanese channels , although pre @-@ production started during the show 's run in March 2004 . The film 's production was led by director Seiji Mizushima , who also had directed the series as well . Mizushima allowed a camera crew and interviewers into the show 's conference room at the Bones studios where he described how production went , as seen in a special feature on the DVD release of the film . The conference room was filled with every cut and drawing created for the show and movie , but it was eventually cleared out to make room for other projects .
The original draft of the film 's script was written by Sho Aikawa at a hundred pages long , making the film over three hours long . Mizushima and others had to cut a third of the script 's scenes out in order to make the film an appropriate length . Some scenes and characters were removed from the final cut , including a character named Steiner who could see auras , having a role similar to Noah 's . A scene which was cut involved characters Roy Mustang and Winry Rockbell meeting in front of the late Maes Hughes ' grave . By October 2004 , the script was completed and the pre @-@ check storyboards were produced . The pre @-@ check storyboards showed the movements of objects and characters in each shot along with the characters ' lines . Production on the proper storyboards began in November of the same year , but the schedule in producing the film was immensely busy , so the directors of the film split the storyboards into six sections , one for each of the directors to create .
The opening and ending scenes were drawn by Mizushima ; the scene involving the debut of the film 's villain was drawn by Soichi Masui ; the middle section of the film was drawn by Shingo Kaneko ; Edward Elric 's return to his homeworld was drawn by Masahiro Ando ; action scenes were drawn by Shinji Aramaki ; and the battle between Wrath and Gluttony was drawn by Yutaka Nakamura . Mizushima was repeatedly harassed by the head employees at Aniplex to speed up work on the storyboards . The artwork for the film was produced once Kaneko was finished and cel @-@ animation was used to produce several characters or items in the film . Seven hundred of the film 's animated frames had to be redone with only two weeks to the film 's release .
A trailer was produced for the film in December 2004 with Romi Park , the voice actor for Edward Elric , narrating it . Three posters were produced for the film , two teaser posters and a third for the release of the film . A " Fullmetal Festival " was held on December 26 , 2004 to celebrate the show and film . Most of the directors finished their assigned storyboards by February 2005 except Shingo Kaneko , who was taking longest due to the general slow process , but his storyboards were nevertheless impressive .
= = = Music = = =
The film score was composed by Michiru Oshima . L 'Arc @-@ en @-@ Ciel gave two of their new songs for the film 's opening and closing credits , " Link " and " LOST HEAVEN " , respectively . The film 's orchestral music was performed by the Moscow Orchestra . " KELAS [ LET 'S @-@ DANCE ] , " the song performed by the Romani women while Edward and Heiderich hitch a ride , was composed by Ferenc Snétberger ( who also played guitar for the song ) , with vocals by Tayo Awosusi . A soundtrack CD of the film , Fullmetal Alchemist The Movie Conqueror Of Shamballa OST , which contained forty @-@ six tracks , was released on July 20 , 2005 . Single CDs of the songs " Link " and " LOST HEAVEN " have also been released by L 'Arc @-@ en @-@ Ciel near the film 's premier .
= = Release and distribution = =
The film premiered in Japan on July 23 , 2005 . The Japanese DVD as well as the Universal Media Disc were released on January 25 , 2006 . A limited edition including with a special box , English subtitles and a series of other extras was published on the same date .
Some promotional activity was done before the film was already gone from theaters . The movie trailer was shown to a group of about 300 persons at Shiokazecon in Houston , Texas on April 27 , 2006 . Vic Mignogna , the English voice actor for Edward Elric , also promoted the film at anime conventions . On February 27 , 2006 , Funimation announced that they licensed the film . The movie premiered at Montreal Fantasia 's Festival on July 22 , 2006 . The movie had its American premiere on July 3 at Anime Expo , and was later premiered on September 8 in 40 theaters by Funimation Films . It was announced on the movie 's MySpace that the movie was going to be shown again in select theaters on September 20 , 2007 , but only for one day . During the 2006 Nan Desu Kan anime convention , the film was screened . Seiji Mizushima , director from the film , attended the screening .
Funimation released the English DVD on September 12 , 2006 , while the limited edition was published on November 14 , 2006 . Similar to the Japanese version , the English limited edition features several extras such as interviews with the Japanese cast , a video explanation of the film 's creation , and an 18 @-@ page guidebook featuring character sketches . A special edition featuring extras , a book and cards was published on June 23 , 2009 . In May 2009 , Funimation announced that the film would be released in Blu @-@ ray format . It was released on November 17 , 2009 and features the same special features on the limited edition except for the 18 @-@ page guidebook .
= = Reception = =
During its premiere , Conqueror of Shamballa ranked 3rd at the Japanese box office . In the second week , it fell to 7th . By next week , it ranked 10th , but it did not appear in the top ten from the following weeks . In the Japanese market , the film 's gross revenue summed up to $ 9 @,@ 712 @,@ 635 during 2005 . Overseas , it grossed to $ 10 @,@ 197 @,@ 984 during 2005 . As of 2007 , it grossed to ¥ 1 @.@ 22 billion ( $ 10 @.@ 8 million ) in the Japanese box office . It became the seventh most popular anime film released in Japan during 2005 . In a theatrical chart from the same year , Conqueror of Shamballa ranked as the seventh best anime film from 2005 , and as the 47th best film in overall .
During the " 9th Japanese Media Arts Festival Winners " , the film was listed as " recommendable anime " . In the Tokyo Anime Fair , the film won in the categories " Animation of the Year " , " Best Original Story " ( Hiromu Arakawa ) and " Best Music " ( Michiru Oshima ) . In an Oricon 's survey from 2005 , the film 's theme song , " Link " by L 'Arc @-@ en @-@ Ciel , sold 235 @,@ 751 copies , ranking as fourth in the " Top 10 Anime Theme Songs of 2005 " . It also won the " 2005 Animation Grand Award " prize in Mainichi Film Awards , and " Best Animated Film " prize in Fantasia International Film Festival ( Montreal , Canada ) . During the American Anime Awards , the film was nominated in the category of " Best Anime Feature " . The first English DVD was the third bestselling Japanese anime DVD in the United States in 2006 with a sale ratio of 31 compared to the sales of the # 1 title as 100 . During 2007 the limited edition DVD from the film ranked 23rd with a sales ratio of 23 . In the NEO Awards 2007 from Neo , Conqueror of Shamballa won in the category " Best Anime Movie . "
Critical response to the film has generally been positive . Theron Martin from Anime News Network found Conqueror of Shamballa as a very entertaining film " as it has all of the action , flashy magic , comedy , snappy dialogue , drama , and intrigue that made the TV series so great . " The few negative points he found about the plot were lack of discussions of morality which were featured in the anime series and that " the writing and plotting just don 't feel as sharp as they were for the series . " He praised the additional content from the limited edition DVD as well as the English dub , but criticized the subtitles for having grammatical mistakes . Although Dani Moure from Mania Entertainment did not find the story to be very original , he still favored it due to its mix of themes , turning it into an entertaining film . He also praised the staff from the series , commenting they have done an " admirable job , " making the film a " sequel well worthy of bearing the series ' name . " Chris Johnston of Newtype USA praised it is as " a perfect way " to conclude the TV series , saying it is " a rousing , action @-@ packed and heartrending close . "
It also received praise by IGN 's Jeremy Mullin , who gave it an overall 9 over 10 , having had good opinion of the graphics used during the film and how the film expands Fullmetal Alchemist 's story . The film was compared to The End of Evangelion due to how both titles expand their anime 's endings , resulting in a " proper ending " due to the characters ' development featured in the film . Mullin also liked the audio from Conqueror of Shamballa , but added that some of the English voice actors lacked accents . DVD Talk writer Todd Douglass Jr. also liked the film as he was " pleased to report that the story was handled nigh @-@ flawlessly . The inclusion of real world events helps ground the fact that Edward is in our world , but there was just something surreal about that after seeing it . " He found the film 's ending to be fitting for Fullmetal Alchemist and said it will be well received by fans from the series . While reviewing the special edition DVD , Douglass commented the extras featured in the DVD " are worth the price . " However , he also added that " some people just don 't care about the extras " and concluded that " this is a strong reissue that could have possibly been better , but is fine just the same . "
= No. 75 Wing RAAF =
No. 75 Wing was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) wing that operated during World War II . It was formed in October 1943 at Townsville , Queensland , under North @-@ Eastern Area Command . The wing soon deployed to Horn Island to take control of RAAF units based there and at Thursday Island and Cape York Peninsula . Responsible for air defence and maritime patrol in the Torres Strait , No. 75 Wing 's flying units operated P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk fighters , Bristol Beaufort reconnaissance bombers , and A @-@ 31 Vengeance dive bombers . The wing was disbanded in August 1944 .
= = History = =
No. 75 Wing was raised on 13 October 1943 at Garbutt in Townsville , Queensland , under the command of Wing Commander ( later Group Captain ) Edgar Bruce Courtney . On formation it had a staff of ten , including three officers . The wing was responsible for RAAF units at Horn Island , Thursday Island , and Higgins Field on Cape York Peninsula . An advance party departed Garbutt for Horn Island on 21 October , and the wing headquarters was fully established there six days later . The same month , No. 84 Squadron , based at Horn Island and recently converted from CAC Boomerangs to P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks , was transferred from the control of No. 72 Wing ( headquartered at Merauke , New Guinea ) to No. 75 Wing .
Other units at Horn Island included No. 28 Operational Base Unit , which had been located there since being formed in May 1942 ; No. 112 Mobile Fighter Sector Headquarters ( formerly No. 12 Mobile Fighter Sector Headquarters ) ; and a detachment of No. 7 Squadron ( headquartered at Townsville ) , operating Bristol Beaufort reconnaissance bombers . No. 33 Operational Base Unit , formed at Townsville in April 1943 , established itself at Higgins Field on 23 October . No. 1 Repair and Salvage Unit was also headquartered at Higgins , but maintained a detachment on Thursday Island . No. 23 Air Stores Park , based on Thursday Island , was responsible for logistical support of No. 75 Wing units .
No. 84 Squadron had been responsible for air defence in the Torres Strait since arriving at Horn Island in April 1943 , and No. 7 Squadron for anti @-@ shipping duties . A Beaufort of No. 7 Squadron was credited with shooting down a Japanese " Jake " seaplane during a patrol west of Horn Island on 11 November . The Beauforts undertook their first bombing and strafing mission from Horn Island against targets in Dutch New Guinea on 27 November . By the end of the year , No. 75 Wing headquarters had a strength of 144 staff , including twenty @-@ three officers , and one de Havilland DH.84. According to George Odgers , " Although the Merauke and Horn Island squadrons had relatively slight contact with the enemy in 1943 they fulfilled a very useful purpose in conjunction with the North @-@ Western Area squadrons in securing the flank of MacArthur 's forces " .
In February 1944 , No. 75 Wing headquarters moved from Horn Island to Higgins Field , where it was soon joined by No. 7 Squadron and another unit now under the wing 's control , No. 23 Squadron . The advance party from No. 75 Wing headquarters left Horn Island on 7 February , and the main party departed for Higgins by air and sea eleven days later . No. 7 Squadron moved to Higgins between 3 and 26 March , and No. 23 Squadron between 13 and 31 March . On 19 March , No. 112 Fighter Control Unit was re @-@ formed at Horn Island as No. 32 Zone Filter Centre under No. 75 Wing . By the end of the month , wing headquarters staff numbered 121 , including twenty officers , and the DH.84 had been augmented by a Supermarine Walrus .
On 11 March 1944 , No. 84 Squadron was hurriedly redeployed to North @-@ Western Area to replace the Supermarine Spitfires of No. 1 Wing , which had been despatched to Perth in response to a feared Japanese naval attack . No attack took place , and No. 84 Squadron returned to Horn Island less than two weeks later . On 17 May , the squadron departed Horn Island for Townsville , and was subsequently reduced to cadre . No. 7 Squadron continued operations in the Dutch East Indies from Higgins , generally in conjunction with other forces such as B @-@ 25 Mitchells from North @-@ Western Area , before its tasking was reduced in August pending transfer to No. 71 Wing in New Guinea . No. 23 Squadron was equipped with A @-@ 31 Vengeance dive bombers and undertook army @-@ cooperation duties out of Higgins until being declared non @-@ operational in June . That month , a squadron leader from North @-@ Eastern Area Command arrived at No. 75 Wing headquarters to investigate Vengeance accidents and unserviceability ; on departure his Vengeance crash @-@ landed on the beach at Princess Charlotte Bay and the crew had to be rescued by an aircraft of No. 9 Squadron . No. 23 Squadron was subsequently re @-@ equipped with B @-@ 24 Liberator heavy bombers and transferred to North @-@ Western Area .
By the end of July 1944 , No. 75 Wing headquarters strength was sixty @-@ three staff , including eighteen officers , and a DH.84. The wing ceased operations on 21 August , still under Courtney 's command , and was disbanded four days later . Its remaining units then became the direct responsibility of North @-@ Eastern Area headquarters .
= Nassak Diamond =
The Nassak Diamond ( also known as the Nassac Diamond and the Eye of the Idol ) is a large , 43 @.@ 38 carats ( 8 @.@ 676 g ) diamond that originated as a larger 89 carat diamond in the 15th century in India . Found in the Amaragiri mine located in Mahbubnagar , Telangana , India , and originally cut in India , the diamond was the adornment in the Trimbakeshwar Shiva Temple , near Nashik , in the state of Maharashtra , India from at least 1500 to 1817 . The British East India Company captured the diamond through the Third Anglo @-@ Maratha War and sold it to British jewellers Rundell and Bridge in 1818 . Rundell and Bridge recut the diamond in 1818 , after which it made its way into the handle of the 1st Marquess of Westminster 's dress sword .
The Nassak Diamond was imported into the United States in 1927 , and was considered one of the first 24 great diamonds of the world by 1930 . American jeweller Harry Winston acquired the Nassak Diamond in 1940 in Paris , France and recut it to its present flawless 43 @.@ 38 carats ( 8 @.@ 676 g ) emerald cut shape . Winston sold the diamond to a New York jewellery firm in 1942 . Mrs. William B. Leeds of New York received the gem in 1944 as a sixth anniversary present and wore it in a ring . The Nassak Diamond was last sold at an auction in New York in 1970 to Edward J. Hand , a 48 @-@ year @-@ old trucking firm executive from Greenwich , Connecticut .
= = History = =
The Nassak Diamond originated in the 15th century in India . Although the date of the original cutting is unknown , the original cutting was performed in India and had sacrificed everything to size while giving the diamond a form and appearance similar to that of the Koh @-@ i @-@ Noor diamond . From at least 1500 to 1817 , the Nassak Diamond adorned the Shivalinga in the Trimbakeshwar Shiva Temple , near Nashik ( Nassak ) , India on the upper Godavari River . As priests worshiped Shiva , the diamond eventually acquired its name from its long @-@ term proximity to Nashik .
In 1817 , the British East India Company and the Maratha Empire in India began the Third Anglo @-@ Maratha War . During the Maratha war , the Nassak Diamond disappeared from the Shiva temple . The war ended in 1818 and the British East India Company was left decisively in control of most of India .
The Nassak Diamond quickly resurfaced in the possession of Baji Rao II the last independent Indian Peshwa Prince , who handed over the diamond to an English colonel named J. Briggs . In turn , Briggs delivered the diamond to Francis Rawdon @-@ Hastings , the 1st Marquess of Hastings who had conducted the military operations against the Peshwa . Rawdon @-@ Hastings delivered the diamond to the East India Company as part of the spoils of the Maratha war . The East India Company then sent the Nassak Diamond to England , to be sold on the London diamond market in 1818 .
At the London diamond market , the Nassak Diamond was presented as an approximately 89 carats ( 17 @.@ 8 g ) diamond of great purity " but of bad form , " having a somewhat pear @-@ shape . The diamond further was characterised as a " rudely faceted , lustreless mass . " Illustrations in Herbert Tillander 's book " Diamond Cuts in Historic Jewelry – 1381 to 1910 " show it as being a semi @-@ triangular moghal cut with a plateau top , similar looking to the 115 @-@ carat Taj @-@ E @-@ Mah Diamond which resides in the Iranian Crown Jewels . Despite its appearance , the diamond was sold for about 3 @,@ 000 pounds ( equivalent today to £ 198 @,@ 000 ) to Rundell and Bridge , a British jewellery firm based in London .
Rundell and Bridge held onto the diamond for the next 13 years . During that time , the jewellery firm instructed its diamond cutter " to keep as closely as possible to the traces of the Hindu cutter , ' amending his defects , and accommodating the pattern to the exigencies of the subject matter . ' " The recut by Rundell and Bridge from 89 @.@ 75 carats ( 17 @,@ 950 mg ) to 78 @.@ 625 carats ( 15 @,@ 725 @.@ 0 mg ) resulted of a loss of no more than 10 percent of the original weight of the diamond .
In 1831 , Rundell and Bridge sold the diamond to the Emanuel Brothers for about 7 @,@ 200 pounds ( today about £ 590 @,@ 000 ) . Six years later in 1837 , the Emanuel Brothers sold the Nassak Diamond at a public sale to Robert Grosvenor , the 1st Marquess of Westminster . At one point , the Marquess mounted the diamond in the handle of his dress sword . In 1886 , the diamond was valued at between 30 @,@ 000 and 40 @,@ 000 pounds ( today between £ 2 @,@ 947 @,@ 000 and £ 3 @,@ 930 @,@ 000 ) , due in part to its vast gain in brilliancy from the re @-@ cut by Rundell and Bridge .
= = Mauboussin and the lawsuit = =
In 1922 , George Mauboussin had become the named partner of " Mauboussin , Successeur de Noury , " a French jewellery house that traced its roots to its founding by M. Rocher in 1827 . In March 1927 , the Duke of Westminster used US importers Mayers , Osterwald & Muhlfeld to sell the diamond to Parisian jeweller George Mauboussin , who was living in the United States at the time . Mauboussin 's importation of the diamond into the United States was tax free , since the diamond was determined to be an artistic antiquity produced more than one hundred years prior to the date of importation . However , E. F. Bendler , an American wholesaler and dealer in diamonds and a rival of Mauboussin , filed a protest that resulted in a lawsuit to determine whether a tax should be imposed on the diamond 's entry into the United States . By November 1927 , Mauboussin considered selling the diamond to friends of General Primo de Rivera , who planned to give the diamond to the dictator on the occasion of his forthcoming investiture as marshal of Spain . That sale never materialised and the lawsuit continued . The diamond was nearly lost in a theft that occurred in January 1929 , when four gunmen robbed the Park Avenue jewellery store where the Nassak Diamond was being kept . However , the thieves missed finding the diamond because it was being stored in a soiled envelope .
After the first robbery attempt , Mauboussin 's jewellery firm opened a branch in New York City on 1 October 1929 , only to be met by the Wall Street Crash of 1929 at the end of October . To compound matters , the same gang of international robbers tried to steal the Nassak Diamond again in May 1930 , but once again missed it .
Prior to the outcome of the lawsuit , the insured diamond was valued between US $ 400 @,@ 000 and $ 500 @,@ 000 ( allowing for inflation , this would now be $ 5 @.@ 67 million and $ 7 @.@ 08 million ) . At the time the lawsuit was pending , imported diamonds that were cut and suitable for use in the manufacture of jewellery , without actually being set as jewellery were subject to an ad valorem tax of 20 % its value . However , artistic antiquities produced more than one hundred years prior to the date of importation could be imported into the United States duty @-@ free ; that is to say , without having to pay a 20 % tax . The final decision of the lawsuit was released on 4 June 1930 . In that decision , the court determined that the unset 78 @.@ 625 carats ( 15 @,@ 725 @.@ 0 mg ) Nassak Diamond was not an artistic antiquity and was suitable for use in manufacture of jewellery . In particular , the court said that the 1930 Nassak Diamond was nothing more than " a large diamond , cut in an ordinary way . " As a result , the importer owed an ad valorem tax of 20 % of the diamond 's value under US Tariff Act of 1922 .
= = Harry Winston 's influence = =
In 1930 , the Nassak Diamond had a somewhat elongated triangle form with rounded corners . The depth of one side of the triangle was thicker than the other . The diamond was " without flaw , unusually brilliant , and so cut as to well display its clear , crystal brilliancy . " While on exhibit at the 1933 World 's Fair in Chicago , Illinois , the " Official guide book of the fair , 1933 " described the diamond as a flawless , blue- white stone with a reputation of being " the finest diamond outside crown jewels collections . "
In 1940 , American jeweller Harry Winston acquired the Nassak Diamond in Paris , France and recut it to its present flawless 43 @.@ 38 carats ( 8 @.@ 676 g ) emerald cut shape . Winston sold the diamond to a New York jewellery firm in 1942 . In 1944 , Commander William Bateman Leeds , Jr . , millionaire son of the inventor of a tin plating process and friend of George Mauboussin , purchased the diamond for his wife , Reflexion Olive Leeds ( born Olive Hamilton ) , and gave it to her in a set ring as a sixth anniversary present .
= = Present information = =
In early 1964 , gemologist G. Robert ( Bob ) Crowningshield evaluated the Nassak Diamond at the Gemological Institute of America gem laboratory to produce a Diamond Grading Report . In that same year , the Nassak Diamond was placed in the hands of J. & S.S. DeYoung , a then 100 @-@ year @-@ old estate jewellery house located in New York . The Gemological Institute of America Diamond Grading Report that came with the diamond indicated that it was Internally Flawless .
In early April 1970 , the diamond was rated one of the thirty great stones of the world and placed on display at Parke @-@ Bernet Galleries in New York City . On 16 April 1970 , the diamond was sold at auction for $ 500 @,@ 000 ( allowing for inflation , this would now be $ 3 @.@ 05 million ) to Edward J. Hand , a then 48 @-@ year @-@ old trucking firm executive from Greenwich , Connecticut . This was the second highest auction price ever for a diamond at that time , the first being circa $ 1 @.@ 1 million for the Taylor @-@ Burton Diamond several years earlier . Six years later , the diamond was placed on display in November 1976 at a charity benefit as a means to attract donors to that benefit .
= = Trivia = =
In December 1982 , British Midland Airways purchased a McDonnell Douglas DC @-@ 9 aircraft from KLM ; two months later , the plane was in the United Kingdom with the name " The Nassak Diamond " .
= Crybaby ( song ) =
" Crybaby " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Mariah Carey . It was released on July 20 , 2000 by Columbia Records as a double A @-@ side with " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " . It was written by Carey and Snoop Dogg , and produced by the former and Damizza for Carey 's seventh studio album , Rainbow ( 1999 ) . It features Snoop Dogg throughout the songs bridge and is built around a sample of the 1988 song " Piece of My Love , " originally performed by Guy and written by Teddy Riley , Aaron Hall , Timmy Gatling and Gene Griffin . Throughout the song , the protagonist reveals the struggles of dealing with insomnia and thoughts of a past relationship during the night , as she spirals out of control and declares " I gotta get me some sleep . "
The song was the center of a very public controversy between Carey and her label Sony Music Entertainment , due to their lack of promotion of it as a commercial single . It , alongside its A @-@ side " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " were not eligible to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 , due to the charts rules at the time of their release . Eventually , the song was able to attain a peak of twenty eight , Carey 's first single to miss the top twenty . The song 's music video features Carey spending a restless night in her apartment , throwing wine and cereal while trying to " get some sleep . " Snoop Dogg makes an appearance in the video through a television monitor . Carey performed the song live during her Rainbow World Tour , in support of the album and its singles .
= = Background and composition = =
" Crybaby " was recorded during the summer of 1999 in Capri , Italy . The song is composed in the key of F major and features instrumentation from the guitar and piano . Carey 's vocal range throughout the song ranges from the low note of E3 to the high note of F5 . " Crybaby " features a rap verse from Snoop Dogg , and incorporates heavy usage of background vocals . The song 's lyrics find the protagonist struggling with insomnia due to thoughts of a past lover throughout the night , not allowing her to sleep . According to Carey , the song also has a more personal message , relating to the difficulty of getting rest with such a work @-@ filled schedule . She claimed that through writing , recording and producing her music , as well as all the promotional appearances , it became increasingly difficult for her to unwind and sleep at night . At one point in the song , Carey sings " I gotta get me some sleep , " before finishing the final chorus .
= = Controversy = =
As with Butterfly two years prior , Rainbow became the center of a conflict in between Carey and her label . After Carey 's divorce with Sony record official and Columbia CEO Tommy Mottola , the working relationship with Carey and her label deteriorated . After the first two singles from Rainbow were released , Carey was gearing up for a third single to be released . She intended for " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " to be the next single , as it held very personal lyrical content . However , after getting wind of her plan , Sony made it clear that the album needed a more up @-@ beat and urban track to warm airwaves . These different opinions led to a very public feud in between them , as Carey began posting messages on her webpage during early and mid @-@ 2000 , telling fans inside information on the scandal , as well as instructing them to request " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " on radio stations . One of the messages Carey left on her page read :
" Basically , a lot of you know the political situation in my professional career is not positive . It 's been really , really hard . I don 't even know if this message is going to get to you because I don 't know if they want you to hear this . I 'm getting a lot of negative feedback from certain corporate people . But I am not willing to give up . "
Carey 's actions were given mixed reception , with critics and executives both commending her bold actions towards a song she felt needed to be heard , while others criticized her for publicizing the scandal further . Soon after , Sony involved themselves further , stripping Carey 's webpage of any messages and began trying to reach an agreement with her . Fearing to lose their label 's highest seller , and the best @-@ selling artist of the decade , Sony chose to release the song as a double A @-@ side with " Crybaby " . Carey , initially content with the agreement , soon found out that the song had only been allowed a very limited and low @-@ promotion release , not allowing the song to chart on the official US chart , and making international charting extremely difficult and unlikely .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critical reviews for " Crybaby " were generally positive . Danyel Smith from Entertainment Weekly called the song " sexy " and wrote " the rapper 's words tumble like dice across her velvety vocals . " Editor from Rolling Stone , Arion Berger , also complimented " Crybaby , " especially the way Snoop Dogg 's verses blended with Carey 's vocals . Berger called his rap verses " fittingly careless . " Robert Christgau , an editor from The Village Voice , commented that the song was " not real R & B thrush , " but wrote " its good enough to fake it . " While reviewing Rainbow , Dara Cook from MTV wrote that " Mariah amazes , " on the song also calling the collaboration " Snoop Dogg enhanced . " Cook wrote further " Perhaps culled from remnant Derek Jeter @-@ directed rage , a frenzied and fed @-@ up Mariah aggravates herself into a soulful , improvisational tizzy . "
= = = Commercial performance = = =
" Crybaby " was released as the third single from Rainbow in 2000 , as a double A @-@ side with " Can 't Take That Away ( Mariah 's Theme ) " . " Can 't
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. It was the most horrible thing I could possibly have done . It was just thoughtless .
Some critics responded that her apology came at a time when a group of New England Veterans had launched a campaign to disrupt a film project she was working on , leading to the charge that her apology was motivated at least partly by self @-@ interest .
In a 60 Minutes interview on March 31 , 2005 , Fonda reiterated that she had no regrets about her trip to North Vietnam in 1972 , with the exception of the anti @-@ aircraft @-@ gun photo . She stated that the incident was a " betrayal " of American forces and of the " country that gave me privilege " . Fonda said , " The image of Jane Fonda , Barbarella , Henry Fonda 's daughter ... sitting on an enemy aircraft gun was a betrayal ... the largest lapse of judgment that I can even imagine . " She later distinguished between regret over the use of her image as propaganda and pride for her anti @-@ war activism : " There are hundreds of American delegations that had met with the POWs . Both sides were using the POWs for propaganda ... It 's not something that I will apologize for . " Fonda said she had no regrets about the broadcasts she made on Radio Hanoi , something she asked the North Vietnamese to do : " Our government was lying to us and men were dying because of it , and I felt I had to do anything that I could to expose the lies and help end the war . "
= = = = Subject of government surveillance = = = =
In 2013 , it was revealed that Fonda was one of approximately 1 @,@ 600 Americans whose communications between 1967 and 1973 were monitored by the United States National Security Agency ( NSA ) as part of Project Minaret , a program that some NSA officials have described as " disreputable if not downright illegal " . Fonda 's communications , as well as those of her husband , Tom Hayden , were intercepted by Britain 's Government Communications Headquarters ( GCHQ ) . Under the UKUSA Agreement , the GCHQ sent the intercepted data on Americans to the U.S. government .
= = = Feminist causes = = =
Fonda has been a longtime supporter of feminist causes , including V @-@ Day , a movement to stop violence against women , inspired by the off @-@ Broadway hit The Vagina Monologues , of which she is an honorary chairperson . She was present at their first summit in 2002 , bringing together founder Eve Ensler , Afghan women oppressed by the Taliban , and a Kenyan activist campaigning to save girls from genital mutilation .
In 2001 , she established the Jane Fonda Center for Adolescent Reproductive Health at Emory University in Atlanta , Georgia to help prevent adolescent pregnancy through training and program development .
On February 16 , 2004 , Fonda led a march through Ciudad Juárez , with Sally Field , Eve Ensler and other women , urging Mexico to provide sufficient resources to newly appointed officials helping investigate the murders of hundreds of women in the rough border city . That same year , she served as a mentor to the first ever all @-@ transsexual cast of The Vagina Monologues .
In the days before the September 17 , 2006 Swedish elections , Fonda went to Sweden to support the new political party Feministiskt initiativ in their election campaign .
In My Life So Far , Fonda stated that she considers patriarchy to be harmful to men as well as women . She also states that for many years , she feared to call herself a feminist , because she believed that all feminists were " anti @-@ male " . But now , with her increased understanding of patriarchy , she feels that feminism is beneficial to both men and women , and states that she " still loves men " , adding that when she divorced Ted Turner , she felt like she had also divorced the world of patriarchy , and was very happy to have done so .
= = = Native Americans = = =
Fonda went to Seattle , Washington , in 1970 to support a group of Native Americans who were led by Bernie Whitebear . The group had occupied part of the grounds of Fort Lawton , which was in the process of being surplussed by the United States Army and turned into a park . The group was attempting to secure a land base where they could establish services for the sizable local urban Indian population , protesting that " Indians had a right to part of the land that was originally all theirs . " The endeavor succeeded and the Daybreak Star Cultural Center was constructed in the city 's Discovery Park .
= = = Israeli – Palestinian conflict = = =
In December 2002 , Fonda visited Israel and the West Bank as part of a tour focusing on stopping violence against women . She demonstrated with Women in Black against Israel 's occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip outside the residence of Israel 's Prime Minister . She later visited Jewish and Arab doctors and patients at a Jerusalem hospital , followed by visits to Ramallah to see a physical rehabilitation center , and a Palestinian refugee camp . She was heckled by three members of Women in Green as she arrived for a meeting with leading Israeli feminists .
In September 2009 , she was one of more than 1 @,@ 500 signatories to a letter protesting the 2009 Toronto International Film Festival 's spotlight on Tel Aviv . The protest letter said that the spotlight on Tel Aviv was part of " the Israeli propaganda machine " because it was supported in part by funding from the Israeli government and had been described by the Israeli Consul General Amir Gissin as being part of a Brand Israel campaign intended to draw attention away from Israel 's conflict with the Palestinians . Other signers included actor Danny Glover , musician David Byrne , journalist John Pilger , and authors Alice Walker , Naomi Klein , and Howard Zinn .
Rabbi Marvin Hier of the Simon Wiesenthal Center stated that " People who support letters like this are people who do not support a two @-@ state solution . By calling into question the legitimacy of Tel Aviv , they are supporting a one @-@ state solution , which means the destruction of the State of Israel . " Hier continued , saying that " it is clear that the script [ the protesters ] are reading from might as well have been written by Hamas . "
Fonda , in The Huffington Post , said she regretted some of the language used in the original protest letter and how it " was perhaps too easily misunderstood . It certainly has been wildly distorted . Contrary to the lies that have been circulated , the protest letter was not demonizing Israeli films and filmmakers . " She continued , writing " the greatest ' re @-@ branding ' of Israel would be to celebrate that country 's long standing , courageous and robust peace movement by helping to end the blockade of Gaza through negotiations with all parties to the conflict , and by stopping the expansion of West Bank settlements . That 's the way to show Israel 's commitment to peace , not a PR campaign . There will be no two @-@ state solution unless this happens . " Fonda emphasized that she , " in no way , support [ s ] the destruction of Israel . I am for the two @-@ state solution . I have been to Israel many times and love the country and its people . " Several prominent Atlanta Jews subsequently signed a letter to The Huffington Post rejecting the vilification of Fonda , who they described as " a strong supporter and friend of Israel " .
= = = Opposition to the Iraq War = = =
Fonda argued that the military campaign in Iraq will turn people all over the world against America , and asserted that a global hatred of America would result in more terrorist attacks in the aftermath of the war . In July 2005 , Fonda announced plans to make an anti @-@ war bus tour in March 2006 with her daughter and several families of military veterans , saying that some of the war veterans she had met while on her book tour had urged her to speak out against the Iraq War . She later canceled the tour , because of concerns that she would distract attention from Cindy Sheehan 's activism .
In September 2005 , Fonda was scheduled to join British politician and anti @-@ war activist George Galloway at two stops on his U.S. book tour , Madison , Wisconsin and Chicago . She canceled her appearances at the last minute , citing instructions from her doctors to avoid travel following recent hip surgery .
On January 27 , 2007 , Fonda participated in an anti @-@ war rally and march held on the National Mall in Washington , D.C. , declaring that " silence is no longer an option " . Fonda spoke at an anti @-@ war rally earlier in the day at the Navy Memorial , where members of the organization Free Republic picketed in a counter protest .
= = = Fonda and Kerry = = =
In the 2004 presidential election , her name was used as a disparaging epithet against John Kerry , the former VVAW leader , who was then the Democratic Party presidential candidate . Republican National Committee Chairman Ed Gillespie called Kerry a " Jane Fonda Democrat " . Also , Kerry 's opponents circulated a photograph showing Fonda and Kerry in the same large crowd at a 1970 anti @-@ war rally , although they were sitting several rows apart . A faked composite photograph , which gave the false impression that the two had shared a speaker 's platform , was also circulated .
= = = Environmentalism = = =
In 2015 , Fonda expressed disapproval with President Barack Obama 's permitting of arctic drilling ( Petroleum exploration in the Arctic ) at the Sundance Film Festival . In July , she marched in a Toronto protest called the " March for Jobs , Justice , and Climate , " which was organized by dozens of nonprofits , labor unions , and environmental activists , including Canadian author Naomi Klein . The march aimed to show businesses and politicians alike that climate change is inherently linked to issues that may seem unrelated .
= = Writing = =
On April 5 , 2005 , Random House released Fonda 's autobiography My Life So Far . The book describes her life as a series of three acts , each thirty years long , and declares that her third " act " will be her most significant , partly because of her commitment to the Christian religion , and that it will determine the things for which she will be remembered .
Fonda 's autobiography was well received by book critics , and was noted to be " as beguiling and as maddening as Jane Fonda herself " in its Washington Post review , pronouncing her a " beautiful bundle of contradictions " . The New York Times called the book " achingly poignant " .
In January 2009 , Fonda started chronicling her Broadway return in a blog , with posts about topics ranging from her Pilates class to her fears and excitement about her new play . She uses Twitter and has a Facebook page . In 2011 , Fonda published a new book : Prime Time : Love , health , sex , fitness , friendship , spirit — making the most of all of your life . The book offers stories from her own life as well as from the lives of others , giving her perspective on how to better live what she calls " the critical years from 45 and 50 , and especially from 60 and beyond " .
= = Charitable work = =
According to IRS filings , Fonda founded the Jane Fonda Foundation in 2004 as a charitable corporation with herself as president , chair , director and secretary ; Fonda contributes 10 hours each week on its behalf .
= = Personal life = =
Fonda married her first husband , French film director Roger Vadim , on August 14 , 1965 , at the Dunes Hotel in Las Vegas . The couple had a daughter , Vanessa , born on September 28 , 1968 , in Paris , France , and named for actress and activist Vanessa Redgrave . On January 19 , 1973 , three days after obtaining a divorce from Vadim in Santo Domingo , Fonda married activist Tom Hayden in a free @-@ form ceremony at her home in Laurel Canyon . Their son , Troy O 'Donovan Garity , was born on July 7 , 1973 in Los Angeles and was given his paternal grandmother 's maiden name , as the names " Fonda and Hayden carried too much baggage " . Fonda and Hayden wanted to give their son a name that " was both American and Vietnamese " and chose " Troy " , an Anglicization of the Vietnamese " Troi " , as the only name they could think of meeting that requirement . Hayden chose O 'Donovan as the middle name after Irish revolutionary Jeremiah O 'Donovan Rossa . In 1982 , Fonda and Hayden unofficially adopted an African @-@ American teenager , Mary Luana Williams ( known as Lulu ) , who was the daughter of members of the Black Panthers . Fonda and Hayden were divorced on June 10 , 1990 in Santa Monica . She married her third husband , cable @-@ television tycoon and CNN founder Ted Turner , on December 21 , 1991 , at a ranch near Capps , Florida . The pair divorced on May 22 , 2001 in Atlanta , Georgia . Since 2009 , Fonda has been in a relationship with record producer Richard Perry .
Fonda grew up an atheist , but turned to Christianity in the early 2000s . She describes her beliefs as being " outside of established religion " , with a more feminist slant , and views God as something that " lives within each of us as Spirit ( or soul ) . " She practices Zazen meditation and Yoga .
Having been diagnosed with breast cancer , Fonda underwent a lumpectomy in November 2010 , and has recovered .
= = Honors = =
In 1962 , Fonda was given the honorary title of " Miss Army Recruiting " by the Pentagon .
In 1981 , she was awarded the Women in Film Crystal Award .
In 1994 , the United Nations Population Fund made Fonda a Goodwill Ambassador . In 2004 , she was awarded the Women 's eNews 21 Leaders for the 21st Century award as one of Seven Who Change Their Worlds . In 2007 , Fonda was awarded an Honorary Palme d 'Or by Cannes Film Festival President Gilles Jacob for career achievement . Only three others had received such an award – Jeanne Moreau , Alain Resnais , and Gerard Oury .
In December 2008 , Fonda was inducted into the California Hall of Fame , located at The California Museum for History , Women and the Arts . In December 2009 , Fonda received the New York Women 's Agenda Lifetime Achievement Award . She was selected as the 42nd recipient ( 2014 ) of the AFI Life Achievement Award .
= = Filmography = =
= The Haunting Hour : Don 't Think About It =
R. L. Stine 's The Haunting Hour : Don 't Think About It is a 2007 American children 's horror film based on the children 's book of the same name by R. L. Stine . The film was directed by Alex Zamm , written by Dan Angel and Billy Brown , and stars Emily Osment , Cody Linley , Brittany Curran , and Tobin Bell . It was released direct @-@ to @-@ DVD . The plot follows a goth girl named Cassie ( Emily Osment ) moving into a new town and fascinated by the occult . At a mysterious Halloween store , the store owner ( Tobin Bell ) insists on selling her an old book . Stuck with her brother Max ( Alex Winzenread ) on Halloween night , she reads the book to him , despite the book 's warnings not to read it out aloud or think about its monster . The monster comes to life and captures Max . Cassie , with help from her friends , must save Max and defeat the monster before their parents return from a Halloween party .
The film was a joint production with Universal Studios Home Entertainment Family Productions , The Hatchery , and Steeltown Entertainment . The film was released on DVD by Universal Studios Home Entertainment on September 4 , 2007 , and aired on Cartoon Network on September 7 , 2007 . The film received mostly positive reviews from media critics upon release .
= = Plot = =
Cassie ( Emily Osment ) is a thirteen @-@ year @-@ old goth girl who just moved with her family to a new neighborhood and school . She loves to trick the popular kids at school and her younger brother Max ( Alex Winzenread ) .
On the way to a library , Cassie finds a mysterious Halloween store in an alley and goes inside . The store owner ( Tobin Bell ) insists on selling her an old book titled The Evil Thing , which contains a warning not to read it aloud or think about its monster called " The Evil Thing " , a two @-@ headed creature that sucks blood while the other head eats meat . That night , Cassie ignores the warning in the book and reads it to Max as revenge for him unplugging her computer in the middle of a report she was writing . Priscilla Wright ( Brittany Curran ) , a school bully who stole The Evil Thing from Cassie 's bag in school , films her jumping in fear , after using a CD player to play monster sounds outside in order to make the monster appear to have come to life .
After Cassie 's parents leave for a Halloween party and later that night , The Evil Thing is brought to life by Max 's thoughts , and captures him , Priscilla and a Papa John 's Pizza delivery man . It is up to Cassie and Sean ( Cody Linley ) , a popular boy who Cassie likes , to save them . At first , they try to defeat The Evil Thing on their own , but fail . Cassie then asks the owner of the shop , where she bought the book , for help . Cassie discovers that the store owner travels around the world each Halloween , searching for a person who loves to scare people the most and tricks them into reading the book aloud , releasing The Evil Thing , possibly in order to teach them a lesson . He leaves them with the riddle " two heads are better than one ; that 's the way to get the bloody job done " before his shop disappears . After he disappears , Sean solves the riddle . Together , they formulate that if they get blood from a roast that Cassie 's mother made and throw it onto The Evil Thing , it will be forced to suck up the blood . In doing so , it will devour itself . While they plan their attack , The Evil Thing 's babies hatch and tries to eat the victims . Luckily , Sean and Cassie make it in time . By using Sean 's CD of monster sound effects , they are able to lure the monster to the CD player ; however , when the monster nudges it , the music turns into hip hop , thus ruining their plan . While fumbling , Sean and Cassie accidentally drop the blood near Max , who must conquer his fears . When Cassie encourages him , Max tosses the blood onto The Evil Thing , causing its heads to begin attacking each other . The monster eats itself , eventually exploding in a shower of yellow blood , killing itself and its offspring .
With The Evil Thing destroyed , Max , Sean and Cassie save Priscilla . She angrily yells at Cassie and calls her a witch , and Sean rejects Priscilla in favor of Cassie . After Priscilla leaves , they save the pizza delivery man , who offers them free pizza in return for releasing him , then follows Priscilla to hit on her , to her disgust . Cassie and Sean burn the book and set aside all their thoughts about The Evil Thing . Sean leaves shortly afterward . Cassie and Max 's parents then come home and find the book in the fireplace . The father mockingly reads it out loud , reviving The Evil Thing . The film concludes with Cassie realizing that The Evil Thing has been brought back to life and that it is not over yet .
= = Cast = =
Emily Osment as Cassie Keller , a goth girl who likes to read and enjoys pulling pranks on students and her brother . While walking to the library , Cassie visits a Halloween shop , which she did not think was there before . After ignoring the warning within the book to not read it aloud , a monster known as the Evil Thing escapes into the city after her brother thinks about it .
Cody Linley as Sean Redford , a popular boy in high school who likes Priscilla Wright . After feeling regret for helping Priscilla to bully Cassie , he leaves her , befriending Cassie and helping her defeat the monster .
Brittany Curran as Priscilla Wright , a popular girl in high school , who bullies Cassie for her goth appearance and takes pride in holding the festive title of " Pumpkin Queen " .
Alex Winzenread as Maximilian " Max " Keller , Cassie 's little brother , who is easily frightened . Cassie thinks that her brother is annoying and a nuisance , so she frequently scares him . After Cassie , Max , and Sean work together to defeat the Evil Thing , she gains respect for her brother .
Tobin Bell as the Stranger , who owns the Halloween shop . His shop is not always in the same location , as he moves from place to place to find people who like to terrify others .
= = Production = =
Margaret Loesch , who founded Fox Kids and the Hallmark Channel , served as the executive producer . The film 's music score was composed by Chris Hajian . Dan Angel , who wrote the script , said " The key is to do no gore , no violence , no [ bad ] language , no sex , no one dies , but you can take the audience to a scary place and bring them back " .
R. L. Stine was consulted for how the script should be written . There was supposed to be a series based on the short stories in R. L. Stine 's book , but the executive producers decided to film their own original story , and Stine contributed what he thought should be added to it . Stine said that the film is no different from his short stories , saying , " It 's a really good , creepy adventure for kids , but it never really goes too far , sort of like my stories . "
Filming took place in the borough of Carnegie , Pennsylvania as well as Cranberry Township in October and November 2006 . Filmed in Pittsburgh , the local Steeltown Entertainment Project has a credit in the film 's beginning for investing in the film 's production . Other people in Pittsburgh have credits at the end of the film . Over 100 local citizens had a part in the film 's production . Loesch stated the filming could not have happened in Pittsburgh without the help of Steeltown . A problem during the production was how many hours children can work each day , due to child labor laws .
Product placement for the film includes a cookie from the restaurant chain Eat 'n Park and Papa John 's Pizza . The use of pizza delivery by Papa John 's Pizza in the film was regarded by Common Sense Media , a media website for parents , reviewer Heather Boerner , as " overly integrated product placement " . She criticized the product placement , writing , " Not only is the pizza delivery guy included in more than half of the DVD , but the logo is present and the kids are shown munching ecstatically on the pizza at the end of the movie . They even say that the pizza is great , and how the delivery guy was nice . It 's enough to make a commercial @-@ conscious parent gag " .
Gregory Nicotero and Howard Berger designed the animatronic monster , The Evil Thing . The Evil Thing was created by Nicotero 's company KNB FX , the same company that did the special effects for The Chronicles of Narnia : The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe . The monster 's two heads were controlled by two people . Cody Linley described the monster as " nasty " , while the director Alex Zamm said , " That 's lunch " .
= = Release = =
= = = Home media = = =
In the United States , the film was rated as " PG " by the Motion Picture Association of America for " scary content and thematic elements " . It was rated " 12 " by the British Board of Film Classification in the United Kingdom .
The Haunting Hour : Don 't Think About It was released on DVD with seven special features , including Emily Osment singing " I Don 't Think About It " , a behind the scenes video of the production , a personality test that compares the viewer to the characters , an interview with R. L. Stine and the film 's cast , and three trailers for other films . The DVD is in widescreen format with English Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 0 sound . Subtitles on the DVD are available in English , French , and Spanish . The DVD was released on September 4 , 2007 in the United States and on October 22 , 2007 in the United Kingdom .
The DVD release of The Haunting Hour : Don 't Think About It was reported as the fourth top children 's DVD rental on a chart from the Orlando Sentinel , published on September 28 , 2007 .
= = = Television = = =
The film aired on the children 's cable channel Cartoon Network on September 7 , 2007 . A re @-@ airing of the film received the most viewers of that week for the channel .
The film spawned a spin @-@ off television series called R. L. Stine 's The Haunting Hour premiered October 29 , 2010 on the Hub Network . The series was similar to R.L. Stine 's previous anthology television series , Goosebumps , and had a different story in each episode . It was cancelled on December 6 , 2014 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The film received mostly positive reviews . William Lee , a reviewer writing for the Movie Metropolis , said " Don 't Think About It is a very simplistic and straightforward tale . The characters all fit into the standard roles of popular boy , outsider , and mean girl and they never advance beyond those descriptions " .
Nick Lyons of DVD Talk wrote : " As the children 's horror movie / television field is sparse , this film is a perfect opportunity for youngins to experience the genre before eventually moving on to classic horror movies . Hopefully we shall see more Haunting Hour films in the future " . In her review for About.com , Carey Bryson said : " The movie is a great Halloween flick for kids in the target age group ( about ages 8 @-@ 14 , depending on their ability to handle scary content ) , and stars some of the big names in current kid culture " . Melanie Dee of Yahoo ! Voices called The Haunting Hour : Don 't Think About It " a fast @-@ paced movie " . She noted the scenes " jump quickly and get the point across , making it an easy to follow upbeat flick that kids and parents alike will enjoy . "
= = = Accolades = = =
In 2008 , film writers Dan Angel and Billy Brown were nominated for a Writers Guild of America Award for the Children 's Script - Long Form or Special category . At the 29th Young Artist Awards , Cody Linley and Emily Osment were nominated for Best Performance in a TV Movie , Miniseries , or Special - Leading Young Actor and Actress categories , respectively .
= Jake Diekman =
Jacob Tanner Diekman ( born January 21 , 1987 ) is an American professional baseball pitcher with the Texas Rangers of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He previously played for the Philadelphia Phillies . He throws left @-@ handed . Diekman grew up in Wymore , Nebraska , where he attended a high school too small for a baseball team , so he instead focused on golf , playing baseball in the summer for an American Legion team . He played two seasons of baseball in college at Doane College and Cloud County Community College respectively before attending a junior college baseball showcase , at which he was offered a scholarship to play Division I baseball . However , in the 2007 Major League Baseball Draft , the Philadelphia Phillies selected him in the 30th round , and he ultimately signed .
With the Phillies , Diekman began as a starting pitcher and progressed through a few levels of the Phillies ' farm system in his first two years as a starter before adjusting his mechanics and lowering his arm slot to throw sidearm out of the bullpen as a relief pitcher . The adjustment worked , and helped him move through the remaining levels of the Phillies ' farm system and , in 2012 , making his major league debut . Over the next two seasons , he split time between the major league Phillies and their Triple @-@ A ( AAA ) affiliate , the Lehigh Valley Iron Pigs , though while he was with the major league team , was considered one of the " lone bright spots " in both 2012 and 2013 . Diekman throws a fastball in the mid @-@ 90s ( mph ) , a slider , and an occasional changeup ; his fastball is among the fastest of any left @-@ handed reliever in the major leagues .
Diekman 's parents have been key parts of his life , especially his mother , who died soon before the Phillies drafted him , and from whom he now draws inspiration . He holds a degree in business administration , and resides in Beatrice , Nebraska in the offseason .
= = Early career = =
Diekman was born to Paul and Billie Diekman in 1987 . He has one brother . He attended Southern High School in Wymore , Nebraska , which was too small to field a baseball team , so Diekman played golf there instead . Eventually , he joined an American Legion baseball team with players from Wymore and several surrounding towns , which Diekman called " the best experience of my life ... so much fun " . Concurrently , he worked full @-@ time at a lawn mower factory to earn money to pursue post @-@ secondary education .
After graduating high school , he enrolled at Doane College , where he pitched for one season . He transferred to Cloud County Community College in Kansas . Following his sophomore season , he attended a showcase at which , with a fastball well over 90 miles per hour ( 140 km / h ) , he drew much interest . He received an offer for a full scholarship to be a Nebraska Cornhusker , which he would have accepted had the Phillies not drafted him in the 2007 Major League Baseball Draft 's 30th round .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Philadelphia Phillies = = =
Between 2007 and 2010 , he pitched in the lower levels of the Philadelphia Phillies ' Minor League system initially as a starter , and subsequently as a reliever . Although he initially saw success in 2007 , posting a 2 @.@ 72 ERA in 10 starts with GCL Phillies and Williamsport Crosscutters , he struggled in 2008 , posting an ERA of 5 @.@ 09 in 27 starts , split between Williamsport and the Lakewood Blue Claws . At the conclusion of both 2008 and 2009 , he pitched in the Florida Instructional League to continue honing his skills on the mound .
He converted from a starting pitcher to a reliever in 2009 , along with several other Phillies pitching prospects . Around that time , he also , at the suggestion of the same minor league pitching coaches who converted him to relief , lowered his release point to his current low angle . Success did not manifest itself immediately , as he still posted a 4 @.@ 04 ERA in 2009 , his first season in relief , but in 2010 , he cut his ERA to 2 @.@ 91 while splitting time between Lakewood and the Clearwater Threshers , the Phillies High @-@ A affiliate . At the end of the 2010 season , he played for the Mesa Solar Sox in the Arizona Fall League . He spent the 2011 season with the Double @-@ A Reading Phillies , accruing a 0 – 1 record and a 3 @.@ 05 ERA and 3 saves in 53 games . Thereafter , the Phillies added him to their 40 @-@ man roster to protect him from the Rule 5 draft .
After receiving praise from Phillies ' pitching coach Rich Dubee for his performance in spring training , Diekman opened the 2012 season with the Triple @-@ A ( AAA ) Lehigh Valley IronPigs . With Lehigh Valley , he posted a 1 – 0 record and a 0 @.@ 59 ERA with 5 saves in 13 games in the season 's first month . He was added to the Phillies ' 25 @-@ man Major League roster on May 11 , and four days later recorded a win against the Houston Astros in his MLB debut . He finished the year an established lefty specialist , and had a 3 @.@ 95 ERA , though walked 6 @.@ 6 batters per 9 innings , and was erratic in his control .
Entering 2013 , Diekman was expected to be a key part of the Phillies bullpen after his success in 2012 , however he did not break camp with the big league club , beginning the season in AAA . In AAA , he struggled , which delayed his arrival to the major league team until June . While with the big league club , he continued his dominance of left @-@ handed hitters , however was not as good against right @-@ handed hitters ( a 150 @-@ point differential in opponent batting average and over 300 point differential in On @-@ base plus slugging ( OPS ) ) . Diekman improved his control , which made him a presumptive member of the 2014 bullpen , as he was one of 2013 's " lone bright spots " for the otherwise dismal Phillies ' bullpen . Ultimately , he did make the Phillies ' opening day roster as a member of the bullpen .
Early in the season , Diekman emerged as a reliable reliever in the Phillies ' bullpen , and was used extensively by manager Ryne Sandberg . As the season progressed , Diekman was more successful against left @-@ handed hitters than right @-@ handed hitters , but was used against both in a variety of situations . On September 1 , 2014 , Diekman was one of four pitchers who combined for a no @-@ hitter in the Phillies ' 7 @-@ 0 win over the Atlanta Braves in Turner Field . By the end of the season , the Phillies had one of the best bullpens in the league , and it consisted predominantly of young players such as Diekman . There was excitement from both Phillies ' personnel and writers that the bullpen could remain solid for a long time because of young pitchers such as Diekman , Ken Giles , and Justin De Fratus . Moreover , Diekman and Giles had potential as closers should the Phillies trade Jonathan Papelbon . Overall , Diekman emerged as a name to be mentioned among the " elite " relievers of the National League , but was overused against right @-@ handed batters , which hurt his statistics .
= = = Texas Rangers = = =
On July 31 , 2015 , Diekman was traded to the Texas Rangers along with Cole Hamels in exchange for Matt Harrison , Nick Williams , Jorge Alfaro , Jake Thompson , Alec Asher , and Jerad Eickhoff . He became an important bullpen piece in the Rangers ' run to the playoffs in 2016 . Diekman and the Rangers agreed to a one @-@ year deal worth $ 1 @.@ 225 million on January 29 , 2016 , and avoided arbitration .
= = Pitching style = =
A lefty specialist , Diekman throws a fastball in the mid @-@ 90s , a slider at 78 – 81 , and an occasional changeup to right @-@ handed hitters . His fastball is among the fastest of left @-@ handed relievers in the major leagues . Like most left @-@ handed pitchers , particularly those who throw out of an arm angle similar to Diekman 's , he is tough on left @-@ handed hitters . In 2013 , he held lefties to just a .368 OPS , though allowed a .765 OPS to right @-@ handed hitters . Despite suggestions he remain a lefty specialist , he emerged in 2014 as a favorite middle reliever for manager Ryne Sandberg against both righties and lefties .
= = Personal life = =
Diekman 's maturation was characterized by two parents that were equally loving , but embodied a stark juxtaposition in terms of demeanor . His mother , Billie , was Diekman 's " biggest fan " , and had to order her husband , Paul , to stop pacing , and watch Diekman pitch . However , Billie died at age 57 , just months before the Phillies drafted her son . Diekman has sought therapy to cope with the loss , and meditates thinking about her during " The Star Spangled Banner " prior to each game .
" ( After his mother 's death ) Diekman started to appreciate the little things . The game slowed down when he had fun . He invoked his mother 's spirit rather than avoiding it . ' The drive and determination she had for all the projects she did , how hard she worked , the dedication she had for her job , ' Diekman said . ' It really paid off . It really came to me . I thought , ' If I have a job , I want to put in the time and dedication like she did . ' ' That is how Billie Diekman 's legacy perseveres . It is why a young man from tiny Wymore , Neb . , will cherish Sunday 's rendition of " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " at a baseball stadium ... "
Diekman describes his father as his " best friend " , and one who has helped him cope with his mother 's death . Away from baseball , Diekman holds an associate 's degree in business administration from Cloud County Community College , and enjoys listening to music , working out , and playing golf . He resides in Beatrice , Nebraska during the offseason .
= Heavy Metal and Reflective =
" Heavy Metal and Reflective " is a song recorded by American rapper Azealia Banks for her debut studio album Broke with Expensive Taste ( 2014 ) . It was released as the second single from the album on July 28 , 2014 . Production of the song was handled by Lil Internet , who previously worked with Banks on her 2013 single " Yung Rapunxel " , while writing came from Banks , James Strife and Julian Wodsworth . The track received generally mixed reviews from critics , who complimented the song 's overall sound , but were critical of Banks ' vocals . To promote " Heavy Metal and Reflective " , Banks released a music video for the song on August 5 , 2014 , directed by Rob Soucy and Nick Ace , in which Banks escapes from being kidnapped and left in the desert , before leading a motorcycle gang through the terrain , arming herself with pit bulls .
= = Background = =
In 2011 , it was reported that Banks was working on her debut studio album with British producer Paul Epworth , despite not being signed to a record label at the time . In January 2012 , Banks signed a deal with Interscope and Polydor Records to work on new music , and a month later , she announced the title of the album to be Broke with Expensive Taste . " Heavy Metal and Reflective " was first announced in September 2013 , when Banks posted the track listing of the album to her Instagram account . Approximately a year later , she handed a complete version of the album in to the labels . Banks initially thought it would receive favorable reception from the labels ; however , the representatives told Banks that she had not recorded a " hit " single for the album . Ultimately , Banks ended the record deal with Interscope and Polydor in July 2014 . " Heavy Metal and Reflective " was the first post @-@ Interscope / Polydor track that Banks released , under her own new label , Azealia Banks Records . She later approached Jeff Kwatinetz and signed a contract with his company , Prospect Park , which ultimately led to the long @-@ awaited release of Broke with Expensive Taste on November 7 , 2014 .
Throughout December 2014 , Banks released a series of videos in which she gave a track @-@ by @-@ track commentary for all of the songs from Broke with Expensive Taste , and revealed how each song came to be , dubbed the ' 16 Days of Azealia ' . During the commentary video for " Heavy Metal and Reflective " , Banks revealed that the song was created during a four @-@ day studio session based in London , in which she was with the track 's producer , Lil Internet , as well as Machinedrum and her friends . She talked about how Lil Internet was " off in this other area " , segregated from the rest of the group , for two days . He then emerged from his segregated space on the second day in the studio , with the instrumental for the track . Banks described her initial reaction to the song 's production as " holy shit , this is crazy " , and that the beat reminded her of past works of DMX , Ruff Ryders and Swizz Beatz . She also revealed that the track was originally titled " Street Angel " .
= = Composition = =
" Heavy Metal and Reflective " is a song that runs for a duration of two minutes and thirty seconds . The track was produced by Lil Internet , who previously worked with Banks on her 2013 single " Yung Rapunxel " . Kevipod from Direct Lyrics described the song 's instrumental as " a hard @-@ hitting , menacing beat courtesy of Lil Internet " . Chris Coplan from Consequence of Sound commented that the song possessed a " combo of throbbing bass and sweat @-@ soaked synths " . Iyana Robertson , writing for Vibe , described the song 's instrumental as a " a high @-@ energy , twerk @-@ yielding backdrop " , going on to describe Banks ' rapping in the song " [ Banks ] employs a complementing monotone to wield her sexual prowess " .
= = Reception = =
The track received generally mixed reviews from critics . BET writed Dominique Zonyeé spoke on the track , calling it a " high energy , boastful song in which Azealia struts her stuff while reminding you that competitors have nothing on her " . Chris Coplan from Consequence of Sound thought that the song had " the potential to a true club banger " . Vanyaland writer Michael Marotta described the track as " brooding and menacing " , going on to describe Banks ' delivery , " Banks slices through her verses in a way that recalls the magic she first flashed on the still @-@ lethal 2011 track ' 212 ' " . In a positive review , Chris Thomas from HipHopWired complimented the track , writing " The Harlem native waxes poetics with a dexterous flow . Her rhymes are laden with braggadocios lines about her boss status " . In a mixed review , Kevipod from Direct Lyrics complimented the song 's instrumental , but was critical of Banks ' vocals , writing " ' Heavy Metal and Reflective ' possesses a hard @-@ hitting , menacing beat courtesy of Lil Internet and a lot of stale rapping by Azealia " , while also commenting on the need for a more mainstream song from Banks ' " if she really wants to put her career together again " . Robbie Daw from Idolator panned the track , describing the song as " trap @-@ lite trash " , recommending that Banks spends more time " actually focus [ ing ] on not making shit music " .
Commercially , the single achieved minor success in the UK . The song peaked at number 40 on the UK Indie Chart , and number 10 on the UK Indie Breakers Chart .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Music video = = =
Banks initially announced the track 's release via a tweet of a video still from the song 's music video , on July 18 , 2014 . In the still , Banks was seen standing under the sun , sporting a black jumpsuit adorned with flames on the chest and matching 3D flames on the sleeve . Critics called the release date bold , as the video was scheduled to drop a mere twenty @-@ four hours after that of fellow female rapper Nicki Minaj 's " Anaconda " . The music video was released on August 5 , 2014 , and was directed by Rob Soucy and Nick Ace . In the video , Banks escapes from being kidnapped and left in the desert , before leading a motorcycle gang through the terrain , arming herself with pit bulls .
= = = Live performances = = =
On April 10 , 2015 , Banks performed " Heavy Metal and Reflective " during her set at the Coachella Festival . Rap @-@ Up commented that the audience 's " energy was consistently high " during the performance .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from Broke with Expensive Taste liner notes .
Locations
Recorded at Music Box Studios ( London , UK )
Mixed at The Fortress of Amplitude studios ( Los Angeles , California )
Personnel
Vocals – Azealia Banks
Songwriting – Azealia Banks , James Strife , Julian Wodsworth
Production – Lil Internet
Engineering – Rick McRae
Recording – Rick McRae
Mixing – Rob Kinelski
Mixing assistant – David Baker
= = Release history = =
= Battle of Vaslui =
The Battle of Vaslui ( also referred to as the Battle of Podul Înalt or the Battle of Racova ) was fought on January 10 , 1475 , between Stephen III of Moldavia and the Ottoman governor of Rumelia , Hadım Suleiman Pasha . The battle took place at Podul Înalt ( the High Bridge ) , near the town of Vaslui , in Moldavia ( now part of eastern Romania ) . The Ottoman troops numbered up to 120 @,@ 000 , facing about 40 @,@ 000 Moldavian troops , plus smaller numbers of allied and mercenary troops .
Stephen inflicted a decisive defeat on the Ottomans , described as " the greatest ever secured by the Cross against Islam , " with casualties , according to Venetian and Polish records , reaching beyond 40 @,@ 000 on the Ottoman side . Mara Brankovic ( Mara Hatun ) , the former younger wife of Murad II , told a Venetian envoy that the invasion had been worst ever defeat for the Ottomans . Stephen was later awarded the title " Athleta Christi " ( Champion of Christ ) by Pope Sixtus IV , who referred to him as " verus christianae fidei athleta " ( " the true defender of the Christian faith " ) .
According to the Polish chronicler Jan Długosz , Stephen did not celebrate his victory ; instead , he fasted for forty days on bread and water and forbade anyone to attribute the victory to him , insisting that credit be given only to the Lord .
= = Background = =
The conflict between Stephen and Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II worsened when both laid their claims to the historical region of Bessarabia , now known under the name of Budjak . The region had belonged to Wallachia , but later succumbed to Moldavian influence under Petru I of Moldavia and was possibly annexed to Moldavia in the late 14th century by Roman I of Moldavia . Under Alexandru cel Bun , it had become an integral part of Moldavia and was successfully defended in 1420 against the first Ottoman attempt to capture castle Chilia . The ports of Chilia and Akkerman ( Romanian : Cetatea Albā ) were essential for Moldavian commerce . The old trade route from Caffa , Akkerman , and Chilia passed through Suceava in Moldavia and Lwow in Poland ( now in Ukraine ) .
Both Poland and Hungary had previously made attempts to control the region , but had failed ; and for the Ottomans , " the control of these two ports and of Caffa was as much an economic as a political necessity , " as it would also give them a better grip on Moldavia and serve as a valuable strategic point from which naval attacks could be launched against the Commonwealth of Poland @-@ Lithuania . This is confirmed by a German chronicle which explains that Mehmet wanted to turn Moldavia into " some kind of fortress , " and from there , to launch attacks against Poland and Hungary . The Ottomans also feared the strategic position of Moldavia , from whence it would only take 15 to 20 days to reach Constantinople .
In 1448 , Petru II of Moldavia awarded Chilia to John Hunyadi , the governor of Transylvania ; and in effect , it gave Hungary control of the strategic area on the Danube , with access to the Black Sea . With the assassination of Bogdan II of Moldavia in 1451 by his brother Petru Aron , the country fell into civil war , as two pretenders fought for the throne : Aron and Alexăndrel . Bogdan 's son , Stephen , fled Moldavia together with his cousin , Vlad Dracula — who had sought protection at the Moldavian court – to Transylvania , at the court of Hunyadi . Even though Hungary had made peace with the Turks in 1451 , Hunyadi wanted to transform Wallachia and Moldavia into a barrier that would protect the kingdom from Ottoman expansion . In the fall of 1453 , after the Ottoman capture of Constantinople , Moldavia received an ultimatum to start paying tribute to the Porte ; two years later , on October 5 , 1455 , Aron sent the first Moldavian tribute to the Porte : a payment of 2 @,@ 000 ducats . With both Wallachia and Moldavia conducting a pro @-@ Ottoman policy , the plan to install Vlad Țepeș as prince of Wallachia began to take shape . Sometime between April to July 1456 , with the support of a few Hungarian troops and Wallachian boyars , Prince Vladislav II was dethroned and slain , as Vlad Țepeș took possession of the Wallachian throne ; and as such , Chilia became a shared Wallachian @-@ Hungarian possession . In April 1457 , Vlad Țepeș supported Stephen with 6 @,@ 000 horsemen , which the latter used to invade Moldavia and occupy the Moldavian throne , ending the civil war as Aron fled to Poland . The new prince continued sending the tribute that his uncle and Mehmed had agreed upon , and in such way , avoided any premature confrontation with his enemy . His first priority was to strengthen the country and to retrieve its lost territory . Because Aron resided in Poland , Stephen made a few incursions in southern Poland . The hostilities ended on April 4 , 1459 , when in a new treaty between the two countries , Moldavia accepted vassalage and Poland returned Hotin back to Moldavia ; the latter also assumed the obligation to support Moldavia in retrieving Chilia and Cetatea Albă . It was also in the interest of Poland to have the area belonging to Moldavia , as it would increase their commerce in the region . On March 2 , 1462 , in a renewed treaty between the two countries , it was agreed that no Moldavian territory should remain under foreign rulership , and if such territory was under foreign rulership , that territory should be regained . Later that year , it is believed that Stephen asked Vlad to return Chilia back to Moldavia – a demand which was most likely refused .
On June 22 , when Vlad was fighting Mehmed , Stephen allied himself with the Sultan and with some Turkish assistance , he launched an attack on Chilia . The fortress , defended by tall stone walls and 12 cannons , was in the middle of the 15th century the strongest fortification located in the Danube area . The Wallachians rushed to the scene with 7 @,@ 000 men , and together with the Hungarian garrison battled the Moldavians and the Turks for eight days . They managed to defend the town , while wounding Stephen in his foot with a shrapnel . In 1465 , while Vlad was imprisoned in Hungary , Stephen again advanced towards Chilia with a large force and siege weapons ; but instead of besieging the fortress , he showed the garrison – who favoured the Polish King – a letter in which the King required them to surrender the fortress . This they did , and Stephen entered the fortress where he found " its two captains , rather tipsy , for they have been to a wedding . " Mehmed was furious about the news and claimed Chilia for being a part of Wallachia – which now was a vassal to the Porte – and demanded Stephen to give it over to him . The latter refused , however , and recruited an army , forcing Mehmed – who was not yet ready to wage war – to accept the situation , if only for the time being . The Moldavian prince , realizing that a future war with Mehmed could not be avoided , tried to gain time by increasing his tribute to the Porte by 50 percent ( to 3 @,@ 000 ducats ) ; and also sent an envoy to Constantinople with gifts for the sultan . In 1467 , Matthias Corvinus of Hungary launched an expedition against Moldavia in order to punish Stephen for annexing the region . The invasion ended in a disaster for the Hungarians as they suffered a bitter defeat at the Battle of Baia , where Corvinus was thrice wounded by arrows and had to be “ carried from the battlefield on a stretcher , to avoid him falling into the hands of the enemy . ”
In order to secure his southern frontier from Ottoman threats , Stephen wanted to liberate Wallachia – where the hostile Radu the Handsome , the halfbrother of Vlad Țepeș ruled – from Ottoman dominion . In 1470 , he invaded the country and burned down the town of Brăila and in 1471 , Stephen and Radu confronted each other in Moldavia , where the latter was defeated . Meanwhile , Genoa , which possessed several colonies in the Crimea , began to worry about Stephen 's growing influence in the region ; and ordered her colonies to do whatever was needed to revenge past mischief from which allegedly , the Genovese had suffered . The colonies in turn pursued the Tatars to attack Moldavia . Later that year , the Tatars invaded the country from the north , causing great damage to the land and enslaving many . Stephen replied by invading Tatar territory with Polish assistance . In 1472 , Uzun Hassan of Ak Koyunlu invaded the Ottoman Empire from the east , causing a great crisis to the empire . He was defeated the following year , but this unexpected event , as it is explained in a contemporary source , encouraged Venice and Hungary to renew their war on the Ottomans , and Moldavia to free herself from any Ottoman influence . In 1473 , Stephen stopped paying the annual tribute to the Porte and as a reaction to this , an Italian letter , dated from 1473 to Bartolomeo Scala , secretary of the Republic of Florence , reveals that Mehmed had left Constantinople on April 13 and was planning to invade Moldavia from land and sea . Stephen still hoped to make peace with Radu and asked the Polish king to work as mediator . The peace attempts failed and the conflict intensified with three leaders challenging each other for the Wallachian throne : Radu , who was supported by Mehmed ; the seemingly loyal Basarab Laiotă , who at first was supported by Stephen ; and Basarab Ţepeluş cel Tânăr — who would gain the support of Stephen after Laiotă 's betrayal . A series of " absurd " clashes followed , starting with another confrontation between Stephen and Radu on November 18 – 20 , at Râmnicu Sărat , where the latter suffered his second defeat at the hands of the Moldavian " warlike " prince . A few days later , on November 28 , the Ottomans intervened with an army consisting of 12 @,@ 000 Ottomans and 6 @,@ 000 Wallachians , but " they incurred heavy losses and fled across the Danube . " After capturing the castle of Bucharest , Stephen put Laiotă on the throne , but on December 31 , a new Ottoman army of 17 @,@ 000 set camp around river Bârlad , laying waste to the countryside , and intimidating the new prince into abandoning his Wallachian throne and fleeing to Moldavia . In the spring of 1474 , Laiotă took the Wallachian throne for the second time ; and in June , he made the decision to betray his protégé by submitting to Mehmet . Stephen then invested his support into a new candidate , named Ţepeluş ( little spear ) , but his reign was even shorter , as it only lasted a few weeks after being defeated by Laiotă in battle on October 5 . Two weeks later , Stephen returned to Wallachia and forced Laiotă to flee . Mehmed , tired of what transpired in Wallachia , gave Stephen an ultimatum to forfeit Chilia to the Porte , to abolish his aggressive policy in Wallachia , and to come to Constantinople with his delayed homage . The Prince refused and in November 1474 , he wrote to the Pope to warn him of further Ottoman expansion , and to ask him for support .
= = Preparations for war = =
= = = Ottomans = = =
Mehmed ordered his general , Suleiman Pasha , to end the siege of Venetian @-@ controlled Shkodër ( now in Albania ) , to assemble his troops in Sofia , and from there to advance with additional troops towards Moldavia . For these already exhausted Ottoman troops , who had besieged the city from May 17 to August 15 , the transit from Shkodër to Moldavia was a month 's journey through bad weather and difficult terrain . According to Długosz , Suleiman was also ordered that after inflicting defeat on Stephen , he was to advance towards Poland , set camp for the winter , then invade Hungary in spring , and unite his forces with the army of the Sultan . The Ottoman army consisted of Janissaries and heavy infantry , which were supported by the heavy cavalry sipahis and by the light cavalry ( akinci ) , who would scout ahead . There were also Tatar cavalry and other troops ( such as the Timariots ) from vassal states . Twenty thousand Bulgarian peasants were also included in the army ; their main tasks were to clear the way for the rest of the army by building bridges over waters and removing snow from the roads , and to drive supply wagons . In total , the Ottoman cavalry numbered 30 @,@ 000 . In September 1474 , the Ottoman army gathered in Sofia , and from there , Suleiman marched towards Moldavia by crossing the frozen Danube on foot . His first stop was Wallachia , which he entered via Vidin and Nicopolis . His army rested in Wallachia for two weeks , and was later met by a Wallachian contingent of 17 @,@ 000 under Basarab Laiotă , who had changed sides to join the Ottomans .
= = = Moldavians = = =
Stephen was hoping to gain support from the West , and more specifically from the Pope . However , the help that he received was modest in numbers . The Hungarian Kingdom sent 1 @,@ 800 Hungarians , while Poland sent 2 @,@ 000 horsemen . Stephen recruited 5 @,@ 000 Székely soldiers . The Moldavian army consisted of twenty cannon ; light cavalry ( Călăraşi ) ; elite , heavy cavalry – named Viteji , Curteni , and Boyars – and professional foot soldiers . The army reached a strength of up to 40 @,@ 000 , of whom 10 @,@ 000 to 15 @,@ 000 comprised the standing army . The remainder consisted of 30 @,@ 000 peasants armed with maces , bows , and other home @-@ made weapons . They were recruited into Oastea Mare ( the Great Army ) , into which all able @-@ bodied free men over the age of 14 were conscripted .
= = Battle = =
The invading army entered Moldavia in December 1474 . In order to fatigue the Ottomans , Stephen had instituted a policy of scorched earth and poisoned waters . Troops who specialised in setting ambushes harassed the advancing Ottomans . The population and livestock were evacuated to the north of the country into the mountains .
Ottoman scouts reported to Suleiman that there were untouched villages near Vaslui , and the Ottomans headed for that region . The winter made it difficult to set camp , which forced the Ottomans to move quickly and head for the Moldavian capital , Suceava . In order to reach Vaslui , where the Moldavian army had its main camp , they needed to cross Podul Înalt over the Bârlad River . The bridge was made of wood and not suitable for heavy transportation of troops . Stephen chose that area for the battle – the same location where his father , Bogdan II , had defeated the Poles in 1450 ; and where he , at an age of 17 , had fought side @-@ by @-@ side with Vlad ' the Impaler ' . The area was ideal for the defenders : the valley was a semi @-@ oval surrounded on all sides by hills covered by forest . Inside the valley , the terrain was marshy , which restricted troop movement . Suleiman had full confidence in his troops and made few efforts to scout the area . On January 10 , on a dark and misty Tuesday morning , the battle began . The weather was frigid , and a dense fog limited vision . The Ottoman troops were exhausted , and the torrent made them look like " plucked chickens . " Stephen fortified the bridge , while setting and aiming his cannons at the structure . Peasants and archers were hidden in the forest , together with their Prince and his boyar cavalry .
The Moldavians made the first move by sending musicians to the middle of the valley . The sound of drums and bugles made Suleiman think that the entire Moldavian army awaited him there . Instead , the centre of the valley held the Székely forces and the Moldavian professional army , which were ordered to make a slow retreat when they encountered the enemy . Suleiman ordered his troops to advance and , when they made enough progress , the Moldavian artillery started to fire , followed by archers and handgunners firing from three different directions . The archers could not see the enemy for the fog , and , instead , had to follow the noise of their footsteps . The Moldavian light cavalry then helped to lure the Ottoman troops into the valley by making hit @-@ and @-@ run attacks . Ottoman cavalry tried to cross the wooden bridge , causing it to collapse . Those Ottoman soldiers who had managed to survive the attacks from the artillery and the archers , and who did not get caught in the marshes , had to confront the Moldavian army , together with the Székely soldiers further up the valley . The 5 @,@ 000 Székely soldiers were successful in repelling the 7 @,@ 000 Ottoman infantrymen . Thereafter , they made a slow retreat , as instructed by Stephen , but were later routed by the Ottoman sipahi , while the remaining Ottoman infantry attacked the Moldavian flanks .
Suleiman tried to reinforce his offensive , not knowing what had happened in the valley , but then Stephen , with the full support of his boyars , ordered a major attack . All his troops , together with peasants and heavy cavalry , attacked from all sides . Simultaneously , Moldavian buglers concealed behind Ottoman lines started to sound their bugles , and in great confusion some Ottoman units changed direction to face the sound . When the Moldavian army hit , Suleiman lost control of his army . He desperately tried to regain control , but was later forced to signal a retreat . The battle lasted for four days ; with the last three days seeing the fleeing Ottoman army being pursued by the Moldavian light cavalry and the 2 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Polish cavalry until they reached the town of Obluciţa ( now Isaccea , Romania ) , in Dobruja .
The Wallachians fled the field without joining battle and Laiotă now turned his sword against the Turks , who had hoped for a safe passage in Wallachia ; on January 20 , he exited his castle and confronted some of the Turks that were lurking on his land . Thereafter , he took one of their flags and sent it to a Hungarian friend as proof of his bravery . The Ottoman casualties were counted as 45 @,@ 000 , including four Pashas killed and a hundred standards taken . Jan Długosz writes that " all but the most eminent of the Turkish prisoners are impaled " , and their corpses burned . Only one was spared – the only son of the Ottoman general Isaac Bey , of the Gazi Evrenos family , whose father had fought with Mircea the Old . Another Polish chronicler reported that on the spot of the battle rested huge piles of bones upon each other , next to three immured crosses .
= = Aftermath = =
After the battle , Stephen sent " four of the captured Turkish commanders , together with thirty @-@ six of their standards and much splendid booty , to King Casimir in Poland " , and implored him to provide troops and money to support the Moldavians in the struggle against the Ottomans . He also sent letters and a few prisoners and Turkish standards to the Pope and Hungarian King Matthias Corvinus , asking for support . In response , " the arrogant Matthias writes to the Pope , the Emperor and other kings and princes , telling them that he has defeated a large Turkish army with his own forces under the Voivode of Wallachia . " The Pope 's reply to Stephen denied him help , but awarded him with the " Athleta Christi " , while King Casimir pleaded " poverty both in money and men " and did nothing ; his own men then accused him of sloth , and advised him to change his shameful behaviour or hand over his rule to someone else . Chronicler Jan Długosz hailed Stephen for his victory in the battle :
Hassan tried to create a new coalition with the European powers , arguing that Mehmed 's best troops were lost at Vaslui . Upon hearing about the devastating defeat , Mehmed refused for several days to give audience to anyone ; his other plans of expansion were put to rest as he planned revenge on Stephen . In the following year , Mehmed invaded the country with an army of 150 @,@ 000 , which was joined by 10 @,@ 000 Wallachians under Laiotă and 30 @,@ 000 Tatars under Meñli I Giray . The Tatars , who called for a Holy War , attacked with their cavalry from the north and started to pillage the country . The Moldavians took chase after them , and routed and killed most of them . " The fleeing Tatars discard their weapons , their saddles and clothes , while some , as though crazed , jump into the River Dniepr . " Giray wrote to Mehmed that he could not wage more war against Stephen , as he had lost his son and two brothers , and had returned with only one horse .
In July 1476 , after killing 30 @,@ 000 Ottomans , Stephen was defeated at the Battle of Valea Albă . However , the Ottomans were unsuccessful in their siege of the Suceava citadel and the Neamţ fortress , while Laiotă was forced to retreat back to Wallachia when Vlad and Stefan Báthory , Voivode of Transylvania , gave chase with an army of 30 @,@ 000 . Stephen assembled his army and invaded Wallachia from the north , while Vlad and Báthory invaded from the west . Laiotă fled , and in November , Vlad Țepeș was installed on the Wallachian throne . He received 200 loyal knights from Stephen to serve as his loyal bodyguards , but his army remained small .
When Laiotă returned , Vlad Tepes went to battle and was killed by the Janissaries near Bucharest in December 1476 . Laiotă again occupied the Wallachian throne , which urged Stephen to make another return to Wallachia and dethrone Laiotă for the fifth and last time , while a Dăneşti , Ţepeluş , was established as ruler of the country .
In 1484 , the Ottomans under Bayezid II , managed to conquer Chilia and Cetatea Albă and incorporate it into their empire under the name of Budjak , leaving Moldavia a landlocked principality for many years to come .
Between May and September 1488 , Stephen built the Voroneţ Monastery to commemorate the victory at Vaslui ; " the exterior walls – including a representation of the Last Judgment on the west wall – were painted in 1547 with a background of vivid cerulean blue . This is so vibrant that art historians refer to Voroneţ blue the same way they do Titian red . " In 1490 , he extended his work by building another monastery of Saint John the Baptist . These monasteries served as cultural centres ; today , they are on UNESCO 's World Heritage List . Stephen 's victory at Vaslui is considered one of the greatest Moldavian victories over the Ottomans , and as such " played a role in universal history " by securing the " culture and civilization of the Christian West from the onslaught of Islam . "
= Confederate Memorial ( Romney , West Virginia ) =
The Confederate Memorial ( also referred to as the First Confederate Memorial ) at Indian Mound Cemetery in Romney , West Virginia , commemorates residents of Hampshire County who died during the American Civil War while fighting for the Confederate States of America . It was sponsored by the Confederate Memorial Association , which formally dedicated the monument on September 26 , 1867 . The town of Romney has claimed that this is the first memorial structure erected to memorialize the Confederate dead in the United States and that the town performed the nation 's first public decoration of Confederate graves on June 1 , 1866 .
The idea to memorialize the Confederate war dead of Hampshire County was first discussed in the spring of 1866 . Following the decoration of the graves that summer , the Confederate Memorial Association engaged in fundraising for construction of the memorial , and by 1867 the necessary funds were raised . The inscription " The Daughters of Old Hampshire Erect This Tribute of Affection to Her Heroic Sons Who Fell in Defence of Southern Rights " was selected , and the contract for the memorial 's construction was awarded to the Gaddes Brothers firm of Baltimore . The memorial 's components were delivered to Indian Mound Cemetery on September 14 , 1867 , and the memorial was dedicated on September 26 of that year . The construction of the Confederate Memorial marked the beginning of an era of post @-@ war revitalization for Hampshire County following the American Civil War .
The Confederate Memorial is in the form of an obelisk , and it stands on a raised mound . The list of 125 names engraved on the monument includes four captains , seven lieutenants ( one of which was a chaplain ) , three sergeants , and 119 privates . The memorial underwent a restoration in 1984 , and is decorated annually with a handmade evergreen garland and wreath on Hampshire County Confederate Memorial Day .
= = Confederate Memorial Association = =
The idea to memorialize the men of Hampshire County who had died fighting in the Military of the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War was first discussed at a meeting in early spring of 1866 at the Romney residence of former Confederate Colonel Robert White . In addition to White , those present at the meeting included his brother Christian Streit White , his future sister @-@ in @-@ law Elizabeth " Bessie " Jane Schultze , and his sister Frances Ann White , who later married Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy .
Following the meeting , the concept gained support among other residents of Romney . Later in the spring of 1866 , a group of Hampshire County women held a public meeting to organize the Confederate Memorial Association with the mission of honoring the men who had died fighting for the Confederacy and providing financial aid to their families . At this meeting , the association appointed officers , adopted a constitution , and organized committees to arrange for the decoration of Confederate interments .
The people of Hampshire County had been overwhelmingly pro @-@ Confederate during the American Civil War , but the county now lay within Unionist West Virginia . West Virginia 's first state constitution disenfranchised Confederate veterans and partisans and forbade them from holding elected office . In spite of these impediments and risking the ire of Unionist authorities , members of the Confederate Memorial Association and their families marched through Romney to Indian Mound Cemetery and formally decorated the gravestones at the interment sites of Confederate dead on June 1 , 1866 . Few Hampshire County residents participated in this first decoration of the Confederate graves , fearing reproach from Federal authorities ; some who had pledged to take part in the decoration later refused to do so for the same reason .
This adornment in Indian Mound Cemetery has been called the first such public decoration of Confederate burials , but the claim is disputed by other towns in the Southern United States . Romney 's decoration contributed to a precedent that spread throughout the South during the Reconstruction Era . Relatives and loved ones of the Union dead buried in Indian Mound Cemetery also began to follow this precedent by decorating the cemetery 's Union headstones .
= = Fundraising = =
Following the first decoration of the graves in 1866 , momentum built for the erection of a permanent monument to the Confederate dead at Indian Mound Cemetery . The Confederate Memorial Association engaged in fundraising for construction of the memorial , including sewing circles , bazaars , and fairs . Confederate veterans and others in Hampshire County undertook additional fundraising efforts , including entertainment shows and general solicitation . In addition to raising funds for the construction of the memorial , the Confederate Memorial Association also raised money for the widows and children of the Confederate dead . By October 15 , 1866 , the gross receipts returned to the association 's treasury amounted to $ 1 @,@ 170 @.@ 91 USD , of which the Confederate Memorial Association provided $ 421 @.@ 58 USD to the Confederate widows and orphaned children . Fundraising continued until June 1867 .
= = Design selection = =
By June 6 , 1867 , the Confederate Memorial Association had raised the necessary funds and proceeded to select the design , inviting and considering the opinions of Confederate veterans and others across Hampshire County .
In July 1867 , a committee of the Confederate Memorial Association narrowed the numerous proposals it had received for the memorial 's inscription to three finalists . The first inscription finalist said the Confederate soldiers " died in defense of what they believed to be right " , the second said they were " our sons and brothers , who fell as soldiers in the Confederate army " , and the third , which was ultimately adopted by the committee , read in full : " The Daughters of Old Hampshire Erect This Tribute of Affection to Her Heroic Sons Who Fell in Defence of Southern Rights " .
= = Construction = =
Once the design and inscription had been chosen
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Corps commander . Horne was overruled , and the command was temporarily given to Herbert Watts . Under Watts , the division successfully took its objective , Mametz Wood , though with severe losses ; within a week , Watts was back in command of 7th Division and Blackader had taken permanent command .
The division had been raised in the New Armies in 1914 with a strong sense of Liberal patronage , and many of its officers had been personally appointed by Lloyd George ; as a result , political convenience had often taken priority over military competence when selecting officers . Under Blackader , a new officer from outside the Welsh Liberal milieu and able to sack his subordinates as he saw fit , the division 's standard improved significantly . It saw service at Pilckem Ridge in the early stages of the Third Battle of Ypres , but from September 1917 onwards it was kept on relatively quiet defensive sectors . The division trained through this period , and in April 1918 was able to mount a limited brigade @-@ size attack , which whilst it involved heavy losses was a clear success in a way that would not have been possible two years earlier .
In late May 1918 , Blackader was relieved of command and replaced by Thomas Cubitt , a younger officer . This was not apparently due to incompetence or age – Douglas Haig had described Blackader 's achievements with 38th Division as " excellent " – but due to illness ; according to Gary Sheffield , he had fallen ill after " being licked by a rabid dog " . Under Cubitt 's command , the 38th Division would build on its past training and fight through the Hundred Days Offensive with great success . In November 1918 , Blackader was appointed to command the Southern District in Ireland .
For his service in the war , he was appointed an aide @-@ de @-@ camp to the King in 1916 , and made a Companion of the Order of the Bath in 1917 . He was also made a Commander of the Belgian Order of Leopold , and awarded both the Belgian and French Croix de Guerre .
Blackader died , of liver cancer and heart failure on 2 April 1921 , at Queen Alexandra 's Military Hospital , Millbank , London , survived by his wife and two daughters , and leaving a small estate of just under £ 450 . There is a memorial to him in the regimental chapel in Leicester Cathedral . On 1 March 2013 , as a result of research into the circumstances of his death by the In From The Cold Project , he was accepted for commemoration by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission in their United Kingdom Book of Remembrance , until June when his grave had been belatedly found at Putney Vale Cemetery ( Section K ) .
= Secrets of Rætikon =
Secrets of Rætikon is an action @-@ adventure , open world video game developed and published by Broken Rules . The player controls a bird and must explore the environment of Rætikon to find its secrets . Game elements include animals with specific behaviors and ancient puzzles . Development began in 2011 and the game was formally announced in July 2013 and followed by alpha and Steam Early Access releases . Rætikon was released on April 17 , 2014 for Windows , OS X , and Linux platforms . It received mixed reviews from reviewers , who praised its artwork and movement physics , but criticized its inconsistency , lack of cohesion , and technical issues .
= = Gameplay = =
Secrets of Rætikon is a single @-@ player , story @-@ driven , open world sandbox action @-@ adventure video game . The player @-@ character takes form of a bird . The player controls the bird with three buttons : one that flaps its wings , another that takes items into the bird 's beak , and another that makes bird sounds . While the game can be played through keyboard and mouse , the developers instead recommend a controller .
The objective is to fly through the Rætikon environment to find its titular secrets , namely by collecting relics to power an ancient device . The environment is split into themed levels such as swamp , lagoon , mountaintops , and forests . Glowing are shards dispersed throughout each level , which can be collected and redeemed at an altar within each themed level for a glowing relic . These relics can be returned to where the player started the game to power a mysterious , ancient device . The player @-@ character carries the relics past aggressive enemies and treacherous environment , and completes puzzles of reconstructing animal statues from its pieces to access new levels . Each level features different animals and contain environmental objects that player can interact with .
= = Development = =
Rætikon was first announced in July 2013 , though its development began in 2011 . The game 's Viennese developer and publisher , Broken Rules Games , had previously worked on the 2012 Wii U game Chasing Aurora , which itself was based on a multiplayer prototype for Rætikon . The game is partly based on an Alps region culture conquered by the Roman Empire . Its visuals were inspired by dream @-@ like flying sensations . In an effort to increase the game 's replay value , the developers emphasized its artificial intelligence , physics , and interactive qualities , including animal @-@ specific behaviors and strippable plant foliage .
Broken Rules released an alpha version of the game in October 2013 . Around the same time , they announced an Indiegogo crowdfunding campaign in lieu of searching for a publisher . The game later entered Steam Early Access . Rætikon was released on April 17 , 2014 for Windows , OS X , and Linux platforms via Steam , the Mac App Store , and the Humble Store . The Steam edition of the game supports Steam Workshop with a level editor for users to build and share original content .
= = Reception = =
The game received " mixed or average reviews " , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . Reviewers praised the game 's artwork and movement physics , but criticized its lack of cohesion . Some appreciated the moments where the game 's elements coalesced . They estimated the game to run between two and three hours in length .
Joystiq 's Sam Prell said that the adventure felt restrictive and linear , " like a guided tour " . He wrote that Rætikon 's map design encourages players to think methodically about their path rather than to explore the game as a non @-@ linear open world . In this way , he felt that its gameplay philosophies contradicted . Hardcore Gamer 's Geoff Thew wrote that the game " commits a number of fundamental design sins " as one of " few games so ceaselessly tiring to play " . He felt that the animals who steal the game objectives created " busywork " , and complained of copious backtracking and the " straight up discourteous " exclusion of an in @-@ game map . Eurogamer 's Jon Denton added that numerous " extremely irritating conflicts " with off @-@ screen animals hurt the game 's pacing . He noted its gameplay influence from Fez and compared its blue shards game mechanics to that of Dark Souls . Denton did not feel that the game deserved the amount of effort it required of its players to understand its story . Reviewers noted technical issues and glitches within the game . Prell noted issues in the game 's physics and game save features . As Rætikon does not support manual saves , he frequently found his progress automatically saved while his player @-@ character was stuck in the environment . Thew of Hardcore Gamer found similar physics glitches that trapped him in the environment , which led him to use his keyboard alongside the Xbox 360 controller to circumvent controller compatibility issues .
When mentioning the game 's art style , most reviewers gave positive response . Denton described the style as a " beautifully drawn , angular 2D world " . Prell wrote that Rætikon 's triangle @-@ based art style made its characters feel like papercraft and gave the game " a sense of reverence and spirituality " when complemented by the story , and gave comparison to Shadow of the Colossus . Thew gave similar response noting that it is reminiscent of Origami . However , Thew continued to state that while the visuals were " distinctive " , the game 's " alpine " area was " clichéd and predictable " and its " good looks and smooth movement mechanics " did not compensate for the rest of the game 's design . He found the game " shallow " , uninteresting , and " a disappointment ... on almost every level " . Denton of Eurogamer praised the moments where he figured out how to find a shard or alphabet piece , but ultimately found Rætikon " awkward " , with " substance did not live up to its style " , and causing unjustified and unreasonable frustration .
= Tuisto =
According to Tacitus 's Germania ( 98 CE ) , " In their ancient songs , their only form of recorded history , the Germans celebrate the earth @-@ born god , Tuisto . They assign to him a son , Mannus , the author of their race , and to Mannus three sons , ... " The figure remains the subject of some scholarly discussion , largely focused upon etymological connections and comparisons to figures in later ( particularly Norse ) Germanic mythology . In the larger Indo @-@ European pantheon , Tuisto is equated to the Vedic Tvastar .
= = Etymology = =
The Germania manuscript corpus contains two primary variant readings of the name . The most frequently occurring , Tuisto , is commonly connected to the Proto @-@ Germanic root tvai ( " two " ) and its derivative tvis ( " twice " ; " doubled " ) . Allusions to intersex is entirely conjectural , as the tvia / tvis roots are also the roots of any number of other concepts / words in the Germanic languages . Take for instance the Germanic " twist " , which , in all but the English has the primary meaning of " dispute / conflict " .
The second variant of the name , occurring originally in manuscript E , is Tuisco ( sometimes rendered Tuiscon ) . One proposed etymology for this variant reconstructs a Proto @-@ Germanic tiwisko , and connects this with Proto @-@ Germanic Tiwaz , yielded the meaning " son of Tiu " . This interpretation implies that Tuisco is the son of the sky god ( Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European Dyeus ) and the earth @-@ goddess .
= = = Tuisto , Tvastar , and Ymir = = =
Connections have been proposed between the 1st century figure of Tuisto and the hermaphroditic primeval being Ymir in later Norse mythology , attested in 13th century sources , based upon etymological and functional similarity . Meyer ( 1907 ) sees the connection as so strong , that he considers the two to be identical . Lindow ( 2001 ) , while mindful of the possible semantic connection between Tuisto and Ymir , notes an essential functional difference : while Ymir is portrayed as an " essentially … negative figure " - Tuisto is described as being " celebrated " ( celebrant ) by the early Germanic peoples in song , with Tacitus reporting nothing negative about Tuisto .
Jacob ( 2005 ) attempts to establish a genealogical relationship between Tuisto and Ymir based on etymology and a comparison with ( post- ) Vedic Indian mythology : as Tvastr , through his daughter Saranyū and her husband Vivaswān , is said to have been the grandfather of the twins Yama and Yami , so Jacob argues that the Germanic Tuisto ( assuming a connection with Tvastr ) must originally have been the grandfather of Ymir ( cognate to Yama ) . Incidentally , Indian mythology also places Manu ( cognate to Germanic Mannus ) , the Vedic progenitor of mankind , as a son of Vivaswān , thus making him the brother of Yama / Ymir .
= = Attestation = =
Tacitus relates that " ancient songs " ( Latin carminibus antiquis ) of the Germanic peoples celebrated Tuisto as " a god , born of the earth " ( deum terra editum ' ; see Autochthon ( ancient Greece ) ) . These songs further attributed to him a son , Mannus , who in turn had three sons , the offspring of whom were referred to as Ingaevones , Herminones and Istaevones , living near the Ocean ( proximi Oceano ) , in the interior ( medii ) , and the remaining parts ( ceteri ) of the geographical region of Germania , respectively .
= = Theories and interpretations = =
Tacitus 's report falls squarely within the ethnographic tradition of the classical world , which often fused anthropogony , ethnogony , and theogony together into a synthetic whole . The succession of father @-@ son @-@ three sons parallels occurs in both Germanic and non @-@ Germanic Indo @-@ European areas . The essential characteristics of the myth have been theorized as ultimately originating in Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European society around 2 @,@ 000 BCE .
According to Rives ( 1999 ) , the fact that the ancient Germanic peoples claimed descent from an earth @-@ born god was used by Tacitus to support his contention that they were an indigenous population : the Latin word indigena was often used in the same sense as the Greek autochthonos , meaning literally ' [ born from ] the earth itself ' ( from χθών – chthōn " earth " ) . Lindauer ( 1975 ) notes that , although this claim is to be judged as one made out of simple ignorance of the facts on the part of Tacitus , he was not entirely wrong , as he made the judgement based on a comparison with the relatively turbulent Mediterranean region of his day .
The sequence in which one god has a son , who has three famous sons , has a resemblance to how Búri has a son Borr who has three sons : Odin , Vili and Vé . The same tradition occurs with the Slavs and their expansion , in the legend of Lech , Čech and Rus .
= = Later influence = =
In 1498 , a monk named Annio da Viterbo published fragments known as " Pseudo @-@ Berossus " , now considered a forgery , claiming that Babylonian records had shown that Tuiscon or Tuisto , the fourth son of Noah , had been the first ruler of Scythia and Germany following the dispersion of peoples , with him being succeeded by his son Mannus as the second king . Later historians ( e.g. Johannes Aventinus ) managed to furnish numerous further details , including the assertion by James Anderson that this Tuiscon was in fact none other than the biblical Ashkenaz , son of Gomer .
In the following centuries , Tuisto was celebrated as the mythological founding father of the German nation in all forms of art . Burkhard Waldis mentions him in his work The Origins of the first Twelve German Kings and Princes from 1543 , as do Sigmund von Birken , Daniel Casper von Lohenstein and Ignaz Holzbauer in his opera Günther von Schwarzburg . In poetry , he is featured by Joseph Martin Kraus in his " I am a German Lad " , by Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock in his Thuiskon , and by Novalis , who refers to Tuisto in an early poem , written in 1788 . He invokes the mythological figure in an idealized form , belonging to the spirit of a magic era , long bygone .
= 1994 – 95 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season =
The 1994 – 95 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season was fairly active , with storms forming regularly from October through April . It was much less damaging than its predecessor , and most of the storms in the season remained over water or only brushed land . The first system was Tropical Depression A1 , which formed in October and passed north of Madagascar . The first named storm was Albertine , which formed on November 23 in the northeastern portion of the basin and became one of three intense tropical cyclones . The last storm was Marlene , which was also an intense tropical cyclone and dissipated on April 11 .
Most of the storms originated from the intertropical convergence zone . In late December into early January , tropical storms Bentha and Christelle persisted to the east of Madagascar , undergoing the Fujiwhara effect with each other . Later in January , Dorina became the second of three intense tropical cyclones , but weakened before passing near Rodrigues . Tropical Depression Eliceca and Tropical Storm Fodah both formed in the Mozambique Channel toward the end of January , bringing gusty winds and rainfall to the region . In February , Gail produced gusty winds on Rodrigues , and Tropical Storm Heida entered the basin from Australian region . Later in the month , Ingrid brought strong winds to Mauritius . Tropical storms Josta and Kylie developed toward the beginning of March from the same overall system , affecting Madagascar and Réunion , respectively . After they dissipated , Tropical Depression Lidy caused flooding and damage on Rodrigues due to heavy rainfall .
= = Seasonal summary = =
During the year , the Météo @-@ France office on Réunion ( MFR ) issued warnings for tropical systems in the region as the Regional Specialised Meteorological Centre . In the year , MFR tracked tropical cyclones south of the equator from the coast of Africa to 90 ° E. The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) also issued warnings in an unofficial capacity .
Several of the storms in the season affected the island of Rodrigues , an outer island of Mauritius ; however , only one – Tropical Depression Lidy – caused damage after dropping heavy rainfall . The season as a whole was much less damaging than the preceding season . There were 58 days in which a storm or cyclone was active , 17 above normal . There were 11 systems that became moderate tropical storms , two above the normal of 9 . The six tropical cyclones – a storm with winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) – was also above the average of five .
= = Storms = =
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Albertine = = =
The intertropical convergence zone ( ITCZ ) became active toward the end of November , spawning a low pressure area on November 23 about 400 km ( 250 mi ) east of Diego Garcia . This system quickly organized into a tropical disturbance , aided by favorable conditions . On November 24 , the JTWC began classifying it as Tropical Cyclone 02S . The next day , the system intensified into Tropical Storm Albertine while moving southwestward , steered by a ridge to the southeast . Late on November 25 , an eye developed in the center of the convection , and Albertine intensified to tropical cyclone status the next day . The eye gradually became better organized , attaining a diameter of 90 km ( 55 mi ) on November 28 as Albertine became an intense tropical cyclone . At that time , the MFR estimated peak 10 – minute winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) , with gusts to 250 km / h ( 160 mph ) . In contrast , the JTWC estimated 1 – minute winds of 215 km / h ( 130 mph ) . After moving over an area of cool water temperatures , Albertine quickly weakened and lost its well @-@ defined eye . On November 30 , the center passed about 110 km ( 68 mi ) northwest of Rodrigues after weakening to severe tropical storm status . After weakening gradually , the storm began deteriorating faster due to increasing wind shear . A polar low steered Albertine southeastward until absorbing the system on December 3 .
In its formative stages , Albertine brushed Diego Garcia with gusts of 63 km / h ( 39 mph ) . On Rodridgues , Albertine produced peak gusts of 170 km / h ( 110 mph ) , along with heavy rainfall , causing some damage . The island was under a cyclone watch for 39 hours , the first of the warning system set up by MFR during the season .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Christelle = = =
Toward the end of December , the equatorial trough spawned two areas of convection – one persisted southwest of Diego Garcia , which would become Tropical Storm Bentha , and the other persisted between Agalega and the Farquhar Group in the Seychelles . The latter system organized into Tropical Disturbance B1 on December 27 , but wind shear in the region prevented significant development and dislocated the center from the thunderstorms . A ridge to the southeast steered the disturbance slowly southwestward toward Madagascar . As it neared the country , the system turned westward and intensified into a tropical depression after developing a spiral band of convection . On January 2 , the depression made landfall near Antalaha in northeastern Madagascar , and quickly weakened over land .
The system moved to the northeast and looped back to the east , influenced by developing Tropical Storm Bentha . On January 4 , after Bentha was named , the system was renamed Tropical Disturbance C1 . Convection gradually reorganized over the center as the two storms interacted and moved cyclonically around each other . The disturbance intensified after Bentha began weakening , becoming Tropical Storm Christelle on January 5 . On the next day , the JTWC began issuing advisories on Tropical Cyclone 07S . Christelle slowly intensified as it turned more to the south , becoming the dominant system after absorbing Bentha . A warm spot formed in the center of the convection , and the MFR estimated peak winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) on January 6 . The same wind shear that weakened Bentha caused Christelle to deteriorate on January 7 . The center passed near Mauritius on January 8 as a tropical depression . Two days later , a cold front steered the system to the southeast , absorbing it after Christelle became extratropical on January 11 .
Both Bentha and Christelle brought gusty winds and rainfall to Mauritius , and caused Réunion to be under a cyclone watch for five days . The system also produced rainfall and landslides in Madagascar .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Bentha = = =
The same broad system that spawned Christelle also produced an area of convection southwest of Diego Garcia toward the end of December . On January 1 , the convection began organizing , aided by an anticyclone aloft , and it became a tropical depression on the next day . The system quickly intensified into Tropical Storm Bentha on January 3 while moving generally southwestward . Also on that day , the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 06S . On January 4 , Bentha attained peak winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) , and on the same day the storm began interacting with developing Tropical Storm Christelle to the west . On January 5 , increased shear weakened Bentha , and by the following day the storm deteriorated into a tropical depression . The system passed about 250 km ( 155 mi ) north of Réunion on January 6 , dissipating shortly thereafter near Tromelin Island while being absorbed into Christelle .
Both Bentha and Christelle brought gusty winds and rainfall to Mauritius , and caused Réunion to be under a cyclone watch for five days .
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Dorina = = =
The ITCZ spawned an area of convection and a vortex in the northeastern portion of the basin on January 18 , which organized into a tropical disturbance that day . It initially moved southeastward under the influence of the monsoon , although it gradually recurved back to the southwest . On January 19 , the system intensified into Tropical Storm Dorina , and on the next day the JTWC initiated advisories on it as Tropical Cyclone 08S . Dorina quickly intensified into a tropical cyclone by January 21 , developing a 40 km ( 25 mi ) eye in the center of the convection . Later that day , the storm became an intense tropical cyclone , less than three days after its development ; such a quick time to attain that intensity is unusual for the basin . At 18 : 00 UTC on January 21 , Dorina attained peak winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) , according to the MFR , and 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) according to the JTWC .
After moving over an area of cooler waters , Dorina began weakening , indicated by the previously well @-@ defined eye becoming ragged . On January 24 , the cyclone weakened into a severe tropical storm . The motion became more west @-@ southwesterly after the ridge weakened . A passing trough increased shear over Dorina , which caused further weakening and for the convection to deteriorate . However , conditions became more favorable on January 27 , allowing Dorina to re @-@ intensify slightly as it redeveloped an eye feature . On that day , the storm passed about 250 km ( 155 mi ) south of Rodrigues , producing gusts of 115 km / h ( 70 mph ) . Subsequently , Dorina turned back to the southwest and later to the south , influenced by another passing trough that had absorbed Tropical Storm Fodah . Strong wind shear caused the storm to weaken again . On January 31 , Dorina became extratropical while turning to the southeast and was later absorbed into the trough .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Fodah = = =
After the remnants of Tropical Depression Eliceca dissipated over Madagascar , an area of disturbed weather persisted over the Mozambique Channel , spawning a low pressure area near Juan de Nova Island on January 21 . Convection greatly increased on the next day , indicating the system became a tropical disturbance . Moving southward , the system became a tropical depression on January 23 as the system organized further , aided by an anticyclone aloft . On January 24 , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Fodah while near Europa Island , and soon after became a severe tropical storm . The MFR estimated peak winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) , while the JTWC , which initiated advisories that day as Tropical Cyclone 09S , estimated winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) . Gusts on Europa Island were less than 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) , despite the storm being nearby . A strong band of convection spread along the Madagascar coastline , producing gusts of 180 km / h ( 110 mph ) at Morombe . Fodah also produced 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) of rainfall , as well as high seas . Moving around the ridge , Fodah continued southward , encountering stronger wind shear on January 25 . Steady weakening commenced as the convection deteriorated , and Fodah became extratropical on January 26 . A trough turned the remnants to the southeast , absorbing it on January 29 .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Gail = = =
The ITCZ spawned an area of convection near Diego Garcia that became a tropical disturbance on January 31 . The system slowly organized due to wind shear in the region , and it moved slowly for several days . On February 4 , the disturbance became a tropical depression after the convection organized slightly . Intensification became more rapid on the next day after conditions became more favorable , allowing the depression to intensify into Tropical Storm Gail . Also on February 5 , the JTWC began issuing warnings on the system as Tropical Cyclone 10S . Gail quickly strengthened while moving southwestward , developing a small , poorly @-@ defined eye in the center of the convection . On February 7 , it attained tropical cyclone status , reaching peak winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . Increasing shear caused Gail to weaken , beginning on February 8 . That night , the center passed less than 30 km ( 20 mi ) north of Rodrigues . Gail maintained its intensity as a severe tropical storm after the shear decreased slightly . A trough turned the storm to the south on February 10 and caused weakening , resulting in Gail 's dissipation on the next day .
While Gail approached the island of Rodrigues , the storm produced winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) and gusts to 193 km / h ( 120 mph ) at Port Mathurin .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Heida = = =
As Gail was developing , the ITCZ spawned another disturbance in the Australian region on February 3 . On the next day , it crossed 90 ° E into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean as a tropical depression . The system intensified into Tropical Storm Heida on February 5 while moving west @-@ southwestward , although the convection never organized beyond a disorganized central dense overcast . The JTWC initiated advisories that day as Tropical Cyclone 11S , and Heida quickly attained peak winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) . Wind shear in the region caused the storm to weaken into a tropical depression , although Heida briefly re @-@ intensified into a tropical storm on February 6 . A trough in the region steered the circulation to the south @-@ southwest and increased wind shear , resulting in Heida 's dissipation on February 8 .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Ingrid = = =
On February 22 , a tropical disturbance formed southwest of Diego Garcia . It moved westward , intensifying into Tropical Storm Ingrid on February 24 . That day , the JTWC began issuing advisories on the storm as Tropical Cyclone 13S . Ingrid turned more to the southwest while passing just east of St. Brandon , where winds reached 56 km / h ( 35 mph ) . After continued intensification , the storm became a tropical cyclone on February 26 while passing between Mauritius and Rodrigues . On Mauritius , winds gusted to 91 km / h ( 56 mph ) at Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam International Airport , and the storm produced high waves . On the next day , the MFR estimated peak winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) , while the JTWC estimated winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . Ingrid turned to the southeast and weakened , becoming extratropical on March 1 .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Josta = = =
An extended series of low pressure areas spawned what would become Tropical Storm Josta on March 5 near the Comoros in the northern Mozambique Channel . It initially drifted westward while slowly organizing , becoming a tropical storm on March 7 . On that day , the JTWC classified Josta as Tropical Cyclone 16S . On March 8 , Josta approached the coast of Mozambique within 90 km ( 55 mi ) of Pemba before turning abruptly to the east @-@ southeast . The convection fluctuated in intensity , eventually becoming better organized on March 9 . That day , an eye feature formed in the center of the convection , and the MFR estimated peak winds of 105 km / h ( 65 mph ) . By contrast , the JTWC upgraded Josta to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane with winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . The eye feature dissipated soon after due to increased shear , causing Josta to weaken . On March 10 , the storm re @-@ intensified slightly , aided by the monsoon , as it passed 160 km ( 100 mi ) south of Mayotte . It again weakened soon thereafter , with the convection spreading ahead of the circulation over Madagascar . On March 12 , the circulation dissipated off the northwest coast of Madagascar , partially due to the influence of the stronger Kylie to the southeast . Rains from the storm reached 270 mm ( 11 in ) along the coast of Madagascar , despite the storm not making landfall .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Kylie = = =
The same overall system that spawned Josta also produced a disturbance on March 6 off the east coast of Madagascar . While drifting southeastward within a trough , the system slowly organized until becoming a tropical storm on March 7 , the same day that the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 17S . On the next day , the system was named Kylie as it meandered to the north of Mauritius without further strengthening . The convection organized on March 10 into a central dense overcast , and the next day attained peak winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) , according to the MFR . By contrast , the JTWC assessed Kylie as becoming much stronger , reaching winds of 160 km / h ( 100 mph ) . Subsequently , a trough turned the storm to the southwest , bringing it over the island of Réunion on March 13 . Increased wind shear deteriorated the convection as the storm turned to the southeast on March 14 . The next day , Kylie was absorbed by the trough .
On Réunion , Kylie produced rainfall along with gusts of over 100 km / h ( 65 km / h ) , along with high waves . The storm prompted classes to be canceled , as well as for the airport to be closed , causing flights to be canceled .
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Marlene = = =
The final storm of the season formed on March 29 from the ITCZ to the east of Diego Garcia . The large area of convection quickly became more organized , intensifying into Tropical Storm Marlene on March 30 . On that date , the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 19S . Marlene continued to strengthen as it moved west @-@ southwestward , aided by a surge in the monsoon . An eye formed on March 31 , and on the next day the storm became a tropical cyclone . The eye reached a diameter of 25 km ( 15 mi ) , embedded within a well @-@ defined central dense overcast . Later on April 1 , Marlene became an intense tropical cyclone , just three days after its genesis . That day , it turned to the south due to a passing trough . Less favorable conditions caused Marlene to weaken on April 2 , although it re @-@ intensified the next day . The MFR estimated peak winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) , and the JTWC estimated winds of 230 km / h ( 145 mph ) . The trough that turned it to the south later caused the cyclone to weaken and for the eye to dissipate . On April 5 , Marlene was downgraded into a severe tropical storm and subsequently drifted to the northwest , influenced by a ridge behind the trough . Two days later , the storm turned to the southeast and later to the east , gradually weakening into a tropical depression . On April 11 , a passing trough absorbed Marlene in the eastern periphery of the basin .
= = = Other storms = = =
On October 1 , an area of convection developed about 500 km ( 310 mi ) Seychelles at a low latitude . Moving southwestward , the system organized into Tropical Disturbance A1 on October 2 , the first of the season . A small central dense overcast subsequently developed over the circulation . A ridge to the south steered the disturbance westward , bringing it just north of the Farquhar Group . On October 5 , the disturbance intensified into a tropical depression , reaching peak winds of 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) . Subsequently , increased wind shear dissipated the convection as the rapidly weakening depression passed north of Madagascar . On October 7 , the circulation dissipated . There were two other disturbances between October and late November .
There was a tropical disturbance in the first two weeks of January before Dorina formed . Later in the month , the ITCZ spawned an area of convection in the northern Mozambique Channel near the Comoros . A circulation formed within the system on January 20 near the western coast of Madagascar , quickly becoming a tropical depression . That day , the Meteorological Service of Madagascar named the system Eliceca , but the depression quickly moved inland and dissipated . Two disturbances formed in February after the development of Heida and before Ingrid formed .
The ITCZ later produced a disturbance northeast of Rodrigues after Kylie dissipated on March 14 . It intensified into a tropical depression as it moved southwestward . Due to the threat to Rodrigues , the Mauritius Meteorological Service named the depression Lidy on March 15 , although wind shear in the region prevented further strengthening . It produced gusty winds while passing near Rodrigues on March 16 , and subsequently looped near the island . Convection from Lidy produced 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) of rainfall , causing flooding in some areas on Rodrigues . The rains caused erosion and the most damage on the island of any storm in the season . Later , Lidy drifted to the west in the trade winds , dissipating on March 20 to the north of Réunion . After Lidy , there was one final non @-@ developing disturbance .
= = Storm names = =
A tropical disturbance is named when it reaches moderate tropical storm strength . If a tropical disturbance reaches moderate tropical storm status west of 55 ° E , then the Sub @-@ regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre in Madagascar assigns the appropriate name to the storm . If a tropical disturbance reaches moderate tropical storm status between 55 ° E and 90 ° E , then the Sub @-@ regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre in Mauritius assigns the appropriate name to the storm . A new annual list is used every year , so no names are retired .
= Abou Diaby =
Vassiriki Abou Diaby ( French pronunciation : [ abu djabi ] ; born 11 May 1986 ) , known as Abou Diaby , is a French professional footballer who currently plays for French club Marseille . He plays primarily in a box to box role , as he is adept in both attacking and defending , and is described as a player who is " languid , elusive , and athletic " that can either " dribble past opponents or slip passes to team @-@ mates " . Of Ivorian descent , Diaby also possesses " superb touch " and " excellent close control " . Diaby 's career has been hampered by numerous repetitive injuries , a problem that has existed since his time in France . His physical appearance and positional preference have evoked comparisons to Arsenal legend and compatriot Patrick Vieira .
Diaby was born in the 10th arrondissement of Paris , but was raised in the Parisian commune of Aubervilliers . He began his football career playing for hometown club CM Aubervilliers . In 1998 , he joined Red Star Paris . A year later , Diaby was selected to attend the Clairefontaine academy . He spent four years at the academy while simultaneously training with Red Star . A year before departing Clairefontaine , Diaby moved to professional club Paris Saint @-@ Germain . Following an administrative error by club officials which made Diaby a free agent , he joined the academy of Auxerre . He spent two years in the club 's youth academy before making his professional debut in the 2004 – 05 season . Diaby also played in the UEFA Cup with the club . After spending the Autumn portion of the 2005 – 06 season with Auxerre , in January 2006 , Diaby signed with English club Arsenal on a long @-@ term contract for an undisclosed fee . He made his debut with the club that same month and scored his first goal three months later against Aston Villa . Diaby had his ankle broken by Dan Smith of Sunderland five months after joining Arsenal , and has since struggled with numerous injuries .
Diaby is a former French youth international having earned caps at under @-@ 19 and under @-@ 21 level . Prior to playing for the senior team , he played on the under @-@ 19 team that won the 2005 UEFA European Under @-@ 19 Football Championship . Diaby made his senior international debut in March 2007 in a UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying match against Lithuania . He has represented France at one major international tournament ; the 2010 FIFA World Cup . Diaby participated in all three group stage matches the team played as a starter .
= = Personal life = =
Diaby was born in the 10th arrondissement of Paris , but was raised in a housing development in Aubervilliers , a northeastern suburb of Paris . He is the son of a long @-@ distance truck driver and developed an interest into the sport of football after becoming fascinated by several players who played on the 1998 FIFA World Cup @-@ winning team , most notably midfield stalwart Patrick Vieira , whom Diaby describes as " a monument to French football " . Diaby was also adept at playing other sports such as basketball and boxing . Of Ivorian descent , Diaby is a practicing Muslim and , while growing up , developed a fascination towards the subjects of religion , philosophy , science , and astronomy . Diaby became interested in accountancy after taking a course at the age of 17 , while he was at the Auxerre youth academy .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Diaby began his football career playing for hometown club CM Aubervilliers in December 1996 . While at Aubervilliers , Diaby was coached by David Giguère and Alain Mboma , the latter now serving as the manager of Red Star Paris . After two years at the club , Diaby 's quick progression at the amateur club led to a move to nearby semi @-@ professional outfit Red Star Paris in Saint @-@ Ouen . While in the club 's youth academy , Diaby was supervised by youth academy director Yves @-@ Henri Gergaud and was described by club youth coach Marco Lienel as a player who was " fairly quiet and quite frail " . Diaby started his career at the club playing on its under @-@ 13 team in the Division Honneur Régionale of the Île @-@ de @-@ France region . After spending a year playing with Red Star , in 1999 , he was selected to attend the Clairefontaine academy . While at Clairefontaine , Diaby was a part of A la Clairefontaine , a documentary series which chronicled the lives of the France 's top young footballers during their time at the academy . During the series , an episode showed Diaby getting into a physical confrontation with Hatem Ben Arfa .
= = = Auxerre = = =
= = = = 2002 – 2004 = = = =
Towards the end of his development at Clairefontaine , Diaby departed Red Star to play domestic football with professional club Paris Saint @-@ Germain , despite being a supporter of Marseille . He spent a year at the Camp des Loges , the club 's training center , from 2001 – 2002 . After his departure from Clairefontaine , Diaby was expected to sign a youth contract with Paris Saint @-@ Germain . Club officials wanted to keep the player , however , the club 's human resources department failed to send a " letter of commitment " to Diaby 's parents ahead of the 30 April 2002 deadline , which resulted in the player becoming a free agent . Diaby was hastily recruited by Auxerre scouts and he joined the club 's academy ahead of the 2002 – 03 season . In his first season in the club 's youth academy , he won the Division d 'Honneur des 16 ans , the under @-@ 16 league title of the Bourgogne region .
During the 2003 – 04 season , Diaby alternated between playing on the club 's under @-@ 19 team in the Coupe Gambardella and playing in the club 's reserve team in the Championnat de France amateur , the fourth level of French football . During the reserve team season , he played on the team alongside future Arsenal teammate Bacary Sagna , as well as Younès Kaboul , Hassan Yebda , Jean @-@ Joël Perrier @-@ Doumbé and former Clairefontaine classmate Garra Dembélé . Diaby finished the season with the team with 11 appearances and one goal as the team finished first in its group . After the season , he signed his first professional contract with the club agreeing to a three @-@ year deal . Manager Guy Roux subsequently promoted Diaby to the first team and assigned him the number 24 shirt .
= = = = 2004 – 2006 = = = =
Similar to the previous season , Diaby regularly trained with the first team , while concurrently featuring as a starter on the club 's reserve team . He made his professional debut on 14 August 2004 appearing as a substitute in a 3 – 1 league win over Rennes . After making his debut for the club , Diaby spent the rest of the fall season either playing on the club 's reserve team or dealing with injuries . He returned to the team in March 2005 making his European debut in the team 's UEFA Cup Round of 16 first leg tie against domestic rivals Lille . Diaby appeared in both legs as a substitute as Auxerre won the round 1 – 0 on aggregate . The club later lost in the quarter @-@ finals to Russian club CSKA Moscow . Diaby made his first professional start on 20 March against his former youth club Paris Saint @-@ Germain . He played 74 minutes before being substituted out in a 1 – 0 loss . Diaby made three more appearances as a substitute to close out the season .
Following the season , Roux retired as manager of Auxerre after managing the club for 44 straight seasons . He was replaced with former France national team coach Jacques Santini . During the season , Diaby featured early on during the campaign , but as the season wore on , he struggled with injuries , which subsequently , led to the player failing to gain the confidence of Santini . Unlike fellow youngsters Sagna and Kaboul who were quickly establishing themselves at their respective positions , Diaby only featured in five league matches during the first half of the season . The midfielder did score his first professional goal on 10 September 2005 in a 3 – 1 loss to Rennes . In Europe , Diaby featured as a starter in the team 's first round defeat to Bulgarian club Levski Sofia in the UEFA Cup . Midway through the campaign , Diaby was deemed surplus to requirements by management . Following the sale of the player , vice @-@ president Gérard Bourgoin declared that , " We have always kept the young players which our coach wanted to use , but Diaby did not play , so this was a strategic sale for us . "
= = = Arsenal = = =
= = = = 2006 – 2009 = = = =
On 13 January 2006 , English club Arsenal confirmed that the club had signed Diaby on a long @-@ term contract for an undisclosed fee , later revealed to be £ 2 million . Prior to joining Arsenal , the player had reportedly turned down an offer to join Arsenal 's London rivals Chelsea . Upon joining Arsenal , Diaby was given the number 2 shirt , which was left vacant since the retirement of Lee Dixon . He made his club debut on 21 January 2006 appearing as a substitute in a 1 – 0 defeat to Everton . Three days later , he made his first start in a 2 – 1 Football League Cup victory over Wigan . On 21 February , Diaby made his UEFA Champions League debut appearing as a substitute in the team 's Round of 16 first leg victory over Spanish club Real Madrid . Two weeks later , Diaby assisted on a goal in Arsenal 's 4 – 0 win over Fulham . After dealing with an injury in the month of March , he returned to play in April scoring his first goal for the club in a 5 – 0 victory over Aston Villa on April Fools ' Day 2006 . He was set up for the goal by fellow club newcomer Emmanuel Adebayor .
On 1 May , Diaby suffered a severe ankle fracture after being on the receiving end of a tackle , described by the media as " horrendous " , from Sunderland defender Dan Smith . After the match , Wenger described the tackle as " a bad kick and an unnecessary one " and also criticized his competitors ' over @-@ physicality , while interim Sunderland manager Kevin Ball defended Smith stating " Smith is not a malicious , dirty player and I think it 's unfair to make that call on him and say he deliberately went to do it . Dan went for the ball , unfortunately Diaby was quicker than him " . As a result of the injury , Diaby missed the 2006 UEFA Champions League Final , as well as the 2006 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Football Championship . He underwent three surgeries to repair the injury and was told by doctors that the injury could possibly be career @-@ ending . Following the surgeries , he underwent eight months of rehabilitation and made his return to first team action in the 2006 – 07 season in a League Cup match against Liverpool . He appeared as a substitute in the match as Arsenal cruised to a 6 – 3 win . On 25 February 2007 , while participating in the 2007 Football League Cup Final against Chelsea , Diaby , while attempting to clear the ball out of the Arsenal defense , accidentally kicked rival defender John Terry in the face . Unconscious , Terry was stretchered off and hospitalized , but recovered to return to the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff for the trophy presentation following Chelsea 's 2 – 1 win . Though Arsenal lost , Diaby was credited with an assist on the team 's only goal of the match , which was converted by Theo Walcott . Diaby scored his first and only goal of the campaign on 14 March in a 1 – 0 win over Aston Villa when he deflected in a Julio Baptista shot . He remained a fixture within the team for the rest of the campaign , mostly as a substitute as he only started in consecutive matches once .
In Diaby 's first full season with Arsenal , he scored his first goal on 22 September 2007 in the club 's 5 – 0 win over Derby County . Three days later , he assisted on a goal in a 2 – 0 League Cup win over Newcastle United . In December 2007 , Diaby scored goals in back @-@ to @-@ back matches for the first time in his career . He scored the first goal on 12 December in the team 's final Champions League group stage match against Romanian club Steaua București . Arsenal won the match 2 – 1 . Six days later , Diaby scored Arsenal 's opening goal in the club 's 3 – 2 away win over Blackburn Rovers in the League Cup . Diaby failed to chart anything statistical for the rest of the winter months aside from an assist in a 4 – 1 win over Everton . On 29 March 2008 , Diaby was sent off for the first time in his professional career in a league match against Bolton Wanderers for a studs @-@ up tackle on defender Grétar Steinsson . Diaby was defended by Wenger who stated " I don ’ t think Diaby ’ s tackle was malicious , it was more protective " . Wenger also stated that Diaby 's tackle should not be compared to what had happened to teammate Eduardo da Silva a few weeks earlier . Wenger was , subsequently , criticized by the English media for flip @-@ flopping on the subject due to providing differing statements when Arsenal players are on the receiving end of tackles and when they are the aggressors .
After serving his red card suspension , Diaby featured in only one match in the final two months of the season . The match was the second leg of the club 's quarter @-@ final Champions League tie against Liverpool . In the match , Diaby netted the opening goal to give Arsenal , who drew 1 – 1 in the first leg , a 2 – 1 advantage . Arsenal , however , conceded four goals from Liverpool and lost the tie 5 – 3 on aggregate . Following the match against Liverpool , Diaby began struggling with a thigh injury . After the injury relapsed in a reserve match in late April , Diaby was ruled out for the rest of the season .
Diaby began the 2008 – 09 season late in the season after the thigh injury from the previous season was discovered to be more serious than first thought . He made his debut in the season on 18 October 2008 in a 3 – 1 win over Everton . Three days later , Diaby scored the third goal in a 5 – 2 Champions League group stage win over Fenerbahçe . He appeared regularly in the campaign for the first time in his Arsenal career . On 26 December 2008 , Diaby scored his third career goal against Aston Villa in a 2 – 2 draw . The following month , he assisted on the equalising goal , scored by Robin van Persie , in the team 's 1 – 1 draw with Everton . Diaby scored his second goal of the campaign in Arsenal 's 3 – 1 league win against Newcastle on 21 March . He finished the season by scoring the team 's third goal in the 4 – 1 win over Stoke City .
= = = = 2009 – 2012 = = = =
Diaby started the 2009 – 10 season healthy for the first time since 2007 and quickly made an impact . Playing alongside Alex Song and Cesc Fàbregas , he became part of the dynamic three @-@ man midfield partnership . On 22 August 2009 , he scored a double in a 4 – 1 win over Portsmouth . The following month , Diaby assisted on a goal in the team 's 3 – 2 comeback win over Belgian club Standard Liège in the Champions League . After alternating between the bench and starting lineup for the rest of September , in November , Diaby returned to the first eleven and responding by scoring the game @-@ winning goal in a 3 – 1 win over Birmingham City . Three weeks later , in the Champions League , he netted another goal in a group stage win over Dutch club AZ . On 7 November , Diaby picked up an injury in a 4 – 1 win over Wolverhampton Wanderers . The injury resulted in the player missing France 's World Cup playoff tie with the Republic of Ireland .
Diaby grabbed his fifth goal of the season in a 3 – 0 win over Hull City on 19 December . He also assisted on a goal in the win . A week later , Diaby scored his fourth goal overall against Aston Villa in another 3 – 0 victory . In the new year , Diaby began the 2010 calendar year by assisting on goals in a 2 – 2 draw against Everton and a 4 – 2 win over Bolton . On 10 February , he scored the only goal in a victory over Liverpool . Despite failing to score a goal for the rest of the season , Diaby was ever @-@ present in the waning moments of the season starting 12 of the final 14 matches he appeared in . He finished the campaign with career @-@ highs in matches played , goals , and assists .
Diaby began the 2010 – 11 season scoring a goal and issuing an assist in the team 's second match of the season against Blackpool ; a 6 – 0 win . During a match against Bolton at the Emirates Stadium on 11 September , he was injured after a challenge by Paul Robinson . Diaby was replaced in the 72nd minute by Denílson in a 4 – 1 win . Due to the injury , he missed two weeks and return to the team in its 3 – 2 loss to West Bromwich Albion . Diaby featured primarily as a substitute after returning from the injury . On 5 February 2011 , he was sent off after being adjudged to have committed violent conduct on opposing midfielder Joey Barton in a league match away to Newcastle . Prior to Diaby 's expulsion , Arsenal had been leading the match 4 – 0 . The team went on to concede four unanswered goals while playing with ten men , which resulted in the club leaving St James ' Park with only a point . On 10 April , Diaby scored his second goal of the season in a 3 – 1 win against Blackpool .
The 2011 – 12 season for Diaby was blighted once again by injury problems . He made just four substitute appearances during the Premier League campaign and one in the UEFA Champions League .
= = = = 2012 – 2015 = = = =
With the departure of Alex Song ahead of the 2012 – 13 season , Diaby started all three of Arsenal 's opening games . His performance against Liverpool saw him awarded Man of the Match by Sky Sports in Arsenal 's 2 – 0 win at Anfield . However , he was later injured in Arsenal 's 2 @-@ 1 loss against Chelsea on 29 September and was substituted . On 13 January 2013 , Diaby made his return against Manchester City at the Emirates Stadium . This controversial fixture in the Premier League , saw two red cards awarded , one for each team . Arsenal lost the match 2 – 0 .
Following several spells on the sidelines during February and March , it was announced on 28 March that Diaby had torn the anterior cruciate ligament ( ACL ) in his left knee and that after surgery , he would be out for approximately eight or nine months .
Arsenal announced that Diaby had changed his squad number from 2 to 24 for the 2013 – 14 season . Soon it was announced that he would be out until March 2014 , following further treatment on his knee .
On 11 May 2014 , Diaby returned from injury as a substitute in a 2 – 0 win at Norwich City in Arsenal 's final match of the 2013 – 14 Premier League season .
On 15 November 2014 , according to some English newspapers , Diaby suffered a hamstring injury which would keep him off the pitch for the next three months .
On 10 June 2015 , Diaby was released by Arsenal .
= = = Marseille = = =
In July 2015 , Diaby signed for French Ligue 1 side Marseille after being out of football since leaving Arsenal in June 2015 . Following continuing injury problems in the first half of the season , he made his return on 18 March 2016 , coming on as a substitute in Marseille 's 5 – 2 home defeat to Rennes . On 3 April 2016 , he started in a league match against Bastia , his first league start in over three years .
= = International career = =
= = = Youth = = =
Diaby played under manager Jean Gallice . Gallice , initially , called up Diaby at under @-@ 18 level for a match against Greece in November 2003 . Diaby , however , was forced to withdraw from the squad after suffering an injury while playing domestically . He made his youth international debut at under @-@ 19 level in a 2 – 1 friendly match win over Turkey . In qualifying for the 2005 European Under @-@ 19 Football Championship , Diaby appeared in all six matches as France finished both the first qualifying round and the Elite Round undefeated . In the tournament , he missed the team 's opening 1 – 1 group stage draw with England due to suspension , but returned to the starting lineup in the team 's 3 – 1 victory over Norway in the second group stage match . Diaby , subsequently , started every remaining match , including the championship match against England . France won the match 3 – 1 giving the nation its sixth under @-@ 19 title and Diaby his first international honor . In total with the under @-@ 19 team , he featured in 12 matches and scored no goals . At under @-@ 21 level , Diaby made his debut on 28 February 2006 in a friendly match against Slovakia . He appeared as a substitute as France won the match 2 – 1 . Due to suffering a fractured ankle domestically , Diaby missed the 2006 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Football Championship . Due to repetitive injuries , he missed every qualifier for the 2007 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Football Championship and made only one more appearance for the team , which occurred in a 1 – 1 draw in a friendly match with Armenia .
= = = Senior = = =
On 15 March 2007 , Diaby was called up to the senior team for the first time by coach Raymond Domenech for UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying match against Lithuania and a friendly against Austria . He described the call @-@ up as a " huge surprise " primarily because he has just returned from his ankle fracture just two months prior . Diaby made his senior international debut in the qualifier against Lithuania appearing as a substitute for Florent Malouda . He earned his first international start in the ensuing match against Austria ; the game ending in a 1 – 0 victory for France . Following the Austria match , Diaby went without an appearance for France for three years . The midfielder experienced several call ups to the team during the three years , but either withdrew from the squad due to injury or was not preferred by Domenech for a match . Despite this , Diaby was named to Domenech 's 30 @-@ man preliminary squad to participate in the 2010 FIFA World Cup . He made his return to the international scene in the team 's 2 – 1 friendly match win over Costa Rica . Diaby was later named to the 23 @-@ man team to serve as a possible backup in the holding midfield role .
Ahead of the competition , it was reported that Domenech was considering changing up the style of play in the team 's 4 – 3 – 3 formation with Malouda possibly moving from the winger role into the midfield . Following Malouda 's relegation to the bench for insubordination , Diaby was inserted in his place and made his World Cup debut in the team 's opening group stage match against Uruguay . The match ended 0 – 0 with Diaby playing the entire match . He was credited by Scottish newspaper The Scotsman as being the team 's best performer in the goalless draw . Diaby featured as a starter in both of France 's remaining group stage matches against Mexico and South Africa . France lost both matches as the competition ultimately ended in disastrous competitively and personally due to the players going on strike in response to its disagreement over the expulsion of striker Nicolas Anelka from the team . As a result of the players ' mutiny , Diaby , along with the 22 other members of the team , were suspended for the team 's friendly match against Norway .
Under manager Laurent Blanc , Diaby was penciled in as a starter in the team 's first two competitive matches of the new season . After playing the entire match in a 2 – 0 victory over Luxembourg , he missed the victory against England due to injury . Diaby returned to the team for its 9 February 2011 friendly against Brazil . He appeared as a second @-@ half substitute for Yann M 'Vila as France cruised to a 1 – 0 win . In March 2011 , Diaby was called back into the team for matches against Luxembourg and Croatia , but , for the second time in the season , withdrew from the team due to injury . He returned to the team in June 2011 for a UEFA Euro 2012 qualifying match against Belarus and friendly matches against Poland and the Ukraine . Diaby featured in all three matches . Due to injuries during the 2011 – 12 season , he missed UEFA Euro 2012 .
After over a year without an appearance at international level , Diaby returned to the national team in September 2012 under new manager Didier Deschamps . In his first appearance since June 2011 , he scored his first international goal in a 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification match against Finland .
= = Style of play = =
Diaby is often described as a typical box @-@ to @-@ box midfielder ; a midfielder who is adept both offensively and defensively . While he can play as a defensive midfielder , Diaby has often attempted to distance himself from that position , admitting that " I am better if I have a holding midfielder with me " . His club manager Arsène Wenger describes him similarly stating " He ( Diaby ) is more of an offensive player . He is not a defensive @-@ minded player and he 's not a holding player . He 's a player who crosses the field at ease , goes from box to box like it 's no distance and has good power as well " . During his early years with Auxerre , he was often used as an attacking midfielder or a support striker due to his technical ability , close control , and dexterity to dribble past opponents or slip passes to team @-@ mates .
Upon signing with Arsenal , club manager Wenger likened the player to former club player Patrick Vieira . Wenger compared the two primarily because of the similarities between each player 's physical appearance and positional preference . While the two are similar in appearance , Diaby has admitted that there are huge differences , stating , " I think maybe I am more attack @-@ minded , a more technical player , " and , " Vieira is much more aggressive . He makes more of a physical impact in a game , in midfield . He is amazing . I don ’ t think I have this quality yet . I think I can develop in that way but he is much stronger . " In 2009 , Wenger echoed Diaby 's sentiments , stating , " I believe Vieira was more of a passer of the ball . Diaby is more of a dribbler , more offensive and makes more penetrating runs . Vieira was more of a constructor . They have a similar elegance and type of play but are not completely comparable " .
Diaby is often described as being injury @-@ prone . Since returning from his fractured ankle injury in late 2006 , the midfielder has endured persistent niggling injuries that have resulted in Diaby failing to play a full season for his current club . During his second season at Auxerre , a season in which he was expected to get some significant playing time , Diaby failed to gain the confidence of manager Jacques Santini primarily due to repetitive injuries he endured during the Autumn portion of the 2005 – 06 season . After returning to the team , Diaby struggled to return to form , which ultimately resulted in his sale to Arsenal . His highest output for appearances with Arsenal came in the 2009 – 10 season when he played in 40 matches . Arsenal played a total of 55 competitive matches in the season .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of 24 april 2016 .
= = = International = = =
Statistics accurate as of 7 September 2012
= = = = International goals = = = =
= = Honours = =
= = = International = = =
France
UEFA European Under @-@ 19 Football Championship : 2005
= Bud Grant =
Harry Peter " Bud " Grant , Jr . ( born May 20 , 1927 ) is a former coach and player of American football and Canadian football . Grant served as the head coach of the Minnesota Vikings of the National Football League ( NFL ) for eighteen seasons ; he was the team 's second ( 1967 – 83 ) and fourth ( 1985 ) head coach . Before coaching the Vikings , he was the head coach of the Winnipeg Blue Bombers of the Canadian Football League ( CFL ) for ten seasons , winning the Grey Cup four times . Grant is the most successful coach in Vikings history , and the third most successful professional football coach overall ( behind Don Shula and George Halas ) , with a combined 290 wins in the NFL and CFL . Grant was elected to the Canadian Football Hall of Fame in 1983 and to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1994 . He was the first coach in the history of professional football to guide teams to the Grey Cup finals and the Super Bowl .
Grant attended the University of Minnesota and was a three @-@ sport athlete , in football , basketball , and baseball . After college , he played for the Minneapolis Lakers of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) , the Philadelphia Eagles of the NFL , and the Winnipeg Blue Bombers of the CFL .
On October 23 , 2014 , a statue of Grant was unveiled in front of the Winnipeg Blue Bombers ' new stadium , Investors Group Field .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Bud Grant was born on May 20 , 1927 , in Superior , Wisconsin to Harry Peter Sr. and Bernice Grant . His mother called him " Buddy Boy " , which later became " Bud " . As a child , Grant was diagnosed with poliomyelitis and a doctor suggested he become active in sports to strengthen his weakened leg muscles over time . He started with baseball , adding basketball and football as he got older . Due to a lack of organized school teams , he arranged football games between neighborhoods and contacted kids from other schools to participate . During weekends , he would spend time outdoors alone hunting rabbits . In his late teens and college years , he played organized baseball in Minnesota and Wisconsin .
= = = Family = = =
Bud married Pat ( formerly Patricia Bellew ; born March 28 , 1927 ) in 1950 , and they had six children . Their son Mike Grant has been the football head coach for Eden Prairie High School in Eden Prairie , Minnesota since 1992 . Mike Grant has coached Eden Prairie to ten state championships since 1996 . Bud Grant 's grandson Ryan Grant was a quarterback and linebacker at Eden Prairie and played at the University of Minnesota ( 2008 @-@ 2012 ) as a linebacker . Bud 's granddaughter Jenny is married to former NFL quarterback Gibran Hamdan . Pat Grant died in 2009 , of Parkinson 's Disease .
= = Playing career = =
= = = High school and college = = =
Grant played football , basketball , and baseball at Superior Central High School ( Wisconsin ) . He graduated from high school in 1945 and enlisted in the Navy during World War II . He was assigned to the Great Lakes Naval Training Station in Illinois and played on the football team coached by Paul Brown . Using an acceptance letter from the University of Wisconsin – Madison to be discharged from the service , Grant decided to attend the University of Minnesota instead . He was a three sport , nine letterman athlete in football , basketball , and baseball for the Minnesota Golden Gophers , earning All @-@ Big Ten honors in football twice .
= = = Professional basketball = = =
After leaving the University of Minnesota , Grant was selected in both the NFL and NBA Draft . He was selected in the first round ( fourteenth overall ) of the 1950 NFL Draft by the Philadelphia Eagles and fourth round ( forty @-@ second overall ) selection of the Minneapolis Lakers in the 1950 NBA Draft . He played thirty @-@ five games during the 1949 – 50 NBA season and signed with the Lakers for the 1950 – 51 NBA season . He chose to continue his basketball career with the Lakers because they were local and because he was offered a raise to stay for the season . Grant 's close personal friend , Sid Hartman , was the Lakers ' general manager , which may have influenced his decision to remain with the team . He averaged 2 @.@ 6 points per game in his two seasons as a reserve with the Lakers and was a member of the 1950 championship team .
= = = Professional football = = =
After two seasons in the NBA , Grant decided to end his professional basketball career . He contacted the Philadelphia Eagles of the NFL and agreed to play for the team during the 1951 NFL season . In his first season with the Eagles , Grant played as a defensive end and led the team in sacks ( an unofficial statistic at the time ) . He switched to offense as a wide receiver for his second season with the club and ranked second in the NFL for receiving yardage , with 997 yards on fifty @-@ six catches , including seven touchdowns .
Grant 's contract expired at the end of the 1952 NFL season and the Eagles refused to pay him what he thought he was worth . The Winnipeg Blue Bombers of the CFL had been interested in Grant while in college . Grant left for Winnipeg , Canada in 1953 and became the first professional player to " play out his option " and leave for another team . He played for the Blue Bombers until 1956 as an offensive end and was named a Western Conference all @-@ star three times . He led the Western Conference in pass receptions for the 1953 , 1954 , and 1956 seasons and receiving yards for the 1953 and 1956 seasons . He also holds the distinction of having five interceptions in a playoff game , played on October 28 , 1953 , which is a CFL record . The Blue Bombers played for the Grey Cup in 1953 , but lost to the Hamilton Tiger @-@ Cats in the 41st Grey Cup game .
= = Coaching career = =
= = = Winnipeg Blue Bombers = = =
Blue Bombers management decided that they needed a new coach prior to the 1957 season . On January 30 , 1957 , Grant accepted the Blue Bombers head coaching position after impressing management with his ability to make adjustments on offense and defense as a player . Club president , J.T. Russell , thought that Grant could coach even though nobody else did . Grant would remain the head coach of the Blue Bombers until 1966 . At age 29 ( he would be 30 by the time he coached his first game ) , Grant became the youngest head coach in CFL history .
During his ten seasons as head coach in Winnipeg , he led the team to six Grey Cup appearances , winning the championship four times in 1958 , 1959 , 1961 , and 1962 . He finished his Blue Bombers coaching career with a regular season record of 105 wins , 53 losses , and two ties and an overall record of 122 wins , 66 losses , and 3 ties . Grant was the CFL Coach of the Year in 1965 . Grant took on additional responsibilities as a club manager between 1964 and 1966 . Max Winter , the Minnesota Vikings founder , contacted Grant in 1961 and asked him to coach the new NFL expansion team . Grant declined the offer and remained in Winnipeg until 1967 when Winter and General Manager Jim Finks were successful in luring Grant to Minnesota .
= = = Minnesota Vikings = = =
Grant continued his coaching success in the NFL as he took over from original coach , Norm Van Brocklin . Over his tenure as Vikings head coach , Grant was known for instilling discipline in his teams and displaying a lack of emotion during games . He believed that football is a game of controlled emotion and teams would not follow the coach 's lead if he were to panic or lose his poise during the course of a game . He required his team to stand at attention in a straight line during the entire national anthem played before the game and even had national anthem practice . Grant required outdoor practice during the winter to get players used to the cold weather and would not allow heaters on the sidelines during games .
Grant and Finks orchestrated a rare trade in between leagues , which brought Joe Kapp from the British Columbia Lions to the Vikings . In return , the Vikings sent Jim Young , a Canadian born player , back to his native country .
In his second year , Grant led the team to a divisional championship and his first NFL playoffs appearance . In 1969 , he led the team to its first NFL Championship and their first appearance in the Super Bowl . The Vikings lost in Super Bowl IV to the American Football League champion Kansas City Chiefs . Prior to the 1970 season , Minnesota released Joe Kapp . After starting Gary Cuozzo at quarterback in 1970 and 1971 , the Vikings re @-@ acquired Fran Tarkenton prior to the 1972 season . During the 1970s , the Vikings would appear in three more Super Bowls ( VIII , IX , and XI ) under Grant and lose each one , but he was the first coach to lead a team to four Super Bowls . He retired after the 1983 NFL season and was succeeded by Les Steckel , who led the team to a 3 @-@ 13 record the following season . Steckel was fired as head coach after the 1984 season and Grant returned as coach for the Vikings in 1985 . After one season where he returned the club to a 7 @-@ 9 record , he stepped down again . Grant retired as the eighth most successful coach in NFL history with an overall record of 161 wins , 99 losses , and 5 ties . As of 2014 , he also remains the most successful coach in Vikings history . During his tenure with the Vikings , he led the Vikings to four Super Bowls , eleven division titles , one league championship and three NFC conference championships .
= = Head coaching record = =
= = Post @-@ coaching career = =
After retiring , Grant became a less prominent public figure and focused on hunting and fishing and supporting environmental reforms . He has been a spokesperson against Native American hunting and fishing treaty rights in Minnesota . In 1993 , Grant 's efforts resulted in a death threat . In 2005 , he spoke at a Capitol rally in Minnesota for the conservation of wetlands , wetland wildlife , and water . Grant addressed 5 @,@ 000 supporters , saying , " In this legislative session , we want to see some action . It ’ s more important than any stadium they could ever build in this state . "
Grant is still listed as a consultant for the Vikings and maintains an office at the team 's headquarters in Eden Prairie .
= Gerald Ford =
Gerald Rudolph Ford Jr . ( born Leslie Lynch King Jr . ; July 14 , 1913 – December 26 , 2006 ) was an American politician who served as the 38th President of the United States from 1974 to 1977 . Prior to this he was the 40th Vice President of the United States , serving from 1973 until President Richard Nixon 's resignation in 1974 . He was the first person appointed to the vice presidency under the terms of the 25th Amendment , following the resignation of Vice President Spiro Agnew on October 10 , 1973 . Becoming president upon Richard Nixon 's departure on August 9 , 1974 , he claimed the distinction as the first and to date the only person to have served as both Vice President and President of the United States without being elected to either office . As he was appointed to fill a vacancy and then succeeded to the presidency , Ford also earned the distinction of being the only person in American history to neither begin nor finish either a presidential or vice presidential term on the date of a regularly @-@ scheduled inauguration . Before ascending to the vice presidency , Ford served 25 years as Representative from Michigan 's 5th congressional district , the final 9 of them as the House Minority Leader .
As President , Ford signed the Helsinki Accords , marking a move toward détente in the Cold War . With the conquest of South Vietnam by North Vietnam nine months into his presidency , U.S. involvement in Vietnam essentially ended . Domestically , Ford presided over the worst economy in the four decades since the Great Depression , with growing inflation and a recession during his tenure . One of his more controversial acts was to grant a presidential pardon to President Richard Nixon for his role in the Watergate scandal . During Ford 's presidency , foreign policy was characterized in procedural terms by the increased role Congress began to play , and by the corresponding curb on the powers of the President . In the GOP presidential primary campaign of 1976 , Ford defeated then @-@ former California Governor Ronald Reagan for the Republican nomination . He narrowly lost the presidential election to the Democratic challenger , then @-@ former Georgia Governor Jimmy Carter , on November 2 .
Following his years as President , Ford remained active in the Republican Party . After experiencing health problems , he died in his home on December 26 , 2006 . Ford lived longer than any other U.S. president , 93 years and 165 days , while his 895 @-@ day presidency remains the shortest term of all presidents who did not die in office . As of 2016 , he is also the most recent former president and vice president to die .
= = Early life = =
Gerald Rudolph Ford was born Leslie Lynch King Jr . , on July 14 , 1913 , at 3202 Woolworth Avenue in Omaha , Nebraska , where his parents lived with his paternal grandparents . His mother was Dorothy Ayer Gardner , and his father was Leslie Lynch King Sr. , a wool trader and a son of prominent banker Charles Henry King and Martha Alicia King ( née Porter ) . Dorothy separated from King just sixteen days after her son 's birth . She took her son with her to the Oak Park , Illinois home of her sister Tannisse and brother @-@ in @-@ law , Clarence Haskins James . From there , she moved to the home of her parents , Levi Addison Gardner and Adele Augusta Ayer , in Grand Rapids , Michigan . Dorothy and King divorced in December 1913 ; she gained full custody of her son . Ford 's paternal grandfather Charles Henry King paid child support until shortly before his death in 1930 .
Ford later said his biological father had a history of hitting his mother . James M. Cannon , a member of the Ford administration , wrote in a biography of Ford that the Kings ' separation and divorce were sparked when , a few days after Ford 's birth , Leslie King took a butcher knife and threatened to kill his wife , his infant son , and Ford 's nursemaid . Ford later told confidantes that his father had first hit his mother on their honeymoon for smiling at another man .
After two and a half years with her parents , on February 1 , 1916 , Dorothy married Gerald Rudolff Ford , a salesman in a family @-@ owned paint and varnish company . They then called her son Gerald Rudolff Ford Jr . The future president was never formally adopted , and did not legally change his name until December 3 , 1935 ; he also used a more conventional spelling of his middle name . He was raised in Grand Rapids with his three half brothers from his mother 's second marriage : Thomas Gardner " Tom " Ford ( 1918 – 1995 ) , Richard Addison " Dick " Ford ( 1924 – 2015 ) , and James Francis " Jim " Ford ( 1927 – 2001 ) .
Ford also had three half @-@ siblings from the second marriage of Leslie King Sr. , his biological father : Marjorie King ( 1921 – 1993 ) , Leslie Henry King ( 1923 – 1976 ) , and Patricia Jane King ( born 1925 ) . They never saw one another as children and he did not know them at all . Ford was not aware of his biological father until he was 17 , when his parents told him about the circumstances of his birth . That year his biological father , whom Ford described as a " carefree , well @-@ to @-@ do man who didn 't really give a damn about the hopes and dreams of his firstborn son " , approached Ford while he was waiting tables in a Grand Rapids restaurant . The two " maintained a sporadic contact " until Leslie King Sr. ' s death in 1941 .
Ford said that " My stepfather was a magnificent person and my mother equally wonderful . So I couldn 't have written a better prescription for a superb family upbringing . "
Ford was involved in the Boy Scouts of America , and earned that program 's highest rank , Eagle Scout . He is the only Eagle Scout to have ascended to the U.S. presidency .
Ford attended Grand Rapids South High School , where he was a star athlete and captain of his football team . In 1930 , he was selected to the All @-@ City team of the Grand Rapids City League . He also attracted the attention of college recruiters .
= = College and law school = =
Attending the University of Michigan as an undergraduate , Ford became a member of the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity ( Omicron chapter ) and washed dishes at his fraternity house to earn money for college expenses .
Ford played center , linebacker and long snapper for the school 's football team , and helped the Wolverines to undefeated seasons and national titles in 1932 and 1933 . The team suffered a steep decline in his 1934 senior year , however , winning only one game . Ford was the team 's star nonetheless . After a game during which Michigan held heavily favored Minnesota ( the eventual national champion ) to a scoreless tie in the first half , assistant coach Bennie Oosterbaan later said , " When I walked into the dressing room at halftime , I had tears in my eyes I was so proud of them . Ford and [ Cedric ] Sweet played their hearts out . They were everywhere on defense . " Ford later recalled , " During 25 years in the rough @-@ and @-@ tumble world of politics , I often thought of the experiences before , during , and after that game in 1934 . Remembering them has helped me many times to face a tough situation , take action , and make every effort possible despite adverse odds . " His teammates later voted Ford their most valuable player , with one assistant coach noting , " They felt Jerry was one guy who would stay and fight in a losing cause . "
During Ford 's senior year a controversy developed when the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets refused to play a scheduled game if a black player named Willis Ward took the field . Even after protests from students , players and alumni , university officials opted to keep Ward out of the game . Ford was Ward 's best friend on the team and they roomed together while on road trips . Ford reportedly threatened to quit the team in response to the university 's decision , but eventually agreed to play against Georgia Tech when Ward personally asked him to play .
During the same season , in a game against the University of Chicago , Ford became the only future U.S. president to tackle a future Heisman Trophy winner when he brought down running back Jay Berwanger , who won the Heisman Trophy the following year . In 1934 , Ford was selected for the Eastern Team on the Shriner 's East West Crippled Children game at San Francisco ( a benefit for crippled children ) , played on January 1 , 1935 . As part of the 1935 Collegiate All @-@ Star football team , Ford played against the Chicago Bears in the Chicago College All @-@ Star Game at Soldier Field . In honor of his athletic accomplishments and his later political career , the University of Michigan retired Ford 's No. 48 jersey in 1994 . With the blessing of the Ford family , it was placed back into circulation in 2012 as part of the Michigan Football Legends program and issued to sophomore linebacker Desmond Morgan before a home game against Illinois on October 13 .
Ford remained interested in football and his school throughout life , occasionally attending games . Ford also visited with players and coaches during practices , at one point asking to join the players in the huddle . Ford often had the Naval band play the University of Michigan fight song , The Victors , before state events instead of Hail to the Chief .
Following his graduation in 1935 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in Economics , Ford turned down contract offers from the Detroit Lions and Green Bay Packers of the National Football League . Instead , in September 1935 he took job as the boxing coach and assistant varsity football coach at Yale University , and applied to its law school .
Ford hoped to attend Yale 's law school beginning in 1935 . Yale officials at denied his admission to the law school because of his full @-@ time coaching responsibilities . He spent the summer of 1937 as a student at the University of Michigan Law School and was eventually admitted in the spring of 1938 to Yale Law School . Ford earned his LL.B. degree in 1941 ( later amended to Juris Doctor ) , graduating in the top 25 percent of his class .
While attending Yale Law School , Ford joined a group of students led by R. Douglas Stuart Jr . , and signed a petition to enforce the 1939 Neutrality Act . The petition was circulated nationally and was the inspiration for the America First Committee , a group determined to keep the U.S. out of World War II . In the summer of 1940 he worked in Wendell Willkie 's presidential campaign .
Ford graduated from law school in 1941 , and was admitted to the Michigan bar shortly thereafter . In May 1941 , he opened a Grand Rapids law practice with a friend , Philip W. Buchen , who would later serve as Ford 's White House counsel .
= = U.S. Navy Reserve : World War II = =
Ford responded to the December 7 , 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor by enlisting in the Navy . He received a commission as ensign in the U.S. Naval Reserve on April 13 , 1942 . On April 20 , he reported for active duty to the V @-@ 5 instructor school at Annapolis , Maryland . After one month of training , he went to Navy Preflight School in Chapel Hill , North Carolina , where he was one of 83 instructors and taught elementary navigation skills , ordnance , gunnery , first aid , and military drill . In addition , he coached in all nine sports that were offered , but mostly in swimming , boxing and football . During the year he was at the Preflight School , he was promoted to Lieutenant , Junior Grade , on June 2 , 1942 , and to Lieutenant , in March 1943 .
= = = Sea duty = = =
After applying for sea duty , Ford was sent in May 1943 to the pre @-@ commissioning detachment for the new aircraft carrier USS Monterey ( CVL @-@ 26 ) , at New York Shipbuilding Corporation , Camden , New Jersey . From the ship 's commissioning on June 17 , 1943 , until the end of December 1944 , Ford served as the assistant navigator , Athletic Officer , and antiaircraft battery officer on board the Monterey . While he was on board , the carrier participated in many actions in the Pacific Theater with the Third and Fifth Fleets in late 1943 and 1944 . In 1943 , the carrier helped secure Makin Island in the Gilberts , and participated in carrier strikes against Kavieng , New Ireland in 1943 . During the spring of 1944 , the Monterey supported landings at Kwajalein and Eniwetok and participated in carrier strikes in the Marianas , Western Carolines , and northern New Guinea , as well as in the Battle of the Philippine Sea . After an overhaul , from September to November 1944 , aircraft from the Monterey launched strikes against Wake Island , participated in strikes in the Philippines and Ryukyus , and supported the landings at Leyte and Mindoro .
Although the ship was not damaged by Japanese forces , the Monterey was one of several ships damaged by the typhoon that hit Admiral William Halsey 's Third Fleet on December 18 – 19 , 1944 . The Third Fleet lost three destroyers and over 800 men during the typhoon . The Monterey was damaged by a fire , which was started by several of the ship 's aircraft tearing loose from their cables and colliding on the hangar deck . During the storm , Ford narrowly avoided becoming a casualty himself . As he was going to his battle station on the bridge of the ship in the early morning of December 18 , the ship rolled twenty @-@ five degrees , which caused Ford to lose his footing and slide toward the edge of the deck . The two @-@ inch steel ridge around the edge of the carrier slowed him enough so he could roll , and he twisted into the catwalk below the deck . As he later stated , " I was lucky ; I could have easily gone overboard . "
Ford , serving as General Quarters Officer of the Deck , was ordered to go below to assess the raging fire . He did so safely , and reported his findings back to the ship 's commanding officer , Captain Stuart Ingersoll . The ship 's crew was able to contain the fire , and the ship got underway again .
After the fire , the Monterey was declared unfit for service , and the crippled carrier reached Ulithi on December 21 before continuing across the Pacific to Bremerton , Washington where it underwent repairs . On December 24 , 1944 , at Ulithi , Ford was detached from the ship and sent to the Navy Pre @-@ Flight School at Saint Mary 's College of California , where he was assigned to the Athletic Department until April 1945 . One of his duties was to coach football . From the end of April 1945 to January 1946 , he was on the staff of the Naval Reserve Training Command , Naval Air Station , Glenview , Illinois , as the Staff Physical and Military Training Officer . On October 3 , 1945 , he was promoted to Lieutenant Commander .
Ford received the following military awards : the American Campaign Medal , the Asiatic @-@ Pacific Campaign Medal with nine 3 ⁄ 16 " bronze stars ( for operations in the Gilbert Islands , Bismarck Archipelago , Marshall Islands , Asiatic and Pacific carrier raids , Hollandia , Marianas , Western Carolines , Western New Guinea , and the Leyte Operation ) , the Philippine Liberation Medal with two 3 ⁄ 16 " bronze stars ( for Leyte and Mindoro ) , and the World War II Victory Medal .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
In January 1946 , Ford was sent to the Separation Center , Great Lakes to be processed out . He was released from active duty under honorable conditions on February 23 , 1946 . On June 28 , 1946 , the Secretary of the Navy accepted Ford 's resignation from the Naval Reserve .
Ford was a member of several civic organizations , including the Junior Chamber of Commerce ( Jaycees ) , American Legion , AMVETS , Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks , Sons of the Revolution , and Veterans of Foreign Wars .
Ford was initiated into Freemasonry on September 30 , 1949 . He later said in 1975 , " When I took my obligation as a master mason — incidentally , with my three younger brothers — I recalled the value my own father attached to that order . But I had no idea that I would ever be added to the company of the Father of our Country and 12 other members of the order who also served as Presidents of the United States . "
= = Marriage and children = =
On October 15 , 1948 , at Grace Episcopal Church in Grand Rapids , Ford married Elizabeth Bloomer Warren ( 1918 – 2011 ) , a department store fashion consultant . Warren had been a John Robert Powers fashion model and a dancer in the auxiliary troupe of the Martha Graham Dance Company . She had previously been married to and divorced from William G. Warren .
At the time of his engagement , Ford was campaigning for what would be his first of thirteen terms as a member of the United States House of Representatives . The wedding was delayed until shortly before the elections because , as The New York Times reported in a 1974 profile of Betty Ford , " Jerry was running for Congress and wasn 't sure how voters might feel about his marrying a divorced ex @-@ dancer . "
The couple had four children :
Michael Gerald , born in 1949
John Gardner , known as Jack , born in 1951
Steven Meigs , born in 1956
Susan Elizabeth , born in 1958
= = House of Representatives = =
After returning to Grand Rapids in 1946 , Ford became active in local Republican politics , and supporters urged him to take on Bartel J. Jonkman , the incumbent Republican congressman . Military service had changed his view of the world . " I came back a converted internationalist " , Ford wrote , " and of course our congressman at that time was an avowed , dedicated isolationist . And I thought he ought to be replaced . Nobody thought I could win . I ended up winning two to one . "
During his first campaign in 1948 , Ford visited voters at their doorsteps and as they left the factories where they worked . Ford also visited local farms where , in one instance , a wager resulted in Ford spending two weeks milking cows following his election victory .
Ford was a member of the House of Representatives for 25 years , holding the Grand Rapids congressional district seat from 1949 to 1973 . It was a tenure largely notable for its modesty . As an editorial in The New York Times described him , Ford " saw himself as a negotiator and a reconciler , and the record shows it : he did not write a single piece of major legislation in his entire career . " Appointed to the House Appropriations Committee two years after being elected , he was a prominent member of the Defense Appropriations Subcommittee . Ford described his philosophy as " a moderate in domestic affairs , an internationalist in foreign affairs , and a conservative in fiscal policy . " Ford was known to his colleagues in the House as a " Congressman 's Congressman " .
In the early 1950s , Ford declined offers to run for either the Senate or the Michigan governorship . Rather , his ambition was to become Speaker of the House .
= = = Warren Commission = = =
On November 29 , 1963 , Democratic President Lyndon B. Johnson appointed Ford to the Warren Commission , a special task force set up to investigate the assassination of President John F. Kennedy . Ford was assigned to prepare a biography of Lee Harvey Oswald , the accused assassin . According to a 1963 FBI memo released in 2008 , Ford was in contact with the FBI throughout his time on the Warren Commission and relayed information to the deputy director , Cartha DeLoach , about the panel 's activities . In the preface to his book , A Presidential Legacy and The Warren Commission , Ford defended the work of the commission and reiterated his support of its conclusions .
= = = House Minority Leader = = =
In 1964 , Lyndon Johnson led a landslide victory for his party , securing another term as president and taking 36 seats from Republicans in the House of Representatives . Following the election , members of the Republican caucus looked to select a new Minority Leader . Three members approached Ford to see if he would be willing to serve ; after consulting with his family , he agreed . After a closely contested election , Ford was chosen to replace Charles Halleck of Indiana as Minority Leader .
In January 1965 , the Republicans had 140 seats in the House compared with the 295 seats held by the Democrats . With that large majority , and a majority in the U.S. Senate , the Johnson Administration proposed and passed a series of programs that was called by Johnson the " Great Society . " During the first session of the Eighty @-@ ninth Congress alone , the Johnson Administration submitted 87 bills to Congress , and Johnson signed 84 , or 96 % , arguably the most successful legislative agenda in Congressional history .
In 1966 , criticism over the Johnson Administration 's handling of the Vietnam War began to grow , with Ford and Congressional Republicans expressing concern that the United States was not doing what was necessary to win the war . Public sentiment also began to move against Johnson , and the 1966 midterm elections saw a 47 @-@ seat swing in favor of the Republicans . This was not enough to give Republicans a majority in the House , but the victory gave Ford the opportunity to prevent the passage of further Great Society programs .
Ford 's private criticism of the Vietnam War became public following a speech from the floor of the House , in which he questioned whether the White House had a clear plan to bring the war to a successful conclusion . The speech angered President Johnson , who accused Ford of playing " too much football without a helmet " .
As Minority Leader in the House , Ford appeared in a popular series of televised press conferences with Illinois Senator Everett Dirksen , in which they proposed Republican alternatives to Johnson 's policies . Many in the press jokingly called this " The Ev and Jerry Show . " Johnson said at the time , " Jerry Ford is so dumb he can 't fart and chew gum at the same time . " The press , used to sanitizing LBJ 's salty language , reported this as " Gerald Ford can 't walk and chew gum at the same time . "
After President Nixon was elected in November 1968 , Ford 's role shifted to being an advocate for the White House agenda . Congress passed several of Nixon 's proposals , including the National Environmental Policy Act and the Tax Reform Act of 1969 . Another high @-@ profile victory for the Republican minority was the State and Local Fiscal Assistance act . Passed in 1972 , the act established a Revenue Sharing program for state and local governments . Ford 's leadership was instrumental in shepherding revenue sharing through Congress , and resulted in a bipartisan coalition that supported the bill with 223 votes in favor ( compared with 185 against ) .
During the eight years ( 1965 – 1973 ) that Ford served as Minority Leader , he won many friends in the House because of his fair leadership and inoffensive personality .
= = Vice presidency ( 1973 – 74 ) = =
On October 10 , 1973 , Vice President Spiro Agnew resigned and then pleaded no contest to criminal charges of tax evasion and money laundering , part of a negotiated resolution to a scheme in which he accepted $ 29 @,@ 500 in bribes while governor of Maryland . According to The New York Times , Nixon " sought advice from senior Congressional leaders about a replacement . The advice was unanimous . ' We gave Nixon no choice but Ford , ' House Speaker Carl Albert recalled later " .
Ford was nominated to take Agnew 's position on October 12 , the first time the vice @-@ presidential vacancy provision of the 25th Amendment had been implemented . The United States Senate voted 92 to 3 to confirm Ford on November 27 . Only three Senators , all Democrats , voted against Ford 's confirmation : Gaylord Nelson of Wisconsin , Thomas Eagleton of Missouri and William Hathaway of Maine . On December 6 , 1973 , the House confirmed Ford by a vote of 387 to 35 . One hour after the confirmation vote in the House , Ford took the oath of office as Vice President of the United States .
Ford became Vice President as the Watergate scandal was unfolding . On Thursday , August 1 , Chief of Staff Alexander Haig contacted Ford to tell him that " smoking gun " evidence had been found . The evidence left little doubt that President Nixon had been a part of the Watergate cover @-@ up . At the time , Ford and his wife , Betty , were living in suburban Virginia , waiting for their expected move into the newly designated vice president 's residence in Washington , D.C. However , " Al Haig [ asked ] to come over and see me , " Ford later said , " to tell me that there would be a new tape released on a Monday , and he said the evidence in there was devastating and there would probably be either an impeachment or a resignation . And he said , ' I 'm just warning you that you 've got to be prepared , that things might change dramatically and you could become President . ' And I said , ' Betty , I don 't think we 're ever going to live in the vice president 's house . ' "
= = Presidency ( 1974 – 77 ) = =
= = = Swearing @-@ in = = =
When Nixon resigned on August 9 , 1974 , Ford assumed the presidency , making him the only person to assume the presidency without having been previously voted into either the presidential or vice presidential office . Immediately after taking the oath of office in the East Room of the White House , he spoke to the assembled audience in a speech broadcast live to the nation . Ford noted the peculiarity of his position : " I am acutely aware that you have not elected me as your president by your ballots , and so I ask you to confirm me as your president with your prayers . " He went on to state :
I have not sought this enormous responsibility , but I will not shirk it . Those who nominated and confirmed me as Vice President were my friends and are my friends . They were of both parties , elected by all the people and acting under the Constitution in their name . It is only fitting then that I should pledge to them and to you that I will be the President of all the people .
He also stated :
My fellow Americans , our long national nightmare is over . Our Constitution works ; our great Republic is a government of laws and not of men . Here , the people rule . But there is a higher Power , by whatever name we honor Him , who ordains not only righteousness but love , not only justice , but mercy . ... let us restore the golden rule to our political process , and let brotherly love purge our hearts of suspicion and hate .
A portion of the speech would later be memorialized with a plaque at the entrance to his presidential museum .
On August 20 , Ford nominated former New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller to fill the vice presidency he had vacated . Rockefeller 's top competitor had been George H. W. Bush . Rockefeller underwent extended hearings before Congress , which caused embarrassment when it was revealed he made large gifts to senior aides , such as Henry Kissinger . Although conservative Republicans were not pleased that Rockefeller was picked , most of them voted for his confirmation , and his nomination passed both the House and Senate . Some , including Barry Goldwater , voted against him .
= = = Pardon of Nixon = = =
On September 8 , 1974 , Ford issued Proclamation 4311 , which gave Nixon a full and unconditional pardon for any crimes he might have committed against the United States while President . In a televised broadcast to the nation , Ford explained that he felt the pardon was in the best interests of the country , and that the Nixon family 's situation " is a tragedy in which we all have played a part . It could go on and on and on , or someone must write the end to it . I have concluded that only I can do that , and if I can , I must . "
The Nixon pardon was highly controversial . Critics derided the move and said a " corrupt bargain " had been struck between the men . They said that Ford 's pardon was granted in exchange for Nixon 's resignation , which had elevated Ford to the presidency . Ford 's first press secretary and close friend Jerald terHorst resigned his post in protest after the pardon . According to Bob Woodward , Nixon Chief of Staff Alexander Haig proposed a pardon deal to Ford . He later decided to pardon Nixon for other reasons , primarily the friendship he and Nixon shared . Regardless , historians believe the controversy was one of the major reasons Ford lost the election in 1976 , an observation with which Ford agreed . In an editorial at the time , The New York Times stated that the Nixon pardon was a " profoundly unwise , divisive and unjust act " that in a stroke had destroyed the new president 's " credibility as a man of judgment , candor and competence " . On October 17 , 1974 , Ford testified before Congress on the pardon . He was the first sitting President since Abraham Lincoln to testify before the House of Representatives .
In the months following the pardon , Ford often declined to mention President Nixon by name , referring to him in public as " my predecessor " or " the former president . " When , on a 1974 trip to California , White House correspondent Fred Barnes pressed Ford on the matter , Ford replied in surprisingly frank manner : " I just can ’ t bring myself to do it . ”
After Ford left the White House in January 1977 , the former President privately justified his pardon of Nixon by carrying in his wallet a portion of the text of Burdick v. United States , a 1915 U.S. Supreme Court decision which stated that a pardon indicated a presumption of guilt , and that acceptance of a pardon was tantamount to a confession of that guilt . In 2001 , the John F. Kennedy Library Foundation awarded the John F. Kennedy Profile in Courage Award to Ford for his pardon of Nixon . In presenting the award to Ford , Senator Edward Kennedy said that he had initially been opposed to the pardon of Nixon , but later decided that history had proved Ford to have made the correct decision .
= = = Draft dodgers and deserters = = =
On September 16 , shortly after he announced the Nixon pardon , Ford introduced a conditional amnesty program for Vietnam War draft dodgers who had fled to countries such as Canada , and for military deserters , in Presidential Proclamation 4313 . The conditions of the amnesty required that those reaffirm their allegiance to the United States and serve two years working in a public service job or a total of two years service for those who had served less than two years of honorable service in the military . The program for the Return of Vietnam Era Draft Evaders and Military Deserters established a Clemency Board to review the records and make recommendations for receiving a Presidential Pardon and a change in Military discharge status . Full pardon for draft dodgers came in the Carter Administration .
= = = Administration officials = = =
Upon assuming office , Ford inherited Nixon 's Cabinet . During Ford 's brief administration , all members were replaced except Secretary of State Kissinger and Secretary of the Treasury William E. Simon . Ford 's dramatic reorganization of his Cabinet in the fall of 1975 has been referred to by political commentators as the " Halloween Massacre " . One of Ford 's appointees , William Coleman , as Secretary of Transportation , was the second black man to serve in a presidential cabinet ( after Robert C. Weaver ) and the first appointed in a Republican administration .
Other cabinet @-@ level posts :
White House Chief of Staff
Alexander Haig ( 1974 )
Donald Rumsfeld ( 1974 – 1975 )
Dick Cheney ( 1975 – 1977 )
Director of the Office of Management and Budget
Roy Ash ( 1974 – 1975 )
James Thomas Lynn ( 1975 – 1977 )
United States Trade Representative
William Denman Eberle ( 1974 – 1975 )
Frederick B. Dent ( 1975 – 1977 )
Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency
Russell E. Train ( 1974 – 1977 )
United States Ambassador to the United Nations
John A. Scali ( 1974 – 1975 )
Daniel Patrick Moynihan ( 1975 – 1976 )
William Scranton ( 1976 – 1977 )
Other important posts :
United States National Security Advisor
Henry Kissinger ( 1974 – 1975 )
Brent Scowcroft ( 1975 – 1977 )
Director of Central Intelligence
William Colby ( 1974 – 1976 )
George H. W. Bush ( 1976 – 1977 )
Press Secretary
Jerald terHorst ( 1974 )
Ron Nessen ( 1974 – 1977 )
Ford selected George H.W. Bush as Chief of the US Liaison Office to the People 's Republic of China in 1974 , and then Director of the Central Intelligence Agency in late 1975 .
Ford 's transition chairman and first Chief of Staff was former congressman and ambassador Donald Rumsfeld . In 1975 , Rumsfeld was named by Ford as the youngest @-@ ever Secretary of Defense . Ford chose a young Wyoming politician , Richard Cheney , to replace Rumsfeld as his new Chief of Staff ; Cheney became the campaign manager for Ford 's 1976 presidential campaign .
= = = Midterm elections = = =
The 1974 Congressional midterm elections took place less than three months after Ford assumed office and in the wake of the Watergate scandal . The Democratic Party turned voter dissatisfaction into large gains in the House elections , taking 49 seats from the Republican Party , increasing their majority to 291 of the 435 seats . This was one more than the number needed ( 290 ) for a two @-@ thirds majority , the number necessary to override a Presidential veto or to propose a constitutional amendment . Perhaps due in part to this fact , the 94th Congress overrode the highest percentage of vetoes since Andrew Johnson was President of the United States ( 1865 – 1869 ) . Even Ford 's former , reliably Republican House seat was won by a Democrat , Richard Vander Veen , who defeated Robert VanderLaan . In the Senate elections , the Democratic majority became 61 in the 100 @-@ seat body .
= = = Domestic policy = = =
= = = = Inflation = = = =
The economy was a great concern during the Ford administration . One of the first acts the new president took was to deal with the economy was to create , by Executive Order on September 30 , 1974 , the Economic Policy Board . In October 1974 , in response to rising inflation , Ford went before the American public and asked them to " Whip Inflation Now " . As part of this program , he urged people to wear " WIN " buttons . At the time , inflation was believed to be the primary threat to the economy , more so than growing unemployment ; there was a belief that controlling inflation would help reduce unemployment . To rein in inflation , it was necessary to control the public 's spending . To try to mesh service and sacrifice , " WIN " called for Americans to reduce their spending and consumption . On October 4 , 1974 , Ford gave a speech in front of a joint session of Congress ; as a part of this speech he kicked off the " WIN " campaign . Over the next nine days 101 @,@ 240 Americans mailed in " WIN " pledges . In hindsight , this was viewed as simply a public relations gimmick which had no way of solving the underlying problems . The main point of that speech was to introduce to Congress a one @-@ year , five @-@ percent income tax increase on corporations and wealthy individuals . This plan would also take $ 4 @.@ 4 billion out of the budget , bringing federal spending below $ 300 billion . At the time , inflation was over twelve percent .
= = = = Budget = = = =
The federal budget ran a deficit every year Ford was President . Despite his reservations about how the program ultimately would be funded in an era of tight public budgeting , Ford signed the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 , which established special education throughout the United States . Ford expressed " strong support for full educational opportunities for our handicapped children " according to the official White House press release for the bill signing .
The economic focus began to change as the country sank into the worst recession since the Great Depression four decades earlier . The focus of the Ford administration turned to stopping the rise in unemployment , which reached nine percent in May 1975 . In January 1975 , Ford proposed a 1 @-@ year tax reduction of $ 16 billion to stimulate economic growth , along with spending cuts to avoid inflation . Ford was criticized greatly for quickly switching from advocating a tax increase to a tax reduction . In Congress , the proposed amount of the tax reduction increased to $ 22 @.@ 8 billion in tax cuts and lacked spending cuts . In March 1975 , Congress passed , and Ford signed into law , these income tax rebates as part of the Tax Reduction Act of 1975 . This resulted in a federal deficit of around $ 53 billion for the 1975 fiscal year and $ 73 @.@ 7 billion for 1976 .
When New York City faced bankruptcy in 1975 , Mayor Abraham Beame was unsuccessful in obtaining Ford 's support for a federal bailout . The incident prompted the New York Daily News ' famous headline " Ford to City : Drop Dead " , referring to a speech in which " Ford declared flatly ... that he would veto any bill calling for ' a federal bail @-@ out of New York City ' " . The following month , November 1975 , Ford changed his stance and asked Congress to approve federal loans to New York City .
= = = = Swine flu = = = =
Ford was confronted with a potential swine flu pandemic . In the early 1970s , an influenza strain H1N1 shifted from a form of flu that affected primarily pigs and crossed over to humans . On February 5 , 1976 , an army recruit at Fort Dix mysteriously died and four fellow soldiers were hospitalized ; health officials announced that " swine flu " was the cause . Soon after , public health officials in the Ford administration urged that every person in the United States be vaccinated . Although the vaccination program was plagued by delays and public relations problems , some 25 % of the population was vaccinated by the time the program was canceled in December 1976 . The vaccine was blamed for twenty @-@ five deaths ; more people died from the shots than from the swine flu .
= = = = Other domestic issues = = = =
Ford was an outspoken supporter of the Equal Rights Amendment , issuing Presidential Proclamation no . 4383 in 1975 :
In this Land of the Free , it is right , and by nature it ought to be , that all men and all women are equal before the law .
Now , therefore , I , Gerald R. Ford , President of the United States of America , to remind all Americans that it is fitting and just to ratify the Equal Rights Amendment adopted by the Congress of the United States of America , in order to secure legal equality for all women and men , do hereby designate and proclaim August 26 , 1975 , as Women 's Equality Day .
As president , Ford 's position on abortion was that he supported " a federal constitutional amendment that would permit each one of the 50 States to make the choice " . This had also been his position as House Minority Leader in response to the 1973 Supreme Court case of Roe v. Wade , which he opposed . Ford came under criticism for a 60 Minutes interview his wife Betty gave in 1975 , in which she stated that Roe v. Wade was a " great , great decision " . During his later life , Ford would identify as pro @-@ choice .
= = = Foreign policy = = =
Ford continued the détente policy with both the Soviet Union and China , easing the tensions of the Cold War . Still in place from the Nixon Administration was the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty ( SALT ) . The thawing relationship brought about by Nixon 's visit to China was reinforced by Ford 's December 1975 visit to that communist country . In 1975 , the Administration entered into the Helsinki Accords with the Soviet Union , creating the framework of the Helsinki Watch , an independent non @-@ governmental organization created to monitor compliance that later evolved into Human Rights Watch .
Ford attended the inaugural meeting of the Group of Seven ( G7 ) industrialized nations ( initially the G5 ) in 1975 and secured membership for Canada . Ford supported international solutions to issues . " We live in an interdependent world and , therefore , must work together to resolve common economic problems , " he said in a 1974 speech .
According to internal White House and Commission documents posted in February 2016 by the National Security Archive at The George Washington University , the Gerald Ford White House significantly altered the final report of the supposedly independent 1975 Rockefeller Commission investigating CIA domestic activities , over the objections of senior Commission staff . The changes included removal of an entire 86 @-@ page section on CIA assassination plots and numerous edits to the report by then @-@ deputy White House Chief of Staff Richard Cheney .
= = = = Middle East = = = =
In the Middle East and eastern Mediterranean , two ongoing international disputes developed into crises . The Cyprus dispute turned into a crisis with the Turkish invasion of Cyprus , causing extreme strain within the North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ) alliance . In mid @-@ August , the Greek government withdrew Greece from the NATO military structure ; in mid @-@ September 1974 , the Senate and House of Representatives overwhelmingly voted to halt military aid to Turkey . Ford , concerned with both the effect of this on Turkish @-@ American relations and the deterioration of security on NATO 's eastern front , vetoed the bill . A second bill was then passed by Congress , which Ford also vetoed , although a compromise was accepted to continue aid until the end of the year . As Ford expected , Turkish relations were considerably disrupted until 1978 .
In the continuing Arab – Israeli conflict , although the initial cease fire had been implemented to end active conflict in the Yom Kippur War , Kissinger 's continuing shuttle diplomacy was showing little progress . Ford considered it " stalling " and wrote , " Their [ Israeli ] tactics frustrated the Egyptians and made me mad as hell . " During Kissinger 's shuttle to Israel in early March 1975 , a last minute reversal to consider further withdrawal , prompted a cable from Ford to Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin , which included :
I wish to express my profound disappointment over Israel 's attitude in the course of the negotiations ... Failure of the negotiation will have a far reaching impact on the region and on our relations . I have given instructions for a reassessment of United States policy in the region , including our relations with Israel , with the aim of ensuring that overall American interests ... are protected . You will be notified of our decision .
On March 24 , Ford informed congressional leaders of both parties of the reassessment of the administration policies in the Middle East . " Reassessment " , in practical terms , meant canceling or suspending further aid to Israel . For six months between March and September 1975 , the United States refused to conclude any new arms agreements with Israel . Rabin notes it was " an innocent @-@ sounding term that heralded one of the worst periods in American @-@ Israeli relations " . The announced reassessments upset the American Jewish community and Israel 's well @-@ wishers in Congress . On May 21 , Ford " experienced a real shock " when seventy @-@ six U.S. senators wrote him a letter urging him to be " responsive " to Israel 's request for $ 2 @.@ 59 billion in military and economic aid . Ford felt truly annoyed and thought the chance for peace was jeopardized . It was , since the September 1974 ban on arms to Turkey , the second major congressional intrusion upon the President 's foreign policy prerogatives . The following summer months were described by Ford as an American @-@ Israeli " war of nerves " or " test of wills " . After
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24 @-@ hour period on April 29 to 30 , 1975 , immediately preceding the fall of Saigon . During the operation , so many South Vietnamese helicopters landed on the vessels taking the evacuees that some were pushed overboard to make room for more people . Other helicopters , having nowhere to land , were deliberately crash landed into the sea after dropping off their passengers , close to the ships , their pilots bailing out at the last moment to be picked up by rescue boats .
Many of the Vietnamese evacuees were allowed to enter the United States under the Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act . The 1975 Act appropriated $ 455 million toward the costs of assisting the settlement of Indochinese refugees . In all , 130 @,@ 000 Vietnamese refugees came to the United States in 1975 . Thousands more escaped in the years that followed .
= = = = Mayaguez and Panmunjom = = = =
North Vietnam 's victory over the South led to a considerable shift in the political winds in Asia , and Ford administration officials worried about a consequent loss of U.S. influence there . The administration proved it was willing to respond forcefully to challenges to its interests in the region on two occasions , once when Khmer Rouge forces seized an American ship in international waters and again when American military officers were killed in the demilitarized zone ( DMZ ) between North and South Korea .
The first crisis was the Mayaguez incident . In May 1975 , shortly after the fall of Saigon and the Khmer Rouge conquest of Cambodia , Cambodians seized the American merchant ship Mayaguez in international waters . Ford dispatched Marines to rescue the crew , but the Marines landed on the wrong island and met unexpectedly stiff resistance just as , unknown to the U.S. , the Mayaguez sailors were being released . In the operation , two military transport helicopters carrying the Marines for the assault operation were shot down , and 41 U.S. servicemen were killed and 50 wounded while approximately 60 Khmer Rouge soldiers were killed . Despite the American losses , the operation was seen as a success in the United States and Ford enjoyed an 11 @-@ point boost in his approval ratings in the aftermath . The Americans killed during the operation became the last to have their names inscribed on the Vietnam Veterans Memorial wall in Washington , D.C.
Some historians have argued that the Ford administration felt the need to respond forcefully to the incident because it was construed as a Soviet plot . But work by Andrew Gawthorpe , published in 2009 , based on an analysis of the administration 's internal discussions , shows that Ford 's national security team understood that the seizure of the vessel was a local , and perhaps even accidental , provocation by an immature Khmer government . Nevertheless , they felt the need to respond forcefully to discourage further provocations by other Communist countries in Asia .
The second crisis , known as the axe murder incident , occurred at Panmunjom , a village which stands in the DMZ between the two Koreas . At the time , this was the only part of the DMZ where forces from the North and the South came into contact with each other . Encouraged by U.S. difficulties in Vietnam , North Korea had been waging a campaign of diplomatic pressure and minor military harassment to try and convince the U.S. to withdraw from South Korea . Then , in August 1976 , North Korean forces killed two U.S. officers and injured South Korean guards who were engaged in trimming a tree in Panmunjom 's Joint Security Area . The attack coincided with a meeting of the Conference of Non @-@ Aligned Nations in Colombo , Sri Lanka , at which Kim Jong @-@ il , the son of North Korean leader Kim Il @-@ sung , presented the incident as an example of American aggression , helping secure the passage of a motion calling for a U.S. withdrawal from the South .
At administration meetings , Kissinger voiced the concern that the North would see the U.S. as " the paper tigers of Saigon " if they did not respond , and Ford agreed with that assessment . After mulling various options the Ford administration decided that it was necessary to respond with a major show of force . A large number of ground forces went to cut down the tree , while at the same time the air force was deployed , which included B @-@ 52 bomber flights over Panmunjom . The North Korean government backed down and allowed the tree @-@ cutting to go ahead , and later issued an unprecedented official apology .
= = = = Indonesian invasion of East Timor = = = =
East Timor 's decolonization due to political instability in Portugal saw Indonesia posture to annex the new state in 1975 . Just hours before the Indonesian invasion of East Timor ( now Timor Leste ) on December 7 , 1975 , Ford and Kissinger had visited Indonesian President Suharto in Jakarta and guaranteed American compliance with the Indonesian operation . Suharto had been a key supporter of American influence in Indonesia and Southeast Asia and Ford did not desire to place pressure on the American @-@ Indonesian relationship .
Under Ford , a policy of arms sales to the Suharto regime began in 1975 , before the invasion . " Roughly 90 % " of the Indonesian army 's weapons at the time of East Timor 's invasion were provided by the U.S. according to George H. Aldrich , a former State Department deputy legal advisor . Post @-@ invasion , Ford 's military aid averaged about $ 30 million annually throughout East Timor 's occupation , and arms sales increased exponentially under President Carter . This policy continued until 1999 .
= = = Assassination attempts = = =
Ford faced two assassination attempts during his presidency . In Sacramento , California , on September 5 , 1975 , Lynette " Squeaky " Fromme , a follower of Charles Manson , pointed a Colt .45 @-@ caliber handgun at Ford . As Fromme pulled the trigger , Larry Buendorf , a Secret Service agent , grabbed the gun , and Fromme was taken into custody . She was later convicted of attempted assassination of the President and was sentenced to life in prison ; she was paroled on August 14 , 2009 .
In reaction to this attempt , the Secret Service began keeping Ford at a more secure distance from anonymous crowds , a strategy that may have saved his life seventeen days later . As he left the St. Francis Hotel in downtown San Francisco , Sara Jane Moore , standing in a crowd of onlookers across the street , pointed her .38 @-@ caliber revolver at him . Moore fired a single round but missed because the sights were off . Just before she fired a second round , retired Marine Oliver Sipple grabbed at the gun and deflected her shot ; the bullet struck a wall about six inches above and to the right of Ford 's head , then ricocheted and hit a taxi driver , who was slightly wounded . Moore was later sentenced to life in prison . She was paroled on December 31 , 2007 , after serving 32 years .
= = = Judicial appointments = = =
= = = = Supreme Court = = = =
In 1975 , Ford appointed John Paul Stevens as Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States to replace retiring Justice William O. Douglas . Stevens had been a judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit , appointed by President Nixon . During his tenure as House Republican leader , Ford had led efforts to have Douglas impeached . After being confirmed , Stevens eventually disappointed some conservatives by siding with the Court 's liberal wing regarding the outcome of many key issues . Nevertheless , in 2005 Ford praised Stevens . " He has served his nation well , " Ford said of Stevens , " with dignity , intellect and without partisan political concerns . "
= = = = Other judicial appointments = = = =
Ford appointed 11 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals , and 50 judges to the United States district courts .
= = = 1976 presidential election = = =
Ford reluctantly agreed to run for office in 1976 , but first he had to counter a challenge for the Republican party nomination . Former Governor of California Ronald Reagan and the party 's conservative wing faulted Ford for failing to do more in South Vietnam , for signing the Helsinki Accords , and for negotiating to cede the Panama Canal . ( Negotiations for the canal continued under President Carter , who eventually signed the Torrijos – Carter Treaties . ) Reagan launched his campaign in autumn of 1975 and won numerous primaries , including North Carolina , Texas , Indiana , and California , but failed to get a majority of delegates ; Regan withdrew from the race at the Republican Convention in Kansas City , Missouri . The conservative insurgency did lead to Ford dropping the more liberal Vice President Nelson Rockefeller in favor of U.S. Senator Bob Dole of Kansas .
In addition to the pardon dispute and lingering anti @-@ Republican sentiment , Ford had to counter a plethora of negative media imagery . Chevy Chase often did pratfalls on Saturday Night Live , imitating Ford , who had been seen stumbling on two occasions during his term . As Chase commented , " He even mentioned in his own autobiography it had an effect over a period of time that affected the election to some degree . "
Ford 's 1976 election campaign benefitted from his being an incumbent president during several anniversary events held during the period leading up to the United States Bicentennial . The Washington , D.C. fireworks display on the Fourth of July was presided over by the President and televised nationally . On July 7 , 1976 , the President and First Lady served as hosts at a White House state dinner for Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip of the United Kingdom , which was televised on the Public Broadcasting Service network . The 200th anniversary of the Battles of Lexington and Concord in Massachusetts gave Ford the opportunity to deliver a speech to 110 @,@ 000 in Concord acknowledging the need for a strong national defense tempered with a plea for " reconciliation , not recrimination " and " reconstruction , not rancor " between the United States and those who would pose " threats to peace " . Speaking in New Hampshire on the previous day , Ford condemned the growing trend toward big government bureaucracy and argued for a return to " basic American virtues " .
Democratic nominee and former Georgia governor Jimmy Carter campaigned as an outsider and reformer , gaining support from voters dismayed by the Watergate scandal and Nixon pardon . After the Democratic National Convention , he held a huge 33 @-@ point lead over Ford in the polls . However , as the campaign continued , the race tightened , and , by election day , the polls showed the race as too close to call . There were three main events in the fall campaign . Most importantly , Carter repeated a promise of a " blanket pardon " for Christian and other religious refugees , and also all Vietnam War draft dodgers ( Ford had only issued a conditional amnesty ) in response to a question on the subject posed by a reporter during the presidential debates , an act which froze Ford 's poll numbers in Ohio , Wisconsin , Hawaii , and Mississippi . ( Ford had needed to shift just 11 @,@ 000 votes in Ohio plus one of the other three in order to win . ) It was the first act signed by Carter , on January 20 , 1977 . Earlier , Playboy magazine had published a controversial interview with Carter ; in the interview Carter admitted to having " lusted in my heart " for women other than his wife , which cut into his support among women and evangelical Christians . Also , on September 24 , Ford performed well in what was the first televised presidential debate since 1960 . Polls taken after the debate showed that most viewers felt that Ford was the winner . Carter was also hurt by Ford 's charges that he lacked the necessary experience to be an effective national leader , and that Carter was vague on many issues .
Televised presidential debates were reintroduced for the first time since the 1960 election . As such , Ford became the first incumbent president to participate in one . Carter later attributed his victory in the election to the debates , saying they " gave the viewers reason to think that Jimmy Carter had something to offer " . The turning point came in the second debate when Ford blundered by stating , " There is no Soviet domination of Eastern Europe and there never will be under a Ford Administration . " Ford also said that he did not " believe that the Poles consider themselves dominated by the Soviet Union " . In an interview years later , Ford said he had intended to imply that the Soviets would never crush the spirits of eastern Europeans seeking independence . However , the phrasing was so awkward that questioner Max Frankel was visibly incredulous at the response . As a result of this blunder , and Carter 's promise of a full presidential pardon for political refugees from the Vietnam era during the presidential debates , Ford 's surge stalled and Carter was able to maintain a slight lead in the polls .
In the end , Carter won the election , receiving 50 @.@ 1 % of the popular vote and 297 electoral votes compared with 48 @.@ 0 % and 240 electoral votes for Ford . The election was close enough that had fewer than 25 @,@ 000 votes shifted in Ohio and Wisconsin – both of which neighbored his home state – Ford would have won the electoral vote with 276 votes to 261 for Carter . Though he lost , in the three months between the Republican National Convention and the election Ford had managed to close what was once an alleged 33 @-@ point Carter lead to a 2 @-@ point margin . Ford carried 27 states versus 23 carried by Carter .
Had Ford won the election , the provisions of the 22nd Amendment would have disqualified him from running in 1980 , because he had served more than two years of Nixon 's remaining term .
= = Post @-@ presidential years , 1977 – 2006 = =
= = = Activity = = =
The Nixon pardon controversy eventually subsided . Ford 's successor , Jimmy Carter , opened his 1977 inaugural address by praising the outgoing President , saying , " For myself and for our Nation , I want to thank my predecessor for all he has done to heal our land . "
Ford remained relatively active in the years after his presidency . He continued to make appearances at events of historical and ceremonial significance to the nation , such as presidential inaugurals and memorial services . In January 1977 , he became the president of Eisenhower Fellowships in Philadelphia , then served as the chairman of its board of trustees from 1980 to 1986 . Later in the 1977 , he reluctantly agreed to be interviewed by James M. Naughton , a New York Times journalist who was given the assignment to write the former President 's advance obituary , an article that would be updated prior to its eventual publication . In 1979 , Ford published his autobiography , A Time to Heal ( Harper / Reader 's Digest , 454 pages ) . A review in Foreign Affairs described it as , " Serene , unruffled , unpretentious , like the author . This is the shortest and most honest of recent presidential memoirs , but there are no surprises , no deep probings of motives or events . No more here than meets the eye . "
During the term of office of his successor , Jimmy Carter , Ford received monthly briefs by President Carter 's senior staff on international and domestic issues , and was always invited to lunch at the White House whenever he was in Washington , D.C. Their close friendship developed after Carter had left office , with the catalyst being their trip together to the funeral of Anwar el @-@ Sadat in 1981 . Until Ford 's death , Carter and his wife , Rosalynn , visited the Fords ' home frequently . Ford and Carter served as honorary co @-@ chairs of the National Commission on Federal Election Reform in 2001 and of the Continuity of Government Commission in 2002 .
Like Presidents Carter , George H.W. Bush , and Clinton , Ford was an honorary co @-@ chair of the Council for Excellence in Government , a group dedicated to excellence in government performance , which provides leadership training to top federal employees .
In retirement Ford also devoted much time to his love of golf , often playing both privately and in public events with comedian Bob Hope , a longtime friend . In 1977 , he shot a hole in one during a Pro @-@ am held in conjunction with the Danny Thomas Memphis Classic at Colonial Country Club in Memphis , Tennessee .
Ford considered a run for the Republican nomination in 1980 , foregoing numerous opportunities to serve on corporate boards to keep his options open for a rematch with Carter . Ford attacked Carter 's conduct of the SALT II negotiations and foreign policy in the Middle East and Africa . Many have argued that Ford also wanted to exorcise his image as an " Accidental President " and to win a term in his own right . Ford also believed the more conservative Ronald Reagan would be unable to defeat Carter and would hand the incumbent a second term . Ford was encouraged by his former Secretary of State , Henry Kissinger as well as Jim Rhodes of Ohio and Bill Clements of Texas to make the race . On March 15 , 1980 , Ford announced that he would forgo a run for the Republican nomination , vowing to support the eventual nominee .
After securing the Republican nomination in 1980 , Ronald Reagan considered his former rival Ford as a potential vice @-@ presidential running mate , but negotiations between the Reagan and Ford camps at the Republican National Convention were unsuccessful . Ford conditioned his acceptance on Reagan 's agreement to an unprecedented " co @-@ presidency " , giving Ford the power to control key executive branch appointments ( such as Kissinger as Secretary of State and Alan Greenspan as Treasury Secretary ) . After rejecting these terms , Reagan offered the vice @-@ presidential nomination instead to George H.W. Bush . Ford did appear in a campaign commercial for the Reagan @-@ Bush ticket , in which he declared that the country would be " better served by a Reagan presidency rather than a continuation of the weak and politically expedient policies of Jimmy Carter " .
After his presidency , Ford joined the American Enterprise Institute as a distinguished fellow . He founded the annual AEI World Forum in 1982 . Ford was awarded an honorary doctorate at Central Connecticut State University on March 23 , 1988 .
After leaving the White House , Ford and his wife moved to Denver , Colorado . Ford successfully invested in oil with Marvin Davis , which later provided an income for Ford 's children .
In 1987 , Ford testified before the Senate Judiciary Committee in favor of District of Columbia Circuit Court judge and former Solicitor General Robert Bork after Bork was nominated by President Reagan to be an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court . Bork 's nomination was rejected by a vote of 58 @-@ 42 .
In 1987 Ford 's Humor and the Presidency , a book of humorous political anecdotes , was published .
By 1988 , Ford was a member of several corporate boards including Commercial Credit , Nova Pharmaceutical , The Pullman Company , Tesoro Petroleum , and Tiger International , Inc . Ford also became an honorary director of Citigroup , a position he held till his death .
In 1977 , Ford established the Gerald R. Ford Institute of Public Policy at Albion College in Albion , Michigan , to give undergraduates training in public policy . In April 1981 , he opened the Gerald R. Ford Library in Ann Arbor , Michigan , on the north campus of his alma mater , the University of Michigan , followed in September by the Gerald R. Ford Museum in Grand Rapids .
In April 1991 , Ford joined former presidents Richard Nixon , Ronald Reagan , and Jimmy Carter , in supporting the Brady Bill . Three years later , he wrote to the U.S. House of Representatives , along with Carter and Reagan , in support of the assault weapons ban .
In October 2001 , Ford broke with conservative members of the Republican party by stating that gay and lesbian couples " ought to be treated equally . Period . " He became the highest ranking Republican to embrace full equality for gays and lesbians , stating his belief that there should be a federal amendment outlawing anti @-@ gay job discrimination and expressing his hope that the Republican Party would reach out to gay and lesbian voters . He also was a member of the Republican Unity Coalition , which The New York Times described as " a group of prominent Republicans , including former President Gerald R. Ford , dedicated to making sexual orientation a non @-@ issue in the Republican Party " .
On November 22 , 2004 , New York Republican Governor George Pataki named Ford and the other living former Presidents ( Carter , George H.W. Bush and Bill Clinton ) as honorary members of the board rebuilding the World Trade Center .
In a pre @-@ recorded embargoed interview with Bob Woodward of The Washington Post in July 2004 , Ford stated that he disagreed " very strongly " with the Bush administration 's choice of Iraq 's alleged weapons of mass destruction as justification for its decision to invade Iraq , calling it a " big mistake " unrelated to the national security of the United States and indicating that he would not have gone to war had he been President . The details of the interview were not released until after Ford 's death , as he requested .
= = = Health problems = = =
Ford suffered two minor strokes at the 2000 Republican National Convention , but made a quick recovery after being admitted to Hahnemann University Hospital . In January 2006 , he spent 11 days at the Eisenhower Medical Center near his residence at Rancho Mirage , California , for treatment of pneumonia . On April 23 , 2006 , President George W. Bush visited Ford at his home in Rancho Mirage for a little over an hour . This was Ford 's last public appearance and produced the last known public photos , video footage , and voice recording .
While vacationing in Vail , Colorado , Ford was hospitalized for two days in July 2006 for shortness of breath . On August 15 he was admitted to St. Mary 's Hospital of the Mayo Clinic in Rochester , Minnesota , for testing and evaluation . On August 21 , it was reported that he had been fitted with a pacemaker . On August 25 , he underwent an angioplasty procedure at the Mayo Clinic . On August 28 , Ford was released from the hospital and returned with his wife Betty to their California home . On October 13 , he was scheduled to attend the dedication of a building of his namesake , the Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy at the University of Michigan , but due to poor health and on the advice of his doctors he did not attend . The previous day , Ford had entered the Eisenhower Medical Center for undisclosed tests ; he was released on October 16 . By November 2006 , he was confined to a bed in his study .
= = Death and legacy = =
Ford died on December 26 , 2006 , at his home in Rancho Mirage , California , of arteriosclerotic cerebrovascular disease and diffuse arteriosclerosis . He had end @-@ stage coronary artery disease and severe aortic stenosis and insufficiency , caused by calcific alteration of one of his heart valves . Ford died on the 34th anniversary of President Harry Truman 's death ; he was the last surviving member of the Warren Commission .
On December 30 , 2006 , Ford became the 11th U.S. President to lie in state . A state funeral and memorial services was held at the National Cathedral in Washington , D.C. , on January 2 , 2007 . After the service , Ford was interred at his Presidential Museum in Grand Rapids , Michigan .
Scouting was so important to Ford that his family asked that Scouts participate in his funeral . A few selected Scouts served as ushers inside the National Cathedral . About 400 Eagle Scouts were part of the funeral procession , where they formed an honor guard as the casket went by in front of the museum .
Ford selected the song to be played during his funeral procession at the U.S. Capitol . After his death in December 2006 , the University of Michigan Marching Band played the school 's fight song for him one final time , for his last ride from the Gerald R. Ford Airport in Grand Rapids , Michigan .
The State of Michigan commissioned and submitted a statue of Ford to the National Statuary Hall Collection , replacing Zachariah Chandler . It was unveiled on May 3 , 2011 in the Capitol Rotunda . On the proper right side is inscribed a quotation from a tribute by Thomas P. " Tip " O 'Neill , Speaker of the House at the end of Ford 's presidency : " God has been good to America , especially during difficult times . At the time of the Civil War , he gave us Abraham Lincoln . And at the time of Watergate , he gave us Gerald Ford — the right man at the right time who was able to put our nation back together again . " On the proper left side are words from Ford 's swearing @-@ in address : " Our constitution works . Our great republic is a government of laws and not of men . Here the people rule . "
Ford 's wife , Betty Ford , died on July 8 , 2011 . Like her husband , she was 93 years old when she died .
= = = Longevity = = =
On November 12 , 2006 , upon surpassing Ronald Reagan 's lifespan , Ford released his last public statement :
The length of one 's days matters less than the love of one 's family and friends . I thank God for the gift of every sunrise and , even more , for all the years He has blessed me with Betty and the children ; with our extended family and the friends of a lifetime . That includes countless Americans who , in recent months , have remembered me in their prayers . Your kindness touches me deeply . May God bless you all and may God bless America .
Ford 's age at the time of his death was 93 years and 165 days , making him the longest @-@ lived U.S. President , his lifespan being 45 days longer than Ronald Reagan 's . He was the third @-@ longest @-@ lived Vice President , falling short only of John Nance Garner , 98 , and Levi P. Morton , 96 . Ford also had the third @-@ longest post @-@ presidency ( 29 years and 11 months ) after Jimmy Carter ( 35 years , 6 months and counting ) and Herbert Hoover ( 31 years and 7 months )
= = = Public image = = =
Ford was the only person to hold the presidential office without being elected as either president or vice @-@ president . The choice of Ford to fulfill Spiro Agnew 's vacated role as vice president was based on Ford 's reputation for openness and honesty . " In all the years I sat in the House , I never knew Mr. Ford to make a dishonest statement nor a statement part @-@ true and part @-@ false . He never attempted to shade a statement , and I never heard him utter an unkind word , " said Martha Griffiths .
The trust the American people had in him was rapidly and severely tarnished by his pardon of Nixon . Nonetheless , many grant in hindsight that he had respectably discharged with considerable dignity a great responsibility that he had not sought . His subsequent loss to Carter in 1976 has come to be seen as an honorable sacrifice he made for the nation .
In spite of his athletic record and remarkable career accomplishments , Ford acquired a reputation as a clumsy , likable , and simple @-@ minded Everyman . An incident in 1975 , when he tripped while exiting the presidential jet in Austria , was famously and repeatedly parodied by Chevy Chase , cementing Ford 's image as a klutz . Pieces of Ford 's common Everyman image have also been attributed to Ford 's inevitable comparison to Nixon , as well as his perceived Midwestern stodginess and self @-@ deprecation . Ridicule often extended to supposed intellectual limitations , with Lyndon B. Johnson once joking , " He 's a nice fellow but he spent too much time playing football without a helmet . "
= = Honors = =
Ford received the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award in May 1970 , as well as the Silver Buffalo Award , from the Boy Scouts of America . In 1985 he received the 1985 Old Tom Morris Award from the Golf Course Superintendents Association of America , GCSAA 's highest honor . In 1992 , the U.S. Navy Memorial Foundation awarded Ford its Lone Sailor Award for his naval service and his subsequent government service . In 1999 , Ford was honored with a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs Walk of Stars . Also in 1999 , Ford was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by Bill Clinton . In 2001 , he was presented with the John F. Kennedy Profiles in Courage Award for his decision to pardon Richard Nixon to stop the agony America was experiencing over Watergate .
The following were named after Ford :
The Ford House Office Building in the U.S. Capitol Complex , formerly House Annex 2 .
Gerald R. Ford Freeway ( Nebraska )
Gerald R. Ford Freeway ( Michigan )
Gerald Ford Memorial Highway , I @-@ 70 in Eagle County , Colorado
Gerald R. Ford International Airport in Grand Rapids , Michigan
Gerald R. Ford Library in Ann Arbor , Michigan
Gerald R. Ford Museum in Grand Rapids , Michigan
Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy , University of Michigan
Gerald R. Ford Amphitheater in Vail , Colorado , in Ford Park , also named after him
Gerald R. Ford Institute of Public Policy , Albion College
USS Gerald R. Ford ( CVN @-@ 78 )
Gerald R. Ford Elementary School , Indian Wells , California
Gerald Ford Boys and Girls Club , La Quinta , California
Gerald R. Ford Middle School , Grand Rapids , Michigan
Gerald Ford Drive , Coachella Valley , California ( Cathedral City , Rancho Mirage , Palm Desert )
President Gerald R. Ford Park in Alexandria , Virginia , located in the neighborhood where Ford lived while serving as a Representative and Vice President
President Ford Field Service Council , Boy Scouts of America The council where he was awarded the rank of Eagle Scout . Serves 25 counties in Western and Northern Michigan with its headquarters located in Grand Rapids , Michigan .
= Italian battleship Giulio Cesare =
Giulio Cesare was one of three Conte di Cavour @-@ class dreadnought battleships built for the Royal Italian Navy ( Regia Marina ) in the 1910s . She served in both World Wars , although she was little used and saw no combat during the former . The ship supported operations during the Corfu Incident in 1923 and spent much of the rest of the decade in reserve . She was rebuilt between 1933 and 1937 with more powerful guns , additional armor and considerably more speed than before .
Both Giulio Cesare and her sister ship , Conte di Cavour , participated in the Battle of Calabria in July 1940 , when the former was lightly damaged . They were both present when British torpedo bombers attacked the fleet at Taranto in November 1940 , but Giulio Cesare was not damaged . She escorted several convoys to North Africa and participated in the Battle of Cape Spartivento in late 1940 and the First Battle of Sirte in late 1941 . She was designated as a training ship in early 1942 , and escaped to Malta after Italy surrendered . The ship was transferred to the Soviet Union in 1949 and renamed Novorossiysk . The Soviets also used her for training until she was sunk when an old German mine exploded in 1955 . She was salvaged the following year and later scrapped .
= = Description = =
Named after Julius Caesar , Giulio Cesare was 168 @.@ 9 meters ( 554 ft 2 in ) long at the waterline , and 176 meters ( 577 ft 5 in ) overall . The ship had a beam of 28 meters ( 91 ft 10 in ) , and a draft of 9 @.@ 3 meters ( 30 ft 6 in ) . She displaced 23 @,@ 088 long tons ( 23 @,@ 458 t ) at normal load , and 25 @,@ 086 long tons ( 25 @,@ 489 t ) at deep load . She had a crew of 31 officers and 969 enlisted men . The ship 's machinery consisted of four Parsons steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft . Steam for the turbines was provided by 24 Babcock & Wilcox boilers , half of which burned fuel oil and the other half burning both oil and coal . Designed to reach a maximum speed of 22 @.@ 5 knots ( 41 @.@ 7 km / h ; 25 @.@ 9 mph ) from 31 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 23 @,@ 000 kW ) , Giulio Cesare failed to reach this goal on her sea trials , despite generally exceeding the rated power of her turbines . The ship only made a maximum speed of 21 @.@ 56 knots ( 39 @.@ 93 km / h ; 24 @.@ 81 mph ) using 30 @,@ 700 shp ( 22 @,@ 900 kW ) . She had a cruising radius of 4 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ; 5 @,@ 500 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The ship was armed with a main battery of thirteen 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns in three triple @-@ gun turret and two twin @-@ gun turrets , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' Q ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear . The secondary battery comprised eighteen 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns , all mounted in casemates in the sides of the hull . Giulio Cesare was also armed with fourteen 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns . As was customary for capital ships of the period , she was equipped with three submerged 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . She was protected with Krupp cemented steel manufactured by Terni . The belt armor was 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) thick and the main deck was 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick . The conning tower and main battery turrets were protected with 280 mm ( 11 in ) worth of armor plating .
= = Modifications and reconstruction = =
Shortly after the end of World War I , the number of 50 @-@ caliber 76 mm guns was reduced to 13 , all mounted on the turret tops , and six new 40 @-@ caliber 76 mm anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns were installed abreast the aft funnel . In addition two license @-@ built 2 @-@ pounder AA guns were mounted on the forecastle deck . In 1925 – 26 the foremast was replaced by a four @-@ legged mast , which was moved forward of the funnels , the rangefinders were upgraded , and the ship was equipped to handle a Macchi M.18 seaplane mounted on the center turret . Around that same time , either one or both of the ships was equipped with a fixed aircraft catapult on the port side of the forecastle .
Giulio Cesare began an extensive reconstruction in October 1933 at the Cantieri del Tirreno shipyard in Genoa that lasted until October 1937 . A new bow section was grafted over the existing bow which increased her length by 10 @.@ 31 meters ( 33 ft 10 in ) to 186 @.@ 4 meters ( 611 ft 7 in ) and her beam increased to 28 @.@ 6 meters ( 93 ft 10 in ) . The ship 's draft at deep load increased to 10 @.@ 02 meters ( 32 ft 10 in ) . All of the changes made increased her displacement to 26 @,@ 140 long tons ( 26 @,@ 560 t ) at standard load and 29 @,@ 100 long tons ( 29 @,@ 600 t ) at deep load . The ship 's crew increased to 1 @,@ 260 officers and enlisted men . Two of the propeller shafts were removed and the existing turbines were replaced by two Belluzzo geared steam turbines rated at 75 @,@ 000 shp ( 56 @,@ 000 kW ) . The boilers were replaced by eight Yarrow boilers . On her sea trials in December 1936 , before her reconstruction was fully completed , Giulio Cesare reached a speed of 28 @.@ 24 knots ( 52 @.@ 30 km / h ; 32 @.@ 50 mph ) from 93 @,@ 430 shp ( 69 @,@ 670 kW ) . In service her maximum speed was about 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) and she had a range of 6 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 900 km ; 7 @,@ 400 mi ) at a speed of 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) .
The main guns were bored out to 320 millimeters ( 12 @.@ 6 in ) and the center turret and the torpedo tubes were removed . All of the existing secondary armament and AA guns were replaced by a dozen 120 mm guns in six twin @-@ gun turrets and eight 102 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 0 in ) AA guns in twin turrets . In addition the ship was fitted with a dozen Breda 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) light AA guns in six twin @-@ gun mounts and twelve 13 @.@ 2 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 52 in ) Breda M31 anti @-@ aircraft machine guns , also in twin mounts . In 1940 the 13 @.@ 2 mm machine guns were replaced by 20 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) AA guns in twin mounts . Giulio Cesare received two more twin mounts as well as four additional 37 mm guns in twin mounts on the forecastle between the two turrets in 1941 . The tetrapodal mast was replaced with a new forward conning tower , protected with 260 @-@ millimeter ( 10 @.@ 2 in ) thick armor . Atop the conning tower there was a fire @-@ control director fitted with two large stereo @-@ rangefinders , with a base length of 7 @.@ 2 meters ( 23 @.@ 6 ft ) .
The deck armor was increased during the reconstruction to a total of 135 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 3 in ) over the engine and boiler rooms and 166 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) over the magazines , although its distribution over three decks , each with multiple layers , meant that it was considerably less effective than a single plate of the same thickness . The armor protecting the barbettes was reinforced with 50 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) plates . All this armor weighed a total of 3 @,@ 227 long tons ( 3 @,@ 279 t ) . The existing underwater protection was replaced by the Pugliese torpedo defense system that consisted of a large cylinder surrounded by fuel oil or water that was intended to absorb the blast of a torpedo warhead . It lacked , however , enough depth to be fully effective against contemporary torpedoes . A major problem of the reconstruction was that the ship 's increased draft meant that their waterline armor belt was almost completely submerged with any significant load .
= = Construction and service = =
Giulio Cesare , named after Julius Caesar , was laid down at the Gio . Ansaldo & C. shipyard in Genoa on 24 June 1910 and launched on 15 October 1911 . She was completed on 14 May 1914 and served as a flagship in the southern Adriatic Sea during World War I. She saw no action , however , and spent little time at sea . Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , the Italian naval chief of staff , believed that Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines and minelayers could operate too effectively in the narrow waters of the Adriatic . The threat from these underwater weapons to his capital ships was too serious for him to use the fleet in an active way . Instead , Revel decided to implement a blockade at the relatively safer southern end of the Adriatic with the battle fleet , while smaller vessels , such as the MAS torpedo boats , conducted raids on Austro @-@ Hungarian ships and installations . Meanwhile , Revel 's battleships would be preserved to confront the Austro @-@ Hungarian battle fleet in the event that it sought a decisive engagement .
Giulio Cesare made port visits in the Levant in 1919 and 1920 . Both Giulio Cesare and Conte di Cavour supported Italian operations on Corfu in 1923 after an Italian general and his staff were murdered on Corfu ; Benito Mussolini was not satisfied with the Greek government 's response so he ordered Italian troops to occupy the island . Cesare became a gunnery training ship in 1928 , after having been in reserve since 1926 . She was reconstructed at Cantieri del Tirreno , Genoa , between 1933 and 1937 . Both ships participated in a naval review by Adolf Hitler in the Bay of Naples in May 1938 and covered the invasion of Albania in May 1939 .
= = = World War II = = =
Early in World War II , the ship took part in the Battle of Calabria ( also known as the Battle of Punto Stilo ) , together with Conte di Cavour , on 9 July 1940 , as part of the 1st Battle Squadron , commanded by Admiral Inigo Campioni , during which she engaged major elements of the British Mediterranean Fleet . The British were escorting a convoy from Malta to Alexandria , while the Italians had finished escorting another from Naples to Benghazi , Libya . Admiral Andrew Cunningham , commander of the Mediterranean Fleet , attempted to interpose his ships between the Italians and their base at Taranto . Crew on the fleets spotted each other in the middle of the afternoon and the battleships opened fire at 15 : 53 at a range of nearly 27 @,@ 000 meters ( 29 @,@ 000 yd ) . The two leading British battleships , HMS Warspite and Malaya , replied a minute later . Three minutes after she opened fire , shells from Giulio Cesare began to straddle Warspite which made a small turn and increased speed , to throw off the Italian ship 's aim , at 16 : 00 . At that same time , a shell from Warspite struck Giulio Cesare at a distance of about 24 @,@ 000 meters ( 26 @,@ 000 yd ) . The shell pierced the rear funnel and detonated inside it , blowing out a hole nearly 6 @.@ 1 meters ( 20 ft ) across . Fragments started several fires and their smoke was drawn into the boiler rooms , forcing four boilers off @-@ line as their operators could not breathe . This reduced the ship 's speed to 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . Uncertain how severe the damage was , Campioni ordered his battleships to turn away in the face of superior British numbers and they successfully disengaged . Repairs to Giulio Cesare were completed by the end of August and both ships unsuccessfully attempted to intercept British convoys to Malta in August and September .
On the night of 11 November 1940 , Giulio Cesare and the other Italian battleships were at anchor in Taranto harbor when they were attacked by 21 Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers from the British aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious , along with several other warships . One torpedo sank Conte di Cavour in shallow water , but Giulio Cesare was not hit during the attack . She participated in the Battle of Cape Spartivento on 27 November 1940 , but never got close enough to any British ships to fire at them . The ship was damaged in January 1941 by splinters from a near miss during an air raid on Naples by Vickers Wellington bombers of the Royal Air Force ; repairs at Genoa were completed in early February . On 8 February , she sailed from to the Straits of Bonifacio to intercept what the Italians thought was a Malta convoy , but was actually a raid on Genoa . She failed to make contact with any British forces . She participated in the First Battle of Sirte on 17 December 1941 , providing distant cover for a convoy bound for Libya , again never firing her main armament . She also provided distant cover for another convoy to North Africa in early January 1942 . Giulio Cesare was reduced to a training ship afterwards at Taranto and later Pola . The German submarine U @-@ 596 unsuccessfully attacked the ship in the Gulf of Taranto in early March 1944 . After the Italian surrender on 9 September 1943 , she steamed to Taranto , putting down a mutiny and enduring an ineffective attack by five German aircraft en route . She then sailed for Malta where she arrived on 12 September to be interned . The ship remained there until 17 June 1944 when she returned to Taranto where she remained for the next four years .
= = = Soviet service = = =
After the war , Giulio Cesare was allocated to the Soviet Union as part of the war reparations and she was moved to Augusta , Sicily on 9 December 1948 where an unsuccessful attempt was made to sabotage the ship . The ship was stricken from the naval register on 15 December and turned over to the Soviets on 6 February 1949 under the temporary name of Z11 in Vlorë , Albania . She was renamed by them as Novorossiysk , after the Soviet city on the Black Sea . The Soviets used her as a training ship when she was not undergoing one of her eight refits in their hands . In 1953 , all remaining Italian light AA guns were replaced by eighteen 37 mm 70 @-@ K AA guns in six twin mounts and six singles . They also replaced her fire @-@ control systems and added radars , although the exact changes are unknown . The Soviets intended to rearm her with their own 305 mm guns , but this was forestalled by her loss . While at anchor in Sevastopol on the night of 28 / 29 October 1955 , she most likely detonated a large German mine left over from World War II . The explosion blew a hole completely through the ship , making a 4 @-@ by @-@ 14 @-@ meter ( 13 by 46 ft ) hole in the forecastle forward of ' A ' turret . The flooding could not be controlled and she later capsized with the loss of 608 men , including men sent from other ships to assist .
The cause of the explosion is still unclear . The officially named cause , regarded as the most probable , was a magnetic RMH or LMB bottom mine , laid by the Germans during World War II and triggered by the dragging of the battleship 's anchor chain before mooring for the last time . Subsequent searches located 32 mines of these types , some of them within 50 meters ( 160 ft ) of the explosion . The damage was consistent with an explosion of 1 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 200 kilograms ( 2 @,@ 200 – 2 @,@ 600 lb ) of TNT and more than one mine may have detonated . Nonetheless , other explanations for the ship 's loss have been proposed and the most popular of these is that she was sunk by Italian frogmen of the wartime special operations unit Decima Flottiglia MAS who — more than ten years after the cessation of hostilities — were either avenging the transfer of the former Italian battleship to the USSR or sinking it on behalf of NATO . Novorossiysk was stricken from the naval register on 24 February 1956 , salvaged on 4 May 1957 , and subsequently scrapped .
= Hugh Mason =
Hugh Mason ( 30 January 1817 – 2 February 1886 ) was an English mill owner , social reformer and Liberal politician . He was born in Stalybridge and brought up in Stalybridge and Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne until he entered the family cotton business in 1838 after a seven year period working in a bank . Having originally opposed trade unions , Mason became a paternalistic mill owner , creating a colony for his workers with associated facilities and ensuring that they experienced good conditions . During the Lancashire Cotton Famine of the 1860s he refused to cut workers ' wages although it was common practice .
Mason became the first Liberal to be elected councillor for Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne in 1856 . He was mayor of the council from 1857 to 1860 and retired from local politics in 1874 due to conflict with his own party . Mason returned to the Liberals in 1878 when he stood for election as Member of Parliament for Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne . He was voted in and supported progressive policies , which included women 's suffrage , making him unpopular within his own party . He was MP from 1880 to 1885 . When he died in 1886 , aged 69 , Hugh Mason had amassed £ 290 @,@ 933 ( now about £ 17 million ) .
= = Early life and business career = =
Hugh Mason was born in Stalybridge , Cheshire , on 11 May 1817 and christened there . He was the youngest of four children of Thomas Mason , a former textile manager , and Mary , the daughter of John Holden , Esq . The family had moved to Stalybridge from Derbyshire in 1776 . After working as the manager of a mill in Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne , Thomas established his own business in 1815 in partnership with James Booth and Edward Hulton at Currier Slacks Mill in the town . Rapid growth in their enterprise saw them expand into the Bank Mill and Royal George Mills in the 1820s and Albion Mill in the 1830s . At the age of 10 , Hugh was working in the mill , and his education consisted of attending Methodist Sunday schools in Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne and Stalybridge and spending three years at a private school in Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne .
After leaving school at the age of 14 , Mason got a job with the district bank while he attended night school in his spare time . He worked there until 1838 , when he left at the age of 21 to join the family 's cotton business . He became the driving force behind the business . The business thrived : by the early 1850s the Mason family had built two state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art cotton mills in the Ryecroft area of Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne , known as the Oxford Mills . He was able to purchase Groby Hall , in Ashton , the ancestral seat of the former Lord Greys of Groby .
In 1845 , to house the workers for the mills , Mason began construction of a " workers ' colony " . The colony not only provided 150 terrace houses ( housing an estimated 691 people in 1872 ) but also leisure facilities such as a library , a swimming pool , a gymnasium , and a reading room . Mason built up what he saw as a model industrial community , and according to Mason himself , the annual death rate was significantly lower than in the rest of Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne . Residents were expected to adhere to his strict moral code and he discouraged the use of public houses . He estimated that establishing the settlement cost him around £ 10 @,@ 000 and a further £ 1 @,@ 000 per year to maintain ( about £ 600 @,@ 000 today and a further £ 60 @,@ 000 to maintain ) .
Under Hugh Mason 's leadership , the company prospered . The number of mule spindles in use at the mills increased from 20 @,@ 000 in 1846 to 75 @,@ 000 in 1887 . His two brothers , Henry and Booth , also worked in the company until retired in 1848 and 1853 respectively . Their father remained active in the company until 1860 when he retired , leaving Hugh as the sole owner . The Manchester Cotton Company was set up in 1860 and Mason 's success in the cotton industry led him to become its chairman from the beginning until its winding up , which began in 1864 , but was not concluded until 1867 . The purpose of the company was to increase the number of producers of cotton ; this was important as the American market was closed off during the American Civil War , causing the Lancashire Cotton Famine . Mason served as President of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce from 1871 to 1874 , and came to hold interests in the Bridgewater Canal Navigation Company , the Midland Railway Company , the Mersey Dock Board , and various other coal and iron companies .
Having initially opposed trade unions and factory legislation , Mason changed his mind around the 1850s regarding how workers should be treated , believing that the welfare of the employees impacted on the welfare of the employer . He became popular among workers for such things as becoming the first local employer to give his workers Saturday afternoons off . During the Lancashire Cotton Famine of 1861 – 1865 he refused to cut workers ' wages as was common during the period . He stated :
I will keep my work people employed , and if there is no work , lend them money from my own pocket rather than have them apply for relief . The poor rate is only 1s 6d in the pound . I will pay as high a poor rate as the Poor Law Guardians deem necessary .
As well as this , he contributed £ 500 ( about the equivalent of £ 30 @,@ 000 today ) to the Ashton borough cotton famine relief . During the tumultuous 1870s and 1880s , Mason kept his workforce fully employed and continued to invest in his mills . By 1884 , wages in his mills were 25 % higher than they had been in 1870 even though his employees were working fewer hours . The Manchester Guardian noted :
Hugh Mason is one of the first amongst those wealthy manufacturers of Lancashire who devote the hours which are not occupied by business to the service of their fellow men . He has been accustomed to take a leading part in the various public improvements , and he has long been a political chief . At Ashton he is unpopular : the ruggedness which mars his virtues , and the self assertion which stamps his conduct , do not invite the affection of his fellow . Although he has done more than any other millowner on securing the physical and social well @-@ being of his employees , he is not highly esteemed . He has built for his workpeople admirable cottages , swimming baths , gymnasiums and lecture halls , but beneficent acts do not suffice to secure popularity unless there is a suavity of manner and sympathy of nature in the benefactor , and these are qualities which Mr Mason lacks . Mr Mason is a staunch liberal , and is reckoned to be one of the oracles of the local party . His figure is a familiar one at free trade meetings where the citizens of Manchester never fail to receive him with the utmost enthusiasm . The working men hail his appearance with tempestuous applause , and invariable reward his rhetorical efforts with frequent and deafening cheers .
= = Political career = =
= = = Local = = =
Hugh Mason was influenced by his father 's Liberal politics and strongly opposed to injustice and prejudice . Thomas Mason was a supporter of political representation for Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne and supported the repeal of the Corn Laws . In the early 19th century , the area was poorly represented in Parliament . The major urban centres of Manchester , Salford , Bolton , Blackburn , Rochdale , Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne , Oldham and Stockport – with a combined population of almost one million – were represented by either the two county MPs for Lancashire ( or the two for Cheshire in the case of Stockport ) . By comparison , more than half of all MPs were elected by a total of just 154 voters . These inequalities in political representation led to calls for reform and eventually the Peterloo Massacre in 1819 . Hugh said of his father that " To his life of honest industry , to his example of commercial probity , to his high Christian character , to his training , of me in my early years , to his wise consuls , I owe under God my position in society . "
Although he claimed he was reluctant to enter politics , Hugh Mason became the first Liberal elected councillor for Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne in November 1856 . He represented the Portland Place ward from 1856 until his retirement from politics in 1874 . Mason quickly made an impression and was elected mayor for three consecutive years between 1857 and 1860 , which had never happened before . He supported progressive measures such as opening a public park , providing public libraries , and addressing unsanitary conditions in parts of Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne .
Mason 's policies led him to come into constant clashes with the Conservative members of the council . He was not always popular within his own party either and he even financed his own newspaper , the Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne News , to convey his views and provide competition for the pro @-@ Liberal Ashton Reporter . Conflict with the Liberals drove Mason into early retirement from local politics in 1874 at the age of 57 .
As well as being a councillor , Mason was also elected a local magistrate for Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne in 1857 . During his time in office he had to deal with the bread riots of 21 – 22 March 1863 ( caused by the cotton famine ) and the Murphy Riots in May 1868 . The Murphy Riots were anti @-@ Catholic demonstrations , fueled by Fenianism ( an Irish nationalist organisation ) , across Lancashire led by William Murphy . He personally went to one mob during the Murphy Riots to read them the riot act face @-@ to @-@ face . He was appointed a Deputy Lieutenant of the County Palatine of Lancaster on 21 June 1862 . Such was his significance in Manchester he was appointed President of the Chamber of Commerce for two years from 1871 . At the same time he was a Governor of Owen 's College in the city . Mason was appointed a member of the Board of the Mersey Docks and Harbour .
= = = National = = =
Mason , along with a group of other Advanced Liberals supporting John Morley , the gladstonian , was one of the founding members of the Reform Club in Manchester , a political club founded in 1867 for Liberals and their supporters . Despite retiring from local politics because of conflict with the Liberals , by 1878 he was back in favour and Liberal councillors were encouraging Mason to stand for parliamentary election . Although he was a popular candidate , he was initially reluctant to put himself forward . However , he stood for Parliament in the 1880 General Elections . His campaign in March and April 1880 involved vitriolic attacks on the local Conservative Party and on 3 April 1880 he was elected MP for Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne , beating his opponent , John Ross Coulthart , by 2 @,@ 966 votes to 2 @,@ 586 .
As an MP he lived at 33 Onslow Square , Kensington , and was a member of the Reform Club . Mason supported many reformist bills and became a spokesman of the Women 's Suffrage Association in 1881 . He proposed motions for women 's suffrage in 1881 and again in 1883 but was defeated on both occasions . He led the women 's suffrage movement until 1883 when illness forced him to retreat from public life temporarily . His defeat in the 1885 General Elections was ascribed to his support of William Ewart Gladstone over the issue of Irish Home Rule and to his illness . He lost to the Conservative John Wentworth Addison by 3 @,@ 152 votes to 3 @,@ 104 . Mason demanded a recount , but this increased the majority by one vote ; he succumbed to illness and died before the result was announced .
= = Personal life = =
In 1846 Hugh Mason married Sarah Buckley , the daughter of Abel Buckley , Esq , who was also the father of Abel Buckley Businessman and MP , another cotton mill owner who went on to be a millionaire businessman and landowner . They had one child , Arnold , who was born in 1851 . Sarah died in 1852 at the age of 29 . Mason next married Sarah 's sister , Betsy , though it was illegal to marry one 's sister @-@ in @-@ law in England at the time . To overcome this problem they married in Denmark on 7 June 1854 . Their marriage was approved by special licence from the King of Denmark and was held at the Evangellic Reform Church , Altona in the Duchy of Holstein . They had four children : Bertha , born in 1855 , Edith in 1857 , Rupert in 1859 and Sydney in 1861 . Betsy died after the birth of Sydney and Mason then married for a third time Annie , daughter of George Ashworth , Esq , of Rochdale in 1864 .
Hugh Mason died three days after his 69th birthday on 2 February 1886 at his home , Groby Hall . At his death , he had amassed a fortune worth £ 290 @,@ 933 ( now worth about £ 17M ) . He was the first person to have a statue ( now protected as a Grade II listed building ) erected in his honour in Tameside ; it was financed by public subscription immediately after Mason 's death .
= Kepler @-@ 11g =
Kepler @-@ 11g is an exoplanet discovered in the orbit of the sunlike star Kepler @-@ 11 by the Kepler spacecraft , a NASA satellite tasked with searching for terrestrial planets . Kepler @-@ 11g is the outermost of the star 's six planets . The planet orbits at a distance of nearly half the mean distance between Earth and the Sun . It completes an orbit every 118 days , placing it much further from its star than the system 's inner five planets . Its estimated radius is a little over three times that of Earth , i.e. comparable to Neptune 's size . Kepler @-@ 11g 's distance from the inner planets made its confirmation more difficult than that of the inner planets , as scientists had to work to exhaustively disprove all reasonable alternatives before Kepler @-@ 11g could be confirmed . The planet 's discovery , along with that of the other Kepler @-@ 11 planets , was announced on February 2 , 2011 . According to NASA , the Kepler @-@ 11 planets form the flattest and most compact system yet discovered .
= = Name and discovery = =
Kepler @-@ 11 was originally called KOI @-@ 157 when NASA 's Kepler spacecraft flagged the star for possible transit events , which exhibit tiny and roughly periodic decreases in the star 's brightness are measured as it passes in front of its star as seen from Earth . Kepler @-@ 11 's name is incorporated into Kepler @-@ 11g 's name because it is the host star . As Kepler @-@ 11g and its five sister planets were discovered and announced at the same time , its planets were sorted alphabetically by distance from the host star , starting with the letter b . Because Kepler @-@ 11g was the furthest of the six , it was given the designation " g . "
The Kepler team 's scientists conducted follow @-@ up observations to confirm or reject the planetary nature of the detected object . To do so , they used the Keck 1 telescope at the W.M. Keck Observatory in Hawaii ; the Shane and Hale telescopes in California ; telescopes at the WIYN ( including MMT ) and Whipple observatories in Arizona ; Nordic Optical Telescope in the Canary Islands ; the Hobby @-@ Eberly and Harlan J. Smith telescopes in Texas ; and NASA 's Spitzer Space Telescope . Because Kepler @-@ 11g orbits its star at a far greater distance than the inner five planets , fewer transits were observed , and radial velocity ( the observation of a Doppler effect ) interactions could not be easily discerned . As with the discovery of Kepler @-@ 9d , the Kepler team ran the information through numerous models to see if Kepler @-@ 11g 's light curve could fit the profile of some other object , including an eclipsing binary star in the background that may have contaminated the data . The probability that Kepler @-@ 11g is not a planet but instead a false positive was determined to be 0 @.@ 18 % , effectively confirming its existence .
Kepler @-@ 11g , along with its five sister planets , were announced at a NASA press conference on February 2 , 2011 . The findings were published in the journal Nature a day later .
= = Host star = =
Kepler @-@ 11 is a G @-@ type star in the Cygnus constellation . It is located approximately 613 parsecs away . Kepler @-@ 11 is .95 ( ± 0 @.@ 1 ) times the mass and 1 @.@ 1 ( ± 0 @.@ 1 ) times the radius of the Sun . The star has an iron content ( metallicity ) of 0 ( ± 0 @.@ 1 ) , similar to that of the Sun . Metallicity plays a vital role in the formation of planets , as a more metal @-@ rich star tends to form more dense planets . Kepler @-@ 11 has an effective temperature of 5680 ( ± 100 ) K , only slightly cooler than the Sun ( 5778 K ) . Kepler @-@ 11 hosts six known planets : Kepler @-@ 11b , Kepler @-@ 11c , Kepler @-@ 11d , Kepler @-@ 11e , and Kepler @-@ 11f , all of which form a tight group well within the orbit of Mercury . Kepler @-@ 11g is considerably farther away from Kepler @-@ 11 than its five sister planets . According to NASA , the planets orbiting Kepler @-@ 11 form the flattest and most compact system known .
Kepler @-@ 11 has an apparent magnitude of 14 @.@ 2 , and thus cannot be seen with the naked eye .
= = Characteristics = =
Kepler @-@ 11g , the sixth planet of six from its star , it 's mass is estimated to be at most 25 times that of Earth . Its exact mass could not be determined through transit observations because , while gravitational interactions of Kepler @-@ 11 's five inner planets were used to determine their masses , Kepler @-@ 11g 's comparatively large distance prevented it from affecting , or being affected by , the other five planets . As a result , only an upper limit can be placed on the mass , which is based on the assumption that if it were above this limit , gravitational effects on the other planets would be observed . Nonetheless , tighter constraints were placed on Kepler @-@ 11g 's mass by formation and evolution calculations , which indicated that the planet mass is not much greater than about 7 ME .
Its radius is estimated to be 3 @.@ 33 times that of Earth , somewhat smaller than Neptune 's radius . Kepler @-@ 11g has an estimated surface equilibrium temperature of 400 K , over 1 @.@ 5 times ( 50 % higher ) that of Earth 's equilibrium temperature . Kepler @-@ 11g orbits Kepler @-@ 11 every 118 @.@ 37774 days ( over 2 @.@ 5 times that of the fifth planet from Kepler @-@ 11 , Kepler @-@ 11f ) at a distance of 0 @.@ 462 AU , almost half of the distance from which Earth orbits the Sun . Its eccentricity is unknown . In comparison , planet Mercury orbits the Sun every 87 @.@ 97 days at a distance of 0 @.@ 387 AU . With an orbital inclination of 89 @.@ 8 ° , Kepler @-@ 11g is seen almost edge @-@ on with respect to Earth .
= Regenbald =
Regenbald ( sometimes known as Regenbald of Cirencester ) was a priest and royal official in Anglo @-@ Saxon England under King Edward the Confessor . His name suggests that he was not a native Englishman , and perhaps was German or Norman . He first appears in history as a witness to a royal document in 1050 , and remained a royal chaplain and clerk throughout the rest of King Edward 's reign . Many royal documents give Regenbald the title of " chancellor " but whether this means that he acted in a manner similar to the later Lord Chancellor is unclear , as some of the documents may be forgeries or have been tampered with . Whatever Regenbald 's actual title , King Edward rewarded him with lands and also granted him the status , but not the actual office , of bishop . Regenbald continued to serve the English kings after the Norman Conquest of England , although whether he served King Harold II of England is unclear . His date of death is unknown , but it was probably during the reign of either King William I or William II . After his death , some of his lands became part of the endowment of Cirencester Abbey in 1133 .
= = Early life = =
His origins are unknown , but he was probably not a native Englishman . He may have been German or Norman . The historian Katharine Keats @-@ Rohan suggests that he was possibly the nephew of Peter , who was the Bishop of Chester and a Norman . His name was a German or French name , which suggests that Regenbald was one of the foreigners that gained favour with King Edward the Confessor .
= = Service to Edward the Confessor = =
Regenbald first appears in the historical record in 1050 , when he witnesses a charter of King Edward . King Edward gave him large estates as a reward for his service to the king as a royal chaplain . The Domesday Book records him owning at least seven churches , but only two of them have any indication that he performed any ecclesiastical services personally . Another royal reward was the grant to Regenbald of the status , without the actual office , of a bishop . He probably was unable to be promoted to a bishopric , either because he was married or because his style of life was known to be unchaste .
In royal charters he is often given the title " royal chancellor " , as he is styled in a 1062 charter in Latin regis cancellarius , but this does not necessarily mean that there was an official office known as chancellor similar to the later Lord Chancellor 's office . Regenbald was probably in charge of Edward 's royal clerks and scribes , but his position in the witness lists argues against his holding an actual office , as he is not listed early in the witness lists along with the magnates . He probably performed some of the duties that later were done by the chancellor , but the first chancellor in England is usually held to be Herfast , who held office from around 1069 . Some historians , including David Bates , hold that Regenbald was chancellor , however . Some support for that position is the fact that Domesday Book lists Regenbald as " chancellor " . The entire issue of whether Regenbald was a " true " chancellor or not is bound up in the debate amongst medievalists about whether there was a recognisable chancery in England prior to the Norman Conquest . One school of thought , led by Pierre Chaplais , argues that no such office existed prior to the Conquest . Another group argues that there was , and among this group is the historian Simon Keynes . In Regenbald 's case , a number of the documents that give him the title " chancellor " are either forgeries or have been altered in the copying process . Others , however , are not easily shown to be spurious .
Besides his scribal duties , he also served as a royal judge , as he is recorded as passing judgement in a case late in Edward 's or early in William 's reign , along with Wulfstan , Bishop of Worcester , and Æthelwig , Abbot of Evesham . A thirteenth @-@ century source says that he was dean of the church at Cirencester during William 's reign .
Regenbald remained at the royal court throughout Edward 's reign and into the reign of King William the Conqueror . His lands and possessions were confirmed by King William after the Norman Conquest . Whether he served King Harold in the period after King Edward 's death is unknown , as no royal charters and only one royal writ survive from Harold 's reign .
Regenbald 's lands are recorded in a charter from the reign of King Henry I of England which dealt with the gift of those lands after Regenbald 's death . This charter lists a number of estates as owned by Regenbald that were also listed in Domesday Book as Regenbald 's , but there are a few other possessions that did not get recorded in Domesday . The lands listed include lands in Gloucestershire , Berkshire , Wiltshire , Somerset , Northamptonshire , Worcestershire , and Dorset . Domesday lists the value of Regenbald 's lands at £ 40 per year . His estates totalled about 90 hides , although some of the estates were given to him after the Norman Conquest .
= = Death and legacy = =
Presumably , he died either during the reign of William I or during the following reign of William II . Possibly , he was buried at Cirencester , where a stone tomb in the crypt of the Saxon @-@ era church still exists and may be his . After his death , a group of his lands became the basis for the foundation of Cirencester Abbey by King Henry I of England in 1133 . Regenbald 's brother held land near him in Cirencester . Regenbald had a son named Edward who also held lands in Gloucester .
= Elixir ( perfume ) =
Elixir is a women 's fragrance by Colombian singer songwriter Shakira , developed in a collaboration with international fashion company Puig . After the release of her first two fragrances , Puig enlisted several perfumers to work on Shakira 's third fragrance , which she claimed would capture her " most sensual and exotic side . " The final product was Elixir , an oriental perfume based on various spicy and woody sources . The flacon of the perfume is inspired by apothecary bottles and is made to resemble a magical potion , featuring a light golden colour scheme .
Shakira launched the fragrance at a press release in São Paulo , Brazil , in July 2012 . Additionally , Jaume de Laiguana directed a commercial for the fragrance , which was filmed in the Sahara desert in Morocco . In August 2013 , Wild Elixir was released as a flanker fragrance to Elixir . The floral oriental perfume is similar to the original one in appearance but features a variation in the colour scheme . It was promoted through a commercial which features Shakira encountering two cheetahs in an arid landscape .
= = Development = =
= = = Background = = =
In 2008 , international fashion and fragrance company Puig announced that it had formed a partnership with Shakira and had signed an agreement " to develop a line of signature products produced with and inspired by the artist " . The first product to appear was S by Shakira , which was released in September 2010 , followed by S by Shakira Eau Florale .
After developing her first two fragrances , Puig began working on Shakira 's third perfume and enlisted Alexandra Kosinski and Sonia Constant , perfumers from Swiss fragrance manufacturer Givaudan , to collaborate with Elisabeth Vidal , a perfumer from Puig . Vidal had previously worked with Shakira on S by Shakira Eau Florale . The perfumers came up with the concept of a " second skin , " described by Shakira as a " fragrance that becomes a part of you . " In an interview with Women 's Wear Daily , the singer claimed that the scent would display her " most sensual and exotic side " and had seemingly been inspired by the deserts of Morocco .
= = = Scent and packaging = = =
Elixir belongs to the oriental olfactive family , which is known to contain intense and long lasting fragrances . The top notes of the perfume were described by Shakira as " floral and spicy " and include neroli , white pepper , and white flower ; the heart notes were said to be " velvety and fruity " and are based on the scents of flowers like freesia and paeonia , and apricot ; the base notes contain amber , benzoin , musk , sugar cane and white cedar wood . The ingredients of the perfume are mostly based on spicy and woody elements which overbear the sweeter floral elements . Shakira herself stated that the " sweetness " in Elixir was kept to a limited amount .
German packaging company Gerresheimer was hired to produce the flacon of Elixir . It is made of clear moulded glass and has a slender gold @-@ tinted neck . According to Jose Manuel Albesa , chief brand officer of Puig , it is inspired by the bottles used in the historic medical practice of apothecary . In an interview with Latina , Shakira revealed that she wanted to " depict the kind of bottle that was used in ancient times , but that looked modern and chic as well " and come up with a design similar to a magical potion , which is the definition of the word ' elixir ' . As the scent is inspired by the desert , she chose the tint of the bottle to be golden so that it can " evoke the memories of sands and sunsets " . The packaging of the fragrance was designed by Colombian artist Catalina Estrada and features colourful illustrations of various birds and leaves printed on a pale background .
= = Release = =
Released in late @-@ July 2012 , Elixir was made available for purchase exclusively in American department store chains Kohl 's and Sears . The two stores served as exclusive retailers of the fragrance for two months , after which it was released to mass market stores like CVS Caremark and Walgreens . Elixir was released in approximately 19 @,@ 000 stores in the United States alone . Elsewhere , Elixir was released in Eastern Europe , Italy , and Latin America . The perfume was aimed at a younger demographic , according to Albesa . Elixir was made available as an eau de toilette , and its prices ranged from US $ 17 @.@ 50 to US $ 36 with respect to the size .
Shakira launched Elixir at a press release in São Paulo , Brazil , on 17 July 2012 , where she discussed her inspiration behind the fragrance and its development process . The commercial for the fragrance was shot in the Sahara desert in Morocco by Jaume de Laiguana , who had previously directed music videos for various songs by Shakira , like " Loca " and " Rabiosa " . The advertisement features Shakira in the middle of the desert wearing a long skirt ; she opens a bottle of Elixir and performs a dance routine , attracting an eagle towards her which perches on her arm . A competition was held on the official website of the perfume to determine a winner who would be rewarded the long skirt Shakira wore in the commercial .
= = = Products = = =
Elixir was produced in the following range :
Eau de toilette spray - 15 ml / 0 @.@ 5 oz
Eau de toilette spray - 30 ml / 1 oz
Eau de toilette spray - 50 ml / 1 @.@ 7 oz
Deodorant spray - 150 ml / 5 @.@ 1 oz
Body lotion - 101 ml / 3 @.@ 4 oz ( available only in gift sets )
Lip balm - 15 @.@ 7 ml / 0 @.@ 53 oz ( available only in gift sets )
= = Reception = =
Samantha Lea from Latina praised the perfume 's versatility , saying it is suitable for use " whether you prefer fruity to floral scents or want your scent to transport you to a tropical beach " . She chose the usage of freesia and peony as the highlight of Elixir and included the perfume in her list of " Five Amazing Summer Scents and Perfumes " . Miranda Noland , an editor of the magazine , opined the Elixir gift set would " please any Shakira lover . " At the 2011 Academia Del Perfume Award ceremony sponsored by the Fragrance Foundation , Elixir won the award for " Best Female Perfume General Public Category " .
Industry analysts predicted that the perfume would make $ 14 million through global retail sales in its first year . Twenty percent of this amount was credited to sales in the United States . In April 2013 , Puig released a press statement mentioning that Elixir had performed well commercially .
= = Wild Elixir = =
= = = Background and scent = = =
Wild Elixir was released as a flanker fragrance to Elixir on 25 August 2013 . Categorised as a floral oriental perfume , Wild Elixir features top notes of cassis and mandarin ; heart notes of honeysuckle flower , orange blossom , and peach fruit accord ; the base notes consist of benzoin resin , patchouli , and sandalwood . The flacon of the perfume is similar to the original one , but instead features a contrasting colour scheme of golden and black . The packaging was again designed by Estrada and features illustrations of flowers and wild cats set on a brownish orange background and is similar to the look of the African savannah .
The Russian edition of Cosmopolitan gave Wild Elixir a positive review , praising its packaging and the choice of ingredients in the notes .
= = = Promotion = = =
On 23 June 2013 , Shakira released a teaser of the commercial for the fragrance along with a photo of her posing with two cheetahs . A full version of the commercial was released later . It begins with Shakira , dressed in a dark burgundy gown , coming across a pair of cheetahs in an arid desert region . The two animals , alarmed , commence running towards her in an effort to attack her . Shakira responds by raising her hand , which prompts the cheetahs to abruptly stop in their tracks . They are later seen prowling around her while she is standing atop a rock and a bottle of Wild Elixir is then shown placed on a log of wood . The official website of the perfume also features a game made to promote the fragrance and Shakira 's Barefoot Foundation .
= M @-@ theory =
M @-@ theory is a theory in physics that unifies all consistent versions of superstring theory . The existence of such a theory was first conjectured by Edward Witten at a string theory conference at the University of Southern California in the spring of 1995 . Witten 's announcement initiated a flurry of research activity known as the second superstring revolution .
Prior to Witten 's announcement , string theorists had identified five versions of superstring theory . Although these theories appeared at first to be very different , work by several physicists showed that the theories were related in intricate and nontrivial ways . In particular , physicists found that apparently distinct theories could be unified by mathematical transformations called S @-@ duality and T @-@ duality . Witten 's conjecture was based in part on the existence of these dualities and in part on the relationship of the string theories to a field theory called eleven @-@ dimensional supergravity .
Although a complete formulation of M @-@ theory is not known , the theory should describe two- and five @-@ dimensional objects called branes and should be approximated by eleven @-@ dimensional supergravity at low energies . Modern attempts to formulate M @-@ theory are typically based on matrix theory or the AdS / CFT correspondence .
According to Witten , M should stand for “ magic ” , “ mystery ” , or “ membrane ” according to taste , and the true meaning of the title should be decided when a more fundamental formulation of the theory is known .
Investigations of the mathematical structure of M @-@ theory have spawned important theoretical results in physics and mathematics . More speculatively , M @-@ theory may provide a framework for developing a unified theory of all of the fundamental forces of nature . Attempts to connect M @-@ theory to experiment typically focus on compactifying its extra dimensions to construct candidate models of our four @-@ dimensional world , although so far none have been verified to give rise to physics as observed at , for instance , the Large Hadron Collider .
= = Background = =
= = = Quantum gravity and strings = = =
One of the deepest problems in modern physics is the problem of quantum gravity . The current understanding of gravity is based on Albert Einstein 's general theory of relativity , which is formulated within the framework of classical physics . However , nongravitational forces are described within the framework of quantum mechanics , a radically different formalism for describing physical phenomena based on probability . A quantum theory of gravity is needed in order to reconcile general relativity with the principles of quantum mechanics , but difficulties arise when one attempts to apply the usual prescriptions of quantum theory to the force of gravity .
String theory is a theoretical framework that attempts to reconcile gravity and quantum mechanics . In string theory , the point @-@ like particles of particle physics are replaced by one @-@ dimensional objects called strings .
String theory describes how strings propagate through space and interact with each other . In a given version of string theory , there is only one kind of string , which may look like a small loop or segment of ordinary string , and it can vibrate in different ways . On distance scales larger than the string scale , a string will look just like an ordinary particle , with its mass , charge , and other properties determined by the vibrational state of the string . In this way , all of the different elementary particles may be viewed as vibrating strings . One of the vibrational states of a string gives rise to the graviton , a quantum mechanical particle that carries gravitational force .
There are several versions of string theory : type I , type IIA , type IIB , and two flavors of heterotic string theory ( SO ( 32 ) and E8 × E8 ) . The different theories allow different types of strings , and the particles that arise at low energies exhibit different symmetries . For example , the type I theory includes both open strings ( which are segments with endpoints ) and closed strings ( which form closed loops ) , while types IIA and IIB include only closed strings . Each of these five string theories arises as a special limiting case of M @-@ theory . This theory , like its string theory predecessors , is an example of a quantum theory of gravity . It describes a force just like the familiar gravitational force subject to the rules of quantum mechanics .
= = = Number of dimensions = = =
In everyday life , there are three familiar dimensions of space : height , width and depth . Einstein 's general theory of relativity treats time as a dimension on par with the three spatial dimensions ; in general relativity , space and time are not modeled as separate entities but are instead unified to a four @-@ dimensional spacetime . In this framework , the phenomenon of gravity is viewed as a consequence of the geometry of spacetime .
In spite of the fact that the universe is well described by four @-@ dimensional spacetime , there are several reasons why physicists consider theories in other dimensions . In some cases , by modeling spacetime in a different number of dimensions , a theory becomes more mathematically tractable , and one can perform calculations and gain general insights more easily . There are also situations where theories in two or three spacetime dimensions are useful for describing phenomena in condensed matter physics . Finally , there exist scenarios in which there could actually be more than four dimensions of spacetime which have nonetheless managed to escape detection .
One notable feature of string theory and M @-@ theory is that these theories require extra dimensions of spacetime for their mathematical consistency . In string theory , spacetime is ten @-@ dimensional , while in M @-@ theory it is eleven @-@ dimensional . In order to describe real physical phenomena using these theories , one must therefore imagine scenarios in which these extra dimensions would not be observed in experiments .
Compactification is one way of modifying the number of dimensions in a physical theory . In compactification , some of the extra dimensions are assumed to " close up " on themselves to form circles . In the limit where these curled up dimensions become very small , one obtains a theory in which spacetime has effectively a lower number of dimensions . A standard analogy for this is to consider a multidimensional object such as a garden hose . If the hose is viewed from a sufficient distance , it appears to have only one dimension , its length . However , as one approaches the hose , one discovers that it contains a second dimension , its circumference . Thus , an ant crawling on the surface of the hose would move in two dimensions .
= = = Dualities = = =
Theories that arise as different limits of M @-@ theory turn out to be related in highly nontrivial ways . One of the relationships that can exist between these different physical theories is called S @-@ duality . This is a relationship which says that a collection of strongly interacting particles in one theory can , in some cases , be viewed as a collection of weakly interacting particles in a completely different theory . Roughly speaking , a collection of particles is said to be strongly interacting if they combine and decay often and weakly interacting if they do so infrequently . Type I string theory turns out to be equivalent by S @-@ duality to the SO ( 32 ) heterotic string theory . Similarly , type IIB string theory is related to itself in a nontrivial way by S @-@ duality .
Another relationship between different string theories is T @-@ duality . Here one considers strings propagating around a circular extra dimension . T @-@ duality states that a string propagating around a circle of radius R is equivalent to a string propagating around a circle of radius 1 / R in the sense that all observable quantities in one description are identified with quantities in the dual description . For example , a string has momentum as it propagates around a circle , and it can also wind around the circle one or more times . The number of times the string winds around a circle is called the winding number . If a string has momentum p and winding number n in one description , it will have momentum n and winding number p in the dual description . For example , type IIA string theory is equivalent to type IIB string theory via T @-@ duality , and the two versions of heterotic string theory are also related by T @-@ duality .
In general , the term duality refers to a situation where two seemingly different physical systems turn out to be equivalent in a nontrivial way . If two theories are related by a duality , it means that one theory can be transformed in some way so that it ends up looking just like the other theory . The two theories are then said to be dual to one another under the transformation . Put differently , the two theories are mathematically different descriptions of the same phenomena .
= = = Supersymmetry = = =
Another important theoretical idea that plays a role in M @-@ theory is supersymmetry . This is a mathematical relation that exists in certain physical theories between a class of particles called bosons and a class of particles called fermions . Roughly speaking , fermions are the constituents of matter , while bosons mediate interactions between particles . In theories with supersymmetry , each boson has a counterpart which is a fermion , and vice versa . When supersymmetry is imposed as a local symmetry , one automatically obtains a quantum mechanical theory that includes gravity . Such a theory is called a supergravity theory .
A theory of strings that incorporates the idea of supersymmetry is called a superstring theory . There are several different versions of superstring theory which are all subsumed within the M @-@ theory framework . At low energies , the superstring theories are approximated by supergravity in ten spacetime dimensions . Similarly , M @-@ theory is approximated at low energies by supergravity in eleven dimensions .
= = = Branes = = =
In string theory and related theories such as supergravity theories , a brane is a physical object that generalizes the notion of a point particle to higher dimensions . For example , a point particle can be viewed as a brane of dimension zero , while a string can be viewed as a brane of dimension one . It is also possible to consider higher @-@ dimensional branes . In dimension p , these are called p @-@ branes . Branes are dynamical objects which can propagate through spacetime according to the rules of quantum mechanics . They can have mass and other attributes such as charge . A p @-@ brane sweeps out a ( p + 1 ) -dimensional volume in spacetime called its worldvolume . Physicists often study fields analogous to the electromagnetic field which live on the worldvolume of a brane . The word brane comes from the word " membrane " which refers to a two @-@ dimensional brane .
In string theory , the fundamental objects that give rise to elementary particles are the one @-@ dimensional strings . Although the physical phenomena described by M @-@ theory are still poorly understood , physicists know that the theory describes two- and five @-@ dimensional branes . Much of the current research in M @-@ theory attempts to better understand the properties of these branes .
= = History and development = =
= = = Kaluza – Klein theory = = =
In the early 20th century , physicists and mathematicians including Albert Einstein and Hermann Minkowski pioneered the use of four @-@ dimensional geometry for describing the physical world . These efforts culminated in the formulation of Einstein 's general theory of relativity , which relates gravity to the geometry of four @-@ dimensional spacetime .
The success of general relativity led to efforts to apply higher dimensional geometry to explain other forces . In 1919 , work by Theodor Kaluza showed that by passing to five @-@ dimensional spacetime , one can unify gravity and electromagnetism into a single force . This idea was improved by physicist Oskar Klein , who suggested that the additional dimension proposed by Kaluza could take the form of a circle with radius around 10 − 30 cm .
The Kaluza – Klein theory and subsequent attempts by Einstein to develop unified field theory were never completely successful . In part this was because Kaluza – Klein theory predicted a particle that has never been shown to exist , and in part because it was unable to correctly predict the ratio of an electron 's mass to its charge . In addition , these theories were being developed just as other physicists were beginning to discover quantum mechanics , which would ultimately prove successful in describing known forces such as electromagnetism , as well as new nuclear forces that were being discovered throughout the middle part of the century . Thus it would take almost fifty years for the idea of new dimensions to be taken seriously again .
= = = Early work on supergravity = = =
New concepts and mathematical tools provided fresh insights into general relativity , giving rise to a period in the 1960s and 70s now known as the golden age of general relativity . In the mid @-@ 1970s , physicists began studying higher @-@ dimensional theories combining general relativity with supersymmetry , the so @-@ called supergravity theories .
General relativity does not place any limits on the possible dimensions of spacetime . Although the theory is typically formulated in four dimensions , one can write down the same equations for the gravitational field in any number of dimensions . Supergravity is more restrictive because it places an upper limit on the number of dimensions . In 1978 , work by Werner Nahm showed that the maximum spacetime dimension in which one can formulate a consistent supersymmetric theory is eleven . In the same year , Eugene Cremmer , Bernard Julia , and Joel Scherk of the École Normale Supérieure showed that supergravity not only permits up to eleven dimensions but is in fact most elegant in this maximal number of dimensions .
Initially , many physicists hoped that by compactifying eleven @-@ dimensional supergravity , it might be possible to construct realistic models of our four @-@ dimensional world . The hope was that such models would provide a unified description of the four fundamental forces of nature : electromagnetism , the strong and weak nuclear forces , and gravity . Interest in eleven @-@ dimensional supergravity soon waned as various flaws in this scheme were discovered . One of the problems was that the laws of physics appear to distinguish between clockwise and counterclockwise , a phenomenon known as chirality . Edward Witten and others observed this chirality property cannot be readily derived by compactifying from eleven dimensions .
In the first superstring revolution in 1984 , many physicists turned to string theory as a unified theory of particle physics and quantum gravity . Unlike supergravity theory , string theory was able to accommodate the chirality of the standard model , and it provided a theory of gravity consistent with quantum effects . Another feature of string theory that many physicists were drawn to in the 1980s and 1990s was its high degree of uniqueness . In ordinary particle theories , one can consider any collection of elementary particles whose classical behavior is described by an arbitrary Lagrangian . In string theory , the possibilities are much more constrained : by the 1990s , physicists had argued that there were only five consistent supersymmetric versions of the theory .
= = = Relationships between string theories = = =
Although there were only a handful of consistent superstring theories , it remained a mystery why there was not just one consistent formulation . However , as physicists began to examine string theory more closely , they realized that these theories are related in intricate and nontrivial ways .
In the late 1970s , Claus Montonen and David Olive had conjectured a special property of certain physical theories . A sharpened version of their conjecture concerns a theory called N = 4 supersymmetric Yang – Mills theory , which describes particles similar to the quarks and gluons that make up atomic nuclei . The strength with which the particles of this theory interact is measured by a number called the coupling constant . The result of Montonen and Olive , now known as Montonen – Olive duality , states that N = 4 supersymmetric Yang – Mills theory with coupling constant g is equivalent to the same theory with coupling constant 1 / g . In other words , a system of strongly interacting particles ( large coupling constant ) has an equivalent description as a system of weakly interacting particles ( small coupling constant ) and vice versa .
In the 1990s , several theorists generalized Montonen – Olive duality to the S @-@ duality relationship , which connects different string theories . Ashoke Sen studied S @-@ duality in the context of heterotic strings in four dimensions . Chris Hull and Paul Townsend showed that type IIB string theory with a large coupling constant is equivalent via S @-@ duality to the same theory with small coupling constant . Theorists also found that different string theories may be related by T @-@ duality . This duality implies that strings propagating on completely different spacetime geometries may be physically equivalent .
= = = Membranes and fivebranes = = =
String theory extends ordinary particle physics by promoting zero @-@ dimensional point particles to one @-@ dimensional objects called strings . In the late 1980s , it was natural for theorists to attempt to formulate other extensions in which particles are replaced by two @-@ dimensional supermembranes or by higher @-@ dimensional objects called branes . Such objects had been considered as early as 1962 by Paul Dirac , and they were reconsidered by a small but enthusiastic group of physicists in the 1980s .
Supersymmetry severely restricts the possible number of dimensions of a brane . In 1987 , Eric Bergshoeff , Ergin Sezgin , and Paul Townsend showed that eleven @-@ dimensional supergravity includes two @-@ dimensional branes . Intuitively , these objects look like sheets or membranes propagating through the eleven @-@ dimensional spacetime . Shortly after this discovery , Michael Duff , Paul Howe , Takeo Inami , and Kellogg Stelle considered a particular compactification of eleven @-@ dimensional supergravity with one of the dimensions curled up into a circle . In this setting , one can imagine the membrane wrapping around the circular dimension . If the radius of the circle is sufficiently small , then this membrane looks just like a string in ten @-@ dimensional spacetime . In fact , Duff and his collaborators showed that this construction reproduces exactly the strings appearing in type IIA superstring theory .
In 1990 , Andrew Strominger published a similar result which suggested that strongly interacting strings in ten dimensions might have an equivalent description in terms of weakly interacting five @-@ dimensional branes . Initially , physicists were unable to prove this relationship for two important reasons . On the one hand , the Montonen – Olive duality was still unproven , and so Strominger 's conjecture was even more tenuous . On the other hand , there were many technical issues related to the quantum properties of five @-@ dimensional branes . The first of these problems was solved in 1993 when Ashoke Sen established that certain physical theories require the existence of objects with both electric and magnetic charge which were predicted by the work of Montonen and Olive .
In spite of this progress , the relationship between strings and five @-@ dimensional branes remained conjectural because theorists were unable to quantize the branes . Starting in 1991 , a team of researchers including Michael Duff , Ramzi Khuri , Jianxin Lu , and Ruben Minasian considered a special compactification of string theory in which four of the ten dimensions curl up . If one considers a five @-@ dimensional brane wrapped around these extra dimensions , then the brane looks just like a one @-@ dimensional string . In this way , the conjectured relationship between strings and branes was reduced to a relationship between strings and strings , and the latter could be tested using already established theoretical techniques .
= = = Second superstring revolution = = =
Speaking at the string theory conference at the University of Southern California in 1995 , Edward Witten of the Institute for Advanced Study made the surprising suggestion that all five superstring theories were in fact just different limiting cases of a single theory in eleven spacetime dimensions . Witten 's announcement drew together all of the previous results on S- and T @-@ duality and the appearance of two- and five @-@ dimensional branes in string theory . In the months following Witten 's announcement , hundreds of new papers appeared on the Internet confirming that the new theory involved membranes in an important way . Today this flurry of work is known as the second superstring revolution .
One of the important developments following Witten 's announcement was Witten 's work in 1996 with string theorist Petr Hořava . Witten and Hořava studied M @-@ theory on a special spacetime geometry with two ten @-@ dimensional boundary components . Their work shed light on the mathematical structure of M @-@ theory and suggested possible ways of connecting M @-@ theory to real world physics .
= = = Origin of the term = = =
Initially , some physicists suggested that the new theory was a fundamental theory of membranes , but Witten was skeptical of the role of membranes in the theory . In a paper from 1996 , Hořava and Witten wrote
As it has been proposed that the eleven @-@ dimensional theory is a supermembrane theory but there are some reasons to doubt that interpretation , we will non @-@ committally call it the M @-@ theory , leaving to the future the relation of M to membranes .
In the absence of an understanding of the true meaning and structure of M @-@ theory , Witten has suggested that the M should stand for " magic " , " mystery " , or " membrane " according to taste , and the true meaning of the title should be decided when a more fundamental formulation of the theory is known .
= = Matrix theory = =
= = = BFSS matrix model = = =
In mathematics , a matrix is a rectangular array of numbers or other data . In physics , a matrix model is a particular kind of physical theory whose mathematical formulation involves the notion of a matrix in an important way . A matrix model describes the behavior of a set of matrices within the framework of quantum mechanics .
One important example of a matrix model is the BFSS matrix model proposed by Tom Banks , Willy Fischler , Stephen Shenker , and Leonard Susskind in 1997 . This theory describes the behavior of a set of nine large matrices . In their original paper , these authors showed , among other things , that the low energy limit of this matrix model is described by eleven @-@ dimensional supergravity . These calculations led them to propose that the BFSS matrix model is exactly equivalent to M @-@ theory . The BFSS matrix model can therefore be used as a prototype for a correct formulation of M @-@ theory and a tool for investigating the properties of M @-@ theory in a relatively simple setting .
= = = Noncommutative geometry = = =
In geometry , it is often useful to introduce coordinates . For example , in order to study the geometry of the Euclidean plane , one defines the coordinates x and y as the distances between any point in the plane and a pair of axes . In ordinary geometry , the coordinates of a point are numbers , so they can be multiplied , and the product of two coordinates does not depend on the order of multiplication . That is , xy = yx . This property of multiplication is known as the commutative law , and this relationship between geometry and the commutative algebra of coordinates is the starting point for much of modern geometry .
Noncommutative geometry is a branch of mathematics that attempts to generalize this situation . Rather than working with ordinary numbers , one considers some similar objects , such as matrices , whose multiplication does not satisfy the commutative law ( that is , objects for which xy is not necessarily equal to yx ) . One imagines that these noncommuting objects are coordinates on some more general notion of " space " and proves theorems about these generalized spaces by exploiting the analogy with ordinary geometry .
In a paper from 1998 , Alain Connes , Michael R. Douglas , and Albert Schwarz showed that some aspects of matrix models and M @-@ theory are described by a noncommutative quantum field theory , a special kind of physical theory in which the coordinates on spacetime do not satisfy the commutativity property . This established a link between matrix models and M @-@ theory on the one hand , and noncommutative geometry on the other hand . It quickly led to the discovery of other important links between noncommutative geometry and various physical theories .
= = AdS / CFT correspondence = =
= = = Overview = = =
The application of quantum mechanics to physical objects such as the electromagnetic field , which are extended in space and time , is known as quantum field theory . In particle physics , quantum field theories form the basis for our understanding of elementary particles , which are modeled as excitations in the fundamental fields . Quantum field theories are also used throughout condensed matter physics to model particle @-@ like objects called quasiparticles .
One approach to formulating M @-@ theory and studying its properties is provided by the anti @-@ de Sitter / conformal field theory ( AdS / CFT ) correspondence . Proposed by Juan Maldacena in late 1997 , the AdS / CFT correspondence is a theoretical result which implies that M @-@ theory is in some cases equivalent to a quantum field theory . In addition to providing insights into the mathematical structure of string and M @-@ theory , the AdS / CFT correspondence has shed light on many aspects of quantum field theory in regimes where traditional calculational techniques are ineffective .
In the AdS / CFT correspondence , the geometry of spacetime is described in terms of a certain vacuum solution of Einstein 's equation called anti @-@ de Sitter space . In very elementary terms , anti @-@ de Sitter space is a mathematical model of spacetime in which the notion of distance between points ( the metric ) is different from the notion of distance in ordinary Euclidean geometry . It is closely related to hyperbolic space , which can be viewed as a disk as illustrated on the left . This image shows a tessellation of a disk by triangles and squares . One can define the distance between points of this disk in such a way that all the triangles and squares are the same size and the circular outer boundary is infinitely far from any point in the interior .
Now imagine a stack of hyperbolic disks where each disk represents the state of the universe at a given time . The resulting geometric object is three @-@ dimensional anti @-@ de Sitter space . It looks like a solid cylinder in which any cross section is a copy of the hyperbolic disk . Time runs along the vertical direction in this picture . The surface of this cylinder plays an important role in the AdS / CFT correspondence . As with the hyperbolic plane , anti @-@ de Sitter space is curved in such a way that any point in the interior is actually infinitely far from this boundary surface .
This construction describes a hypothetical universe with only two space dimensions and one time dimension , but it can be generalized to any number
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both The Sunday Night Project and The Paul O 'Grady Show . Similarly , Carey performed the song live on the popular German talent show , Deutschland sucht den Superstar ( Germany searches for the superstar ) , in April 2008 .
On August 8 , 2008 , Carey performed a mash @-@ up of the song at the 2008 Teen Choice Awards . She began with her single at the time , " I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " , and worked into the bridge of " Touch My Body " , before reverting to the former song . At the Fashion Rocks ceremony in 2009 , Carey performed " Touch My Body " and her current single , " Obsessed " , as well as the remix to her 1995 song " Fantasy " . During the set @-@ list , Carey was accompanied by six men in black ties , who hoisted her into the air in front of over 6 @,@ 000 people during " Obsessed " , and rigorous dance routines throughout " Touch My Body " . Following the release of Carey 's twelfth studio album Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel ( 2009 ) , she held four concerts at The Pearl Concert Theatre , where she included the song on the set @-@ list . Similar to the performance at the Fashion Rocks ceremony , Carey was hoisted into the air several times by four to six male dancers , each of whom circled her with intricate dancing throughout the song . Carey featured similar choreography for the song during her Angels Advocate Tour ( 2009 – 2010 ) , where it was included throughout the entire span of the tour .
= = Cover versions = =
R. Kelly , portraying " The Remix Killer " , released an unofficial remix of the song in April 2008 . During most of his section of the song , Kelly sings of shining , drinking and two @-@ stepping in a club , and he promises to kiss any place on Mariah 's body she wants : " Girl , if you let me , I 'm gonna touch it / But if I touch it , I 'm gonna wanna hit it . " Later , he mimics Carey 's bridge : " If some honies up in here that want me to touch her body / Touch it / Let me hear you say , ' I @-@ i @-@ i @-@ i do . ' " According to Kelly , the remix is unofficial , and his lyrics are freestyle rap .
During a concert in Washington , D.C. , soul singer Aretha Franklin performed a live rendition of the song . Following a piano introduction for her song , " The House That Jack Built " , Franklin segued into " Touch My Body " , and jokingly referred to the lyrics , telling the audience " As far as I 'm concerned , what starts on the floor stays on the floor . " A writer from Rap @-@ Up commented on the performance , calling it " absolutely priceless " . Similarly , a writer from the Chicago Tribune complemented Franklin 's live rendition of " Touch My Body " , calling it " simple , enjoyable and sweet " .
Producer Cyril Hahn released a remix / cover version of " Touch My Body " in 2012 that garnered positive critical attention .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for E = MC ² adapted from the album 's liner notes .
Mariah Carey – songwriting , producer , vocals , background vocals
Terius Nash – songwriting , producer
Christopher Stewart – songwriting , producer
Crystal Johnson – songwriting , producer
David Pensado – audio mixing
Jaysen Joshua – audio mixing
Bernie Grundman – mastering
= = Charts and certifications = =
= 76th Infantry Division ( United Kingdom ) =
The 76th Infantry Division of the British Army was raised during the Second World War to defend the Norfolk coast against a possible German invasion , before being transformed into a training division in late 1942 . New recruits to the Army were assigned to the division to complete their training . Once fully trained , the recruits were allocated to formations fighting overseas . The formation was used as a source of reinforcements for the 21st Army Group , that was fighting in Normandy . After all available British army troops left the United Kingdom for France , the division was disbanded in September 1944 .
In addition to the actual formation , a phantom 76th Infantry Division was formed for deception . The phantom division was part of the notional British Fourth Army , to be used for the fictitious Operation Trolleycar . This operation aimed to deceive the Germans into believing that an Allied landing would occur along the northern German coast . While the deception effort was not a complete success , it managed to divert German attention to the northern flank for the remainder of the war .
= = Background = =
In the early stages of the Second World War following the Battle of France in 1940 , the United Kingdom was under threat of invasion from Nazi Germany but during the summer , the Battle of Britain dampened this threat . As the year progressed , the size of the British Army increased dramatically as 140 new infantry battalions were raised . In late 1940 , with the possibility of a German invasion during 1941 , these new battalions were formed into independent infantry brigades that were then loaned to newly created County Divisions .
The County Divisions , including the Norfolk County Division , were around 10 @,@ 000 men strong and assigned to defend the coast of threatened sections of the country , undertaking defensive tasks including the manning of coastal artillery . These divisions were largely static , lacking mobility and also divisional assets such as artillery , engineers and reconnaissance forces . Using the new formations in this manner allowed the pre @-@ war regular infantry divisions to undertake training and form an all @-@ important reserve that could be used to counter @-@ attack any possible German landing .
On 22 June , Germany launched Operation Barbarossa the invasion of the Soviet Union ; this attack all but removed the German threat to the United Kingdom . The British still had to consider the threat of an invasion , due the possibility that the Soviet Union could collapse under the German onslaught , after which Germany could easily transfer troops back to the west . With the arrival of winter in late 1941 , the threat of invasion subsided . This , coupled with the production of new equipment for the British army , allowed the War Office to begin steps to better balance the army , due to the large number of infantry units formed during the preceding year and a half ; as part of this reform , the County Divisions were disbanded .
= = History = =
= = = Home defence = = =
During the war , the divisions of the British Army were divided between " Higher Establishment " and " Lower Establishment " formations . The former were intended for deployment overseas and combat , whereas the latter were strictly for home defence in a static role . On 18 November 1941 , the Norfolk County Division was abolished and reformed as the 76th Infantry Division , a " Lower Establishment " division . The division , like its predecessor , comprised the 213th , the 220th and the 222nd Infantry Brigades . That day , the division was assigned artillery , an anti @-@ tank regiment , engineers and signallers ; reconnaissance troops joined the division in January 1942 . The paper strength of an infantry division at this time was 17 @,@ 298 men . Major @-@ General William Maingay Ozanne , who had commanded the Norfolk County Division since its inception , retained command of the division . The 76th Division was assigned to II Corps and maintained its previous mission of defending the Norfolk coastline . The Imperial War Museum comments that the division insignia , a " red Norfolk wherry , under sail " , underscored " the association of the Division with Norfolk " . After the division became a training formation , the insignia was only worn by the permanent division members .
The division was involved in establishing the ability of the Abwehr ( German military intelligence ) . A German @-@ published order of battle of the British army based within the United Kingdom , dated 10 April 1942 , was captured . This document included the division and had a near perfect listing of its subordinate units , with one exception . Rather than including the 1st Battalion , Leicestershire Regiment , the Germans believed the 18th Battalion , Welch Regiment had already replaced it . This and similar errors led the British to understand the capability of the Germans to intercept wireless communications in the United Kingdom . In 1943 , this , in part , led to the Operation Fortitude a plan to exploit the German ability and deceive their intelligence community about future Allied operations like Operation Overlord .
= = = Training formation = = =
During the winter of 1942 – 43 , the army overhauled the training of recruits . The 76th Division , along with the 48th Infantry and 77th Infantry divisions , was changed from a " Lower Establishment " unit to a " Reserve Division " . On 20 December , the division was renamed the 76th Infantry ( Reserve ) Division , becoming a training formation in the process . These three divisions were supplemented by a fourth training formation , the 80th Infantry ( Reserve ) Division , which was raised on 1 January 1943 . The 76th Infantry ( Reserve ) Division was assigned to Eastern Command , and moved to Norwich . Soldiers who had completed their corps training , were sent to these training divisions . The soldiers were given five weeks of additional training at the section , platoon and company level , before undertaking a final three @-@ day exercise . Troops would then be ready to be sent overseas to join other formations . Training was handled in this manner to relieve the " Higher Establishment " divisions from being milked for replacements for other units and to allow them to intensively train without the interruption of having to handle new recruits . For example , the 9th Battalion , Dorsetshire Regiment provided recruits to other battalions within the regiment as well as the Royal Norfolk Regiment . During this period , command of the division changed several times . On 21 December 1943 , Ozanne was replaced by Major @-@ General Colin Callander who in turn was replaced by Major @-@ General John Edward Utterson @-@ Kelso on 13 March 1944 .
On 30 June 1944 , the 76th Infantry ( Reserve ) Division , along with the other training divisions , had a combined total of 22 @,@ 355 men . Of this number , only 1 @,@ 100 were immediately available as replacements for the 21st Army Group . The remaining 21 @,@ 255 men were considered ineligible for service abroad , due to a variety of reasons , ranging from medical , not being considered fully fit or not yet fully trained . Over the following six months , up to 75 per cent of these men would be deployed to reinforce the 21st Army Group , following the completion of their training and having met the required fitness levels . Stephen Hart comments that , by September , the 21st Army Group " had bled Home Forces dry of draftable riflemen " , due to the losses suffered during the Normandy Campaign , leaving the army in Britain , with the exception of the 52nd ( Lowland ) Infantry Division , with just " young lads , old men , and the unfit " . On 1 September 1944 , the division was disbanded . Utterson @-@ Kelso assumed command of the 47th Infantry ( Reserve ) Division , which took over the role of the 76th Division .
= = = Deception = = =
The creation of the fictitious division arose from an actual reorganisation of British forces . During 1944 , the British Army was facing a manpower crisis . The army did not have enough men to replace the losses to front line infantry . While efforts were made to address this ( such as transferring men from the Royal Artillery and Royal Air Force to be retrained as infantry ) , the War Office began disbanding divisions to reduce the size of the army and to transfer the surplue men to other units to help keep those as close to full strength as possible . The 76th Infantry ( Reserve ) Division was one of several " Lower Establishment " divisions in the United Kingdom , chosen to be disbanded .
R Force , the Fortitude deception staff , seized upon this opportunity to retain the division as a phantom unit . A cover story was established to explain the change in the division 's status . It was claimed that with the war nearing an end , several Territorial Army divisions would revert to their peacetime recruiting role and release their equipment and resources to other units . For the 76th , this was the 47th Division . With the transfer of equipment , the 76th was notionally raised to the " Higher Establishment " and assigned to reinforce the 21st Army Group .
As a deception unit , the division was assigned to the bogus Operation Trolleycar . Trolleycar was initially envisioned as a fictitious amphibious assault upon the coast of the Netherlands , by the phantom British Fourth Army , to exploit the success of the authentic Operation Market Garden . When the Battle of Arnhem failed , the notional invasion plan was temporarily scrapped . Trolleycar was revived to convince the Germans that the Fourth Army would land near Emden , in support of an imaginary assault by the First Canadian Army , that would be launched west of Arnhem and through the Netherlands . The deception effort was kept up until 1945 , being wound down in January . Despite the British ceasing their attempts to deceive the Germans about this possible landing and the Germans not believing all that had been reported to them , the Germans remained anxious about a landing along the northern coast for the remainder of the war .
= = General officer commanding = =
Commanders included :
= = Order of Battle = =
= SS Iowan =
SS Iowan was a cargo ship built in 1914 for the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company . During World War I she was taken over by the United States Navy and commissioned as USS Iowan ( ID @-@ 3002 ) . During World War II , the ship was transferred to the Soviet Union and renamed SS Tashkent ( or Ташкент in Cyrillic ) .
Iowan was built by the Maryland Steel Company as one of eight sister ships for the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company . In October 1914 , five months after she was delivered to American @-@ Hawaiian , Iowan rammed and sank the United Fruit Company steamer Metapan near the entrance to New York Harbor . After repairs , Iowan resumed inter @-@ coastal service via the Panama Canal . When the canal was temporarily closed by landslides in late 1915 , Iowan sailed via the Straits of Magellan until the canal reopened in mid 1916 . During World War I , USS Iowan carried cargo , animals , and a limited number of passengers to France , and returned nearly 10 @,@ 000 American troops after the Armistice .
After her Navy service ended in 1919 , she was returned to her original owners , who , at least once , chartered her to another shipping company . In May 1922 , Iowan rammed and sank the Furness @-@ Prince Line steamer Welsh Prince in the Columbia River near Astoria , Oregon , killing seven men in the process . In June 1941 , Iowan ran aground on a reef near Point Conception , California , and suffered $ 500 @,@ 000 in damages while buffeted by waves on the reef . She was freed from the reef after two weeks , towed to Los Angeles , and repaired .
In 1942 , the ship was requisitioned by the War Shipping Administration , which transferred her to the Soviet Union under the terms of Lend @-@ Lease in December 1942 . She was assigned to the Far East Shipping Company under her new name of SS Tashkent , but sailed with the Soviet Pacific Fleet throughout the war . She delivered cargo and troops in support of the Soviet invasion of Japanese @-@ held territories in August 1945 . After the war , the ship remained a part of the Soviet merchant fleet until 1966 . She was transferred to North Korea at that time to become a fish processing facility , and was scrapped in 1969 .
= = Design and construction = =
In May 1912 , the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company placed an order with the Maryland Steel Company of Sparrows Point , Maryland , for two new cargo ships — Iowan and Ohioan . The contract cost of the ships was set at the construction cost plus an 8 % profit for Maryland Steel , but with a maximum cost of $ 640 @,@ 000 per ship . The construction was financed by Maryland Steel with a credit plan that called for a 5 % down payment in cash with nine monthly installments for the balance . Provisions of the deal allowed that some of the nine installments could be converted into longer @-@ term notes or mortgages . The final cost of Iowan , including financing costs , was $ 71 @.@ 95 per deadweight ton , which came out to just over $ 732 @,@ 000 .
Iowan ( Maryland Steel yard no . 132 ) was the first ship built under the contract . She was launched on 24 January 1914 , and delivered to American @-@ Hawaiian on 16 May . The ship was 6 @,@ 529 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and was 407 feet 7 inches ( 124 @.@ 23 m ) in length ( between perpendiculars ) and 53 feet 6 inches ( 16 @.@ 31 m ) abeam . She had a deadweight tonnage of 10 @,@ 175 LT DWT , and her cargo holds , which had a storage capacity of 490 @,@ 859 cubic feet ( 13 @,@ 899 @.@ 6 m3 ) , were outfitted with a complete refrigeration plant so that she could carry perishable products from the West Coast — like fresh produce from Southern California farms — to the East Coast . Iowan had a single steam engine powered by oil @-@ fired boilers that drove a single screw propeller at a speed of 14 knots ( 26 km / h ) .
= = Early career = =
When Iowan began sailing for American @-@ Hawaiian , the company shipped cargo from East Coast ports via the Straits of Magellan to West Coast ports and Hawaii , and vice versa . Eastbound shipments were primarily sugar and pineapple from Hawaii , while westbound cargoes were more general in nature . With the opening of the Panama Canal on 15 August 1914 , American @-@ Hawaiian ships switched to taking that route .
At 15 : 20 on 15 October 1914 , the outbound Iowan rammed the United Fruit Company passenger and cargo steamer Metapan at the entrance of Ambrose Channel outside New York . Metapan had stopped in the dense fog , but Iowan was traveling at a rapid pace . When Iowan had appeared out of the fog some 200 to 300 yards ( 180 to 270 m ) from Metapan , the United Fruit ship sounded three blasts on the ship 's whistle — warning Iowan of the impending collision . Iowan 's captain did not alter the ship 's course , but did drop her anchor to try and slow the fully laden ship . Nevertheless , Iowan gashed the bow of Metapan and traveled almost halfway through the passenger ship . When Iowan pulled out three minutes later , Metapan began to sink rapidly . Metapan 's captain ordered his ship to sail at full speed for shoals some 200 yards ( 180 m ) distant , on which the ship grounded in 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) of water . A variety of craft — including the nearby British Royal Navy cruiser Lancaster — responded to Metapan 's SOS . Even though the ship was resting on the bottom and the passengers in no immediate danger , most of the 78 passengers and 90 crewmen evacuated the ship in lifeboats and were picked up by rescue craft . Iowan , which suffered no casualties among her crew , attempted to return to her pier in Brooklyn , but was unable and instead anchored in Ambrose Channel . Iowan 's damage was restricted to her bow , which was crushed above the waterline . Two days later , The Wall Street Journal reported that Iowan was anchored off Clifton , Staten Island , and awaiting inspection from surveyors .
After repairs and return to service , Iowan resumed her inter @-@ coastal service . In May 1915 , she was delayed by a large Pacific storm that was responsible for the sinking of the steamer Victoria , and also damaged Northern Pacific and Harvard . In mid @-@ September the same year , Iowan sailed from Boston for the West Coast . She arrived at Cristóbal , the Atlantic terminus of the Panama Canal , to find the canal closed by a major landslide — more than 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 760 @,@ 000 m3 ) of mud and dirt had collapsed into the Gaillard Cut . Initially , American @-@ Hawaiian had Iowan wait in case the canal would soon reopen , but when it became apparent that the closure would last some time , perhaps as long as ten months , Iowan was sent around South America to her destinations , Los Angeles and San Francisco . The Los Angeles Times reported that one portion of Iowan 's delayed cargo consisted of Christmas toys for Los Angeles merchants . The newspaper went on to predict that the delay would be " very disastrous " for the holiday season .
The balance of Iowan 's activities over the next two years are unclear . She may have been in the half of the American @-@ Hawaiian fleet that was chartered for transatlantic service . She may also have been in the group of American @-@ Hawaiian ships chartered for service to South America , delivering coal , gasoline , and steel in exchange for coffee , nitrates , cocoa , rubber , and manganese ore .
= = World War I = =
On 23 December 1917 , some seven months after the United States declared war on Germany , the United States Navy acquired Iowan from American @-@ Hawaiian . USS Iowan was commissioned the same day with Lieutenant Commander Frank L. Dow , USNRF , in command .
Iowan loaded a cargo of 800 horses , along with flour , iron , and machinery at Newport News , Virginia and sailed for New York on 9 February 1918 . There she joined a convoy that sailed for France on 11 February and arrived at its destination on 28 February ; Iowan discharged her equine passengers — less seven that died or were destroyed during the voyage — at Remount Depot No. 3 on 5 March . Iowan continued carrying livestock and food products to France through the rest of the war . On 9 November , Iowan took on 72 officers and men , and headed for France with cargo ship Charlton Hall two days before the Armistice .
With the fighting at an end , the task of bringing home American soldiers began almost immediately . Iowan was selected for conversion to a troop transport and transferred to the Cruiser and Transport Force , but before she could begin returning troops , Iowan had to undergo conversion from a cargo and animal ship . Though sources do not indicate the specific modifications Iowan underwent , typical conversions for other ships included the installation of berths for troops , and adding greatly expanded cooking and toilet facilities to handle the large numbers of men aboard . Similar modifications on Iowan 's sister ship Minnesotan took three months , but it is not known how long Iowan 's refit took . By the time Iowan had completed her sixth and final trooping voyage on 29 August 1919 , Iowan had carried home 9 @,@ 876 healthy and wounded men . USS Iowan was decommissioned on 22 September 1919 , and returned to American @-@ Hawaiian .
= = Interwar years = =
Iowan resumed cargo service with American @-@ Hawaiian after her return from World War I service . Though the company had abandoned its original Hawaiian sugar routes by this time , Iowan continued inter @-@ coastal service through the Panama Canal . For a time in the early 1920s , Iowan was chartered to the United American Line . In May 1922 , the Associated Press reported that Iowan , sailing under the United American banner , was loading wheat , flour , and lumber at Tacoma , Washington , for England and European ports . Later that same month , on 29 May , Iowan rammed and sank the Furness @-@ Prince Line cargo ship Welsh Prince in the Columbia River near Astoria , Oregon . Seven men aboard Welsh Prince were killed and three were injured in the crash and subsequent fire .
On 11 June 1941 , Iowan departed Los Angeles with a cargo of 4 @,@ 500 long tons ( 4 @,@ 600 t ) of steel and iron pipe destined for San Francisco ; Portland , Oregon ; and Seattle , on her last voyage before she was to be handed over to the United States Maritime Commission . At 04 : 20 on 12 June , Iowan ran aground on a reef a few hundred yards ( meters ) off shore from Government Point , — 117 nautical miles ( 217 km ) northwest of Los Angeles , — near Point Conception . Salvage operations took some two weeks , but the ship was towed back to Los Angeles and placed in drydock at the Bethlehem Shipyard on Terminal Island . Approximately 100 feet ( 30 m ) of the ship 's hull had been damaged while the ship was buffeted by waves on the reef , which had opened numerous holes in her hull . The ship 's drive shaft had broken , and her boilers and engines had shifted . The Los Angeles Times reported that estimates for Iowan 's repair ranged up to $ 500 @,@ 000 . In an inquiry held by the Bureau of Marine Inspection and Navigation , Iowan 's captain , S. A. Gates , a Californian with 25 years of sailing experience along the coast , blamed unusual tides for the grounding .
= = World War II and later career = =
In 1942 , after Iowan was repaired and after the United States had entered World War II , the ship was requisitioned by the War Shipping Administration ( WSA ) . On 6 December 1942 , Iowan was transferred to the Soviet Union under Lend @-@ Lease , and renamed Tashkent ( Ташкент Russian pronunciation : [ tɐʂˈkʲɛnt ] ) after the capital of Uzbekistan . Near the end of World War II , the WSA offered a payment of $ 694 @,@ 743 to American @-@ Hawaiian for the former Iowan as part of a $ 7 @.@ 2 million settlement for eleven American @-@ Hawaiian ships that had been requisitioned by the WSA .
Tashkent was assigned to the Far East Shipping Company ( FESCO ) , but sailed with the Pacific Fleet of the Soviet Navy throughout the war . Tashkent was photographed at San Francisco at some point during the war , but most of her other movements are not known . However , in August 1945 , Tashkent delivered troops and cargo in support of the Soviet invasions of Japanese @-@ held Manchuria , Korea , Sakhalin , and the Kurile Islands . After the war 's end , Tashkent returned to merchant operation with FESCO through 1966 , when she was transferred to North Korea for use as a fish processing facility . The former Tashkent was scrapped in 1969 .
= Wales Millennium Centre =
Wales Millennium Centre ( Welsh : Canolfan Mileniwm Cymru ) is an arts centre located in the Cardiff Bay area of Cardiff , Wales . The site covers a total area of 4 @.@ 7 acres ( 1 @.@ 9 ha ) . Phase 1 of the building was opened during the weekend of the 26 – 28 November 2004 and phase 2 opened on 22 January 2009 with an inaugural concert . The centre has hosted performances of Opera , Ballet , Dance , Theater , comedy and Musicals .
The Centre comprises one large theatre and two smaller halls with shops , bars and restaurants . It houses the national orchestra and opera , dance , theatre and literature companies , a total of eight arts organisations in residence . It is also home to the Cardiff Bay Visitor Centre .
The main theatre , the Donald Gordon Theatre , has 1 @,@ 897 seats , the BBC Hoddinott Hall 350 and the Weston Studio Theatre 250 .
In 2001 Lord Rowe @-@ Beddoe was appointed chairman of Wales Millennium Centre , a company limited by guarantee . Board members include Sir Michael Checkland .
= = Background = =
= = = The failed Cardiff Bay Opera House project = = =
The Centre replaced an earlier project for the site , the Cardiff Bay Opera House , a plan supported by the Cardiff Bay Development Corporation to construct a permanent home for the Welsh National Opera . The project failed to win financial support from the Millennium Commission , the body which distributed funds from the UK National Lottery .
An international design competition attracted 268 international applicants , and was won by Iraq @-@ born architect Zaha Hadid . Her avant @-@ garde design was so radical that she and a selection of other applicants were asked to submit revised designs for a second round of competition — which she again won with " a sleek and dazzling complex of sharp lines and surfaces that she compared to an ' inverted necklace ' " .
In December 1995 , the Millennium Commission decided against lottery @-@ money funding for the project . It was suggested that the bid failed because of " the unpopular Conservative government 's fear of controversy , " favouring the funding of projects perceived as more populist , such as the Millennium Stadium .
= = = Origins of Wales Millennium Centre = = =
After the Cardiff Bay Opera House project was rejected , a new project was conceived that included more than opera and was felt to be a better reflection of Welsh culture . The change of name symbolised this , but the project still had to overcome many hurdles . Funding from the Welsh Assembly and Millennium Commission took years to obtain . Cardiff Council had to buy the land after the previous owners , Grosvenor Waterside ( Associated British Ports property division ) threatened to build a retail centre there due to the delays . Further boosts were given by large donations from South African businessman Donald Gordon and a loan from the international bank , HSBC . The GB £ 20 million donation from Donald Gordon was split evenly between the Royal Opera House and Wales Millennium Centre and was spread over five years . This is believed to be the largest single private donation ever made to the arts in the UK .
= = Phase 1 – Donald Gordon Theatre and Weston Studio Theatre = =
In addition to the two main theatres of the Donald Gordon Theatre and Weston Studio Theatre , the 37 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ metre ( 400 @,@ 000 sq ft ) phase 1 of the Wales Millennium Centre also has six function rooms : the Victor Salvi Room , the David Morgan Room , the Sony Room , the Seligman Room , the Japan Room , and the Lloyds Enterprise Suite . The Urdd Gobaith Cymru has a hostel with accommodations for 153 people overnight in en @-@ suite bedrooms , called the Urdd City Sleepover . It also has performance and teaching space in the Urdd Hall / Theatre , with 153 retractable seats .
The building also includes rehearsal rooms , orchestral facilities for the Welsh National Opera , dance studios for Diversions , called The Dance House , and the Blue Room , with seating for up to 100 .
The foyer has three bars ; the Penderyn Awen Foyer Bar on level 2 , the Horizons Foyer Bar on level 4 , and the Stones Foyer Bar on level 5 @.@ ffresh restaurant is also situated in the foyer , along with Crema , which is a coffee shop , Hufen , which is an Ice cream parlour and One , which is a wine bar . Free performances also take place during the day in the foyer on the Glanfa Stage .
= = = Design and construction = = =
The Centre was designed by Jonathan Adams , of local practice Percy Thomas Architects ( taken over by Capita Group in 2004 ) , with Arup Acoustics providing the acoustic design and Arup as building engineer . His first concept drawings were made in early 1998 , by 1999 his design was starting to look more like the building it is today .
Construction began on 25 February 2002 , the main contractor being Sir Robert McAlpine Ltd and Kelsey Roofing Industries Ltd being the roofing contractor . Carr and Angier were the theatre consultants . Other contractors included Stent ( foundations ) , Swansea Institute of Higher Education , now part of University of Wales Trinity Saint David ( glass ) , GH James Cyf ( stonemasonry ) , Rimex ( stainless steel ) , Alfred McAlpine ( slate ) , Coed Cymru ( wood ) , Ann Catrin Evans ( door furniture ) , Amber Hiscott ( etchings on glass walls ) .
The architect 's concept of the building was a building that expressed " Welshness " and was instantly recognisable . The building was designed to reflect the many different parts of Wales with local Welsh materials that dominate its history : slate , metal , wood and glass . All the materials used come from Wales ; the Centre was built from 1 @,@ 350 tonnes of Welsh slate , 300 @,@ 000 concrete blocks , and a million metres of electric cable .
Slate
The exterior of the building is clad in multi @-@ coloured slate collected from Welsh slate quarries . Narrow windows are built into the layers of slate to give the impression of rock ; strata they depict the different stone layers in sea cliffs . The purple slate came from the Penrhyn Quarry , the blue from Cwt y Bugail Quarry , the green from the Nantlle Valley , the grey from Llechwedd quarry , and the black from the Corris Quarry .
I always loved going to Ogmore and Southerndown . I thought the cliffs there looked like a building anyway . A building capable of withstanding the roughest weather for hundreds of years . The older they get , the better they look . I wondered if it would be possible to make a building which had the same qualities as these magnificent cliffs . To do that I needed a lot of stone . Normal stone for buildings has to be specially cut into blocks ; it takes a long time to make and costs a fortune . But in north Wales the historic slate industry has left behind whole mountains of waste stone that no @-@ one wants . This was stone cut from the mountainside for nearly two hundred years but which wasn ’ t good enough to make roof slates . Over 90 % was thrown away . But it was ideal for making walls like the one I had in mind ... — architect Jonathan Adams
Metal
The Centre 's main feature , the bronze coloured dome which covers the Donald Gordon Theatre , is clad in steel that was treated with copper oxide . It was designed to withstand the weather conditions on the Cardiff Bay waterfront and will look increasingly better with age . The architect , Jonathan Adams , decided not to use copper and aluminium as they would both change colour with age and weather conditions .
We all know that steel making has been important to south Wales , just as slate making has changed the landscape of the north . We have to use a special type of steel that won ’ t go rusty near to the salt @-@ laden , maritime air of Cardiff Bay . This stainless steel will be made near to Pontypool . For the Wales Millennium Centre I thought it was important that the materials should have a " natural " texture , and that they should be instantly recognisable to anyone seeing them , even from a distance . For this reason I felt it was important that the steel of the shell should have the rough grain and the riveted pattern that we think of as more typical of old industrial structures , such as those that used to be commonplace around the landscape of the industrial south . — architect Jonathan Adams
Wood
Both inside and outside the building , including the main Donald Gordon Theatre , the balconies and the rear of the building , is dominated by bands of hardwood lining the walls .
Like the exterior of the building , the principal internal spaces are designed to make the best use of natural materials in their natural state . The structure and detail of the concourse galleries echo the form of the exterior , with the curving strata formed in native hardwoods . Oak , ash , beech , sycamore , alder , birch , chestnut and cherry woods from renewable sources in mid @-@ Wales will be used together in proportions that reflect their relative availability from the forest . The design of the concourse galleries is intended to evoke the image of the edge of the forest , partly as a counterpoint to the coastal nature of the exterior , and partly because the edge of the forest in folklore and mythology represents a line between the real world and the magical world , a line which resembles the front edge of the theatre stage . The form of trees is created by the interweaving curvature of the gallery edges , and by the random positioning of the supporting columns . — architect Jonathan Adams
Glass
Glass was used to incorporate into the bands of slate . The glass is 15 @-@ centimetre ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick and was cut and installed by the Architectural Glass Department at Swansea Institute of Higher Education . Glass is not used in the contemporary British architectural style of the glass curtain .
Jonathan Adams said , " The glass veins in the external walls of the Wales Millennium Centre make use of conventional glass in a unique way : the sheets of glass are stacked together and fused in a kiln to form solid blocks . "
Calligraphy
Inscribed on the front of the dome , above the main entrance , are two poetic lines , written by Welsh poet Gwyneth Lewis in the Welsh and English languages . The lettering is formed by windows in the upstairs bar areas and is internally illuminated at night .
The idea of this monumental inscription comes from Roman classical architecture . The Romans brought Christianity to these islands , along with the custom of engraving stone . The form of the Celtic cross embodies the cross @-@ fertilisation of indigenous and Roman cultures , from which the Welsh nation first emerged . The monumental inscription is a familiar feature of Roman architecture . The inscription over the entrance of the Wales Millennium Centre is a revival of this classical tradition , and also a recognition of the formative influence of Roman culture upon our nation . We ’ re lucky to have two languages ; one that we share with half the world and one which belongs just to us . Words in songs , stories and poems have helped to make Wales the proud country that it is . — architect Jonathan Adams
Gwyneth Lewis said of the inscription :
I wanted the words to reflect the architecture of the building . Its copper dome reminded me of the furnaces from Wales 's industrial heritage and also Ceridwen 's cauldron , from which the early poet Taliesin received his inspiration ( ' awen ' ) . Awen suggests both poetic inspiration and the general creative vision by which people and societies form their aspirations . [ ... ] It was important to me that the English words on the building should not simply be a translation of the Welsh , that they should have their own message . The strata of the slate frontage of the Wales Millennium Centre reminded me of the horizons just beyond Penarth Head . The sea has , traditionally , been for Cardiff the means by which the Welsh export their best to the world and the route by which the world comes to Cardiff . The stones inside the theatre literally sing with opera , musicals and orchestral music , and I wanted to convey the sense of an international space created by the art of music . — Gwyneth Lewis
" In These Stones Horizons Sing " is also an orchestral work , which was composed by Karl Jenkins , and commissioned by the Wales Millennium Centre for the opening of the Centre .
= = = Opening weekend ceremony = = =
The building was officially opened on the weekend of the 26 , 27 and 28 November 2004 . The ceremony was organised by Bryn Terfel , the creative director of the whole opening weekend .
Day 1 – 26 November 2004
The day started with a speech from Lord Rowe @-@ Beddoe , chairman of Wales Millennium Centre , who declared to the crowd that the proceedings were under way . This was followed by a speech from Rhodri Morgan , the First Minister , who stressed that the new arts centre belonged to the whole nation , that it was for all of the people of Wales and not just for the elite .
The building was opened by Janet Thickpenny , a young mother from Barry , who was chosen because her 40th birthday coincided with that of the opening day . A human chain delivered the symbolic key , designed and cast by Ann Catrin Evans , to Janet with a fanfare from the National Youth Brass Band of Wales to a Karl Jenkins specially commissioned work In These Stones Horizons Sing and the Centre was open .
The evening celebrations began with Cymru for the World , which celebrated the achievements of five leading Welsh artists ; Gwyneth Jones , Shirley Bassey , Siân Phillips , Alun Hoddinott and Richard Burton , represented by his daughter Kate Burton . This included tributes from Robert Hardy , Jonathan Pryce , Derek Jacobi , Nana Mouskouri , Catrin Finch , Ruth Madoc and Ian McKellen . The concert was directed by Ken Caswell and conducted by David Charles Abell .
Bryn Terfel started off with a short speech and introduced the Wales Millennium Centre singers and dancers , who in hard hats and donkey jackets sang and danced the story of the construction of the building . They were later joined by all 322 participants in a chorus , including Gwyn Hughes Jones , Bryn Terfel and Dennis O 'Neill sang a duet from Pearl Fishers . Diversions performed a new ballet based on one of Alun Hoddinott ’ s works . The Welsh National Opera performed the final scene of Beethoven 's Fidelio in their new home . The evening ranged across all musical types from popular to classical .
Day 2 – 27 November 2004
The second day was an open door for the public to explore the Centre with a continuous stream of people filling through the building from early morning until the fireworks display out in the Roald Dahl Plass .
Day 3 – 28 November 2004
The final day of the opening weekend began with the arrival of Queen Elizabeth II , Prince Philip , and the Prince of Wales who met First Minister Rhodri Morgan and Lord Rowe @-@ Beddoe , and marked the event by unveiling a plaque . Philip Madoc , Siân Phillips , Gaby Roslin , Michael Ball , Charlotte Church , Catrin Finch and Only Men Aloud ! were among the artists that entertained the audience during the first act . The second act was opened by the Welsh National Opera and later the Kirov Ballet and Cirque Éloize entertained the audience . Bryn Terfel ended the celebrations .
= = Phase 2 ( C Bay ) – BBC Hoddinott Hall = =
Phase 2 of the Centre is home to the BBC National Orchestra of Wales ( BBC NOW ) and the BBC National Chorus of Wales . BBC NOW moved from Studio 1 at Broadcasting House in Llandaff , which the orchestra had outgrown since the late 1960s . Phase 2 opened on 22 January 2009 with an inaugural concert performed by the BBC NOW and conducted by Thierry Fischer . Phase 2 includes the 350 seater BBC Hoddinott Hall ( Welsh : Neuadd Hoddinott y BBC ) , also known simply as Hoddinott Hall , which is named after the late Welsh classical composer Alun Hoddinott CBE ( August 11 , 1929 – March 12 , 2008 ) , and the Grace Williams Studio , which is named after another Welsh composer , Grace Williams ( February 19 , 1906 – February 10 , 1977 ) , and is used as a centre for education and outreach work . Phase 2 also has space for practice rooms , a music library , backstage facilities , it also provides a four @-@ storey office space for Wales Millennium Centre and the Arts Council of Wales .
= = = Design and construction = = =
The original plans for the Centre were that it would have a concert hall , however the final design of phase 1 did not include one . Space had been left , though , for a concert hall to be built in the future when phase 1 of the Centre was opened in 2004 , and construction on phase 2 was then due to begin early in 2005 . However , construction of phase 2 did not actually begin until April 2007 . Phase 2 was designed to fit into the Centre ’ s curved slate frontage , with an upper part constructed from timber .
Phase 2 of the Centre was designed by the then newly qualified Tim Green and Keith Vince of Capita Architecture , formerly called Capita Percy Thomas and now part of Capita Symonds , with Arup Acoustics again providing the acoustic design . The main contractor was again Sir Robert McAlpine Ltd , with MJN Colston Ltd responsible for the design and installation of all the mechanical , electrical and public health services in the building . Other subcontractors on the project included URS Corporation , Davis Langdon and Hulley & Kirkwood .
Tim Green said of the building that the exterior of the building was designed to be in keeping with the existing Wales Millennium Centre , while the interior had a theme all its own . " The concept behind the design of the interior of Hoddinott Hall was that of a traditional Welsh chapel . " " The timber treatment at low level is very reminiscent of Victorian chapels and the masonry above . The stonework you would normally get in a stone chapel has been replaced by concrete . "
During the design and construction period , the project name for phase 2 was C Bay . Construction of phase 2 began in April 2007 , and ended when the keys to the building were handed over at an official ceremony in September 2008 , and the beginning of the fitting out of the BBC Hoddinott Hall by BBC Wales .
= = = Opening Festival = = =
To commemorate the opening of the BBC Hoddinott Hall an inaugural concert took place on 22 January 2009 . It was part of the Opening Festival which took place between 22 January and 1 February 2009 . The concert was performed by the BBC National Orchestra of Wales and was conducted by Thierry Fischer . The concert included the world premiere of St Vitus in the Kettle by Simon Holt , the orchestra ’ s composer in association , who took over from Michael Berkeley . The BBC Hoddinott Hall was officially opened by the Prince of Wales on 31 January 2009 , where he unveiled a plaque .
= = Resident organisations = =
The Wales Millennium Centre is home to nine arts organisations :
Literature Wales - The Welsh National Literature Promotion Agency and Society For Writers
National Dance Company Wales - previously known as Diversions - the Dance Company of Wales
Hijinx Theatre - a theatre company that promotes community work , aiming to bring together people of all ages
Touch Trust - providing educational touch and movement therapies to people with profound disabilities and autism
Tŷ Cerdd - music information centre for amateur and professional musicians , including the Welsh Music Information Centre , Welsh Amateur Music Federation , National Youth Arts Wales and Cyfansoddwyr Cymru ( Composers of Wales )
Urdd Gobaith Cymru ( The Welsh League of Youth ) - the Welsh language youth movement
Welsh National Opera - an international touring opera company
BBC National Orchestra of Wales - The only professional national symphony orchestra for Wales
Arts Council of Wales - The body responsible for funding and developing the arts in Wales
It is also home to the Cardiff Bay Visitor Centre .
= = Corporate financing and rebranding = =
The total cost of phase 1 of the project was £ 106 @.@ 2 million . The National Lottery Millennium Fund provided £ 31 @.@ 7 million , a further £ 37 million came from The National Assembly for Wales and £ 10 @.@ 4 million was donated by the Arts Council of Wales . In addition a private investor , South African businessman Donald Gordon donated £ 20 million to be shared equally between the Royal Opera House and the Wales Millennium Centre . The Centre also received a £ 13 @.@ 5 million loan from HSBC . The remaining funds for the project came from a major sponsorship deal with the Principality Building Society . Today the Centre has many corporations and public bodies who provide sponsorship to the Centre .
The National Assembly for Wales announced on 6 November 2007 that it was to pay off the outstanding loan of £ 13 @.@ 5 million from HSBC and also increase the annual funding . From April 2008 , the National Assembly for Wales have given a grant to the Wales Millennium Centre with £ 3 @.@ 5 million per annum for 3 years . This would only repay the capital debt and not any ongoing operating loss as the Centre remains profitable . The money used to pay the debt came from unallocated funds from the Assembly 's previous budget and it was said by the Minister for Heritage , Rhodri Glyn Thomas , that the new money allocation would not come at the expense of other art projects from other parts of Wales .
The cost of phase 2 of the project was approximately £ 18 million , however the BBC does not own the building , they have leased it for 25 years from the Lime Property Fund , which is a subsidiary of Aviva Investors . The building was built by Concert Bay Ltd , which is a subsidiary of Sir Robert McAlpine Enterprises Ltd who co @-@ funded the scheme along with Lime Property Fund .
In November 2006 , Wales Millennium Centre announced that they would begin a two phase rebranding project . The project was won by a local Cardiff company , Sweet . The first phase of the project involved a new corporate logo , the second phase included the complete redesign of other marketing tools , such as brochures and advertisements .
= = In popular culture = =
Doctor Who and Torchwood
The Centre has made numerous appearances in film and television including Doctor Who , whose modern era is produced locally by BBC Wales . It has appeared seven times to date : as itself from outside in the episode " Boom Town " , its marquee momentarily at the end of the episode " Bad Wolf " , its lobby as a hospital lobby in the far future in the episode " New Earth " , and again in " The Girl Who Waited " , . It also appeared briefly in the episodes " Utopia " and " The Stolen Earth " , and also in the final episode of series 3 , " Last of the Time Lords " .
The spin @-@ off series Torchwood , has its headquarters , known as " The Hub " , set underneath the Water Tower , Roald Dahl Plass , with the Wales Millennium Centre 's frontage featuring heavily through the show .
Jones Jones Jones
On 3 November 2006 , a record breaking attempt to gather the most people with the same surname , Jones , took place in the Centre under the show banner Jones Jones Jones , filmed for television by S4C . The record was broken with 1 @,@ 224 Joneses filling the Donald Gordon Theatre . The previous record was set in Sweden in 2004 when 583 people gathered who had the same surname of Norberg .
Gavin & Stacey
Episode 1 of the second series of BBC TV show Gavin & Stacey was filmed in the Wales Millennium Centre . The centre was supposed to be an airport .
= 2008 French Grand Prix =
The 2008 French Grand Prix ( formally the XCIV Grand Prix de France ) was a Formula One motor race held on 22 June 2008 at the Circuit de Nevers Magny @-@ Cours , France . This race is ( to date ) the last French Grand Prix . It was the eighth race of the 2008 Formula One season . The 70 @-@ lap race was won by Felipe Massa for the Ferrari team after starting from second position . Kimi Räikkönen , who started from pole position , finished second in the other Ferrari car ; Jarno Trulli was third in a Toyota .
Räikkönen and Massa both made a clean start . Renault 's Fernando Alonso , who started third , was overtaken by Trulli and BMW Sauber driver Robert Kubica . The front three of Räikkönen , Massa and Trulli maintained their positions through the first round of pit stops . On lap 30 , Räikkönen led Massa by six and a half seconds , and Trulli by 30 seconds . Just before half distance , Räikkönen 's right exhaust pipe broke , which caused the engine to lose power . Massa , in second place , began lapping quicker than Räikkönen , and he caught and passed him on lap 39 . Massa maintained his lead through the second round of pit stops , and won the race ; Räikkönen finished almost 18 seconds behind . Trulli fended off McLaren 's Heikki Kovalainen , who challenged him in the latter stages , to take third .
Massa 's win promoted him into the lead of the Drivers ' Championship for the first time in his career , overtaking Kubica . Kubica was second , two points behind Massa , while Räikkönen was third . In the Constructors ' Championship , Ferrari increased their lead to 17 points ahead of BMW Sauber , McLaren a further 16 points behind in third .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
The Grand Prix was contested by 20 drivers , in ten teams of two . The teams , also known as " constructors " , were Ferrari , McLaren @-@ Mercedes , Renault , Honda , Force India @-@ Ferrari , BMW Sauber , Toyota , Red Bull @-@ Renault , Williams @-@ Toyota and Toro Rosso @-@ Ferrari . Tyre supplier Bridgestone brought two different tyre compounds to the race ; the softer of the two marked by a single white stripe down one of the grooves .
Before the race , Robert Kubica of BMW led the Drivers ' Championship , with 42 points , ahead of McLaren 's Lewis Hamilton and Ferrari 's Felipe Massa , who each had 38 points . Massa 's teammate Kimi Räikkönen was fourth , ahead of Kubica 's teammate Nick Heidfeld in fifth . In the Constructors ' Championship , Ferrari were leading with 73 points ; three points ahead of BMW Sauber with 70 points ; McLaren were a further 17 points behind them in third .
Ferrari came into the race with a long series of success at the track , having won seven of the last ten races held at Magny @-@ Cours . In 2007 , Ferrari had taken a one @-@ two , Räikkönen ahead of Massa . Massa said that it was important not to discount McLaren and BMW :
In recent years , people would say that Canada and Monaco suited McLaren better than Ferrari , while it was the other way round in France and Britain , but I don 't think that is really the case this year , as apart from any other factors , we have to consider the BMW team in this equation . This year in Monaco , Ferrari had the whole front row of the grid , even though I think we had more fuel than McLaren and in Canada our race pace was very good too . In other races we have all been very close .
In March 2007 , the Fédération Française du Sport Automobile ( FFSA ) stated their intention to rest the Magny @-@ Cours circuit from the Formula One world championship for the 2008 season . Despite this , the race was held in 2008 , but the race was dropped from the Formula One calendar for 2009 . As of 2015 , the Formula One World Championship had not returned to France since .
At the previous race in Canada , Hamilton had crashed into Räikkönen in the pit lane , when Raikkönën braked to stop in front of the red light at the end of the pit lane . Williams ' driver Nico Rosberg then collided into the back of Hamilton . Hamilton later said that he saw the light too late and could not avoid hitting the Ferrari . Hamilton and Rosberg were both given ten place grid penalties for the French Grand Prix , meaning that whatever their qualifying position , they could start no better than 11th . After the penalty was given , McLaren 's CEO , Martin Whitmarsh , said that he thought the penalty was " severe " , citing a similar incident at Monaco where Raikkönën had crashed into the back of Force India 's Adrian Sutil . There , no penalty had been given . However , Rosberg said that the penalties from Canada were " deserved " . When Hamilton was asked whether the penalty would force him to change his approach , Hamilton said that " it doesn 't really . It 's a race , I 'm here to win and so I approach it the same . " " It 's going to be harder , " he added , " coming from the back , but I don 't have any doubts or any worries , I think we 're going to have a very strong package this weekend , and I think the car will be as good if not better than it was in the last race . With that pace , as long as we stay out of trouble we should be able to score some good points . "
Renault driver Nelson Piquet Jr . , who was in his first year in Formula One and had scored no points prior to this race , said that he thought that the track suited him and the car much better than previous races . BMW Sauber had taken their first victory at the previous race , but team principal Mario Theissen said that a second win was unlikely at Magny @-@ Cours .
In technical developments , BMW Sauber , Ferrari , McLaren and Toyota all revised their front wings . BMW brought both their new wing as well as the version they had used for the previous race to Magny @-@ Cours , but decided to use the revised wing , as it offered better levels of downforce . Ferrari 's wing changes aimed at improving the performance of the car 's nose hole . The nose hole , which had been introduced at the Spanish Grand Prix , aimed at creating greater levels of downforce , by channelling the airflow . Williams changed their front sidepod winglets . At the previous race , Red Bull modified their RB4 's bridge wing to prevent it from flexing , to comply with the latest rule clarifications . For Magny @-@ Cours , the team revised the central section of this element , with the aim of generating greater downforce levels .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Three practice sessions were held before the Sunday race — two on Friday , and a third on Saturday . The Friday morning and afternoon sessions each lasted 90 minutes . The third session was held on Saturday morning and lasted an hour . In the first practice session , which was held in dry conditions , Ferrari 's Felipe Massa was quickest , ahead of the McLarens of Hamilton and Kovalainen in second and third . Massa 's teammate , Räikkönen , was fourth quickest . The afternoon session , which was held in very hot conditions , saw Renault 's Fernando Alonso record the fastest lap , ahead of the two Ferrari drivers . The hot weather conditions posed several problems for the drivers , as many of the cars ran off the road , sliding through the gravel or across the asphalt . At the end of the session , a new system — designed to limit the cars ' speeds in potentially hazardous situations — was tested . In the third practice session , again held in dry conditions , Renault continued their strong practice performance with Piquet leading the final practice session . Red Bull 's Mark Webber was next quickest while Sebastian Vettel of Toro Rosso was third . As was the pattern for the season , the McLaren and Ferrari drivers ran heavier fuel loads in this session in preparation for the final section of qualifying .
Saturday afternoon 's qualifying session was divided into three parts . In the first 20 @-@ minute period , cars finishing 16th or lower were eliminated . The second qualifying period lasted for 15 minutes , at the end of which the fastest ten cars went into the final period , to determine their grid positions for the race . Cars failing to make the final period were allowed to be refuelled before the race but those competing in it were not , and so carried more fuel than they had done in the earlier qualifying sessions .
Räikkönen clinched Ferrari 's 200th pole position , with a time of 1 : 16 @.@ 449 . He was joined on the front row of the grid by teammate Massa . Alonso qualified third after Hamilton 's penalty moved the quicker McLaren driver to 13th ; Toyota 's Jarno Trulli qualified fourth . Kovalainen would have started from fifth , but was given a five @-@ place grid penalty for blocking Webber during qualifying and would start from 10th on the grid . Kubica , Webber , David Coulthard , Timo Glock and Piquet rounded off the top ten . Heidfeld qualified 11th , with Vettel ahead of Hamilton in 12th , and Bourdais behind in 14th . Rosberg was next quickest , but after his penalty demoted him to the back of the grid his teammate Kazuki Nakajima took his place . The final four places went to the Honda and Force India teams , with Button qualifying ahead of Barrichello , Fisichella and Sutil . Barrichello , however , was given a penalty for changing his gearbox , meaning that he started 20th on the grid , one place behind Rosberg .
= = = Race = = =
The conditions on the grid were dry before the race , although the sky was overcast ; weather forecasts predicted rain near the end of the race . Most of the frontrunners began the race on the harder compound tyre . Rain that had fallen earlier that morning had removed some of the rubber on the track , meaning that graining , when small grains of rubber come off a tyre , was likely to be a problem ; out of the two tyre types , the harder would better cope with this . Räikkönen made a good start , retaining his first position ; Massa behind him maintained his second place . Alonso , who started third , was passed by both Trulli and Kubica , but re @-@ passed Kubica at the hairpin turn exit . Glock also made a good start , taking sixth after passing Webber . Going into the first corner , Button touched Bourdais , resulting in damage to the Honda 's front wing . Hamilton , who started 13th , passed several drivers to move into 10th by the end of lap one .
At the end of the first lap , Räikkönen led from Massa , Trulli , Alonso , Kubica , Glock and Webber . On lap five , Hamilton overtook Kovalainen to move into ninth . On the same lap , Button was forced to make an unscheduled pit stop , due to the damage he had sustained in his first corner incident with Bourdais . This dropped him to the back of the field . By the end of lap 10 , Räikkönen led Massa by 3 @.@ 2 seconds , Trulli a further 8 @.@ 5 seconds behind . On lap 13 , Hamilton was given a drive @-@ through penalty for cutting the corner of Turn Seven on lap one , and gaining an advantage . He took the penalty immediately , and re @-@ emerged in 13th position . Over the next few laps , the Ferrari drivers continued to pull out a gap on Trulli in third , lapping at around a second per lap quicker than the Toyota . On lap 16 , Räikkönen set the fastest lap of the race , a 1 : 16 @.@ 630 , stretching his lead over his teammate . Further back , Alonso , who had been running fourth , made the first scheduled pit stop , resuming 12th . Button was lapped by several drivers , due to the damage his car had sustained in his first corner incident with Bourdais , and eventually retired on lap 17 .
On lap 20 , Trulli and Kubica , then in fourth , pitted . Over the next two laps , both Räikkönen and Massa pitted . By lap 30 , Räikkönen had opened his lead to 6 @.@ 6 seconds over Massa , while Trulli was over half a minute behind him in third . Just before half distance , Räikkönen 's pace became slower , and Massa behind him caught up , passing his teammate on lap 39 . After the race , Räikkönen explained that his lack of pace was due to his car 's right exhaust pipe breaking , causing the engine to lose power . Further back , Kovalainen , who was running seventh , passed Webber to take sixth .
By lap 46 , Massa had a 10 second lead over his teammate . On the same lap , Kubica pitted from fourth , starting the next round of pit stops . Trulli pitted from third on lap 50 , and Räikkönen and Kovalainen two laps later . Massa pitted on lap 54 , and emerged 13 @.@ 4 seconds ahead of Räikkönen . Trulli kept his third position , but Kovalainen , who made up several places through the pit stops to move to fourth , was closing behind him . On lap 55 , light rain started to fall . Although it would continue to rain lightly for the next few laps , it was never heavy enough to be a problem to the drivers . By lap 58 , Kovalainen was right behind Trulli . A few laps later , the exhaust pipe which had broken earlier on Räikkönen 's car came off completely , but Räikkönen continued to race with similar lap times . Kovalainen , meanwhile , continued to try to find a way past Trulli . One lap before the end of the race , Kovalainen attempted to pass Trulli , but ran wide as Trulli defended his position .
Massa crossed the line to win the race , with Räikkönen nearly eighteen seconds behind . Trulli retained third , and took his first podium since the 2005 Spanish Grand Prix , and Toyota 's first podium since the 2006 Australian Grand Prix . Kovalainen finished fourth , ahead of Kubica , Webber and Piquet , who took his first ever points in Formula One . Alonso , Coulthard , Hamilton , Glock , Vettel , Heidfeld and the lapped Barrichello , Nakajima , Rosberg , Bourdais , Fisichella and Sutil were the last of the finishing drivers .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
Massa was delighted with his race victory , saying , " A great race , a fantastic result . The win came my way because Kimi had a problem with his car and at the pace he was running , it would have been hard for me to beat him on the track . I would have been happy with second place but of course , the win makes me even happier . " After the race , Räikkönen said ,
Obviously I am a bit disappointed because I had hoped to win . Unfortunately , the right exhaust pipe broke just before half @-@ distance and the engine lost a lot of power , especially on the straight after the slow corners . After a few laps , the situation seemed better , but towards the end of the race , I ran the risk of stopping . This sort of thing can happen in racing and I have to try and look on the bright side : eight points are still a good amount and the one @-@ two finish is a great result for the team . Luckily , I had built up quite a good lead in the first part thanks to a car that was really very competitive .
Trulli said , " Today was a great race , hard and tough . We had a good pace , even if we had to battle with some cars that were quicker than us . I had to fight really hard but that is what people should expect both from myself and from Toyota . " Hamilton commented on his drive @-@ through penalty : " My drive @-@ through penalty was an extremely close call : I felt I 'd got past Vettel fairly and was ahead going into the corner . But I was on the outside and couldn 't turn @-@ in in case we both crashed , then I lost the back @-@ end and drove over the kerb . "
After BMW Sauber 's victory at the previous race , their director , Mario Theissen , said that " over the entire weekend here our package did not work perfectly " , while driver Heidfeld said that it was a " disappointing result " . Alonso said that he felt disappointed after his poor start to the race . Red Bull 's director , Christian Horner , said that their problems lay in the bad starts their drivers had made . Button , who retired during the race , commented on his collision : " I got a good start and was alongside Bourdais . I thought he was going to turn in at turn one and close the door so I pulled in behind him and then unfortunately hit him in the rear as everything slowed down for the corner . I could feel that there was something broken at the front of the car as there was an air coming in from the front , but the car was driveable and I was staying with the back of the pack so I continued . We replaced the nose but the bargeboards had been pulled off and the car had become undriveable so I had to retire . " Piquet scored his first points in Formula One in the race , having failed to score up to that point . He said that he was happy , and hoped that the team could " continue like this for the rest of the season " .
After the race , Massa moved into the lead of the Drivers ' Championship , on 48 points , taking the Championship lead for the first time in his Formula One career . Kubicia lost the lead of the Drivers ' Championship , falling two points behind Massa . Räikkönen moved ahead of Hamilton , on 43 points , while Hamilton was five points further behind . Heidfeld remained fifth . Before the race , Ferrari had been just three points ahead of BMW in the Constructors ' Championship ; after the race , Ferrari moved into a comfortable 17 point advantage . McLaren made up one point on BMW , although they were still 16 points behind .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
^ 1 Nico Rosberg and Lewis Hamilton docked ten places on the grid for the race after causing a collision with Kimi Räikkönen in the previous round , the Canadian Grand Prix .
^ 2 Heikki Kovalainen docked five places for blocking Mark Webber in qualifying .
^ 3 Rubens Barrichello penalised five places on the grid for gearbox change .
= = = Race = = =
= = Championship standings after the race = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
= Maya Sita =
In some adaptations of the Hindu epic Ramayana , Maya Sita ( Sanskrit : माया सीता , " illusional Sita " ) or Chaya Sita ( छाया सीता , " shadow Sita " ) is the illusionary duplicate of the goddess Sita ( the heroine of the texts ) , who is abducted by the demon @-@ king Ravana of Lanka instead of the real Sita .
In the Ramayana , Sita – the consort of Rama ( the prince of Ayodhya and an avatar of the god Vishnu ) – is seized by Ravana and imprisoned in Lanka , until she is rescued by Rama , who slays her captor . Sita undergoes Agni Pariksha ( an ordeal of fire ) by which she proves her chastity before she is accepted by Rama . In some versions of the epic , the fire @-@ god Agni creates Maya Sita , who takes Sita 's place and is abducted by Ravana and suffers his captivity , while the real Sita hides in the fire . At Agni Pariksha , Maya Sita and the real Sita exchange places again . While some texts mention that Maya Sita is destroyed in the flames of Agni Pariksha , others narrate how she is blessed and reborn as the epic heroine Draupadi or the goddess Padmavati . Some scriptures also mention her previous birth being Vedavati , a woman Ravana tries to molest .
The Maya Sita motif saves Sita – the chief goddess of Rama @-@ centric sects – from falling prey to Ravana 's plot of abduction and safeguards her purity . Similar doubles or surrogates of Sita and other goddesses are found in various tales of Hindu mythology .
= = Original plot of the Ramayana = =
The Ramayana ( 5th to 4th century BCE ) by Valmiki does not mention Maya Sita . Sita , the princess of Mithila , is married to Rama , the prince of Ayodhya . Rama is forced to go on a 14 @-@ year exile and is accompanied by Sita and his brother Lakshmana . Ravana , the demon @-@ king of Lanka , plots to abduct Sita , aided by Maricha , who transforms into a magical golden deer ( Maya mriga , an illusional deer ) , that entices Sita . While in exile in Dandaka forest , Rama goes after the deer and slays it . The magical deer gives a call of help in Rama 's voice . Sita forces Lakshmana to go and help Rama , leaving her alone . Ravana comes disguised as an ascetic and kidnaps her . He imprisons her in the Ashoka Vatika grove of Lanka , until she is rescued by Rama , who slays Ravana in war . When Rama doubts Sita 's chastity , she undergoes a trial by fire ( Agni Pariksha ) . Sita enters a burning pyre declaring that if she has been faithful to Rama let the fire not harm her ; she comes out unscathed with the fire @-@ god Agni as proof of her purity . Rama accepts Sita back and returns to Ayodhya , where they are crowned as king and queen .
= = Development = =
The Maya Sita motif is considered as the " most important instance of an addition " in the Ramayana . The Kurma Purana ( c . 550 – 850 CE ) is the first text where Maya Sita appears . The key event of the Ramayana story – the kidnapping of Sita by Ravana – was replaced with the abduction of Maya Sita ( an unreal Sita ) by Ravana ; meanwhile Sita is protected in the refuge of Agni , the fire god . This " important ideological development " in Vaishnavism ( Vishnu @-@ centric sect ) protected Sita 's chastity . Some versions of the Ramayana such as the ones in the Mahabharata ( 5th to 4th century BCE ) , the Vishnu Purana ( 1st century BCE – 4th century CE ) , the Harivamsa ( 1 – 300 CE ) and several Puranas ( the suffix Purana denotes that the text is part of this genre ) omit the Agni Pariksha altogether to avoid questioning Sita 's purity . In contrast , this very Agni Pariksha became a device for the return of the unblemished Sita , as Sita and Maya Sita switch places again , in some later versions .
With the growing popularity of Rama bhakti movement in the 12th century , numerous works adopted the concept of Maya Sita . Devotees could not bear that Sita – the consort of Rama and the chief goddess of Rama @-@ centric sects – was kidnapped by the demon Ravana and had to suffer his imprisonment and was defiled by his touch . The Maya Sita concept saves Sita from suffering Ravana 's custody and succumbing to the temptation of acquiring the illusory deer . Instead , the texts create an illusory Sita , who does not recognize the illusory deer . The illusory deer motif in the Ramayana may have inspired the Maya Sita concept too . Maya Sita also excuses Sita from rebuking Lakshmana when she forces him to leave her and aid Rama in the illusory deer tale .
Though the Maya Sita motif was found earlier in the Kurma Purana and the Brahma Vaivarta Purana ( 801 – 1100 CE ) where Sita 's purity is safeguarded , it is the Adhyatma Ramayana ( a part of the Brahmanda Purana , c . 14th century ) , where Maya Sita plays a much greater role in the plot . The concept of maya ( illusion ) is an integral part of the narrative ; the best examples being Maya Sita and Maya mriga ( illusory deer ) . Though Adhyatma Ramayana originated in Varanasi in North India , it influenced Malayam ( South India ) and Oriya ( East India ) renditions of the Ramayana , but most importantly influenced the Ramcharitmanas of Tulsidas ( c.1532 – 1623 ) .
The Ramcharitmanas expands on the Agni Pariksha narrative . Since no one knows about the replacement of the real Sita by Maya Sita , Sita 's chastity is in question . The text explicitly states that the Agni Pariksha destroys the Maya Sita as well as the " stigma of public shame " , that Sita would have had to otherwise endure . Rama is exculpated from using harsh words to " Sita " at the time of Agni Pariksha as he knows it is the false Sita he is accusing . Sita is saved from public humiliation as her chastity is proven by Agni Pariksha . The moral status of Rama as well as Sita is protected by the Maya Sita motif .
In many versions of the tale , the omniscient Rama knows about Sita 's impending abduction and creates Maya Sita . Such versions assert Rama 's divine status , a departure from Valmiki 's portrayal of Rama as a human hero .
The motif also appears in the Devi Bhagavata Purana ( 6th – 14th century CE ) and the Adbhuta Ramayana , ( c . 14th century CE ) as well as Oriya works like Balarama Dasa 's Jagamohana Ramayana , Upendra 's Vaidehisha Vilasa and the Oriya Ramlila , dramatic folk re @-@ enactment of the Ramayana .
= = Legend = =
In the Kurma Purana , Sita prays to Agni just when Ravana arrives to kidnap her . Agni creates Maya Sita – an exact double of Sita – who takes the place of Sita and is abducted by the demon . While Sita is taken by Agni to heaven , Maya Sita is confined in Lanka . After Ravana 's death , when Maya Sita enters the fire at Agni Pariksha , Agni restores the real undefiled Sita to Rama ; meanwhile Maya Sita is destroyed in the blaze . The Chaitanya Charitamrita , a biography of the Vaishnava saint Chaitanya Mahaprabhu ( 1486 – 1533 ) , by Krishnadasa Kaviraja ( b . 1496 ) alludes to the Kurma Purana tale . Chaitanya meets a brahmin Rama devotee in Madurai . The brahmin is devastated after learning that " mother Sita , mother of the universe and the supreme goddess of fortune " was stained by Ravana 's touch and gives up food . The saint consoles the brahmin saying that Sita 's spiritual form can not be touched by the demon ; it was Maya Sita that was taken away by Ravana . The brahmin feels better and accepts food . Chaitanya then travels to Rameswaram , where he listens to the Kurma Purana and obtains the authoritative proof to comfort the brahmin . He returns to Madurai with the Kurma Purana manuscript , leaving that brahmin overjoyed .
While Agni is the saviour in the Kurma Purana , the Rama @-@ centric Adhyatma Ramayana replaces Agni with the omniscient Rama as the mastermind . Rama knows of Ravana 's intentions and orders Sita to place her chaya ( shadow ) outside the hut for Ravana to abduct and go inside the hut and live hidden in the fire for a year ; after Ravana 's death , she would unite with him again . Sita complies and creates her illusionary form , Maya Sita , and enters the fire . After Maya Sita 's seizure , Rama grieves for Sita . It is unclear if Rama pretends to grieve or forgets that Maya Sita is the one actually kidnapped . After Ravana 's death , Maya Sita has to face the Agni Pariksha and vanishes in the fire . Agni reinstates Sita and declares that Rama created the illusionary Sita to bring about Ravana 's annihilation and with that purpose served , the true Sita returns to Rama . Inspired by Adhyatma Ramayana , the Ramacharitmanas has a very similar narrative ; however , Agni Pariskha narrative is longer and Maya Sita is explicitly stated to be destroyed in the fire . The Nepali Bhanubhakta Ramayana by Bhanubhakta Acharya ( 1814 – 1868 ) portrays Rama creating the illusionary Sita from the sacred Kusha grass and entrusting Sita to Agni ; at Agni Pariksha , the grass Maya Sita turns into ashes while the true Sita reappears before the world . A popular Indian television series Ramayan ( 1987 – 88 ) by Ramanand Sagar reveals that Maya Sita had replaced Sita only in the Agni Pariksha scene and uses flashback to narrate about the exchange .
The Brahma Vaivarta Purana and the Devi Bhagavata Purana narratives are similar to each other and divulge about Maya Sita 's life after Agni Pariksha . The Devi Bhagavata Purana states : Agni comes , disguised as a brahmin , to Rama and informs him that he had been sent by the gods to warn Rama about the future , when Rama will fulfil the purpose of his birth on earth and slay Ravana ; Sita would be abducted by Ravana and would lead to his downfall . Agni requests Rama to hand over Sita to him for safekeeping and substitute her with Maya Sita ; after Ravana 's destruction when Sita would be asked to prove her chastity by entering fire , Maya Sita will be replaced with the real Sita again . Rama consents . Agni mediates and creates Maya Sita , who looks perfectly like the original Sita . Maya Sita and Sita switch places and Agni disappears with the real Sita , extracting the promise from Rama that the replacement of Sita remains secret ; not even Lakshmana should know . Maya Sita longs for the illusional deer and is consequently kidnapped . As per the plan , Maya Sita vanished in the fire at Agni Pariksha and real Sita comes out .
When Rama abandons the young Maya Sita at Agni Pariksha , she – worried about her uncertain future – questions Rama and Agni about what should she do now . They advise her to go to Pushkar and perform austerities ( Tapas ) and prophesy that she will be become Svargalakshmi ( " Lakshmi of the heaven " ) as the result of her asceticism . Shiva is pleased with her penance and promises to grant her desired boon . Maya Sita , who is transformed into Svargalakshmi by practising austerities for three lakh years , anxiously repeats five times that she get a husband . Shiva blesses her that she will be born as Draupadi , the princess of Pancala , who will have five husbands . Draupadi , the heroine of the Mahabharata , is born out of the flames of a yajna ( fire sacrifice ) of Drupada ( King of Panchala ) and later becomes the common wife of the five Pandava brothers , princes of Kuru kingdom . The text also declares that in previous birth , Maya Sita was Vedavati , a woman Ravana tries to rape and who curses Ravana that she will be the cause of his ruin . Since she has taken birth in three yugas ( ages ; a cycle of four ages is believed to repeat ) – Vedavati in Satya yuga , Maya Sita in Treta Yuga and Draupadi in Dwapara yuga , she is known as Trihayani , the one who appears in the three ages .
The Tamil text Sri Venkatachala Mahatyam relates Maya Sita to Vedavati , but her next birth is Padmavati , not Draupadi . After Ravana tries to molest Vedavati , she curses him that she would destroy his clan . She seeks the protection of Agni . Agni consoles her and gives her not only shelter but also the opportunity to take her vengeance . He disguises Vedavati as Sita , who is going to be kidnapped by Ravana and hides the real Sita in his refuge . At the time of Agni Pariksha , Vedavati enters the fire and Agni accompanies Sita and Vedavati out in public . Rama is perplexed seeing the two Sitas . The real Sita informs Rama that Vedavati was abducted in her place and suffered the incarceration in Lanka . She demands Rama to marry Vedavati , however Rama refuses citing his vow to have only one wife in this birth . He promises that in Kali yuga ( the present and final age ) , when he appear on earth as Venkateshwara , Vedavati will be born as Padmavati , whom he will marry . Unlike Sanskrit texts , Agni plans the whole thing and Sita conspires with him to protect herself , but also safeguards the surrogate Sita 's interests .
In the Malayalam Adhyatma Ramayana by Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan ( 16th century ) , Vedavati – disguised as Sita – appears before Sita from the latter 's kitchen fire and volunteers to be kidnapped in Sita 's place . As per Vedavati 's advice , Sita hides in fire and lives in Agni 's protection . After Agni Pariksha when Sita is reunited with Rama , Vedavati is blessed to marry Vishnu in Kali yuga .
Sometimes , Sita replaces Maya Sita temporarily before the Agni Pariksha . The Ramayana narrates that the monkey @-@ god Hanuman , a devotee of Rama , was sent by Rama to seek Sita and eventually succeeds in discovering her whereabouts in Lanka ; where she meets with him . Sundd 's Sri Sankat Mochan Hanuman Charit Manas ( 1998 ) , a devotional text attributed to Tulsidas and devoted to Hanuman , uses the Maya Sita motif , but raises the question how Hanuman could interact with such devotion with a false Sita . Sita takes the place of Maya Sita in captivity temporarily to meet the great devotee .
= = Divine doubles : inspiration and influences = =
Though the tale of Maya Sita told in the Ramayana adaptations is absent from the original , the concept of Maya Sita first appears in the epic itself . In the battle between Rama and Ravana , Indrajit – the son of Ravana – creates an illusionary Sita ( Maya Sita ) and kills her in front of Rama 's monkey general Hanuman , as a war tactic to dampen the spirits of Rama 's army . The fooled Hanuman reports it to Rama , who is also dejected by the news . However , they soon realise that it must be an illusion of Indrajit . Another surrogate Sita appears in a later interpolation of the epic . At the end of the Ramayana , a golden image of Sita is subsisted for the real Sita to be on side of Rama in sacrifices , after Sita 's abandonment by Rama when her chastity is questioned by his subjects .
The Ananda Ramayana does have the Maya Sita , who is kidnapped by Ravana , but has an illusory Sita called rajatamomayi chaya ( " shadow of Rajas and Tamas elements " ) of Sita , who is abandoned by Rama while the sattva @-@ rupa ( " sattva form " ) – the real Sita – remains unseen by her husband 's left side , the traditional place of a Hindu wife . Kamban 's Ramavataram ( 12th century ) narrates that Shurpanakha – the sister of Ravana – impersonates Sita to seduce Rama , but her trickery is exposed by him . In a 14th @-@ century Nepalese drama , Shurpanakha disguises as Sita , but Rama is fooled by her appearance . When real Sita also appears , Rama is perplexed . However , Lakshmana tests the two Sitas and rightly judges the real one . The Ramcharitmanas narrates that the goddess Sati , wife of the god Shiva , tries to test Rama by appearing before him disguised as Sita when he is searching for his kidnapped wife . However , Rama sees through her disguise ; Shiva abandons her , angry with her action .
In some adaptations of the Ramayana , other characters also use surrogates to save themselves from Ravana . A Tamil text narrates how Ravana once asks for Parvati as boon from her husband Shiva , however Vishnu – disguised as a sage – deludes Ravana into believing Shiva granted him an illusionary Parvati . Ravana entrusts Parvati to Vishnu and mediates again to compel Shiva to give him the real Parvati . This time , Shiva gives an illusionary Parvati , which he accepts as the real one and returns to Lanka with her . In the Malay Ramayana , Ravana sets his eyes on Rama 's mother , however she transforms a frog into her image and sends this surrogate to be Ravana 's wife .
Other divinities also employ surrogates to meet their own needs . In the Puranas , Sati commits suicide by immolating herself when Shiva is insulted and is reborn as Parvati and becomes Shiva 's consort again . In a later Sanskrit text , Sati creates a surrogate who burns herself , while the real Sati is reborn as Parvati . In the Mahabharata , the goddess Svaha assumes the form of six of the wives of the Saptarishi ( seven great sages ) , with whom Agni is in love with , and has coitus with him . Later , Svaha marries Agni .
Other cultures also employ surrogates to save protagonists from pain . Christian Gnostic traditions suggest that Simon of Cyrene as the man who was crucified , instead of Jesus , a concept deemed heretical . Unlike Christianity , " divine doubles " are accepted in Hindu and Greek tales . In some retellings of the Trojan War saga , a phantom Helen of Troy is kidnapped by Paris which brings upon the great war ; a story parallel to the story of abduction of Maya Sita by Ravana .
= Tarakeswar affair =
The Tarakeswar affair ( also known as the Tarakeswar scandal or the Mahant @-@ Elokeshi affair ) refers to a public scandal in 19th @-@ century Bengal during the British Raj . It resulted from an illicit love affair between Elokeshi , the wife of a government employee Nobin Chandra , and the Brahmin head priest ( or mahant ) of the Tarakeswar Shiva temple . Nobin subsequently decapitated his wife Elokeshi because of the love affair . A highly publicised trial followed , dubbed the Tarakeswar murder case of 1873 , in which both the husband and the mahant were found guilty in varying degrees .
Bengali society considered the mahant 's actions as punishable and criminal , while justifying Nobin 's action of killing an unchaste wife . The resulting public outrage forced authorities to release Nobin after two years . The scandal became the subject of Kalighat paintings and several popular Bengali plays , which often portrayed Nobin as a devoted husband . The mahant was generally presented as a womaniser , who took advantage of young women . The murder victim Elokeshi was sometimes blamed as a seductress and the root cause of the affair . In other plays , she was absolved of all guilt and was portrayed to have been tricked and raped by the mahant .
= = Summary = =
Elokeshi , the sixteen @-@ year @-@ old housewife of the Bengali government employee Nobin Chandra ( Nobinchandra / Nabinchandra / Nobin Chandra ) Banerjee , lived in the village of Tarakeswar with her parents , while Nobin was away for work in a military press in Calcutta . She approached Madhavchandra Giri , the " powerful " mahant of the popular and prosperous Tarakeswar temple , seeking fertility medication ; however the mahant allegedly seduced and raped her . An affair began with the " connivance " of Elokeshi 's parents .
When Nobin returned to the village , he learned about the affair from village gossip . Nobin was publicly humiliated following the discovery of the affair . He confronted Elokeshi , who confessed and begged him for forgiveness . Not only did Nobin forgive her but he decided to run away with her from Tarakeswar . However , the mahant did not allow the couple to escape ; his goons blocked their way . Overcome with anger and jealousy , Nobin slit his wife 's throat with a fish knife , decapitating her , on 27 May 1873 . Full of remorse , Nobin surrendered to the local police station and confessed his crime .
The Tarakeswar murder case of 1873 ( Queen vs Nobin Chandra Banerjee ) first stood in the Hoogly Sessions Court at Serampore in south @-@ west Bengal . The Indian jury acquitted Nobin , accepting his plea of insanity , but the British judge Field overruled the jury 's decision and forwarded the matter to the Calcutta High Court . However , Judge Field accepted that there was an adulterous relationship between Elokeshi and the mahant , with whom she was seen " joking and flirting " . Judge Markby , who presided over the case in the High Court , also accepted the evidence proving adultery . The High Court convicted both Nobin and the mahant . Nobin was sentenced to life imprisonment ; the mahant got 3 years rigorous imprisonment and a fine of 2000 rupees .
= = Public reaction = =
The newspaper Bengalee remarked : " People flock to the Sessions Court as they would flock to the Lewis Theatre to watch Othello being performed " . The courtroom drama became a public spectacle . Authorities had to charge an entrance fee to control the crowds at the Hoogly Sessions Court . The right of admission was also restricted to those literate in English , citing that the mahant 's British lawyer and the judge only spoke in English .
The overruling of the Indian jury 's decision by the Sessions Court judge was heavily debated . According to Swati Chattopadhyay ( author of Representing Calcutta : Modernity , Nationalism and the Colonial Uncanny ) , the court proceedings were seen as an interference by the British in local matters . The court represented a conflict between village and city , the priest and bhadralok ( Bengali gentleman class ) and the colonial state and nationalist subjects . The court proceedings were disturbed several times by crowds demanding clemency for Nobin or stringency for the mahant . The mahant and his English lawyer were often attacked outside the court . The mahant 's punishment was termed lenient by the Bengali public . Nobin was released in 1875 , following several public petitions for pardon . Such pleas came from members of the Calcutta elite and district town notables , local royals and " acknowledged leaders of native society " , as well as from the " lower middle class " — from whom a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ signature mercy plea was received .
The 1873 mahant – Elokeshi incident was not the first incident against a mahant of Tarakeswar . Mahant Shrimanta Giri was executed in 1824 for the murder of his mistress 's lover . However , according to Sarkar ( author of Hindu wife , Hindu nation ) , while the 1824 scandal hardly created any public outrage and faded quickly from public memory , the 1873 affair was embedded in public memory and created a huge sensation in contemporary Bengal . When a satyagraha was organised against the reigning mahant of Tarakeswar , Satish Giri , in 1974 for his sexual and financial misconduct , the 1873 affair was alluded to several times .
A regional daily reported that the mahant 's affair with Elokeshi was still discussed by the common people of Bengal , who did not know of other current affairs , even six months after the murder . Bengali newspapers followed the court trial on a day @-@ to @-@ day basis , often reporting it verbatim and capturing the responses of all parties involved : judges , jury , lawyers and the common man . The " culpability " of each of the characters of the scandal was debated , and British justice and Hindu norms were analysed , especially by British @-@ owned newspapers . While Missionaries interpreted the public outcry against the mahant as the " disenchantment " of the Hindus , British @-@ owned newspapers also pondered over the question of asserting more control on Hindu temples and organisations . In an era when Hindu reform movements were blossoming in Bengal , the scandal led the reformist as well as orthodox society to re @-@ examine " the relationship between Hindu norms , leaders and women " .
Many products were specially manufactured to commemorate the event . Saris , fish knives , betel @-@ leaf boxes and other
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it was rumored that Christina Aguilera would feature on the remix version after Rihanna posted a message on Twitter saying that she wanted someone " Dirrrty " on the re @-@ recording , a supposed reference to Aguilera 's 2002 song " Dirrty " . However , the singer later tweeted that she wanted a male vocalist , not a female vocalist , to accompany her on the remix via Twitter with a tweet reading ' No girls allowed on # CAKE ' . It was later revealed that Brown was the featured artist on the full length version . Despite receiving negative attention regarding Rihanna 's choice of collaborator from the media and fans alike , the singer defended her decision saying that it is simply music .
The remix of " Birthday Cake " ' s lyrics are similar to the interlude , but with new lyrics provided by Brown . Critical reception of the collaboration was met with a mixed response from music critics , many of whom were shocked at the fact that Rihanna and Brown had collaborated on a song together despite their relationship history , but cited the remix as an improvement upon the original interlude . The remix peaked at number 24 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , and number two on the R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . American rappers Fabolous , Rick Ross and Busta Rhymes appeared on additional remixes of the song .
= = = Background = = =
Due to the high level of demand by the singer 's fans to release a full length of " Birthday Cake " , Rihanna posted a message via her official Twitter account , promising that it was at the top of her agenda to record and release it . Despite fans wanting to hear the updated version , Katherine St. Asaph of PopDust criticized the notion , writing " Honestly , at this point Rihanna and Def Jam would be better off just calling ' Birthday Cake ' an interlude , not an incomplete version , because otherwise that 's saying the album is released but essentially unfinished . " Beck Bain of Idolator noted that the release of the full length song is " doubtful " , writing " the song is already too dirty in its current minute @-@ and @-@ twenty @-@ second version . But if ' S & M ' could be a single , is anything [ sic ] too risque for the radio these days ? "
In February 2012 , it was speculated that Christina Aguilera would appear as the featured artist on the release after Rihanna posted a message on Twitter saying , " I need somebody # DIRRRTY [ sic ] on my Birthday # CAKE [ sic ] , " a supposed reference to Aguilera 's 2002 song " Dirrty " , which contains lyrical content relating to various sexual activities . The singer later confirmed that she did not want a female artist to feature on the collaboration , stating , " No girls allowed on # CAKE . [ sic ] " On February 15 , 2012 , Kosine of Da Internz , who produced the interlude , revealed that the featured collaborator will " shock the world , " and that the full length version would premiere between February 16 , and February 20 , 2012 .
= = = Development = = =
On February 16 , 2012 , it was speculated that former boyfriend Chris Brown was the featured artist on the full length version . Reports surfaced after the pair were photographed leaving Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles at separate times and Brown being invited to Rihanna 's birthday party . Rumors were also fueled when Rihanna and Brown spent time together at the 2012 Grammy Awards on February 8 , 2012 . The reports gained worldwide media controversy , because Brown and Rihanna were involved in a physical altercation on the evening of the 2009 Grammy Awards . The full length version , eventually revealed to feature Brown , was released on Rihanna 's birthday , February 20 , 2012 . In an interview with Billboard , The @-@ Dream stated that he believed Rihanna and Brown 's past together should not be judged and that " Birthday Cake " is simply a song , saying , " For me , it 's just music - two talented people doing a record together , doing two records together , and that 's what it was . It wasn 't about an incident that happened . The true thing really is to forgive , and you want to believe in people . " " Birthday Cake " impacted US Urban contemporary radio on March 6 , 2012 , serving as the fourth U.S. single from Talk That Talk .
On March 15 , 2012 , Rihanna explained her collaboration with Brown to Ryan Seacrest during his morning show : " The first song that came about was ' Birthday Cake ' . I mean , we ended up recording them at the same time and executing them together . But I reached out to him about doing ' Birthday Cake ' because that ’ s the only person that , really , it made sense to do the record . Just as a musician , despite everything else , that was going to be the person . You know I thought about rappers , and I ’ ve done that so many times , and the hottest R & B artist out right now is Chris Brown . So I wanted him on the track , and then in turn he was like , ‘ Why don ’ t you do the remix to my track ? ’ and it was a trade @-@ off . We did two records . One for my fans , one for his fans , and that way our fans can come together . There shouldn ’ t be a divide . You know ? It ’ s music , and it ’ s innocent . " In March 2012 , American rapper Fabolous released his own verse to the " Birthday Cake " remix . The following month , Rick Ross also released the track featuring an added rap verse from himself , along with the previously incorporated Chris Brown verses . Busta Rhymes released his own freestyle to the song along with rapper Reek da Villian .
= = = Composition = = =
Brown 's verse begins with the lyric " Girl , I wanna fuck you right now , " which is the antithesis of how Rihanna concludes the original interlude , sing " Ooh , I wanna fuck you right now . " Brown 's verse continues with " Been a long time I 've been missing your body / Turn the lights down / When I go down it 's a private party . " Brown delivers his vocals in an aggressive and manipulative manner as he sings " Give it to her in the worst way , can 't wait to blow her candles out . " At the end of the song , Rihanna performs new lyrics which were not included on the original 1 minute and 18 second interlude ; " Remember how you did it / If you still wanna kiss it / Then come and get it . " According to Ben Rayner of the Toronto Sun , the instrumentation of " Birthday Cake " consists of " snaky , slurpy , bass @-@ droppin ' beats . " The song 's lyrics revolve around sadomasochistic sexuality and dominance over men , and consists mainly of oral sex metaphors , including the lyric " Doggy want the kitty . "
= = = Critical reception = = =
Beth Hardie for the Daily Mirror wrote that the remix came as a shock , because of how Brown " beat her virtually senseless in a car three years ago just before the Grammys , " and noted that Rihanna would face harsh criticism from journalists and fans alike for not setting a good example to younger girls . Hardie continued to state that although the collaboration came as a surprise , " We have to admit , it ’ s a pretty amazing stroke of genius in terms of publicity and messing with people ’ s minds . " Regarding the collaboration on the remix Jo Usmar from Daily Mirror compared the collaboration to the physical altercation between Rihanna and Brown at the 2009 Grammy Awards , writing " In case you 've been living in a cave for the last two years this is extraordinarily controversial as Brown was convicted of assaulting Rihanna in 2009 and there was a restraining order issued against him . " Ben Rayner for the Toronto Sun was complimentary of the remix , writing that it was an improvement upon the original interlude , " What was empty , unfinished titillation before , then , has become empty , overstated , boardroom @-@ written pseudo @-@ pornography for the pop charts . "
Jon Caramanica for The New York Times commented that the remix of " Birthday Cake " , as well as the original , was " very much so " a good song . However , Caramanica was critical of the collaboration itself , due to Rihanna and Brown 's history , writing " You want to forget ? Fine . But don ’ t forgive . " Caramanica continued to explain his distaste , writing " It displays an advanced understanding of marketing and an understanding of moral obligations and ethics that 's not much more than rudimentary . It is a woman publicly accepting her abuser - nothing more , nothing less . " J. Bryan Lowder for The Huffington Post labelled the song as " innuendo @-@ iced " with regard to the song 's explicit lyrics . Lowder provided an explanation for what he thought the reason was behind Rihanna asking Brown to collaborate on " Birthday Cake " , writing :
Even though we know that collaborations like this are almost always commercial in motivation , we like to imagine that the artist 's choice of a creative partner gives us some kind of access to their private , emotional world . Collaboration suggests a personal relationship , and our eavesdropping on that interplay conjures up a feeling of intimacy between audience and artist that is very powerful . We feel like we know what 's really going on with Rihanna and Chris Brown because we are virtually present in the studio with them , and here , the thing we 're meant to know is that everything 's OK now . The problem is , the strategy won 't work ; because of an infamous leaked photograph , we were also virtually present in the car that night three years ago when Brown beat Rihanna till her face was bruised and bloodied . And that kind of terrifying intimacy is not easily forgotten .
= = = Live performance = = =
Rihanna performed " Birthday Cake " Remix at Radio 1 's Hackney Weekend on May 24 , 2012 , as the fifth song on the set list . She performed the remix in its entirety , and sang Brown 's lyrics . The song was later included on her Diamonds World Tour in 2013 during the first act .
= = = Chart performance = = =
The remix version of " Birthday Cake " debuted at number 20 on the US Billboard R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart on chart issue dated March 10 , 2012 , and received both the Airplay and Greatest Gainer honours . The following week , it ascended to number 17 . In its third week on the chart , the song ascended to number seven , and received the Airplay Gainer honor . The song ascended to number four the following week , and was awarded with the Airplay Gainer honor again . It has so far reached a peak of number two . It debuted at number 63 on the US Billboard Hot 100 on the chart issue dated March 10 , 2012 . In its fourth week on the chart , the song climbed to number 39 and became the fourth top forty single from Talk That Talk . " Birthday Cake " ( Remix ) has reached a peaked of number 24 . The remix of " Birthday Cake " debuted at number 73 on the Radio Songs chart , generating a 372 % increase in spins , on the chart issue dated March 10 , 2012 . It has so reached a peak of number 16 .
= = = Charts = = =
Weekly Charts
Year @-@ end charts
= = = Premiere and radio history = = =
= Johann Lamont =
Johann MacDougall Lamont ( / ˈdʒoʊæn læmʌnt / ; born 11 July 1957 ) is a Scottish politician , who was leader of the Scottish Labour Party from 2011 to 2014 . She served as a junior minister in the Labour @-@ Liberal Democrat coalition Scottish Executive from 2004 until the coalition 's defeat by the Scottish National Party ( SNP ) in 2007 . She was subsequently elected deputy leader of the opposition Labour group of MSPs in 2008 , and was elected to lead the Labour Party in December 2011 . She announced her resignation in October 2014 , and following a leadership election to replace her , was succeeded by Jim Murphy in December .
Born in Glasgow , Lamont attended the city 's Woodside Secondary School and obtained a degree from the University of Glasgow . After studying for teaching qualifications at Jordanhill College , she became a schoolteacher . Active in the Labour Party since her university days , Lamont served on its Scottish Executive Committee , and chaired it in 1993 . With the establishment of a devolved legislature in Scotland , she was elected as the Labour Co @-@ operative Member of the Scottish Parliament ( MSP ) for Glasgow Pollok in 1999 . Having been appointed convener of the Scottish Parliament 's Social Justice Committee in 2001 , she obtained her first ministerial role in October 2004 . Her decision to stand for the Labour Party leadership followed the resignation of Iain Gray as leader in the wake of the party 's defeat at the 2011 Scottish general election — its second consecutive defeat . Following a review of how the Labour Party in Scotland is structured , she became its first overall leader .
Lamont has been a campaigner on equality issues and violence against women throughout her political career . Following the SNP Government 's announcement of a referendum on Scottish independence she was a key figure in Better Together , the cross @-@ party movement that sought to keep Scotland in the United Kingdom . Lamont believes that Labour lost the 2011 election because it had lost its direction , and initiated a review of Scottish Labour policy on issues like devolution and the party 's commitment to free universal public services . Her work won her accolades at the Scottish Politician of the Year Awards , for Political Impact of the Year in 2012 and Debater of the Year in 2013 . In Parliamentary debates she was perceived by commentators such as The Scotsman 's Andrew Whitaker as being an effective opponent to First Minister Alex Salmond , but others , including Richard Seymour of The Guardian , criticised her for clumsiness during television interviews . Lamont resigned as Labour leader in October 2014 , making the announcement in a Daily Record interview in which she claimed that senior figures within the UK Labour Party had undermined her attempts to reform the Scottish party , and treated it " like a branch office of London " .
= = Early life and teaching career = =
Johann Lamont was born in the Anderston district of Glasgow on 11 July 1957 . Her parents , Archie and Effie , were both Gaelic speakers from crofting families on the Inner Hebridean island of Tiree , who met after both had moved to Glasgow . Archie was a carpenter employed by the Scottish ferry operator Caledonian MacBrayne , working on the Mallaig to Skye route . He took part in the Seamen 's Strike of 1966 . The family were Presbyterians , and Lamont 's mother was influenced in her faith by the American evangelist Billy Graham . Her first experiences of public speakers was listening to the preachers her mother took her to see as a girl .
Lamont 's childhood was divided between Glasgow and her mother 's family home on Tiree , where she and her brother David spent their summer holidays . She attended Woodside Secondary School , having declined to take scholarship exams for selective education . Like her parents , she was a Gaelic speaker , but she did not believe she spoke it well enough , and she dropped it at school in favour of French and German . It was also at school that she first developed an interest in politics , once entering a Daily Mirror competition with a politically @-@ themed short story . The tale , whose central character discussed her intention to demand a pay rise and was finally revealed to be the Queen , won Lamont third prize . She studied English and History at the University of Glasgow , graduating with an MA . Joining the Labour Party in 1975 , she was active in the Glasgow University Labour Club where she was a contemporary of fellow Labour politician Margaret Curran , and was also involved with the women 's movement . She trained as a teacher for a year at Jordanhill College , gaining a Postgraduate Certificate in Education , and afterwards joined Rothesay Academy , Isle of Bute , as a teacher in 1979 . She taught at Springburn Academy in Glasgow from 1982 to 1989 and at Castlemilk High School , also in Glasgow , from 1990 to 1999 . Lamont taught English and worked with social workers and educational psychologists attempting to tackle instances of school truancy .
Continuing to be active in the Labour Party , Lamont became a prominent campaigner on issues related to social justice , equality and devolution . Although she had voted no in the 1979 referendum that proposed the establishment of a Scottish Assembly , during the 1980s and 1990s she was a representative on the Scottish Constitutional Convention , the body that paved the way for Scottish devolution . Of her 1979 decision , Lamont has said that she " came from the strand on the left which saw the politics of nationalism as a diversion from more central aims [ but later ] came to see the parliament as a vehicle for democratic change in Scotland . " She was a member of the Scottish Executive Committee of the Labour Party , serving as chair in 1993 .
= = MSP for Glasgow Pollok = =
Although a Labour activist for two decades , Lamont had not sought election to the House of Commons during that time , telling a 2014 BBC interview there were few chances for women to be elected to Westminster : " In 1987 Labour sent down 50 MPs and only one of them was a woman . " Instead , her decision to seek political office was influenced by the creation of the Scottish Parliament . Speaking to The Herald in 2011 , she said , " It is easy to forget what a great opportunity it was for women and I was determined that women would be represented , would have a strong voice . " The parliament was established as a result of the 1997 referendum that saw a 74 % vote in favour of devolving legislative powers to Scotland . Lamont was first elected as the Member of the Scottish Parliament ( MSP ) for Glasgow Pollok in 1999 . She held the seat in 2003 , when she faced a strong challenge from the Scottish Socialist Party leader Tommy Sheridan , and then again in 2007 and 2011 .
During her maiden speech on 17 May 1999 , Lamont was the first MSP to use Gaelic at a sitting of the Parliament . She served on a number of the Parliament 's committees during her first term in office , including the Equal Opportunities Committee , the Local Government Committee and the Social Justice Committee . She became convener of the Social Justice Committee in 2001 . In 2000 she became the first Labour MSP to rebel against the Labour @-@ led administration when she threatened to lead backbenchers in voting against a planned Scottish Executive attempt to block the Abolition of Poindings and Warrant Sales Bill , which had been introduced by Sheridan . The move resulted in the withdrawal of the amendment , and a crucial parliamentary vote in favour of the legislation . At a session of First Minister 's Questions in 2002 , she narrowly avoided becoming the first MSP to be ejected from the parliament after continuing to speak when Presiding Officer David Steel had told her to sit down . Steel felt her supplementary question about youth crime was too long , but the incident led to a heated parliamentary debate , and accusations from Lamont 's colleague , Labour 's Helen Eadie that the Presiding Officer was not treating male and female MSPs equally , an allegation he rejected .
= = Frontbench politics = =
Lamont was appointed convener of the Communities Committee in 2003 . In March 2004 the Committee endorsed a bill aimed at tackling antisocial behaviour , which included plans for parenting orders and the electronic tagging of youths under the age of 16 . First Minister Jack McConnell made her Deputy Minister for Communities in the Scottish Executive in October 2004 . In that post she was responsible for the launch of a radio and television advertising campaign aimed at tackling domestic abuse that aired over Christmas 2005 , and she expressed concerns over the level of discrimination faced by travellers and gypsies after the issue was highlighted in a 2005 Scottish Parliament report .
In November 2006 , Lamont was appointed Deputy Minister for Justice and oversaw reforms to Scotland 's Lower Courts system . She held the post until Labour was defeated at the 2007 election . McConnell appointed her as Labour 's spokesperson for Communities and Sport in his post @-@ election frontbench team , a role she retained in the shadow cabinet formed by his successor , Wendy Alexander , in September 2007 . Following Alexander 's decision to step down as leader of the Labour MSPs in June 2008 , and Cathy Jamieson 's subsequent resignation as her deputy , Lamont stood against fellow MSP Bill Butler for the position vacated by Jamieson . She was elected as deputy leader in September 2008 with 60 @.@ 16 percent of the vote , against 39 @.@ 82 percent for Butler . At the same time , Iain Gray was elected to lead the Labour group at Holyrood .
In addition to her deputy leadership role , Lamont was appointed Chief of Staff with special responsibility for Equalities . While in that post she gave her support to Scottish Government plans to introduce a Bill outlawing forced marriage , which was announced in September 2010 . In February 2011 , she criticised Scottish Conservative MSP and Justice Committee Convener , Bill Aitken after the Sunday Herald quoted him making a controversial statement about a rape victim , and later welcomed his subsequent resignation . As Gray 's deputy Lamont also represented Labour at First Minister 's Questions in his absence . At a session of First Minister 's Questions in October 2009 , she raised the issue of the Scottish Futures Trust with Deputy First Minister Nicola Sturgeon , asking whether the public body planned to spend any money on improving school infrastructure before the 2011 election .
= = Leader of the Scottish Labour Party = =
= = = Leadership election = = =
In the wake of Labour 's second defeat at the Scottish Parliament election of May 2011 , which saw the Scottish National Party ( SNP ) form its first majority government , Gray announced his intention to step down as leader of the Labour MSPs later that year . A review chaired by Jim Murphy and Sarah Boyack into the party 's structure in Scotland subsequently concluded that the next leader should lead the entire Scottish Labour Party rather than just its MSPs , as previous leaders had . Lamont declared her candidacy for the leadership election in September 2011 and launched her campaign on 7 November at Stirling University . She told delegates that Labour needed to reengage with the electorate if it wanted to govern again : " We must listen and learn , show humility and seek again to talk for and to people 's ambitions and concerns . Our real challenge is that we in Labour lost our way , lost our confidence and lost Scotland . "
Lamont 's opponents in the leadership race were the MP Tom Harris , and her fellow MSP Ken Macintosh , both of whom had also expressed a need for Labour to change if it was to win the next election . Harris 's campaign centred on the belief that Labour had to " [ re @-@ establish ] itself as the party of aspiration " , or it would risk becoming " an irrelevance " . McIntosh felt the party had focussed too heavily on its traditional support in the Central Belt while paying less attention to rural communities . He suggested increasing government help to tackle unemployment among young people , and wanted to nationalise rail and bus services .
The result of the election was announced on 17 December 2011 and saw Lamont secure an overall majority with 51 @.@ 77 % of the vote in the first round . Her closest rival was Macintosh with 40 @.@ 28 % , while Harris was third with 7 @.@ 95 % . Lamont also won majorities in two groups of Labour 's three @-@ tier electoral college system , securing the support of parliamentarians and affiliated bodies such as trade unions . Macintosh was backed by the majority of individual party members . In her acceptance speech , Lamont told party activists , " Together we will change the Scottish Labour Party and win the chance to serve the people of Scotland again and make Scotland all that we know it can be . " On the same day , MP Anas Sarwar was elected to the position of Deputy that Lamont had vacated .
= = = Shadow Cabinet = = =
Lamont began appointing members of her shadow cabinet on 19 December 2011 . Those given positions on her initial frontbench team include Macintosh ( Shadow Cabinet Secretary for Finance , Employment and Sustainable Growth ) , Hugh Henry ( Labour spokesman for Education and Lifelong Learning ) , Lewis Macdonald ( Shadow Justice Minister ) and Boyack ( Local Government and Planning ) . The post of Shadow Health Minister was given to Jackie Baillie , who had held the position previously . Gray was not included , as he had expressed a wish to take a break from frontline politics .
Lamont announced a major shakeup of the Labour frontbench team on 28 June 2013 . Gray returned to replace Macintosh as the party 's finance spokesman . Macdonald was appointed chief whip , and his previous role as Shadow Justice Minister was given to Graeme Pearson . Baillie was moved from Health to Social Justice and Welfare . Boyack kept her role in Local Government and Planning . Speaking about the reshuffle , Lamont said , " We have made a great deal of progress in the last 18 months but we have to keep moving forward . "
= = = First months in office = = =
Lamont gave her first post @-@ election interview to The Politics Show Scotland on 18 December 2011 , speaking of the " huge challenge " of rebuilding public trust in Scottish Labour after its election defeat of the previous May , and a general decline in support over the preceding decade . Attributing the party 's losses to its failure to engage with the electorate , she told the programme that Labour needed to speak up for the interests of the Scottish people , and accept more devolved powers for the Scottish Parliament . Attending her first session of First Minister 's Questions as Labour leader on 22 December 2011 , she addressed the issue of child neglect following the conviction of a Glasgow woman for the murder of her son and asking what lessons could be learned from the case .
In January 2012 , as the SNP Government prepared for a referendum on Scottish independence , she spoke out in defence of Scotland 's position in the United Kingdom after First Minister Salmond claimed that the country was not an equal partner in the union . Along with Ruth Davidson and Willie Rennie , the respective leaders of the Scottish Conservatives and the Scottish Liberal Democrats , and Deputy First Minister Sturgeon , Lamont added her signature to a February 2012 letter urging Glasgow City Council to decline an application by the Scottish Defence League to stage a march through the city . The group , an offshoot of the far @-@ right English Defence League , subsequently withdrew their application , and a " static " demonstration was held instead .
Lamont gave her first conference speech as party leader at Scottish Labour 's conference in March 2012 , setting out an agenda for rebuilding confidence in the party . Later the same month she welcomed the passing of the Scotland Bill , which devolved further powers to Scotland in accordance with the recommendations of the Calman Commission , praising it as " an important development of devolution " . In May 2012 she participated in the Scottish Parliament debate paying tribute to Queen Elizabeth as the UK celebrated her Diamond Jubilee . Lamont commented , " 60 years in the one job is good going – I 've been in this one for just six months and some days , I have to say , it feels like 60 years – so we recognise the scale of the achievement of the particular , very strong woman . " Lamont was a guest on the 7 June 2012 edition of the BBC 's political debate programme Question Time .
= = = Standing in the polls = = =
A poll conducted by Ipsos MORI in December 2011 as Lamont took control of Scottish Labour indicated that the party had an approval rating of 26 % , almost half that of the Scottish National Party with 51 % . A survey by the same organisation in June 2012 showed an improvement for Labour , with 32 % against the Nationalists ' 45 % . The same poll indicated a personal approval rating for Lamont of 9 % , compared to 13 % for Salmond . A poll conducted by Ipsos MORI on behalf of STV in September 2013 indicated that 37 % of respondents were satisfied with Labour 's performance compared to 41 % for the SNP . That survey found that Lamont had a personal approval rating of + 6 % , against + 8 % for Salmond . Another Ipsos MORI poll for STV in December 2013 showed Labour on 34 % with 36 % for the SNP , while Lamont had overtaken Salmond in terms of personal approval with + 9 for her compared to + 7 for the First Minister .
A poll on the issue of Scottish independence conducted by TNS @-@ BMRB in December 2013 gave Lamont an approval rating of 6 % among women and 8 % among men , compared with 22 % and 30 % respectively for Salmond . 41 % of respondents to that survey were unaware of her role as Scottish Labour leader , a figure rising to 62 % among those aged 16 – 34 .
= = = Local elections and by @-@ elections = = =
Lamont launched Labour 's 2012 local election campaign in Edinburgh on 17 April 2012 , setting out policies for creating employment and training opportunities as well as improvements to education and childcare . Claiming that the SNP Government had passed on 89 percent of the spending cuts imposed by the UK Government , she compared the Nationalists to the businessman criticised for his role in the financial collapse of Glasgow Rangers Football Club , saying , " Putting the SNP in charge of a council is like putting Craig Whyte in charge of your tax return . " Retaining control of Glasgow City Council , where Labour was facing a strong challenge from the SNP , was another of the party 's key objectives . After the polls , political academic John Curtice , writing for The Guardian , observed that Lamont " has undoubtedly done enough to dispel doubts about whether she was the right woman for the job " .
The 2013 Dunfermline by @-@ election was triggered by the resignation of the SNP 's Bill Walker in the wake of his conviction on several accounts of domestic abuse . On the eve of the poll , Alan Cochrane of The Daily Telegraph described it as an election Labour could not afford to lose because , " For [ Lamont 's ] personal prestige , her candidate simply must win . " Labour won the seat with a swing of 7 percent from the SNP and a majority of 2 @,@ 873 . Lamont said that the result reflected " the progress we 've made " , but Curtice said that if the results were repeated across Scotland , the SNP would still be the majority party at the next election .
Labour have also increased their support at other by @-@ elections . At the 2013 Aberdeen Donside by @-@ election in June , held after the death of the SNP 's Brian Adam , Labour reduced the SNP majority from 7 @,@ 789 to 2 @,@ 025 . The 2014 Cowdenbeath by @-@ election was held following the death of Labour MSP Helen Eadie . The campaign was fought on issues such as education , employment and care for the elderly , and saw Labour increase their share of the vote , with an 11 @.@ 25 percent swing from the SNP and a majority of 5 @,@ 488 .
= = = Scottish independence and enhanced devolution = = =
Lamont was a prominent figure in the Better Together Campaign , the cross @-@ party political movement founded to keep Scotland as part of the United Kingdom following the SNP 's announcement of a referendum on Scottish independence in 2014 . She was outspoken in her opposition to Scottish independence , using a keynote speech at UK Labour 's 2013 conference in Brighton to accuse the SNP of nurturing hostility between Scotland and the rest of the UK , and describing nationalism as a " virus that has affected so many nations and done so much harm " . Lamont is in favour of greater devolved powers for the Scottish Parliament , and established a Commission to look at how this can be achieved .
= = = = 2014 referendum and Better Together campaign = = = =
After taking office as Labour leader in December 2011 , Lamont urged First Minister Salmond to set a date for the referendum , arguing in her leadership acceptance speech that uncertainty over the referendum 's timeline was having a negative impact on Scotland . On 10 January 2012 Salmond announced late 2014 as his preferred time for a referendum . The Scottish Government confirmed the referendum question on 25 January 2012 , and announced on 21 March 2013 that the referendum would be held on 18 September 2014 . Lamont told Scottish Labour 's 2012 annual conference she wanted her party 's campaign to be one of " collective leadership " against independence , a strategy which she envisaged would become a cross @-@ party movement arguing the case for keeping Scotland in the UK . At the Scottish Conservative Party conference a few weeks later , party leader Ruth Davidson called for Lamont and her opponents to work together . The Better Together Campaign , fronted by former UK Government minister Alistair Darling , was launched at an event attended by Lamont and other senior Scottish political figures at Edinburgh 's Napier University on 25 June 2012 . Along with former British Prime Minister Gordon Brown and other senior Scottish Labour figures , Lamont launched the party 's own pro @-@ union campaign , United with Labour in May 2013 . The Scottish Government published Scotland 's Future , a white paper setting out its vision for an independent Scotland , on 26 November 2013 . Lamont dismissed it as " 670 pages of assertion and uncertainty " . Addressing the Shadow Cabinet of UK Labour leader Ed Miliband on 28 January 2014 , Lamont warned that Scots could vote for independence if they believed Labour was unlikely to win the 2015 UK general election .
Opinion polls showed an increase in support for the Yes campaign as the referendum approached . On 8 September 2014 , Gordon Brown set out plans for greater devolved powers for Holyrood in the event of a No vote . Lamont joined Ruth Davidson and Willie Rennie in giving her backing to the proposals the following day , but Salmond dismissed them as " a retreading , a repackaging , a re @-@ timetabling " of previous promises . Prime Minister David Cameron and Opposition leader Ed Miliband cancelled their appearance at Prime Minister 's Questions to travel to Scotland to campaign for a No vote . On 18 September , Scotland voted to reject independence with a majority of 2 @,@ 001 @,@ 926 to 1 @,@ 617 @,@ 989 . Salmond announced his intention to resign as First Minister and SNP leader on 19 September , shortly after the result of the referendum was confirmed . Lamont paid tribute to him , describing him as " an immense figure in Scottish political history " . Sturgeon was chosen to succeed Salmond as SNP leader on 15 October .
= = = = Labour 's Commission on devolution = = = =
At the Scottish Labour Party Conference in March 2012 , Lamont announced her intention to establish a Commission to examine the prospect of a fully devolved Scottish Parliament . This would give the Scottish Government the power to make decisions on policies relating to issues such as welfare benefits , income tax and corporation tax , effectively making it a fully self @-@ governing region of the United Kingdom . The Commission , chaired by Lamont and including politicians , academics and trade union members , met for the first time in October 2012 . It published an interim report in April 2013 , recommending that Scotland have autonomy over income tax , but leaving decisions on corporation tax and welfare to the UK Parliament . But party members opposed it , warning that the plans could threaten the Barnett formula , the financial mechanism under which Scotland receives an annual average of £ 1 @,@ 600 per head more in UK Government spending than does the rest of the UK . Ian Davidson , chair of the House of Commons Scottish Affairs Select Committee said the proposals could affect spending in poorer areas . Macintosh subsequently warned that devolving responsibility for income tax would reduce the Scottish tax base and result in independence by default , a claim that Guy Lodge and Alan Trench of the Institute for Public Policy Research called " highly disingenuous " because income tax makes up only 23 % of the taxes collected by the UK Government .
The Commission 's final report , Powers for a Purpose was published on 18 March 2014 , setting out recommendations that would be implemented if Scotland voted no in the referendum , and Labour were elected in 2015 . The proposals included allowing the Scottish Parliament to raise as much as 40 % of its annual revenue , and giving it greater leeway to vary income tax rates from those in the rest of the UK . The plans would build on the powers devolved under the 2012 Scotland Act , which legislated for an increase in responsibility over taxation from 2016 , in exchange for a 10 % reduction in the grant received from Westminster . The Commission also recommended devolving responsibility in some other fiscal areas , such as the payment of Housing Benefit and the possible levy of a mansion tax in Scotland , but decided against taking charge of other financial matters , including state pensions , National Insurance and tariffs on North Sea oil . Other proposals were to retain the Barnett formula , give Scotland control over its railways , and transfer authority for dissolving parliament and holding elections from Westminster to Holyrood . Lamont described the proposals as " the right balance between fiscal accountability and insuring us against risk " . Ben Thomson , chair of the cross @-@ party Devo Plus think tank argued the plans were " just tinkering with the current system " and would allow the SNP to " say that the unionist parties aren 't interested in real devolution " . Deputy First Minister Sturgeon welcomed the prospect of increased devolution , but said a vote for independence was the only way to ensure greater powers for Scotland as " there [ was ] no guarantee that any new powers would be delivered in the event of a no vote " . The proposals were subsequently endorsed by delegates at Scottish Labour 's 2014 party conference .
= = = Free public services debate = = =
In September 2012 , Lamont announced a policy review of Scotland 's universal benefits , signalling that a future Labour administration would reverse many of the free services introduced since power was devolved to Scotland . Launching the review at an address to party delegates in Edinburgh , she questioned whether services such as prescriptions and tuition fees — which are free in Scotland — should continue to be available to all , regardless of income , and suggested the situation was unsustainable : " I believe our resources must go to those in greatest need ... Salmond 's most cynical trick was to make people believe that more was free , when the poorest are paying for the tax breaks for the rich ... Scotland cannot be the only something @-@ for @-@ nothing country in the world . "
The speech was condemned by the SNP , which branded it as " Blairite " , while deputy party leader Sturgeon called the strategy " disastrous " . The approach was also questioned by Richard Seymour of The Guardian , who suggested it could damage Labour 's electoral appeal : " Outside Scotland , this policy would merely be a gift to the Tories , by corroborating their arguments for welfare cuts . In Scotland , it reminds ex @-@ Labour voters why they defected to the SNP : as a defensive shield against such policies . " Owen Jones of The Independent suggested it was " a baffling political strategy to outflank the SNP from the right " .
Lamont returned to the issue of universal tuition fees again in a speech in Glasgow on 17 December 2012 to mark the first anniversary of her election as Labour leader . She suggested that the Graduate Endowment , a system abolished by the SNP Government , could be reinstated if Labour were re @-@ elected at the next Scottish parliamentary election . Ian Grant , a retired college principal , welcomed her comments as " courageous " , but Jamie Kinlochan , a member of the National Union of Students Scotland expressed concerns that students would be discouraged by extra financial costs on top of loans and other expenses .
In January 2014 , Lamont and Scottish Labour faced criticism after the party voted against an SNP motion that included the introduction of free school meals for pupils in their first three years of primary education , and a commitment to childcare for pre @-@ school children . The motion also contained measures that would only be implemented in the event of Scottish independence , something Labour said it could not support . Recalling her experience of teaching underprivileged children , Lamont told the parliament that free school meals would not be her priority , and tabled an unsuccessful amendment calling for greater childcare provisions instead . The motion was later passed by a majority of 67 – 46 . In The Daily Telegraph , Cochrane wrote that the strategy had allowed the SNP to claim Labour opposed the principle of free school meals because they " fell for a bit of skulduggery that Ms Lamont and her business managers should have seen coming a mile off " .
= = = Falkirk candidate selection row and Grangemouth dispute = = =
In 2013 , Labour and Police Scotland launched separate investigations into claims that officials of the Unite union had signed their members up to Labour to get their preferred candidate adopted to represent the party in the Falkirk constituency . The union officials were later cleared of any wrongdoing . It was later claimed that key evidence thought to have been retracted had not been withdrawn , prompting several Falkirk councillors to urge Miliband to publish details of the party 's internal inquiry or to hold a fresh investigation . On the 4 November edition of Good Morning Scotland , Lamont said there was a case for a fresh inquiry , but that Labour does not publish details of its internal investigations . Later the same day , Labour said that it would not be reopening the investigation . Miliband subsequently said that a new investigation was unnecessary . On 8 December the former MSP Karen Whitefield was selected to contest the seat . The report into Labour 's inquiry was leaked to the media in February 2014 , and concluded there was " no doubt " that Unite had attempted to manipulate the selection process .
In October 2013 Lamont faced criticism for her reaction to an industrial dispute at the Grangemouth Oil Refinery . Ineos , the company that operates the plant , had stated that the refinery was making financial losses , and had proposed a survival plan requiring employees to accept worse employment terms , notably changes in work rules and less generous pensions ; this the employees rejected . The company mothballed the plant , threatening to close it if the terms were not accepted . Lamont urged Ineos to withdraw its conditions and for both sides to hold talks , while Salmond tried to negotiate an agreement . Union officials eventually agreed not to call a strike for at least three years , and the plant reopened . The Ineos chairman , Calum MacLean , described Lamont 's support for the trade unions during the dispute as " deeply irresponsible " , while Salmond claimed she had been silent throughout the disagreement . Writing for the Dunfermline Press , Natalie McGarry suggested that while the Labour leader 's silence probably had much to do with the continuing Falkirk selection row , ultimately she was " found wanting " .
= = = Resignation = = =
Scotland voted by a small majority against independence , but the referendum returned " Yes " votes in some traditional Labour strongholds , particularly Glasgow and North Lanarkshire , prompting media speculation about Lamont 's future as the party 's leader . Shortly after the referendum , a Daily Mail article claimed that Shadow International Development Secretary Jim Murphy was being lined up to take over from her , while The Herald reported that party delegates concerned about the results had started to view Murphy as a possible successor . Lamont had attempted to quash rumours of a leadership challenge at the 25 September 2014 session of First Minister 's Questions , the first of the post @-@ referendum era . " When the First Minister is long gone I will still be doing my job on behalf of the people of Scotland . " Her position remained uncertain . Alan Cochrane wrote that many Labour MPs in Scotland feared losing their seats at the 2015 general election without a change of leadership . In October , two former first ministers voiced their concern about the direction of the party . McConnell expressed fears that Labour would experience increased difficulty in regaining the confidence of Scottish voters following the election of Sturgeon as SNP leader , and described the party as " a political machine that is angry about what has happened in Scotland in the recent past " . Shortly afterwards , his predecessor , Henry McLeish suggested Labour had ceded " enormous ground to the SNP unnecessarily " because its supporters no longer understood " what the party stands for " . Margaret Curran , the Shadow Secretary of State for Scotland , said that although the party was changing , it needed to reconnect with its " socialist principles " .
Lamont 's resignation as Labour leader was reported by media outlets on the evening of 24 October 2014 , following the publication of an interview with the Daily Record in which she announced her intention to step down with immediate effect . She told the newspaper that she was resigning because Labour 's Westminster leadership had undermined her attempts to reform the party in Scotland , and treated Scottish Labour “ like a branch office of London . ” . She described some London @-@ based colleagues as " dinosaurs " unable to understand that " Scotland has changed forever " following the referendum . Lamont was also angry that she had not been consulted on some matters , such as a decision by the UK leadership to replace Ian Price as Scottish Labour 's General Secretary . In her letter of resignation , submitted to Scottish Labour Party Chairman Jamie Glackin , Lamont accused " senior members of the party " of questioning her role and said that she was taking herself " out of the equation " to allow Scottish Labour to have a discussion about the best way forward . Anas Sarwar became Labour 's acting leader . On 26 October , following a meeting of the party 's executive committee , he outlined the details of a leadership election , which would be held using the three @-@ tier electoral college , and conclude with the announcement of a new leader on 13 December . Murphy , Boyack and Neil Findlay stood in the subsequent contest , with Murphy elected as Lamont 's successor . Lamont did not vote for Murphy in the election , but instead chose to back his rivals .
Miliband paid tribute to Lamont shortly after she announced that she intended to relinquish the leadership role , saying she had " led the Scottish Labour Party with determination " . McLeish and McConnell both indicated that Lamont 's sudden departure following weeks of speculation could have implications for Miliband 's leadership . McLeish said that Miliband 's chance of becoming Prime Minister could be affected if Labour returned fewer Scottish MPs in 2015 , something he called a problem of “ historic , epic proportions ” , while McConnell said that he was " very , very angry " and suggested Miliband had questions to answer about the circumstances surrounding the resignation . Salmond echoed the views of his predecessor , arguing that Miliband " should be answering questions about why Labour in Scotland is run as an extension of his Westminster office , and why he has effectively forced the resignation of a Labour leader in Scotland . " Ed Balls , the Shadow Chancellor , rejected Lamont 's claims about UK Labour 's treatment of its Scottish counterpart . Ian Davidson claimed that supporters of Murphy , who subsequently announced his intention to stand in the leadership contest to succeed Lamont , had conducted a whispering campaign against her . He further suggested that those on the right of the party had resented her election as leader and ignored her , treating her as a " wee lassie " .
= = Post leadership = =
Labour went on to suffer significant losses , both in the 2015 UK general election , and the 2016 Scottish Parliament election . In Glasgow , where the party had traditionally enjoyed strong support , both elections produced a result in which every Labour held constituency was lost to the SNP , while in 2016 the Conservatives overtook Labour as the second largest party at Holyrood . Lamont lost her Glasgow Pollok seat to the SNP 's Humza Yousaf , who secured it with a majority of 6 @,@ 484 , but she was one of four Labour candidates elected to the Glasgow regional list , where she was joined by Sarwar , James Kelly and Pauline McNeill . In response to the results , Lamont suggested Labour needed to understand the reasons behind it , and suggested that the 2014 referendum could be partially responsible . " A bit of it , I think , is still the referendum , the Yes / No is the divide in people ’ s minds rather than the politics of taxation , investing in public services against a low tax economy and so on . "
= = Politics and views = =
Although she has been criticised by SNP politicians for taking a " Blairite " stance on public services , The Guardian 's Peter Hetherington has described Lamont as " rooted to older [ Labour ] party values , with a deep commitment to fairness " . Her politics were heavily influenced by her inner city upbringing and her career in teaching . Her childhood experience was something she addressed in an emotional speech to delegates at the 2013 Scottish Labour Party Conference : " I saw in my upbringing the beauty of our land and felt both the warmth of community and the harshness and brutality at times of trying to make a living here . I had the privilege to grow up in a family of love , but one where my mother always reminded me that what we ate , what we wore , where we lived , was all the product of the sweat of my father 's brow earned at sea . And I respected that . "
Throughout her career , Lamont has campaigned on issues such as equality and violence against women . Her profile on the Scottish Parliament website lists her political interests as being focussed on tackling poverty , women 's rights and disability issues . She credits Curran , and the work of author Erin Pizzey for helping to broaden her understanding of women 's issues . On 12 March 2014 , she led a Scottish Parliament debate in which she discussed the increased opportunities available for women in Scotland , while highlighting issues she felt still needed to be addressed . At First Minister 's Questions she often highlighted personal stories of members of the public , believing them to bring an element of real life into the Parliament . Along with Holyrood 's other opposition leaders , Lamont signed the Equality Network 's Equal Marriage Pledge in favour of legalising same @-@ sex marriage in January 2012 , and voted in favour of the Marriage and Civil Partnership Bill on 4 February 2014 . As someone with a Gaelic background , she has spoken of her belief in the importance of providing support for the language , feeling it has an economic benefit for Scotland . On the death of Nelson Mandela in December 2013 , Lamont joined other public figures in paying tribute to him , describing the former South African President as " the towering figure of my life since I became politically aware " .
Lamont has said that Labour lost the 2011 Scottish Parliament election because the party lost its direction , and that having failed to recognise the 2007 result as a defeat , it picked up the wrong signals from the 2010 general election that saw a strong Scottish Labour vote at Westminster . In February 2012 she told the Times Educational Supplement , " We misread the 2010 ( general ) election , thinking it was confirmation that Scotland was a Labour country – it was probably confirmation that Scotland was still anti @-@ Tory . There 's an issue about rebuilding trust , and our confidence in the values that brought us into politics . " She told delegates at her party 's 2012 Scottish conference that it was time for them to stop apologising for past mistakes . " We know what happened last May – we looked tired and complacent and we got the kind of beating we deserved . But now , we need to start building the kind of Scottish Labour Party which Scotland deserves and which Scotland needs . "
In an interview with Scotland on Sunday in September 2013 , Lamont signalled her support for the creation of a land tax as part of reforms to local taxation , suggesting that the council tax freeze introduced by the SNP had resulted in a funding shortfall . At the 2014 Scottish Trades Union Congress annual conference , Lamont outlined plans to establish a Workers ' Charter , saying she would work with the SNP government to achieve this .
= = Media image = =
After her inaugural session of First Minister 's Questions on 22 December 2011 , the BBC 's Brian Taylor called Lamont 's performance " confident , direct and salient " . Cochrane has suggested that she emerged as the prevailing force at the weekly debates with Salmond , writing in May 2013 , " it 's been obvious for some time to those of us in the cheap seats that Johann Lamont has more than got his measure . " Peter Hetherington of The Guardian quotes an unnamed political observer at Holyrood who said , " She 's getting under [ Salmond 's ] skin like no predecessor . " Writing for The Scotsman as Scottish Labour gathered for its conference in April 2013 , Andrew Whitaker felt that Lamont 's tenure as party leader had been successful , citing Labour 's local election achievements and her weekly exchanges with Salmond at First Minister 's Questions as examples : " Ms Lamont has made Labour at Holyrood respectable again and less of the laughing stock than the ravaged party that emerged from heavy defeat in 2011 . "
Her media appearances were criticised for their awkwardness . In September 2012 , Richard Seymour of The Guardian described how she " fluffed her lines " during an interview with STV reporter Bernard Ponsonby following her announcement of Labour 's public service policy review . Peter Ross of The Scotsman cites another interview , in which she was repeatedly questioned about her views on the UK Trident programme . But he describes her in person as " articulate , reflective , self @-@ deprecating and at times very funny . It would be unfair to condemn her for not being a sound @-@ bite politician ; she ought to be applauded for it , but the trouble is we live in a sound @-@ bite age . " Mandy Rhodes of Holyrood magazine writes , " despite a reputation as being a bit of a fierce one , [ Lamont ] is actually , really rather entertaining , engaging and wonderfully self @-@ deprecating . " The BBC 's Marianne Taylor describes Lamont as " Quietly spoken and more humorous in person than she comes across on television " .
Ian Swanson of The Scotsman has described her as " dour but passionate " . Lamont 's low public recognition indicated by the December 2013 TNS BMRB poll led Herald columnist Alison Rowat to label her " the invisible woman of the independence debate " , and to suggest she needed to raise her profile . Impressionist Jonathan Watson satirised Lamont in the 2013 edition of BBC Scotland 's annual Hogmanay comedy show Only an Excuse ? , featuring a sketch in which she debates Scottish independence with Salmond .
= = Awards = =
Lamont 's decision to question the status quo over the availability of free public services for all earned her the Political Impact of the Year award at the 2012 Herald Scottish Politician of the Year Awards . She was also nominated for Politician of the Year at the same ceremony , but beaten by Deputy First Minister Sturgeon . At the 2013 awards , she was the winner of the Donald Dewar Debater of the Year award for her weekly exchanges with Salmond at First Minister 's Questions .
= = Personal life = =
Lamont is married to Archie Graham , deputy leader of Glasgow City Council and Labour councillor for Langside ward . They have two children . She is a fan of the television soap Coronation Street and likes to keep fit by walking , jogging and dancing . As a keen runner , she has completed several long distance races .
= Interest rate parity =
Interest rate parity is a no @-@ arbitrage condition representing an equilibrium state under which investors will be indifferent to interest rates available on bank deposits in two countries . The fact that this condition does not always hold allows for potential opportunities to earn riskless profits from covered interest arbitrage . Two assumptions central to interest rate parity are capital mobility and perfect substitutability of domestic and foreign assets . Given foreign exchange market equilibrium , the interest rate parity condition implies that the expected return on domestic assets will equal the exchange rate @-@ adjusted expected return on foreign currency assets . Investors then cannot earn arbitrage profits by borrowing in a country with a lower interest rate , exchanging for foreign currency , and investing in a foreign country with a higher interest rate , due to gains or losses from exchanging back to their domestic currency at maturity . Interest rate parity takes on two distinctive forms : uncovered interest rate parity refers to the parity condition in which exposure to foreign exchange risk ( unanticipated changes in exchange rates ) is uninhibited , whereas covered interest rate parity refers to the condition in which a forward contract has been used to cover ( eliminate exposure to ) exchange rate risk . Each form of the parity condition demonstrates a unique relationship with implications for the forecasting of future exchange rates : the forward exchange rate and the future spot exchange rate .
Economists have found empirical evidence that covered interest rate parity generally holds , though not with precision due to the effects of various risks , costs , taxation , and ultimate differences in liquidity . When both covered and uncovered interest rate parity hold , they expose a relationship suggesting that the forward rate is an unbiased predictor of the future spot rate . This relationship can be employed to test whether uncovered interest rate parity holds , for which economists have found mixed results . When uncovered interest rate parity and purchasing power parity hold together , they illuminate a relationship named real interest rate parity , which suggests that expected real interest rates represent expected adjustments in the real exchange rate . This relationship generally holds strongly over longer terms and among emerging market countries .
= = Assumptions = =
Interest rate parity rests on certain assumptions , the first being that capital is mobile - investors can readily exchange domestic assets for foreign assets . The second assumption is that assets have perfect substitutability , following from their similarities in riskiness and liquidity . Given capital mobility and perfect substitutability , investors would be expected to hold those assets offering greater returns , be they domestic or foreign assets . However , both domestic and foreign assets are held by investors . Therefore , it must be true that no difference can exist between the returns on domestic assets and the returns on foreign assets . That is not to say that domestic investors and foreign investors will earn equivalent returns , but that a single investor on any given side would expect to earn equivalent returns from either investment decision .
= = Uncovered interest rate parity = =
When the no @-@ arbitrage condition is satisfied without the use of a forward contract to hedge against exposure to exchange rate risk , interest rate parity is said to be uncovered . Risk @-@ neutral investors will be indifferent among the available interest rates in two countries because the exchange rate between those countries is expected to adjust such that the dollar return on dollar deposits is equal to the dollar return on euro deposits , thereby eliminating the potential for uncovered interest arbitrage profits . Uncovered interest rate parity helps explain the determination of the spot exchange rate . The following equation represents uncovered interest rate parity .
<formula>
where
<formula> is the expected future spot exchange rate at time t + k
k is the number of periods into the future from time t
St is the current spot exchange rate at time t
i $ is the interest rate in one country ( for example , the United States )
ic is the interest rate in another country or currency area ( for example , the Eurozone )
The dollar return on dollar deposits , <formula> , is shown to be equal to the dollar return on euro deposits , <formula> .
= = = Approximation = = =
Uncovered interest rate parity asserts that an investor with dollar deposits will earn the interest rate available on dollar deposits , while an investor holding euro deposits will earn the interest rate available in the eurozone , but also a potential gain or loss on euros depending on the rate of appreciation or depreciation of the euro against the dollar . Economists have extrapolated a useful approximation of uncovered interest rate parity that follows intuitively from these assumptions . If uncovered interest rate parity holds , such that an investor is indifferent between dollar versus euro deposits , then any excess return on euro deposits must be offset by some expected loss from depreciation of the euro against the dollar . Conversely , some shortfall in return on euro deposits must be offset by some expected gain from appreciation of the euro against the dollar . The following equation represents the uncovered interest rate parity approximation .
<formula>
where
<formula> is the change in the expected future spot exchange rate
<formula> is the expected rate of depreciation of the dollar
A more universal way of stating the approximation is " the home interest rate equals the foreign interest rate plus the expected rate of depreciation of the home currency . "
= = Covered interest rate parity = =
When the no @-@ arbitrage condition is satisfied with the use of a forward contract to hedge against exposure to exchange rate risk , interest rate parity is said to be covered . Investors will still be indifferent among the available interest rates in two countries because the forward exchange rate sustains equilibrium such that the dollar return on dollar deposits is equal to the dollar return on foreign deposit , thereby eliminating the potential for covered interest arbitrage profits . Furthermore , covered interest rate parity helps explain the determination of the forward exchange rate . The following equation represents covered interest rate parity .
<formula>
where
<formula> is the forward exchange rate at time t
The dollar return on dollar deposits , <formula> , is shown to be equal to the dollar return on euro deposits , <formula> .
= = Empirical evidence = =
Covered interest rate parity ( CIRP ) is found to hold when there is open capital mobility and limited capital controls , and this finding is confirmed for all currencies freely traded in the present @-@ day . One such example is when the United Kingdom and Germany abolished capital controls between 1979 and 1981 . Maurice Obstfeld and Alan Taylor calculated hypothetical profits as implied by the expression of a potential inequality in the CIRP equation ( meaning a difference in returns on domestic versus foreign assets ) during the 1960s and 1970s , which would have constituted arbitrage opportunities if not for the prevalence of capital controls . However , given financial liberalization and resulting capital mobility , arbitrage temporarily became possible until equilibrium was restored . Since the abolition of capital controls in the United Kingdom and Germany , potential arbitrage profits have been near zero . Factoring in transaction costs arising from fees and other regulations , arbitrage opportunities are fleeting or nonexistent when such costs exceed deviations from parity . While CIRP generally holds , it does not hold with precision due to the presence of transaction costs , political risks , tax implications for interest earnings versus gains from foreign exchange , and differences in the liquidity of domestic versus foreign assets . Researchers found evidence that significant deviations from CIRP during the onset of the global financial crisis in 2007 and 2008 were driven by concerns over risk posed by counter parties to banks and financial institutions in Europe and the US in the foreign exchange swap market . The European Central Bank 's efforts to provide US dollar liquidity in the foreign exchange swap market , along with similar efforts by the Federal Reserve , had a moderating impact on CIRP deviations between the dollar and the euro . Such a scenario was found to be reminiscent of deviations from CIRP during the 1990s driven by struggling Japanese banks which looked toward foreign exchange swap markets to try and acquire dollars to bolster their creditworthiness .
When both covered and uncovered interest rate parity ( UIRP ) hold , such a condition sheds light on a noteworthy relationship between the forward and expected future spot exchange rates , as demonstrated below .
<formula>
<formula>
Dividing the equation for UIRP by the equation for CIRP yields the following equation :
<formula>
which can be rewritten as :
<formula>
This equation represents the unbiasedness hypothesis , which states that the forward exchange rate is an unbiased predictor of the future spot exchange rate . Given strong evidence that CIRP holds , the forward rate unbiasedness hypothesis can serve as a test to determine whether UIRP holds ( in order for the forward rate and spot rate to be equal , both CIRP and UIRP conditions must hold ) . Evidence for the validity and accuracy of the unbiasedness hypothesis , particularly evidence for cointegration between the forward rate and future spot rate , is mixed as researchers have published numerous papers demonstrating both empirical support and empirical failure of the hypothesis .
UIRP is found to have some empirical support in tests for correlation between expected rates of currency depreciation and the forward premium or discount . Evidence suggests that whether UIRP holds depends on the currency examined , and deviations from UIRP have been found to be less substantial when examining longer time horizons . Some studies of monetary policy have offered explanations for why UIRP fails empirically . Researchers demonstrated that if a central bank manages interest rate spreads in strong response to the previous period 's spreads , that interest rate spreads had negative coefficients in regression tests of UIRP . Another study which set up a model wherein the central bank 's monetary policy responds to exogenous shocks , that the central bank 's smoothing of interest rates can explain empirical failures of UIRP . A study of central bank interventions on the US dollar and Deutsche mark found only limited evidence of any substantial effect on deviations from UIRP . UIRP has been found to hold over very small spans of time ( covering only a number of hours ) with a high frequency of bilateral exchange rate data . Tests of UIRP for economies experiencing institutional regime changes , using monthly exchange rate data for the US dollar versus the Deutsche mark and the Spanish peseta versus the British pound , have found some evidence that UIRP held when US and German regime changes were volatile , and held between Spain and the United Kingdom particularly after Spain joined the European Union in 1986 and began liberalizing capital mobility .
= = Real interest rate parity = =
When both UIRP ( particularly in its approximation form ) and purchasing power parity ( PPP ) hold , the two parity conditions together reveal a relationship among expected real interest rates , wherein changes in expected real interest rates reflect expected changes in the real exchange rate . This condition is known as real interest rate parity ( RIRP ) and is related to the international Fisher effect . The following equations demonstrate how to derive the RIRP equation .
<formula>
<formula>
where
<formula> represents inflation
If the above conditions hold , then they can be combined and rearranged as the following :
<formula>
RIRP rests on several assumptions , including efficient markets , no country risk premia , and zero change in the expected real exchange rate . The parity condition suggests that real interest rates will equalize between countries and that capital mobility will result in capital flows that eliminate opportunities for arbitrage . There exists strong evidence that RIRP holds tightly among emerging markets in Asia and also Japan . The half @-@ life period of deviations from RIRP have been examined by researchers and found to be roughly six or seven months , but between two and three months for certain countries . Such variation in the half @-@ lives of deviations may be reflective of differences in the degree of financial integration among the country groups analyzed . RIRP does not hold over short time horizons , but empirical evidence has demonstrated that it generally holds well across long time horizons of five to ten years .
= Born Again ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Born Again " is the twenty @-@ second episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on April 22 , 1994 . " Born Again " was written by Howard Gordon and Alex Gansa , and directed by Jerrold Freedman . The episode featured guest appearances by Brian Markinson and Maggie Wheeler . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Born Again " earned a Nielsen household rating of 8 @.@ 2 , being watched by 7 @.@ 7 million households in its initial broadcast , and received mixed reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . When Mulder and Scully are called to New York to investigate the death of a police officer , they come to believe that a young girl present at the incident may be the reincarnation of another officer murdered years earlier .
Several crew members disliked the episode , most notably writer Howard Gordon and David Duchovny . Gordon felt that the episode was too similar to the other episodes that had been aired , whereas Duchovny bluntly stated that he " detested " the episode .
= = Plot = =
In Buffalo , New York , police detective Sharon Lazard finds a little girl , Michelle Bishop , alone in an alley . Lazard takes the seemingly lost girl into her precinct , and leaves her alone to be interviewed by another detective , Rudolph Barbala . However , moments later , Barbala is jettisoned through a window , falling to his death .
Lazard turns to Fox Mulder and Dana Scully for help . She tells them of Michelle 's claims that a man had attacked Barbala , even though she was the only person in the room when the detective was killed . The agents have Michelle describe the alleged attacker for a computerized facial composite ; the computer seemingly glitches , displaying a face that Michelle identifies as the killer . The composite matches that of a Detective Charlie Morris — who died nine years previously in an apparent gangland hit . The agents speak to Michelle 's psychiatrist , Dr. Braun , who tells them that she habitually mutilated dolls in a uniform manner during their sessions together , removing the same eye and arm each time ; Mulder realizes that these mutilations match the circumstances of Morris ' death .
The agents interview Barbala 's partner , Tony Fiore , who attributes Morris ' death to a triad gang they had been investigating together . Later that day , Fiore meets with a Leon Felder , and the two discuss claiming a large sum of money from a safety deposit box , but agree that they haven 't waited the ten years they had intended to , ominously discussing that they are the last two claimants left . That night , Felder gets off a bus , but his tie catches in the door as it drives off . The driver tries to brake , but the bus inexplicably continues to accelerate , strangling Felder as Michelle watches from inside the bus .
Investigating further , Mulder and Scully learn that Fiore , Barbala , Felder and Morris had all worked closely together in the past . They also find that Fiore 's wife Anita keeps a collection of origami animals made by her first husband — Charlie Morris . Anita tells the agents that Fiore hasn 't returned home from the previous night ; meanwhile , the agents find that pages are missing from the file on Morris ' murder , and Fiore was the last one to have checked the file out .
Michelle undergoes a session of regression hypnosis , where she claims to be twenty @-@ four years old . She suddenly starts screaming in panic about someone trying to kill her , and the session is ended . Mulder reviews the video of the session , and is convinced that the girl is the reincarnation of Morris , having been conceived right around the time the detective was murdered . The tape contains a brief section of static noise just before Michelle begins screaming , which Mulder has an expert clean up . The noise is found to contain a grainy image of what appears to be a fish tank ornament of a man in an atmospheric diving suit . Meanwhile , Scully has tracked down Morris ' autopsy findings , which show the presence of salt water in his respiratory tract , indicating he died of drowning . The agents realise from these findings that Morris was drowned in the exotic fish tank in Fiore 's house .
Rushing to Fiore 's house , Mulder and Scully find Michelle using telekinetic powers to try to kill Fiore . They prevent her from doing so , and Fiore confesses that he , Felder and Barbala had stolen a large sum of money , intending to keep it safe for ten years before claiming it . Morris learned of their plan and threatened to report on them , and was consequently killed to silence him . However , Fiore maintains that he never wanted to see Morris dead and only wanted to take care of Anita after his death . Michelle uses her powers to destroy the fish @-@ tank , but spares Fiore after hearing pleas from Anita not to hurt him . Later , Fiore pleads guilty to charges of murder and grand larceny , whilst Michelle seemingly recovers and goes on to become a normal little girl .
= = Production = =
Writer Howard Gordon was disappointed with the episode , finding it too similar to other series being aired around the same time . He also believed that the episode seemed " a little too cop show @-@ y " overall , stating that he did not think it " was very well executed on any front " . David Duchovny also reportedly " detested " the episode , despite a guest appearance by his then @-@ girlfriend Maggie Wheeler .
Executive producer R. W. Goodwin recalls being on location for the episode 's opening scene , in which Detective Barbala is thrown from a window . The room used for the scene had two windows side @-@ by @-@ side , and one had been replaced with sugar glass for the stunt . When the false window was blown out to simulate someone being thrown through it , the crew found that the glass window beside the false one had also accidentally been blown out . The episode 's key grip , Al Campbell , suggested that the next shot show Barbala 's dog lying beside his body to explain the second window breaking .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Born Again " premiered on the Fox network on April 22 , 1994 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on February 23 , 1995 . This episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 8 @.@ 2 , with a 14 share , meaning that in the US , roughly 8 @.@ 2 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 14 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 7 @.@ 7 million households .
Writer Howard Gordon has expressed his disappointment with the episode , feeling that it was too similar to his earlier work on the episode " Shadows " , and finding that it was " not done particularly interestingly " . Series creator Chris Carter also felt that " Born Again " was " just not one of [ his ] favorites " , adding that he " thought the direction was a little sloppy , but it 's one of those episodes that plays a little closer to reality and I like that about it " .
In a retrospective of the first season in Entertainment Weekly , " Born Again " was rated a B − , with the episode being described as " engaging but ultimately just serviceable " , although Andrea Libman 's casting as Michelle was called " inspired " . Zack Handlen , writing for The A.V. Club , felt negatively towards the episode , feeling that its plot was too reminiscent of earlier episodes , such as " Eve " or " Shadows " . However , he found the scene in which an image is found in the static of a video recording to have been a highlight , calling it " a cool combination of hard science and the inexplicable " . Matt Haigh , writing for Den of Geek , was favorable towards the episode , again praising the performance of Libman as Michelle . He also drew comparisons to " Shadows " , but felt that " Born Again " was the better episode of the two .
= Oviri ( Gauguin ) =
Oviri ( Tahitian : Savage or wild ) is an 1894 ceramic sculpture by French artist Paul Gauguin , the original cast is in the Musée d 'Orsay . Gauguin shows her with long pale hair and large wild eyes . In Tahitian mythology Oviri was the goddess of mourning . Gauguin shows her either smothering or embracing a wolf with her feet , as she tightly clutches another wolf cub in her arms . Art historians have presented multiple interpretations of the work ; usually that he intended it as an epithet to reinforce his self @-@ image as a " civilised savage " . Tahitian goddesses of her era had passed from folk memory by 1894 , yet Gauguin romanticises the island 's past as he reaches towards more ancient sources , including an Assyrian relief of a ' master of animals ' type and Majapahit mummies . Other possible influences include preserved skulls from the Marquesas Islands , figures found at Borobudur , and a 9th @-@ century Mahayana Buddhist temple in central Java .
Gauguin made three casts in 1894 , each in partially glazed stoneware . Several other copies exist in plaster or bronze . His sale of the casts were not successful , and at a low financial and personal ebb he asked that for one of the reproductions to act as a marker for his grave . A cast was not placed there until 1973 . There are only three other surviving comments of his on the figure : on an 1895 presentation mount of two impressions of a woodcut of the Oviri figure he made to Stéphane Mallarmé where he called the figure a strange and cruel enigma ; in an 1897 letter to Ambroise Vollard where he referred to it as La Tueuse ( " The Murderess " ) ; and in a c . 1899 drawing where he appends an inscription referencing Honoré de Balzac 's novel Séraphîta . Oviri was exhibited at the 1906 Salon d 'Automne ( no . 57 ) where it influenced Pablo Picasso , who based one of the figures in Les Demoiselles d 'Avignon on it .
= = Background = =
Gauguin was foremost a painter ; he came to ceramics around 1886 , when he was taught by the French sculptor and ceramist Ernest Chaplet . They had been introduced by Félix Bracquemond who , inspired by the new French art pottery , was experimenting with the form . During that winter of 1886 – 87 , Gauguin visited Chaplet 's workshop at Vaugirard , where they collaborated on stoneware pots with applied figures or ornamental fragments and multiple handles .
Gauguin first visited Tahiti in 1891 , and attracted by the beauty of Tahitian women undertook a set of sculptural mask @-@ like portraits on paper . They evoke both melancholy and death , and conjure the state of faaturuma ( brooding or melancholy ) ; imagery and moods later used in the Oviri ceramic . Gauguin 's first wood carvings in Tahiti were with a guava wood that quickly crumbled and have not survived .
He completed Oviri in the winter of 1894 , during his return from Tahiti , and submitted it to the Société Nationale des Beaux @-@ Arts 1895 salon opening in April the following year . There are two versions of what ensued : Charles Morice claimed in 1920 that Gauguin was " literally expelled " from the exhibition ; in 1937 Ambroise Vollard wrote that the piece was admitted only when Chaplet threatened to withdraw his own works in protest . According to Danielsson , Gauguin was keen to increase his public exposure and availed of this opportunity by writing an outraged letter to Le Soir , bemoaning the state of modern ceramics .
At the outset of 1897 , Vollard addressed a letter to Gauguin about the possibility of casting his sculptures in bronze . Gauguin 's response centered on Oviri :
I believe that my large statue in ceramic , the Tueuse ( " The Murderess " ) , is an exceptional piece such as no ceramist has made until now and that , in addition , it would look very well cast in bronze ( without retouching and without patina ) . In this way the buyer would not only have the ceramic piece itself , but also a bronze edition with which to make money .
Art historian Christopher Gray mentions three plaster casts , the fissured surfaces of which suggest that they were taken from a prior undocumented wood carving no longer extant . One was given to Daniel Monfreid and now belongs to the Musée départemental Maurice Denis " The Priory " in Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye . Another version in plaster , with the surface finish of wood , was kept by Gustave Fayet , and subsequently formed part of the collection of his son , Léon . The third version was kept by the artist who made the casts . A number of bronzes were produced , including the version placed on Gauguin 's grave at Atuona , cast by the Foundation Singer @-@ Poligna and erected 29 March 1973 .
= = Description and sources = =
Oviri has long blonde or grey hair reaching to her knees . Her head and eyes are disproportionately large , she has adolescent breasts , while the aperture at the back of her head resembles a vaginal orifice . She holds a wolf cub to her hip , a symbol of her indifference and wild power . It is not clear whether Oviri is smothering or hugging the cub , but her pose invokes ideas of sacrifice , infanticide and the archetype of the vengeful mother , influenced by Eugène Delacroix 's 1838 painting , Medea About to Kill Her Children . A second animal , likely another wolf , is at her feet either curling in submission or dead . Art historians including Sue Taylor suggest the second animal may represent Gauguin .
The association between the woman and a wolf stems from a remark Edgar Degas made defending Gauguin 's work at the poorly received 1893 Durand @-@ Ruel exhibition , when Degas quoted La Fontaine 's fable The Dog and the Wolf , which is usually taken as implying that freedom should not be exchanged for comfort or financial gain : " You see , Gauguin is the wolf . " In Oviri , the mature wolf , the European Gauguin , perishes while the whelp , the Gauguin of Tahiti , survives .
The Tahitian myths had largely disappeared by Gauguin 's time ( he based his own accounts on other sources without acknowledgement ) , as had most artefacts associated with that culture . His representation of Oviri is largely a work of imagination , informed by a collection of what he described as his " little world of friends " and which he took with him to Tahiti on his first visit . These included Odilon Redon 's lithograph La Mort , photographs of subjects such as a temple frieze at Borobudur , Java , and an Egyptian fresco from an XVIIIth dynasty tomb at Thebes . Other sources that have been suggested include an Assyrian relief of Gilgamesh clutching a lion cub now in the Louvre , and a Majapahit terracotta figure from the Djakarta museum .
Oviri 's head seems based on mummified skulls of chieftains in the Marquesas Islands , whose eye sockets were traditionally encrusted with mother @-@ of @-@ pearl and worshiped as divine . Elements of her body may draw from Borobudor images of fecundity . Thus life and death were evoked in the same image . In a letter to Mallarmé trying to raise a public subscription to purchase the work , Morice titled the sculpture Diane Chasseresse ( " Diana the Huntress " ) , an allusion to the ancient Greek goddess Diana of the hunt , moon and childbirth . He made the same reference in his poems on Oviri . Barbara Landy interprets the life and death theme as indicating Gauguin 's need to abandon his civilised ego in a return to the natural state of the primitive savage . The work is related to the 1889 ceramic Black Venus , which shows a woman kneeling over a decapitated head resembling the artist .
Nancy Mowll Mathews believes the creatures in her arms and at her feet are actually foxes , animals Gauguin had used in his 1889 wood carving Be in Love , You Will Be Happy and in his 1891 Pont @-@ Aven oil painting The Loss of Virginity . In an 1889 letter to Émile Bernard , he described the Soyez amoureuses fox as an " Indian symbol of perversity " . There is a long tradition in Asian folklore of foxes having the power to transform into women ( for example in Japanese Yōkai or Kitsune folklore ) .
Gauguin depicts the Oviri figure in at least one drawing , two watercolor transfer monotypes and two woodcuts . It is possible that the woodcuts were created in Pont @-@ Aven in the summer of 1894 ; before the ceramic . The last to appear is probably the drawing in what is apparently the first issue of Gauguin 's Papeete broadsheet Le Sourire " ( The Smile : A Serious Newspaper ) " published between August 1899 and April 1900 . It was accompanied by the inscription " Et le monstre , entraînant sa créature , féconde de sa semence des flancs généreux pour engendrer Séraphitus @-@ Séraphita " ( And the monster , embracing its creation , filled her generous womb with seed and fathered Séraphitus @-@ Séraphita ) . Séraphitus @-@ Séraphita is an allusion to Honoré de Balzac 's novel Séraphîta which features an androgynous hero . In this first issue of Le Sourire , he reviewed a local Maohi author 's play by that dealt with incest ( among other themes ) , and invokes ' Séraphitus @-@ Séraphita ' . The review congratulated the play 's " savage author " and ended with a plea for women 's liberation through the abolition of marriage . The accompanying drawing is distinctly androgynous .
= = Interpretation = =
Art historians have put forward various theories as to the seeming multiplicity of meanings inherent in Gauguin 's representation . Most obviously the figure invokes Tahitian legend and themes of death and superstition . It reflects the artist 's view of female sexuality ; a common motif in 19th century art was the connection between long , wild hair and evil femininity . Related is the delight Gauguin took from its alternative title " savage " and the implications of a brutal , bloodthirsty deity , which seems to refer as much to himself as the goddess .
= = = Tahiti deity = = =
Gauguin 's figure seems to invoke the Polynesian goddess Hina , depicted by Morice as a Diana @-@ like deity clutching a wolf cub , " monstrous and majestic , drunk with pride , rage and sorrow " . He titled an 1894 self @-@ portrait in plaster as Oviri . The original is lost but a number of bronze casts survive . He used double mirrors to capture his familiar Inca profile , the result reprising his Jug in the Form of a Head , Self @-@ Portrait . This was one of the earliest occasions Gauguin applied the term Oviri to himself . " Gauguin sometimes also referred to himself as Oviri , the savage ... " , writes Merete Bodelsen . The Stuttgart version of his 1892 oil painting E haere oe i hia ( Where Are You Going ? ) depicts a woman clutching a wolf cub . Pollitt remarks that this stocky , sculptural and androgynous figure gives a first glimpse of Oviri .
Oviri was the title of a favourite Tahitian song – a melancholy tune of love and longing that mentions the subject 's " savage , restless heart " . It recounts the love between two women for each other , both of whom have grown silent and cold . Gauguin translated the verse in his series of romanticised journal Noa Noa ( Tahitian for " fragrance " , a written project he undertook to examine his Tahitian experience , which he accompanied with a series of ten woodcuts ) ; the only one of his songs reprinted in the Tahitian newspaper La Guêpes when he became editor . Danielsson believes the song echoes Gauguin 's dual attachment to his Danish wife Mette and his then vahine ( Tahitian for " woman " ) Teha 'amana , his young native wife and the focal point of Noa Noa .
= = = Colonial experience = = =
Noa Noa contains an account of a journey into the mountains with a young man whom he eventually understands as sexless , leading him to meditate on the " androgynous side of the savage " in his manuscript . Ben Pollitt notes that in Tahitian culture the craftsman / artist , neither warrior / hunter nor homemaker / carer , was conceived androgynously , an ambiguous gender position that appealed to Gauguin 's subversive nature . Taylor believes Morice may have been describing Gauguin in his 1897 poem Shining Hina of the Woods as part of two long extracts from their collaboration on Noa Noa . Gray views the sculpture as representing " the expression of Gauguin 's profound disillusionment and discouragement " .
Noa Noa is part of Gauguin 's documentation of his experiences as a colonial visitor to Tahiti in 1891 – 1893 . He first used the term " Noa Noa " to describe the scent of Tahitian women : " A mingled perfume , half animal , half vegetable emanated from them ; the perfume of their blood and of the gardenia taitensis , which they wore in their hair " . On his return to Paris in 1893 , Gauguin was apprehensive about exhibiting his Tahitian works . Noa Noa was to provide the context necessary for the public to comprehend the new motifs presented at his Durand @-@ Ruel exhibition . It was not , however , completed in time for the opening of the exhibition .
= = = Self portrait = = =
Gauguin asked that Oviri be placed on his grave , which seems to indicate that he saw the figure as his alter ego and the fox as changeable in its gender as he was ( according to Mathews ) and thus symbolic of dangerous sexuality . A number of sources indicate that Gauguin was suffering at the time from a syphilitic rash that prevented him from travelling to Tahiti for several months . She suggests the orifice is a pars pro toto for the woman who infected him .
The anthropologist Paul van der Grijp believes Oviri was intended as an epithet to reinforce Gauguin 's persona as a " civilised savage " . The artist wrote in his final letter to Morice that " You were wrong that day when you said I was wrong to say I was a savage . It 's true enough : I am a savage . And civilised people sense the fact . In my work there is nothing that can surprise or disconcert , except the fact that I am a savage in spite of myself . That 's also why my work is inimitable . "
= = Reception and influence = =
Whether or not the sculpture was to be exhibited at the Salon de la Nationale , it was scheduled for the café proprietor Lévy at 57 rue Saint @-@ Lazare , with whom Gauguin had concluded an agreement to represent him before his last departure for Tahiti . It failed to sell , and Charles Morice was unable to raise public money to acquire it for the nation . Gauguin had thought his only likely interested patron would be Gustave Fayet , who did eventually buy it for 1 @,@ 500 francs , but in 1905 , after Gauguin 's death .
Gauguin was celebrated by the Parisian avant @-@ garde after the posthumous retrospective exhibitions at the Salon d 'Automne in 1903 and 1906 . The power evoked by his work lead directly to Les Demoiselles d 'Avignon in 1907 . According to David Sweetman , Picasso became an aficionado of Gauguin in 1902 when he befriended the expatriate Spanish sculptor and ceramist Paco Durrio in Paris . Durrio was a friend of Gauguin and held several of his works in an attempt to help his poverty @-@ stricken friend in Tahiti by promoting his oeuvre in Paris .
Art historian John Richardson writes :
The 1906 exhibition of Gauguin 's work left Picasso more than ever in this artist 's thrall . Gauguin demonstrated the most disparate types of art — not to speak of elements from metaphysics , ethnology , symbolism , the Bible , classical myths , and much else besides — could be combined into a synthesis that was of its time yet timeless . An artist could also confound conventional notions of beauty , he demonstrated , by harnessing his demons to the dark gods ( not necessarily Tahitian ones ) and tapping a new source of divine energy .
Both Sweetman and Richardson point to the Gauguin Oviri as a major influence . First exhibited in the 1906 Salon d 'Automne retrospective , it was probably a direct influence on Les Demoiselles . Sweetman writes , " Gauguin 's statue Oviri , which was prominently displayed in 1906 , was to stimulate Picasso 's interest in both sculpture and ceramics , while the woodcuts would reinforce his interest in printmaking , though it was the element of the primitive in all of them which most conditioned the direction that Picasso 's art would take . This interest would culminate in the seminal Les Demoiselles d 'Avignon . "
In 2006 , a bronze version of Oviri sold at Christie 's New York for US $ 251 @,@ 200 .
= = Recent exhibitions = =
= German battleship Gneisenau =
Gneisenau was a German capital ship , alternatively described as a battleship and battlecruiser , of Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine . She was the second vessel of her class , which included one other ship , Scharnhorst . The ship was built at the Deutsche Werke dockyard in Kiel ; she was laid down on 6 May 1935 and launched on 8 December 1936 . Completed in May 1938 , the ship was armed with a main battery of nine 28 cm ( 11 in ) C / 34 guns in three triple turrets , though there were plans to replace these weapons with six 38 cm ( 15 in ) SK C / 34 guns in twin turrets .
Gneisenau and Scharnhorst operated together for much of the early portion of World War II , including sorties into the Atlantic to raid British merchant shipping . During their first operation , the two ships sank the British auxiliary cruiser HMS Rawalpindi in a short battle . Gneisenau and Scharnhorst participated in Operation Weserübung , the German invasion of Norway . During operations off Norway , the two ships engaged the battlecruiser HMS Renown and sank the aircraft carrier HMS Glorious . Gneisenau was damaged in the action with Renown and later torpedoed by a British submarine , HMS Clyde , off Norway . After a successful raid in the Atlantic in 1941 , Gneisenau and her sister put in at Brest , France . The two battleships were the subject of repeated bombing raids by the RAF ; Gneisenau was hit several times during the raids , though she was ultimately repaired .
In early 1942 , the two ships made a daylight dash up the English Channel from occupied France to Germany . After reaching Kiel in early February , the ship went into drydock . On the night of 26 February , the British launched an air attack on the ship ; one bomb penetrated her armored deck and exploded in the forward ammunition magazine , causing serious damage and a large number of casualties . The repairs necessitated by the damage were so time consuming that it was determined to rebuild the ship to accommodate the 38 cm guns as originally intended . The 28 cm guns were removed and used as shore batteries . In 1943 , Hitler ordered the cessation of conversion work , and on 27 March 1945 , she was sunk as a blockship in Gotenhafen ( Gdynia ) in German @-@ occupied Poland . She was eventually broken up for scrap in 1951 .
= = Construction and configuration = =
Gneisenau was ordered as Ersatz Hessen as a replacement for the old pre @-@ dreadnought Hessen , under the contract name " E. " The Deutsche Werke in Kiel was awarded the contract , where the keel was laid on 6 May 1935 . The ship was launched on 8 December 1936 , after which fitting @-@ out work was begun . The ship was completed in May 1938 and commissioned for sea trials on the 21st , under the command of Kapitän zur See ( KzS ) Erich Förste . The trials revealed a dangerous tendency to ship considerable amounts of water in heavy seas . This caused flooding in the bow and damaged electrical systems in the forward gun turret . As a result , she went back to the dockyard for extensive modification of the bow . The original straight stem was replaced with a raised " Atlantic bow . " A diagonal cap was fitted to the smoke stack to keep the main mast free of smoke . The modifications were completed by September 1939 , by which time the ship was finally fully operational .
Gneisenau displaced 32 @,@ 100 long tons ( 32 @,@ 600 t ) as built and 38 @,@ 100 long tons ( 38 @,@ 700 t ) fully loaded , with a length of 234 @.@ 9 m ( 770 ft 8 in ) , a beam of 30 m ( 98 ft 5 in ) and a maximum draft of 9 @.@ 9 m ( 32 ft 6 in ) . She was powered by three Germania geared steam turbines , which developed a total of 165 @,@ 930 metric horsepower ( 163 @,@ 660 shp ; 122 @,@ 041 kW ) and yielded a maximum speed of 31 @.@ 3 knots ( 58 @.@ 0 km / h ; 36 @.@ 0 mph ) on speed trials . Her standard crew numbered 56 officers and 1 @,@ 613 enlisted men , though during the war this was augmented up to 60 officers and 1 @,@ 780 men . While serving as a squadron flagship , Gneisenau carried an additional ten officers and 61 enlisted men .
She was armed with nine 28 cm ( 11 @.@ 1 in ) L / 54 @.@ 5 guns arranged in three triple gun turrets : two superfiring turrets forward — Anton and Bruno — and one aft — Caesar . Her secondary armament consisted of twelve 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) L / 55 guns , fourteen 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) L / 65 and sixteen 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) L / 83 , and initially ten 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns . The number of 2 cm guns was eventually increased to thirty @-@ eight . Six 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) above @-@ water torpedo tubes , taken from the light cruisers Nürnberg and Leipzig , were installed in 1942 .
= = Service history = =
Gneisenau left Germany for a round of trials in the Atlantic in June 1939 . As it was peacetime , the ship carried primarily practice ammunition , with only a small number of live rounds . She was back in Germany when war began in September 1939 . On the 4th , the day after the British declaration of war , Gneisenau was attacked by fourteen Wellington bombers , though they made no hits . In November , KzS Förste was replaced by KzS Harald Netzbandt . The ship 's first combat operation , under the command of Admiral Wilhelm Marschall , began on 21 November 1939 ; the ship , in company with her sister Scharnhorst , the light cruiser Köln , and nine destroyers , was to patrol the area between Iceland and the Faroe Islands . The intent of the operation was to draw out British units and ease the pressure on the heavy cruiser Admiral Graf Spee , which was being pursued in the South Atlantic . Two days later , the German flotilla intercepted the auxiliary cruiser Rawalpindi .
Scharnhorst fired first , followed by Gneisenau eight minutes later . The ship was quickly reduced to a burning wreck ; Marschall ordered Scharnhorst to pick up survivors while he stood by in Gneisenau . The cruiser Newcastle arrived on the scene , which prompted Marschall to halt rescue operations and flee . Four allied capital ships , the British Hood , Nelson , Rodney , and the French Dunkerque followed in pursuit . The Germans reached Wilhelmshaven on 27 November , and on the trip both battleships incurred significant damage from heavy seas and winds . After returning to Kiel , Gneisenau went into drydock for repairs for the storm damage . During the repairs , the bow was remodeled a second time to incorporate additional flare and sheer , in an attempt to improve her seaworthiness . Gneisenau went into the Baltic for trials on 15 January 1940 , after the completion of the refit . Her voyage back to the North Sea was blocked by ice in the Kiel Canal until 4 February .
= = = Operation Weserübung = = =
Gneisenau was assigned to the forces participating in Operation Weserübung , the invasion of Denmark and Norway . She and her sister were the covering force for the assaults on Narvik and Trondheim ( Flag Officer Vize Admiral Günther Lütjens ) . The two ships left Wilhelmshaven on the morning of 7 April , along with the heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper and fourteen destroyers . The cruiser and destroyers carried the assault forces for Narvik and Trondheim , while Gneisenau and Scharnhorst provided cover for them . Later that day , at around 14 : 30 , the three ships came under attack by a force of British bombers , though the bombers failed to make any hits . On the morning of 8 April , the destroyer Z11 Bernd von Arnim encountered the British destroyer Glowworm . Before being sunk , Glowworm rammed Admiral Hipper , though the latter was not seriously damaged . The crews of the two battleships went to battle stations , though they did not take part in the brief engagement . At 21 : 00 , Gneisenau and Scharnhorst took up a position west of the Vestfjorden to provide distant cover to both of the landings at Narvik and Trondheim .
At 04 : 30 on the 9th , Gneisenau located the British battlecruiser Renown with her Seetakt radar ; the call to battle stations rang out on both Gneisenau and Scharnhorst , though it was Renown that fired first , at 05 : 05 . Gneisenau scored two hits on Renown ; the first failed to explode and the second exploded on her upper deck and damaged the radio equipment . Gneisenau and Scharnhorst then turned to disengage . Almost simultaneously , two of Renown 's 15 in ( 38 @.@ 1 cm ) shells struck Gneisenau . One shell hit the director tower and passed through it without exploding ; regardless , it cut several cables and killed one officer and five enlisted men . The second shell disabled the rear turret . This prompted Gneisenau to cease firing and increase speed in order to break away from Renown . Vice Admiral Wilhelm Marschall feared that the destroyers escorting Renown could be used to make torpedo attacks against his unescorted battleships . In the course of the action , Gneisenau fired sixty 28 cm and eight 15 cm rounds . During the high @-@ speed escape , both Gneisenau and Scharnhorst were flooded by significant quantities of water over their bows , which caused problems in both of their forward gun turrets .
Admiral Hipper rejoined the two battleships off Trondheim on the morning of 11 April , and the three ships returned to Wilhelmshaven , arriving the following day . There , the damage incurred during the engagement with Renown was repaired . She was then drydocked in Bremerhaven for periodic maintenance on 26 – 29 April . The ship was to go to the Baltic following the completion of repairs , but on the morning of 5 May , while steaming at 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) off the Elbe estuary , Gneisenau detonated a magnetic mine about 21 m ( 68 ft 11 in ) off the port rear quarter and 24 m ( 78 ft 9 in ) below the hull . The explosion caused significant damage to the hull and flooded several compartments , which caused the ship to take on a half @-@ degree list to port . The concussive shock from the blast damaged many internal and topside components , including the starboard low @-@ pressure turbine and the rear rangefinders . Repairs were effected in a floating drydock in Kiel from 6 to 21 May . A brief shakedown cruise followed in the Baltic , and by the 27th , she was back in Kiel at full combat readiness .
Gneisenau and Scharnhorst left Wilhelmshaven on 4 June to return to Norway . They were joined by Admiral Hipper and four destroyers . The purpose of the sortie was to interrupt Allied resupply efforts to the Norwegians and to relieve the pressure on German troops fighting in Norway . On 7 June , the squadron rendezvoused with the tanker Dithmarschen to refuel Admiral Hipper and the four destroyers . The next day , the trawler Juniper was discovered and sunk , along with the oil tanker Oil Pioneer . The Germans then launched their Arado 196 float planes to search for more Allied vessels . Admiral Hipper and the destroyers were sent to destroy Orama , a 19 @,@ 500 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 19 @,@ 800 t ) passenger ship , while Atlantis , a hospital ship , was allowed to proceed unmolested . Admiral Marschall detached Admiral Hipper and the four destroyers to refuel in Trondheim , while he would steam to the Harstad area .
At 17 : 45 , the German battleships spotted the British aircraft carrier Glorious and two escorting destroyers , Ardent and Acasta , at a range of some 50 @,@ 000 m ( 55 @,@ 000 yd ) . Scharnhorst was closer and therefore fired first . Scharnhorst had some boiler difficulty , which reduced her speed to 29 knots ( 54 km / h ; 33 mph ) . This allowed Gneisenau to overtake her sister during the action . Although the destroyers attempted to cover Glorious with smoke screens , the German battleships used their Seetakt radar to assist the gunlaying . In less than an hour 's shooting , Glorious was reduced to a burning hulk . Gneisenau then turned her fire on Acasta , while Scharnhorst dispatched Ardent . Before Acasta was sunk , she fired a spread of torpedoes at Gneisenau , which the latter successfully evaded . One of them struck Scharnhorst , however , and caused serious damage . After all three British ships had been sunk , Marschall withdrew his force to Trondheim to conduct emergency repairs to Scharnhorst . In the meantime , Marschall sortied with Gneisenau , Admiral Hipper , and four destroyers , though after two days he returned to Trondheim when it became clear that the British convoys were too heavily guarded .
Admiral Günther Lütjens replaced Marschall as the commander of the squadron , and on 20 June he sortied with Gneisenau , Admiral Hipper , and four destroyers in the direction of Iceland . His intention was to give the impression he was attempting to break out into the Atlantic , to draw British attention away from Scharnhorst as she made the return voyage to Germany . About 40 nmi ( 74 km ; 46 mi ) northwest of Halten , however , the submarine Clyde torpedoed Gneisenau . The torpedo hit the ship in the bow , just forward of the splinter belt , and caused serious damage . The ship took on a significant amount of water in the two forward watertight compartments , and she was forced to return to Trondheim at reduced speed . In Trondheim , the repair ship Huascaran effected temporary repairs that permitted the ship to return to Kiel on 25 – 27 July , escorted by Admiral Hipper , Nürnberg , four destroyers , and six torpedo boats . A strong force from the British Home Fleet attempted to intercept the flotilla , but it failed to find it . Upon arrival , Gneisenau went into drydock at the Howaldtswerke dockyard for five months of repair work . In August , the ship 's commander was replaced by KzS Otto Fein , who would captain the ship for the majority of her active wartime career .
= = = Operation Berlin = = =
Scharnhorst joined Gneisenau , in preparation for Operation Berlin , the planned breakout into the Atlantic Ocean designed to wreak havoc on the Allied shipping lanes . Severe storms caused damage to Gneisenau , though Scharnhorst was undamaged . The two ships were forced to put into port during the storm : Gneisenau went to Kiel for repairs while Scharnhorst put into Gdynia ( Gotenhafen ) . Repairs were quickly completed , and on 22 January 1941 , the two ships , again under the command of Admiral Lütjens , left port for the North Atlantic . They were detected in the Skagerrak and the heavy units of the British Home Fleet deployed to cover the passage between Iceland and the Faroes . The Germans ' radar detected the British at long range , which allowed Lütjens to avoid the British patrols , with the aid of a squall . By 3 February , the two battleships had evaded the last British cruiser patrol , and had broken into the open Atlantic .
On 6 February , the two ships refueled from the tanker Schlettstadt south of Cape Farewell . Shortly after 08 : 30 on 8 February , lookouts spotted convoy HX @-@ 106 , though it was escorted by the battleship Ramillies . Lütjens ' orders prohibited him from engaging Allied capital ships , and so the attack was called off . Scharnhorst 's commander , KzS Hoffmann , however , closed to 23 @,@ 000 m ( 25 @,@ 000 yd ) in an attempt to lure Ramillies away from the convoy so that Gneisenau could attack the convoy . Lütjens ordered Hoffmann to rejoin the flagship immediately . The two battleships steamed off to the northwest to search for more shipping . On 22 February , the pair spotted an empty convoy sailing west , though it dispersed at the appearance of the battleships . Gneisenau sank three ships , and along with a fourth destroyed by Scharnhorst , the pair accounted for 25 @,@ 784 GRT of Allied shipping .
Lütjens then decided to move to a new area , as the surviving members of the dispersed convoy had sent distress signals . He chose the Cape Town @-@ Gibraltar convoy route , and positioned himself to the northwest of Cape Verde . The two ships encountered another convoy , escorted by the battleship Malaya , on 8 March . Lütjens again forbade an attack , though he shadowed the convoy and directed U @-@ boats to attack it . A pair of U @-@ boats sank a total of 28 @,@ 488 GRT of shipping on the night of 7 – 8 March . Malaya turned on the two battleships and closed to 24 @,@ 000 m ( 26 @,@ 000 yd ) , well within the range of the Germans ' guns , but Lütjens refused to be drawn into an engagement . He instead turned toward the mid @-@ Atlantic , where the two ships refueled from the tankers Uckermark and Ermland on 12 March .
On 15 March , the two battleships , with the two tankers in company , encountered a dispersed convoy in the mid @-@ Atlantic . Gneisenau captured three tankers and sank a fourth , totaling 20 @,@ 139 GRT of shipping . The next day , stragglers from a convoy were sighted . Gneisenau sank seven ships for 26 @,@ 693 GRT , while her sister accounted for six vessels for 35 @,@ 088 long tons ( 35 @,@ 651 t ) . One of the surviving ships radioed the location of the German battleships , which summoned the powerful British battleships Rodney and King George V. Scharnhorst and Gneisenau used their high speed to escape in a squall , and the intervention by the British battleships convinced Lütjens that the chances of further success were small . He therefore decided to head for Brest in occupied France , which the ships reached on 22 March . She then entered drydock for periodic maintenance .
= = = Air attacks in Brest = = =
After arriving in Brest , Gneisenau was the subject of repeated British air raids . The first attack took place on the night of 30 – 31 March , and a second occurred on 4 – 5 April . During the second raid , a 227 kg ( 500 lb ) armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) bomb narrowly missed the ship . As a result of the attacks , the ship was moved out of the dry dock and moved to the harbor . On 6 April , the ship was attacked by British torpedo bombers , which managed to score a single hit . The Bristol Beaufort that struck the ship was piloted by Flying Officer Kenneth Campbell . The torpedo struck Gneisenau in the vicinity of the rear main battery turret . Some 3 @,@ 050 t ( 3 @,@ 000 long tons ) of water flooded the ship and caused a 2 degree list to starboard . The flooding also disabled several components of the ship 's propulsion system . The explosion caused significant destruction to the side plating as well as the starboard and centerline propeller shafts . The concussive shock also caused widespread damage to the ship 's electronic components . A salvage tug came alongside to assist in the pumping effort . Following the attack , Gneisenau returned to the drydock for repairs .
Three days later , on the night of 9 – 10 April , several British bombers dropped around 25 t ( 25 long tons ) of 227 kg AP bombs on the ship , four of which hit . All four hit the starboard side of the forward superstructure . Two of the bombs exploded on the main armor deck while the other two failed to detonate . The attack killed 72 initially and wounded 90 , of which 16 later died of their injuries . The bombs slightly damaged the main armor deck and caused some structural damage on the starboard side . It was decided to make alterations to the ship while she was drydocked for repairs ; these included the installation of fourteen additional 2 cm anti @-@ aircraft guns and six 53 @.@ 3 cm torpedo tubes amidships . The aircraft hangar was rearranged , and the catapult that had been mounted on top of it was removed . The length of repairs and modifications precluded participation in Operation Rheinübung , the sortie by the new battleship Bismarck in May 1941 . The British continued to attack the ship in drydock , though no further damage was done . On 6 February 1942 , a bomb fell close to the ship , but caused no damage .
= = = Operation Cerberus = = =
On 12 January 1942 , the German Naval Command , in a conference with Hitler , made the decision to return Gneisenau , Scharnhorst , and the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen to Germany . The intention was to deploy the vessels to Norway to interdict Allied convoys to the Soviet Union . The so @-@ called " Channel Dash " , codenamed Operation Cerberus , would avoid the increasingly effective Allied radar and patrol aircraft in the Atlantic . Vice Admiral Otto Ciliax was given command of the operation . In early February , minesweepers swept a route through the English Channel , though the British failed to detect the activity .
At 23 : 00 on 11 February , Scharnhorst , Gneisenau , and Prinz Eugen left Brest . They entered the Channel an hour later ; the three ships sped at 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) , hugging the French coast along the voyage . The British failed to detect their departure , as the submarine that had been tasked with observing the port had withdrawn to recharge its batteries . By 06 : 30 , they had passed Cherbourg , at which point they were joined by a flotilla of torpedo boats . The torpedo boats were led by Kapitän Erich Bey , aboard the destroyer Z29 . General der Jagdflieger ( General of Fighter Force ) Adolf Galland directed Luftwaffe fighter and bomber forces ( Operation Donnerkeil ) during Cerberus . The fighters flew at masthead @-@ height to avoid detection by the British radar network . Liaison officers were present on all three ships . German aircraft arrived later to jam British radar with chaff . By 13 : 00 , the ships had cleared the Strait of Dover , though half an hour later , a flight of six Swordfish torpedo bombers , with Spitfire escort , attacked the Germans . The British failed to penetrate the Luftwaffe fighter shield and all six Swordfish were destroyed . Several more attacks were launched over the next two hours , but the Luftwaffe screen repulsed them all .
Five British destroyers mounted an attack on the German squadron at 16 : 17 . The ships attempted to close to torpedo range , though heavy seas and overcast conditions hampered their attack . Gneisenau and Prinz Eugen inflicted serious damage to the destroyer Worcester . At 19 : 55 , Gneisenau detonated a magnetic mine off Terschelling . The mine exploded just forward of the rear gun turret but caused only minor damage . Slight flooding was quickly stopped , though the shock disabled the center turbine . The ship stopped for less than 30 minutes before resuming the voyage ; by 03 : 50 , Gneisenau and two destroyers reached Helgoland . After being joined there by Prinz Eugen , the ships left for Kiel , but thick ice in the canal forced the ships to stop in Brunsbüttel . While maneuvering in port , Gneisenau struck a submerged wreck . The collision tore a hole in the hull and caused some minor flooding . Gneisenau reached Kiel the following day , where she went into a floating dry dock at the Deutsche Werke dockyard .
= = Fate = =
Repair work on Gneisenau was completed by 26 February 1942 , and she was scheduled to deploy to Norway on 6 March . Her ammunition stores had been restocked and she was prepared for a short round of trials before her departure . On the night of 26 – 27 February , however , the British launched a heavy air raid on the ship . The ship was hit by a single bomb in her forecastle that penetrated the armored deck and exploded . Red @-@ hot bomb fragments ignited propellant charges in the forward turret and caused a tremendous explosion . The turret was thrown off its mount and the entire bow section was burned out . The crew partially flooded the magazine to prevent a more catastrophic explosion . The blast killed 112 men and wounded 21 others .
The extensive damage convinced the Naval Staff to rebuild Gneisenau to mount the six 38 cm guns originally planned , rather than repair the ship . The damaged bow section was removed in order to attach a lengthened bow , which would correct the decrease in freeboard that would have been caused by the heavier 38 cm guns . On 4 April , the ship went to Gotenhafen , escorted by the training ship Schlesien and the icebreaker Castor . She was formally decommissioned on 1 July . Her crew were paid off and redeployed to the U @-@ boat arm .
By early 1943 , the ship had been sufficiently repaired to begin the conversion process , but Hitler , angered by the failure of German surface raiders at the Battle of the Barents Sea in December 1942 ordered the cessation of all work . Gneisenau was disarmed and her 28 cm and 15 cm gun turrets were used in shore batteries . Turret Caesar was installed in a coastal fortress in Trondheim as the coastal battery Orlandet .
Gneisenau remained unused in Gotenhafen until the end of the war . As the Red Army advanced on the city , the remaining crew took the ship out to the entrance of the harbor and sank the vessel as a blockship on 27 March 1945 . In 1947 , the Polish government ordered the ship be removed , and initial salvage operations began . The ship was sealed and refloated on 12 September 1951 then completely scrapped , though it is believed that some of her steel was used in the construction of Polish merchant vessels . She was the largest ship raised at the time . Norway offered to return the turret from Trondheim in 1979 , though the offer was rejected . The gun turret was instead preserved as a museum in Norway .
= Avocado cake =
Avocado cake is a cake prepared using avocado as a primary ingredient , together with other typical cake ingredients . The avocados may be mashed , and may be used as an ingredient in cake batter , in cake toppings and alone atop a cake . Cake variations include raw avocado cake , avocado brownies and avocado cheesecake . Raw , uncooked versions of avocado cake can be high in vitamin E and essential fatty acids , which are derived from avocado . Avocado @-@ based cake toppings include avocado fool and avocado crazy .
= = Overview = =
Avocado is a main ingredient in avocado cake , along with other typical cake ingredients . Various varieties of avocados may be used . Avocado cake may have a subtle avocado flavor imbued in the dish . Mashed avocado may be used as an ingredient in the batter and in cake frostings and toppings . Sliced avocado may be used to top or garnish it , as may other ingredients such as the zest of citrus fruits .
Additional ingredients used may include yogurt , buttermilk
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deep along the rift zone . Proto @-@ Lake Superior filled the basin .
= = = = Puckwunge Formation = = = =
The Puckwunge Formation has buff to grey sandstone which comes from sediments deposited during the early stages of the Midcontinent rift ; zircon dating shows a time period of 1200 to 1100 million years ago .
Puckwunge sandstone is exposed along an extremely narrow ( feet @-@ wide ) band on the southwestern border of the Rove formation . The Puckwunge exposure begins at Raspberry Point within the Grand Portage National Monument on Lake Superior , Cook County , Minnesota , and extends for about 40 km ( 25 mi ) inland to the northwest . The Rove Formation is located to the northeast of the Puckwunge sandstone ; none is southwest of the border . The Rove Formation is bisected by several bands of Pigeon River Diabase ; these bands are in a west @-@ to @-@ east orientation . The bands of Pigeon River Diabase do extend southwesterly past the Puckwunge Formation .
= = = Quaternary Period and glaciation = = =
The Quaternary Period began about 2 million years ago and continues today . This is the period of advancing and retreating glaciers . The Rove region has multiple tilted layers of volcanic rocks and easily eroded shale . The more resistant diabase dikes and sills remained , while the softer shales were bulldozed away by the glaciers . These former shale valleys filled with water , forming the many lakes in the region . The character of the slates made them especially well suited for glacial quarrying , much more so than the contiguous sills . A cuesta – a ridge formed by gently tilted sedimentary rock layers – topography had developed and was dominated by major east @-@ west valleys with a few pronounced gaps in the intervening ridges .
The Rainy Lobe of the Wisconsin glaciation was the most recent of the glaciation events , and it retreated about 10 @,@ 000 years ago . Glacial scratches and grooves in Rove rocks indicate a north or somewhat east @-@ of @-@ north glacial movement . This direction is transverse to the general trend on the valleys and ridges . The lakes in the Rove Formation area are unique from other well @-@ known linear bedrock lakes in North America because their long axes lie transverse to the general movement of the glaciers .
When continental glaciers moved over the Rove Formation area , the ice was a hundreds of meters thick and its surface sloped gently southward from the Patrician center to the north . The base of the ice sheet encountered the cuesta topography relief of a few hundred feet . Because the ice over the valleys would be thicker than the ice over the ridges , obstructed extrusion flow would operate and resulted in the removal of the easily quarried slates of the valleys . The ridges would not be appreciably eroded , partly because the ice would be thinner over the ridges and therefore less plastic , and partly because of the resistance of the diabase to both quarrying and abrasion by the ice .
The weight of the ice sheet compressed the land and created depressions . As the glacier retreated , the weight and pressure were relieved from the surface of the land and the land rebounded ; the rebound process continues , and is estimated to be 100 m ( 330 ft ) .
= = Human history = =
The Pigeon River forms the border between Minnesota and Ontario in this area . The first 32 km ( 20 mi ) of the river is crooked , swift , interrupted by rapids and falls , and flows in places through a steep @-@ walled canyon . The High Falls are 37 m ( 120 ft ) high and presents an impassable obstacle to river travel . The Cascade Falls are further up the river . The soft shale erodes easily , leaving the Logan and Pigeon River diabases which create the waterfalls and cascades .
A portage was necessary from the shore of Lake Superior past the High Falls . Southwest of the mouth of the Pigeon River is Grand Portage Bay ; about 1 @.@ 6 km ( 1 @.@ 0 mi ) inland there is a gap through the surrounding hills and bluffs which provides a gradual ascent to Cascade Falls . The river is navigable by canoe beyond the Cascade Falls . The Sioux and Chippewa created a 14 @.@ 5 km ( 9 @.@ 0 mi ) long portage from Grand Portage Bay to bypass the three falls and several kilometers of turbulent river up to the Cascade Falls , probably by following animal trails . The French called this trail the Great Portage because it was so long .
The first @-@ known non @-@ native visitors were French @-@ speaking people from France and eastern Canada who started to explore the area in about 1655 . They were looking for the Northwest Passage and to trade for furs , particularly beaver pelts . Beaver pelts were in demand for European fashion during the 17th and 18th centuries . The Grand Portage was on the major fur trade route of the 18th century and was the first of more than 40 portages along the fur trade route . The French @-@ Canadian voyageurs would carry two 40 kg ( 88 lb ) packs from the main storage depot at Grand Portage Bay along the trail to their smaller storage depot at Fort Charlotte ; it took a few hours . In 1784 Grand Portage Bay became the headquarters for the North West Company . The post was abandoned in 1803 when the North West Company moved north .
= = Present @-@ day topography = =
In Ontario , the shales and greywackes from the Rove Formation of the Animikie Group are overlain by a 60 m ( 200 ft ) cap of diabase . This diabase cap is a sill remnant , and most of the diabase is covered by a considerable thickness of mineral soil . The mesa at Russell Point ( about 16 km ( 10 mi ) south of Thunder Bay ) is a Logan sill of diabase over the softer Rove Formation metasediments . It is one of the many flat @-@ topped , steep @-@ sided mesas along Lake Superior 's northwestern shore south of Thunder Bay that are collectively known as the Nor 'Wester Mountains .
In Minnesota , the Rove Formation area shows a relationship of bedrock to topography , with its valley @-@ and @-@ ridge landscape . There are several series of steep , east @-@ west oriented valleys which were created by the erosion of the exposed shale . The diabase @-@ capped ridges between the valleys slope gently to the south ( 4 ° to 15 ° from the horizontal ) ; the northern faces are precipitous ; they rise 60 to 140 m ( 200 to 460 ft ) above deep , cold lakes , creating an asymmetrical cross @-@ section profile . The asymmetrical cross section of the ridges is the result of bands of massive , poorly jointed rock alternating with highly jointed rock units . The valleys contain glacially quarried bedrock lakes ; they are also asymmetrical in cross section because of the same structural elements which control the ridge shapes . Most of the lakes show an asymmetrical bottom configuration , showing a steep subaqueous slope on the south shore . The northern @-@ facing cliffs provide the habitat for a few species of endangered flora . The Rove Formation has landscape features that are not found elsewhere in Minnesota .
Most of the valleys are occupied by chains of elongate lakes , many of which are bordered by solid rock on all sides . Many of the east @-@ west valleys terminate abruptly at either one or both ends when the bordering sills merge . The elevation of the lakes ranges from Rose Lake 's 465 m ( 1 @,@ 526 ft ) to Loon Lake 's 532 m ( 1 @,@ 745 ft ) above sea level . Lakes on the opposite sides of a single ridge may differ in surface elevation by as much as 60 m ( 200 ft ) . Many of the rock @-@ bound lakes have a depth of about 30 m ( 100 ft ) ; a few are deeper than 61 m ( 200 ft ) .
A topographic map shows that the majority of the interconnected complex of tightly packed lakes with their valley @-@ and @-@ ridge landscape is primarily in Minnesota ; the border of the landscape is the Minnesota @-@ Canadian border . This border is composed of the Pigeon River , and these Rove Formation lakes ( going east to west ) : South Fowl , North Fowl , Moose , Mountain , Watap , Rose , South , Little North and Gunflint . The border runs approximately through the center of the lengths of these lakes . The only Rove @-@ typical east @-@ west oriented lakes lying in Ontario are Arrow and North lakes .
The preglacial drainage pattern was controlled by the rock structure . Ver Steeg reconstructed a preglacial drainage pattern that shows major streams flowing east in the slate belts . Short tributaries and short north @-@ south segments of the major streams cut across ridges which formed small gaps that are still present .
The Laurentian Continental Divide is within the formation . Between North Lake , Ontario , and South Lake , Minnesota , is a low saddle of land right on the border ; this is the divide . North Lake drains into the Rainy River and then to Hudson Bay . South Lake drains into the Pigeon River and then to Lake Superior .
Topsoils are thin and poor because the glaciers had abraded down to the bedrock . The soils are clayey silt .
= = Endangered flora = =
Topographically this is the Rove Slate Bedrock Complex Landtype Association . The sedimentary and diabase rocks are calcareous ; they produce a more basic , nutrient @-@ rich soil compared to the poorer soils typical of the Canadian shield . The Royal River drains Royal Lake [ which is about 1 @.@ 2 km ( 3 @,@ 900 ft ) east of South Fowl Lake ] into John Lake , both in Minnesota . The relatively rich soils , particularly in the Royal River drainage area , along with steep , moist , north @-@ facing cliffs provide the habitat for these rare plants . For over a century this landtype association has been recognized as being ecologically and botanically unique ; it harbors a rare assemblage of plants , including the rarest plants in Minnesota . Virtually all of the known sensitive plant species in this landscape association occur on the north side of the cliffs or in the Royal River drainage .
Six vascular plants are unique in that they are at the extreme edge of their range or are disjunct from the main range of their species . They are the Maidenhair spleenwort ( Asplenium trichomanes L. ) , in Minnesota six small populations of 20 to 40 plants have been found in the Rove area ; Ross 's ( or Short ) sedge ( Carex rossii ) , only three populations are known to exist in the Rove area ; Large @-@ leaved sandwort ( Moehringia macrophylla or Arenaria macrophylla ) , evidence indicates that this is a very rare species with limited distribution and restrictive environmental needs ; Sticky locoweed ( Oxytropis borealis var. viscida ) , is restricted to a single cliff in Cook County ; Encrusted saxifrage ( Saxifraga paniculata ssp. neogaea ) , 11 populations are known to exist in the Rove formation ; and Smooth Woodsia ( Woodsia glabella ) , there are small , isolated populations in the Rove Formation .
During two sensitive plant surveys conducted in June and July 2003 , and July 2004 , a Superior National Forest sensitive plant , Canada Yew ( Taxus canadensis ) , was found ; and a state @-@ listed species of concern , Blunt @-@ fruited sweet cicely ( Osmorhiza depauperata ) , has only four populations within 30 km ( 19 mi ) of each other . Minnesota 's Department of Natural Resources lists these vascular plants as being threatened : Rocky Mountain woodsia ( Woodsia scopulina ssp. laurentiana ) , there are few isolated populations in the formation ; and Holboell 's rock @-@ cress ( Boechera retrofracta or Arabis holboellii var. retrofracta ) , rare in Ontario and Minnesota . Minnesota 's Department of Natural Resources lists the Nodding saxifrage ( Saxifraga cernua ) as endangered , one source refers it to being " very rare " and that Cook County has Minnesota 's single colony with about a dozen plants – the entire population occupies less than a 1 m2 ( 1 sq yd ) – so it is vulnerable to singular events which would alter its habitat .
= International Speedway Corporation =
International Speedway Corporation ( ISC ) is a corporation whose primary business is the ownership and management of NASCAR and IndyCar race tracks . ISC was founded by NASCAR founder Bill France , Sr. in 1953 for the construction of Daytona International Speedway and in 1999 they merged with Penske Motorsports to become one of the largest motorsports companies in North America . The company has played an important , though controversial , role in the modernization of the sport . It has worked with NASCAR to create new tracks and update older ones in an effort to improve the racing and the experience for spectators ( though because both companies have several members of the France family in top positions , ISC 's competitors have filed multiple lawsuits on antitrust grounds ) and has constructed popular new tracks in regions previously thought uninterested in NASCAR .
= = History = =
= = = Bill France Racing = = =
International Speedway Corporation ( ISC ) was founded as Bill France Racing , Inc . ( later Daytona International Speedway Corporation ) in 1953 and in 1957 the company signed a contract for the use of land on which to build Daytona International Speedway , one of the world 's first superspeedways . A decade later , France decided to build another superspeedway , this time on a 2 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 8 km ² ) site near Talladega , Alabama and after its completion Talladega Superspeedway became NASCAR 's fastest track . These two tracks were the fastest on the series schedule until the advent of restrictor plates in 1988 . In 1968 , the company assumed its current name to reflect its more ambitious scope . Two years later , ISC created the Motor Racing Network , a play @-@ by @-@ play radio network for NASCAR races , with MRN 's first race coverage coming at the 1970 Daytona 500 .
= = = Transition = = =
The early 1980s saw NASCAR 's popularity increase , not only among fans , but also with sponsors . Companies like Ford , General Motors , Winston and Gatorade were willing to put up advertising dollars and holding auto races became a much more profitable venture . To capitalize on this , the company began pursuing expansion through the purchase of existing tracks . In 1982 , the company bought one of the series ' most popular and traditional ones , Darlington Raceway which has been in operation since 1950 , as well as Tucson Raceway Park , a .375 miles ( 0 @.@ 604 km ) dirt oval ( since paved ) in Arizona . The following year they partnered with Corning Glass Works to purchase the Watkins Glen International road course in upstate New York . In 1987 , Bill France , Sr. stepped down as president of the company with Jim France replacing him . Two years later , ISC incorporated its food service company , Americrown .
= = = Penske merger = = =
By this time ISC was profitable , but most of their races were still in the South and in mostly rural areas , with many of the country 's major cities like Los Angeles , Detroit , Miami and Chicago lacking a nearby track . ISC began looking for ways to change this in the late 1990s . Homestead @-@ Miami Speedway was built in 1995 by Ralph Sanchez and Wayne Huizenga and in 1997 ISC and Penske Motorsports ( owned by motorsports magnate Roger Penske ) partnered with the track 's owners . In 1999 , the company continued its push into the country 's urban centers when it merged with Penske , who at the time owned four speedways : Nazareth Speedway , North Carolina Speedway in Rockingham , North Carolina , Michigan International Speedway and the newly constructed Auto Club Speedway ( which opened as California Speedway ) . Chairman Bill France , Jr. cited the company 's " attractive markets " as one of the major reasons for going ahead with the deal . The new company retained the ISC name , with Penske 's son Gregory Penske joining the board of directors . Not all of the new tracks from the Penske merger fit into the company 's plans however , as Nazareth was soon closed down and Rockingham was sold . The merger also gave ISC a 90 % stake in Homestead @-@ Miami Speedway and the company soon bought out the final 10 % to acquire complete control over the track .
In the same year , ISC formed the Motorsports Alliance with the owners of the historic Indianapolis Motor Speedway ; this company would go after another huge market in Chicago by building the new Chicagoland Speedway in nearby Joliet , Illinois and by buying out the smaller Route 66 Raceway dragstrip . In 2007 , ISC bought out its partners in the company to take control of both tracks .
In 2001 , ISC would continue its trend towards modern facilities by constructing Kansas Speedway near Kansas City . In 2003 , Lesa Kennedy took over from Jim France the role of president of the company . On June 1 , 2009 , John R. Saunders took over as President of ISC , becoming the first ISC president without a " France " surname . Mr. Saunders held the position of Executive Vice President of Operations prior to becoming President .
= = Today = =
Today , the company owns 13 active tracks which collectively hold 19 of the 36 events on the schedule of NASCAR 's premier competition , the Sprint Cup Series . Twelve of the thirteen host a Sprint Cup race ( the thirteenth being Route 66 Raceway , a dragstrip ) . In addition to the stock car racing that NASCAR is famous for , ISC tracks also host IRL IndyCar races , Grand @-@ Am , IMSA GT and SCCA sports car races , WKA go @-@ kart races and AMA motorcycle races . Besides NASCAR , other stock car series like IROC and ARCA use their tracks .
The company 's other holdings include the Motor Racing Network , a radio network that broadcasts NASCAR events , and Americrown , a food service business that operates concession stands at its tracks . In 2005 , ISC partnered with Speedway Motorsports , Inc. to form Motorsports Authentics , a company that markets and distributes NASCAR @-@ related souvenirs and collectibles .
Although ISC is controlled by the France family , it is separate from NASCAR . About 35 % of the stock in ISC is owned by the heirs of NASCAR founder Bill France and the remainder trades on the stock market . Lesa Kennedy is CEO and Jim France is Chairman .
ISC is still headquartered in Daytona Beach , Florida near Daytona International Speedway . ISC is working on a new development called ONE DAYTONA that will feature anchor tenants Bass Pro Shops , Cobb Theatres and a Marriott Autograph Collection hotel .
= = = ISC tracks = = =
= = = Former / inactive ISC tracks = = =
= = Future expansion = =
ISC and NASCAR have both made public their desire to have a presence in areas it sees as having the potential for growth , most notably the Pacific Northwest and New York City . ISC has said that the earliest either of these tracks would be operating is 2011 .
= = = Pacific Northwest = = =
= = = = Marysville = = = =
In 2003 , ISC began scouting sites in Washington and Oregon for a new track to attract fans from around the Pacific Northwest , eventually settling on a site near Marysville , Washington in Snohomish County north of Seattle . Although the plan was met with some resistance from residents – particularly those living near the site for the planned speedway – local business owners and other residents were in favor of the plan , believing that the track would be good for the area 's economy and would create jobs . Unlike ISC 's later proposal in New York , the Marysville proposal would be supported by public funds raised through taxes , in much the same way as other sports venues in the area ( KeyArena , Safeco Field , CenturyLink Field ) . The track would have been publicly owned and leased to ISC . In November 2004 , local officials and ISC announced that they could not go through with the deal , saying that the costs for that particular site would be too high .
= = = = Bremerton , WA = = = =
After the deal in Marysville fell through , ISC courted another site , this time south of Bremerton National Airport in Bremerton , WA just across Puget Sound from Seattle . Although like the Marysville proposal the proposal in Bremerton was to be partially funded with public money , the money will not come directly from taxes but instead from bonds funded by taxes , in a scheme similar to the one used to fund Kansas Speedway . Also like the Marysville proposal , the Bremerton track would be publicly owned and leased to ISC for three races per year . ISC 's current proposal was met with a lukewarm response from area lawmakers and citizens , but the company has promised to present an improved offer for early 2007 .
In March 2007 , Washington state representative Larry Seaquist caused a minor controversy when he was quoted as saying , " These people are not the kind of people you would want living next door to you . They 'd be the ones with the junky cars in the front yard and would try to slip around the law . " The quote was assumed to be an attack on NASCAR fans but Seaquist later claimed that it was directed at ISC .
In April 2007 , this plan was also abandoned by ISC after failing to get their bill out of committee in the Washington State Legislature or to gain the full support of the Kitsap County Commissioners .
= = = New York City = = =
On November 30 , 2004 , the company made no secret of its interest in building a superspeedway in the New York market and was in talks with Staten Island officials about the logistics of constructing a track there . In 2004 , ISC purchased 600 acres ( 2 @.@ 4 km2 ) on Staten Island in New York City for the construction of a 4 / 5 mile ( 1 @.@ 3 km ) short track that would hold 80 @,@ 000 fans and have the New York City skyline as its backdrop . The proposal was met with fierce resistance from many of the island 's residents . At a public meeting in April 2006 , police had to end the meeting early for fears of rioting and safety concerns . One report had a local councilman being put in a headlock after one particularly provoking speech ( though one ISC official called it merely a " hug for the TV cameras " ) . In December 2006 , ISC dropped their pursuit of the project .
= = = Colorado = = =
On February 13 , 2007 , the company announced that they were looking into building a track in Colorado . The 75 @,@ 000 @-@ seat track would be built on one of two locations in Adams County , just east of Denver . The company would also be looking to use the same type of combination of public and private funds for the race track as in Kansas and Washington .
= = Antitrust lawsuits = =
= = = Ferko lawsuit = = =
Francis Ferko , a stockholder in Speedway Motorsports , Inc . , sued NASCAR and ISC in 2002 for violating federal antitrust laws and breach of contract for not awarding a second Winston Cup ( now Sprint Cup ) series date to Texas Motor Speedway , claiming that the second race was " promised " to the SMI track by NASCAR . After an attempt by NASCAR to get the case dismissed , another shareholder , Rusty Vaughn , joined the case as co @-@ plaintiff in 2003 . Although NASCAR CEO Brian France initially said he was going to fight the case in the courts , in April 2004 it was announced that the case had been settled out of court with Texas getting the Cup date previously belonging to North Carolina Speedway and , as part of the deal , agreeing to purchase North Carolina — which now had no dates at all — from ISC for $ 100 million . Other races on the schedule were also moved around as a result ( see NASCAR Realignment ) .
= = = Kentucky Speedway lawsuit = = =
In 2005 , Kentucky Speedway filed a similar lawsuit against ISC and NASCAR , claiming that NASCAR violated antitrust laws by not awarding them a Sprint Cup Series race , noting the close relationship between NASCAR , ISC , and the France Family . NASCAR sought to have the case thrown out by arguing that the speedway wasn 't trying to end the alleged anticompetitive practices , they were merely trying to benefit from them as well . This motion was denied , however . A motion to move the case from Kentucky to Florida – home of NASCAR and ISC – was also rejected . ISC , for its part , said it shouldn 't be involved in the case at all as it conducts no business in the state . Lawyers for Kentucky Speedway contended that the company does business online and is just as responsible for the lack of competition in granting the races as NASCAR is .
Initially , Kentucky had wanted the jury to force NASCAR to grant the speedway a Sprint Cup Series event but in 2007 they changed their demand to instead force the France family to sell either NASCAR or ISC . The track is also demanding that NASCAR develop objective standards for the awarding of their race events and damages of $ 200 million . In January 2008 , the court dismissed the lawsuit , saying that the plaintiffs had failed to make their case . Kentucky Speedway says they will appeal the court 's decision .
In 2011 , Kentucky Speedway , now owned by SMI , received a date , the Quaker State 400 , on the Cup Series schedule .
= London Underground departmental stock =
Departmental locomotives on the London Underground consist of vehicles of a number of types which are used for engineering purposes . These include battery locomotives , diesel locomotives , electric locomotives , sleet locomotives , pilot motor cars and ballast motor cars . Details of the first four types are covered elsewhere . Pilot motor cars and ballast motor cars are generally vehicles which have been withdrawn from passenger service , but continue to be used by the engineering department . Pilot motor cars are used to move other vehicles around the system , while ballast motor cars are used to haul ballast trains and engineering trains .
The first ballast motor cars were former trailer cars built for the Central London Railway in 1900 , which were converted to motor cars for trials of the first multiple system to be used in Britain , and were retained for departmental use after 1903 . These were followed by French and Hungarian Gate stock cars , built in 1906 , which were converted in the 1920s and 1930s . The next batch consisted on 14 standard stock cars converted in 1953 . Rolling stock reorganisation and replacement in the 1970s on the District and Metropolitan lines resulted in a number of surface stock cars being used for pilot motor duties . Subsequently motor cars of 1938 stock and 1960 stock were used for this purpose , and complete 4 @-@ car units of 1962 stock .
The London Underground has also owned several departmental self @-@ powered vehicles designed for other duties . These include a tunnel cleaning train , consisting of two 1938 stock motor cars and three purpose @-@ built cars , which act like a giant vacuum cleaner , and can hold 6 tons of dust before the filter tanks need to be emptied . Three Plasser & Theurer track tamping machines were purchased in 1980 , and two Unimog road @-@ rail vehicles were obtained in 1983 and 1986 , for use as depot shunters .
= = Early ballast motor cars = =
When the Central London Railway opened in 1900 , it used camel @-@ back electric locomotives hauling six @-@ car trains . The locomotives weighed 44 tons and were largely unsprung , causing severe vibration problems in properties near the line . In an effort to resolve the problem , four of the coaches were fitted with motors , in the first trial in Britain of the Sprague @-@ Thomson @-@ Houston multiple unit control system . The trials were a success , and multiple unit trains were running by 1903 . Two of the trial cars , numbers 201 and 202 , were retained and became the first ballast motor cars to work on the Underground . They worked in this form until about 1910 , when batteries were fitted . They were renumbered L22 and L23 in 1929 , and were scrapped in 1936 and 1937 .
The next batch of ballast motor cars were French @-@ built gate stock cars , originally constructed in 1906 , but converted in the early 1920s to run with the 1920 air @-@ door stock . 20 motor cars were converted , but were replaced by more modern cars in 1930 . Although 12 of the displaced cars were scrapped , six were kept as ballast motor cars , becoming numbers L24 to L29 in the service fleet . The final two were further converted to run as single cars on the Aldwych shuttle . During the Second World War they were used as pilot motor cars for refreshment trains on the Piccadilly line , which supplied food to people sleeping on the stations to escape from the bombing of the city . They returned to the Aldwych shuttle between 1946 and 1949 , but were again used as pilot motor cars after that , transferring cars between the engineering works at Acton and various depots . They were both coupled to a flat wagon for a period , and were used to transfer stores from Acton Works to Northfields depot , and also took stores to Croxley Green and Queens Park depots on the Bakerloo line .
Four Hungarian @-@ built gate stock motor cars were used as ballast motor cars , and were numbered L13 to L16 . The final one was stored in 1955 , in the hope that it would be restored and preserved , but by 1960 , the project appeared to be too costly , and so the gate end of the car was cut off , and the rest of it was scrapped . After refurbishment , the gate was displayed at the London Transport Museum . A further four Hungarian motor cars from the Piccadilly line were used as pilot motor cars during the reconstruction of the Hampstead line in 1922 , and were numbered L17 to L20 . Once a spur between the Hampstead line and the Piccadilly line at Kings Cross station was opened on 27 March 1927 , it became much easier to transfer ballast motor cars between lines . The 14 departmental vehicles which were operational in 1934 continued to be used until 1953 , by which time their age made maintenance very difficult . They were replaced over the next two years and scrapped .
= = Standard stock cars = =
In 1953 , fourteen standard stock motor cars were withdrawn from passenger service , and were converted to ballast motor cars , with the final one completed in early 1955 . All of the vehicles chosen had been built in 1923 , four by Cammell Laird and ten by the Metropolitan Carriage Wagon & Finance Co . At least three of them were chosen because they were at Acton Works for repairs to collision damage . They were numbered L62 to L75 , and were painted grey . In 1957 , they were all repainted in Metropolitan maroon . L72 was the first to be scrapped , after a collision in 1963 . At the time , the standard stock was being withdrawn and replaced by 1959 / 62 Stock , and so rather than repair it , it was replaced by a 1927 motor car . The replacement also carried the number L72 . A 1931 motor car was used to replace L73 when it was badly damaged in 1967 , but in this case it carried a new number , becoming L77 . During the 1970s , the ballast motor cars were gradually withdrawn . The last two to be used were L63 and L68 , which performed leaf @-@ clearing duties in late 1977 , and all had been scrapped by September 1978 .
While single passenger cars were sometimes moved around the system , either between depots or to Acton Works , these movements were infrequent , and when they were necessary , standard stock motor cars borrowed from the passenger fleet were normally used . Following the introduction of the 1959 passenger stock , single cars and parts of units were moved around much more frequently , and normal passenger motor cars could not be used to perform this task , as the equipment they needed to operate was spread around the unit , rather than confined to the motor car . Eight Standard Stock motor cars , dating from 1927 and 1934 , were therefore allocated as pilot motor cars . In 1967 , they were painted maroon , numbered L130 to L137 , and became part of the ballast motor fleet . Four were withdrawn in 1971 without performing this work , however . Following withdrawal , L137 was shipped to the Isle of Wight , to replace a car on the Island Line which had been damaged . The remaining four cars worked as two pairs , and were still working as pilot motor cars in 1987 , but had been withdrawn by 1993 .
= = Surface stock cars = =
From time to time , the Underground has needed to move surface stock cars around the system , and several motor cars have been set aside as pilot motor cars for this purpose . In 1971 , the trains on the District line were rearranged into 7 @-@ car units , and in 1974 , District line stock was removed from the East London line . This resulted in a large number of spare cars , which were transferred to Ruislip Depot for eventual scrapping . One Q23 stock motor car and one Q27 stock motor car were allocated as pilot motor cars for this task in 1967 , but did not receive departmental numbers . They also toured the system with a gauging car , to check clearances . They were joined by four Q38 stock motor cars in 1971 , which were renumbered L126 to L129 in 1972 . Shunting of the scrap cars and the new stock being delivered in Ruislip Depot between 1970 and 1972 was handled by six pilot motor cars , two each drawn from Q23 , Q27 and Q38 stock . Four were scrapped in 1972 , and the final two in 1974 . L126 and L127 were painted yellow in 1983 , They were subsequently repainted in red , and their departmental numbers were replaced by their original passenger car numbers . Following withdrawal , they have been retained by the London Transport Museum .
When delivery of C67 stock began in 1977 , two pairs of CO / CP stock motor cars were used as pilot motor cars to shunt the new stock at Ruislip Depot , and to marshall the scrap stock displaced by the new units . The C77 stock could be driven under its own power to Hammersmith Depot , as it was commissioned at Ruislip . The D78 stock was different , in that delivery was still to Ruislip , but the commissioning took place at Ealing Common Depot , and therefore pilot motor cars were needed to transfer the stock . Two pairs of CO / CP stock motor cars were allocated to do this in 1979 , with a further three pairs joining them in 1980 . New trains were transferred with a pilot motor car at each end , as were trains that were withdrawn for scrapping . The pilot motor cars carried large stencils at both ends , so that they would not accidentally be scrapped until their duties were complete . Three pairs of R stock motor cars were used as pilot motor cars after the R stock was scrapped . Most of the surface stock pilot motor cars were scrapped when the deliveries were complete , although one each of the CO / CP and R stock cars have been privately preserved .
= = Tube stock cars = =
Deliveries of 1972 stock enabled 1938 stock to be withdrawn , and several cars were converted for use as ballast motor cars . The task was more complicated than for earlier stock , as 1938 units had compressors mounted on the trailer cars . The motor cars therefore had to be fitted with compressors , and the couplings were changed from Wedgelock to Ward type . The first four were numbered L140 to L143 , and the conversion was carried out at Acton Works in 1972 . Another six were converted , two in 1975 , two in 1976 , and the final two in 1977 , which were numbered L144 to L149 . L151 and L152 were converted in 1978 , and were additionally fitted with weed killing equipment . Another four were added in the same year , numbered L153 to L156 . Although the ballast motor cars were normally worked in pairs , some engineering trains had a ballast motor car at one end and a battery locomotive at the other . One advantage of the ballast motor cars over battery locomotives was that the interiors could be used by personnel and for storing small tools , although they were less powerful , and could only work when the traction current was switched on . By 2002 , all except the weed killing pair had been withdrawn .
Two of the 1960 stock cars were converted to work as pilot motor cars in 1987 . The conversion was carried out at British Rail Engineering Limited 's works at Derby . They were numbered L132 and L133 , and were used to haul a track recording car around the system . The recording car is numbered TRC666 , and was converted from a 1973 @-@ built trailer car .
27 cars of 1962 stock , supplemented by three cars of 1959 stock , were retained after most of that stock was withdrawn . These were formed into seven 4 @-@ car units , which were used as pilot motor units , while the remaining two cars were used for training by the Emergency Response Unit of the British Transport Police . Two units were fitted with Automatic Train Protection ( ATP ) equipment to allow them to work on the Central line , two were based at Ruislip Depot , and two were owned by TransPlant . The seventh unit was stored at Ruislip by 2002 , waiting for disposal . The units were not renumbered in the engineering series and continued to carry their passenger fleet numbers . One of the driving motor cars based at Ruislip was repainted in olive green .
= = Other self @-@ powered vehicles = =
London Underground has owned a small number of departmental vehicles which were not ballast motor or pilot motor cars . Between 1935 and 1950 , the District line had a weed @-@ killing train , initially consisting of a 1905 @-@ built B stock driving motor car and a control trailer . The two cars were kept at Ealing Common depot , but the control trailer was scrapped in 1937 and replaced by a second motor car , to provide more power . Weed @-@ killing duties were not carried out during the Second World War , and the vehicles were not refurbished subsequently . They were scrapped in 1950 .
In 1977 , a tunnel @-@ cleaning train was completed . This consisted of two 1938 driving motor cars , and three purpose @-@ built vehicles . The middle vehicle of the five contains a fan unit , which supplies large volumes of low pressure air to a series of nozzles , which disturb the dust on the tunnel walls and track . The cars on either side of it draw the dust @-@ laden air into filter chambers , and are fitted with conveyors for discharging the dust at depots . To enable the train to operate sufficiently slowly for the cleaning process to be effective , a hydraulic drive was fitted to one of the motor cars , with settings to allow speeds of 0 @.@ 5 mph ( 0 @.@ 8 km / h ) , 1 @.@ 5 mph ( 2 @.@ 4 km / h ) , 4 @.@ 5 mph ( 7 @.@ 2 km / h ) and 6 mph ( 9 @.@ 7 km / h ) . Up to 6 tons of dust can be held in the filter bags , and the units are fitted with carbon dioxide and water mist fire fighting equipment , because of the combustible nature of fine dust particles . There were teething problems when the train began work in 1978 , but by 1980 , these had been resolved .
In 2002 , the company also owned three Plasser & Theurer track maintenance machines , which were built in 1980 . One was fitted with ATP equipment to allow it to work on the Central line . They had previously owned six other tamping machines , which were acquired between 1959 and 1975 . The 1959 model was scrapped in 1970 , and the oldest four of the others were withdrawn in 1984 and 1985 . One of the machines built in 1967 went to the Southern Steam Trust at Swanage , and another , built in 1973 , was acquired by the Severn Valley Railway .
In 1983 and 1986 , London Underground purchased two Unimog road @-@ rail vehicles , which were used as depot shunters . They are fitted with small railway wheels just outside the road tyres , which can be lowered when working in railway mode , and ensure that the road wheels run along the top of the rails . They are numbered L84 and L85 . They previously owned a Unimog tractor @-@ trailer pair of vehicles , purchased in 1982 , which were used for leaf @-@ clearing duties . Nozzles on the tractor unit were used to suck up the leaves , which were then stored in a 570 @-@ cubic @-@ foot ( 16 m3 ) bin mounted in the trailer .
= 1997 – 98 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season =
The 1997 – 98 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season was fairly quiet and had the latest start in 30 years . The first tropical disturbance originated on January 16 , although the first named storm , Anacelle , was not upgraded until February 8 , a record late start . The last storm to dissipate was an unusually late tropical depression in late July . Many of the storms suffered from the effects of wind shear , which contributed to there being only one tropical cyclone – equivalent to a minimal hurricane . The season also occurred during a powerful El Niño .
Tropical Depression A1 , the first of the season , moved throughout most of Mozambique in January , causing landslides and flooding . One landslide affected Milange District , where many houses were swept into a river . Landslides killed between 87 and 143 people in the country . In February , Cyclone Anacelle buffeted several islands with gusty winds after becoming the strongest storm of the season , reaching maximum sustained winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) . Although Anacelle was the first named storm of the season , another tropical depression preceded it that crossed Madagascar several times . The depression eventually became Tropical Storm Beltane , and lasted 17 days . Beltane caused flooding across Madagascar due to heavy rainfall , which killed one person and left locally heavy crop damage . There were several other disturbances in February , including Cindy which dissipated 50 days after it originated , as well as a disturbance that brought heavy rainfall to Réunion and Mauritius . The rest of the season was fairly quiet , mostly with short @-@ lived tropical disturbances or storms .
= = Season summary = =
During the year , the Météo @-@ France office on Réunion ( MFR ) issued warnings for tropical systems in the region as the Regional Specialised Meteorological Centre . In the year , MFR tracked tropical cyclones south of the equator from the coast of Africa to 90 ° E. The Joint Typhoon Warning Center also issued warnings in an unofficial capacity .
The season had the latest start in 30 years , with the first depression forming in January . The first storm , Anacelle , was not named until February 8 , which retains the record for the latest date of the first named storm . For the early portion of the season , there were unusually quiet conditions across much of the basin , along with higher than normal pressure . The intertropical convergence zone ( ITCZ ) associated with the monsoon only became active in February , allowing tropical cyclogenesis to occur more frequently . There were six tropical storms during the season , of which only one attained tropical cyclone status ; these are below the averages of 9 and 4 , respectively . No storms attained intense tropical cyclone status . The season 's low activity contrasted that of the previous season , which was much more active . There were 18 days in which a storm was active , the lowest since 1982 – 83 . An ongoing El Niño was evident during the season .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Depression A1 = = =
The first system of the season originated out of a circulation that persisted in the northern Mozambique Channel on January 15 . Convection developed around the center near Grande Comore , meriting its classification Tropical Disturbance 1 . Moving southwestward , the system organized into a tropical depression on January 17 , developing a curved band of convection . Further intensification was halted as the system moved ashore Mozambique near Angoche . The depression turned to the south over land , remaining over inland Mozambique for several days . On January 18 , the JTWC classified the system as Tropical Cyclone 13S , estimating winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) , despite the storm being 55 km ( 35 mi ) inland . The agency quickly downgraded the storm to tropical depression status , but briefly re @-@ upgraded it on January 19 as the system crossed over the extreme western Mozambique Channel . The agency again downgraded it after the storm moved ashore . By contrast , the MFR assessed that the system remained a tropical depression and placed the circulation farther inland . On January 20 , the depression turned to the southeast over open waters , influenced by a trough to the south . Despite warmer waters , the system was unable to re @-@ intensify much due to the presence of wind shear , although the JTWC again upgraded the system to tropical storm status for a third and final time . The depression approached tropical storm intensify after developing increased convection over the center , but it weakened again on January 22 . On the next day , the system dissipated just off the southern coast of Madagascar .
In its formative stages , the depression dropped beneficial rainfall in the Comoros , reaching 163 mm ( 6 @.@ 4 in ) at Prince Said Ibrahim International Airport . While the depression was over land , the plume of warm air from the open waters sustained heavy convection over the circulation , which dropped heavy rainfall across eastern Mozambique . The rains caused landslides and flooding in the country , which disrupted transport in three provinces , damaging several bridges . The most significant landslide occurred in Milange District at nighttime , which swept houses into a river ; about 2 @,@ 500 people were left homeless in the village . There were 73 confirmed fatalities , with another 70 people missing and presumed killed . However ; the International Disaster Database ( EM @-@ DAT ) later placed the total number of casualties at 87 . Rainfall also extended into Malawi , where villages were flooded and crops were damaged . While the system was accelerating to the southeast away from Mozambique , it produced gale force winds on Europa Island .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Beltane = = =
A northerly flow produced a low pressure area on February 1 in the central Mozambique Channel . Influenced by the monsoon trough , the system developed a distinct circulation on February 3 near Juan de Nova Island , becoming a tropical disturbance and bringing gusts of 50 km / h ( 30 mph ) to the island . The convection organized around the circulation while moving eastward . Conditions were favorable for further strengthening , although the system made landfall in western Madagascar between Maintirano and Morondava on February 5 . After progressing slightly inland , the disturbance looped and turned to the south . The circulation became difficult to locate , but surface observations helped track the circulation southward through the country . Late on February 8 , the system reached the open waters south of Madagascar and quickly redeveloped convection southeast of the center , displaced by wind shear , and it was reclassified as a subtropical depression . The JTWC briefly classified it as Tropical Cyclone 21S on February 9 with winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) .
A building ridge to the south turned the system northeastward on February 10 and later to the northwest , bringing it back over southwestern Madagascar . On February 11 , the circulation again reentered the Mozambique Channel , and subsequently the thunderstorms rebuilt over the poorly defined center . A trough behind the ridge allowed the system to turn to the southwest and later southeast . An increase in convection on February 15 organized into a curved band , and MFR upgraded the system to Tropical Storm Beltane on the next day off the west coast of Madagascar . The JTWC also classified the system as Tropical Cyclone 23S on February 16 , possibly due to the extended duration between issuing advisories . Strong wind shear stripped the convection from the center as Beltane approached southwestern Madagascar on February 17 . Another building ridge turned the weakened depression to the northwest across the Mozambique Channel , finally dissipating on February 20 near the mouth of the Zambezi . The remnants later moved across Mozambique accompanied by locally heavy rainfall .
Due to its trajectories across Madagascar , Beltane brought heavy rainfall to the country . The persistent precipitation damaged crops , up to 100 % in some areas , and forced thousands to evacuate their houses . Floodwaters covered the village of Vohipeno , killing one person . Several roads and bridges were also washed away .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Anacelle = = =
On February 5 , the ITCZ spawned an area of convection about 1 @,@ 000 km ( 620 mi ) southwest of Diego Garcia . The system slowly organized , aided by warm waters and weakening wind shear . On February 6 , it developed into a tropical disturbance , and became Tropical Storm Anacelle two days later . Also on February 8 , the JTWC initiated advisories on the storm as Tropical Cyclone 20S . The storm initially moved westward due to a ridge to the north , although the motion shifted to the southwest on February 9 due to a trough and the influence of the system that would become Tropical Storm Beltane . Anacelle developed an eye feature on February 10 , indicating that it attained tropical cyclone status , or winds of at least 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . Around that time , Anacelle passed just west of St. Brandon . On February 11 , the cyclone passed about 100 km ( 60 mi ) east of Mauritius . Shortly thereafter , Anacelle attained peak winds while presenting a 30 km ( 19 mi ) eye . It reached peak winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) , according to MFR , while the JTWC estimated peak winds of 215 km / h ( 130 mph ) . An approaching trough weakened the cyclone and steered it southeastward , causing the eye to disappear . On February 13 , Anacelle became extratropical , although the remnants continued southeastward , passing near Île Amsterdam on the next day and re @-@ intensifying on February 15 in the southern Indian Ocean .
While passing near St. Brandon , Anacelle produced peak winds of 101 km / h ( 63 mph ) , with gusts to 151 km / h ( 94 mph ) . Later , the storm produced gusty winds of less than 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) on Mauritius , along with 125 mm ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) of rainfall at Port Louis . The extratropical remnants also brought gale force winds to Île Amsterdam .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Donaline = = =
A large area of low pressure between the Chagos Archipelago and the Mascarene Islands spawned a small tropical disturbance on March 4 . Moving southeastward , the system slowly developed as wind shear in the region slowly decreased . Despite only being a tropical depression , it was named Donaline on March 5 . On the next day , the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 26S . Increased convection organized into a central dense overcast , and Donaline intensified into a minimal tropical storm , reaching peak winds of 75 km / h ( 55 mph ) according to the MFR . In contrast , the JTWC estimated peak winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) . The wind shear returned , causing weakening and dislocating the circulation from the convection . On March 10 , Donaline became extratropical and was absorbed by a cold front two days later .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Elsie = = =
On March 7 , a low pressure area persisted west of the Cocos Islands in the Australian basin . It drifted westward , entering the south @-@ west Indian Ocean on March 9 as a tropical disturbance . It remained weak , with little convection over the center . Outflow gradually increased , although satellite imagery was limited in the region to only one image per day . Late on March 12 , the satellite imagery indicated a well @-@ defined tropical storm with curved convection , and the MFR immediately upgraded it to Severe Tropical Storm Elsie , estimating peak winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) . By contrast , the JTWC estimated winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) , having classified it as Tropical Cyclone 27S that day . By that time , the storm was moving steadily to the southwest due to a trough in the region related to the remnants of Donaline . Increased wind shear caused steady weakening , removing the circulation from the convection on February 14 . On the next day , Elsie weakened to tropical depression status as it curved southward . A building ridge to the south turned the system to the east , gradually looping back to the northwest . Elsie eventually dissipated on March 20 .
= = = Tropical Depression Fiona = = =
While Elsie was weakening and turning to the south , another system was forming near St. Brandon . Convection associated with the monsoon trough persisted on March 13 , becoming a tropical disturbance two days later . The ridge steered the system to the southwest toward Rodigues , and conditions were expected to allow for intensification . As a result , the Mauritius Meteorological Service named the disturbance as Fiona on March 16 . On the next day , Fiona intensified into a tropical depression , reaching peak winds of only 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) . Also on March 17 , the JTWC initiated advisories on Tropical Cyclone 28S . Around this time , Fiona passed about 200 km ( 120 mi ) southeast of St. Brandon . After peaking , the convection decreased due to wind shear , causing the winds to fluctuate . On March 20 , the circulation became exposed from the thunderstorms and approached 80 km ( 45 mi ) east of Mauritius , producing wind gusts of 70 km / h ( 44 mph ) . The next day , Fiona dissipated into an approaching cold front .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Gemma = = =
After an extended period of inactivity , the ITCZ produced two areas of convection – one was located about 550 km ( 340 mi ) south @-@ southwest of Diego Garcia , and the other was located 900 km ( 560 mi ) east @-@ southeast of that system . Both were classified as tropical disturbances on April 7 and subsequently interacted with each other . The eastern system , classified as Tropical Cyclone 33S , quickly dissipated due to strong wind shear and was absorbed into the western system . The disturbance continued to organize and developed a central dense overcast over the center , becoming Tropical Storm Gemma on April 8 . A ridge and a trough steered the storm to the southeast and later to the east . On April 9 , Gemma attained peak winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) , according to the MFR , while the JTWC estimated 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) winds . As with most other storms in the year , increased wind shear caused the storm to weaken . The weaker system isolated it from the upper @-@ level steering , causing the circulation to loop southwestward . On April 16 , Gemma dissipated far to the east of Rodrigues .
= = = Other storms = = =
In addition to the named systems , there were nine tropical depressions or disturbances tracked by the MFR , and several by other agencies .
On January 2 , the tropical depression that was once Cyclone Selwyn crossed 90 ° E from the Australian region , but dissipated the next day .
On February 8 , a tropical low formed just north of Western Australia from the remnants of Cyclone Katrina , which earlier formed off the east coast of Australia . The low moved generally westward due to a strong ridge to the south . Given the name Victor , the storm intensified to a peak of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) before weakening steadily due to increased wind shear . On February 14 , the storm weakened to tropical depression status . Victor crossed into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean on February 16 with a well @-@ defined circulation but little convection . Despite being downgraded to a tropical disturbance , the system was named Cindy by the Mauritius Meteorological Service on February 16 . The system continued gradually weakening while turning more to the southwest , dissipating on February 19 . This marked a 50 day period in which the same system was active .
After Cyclone Anacelle became extratropical , an area of convection developed about 700 km ( 430 mi ) northeast of Rodrigues on February 14 . The circulation moved southwestward , organizing into Tropical Disturbance D1 on February 16 . Later that day , it was upgraded to tropical depression status after the convection organized into a central dense overcast , and on the same day the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 24S . Increased wind shear weakened the depression as a trough turned it more to the southeast . On February 19 , the trough absorbed the system .
After the disturbance dissipated , a large low pressure area persisted east of Madagascar with several associated circulations . On February 24 , Tropical Disturbance D2 passed about 160 km ( 100 mi ) west of Réunion , and continued to the southeast , passing south of Mauritius . Wind shear stripped the convection from the center and caused it to dissipate . Over a nine @-@ day period , the system dropped nearly 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) of rainfall in portions of Réunion , including nearly 700 mm ( 28 in ) at Salazie on February 24 ; at that station , 255 mm ( 10 @.@ 0 in ) of precipitation fell in just three hours . Gusts reached 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) in some locations . The storm caused flooding and landslides on the island as well as power outages . Rainfall also reached 240 millimetres ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) on Mauritius . Residents were generally caught off guard by the storm due to the lack of warnings . Tropical Disturbance D3 also developed before March .
Although Tropical Storm Gemma was the final named storm , there were four subsequent tropical disturbances . The first formed toward the end of April after Gemma dissipated in the same general region . Named Tropical Cyclone 34S by the JTWC , it moved westward throughout its duration but failed to intensify due to wind shear . On April 22 , the system dissipated , never having developed beyond tropical disturbance status . The last disturbance of the year formed on July 20 about 1480 km ( 920 mi ) east of Diego Garcia . The system moved generally southwestward , dissipating on July 23 due to wind shear . At the time , the tropical cyclone year for the basin lasted from August 1 to July 31 of the following year , although the JTWC considers the start of the tropical cyclone year to begin on July 1 . As a result , the MFR considered the system Tropical Disturbance H4 while the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 01S .
= = Storm names = =
A tropical disturbance is named when it reaches moderate tropical storm strength . If a tropical disturbance reaches moderate tropical storm status west of 55 ° E , then the Sub @-@ regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre in Madagascar assigns the appropriate name to the storm . If a tropical disturbance reaches moderate tropical storm status between 55 ° E and 90 ° E , then the Sub @-@ regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre in Mauritius assigns the appropriate name to the storm . A new annual list is used every year so no names are retired .
= Kangiten =
Kangi @-@ ten ( Japanese : 歓喜天 , " God of Bliss " ) is a god ( deva or ten ) in Shingon and Tendai schools of Japanese Buddhism . He is generally considered the Japanese Buddhist form of the Hindu elephant @-@ headed god of wisdom , Ganesha and is sometimes also identified with the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara . He is also known as Kanki @-@ ten , Shō @-@ ten ( 聖天 , " sacred god " or " noble god " ) , Daishō @-@ ten ( " great noble god " ) , Daishō Kangi @-@ ten ( 大聖歓喜天 ) , Tenson ( 天尊 , " venerable god " ) , Kangi Jizai @-@ ten ( 歓喜自在天 ) , Shōden @-@ sama , Vinayaka @-@ ten , Binayaka @-@ ten ( 毘那夜迦天 ) , Ganapatei ( 誐那缽底 ) and Zōbi @-@ ten ( 象鼻天 ) .
Kangiten has many aspects and names , associated with Vajrayana ( Esoteric Buddhist , Tantric , mantrayana ) schools , Shingon being one of them . Although Kangiten is depicted with an elephant 's head like Ganesha as a single male deity , his most popular aspect is the Dual ( -bodied ) Kangiten or the Embracing Kangiten depicted as an elephant @-@ headed male @-@ female human couple standing in an embrace .
= = Names = =
Kangiten inherits many names and characteristics from the Hindu god Ganesha . He is known as Bināyaka @-@ ten , derived from the epithet Vinayaka ; Gaṇabachi or Gaṇapati ( Ganapati is a popular epithet of Ganesha ) and Gaṇwha ( Ganesha ) . Like Ganesha , Bināyaka is the remover of obstacles , but when propitiated , he bestows material fortunes , prosperity , success and health . In addition , Bināyaka is said to be of evil nature , creator of discord and dispute and leading people towards immoral ways .
Shō @-@ ten or Āryadeva indicates his association with good luck and fortune .
The name " Kangi @-@ ten " , generally implied to the Tantric embracing deity icons , is venerated as giver of joy and prosperity . The Dual Kangiten icon called Soshin Kangi @-@ ten ( " dual @-@ bodied god of bliss " ) is a unique feature of Shingon Buddhism . It is also called Soshin Binayaka in Japanese , Kuan @-@ Shi ten in Chinese and Nandikeshvara in Sanskrit .
= = Iconography and depictions = =
Kangiten is often represented as an elephant @-@ headed male and female pair , standing embracing each other in sexual union . The genders of the pair is not explicit , but hinted in the iconography . The female wears a crown , a patched monk 's robe and a red surplice , while the male wears a black cloth over his shoulder . He has a long trunk and tusks , while she has short ones . He is reddish @-@ brown in colour and she is white . She usually rests her feet on his , while he rests his head on her shoulder . A variant form called " Shoten Fondly Smiling " form , both of them gaze into each other 's eyes , smiling intently . She wears loose garments , while he wears tight ones . Sometimes , they are cloaked in a single garment . In another variant , " Embracing Shoten Looking Over the Shoulder " , as the name suggests , the couple look over each other 's shoulders . The iconography represents unity of opposites ( coniunctio oppositorum ) . Though they are separate figures with contrasting iconographies and genders , however they share the common name " Kangiten " and are engrossed in an intimate embrace , indicating their nonduality . The non @-@ dual is further stressed by sexual indicators like the feet @-@ on @-@ feet or the single garment .
Shoten may be also depicted as male alone . The deity figure ( s ) is / are portrayed as elephant @-@ headed , with two , four , six , eight or twelve arms . However , his images are rarely displayed in public . When depicted as a male , Shoten is generally four @-@ armed , holding a radish and a sweet ( modak ) . He may also hold a mace , a sword , a cup of ambrosia or have two of his front arms folded . The six @-@ armed aspect of Kangiten is described carrying a knife , a fruit bowl , a discus in his left hands and a club , a noose and his broken tusk in his right .
Vinayaka are also depicted in two most important Shingon mandalas , Vajra @-@ dhatu and Garbhakosa @-@ dhatu . The mandalas generally have more than 1 Vinayaka figures . The Vinayakas are elephant @-@ headed , carry emblems such as radish and axe and are seated on lotus pedestals ( padmasana ) , the sign of divinity . The Vinayakas are generally positioned as guardians of the directions and serve as protectors against demons and evil . The central figure of the mandalas is Vairocana , one of the Five Great Buddhas , whose incarnation the Vinayakas are considered in this configuration .
Kangiten may also be depicted symbolically by symbolic syllable called shuji or bija or by symbols such as an umbrella , garland or bow and arrow in mandalas .
= = Origins and texts = =
Kangiten first emerged as a minor deity in the Japanese Buddhist pantheon in the eighth @-@ ninth centuries CE , possibly under the influence of Kukai ( 774 – 835 ) , the founder of Shingon Buddhism . The Hindu Ganesha icon travelled to China , where it was incorporated in Buddhism , then journeyed further to Japan . Kangiten 's early role in Shingon , like most other Hindu deities assimilated in Buddhism , is of a minor guardian of the twin mandalas . Later on , Kangiten emerged as besson , an independent deity . Kangiten appears in numerous Japanese besson guides , compiled in Heian period ( 794 – 1185 ) . While it includes rituals and iconographic forms like the early Chinese texts , it introduces origin myths of the deity to justify the Buddhist nature of the Hindu Ganesha .
Early images show him as with two or six arms . The paintings and gilt @-@ bronze images of the Dual Kangiten with explicit sexual connotations emerged in the late Heian period , under the Tantric influence of Tibetan Buddhism where such sexual imagery ( Yab @-@ Yum ) was common . The rare Japanese sexual iconography was hidden from public eye , to abide with Confucian ethics . Kangiten has now become an important deity in Shingon .
The origins of the Dual Kangiten have perplexed scholars for years ; there is no concrete evidence about the inception of this form . It is first found in Chinese texts , related to Chinese Tantric Buddhism , which was centred on the Buddha Vairocana and propagated by the three great masters Śubhakarasiṃha , Vajrabodhi , and Amoghavajra . The Dharanisamuccya translated to Chinese by the monk Atigupta ( Atikuta ) in 654 CE describes a ritual to worship the Dual Kangiten ; the same ritual was replicated by Amoghavajra ( 705 – 774 ) in his ritual text Daishoten Kangi Soshin Binayaka ho . Amoghavajra describes Soshin Kangiten as a deva , who grants one 's desires and a trayaka , the protector against evil and calamity . It details rituals and mantras to gain favour of the Dual Kangiten as well as the six @-@ armed Shoten . In another text by Amoghavajra , Soshin Kangiten is called a bodhisattva . This text categorizes the worshippers into three : the highest can learn inner secrets , the middle can read this text and the lowest should just accompany a higher worshipper in rituals . It describes rituals to gain four siddhis ( " powers " ) , namely of " protection , of gain , of love and of subjugation " . Rituals to appease Kangiten are described to gain three material things : kingship , prosperity and sufficient food and clothing . The text especially prescribes wine , the " water of bliss " as an offering to Kangiten . A minor text " Ritual of Sho Kangiten " ( 861 ) by Poi @-@ jo @-@ je Chieh @-@ lo describes the mandalas of Kangiten .
Bodhiruci ( trad . 572 – 727 ) has written two texts ( dated c . 693 – 713 ) that narrate about Vinayaka . In one of the texts , Vinayaka teaches a host of deities and demons a one @-@ syllable mantra , followed by a description of a ritual dedicated to the Dual Kangiten , which is also found in Amoghavajra 's Daishoten Kangi Soshin Binayaka ho . Vinayaka 's demon followers promise the deity to grant of wishes of beings , who repeat the one @-@ syllable mantra . In the longer version of the previous text , Bodhiruci elaborates of the Vinayaka story and enlists many rituals to propitiate the Dual Kangiten as well as the four @-@ armed form of the deity . It also has rituals to entice , gain wisdom , destroy foes etc . Besides the usual list of rituals , mantras and iconographical descriptions of the deity , Śubhakarasiṃha ( early 8th century ) in text , predating Amoghavajra but post @-@ dating Atigupta composed in c . 723 @-@ 36 , equates Kangiten to Shiva and associates " the Hindu king " Vinayaka with Avalokiteshvara ( Kannon ) .
The Dual Kangiten may also have been by the Hindu Tantric portrayal of Ganesha with consorts .
= = Legends = =
Numerous Japanese Buddhist canons narrate tales about the evil nature of Vināyaka . The Kangisoshinkuyoho as well as Śubhakarasiṃha 's early Chinese text describes that King Vinayaka ( Binayaka ) was the son of Uma ( hi ) ( identified with the Hindu Parvati , mother of Ganesha ) and Maheshvara , the Buddhist equivalent of Shiva , father of Ganesha . Uma produces 1500 children from her either side ; from her left a host of evil Vinayakas , headed by Vinayaka ( Binayaka ) and from her right , benevolent virtuous hosts headed by the manifestation of Avalokiteshvara – Senanayaka ( " Lord of the army [ of gods ] " , identified with the Hindu god of war Skanda , the brother of Ganesha ) , the antithesis of Vinayaka . Senanayaka would take many births as the elder brother ( as in the Hindu tradition ) or wife of Vinyanaka to defeat him . Then Śubhakarasiṃha 's text says that as wife , Senanayaka embraces Vinayaka leading to the icon of the Dual Kangiten . In the Japanese pantheon , Kangiten is considered as the brother of Ida @-@ ten , idenfied with Skanda .
Another legend narrates that the king of Marakeira only ate beef and radishes . When these became rare , he started feasting on human corpses and finally living beings , turning into the great demon @-@ king Vinayaka , who commanded an army of vinayakas . The people prayed to the Avalokiteshvara , who took the form of a female vinayaka and seduced Vinayaka , filling him with joy ( kangi ) . Thus , he , in union with her , became the Dual Kangiten .
The Kukozensho tells that Zaijizai , Maheshvara 's consort , had a son named Shoten , who was banished from heaven , due to his evil and violent nature . A beautiful goddess named Gundari ( Kundali ) , took the form of a terrible demoness and married Shoten , leading him to good ways . Another tale narrates that Kangiten was the evil daughter of Mahaeshvara , driven out from heaven . She took refuge at Mount Binayaka and married a fellow male @-@ Binayaka , resulting in the Dual Kangiten icon . Japanese variants of the legend of the Dual Kangiten emphasize that union of Vinayaka ( the male ) and Vainayaki ( the female ) transforms an evil obstacle creator into a reformed individual .
= = Worship = =
Kangiten is considered to be endowed with great power . Kangiten is regarded as protector of temples and worshipped generally by gamblers , actors , geishas and people in the business of " pleasure " . Mantras are often prescribed in ritual texts to appease the deity and even to drive away this obstacle @-@ maker . Rice wine ( sake ) , radishes and " bliss @-@ buns " ( kangi @-@ dan ) are offered to the god .
While Kangiten is worshipped throughout Japan , Hōzan @-@ ji on the summit of Mount Ikoma is his most important and active temple . Though the temple is believed to have been founded in the sixth century , it came in the limelight in the 17th century when the monk Tankai ( 1629 – 1716 ) made the temple 's Gohonzon , a Heian period , gilt @-@ bronze image of the Dual Kangiten , the centre of attraction . In the Genroku era ( 1688 – 1704 ) , Osaka merchants , especially vegetable @-@ oil sellers , joined Kangiten 's cult , attributing their success to his worship . Business people still continue to worship him at the sanctuary and figurines of the Dual Kangiten are found in shops around the temple . The central Dual Kangiten icon is kept under a phallic cover called the linga @-@ kosa , when not being worshipped .
Besides Shingon worship , as of 1979 , Kangiten 's worship was recorded in at least 243 Japanese shrines .
= The Last Voyage of the Starship Enterprise =
" The Last Voyage of the Starship Enterprise " is a comedy sketch that first aired on May 29 , 1976 , during episode 22 of the first season of the NBC variety show , Saturday Night Live . The twelve @-@ minute sketch was written by Michael O 'Donoghue during a month @-@ long process consulting with actor John Belushi . The sketch is a satire of the 1969 cancellation of Star Trek : The Original Series . The set design featured an effective replica of the bridge of the U.S.S Enterprise . Dress rehearsal was difficult , with the writer doubting whether Belushi would be able to pull off an effective parody of William Shatner 's performance as Captain James Kirk . However , the result was a success , and O 'Donoghue immediately congratulated Belushi after his performance and reflected that he had perfectly parodied Shatner as Kirk .
The sketch became an instant cult classic hit among Star Trek and science fiction fans . The 1977 book Saturday Night Live edited by Anne Beatts and John Head included a copy of a note from Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry praising the comedic bit . The sketch was released on a 1985 Saturday Night Live compilation VHS that featured The Best of John Belushi , and re @-@ released with the same title in DVD format in 2011 . In his book Metapop author Michael Dunne called the comedic bit among the most well @-@ known of all Saturday Night Live routines . The Chicago Sun @-@ Times referred to it as an intelligent satire of Star Trek . The Los Angeles Times placed the parody among the program 's top ten sketches of all @-@ time . On the series ' 40th anniversary , Tulsa World listed the sketch as one of the television show 's most iconic .
The New Yorker film critic Anthony Lane wrote that Belushi was flawless and captured Shatner 's essence while adding simultaneously his own layer of weariness to the character . The Hollywood Reporter interviewed Tom Hanks and Elliott Gould in 2015 ; Gould called the sketch a favorite , while Hanks placed it among the best five of all time . In ranking every single Saturday Night Live cast member by talent in 2015 , Rolling Stone called the Captain Kirk parody one of Belushi 's most memorable and wrote that it was evidence of the actor 's youthful innocence .
= = Plot synopsis = =
The sensors of the starship U.S.S. Enterprise pick up a strange alien spacecraft following it in hot pursuit . Mr. Spock , played by Chevy Chase , identifies it as a 1968 Chrysler Imperial with a tinted windshield and retractable headlights .
Captain Kirk , played by John Belushi , orders the ship to outrun the strange craft . Unable to do so , he orders phasers and photon torpedoes to destroy the craft . Unfortunately , all of the ship 's equipment fails for no reason and the Enterprise 's systems break down . Suddenly , Dr. Leonard McCoy , played by Dan Aykroyd , runs onto the bridge saying that the aliens are on the ship . He says they did not beam aboard , but merely walked out from behind the curtains .
It turns out that the aliens are NBC executive Herb Goodman , played by Elliott Gould , and his associate Curtis , played by Garrett Morris . They announce that the Star Trek series has been cancelled . Captain Kirk orders the crew to fire their hand phasers at the aliens but nothing happens . Mr. Spock assumes that the aliens have a type of weapons de @-@ activator and tries to employ his famous Vulcan nerve pinch on him , but that does not work either . The executive confiscates Mr. Spock 's pointed ears . Spock then mind @-@ melds with Goodman only to discover that , as he describes it , his brain is devoid of substance and contains only a few rodents .
Other NBC executives and staff show up and dismantle the Enterprise set .
Other crew members accept the cancellation , but Shatner and Nimoy try to hang on to their Star Trek personae as Kirk and Spock . However , Nimoy is eventually reduced to a sobbing , nervous wreck , and is carried off the set . Shatner remains defiantly in the Captain 's chair , as Herb Goodman mentions a phone call from a margarine company . Finally , the set is completely dismantled , and still in his chair , Shatner , as Captain Kirk , makes a final entry into his log recalling his previous three years of space exploration , concluding : " And except for one television network , we have found intelligence everywhere in the galaxy . " Raising his hand in the Vulcan salute , he goes on , " Live long and prosper " . Then he brings his fingers together , his hand still raised , and adds , " Promise " .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The twelve @-@ minute sketch was written by Michael O 'Donoghue who wanted to create a scene that would showcase the acting talents of John Belushi . O 'Donoghue had been the one who had initially persuaded producer Lorne Michaels to hire Belushi for the new Saturday Night Live program . O 'Donoghue and Belushi recognized that the original Star Trek series itself was not a ratings success during its initial run , but had become much more successful during syndication . Belushi enjoyed the Star Trek series and wanted the part of Captain Kirk . He demonstrated his intense desire to get the role by trimming his sideburns to closely resemble Kirk 's facial appearance in the original series . They worked together on the sketch for thirty @-@ days and scheduled it for the final episode of the 1976 season of the show when it would be hosted by Elliott Gould .
= = = Cast = = =
John Belushi as Captain Kirk / William Shatner :
Chevy Chase as Mr. Spock / Leonard Nimoy
Dan Aykroyd as Dr. Leonard McCoy / DeForest Kelley and the voice of Scotty on intercom
Elliott Gould as Herb Goodman , NBC Executive
Garrett Morris as Curtis , Head NBC stage crew
Akira Yoshimura as Mr. Sulu / George Takei
Doris Powell as Lt. Uhura / Nichelle Nichols
= = = Set design = = =
The production values for the set were quite good . The production staff had reproduced an effective @-@ looking replica of the bridge of the U.S.S Enterprise . As the scene began , the viewscreen of the ship depicted the U.S.S Enterprise being pursued by a type of automobile commonly manufactured in the United States .
= = = Dress rehearsal = = =
Dress rehearsal for the sketch went poorly . During rehearsal , Belushi was having difficulty correctly parodying the character of James T. Kirk as originally portrayed by actor William Shatner . Belushi had sat for several hours while being made up so that he would look the part . Sketch writer O 'Donoghue was worried that the sketch was too long and might not go over well with the audience . He knew that Belushi was a fan of Star Trek , and had previously rescued sketches that others thought would flop , but O 'Donoghue was nervous that Belushi would not be able to pull off a comedic performance on this occasion .
Donoghue complained directly to Belushi that he thought his parody of Shatner during the dress rehearsals was inadequate and needed much improvement . Further , actor Chevy Chase was annoyed that he was satirizing Leonard Nimoy as Spock ; he did not like the idea of playing second @-@ fiddle to Belushi . During all of the rehearsals , Chase attempted to attract more attention to his character 's role and dominate the scene . Just prior to the actual on @-@ air performance of the sketch , O 'Donoghue admonished Belushi and implored him to perform an effective parody . Belushi 's dress rehearsal performance had worried executives so much that they had discussed canceling the entire sketch altogether .
= = = Release = = =
" The Last Voyage of the Starship Enterprise " first aired during episode 22 of the first season of The NBC variety show , Saturday Night Live on May 29 , 1976 .
Immediately upon the conclusion of the sketch , writer Michael O 'Donoghue knew it was an instant success . He had been watching the Saturday Night Live performance from beside the set , off @-@ camera . He felt that Belushi had performed his role as Captain Kirk perfectly . As soon as Belushi left the set , O 'Donoghue went over to him and gave the actor a congratulatory hug . On reflection , after the live performance , O 'Donoghue stated that Belushi had performed a perfect parody of Shatner as Kirk . Belushi felt it was one of his most satisfying performances .
In their book Saturday Night : A Backstage History of Saturday Night Live , authors Doug Hill and Jeff Weingrad wrote that the sketch was writer Michael O 'Donoghue 's signature success on the television program . In addition , they noted that the staff of Saturday Night Live felt the sketch was among the best routines on the program .
After Belushi 's sudden death by drug overdose in 1982 , Judith Jacklin Belushi , the actor 's widow , began to think about putting together a video to commemorate him . The sketch was included on the 1985 Saturday Night Live release of 16 sketches featuring Belushi called The Best of John Belushi , produced by Lorne Michaels and Judith Jacklin Belushi , sold by Warner Home Video in VHS format .
Together , Lorne Michaels , Belushi 's brother Jim Belushi , and Judith Jacklin Belushi , reviewed the actor 's comedic sketches from Saturday Night Live to select what were generally considered his best works . In an interview with the Los Angeles Daily News on the 1985 VHS release , Belushi 's widow commented she was not sure if her husband had a particular sketch he liked the most , but that he considered the Star Trek parody among his favorites . The Best of John Belushi edition in VHS format sold approximately 200 @,@ 000 copies . It reached number three on Billboard 's Top Videocassettes Sales Chart in February 1986 .
The DVD edition of the collected shorts video release by Saturday Night Live was released in 2011 , again under the title The Best of John Belushi .
= = Themes = =
Writing for American Humor , academic Robert G. Pielke observed that the sketch was a very well @-@ done , and moving , reflection on NBC management 's fealty to Nielsen ratings and profit . Pielke went on to analyze the sketch and characterized it as an example of Saturday Night Live resisting conformist authority . He commented that an injustice had been wrought by NBC the company , whereas the NBC executives who came to shut down Star Trek were simply pawns in the process . He posited that the U.S.S. Enterprise crew members were against cancelling the television program because their self @-@ worth had become tied to it . Pielke noted that within the confines of the sketch 's plot itself , as each crew member realized there was no option other than cancellation , they each showed their actual identity and humanity .
Pielke praised the final scene of the sketch as evocative of the original series and an indictment of capitalism . He wrote that Belushi finished off the sketch with a moving rendition of the introduction to the original Star Trek series , while modifying it slightly to emphasize that NBC 's greed had ended the Enterprise mission .
Mother Jones magazine additionally commented upon the key theme of satire over conflict between the critical success of Star Trek and the decision to cancel the program by the studio executives . The magazine noted that writer Michael O 'Donoghue 's work for the sketch was among the highest caliber scripts he had written for Saturday Night Live . Mother Jones found it ironic that in the sketch the Enterprise was defeated not by its traditional enemies such as the Klingons , but by a stupid NBC executive in charge of the network 's programming schedule .
Upon re @-@ release of the sketch on the Saturday Night Live compilation DVD titled The Best of John Belushi , Jon Corey wrote for Inside Pulse that the sketch was still one of ten best ever on Saturday Night Live . He pointed out the irony that it was not Khan Noonien Singh or the Klingons that defeated the Enterprise , but an enemy much more powerful — NBC executives . Nick Hartel reviewed the DVD release for DVD Talk , and commented that the sketch 's satire succeeded because it was a surreal form of meta @-@ comedy that dared to criticize NBC management .
The New Yorker film critic Anthony Lane reflected on the sketch and Belushi 's performance in 2013 . Lane thought that the sketch was an effective satire of the cancellation of the series and simultaneously served as a death knell for the Star Trek franchise . He felt that viewers watching the sketch in 1976 would be hard @-@ pressed to imagine a future , thirty @-@ seven @-@ years later , where " Star Trek " was so thoroughly ensconced within popular culture . Lane wrote that Belushi was flawless in his role parodying Shatner playing Kirk . He observed that Belushi both performed an effective parody , while simultaneously injecting his own weariness into the Kirk character . Lane wondered how the " Star Trek " franchise could ever come back from the total deconstruction the SNL skit presented .
= = Impact on Star Trek = =
The sketch became an instant cult classic hit among Star Trek and science fiction fans . Captain Kirk actor William Shatner was asked which Star Trek parody was his favorite : Belushi 's impression of himself , or the later satire wherein Shatner appeared on Saturday Night Live in a sketch telling Star Trek fans known as Trekkies to " Get a life " . Shatner said he preferred Belushi 's impression to his own later appearance on the comedy television program . Shatner commented : " I like Belushi 's work as Kirk better than my own " .
DeForest Kelley , the actor who portrayed physician Leonard McCoy on Star Trek , was a personal favorite of John Belushi . Belushi had offices on the same lot as Kelley . Kelley overheard Belushi discussing the Saturday Night Live parody of Star Trek with William Shatner , and mentioned to both of them that he had not yet seen the sketch . Belushi immediately escorted Kelley to his office on the lot and had him watch it on videotape .
Kelley thoroughly enjoyed it , especially Belushi 's impression of Captain Kirk . He later remarked that he had trouble going back to act on the Star Trek set in a scene opposite Shatner because he could not stop laughing remembering the Saturday Night Live parody and Belushi 's portrayal . Belushi later gave Kelley a signed videotape of the sketch ; he had written " Live Long and Prosper " on the tape . Kelley sent the videotape to close friends when Belushi died because he did not want to hold on to the memento which brought up sad memories of his loss .
The 1977 book Saturday Night Live , edited by Anne Beatts and John Head , included a rough version of the plot of the comedic bit , as well as a message from Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry in which he effusively praised the sketch .
Roddenberry had sent a letter to Elliot Gould on June 3 , 1976 , in which he thanked the actor for the parody and said he would show it to members of the actual Star Trek cast . Roddenberry called the sketch creatively designed with the light comedic touch necessary to pull off an effective satire . Elliott Gould later told The Hollywood Reporter that the success of the sketch inspired Roddenberry to create the first feature film version of his series : Star Trek : The Motion Picture .
= = Reception = =
In reviewing The Best of John Belushi when Saturday Night Live released the compilation to VHS in 1985 , The New York Times critic Fred Ferretti highlighted Belushi 's role as Captain James Kirk among the actor 's memorable performances . In his 1992 book , Metapop : Self @-@ referentiality in Contemporary American Popular Culture , author Michael Dunne called the comedic bit : " one of SNL 's most famous sketches " . The Los Angeles Times called the sketch one of the television program 's most noteworthy of all time . In a 1999 article reflecting on the 25th anniversary of Saturday Night Live , Los Angeles Times journalist Susan Keller placed the Star Trek parody at number eight on a list of the program 's top ten all @-@ time sketches .
In a contribution to the 2001 compilation book Faith , Reason , and Political Life Today , Paul A. Cantor calls the sketch among the best of Star Trek parodies , saying it is " hysterical " . A 2005 article by journalist Darel Jevens , writing for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , called the sketch an intelligent satire of Star Trek . Reflecting on Belushi 's impact 25 years after the actor 's death , a 2007 Associated Press article noted that the parody of Captain Kirk , Bluto from Animal House and the Saturday Night Live Samurai were among the characters that illustrated his acting versatility .
In a 2008 article published by Huffpost TV , columnist Richard Keller characterized the sketch as one of the most well @-@ known satires of Star Trek ; the other being another Saturday Night Live episode where William Shatner appeared playing himself . Los Angeles Times film critic Betsy Sharkey wrote that Belushi 's performance was so nuanced and full of depth , because he was able to skillfully rely upon the depth that William Shatner had given to the character 's prior portrayals . It was described by TrekMovie.com founder Anthony Pascale as " one of the best Star Trek parody sketches of all time " .
Reflecting on the life of John Belushi for a 2012 article , WOMC placed the sketch among those regarded as the most well @-@ remembered and loved performances by the actor . In his 2012 book Star Trek : The Complete Unauthorized History , author Robert Greenberger called the piece a classic . In a September 2013 article for The A.V. Club , Phil Dyess @-@ Nugent described " The Last Voyage Of The Starship Enterprise " as lovable in @-@ depth satire of Star Trek with a touching impression of Shatner that was likely the best routine from the first year of Saturday Night Live . In a subsequent review of the episode in an October 2013 , Dyess @-@ Nugent again praised the sketch , writing that it was an outstanding work both as a form of humor and a tribute to Star Trek fans .
Writing for CNN in 2014 , journalist Todd Leopold commented that he appreciated the sketch , but did not place it among the program 's five all @-@ time sketches . Time magazine included the sketch in a retrospective on classic Saturday Night Live works , placing the comedic bit among the most iconic from the program 's first years on television . On the 40th anniversary of Saturday Night Live , Tulsa World placed the sketch among " 16 iconic skits " .
In his 2015 book John Prine : In Spite of Himself , author Eddie Huffman wrote that the Captain Kirk role , along with his portrayal of Samurai warrior , and Marlon Brando as the Godfather , helped John Belushi become famous and an acting sensation . In a 2015 Hollywood Reporter interview with actors Tom Hanks and Elliott Gould , Gould called the sketch one of his favorite , and Hanks remarked : " Oh , I think that 's got to be one of the top five of all . " Rolling Stone ranked every single one of the 141 cast members of Saturday Night Live in order of talent . John Belushi was ranked at number one , with Rolling Stone citing his Captain Kirk parody as evidence of his youthful innocence among his often lunatic @-@ like performances in a 2015 article . The website Rotten Tomatoes characterized the sketch as a satire that did not lose its effectiveness with age .
= The Human Centipede ( First Sequence ) =
The Human Centipede ( First Sequence ) is a 2009 Dutch film written , directed , and co @-@ produced by Tom Six . The film tells the story of a German surgeon who kidnaps three tourists and joins them surgically , mouth to anus , forming a " human centipede " , a conjoined triplet . It stars Dieter Laser as the creator of the centipede , Dr. Josef Heiter , with Ashley C. Williams , Ashlynn Yennie , and Akihiro Kitamura as his victims . According to Six , the concept of the film arose from a joke he made with friends about punishing a child molester by stitching his mouth to the anus of a " fat truck driver " . Inspiration for the film also came from Nazi medical experiments carried out during World War II , such as the crimes of Josef Mengele at the Auschwitz concentration camp .
When approaching investors prior to filming , Six did not mention the mouth @-@ to @-@ anus aspect of the plot , fearing it would put off potential backers . The financiers of The Human Centipede did not discover the full nature of the film until it was complete . The film received generally mixed reviews from mainstream film critics , but it won several accolades at international film festivals . The film was released in the United States on a limited theatrical release on 30 April 2010 . A sequel , entitled Full Sequence , also written and directed by Six , was released in 2011 .
= = Plot = =
Lindsay ( Ashley C. Williams ) and Jenny ( Ashlynn Yennie ) , two American tourists in Germany , are drugged and involuntarily detained by crazed surgeon Dr. Josef Heiter ( Dieter Laser ) when they seek help at his house after they get a flat tire . The women awake in a makeshift medical ward . They witness Heiter kill a kidnapped truck driver after Heiter informs him he is " not a match " . Heiter secures a new male captive , Japanese tourist Katsuro ( Akihiro Kitamura ) . The doctor explains that he is a world @-@ renowned expert at separating Siamese twins , but dreams of making new creatures by sewing people together . He describes in detail how he will surgically connect his three victims mouth @-@ to @-@ anus , so that they share a single digestive system .
After Lindsay tries to escape and fails , Heiter explains that he had previously experimented with creating what he called a " three @-@ dog " , also joined mouth @-@ to @-@ anus . However , the three @-@ dog died shortly after surgery . Heiter tells Lindsay that one dog tried to escape and that dog became the middle , thus this caused the most pain to the dog and as punishment for her escape attempt , she will become the middle part of his centipede . Heiter performs the surgery , placing Katsuro at the front , Lindsay in the middle and Jenny at the rear . He removes the front teeth of both women and mutilates the buttocks of both Katsuro and Lindsay in order to provide easier access to the rectums , to which he hideously stitches and grafts their mouths . During his procedure , he severs the ligaments within his victims ' knees to prevent leg extension , forcing his victims to crawl . He then connects his victims together in a straight line with their mouths surgically attached to the anus of the victim in front of them .
Once the operation is complete , Heiter attempts to train his centipede as a pet , often belittling Katsuro with racist insults and beating him with a crop when he becomes rebellious . When Katsuro defecates , Lindsay is forced to swallow his excrement while the doctor watches in delight . However , he eventually becomes irritated after being kept awake by the constant screaming of Katsuro ( who , as the front part of the centipede , has his mouth free and is still able to speak ) and the realization that Jenny is dying from septicemia . When two detectives , Kranz ( Andreas Leupold ) and Voller ( Peter Blankenstein ) , visit the house to investigate the disappearance of tourists , Heiter comes up with an idea to add them as replacements for Jenny in a new creation ; a four @-@ segment centipede . He offers the two detectives water spiked with sedatives in hopes of knocking the two unconscious . After being given the water , the detectives become suspicious and obtain a search warrant for his home . While the detectives leave Heiter 's home , the victims attempt to escape . Katsuro attacks Heiter in the process . Their attempt to escape ultimately fails . Katsuro confesses to the doctor that he deserves his fate because he had treated his own family poorly , then commits suicide by slitting his throat with a glass shard .
Upon returning to Heiter 's home , the detectives forcefully conduct separate searches as an injured Heiter hides near his swimming pool . Kranz finds the ward along with Heiter 's victims . Voller begins to feel ill from the earlier drugging , and Heiter stabs him with the scalpel pulled from his leg during Katsuro 's attack . Upon finding Voller dead , Kranz is shot by Heiter with Voller 's sidearm . Kranz responds by shooting Heiter in the head before dying . Back in the house , Jenny and Lindsay hold hands as Jenny dies . Lindsay sobs as she is left alone in the house , trapped between her deceased fellow captives . Her fate is left unknown . The film ends with the sounds of her sobbing while the camera pans to the roof of the house .
= = Cast = =
Dieter Laser as Dr Josef Heiter , a retired surgeon who specialised in the separation of conjoined twins , but in retirement is more interested in joining creatures together . Casting for the role of Heiter took place in Berlin , and Six intended to cast Laser before he had even read for the part , after Six saw a DVD of one of Laser 's previous films . Laser had previously appeared in over 60 mostly German @-@ language films , including Der Unhold and Baltic Storm . Upon meeting him in Berlin , Six gave Laser a shot @-@ by @-@ shot explanation of Heiter 's scenes , and Laser , impressed by Six 's dedication and passion , agreed to take part in the film . Laser contributed considerably to the development of Heiter 's character . For example , because Heiter views the " centipede " as his pet , Laser felt that it was important that Heiter appeared naked during a scene in which he swam in full view of his victims , because Laser said " you aren 't ashamed to be naked " around a pet .
Ashley C. Williams as Lindsay , an American tourist and the central section of the centipede . Auditioning for the roles of Jenny and Lindsay took place in New York City . Six said during the auditioning process , many actresses walked out of readings in disgust after hearing the full nature of the role . Others thought they would be able to take on the role , but found it was " too much " for them once they got onto their hands and knees behind another actor . Williams expressed concerns about the nudity expected of her in the film , but took the role when she was assured it would be modest and of a non @-@ sexual nature .
Ashlynn Yennie as Jenny , the rear section of the centipede . As with Williams , The Human Centipede was Yennie 's first major film role . Yennie was one of several actresses to audition for the role , as the producers searched for an actress who would have good on @-@ screen chemistry with Williams . Yennie was able to further develop her relationship with Williams when the pair shared an apartment in the Netherlands during filming . Yennie auditioned to Ilona Six , sister of Tom Six and the film 's producer , and did not meet Tom Six , who had viewed tapes of her reading , until fitting for the centipede special effects in the Netherlands . Yennie was drawn to the role by the humanity throughout the story , referring to how the three victims of Heiter are unwillingly forced into their situation . She also said the story was so realistic it scared her .
Akihiro Kitamura as Katsuro , a Japanese tourist and front section of the centipede . Having already acted in or written for a number of films and television shows ( including popular American television series Heroes ) , Kitamura was a relatively experienced actor compared to other cast members . He auditioned for the role of Katsuro via Skype from Los Angeles after the casting director saw him on television and recommended him for the role . The rest of the cast did not meet Kitamura until the day before shooting commenced .
Rene de Wit as Truck Driver , one of Heiter 's victims . De Wit had previously worked with Six in his 2008 film I Love Dries .
Andreas Leupold as Detective Kranz , a police officer .
Peter Blankenstein as Detective Voller , a police officer .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The inspiration for the film 's plot came from a joke that writer / director Tom Six once made to his friends about punishing a child molester they saw on TV by stitching his mouth to the anus of an overweight truck driver . Six saw this as the concept for a great horror film , and he began to develop the idea . He has said he was heavily influenced as a filmmaker by the early works of David Cronenberg and Japanese horror films . Six has said he prefers horror films that are more realistic over " unbelievable " monster films , and said that he gets " a rash from too much political correctness . " Major influences for The Human Centipede were Pier Paolo Pasolini 's controversial 1975 Italian drama film Salò , or the 120 Days of Sodom , which was notable for its scenes depicting intensely graphic violence , sadism , and sexual depravity , as was the work of Japanese director Takashi Miike . Six has also expressed his love of the works of David Lynch . Further inspiration came from Six 's previous work as a director on the Dutch series of Big Brother , where he had been able to observe people who " did crazy things when they were alone and thought they were not ( being ) watched . "
Six has stated that The Human Centipede is , to an extent , a reflection on fascism . Dieter Laser , who played the antagonist Dr Heiter , said during the promotion of the film that he felt the guilt of Nazi actions during the war had haunted ordinary Germans for generations , and that as a German whose father participated in the war , he often felt " like a child whose father is in jail for murder . " The inclusion of a German villain came from this , with Six citing both the German invasion of the Netherlands during World War II and the Nazi medical experiments as inspiration . Laser stated in an interview with Clark Collis for Entertainment Weekly that he considered the film a " grotesque [ parody ] about the Nazi psyche " . Heiter 's name was an amalgamation of several Nazi war criminals , his surname ( literally meaning " cheerful " in German ) a combination of the names of Nazi doctors Fetter and Richter , and his first name coming from Josef Mengele , who carried out experiments on prisoners at Auschwitz concentration camp . World War II also played an influence on the nationality of the other main characters who were American and Japanese . Six includes many horror film clichés in the first act , such as a broken @-@ down car , lack of phone signal and very naïve victims . Six did this in an attempt to lull audiences into thinking they are watching a conventional horror film , therefore making Dr Heiter 's treatment of his victims more shocking .
Six placed a Japanese male at the front of the centipede for two reasons : first to create a language barrier between the doctor and the centipede . Throughout the film the characters ( with the exception of Heiter who for the most part speaks to the centipede in English ) speak in their native languages only ( subtitled for the viewer into English where necessary ) . Katsuro , as the front part of the centipede , can only speak Japanese and therefore cannot speak with either the doctor or Jenny and Lindsay . Secondly , Katsuro 's position in the centipede sets up the opportunity for the doctor and the male victim of the centipede to fight toward the climax of the film . Six stated in the director 's commentary for The Human Centipede that he has a personal fear of hospitals and doctors , so he stretched out the scene where Heiter explains how he will create the centipede and the subsequent procedure to create his " own nightmare . "
While seeking funding for the film , Six pitched the idea of a surgeon who sewed people together . He did not initially reveal that the victims would be joined mouth @-@ to @-@ anus , as he believed this idea would stand no chance of receiving investments . His backers felt that the idea of a surgeon sewing people together was original and Six received funding . However , they did not learn the exact details of the film until it had been completed . Six claimed that they were very happy with the finished film . Before signing on , the actors were given an outline of the storyboard rather than a complete script . They were also shown sketches of how the centipede would be formed .
= = = Filming = = =
Although The Human Centipede is set in Germany , principal photography took place in the Netherlands due to the neighboring countries ' similar landscapes . Heiter 's home , where most of The Human Centipede takes place , was a villa in the Netherlands found by the production team . The property was in a residential area and not surrounded by woodland as it appears in the film , but by other houses . This meant the filmmakers had some difficulty ensuring that the other houses did not appear in shot . Some conversion of the property took place prior to filming , for example , a cinema room was converted to form Heiter 's basement operating theatre , with real hospital beds and intravenous drips rented from a local hospital . The paintings of conjoined twins that were displayed throughout the house were painted by Tom Six , which he felt contributed to the atmosphere in the house . The hotel room scene near the beginning of the film was filmed in a hotel suite at a location near Amsterdam . The film was shot almost entirely in sequence , which Yennie stated helped the actors to develop their characters throughout the film . The opening scene , which only featured Laser and de Wit , was shot on the last day of filming .
Laser remained in character as Heiter throughout the filming process , often shouting at the rest of the cast on set , but wherever possible staying away from the other actors and crew between scenes to preserve a level of separation . He only ate food he had brought onto the set himself , eating mostly fruit . He contributed dialogue for his character and selected many of his character 's outfits from his personal wardrobe . Six claims that the jacket Heiter wore , which was bought by Laser , was a genuine jacket worn by real Nazi doctors . Laser was also happy for the other actors in The Human Centipede to add their own ideas to the film . For example , when Heiter is explaining his procedure to his victims , Katsuro 's dialogue was improvised , which pleased Laser . During filming Laser accidentally kicked Kitamura ( Katsuro ) , leading to a fight on set between the actors . The incident contributed to the tension and anger throughout the scene they were filming , in which Heiter sits at his dining table eating while the centipede eats dog food from the floor alongside him . Laser also hurt Williams during the scene when Heiter roughly grabs and injects Lindsay , which caused a pause in shooting before the filmmakers could continue .
The Nazi influence behind Heiter led to the use of classical music when the doctor is " training " his centipede . The music was deliberately played at low quality to simulate the music coming from a loudspeaker , in much the same way as music was sometimes played in Nazi concentration camps . Many of the sound effects in The Human Centipede were created by manipulating meat . For example , the sound of a nose being broken was made by snapping bones within cuts of raw meat . Due to the discomfort of spending long periods on their hands and knees , the actors playing the centipede were given massages at the end of each day of filming . Yennie stated that she and Williams experienced jaw pain from holding a bit in their mouths during filming , but overall she did not feel that the physical side of filming had been excessively difficult .
= = = Effects = = =
The Human Centipede contains relatively few gory images ; little of the surgical procedure is depicted directly , no excrement is shown on screen , and according to Kim Newman in Empire , it is " never quite as outrageous as it threatens to be . " Six stated that he wanted the film to be as authentic as possible and claimed to have consulted a Dutch surgeon during the creation and filming process , resulting in the film being " 100 % medically accurate . " Six said that the surgeon initially wanted nothing to do with his film , as he felt Six was " crazy " and the idea had " nothing to do with medical science . " However , the surgeon changed his mind and decided that he in fact liked the idea , and so came up with a method of creating a human centipede . Six has claimed that the central and rear members of the centipede could survive for years by supplementing their diet with an IV drip . The special effects team was led by a father and son team , Rob Hillenbrink and son Erik . They designed the final composition of the centipede from sketches provided by the consulting surgeon . The actors who made up the centipede wore hardened underwear , compared by Yennie to shorts , which had a rubber grip for the actors to wear for the actor behind on which to bite , creating the illusion of the mouth @-@ to @-@ anus connection . Six kept secret how the centipede would be formed as long as possible , and Yennie claimed that even her make @-@ up artist did not know , asking Yennie what kind of " suit " the actors would be wearing .
When Heiter is operating on his victims , Jenny 's teeth were digitally removed in post @-@ production . However , other effects were relatively simple to create . Heiter 's " three dog " was created by photoshopping an image of three Rottweilers to create an image of dogs joined together . Colour grading was used extensively throughout the production of The Human Centipede . For example , at the end of the film when Lindsay is left between the dead bodies of Jenny and Katsuro , their skin tones were lightened to further emphasise that they were dead and Lindsay was still alive .
The rain when Jenny and Lindsay 's car breaks down was added digitally in post @-@ production . The filmmakers had not been granted permission to film at the roadside location , but went ahead against the authorities ' wishes as Six felt the location in the woods was ideal for the scene . When Heiter 's window is repaired after Lindsay 's escape attempt , the use of a tracking shot through the window pane required the reflection of the crew to be digitally removed from the glass . The film contains a large number of long tracking shots ; Six has cited the influence of Takashi Miike who also uses many tracking shots in his films .
= = Release = =
= = = Promotion = = =
During promotion for The Human Centipede , press materials claimed that the film was " 100 % medically accurate " . Six and the producers frequently stated that the film had been described as " the most horrific film ever made , " and many writers , such as Karina Longworth of LA Weekly magazine and Jay Stone of the Calgary Herald described the film as torture porn . Roger Ebert , writing in the Chicago Sun @-@ Times stated that he felt the film had been " deliberately intended to inspire incredulity , nausea and hopefully outrage . " However , writing in The Guardian , David Cox noted that he had been unable to trace the source of this quote as the " most horrific film ever made " and had contacted Six to attempt to ascertain the origin of this judgement . Six claimed that the statement had originally been made by The Sun newspaper in the United Kingdom . However , Cox was unable to trace any article making this claim . When asked by Cox as to what Six regarded as the " most horrific " film , Six stated he in fact believed it to be Pier Paolo Pasolini 's Salò , or the 120 Days of Sodom .
= = = Theatrical = = =
The Human Centipede was released in the United States without an MPAA rating . It was released theatrically in New York City on 30 April 2010 and had a limited release in the US shortly afterward , distributed by IFC Films . Throughout 2009 , the film was included in several film festivals around the world including the London FrightFest Film Festival , Leeds International Film Festival , Sitges Film Festival , and Screamfest Horror Film Festival . Six remarked on how many film festival audiences reacted strongly to the film , sometimes almost vomiting in the cinema aisles . To Six 's amusement , Spanish audiences often found the film funny , and laughed throughout screenings . Six claimed that the " buzz " surrounding the film led to several studios approaching him to discuss its distribution . IFC Films has a history of releasing unconventional horror films , having previously distributed the Norwegian Nazi @-@ zombie feature Dead Snow and the 2009 release Antichrist . The Human Centipede 's US gross was $ 181 @,@ 467 , and worldwide takings amounted to $ 252 @,@ 207 .
The film was passed uncut by the British Board of Film Classification ( BBFC ) and released with an 18 certificate , receiving a limited release in the UK on 20 August 2010 . It was distributed by Bounty Films .
= = = Home media = = =
The Human Centipede was released in the United Kingdom on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on 4 October 2010 and in the US the following day , where , as of September 2011 , DVD sales have totalled $ 2 @,@ 113 @,@ 186 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The Human Centipede received mixed reviews . Review aggregator web site Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a 49 % ' Rotten ' rating , based upon 91 reviews , with an average rating of 5 @.@ 1 out of 10 ; the general consensus states : " Grotesque , visceral and hard to ( ahem ) swallow , this surgical horror doesn 't quite earn its stripes because the gross @-@ outs overwhelm and devalue everything else . " At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the film received an average score of 33 based on 15 reviews .
Giving the film three stars out of five , Empire writer Kim Newman stated that " underneath an extremely repulsive concept , this is a relatively conventional horror movie . " Variety Magazine writer Peter DeBurge criticised the film 's lack of any form of social commentary , stating that it could not " be bothered to expand upon its unpleasant premise , inviting audiences to revel in its sick humor by favoring Dr. Heiter ... and characterizing the victims as shallow expendables . " Writing in Entertainment Weekly , Clark Collis was broadly positive about Dieter Laser 's performance as the Doctor , and praised Six 's direction , saying Six " has put together his nightmare yarn with Cronenbergian care and precision . " Collis said The Human Centipede was " without question one of the most disgusting horror films ever made . " Writing in The Guardian , Peter Bradshaw gave the film three out of five , saying that whilst " entirely deplorable and revolting " the film was " sort of brilliant " . Total Film writer Jamie Russell gave the film four stars out of five , calling it " Shocking , funny , disturbing ... a throwback to the glory days of Cronenberg . "
Sukhdev Sandhu in The Daily Telegraph was generally negative about the film , stating , " The Human Centipede has its moments , but they 're largely obscured by umpteen holes in the plot as well as by reams of exposition " and that it was " an ultimately underwhelming affair that 's neither sick or repellent enough to garner the cult status it so craves . " The New York Times review by Jeannette Catsouli noted that whether the film was " a commentary on Nazi atrocities or a literal expression of filmmaking politics , the grotesque fusion at least silences the female leads , both of whose voices could strip paint . " Writing in the Chicago Sun Times , Roger Ebert did not assign the film a star rating ( not to be confused with awarding it zero stars ) , stating , " I am required to award stars to movies I review . This time , I refuse to do it . The star rating system is unsuited to this film . Is the movie good ? Is it bad ? Does it matter ? It is what it is and occupies a world where the stars don 't shine . "
Critics and a doctor have dismissed Six 's claim that the film was " 100 percent medically accurate " as " ludicrous " and " rubbish " . Dr John Cameron , speaking to TV3 News in New Zealand gave an interview about the feasibility of a human centipede , stating how he believed it would be difficult for a join between different people to heal and form a connection , and how the centipede would quickly die from lack of nutrition . John Martin , a former Hollywood film executive and CEO of Alamo Drafthouse Cinemas said Six 's claims of 100 percent medical accuracy should be viewed with reference to the kind of shock gimmicks that film producers had long used to attract attention . Martin compared Six 's claims to those of Kroger Babb and William Castle who had also made " grand promises " about what they were putting on screen in a bid to lure audiences .
= = = Accolades = = =
Despite mixed reviews , the film won several awards in 2009 during advance screenings at various international horror film festivals , including Best Picture / Movie at Fantastic Fest ( Austin , Texas ) , Screamfest Horror Film Festival ( Los Angeles ) , and the Sainte Maxime International Horror Film Festival . Laser won Best Actor in the horror category at Fantastic Fest and the film won the award for Best Ensemble Cast at the South African Horrorfest Film Festival .
= = Sequel = =
While promoting The Human Centipede , Six stated that he had started work on a sequel to First Sequence , titled The Human Centipede 2 ( Full Sequence ) . Shooting on a similar budget to the first film , Six stated the sequel would be a much more graphic and disturbing film ; First Sequence being " My Little Pony compared with part two . " Yennie stated at the May 2010 Weekend of Horrors that the sequel would contain " the blood and shit " that viewers did not see in the first film . The plot of Full Sequence involved a centipede made from 12 people , featured a largely British cast and was given the tag @-@ line " 100 % medically inaccurate " .
The plot of Full Sequence involves a man who after becoming sexually obsessed with a DVD recording of First Sequence decides to create his own human centipede . The film had been planned for a DVD release in the United Kingdom . However , upon submitting the film to the BBFC for classification , the film was rejected due to content that was " sexually violent and potentially obscene " . The BBFC 's report criticised the film as making " little attempt to portray any of the victims in the film as anything other than objects to be brutalised , degraded and mutilated for the amusement and arousal of the central character , as well as for the pleasure of the audience " and that the film was potentially in breach of the Obscene Publications Act , meaning its distribution in the UK would be illegal . Bounty Films , the UK distributor , appealed the decision , and the film was eventually passed with an 18 certificate in October 2011 . To achieve the 18 rating , thirty @-@ two cuts were made from the film , removing two minutes and thirty @-@ seven seconds from the original version .
= = Parodies = =
A number of parodies of the film have been made . A pornographic parody , directed by Lee Roy Myers and titled The Human Sexipede , was released in September 2010 . It starred Tom Byron as Heiter , who joined three people mouth @-@ to @-@ genitals . The South Park episode " HUMANCENTiPAD " saw character Kyle Broflovski unwittingly agreeing to become a part of a " Human CENTiPAD " after failing to read the full details of an Apple user license agreement . The website Funny or Die featured a sketch where the freed victims of a human centipede , now separated , but scarred physically and mentally , argue at a survivors ' meeting . The Human Centipede 3 ( Final Sequence ) actress Bree Olson starred in a parody of the franchise that was directed by Graham Rich .
= Porcupine ( album ) =
Porcupine is the third studio album by the English post @-@ punk band Echo & the Bunnymen . First released on 4 February 1983 , it became the band 's highest charting release when it reached number two on the UK Albums Chart despite initially receiving poor reviews . It also reached number 137 on the American Billboard 200 , number 85 on the Canadian RPM 100 Albums and number 24 on the Swedish chart . In 1984 the album was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry . Porcupine included the singles " The Back of Love " and " The Cutter " .
The album was recorded at Trident Studios in London , Rockfield Studios in South Wales and Amazon Studios in Liverpool . It was produced by Ian Broudie , who was credited as " Kingbird " and who had co @-@ produced the band 's first album , 1980 's Crocodiles , and their second single , " Rescue " . After being rejected by the band 's label , the album was re @-@ recorded with Shankar providing strings . It was originally released as an LP in 1983 before being reissued on CD in 1988 . The album was again reissued on CD in 2003 , along with the other four of the band 's first five studio albums , having been remastered and expanded . A VHS video called Porcupine – An Atlas Adventure was also released containing six promotional videos of tracks from the album .
= = Production = =
= = = Background and recording = = =
Following the release of Heaven Up Here in 1981 , Echo & the Bunnymen had difficulty writing new material for their next album despite rehearsing five days each week at The Ministry , their rehearsal room in Liverpool . While lead singer Ian McCulloch still wanted them to be the best band in the world , bass player Les Pattinson was expressing his weariness with the music industry , drummer Pete de Freitas produced and played drums on Liverpool band The Wild Swans ' debut single " Revolutionary Spirit " , and lead guitarist Will Sergeant recorded a solo album of instrumental music called Themes for ' Grind ' ( 1982 ) .
On 27 January 1982 Echo & the Bunnymen recorded their fourth session for British disc jockey John Peel 's radio show on BBC Radio 1 . Of the tracks recorded , " Smack in the Middle " was renamed and became " Higher Hell " on the album , while " Taking Advantage " was renamed " The Back of Love " and became the band 's third single which was also included on the album . Ian Broudie , who had co @-@ produced 1980 's Crocodiles and who was Sergeant 's flat @-@ mate , was chosen to produce " The Back of Love " and the band 's third album , whose working title was The Happy Loss . The single , which became the band 's first UK Top 20 hit single , was recorded in early 1982 at Trident Studios in Soho , London . This was unusual as the band 's manager , Bill Drummond , had previously been keen to keep the band away from the temptations of London . The recording session for " The Back of Love " went well , but
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the relationship between the band members was strained , with them either not speaking to each other or , when they did , arguing . Drummond was aware of the tensions within the band and so arranged a tour in Scotland for April 1982 . This was done in an effort to make the band work harder , write some songs , and to communicate with each other . Drummond 's plan failed to work as following the tour there was still tension between the band members . Two other album tracks – " Clay " and " My White Devil " – were first played during the tour of Scotland .
Following the release of " The Back of Love " on 21 May 1982 , the band spent the summer , first playing at the inaugural WOMAD festival , and then playing at various European music festivals . After the summer the band resumed recording the album at Rockfield Studios in South Wales – which had been used for the band 's first two albums – and also at Amazon Studios in Liverpool . Recording the album was a slow process , de Freitas said , " Porcupine was very hard to actually write and record [ ... ] Heaven Up Here was pure confidence , we did it really quickly ; we had a great time doing it – but this one was like we had to drag it out of ourselves . " McCulloch later said that when recording the album , the mood between the band members was " horrible " .
When presented with the finished album , WEA rejected it as " too uncommercial " . The band agreed to re @-@ record the album , despite Sergeant 's complaints . Using the original version of the album as a blueprint , the follow @-@ up recording sessions went more smoothly . Drummond brought Shankar back to add strings to the other tracks on the album . It was these sessions that produced the band 's next single , " The Cutter " , which was released in January 1983 and went on to become the band 's first Top 10 hit .
= = = Porcupine – An Atlas Adventure = = =
After Echo & the Bunnymen had finished recording Porcupine they played a free show in early November 1982 for 20 @,@ 000 people at Sefton Park in Liverpool . Following this , WEA asked for three music videos and album art for the new album . The band 's lighting engineer Bill Butt was chosen to direct the videos and Brian Griffin was chosen to take the photographs for the album 's cover – as he had done for the band 's two previous albums . With a budget of £ 16 @,@ 000 Butt decided that it would be possible to get the photographs for the album cover and also to produce a half @-@ hour film . Deciding that he wanted the videos to reflect the frigid feel of the music on the album , Butt chose to shoot the videos in Scotland . However , it was not certain that there would be enough snow in Scotland during November so Iceland was chosen as the location to shoot the videos .
Filming took place on and near the frozen Gullfoss waterfall near Reykjavík . Feeling it was a dangerous process , McCulloch said in 1993 , " If we had slipped there wasn 't anything for hundreds of feet below us . " In 2001 Griffin said , " [ ... ] the sun barely appeared the whole time we were there . To walk , stand up , or just think seemed a massive effort . " Despite the danger the filming proved its worth when the British music magazine Q said in 2001 , " The Porcupine cover is the epitome of rock band as heroic archetype – young men on some ill @-@ defined but glorious mission , one easily as timeless as the stars and the sea . " The filming was finished in December 1982 with the band performing songs from the album at their rehearsal room at The Ministry . Butt interspersed this with clips from the 1929 Russian documentary The Man With the Movie Camera and he also projected psychedelic watercolour effects onto the band . A VHS video was subsequently released by Castle Hendring in 1983 called Porcupine – An Atlas Adventure which contained the six music videos – " In Bluer Skies " , " The Cutter " , " My White Devil " , " Porcupine " , " Heads Will Roll " and " The Back of Love " .
Describing the album cover , journalist Dave Rimmer wrote in British music magazine Smash Hits , " Iceland does seem an appropriate location for this group . It 's isolated , cold , bleak and fits perfectly with the moody image they 've attracted to themselves . "
= = = Musical content = = =
After WEA rejected the first version of the album , Shankar – who had played strings on " The Back of Love " – was brought back by Drummond to add strings to the remainder of the album in an effort to give it a brighter production and to build on the success of the strings used on the single . When recording " The Cutter " , Sergeant had asked Shankar if he could suggest the melody from Cat Stevens ' 1967 hit " Matthew and Son " .
In 1984 McCulloch said , " I think Porcupine was a classic autobiographical album , the most honest thing that I 'd ever written or sung . " Talking about how the album made him feel , he went on to say , " I found the material from it really heavy to play – like , really oppressive . That 's the only reason why I didn 't like the album . The songs were great but it didn 't make me happy . " He also said , " A lot of songs are about coming to terms with the opposites in me . "
= = Releases = =
Porcupine was first released as an LP by Korova in the United Kingdom on 4 February 1983 . It was subsequently released in the United States by Sire Records on 23 February 1983 . The original album had ten tracks with five tracks on each side . Like Echo & the Bunnymen 's previous album , the album cover was designed by Martyn Atkins and the photography was by Brian Griffin . The album was released on CD on 7 April 1988 .
Along with the other four of the band 's first five albums , Porcupine was remastered and reissued on CD in 2003 – these releases were marketed as 25th anniversary editions . Seven bonus tracks were added to the album : " Fuel " was the second B @-@ side track on the 12 @-@ inch version of " The Back of Love " ; alternate versions of " The Cutter " , " My White Devil " , " Porcupine " , " Ripeness " and " Gods Will Be Gods " which were all early versions recorded during the album 's sessions ; and " Never Stop ( Discotheque ) " the 12 @-@ inch version of the non @-@ album single which was released after Porcupine . The alternate versions of " My White Devil " , " Porcupine " and " Ripeness " had all previously been unissued . The reissued album was produced by Andy Zax and Bill Inglot .
There were two tracks from the original Porcupine album which had been released as singles . The first of these was " The Back of Love " which had been released on 21 May 1982 . The second single was " The Cutter " which was released on 14 January 1983 . " Never Stop ( Discotheque ) " , which was originally a non @-@ album single when it was released on 8 July 1983 , was subsequently included on the 2003 remastered version of the album as a bonus track .
= = Reception = =
Following the release of Porcupine in 1983 , NME reviewer Barney Hoskyns gave the album a negative review . Hoskyns wrote , " Porcupine is the distressing occasion of an important and exciting rock group becoming ensnared by its own strongest points , a dynamic force striving fruitlessly to escape the brilliant track that trails behind it . " Hoskyns likened the sound of the album to the band " turning on their own greatest ' hits ' and savaging them " . Hoskyns also criticised McCulloch 's lyrics and the general mood of the album , noting , " Only on ' Porcupine ' itself do the various strains of despair coalesce " , and dismissed the entire second side of the album , saying it " horrifies the more for its uniform lack of inspiration , for the fact that every number cops direct from earlier songs without preserving anything of their energy or invention " . Record reviewer Wayne King similarly commented that the album reused many motifs , such as Ian McCullough 's octave jumps , from their previous albums . While he praised the opening tracks " The Cutter " and " Back of Love " , he remarked that Porcupine as a whole was not nearly as good an album as Echo and the Bunnymen 's live performances showed they were capable of .
In a review of the original release on Allmusic , Porcupine was described as a " solid outing " , a " noticeably better listen than its predecessor , Heaven Up Here " and " well worth hearing " . When reviewing the remastered 2003 version the review was expanded to add that new release was " a very well done expansion of an already fine album " . Blender magazine described the album in a review on their website as " impossibly exciting pop @-@ rock " and Pitchfork called the album " the band 's definitive statement " and described the track " The Back of Love " as " the astonishing highlight of the group 's career " . The album appeared in the 1983 end of year critics ' lists for both Melody Maker , where it was listed at number nine , and NME , where it was listed at number 32 . The album is also listed in the 2006 book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .
The album reached number 2 on the UK Albums Chart , number 137 on the American Billboard 200 , number 85 on the Canadian RPM 100 Albums , and number 24 on the Swedish albums chart . Having sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies of the album in the UK , Echo & they Bunnymen were awarded with a gold disc by the British Phonographic Industry . Of the singles from the album , " The Back of Love " reached number 19 on the UK Singles Chart and " The Cutter " reached number 8 . " The Back of Love " also became the band 's first single to make the Irish Singles Chart when it reached number 24 , while " The Cutter " reached number 10 . The single " Never Stop ( Discotheque ) " reached number 15 on the UK Singles Chart and number 8 on the Irish Singles Chart .
= = Track listing = =
All tracks written by Will Sergeant , Ian McCulloch , Les Pattinson and Pete de Freitas .
Side one
" The Cutter " – 3 : 56
" The Back of Love " – 3 : 14
" My White Devil " – 4 : 41
" Clay " – 4 : 15
" Porcupine " – 6 : 01
Side two
" Heads Will Roll " – 3 : 33
" Ripeness " – 4 : 50
" Higher Hell " – 5 : 01
" Gods Will Be Gods " – 5 : 25
" In Bluer Skies " – 4 : 33
2003 bonus tracks
" Fuel " – 4 : 09
" The Cutter " ( Alternate Version ) – 4 : 10
" My White Devil " ( Alternate Version ) – 5 : 02
" Porcupine " ( Alternate Version ) – 4 : 04
" Ripeness " ( Alternate Version ) – 4 : 43
" Gods Will Be Gods " ( Alternate Version ) – 5 : 31
" Never Stop ( Discotheque ) " – 4 : 45
Porcupine – An Atlas Adventure
" In Bluer Skies "
" The Cutter "
" My White Devil "
" Porcupine "
" Heads Will Roll "
" The Back of Love "
= = Personnel = =
Ian McCulloch – vocals , guitar , piano
Will Sergeant – lead guitar
Les Pattinson – bass
Pete de Freitas – drums
Shankar – strings
Ian Broudie – producer
Dave Bascombe – engineer
Paul Cobald – engineer
Colin Fairley – engineer
Dave Woolley – engineer
Steve Short – engineer
Steve Presige – engineer
Brian Griffin – photography
Martyn Atkins – cover design
Andy Zax – producer ( reissue )
Bill Inglot – producer ( reissue ) , remastering ( reissue )
Dan Hersch – remastering ( reissue )
Rachel Gutek – cover design ( reissue )
= The Get Up Kids =
The Get Up Kids are an American rock band from Kansas City , Missouri . Formed in 1995 , the band was a major player in the mid @-@ 1990s emo scene , otherwise known as the " second wave " of emo music . As they gained prominence , they began touring with bands such as Green Day and Weezer before becoming headliners themselves , eventually embarking on international tours of Japan and Europe . They founded Heroes & Villains Records , an imprint of the successful indie rock label Vagrant Records . While the imprint was started to release albums by The Get Up Kids , it served as a launching pad for several side @-@ projects such as The New Amsterdams and Reggie and the Full Effect .
The Get Up Kids were viewed throughout their existence as a prototypical emo band , having been major players in the Midwest emo movement of the mid @-@ 1990s . Their second album Something to Write Home About remains their most widely acclaimed album , and is considered to be one of the quintessential albums of the second @-@ wave emo movement . However , like many early emo bands , The Get Up Kids , sought to dissociate themselves with the term , as it was considered dismissive to be seen as an " emo band . " The band departed heavily from their established style with the release of their 2002 album On a Wire , which saw the band take on a much more layered , alternative rock sound . Years later , guitarist Jim Suptic even apologized for having the influence they did on many of the modern third @-@ wave emo bands , commenting that " [ t ] he punk scene we came out of and the punk scene now are completely different . It 's like glam rock now ... If this is the world we helped create , then I apologize . "
Due to internal conflicts , the band broke up in 2005 . Three years later , the band reunited to support the tenth anniversary re @-@ release of Something to Write Home About , and soon afterward entered the studio to write new material . In early 2010 , the band released Simple Science , their first release in six years , followed in 2011 by the full @-@ length There Are Rules .
= = History = =
= = = Early years ( 1995 – 1997 ) = = =
While in high school , Ryan Pope , Rob Pope , and Jim Suptic formed a short @-@ lived band called Kingpin . Matt Pryor had been writing songs since he was a teenager , and was playing in a band called Secret Decoder Ring . Following the demise of the two bands in 1995 , The Get Up Kids were formed . The band originally planned on calling themselves " The Suburban Get Up Kids " , until reasoning that there were fewer band names beginning with the letter ' G ' than there are with the letter ' S ' , and that therefore they were more likely to be noticed in a record store if their name began with a ' G ' . The band was formed on October 14 , 1995 on Suptic 's 18th birthday .
At the time the lineup consisted of Pryor on guitar and lead vocals , Suptic on guitar , Rob Pope on bass , and Thomas Becker on drums . However , Becker soon left for college in California , and was replaced by Nathan Shay , who was attending school with Suptic at the Kansas City Art Institute . In 1995 , Pryor , Suptic , and friend Kevin Zelko saved money to self @-@ release " Shorty / The Breathing Method " , their first 7 @-@ inch . However , due to an unwillingness to tour , Shay was replaced by Robert 's younger brother Ryan in April 1996 . The band became increasingly popular in the burgeoning underground Midwestern music scene , forming strong relationships with bands such as Rocket Fuel Is The Key , Coalesce and Braid . After the " Shorty " 7 @-@ inch , the band released " A Newfound Interest in Massachusetts " on Contrast Records . Encouraged by interest stirred by the band 's first 7 @-@ inch , they recorded their first EP , Woodson . Two songs of which were released by Contrast Records as a 7 @-@ inch titled " A Newfound Interest in Massachusetts " or more commonly known as " The Loveteller 7 " , with Doghouse Records releasing a CD @-@ EP version which included the songs from both Woodson and A Newfound Interest in Massachusetts as well as the two song Woodson 7 " . After Woodson , Doghouse approached the band with a two @-@ album contract , offering them $ 4 @,@ 000 to record their first full @-@ length album .
= = = Four Minute Mile ( 1997 – 1998 ) = = =
After signing to Doghouse , the band drove to Chicago to record their debut full @-@ length album with producer Bob Weston of Shellac . The album was recorded in only two days , with the band leaving on Friday after Ryan Pope got out of school and finishing in the early hours of Sunday morning . Two months after recording the album , the band embarked on their first national tour with Braid and Ethel Meserve with the first date of the tour taking place the day after Ryan 's high school graduation .
It was on that tour that the band met James Dewees , the new drummer for Coalesce while the bands were playing together in Wilkes @-@ Barre , Pennsylvania . After the show , the members of the two bands became close friends , eventually leading them to record a split 7 @-@ inch produced by Ed Rose entitled " The Get Up Kids / Coalesce " . For the split , each band covered one of the other 's songs in their own style . Coalesce did a post @-@ hardcore cover of " Second Place " , and The Get Up Kids recorded a power @-@ pop rendition of " Harvest of Maturity " .
A few months later , the band released their debut full @-@ length record Four Minute Mile , bringing a great deal of attention from critics , fans and labels alike . The band was invited to join Braid on their 1998 tour of Europe and the band rapidly created an overseas fanbase .
While the band was receiving rapidly increasing national and international attention , they became unhappy with Doghouse Records ' ability to keep up with the increasing popularity of the band . The Get Up Kids announcement to leave Doghouse Records brought interest from prominent record labels including Sub Pop , Geffen and Mojo Records . The band made a decision to sign to Mojo , but before the contracts were signed , they began to have second thoughts . The main issue was over the label 's insistence on owning merchandising rights , a large source of the band 's income . Moreover , the band was insulted the label requested they re @-@ record " Don 't Hate Me " from Four Minute Mile for their next record , feeling that the label believed it was " the best that [ they could ] write " . Before the deal with Mojo was official , the band met Rich Egan , founder of Los Angeles @-@ based Vagrant Records . He convinced the band to sign to Vagrant instead , offering them $ 50 @,@ 000 to record a second album , as well as their own imprint , Heroes & Villains Records .
= = = Something to Write Home About ( 1999 – 2001 ) = = =
In 1998 , James Dewees recorded his first solo album under the pseudonym Reggie and the Full Effect . While Dewees wrote the songs himself , he asked Matt Pryor and Rob Pope to help record some of the instrumentals . The resulting album , Greatest Hits 1984 @-@ 1987 leaned heavily on the use of synthesizer keyboards for its sound . Their work together on the Reggie and the Full Effect album led Pryor to invite Dewees to collaborate with The Get Up Kids on Red Letter Day , a five @-@ track EP produced by Ed Rose to fulfill their two @-@ record deal with Doghouse . The cleaner , more focused sound of the EP provided the chance to experiment with the inclusion of keyboards and acts as a sonic bridge between the raw sound of Four Minute Mile and the more dynamic , produced style of their next studio album .
After the release of Red Letter Day , Dewees became a full @-@ time member as the band began recording their second studio album in Los Angeles in June 1999 with producer Alex Brahl . Before the album went into production , Vagrant Records co @-@ owner John Cohen borrowed money from his parents , who had mortgaged their house in order to fund the production of the album . On September 21 , 1999 , the band released Something to Write Home About on Vagrant Records . The album 's lyrics reflected the record label strife the band had experienced and their distance between friends and family back home after their move to Los Angeles . Something to Write Home About has been singled out as the band 's only ' true ' emo album , as the album 's aesthetic fit more into the contemporary definition of the genre . Furthermore , the album single @-@ handedly turned the struggling Vagrant label into one of the top indie labels in the country , selling over 140 @,@ 000 copies after its release . Not only did the album make The Get Up Kids the poster children for emo , but it also launched the genre into a public consciousness broader than the scattered local scenes that had previously embraced it . The album gave Vagrant Records the financial backing to grow and sign a string of other bands . At the same time , the addition of keyboards alienated some fans who thought it moved the band away from the contemporary punk scene 's DIY ethic .
The Get Up Kids toured relentlessly for almost three years in promotion of the record . As well as touring Europe , Japan , and Australia , they shared bills with acts such as Green Day , The Anniversary , Koufax , Hot Rod Circuit , Jebediah , Weezer and Ozma . Their 2000 tour with The Anniversary and Koufax was sponsored by Napster . Their fanbase kept expanding through word of mouth . Venues booked months in advance could no longer hold the demand by the time the band arrived in town and fans were forced to stand outside to see them perform . To capitalize on anticipation for the band 's next album , Vagrant Records released a rarities compilation Eudora in 2001 . Eudora consisted of alternate takes , covers , and B @-@ sides since the band 's formation . Likewise , Doghouse released a re @-@ mastered edition of Four Minute Mile and a compilation entitled The EPs : Woodson and Red Letter Day , combining the two Doghouse @-@ owned EPs on one compact disc .
= = = On a Wire ( 2002 – 2003 ) = = =
After three years of touring for Something to Write Home About , the band was beginning to feel burned @-@ out , and wished to depart from the upbeat power @-@ pop sound with which they had become associated . They also wanted to find a new producer to challenge them creatively , approaching Nigel Godrich and Gil Norton with offers , although both declined . Finally , the band settled on Scott Litt , best known for his work with R.E.M. and Nirvana . The band 's third studio album , On a Wire was released on May 14 , 2002 , debuting a more measured , alternative style . Just as Something to Write Home About alienated some fans with its more produced sound , On a Wire was criticized by fans who were disappointed with the album 's softer musical direction . Specifically , the reviewer for Alternative Press wrote " Unfortunately , the visceral energy of their early days is lost in their newfound maturity . "
While many fans were upset with this sudden change of direction , the album was generally well received by mainstream publications . Entertainment Weekly was highly positive , writing that " This is the group at their best . " In his review of the album , Rolling Stone writer Barry Walters wrote " On a Wire quivers with the anxieties that must have arisen as the Get Up Kids left behind what originally made them . Straining vocals , racing tempos and walls of distortion give way to softer singing , spacious guitars and prominent keyboards . . . The Get Up Kids dig deeper into themselves . What they find is often subtle , less visceral but far more tender . " The poor public reception of the album had a larger impact on the band 's popularity as a whole . The band embarked on a tour to promote the album in the late spring soon after the album was released , only to find that they had far less support from both their fans and their record label . Using the financial and critical success of Something to Write Home About , Vagrant signed several other headlining emo bands such as Alkaline Trio , Dashboard Confessional , and Saves the Day . The Get Up Kids were no longer the label 's top priority , and certainly not after the lukewarm reception of On a Wire . In an interview with Alternative Press , lead singer Matt Pryor considered the dramatic change in style on On a Wire seriously dented the momentum the band had built up since Something to Write Home About , allowing later bands such as Dashboard Confessional to take much of the fan base that The Get Up Kids had previously earned . In an interview , Pryor confessed that he did not think that " anyone , including Vagrant , gave that record a chance " . Even though they had avoided the term since its inception , it was at this point the band actively began trying to shed the term " emo " , a word that had defined them for years but had come to be associated with more pop @-@ oriented acts . Pryor commented on the album , saying " We really didn 't give two shits if anyone liked the record or not , we were really confident that we were going to kill this ' emo ' stigma that we had and take the people with open minds with us and leave everyone else in the dust . "
= = = Guilt Show ( 2003 – 2004 ) = = =
In 2003 the band began recording their fourth studio album . The album would be the first recorded in Black Lodge Studios in Eudora , Kansas , a studio renovated and owned by the Pope brothers and producer Ed Rose . The writing process for the album was different from their past efforts , as most of the songs were written by only three of the band members . In the early stages of writing , Jim Suptic was on his honeymoon . James Dewees was involved in a difficult divorce , and much of his creative efforts inspired by those events went into the fourth Reggie and the Full Effect album Songs Not to Get Married To . While this led to a less collaborative effort than in the past , it gave the Pope brothers a more substantial role in writing than ever before . In an interview with Alternative Press , Pryor confirmed the song " Never Be Alone " was written by Rob Pope about his 2003 divorce from The Anniversary keyboardist Adrianne Verhoeven .
This fractured approach to the writing process began to strain relationships in the band , at one point leading Suptic to consider quitting the band . Pryor drew lyrical inspiration from the lives of friends and people he knew , extracting stories of abuse , betrayal and guilt . The album 's lyrics also delve into incidents of adultery ( " Wouldn 't Believe It " , " How Long Is Too Long " ) and the album 's first single " The One You Want " is said to be about a woman who Pryor says " Sucks the soul out of people " .
In March 2004 , the band released their fourth studio album Guilt Show , produced by Ed Rose . Sonically , the album combined the more measured , sophisticated sound of On a Wire with the frenetic style of their earlier work . Guilt Show , which was titled after a misreading of a flier saying " Quilt show " , was very well received both critically and commercially . The more pop @-@ driven tone of the album reunited the band with many fans who were disenchanted after On a Wire , while also staying close enough to the evolution of the last album to interest newer fans and critics . However , their return was overshadowed by the booming popularity of other contemporary emo bands such as Dashboard Confessional , who invited the band to open for them on the 2004 Honda Civic Tour .
= = = Breakup and solo activity ( 2004 – 2008 ) = = =
Over the course of the tour with Dashboard Confessional , relationships between the band members continued to decline . The band 's live shows had deteriorated , and Rob and Suptic had both threatened to quit multiple times . Matt Pryor 's wife had recently given birth to their first child , and being away from his family had made him irritable and standoffish . After the Honda Civic tour ended , the band embarked on their world tour , including stops throughout Europe , Japan and Australia . However , their live performance hit an all @-@ time low , with Pryor at times refusing to even sing large portions of songs .
At one tour date in England , the tensions came to a head when Ryan Pope confronted Pryor over his recent despondence , leading to a band meeting where Pryor confessed his desire to reduce his commitment to the rest of the group . After some discussion , the band agreed that their hearts were no longer in it and at the end of the tour they would quietly end the band . Once the tour ended , the band went on an unofficial hiatus , not playing as a group until the next January , when they played a show at the Granada Theater in Lawrence , Kansas to celebrate the band 's tenth anniversary . The show was recorded and released the following May as the band 's first live album , Live ! @ The Granada Theater .
On Tuesday , March 8 , 2005 , The Get Up Kids announced that after ten years , they were calling it quits . They embarked on a national farewell tour , ending the band after a sold @-@ out show on July 2 , 2005 in their hometown of Kansas City , Missouri at the Uptown Theater .
After the band 's split , the Pope brothers took over management of Black Lodge Studios , the recording studio that the band formed with the recording of Guilt Show , alongside longtime producing partner Ed Rose . The brothers joined Koufax for a short stint , before splitting for different projects . Rob was a founding member of Lawrence , Kansas group White Whale , releasing the 2006 album WWI to moderate acclaim before becoming a full @-@ time member of Spoon , while Ryan became the drummer for the Lawrence @-@ based experimental rock band The Roman Numerals .
Matt Pryor continued as part of The New Amsterdams , an acoustic alt @-@ country group he had formed in 2000 , expanding its sound and solidifying its previously revolving @-@ door lineup . In 2007 he formed The Terrible Twos , a children 's band that has released two albums on Vagrant Records . Regarding the decision to make a children 's album directly after the split , Pryor said " I wanted to do it anyway because I have kids and I want to write songs for them , but nobody is going to be like ' this isn 't as good as the old stuff . ' It 's immune to punk criticism . " In July 2008 , he refocused his efforts on a solo career with the release of Confidence Man , an alt @-@ country release similar in sound to The New Amsterdams . After his second album , May Day , Pryor announced that he would be formally disbanding The New Amsterdams in favor of his solo career , concluding the band 's tenure with the release of Outroduction , a B @-@ sides recording .
Jim Suptic went on to form Blackpool Lights with former members of Butterglory and The Creature Comforts . The band released their debut album This Town 's Disaster in 2006 , consisted largely of songs Suptic wrote for The Get Up Kids but never recorded . The album was released on Curb Appeal Records , an independent label Suptic founded with former Get Up Kids collaborator and local musician Alex Brahl . The label released albums by Smoking Popes and The New Amsterdams , but dissolved sometime in 2008 . The exact reasons why were never revealed , but Suptic said only that it " blew up in [ his ] face . " After the closure of the label , Suptic began working at Home Depot to support his family .
After the breakup of The Get Up Kids , James Dewees toured with New Found Glory as their touring keyboardist , having been featured on their 2003 album Catalyst . While he was touring , his ongoing struggles with alcohol and drug abuse worsened . After moving to New York City , he began to attend rehab , a process which would inspire the fifth Reggie and the Full Effect album , Last Stop : Crappy Town . After another brief tour opening for Hellogoodbye in 2006 , he joined My Chemical Romance as their full @-@ time touring keyboardist .
= = = Reunion & There Are Rules ( 2008 @-@ present ) = = =
In late August and September 2008 , while Dewees was touring with Reggie and the Full Effect , he began making hints that The Get Up Kids would be reuniting to commemorate the tenth anniversary of the band 's second album Something to Write Home About . The reunion was finally confirmed by a post on the official music blog of The Kansas City Star , confirming rumors that the band would be playing a surprise reunion show at The Record Bar in Kansas City on November 16 , 2008 . According to the article , the band had made the decision over the summer and had Dewees intentionally leak the information to gauge fan interest .
The reunion show was officially announced on Friday , November 14 , along with the official confirmation of the album re @-@ release and a 2009 national tour . The tenth anniversary edition of the album includes a code to download bonus demo tracks from the original recording of Something To Write Home About from the Vagrant Records website , and a DVD containing a band retrospective and other content , including archive footage , and their live performance from March 13 , 2009 at Liberty Hall in Lawrence . The show took place Sunday , November 16 , 2008 at the record bar in Kansas City . The band played their album Something To Write Home About from beginning to end , as well as a six song encore .
In the summer of 2009 , they returned to Black Lodge studios to record their first new material in five years , recording twelve tracks intended to be released as three EPs over the course of a year . On April 13 , 2010 the band released the first EP Simple Science on Flyover Records .
After the release of Simple Science , the band decided to combine the remaining tracks — along with three more newly recorded songs — into a new full @-@ length album , There Are Rules . They also confirmed that the album would not be released on Vagrant Records , who had released their previous three albums , but on their own Quality Hill Records . The album was produced by Ed Rose and mixed by Bob Weston , who produced the band 's debut album . There Are Rules was released on January 25 , 2011 , and was supported by a co @-@ headlining tour with Saves The Day .
= = Influence = =
The Get Up Kids have had a lasting impact on the music scene , having been cited as inspirations to several prominent bands and artists . Blink @-@ 182 bassist and singer Mark Hoppus is a vocal fan , having proposed to his wife to The Get Up Kids song " I 'll Catch You . " They were also a major influence on the rest of the band , even at their peak popularity around the release of Take Off Your Pants and Jacket . The members of Fall Out Boy cite The Get Up Kids ' influence , particularly their album Four Minute Mile . In a 2005 interview with Alternative Press , Fall Out Boy bassist Pete Wentz stated that the band had a huge influence on him and the other members of Fall Out Boy . " There should be a How To Be a Pop @-@ Punk Kid starter kit with bands like Get Up Kids , so kids would know whose shoulders bands like us are standing on . Fall Out Boy would not be a band if it were not for The Get Up Kids . "
New Jersey based act Midtown has stated in interviews that they were heavily influenced by The Get Up Kids , among other groups . The Early November band members were all fans of , and influenced by , The Get Up Kids . The Early November song " Baby Blue " includes the line " I don 't want you to love me anymore " , a direct reference to the Get Up Kids song " No Love " both lyrically and melodically . The band Hellogoodbye have been vocal fans of the band and while on tour with Reggie and the Full Effect in 2007 , two years after the breakup of The Get Up Kids , Hellogoodbye invited James Dewees and Matt Pryor onstage with them , and proceeded to back them in a cover of The Get Up Kids ' song " Action & Action " . The Canadian post @-@ hardcore band Silverstein has cited the Get Up Kids as a major influence , and covered their song Coming Clean for a split 7 " with August Burns Red in 2013 . Claudio Sanchez of Coheed and Cambria cited Something to Write Home About as one of the albums that the band listened to and during the recording of their breakout album In Keeping Secrets of Silent Earth : 3 .
Despite their lasting influence on modern music , the band has attempted to disassociate themselves with many of the bands they inspired . Following the band 's reformation , guitarist Jim Suptic undertook an interview with website Drowned in Sound , in which he said , " The punk scene we came out of and the punk scene now are completely different . It 's like glam rock now . We played the Bamboozle fests this year and we felt really out of place ... If this is the world we helped create , then I apologise . " He went on to say they were grateful for the acknowledgements they have received , though explaining " the problem is most of [ the bands they inspired ] aren 't very good . "
= = Band members = =
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
Four Minute Mile ( 1997 )
Something to Write Home About ( 1999 )
Eudora ( 2001 )
On a Wire ( 2002 )
Guilt Show ( 2004 )
There Are Rules ( 2011 )
= Michael Jackson 's This Is It ( album ) =
Michael Jackson 's This Is It ( or simply This Is It ) is a posthumous two @-@ disc soundtrack album by American singer Michael Jackson . Released by MJJ Music on October 26 , 2009 , This Is It features previously released music , as well as six previously unreleased recordings by Michael Jackson . This Is It was released to coincide with the theatrical release of Michael Jackson 's This Is It , a concert film documenting Michael Jackson 's rehearsals for the This Is It concert series at London 's O2 Arena . This Is It is the sixth album to be released by Sony and Motown / Universal since Michael Jackson 's death in June 2009 .
This Is It debuted at number one in fourteen countries , including the United States , Canada , Japan , Italy and France . This Is It also peaked within the top 10 of the charts in several other nations . This Is It has been certified Gold , Platinum , and twice @-@ Platinum in multiple countries . This Is It was the twelfth best @-@ selling album of 2009 in the United States and the third best @-@ selling album of 2009 based on worldwide sales . The title track from the album , " This Is It " , earned Michael Jackson a Grammy Nomination in 2011 for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance at the 53rd Annual Grammy Awards .
= = Background and concept = =
Michael Jackson died at the age of 50 on June 25 , 2009 from cardiac arrest ( it would later be determined that Jackson died of " acute propofol intoxication " with the additional factor of " benzodiazepine effect " ) . Prior to his death , the singer was planning on performing 50 concerts for his sold out This Is It dates in the United Kingdom from 2009 to 2010 . Shortly after his death , on September 23 , 2009 , Sony Music Entertainment announced that they were to release a two @-@ disc compilation " soundtrack " for Jackson 's concert documentary film , Michael Jackson 's This Is It . In the announcement it was confirmed that This Is It would be released on October 26 , 2009 , one day before the film 's theatrical release . This Is It is the sixth posthumous album to be released by Sony and Motown / Universal since Jackson 's death in June 2009 . The previous five albums are The Collection , Hello World : The Motown Solo Collection , The Stripped Mixes , The Definitive Collection , and The Remix Suite . This Is It was released on Sony Music 's Epic Records , though , in certain countries , This Is It is listed under Sony Music Entertainment ( see release history ) . The album was made available for pre @-@ order – on Amazon.com as a compact disc and on the iTunes Store as a digital download . As planned , This Is It was released on October 26 , 2009 in the US and worldwide on October 27 and 28 .
= = Music = =
The press release announcing the two @-@ disc album describes it as a " stand @-@ alone companion " to the motion picture . This Is It was released as a two @-@ disc compilation album . The first disc consists of sixteen tracks , fourteen of which were already released on Jackson 's previous studio albums : Thriller ( 1982 ) , Bad ( 1987 ) , Dangerous ( 1991 ) and HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I ( 1995 ) , and one from The Jacksons ' album Destiny ( 1978 ) . Fourteen of the already released tracks were arranged in order of how they would have appeared on the This Is It setlist and how they appeared in the concert film . On September 23 , 2009 , Sony Music Entertainment announced that it would release the song " This Is It " as a single to promote both the album and film . However , shortly after " This Is It " ' s digital debut on MichaelJackson.com , it was confirmed that the single 's planned physical release was cancelled .
This Is It contains previously unreleased music by Michael Jackson , which consists of demos and instrumental versions of his songs . The first disc contains " This Is It " , which was written by Michael Jackson and Paul Anka in 1983 ; the song had originally been planned as a duet between the two for Anka 's Walk a Fine Line album . After Michael Jackson 's death , his brothers found a demo of Michael Jackson 's version of the song , described as a " bare bone " recording . They added their voices and instruments into the background of the track . Two versions of " This Is It " were added to the album ; the original and an orchestra version that is over one minute longer . The second disc consists of four unreleased versions of Michael Jackson 's classic hits . The disc contains three demo versions of Michael Jackson 's " She 's Out of My Life " ( 1979 ) , " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " ( 1982 ) and " Beat It " ( 1982 ) . The disc 's fourth track is a spoken word poem by Jackson , entitled " Planet Earth " , which was already published in the liner notes of Michael Jackson 's 1991 album Dangerous .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial performance = = =
This Is It debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 , selling 373 @,@ 000 copies in its first week according to Nielsen SoundScan . The album had the fifth @-@ best sales week for an album in the United States in 2009 . This Is It , which also debuted at number one on Billboards Soundtrack chart , marked Jackson 's sixth number one entry on the chart . This Is It slightly outsold Jackson 's first @-@ week sales of his previous album Invincible which sold 366 @,@ 300 units in 2001 . This Is It 's chart performance tied Jackson with several other artists for the most number @-@ one albums on the Billboard 200 chart ; among the solo male artists , Jackson currently is tied with Garth Brooks for second place with 51 entries . Jackson 's This Is It album was the twelfth best @-@ selling of 2009 , having sold an estimated 1 @.@ 29 million units in nine weeks . It has sold a total of 1 @,@ 735 @,@ 000 copies in the US as of August 2013 . Its video is also being sold as USB flash drive by Kingston Company , first time ever in the company 's history , according to a deal done with Sony Music , published as Limited Edition .
Internationally , This Is It had similar commercial reception . The album was released worldwide on October 26 and October 27 , 2009 and debuted at number one in fourteen countries . The fourteen countries include Italy , France , Sweden and the Netherlands , the album stayed at number one in the Netherlands for two consecutive weeks . Other countries where This Is It didn 't debut or peak at number one were , placing at number two , Denmark , Australia and Switzerland , placing at number three , Norway and the United Kingdom , placing at four in Germany and sixth in Ireland . In the album 's second week of release its chart positions saw both an increase and decrease . This Is It increased from four to three in Germany and sixth to fifth in Ireland while it held onto its second and third positions in Switzerland and Norway respectively . By its third week of release , the album went on to peak at number three in Ireland . This Is It sold 78 @,@ 000 units in its first week of release in the United Kingdom .
This Is It has received multiple certifications since its release from different countries worldwide ; although sales per certificate vary per country . Four days after This Is It 's release in the United Kingdom , it was certified gold for 100 @,@ 000 units sold on October 30 , and platinum for 300 @,@ 000 units sold on November 27 , 2009 . The album was certified 2x platinum by Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on December 4 , 2009 . This Is It was certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association for the shipment of over 70 @,@ 000 units in Australia . The album was also certified Gold by the Canadian Recording Industry Association for the sales of over 40 @,@ 000 units in Canada and was certified 3 × Platinum by the Federation of the Italian Music Industry for the sales of over 210 @,@ 000 units in Italy , as well as 2 × Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand for the sales of over 30 @,@ 000 units in New Zealand . It was the third best @-@ selling album of 2009 based on worldwide sales .
= = = Critical response = = =
Upon its release , This Is It received mixed to positive reviews from music critics . Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson of Entertainment Weekly , praised the album and gave it an overall rating of a B + . Vozick @-@ Levinson described the album 's track " This Is It " as being an " uplifting ballad " and felt that " if you 're feeling generous " you can " count the minimally distinguishable " orchestra version of " This Is It " having thought of it as being a " decent if slight addition to Jackson 's songbook . " Vozick @-@ Levinson stated that while the album 's second disc only contains four tracks that were unreleased , that included a " fairly unremarkable " spoken @-@ word poem , after hearing Jackson " work out the vocal harmonies " for " Beat It , " he in particular , felt that This Is It was " well worth the price of admission ( or at least a healthy chunk of it ) . " Brian Linder of IGN described This Is It as a " freshly designed " release of a greatest hits album , and that the album 's tracks of an all @-@ vocal arrangement of " Beat It " was " particularly awesome " and the acoustic version of " She 's Out of My Life " allows Jackson 's " vocals to shine without the distraction of dated ' 70s musical underpinnings . " Linder did note that he felt that the album was both a " fitting tribute " to Jackson and a " crass , commercial double @-@ dip . "
Will Hines of Consequence of Sound gave This Is It a rating of four and a half out of five stars . Hines commented that : " On one level [ of the album ] , it 's an attempt to focus and draw attention to what Michael Jackson lived for , and not what he did . On a more superficial level , this is Sony milking his legacy . Any true MJ fan will already own 90 % of the songs that make up this two @-@ disc set . It is , however , that 10 % which justifies this album ’ s existence . "
Negative reviews from critics were mainly centered around them feeling that the album was released only for profit . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic gave This Is It two and a half out of five stars . Erlewine commented that , " an important thing to remember when considering the soundtrack to This Is It : this entire film and CD project was never supposed to happen " . He noted that Jackson 's death had " created considerable demand " for his final rehearsal footage and that This Is It was an " accompaniment " to the film . Andy Gill of The Independent strongly criticized This Is It describing it as being a " shoddy apology for an album " and felt that it was made just for a profit , commenting ,
As a cash @-@ in attempt to scrape as much money from fans ' memories with as little outlay as possible , however , it rivals RCA 's ruthless ( and still ongoing ) reconfigurations of Elvis Presley 's back catalogue . But then , what should one expect from Jackson 's executors ? His own father 's immediate reaction to Michael 's death seemed to involve the promotion of his own label , while his brothers quickly grabbed the opportunity to scour through a box of tapes and find a tepid old track not previously deemed worthy of release and add their own vocals to it ( before taking the trouble to find out it was co @-@ written by Paul Anka , who understandably sought remuneration for his work ) . Who , exactly , stands to gain from this ? Not the fans , that 's for sure . In the four months since his death , Sony and Motown / Universal between them have issued no fewer than five posthumous album packages : The Collection , Hello World , The Stripped Mixes , The Remix Suite , and now This Is It . That 's a busy promotion schedule for a dead man . At some point , presumably , he will be left to rest in peace .
= = = Awards = = =
The title track , " This Is It " , earned Michael Jackson a Grammy Nomination in 2011 for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance at the 53rd Annual Grammy Awards .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
The two versions of " This Is It " along with the second disc contents are available separately as the digital @-@ only EP Selections from Michael Jackson 's This Is It .
" Smooth Criminal " is excluded from the China release .
Despite that a sticker on the album claims all songs on the album are in their original full @-@ length album versions , " Shake Your Body ( Down to the Ground ) " is included in its 7 " edit version .
An eco @-@ friendly version sold only at Walmart includes only the first disc .
= = Charts , certifications and sales = =
= = Release history = =
= 2nd Commando Regiment ( Australia ) =
The 2nd Commando Regiment is an elite special forces unit of the Australian Army , and is one of three combat @-@ capable units within Special Operations Command . The regiment was established on 19 June 2009 when the 4th Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( Commando ) was renamed . It is based at Holsworthy , New South Wales . The 2nd Commando Regiment often trains and deploys with the Special Air Service Regiment , is highly regarded by coalition special operation forces abroad , and has been involved in operations in East Timor , Iraq and Afghanistan , where it was used in a direct action warfighting role . It has also been involved in a number of domestic security operations including the 2006 Commonwealth Games and the 2014 G20 Leaders Summit .
= = Role = =
Part of Special Operations Command ( SOCOMD ) , the 2nd Commando Regiment is one of three combat @-@ capable units within SOCOMD and operates in conjunction with other SOCOMD units , services and interagency organisations in joint and combined operations . According to the Department of Defence the role of the regiment is to conduct special recovery and strike operations , being created " to conduct offensive and recovery operations beyond the range and capability of other ADF elements " . Formed to complement the Special Air Service Regiment ( SASR ) , it is designed to be a " self @-@ contained flexible and rapidly deployable force " and is structured for both domestic counter @-@ terrorism and other special operations . The regiment is capable of operating in the air , land and sea environment and is tasked with conducting advanced force operations and direct action missions in Australia and overseas . In its domestic counter @-@ terrorism role it provides the basis for Tactical Assault Group ( East ) , which is tasked with conducting high @-@ risk missions beyond the capability of civilian authorities to respond to . Meanwhile , as a result of the decision to no longer maintain a conventional parachute capability , after 3 RAR was reorganised as a light infantry battalion in 2011 this role has also been provided by the 2nd Commando Regiment .
= = History = =
= = = Formation = = =
In 1995 , as part of an expansion of the number of Australian Army infantry battalions , the 2nd / 4th Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment — then operating as a standard light infantry battalion — was delinked into separate battalions which resumed their original identities as the 2nd and 4th Battalions . The decision was then taken that the 4th Battalion would become a Regular Army commando unit and on 1 February 1997 the unit was renamed to 4th Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( Commando ) . The unit would be structured for both conventional operations and domestic counter @-@ terrorism , with an initial establishment of a battalion headquarters , Tactical Assault Group ( East ) , two commando companies , logistic support company , logistic support company , operational support company and a signal squadron . Regular serving members were given the opportunity to undertake special forces training provided by the Commando Training Wing of the Reserve 1st Commando Regiment , or elect to be posted to a conventional forces unit . No General Reserve positions existed in the new structure , and reserve members discharged or posted to reserve units .
The initial years were busy with the unit creating a structure and recruiting members suitable for commando training , while conducting sub @-@ unit and unit training activities . B Company was raised in 1998 , followed by C Company in 1999 , both of which took 24 months to reach full maturity . In 2000 , elements were involved in the evacuation of Australian nationals from the Solomon Islands in June . While later that year the regiment provided a second Tactical Assault Group ( TAG ) to augment that provided by the SASR in support of security arrangements for the Sydney Olympic Games . A period of rapid capability development , equipment acquisition and training subsequently followed . The unit that was developed as a result is highly regarded by coalition special operation forces abroad , and has conducted operations in East Timor , Iraq and Afghanistan . It has also been awarded a number of citations for bravery and meritorious service .
On 19 June 2009 , the battalion was renamed the 2nd Commando Regiment . Regardless , the name 4 RAR remains on the Army 's order of battle and its history , colours and traditions have been preserved , ready to be re @-@ raised as a regular infantry battalion in the future if required . All awards and battle honours received during the time as 4 RAR ( Cdo ) were passed onto the 2nd Commando Regiment , while those awarded before the transformation to a commando battalion were retained by 4 RAR . Along with the renaming , a new badge was chosen to reflect the history and traditions of the Independent Companies that served during the Second World War by including the distinctive " double diamond " unit colour patch shape in the regimental badge along with the traditional commando knife . The unit 's motto is Foras Admonitio , which is Latin for " Without Warning " . Qualified commandos are awarded the Sherwood green commando beret . Distinctive commando parachute wings are worn , depicting a parachute backed by a pair of black drooping wings on a green background . The Australian Army Stiletto dagger is also worn on ceremonial occasions .
= = = East Timor = = =
The 2nd Commando Regiment , then known as 4 RAR ( Cdo ) , was deployed as a part of the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor ( UNTAET ) in 2001 . When notified to replace 1 RAR in East Timor , 4 RAR had not long previously been raised as a commando battalion , developing special forces capabilities to supplement those of the SASR . With the commitment to East Timor continuing , however , 4 RAR was re @-@ roled as a light infantry battalion for deployment to East Timor as AUSBATT IV . This involved reorganising from the existing two commando @-@ companies structure to a light infantry battalion with four companies and a growth in the unit from 220 to 670 personnel . This saw B and C Company remain commando @-@ qualified and A and D Companies filled with Regular infantry soldiers posted in to the unit , with its strength growing to 1 @,@ 100 men . The unit arrived in East Timor in April under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Jeff Sengelman , taking over Area of Operations ( AO ) Matilda in the northern border region .
During its time deployed as a part of UNTAET , the battalion established a security partnership with the East Timorese , focusing strongly on languages and maintaining the relationships previous Australian battalions had established , as well as transferring new technologies to the local security forces . This " intelligence @-@ led " but " people @-@ focused " approach saw the battalion group conduct the majority of its operations in close proximity to the Tactical Coordination Line ( TCL ) on the border with Indonesian West Timor . The battalion saw few contacts while in East Timor . These included a TCL violation on 5 May 2001 which was intercepted by a section from D Company , an outbreak of violence involving a grenade attack by militia members at the Maubasa markets on 29 May which resulted in several people killed and about 50 wounded , and shallow cross @-@ border militia raids in June , including an attack on a section patrol from A Company . The battalion was withdrawn and replaced in October 2001 .
= = = Expansion and domestic security = = =
Following the battalion 's return from East Timor it was again restructured to resume its role as a two @-@ company commando battalion . However , in 2001 the Australian Government directed the permanent establishment of a second TAG to be based on the east coast of Australia . A Company was subsequently raised as a commando company in 2002 . Following the creation of SOCOMD in 2002 and the Bali bombings in October that year , further resources became available . The battalion was subsequently involved in security operations for the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting ( CHOGM ) in Queensland in 2002 . Elements of the battalion were also involved in the boarding of a North Korean freighter , the MV Pong Su — which was suspected of drug smuggling — off Newcastle on 20 April 2003 . In 2005 , a fourth commando company was subsequently raised , with D Company being formed . Later , the battalion was tasked with supporting the security arrangements for the 2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne . In 2014 , elements of the regiment were deployed to Brisbane to protect the G20 Leaders Summit held in the city on 15 and 16 November .
= = = Iraq = = =
The battalion provided a commando force element as part of the Australian contribution to the 2003 invasion of Iraq , known as Operation Falconer . A reinforced commando platoon formed an element of the Australian Special Forces Task Group ( SFTG ) , which also included 1 Squadron , SASR , a troop from the Incident Response Regiment , and three CH @-@ 47 Chinook helicopters from the 5th Aviation Regiment . The commandos formed the " quick reaction " element for the task group . The SFTG operated in western Iraq where it was successful in securing its area of operations , including the huge Al Asad Air Base . After the invasion was complete , the 40 @-@ man commando element provided security to humanitarian assistance missions and other security operations , later providing close protection for Australian officials in Baghdad as part of Operation Catalyst . In 2004 , claims appeared in the media that Australian special forces were involved in counter @-@ insurgency operations inside Iraq , although this was denied by the government . The last commando element was withdrawn in 2006 .
= = = Timor Leste = = =
Later , in May 2006 a commando company group was deployed to Timor Leste as part of Operation Astute , after relations between the East Timorese government and military forces broke down . The commandos operated alongside the SASR as part of the Special Forces Component and were tasked with advanced force operations in preparation for the arrival of follow @-@ on forces , focusing on Dili Airport . In March 2007 , the commandos , along with elements of the SASR , took part in the Battle of Same during which five rebels were killed during an unsuccessful attempt to apprehend the rebel leader , Alfredo Reinado . After the battle , the commandos and SASR elements were withdrawn at the request of the East Timorese government in order to start negotiations with the rebels .
= = = Afghanistan = = =
Meanwhile , in August 2005 an Australian Special Forces Task Group ( SFTG ) was deployed to Afghanistan as part of Operation Slipper , operating in the southern province of Uruzgan . The SFTG , based on similar structure deployed during Operation Falconer , was made up of elements from the SASR , a commando company and a troop from the Incident Response Regiment . Two CH @-@ 47 Chinook helicopters from the 5th Aviation Regiment were deployed to Afghanistan in March 2006 to support the SFTG . A forward operating base was subsequently established at Tarin Kowt . During this deployment the Commandos were involved in Operation Perth which resulted in the death of over 150 Taliban and al @-@ Qaeda fighters in nine days of fierce fighting in the Chora district of Uruzgan Province . The SFTG was withdrawn from Afghanistan in September 2006 and replaced by a Reconstruction Taskforce made up of engineers and conventional infantry . During this period the task group was on patrol for 306 days and involved in 139 contacts and sustained 11 soldiers wounded .
A 300 @-@ strong Special Operations Task Group ( SOTG ) was subsequently deployed to support the Reconstruction Taskforce in April 2007 , including a commando company group , elements of the SASR , and an integral combat service support team . In the latter part of 2008 the commando company conducted a disruption operation in Helmand province as part of Operation Eagle 's Summit , which was a major coalition operation conducted in support of the transport and installation of an additional turbine for the Kajaki Dam hydroelectric facility . In March and April 2009 , SOTG killed 80 Taliban fighters in a major four @-@ week operation in Helmand Province , without suffering any casualties . Further operations undertaken include the Battle of Gizab in April 2010 , and the Shah Wali Kot Offensive in June 2010 , which resulted in heavy insurgent casualties . The bulk of SOTG was withdrawn from Afghanistan in late 2013 as part of a drawdown of Australian forces , although some special forces remained after this date as part of the small Australian force maintained in the country . The Regiment lost 12 personnel killed while deployed to Afghanistan , along with one killed during a pre @-@ deployment exercise .
The Regiment served in 20 SOTG rotations in Afghanistan , with deployments ranging from about four to six , seven , and eight months . For its actions , the Regiment was collectively awarded the Unit Citation for Gallantry and the Meritorious Unit Citation . On 26 March 2013 , it was announced that Special Operations Command would receive the first battle honour awarded to an Australian Army unit for actions since the end of the Vietnam War for its performance during the Shah Wali Kot Offensive in Afghanistan from May to June 2010 . The battle honour , titled " Eastern Shah Wali Kot " , was awarded in recognition of the operational actions of the SASR and 2nd Commando Regiment from Australian Special Operations Task Group Rotation XII . A number of the regiment 's personnel have also received individual decorations for their actions in Afghanistan . A posthumous Victoria Cross for Australia was awarded to Cameron Baird for actions in Uruzgan Province in June 2013 . In addition , as of October 2010 six Distinguished Service Crosses , eleven Distinguished Service Medals , seven Medals for Gallantry and three Stars of Gallantry had been awarded to 2nd Commando Regiment personnel for service in Afghanistan .
= = = Military intervention against ISIL = = =
In September 2014 , as part of Operation Okra the Australian Army deployed a Special Operations Task Group ( SOTG ) of approximately 200 personnel to the United Arab Emirates in preparation for operations to assist and advise Iraqi Security Forces following an offensive by Islamic State forces . The soldiers were expected to be deployed to Iraq when a legal framework covering their presence in the country was agreed between the Australian and Iraqi Governments . The majority of the SOTG was reported to be made up of C Company , 2nd Commando Regiment . It began moving into Iraq in early November .
= = Current organisation = =
The regiment consists of a headquarters , four commando companies , a logistics support company , an operational support company and a signals squadron . It is believed to currently be organised as follows :
Regimental Headquarters
A Company
B Company
C Company
D Company
126 Signal Squadron
Operations Support Company
Logistics Support Company
Incorporates the role of Tactical Assault Group ( East ) ( on rotation ) .
= = Selection and training = =
Any member of the Australian Defence Force may apply for entry into the 2nd Commando Regiment . Applicants may also be accepted via the Special Forces Direct Recruitment Scheme ( DRS ) , where selected and screened civilians undertake an accelerated 80 @-@ day infantry training program prior to commencing the Special Forces selection process . If a candidate fails any part of the selection course they will be returned to their unit , or transferred to one of the infantry battalions of the Royal Australian Regiment if they are a DRS candidate . Candidates must complete the Special Forces Screen Test and if successful move onto the six @-@ week Commando Selection and Training Course ( CSTC ) conducted at the Special Forces Training Centre ( SFTC ) , in Singleton , New South Wales . Further training then is undertaken during Commando Initial Employment Training , also known as the " Reinforcement Cycle " . Upon successful completion of all courses soldiers are posted into one of the Commando Companies where further specialist training occurs .
= New York State Route 321 =
New York State Route 321 ( NY 321 ) is a state highway in Onondaga County , New York , in the United States . The southern terminus of the route is at an intersection with U.S. Route 20 ( US 20 ) in the village of Skaneateles . Its northern terminus is at an intersection with NY 5 in Bennetts Corners , a hamlet within the town of Camillus . NY 321 is predominantly a north – south highway ; however , a portion of the route through the towns of Elbridge and Camillus follows an east – west alignment . The portion of NY 321 in Camillus between Forward Road and NY 5 is maintained by Onondaga County as part of County Route 66 ( CR 66 ) , a route that continues north of NY 5 to Memphis .
The majority of NY 321 's routing was originally designated as part of NY 26 in 1924 . NY 26 continued east to the village of Camillus by way of Forward Road and modern NY 174 . All of NY 26 north of Skaneateles was renumbered to NY 321 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . It initially overlapped NY 174 from Forward Road to Camillus ; however , this concurrency was eliminated in the 1960s . NY 321 was rerouted to follow Bennetts Corners Road in the 1980s .
= = Route description = =
NY 321 begins at an intersection with US 20 ( West Genesee Street ) in the Onondaga County village of Skaneateles . The highway , at first , heads northward , intersecting with local streets in the village . After leaving the village and entering the town of the same name , the highway intersects with the Old Seneca Turnpike ( CR 133 ) . NY 321 continues northward , then veers east as it crosses into the town of Elbridge .
In Elbridge , NY 321 intersects with several county routes , including Halfway Road ( CR 107 ; former NY 368 ) , a connector highway leading to the hamlet of Halfway . Soon afterwards , NY 321 turns to the northeast , heading towards NY 5 . The highway intersects Forward Road ( unsigned NY 931F ) just inside the Camillus town line soon after the turn . Forward Road , a local road that passes through a mixture of open fields and forests , serves as a connector between NY 321 and NY 174 .
Past Forward Road , NY 321 becomes concurrent with CR 66 as maintenance of the roadway shifts from the New York State Department of Transportation to Onondaga County . The state designation comes to an end at NY 5 in the hamlet of Bennetts Corners west of the village of Camillus shortly after ; however , CR 66 continues onward .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
The town of Skaneateles was incorporated in the 1800s to help build highways in the area . The highways that were proposed were to be built with stone and other materials . Construction began in 1911 on a highway between the Skaneateles – Elbridge town line and the hamlet of Martisco within the town of Camillus . It was accepted into the New York state highway system on September 17 , 1912 . An extension of the road south into the town of Skaneateles to the village of the same name was constructed in late 1912 and early 1913 and added to the state highway system in September 1913 .
When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , the Skaneateles – Martisco highway was included as part of NY 26 , a route extending from Ithaca to Syracuse by way of Skaneateles . North of Martisco , NY 26 followed Ninemile Creek to the village of Camillus , where it intersected NY 5A ( later NY 5 ) .
= = = NY 321 designation = = =
NY 26 was split into several different routes as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . The segment of former NY 26 between US 20 in Skaneateles and NY 5 in Camillus was renumbered to NY 321 . It initially overlapped with NY 174 from Martisco to Camillus . The overlap remained in place until the 1960s when NY 321 was truncated to the southern end of the concurrency in Martisco .
In the early 1950s , the portion of NY 321 south of Forward Road was co @-@ designated as part of NY 20SY , a largely alternate routing of US 20 between Skaneateles and Manlius via Syracuse . Past Sweets Corners , NY 20SY continued north on a previously unnumbered roadway to NY 5 at Bennetts Corners , where it joined NY 5 east into Camillus . The NY 20SY designation was removed c . 1962 , leaving Bennetts Corners Road from Forward Road to NY 5 as an unnumbered roadway once again .
NY 321 was rerouted in the late 1980s to follow Bennetts Corners Road to NY 5 . This part of NY 321 overlapped CR 66 , a highway that began at the junction of Forward and Bennetts Corners Roads and ended in the hamlet of Memphis , and thus became maintained by Onondaga County . The former routing of NY 321 along Forward Road is now designated as NY 931F , an unsigned reference route 1 @.@ 16 miles ( 1 @.@ 87 km ) in length .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Onondaga County .
= 2015 Tour of Qatar =
The 2015 Tour of Qatar was the 14th edition of the Tour of Qatar cycling stage race . It was organised by the Amaury Sport Organisation ( ASO ) , the organisers of the Tour de France . The race was rated as a 2.HC event , the second highest rating an event can receive , and was part of the 2015 UCI Asia Tour .
The 2015 race consisted of six stages . It started in Dukhan on 8 February 2015 and finished on 13 February in Doha , the capital city of Qatar . The Tour of Qatar puts unusual demands on riders : it has no significant climbs , but almost every stage is affected by strong crosswinds . These conditions make the race ideal preparation for the spring classics season , so many prominent classics riders were present . The flat stages , suitable for sprinters , and individual time trial meant that specialists in these disciplines also chose to ride in Qatar .
The race was won by Dutch rider Niki Terpstra of Etixx – Quick @-@ Step . It was the second successive year that Terpstra won the race after his victory in 2014 and the fourth successive victory for Etixx – Quick @-@ Step . It was the eighth victory for the team in Qatar . Terpstra took the lead of the race with victory in the third stage of the race , the individual time trial , and held the lead of the race to the finish . Maciej Bodnar ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) took second place , six seconds behind Terpstra ; Alexander Kristoff won stages 2 , 4 and 5 on the way to finishing third , nine seconds off the overall lead .
In the race 's other classifications , Kristoff won the silver jersey of the points classification , thanks to his three stage wins . Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) was the winner of the pearl white jersey of the young riders classification as he was the highest placed rider born after 1 January 1990 . The team classification was won by Etixx – Quick @-@ Step .
= = Preview = =
The Tour of Qatar is one of the early races in the season , coming in the middle of three races in the Middle East ( alongside the Dubai Tour and the Tour of Oman ) that see high levels of participation from the top European teams . The race is particularly popular as a preparation race for riders aiming for the spring classics . The significant challenge in the Tour of Qatar is the strong winds across the desert , which frequently cause the peloton to split into echelons . As well as attracting the top classics riders , the flat nature of the course means many stages can be won by sprinters ; the individual time trial also attracts many of the time trial specialists , who have a chance of overall victory .
Etixx – Quick @-@ Step had dominated the race since it began . This included winning the last three editions ( with Tom Boonen , Mark Cavendish and Niki Terpstra ) . Boonen had won the overall race on four previous occasions , as well as winning 22 stages . Boonen and Terpstra were both among the favourites for the overall victory , along with world time @-@ trial champion Bradley Wiggins ( Team Sky ) .
Marcel Kittel ( Giant – Alpecin ) was the most prominent sprinter to travel to Qatar , alongside Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , Alexander Kristoff ( Team Katusha ) , and several others .
= = Teams = =
18 teams have been selected to take part in the event , including 13 UCI WorldTeams . Each team was permitted to include between five and eight riders . 15 teams had the full allowance of eight riders ; 3 teams had seven @-@ man teams . The race therefore began with 141 riders . 9 of these withdrew during the course of the event ; 132 finished the final stage .
= = Stages = =
The 2015 event had a very similar format to the previous year 's race . It consisted of six stages , of which five were flat stages and one was an individual time trial . The individual time trial , on the third day of racing , used precisely the same course as the corresponding stage in 2014 .
= = = Stage 1 = = =
The race began with a 136 km ( 85 mi ) route from Dukhan in the west of Qatar to the Sealine Beach Resort , Mesaieed . The route was flat and , as normal in the Tour of Qatar , the principal difficulty was caused by crosswinds .
The initial breakaway was formed early in the race by Luca Sterbini ( Bardiani – CSF ) and Jarl Salomein ( Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) . They built a lead that reached seven minutes by the half @-@ way point . Midway through the stage , a change in direction meant the peloton was now racing in crosswinds , and Etixx – Quick @-@ Step along with Trek Factory Racing attacked . They formed echelons and split the peloton . Riders such as Bradley Wiggins ( Team Sky ) , Nacer Bouhanni ( Cofidis ) and Alejandro Valverde ( Movistar Team ) were left adrift from the front group , but another turn into a headwind meant the groups could come back together .
Shortly before the second intermediate sprint , Tom Boonen ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) and Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) were involved in a crash , but were both able to remount and rejoin the peloton . After Nikias Arndt ( Giant – Alpecin ) won that sprint , Greg Van Avermaet made a short @-@ lived attack before a more determined effort from Lars Boom and Lieuwe Westra ( both Astana ) and Matti Breschel ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) . Though they achieved a lead of nearly a minute , the attack was ultimately unsuccessful , due to crosswinds and a combination of Etixx – Quick @-@ Step , Trek Factory Racing and Bora – Argon 18 riding at a high tempo .
In the final 10 km ( 6 mi ) , the peloton split again . The main field was reduced to 51 riders , with Marcel Kittel ( Giant – Alpecin ) , Wiggins , Edvald Boasson Hagen ( MTN – Qhubeka ) , Luca Paolini ( Team Katusha ) and Filippo Pozzato ( Lampre – Merida ) among the notable riders to lose time .
In the final kilometre , José Joaquín Rojas ( Movistar Team ) attached himself to the back of the Etixx – Quick @-@ Step leadout train . He opened his sprint with 300 m ( 1 @,@ 000 ft ) remaining , taking other riders by surprise , and was able to hold them off and take the victory . This was Rojas ' first victory since the 2014 Vuelta a Castilla y León .
Boonen finished second in the sprint , with Arnaud Démare ( FDJ ) third .
= = = Stage 2 = = =
The second stage took the riders 187 @.@ 5 km ( 117 mi ) from Al Wakra , south of Doha , to Al Khor Corniche .
Early in the stage , Etixx – Quick @-@ Step launched an attack , quickly splitting the pack in crosswinds to create a lead group of 30 riders . Riders left behind included the race leader , José Joaquín Rojas ( Movistar Team ) , Bradley Wiggins ( Team Sky ) , Marcel Kittel ( Giant – Alpecin ) and Lars Boom ( Astana ) . The lead group , however , failed to establish a lead of more than half a minute and work from BMC Racing Team and MTN – Qhubeka brought the field back together after 60 km ( 37 mi ) , when the wind changed to a tailwind .
At this point a five @-@ man breakaway formed , including Michael Mørkøv ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , Greg Van Avermaet ( BMC Racing Team ) , Johann Van Zyl ( MTN – Qhubeka ) , Jelle Wallays ( Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) , and Mathew Hayman ( Orica – GreenEDGE ) , establishing a lead of nearly four minutes .
At the next change of direction , Etixx – Quick @-@ Step again attacked in the crosswinds . The breakaway was caught after 124 km ( 77 mi ) , with the peloton again splitting . Wiggins , Kittel and Fabian Cancellara ( Trek Factory Racing ) had all been dropped . Soon afterwards , further attacks from Etixx – Quick @-@ Step removed Rojas and Arnaud Démare ( FDJ ) from the leading group . Tom Boonen won the second intermediate sprint , earning three bonus seconds .
With 5 km ( 3 mi ) remaining , the leading group was reduced to 15 riders . In the final kilometre , Andrea Guardini and Niki Terpstra had formed a small gap , but Alexander Kristoff bridged up to the pair and launched his sprint with 500 m ( 1 @,@ 640 ft ) remaining . Kristoff was able to win the stage ahead of Guardini , with Van Avermaet in third .
Due to the 10 @-@ second time bonus for winning the stage , Kristoff took over the overall lead of the race , one second ahead of Boonen , who moved into the lead of the points competition . Several riders who had been contenders for the overall victory , including Wiggins and Cancellara , finished over nine minutes behind Kristoff , eliminating them from contention for overall victory .
= = = Stage 3 = = =
The third stage of the race was a 10 @.@ 9 km ( 7 mi ) individual time trial at Lusail . The course followed a route that went past the Lusail Iconic Stadium , Lusail Sports Arena and Lusail International Circuit .
The riders were not allowed to use time trial bicycles as would normally be allowed in an individual time trial ; conventional road bicycles were to be used instead .
Favourites for the stage victory included current world champion Bradley Wiggins ( Team Sky ) , four @-@ time world champion Fabian Cancellara ( Trek Factory Racing ) , Matthias Brändle ( IAM Cycling ) and Niki Terpstra ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) . Wiggins was wearing the rainbow jersey of the world time @-@ trial champion in a race for the first time and was riding a road bike with modifications for better aerodynamics .
The first fast time was set by Lars Boom , who took 14 ' 33 " to complete the course , before Matthias Brändle took over the lead with a time of 14 ' 22 " . Wiggins briefly took the lead with a time of 14 ' 13 " , but soon afterwards Cancellara went one second faster . Terpstra , however , rode eight seconds quicker to win the stage and take over the gold jersey of overall leader .
The race leader after stage 2 , Alexander Kristoff , finished 44 seconds behind Terpstra , 36 seconds off the overall lead . Other riders to lose significant time were Tom Boonen and Peter Sagan . Boonen retained his silver jersey , but Sagan lost his white jersey as leader of the young riders classification to Luke Rowe ( Team Sky ) .
= = = Stage 4 = = =
The fourth stage of the race was a 165 @.@ 5 km ( 103 mi ) route from Al Thakhira to the city of Mesaieed . With the wind generally coming from the south , the riders were riding into a headwind most of the day .
Due to the strong winds , the stage started 40 minutes before the scheduled time , as the race organisers were worried about the possibility of sandstorms and of slow racing leading to a late finish . Despite the headwind , three riders formed a breakaway . They were Jaco Venter ( MTN – Qhubeka ) , Dimitry Gruzdev ( Astana ) , and Jarl Salomein ( Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) . The three riders built a lead that reached nearly four minutes .
Etixx – Quick @-@ Step , riding for race leader Niki Terpstra , controlled the breakaway through most of the day . They were supported towards the end of the race by FDJ . Unlike the earlier road stages , the lack of crosswinds meant that there were no echelons or significant splits in the peloton . The breakaway was caught with 19 km ( 12 mi ) remaining .
In the final kilometres of the stage , several teams tried to ride at the front , including MTN – Qhubeka , Movistar Team , FDJ , Tinkoff – Saxo and Orica – GreenEDGE . The strong pace caused several riders to crash , including Lars Boom ( Astana ) , Theo Bos ( MTN – Qhubeka ) and Bradley Wiggins ( Team Sky ) . All were unhurt and able to finish the stage .
Despite the presence of Marcel Kittel , the team 's principal sprinter , Giant – Alpecin were riding in support of Nikias Arndt . Kittel took a turn in his lead @-@ out train ; since he was in poor form following a period of illness , he had requested the team support Arndt instead .
In the final kilometre , the Katusha team moved to the front before Kristoff again started his sprint early ; again , the other sprinters were unable to catch him and he crossed the finish line first . He was only slightly ahead of Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , who was so close at the finish line that Kristoff was unsure whether he had won . Arndt was third after Giant – Alpecin had done excellent work in the last kilometre .
There was a small split in the peloton at the end of the race . Several riders lost five seconds , including Terpstra , Ian Stannard ( Team Sky ) , Luke Rowe ( Team Sky ) , Greg Van Avermaet ( BMC Racing Team ) and Tom Boonen ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) . Kristoff moved up into fifth place in the overall standings thanks to this split and the time bonus for winning the stage . He also took over leadership of the silver jersey of the points classification . Terpstra retained his overall lead , while Rowe remained the leader of the young riders classification .
= = = Stage 5 = = =
Stage 5 was a 153 km ( 95 mi ) route starting at Al Zubarah Fort . The riders first travelled east towards Al Ghuwariyah , before returning to Al Zubarah . The route then took them north @-@ east along the coast , before finishing with two laps of a circuit in Madinat ash Shamal .
Etixx – Quick @-@ Step once again attacked early in the stage , breaking the peloton into echelons in the opening kilometres . Maciej Bodnar ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , in second place overnight , was among the riders who failed to make the lead group . The gap between the groups never extended much beyond half a minute and , after around 60 km ( 37 mi ) of racing , Bodnar 's group was able to rejoin the lead group and the racing , which had been frenetic until that point , calmed down .
At that point a breakaway formed , made up of Ben Hermans ( BMC Racing Team ) , Marco Haller ( Team Katusha ) , Jelle Wallays ( Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) , Dmitriy Gruzdev ( Astana ) and Mathew Hayman ( Orica – GreenEDGE ) . The five riders at one point had a lead of over two and a half minutes . Hayman won both intermediate sprints and at one point was virtual leader of the race , before the peloton behind took up the chase in earnest . The breakaway was caught with 13 km ( 8 mi ) remaining .
In the final six kilometres , Team Katusha and BMC Racing Team attacked and forced another split in the peloton . Tom Boonen was among two Etixx – Quick @-@ Step riders in the 10 @-@ man front group , but Niki Terpstra , the race leader , was not . Alexander Kristoff ( Team Katusha ) and Maciej Bodnar were in the lead group , which built a lead of 15 seconds . Terpstra would have lost the race lead , but Etixx – Quick @-@ Step were able to bring the groups back together . After the race , it was revealed that the three Tinkoff – Saxo riders in the leading group were not aware that Terpstra had been dropped and , with team radios banned , directeur sportif Bjarne Riis was not able to inform them .
As they approached the finishing line , Kristoff again opened his sprint early and was able to hold off the rest of the field for his third stage victory of the race . Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) finished second and Nikias Arndt , again sprinting for Giant – Alpecin in place of Marcel Kittel , finished third . Sagan therefore moved into first place in the young riders competition , overtaking Luke Rowe ( Team Sky ) .
Thanks to the time bonus on the finish line , Kristoff was now in third place overall , just 11 seconds behind Terpstra . This meant that Kristoff could win the overall victory in the race if he was able to win the final stage and take time bonuses at the intermediate sprints .
Following the stage , the race organisers announced that Lars Boom ( Astana ) had been disqualified from the race . His bike had developed a puncture about 20 km ( 12 mi ) from the finish and he had attempted to regain contact with the peloton by chasing in the slipstream of his team car .
= = = Stage 6 = = =
The final stage of the 2015 Tour of Qatar started where stage 1 had finished , at the Sealine Beach Resort south of Mesaieed . It took the riders north to Doha . In Doha , the riders rode to the Doha Corniche , where they completed ten laps of a 5 @.@ 7 km ( 3 @.@ 5 mi ) finishing circuit .
After the previous stage , Niki Terpstra ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) had indicated that his team would happily allow a breakaway to win the stage in order to deny Alexander Kristoff ( Team Katusha ) the possibility of taking overall victory with the aid of the bonus seconds for the stage win and intermediate sprints . A break was allowed to go away early , formed of Marcus Burghardt ( BMC Racing Team ) , Preben Van Hecke ( Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) , Nicola Boem and Stefano Pirazzi ( both Bardiani – CSF ) . They were able to build a lead of over two minute , but Team Katusha took up the chase to support Kristoff in seeking bonus seconds .
The two intermediate sprints were both located on the finish line of the finishing circuit , on the fourth and seventh lap . Burghardt , Van Hecke , and Boem were caught first , while Pirazzi was caught on lap 4 . Etixx – Quick @-@ Step attempted to place riders in the sprint to prevent Kristoff winning the bonus seconds ; they succeeded in winning the sprint with Tom Boonen , but Matteo Trentin was beaten by Kristoff to second place . Kristoff therefore won two bonus seconds , placing him nine seconds behind Terpstra . With a ten @-@ second bonus available to the stage winner , Kristoff was now within reach of the overall win .
Etixx – Quick @-@ Step then sent their rider Iljo Keisse into a breakaway alongside Gijs van Hoecke ( Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) , with the intent of preventing Kristoff winning any more bonus seconds . Keisse won the intermediate sprint with van Hoecke second ; they then allowed the peloton – led by Katusha – to catch them .
In the final kilometres of the stage , Team Katusha , who had done most of the work throughout the day , were unable to maintain their position at the head of the peloton . After the stage , Kristoff admitted that his team was tired from their work during the week . Fabian Cancellara put in an attack in the final five kilometres , but was brought back by the peloton led in particular by IAM Cycling and Astana . In the final kilometre , Tinkoff – Saxo came to the front in support of Peter Sagan .
Sam Bennett ( Bora – Argon 18 ) was given a strong lead @-@ out by his teammates . He was then able to follow Andrea Guardini ( Astana ) , who launched his sprint with 200 m ( 660 ft ) to go . Bennett was then able to come past and take his first win of 2015 , which he later described as the biggest of his career so far .
Kristoff finished 19th ; he therefore failed to gain the bonus seconds he needed for overall victory and finished nine seconds behind Terpstra . Terpstra therefore won the Tour of Qatar for the second successive season . Kristoff won the silver jersey of the points competition , thanks to his three stage wins , while Sagan won the young riders competition . Etixx – Quick @-@ Step won the teams competition .
= = Classification leadership table = =
In the 2015 Tour of Qatar , three different jerseys were awarded . The first of these was the general classification . It was calculated by adding together the times recorded in each stage of the race , then making adjustments to take account of bonus seconds won for stage victories and intermediate sprints in the road stages ( the winner of the individual time trial did not receive bonus seconds ) . The winner of each stage received a ten @-@ second bonus ; the rider coming second received a six @-@ second bonus ; the third rider across the line received a four @-@ second bonus . Similarly , the winner , second @-@ placed and third @-@ placed riders in intermediate sprints won three- , two- and one @-@ second bonuses respectively . If two riders were tied on the same time , the precise time ( to one @-@ hundredths of a second ) recorded in the time trial would have been used to separate the riders . The leader of the general classification wore a gold jersey and the winner of the competition is considered the overall winner of the race .
The points classification was determined by adding together the points that each rider won on each stage . Points were awarded for coming in the top ten in the stage ( the winner won 15 points ; the tenth @-@ placed rider won one point ) . Points were also awarded for coming in the top three in the intermediate sprints that took place on each road stage ( three points for the winner , two for the second @-@ placed rider and one for the third ) . The leader of the points classification was awarded a silver jersey .
The third classification was the young rider classification . This was open to riders born on or after 1 January 1990 . The first eligible rider in the general classification was considered the leader of the young rider classification and was awarded a pearl white jersey .
Finally , there was a classification for teams . After each stage , the times of the first three riders on each team were added together . The team with the lowest cumulative time was the leader of the team classification .
= Spinal cord injury =
A spinal cord injury ( SCI ) is damage to the spinal cord that causes changes in its function , either temporary or permanent . These changes translate into loss of muscle function , sensation , or autonomic function in parts of the body served by the spinal cord below the level of the lesion . Injuries can occur at any level of the spinal cord and can be classified as complete injury , a total loss of sensation and muscle function , or incomplete , meaning some nervous signals are able to travel past the injured area of the cord . Depending on the location and severity of damage along the spinal cord , the symptoms can vary widely , from pain or numbness to paralysis to incontinence . The prognosis also ranges widely , from full recovery in rare cases to permanent tetraplegia ( also called quadriplegia ) in injuries at the level of the neck , and paraplegia in lower injuries . Complications that can occur in the short and long term after injury include muscle atrophy , pressure sores , infections , and respiratory problems .
In the majority of cases the damage results from physical trauma such as car accidents , gunshots , falls , or sports injuries , but it can also result from nontraumatic causes such as infection , insufficient blood flow , and tumors . Efforts to prevent SCI include individual measures such as using safety equipment , societal measures such as safety regulations in sports and traffic , and improvements to equipment . Known since ancient times to be a catastrophic injury and long believed to be untreatable , SCI has seen great improvements in its care since the middle of the 20th century . Treatment of spinal cord injuries starts with stabilizing the spine and controlling inflammation to prevent further damage . Other interventions needed can vary widely depending on the location and extent of the injury , from bed rest to surgery . In many cases , spinal cord injuries require substantial , long @-@ term physical and occupational therapy in rehabilitation , especially if they interfere with activities of daily living . Research into new treatments for spinal cord injuries includes stem cell implantation , engineered materials for tissue support , and wearable robotic exoskeletons .
= = Classification = =
Spinal cord injury can be traumatic or nontraumatic , and can be classified into three types based on cause : mechanical forces , toxic , and ischemic ( from lack of blood flow ) . The damage can also be divided into primary and secondary injury : the cell death that occurs immediately in the original injury , and biochemical cascades that are initiated by the original insult and cause further tissue damage . These secondary injury pathways include the ischemic cascade , inflammation , swelling , cell suicide , and neurotransmitter imbalances . They can take place for minutes or weeks following the injury .
At each level of the spinal column , spinal nerves branch off from either side of the spinal cord and exit between a pair of vertebrae , to innervate a specific part of the body . The area of skin innervated by a specific spinal nerve is called a dermatome , and the group of muscles innervated by a single spinal nerve is called a myotome . The part of the spinal cord that was damaged corresponds to the spinal nerves at that level and below . Injuries can be cervical 1 – 8 ( C1 – C8 ) , thoracic 1 – 12 ( T1 – T12 ) , lumbar 1 – 5 ( L1 – L5 ) , or sacral ( S1 – S5 ) . A person 's level of injury is defined as the lowest level of full sensation and function . Paraplegia occurs when the legs are affected by the spinal cord damage ( in thoracic , lumbar , or sacral injuries ) , and tetraplegia occurs when all four limbs are affected ( cervical damage ) .
SCI is also classified by the degree of impairment . The International Standards for Neurological Classification of Spinal Cord Injury ( ISNCSCI ) , published by the American Spinal Injury Association ( ASIA ) , is widely used to document sensory and motor impairments following SCI . It is based on neurological responses , touch and pinprick sensations tested in each dermatome , and strength of the muscles that control key motions on both sides of the body . Muscle strength is scored on a scale of 0 – 5 according to the table on the right , and sensation is graded on a scale of 0 – 2 : 0 is no sensation , 1 is altered or decreased sensation , and 2 is full sensation . Each side of the body is graded independently .
= = = Complete and incomplete injuries = = =
In a " complete " spinal injury , all functions below the injured area are lost , whether or not the spinal cord is severed . An " incomplete " spinal cord injury involves preservation of motor or sensory function below the level of injury in the spinal cord . To be classed as incomplete , there must be some preservation of sensation or motion in the areas innervated by S4 to S5 , e.g. voluntary external anal sphincter contraction . The nerves in this area are connected to the very lowest region of the spinal cord , and retaining sensation and function in these parts of the body indicates that the spinal cord is only partially damaged . Incomplete injury by definition includes a phenomenon known as sacral sparing : some degree of sensation is preserved in the sacral dermatomes , even though sensation may be more impaired in other , higher dermatomes below the level of the lesion . Sacral sparing has been attributed to the fact that the sacral spinal pathways are not as likely as the other spinal pathways to become compressed after injury due to the lamination of fibers within the spinal cord .
= = = Spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormality = = =
Spinal column injury is trauma that causes fracture of the bone or instability of the ligaments in the spinal column ; this can coexist with or cause injury to the spinal cord , but each injury can occur without the other . Spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormality ( SCIWORA ) exists when SCI is present but there is no evidence of spinal column injury on radiographs . Abnormalities might show up on magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) , but the term was coined before MRI was in common use .
= = = Central cord syndrome = = =
Central cord syndrome , almost always resulting from damage to the cervical spinal cord , is characterized by weakness in the arms with relative sparing of the legs , and spared sensation in regions served by the sacral segments . There is loss of sensation of pain , temperature , light touch , and pressure below the level of injury . The spinal tracts that serve the arms are more affected due to their central location in the spinal cord , while the corticospinal fibers destined for the legs are spared due to their more external location . The most common of the incomplete SCI syndromes , central cord syndrome usually results from neck hyperextension in older people with spinal stenosis . In younger people , it most commonly results from neck flexion . The most common causes are falls and vehicle accidents ; however other possible causes include spinal stenosis and impingement on the spinal cord by a tumor or vertebral disk .
= = = Anterior cord syndrome = = =
Anterior cord syndrome , due to damage to the front portion of the spinal cord or reduction in the blood supply from the anterior spinal artery , can be caused by fractures or dislocations of vertebrae or herniated disks . Below the level of injury , motor function , pain sensation , and temperature sensation are lost , while sense of touch and proprioception ( sense of position in space ) remain intact . These differences are due to the relative locations of the spinal tracts responsible for each type of function .
= = = Brown @-@ Séquard syndrome = = =
Brown @-@ Séquard syndrome occurs when the spinal cord is injured on one side much more than the other . It is rare for the spinal cord to be truly hemisected ( severed on one side ) , but partial lesions due to penetrating wounds ( such as gunshot or knife wounds ) or fractured vertebrae or tumors are common . On the ipsilateral side of the injury ( same side ) , the body loses motor function , proprioception , and senses of vibration and touch . On the contralateral ( opposite side ) of the injury , there is a loss of pain and temperature sensations .
= = = Posterior cord syndrome = = =
Posterior cord syndrome , in which just the dorsal columns of the spinal cord are affected , is usually seen in cases of chronic myelopathy but can also occur with infarction of the posterior spinal artery . This rare syndrome causes the loss of proprioception and sense of vibration below the level of injury while motor function and sensation of pain , temperature , and touch remain intact . Usually posterior cord injuries result from insults like disease or vitamin deficiency rather than trauma . Tabes dorsalis , due to injury to the posterior part of the spinal cord caused by syphilis , results in loss of touch and proprioceptive sensation .
= = = Conus medullaris and cauda equina syndromes = = =
Conus medullaris syndrome is an injury to the end of the spinal cord , located at about the T12 – L2 vertebrae in adults . This region contains the S4 – S5 spinal segments , responsible for bowel , bladder , and some sexual functions , so these can be disrupted in this type of injury . In addition , sensation and the Achilles reflex can be disrupted . Causes include growths , physical trauma , and ischemia .
Cauda equina syndrome ( CES ) results from a lesion below the level at which the spinal cord splits into the cauda equina , at levels L2 – S5 below the conus medullaris . Thus it is not a true spinal cord syndrome since it is nerve roots that are damaged and not the cord itself ; however it is common for several of these nerves to be damaged at the same time due to their proximity . CES can occur by itself or alongside conus medullaris syndrome . It can cause low back pain , weakness or paralysis in the lower limbs , loss of sensation , bowel and bladder dysfunction , and loss of reflexes . Unlike in conus medullaris syndrome , symptoms often occur on only one side of the body . The cause is often compression , e.g. by a ruptured intervertebral disk or tumor . Since the nerves damaged in CES are actually peripheral nerves because they have already branched off from the spinal cord , the injury has better prognosis for recovery of function : the peripheral nervous system has a greater capacity for healing than the central nervous system .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Signs ( observed by a clinician ) and symptoms ( experienced by a patient ) vary depending on where the spine is injured and the extent of the injury . A section of skin innervated through a specific part of the spine is called a dermatome , and injury to that part of the spine can cause pain , numbness , or a loss of sensation in the related areas . Paraesthesia , a tingling or burning sensation in affected areas of the skin , is another symptom . A person with a lowered level of consciousness may show a response to a painful stimulus above a certain point but not below it . A group of muscles innervated through a specific part of the spine is called a myotome , and injury to that part of the spinal cord can cause problems with movements that involve those muscles . The muscles may contract uncontrollably ( spasticity ) , become weak , or be completely paralysed . Spinal shock , loss of neural activity including reflexes below the level of injury , occurs shortly after the injury and usually goes away within a day .
The specific parts of the body affected by loss of function are determined by the level of injury .
= = = Lumbosacral = = =
The effects of injuries at or above the lumbar or sacral regions of the spinal cord ( lower back and pelvis ) include decreased control of the legs and hips , genitourinary system , and anus . People injured below level L2 may still have use of their hip flexor and knee extensor muscles . Bowel and bladder function are regulated by the sacral region . It is common to experience sexual dysfunction after injury , as well as dysfunction of the bowel and bladder , including fecal and urinary incontinence . It is also possible for the bladder to fail to empty , leading to a potentially harmful buildup of urine . One sign of spinal cord injury that emergency providers may find is priapism , an erection of the penis .
= = = Thoracic = = =
In addition to the problems found in lower @-@ level injuries , thoracic ( chest height ) spinal lesions can affect the muscles in the trunk . Injuries at the level of T1 to T8 result in inability to control the abdominal muscles . Trunk stability may be affected ; even more so in higher level injuries . The lower the level of injury , the less extensive its effects . Injuries from T9 to T12 result in partial loss of trunk and abdominal muscle control . Thoracic spinal injuries result in paraplegia , but function of the hands , arms , and neck are not affected .
One condition that occurs typically in lesions above the T6 level is autonomic dysreflexia ( AD ) , in which the blood pressure increases to dangerous levels , high enough to cause potentially deadly stroke . It results from an overreaction of the system to a stimulus such as pain below the level of injury , because inhibitory signals from the brain cannot pass the lesion to dampen the excitatory sympathetic nervous system response . Signs and symptoms of AD include anxiety , headache , nausea , ringing in the ears , blurred vision , flushed skin , and nasal congestion . It can occur shortly after the injury or not until years later .
Other autonomic functions may also be disrupted . For example , problems with body temperature regulation mostly occur in injuries at T8 and above . Another serious complication that can result from lesions above T6 is neurogenic shock , which results from an interruption in output from the sympathetic nervous system responsible for maintaining muscle tone in the blood vessels . Without the sympathetic input , the vessels relax and dilate . Neurogenic shock presents with dangerously low blood pressure , low heart rate , and blood pooling in the limbs — which results in insufficient blood flow to the spinal cord and potentially further damage to it .
= = = Cervical = = =
Spinal cord injuries at the cervical ( neck ) level result in full or partial tetraplegia ( also called quadriplegia ) . Depending on the specific location and severity of trauma , limited function may be retained .
Additional signs and symptoms of cervical injuries include low heart rate , low blood pressure , problems regulating body temperature , and breathing dysfunction . If the injury is high enough in the neck to impair the muscles involved in breathing , the person may not be able to breathe without the help of an endotracheal tube and mechanical ventilator .
= = Causes = =
Spinal cord injuries are most often caused by physical trauma . Forces involved can be hyperflexion ( forward movement of the head ) ; hyperextension ( backward movement ) ; lateral stress ( sideways movement ) ; rotation ( twisting of the head ) ; compression ( force along the axis of the spine downward from the head or upward from the pelvis ) ; or distraction ( pulling apart of the vertebrae ) . Traumatic SCI can result in contusion , compression , or stretch injury .
In the US , Motor vehicle accidents are the most common cause of SCIs ; second are falls , then violence such as gunshot wounds , then sports injuries . In some countries falls are more common , even surpassing vehicle crashes as the leading cause of SCI . The rates of violence @-@ related SCI depend heavily on place and time . Of all sports @-@ related SCIs , shallow water dives are the most common cause ; winter sports and water sports have been increasing as causes while association football and trampoline injuries have been declining . Hanging can cause injury to the cervical spine , as may occur in attempted suicide . Military conflicts are another cause , and when they occur they are associated with increased rates of SCI . Another potential cause of SCI is iatrogenic injury , caused by an improperly done medical procedure such as an injection into the spinal column .
SCI can also be of a nontraumatic origin . Nontraumatic lesions cause anywhere from 30 to 80 % of all SCI ; the percentage varies by locale , influenced by efforts to prevent trauma . Developed countries have higher percentages of SCI due to degenerative conditions and tumors than developing countries . In developed countries , the most common cause of nontraumatic SCI is degenerative diseases , followed by tumors ; in many developing countries the leading cause is infection such as HIV and tuberculosis . SCI may occur in intervertebral disc disease , and spinal cord vascular disease . Spontaneous bleeding can occur within or outside of the protective membranes that line the cord , and intervertebral disks can herniate . Damage can result from dysfunction of the blood vessels , as in arteriovenous malformation , or when a blood clot becomes lodged in a blood vessel and cuts off blood supply to the cord . When systemic blood pressure drops , blood flow to the spinal cord may be reduced , potentially causing a loss of sensation and voluntary movement in the areas supplied by the affected level of the spinal cord . Congenital conditions and tumors that compress the cord can also cause SCI , as can vertebral spondylosis and ischemia . Multiple sclerosis is a disease that can damage the spinal cord , as can infectious or inflammatory conditions such as tuberculosis , herpes zoster or herpes simplex , meningitis , myelitis , and syphilis .
= = Prevention = =
Vehicle @-@ related SCI is prevented with measures including societal and individual efforts to reduce driving under the influence of drugs or alcohol , distracted driving , and drowsy driving . Other efforts include increasing road safety ( such as marking hazards and adding lighting ) and vehicle safety , both to prevent accidents ( such as routine maintenance and antilock brakes ) and to mitigate the damage of crashes ( such as head restraints , air bags , seat belts , and child safety seats ) . Falls can be prevented by making changes to the environment , such as nonslip materials and grab bars in bathtubs and showers , railings for stairs , child and safety gates for windows . Gun @-@ related injuries can be prevented with conflict resolution training , gun safety education campaigns , and changes to the technology of guns ( such as trigger locks ) to improve their safety . Sports injuries can be prevented with changes to sports rules and equipment to increase safety , and education campaigns to reduce risky practices such as diving into water of unknown depth or head @-@ first tackling in association football .
= = Diagnosis = =
A radiographic evaluation using an X @-@ ray , CT scan , or MRI can determine if there is damage to the spinal column and where it is located . X @-@ rays are commonly available and can detect instability or misalignment of the spinal column , but do not give very detailed images and can miss injuries to the spinal cord or displacement of ligaments or disks that do not have accompanying spinal column damage . Thus when X @-@ ray findings are normal but SCI is still suspected due to pain or SCI symptoms , CT or MRI scans are used . CT gives greater detail than X @-@ rays , but exposes the patient to more radiation , and it still does not give images of the spinal cord or ligaments ; MRI shows body structures in the greatest detail . Thus it is the standard for anyone who has neurological deficits found in SCI or is thought to have an unstable spinal column injury .
Neurological evaluations to help determine the degree of impairment are performed initially and repeatedly in the early stages of treatment ; this determines the rate of improvement or deterioration and informs treatment and prognosis . The ASIA Impairment Scale outlined above is used to determine the level and severity of injury .
= = Management = =
= = = Prehospital treatment = = =
The first stage in the management of a suspected spinal cord injury is geared toward basic life support and preventing further injury : maintaining airway , breathing , and circulation and immobilizing the spine . In the emergency setting , anyone who has been subjected to forces strong enough to cause SCI is treated as though they have instability in the spinal column and is immobilized to prevent damage to the spinal cord . Injuries or fractures in the head , neck , or pelvis as well as penetrating trauma near the spine and falls from heights are assumed to be associated with an unstable spinal column until it is ruled out in the hospital . High @-@ speed vehicle crashes , sports injuries involving the head or neck , and diving injuries are other mechanisms that indicate a high SCI risk . Since head and spinal trauma frequently coexist , anyone who is unconscious or has a lowered level of consciousness as a result of a head injury is immobilized . A rigid cervical collar is applied to the neck , and the head is held immobile with blocks on either side and the person is strapped to a backboard . Extrication devices are used to move people without moving the spine if they are still inside a vehicle or other confined space .
Modern trauma care includes a step called clearing the cervical spine , ruling out spinal cord injury if the patient is fully conscious and not under the influence of drugs or alcohol , displays no neurological deficits , has no pain in the middle of the neck and no other painful injuries that could distract from neck pain . If these are all absent , no immobilization is necessary . If an unstable spinal column injury is moved , damage may occur to the spinal cord . Between 3 and 25 % of SCIs occur not at the time of the initial trauma but later during treatment or transport . While some of this is due to the nature of the injury itself , particularly in the case of multiple or massive trauma , some of it reflects the failure to immobilize the spine adequately .
SCI can impair the body 's ability to keep warm , so warming blankets may be needed .
= = = Early hospital treatment = = =
Initial care in the hospital , as in the prehospital setting , aims to ensure adequate airway , breathing , cardiovascular function , and spinal immobilization . Imaging of the spine to ascertain presence of SCI may need to wait if emergency surgery is needed to stabilize a life @-@ threatening injury . Acute SCI merits treatment in an intensive care unit , especially injuries to the cervival spinal cord . Patients with SCI need repeated neurological assessments and treatment by neurosurgeons .
If the systolic blood pressure falls below 90 mmHg within days of the injury , blood supply to the spinal cord may be reduced , resulting in further damage . Thus it is important to maintain the blood pressure using a central venous catheter , intravenous fluids , and vasopressors , and to treat cases of shock . Mean arterial blood pressure is measured and kept at 85 to 90 mmHg for seven days after injury . The treatment for shock from blood loss ( hypovolemic shock ) is different from that for neurogenic shock , and could harm people with the latter type , so it is necessary to determine why someone is in shock . However it is also possible for both causes to exist at the same time . Another important aspect of care is prevention of hypoxia ( insufficient oxygen in the bloodstream ) , which could deprive the spinal cord of much @-@ needed oxygen . People with cervical injuries may experience a dangerously slowed heart rate ; treatment to speed it up include atropine and electrical cardiac pacing .
Swelling can cause further damage to the spinal cord by reducing the blood supply and causing ischemia , which can give rise to an ischemic cascade with a release of toxins that damages neurons . Thus treatment is often geared toward limiting this secondary injury . People are sometimes treated with drugs to reduce swelling . The corticosteroid drug methylprednisolone is commonly used within eight hours of the injury , but its use is controversial because of side effects . Studies have shown high dose methylprednisolone may improve outcomes if given within 6 hours of injury . However , the improvement shown by clinical trials has been inconclusive , and comes at the cost of increased risk of serious infection or sepsis , gastrointestinal bleeding , and pneumonia . Thus organizations that set clinical guidelines have increasingly stopped recommending methylprednisolone in the treatment of acute SCI .
Surgery may be necessary , e.g. to relieve excess pressure on the cord , to stabilize the spine , or to put vertebrae back in their proper place . In cases involving instability or compression , failing to operate can lead to worsening of the condition . Surgery is also necessary when something is pressing on the cord , such as bone fragments , blood , material from ligaments or intervertebral discs , or a lodged object from a penetrating injury . Although the ideal timing of surgery is still debated , studies have found that earlier surgical intervention ( within 24 hours of injury ) is associated with better outcomes . Sometimes a patient has too many other injuries to be a surgical candidate this early . Surgery is controversial because it has potential complications ( such as infection ) , so in cases where it is not clearly needed ( e.g. the cord is being compressed ) , doctors must decide whether to perform surgery based on aspects of the patient 's condition and their own beliefs about its risks and benefits . In cases where a more conservative approach is chosen , bed rest , cervical collars , immobilizing devices , and optionally traction are used . Surgeons may opt to put traction on the spine to remove pressure from the spinal cord by putting dislocated vertebrae back into alignment , but herniation of intervertebral disks may prevent this technique from relieving pressure . Gardner @-@ Wells tongs are one tool used to exert spinal traction to reduce a fracture or dislocation and to immobilize the affected areas .
= = = Rehabilitation = = =
SCI patients often require extended treatment in specialized spinal unit or an intensive care unit . The rehabilitation process typically begins in the acute care setting . Usually the inpatient phase lasts 8 – 12 weeks and then the outpatient rehabilitation phase lasts 3 – 12 months after that , followed by yearly medical and functional evaluation . Physical therapists , occupational therapists , recreational therapists , nurses , social workers , psychologists and other health care professionals work as a team under the coordination of a physiatrist to decide on goals with the patient and develop a plan of discharge that is appropriate for the person ’ s condition .
In the acute phase physical therapists focus on the patient ’ s respiratory status , prevention of indirect complications ( such as pressure ulcers ) , maintaining range of motion , and keeping available musculature active .
For people whose injuries are high enough to interfere with breathing , there is great emphasis on airway clearance during this stage of recovery . Weakness of respiratory muscles impairs the ability to cough effectively , allowing secretions to accumulate within the lungs . As SCI patients suffer from reduced total lung capacity and tidal volume , physical therapists teach them accessory breathing techniques ( e.g. apical breathing , glossopharyngeal breathing ) that typically are not taught to healthy individuals . Physical therapy treatment for airway clearance may include manual percussions and vibrations , postural drainage , respiratory muscle training , and assisted cough techniques . Patients are taught to increase their intra @-@ abdominal pressure by leaning forward to induce cough and clear mild secretions . The quad cough technique is done lying on the back with the therapist applying pressure on the abdomen in the rhythm of the cough to maximize expiratory flow and mobilize secretions . Manual abdominal compression is another technique used to increase expiratory flow which later improves coughing . Other techniques used to manage respiratory dysfunction include respiratory muscle pacing , use of a constricting abdominal binder , ventilator @-@ assisted speech , and mechanical ventilation .
The amount of functional recovery and independence achieved in terms of activities of daily living , recreational activities , and employment is affected by the level and severity of injury . The Functional Independence Measure ( FIM ) is an assessment tool that aims to evaluate the function of patients throughout the rehabilitation process following a spinal cord injury or other serious illness or injury . It can track a patient 's progress and degree of independence during rehabilitation . People with SCI may need to use specialized devices and to make modifications to their environment in order to handle activities of daily living and to function independently . Weak joints can be stabilized with devices such as ankle @-@ foot orthoses ( AFOs ) and knee @-@ AFOs , but walking may still require a lot of effort . Increasing activity will increase chances of recovery .
= = Prognosis = =
Spinal cord injuries generally result in at least some incurable impairment even with the best possible treatment . The best predictor of prognosis is the level and completeness of injury , as measured by the ASIA impairment scale . The neurological score at the initial evaluation done 72 hours after injury is the best predictor of how much function will return . Most people with ASIA scores of A ( complete injuries ) do not have functional motor recovery , but improvement can occur . Most patients with incomplete injuries recover at least some function . Chances of recovering the ability to walk improve with each AIS grade found at the initial examination ; e.g. an ASIA D score confers a better chance of walking than a score of C. The symptoms of incomplete injuries can vary and it is difficult to make an accurate prediction of the outcome . A person with a mild , incomplete injury at the T5 vertebra will have a much better chance of using his or her legs than a person with a severe , complete injury at exactly the same place . Of the incomplete SCI syndromes , Brown @-@ Séquard and central cord syndromes have the best prognosis for recovery and anterior cord syndrome has the worst . People with nontraumatic causes of SCI have been found to be less likely to suffer complete injuries and some complications such as pressure sores and deep vein thrombosis , and to have shorter hospital stays . Their scores on functional tests were better than those of people with traumatic SCI upon hospital admission , but when they were tested upon discharge , those with traumatic SCI had improved such that both groups ' results were the same . In addition to the completeness and level of the injury , age and concurrent health problems affect the extent to which a person with SCI will be able to live independently and to walk . However , in general people with injuries to L3 or below will likely be able to walk functionally , T10 and below to walk around the house with bracing , and C7 and below to live independently .
One important predictor of motor recovery in an area is presence of sensation there , particularly pain perception . Most motor recovery occurs in the first year post @-@ injury , but modest improvements can continue for years ; sensory recovery is more limited . Recovery is typically quickest during the first six months . Spinal shock , in which reflexes are suppressed , occurs immediately after the injury and resolves largely within three months but continues resolving gradually for another 15 .
Sexual dysfunction after spinal injury is common . Problems that can occur include erectile dysfunction , loss of ability to ejaculate , insufficient lubrication of the vagina , and reduced sensation and impaired ability to orgasm . Although sexual dysfunction is very common after SCI , many people learn ways to adapt their sexual practices so they can lead satisfying sex lives .
Although life expectancy has improved with better care options , it is still not as good as the uninjured population . The higher the level of injury , and the more complete the injury , the greater the reduction in life expectancy . Mortality is very elevated within a year of injury .
= = Complications = =
Complications of spinal cord injuries include pulmonary edema , respiratory failure , neurogenic shock , and paralysis below the injury site . In the long term , the loss of muscle function can have additional effects from disuse , including atrophy of the muscle . Immobility can lead to pressure sores , particularly in bony areas , requiring precautions such as extra cushioning and turning in bed every two hours ( in the acute setting ) to relieve pressure . In the long term , people in wheelchairs must shift periodically to relieve pressure . Another complication is pain , including nociceptive pain ( indication of potential or actual tissue damage ) and neuropathic pain , when nerves affected by damage convey erroneous pain signals in the absence of noxious stimuli . Spasticity , the uncontrollable tensing of muscles below the level of injury , occurs in 65 – 78 % of chronic SCI . It results from lack of input from the brain that quells muscle responses to stretch reflexes . It can be treated with drugs and physical therapy . Spasticity increases the risk of contractures ( shortening of muscles , tendons , or ligaments that result from lack of use of a limb ) ; this problem can be prevented by moving the limb through its full range of motion multiple times a day . Another problem lack of mobility can cause is loss of bone density and changes in bone structure . Loss of bone density ( bone demineralization ) , thought to be due to lack of input from weakened or paralysed muscles , can increase the risk of fractures . Conversely , a poorly understood phenomenon is the overgrowth of bone tissue in soft tissue areas , called heterotopic ossification . It occurs below the level of injury , possibly as a result of inflammation , and happens to a clinically significant extent in 27 % of people .
People with SCI are at especially high risk for respiratory and cardiovascular problems , so hospital staff must be watchful to avoid them . Respiratory problems ( especially pneumonia ) are the leading cause of death in people with SCI , followed by infections , usually of pressure sores , urinary tract infections and respiratory infections . Pneumonia can be accompanied by shortness of breath , fever , and anxiety .
Another potentially deadly threat to respiration is deep venous thrombosis ( DVT ) , in which blood forms a clot in immobile limbs ; the clot can break off and form a pulmonary embolism , lodging in the lung and cutting off blood supply to it . DVT is an especially high risk in SCI , particularly within 10 days of injury , occurring in over 13 % in the acute care setting . Preventative measures include anticoagulants , pressure hose , and moving the patient 's limbs . The usual signs and symptoms of DVT and pulmonary embolism may be masked in SCI cases due to effects such as alterations in pain perception and nervous system functioning .
Urinary tract infection ( UTI ) is another risk that may not display the usual symptoms ( pain , urgency and frequency ) ; it may instead be associated with worsened spasticity . The risk of UTI , likely the most common complication in the long term , is heightened by use of indwelling urinary catheters . Catheterization may be necessary because SCI interferes with the bladder 's ability to empty when it gets too full , which could trigger autonomic dysreflexia or damage the bladder permanently . The use of intermittent catheterization to empty the bladder at regular intervals throughout the day has decreased the mortality due to kidney failure from UTI in the first world , but it is still a serious problem in developing countries .
An estimated 24 – 45 % of people with SCI suffer disorders of depression , and the suicide rate is as much as six times that of the rest of the population . The risk of suicide is worst in the first five years after injury . In young people with SCI , suicide is the leading cause of death . Depression is associated with an increased risk of other complications such as UTI and pressure ulcers that occur more when self @-@ care is neglected .
= = Epidemiology = =
Worldwide , the incidence ( number of new cases ) since 1995 of SCI ranges from 10 @.@ 4 to 83 people per million per year . This wide range of numbers is probably partly due to differences among regions in whether and how injuries are reported . In North America , about 39 people per every million incur SCI traumatically each year , and in Western Europe the incidence is 16 per million . In the United States , the incidence of spinal cord injury has been estimated to be about 40 cases per 1 million people per year or around 12 @,@ 000 cases per year . In China , the incidence is approximately 60 @,@ 000 per year . The estimated prevalence ( number of people living with SCI ) in the world ranges from 236 to 4187 per million . Estimates vary widely due to differences in how data are collected and what techniques are used to extrapolate the figures . Little information is available from Asia , and even less from Africa and South America . In Western Europe the estimated prevalence is 300 per million people and in North America it is 853 per million . It is estimated at 440 per million in Iran , 526 per million in Iceland , and 681 per million in Australia . In the United States there are between 225 @,@ 000 and 296 @,@ 000 individuals living with spinal cord injuries , and different studies have estimated prevalences from 525 to 906 per million .
SCI is present in about 2 % of all cases of blunt force trauma . Anyone who has undergone force sufficient to cause a thoracic spinal injury is at high risk for other injuries also . In 44 % of SCI cases , other serious injuries are sustained at the same time ; 14 % of SCI patients also suffer head trauma or facial trauma . Other commonly associated injuries include chest trauma , abdominal trauma , pelvic fractures , and long bone fractures .
Males account for four out of five traumatic spinal cord injuries . Most of these injuries occur in men under 30 years of age . The average age at the time of injury has slowly increased from about 29 years in the 1970s to 41 . Rates of injury are at their lowest in children , at their highest in the late teens to early twenties , then get progressively lower in older age groups ; however rates may rise in the elderly . In Sweden between 50 and 70 % of all cases of SCI occur in people under 30 , and 25 % occur in those over 50 . While SCI rates are highest among people age 15 – 20 , fewer than 3 % of SCIs occur in people under 15 . Neonatal SCI occurs in one in 60 @,@ 000 births , e.g. from breach births or injuries by forceps . The difference in rates between the sexes diminishes in injuries at age 3 and younger ; the same number of girls are injured as boys , or possibly more . Another cause of pediatric injury is child abuse such as shaken baby syndrome . For children , the most common cause of SCI ( 56 % ) is vehicle crashes . High numbers of adolescent injuries are attributable in a large part to traffic accidents and sports injuries . For people over 65 , falls are the most common cause of traumatic SCI . The elderly and people with severe arthritis are at high risk for SCI because of defects in the spinal column . In nontraumatic SCI , the gender difference is smaller , the average age of occurrence is greater , and incomplete lesions are more common .
= = History = =
SCI has been known to be devastating for millennia ; the ancient Egyptian Edwin Smith Papyrus from 2500 BC , the first known description of the injury , says it is " not to be treated " . Hindu texts dating back to 1800 BC also mention SCI and describe traction techniques to straighten the spine . The Greek physician Hippocrates , born in the fifth century BC , described SCI in his Hippocratic Corpus and invented traction devices to straighten dislocated vertebrae . But it was not until Aulus Cornelius Celsus , born 30 BC , noted that a cervical injury resulted in rapid death that the spinal cord itself was implicated in the condition . In the second century AD the Greek physician Galen experimented on monkeys and reported that a horizontal cut through the spinal cord caused them to lose all sensation and motion below the level of the cut . The seventh @-@ century Greek physician Paul of Aegina described surgical techniques for treatment of broken vertebrae by removing bone fragments , as well as surgery to relieve pressure on the spine . Little medical progress was made during the Middle Ages in Europe ; it was not until the Renaissance that the spine and nerves were accurately depicted in human anatomy drawings by Leonardo da Vinci and Andreas Vesalius .
In 1762 a surgeon named Andre Louis removed a bullet from the lumbar spine of a patient , who regained motion in the legs . In 1829 the surgeon Gilpin Smith performed a successful laminectomy that improved the patient 's sensation . However , the idea that SCI was untreatable remained predominant until the early 20th century . In 1934 , the mortality rate in the first two years after injury was over 80 % , mostly due to infections of the urinary tract and pressure sores . It was not until the latter half of the century that breakthroughs in imaging , surgery , medical care , and rehabilitation medicine contributed to a substantial improvement in SCI care . The relative incidence of incomplete compared to complete injuries has improved since the mid @-@ 20th century , due mainly to the emphasis on faster and better initial care and stabilization of spinal cord injury patients . The creation of emergency medical services to professionally transport people to the hospital is given partial credit for an improvement in outcomes since the 1970s . Improvements in care have been accompanied by increased life expectancy of people with SCI ; survival times have improved by about 2000 % since 1940 .
= = Research directions = =
Scientists are investigating various avenues for treatment of spinal cord injury . Therapeutic research is focused on two main areas : neuroprotection and neuroregeneration . The former seeks to prevent the harm that occurs from secondary injury in the minutes to weeks following the insult , and the latter aims to reconnect the broken circuits in the spinal cord to allow function to return . Neuroprotective drugs target secondary injury effects including inflammation , damage by free radicals , excitotoxicity ( neuronal damage by excessive glutamate signaling ) , and apoptosis ( cell suicide ) . Several potentially neuroprotective agents that target pathways like these are under investigation in human clinical trials .
Cell transplantation is an important avenue for SCI research : the goal is to replace lost spinal cord cells , allow reconnection in broken neural circuits by regrowing axons , and to create an environment in the tissues that is favorable to growth . A key avenue of SCI research is research on stem cells , which can differentiate into other types of cells — including those lost after SCI . Types of cells being researched for use in SCI include embryonic stem cells , neural stem cells , mesenchymal stem cells , olfactory ensheathing cells , Schwann cells , activated macrophages , and induced pluripotent stem cells . Hundreds of stem cell studies have been done in humans , with promising but inconclusive results .
Another type of approach is tissue engineering , using biomaterials to help scaffold and rebuild damaged tissues . Biomaterials being investigated include natural substances such as collagen or agarose and synthetic ones like polymers and nitrocellulose . They fall into two categories : hydrogels and nanofibers . These materials can also be used as a vehicle for delivering gene therapy to tissues .
One avenue being explored to allow paralyzed people to walk and to aid in rehabilitation of those with some walking ability is the use of wearable powered robotic exoskeletons . The devices , which have motorized joints , are put on over the legs and supply a source of power to move and walk . Several such devices are already available for sale , but investigation is still underway as to how they can be made more useful .
= Bill Newton =
William Ellis ( Bill ) Newton , VC ( 8 June 1919 – 29 March 1943 ) was an Australian recipient of the Victoria Cross , the highest decoration for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to a member of the British and Commonwealth armed forces . He was honoured for his actions as a bomber pilot in Papua New Guinea during March 1943 when , despite intense anti @-@ aircraft fire , he pressed home a series of attacks on the Salamaua Isthmus , the last of which saw him forced to ditch his aircraft in the sea . Newton was still officially posted as missing when the award was made in October 1943 . It later emerged that he had been taken captive by the Japanese , and executed by beheading on 29 March .
Raised in Melbourne , Newton excelled at sport , playing cricket at youth state level . He joined the Citizen Military Forces in 1938 , and enlisted in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) in February 1940 . Described as having the dash of " an Errol Flynn or a Keith Miller " , Newton served as a flying instructor in Australia before being posted to No. 22 Squadron , which began operating Boston light bombers in New Guinea late in 1942 . Having just taken part in the Battle of the Bismarck Sea , he was on his fifty @-@ second mission when he was shot down and captured . Newton was the only Australian airman to receive a Victoria Cross for action in the South West Pacific theatre of World War II , and the sole Australian to be so decorated while flying with an RAAF squadron .
= = Family , education and sport = =
Born in the Melbourne suburb of St Kilda on 8 June 1919 , Bill Newton was the youngest child of dentist Charles Ellis Newton and his second wife Minnie . His three older half @-@ siblings from Charles ' earlier marriage included two brothers , John and Lindsay , and a sister , Phyllis . Bill entered Melbourne Grammar School in 1929 , but two years later switched to the nearby St Kilda Park Central School as the family income was reduced through the impact of the Great Depression . In 1934 , aged fifteen , he was able to return to Melbourne Grammar where , despite struggling with his schoolwork , he completed his Intermediate certificate . He gave up further study when his father died suddenly of a heart attack at the age of fifty @-@ one , and began working in a silk warehouse .
Considered while at school to be a future leader in the community , Newton was also a talented all @-@ round sportsman , playing cricket , Australian rules football , golf and water polo . A fast bowler in cricket , he was friends with Keith Miller , and collected the Victorian Cricket Association ( VCA ) Colts bowling trophy for 1937 – 38 , while Miller collected the equivalent batting prize . In January 1938 , Newton dismissed Test batsman Bill Ponsford — still the only Australian to twice score 400 in a first @-@ class innings — for four in a Colts game at the Melbourne Cricket Ground . The following year , he gained selection in the Victorian Second XI . He opened the bowling against the New South Wales Second XI — his first and only match — taking a total of 3 / 113 including the wickets of Ron Saggers and Arthur Morris who , like Miller , went on to become members of the Invincibles .
= = Early career = =
Newton had been a sergeant in his cadet corps at school , and joined the Citizens Military Force on 28 November 1938 , serving as a private in the machine @-@ gun section of the 6th Battalion , Royal Melbourne Regiment . Still employed in the silk warehouse when World War II broke out in September 1939 , he resigned to join the Royal Australian Air
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the Jordan – Israel peace treaty in October 1994 , large numbers of Jordanians , particularly fundamentalists , those of Palestinian origin , and members of the professional unions continue to oppose normalization with Israel and resist the expansion of commercial relations . With the establishment of 13 QIZs in Jordan , there has been an increase in the volume of bilateral trade , though the overall totals remain modest .
= = Criticisms = =
By far the biggest international criticism of QIZs in Jordan is the humanitarian crisis within the factories . A comprehensive report by the Institute for Global Labour and Human Rights found that Sri Lankan migrant workers were subject to " routine sexual abuse and rape . "
The United States Trade Representative ( USTR ) designation of 13 factories throughout Jordan ( under the US @-@ Jordan Free Trade Agreement ) has led to disastrous realities , gender inequality and gender based violence :
" There are over 30 @,@ 000 poor , mostly young women , foreign guest workers toiling in Jordan ‘ s largely foreign @-@ owned garment factories sewing clothing for export to the United States . Under the Free Trade Agreement , those garments enter the U.S. duty @-@ free .
" The guest workers are from Sri Lanka , Bangladesh , India , China , Nepal and Egypt . They earn less than three @-@ quarters the wage of Jordanian garment workers , who account for only 15 to 25 percent of the total garment workforce . Jordanians earn $ 1 @.@ 02 an hour while the foreign guest workers take home 74 ½ cents an hour . The Jordanians work eight hours a day , while the guest workers toil an average of 12 hours a day . "
= Nigella Lawson =
Nigella Lucy Lawson ( born 6 January 1960 ) is an English journalist , broadcaster , television personality , gourmet , and food writer . She is the daughter of Nigel Lawson , a former Chancellor of the Exchequer , and Vanessa ( née Salmon ) Lawson , whose family owned the J. Lyons and Co. food and catering business . After graduating from Lady Margaret Hall , Oxford University , Lawson started work as a book reviewer and restaurant critic , later becoming the deputy literary editor of The Sunday Times in 1986 . She then embarked upon a career as a freelance journalist , writing for a number of newspapers and magazines . In 1998 , she brought out her first cookery book , How to Eat , which sold 300 @,@ 000 copies and became a best @-@ seller . She wrote her second book in 2000 , How to Be a Domestic Goddess , which won her the British Book Award for Author of the Year .
In 1999 , she hosted her own cooking show series , Nigella Bites , on Channel 4 , accompanied by another best @-@ selling cookbook . Nigella Bites won Lawson a Guild of Food Writers Award ; her 2005 ITV daytime chat show Nigella was met with a negative critical reaction and was cancelled after attracting low ratings . She hosted the Food Network 's Nigella Feasts in the United States in 2006 , followed by a three @-@ part BBC Two series , Nigella 's Christmas Kitchen , in the UK , which led to the commissioning of Nigella Express on BBC Two in 2007 . Her own cookware range , Living Kitchen , has a value of £ 7 million , and she has sold more than 3 million cookery books worldwide to date .
= = Early life and education = =
Lawson was born in Wandsworth , London , one of the daughters of Nigel Lawson , Baron Lawson of Blaby , a former Conservative MP , and a former Chancellor of the Exchequer in Margaret Thatcher 's government , and his first wife , Vanessa ( née Salmon ; 1936 – 1985 ) , a socialite , " celebrated beauty " and heiress to the J. Lyons and Co. fortune . Her parents both came from Jewish families . Her given name was originally suggested by her grandmother . Her family kept homes in Kensington and Chelsea .
Nigel and Vanessa Lawson divorced in 1980 . They both remarried : her father in 1980 to a House of Commons researcher , Therese Maclear ( to whom he was married until 2008 ) , and her mother , in the early 1980s , to philosopher A. J. Ayer ( they remained married until her mother 's death ) . As her father , Nigel , is a prominent political figure , some of the things she found frustrating were the judgements and pre @-@ conceptions about her . She has attributed her unhappiness as a child , in part , to the problematic relationship she had with her mother .
Lawson 's mother died of liver cancer in Westminster , London at the age of 48 . Lawson 's full @-@ blood siblings are her brother , Dominic , former editor of The Sunday Telegraph , sister Horatia , and sister Thomasina , who died of breast cancer in 1993 during her early thirties ; She has a half @-@ brother , Tom , and a half @-@ sister , Emily , her father 's children by his second wife . Lawson is a cousin to both George Monbiot and Fiona Shackleton through the Salmon family .
= = = Ancestry = = =
Taking part in the third series of the BBC family @-@ history documentary series , Who Do You Think You Are ? , Lawson sought to uncover some of her family 's ancestry . She traced her ancestors to Ashkenazi Jews who originate from eastern Europe and Germany , leaving Lawson surprised not to have Iberian @-@ Sephardi ancestry in the family as she had believed . She also uncovered that her maternal great @-@ great @-@ great grandfather , Coenraad Sammes ( later Coleman Joseph ) , had fled to England from Amsterdam in 1830 to escape a prison sentence following a conviction for theft . It was his daughter , Hannah , who married Samuel Gluckstein , father @-@ in @-@ law and business partner of Barnett Salmon and father of Isidore and Montague Gluckstein , who together with Barnett founded J. Lyons and Co. in 1887 .
= = = Education = = =
Lawson spent some of her childhood in the Welsh village of Higher Kinnerton . She had to move schools nine times between the ages of 9 and 18 , and consequently she described her school years as difficult . " I was just difficult , disruptive , good at school work , but rude , I suspect , and too highly @-@ strung " , Lawson reflected . She was educated at several independent schools , at among other places , Ibstock Place School , Queen 's Gate School and Godolphin and Latymer School . She worked for many department stores in London , and went on to graduate from the University of Oxford with a degree in medieval and modern languages . She lived in Florence , Italy for a period of time .
= = Career = =
= = = Early work = = =
Lawson originally worked in publishing , first taking a job under publisher Naim Attallah . At 23 , she began her career in journalism after Charles Moore had invited her to write for The Spectator . Her initial work at the magazine consisted of writing book reviews , after which period she became a restaurant critic there in 1985 . She became the deputy literary editor of The Sunday Times in 1986 at the age of 26 .
She occasionally drifted into the public 's eye , attracting publicity in 1989 when she admitted voting for Labour in an election as opposed to her father 's Conservative Party , and then criticised Margaret Thatcher in print . Regarding her political relationship with her father , Lawson has stated , " My father would never expect me to agree with him about anything in particular and , to be honest , we never talk about politics much . "
After her stint at The Sunday Times , she embarked upon a freelance writing career , realising that " I was on the wrong ladder . I didn 't want to be an executive , being paid to worry rather than think " . In the United Kingdom , she wrote for The Daily Telegraph , the Evening Standard , The Observer and The Times Literary Supplement , and penned a food column for Vogue and a makeup column for The Times Magazine , as well as working with Gourmet and Bon Appétit in the United States . After two weeks working on Talk Radio in 1995 , Lawson was sacked after she had stated her shopping was done for her , which was deemed incompatible with the radio station 's desired " common touch " .
= = = 1998 – 2002 : Cook book writing and Nigella Bites = = =
Lawson had an established sense of cooking from her childhood , having had a mother who enjoyed cooking . She conceived the idea of writing a cookbook after she observed a dinner party host in tears because of an unset crème caramel . How to Eat ( 1998 ) , featuring culinary tips on preparation and saving time , sold 300 @,@ 000 copies in the UK . The Sunday Telegraph dubbed it " the most valuable culinary guide published this decade . "
Its successor , How to be a Domestic Goddess ( 2000 ) , focuses primarily on baking . Of this second bestseller , The Times wrote of Lawson 's book , that it " is defined by its intimate , companionable approach . She is not issuing matronly instructions like Delia ; she is merely making sisterly suggestions " . Lawson rejected feminist criticism of her book , adding that " [ s ] ome people did take the domestic goddess title literally rather than ironically . It was about the pleasures of feeling like one rather than actually being one . " The book sold 180 @,@ 000 copies in four months , and won Lawson the title of Author of the Year at the British Book Awards in 2001 , fending off competition from authors such as J. K. Rowling . How to Eat and How to be a Domestic Goddess were published in the U.S. in 2000 and 2001 . As a result of the book 's success , The Observer took her on as a social affairs columnist .
Lawson next hosted her own cooking show television series , Nigella Bites , which ran from 1999 to 2001 on Channel 4 , followed by a Christmas special in 2001 . Victor Lewis @-@ Smith , a critic usually known for his biting comments , praised Lawson for being " formidably charismatic " . The first series of Nigella Bites averaged 1 @.@ 9 million viewers , and won her the Television Broadcast of the Year at the Guild of Food Writers Awards and the Best Television Food Show at the World Food Media Awards in 2001 . The show yielded an accompanying best @-@ selling recipe book , also called Nigella Bites , for which Waterstone 's book stores reported UK sales of over 300 @,@ 000 . The book won a W H Smith Award for Lifestyle Book of the Year .
The Nigella Bites series , which was filmed in her home in west London , was later broadcast on American television channels E ! and Style Network . Lawson said of the US release , " In the UK , my viewers have responded to the fact I 'm trying to reduce , not add to , their burden and I 'm looking forward to making that connection with Style viewers across the US " . Overall , Lawson was well received in the United States . Those who did criticise her often suggested she was too flirtatious ; a commentator from The New York Times said , " Lawson 's sexy roundness mixed with her speed @-@ demon technique makes cooking dinner with Nigella look like a prelude to an orgy " . The book of Nigella Bites became the second bestselling cook book of Christmas 2002 in America . The series was followed by Forever Summer with Nigella in 2002 on Channel 4 , the concept being , " that you cook to make you still feel as though you 're on holiday " .
In 2002 she also began to write a fortnightly cooking articles for The New York Times , and brought out a profitable line of kitchenware , called the Living Kitchen range , which is sold by numerous retailers . Her range 's value has continued to grow , starting at an estimated £ 2 million in 2003 .
= = = 2003 – 2006 : Nigella Feasts and BBC contract = = =
In November 2003 , Lawson oversaw the menu and preparations for a lunch hosted by Tony Blair at Downing Street for George W. Bush and his wife during their state visit to the UK . Laura Bush is said to be a fan of Lawson 's recipes and once included one of her soups as the starter for the 2002 presidential Christmas dinner . Lawson 's fifth book , Feast : Food that Celebrates Life , released in 2004 , made sales worth £ 3 million . London 's Evening Standard wrote that the book " works both as a practical manual and an engrossing read . ... Nobody else writes so openly about the emotional significance of food . " Lawson appeared frequently on American television in 2004 , conducting cookery slots on talk shows such as The Ellen DeGeneres Show .
In the UK in 2005 , Lawson started to host a daytime television chat show on ITV1 called Nigella , on which celebrity guests joined her in a studio kitchen . The first episode debuted with a disappointing 800 @,@ 000 viewers . The show was met with a largely negative critical reaction , and after losing 40 % of its viewers in the first week , the show was cancelled . She later commented to Radio Times that on her first show , she was almost too frightened to come out of her dressing room . Lawson added that having to pretend to be interested in the lives of the celebrities on her show became too much of an effort .
Her third food @-@ based television series , called Nigella Feasts , debuted on the USA 's Food Network in Autumn 2006 for a 13 @-@ week run . Time magazine wrote a favorable review of the show ; " the real appeal of Feasts ... is her unfussy , wry , practical approach to entertaining and quality comfort food . ... between the luscious camera shots and Lawson 's sensual enjoyment of eating , Feasts will leave you wishing for an invite " .
Lawson was next signed to BBC Two to host a three @-@ part cookery show entitled Nigella 's Christmas Kitchen , which began on 6 December 2006 and aired weekly . The first two episodes secured the second highest ratings of the week for BBC Two , with the first episode debuting with a strong 3 @.@ 5 million . The final episode went on to become the top show on BBC Two the week that it was aired . Nigella 's Christmas Kitchen won Lawson a second World Food Media Award in 2007 . Her influence as a food commentator was also demonstrated in late 2006 , when after she had lauded goose fat as being an essential ingredient for Christmas , sales percentages of the product increased significantly in the UK . Waitrose and Tesco both stated that goose fat sales had more than doubled , as well as Asda 's goose fat sales increasing by 65 % from the previous week . Similarly , after she advised using prunes in a recipe on Nigella 's Christmas Kitchen , Waitrose had increased sales of 30 % year on year .
= = = 2007 – 2009 : Nigella Express and Nigella 's Christmas = = =
Nigella 's Christmas Kitchen led to the commissioning of a 13 @-@ part cookery series entitled Nigella Express . She said " I wouldn 't describe them as junk " . The show became another ratings success and one of BBC Two 's top @-@ rated shows each week . The first episode debuted with 2 @.@ 85 million viewers , a high percentage above the channel 's slot average . The second episode 's viewing figures rose to 3 @.@ 3 million , and the series peaked at 3 @.@ 4 million on 22 October 2007 .
Her influence with the public was again demonstrated when sales of Riesling wine increased by 30 % in the UK after she had incorporated it into her Coq au Riesling recipe on Nigella Express . In December 2007 she appeared on BBC 's The Graham Norton Show and revealed that she had once eaten 30 pickled eggs for a £ 1 @,@ 000 bet , saying " How stupid to challenge me ! I made them all put their money on the table in front of me . The next day I had scrambled eggs for breakfast . "
Lawson came under criticism when viewers complained that she had gained weight since the debut episode of the series . The Guardian however , noted , " the food matches her appearance – flawless , polished and sexy " . The rights to Nigella Express were sold to Discovery Asia . The series was nominated at the 35th Daytime Emmy Awards in the United States for Outstanding Lifestyle Program , and Lawson herself for the Outstanding Lifestyle Host .
The accompanying book to Nigella Express was released in the UK in September 2007 , US in November 2007 , and in Australia in 2008 . Sharing the same name as the television series , the book became another best @-@ seller in the UK , and was outselling television chef Jamie Oliver by 100 @,@ 000 copies , according to Waterstone 's . It was reported that over 490 @,@ 000 copies had been sold by mid @-@ December in the UK . Furthermore , the book was number one for a period on Amazon UK 's bestselling books , and was ninth on their overall list of Christmas bestsellers in any category . Paul Levy of The Guardian wrote that the tone of the recipes was " just right . One of the appealing things about Nigella 's brief introductions to each of them is that she thinks not just as cook , but as eater , and tells you whether they 're messy , sticky or fussy . " In January 2008 , Lawson was estimated to have sold more than 3 million books worldwide . Her Christmas book was released in October 2008 and the television show in December of the same year . An American edition of the book " Nigella Christmas " with a different cover photograph was released in November 2009 with an accompanying book tour of several US cities and a special on the USA 's Food Network .
= = = 2010 – 2014 , Nigellissima and The Taste = = =
Lawson was featured as one of the three judges on a special battle of Iron Chef America , titled " The Super Chef Battle " , which pitted White House Executive Chef Cristeta Comerford and Iron Chef Bobby Flay against chef Emeril Lagasse and Iron Chef Mario Batali . This episode was originally broadcast on 3 January 2010 . Lawson 's cookbook Kitchen : Recipes from the Heart of the Home ( 2010 ) is a tie @-@ in with the TV series " Nigella Kitchen . " This was shown in the UK and on the Food Network in the United States .
Nigellissima : Instant Italian Inspiration was released in 2012 . The 8 part TV series entitled Nigellissima was broadcast by the BBC . Nigella Lawson obtained work experience in Italy during her gap year .
Lawson travelled to the United States in 2013 and starred alongside Anthony Bourdain in the reality cooking show The Taste . The UK version of the show began airing on 7 January 2014 on Channel 4 . Lawson was granted a visa to travel to the United States and traveled there for a continuation of the series . In 2014 Lawson was hired by a chocolate company to appear in an advertisement , the advertisement was filmed in New Zealand in May for a local confection manufacturer Whittaker 's .
= = = 2015- , Simply Nigella , Eurovision and MasterChef Australia = = =
The UK and US series of The Taste were both completed and in autumn 2015 Lawson began " Simply Nigella " , a BBC 2 show showing viewers how to cook a range of dishes that were simple to cook and similar to what viewers would make themselves . Lawson featured comfort food and dishes that were quick to prepare . She featured food that would make viewers feel better while they cooked it and also when they ate it .
On the 23rd May , Lawson was spokesperson for the United Kingdom revealing the voting results during the final of the Eurovision Song Contest 2015 . Lawson commented , " Yes , it 's true . Oui , c 'est vrai . Ja , das ist wahr . "
It was reported on 18 January 2016 , that Lawson would make a return to Australian television , joining series 8 of MasterChef Australia as a guest judge , alongside the returning judges .
= = Presenting style and image = =
Though Lawson has enjoyed a successful career in cookery , she is not a trained chef , and does not like being referred to as a " celebrity chef " . Furthermore , she does not see herself as a cook or an expert in her field . Throughout Lawson 's television programmes , she emphasises that she cooks for her own pleasure , for enjoyment , and that she finds cooking therapeutic . When deciding upon which recipes to feature in her books , she takes the view of the eater , stating , " If it 's something I don 't want to carry on eating once I 'm full , then I don 't want the recipe ... I have to feel that I want to cook the thing again " .
Lawson has adopted a casual approach to cooking , stating , " I think cooking should be about fun and family . ... I think part of my appeal is that my approach to cooking is really relaxed and not rigid . There are no rules in my kitchen . " One editor , highlighting the technical simplicity of Lawson 's recipes , noted that " her dishes require none of the elaborate preparation called for by most TV chefs " .
Lawson has become renowned for her flirtatious manner of presenting , although she argues " It 's not meant to be flirtatious . ... I don 't have the talent to adopt a different persona . It 's intimate , not flirtatious " . The perceived overt sexuality of her presentation style has led to Lawson 's being called the " queen of food porn " . Many commentators have alluded to Lawson 's attractiveness , and she was once named as one of the world 's most beautiful women . She has been referred to as " stunningly beautiful , warm , honest , likeable and amazingly normal " , as well as being described as having " flawless skin , perfect white teeth , a voluptuous body , ample height and lots of lush , brown hair " . Nigella Lawson has been voted , Sexiest Celebrity Chef . The media have also noted Lawson 's ability to engage with both male and female viewers ; The Guardian wrote , " Men love her because they want to be with her . Women love her because they want to be her " . The chef , Gary Rhodes , spoke out against Lawson by suggesting that her viewers are attracted to her smile rather than the cooking itself . Despite often being labelled as a domestic goddess , she insists that she exhibits very few of the qualities associated with the title .
One critic summarised , " her descriptions of food can be a tangle of adjectives " .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Relationships and children = = =
Lawson was in a relationship with human rights lawyer Geoffrey Robertson QC until 1988 , when he left her for novelist Kathy Lette .
Lawson met journalist John Diamond in 1986 , when they were both writing for The Sunday Times . They married in Venice in 1992 and have a daughter , Cosima and a son , Bruno . Diamond was diagnosed with throat cancer in 1997 and died in March 2001 , aged 47 . One of his last messages to Lawson was , " How proud I am of you and what you have become . The great thing about us is that we have made us who we are . " His death occurred during the filming of Nigella Bites ; " I took a fortnight off . But I 'm not a great believer in breaks " , Lawson explained ; she suffered a bout of depression following the funeral . After Diamond 's death , Lawson kept all of the press clippings in what she called her " Morbidobox " .
= = = Charles Saatchi = = =
Lawson married art collector Charles Saatchi in September 2003 . Lawson was not always happy for unspecified reasons and admitted in 2012 that she sometimes said , " Please God , get me through the ordeal that is today . "
In June 2013 , photographs were published by The Sunday People of Lawson being grabbed around the neck by Saatchi , during an argument outside a London seafood restaurant . According to a witness , Lawson was very distressed by the incident . Saatchi later described the pictures as showing only a " playful tiff " and his trying to emphasise a point . After a police investigation of the incident , Saatchi was cautioned for assault , and it was reported that Lawson had left the family home . Lawson said in court Saatchi subjected her to " intimate terrorism " , that he threatened to finish her unless she cleared him in court . Subsequently while giving evidence Lawson claimed casual cruelty and controlling behaviour by Saatchi which made her unhappy and drove her to occasional drug use . She cited as examples that Saatchi prevented her entertaining at home and punished her for going to a birthday party of a woman friend . She was not beaten but was left emotionally scarred .
Saatchi announced his divorce from Lawson in early July , stating that he had " clearly been a disappointment to Nigella during the last year or so " and the couple had " become estranged and drifted apart " . Lawson made no public comment in response ; however , court papers showed that it was Lawson who filed for divorce , citing ongoing unreasonable behaviour . On 31 July 2013 , seven weeks after the incident , the pair was granted a decree nisi , ending their ten @-@ year marriage . They reached a private financial settlement .
= = = Assistants ' fraud trial = = =
On 27 November 2013 , a trial of the former couple 's two personal assistants , Italian @-@ born sisters Elisabetta and Francesca Grillo , began in R v Grillo and Grillo . The Grillos were accused of fraudulently using the credit cards of Saatchi 's private company . During court proceedings in early December , the sisters claimed that Lawson had permitted their use of the credit cards in exchange for their silence regarding her drug use . Questions regarding Lawson 's drug use were allowed by the judge as part of the sisters ' " bad character " defence . Lawson admitted to taking cocaine and cannabis but denied she had been addicted , stating , " I found it made an intolerable situation tolerable . " On 20 December 2013 , the two sisters were acquitted . Scotland Yard confirmed that Lawson would not be the subject of an investigation based on claims made in court that she consumed cocaine . The decision will be reviewed if new evidence comes to light .
It has been alleged that Charles Saatchi started a smear campaign against Lawson in the British media , through PR man Richard Hillgrove , relating to her drug use that began even before the trial was over . Lawyers for Lawson have demanded that Hillgrove remove comments about her made in his blog . By contrast Nigella Lawson claimed in court that ending her marriage to Saatchi and creating tolerable conditions for herself and her family was the answer . Since she freed herself from , " a brilliant but brutal man . " Lawson maintains she is " totally cannabis , cocaine , any drug , free . "
= = = Interests and beliefs = = =
Saatchi was worth a reputed £ 100 million . It widely began circulating in the media in early 2008 that Lawson had been quoted as saying her two children should not inherit any of the fortune .
Although both of Lawson 's parents are Jewish , her upbringing was non observant and Lawson herself identifies as an atheist . In one of her newspaper articles , she has shown a liberal attitude to sexuality ( " most [ women ] simply have , somewhere , a fantasy about having sex , in a non @-@ defining , non @-@ exclusive way , with other women . " )
Lawson is a supporter of the Lavender Trust which gives support to young women with breast cancer . She first became involved with the charity in 2002 when she baked some lavender cupcakes to be auctioned at a fundraising event , which sold for a significant amount of money . She subsequently featured the recipe in her book Forever Summer with Nigella .
In December 2008 , Lawson caused controversy and was featured in various newspapers for publicly advocating wearing fur . She also remarked that she would love to kill a bear and then wear it .
It was revealed by leaked Whitehall documents in 2003 that Lawson declined an OBE from Queen Elizabeth II in 2001 . As the daughter of a life peer , Lawson is entitled to the courtesy style of " The Honourable " , and is thus named The Hon. Nigella Lawson ; however , she does not use this courtesy style .
Lawson has stated that she believes cooking is " a metaphor for life " , in the sense that " When you cook , you need structure [ ... ] but just as importantly you need to be able to loosen up and go with the flow [ ... ] you must not strive for perfection but , rather , acknowledge your mistakes and work out how you can rectify them " . She has described cooking as " a way of strengthening oneself " , in the sense that " being able to sustain oneself is the skill of the survivor " .
= = Television credits = =
= = Awards = =
2000 : British Book Award – Author of the Year for How to be a Domestic Goddess
2001 : WH Smith Book Award – How To Be A Domestic Goddess shortlisted for Lifestyle Book of the Year
2001 : Guild of Food Writers – Television Broadcast of the Year for Nigella Bites
2001 : World Food Media Award – Gold Ladle Best Television Food Show for Nigella Bites
2002 : WH Smith Book Awards – Lifestyle Book of the Year for Nigella Bites
2007 : World Food Media Award – Gold Ladle Best Food And / Or Drink Television Show for Nigella 's Christmas Kitchen
= Isbul =
Isbul ( Bulgarian : Исбул ) ( fl . 820s – 830s ) was the kavhan , or first minister , of the First Bulgarian Empire during the reigns of Omurtag , Malamir and Presian I. Appointed to the kavhan office under Omurtag , Isbul was a regent or co @-@ ruler of the underage Malamir and his successor Presian .
Under Malamir and Presian , Isbul headed Bulgaria 's successful campaigns against the Byzantines in southern Thrace and Macedonia , which led to a significant territorial expansion of the Bulgarian realm . As a co @-@ ruler of Malamir , Isbul also financed the construction of a water conduit in the capital Pliska . As second @-@ in @-@ command , Isbul held enormous power and wealth , and was unusually often mentioned beside the name of the ruler in inscriptions . Due to his merits , Isbul has been described as an architect of medieval Bulgarian statehood by historians .
= = Biography = =
The office of the kavhan was a hereditary title in the First Bulgarian Empire , monopolised by the members of the tentatively known " Kavhan family " . In order to accede to that position , Isbul must have belonged to the Kavhan family , which is indirectly evidenced by his Bulgar name . Historian Plamen Pavlov theorises that Isbul may have begun his career under the ruler Krum ( r . 803 – 814 ) , and by the time of Krum 's son Omurtag ( r . 815 – 831 ) , Isbul was already an influential noble . As he is referred to as a kavhan and regent of the next ruler , Malamir ( r . 831 – 836 ) , it is conjectured that he had been appointed to the office at some point during Omurtag 's rule .
The earliest record of Isbul is the stone epigraph known as the Malamir Chronicle , which states that Malamir " ruled together with kavhan Isbul " . Malamir was the youngest son of Omurtag and must have been considered too young to rule by himself , so that a regent had to be appointed . Omurtag specified Malamir as his heir because his eldest son , Enravota , was a Christian . The Byzantines hoped to take advantage of Bulgaria 's instability at the time , caused by the presence of the underage Malamir on the throne , and broke the long @-@ lasting peace established with the Byzantine – Bulgarian Treaty of 815 , which they had initially reaffirmed upon Malamir 's accession . In 836 , Isbul was in charge of the Bulgarian forces which repulsed the Byzantine invasion and proceeded to raid into Byzantine territory .
As part of this campaign , Isbul and Malamir captured the Thracian fortresses of Probaton ( near Adrianople , modern Edirne ) and Bourdizon ( modern Babaeski ) . After conquering these two fortresses , the Bulgarian troops reached Philippopolis ( now Plovdiv ) . As the defence forces of the city had fled , Isbul and Malamir entered negotiations with the population in order to persuade them to cede the fortress . Pavlov is of the opinion that the war ended with a continuation of the peace of 815 . He believes that Byzantine Emperor Theophilos ( r . 829 – 842 ) was forced to make concessions to Bulgaria , which may have included the incorporation of Philippopolis and its close surroundings into the Bulgarian Empire .
During his time as co @-@ ruler and kavhan of Malamir , Isbul financed the construction of a water conduit ( aqueduct ) or fountain in Pliska , which he donated to Malamir . That construction was the occasion for a great feast , which the ruler organised , and for gifts to the nobility , all of it testifying to Isbul 's affluence . In the source about the construction , Isbul is hailed alongside Malamir : " May God let the God @-@ appointed ruler live a hundred years together with the kavhan Isbul " . Normally , such blessings were only directed at the ruler , and this is the only case from the First Bulgarian Empire which references another person . The inscription also mentions Isbul 's old age at the time .
After the surprise death of Malamir in 836 , the Bulgarian throne passed to Presian I ( 836 – 852 ) , who too was likely underage . As evidenced by the Presian Inscription from Philippi , Isbul retained his position as kavhan and his decisive influence in the Bulgarian court . In 837 , the Slavic tribe of the Smolyani ( Smolenoi ) , who inhabited the lower Nestos ( Mesta ) River and Western Thrace near Drama , rose against their Byzantine rulers . The inscription of Philippi mentions large @-@ scale Bulgarian activity in the lands of the Smolyani . The Bulgarian forces were led by Isbul , as well as the ichirgu @-@ boil ( commander of the capital garrison ) and the head priest . As the inscription is damaged , it is unclear who Presian and Isbul supported in that conflict . However , during this campaign the Bulgarian army conquered most of Macedonia including Philippi , where the inscription was found . From that point on , Isbul disappears from the sources , and there is no information about the date and circumstances of his death .
= = Assessment and legacy = =
In his biography of Isbul , Pavlov underlines his " extraordinary merits for the development of the Bulgarian state " and describes him as " one of the architects of medieval Bulgarian statehood during the years of its rise " . Romanian historian Florin Curta emphasises the similarity of Isbul 's role to that of 8th @-@ century Mayors of the Palace in the Frankish lands under the Merovingian dynasty .
Isbul Point on Livingston Island of the South Shetland Islands , Antarctica , was named in honour of kavhan Isbul by the Antarctic Place @-@ names Commission of Bulgaria . Isbul also features as a character in Aleksandar Raychev 's opera Khan Asparuh , which debuted at the Ruse Opera House in 1981 . In the opera , however , Isbul is erroneously described as the kavhan of the first Bulgarian ruler , Asparuh .
= Courtney Love =
Courtney Michelle Love ( born Courtney Michelle Harrison , July 9 , 1964 ) is an American musician , actress , and visual artist . Prolific in the punk and grunge scenes of the 1990s , Love 's career has spanned over four decades . She became a fixture in alternative music as the frontwoman of Hole , drawing public attention for her uninhibited stage presence and confrontational lyrics , as well as her highly publicized personal life following her marriage to Kurt Cobain .
The daughter of psychotherapist Linda Carroll and Hank Harrison , Love had a nomadic early life ; she mainly grew up in Oregon and California , where she was in a series of short @-@ lived bands before landing roles in films by British director Alex Cox . After forming Hole in 1989 , she received substantial attention from underground rock press for the group 's debut album , produced by Kim Gordon , while the group 's second release , Live Through This ( 1994 ) , lent her a more high @-@ profile renown , receiving critical accolades and going multi @-@ platinum . In 1995 , she returned to acting , earning a Golden Globe Award nomination for her performance in Miloš Forman 's The People vs. Larry Flynt ( 1996 ) . Shortly after , Hole 's third release , Celebrity Skin ( 1998 ) , earned Love recognition as a mainstream musician and was nominated for multiple Grammy Awards .
Love continued to work as an actress , appearing in big @-@ budget pictures such as Man on the Moon ( 1999 ) and Trapped ( 2002 ) , and released her first solo album , America 's Sweetheart , in 2004 . In 2010 , she released Nobody 's Daughter as Hole , with a reformed band . Love debuted a new solo single in early 2014 , and also saw a return to acting in multiple TV series , including Empire .
= = Early life = =
Love was born Courtney Michelle Harrison on July 9 , 1964 , in San Francisco , California . Her mother , Linda Carroll ( née Risi ) , was employed at the UC San Francisco Hospital , and her father , Hank Harrison , was a publisher and road manager for the Grateful Dead . Love 's godfather is the founding Grateful Dead bassist Phil Lesh . Love 's mother , who was adopted as a child , was later revealed to be the biological daughter of novelist Paula Fox . Love 's great @-@ grandmother was screenwriter Elsie Fox , and Love learned in 2002 that , through marriage , her great uncle was actor Douglas Fairbanks . Love is of Cuban , Welsh , Irish , German , and English descent .
Love spent her early years in the Haight @-@ Ashbury district of San Francisco until her parents ' 1969 divorce , after which her father 's custody was withdrawn when her mother alleged that he had fed LSD to Love as a toddler . Love described her parents ' household as being full of " hairy , wangly @-@ ass hippies running around naked . " According to sources , Love 's mother , who was studying to be a psychologist , had Love in therapy by the age of two . In 1970 , her mother moved the family to the rural community of Marcola , Oregon where they lived on a commune along the Mohawk River , while her mother completed her degree at the University of Oregon . Love was legally adopted by her then @-@ stepfather , Frank Rodriguez , with whom her mother had Love 's two half @-@ sisters , Jaimee and Nicole , and adopted a brother Joshua , at three years old , from an African American family ; another half @-@ brother died in infancy of a heart defect when Love was ten . Love attended a Montessori school in Eugene , where she struggled academically and had trouble making friends . At age nine , she was diagnosed with mild autism .
In 1972 , Love 's mother divorced Rodriguez , remarried , and moved the family to New Zealand ; there , she enrolled Love at Nelson College for Girls , from which Love was eventually expelled . Love 's mother then sent her back to the United States , where she was raised in Portland , Oregon by her former stepfather and other family friends ; during this time , her mother gave birth to two of Love 's other half @-@ brothers , Tobias and Daniel . At age fourteen , Love was arrested for shoplifting a T @-@ shirt and was sent to Hillcrest Correctional Facility . She spent the following several years in foster care before becoming legally emancipated at age sixteen . She supported herself by working illegally as a stripper , adopting the last name " Love " to conceal her identity , which she came to use thereafter . She also worked various odd jobs , including picking berries at a farm in Troutdale , Oregon , and as a disc jockey . During this time , she enrolled at Portland State University , studying English and philosophy . Love has said that she " didn 't have a lot of social skills , " and that she learned them while frequenting gay clubs in Portland .
In 1981 , Love was granted a small trust fund that had been left by her adoptive grandparents , which she used to travel to Dublin , Ireland , where her biological father was living . While there , she enrolled in courses at Trinity College , studying theology for two semesters . She would later receive honorary patronage from Trinity 's University Philosophical Society in 2010 . In the United Kingdom , she became acquainted with musician Julian Cope and his band , The Teardrop Explodes , in Liverpool and briefly lived in his house . " They kind of took me in , " she recalled . " I was sort of a mascot ; I would get them coffee or tea during rehearsal . " In Cope 's autobiography , Head @-@ On , Love is referred to as " the adolescent . " After spending a year abroad , Love returned to Portland . In 1983 , she took a short @-@ lived job working as an erotic dancer in Taiwan , but was deported after the club was shut down by the government .
= = Career = =
= = = 1981 – 1987 : Early projects = = =
Love initially began several music projects in the 1980s , first forming Sugar Babylon ( later Sugar Babydoll ) in Portland with friends Ursula Wehr and Robin Barbur . In 1982 , Love attended a Faith No More concert in San Francisco , and convinced the members to let her join as a singer . The group recorded material with Love as a vocalist , but , according to the band 's keyboardist Roddy Bottum , wanted a " male energy , " and Love was subsequently kicked out of the band ; she and Bottum , however , maintained a friendship in the years after . Love later formed the Pagan Babies with friend Kat Bjelland , whom she met at the Satyricon club in Portland in 1984 : " The best thing that ever happened to me in a way , was Kat , " Love said . Love asked Bjelland to start a band with her as a guitarist , and the two moved to San Francisco in June 1985 , where they recruited Love 's friend , bassist Jennifer Finch , and drummer Janis Tanaka . According to Bjelland , " [ Courtney ] didn 't play an instrument at the time " aside from keyboards , so Bjelland would transpose Love 's musical ideas on guitar for her . The group played several house shows and recorded one 4 @-@ track demo before disbanding in late 1985 . Following Pagan Babies , Love moved to Minneapolis where Bjelland had formed the group Babes in Toyland , and briefly worked as a concert promoter before returning to California .
Deciding to shift her focus to acting , Love enrolled at the San Francisco Art Institute , where she studied film with George Kuchar and was featured in one of his short films , titled Club Vatican . In 1985 , she submitted an audition tape for the role of Nancy Spungen in the Sid Vicious biopic Sid and Nancy ( 1986 ) , and was given a minor supporting role by director Alex Cox . After filming Sid and Nancy in New York City , Love worked at a peep show in Times Square and squatted at the ABC No Rio social center and Pyramid Club in the East Village . The same year , Cox cast her in a leading role in his following film , Straight to Hell ( 1987 ) , a spaghetti western starring Joe Strummer and Grace Jones , which was filmed in Spain in 1986 . The film caught the attention of Andy Warhol , who featured Love in an episode of Andy Warhol 's Fifteen Minutes with Robbie Nevil in a segment titled " C 'est la Vie . " She also had a part in the 1988 Ramones music video for " I Wanna Be Sedated " , appearing as a bride among dozens of party guests .
In 1988 , Love aborted her acting career and left New York , returning to the west coast , citing the " celebutante " fame she 'd attained as the central reason . " I hated it , " she recalled . " It was misery itself . " She returned to stripping in the small town of McMinnville , Oregon , where she was recognized by customers at the bar ; this prompted Love to go into isolation , and she relocated to Anchorage , Alaska : " I decided to move to Alaska because I needed to get my shit together and learn how to work , " Love said in retrospect . " So I went on this sort of vision quest . I got rid of all my earthly possessions . I had my bad little strip clothes and some big sweaters , and I moved into a trailer with a bunch of other strippers . "
= = = 1988 – 1991 : Beginnings of Hole = = =
At the end of 1988 , Love taught herself to play guitar and relocated to Los Angeles , where she placed an ad in a local music zine , reading : " I want to start a band . My influences are Big Black , Sonic Youth , and Fleetwood Mac . " Love recruited lead guitarist Eric Erlandson ; Lisa Roberts , her neighbor , as bassist ; and drummer Caroline Rue , whom she met at a Gwar concert . Love named the band Hole after a line from Euripedes ' Medea , as well as a conversation she had had with her mother , in which she told her that she " couldn 't walk around with a hole inside herself . "
Love continued to work at strip clubs in the band 's formative stages , saving money to purchase a backline and a touring van , and rehearsed at a studio in Hollywood that was loaned to her by the Red Hot Chili Peppers . Hole played their first show in November 1989 at Raji 's , a rock club in central Hollywood . The band 's debut single , " Retard Girl " , was issued in April 1990 through the Long Beach indie label Sympathy for the Record Industry , and was given air @-@ time by Rodney Bingenheimer 's local station , KROQ . That fall , the band appeared on the cover of Flipside , a Los Angeles @-@ based punk fanzine . In the spring of 1991 , the band released their second single , " Dicknail " , through Sub Pop Records .
With no wave , noise rock and grindcore bands being major influences on Love , Hole 's first studio album , Pretty on the Inside , captured a particularly abrasive sound and contained disturbing lyrics , described by Q magazine as " confrontational [ and ] genuinely uninhibited . " The record was released in September 1991 on Caroline Records , produced by Kim Gordon of Sonic Youth , with assistant production from Gumball 's Don Fleming . Though Love would later say it was " unlistenable " and " [ un ] melodic , " the album received generally positive critical reception from indie and punk rock critics and was labeled one of the twenty best albums of the year by Spin magazine . It also gained a following in the United Kingdom , charting at 59 on the UK Albums Chart , and its lead single , " Teenage Whore " , entered the country 's indie chart at number one . The underlying feminist slant of the album 's songs led many to mistakenly tag the band as being part of the riot grrl movement , a movement that Love did not associate with . In support of the record , the band toured in Europe headlining with Mudhoney , and opening in the United States for The Smashing Pumpkins . They also performed at the Whisky a Go Go opening for Sonic Youth , and at CBGB in New York City . Love designed and distributed flyers promoting the shows , which included cutouts of women and young girls , as well as scattered lyrics and quotes from poems .
= = = 1992 – 1995 : Breakthrough = = =
After the release of Pretty on the Inside , Love began dating Kurt Cobain and became pregnant . During Love 's pregnancy , Hole recorded a cover of " Over the Edge " for a Wipers tribute album , and recorded their fourth single , " Beautiful Son , " which was released in April 1993 . Love and Cobain married in February 1992 , and after the birth of the couple 's daughter , Frances Bean Cobain , relocated to Carnation , Washington , and then to Seattle . On September 8 , 1993 , Love and Cobain made their only public performance together at the Rock Against Rape benefit in Hollywood , performing two duets , both acoustic versions , of " Pennyroyal Tea " and " Where Did You Sleep Last Night . " Love also performed electric versions of two new Hole songs , " Doll Parts " and " Miss World " , both of which were written for the band 's upcoming second release .
In October 1993 , Hole recorded their second album , titled Live Through This , in Atlanta , Georgia . The album featured a new lineup , with bassist Kristen Pfaff and drummer Patty Schemel . Live Through This was released on Geffen 's subsidiary DGC label in April 1994 , four days after Love 's husband , Cobain , was found dead of a self @-@ inflicted shotgun wound in their home . Two months later , in June 1994 , bassist Kristen Pfaff died of a heroin overdose , and Love recruited Melissa Auf der Maur for the band 's impending tour . Throughout the months preceding the tour , Love was rarely seen in public , spending time at her Seattle home , or visiting the Namgyal Buddhist Monastery in New York .
Live Through This was a commercial and critical success , hitting platinum sales in April 1995 and receiving numerous critical accolades . The success of the record combined with Cobain 's suicide resulted in a high level of publicity for Love , and she was featured on Barbara Walters ' 10 Most Fascinating People in 1995 . At Hole 's performance on August 26 , 1994 at the Reading Festival — Love 's first public performance following her husband 's death — she appeared onstage , tear @-@ drenched , with outstretched arms , mimicking crucifixion . John Peel wrote in The Guardian that Love 's disheveled appearance " would have drawn whistles of astonishment in Bedlam , " and that her performance " verged on the heroic ... Love steered her band through a set which dared you to pity either her recent history or that of the band ... the band teetered on the edge of chaos , generating a tension which I cannot remember having felt before from any stage . " The band performed a series of riotous concerts during the tour , with Love frequently appearing hysterical onstage , flashing crowds , stage diving , and getting into fights with audience members . In retrospect , Love said she " couldn 't remember much " of the shows as she was using drugs heavily at the time .
In February 1995 , Hole performed a well @-@ reviewed acoustic set on MTV Unplugged at the Brooklyn Academy of Music , and continued to tour late into the year , concluding their world tour with an appearance at the 1995 MTV Video Music Awards , where they were nominated for Best Alternative Video for " Doll Parts " .
= = = 1996 – 2000 : Acting and mainstream success = = =
After Hole 's world tour concluded in 1996 , Love made a return to acting , first in small roles in the Jean @-@ Michel Basquiat biopic Basquiat , and the drama Feeling Minnesota ( 1996 ) , before landing the co @-@ starring role of Larry Flynt 's wife , Althea , in Miloš Forman 's critically acclaimed 1996 film The People vs. Larry Flynt .
" I went for that part so hard , " she recalled , " because I felt a need for atonement for some cultural damage that had arisen out of me and things that I had done . By doing that role , I felt that , personally and creatively , I could exemplify why this was the most un @-@ glorious , unglamorous , fucked @-@ up thing . And then , bang ! , I was done with all that . I could fuck off and do something else . "
Despite Columbia Pictures ' reluctance to hire Love due to her troubled past , she received critical acclaim for her performance in the film after its release in December 1996 , earning a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actress , and a New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actress . Critic Roger Ebert called her work in the film " quite a performance ; Love proves she is not a rock star pretending to act , but a true actress . " She won several other awards from various film critic associations for the film , and consequently adopted a more polished public image ; during this time , she also had endeavors in fashion , modeling for Versace advertisements and appearing in Vogue Italia .
In late 1997 , Hole released a compilation album , My Body , the Hand Grenade , featuring rare singles and b @-@ sides , and an EP titled The First Session which consisted of the band 's first recording session in 1990 . In September 1998 , Hole released their third studio album , Celebrity Skin , which marked something of a transformation for Love , featuring a stark power pop sound as opposed to the group 's earlier punk rock influences . Love divulged her ambition of making an album where " art meets commerce ... there are no compromises made , it has commercial appeal , and it sticks to [ our ] original vision . " She said she was influenced by Neil Young , Fleetwood Mac , and My Bloody Valentine when writing the album . The Smashing Pumpkins ' Billy Corgan helped co @-@ write several songs on the album . Celebrity Skin was well received by critics ; Rolling Stone called the album " accessible , fiery and intimate — often at the same time ... a basic guitar record that 's anything but basic . " Celebrity Skin went on to go multi @-@ platinum , and topped " Best of Year " lists at Spin and the The Village Voice . The album garnered the band their only No. 1 hit single on the Modern Rock Tracks chart with the title track " Celebrity Skin . " The band promoted the album through MTV performances and at the 1998 Billboard Music Awards . Hole toured with Marilyn Manson on the Beautiful Monsters Tour in 1999 , but dropped out of the tour nine dates in after a dispute over production costs between Love and Manson ; Hole resumed touring with Imperial Teen .
Before the release and promotion of Celebrity Skin , Love and Fender designed a low @-@ priced Squier brand guitar , called Vista Venus . The instrument featured a shape inspired by Mercury , a little @-@ known independent guitar manufacturer ; Stratocaster , and Rickenbacker 's solid body guitars and had a single @-@ coil and a humbucker pickup , and was available in 6 @-@ string and 12 @-@ string versions . In an early 1999 interview , Love said about the Venus : " I wanted a guitar that sounded really warm and pop , but which required just one box to go dirty ... And something that could also be your first band guitar . I didn 't want it all teched out . I wanted it real simple , with just one pickup switch . " In 1999 , Love was awarded an Orville H. Gibson award for Best Female Rock Guitarist . During this time , she also starred opposite Jim Carrey in the Andy Kaufman biopic Man on the Moon ( 1999 ) , which was followed with a role as William S. Burroughs 's wife Joan Vollmer in Beat ( 2000 ) alongside Kiefer Sutherland .
After touring for Celebrity Skin finished , Auf der Maur left the band to tour with The Smashing Pumpkins ; Hole 's touring drummer Samantha Maloney left soon after . Love and Erlandson released the single " Be A Man " — an outtake from the Celebrity Skin sessions — for the soundtrack of the Oliver Stone film Any Given Sunday ( 1999 ) . The group became dormant in the following two years , and Love starred in several more films , including in Julie Johnson ( 2001 ) as Lili Taylor 's lesbian lover , for which she won an Outstanding Actress award at L.A. ' s Outfest , and in the thriller Trapped ( 2002 ) , alongside Kevin Bacon and Charlize Theron . In May 2002 , Hole officially announced their breakup amid continuing litigation with Universal Music Group over their record contract .
= = = 2001 – 2011 : Solo work , Hole revival = = =
With Hole in disarray , Love began a " punk rock femme supergroup " called Bastard during autumn 2001 , enlisting Schemel , Veruca Salt co @-@ frontwoman Louise Post , and bassist Gina Crosley . Though a demo was completed , the project never reached fruition .
In 2002 , Love began composing an album with songwriter Linda Perry of 4 Non @-@ Blondes , titled America 's Sweetheart , also reuniting with drummer Patty Schemel . Love signed with Virgin Records to release it , and initially recorded it in France , but was forced by the label to re @-@ record the entire album in the summer of 2003 . America 's Sweetheart was released in February 2004 , and received mixed reviews from critics . Charles Aaron of Spin called it a " jaw @-@ dropping act of artistic will and a fiery , proper follow @-@ up to 1994 's Live Through This " and awarded it eight out of ten stars , while The Village Voice said : " [ Love is ] willing to act out the dream of every teenage brat who ever wanted to have a glamorous , high @-@ profile hissyfit , and she turns those egocentric nervous breakdowns into art . Sure , the art becomes less compelling when you 've been pulling the same stunts for a decade . But , honestly , is there anybody out there who fucks up better ? " The album sold less than 100 @,@ 000 copies . Love has publicly expressed her regret over the record several times , calling it " a crap record " and reasoning that her drug issues at the time were to blame . Shortly after the record was released , Love told Kurt Loder on TRL : " I cannot exist as a solo artist . It 's a joke . " Love also collaborated on a manga comic titled Princess Ai , illustrated by Misaho Kujiradou and Ai Yazawa , which was released in July 2004 .
In 2006 , Love released a memoir , titled Dirty Blonde , and started recording what was going to be her second solo album , How Dirty Girls Get Clean , collaborating again with Perry and Smashing Pumpkins vocalist / guitarist Billy Corgan in the writing and recording . Love had written several songs , including an anti @-@ cocaine song titled " Loser Dust " , during her time in rehab in 2005 . She told Billboard : " My hand @-@ eye coordination was so bad [ after the drug use ] , I didn 't even know chords anymore . It was like my fingers were frozen . And I wasn 't allowed to make noise [ in rehab ] ... I never thought I would work again . " Some tracks and demos from the album ( initially planned for release in 2008 ) were leaked on the internet in 2006 , and a documentary entitled The Return of Courtney Love , detailing the making of the album , aired on the British television network in the fall of that year . A rough acoustic version of " Never Go Hungry Again " , recorded during an interview for The Times in November , was also released . Incomplete audio clips of the song " Samantha " , originating from an interview with NPR , were also distributed on the internet in 2007 .
In June 2009 , NME published an article detailing Love 's plan to reunite Hole and release a new album , Nobody 's Daughter . In response , former Hole guitarist Eric Erlandson stated in Spin magazine that contractually no reunion could take place without his involvement ; therefore Nobody 's Daughter would remain Love 's solo record , as opposed to a " Hole " record . Love responded to Erlandson 's comments in a Twitter post , claiming " he 's out of his mind , Hole is my band , my name , and my Trademark " . Nobody 's Daughter was released worldwide as a Hole album on April 27 , 2010 . For the new line @-@ up , Love recruited guitarist Micko Larkin , Shawn Dailey ( bass guitar ) , and Stu Fisher ( drums , percussion ) . Nobody 's Daughter featured material written and recorded for Love 's unfinished solo album , How Dirty Girls Get Clean , including " Pacific Coast Highway " , " Letter to God " , " Samantha " , and " Never Go Hungry " , although they were re @-@ produced in the studio with Larkin and engineer Michael Beinhorn . The album 's subject matter was largely centered on Love 's tumultuous life between 2003 and 2007 , and featured a polished folk @-@ rock sound , and featuring more acoustic guitar work than found on previous Hole albums .
The first single from Nobody 's Daughter was " Skinny Little Bitch " , released in promotion of the album in March 2010 . The album received mixed reviews . Robert Sheffield of Rolling Stone gave the album three out of five stars , saying that Love " worked hard on these songs , instead of just babbling a bunch of druggy bullshit and assuming people would buy it , the way she did on her 2004 flop , America 's Sweetheart . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine also gave the album three out of five stars , saying " It 's Marianne Faithfull 's substance @-@ ravaged voice that comes to mind most often while listening to songs like " Honey " and " For Once in Your Life . " The latter track is , in fact , one of Love 's most raw and vulnerable vocal performances to date ... the song offers a rare glimpse into the mind of a woman who , for the last 15 years , has been as famous for being a rock star as she 's been for being a victim . " Love and the band toured internationally from 2010 into late 2012 promoting the record , after which she dropped the Hole name and returned to a solo career .
= = = 2012 – present : Career expansion = = =
In May 2012 , Love debuted an art collection at Fred Torres Collaborations in New York titled " And She 's Not Even Pretty " , which contained over forty drawings and paintings by Love composed in ink , colored pencil , pastels , and watercolors . She then collaborated with Michael Stipe on the track " Rio Grande " for Johnny Depp 's sea shanty album Son of Rogues Gallery and also contributed guest vocals and co @-@ wrote a track on Fall Out Boy 's album , Save Rock and Roll ( 2013 ) .
After solo performances in December 2012 and January 2013 , Love appeared in advertisements for Yves Saint Laurent alongside Kim Gordon and Ariel Pink . Love completed a solo tour of North America in the summer of 2013 , which was purported to be in promotion of an upcoming solo album ; however , it was ultimately dubbed a " greatest hits " tour , and featured songs from Love 's and Hole 's back catalogue . Love told Billboard at the time that she had recorded eight songs in the studio . " [ These songs ] are not my usual ( style ) , " Love said . " I don 't have any Fleetwood Mac references on it . Usually I always have a Fleetwood Mac reference as well as having , like , Big Black references . These are very unique songs that sort of magically happened . "
On April 22 , 2014 , Love debuted the song " You Know My Name " on BBC Radio 6 to promote her tour of the United Kingdom . It was released as a double A @-@ side single with the song " Wedding Day " on May 4 , 2014 on her own label Cherry Forever Records via Kobalt Label Services . The tracks were produced by Michael Beinhorn , and feature Tommy Lee on drums . In an interview with the BBC , Love revealed that she and former Hole guitarist Eric Erlandson had reconciled , and had been rehearsing new material together , along with former bassist Melissa Auf der Maur and drummer Patty Schemel , though did not confirm a reunion of the band . On May 1 , 2014 , in an interview with Pitchfork , Love commented further on the possibility of Hole reuniting , saying : " I 'm not going to commit to it happening , because we want an element of surprise . There 's a lot of i 's to be dotted and t 's to be crossed . "
In 2014 , Love was cast in several television series in supporting parts , including the FX series Sons of Anarchy , Revenge , and in Lee Daniels ' network series Empire in a recurring guest role as Elle Dallas . The track " Walk Out on Me " featuring Love was included on the Empire : Original Soundtrack from Season 1 album , which debuted at number 1 on the Billboard 200 . Love 's contribution to the album was critically acclaimed . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian praised the track , saying : " The idea of Courtney Love singing a ballad with a group of gospel singers seems faintly terrifying ... the reality is brilliant . Love ’ s voice fits the careworn lyrics , effortlessly summoning the kind of ravaged darkness that Lana Del Rey nearly ruptures herself trying to conjure up . "
In addition to television acting , Love collaborated with theater producer Todd Almond , starring in Kansas City Choir Boy , a collaborative " pop opera " which showed at the Manhattan arts center Here during their annual Prototype festival in January 2015 . The show toured later in the year , with performances in Boston and Los Angeles .
In the spring of 2015 , Love joined Lana Del Rey on her Endless Summer Tour , performing as an opener on the tour 's eight west coast shows . During her tenure on Del Rey 's tour , Love debuted a new single , " Miss Narcissist , " released on Wavves ' independent label Ghost Ramp . She also was cast in a supporting role in James Franco 's film The Long Home , based on William Gay 's novel of the same name , marking her first film role in over ten years . In January 2016 , Love released a clothing line in collaboration with Sophia Amoruso titled " Love , Courtney , " featuring eighteen pieces reflecting Love 's style over the course of her career . In May 2016 , it was announced that Love was cast in a lead role in The Possibility of Fireflies , an adaptation of the novel by Dominique Paul , directed by Deborah Chow .
= = Musical style = =
= = = Songwriting and lyrics = = =
Spin 's October 1991 review of Hole 's first album noted Love 's layering of harsh and abrasive riffs buried more sophisticated musical arrangements . In 1998 , Love stated that Hole had " always been a pop band . We always had a subtext of pop . I always talked about it , if you go back ... what 'll sound like some weird Sonic Youth tuning back then to you was sounding like the Raspberries to me , in my demented pop framework " .
Love writes from a female 's point of view , and her lyrics have been described as " literate and mordant " and noted by scholars for " articulating a third @-@ wave feminist consciousness . " She has repeatedly stated that lyrics are the most important component of songwriting for her , saying : " I want it to look just as good on the page as it would if it was in a poetry book " . A great deal of her songwriting has been diaristic in nature . Common themes present in Love 's songs during her early career included body image , rape , suicide , conformity , elitism , pregnancy , prostitution , and death . In a 1991 interview with Everett True , Love said : " I try to place [ beautiful imagery ] next to fucked up imagery , because that 's how I view things ... I sometimes feel that no one 's taken the time to write about certain things in rock , that there 's a certain female point of view that 's never been given space " . Her later work was more lyrically introspective . Celebrity Skin and America 's Sweetheart deal with celebrity life , Hollywood , and drug addiction , while continuing Love 's interest in vanity and body image . Nobody 's Daughter was lyrically reflective of Love 's past relationships and her struggle to sobriety , with the majority of its lyrics written while she was in rehab in 2006 . Poetry has often been a major influence on her writing ; Love said she had " always wanted to be a poet , but there was no money in it . " She has named the works of T.S. Eliot and Charles Baudelaire as influential .
= = = Voice and instruments = = =
Love possesses a contralto vocal range , and her vocal style has been described as " raw and distinctive . " She has referred to herself as " a shit guitar player " , further commenting : " I can write a song , but I have trouble with the execution of it " . According to Love , she never wanted to be a singer , but rather aspired to be a skilled guitarist : " I 'm such a lazy bastard though that I never did that " , Love said . " I was always the only person with the nerve to sing , and so I got stuck with it " . She has been regularly noted by critics for her husky vocals as well as her " banshee [ -like ] " screaming abilities . Her vocals have been compared to those of Johnny Rotten , and David Fricke of Rolling Stone described them as " lung @-@ busting " and " a corrosive , lunatic wail " . Upon the release of Hole 's 2010 album , Nobody 's Daughter , Amanda Petrusich of Pitchfork compared Love 's raspy , unpolished vocals to those of Bob Dylan .
Love has often played Fender guitars throughout her career , including a Jaguar and a vintage 1965 Jazzmaster , the latter of which was purchased by the Hard Rock Cafe and is on display in New York City . Love is seen playing her Jazzmaster in the music video for " Miss World . " Earlier in Hole 's career , between 1989 and 1991 , Love primarily played a Rickenbacker 425 because she " preferred the 3 / 4 neck " , but she destroyed the guitar onstage at a 1991 concert opening for The Smashing Pumpkins . She also often played a guitar made by Mercury , an obscure company that manufactured custom guitars , which she purchased in 1992 . Fender 's Vista Venus , designed by Love in 1998 , was partially inspired by Rickenbacker guitars as well as her Mercury . Love 's setup has included Fender tube gear , Matchless , Ampeg , Silvertone and a solid @-@ state 1976 Randall Commander . During her 2010 and more recent tours , Love has played a Rickenbacker 360 onstage .
= = = Influences = = =
Love has been candid about her diverse musical influences , the earliest being Patti Smith and the Pretenders , whom she discovered while in juvenile hall . As a teenager , she named Flipper , Kate Bush , Soft Cell , Joni Mitchell , Lou Reed , and Dead Kennedys among her favorite artists , as well as several new wave and post @-@ punk bands , such as Echo and the Bunnymen , The Smiths , Siouxsie and the Banshees , Television , Bauhaus , and Joy Division . While in Ireland at age fifteen , she saw The Virgin Prunes perform live in Dublin , and said the experience " framed her [ music career ] . " Her varying genre interests were illustrated in a 1991 interview with Flipside , in which she stated : " There 's a part of me that wants to have a grindcore band and another that wants to have a Raspberries @-@ type pop band " . Love also embraced the influence of experimental artists and punk rock groups , including Sonic Youth , Swans , Big Black , Diamanda Galás , the Germs , and The Stooges . While writing Celebrity Skin , Love was mainly influenced by Neil Young and My Bloody Valentine . She also cited her contemporary PJ Harvey as an influence , saying , " The one rock star that makes me know I 'm shit is Polly Harvey . I 'm nothing next to the purity that she experiences . "
= = Personal life = =
= = = Relationships and marriages = = =
She was briefly married to James Moreland ( vocalist of The Leaving Trains ) in 1989 for several months , but has said that Moreland was a transvestite and that their marriage was " a joke " , ending in an annulment filed by Love . After forming Hole in 1989 , Love and bandmate Eric Erlandson had a romantic relationship for over a year , and she also briefly dated Billy Corgan in 1991 , with whom she has maintained a volatile friendship over the years .
Her most documented romantic relationship was with Kurt Cobain . It is uncertain when they first met ; according to Love , she first met Cobain at a Dharma Bums show in Portland where she was doing a spoken word performance . According to Michael Azerrad , the two met at the Satyricon nightclub in Portland in 1989 , though Cobain biographer Charles Cross stated the date was actually February 12 , 1990 , and that Cobain playfully wrestled Love to the floor after she commented to him in passing that he looked like Dave Pirner of Soul Asylum . Love 's bandmate Eric Erlandson stated that both he and Love were formally introduced to Cobain in a parking lot after a Butthole Surfers concert at the Hollywood Palladium in 1991 . The two later became reacquainted through Jennifer Finch , one of Love 's longtime friends and former bandmates .
Love and Cobain began dating in the fall of 1991 , and were married on Waikiki Beach in Honolulu , Hawaii , on February 24 , 1992 . Love wore a satin and lace dress once owned by actress Frances Farmer , and Cobain wore green pajamas . Six months later , on August 18 , the couple 's only child , a daughter , Frances Bean Cobain , was born . In April 1994 , Cobain died of a self @-@ inflicted gunshot wound in their Seattle home while Love was in rehab in Los Angeles . During their marriage , and after Cobain 's death , Love became something of a hate @-@ figure among some of Cobain 's fans . In reflecting on their relationship , Love said : " I think that it looked like it was headed for doom , but it didn 't feel like it was headed for doom on a daily basis . We went mountain biking ; we would go camping . We were damn normal . " After his cremation , Love divided portions of Cobain 's ashes , some of which she kept in a teddy bear and in an urn . Another portion of his ashes was taken by Love to the Namgyal Buddhist Monastery in Ithaca , New York in 1994 , where they were ceremonially blessed by Buddhist monks and mixed into clay which was made into memorial sculptures .
Between 1996 and 1999 , Love dated her The People vs. Larry Flynt co @-@ star Edward Norton , and was also linked to comedian Steve Coogan in the early 2000s .
= = = Health = = =
Love has struggled with substance abuse problems throughout her life . She took numerous opiates in her early adult years , and tried cocaine at age 19 . She became addicted to heroin in the early 1990s , and her addiction was thrust into media spotlight in 1992 when Vanity Fair published an article by journalist Lynn Hirschberg which stated that Love was addicted to heroin during her pregnancy ; this resulted in the custody of Love and Cobain 's newborn daughter , Frances , being temporarily withdrawn in a Los Angeles County court and placed with Love 's sister . Love claimed she was misquoted in the piece , and asserted that she had immediately quit using the drug during her first trimester after she discovered she was pregnant .
Love quit using heroin in 1996 at the insistence of director Miloš Forman when she was cast in a leading role in The People vs. Larry Flynt . Love was ordered to take multiple urine tests under the supervision of Columbia Pictures while filming the movie , and passed all of them . On July 9 , 2004 , Love 's 40th birthday , she attempted to commit suicide at her Manhattan apartment , and was taken to Bellevue Hospital , allegedly incoherent , and put on a 72 @-@ hour watch . According to police , she was believed to be a potential " danger to herself , " but was deemed mentally sound and released to a rehab facility two days later . In 2005 and 2006 , after making several public appearances clearly intoxicated ( namely on the Late Show with David Letterman and the Comedy Central Roast of Pamela Anderson ) and suffering drug @-@ related arrests and probation violations , Love was sentenced to six months in lockdown rehab due to struggles with prescription drugs and cocaine . She has stated she has been sober since 2007 , and in May 2011 , confirmed her sobriety .
= = = Legal troubles = = =
Love 's legal troubles have been widely publicized throughout her career . On July 4 , 1995 , at the Lollapalooza Festival in George , Washington , Love punched musician Kathleen Hanna in the face after alleging she had made a joke about her daughter . Love was charged with assault , to which she pleaded guilty , and was sentenced to anger management classes . The same year , she was arrested in Melbourne after disrupting a Qantas Airlines flight after getting into an argument with a stewardess . In 1998 , Love punched Los Angeles Times journalist Belissa Cohen in the face after she attempted to take a photo of her at a party , though the suit was settled out of court for an undisclosed sum .
Several years later , in February 2003 , Love was banned from Virgin Airlines by founder Richard Branson after being arrested at Heathrow Airport for disrupting a flight . The same year , in October , in the midst of what Love would later admit was a serious cocaine and prescription drug addiction , she was arrested in Los Angeles after breaking several windows of her producer and then @-@ boyfriend James Barber 's home , and was charged with being under the influence of a controlled substance . The ordeal resulted in custody of daughter Frances Bean being withdrawn from Love . In 2004 , Love was arrested in New York City for allegedly striking a fan with a microphone stand at a concert .
In 2009 , fashion designer Dawn Simorangkir brought a libel suit against Love concerning a defamatory post Love made on her Twitter account , which was settled for $ 450 @,@ 000 . Six years later , Simorangkir filed another lawsuit against Love for further defamatory Twitter posts , and Love paid a further $ 350 @,@ 000 in recompense . A similar suit was brought against Love by her former attorney Rhonda Holmes in 2014 , who also accused Love of online defamation , seeking $ 8 million in damages . It was the first case of alleged Twitter @-@ based libel in U.S. history to make it to trial . The jury , however , found in Love 's favor .
On June 17 , 2015 , Deadline.com reported that Courtney Love , Kurt Cobain 's widow , had sent cease and desist letters against theaters showing Soaked in Bleach claiming , “ A false accusation of criminal behavior is defamatory … which entitles Ms. Cobain to both actual and presumed damages " . The letter also states " We hereby demand again that you immediately cease any and all plans for exhibition or promotion of the Film . If we do not hear from you within five days , we are required to immediately pursue all available civil legal remedies on behalf of our client against you . " To date no lawsuit has been filed on Ms. Cobain 's behalf . The producers of the film responded to the letters by — in part — stating , “ Courtney Love ’ s uninformed accusations and efforts to discredit the film are totally off base . Courtney Love and her lawyers clearly don ’ t like that the film presents a compelling case for re @-@ opening the investigation into Kurt ’ s death . They should respect the First Amendment and let people decide for themselves . ”
= = = Religious and political views = = =
Love has practiced several religions , including Catholicism , Episcopalianism and New Age religions , but has said that Buddhism is the " most transcendent " path for her . She has studied and practiced both Tibetan and Nichiren Buddhism since 1989 , and is a member of the Soka Gakkai International , a global lay Buddhist organization .
Love is a Democrat . In 2000 , she gave a speech at the Million Mom March to advocate stricter gun control laws in the United States , calling the country 's gun laws " nihilistic and barbaric " , and urging stringent registration of guns , licensing of gun owners , and thorough evaluation of legal and mental health records . In 2016 , Love endorsed Hillary Clinton 's presidential campaign .
In 2000 , Love also publicly advocated for reform of the record industry in a personal letter published by Salon . In the letter , Love stated : " It 's not piracy when kids swap music over the Internet using Napster or Gnutella or Freenet or iMesh or beaming their CDs into a My.MP3.com or MyPlay.com music locker . It 's piracy when those guys that run those companies make side deals with the cartel lawyers and label heads so that they can be " the labels ' friend , " and not the artists . " In a subsequent interview with Carrie Fisher , Love divulged that she was interested in starting a union for recording artists , and also discussed race relations in the music industry , advocating for record companies to " put money back into the black community [ whom ] white people have been stealing from for years . " She also cited Limp Bizkit 's Fred Durst as an example of " a white guy [ getting ] to express a black man 's rage with all the privileges of [ being ] a white guy . " Love has also consistently advocated for LGBT rights , and identifies as a feminist .
= = Philanthropy = =
In 1993 , Love and husband Kurt Cobain performed an acoustic set together at the Rock Against Rape benefit in Los Angeles , which raised awareness and provided resources for victims of sexual abuse . Love has also contributed to amfAR 's AIDS research benefits and held live musical performances at their events . In 2009 , Love performed a benefit concert for the RED Campaign at Carnegie Hall alongside Laurie Anderson , Rufus Wainwright , and Scarlett Johansson , with proceeds going to AIDS research . In May 2011 , she attended Mariska Hargitay 's Joyful Heart Foundation event for victims of child abuse , rape , and domestic violence , donating six of husband Kurt Cobain 's personal vinyl records for auction .
Love has also participated with LGBT youth charities , specifically with the Los Angeles Gay and Lesbian Center , where she has taken part in performances at the center 's " An Evening with Women " events . The proceeds of the event help provide food and shelter for homeless youth ; services for seniors ; legal assistance ; domestic violence services ; health and mental health services , and cultural arts programs . Love participated with Linda Perry for the event again in 2012 , relating her experiences as a nomadic teenager and having to live on the street :
This really resonates with me , [ because ] I was a kid from Oregon , and I came to Hollywood like a lot of people do , and you know , what happens is that we end up on the street ... and if you 're gay , or lesbian , or transgendered — the more " outside " you are , the more screwed you are in a lot of ways ... Seven thousand kids in Los Angeles a year go out on the street , and forty percent of those kids are gay , lesbian , or transgendered . They come out to their parents , and become homeless . [ The charity helps them ] get sent to the right foster care , they can get medical help , food , clothing ... and for whatever reason , I don 't really know why , but gay men have a lot of foundations , I 've played many of them — but the lesbian side of it doesn 't have as much money and / or donors , so we 're excited that this has grown to cover women and women 's affairs .
= = Cultural impact = =
Love had a significant impact on female @-@ fronted alternative acts and performers , particularly the Riot grrrl movement , with Hole 's first album , Pretty on the Inside . She has been cited as particularly influential to young female instrumentalists , once infamously proclaiming : " I want every girl in the world to pick up a guitar and start screaming . " " I strap on that motherfucking guitar and you cannot fuck with me . That 's my feeling , " she said . In The Electric Guitar : A History of an American Icon , it is noted that ,
" [ Love ] truly lived up to Paul Westerberg 's ( The Replacements ) assessment of pretty girls ' playing makeup / wearing guitar ' ... She frequently stood on stage , microphone in hand and foot on monitor , and simply let her Fender guitar dangle around her neck . She truly embodied the empowerment that came with playing the electric guitar ... Love depended heavily upon her male lead guitar foil Eric Erlandson , but the rest of her band remained exclusively female throughout several lineup changes . "
Time deemed Hole 's Live Through This to be supplemented by " primal guitar riffs and high @-@ IQ lyrics . " Having sold over 3 million records in the United States alone , Hole became one of the most successful rock bands of all time fronted by a woman . In 2015 , the Phoenix New Times declared Love the number one greatest female rock star of all time , saying : " To build a perfect rock star , there are several crucial ingredients : musical talent , physical attractiveness , tumultuous relationships , substance abuse , and public meltdowns , just to name a few . These days , Love seems to have rebounded from her epic tailspin and has leveled out in a slightly more normal manner , but there 's no doubt that her life to date is the type of story people wouldn 't believe in a novel or a movie . " Simon Castles of The Sydney Morning Herald commented on Love 's cultural status and media ridicule , writing : " [ She ] has been painted as part grunge Baby Jane , part Yoko Ono for Generation X , and part Lady Macbeth ... what Courtney Love did do was live wild . She took drugs and trusted others could look after themselves . She flirted with self @-@ destruction . She got into fights . She burned with ambition . She flaunted her sexuality and was upfront with her desire . "
Among the alternative musicians who have cited Love as an influence are : Scout Niblett ; Brody Dalle of The Distillers ; Dee Dee Penny of Dum Dum Girls ; and Nine Black Alps . Contemporary female pop artists Lana Del Rey , Avril Lavigne , Tove Lo , and Sky Ferreira have also cited Love as an influence . Love has frequently been recognized as the most high @-@ profile contributor of feminist music during the 1990s , and for " subverting [ the ] mainstream expectations of how a woman should look , act , and sound . " According to music journalist Maria Raha , " Whether you love Courtney [ Love ] or hate her , Hole was the highest @-@ profile female @-@ fronted band of the ' 90s to openly and directly sing about feminism . " She has also been noted as a gay icon since the mid @-@ 1990s , and has jokingly referred to her fanbase as consisting of " females , gay guys , and a few advanced , evolved heterosexual men " .
Love 's aesthetic image , particularly in the early 1990s , also became influential , and was dubbed " kinderwhore " by critics and media . The subversive fashion mainly consisted of thrift shop babydoll dresses accompanied by smeared makeup and red lipstick ; MTV reporter Kurt Loder described Love as looking like " a debauched rag doll " onstage . Love later said she had been influenced by the fashion of Chrissy Amphlett of the Divinyls .
The artist Barbara Kruger used one of Love 's quotes on her NYC bus project . Indie pop punk band The Muffs named their second album , Blonder and Blonder ( 1995 ) after a quote by Love , and a recording of Love talking about a stolen dress appears as the track " Love " on the band 's 2000 compilation album Hamburger . There is also a band named after her .
= = Discography = =
Hole
Pretty on the Inside ( 1991 )
Live Through This ( 1994 )
Celebrity Skin ( 1998 )
Nobody 's Daughter ( 2010 )
Courtney Love
America 's Sweetheart ( 2004 )
= = Filmography = =
= Jupiter trojan =
The Jupiter trojans , commonly called Trojan asteroids or just Trojans , are a large group of asteroids that share the orbit of the planet Jupiter around the Sun . Relative to Jupiter , each trojan librates around one of Jupiter 's two stable Lagrangian points , L4 , lying 60 ° ahead of the planet in its orbit , and L5 , 60 ° behind . Jupiter trojans are distributed in two elongated , curved regions around these Lagrangian points with an average semi @-@ major axis of about 5 @.@ 2 AU .
The first Jupiter trojan discovered , 588 Achilles , was spotted in 1906 by German astronomer Max Wolf . A total of 6 @,@ 178 Jupiter trojans have been found as of January 2015 . By convention they are each named after a mythological figure from the Trojan War , hence the name " Trojan " . The total number of Jupiter trojans larger than 1 km in diameter is believed to be about 1 million , approximately equal to the number of asteroids larger than 1 km in the asteroid belt . Like main @-@ belt asteroids , Jupiter trojans form families .
Jupiter trojans are dark bodies with reddish , featureless spectra . No firm evidence of the presence of water , or any other specific compound on their surface has been obtained , but it is thought that they are coated in tholins , organic polymers formed by the Sun 's radiation . The Jupiter trojans ' densities ( as measured by studying binaries or rotational lightcurves ) vary from 0 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 5 g · cm − 3 . Jupiter trojans are thought to have been captured into their orbits during the early stages of the Solar System 's formation or slightly later , during the migration of giant planets .
The term " trojan " has come to be used more generally to refer to other small Solar System bodies with similar relationships to larger bodies : for example , there are both Mars trojans and Neptune trojans , and Saturn has trojan moons . NASA has announced the discovery of an Earth trojan . The term " Trojan asteroid " is normally understood to specifically mean the Jupiter trojans because the first Trojans were discovered near Jupiter 's orbit and Jupiter currently has by far the most known Trojans .
= = Observational history = =
In 1772 , Italian @-@ born mathematician Joseph @-@ Louis Lagrange , in studying the restricted three @-@ body problem , predicted that a small body sharing an orbit with a planet but lying 60 ° ahead or behind it will be trapped near these points . The trapped body will librate slowly around the point of equilibrium in a tadpole or horseshoe orbit . These leading and trailing points are called the L4 and L5 Lagrange points . However , no asteroids trapped in Lagrange points were observed until more than a century after Lagrange 's hypothesis . Those associated with Jupiter were the first to be discovered .
E. E. Barnard made the first recorded observation of a trojan , ( 12126 ) 1999 RM11 ( identified as A904 RD at the time ) , in 1904 , but neither he nor others appreciated its significance at the time . Barnard believed he saw the recently discovered Saturnian satellite Phoebe , which was only two arc @-@ minutes away in the sky at the time , or possibly an asteroid . The object 's identity was not realized until its orbit was calculated in 1999 .
The first recognized discovery of a trojan occurred in February 1906 , when astronomer Max Wolf of Heidelberg @-@ Königstuhl State Observatory discovered an asteroid at the L4 Lagrangian point of the Sun – Jupiter system , later named 588 Achilles . In 1906 – 1907 two more Jupiter trojans were found by fellow German astronomer August Kopff ( 624 Hektor and 617 Patroclus ) . Hektor , like Achilles , belonged to the L4 swarm ( " ahead " of the planet in its orbit ) , whereas Patroclus was the first asteroid known to reside at the L5 Lagrangian point ( " behind " the planet ) . By 1938 , 11 Jupiter trojans had been detected . This number increased to 14 only in 1961 . As instruments improved , the rate of discovery grew rapidly : by January 2000 , a total of 257 had been discovered ; by May 2003 , the number had grown to 1 @,@ 600 . As of February 2014 there are 3 @,@ 898 known Jupiter trojans at L4 and 2 @,@ 049 at L5,
= = Nomenclature = =
The custom of naming all asteroids in Jupiter 's L4 and L5 points after famous heroes of the Trojan War was suggested by Johann Palisa of Vienna , who was the first to accurately calculate their orbits . Asteroids in the L4 group are named after Greek heroes ( the " Greek node or camp " or " Achilles group " ) , and those at the L5 point are named after the heroes of Troy ( the " Trojan node or camp " ) . Confusingly , 617 Patroclus was named before the Greece / Troy rule was devised , and a Greek name thus appears in the Trojan node . The Greek node also has one " misplaced " asteroid , 624 Hektor , named after a Trojan hero .
= = Numbers and mass = =
Estimates of the total number of Jupiter trojans are based on deep surveys of limited areas of the sky . The L4 swarm is believed to hold between 160 – 240 @,@ 000 asteroids with diameters larger than 2 km and about 600 @,@ 000 with diameters larger than 1 km . If the L5 swarm contains a comparable number of objects , there are more than 1 million Jupiter trojans 1 km in size or larger . For the objects brighter than absolute magnitude 9 @.@ 0 the population is probably complete . These numbers are similar to that of comparable asteroids in the asteroid belt . The total mass of the Jupiter trojans is estimated at 0 @.@ 0001 of the mass of Earth or one @-@ fifth of the mass of the asteroid belt .
Two more recent studies indicate , however , that the above numbers may overestimate the number of Jupiter trojans by several @-@ fold . This overestimate is caused by ( 1 ) the assumption that all Jupiter trojans have a low albedo of about 0 @.@ 04 , whereas small bodies may actually have an average albedo as high as 0 @.@ 12 ; ( 2 ) an incorrect assumption about the distribution of Jupiter trojans in the sky . According to the new estimates , the total number of Jupiter trojans with a diameter larger than 2 km is 6 @.@ 3 ± 1 @.@ 0 × 104 and 3 @.@ 4 ± 0 @.@ 5 × 104 in the L4 and L5 swarms , respectively . These numbers would be reduced by a factor of 2 if small Jupiter trojans are more reflective than large ones .
The number of Jupiter trojans observed in the L4 swarm is slightly larger than that observed in L5 . However , because the brightest Jupiter trojans show little variation in numbers between the two populations , this disparity is probably due to observational bias . However , some models indicate that the L4 swarm may be slightly more stable than the L5 swarm .
The largest Jupiter trojan is 624 Hektor , which has an average diameter of 203 ± 3 @.@ 6 km . There are few large Jupiter trojans in comparison to the overall population . With decreasing size , the number of Jupiter trojans grows very quickly down to 84 km , much more so than in the asteroid belt . A diameter of 84 km corresponds to an absolute magnitude of 9 @.@ 5 , assuming an albedo of 0 @.@ 04 . Within the 4 @.@ 4 – 40 km range the Jupiter trojans ' size distribution resembles that of the main @-@ belt asteroids . An absence of data means that nothing is known about the masses of the smaller Jupiter trojans . The size distribution suggests that the smaller Trojans are the products of collisions by larger Jupiter trojans .
= = Orbits = =
Jupiter Trojans have orbits with radii between 5 @.@ 05 and 5 @.@ 35 AU ( the mean semi @-@ major axis is 5 @.@ 2 ± 0 @.@ 15 AU ) , and are distributed throughout elongated , curved regions around the two Lagrangian points ; each swarm stretches for about 26 ° along the orbit of Jupiter , amounting to a total distance of about 2 @.@ 5 AU . The width of the swarms approximately equals two Hill 's radii , which in the case of Jupiter amounts to about 0 @.@ 6 AU . Many of Jupiter trojans have large orbital inclinations relative to Jupiter 's orbital plane — up to 40 ° .
Jupiter trojans do not maintain a fixed separation from Jupiter . They slowly librate around their respective equilibrium points , periodically moving closer to Jupiter or farther from it . Jupiter trojans generally follow paths called tadpole orbits around the Lagrangian points ; the average period of their libration is about 150 years . The amplitude of the libration ( along the Jovian orbit ) varies from 0 @.@ 6 ° to 88 ° , with the average being about 33 ° . Simulations show that Jupiter trojans can follow even more complicated trajectories when moving from one Lagrangian point to another — these are called horseshoe orbits ( currently no Jupiter Trojan with such an orbit is known ) .
= = = Dynamical families and binaries = = =
Discerning dynamical families within the Jupiter Trojan population is more difficult than it is in the asteroid belt , because the Jupiter trojans are locked within a far narrower range of possible positions . This means that clusters tend to overlap and merge with the overall swarm . However , by 2003 roughly a dozen dynamical families were identified . Jupiter @-@ trojan families are much smaller in size than families in the asteroid belt ; the largest identified family , the Menelaus group , consists of only eight members .
In 2001 , 617 Patroclus was the first Jupiter Trojan to be identified as a binary asteroid . The binary 's orbit is extremely close , at 650 km , compared to 35 @,@ 000 km for the primary 's Hill sphere . The largest Jupiter Trojan — 624 Hektor — likely is a contact binary with a moonlet .
= = Physical properties = =
Jupiter trojans are dark bodies of irregular shape . Their geometric albedos generally vary between 3 and 10 % . The average value is 0 @.@ 056 ± 0 @.@ 003 for the objects larger than 57 km , and 0 @.@ 121 ± 0 @.@ 003 ( R @-@ band ) for those smaller than 25 km . The asteroid 4709 Ennomos has the highest albedo ( 0 @.@ 18 ) of all known Jupiter trojans . Little is known about the masses , chemical composition , rotation or other physical properties of the Jupiter trojans .
= = = Rotation = = =
The rotational properties of Jupiter trojans are not well known . Analysis of the rotational light curves of 72 Jupiter trojans gave an average rotational period of about 11 @.@ 2 hours , whereas the average period of the control sample of asteroids in the asteroid belt was 10 @.@ 6 hours . The distribution of the rotational periods of Jupiter trojans appeared to be well approximated by a Maxwellian function , whereas the distribution for main @-@ belt asteroids was found to be non @-@ Maxwellian , with a deficit of periods in the range 8 – 10 hours . The Maxwellian distribution of the rotational periods of Jupiter trojans may indicate that they have undergone a stronger collisional evolution compared to the asteroid belt .
However , in 2008 a team from Calvin College analyzed the light curves of a debiased sample of ten Jupiter trojans , and found a median spin period of 18 @.@ 9 hours . This value was significantly higher than that for main @-@ belt asteroids of similar size ( 11 @.@ 5 hours ) . The difference could mean that the Jupiter trojans possess a lower average density , which may imply that they formed in the Kuiper belt ( see below ) .
= = = Composition = = =
Spectroscopically , the Jupiter trojans mostly are D @-@ type asteroids , which predominate in the outer regions of the asteroid belt . A small number are classified as P or C @-@ type asteroids . Their spectra are red ( meaning that they reflect more light at longer wavelengths ) or neutral and featureless . No firm evidence of water , organics or other chemical compounds has been obtained as of 2007 . However , 4709 Ennomos has an albedo slightly higher than the Jupiter @-@ trojan average , which may indicate the presence of water ice . In addition , a number of other Jupiter Trojans , such as 911 Agamemnon and 617 Patroclus , have shown very weak absorptions at 1 @.@ 7 and 2 @.@ 3 μm , which might indicate the presence of organics . The Jupiter trojans ' spectra are similar to those of the irregular moons of Jupiter and , to certain extent , comet nuclei , though Jupiter trojans are spectrally very different from the redder Kuiper belt objects . A Jupiter trojan 's spectrum can be matched to a mixture of water ice , a large amount of carbon @-@ rich material ( charcoal ) , and possibly magnesium @-@ rich silicates . The composition of the Jupiter trojan population appears to be markedly uniform , with little or no differentiation between the two swarms .
A team from the Keck Observatory in Hawaii announced in 2006 that it had measured the density of the binary Jupiter trojan 617 Patroclus as being less than that of water ice ( 0 @.@ 8 g / cm3 ) , suggesting that the pair , and possibly many other Trojan objects , more closely resemble comets or Kuiper belt objects in composition — water ice with a layer of dust — than they do the main @-@ belt asteroids . Countering this argument , the density of Hektor as determined from its rotational lightcurve ( 2 @.@ 480 g / cm3 ) is significantly higher than that of 617 Patroclus . Such a difference in densities is puzzling and indicates that density may not be a good indicator of asteroid origin .
= = Origin and evolution = =
Two main theories have emerged to explain the formation and evolution of the Jupiter trojans . The first suggests that the Jupiter trojans formed in the same part of the Solar System as Jupiter and entered their orbits while it was forming . The last stage of Jupiter 's formation involved runaway growth of its mass through the accretion of large amounts of hydrogen and helium from the protoplanetary disk ; during this growth , which lasted for only about 10 @,@ 000 years , the mass of Jupiter increased by a factor of ten . The planetesimals that had approximately the same orbits as Jupiter were caught by the increased gravity of the planet . The capture mechanism was very efficient — about 50 % of all remaining planetesimals were trapped . This hypothesis has two major problems : the number of trapped bodies exceeds the observed population of Jupiter trojans by four orders of magnitude , and the present Jupiter trojan asteroids have larger orbital inclinations than are predicted by the capture model . However , simulations of this scenario show that such a mode of formation also would inhibit the creation of similar trojans for Saturn , and this has been borne out by observation : to date no trojans have been found near Saturn .
The second theory , part of the Nice model , proposes that the Jupiter trojans were captured during planetary migration , which happened about 500 – 600 million years after the Solar System 's formation . The migration was triggered by the passage of Jupiter and Saturn through the 1 : 2 mean @-@ motion resonance . During this period Uranus , Neptune and to some extent Saturn moved outward , whereas Jupiter moved slightly inward . Migrating giant planets destabilized the primordial Kuiper belt , throwing millions of objects into the inner Solar System . In addition , their combined gravitational influence would have quickly disturbed any pre @-@ existing Jupiter trojans . In this theory , the present Jupiter trojan population eventually accumulated from runaway Kuiper belt objects as Jupiter and Saturn moved away from the resonance .
The long @-@ term future of the Jupiter trojans is open to question , because multiple weak resonances with Jupiter and Saturn cause them to behave chaotically over time . In addition , collisional shattering slowly depletes the Jupiter trojan population as fragments are ejected . Ejected Jupiter trojans could become temporary satellites of Jupiter or Jupiter @-@ family comets . Simulations show that the orbits of up to 17 % of Jupiter trojans are unstable over the age of the Solar System . Levison et al. believe that roughly 200 ejected Jupiter trojans greater than 1 km in diameter might be traveling the Solar System , with a few possibly on Earth @-@ crossing orbits . Some of the escaped Jupiter trojans may become Jupiter @-@ family comets as they approach the Sun and their surface ice begins evaporating .
= Kulintang =
Kulintang is a modern term for an ancient instrumental form of music composed on a row of small , horizontally laid gongs that function melodically , accompanied by larger , suspended gongs and drums . As part of the larger gong @-@ chime
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of Brendan Filone and the mock execution of Chris Moltisanti , Tony 's uncle Corrado " Junior " Soprano is installed as boss of the family ( following the death of previous boss Jackie Aprile , Sr. from cancer ) , even though Tony actually controls most things from behind the scenes . Furious at Corrado 's plan to have him killed , Tony responds to the attempt on his life with a violent reprisal , and confronts his mother for her role in plotting his downfall ; she appears to have a psychologically @-@ triggered stroke . " Junior " is arrested by the FBI on non @-@ related charges .
= = = Season 2 = = =
Jackie 's brother Richie Aprile is released from prison at the beginning of the second season , and proves to be uncontrollable in the business arena ; he also starts a relationship with Tony 's sister Janice , who has arrived from Seattle . Tony 's friend " Big Pussy " returns to New Jersey after a conspicuous absence .
Christopher Moltisanti becomes engaged to his girlfriend Adriana La Cerva . Matthew Bevilaqua and Sean Gismonte , two low @-@ level associates dissatisfied with their perceived lack of success in the Soprano crew , try to make a name for themselves by attempting to kill Christopher . Their plan backfires ; Christopher kills Sean and , though critically wounded , survives their attack . Tony and Big Pussy locate Matthew and assassinate him . However , a witness goes to the FBI and identifies Tony .
Junior is placed under house arrest as he awaits trial . Richie , frustrated with Tony 's authority over him , entreats Junior to have Tony killed . Junior feigns interest , then informs Tony of Richie 's intentions , leaving Tony with another problem to address . However , the situation is defused unexpectedly when Janice kills Richie in a violent argument ; Tony and his men conceal all evidence of the murder , and Janice returns to Seattle .
Tony , realizing Big Pussy is an FBI informant , murders him on board a boat ( with assistance from Silvio Dante and Paulie Gualtieri ) , then wraps his corpse in chains and throws it overboard .
= = = Season 3 = = =
Following the " disappearance " of Aprile crew capo Richie Aprile , the return of the ambitious Ralph Cifaretto , having spent an extended period of leisure time in Miami , marks the third season . He renews a relationship with Rosalie Aprile , the widow of the deceased acting boss Jackie Aprile , Sr. , and former capo of the Aprile crew , which bears his name . With Richie assumed to have joined the Witness Protection Program , Ralph unofficially usurps control over the Aprile crew , proving to be an exceptionally dexterous earner for the crew . While Ralph 's competitive merit would seemingly have him next in line to ascend to capo , his insubordination inclines Tony not to promote him and instead gives the promotion to the unqualified , but complacent , Gigi Cestone , causing much resentment and tension between him and Ralph . Livia dies of a stroke .
Jackie Aprile , Jr. becomes involved with Meadow and then descends into a downward spiral of recklessness , drugs and crime . Tony initially attempts to act as a mentor to Jackie but becomes increasingly impatient with his escalating misbehavior , particularly as Jackie 's relationship with Meadow begins to become serious . Inspired by a story from Ralph about how Tony , Jackie Sr. , and Silvio Dante got made , Jackie and his friends Dino Zerilli and Carlo Renzi make a similar move and attempt to rob Eugene Pontecorvo 's Saturday night card game , so they can gain recognition from the family , possibly getting them respected and made as well . The plan takes a turn for the worse when Jackie panics due to the heckling of the card dealer " Sunshine " and shoots him to death . Dino and Carlo are killed during the robbery , but Jackie manages to escape . Tony decides to give Ralph the decision regarding Jackie Jr . ' s punishment . Despite his role as a surrogate father , Ralph decides to have Jackie Jr. killed .
Ralph ultimately crosses the line when , in a cocaine @-@ induced rage , he gets into a confrontation with girlfriend Tracee and beats her to death . She may have been pregnant with his child at the time . This infuriates Tony to the point where he violates traditional mafia code by striking him repeatedly in front of the entire family . Bad blood temporarily surfaces between the two but is shortly resolved after Gigi Cestone dies of an aneurysm , thereby forcing Tony to reluctantly promote Ralph to capo .
Tony begins an affair with Gloria Trillo , who is also a patient of Dr. Melfi . Their relationship is brief and tumultuous . Meanwhile , Dr. Melfi is raped . Junior is diagnosed with stomach cancer ; following chemotherapy , it goes into remission . A.J. continues to get in trouble at school — despite success on the football team — which culminates in his expulsion .
= = = Season 4 = = =
Tony and Christopher stake out the retirement party of Detective Lieutenant Barry Haydu , the man who murdered Christopher 's father . Tony gives Christopher Haydu 's address . When Christopher asks why he had been allowed to live all these years , Tony says that he had been valuable , but that he has outlived his worth . Christopher waits inside Haydu 's home and ambushes him as he returns from his party . Haydu vehemently denies murdering Christopher 's father , but struggles to get away , yelling " I 'm sorry ! " when Christopher goes to shoot him .
New York underboss Johnny Sack becomes enraged after learning Ralph Cifaretto made an inappropriate joke about his wife 's weight . He seeks permission from boss Carmine Lupertazzi to have Ralph clipped , but is denied . Johnny orders the hit anyway . Tony receives the okay from Carmine to hit Johnny Sack for insubordination . Junior Soprano tips Tony to use an old outfit in Providence for the work . After catching his wife eating sweets secretly , instead of following the diet plan , Johnny Sack gives in , and bloodshed is averted .
Tony and Ralph invest in a race horse named Pie @-@ O @-@ My , who wins several races and makes them both a great deal of money . However , when Ralph 's 12 @-@ year @-@ old son Justin is severely injured when an arrow plunges into his chest , Tony comes to believe Ralph burned Pie @-@ O @-@ My in a stable fire to collect $ 200 @,@ 000 in insurance money . Tony confronts Ralph the following morning and Ralph denies setting the fire . The two engage in a violent brawl , culminating in Tony strangling Ralph to death . Tony and Christopher dispose of the body ; they bury his head and hands at Mikey Palmice 's father 's farm and throw his body into a quarry .
While he is leaving court , Uncle Junior is hit in the head with a boom mic and falls down several steps . Tony advises him to take advantage of the opportunity , act mentally incompetent , and employ it as a ruse for not continuing the trial . Later , Eugene Pontecorvo intimidates a juror , resulting in a deadlocked jury , forcing the judge to declare a mistrial .
Following the death of Bobby Baccalieri 's wife , Janice pursues a romantic relationship with him . Christopher 's addiction to heroin deepens , prompting his associates and family to organize an intervention , after which he enters a drug rehabilitation center . Adriana befriends a woman who is an undercover FBI agent . When the friendship ends , the woman reveals herself as an FBI agent and tells Adriana the only way to stay out of prison is to become an informant . Adriana agrees and starts sharing information with the FBI .
Carmela , whose relationship with Tony is tense due to financial worries and Tony 's infidelities , develops a mutual infatuation with Furio Giunta . Furio , incapable of breaking his own moral codes and that of the Neapolitan mafia , clandestinely returns home to Italy . After Tony 's former mistress calls their home , Carmela throws Tony out . Tony is approached by Johnny Sack with a proposal to murder Carmine , which Tony turns down .
= = = Season 5 = = =
A string of new characters are introduced , including Tony 's cousin Tony Blundetto , who simultaneously along with other mafiosi , is released from prison . Among the others released are former DiMeo crime family capo Michele " Feech " La Manna , Lupertazzi family capo Phil Leotardo , and semi @-@ retired Lupertazzi consigliere Angelo Garepe . Tony offers Tony B. a job , but he respectfully declines , as he is determined to lead a straight life . He initially begins to take courses to earn a degree in massage therapy and aspires to open up his own massage parlor . After Carmine Lupertazzi dies of a stroke , his death leaves a vacancy for boss of the Lupertazzi family , which will soon be fought over by underboss Johnny Sack and Carmine 's son Carmine Lupertazzi , Jr .. After Feech proves to be an insubordinate presence , Tony arranges for him to be sent back to prison by setting him up with stolen property , violating his parole .
The war between Johnny Sack and Carmine , Jr. begins when Johnny has Phil kill " lady shylock " Lorraine Calluzzo . Tony B. ' s attempt to stay straight comes to a head when he gets into a brawl with his employer Sungyon Kim . Tony informs Tony B. that " it 's hard working with strangers . " Angelo , who was a good friend to Tony B. in prison , and Lupertazzi capo Rusty Millio offer Tony B. the job of taking out Joey Peeps in retaliation for Lorraine 's death . Tony B. initially declines but , desperate to earn , accepts the job . He catches Joey outside a bordello , shoots him , and quickly flees the scene . Johnny believes Tony B. is involved , and retaliates by having Phil and his brother Billy Leotardo kill Angelo . Tony B. finds the Leotardo brothers and opens fire , killing Billy and wounding Phil .
Still separated from Carmela , Tony is living at his parents ' house . Carmela , now the sole authority figure in the home , becomes frustrated as her rules lead A.J. to resent her ; eventually she allows him to live with his father . She has a brief relationship with Robert Wegler , A.J. ' s guidance counselor ; he breaks it off abruptly when he suspects that she is manipulating him to improve A.J. ' s grades . Tony and Carmela reconcile ; Tony promises to be more loyal and agrees to pay for a piece of real estate Carmela wishes to develop .
Tony gets Meadow 's boyfriend Finn De Trolio a summer job at a construction site , which is run by Aprile crew capo Vito Spatafore . Finn comes in early one morning and catches Vito performing fellatio on a security guard . Vito tries to buddy up to Finn so that he does not say anything to anybody else . He even asks Finn to a Yankees game , which Finn does not attend . Finn soon quits the job out of fear .
After covering up a murder that occurred at The Crazy Horse , Adriana is arrested and pressured by the FBI to wear a wire to avoid being charged as an accomplice . She refuses to wear a wire and informs the FBI that she may be able to persuade her fiancé Christopher to co @-@ operate and become an informant against Tony . She confesses to Christopher that she has been informing and that the FBI would give them new identities if they would testify . Christopher is grief @-@ stricken and nearly kills her . He leaves the apartment , saying he needs time to think . Tony has Silvio pick up Adriana under the pretense of taking her to see Christopher , but instead drives her out to the woods and executes her . Adriana ’ s betrayal and subsequent execution is too much for Christopher to handle and he briefly returns to drug abuse to deal with the pain .
Phil Leotardo and his henchmen beat Benny Fazio while trying to acquire the whereabouts of Tony B. ; Phil also threatens to have Christopher taken out if Tony B. ' s whereabouts are not disclosed soon . To avoid any more of his guys getting hurt and to pacify New York , Tony tracks Tony B. to their Uncle Pat 's farm and shoots him . Phil , however , is furious that he did not get the opportunity to do it himself . Tony and Johnny meet at Johnny 's house in a reconciliatory manner , but Johnny is arrested by Federal agents , while Tony escapes .
= = = Season 6 = = =
Uncle Junior , now senile and confused , shoots Tony at the beginning of the season . Rendered comatose , Tony dreams he is a salesman on a business trip , where he mistakenly exchanges his briefcase and identification with a man named Kevin Finnerty . Tony 's recovery from the shooting changes his outlook , and he tries to mend his ways . However , he is faced with more problems in his business life .
Once out of the hospital , Johnny Sack 's daughter gets married and the Soprano family attends . There , Tony is shown very exhausted when taking off his shoes through security . In the process , he collapses to the ground , but is not hurt . Before the wedding , Johnny Sack is approved to leave prison for six hours to see his daughter get married , but has to pay for the metal detectors and the presence of the U.S. marshals at the event . As his daughter is about to drive away , the SUV that was escorting Johnny to the wedding blocks the car from leaving and an altercation begins in the driveway . In a moment of weakness and despair , Johnny Sack cries as he is put back into handcuffs and driven back to prison , greatly diminishing the respect his crew and Tony 's crew have for him .
Vito Spatafore is outed as homosexual after running into a friend at a New York night club . The rumor spreads quickly , and once word gets to Meadow that everyone else knows , she tells Tony and Carmela about the incident between Finn and Vito with the security guard . Finn then has to sit in front of Tony 's entire crew and tell them what happened with the guard , solidifying their thoughts on Vito 's sexuality . Tony is urged to deal with the problem by Phil Leotardo , now acting boss of New York with Johnny Sack in prison . Once Vito is outed , he runs away from the city and hides out in a New Hampshire town where he claims to be writing a book and meets with the locals . Vito also starts a romantic relationship with a male cook at a local diner . Eventually , Vito returns to New Jersey and asks Tony to allow him to return to work , albeit in Atlantic City . He continues to maintain that he is not a homosexual . Tony mulls over the decision to let him work , as well as whether to let him live . When Tony fails to act , Phil intervenes and kills Spatafore . When one of the members of the New York family , Fat Dom Gamiello , pays a visit to the Jersey office and won 't stop making jokes about Vito and his death , the two members of Tony 's crime family who are present kill Fat Dom out of anger at the disrespect he has shown . Once more , it appears that the families are on the verge of all @-@ out war .
During the first half of the season Chris and Carmine head to Los Angeles to try to sign Ben Kingsley for a film they are trying to make called Cleaver , which is basically a mix of The Godfather and Saw . But Kingsley passes on the picture . While in Los Angeles Chris goes back to using cocaine for a short period of time .
Tony considers killing several of his associates for relatively minor infractions . Christopher is unable to leave the mob , deflecting his problems by relapsing into drug addiction and kills his friend from Narcotics Anonymous , J. T. Dolan . He is then seriously injured in a car accident while driving under the influence of narcotics . Tony , the sole passenger , is not badly hurt , and suffocates Christopher to death . A.J. is dumped by his fiancée and slips into depression , culminating in a failed suicide attempt in the backyard pool . Dr. Melfi is convinced by friends that Tony is making no progress and may even be using talking therapy for his own sociopathic benefit . She drops him as a patient .
Johnny Sack dies from lung cancer while imprisoned , and Leotardo then consolidates his position in the Lupertazzi family by having his rivals for the leadership killed . Phil then officially takes over , igniting a resumption of the past feud with Tony and refusing to compromise with Tony on a garbage deal . When Tony assaults a Lupertazzi soldier for harassing Meadow while she is on a date , Phil decides it 's time to decapitate the Soprano crew . He orders the executions of Bobby Baccalieri , who is shot to death ; Silvio , who ends up comatose ; and Tony , who goes into hiding . A deal is brokered whereby the rest of the Lupertazzi family agrees to ignore the order to kill Tony , giving Tony an opportunity to go after Phil . An FBI agent informs Tony of Phil 's location , allowing Tony to have him killed . Tony suspects that Carlo , a capo from New Jersey , has become an informant in an attempt to help out his son , who has recently been caught for dealing ecstasy . Tony meets his lawyer , who informs him that subpoenas are being given to New Jersey and New York crews alike .
Tony , Carmela , and AJ meet for dinner , while the Journey song " Don 't Stop Believin ' " plays in the background . The camera cuts away from the Soprano family and presents vignettes of other diners . As the tension increases , Meadow is shown struggling with parking then crossing the street to the restaurant . A man , who had been previously shown at the counter specifically taking notice of Tony , is shown entering the restroom , the door of which is directly facing and approximately 90 degrees to the table at which Tony and his family are sitting . As Meadow walks up to the door , the screen goes to Tony . The diner door opens with a bell ringing , Tony looks up and the show smash cuts to black and after a few seconds the credits roll in silence .
Chase 's decision to end the last episode abruptly with just a black screen was controversial . While Chase has insisted that it was not his intention to stir controversy , the ambiguity over the ending and question of whether Tony was murdered has continued for years after the finale 's original broadcast and has spawned numerous websites devoted to finding out his true intention .
= = Reception , effect and legacy = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The Sopranos was a major ratings success . Despite being aired on premium cable network HBO , which is available in significantly fewer American homes than regular networks , the show frequently attracted equal or larger audiences than most popular network shows of the time . Nielsen ratings for the show 's first four seasons are not entirely accurate , however , as prior to January 2004 Nielsen reported aggregate numbers for cable networks , meaning people watching other HBO channels than the main one , on which The Sopranos aired , would be included in the ratings estimates .
= = = Critical response = = =
Many critics have asserted that The Sopranos is the greatest and most groundbreaking television series of all time . The writing , acting , and directing have often been singled out for praise . The show has also received considerable attention from critics and journalists for its mature and artistic content , technical merit , music selections , cinematography , and willingness to deal with difficult and controversial subjects including crime , family , gender roles , mental illness , and American and Italian American culture . The Sopranos is credited for creating a new era in the mafia genre deviating from the traditional dramatized image of the gangster in favor of a simpler , more accurate reflection of mob life . The series sheds light on Italian family dynamics through the depiction of Tony 's tumultuous relationship with his mother . Edie Falco 's character Carmela Soprano is praised in Kristyn Gorton 's essay " Why I Love Carmela Soprano " for challenging Italian @-@ American gender roles . New Yorker editor David Remnick described The Sopranos as mirroring the " mindless commerce and consumption " of modern America .
The Sopranos has been called " perhaps the greatest pop @-@ culture masterpiece of its day " by Vanity Fair contributor Peter Biskind . Remnick called the show " the richest achievement in the history of television . " In 2002 , TV Guide ranked The Sopranos fifth on their list of the " Top 50 TV Shows of All Time , " while the series was only in its fourth season . In 2007 , Channel 4 ( UK ) named The Sopranos the greatest television series of all time .
The first season of the series received overwhelmingly positive reviews . Following its initial airing in 1999 , The New York Times stated , " [ The Sopranos ] just may be the greatest work of American popular culture of the last quarter century . " In 2007 , Roger Holland of PopMatters wrote , " the debut season of The Sopranos remains the crowning achievement of American television . "
Time Out New York ' s Andrew Johnston had high praise for the series , stating : " Together , Chase and his fellow writers ( including Terence Winter and Mad Men creator Matthew Weiner ) produced the legendary Great American Novel , and it ’ s 86 episodes long . " Johnston asserted the preeminence of The Sopranos as opposed to Deadwood and The Wire in a debate with critics Alan Sepinwall and Matt Zoller Seitz .
In November and December 2009 , a large number of television critics named The Sopranos the best series of the decade and all time in articles summarizing the decade in television . In numbered lists over the best television programs , The Sopranos frequently ranked first or second , almost always competing with The Wire . In 2013 , TV Guide ranked The Sopranos No. 2 in its list of The 60 Greatest Dramas of All Time , In the same year , the Writers Guild of America named it the best @-@ written television series of all time and TV Guide ranked it as the greatest show of all time .
Certain episodes have frequently been singled out by critics as the show 's best . These include the pilot , titled " The Sopranos " , " College " and " I Dream of Jeannie Cusamano " of the first season ; " The Knight in White Satin Armor " and " Funhouse " of the second ; " Employee of the Month " , " Pine Barrens " and " Amour Fou " of the third ; " Whoever Did This " and " Whitecaps " of the fourth ; " Irregular Around the Margins " and " Long Term Parking " of the fifth and " Members Only " , " Join the Club " , " Kennedy and Heidi " , " The Second Coming " and " The Blue Comet " of the sixth season .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
The Sopranos won and was nominated for a large number of awards over the course of its original broadcast . It was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series in every year it was eligible , and is the first cable TV series to receive a nomination for the award . After being nominated for and losing the award in 1999 , 2000 , 2001 , and 2003 ( losing the first time to The Practice and the last three to The West Wing ) , The Sopranos won the award in 2004 , and again in 2007 . Its 2004 win made The Sopranos the first series on a cable network to win the award , while its 2007 win made the show the first drama series since Upstairs , Downstairs in 1977 to win the award after it had finished airing . The show earned 21 nominations for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series and won the award six times , with creator David Chase receiving three awards .
The Sopranos won at least one Emmy Award for acting in every eligible year except 2006 and 2007 . James Gandolfini and Edie Falco were each nominated six times for Outstanding Lead Actor and Actress , respectively , both winning a total of three awards . Joe Pantoliano won an Emmy for Outstanding Supporting Actor in 2003 , and Michael Imperioli and Drea de Matteo also won Emmys in 2004 for their supporting roles on the show . Other actors who have received Emmy nominations for the series include Lorraine Bracco ( in the Lead Actress and Supporting Actress categories ) , Dominic Chianese , Nancy Marchand , Aida Turturro , Tim Daly , John Heard , Annabella Sciorra and Steve Buscemi , who was also nominated for directing the episode " Pine Barrens " .
In 1999 and 2000 , The Sopranos earned two consecutive George Foster Peabody Awards . Only three other series have won the award in consecutive years : Northern Exposure , The West Wing , and Breaking Bad . The show also received numerous nominations at the Golden Globe Awards ( winning the award for Best Drama Series in 2000 ) and the major guild awards ( Directors , Producers , Writers , and Actors ) .
= = = Influence on television industry = = =
The Sopranos had a significant impact on the shape of the American television industry . It has been characterized by critics as one of the most influential artistic works of the 2000s ( decade ) and is credited with allowing other drama series with similarly mature content to achieve mainstream recognition . It has also often been cited as one of the television series that helped turn serial television into a legitimate art form on the same level as feature films , literature and theater . TIME editor James Poniewozik wrote in 2007 , " This mafia saga showed just how complex and involving TV storytelling could be , inspiring an explosion of ambitious dramas on cable and off . " Also in 2007 , Maureen Ryan of PopMatters described The Sopranos as " the most influential television drama ever " and wrote " No one @-@ hour drama series has had a bigger impact on how stories are told on the small screen , or more influence on what kind of fare we ’ ve been offered by an ever @-@ growing array of television networks . " Hal Boedeker , also writing for PopMatters in 2007 , stated that the series was " widely influential for revealing that cable would accommodate complex series about dark characters . The Sopranos ushered in Six Feet Under , The Shield , Rescue Me and Big Love . "
The series helped establish HBO as producers of critically acclaimed and commercially successful original television series . Michael Flaherty of The Hollywood Reporter has stated that The Sopranos " helped launch [ HBO 's ] reputation as a destination for talent looking for cutting @-@ edge original series work . "
= = = Depiction of stereotypes = = =
The show has been frequently criticized for perpetuating negative stereotypes about Italian Americans . Virtually all major Italian American organizations , including the National Italian American Foundation , Order Sons of Italy in America , Unico National and the Italic Institute of America voiced their concern that The Sopranos presents , as reality , a very distorted and harmful stereotype of Italian Americans and their cultural values .
In 2000 , Essex County officials denied producers permission to film on county @-@ owned property , arguing that the show depicts Italian Americans in a " less than favorable light . " In 2002 , organizers of the New York City Columbus Day Parade won an injunction to keep Mayor Michael Bloomberg from inviting cast members of The Sopranos to participate in the parade .
Fairleigh Dickinson University 's PublicMind found , in an August 2001 national survey , that 37 % of the 800 people polled said they watched the show regularly , and 65 % of this group ( 192 people , or 24 % of the total ) disagreed that the show portrayed Italian Americans in a negative way . Professor William Roberts , an academic associated with the poll , and author of several books on modern Italian history commented that : " The show 's inflated image of organized crime casts a shadow over both the state and its Italian @-@ American community . "
At the end of the series the PublicMind conducted a second national survey on the Soprano series . In this poll 41 % of the 776 people polled said they watched the show regularly , and 61 % of this group ( 194 people , or 25 % of the total ) disagreed with the idea that the show portrayed Italian Americans in a negative light . Professor Roberts , by then chair of Fairleigh Dickinson 's Public Administration Institute , stated that : " The show helped to perpetuate one of the more problematic and stereotypical images of Italian Americans . Both Italian and Italian @-@ American cultures have much more diverse and interesting heritages than the American public generally realizes . "
Humanities professor Camille Paglia , herself an Italian American , has spoken negatively about The Sopranos , arguing that its depiction of Italian @-@ Americans was inaccurate , inauthentic , dated and racist .
Chase has defended his show , saying that it is not meant to stereotype all Italian Americans , only to depict a small criminal subculture .
= = DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc releases = =
All six seasons were released as DVD box sets , with the final season released in two parts ; two different versions of the complete series were also released .
In addition , the sixth season ( both parts 1 and 2 ) were also released on Blu @-@ ray Disc and HD DVD in 2006 and 2007 , respectively . The first season was released on Blu @-@ ray in 2009 . A complete series box set was released on Blu @-@ ray on November 4 , 2014 .
= Pale Blue Dot =
Pale Blue Dot is a photograph of planet Earth taken on February 14 , 1990 , by the Voyager 1 space probe from a record distance of about 6 billion kilometers ( 3 @.@ 7 billion miles , 40 @.@ 5 AU ) , as part of the Family Portrait series of images of the Solar System .
In the photograph , Earth 's apparent size is less than a pixel ; the planet appears as a tiny dot against the vastness of space , among bands of sunlight scattered by the camera 's optics .
Voyager 1 , which had completed its primary mission and was leaving the Solar System , was commanded by NASA to turn its camera around and take one last photograph of Earth across a great expanse of space , at the request of astronomer and author Carl Sagan .
= = Background = =
In September 1977 , NASA launched Voyager 1 , a 722 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 592 lb ) robotic spacecraft on a mission to study the outer Solar System and eventually interstellar space . After encountering the Jovian system in 1979 and the Saturnian system in 1980 , the primary mission was declared complete in November of the same year . Voyager 1 was the first space probe to provide detailed images of the two largest planets and their major moons .
The spacecraft , travelling at 40 @,@ 000 miles per hour ( 64 @,@ 000 km / h ) , is the farthest man @-@ made object from Earth and the first one to leave the Solar System . Its mission has been extended and continues to this day , with the aim of investigating the boundaries of the Solar system , including the Kuiper belt , the heliosphere and interstellar space . Operating for 38 years , 10 months and 17 days as of today ( July 24 , 2016 ) , it receives routine commands and transmits data back to the Deep Space Network .
Voyager 1 was initially expected to work only through the Saturn encounter . When the spacecraft passed the planet in 1980 , Sagan proposed the idea of the space probe taking one last picture of Earth . He pointed out that such a picture would not have had much scientific value , as the Earth would appear too small for Voyager 's cameras to make out any detail , but it could have been meaningful nevertheless as a perspective on our place in the universe .
Although many in NASA 's Voyager program were supportive of the idea , there were doubts that taking a picture of Earth so close to the Sun risked damaging the spacecraft 's imaging system irreparably . It was not until 1989 that Sagan 's idea was put into practice , but then instrument calibrations delayed the process further , and the personnel who devised and transmitted the radio commands to Voyager 1 were also being laid off or transferred to other projects . Finally , NASA Administrator Richard Truly interceded to ensure that the photograph was taken .
= = Camera = =
Voyager 1 's Imaging Science Subsystem ( ISS ) , now disabled , consisted of two cameras : a 200 mm focal length , low @-@ resolution wide @-@ angle camera ( WA ) , used for spatially extended imaging , and a 1500 mm high @-@ resolution narrow @-@ angle camera ( NA ) – the one that took Pale Blue Dot – intended for detailed imaging of specific targets . Both cameras were of the slow @-@ scan vidicon tube type and were fitted with eight colored filters , mounted on a filter wheel placed in front of the tube .
The challenge for NASA 's imaging team was that , as the mission progressed , the objects being photographed were getting farther away from the spacecraft , therefore appearing fainter and requiring longer exposures and even slewing ( panning ) of the cameras to achieve good quality . The telecommunication capability also decreased with distance , limiting the number of data modes that could be used by the imaging system .
After taking the Family Portrait series of images , which included Pale Blue Dot , NASA mission managers commanded Voyager 1 to power its cameras down , as the spacecraft was not going to fly near anything else of significance for the rest of its mission , while other instruments that were still collecting data needed power for the long journey to interstellar space .
= = Photograph = =
The design of the command sequence to be relayed to the spacecraft and the calculations for each photograph 's exposure time were developed by space scientists Candy Hansen of NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory ( JPL ) and Carolyn Porco of the University of Arizona . After the planned imaging sequence was taken on February 14 , 1990 , the data from the camera was stored initially in an on @-@ board tape recorder . Transmission to Earth was also delayed by the Magellan and Galileo missions being given priority over the use of the Deep Space Network . Then , between March and May 1990 , Voyager 1 returned 60 frames back to Earth , with the radio signal travelling at the speed of light for nearly five and a half hours to cover the distance .
Three of the frames received showed the Earth as a tiny point of light in empty space . Each frame had been taken using a different color filter : blue , green and violet , with exposure times of 0 @.@ 72 , 0 @.@ 48 and 0 @.@ 72 seconds respectively . The three frames were then recombined to produce the image that became Pale Blue Dot .
Of the 640 @,@ 000 individual pixels that compose each frame , Earth takes up less than one ( 0 @.@ 12 pixels , according to NASA ) . The light bands across the photograph are an artifact , the result of sunlight scattering off parts of the camera and its sunshade , due to the relative proximity between the Sun and the Earth . Voyager 's point of view was approximately 32 ° above the ecliptic . Detailed analysis suggested that the camera also detected the Moon , although it is too faint to be visible without special processing .
The pale blue color of the dot is the result of polarization and scattering of the light reflected from Earth . The polarization in turn depends on various factors such as cloud cover , exposed areas of oceans , forests , deserts , snow fields etc .
Pale Blue Dot , which was taken with the narrow @-@ angle camera , was also published as part of a composite picture created from a wide @-@ angle camera photograph showing the Sun and the region of space containing the Earth and Venus . The wide @-@ angle image was inset with two narrow @-@ angle pictures : Pale Blue Dot and a similar photograph of Venus . The wide @-@ angle photograph was taken with the darkest filter ( a methane absorption band ) and the shortest possible exposure ( 5 milliseconds ) , to avoid saturating the camera 's vidicon tube with scattered sunlight . Even so , the result was a bright burned @-@ out image with multiple reflections from the optics in the camera and the Sun that appears far larger than the actual dimension of the solar disk . The rays around the Sun are a diffraction pattern of the calibration lamp which is mounted in front of the wide @-@ angle lens .
= = Distance = =
According to NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory 's HORIZONS tool , the distances between Voyager 1 and the Earth on February 14 and May 15 , 1990 , were as follows :
= = Reflections by Sagan = =
During a public lecture held at his Cornell University on October 13 , 1994 , Carl Sagan presented the image to the audience and shared his reflections on the deeper meaning behind the idea of the pale blue dot :
We succeeded in taking that picture , and , if you look at it , you see a dot . That 's here . That 's home . That 's us . On it , everyone you ever heard of , every human being who ever lived , lived out their lives . The aggregate of all our joys and sufferings , thousands of confident religions , ideologies and economic doctrines , every hunter and forager , every hero and coward , every creator and destroyer of civilizations , every king and peasant , every young couple in love , every hopeful child , every mother and father , every inventor and explorer , every teacher of morals , every corrupt politician , every superstar , every supreme leader , every saint and sinner in the history of our species , lived there – on a mote of dust , suspended in a sunbeam .
The earth is a very small stage in a vast cosmic arena . Think of the rivers of blood spilled by all those generals and emperors so that in glory and in triumph they could become the momentary masters of a fraction of a dot . Think of the endless cruelties visited by the inhabitants of one corner of the dot on scarcely distinguishable inhabitants of some other corner of the dot . How frequent their misunderstandings , how eager they are to kill one another , how fervent their hatreds . Our posturings , our imagined self @-@ importance , the delusion that we have some privileged position in the universe , are challenged by this point of pale light .
[ ... ] To my mind , there is perhaps no better demonstration of the folly of human conceits than this distant image of our tiny world . To me , it underscores our responsibility to deal more kindly and compassionately with one another and to preserve and cherish that pale blue dot , the only home we 've ever known .
Sagan also titled his 1994 book Pale Blue Dot : A Vision of the Human Future in Space after the photograph .
= Ralph Merrifield =
Ralph Merrifield ( 22 August 1913 – 9 January 1995 ) was an English museum curator and archaeologist . Described as " the father of London 's modern archaeology " , Merrifield was a specialist in both the archaeology of Roman London and the archaeology of magical practices , publishing six books on these subjects over the course of his life .
Born in Brighton , Merrifield began his archaeological career as an assistant at Brighton Museum while attaining an external degree in anthropology from the University of London . He served in the Royal Air Force during World War II , and then in 1950 became the Assistant Keeper of the Guildhall Museum in London . In 1956 , he relocated to Accra to organise the opening of the new National Museum of Ghana , before returning to work at the Guildhall Museum . Here he produced a synthesis of known material on the archaeology of Roman London , published as The Roman City of London in 1965 .
In 1975 , following the amalgamation of the Guildhall Museum with the London Museum to establish the new Museum of London , Merrifield was appointed Senior Keeper , and soon after was promoted to the position of Deputy Director . In 1978 , he retired from this position but remained active within the archaeological community , publishing both The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic in 1987 as well as further studies of Roman London . Also giving public lectures across the country , he was a keen supporter of the Standing Conference on London Archaeology , a body designed to monitor what he saw as the negative impact that English Heritage was having on the city 's archaeology .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and the Guildhall Museum : 1913 – 74 = = =
Merrifield was born on 22 August 1913 in the Southern English coastal city of Brighton . He was raised primarily by his mother , his father having died when Merrifield was three years old . He undertook his sixth form studies at the Municipal School for Boys , and it was whilst doing , in 1930 , that he began working at the Brighton Museum as an assistant to the museum curator H. S. Toms , himself a former assistant of the archaeologist Augustus Pitt Rivers . Inspired by the museum 's ethnographic collection which he had helped catalogue , Merrifield embarked on a University of London external degree which he completed in 1935 ; although its main focus was in anthropology , the degree had also allowed him to take intermediate courses in botany . It was during this that he developed a keen interest in the archaeological evidence for both religion and for the magical practices that took place in Britain 's past .
Following the outbreak of the Second World War , in 1940 Merrifield was conscripted into the Royal Air Force and in 1943 he was transferred to its intelligence division , specialising in the interpretation of aerial photographs . As a result of this , he was posted to both India and Java . After the conflict ended in 1945 , he returned to work at Brighton Museum .
In 1950 , Merrifield took a post as Assistant Keeper of the Guildhall Museum in London , a job that he would retain until 1975 . At the time the museum lacked a premises , with Merrifield assisting the Keeper Norman Cook in establishing an exhibit at the Royal Exchange in 1954 . During these post @-@ war years the city 's archaeological community was largely preoccupied with salvaging the Roman and Medieval structures that were damaged by The Blitz and the subsequent urban redevelopment . In 1951 Merrifield married Lysbeth Webb , a colleague at the Guildhall Museum , and together they went on to have one son and one daughter .
In November 1956 , Merrifield was sent to Accra in Ghana to establish the National Museum of Ghana . The museum was due to be constructed in time for the day of Ghana 's officially achieved independence in April 1957 , with its exhibits having previously been part of the University Museum of Ghana , however upon arrival Merrifield found that the construction was delayed . Returning to the Guildhall after six months , he campaigned for the archaeological excavation of sites prior to their redevelopment , resulting in the establishment of the Department of Urban Archaeology at the Guildhall Museum in 1973 .
In 1962 , he published his first important academic paper , a study of Roman coins found at the bottom of the River Walbrook . Although not a specialist in any one particular aspect of Romano @-@ British archaeology , he was able to synthesise a wide range of evidence to develop a picture of life in Londinium , the Roman settlement located in the City of London , publishing The Roman City of London in 1965 . The project had been suggested to him two years previously by the publisher Ernest Benn , and represented the first detailed study of Roman London to be published for 35 years . To produce it , Merrifield had catalogued all known Romano @-@ British remains in the city , further providing suggestions for where additional archaeological remains were likely located . The archaeologist W. F. Grimes described it as " a landmark in the study of Roman London " while the later archaeologist Harvey Sheldon called it " a masterful historical synthesis " . The book established Merrifield 's reputation to a wider audience . He followed this with two works aimed at a general audience , Roman London ( 1969 ) , in which he looked at evidence for Romano @-@ British occupation across the wider Greater London area , and then The Archaeology of London ( 1975 ) , in which he surveyed the archaeological evidence of the region from the Palaeolithic through to the Early Middle Ages .
= = = Museum of London and retirement : 1975 – 95 = = =
In 1975 he became the Senior Keeper of the Museum of London , being promoted to the position of Deputy Director in 1977 , and being responsible for designing the Museum 's first Roman gallery . From 1976 to 1978 he served as President of the London and Middlesex Archaeological Society . Merrifield retired in 1978 , and a festschrift , entitled Collectanea Londiniensia : Studies in London Archaeology and History Presented to Ralph Merrifield , was published in his honour . Recognising his many years service to the archaeological field , the University of London awarded him an honourary doctorate .
During his retirement , he continued to take an active role in researching London 's past . In 1983 , he published London : City of the Romans , in which he updated his account of Londinium with information obtained over the previous decade and a half . His book The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic appeared in 1987 , and was written to combat what Merrifield identified as a widespread neglect of ritual aspects in the archaeological record . Concurring with Merrifield 's assessment about this widespread neglect , the later archaeologist Roberta Gilchrist described it as a " rare contribution " to the discipline . The historian of religion Hilda Ellis Davidson praised the " cautious and balanced arguments " of Merrifield 's work , opining that it should be read by every archaeologist as a corrective to what she thought was their widespread ignorance of folklore .
Merrifield was uneasy with the changes made to London 's archaeological establishment by English Heritage during the early 1990s , strongly supporting the establishment of the Standing Conference on London Archaeology to monitor English Heritage 's actions . He also continued to talk on archaeological subjects , with his final lecture , " Magic Protection of the Home " , being given to extra @-@ mural students in Northampton in December 1994 . Following a short illness , he died of cardiac arrest in King 's College Hospital , London , on 9 January 1995 , leaving behind his wife , children , and grandchildren .
= = Legacy = =
Merrifield came to be known as the " father of London 's modern archaeology " , with Harvey Sheldon describing him as the " father figure " of London archaeology . According to fellow archaeologist W. F. Grimes , it was Merrifield 's " work in and about London " which earned him " an honoured place in British Archaeology " . In Merrifield 's obituary in British Archaeology magazine , Max Hebditch , the Director of the Museum of London , described him as being both " generous with his knowledge and friendship " and " energetic and active to the end " . Sheldon stated that he was " universally loved and admired " , having done " more than anyone else , both by example and influence " , to place London 's archaeology on a firm footing . Writing in The Independent , Peter Marsden commented on Merrifield 's " quiet manner " which " obscured a steely determination " to advance scholarship .
= Half @-@ Life 2 : Episode Two =
Half @-@ Life 2 : Episode Two is a first @-@ person shooter video game , the second episode in a series of sequels to the 2004 Half @-@ Life 2 . It was developed by Valve Corporation in tandem with Episode One , the first game in the series , and released in 2007 via Valve 's Steam content distribution platform . The episode was released both separately and as a part of a bundled package , The Orange Box .
Episode Two gameplay consists of expansive environments , travel and reduced linear play , continuing Valve 's policy of orienting each episode around a particular theme or set of technologies . Following the closing events of Episode One , it sees Gordon Freeman and the series ' other major characters moving away from City 17 to the surrounding countryside .
The retail version was released on October 10 , 2007 , in North America and Russia for Windows and Microsoft 's Xbox 360 after repeated delays . The version for the PlayStation 3 was to be released " around two or three weeks later , " as it was produced separately at the Electronic Arts UK studio , according to Valve marketing director Doug Lombardi . This version was further delayed . For the rest of the world , the release date was October 18 . The Steam version was released worldwide on October 10 , 2007 .
= = Gameplay = =
As with its predecessors , the game is played in the first person as series protagonist Gordon Freeman against transhuman troops , known as the Combine , and other hostile alien creatures . Levels are linear but add a more open environment , consisting of puzzles and first @-@ person shooter game @-@ play . Sequences involving vehicles are interspersed throughout the game , breaking up moments of combat .
One of the focal points of Episode Two was meant to be increased use of vehicles in open areas . However , the game retains its original linear style until the final battle . Episode Two has more puzzles than Episode One , including the biggest physical puzzle yet in the series — a damaged unstable bridge . The game features numerous " achievements " ( similar to PlayStation 3 's Trophies and Xbox Live 's Achievements ) for carrying out certain tasks . Some are essential to game progress , such as helping fight off an antlion invasion , or defeating the first Hunters . Others are optional tricks or feats the player can perform , such as killing a Combine soldier with their own grenade or running down a certain number of enemies with the car .
= = = Enemies = = =
Episode Two featured a new Hunter enemy , which had just been seen briefly in a recorded message in Episode One . The Hunter serves as one of the most dangerous enemies within the game and as means of emotional development for Alyx Vance . The Hunter is a powerful and resilient enemy which players must often run from while seeking a means to fight back ; Episode Two 's environments are designed with this in mind .
An interview in the August 2006 issue of PC Gamer magazine revealed that the Hunter stands 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) tall . Erik Johnson , the game 's project lead , states that the Hunters are " big and impressive , but they can go anywhere the player can go , " as the player can encounter them both indoors and outdoors . Ted Backman , senior artist for Valve , talks about how the Hunter can express emotions , being a somewhat non @-@ human character . " We want the Hunter to be able to express nervousness or aggression , [ to show you ] whether it 's aggressive , hurt , or mad . " Hunters are very aggressive and they tend to operate in packs , but can also be found supporting other Combine troops . Late in the game , they can be found escorting Striders , using their flechette guns to protect the Striders that the player is trying to attack .
Hunters primarily attack the player by bracing themselves and firing bursts from their flechette cannon . Four flechettes can vaporize an ordinary human soldier . If they do not strike a living target , the flechette charge up for several seconds and then explode , dealing minor damage to everything nearby . Hunters may also conduct a charging attack or strike with their legs if the player gets too close . Hunters are vulnerable to all weapons , but to compensate , are still quite resilient , making explosives and the pulse rifle 's charged energy ball the most attractive options . Objects thrown with the gravity gun are also effective , especially if the player catches some of their flechettes with the object before hurling it ( one of the in @-@ game Achievements ) . In outdoor environments , they can be run over with a vehicle .
Two new forms of antlion appear in the game . The first is the glow @-@ in @-@ the @-@ dark antlion grub , a harmless , worm @-@ like creature which functions as a minor health pickup and a light source . Killing all 333 of these earns an Achievement . The second is the worker antlion ( or ' acidlion ' ) whose body produces a powerful and poisonous acid . In addition to a ranged acid spit attack , they also explode when killed , launching acid around them in a short radius , making them dangerous close @-@ combat opponents . Although they are thematically similar to the bullsquids of the original Half @-@ Life , they are functionally closer to the poison headcrab — as an enemy that the player will instinctively prioritize as a target . A new antlion guardian , which has glow @-@ in @-@ the @-@ dark features , was also added . This " Guardian " hunts and attacks Gordon Freeman as the player endeavors to take the larval extract the Guardian protects . The vortigaunt that accompanies the player forbids him from harming the guardian , fearing the extract will be ruined if he does . The player must therefore accomplish his goal while being harried by a creature he cannot eliminate , though the player is eventually given the chance to kill it .
= = = Weapons = = =
Episode Two features no new additions to Gordon Freeman 's inventory , but introduces a new form of Gravity Gun ' ammunition ' , the ' Magnusson Device ' , named after the egotistical head of the White Forest base rocket project , Dr. Magnusson . Prior to the game 's release , this weapon had been referred to as the ' Strider Buster ' . The item is useless on its own — it must be deployed via the gravity gun . Level designer Dario Casali describes it as a ' sticky bomb that you fire at a Strider 's underbelly that will draw power from the Strider 's internal power source . ' In @-@ game , the device will stick so long as it contacts the Strider 's body , and will instantly destroy it when fired upon with any other of the player 's weapons . However , Hunter escorts will prioritize them as targets , either destroying them in the player 's grasp or shooting already @-@ attached ones off .
Valve 's developers said new weapons were not a priority . The gravity gun was the direction of innovation they were most interested in , and objects like saw blades and flares were more interesting additions to the game . This policy was implemented with the Magnusson Device and more varied Gravity Gun ' ammunition ' such as logs and half @-@ height butane tanks , which are easier to aim than full @-@ size fuel drums .
= = = Vehicles = = =
Large sections of the game feature a car which resembles a gutted @-@ and @-@ rebuilt 1969 Dodge Charger . It appears to have been tuned for performance . A radar system is installed later in the game , allowing the player to locate Rebel supply caches . In the final battle , a rear @-@ mounted storage rack for Magnusson Devices is added and the radar is adjusted to track enemies and Magnusson Device dispensers . A homing unit is also installed so the player can quickly locate the car in the chaos of the final battle via a readout in the Hazardous Environment suit .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
In contrast to Episode One 's entirely urban setting , Episode Two sets the action in rural areas , villages , forests , as well as mining facilities and mountain caves . The exact location remains vague , with signs in Russian still hinting at a Eastern European setting , although gas pumps with the prices displayed in Swedish have added to the confusion . The gameplay is in parts , and , to an extent less geographically linear than in the previous games , with the climactic fight in particular taking place across an entire map rather than in an enclosed arena .
= = = Plot = = =
Continuing the plot of Half @-@ Life 2 and Episode One , Episode Two consists of seven chapters telling the story of Gordon Freeman and Alyx Vance 's journey to a large Lambda Resistance base called White Forest . The Combine 's Earth occupation forces have used the destruction of the Citadel to begin opening a massive super portal which , if allowed to reach critical size , would allow the Combine to call in reinforcements from their homeworld and destroy the Resistance . However , as explained by Dr. Kleiner 's broadcast in Episode One , it has also caused a communications blackout , leaving the Combine isolated and disorganized in the meantime . In addition , Combine Advisors , some of them still unhatched from their pods , are scattered about the region after evacuating the Citadel . A crucial part of the plot is the Combine 's message home , which was copied by Alyx and Gordon before making their escape , that the Combine sacrificed the Citadel to send . It contains data on the Combine portal code , which the Resistance can use to collapse the portal before it forms completely .
After Gordon and Alyx climb out of the wreckage of the train they used to escape City 17 , they proceed away from the former city on foot . At an old transmission station , the duo temporarily establish communication with Dr. Kleiner and Eli Vance , who are currently at White Forest . After an update of events at the now @-@ destroyed Citadel , as well discovering the importance of the transmission packet copy that Alyx had made , they are cut off as Combine sweep the area , forcing them to move . At an abandoned mine , Alyx is critically wounded by a Hunter . A vortigaunt discovers them , and leads them to an underground Resistance shelter . The vortigaunts there have the power to heal Alyx ; however , Gordon must first venture into the nearby antlion colony to recover the larval extract necessary for the healing procedure .
Gordon retrieves the extract and the vortigaunts begin to heal Alyx . While they are distracted , the G @-@ Man is able to contact Gordon for the first time since the start of Episode One . He hints at Alyx 's importance to his own long @-@ term plans , revealing that he saved Alyx 's life at Black Mesa despite objections from an unspecified third party . The G @-@ Man then instructs an unconscious Alyx to tell her father to " prepare for unforeseen consequences . "
After Alyx has recovered , she and Gordon proceed to White Forest . They arrive before a convoy of Combine troops , despite being slowed by multiple ambushes , road blocks , and a near @-@ death encounter with an Advisor . There , Alyx and Gordon are reunited with D0g , Dr. Kleiner , and Eli Vance . The player is also formally introduced to Dr. Arne Magnusson , another former Black Mesa scientist who is egotistical , verbose , and authoritarian . The team of scientists are preparing a rocket , which they plan to use in conjunction with the Combine portal code and the satellite array launched by Gordon in Half @-@ Life , to close the Combine superportal .
After Gordon fends off an initial Combine attack on the base , Alyx gives Dr. Kleiner the message from Judith Mossman which she recovered at the Citadel in Episode One . It contains footage and the current coordinates of the Borealis , an Aperture Science research vessel which , as Kleiner explains , one day suddenly vanished into thin air along with part of the surrounding drydock . Although it is not explained what technology the ship contains , Kleiner insists that it should be used to aid the Resistance effort , while Eli counters that it is impossible to control and must be destroyed . Regardless , they agree that Alyx and Gordon will travel to the Borealis and attempt to find Mossman . Alyx then unconsciously delivers the G @-@ Man 's message to her father , who is physically shaken . After having Alyx leave temporarily , Eli reveals to Gordon that it was the G @-@ Man , whom he refers to as " our mutual friend , " who provided Black Mesa with the test sample that caused the " resonance cascade " ( the Black Mesa incident ) in Half @-@ Life , and whispered that same strange warning to him just as Gordon entered the test chamber . He promises to further discuss this with Gordon after the superportal is closed .
While the rocket is being prepared , White Forest comes under attack by a dozen Striders escorted by Hunters . Gordon engages and destroys them using experimental explosive charges created by Magnusson . The rocket is successfully launched and the super portal is closed , isolating Combine forces on Earth from their homeworld . Alyx and Gordon then prepare to leave for the Borealis , at which point Eli again warns Gordon about the ship 's " cargo " . The three of them head into a hangar , intending to board an old helicopter which Alyx has restored . However , a pair of Advisors burst into the hangar and restrain them . Alyx and Gordon watch helplessly as Eli is killed by one of the Advisors , but as the second Advisor prepares to kill Alyx , D0g bursts in through the roof and attacks it , causing both Advisors to flee . The game fades out slowly as Alyx , sobbing , clutches her father 's body .
= = Development = =
Episode Two was developed simultaneously with Episode One by a development team led by David Speyrer . This schedule of simultaneous development aided them in streamlining the story between the two games to create an immersive storyline . The technology used was the same for both games , allowing the development teams to quickly fix any technical problems that might arise from either game ; this happened often because of the multi @-@ platform release .
An announcement was made on July 13 , 2006 stating that Episode Two would be released on Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 in addition to the PC , where previous iterations of the series separated . It was originally rumored that Episode Two would be delayed until 2008 . On June 14 , 2007 , however , Valve confirmed the release date for Episode Two to be October 9 , 2007 for all announced platforms . Valve handled the development of the game for the PC and Xbox 360 , while Electronic Arts British office in Chertsey worked on the PlayStation 3 version of the game . It was announced on September 7 , 2007 that the PlayStation 3 version of the game would be delayed because the development studio behind the game was in the United Kingdom , away from Valve 's development team , and therefore lagged behind in its schedule . Valve 's marketing director , Doug Lombardi , gave assurance that the Xbox 360 , PlayStation 3 , and PC versions of the game would be identical in functionality and performance .
= = = Audio = = =
Episode Two 's soundtrack was composed by Kelly Bailey , who also composed the music for the Half @-@ Life series ' other installments . The music is used sparingly throughout , played primarily during scenes of major plot development or particularly important action sequences , such as an early fight with a massive wave of Antlions or speeding down train tracks while being fired on by a helicopter . The soundtrack is included in the Russian edition of The Orange Box and is also sold separately . An audio commentary is also featured , as in Episode One and Lost Coast .
A notable change to the vocal cast is the inclusion of actor Tony Todd as the voice of the Vortigaunts . He replaces Louis Gossett , Jr. in the role . Actor Adam Baldwin voices several of the civilian and rebel NPCs , most notably the character who informs the player of the Striders ' locations in the penultimate chapter .
= = Reception = =
Half @-@ Life 2 : Episode 2 received critical acclaim . The game had an average score of 90 @.@ 68 % based on 22 reviews on the review aggregator GameRankings . On Metacritic , the game had an average score of 90 out of 100 , based on 21 reviews .
Dan Adams of IGN rated the game 9 @.@ 4 out of 10 and praised its improved visuals and expansive environments , but cited the short six @-@ hour length as a drawback . He said : " Any way you look at it , Episode Two stands out , even among the Half @-@ Life series , as something special ... a burly experience packed into roughly six hours or so that offers up all the diversity , level design , and thoughtful gameplay we 've known while making sure to propel the story forward and leave us wanting more . " Bit @-@ tech.net awarded the game a 10 out of 10 score , citing approval of how the story turns and the introduction of side stories and new characters . 1UP.com praised the game , noting that the game 's " entire five @-@ hour experience " was " vivid , emotionally engaging , and virtually unsurpassed . " PC Gamer UK also applauded Episode Two , noting it " is the most sumptuous chapter of the Half @-@ Life saga , and by a country mile . " The New York Times enjoyed the gameplay , saying , " The battles in Episode 2 of Half @-@ Life 2 often require as much ingenuity as they do fast reflexes . "
Computer and Video Games commented on the game 's graphics , saying that although the game 's engine was " starting to look its age , " its " wonderful art design and the odd bit of technical spit @-@ shine ensure that Episode Two [ ... ] doesn 't lose any of its wow factor . " They also noticed that the game " goes about fixing a lot of the niggling complaints we had about Episode One , " especially applauding the open forests and rocky hills from Episode Two .
Several reviewers noted shortcomings . The New York Times commented on the story for Episode Two , noting , " While it sows a few seeds for the final episode of the trilogy , the game lacks the driving force of the previous episode . " GameSpy criticized the game , saying it is " a little more inconsistent than its predecessors , " and that the opening segments of the game were " arguably the weakest " parts .
= Bay duiker =
The bay duiker ( Cephalophus dorsalis ) , also known as the black @-@ striped duiker and the black @-@ backed duiker , is a forest @-@ dwelling duiker native to western and southern Africa . It was first described by British zoologist John Edward Gray in 1846 . Two subspecies are identified . The bay duiker is reddish brown and has a moderate size . Both sexes reach 44 – 49 centimetres ( 17 – 19 in ) at the shoulder . The sexes do not vary considerably in their weights either ; the typical weight range for this duiker is 18 – 23 kilograms ( 40 – 51 lb ) . Both sexes possess a pair of spiky horns , measuring 5 – 8 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) . A notable feature of this duiker is the well @-@ pronounced solid stripe of black extending from the back of the head to the tail .
The bay duiker is a nocturnal animal . It tends to remain solitary , but pairs can also be observed . The leopard is the main predator of this duiker . The bay duiker mainly prefers fruits , but may also feed on animal matter such as bird eggs . Females may conceive by the age of eighteen months . Breeding occurs throughout the year . Gestation lasts for about 240 days , following which generally a single offspring is born . The lifespan of the bay duiker averages 17 to 18 years .
The bay duiker prefers old @-@ growth or primary forests . It has been historically overhunted across its range for bushmeat . The survival of the bay duiker is also threatened by human settlement and agricultural expansion due to this duiker 's preference for old @-@ growth forests , and habitat degradation . The bay duiker is , however , still a common duiker species , and is classified as Near Threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ( IUCN ) .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
The scientific name of the bay duiker is Cephalophus dorsalis . The bay duiker is classified under the genus Cephalophus and the family Bovidae . It was first described by British zoologist John Edward Gray in 1846 . The generic name probably comes from the combination of the New Latin word cephal , meaning head , and the Greek word lophos , meaning crest . The specific name dorsalis is a Latin word referring to the back surface of an object . The common name " duiker " comes from the Afrikaans word duik , or Dutch dūken ( both mean " diver " ) owing to the tendency of this antelope to seek cover in bushes . The bay duiker is also known as the black @-@ striped duiker and the black @-@ backed duiker .
A 2001 phylogenetic study divided Cephalophus into three distinct lineages : the giant duikers , east African red duikers and west African red duikers . The bay duiker was classified as a giant duiker along with the yellow @-@ backed duiker ( C. silvicultor ) , Abbott 's duiker ( C. spadix ) , and Jentink 's duiker ( C. jentinki ) . In 2012 , Anne R. Johnston ( of the University of Orleans ) and colleagues constructed a cladogram of the subfamily Cephalophinae ( duiker ) based on mitochondrial analysis . They showed that within the " giant duiker " group , the bay duiker formed a clade with Jentink 's duiker , and the zebra duiker is sister to this clade . Similarly , Abbott 's duiker and yellow @-@ backed duiker form a clade sister to Sylvicapra . The bay duiker and Jentink 's duiker probably evolved during the Pleistocene , less than 2 @.@ 5 million years ago .
Although it is possible that the species is monotypic , a 2003 paper identified two subspecies of the bay duiker :
C. d. dorsalis ( Gray , 1846 ) : Western bay duiker , found in western Africa
C. d. castaneus { Thomas , 1892 ) : Eastern bay duiker , found in central Africa
= = Description = =
The bay duiker is a moderately sized antelope ; the typical head @-@ and @-@ body length is 76 – 103 centimetres ( 30 – 41 in ) . Both sexes reach 44 – 49 centimetres ( 17 – 19 in ) at the shoulder . The sexes do not vary considerably in their weights either ; the typical weight range for this duiker is 18 – 23 kilograms ( 40 – 51 lb ) . Hence , sexual dimorphism in this species is not as remarkable as in other bovids , though females are often larger than males . The tail , black on the outside but white in the inner parts , is 9 – 11 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 3 in ) long . The tail of the eastern bay duiker terminates in a white tuft . Both sexes possess a pair of spiky horns , measuring 5 – 8 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) . Rowland Ward , however , recorded a maximum horn length of 12 @.@ 3 centimetres ( 4 @.@ 8 in ) from Yokadouma ( Cameroon ) . The horns of females are generally narrower .
Both sexes have a bright reddish brown coat . The ventral parts and the flanks are all reddish brown , and the legs dark brown . A notable feature of this duiker is the well @-@ pronounced solid stripe of black extending from the back of the head to the tail . This stripe is narrower in females . Due to its nocturnal nature , the bay duiker has large conspicuous eyes . Whiskers can be observed above the eyes and around the nostrils . The patches of white fur around the whiskers are in sharp contrast to the dark reddish face . Juveniles have a dark coat , that develops the stripes and chestnut to reddish brown colour gradually . The face is marked by a dark region from the nose to the forehead , separated from the rest of the face by two light brown furrows extending above or circling its eyes . Above the eyes and on the lips and chin white spots can be seen . The head has a diminutive crest ( a tuft of hair ) , and is dark brown . The eastern bay duiker is larger and heavier than the western bay duiker , with larger ears and darker colouration . The dorsal stripe is wider and lighter in colour in the eastern bay duiker .
The bay duiker is similar to several other duikers . The red duiker can not be readily distinguished from the bay duiker . Though Ogilby 's duiker resembles the bay duiker in size and pelage colour , the ventral side is paler and the dorsal stripe starts from the shoulders instead of the back of the head . Additionally , the body posture and horn characteristics of the two species differ to a large extent . The bay duiker as well as the Ogilby 's duiker are remarkably similar to the black duiker , except for the pelage colouration . The dorsal stripe of Peters 's duiker also begins at the shoulders but widens to cover the whole of the rump , as does the fainter stripe on the white @-@ bellied duiker . The bay duiker can be easily told apart from the black @-@ fronted duiker and Weyns 's duiker , that lack stripes .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
The bay duiker is a nocturnal animal , and consequently little is known of its behavioural patterns . During the day , the bay duiker rests against trees or in thickets . It tends to remain solitary , but pairs can also be observed . The bay duiker exhibits remarkable alertness . It depends heavily on its sense of smell for foraging and detecting potential danger . Individuals communicate through preorbital gland secretions and excrement . The leopard is the main predator of this duiker . Eagles and mandrills may also prey on the bay duiker . An alarmed individual becomes motionless , and might leap to flee .
= = = Diet = = =
The bay duiker mainly prefers fruits . It feeds on the large fruits of Irvingia species ( wild mango ) , Detarium macrocarpum and the spherical fruits of Mammea africana . Other fruits the duiker may eat are those of Ricinodendron heudelotii and oil @-@ palms , the orange ones of Chrysophyllum beguei , the olive @-@ like ones of Pseudospondias longifolia , the green plums of Panda oleosa and those of Cola rostrata , that resemble cocoa pods . The bay duiker extracts the pulp from the seeds , making a grating sound . If the seeds are large , the duiker spits them out . Smaller seeds such as those of Antrocaryon species may be ingested . A 1989 study found that the soft seeds of plants such as Drypetes gossweileri , Staudtia gabonensis , Dacryoides buettneri , Ongokea gore , Santiria trimera , Annonidium mannii and Pentaclethra macrophylla are preferred . There have been reports of the bay duiker preying on birds ( without feeding on the legs and wings ) and the embryo of unhatched eggs , carrion , remains of African porcupines and kusimanses , termites , beetles and ants . Dog food may serve as supplement for captive individuals .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Females may conceive by the age of eighteen months . Breeding occurs throughout the year , and no clear peaks are known . A study in Gabon recorded birth peaks before or during maximum abundance of fruits . In central Africa , births peak in January and February . Oestrus lasts for just eighteen hours . The rutting male pursues a female in oestrus continuously . The male might be humming and may move its foreleg outward . If receptive , the female will allow the male to mount by shifting her tail to a side .
Gestation lasts for about 240 days , following which generally a single offspring is born . The infant weighs nearly 1 @,@ 600 – 1 @,@ 690 grams ( 56 – 60 oz ) , and its coat is dark reddish brown . The brighter reddish brown to chestnut colour develops by five to six months . For the first few weeks after its birth , the infant is kept concealed in dense vegetation when the mother is away . The offspring can start taking solid food within a few weeks . Weaning occurs at around three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half months . The lifespan of the bay duiker averages 17 to 18 years .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The bay duiker prefers old @-@ growth or primary forests . Home ranges of females are around 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 4 square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 077 – 0 @.@ 154 sq mi ) large , and those of males are twice the size of those of females . This duiker formerly occurred in the lowland forested areas ( warm , moist rainforests ) of Guinea . Nowadays , the bay duiker can be found in moist forested islands and riparian forests in the savannas of Guinea and northeastern Sudan . The bay duiker is native to several countries in western and southern Africa : Angola , Cameroon , Central African Republic , The Democratic Republic of the Congo , Côte d 'Ivoire , Equatorial Guinea , Gabon , Ghana , Guinea , Guinea @-@ Bissau , Liberia , Nigeria , Sierra Leone and Togo . It is feared to be extinct in Uganda .
= = Threats and conservation = =
The bay duiker has been historically overhunted across its range for bushmeat . A 2007 study of the extinction of the bay duiker in the Ipassa Makokou Biosphere Reserve ( Gabon ) held overhunting responsible for the elimination of the species from the reserve . The survival of the bay duiker is also threatened by human settlement and agricultural expansion due to this duiker 's preference for old @-@ growth forests , and habitat degradation .
The habitat of the bay duiker has depleted to a large extent due to deforestation . The bay duiker , unlike the other duiker species , is still found in significant numbers , and is classified as Near Threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ( IUCN ) . The Washington Convention ( CITES ) enlists the species in Appendix II . In 1999 , Rod East of the IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group estimated the total population at 725 @,@ 000 . The most significant population occurs only in the Taï National Park ( Côte d 'Ivoire ) . Protected areas where bay duikers occur include : Sapo National Park ( Liberia ) ; Kakum National Park ( Ghana ) ; Campo Ma 'an National Park , Dja Faunal Reserve and Lobéké National Park ( Cameroon ) ; Dzanga @-@ Sangha Special Reserve and Bangassou ( Central African Republic ) ; Monte Alén National Park ( Equatorial Guinea ) ; Lopé National Park and Minkébé National Park ( Gabon ) ; Odzala National Park and Nouabalé @-@ Ndoki National Park ( Congo @-@ Brazzaville ) ; Ituri Rainforest , Kahuzi @-@ Biéga , Maiko and Salonga National Parks ( Congo @-@ Kinshasa ) .
= Len Boyd =
Leonard Arthur Miller " Len " Boyd ( 11 November 1923 − 14 February 2008 ) was an English professional footballer who played 333 games in the Football League in the 1940s and 1950s . After serving in the Royal Navy during the Second World War , Boyd signed for Second Division club Plymouth Argyle , where he spent two seasons playing as an inside forward . When he began playing as a wing half , a position to which he was better suited , he attracted attention , and soon secured a transfer to the First Division with Birmingham City for what was for Plymouth a record fee .
Though his club was soon relegated , Boyd established himself in the first team and was appointed captain . He was chosen to represent England at " B " international level . An industrious , dynamic player , described by his goalkeeper Gil Merrick as " a good player and a bloody good captain " , Boyd led the team to the championship of the Second Division in the 1954 – 55 season and to the FA Cup Final and sixth place in the league , still , as of 2013 , Birmingham 's record league placing , the following year . He played only once more for Birmingham , forced to retire by the back injury which had disrupted his final season with the club .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Boyd was born in Plaistow , east London . He played for the West Ham Schools team alongside Ken Green , who was later to be a Birmingham team @-@ mate , and as a youth played for Ilford F.C. The outbreak of the Second World War when Boyd was 15 delayed his entry into football as a career . He joined the Royal Navy , and while serving in Malta was spotted playing for a Navy team by a Plymouth Argyle supporter , who recommended him to the club . After a trial , Boyd signed professional forms in December 1945 .
He made his debut on 12 October 1946 , taking over at centre @-@ half from Alf Miller for a Second Division game away at Leicester City which Plymouth lost 4 – 1 . In his first season , Boyd played 16 league games , mainly in the inside left position , and scored four of his five Plymouth goals . He played regularly on the right side of the forward line in the following season , but failed to score , and was regarded as " a promising but not exceptional inside @-@ forward " . When manager Jack Tresadern switched him to right half for the 1948 – 49 season , it became clear he was better suited to that position . After three consecutive seasons helping the Devon club avoid relegation from the Second Division , Boyd was sold to First Division club Birmingham City in January 1949 for a fee of £ 17 @,@ 500 , the first five @-@ figure fee ever received by Plymouth for a player .
= = = Birmingham City = = =
He went straight into the first team as replacement for Frank Mitchell who had joined Chelsea earlier that month , and made his debut in a goalless draw away at Preston North End . In the 1949 – 50 season , his first full season with Birmingham , he established himself in the first team but was unable to prevent his new team 's relegation to the Second Division . When Fred Harris retired at the end of that season , manager Bob Brocklebank appointed Boyd as his successor as club captain , a post which he retained for the remainder of his Birmingham career .
Under Boyd 's captaincy Birmingham reached the semifinals of the 1950 – 51 FA Cup , when they were defeated by the powerful Blackpool side of Stanley Matthews and Stan Mortensen only after a replay . They twice came close to winning promotion , missing out by three points in the 1950 – 51 season and then on goal average the following year . Boyd 's performances were rewarded with selection for England B against Netherlands B , a match played in front of a crowd of 60 @,@ 000 at the Olympic Stadium in Amsterdam , but this , and a selection as reserve for a Football League representative side in 1954 , was as close as he came to full international honours .
Manager Brocklebank significantly strengthened Birmingham 's playing staff , but although the club nearly reached another semifinal in the 1952 – 53 FA Cup , losing in the sixth round to Tottenham Hotspur after two replays , their league results failed to improve . In late 1954 , Arthur Turner was appointed manager , and his ability to instil a positive approach in the players transformed a team stagnating in mid @-@ table into one needing to win the last game of the season , away at Doncaster Rovers , in order to be promoted as champions on goal average . Boyd led the team to a 5 – 1 win , later recalling :
The ground was packed and alive with supporters wearing the colours of Birmingham City . We knew we would win – and so too did those fans – and our performance that day was quite brilliant .
The same squad of players carried their promotion form into the 1955 – 56 season in the First Division , achieving the club 's highest league finish of sixth place , and reaching the FA Cup final . They became attractive to the media ; after the FA Cup semifinal victory , Boyd signed an exclusive contract committing himself and his team @-@ mates to appearing only on BBC programmes in the weeks leading up to the final .
Fellow wing half Roy Warhurst injured a thigh in the sixth round at Arsenal and played no further part in the season . Boyd himself had for some time been suffering from a debilitating back problem , and relied on injections to keep him playing ; he missed five of the last seven games of the season , but was passed fit on the Wednesday before the game . In the event , Boyd played , in Warhurst 's position at left @-@ half , and the 22 @-@ year @-@ old Johnny Newman came in on the right . With Warhurst missing and Boyd out of position and not fully match @-@ fit , Birmingham 's strength and balance was disrupted , leaving them particularly vulnerable to Manchester City 's unconventional style of play , known as the " Revie Plan " . At half @-@ time , a row erupted between the manager and some of the players , Boyd included , about their fitness ; in the second half , whether due to physical and mental exhaustion or the effects of the row , Birmingham were soundly beaten .
On their return to Birmingham , the team received a civic welcome ; Boyd told the thousands outside the Council House that the team felt they had let the supporters down . Though the crowd roared " No ! " , recriminations followed . Speaking fifty years later , goalkeeper Gil Merrick refused to attribute blame for the loss to Boyd 's lack of fitness :
The reason why we lost , in my opinion , was nothing to do with Boydy who some claimed was unfit . Why we didn 't perform in the second half was mainly because nothing was said in the dressing room at half time about stopping the damage caused by Don Revie . He was a good player and ran the game but at half time we should have talked about stopping him . Tackles should have been talked about , but they weren 't . It was a lack of tackles that caused us to fold in the second half , and that 's all I 'm going to say . Don 't put all the onus on Len Boyd . Len was a good player and a bloody good captain .
Boyd played only one more game for the club , two weeks after the Cup Final . Not risked in their first game in the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup , against Internazionale on a hard pitch in the San Siro , he played in their next , a 1 – 0 win against a Zagreb Select XI in Yugoslavia . Following a favourable specialist 's report during the close season , Boyd took part in pre @-@ season training , but his back still troubled him . On 17 August 1956 , the day before Birmingham were to open their 1956 – 57 League campaign , Boyd 's contract with the club was terminated at his own request .
= = Style of play = =
Boyd was a tall man with a long stride . He was hard @-@ working , combining industry with composure and skill on the ball . His dynamism was regularly mentioned ; The Times ' match report of the 1953 FA Cup sixth round replay against Tottenham Hotspur , a 2 – 2 draw in which Boyd scored the equalising goal and had his name taken , attributed Birmingham 's second @-@ half comeback to their captain 's performance :
And behind it all there was the constant driving force of Boyd , their captain , at right @-@ half . Boyd , in fact , one would say , was the final hero of a desperate day . Up in attack and back in defence he played a magnificent game to inspire and keep his colleagues going .
Against Arsenal in the 1956 cup run he was " a champion who covered every inch of Highbury 's mud , a dynamo and a man of steel " , and , later the same season , The Times ' correspondent wondered rhetorically " was there ever such a human dynamo at wing @-@ half ? "
Birmingham based their success of the 1950s on " their acutely drilled and disciplined defence – founded upon the authority of their half @-@ backs Boyd , Smith and Warhurst " , though these three did much more than protect their defenders .
... the towering young Smith , centre @-@ half in the England Intermediate ( Under 23 ) XI , is flanked by two men , Boyd and Warhurst , who keep the ball flowing forward quickly all the time . There are no superfluous frills about them . Their accent is on a quick release along the lines of longitude . They are the real driving force .
They acquired a fearsome reputation : Boyd himself once played four matches carrying an injury which turned out to be a hairline fracture of his leg . Team @-@ mate Alex Govan , preferring to describe Boyd as " hard , very hard " rather than a " dirty player " , recalled :
I used to think ' thank God I 'm playing in front of them and not against them ' ! Birmingham probably had the hardest defenders in the First Division in those days , with Len , Trevor Smith , Roy Warhurst , Jeff Hall and Ken Green – no one liked the idea of playing against them .
= = Life outside football = =
Boyd was married to Dolly , and had two children . He enjoyed oil @-@ painting as a hobby . According to Govan , " Len was a typical cockney really . He was hard on the pitch but soft off the field , he wouldn 't do anybody a bad turn . "
Boyd suffered from a fear of flying , which had on occasion caused difficulties in his football career . Chosen by the Birmingham County Football Association for a representative match in Hamburg in 1953 , the players were already at the airport when he requested to be omitted from the side . While his teammates flew to Birmingham 's Fairs Cup match in Milan , Boyd travelled across the English Channel by boat and then across France and into Italy by train .
When Boyd retired from professional football , the Birmingham City directors " had stated their readiness to help him in any venture he decided to take up " . He chose to enter the licensed trade , and kept a public house in Birmingham . Having once said that " if I can 't play in first @-@ class football , I don 't want to play any football at all " , after two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years out of the game he changed his mind . In early 1959 he attempted a comeback with Leicestershire side Hinckley Athletic , but found himself unable to play a full game . He remained involved with football for a few more years , acting as coach and scout for Redditch of the West Midlands ( Regional ) League between 1960 and 1965 . Settling in Melton Mowbray , Leicestershire , he went on to become one of the town 's first traffic wardens . In later life he moved into a care home in Melton , where he died in February 2008 at the age of 84 .
= = Honours = =
with Birmingham City
Football League Second Division champions : 1954 – 55
FA Cup finalists : 1956
= = Career statistics = =
= The Jersey Devil ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" The Jersey Devil " is the fifth episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on October 8 , 1993 . It was written by series creator Chris Carter , directed by Joe Napolitano , and featured guest appearances by Gregory Sierra , Wayne Tippit and Claire Stansfield . Although the episode is the series ' second " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story — after the earlier " Squeeze " — it was the first to have been written by Carter .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder and Scully investigate seemingly cannibalistic murders in New Jersey . The two later come across what seems to be an evolutionary relict which may have inspired tales of the Jersey Devil .
Chris Carter was inspired to write " The Jersey Devil " after reading an essay by E. O. Wilson regarding ants ; Carter , in turn , wrote a story that posed whether mankind was hellbent on its own extinction . The concept of mankind being carnivores and eating its own tail evolved into the idea of using an evolutionary mutation that was a throwback to the Neanderthal . The purpose of the scenes with Scully going on a date were to show the life she was passing on to work on the X @-@ Files and to open up Scully to the audience .
= = Plot = =
In New Jersey in 1947 , a man is attacked while fixing a flat tire on the road near the woods . His corpse is later found with his leg chewed off , and a hairy humanoid is killed nearby .
Back in present @-@ day Washington D.C. , Scully brings to Mulder 's attention news about a body found in New Jersey with its arm and shoulder missing . Upon arriving at the Atlantic City morgue , Scully and Mulder discover that the body was eaten by a human . However , the local detective , Thompson , denies the agents access to the investigation . Scully returns to Washington to attend her godson 's birthday party , while Mulder stays in New Jersey . At the party , Scully meets Rob , the divorced father of one of the guests . Meanwhile , Mulder questions homeless people about the case . A man shows him a drawing of a humanoid and tells him that he saw it and that the other homeless people and cops know about it . Mulder gives his hotel room key to the man and sleeps in the alley , where he sees a shadowy , human @-@ like creature . He chases the creature , but is arrested before he can catch it .
The next morning , Mulder calls Scully to come bail him out . Afterwards , Scully brings Mulder to meet with Dr. Diamond , a professor of anthropology at the University of Maryland , before going on a date with Rob . The local park ranger contacts Mulder after finding the corpse of a wild man in the woods who he believes could be the Jersey Devil . Scully and Mulder bring the ranger and Dr. Diamond to the morgue , where the body has mysteriously vanished . Mulder believes that the Jersey Devil they are hunting is actually the creature 's mate who has headed into Atlantic City in search of food after her mate 's death . The agents , along with the ranger and Dr. Diamond , search for the creature in an abandoned building . While they are searching the building , Detective Thompson arrives with a SWAT team .
Mulder spots the creature and chases after her . He is attacked by the creature , which wounds him before Scully scares her away . The creature then escapes into the woods . Scully , Mulder , Dr. Diamond and the ranger manage to find the creature , which again escapes after being shot with a tranquilizer dart . However , the SWAT team soon finds and kills her . Mulder asks Detective Thompson why he killed the creature ; he responds that it is the same reason one would kill a rabid animal . The autopsy reveals no prehistoric bone structure , although human bones are located within her digestive tract . The autopsies of the male and female creatures also reveals that they likely had children . Mulder leaves to talk to an ethnobiologist at the Smithsonian ; Scully turns down a second date with Rob to join him . Meanwhile in the woods , the child of the creatures appears , watching a father and son hiking .
= = Production = =
Writer and series creator Chris Carter decided that rather than trying to present a typical Bigfoot @-@ like creature , he would present the Jersey Devil as a missing link . Carter was inspired to write the episode by an essay by E. O. Wilson regarding ants and a story he wrote that posed whether mankind was hellbent on its own extinction . The concept of mankind being carnivores and eating its own tail evolved into the idea of using an evolutionary mutation that was a throwback to the Neanderthal . A Greg Cannom werewolf outfit from a previous project was used for the costume of the creature .
The purpose of the scenes with Scully going on a date were to show the life she was passing on to work on the X @-@ Files and to open up Scully to the audience . Carter explained that he " tried to develop a love interest for Scully only to heighten the sexual tension between her and Mulder " . The scenes with Mulder in Atlantic City were shot against a blue screen in Vancouver , with stock casino footage added in in post @-@ production .
During filming , Claire Stansfield , who played the titular creature , was intended to appear nude , necessitating several solutions to be found for different scenes — some were shot with the actress wearing a nude @-@ colored outfit , while others were shot with her hair tied in such a manner as to keep her breasts covered . Several scenes for the episode were filmed in a Vancouver mansion , which served as an office , town @-@ house and restaurant . This same mansion was used for exterior shots in the later first season episode " Fire " . The forest scenes were filmed in a remote area accessible only by large trucks , while all of the exterior city scenes were filmed in and around a sheet metal store .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Jersey Devil " premiered on the Fox network on October 8 , 1993 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on October 17 , 1994 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 6 @.@ 6 with a 12 share — meaning that in the US , 6 @.@ 6 percent of television @-@ equipped households , and 12 percent of all households actively watching television , were watching the program . It was viewed by 6 @.@ 2 million households .
In a retrospective of the first season in Entertainment Weekly , " The Jersey Devil " was rated a C , with the episode being called " corny " , and full of " needless philosophizing " ; it was noted however that the sub @-@ plot concerning Scully 's private life set the stage for the series ' future . Keith Phipps , writing for The A.V. Club , had mixed feeling about the episode , rating it a C. He felt that the scenes featuring Scully 's private life and Mulder speaking to a group of homeless people were effectively done , although the episode overall was " pretty silly " and took " a decent idea to a dead end " . Producer James Wong was critical of the episode , feeling that it " ran out of steam in the middle . It didn 't go anywhere ; there weren 't enough complications to it " , though he added that it had been " beautifully shot " .
= William S. Sadler =
William Samuel Sadler ( June 24 , 1875 – April 26 , 1969 ) was an American surgeon , self @-@ trained psychiatrist and author who helped publish The Urantia Book . The book is said to have resulted from Sadler 's relationship with a man through whom he believed celestial beings spoke at night . It drew a following of people who studied its teachings .
A native of Indiana , Sadler moved to Michigan as a teenager to work at the Battle Creek Sanitarium . There he met the physician and health @-@ food promoter John Harvey Kellogg , co @-@ inventor of corn flakes breakfast cereal , who became his mentor . Sadler married Kellogg 's niece , Lena Celestia Kellogg , in 1897 . He worked for several Christian organizations and attended medical school , graduating in 1906 . Sadler practiced medicine in Chicago with his wife , who was also a physician . He joined several medical associations and taught at the McCormick Theological Seminary . Although he was a committed member of the Seventh @-@ day Adventist Church for almost twenty years , he left the denomination after it disfellowshipped his wife 's uncle in 1907 . Sadler and his wife became speakers on the Chautauqua adult education circuit in 1907 , and he became a highly paid , popular orator . He eventually wrote over 40 books on a variety of medical and spiritual topics advocating a holistic approach to health . Sadler extolled the value of prayer and religion but was skeptical of mediums , assisting debunker Howard Thurston , and embraced the scientific consensus on evolution .
In 1910 , Sadler went to Europe and studied psychiatry for a year under Sigmund Freud . Sometime between 1906 and 1911 , Sadler attempted to treat a patient with an unusual sleep condition . While the patient was sleeping he spoke to Sadler and claimed to be an extraterrestrial . Sadler spent years observing the sleeping man in an effort to explain the phenomenon , and eventually decided the man had no mental illness and that his words were genuine . The man 's identity was never publicized , but speculation has focused on Sadler 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Wilfred Kellogg . Over the course of several years , Sadler and his assistants visited the man while he slept , conversing with him about spirituality , history , and cosmology , and asking him questions . A larger number of interested people met at Sadler 's home to discuss the man 's responses and to suggest additional questions . The man 's words were eventually published in The Urantia Book , and the Urantia Foundation was created to assist Sadler in spreading the book 's message . It is not known who wrote and edited the book , but several commentators have speculated that Sadler played a guiding role in its publication . Although it never became the basis of an organized religion , the book attracted followers who devoted themselves to its study , and the movement continued after Sadler 's death .
= = Early life and education = =
Sadler was born June 24 , 1875 , in Spencer , Indiana , to Samuel Cavins Sadler and Sarah Isabelle Wilson . Of English and Irish descent , he was raised in Wabash , Indiana . Samuel did not enroll his son in public schools . Despite his lack of formal education , Sadler read many books about history as a child and became a skilled public speaker at a young age . Samuel was a convert to the Seventh @-@ day Adventist Church , and William was baptized into the denomination in 1888 and became devoutly religious .
In 1889 , William Sadler moved to Battle Creek , Michigan , to work at the Battle Creek Sanitarium , where he served as a bellhop and helped in the kitchen . He also attended Battle Creek College for one year when he was 16 . Both institutions had strong ties to his church and Sadler was mentored by local Adventist businessman John Harvey Kellogg , who heavily influenced Sadler 's views . Sadler 's early writings about health are similar to ideas advanced by John Kellogg , including the concept of autointoxication , and the idea that caffeine has negative health effects . He similarly condemned the consumption of tobacco , meat , and alcohol . Although Sadler did drink later in his life .
Sadler graduated from Battle Creek College in 1894 and subsequently worked for John Kellogg 's brother , William K. Kellogg as a health @-@ food salesman . Sadler , a skilled salesman , persuaded William Kellogg to market his products through demonstrations in retail stores . In 1894 , he oversaw the establishment of Life Boat Mission , a mission that Kellogg founded on State Street in Chicago . Sadler operated the mission and published Life Boat Magazine ; its sales were intended to provide funds for Kellogg 's Chicago Medical Mission . Sadler also contributed articles to other Adventist publications , including the Review and Herald . Around 1895 , Sadler attended Moody Bible Institute in Chicago , Illinois , where he trained to be an evangelist , ultimately becoming an ordained minister in 1901 .
In 1897 , Sadler married John Kellogg 's niece , Lena Celestia Kellogg , a nurse whom he had met four years previously . Their first child , William , called Willis , born in 1899 , died a ten months later . Their second child , William S. Sadler Jr . , was born in 1907 . The couple had been interested in medicine for several years , but the loss of their child inspired them to pursue medical careers . In 1901 , they moved to San Francisco to attend medical school at Cooper Medical College . In San Francisco , he served as the " superintendent of young people 's work " for the church 's California conference and the president of a local Medical Missionary society . The couple also operated a home for Christian medical students . In 1904 , they returned to the Midwest , where they attended medical school , each earning a Doctor of Medicine degree two years later . Sadler was an early adopter of Freudian psychoanalysis , and believed that experiences individuals have as infants play a key role in their minds as adults , although he did not accept many of Freud 's ideas about sexuality or religion .
Although Sadler was a committed Adventist for much of his early life , he stayed less involved after John Kellogg was excommunicated in 1907 in the wake of a conflict with Ellen G. White , the church 's founder . The Sadlers became disenchanted with the church and subsequently criticized it . Sadler rejected some Adventist teachings , such as White 's status as a prophetess and the importance of Saturday as Sabbath . He retained a positive view of White and rejected allegations that she was a charlatan .
= = Career = =
By 1912 , Sadler and his wife , both doctors by then , operated a joint practice in Chicago that catered to children 's and women 's health issues . Sadler initially focused on surgery , performing surgeries with his wife , but widened his practice to include psychiatric counseling in 1930 and became a consulting psychiatrist at Columbus Hospital . As a psychiatrist , Sadler advocated an eclectic mix of techniques , applying the theories of Sigmund Freud , Carl Jung , Alfred Adler , and Adolf Meyer . Sadler believed that religious faith was beneficial to mental health , and specifically promoted prayer , which he believed to be most effective in the context of Christian faith . However , he thought that religious beliefs were deleterious to mental health if based on fear .
Sadler and his wife moved into an Art Nouveau @-@ style house — the first steel @-@ frame residence in Chicago — on Diversey Parkway in 1912 . The couple operated their medical practice in the building . He was a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and of medical associations including the American Medical Association , the American Psychiatric Association , the American Pathological Society , and the American College of Surgeons . Sadler was also a member of the faculty of McCormick Theological Seminary , and taught pastoral psychology . He argued that pastors should be educated in basic psychiatry so they could recognize symptoms of mental illness in congregants . His students later recalled him as an engaging and humorous public speaker .
Sadler wrote about many topics . In 1909 , he published his first book , an evangelical work , titled Self @-@ Winning Texts , or Bible Helps for Personal Work . In the 1910s , he regularly worked all night on his writing projects . In addition to 42 books , most of which were about personal health issues , he wrote magazine articles . Many of Sadler 's books focused on popular self @-@ help topics ; historian Jonathan Spiro deems Sadler 's The Elements of Pep a " quintessential book of the 1920s " . In 1936 , Sadler published Theory and Practice of Psychiatry , a 1 @,@ 200 @-@ page work in which he attempted to provide a comprehensive outline of psychiatry .
Sadler also wrote about race : he had an interest in eugenics , likely owing to Kellogg 's interest in the concept , and Madison Grant 's book The Passing of the Great Race . Sadler wrote several works about eugenics , endorsing and heavily borrowing from Grant 's views , which posited that the " Nordic race " was superior to others . In his writings , Sadler contended that some races were at a lower stage of evolution — closer to Neanderthals than were other races — and were consequently less civilized and more aggressive . Sadler argued that alcoholism and " feeblemindedness , insanity , and delinquency " were hereditary traits and that those who possessed them were breeding at a much faster rate than " superior human beings " . He feared that this issue could threaten the " civilization we bequeath our descendants " . He also believed that the majority of criminals were mentally ill .
In 1907 , Sadler began giving lectures on the Chautauqua adult @-@ education circuit , which featured itinerant speakers discussing self @-@ help and morality . Sadler often spoke about attaining physical and mental health without drugs . He also promoted hydrotherapy and discussed moral issues that related to men . Sadler , his wife , her sister , and a friend , formed a four @-@ member lecture company that gave two- or three @-@ day engagements , sometimes accompanied by an orchestra . Newspapers published favorable reviews of the productions . The lectures proved to be a lucrative endeavor : it was rumored that he became one of the best @-@ paid Chautauqua speakers .
Sadler believed that mediums were a source of false comfort and , after World War I ended , fought against the increased popularity of communication with the dead . In the 1910s and 1920s , attempting to expose purported clairvoyants became one of Sadler 's favorite pastimes and he regularly worked with a Northwestern University psychologist and Howard Thurston , then a prominent magician , while investigating psychics . Sadler may have met the magician Harry Houdini ( who was also a skeptic ) around this time .
= = Urantia revelation = =
According to the origin story of The Urantia Book , sometime between 1906 and 1911 , a woman consulted Sadler about her husband 's deep sleeping , prompting Sadler to observe him while he slept . He noticed that the sleeping man made unusual movements ; the man then purportedly spoke to Sadler in an unusual voice and claimed to be a " visitor ... from another planet " . Observers related that the man later claimed to carry messages from several celestial beings . Sadler suspected that the man 's words were drawn from his mind and sought a scientific explanation for the phenomenon . Although he examined the man for psychiatric problems , he was unable to make a satisfactory diagnosis . Sadler and five others subsequently visited the man on a regular basis , speaking with him as he slept . In 1925 , a large handwritten document was discovered in the patient 's house ; papers were said to appear in the house for years afterwards . Sadler brought the papers to his house and did not allow anyone to take them away , although some were allowed to read them on site . Sadler presumed that the documents were the product of automatic handwriting from the man 's subconscious , but changed his mind after further analysis . He made no public statements about their authenticity for years .
In 1924 , Sadler began hosting Sunday tea gatherings at his home , which could accommodate fifty guests . Many attendees worked in the medical establishment , and typically adhered to a progressive ideology . The group often held a forum to discuss the patient with the sleep issue and devise questions for him . The observers withheld the man 's name from the group , but relayed some of his statements . In 1925 , the forum , which then had thirty members , closed their meetings to visitors and began to require a pledge of secrecy . Sadler instructed forum members not to publicize what they learned , telling them that they had an incomplete picture of what was occurring . He also feared that the patient would face criticism if his identity were known . His identity has never been confirmed ; Joscelyn Godwin , of Colgate University , and skeptic Martin Gardner posit that the sleeping man was Wilfred Kellogg , the husband of Lena 's sister Anna .
In 1935 , Sadler concluded that the papers found in the sleeping patient 's house were not a hoax , citing their " genuineness and insight " , and arguing that the sleeping man was not a medium for the dead , but was used by living beings to communicate . Papers ceased appearing in the sleeping man 's house in the 1930s ; Sadler then took a clear role as leader of the discussion group . The forum discontinued their discussion meetings in 1942 , and The Urantia Book was published in 1955 ; it purportedly contained information from the celestial beings who had spoken through the sleeping man . The Urantia Book presents itself as the fifth " epochal " revelation God has given to humanity , and states that its purpose is to help humanity evolve to a higher form of life . It has four sections . The first section covers the nature of God and the universe , the second describes the portions of the universe nearest to Earth and Lucifer 's rebellion , the third details the history of Earth and human religions , and the fourth provides an account of Jesus 's life and accompanying doctrines . Sadler maintained that the teachings of the book were " essentially Christian " and " entirely harmonious with ... known scientific facts " . Although Sadler had left the Adventist church by the time The Urantia Book was published , its teachings are broadly consistent with some aspects of Adventist theology , such as soul sleep and annihilationism . Journalist Brook Wilensky @-@ Lanford argues in her 2011 profile of the Urantia movement that Sadler 's departure from the Adventist church gave him the desire to build a new religious movement , citing the emphasis that Sadler placed on the discussion of the Garden of Eden in The Urantia Book as evidence of his desire to start anew . Sadler hoped that the content of the revelation would convince people of its worth , and did not attempt to win supporters by emphasizing its author . Wilensky @-@ Lanford argues that Sadler attempted to avoid placing an individual at the center of his beliefs owing to his disappointment in Ellen White ; however , Gardner believes that Sadler placed his faith in Wilfred Kellogg as he had in White .
Until her death in 1939 , Sadler 's wife Lena was a regular forum participant . One member subsequently objected to Sadler 's leadership , alleging that he became hungry for power after his wife 's death . In the early 1950s , the Urantia Foundation was established to publish The Urantia Book . Hubert Wilkins , a friend of Sadler who had a keen interest in the book , contributed the initial funding for publication costs . Rather than create an organized religion , the foundation 's leadership opted for what they called " slow growth " ; early adherents sought to educate people about the book 's teachings rather than found a church @-@ like organization . Sadler also disavowed proselytizing and publicity , although he wrote several works about the content of The Urantia Book . In 1958 , Sadler published a defense of the book , citing his experience exposing frauds and maintaining that the book was free of contradictions . Since his death , several reading groups , seminars , and churches have been established to study the book and to spread its message .
The authorship of the Urantia papers is disputed . Journalist Brad Gooch argues in his 2002 profile of the Urantia movement that Sadler was the author of The Urantia Book , citing similarities between some of its passages and contents of Sadler 's earlier writings . Gardner believes that Sadler wrote part of the papers , but heavily edited and revised most of them . He also contends that Sadler refused to include some material provided to him for inclusion in the book , and that he plagiarized from other works . Ken Glasziou , a supporter of the Urantia Foundation , contends that statistical evidence of the text and Sadler 's other works indicates that he did not write , or extensively edit , The Urantia Book .
= = Final years = =
In 1952 , Sadler 's final book , Courtship and Love , was published by Macmillan Publishers . He wrote another title , A Doctor Talks With His Patient , but after it was rejected by a publisher , he decided to stop writing . In March 1957 , Sadler was appointed as the superintendent of Barboursville State Hospital in Barboursville , West Virginia , where he stayed until July 1958 .
As he grew older , Sadler generally remained in good health , with the exception of a condition that led to the removal of an eye . He died on April 26 , 1969 , at 93 years of age . Christensen recalls that Sadler was visited by friends and family while on his deathbed ; he spoke to them of his confidence in a joyful life after death . He received a full @-@ column obituary in the Chicago Tribune , which discussed his success as a doctor but not his association with The Urantia Book .
= = Reception = =
By the time of his death , Sadler was acclaimed for his accurate prediction of the advent of organ transplantation decades before the practice became commonplace . Members of the Urantia movement have also held high opinions of Sadler , sometimes idolizing him . In her 2003 profile of the Urantia movement , Lewis states that descriptions of Sadler by members of the movement could suggest that he possessed charismatic authority and is revered as " the chosen " . Gooch deems Sadler the " Moses of the Urantia movement " and casts him as " one of America 's homegrown religious leaders , an original along the lines of Joseph Smith " . He also applauds Sadler 's writings about mediums , describing Sadler 's book The Truth About Spiritualism as " one of the strongest attacks ever written on fraudulent mediums and their methods " .
Gooch believes there is a contradiction between Sadler 's advocacy of science and reason and his support of the avant @-@ garde theological , " inter @-@ planetary " contents of The Urantia Book . Gardner describes Sadler 's life story as " riveting " and summarizes him as an " intelligent , gifted " person who proved to be " gullible " about alleged supernatural revelations . He contends that Sadler eventually developed megalomania that was unrecognized by those around him and argues that Sadler succumbed to hubris and began to believe that he was a prophet , divinely chosen as the founder and leader of a new religion . Lewis disputes this characterization , maintaining that Sadler and those around him sought only to clarify and explain the teachings of the Bible .
= = Selected works = =
— — ( 1909 ) . Self @-@ Winning Texts , or Bible Helps for Personal Work . Central Bible Supply Company . OCLC 5579892 .
— — ( 1914 ) . Worry and nervousness : or , The Science of Self @-@ Mastery . A. C. McClurg . OCLC 14780503 .
— — ( 1915 ) . Physiology of Faith and Fear , or , The Mind in Health and Disease . A. C. McClurg . OCLC 19675023 .
— — ( 1918 ) . Long heads and round heads ; or , What 's the matter with Germany . A.C. McClurg . OCLC 6456079 .
— — ( 1922 ) . Race Decadence . A. C. McClurg . OCLC 373314 .
— — ( 1925 ) . The Elements of Pep . American Publishers Corporation . OCLC 11462621 .
— — ( 1929 ) . The Mind at Mischief . Funk and Wagnalls . OCLC 717887 .
— — ( 1936 ) . Theory and Practice of Psychiatry . Mosby . OCLC 1377525 .
— — ( 1938 ) . Living a Sane Sex Life . American Publishers Corporation . OCLC 5131693 .
— — ( 1945 ) . Modern Psychiatry . Mosby . OCLC 488958227 .
— — ( 1952 ) . Courtship and Love . Macmillan . OCLC 1454173 .
= Fountain of the Great Lakes =
Fountain of the Great Lakes or Spirit of the Great Lakes Fountain is an allegorical sculpture by Lorado Taft in the Art Institute of Chicago South Stanley McCormick Memorial Court south of the Art Institute of Chicago Building in the Loop community area of Chicago in Cook County , Illinois , United States . It is a bronze work of art created between 1907 @-@ 1913 . The fountain depicts five women arranged so that the water flows through them in the same way water passes through the Great Lakes . Note that the Great Lakes waterflow starts in Lake Superior at 600 feet ( 180 m ) above sea level and continues eastward through each lake until it reaches Lake Ontario and then passes into the St. Lawrence River . The Fountain is one of Taft 's best known works .
The fountain was originally installed facing south where it remained until 1963 when it was moved next to the Morton Wing addition facing west where it sits today . In its original location it was visible from the Jackson and Michigan Avenue intersection once known as " route center " to the south . The fountain was commissioned by the Benjamin Ferguson fund and one surface references the title B. F. Ferguson Fountain of the Great Lakes . There is a relief sculpture of Benjamin Ferguson on the rear panel that has been hidden from view since the fountain was moved .
As the first commission from the Ferguson Fund , it experienced various funding delays . Additionally , the legal environment for land use in Grant Park was in flux at the time the commission was made , which caused delays in location selection . Once erected , the fountain received largely positive reviews , but a few critics questioned symbolism of the sculpture . Others were caught up in sociopolitical subtexts of the day , with regard to obscenity laws as it related to public art and this semi @-@ nude work .
= = Background = =
Benjamin Ferguson 's 1905 $ 1 million charitable trust gift to " memorialize events in American History " funded The Fountain , and many other public works in Chicago . As the city attempted to determine a policy for the fund 's use , Taft argued for fountains , allegorical statuary , discreetly placed portrait busts , and the adornment of bridges and park entrances in order to create long @-@ lasting beauty in addition to supporting the style of art he pursued . By September 1905 his name was linked in the press to the fund as a possible deserving recipient of its first commission . During the 1905 – 1906 year he began to place greater emphasis on sculpture in the classes he taught at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago , while simultaneously refining earlier allegorical .
The fountain is Taft 's response to Daniel Burnham 's complaint at the Columbian Exposition in 1893 that the sculptors charged with ornamenting the fairgrounds failed to produce anything that represented the great natural resources of the west , especially the Great Lakes . In Spring 1902 , Taft had assigned his students a work entitled Spirit of the Great Lakes . Five women had molded individual figures in response to an assignment and joined them in a tiered group with an imagined waterflow from the containers that they held . By mid @-@ January 1906 , Taft cast a plaster version , which he exhibited to Ferguson Fund Trestee Charles L. Hitchinson on January 17 at Taft 's Midway Studios . By the end of January , The Art Institute of Chicago displayed the work during its annual local works exhibition . It gained support during its four @-@ week display and won the Chicago Municipal Art League top sculpture award , and along with two other bust works he won the Society of Chicago Artists ' Medal for general excellence . The Municipal art League exhibition Chairperson , Mrs. William F. Grower , decided to form a subcommittee to help satisfy public support for the work to be the first Ferguson fund commission . However , even after the probate court released the bequest to the trustees on May 23 , 1906 , no commission was made because the trustees were undecided between a statuary and a portrait commission .
Additionally , Grant Park has been protected since 1836 by " forever open , clear and free " legislation that has been affirmed by several Illinois Supreme Court rulings . Aaron Montgomery Ward twice sued the city of Chicago to force it to remove buildings and structures from Grant Park and to keep it from building new ones . The second suit was still pending in 1906 and the legal cloud regarding deliberations of architectural limitations in Grant Park caused inaction . While the trustees remained silent , Taft sought wider public support by publishing a picture of Spirit of the Great Lakes in Century Magazine , which drew interest from Buffalo , New York as a host of the final work . By February 1907 , Buffalo Illustrated Times published a cover with an image of the work and a caption describing the anticipation of the Beautifying Buffalo Society for obtaining the work for the city . However , by the end of 1907 Taft and his connections with the Trust Fund resolved his commission .
On October 31 , 1907 , the Ferguson Trust Board voted Taft a commission , and on December 16 , he signed a $ 38 @,@ 000 contract to commence work . The commission was the first commission from the Ferguson fund . Despite the financial agreement it would be some time before a determination of a site for the work . Ward 's suit continued to loom over the deliberations . One proposal was to locate it in Grant Park south of the Art Institute and another was to locate it at the 35th Street and Grand Boulevard ( Now Martin Luther King , Jr . Drive ) intersection that now hosts the Chicago Landmark and National Register of Historic Places @-@ listed Victory Monument . The 1909 Art Institute annual report mentioned a proposal for a sunken garden with a focal fountain south of the Institute . Legal issues regarding land use intensified in 1910 , and the Art Institute began to make modest plans for the fountain almost attached to the south wall of its own building . For the next few years there was little mention of the fountain as Taft focused on other work . Then in May 1913 , the fountain model at Taft 's Midway Studios was disassembled and taken to Jules Berchem 's foundry for bronze casting . Shepley , Rutan and Coolidge designed the base for the sculpture . It was subsequently assembled by mid @-@ August in preparation for a September 9 , 1913 dedication date .
In 1963 with the construction of the new Morton wing of the Art Institute of Chicago Building , the fountain was moved from its south facing position adjacent to the original building that was visible from the Historic Michigan Boulevard District to the west wall of the new wing in a position facing westward . The sculpture was positioned so that the plaque on the back , which reads that the " fund must be used for erecting and maintaining enduring statuary and monuments " , is no longer legible .
Although Taft is now better remembered for his books such as The History of American Sculpture , which is regarded as the first comprehensive work on the subject in the title , he was in his day well known for portraits and allegorical public sculpture , especially public fountains . The fountain was produced in the period following his assignment to design sculptures for William Le Baron Jenney 's Horticultural Building when he designed several large @-@ scale public works , including Fountain of Time .
At the time of the dedication , Taft described the Ferguson Fund commission to sculpt the fountain as a turning point in his career that led to increased publicity , more commissions , and growing recognition in the community , which combined to give him the encouragement for further commitment to the arts . He hoped that the Fountain of the Great Lakes would mark a new era of civic beautification and that it would also mark the beginning of the Chicago school of sculpture . The dream that Chicago would be the epicenter of the sculpting universe had been bred during the World 's Columbian Exposition twenty years earlier and rekindled with the Ferguson bequest . Fountain of the Great Lakes was a major career accomplishment for Taft , which propelled him beyond the level of a portraitist .
= = Critical response = =
The general opinion of Fountain of the Great Lakes was positive with some describing it as a cultural achievement for Taft and Chicago . The detractors conceded that as a figural composition , it was ideal in an Old World way . Critics voiced concern over the sculpture 's confusion and decorum . One of the basic problems for the critics was the propriety of the symbolism of artistic and attractive bronze figures posed as bodies of water . There had for some time been discussion of the depictions representing relative elevations and the flows of the waters as they seem to do . There were grumblings for closer association of the figures to the lakes by use of physical features , directional orientation and definite contours . Harriet Monroe , a general supporter of Taft 's artistic efforts , was disappointed in the lack of representative geographic configuration and the lack of spirit of the lakes as inland seas . With respect to this specific piece she had gone from being an ardent supporter who felt the model was " stupendous " to finding herself in " doubt " about the work . Taft 's human form depictions of the lake failed to capture the imagery of contemporary literature as it related to the power and fury of nature and the heroism of those struggling against those forces in works such as those of Hamlin Garland , Charles Eugene Banks , Willa Cather , or Robert Morss Lovett . Taft '
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found in the Nile valley from Wadi Halfa south to Renk in northern South Sudan , and in eastern Sudan , northern Ethiopia to the Red Sea coast in Eritrea . It has also been introduced to Mohéli in the Comoros .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The house sparrow originated in the Middle East and spread , along with agriculture , to most of Eurasia and parts of North Africa . Since the mid @-@ nineteenth century , it has reached most of the world , chiefly due to deliberate introductions , but also through natural and shipborne dispersal . Its introduced range encompasses most of North America , Central America , southern South America , southern Africa , part of West Africa , Australia , New Zealand , and islands throughout the world . It has greatly extended its range in northern Eurasia since the 1850s , and continues to do so , as was shown by the colonisations around 1990 of Iceland and Rishiri Island , Japan . The extent of its range makes it the most widely distributed wild bird on the planet .
= = = Introductions = = =
The house sparrow has become highly successful in most parts of the world where it has been introduced . This is mostly due to its early adaptation to living with humans , and its adaptability to a wide range of conditions . Other factors may include its robust immune response , compared to the Eurasian tree sparrow . Where introduced , it can extend its range quickly , sometimes at a rate of over 230 km ( 140 mi ) per year . In many parts of the world it has been characterised as a pest , and poses a threat to native birds . A few introductions have died out or been of limited success , such as those to Greenland and Cape Verde .
The first of many successful introductions to North America occurred when birds from England were released in New York City , in 1852 in order to control the ravages of the linden moth . The house sparrow now occurs from the Northwest Territories to southern Panama , and it is one of the most abundant birds in North America . The house sparrow was first introduced to Australia in 1863 at Melbourne and is common throughout the eastern part of the continent , but has been prevented from establishing itself in Western Australia , where every house sparrow found in the state is killed . House sparrows were introduced in New Zealand in 1859 , and from there reached many of the Pacific islands , including Hawaii .
In southern Africa birds of both the European subspecies domesticus and the Indian subspecies indicus were introduced around 1900 . Birds of domesticus ancestry are confined to a few towns , while indicus birds have spread rapidly , reaching Tanzania in the 1980s . Despite this success , native relatives such as the Cape sparrow also occur in towns , competing successfully with it . In South America , it was first introduced near Buenos Aires around 1870 , and quickly became common in most of the southern part of the continent . It now occurs almost continuously from Tierra del Fuego to the fringes of Amazonia , with isolated populations as far north as coastal Venezuela .
= = = Habitat = = =
The house sparrow is closely associated with human habitation and cultivation . It is not an obligate commensal of humans as some have suggested : Central Asian house sparrows usually breed away from humans in open country , and birds elsewhere are occasionally found away from humans . The only terrestrial habitats that the house sparrow does not inhabit are dense forest and tundra . Well adapted to living around humans , it frequently lives and even breeds indoors , especially in factories , warehouses and zoos . It has been recorded breeding in an English coal mine 640 m ( 2 @,@ 100 ft ) below ground , and feeding on the Empire State Building 's observation deck at night . It reaches its greatest densities in urban centres , but its reproductive success is greater in suburbs , where insects are more abundant . On a larger scale , it is most abundant in wheat @-@ growing areas such as the Midwestern United States .
It tolerates a variety of climates , but prefers drier conditions , especially in moist tropical climates . It has several adaptations to dry areas , including a high salt tolerance and an ability to survive without water by ingesting berries . In most of eastern Asia the house sparrow is entirely absent , replaced by the Eurasian tree sparrow . Where these two species overlap , the house sparrow is usually more common than the Eurasian tree sparrow , but one species may replace the other in a manner that ornithologist Maud Doria Haviland described as " random , or even capricious " . In most of its range the house sparrow is extremely common , despite some declines , but in marginal habitats such as rainforest or mountain ranges , its distribution can be spotty .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Social behaviour = = =
The house sparrow is a very social bird . It is gregarious at all seasons when feeding , often forming flocks with other types of bird . It roosts communally , its nests are usually grouped together in clumps , and it engages in social activities such as dust or water bathing and " social singing " , in which birds call together in bushes . The house sparrow feeds mostly on the ground , but it flocks in trees and bushes . At feeding stations and nests , female house sparrows are dominant despite their smaller size , and in the reproductive period ( usually spring or summer ) , being dominant , they can fight for males .
= = = Sleep and roosting = = =
House sparrows sleep with the bill tucked underneath the scapular feathers . Outside of the reproductive season , they often roost communally in trees or shrubs . There is much communal chirping before and after the birds settle in the roost in the evening , as well as before the birds leave the roost in the morning . Some congregating sites separate from the roost may be visited by the birds prior to settling in for the night .
= = = Body maintenance = = =
Dust or water bathing is common and often occurs in groups . Anting is rare . Head scratching is done with the leg over the drooped wing .
= = = Feeding = = =
As an adult , the house sparrow mostly feeds on the seeds of grains and weeds , but it is opportunistic and adaptable , and eats whatever foods are available . In towns and cities it often scavenges for food in garbage containers and congregates in the outdoors of restaurants and other eating establishments to feed on leftover food and crumbs . It can perform complex tasks to obtain food , such as opening automatic doors to enter supermarkets , clinging to hotel walls to watch vacationers on their balconies , and nectar robbing kowhai flowers . In common with many other birds , the house sparrow requires grit to digest the harder items in its diet . Grit can be either stone , often grains of masonry , or the shells of eggs or snails ; oblong and rough grains are preferred .
Several studies of the house sparrow in temperate agricultural areas have found the proportion of seeds in its diet to be about 90 % . It will eat almost any seeds , but where it has a choice , it prefers oats and wheat . In urban areas , the house sparrow feeds largely on food provided directly or indirectly by humans , such as bread , though it prefers raw seeds . The house sparrow also eats some plant matter besides seeds , including buds , berries , and fruits such as grapes and cherries . In temperate areas , the house sparrow has an unusual habit of tearing flowers , especially yellow ones , in the spring .
Animals form another important part of the house sparrow 's diet , chiefly insects , of which beetles , caterpillars , dipteran flies , and aphids are especially important . Various non @-@ insect arthropods are eaten , as are molluscs and crustaceans where available , earthworms , and even vertebrates such as lizards and frogs . Young house sparrows are fed mostly on insects until about fifteen days after hatching . They are also given small quantities of seeds , spiders , and grit . In most places , grasshoppers and crickets are the most abundant foods of nestlings . True bugs , ants , sawflies , and beetles are also important , but house sparrows will take advantage of whatever foods are abundant to feed their young . House sparrows have been observed stealing prey from other birds , including American robins .
= = = Locomotion = = =
The house sparrow 's flight is direct ( not undulating ) and flapping , averaging 45 @.@ 5 kilometres per hour ( 28 @.@ 3 miles per hour ) and about 15 wingbeats per second . On the ground , the house sparrow typically hops rather than walks . It can swim when pressed to do so , by pursuit from predators . Captive birds have been recorded diving and swimming short distances underwater .
= = = Dispersal and migration = = =
Most house sparrows do not move more than a few kilometres during their lifetime . However , there is limited migration in all regions . Some young birds disperse long distances , especially on coasts , and mountain birds move to lower elevations in winter . Two subspecies , bactrianus and parkini , are predominantly migratory . Unlike the birds in sedentary populations that migrate , birds of migratory subspecies prepare for migration by putting on weight .
= = = Breeding = = =
House sparrows can breed in the breeding season immediately following their hatching , and sometimes attempt to do so . Some birds breeding for the first time in tropical areas are only a few months old and still have juvenile plumage . Birds breeding for the first time are rarely successful in raising young , and reproductive success increases with age , as older birds breed earlier in the breeding season , and fledge more young . As the breeding season approaches , hormone releases trigger enormous increases in the size of the sexual organs and changes in day length lead males to start calling by nesting sites . The timing of mating and egg @-@ laying varies geographically , and between specific locations and years . This is because a sufficient supply of insects is needed for egg formation and feeding nestlings .
Males take up nesting sites before the breeding season , by frequently calling beside them . Unmated males start nest construction and call particularly frequently to attract females . When a female approaches a male during this period , the male displays by moving up and down while drooping and shivering his wings , pushing up his head , raising and spreading his tail , and showing his bib . Males may try to mate with females while calling or displaying . In response , a female will adopt a threatening posture and attack a male before flying away , pursued by the male . The male displays in front of her , attracting other males , who also pursue and display to the female . This group display usually does not immediately result in copulations . Other males usually do not copulate with the female . Copulation is typically initiated by the female giving a soft dee @-@ dee @-@ dee call to the male . Birds of a pair copulate frequently until the female is laying eggs , and the male mounts the female repeatedly each time a pair mates .
The house sparrow is monogamous , and typically mates for life . Birds from pairs often engage in extra @-@ pair copulations , so about 15 % of house sparrow fledglings are unrelated to their mother 's mate . Male house sparrows guard their mates carefully to avoid being cuckolded , and most extra @-@ pair copulation occurs away from nest sites . Males may sometimes have multiple mates , and bigamy is mostly limited by aggression between females . Many birds do not find a nest and a mate , and instead may serve as helpers around the nest for mated pairs , a role which increases the chances of being chosen to replace a lost mate . Lost mates of both sexes can be replaced quickly during the breeding season . The formation of a pair and the bond between the two birds is tied to the holding of a nest site , though paired house sparrows can recognise each other away from the nest .
= = = = Nesting = = = =
Nest sites are varied , though cavities are preferred . Nests are most frequently built in the eaves and other crevices of houses . Holes in cliffs and banks , or tree hollows , are also used . A sparrow sometimes excavates its own nests in sandy banks or rotten branches , but more frequently uses the nests of other birds such as those of swallows in banks and cliffs , and old tree cavity nests . It usually uses deserted nests , though sometimes it usurps active ones . Tree hollows are more commonly used in North America than in Europe , putting the sparrows in competition with bluebirds and other North American cavity nesters , and thereby contributing to their population declines .
Especially in warmer areas , the house sparrow may build its nests in the open , on the branches of trees , especially evergreens and hawthorns , or in the nests of large birds such as storks or magpies . In open nesting sites , breeding success tends to be lower , since breeding begins late and the nest can easily be destroyed or damaged by storms . Less common nesting sites include street lights and neon signs , favoured for their warmth ; and the old open @-@ topped nests of other songbirds , which are then domed over .
The nest is usually domed , though it may lack a roof in enclosed sites . It has an outer layer of stems and roots , a middle layer of dead grass and leaves , and a lining of feathers , as well as of paper and other soft materials . Nests typically have external dimensions of 20 × 30 cm ( 8 × 12 in ) , but their size varies greatly . The building of the nest is initiated by the unmated male while displaying to females . The female assists in building , but is less active than the male . Some nest building occurs throughout the year , especially after moult in autumn . In colder areas house sparrows build specially created roost nests , or roost in street lights , to avoid losing heat during the winter . House sparrows do not hold territories , but they defend their nests aggressively against intruders of the same sex .
House sparrows ' nests support a wide range of scavenging insects , including nest flies such as Neottiophilum praestum , Protocalliphora blowflies , and over 1 @,@ 400 species of beetle .
= = = = Eggs and young = = = =
Clutches usually comprise four or five eggs , though numbers from one to ten have been recorded . At least two clutches are usually laid , and up to seven a year may be laid in the tropics or four a year in temperate latitudes . When fewer clutches are laid in a year , especially at higher latitudes , the number of eggs per clutch is greater . Central Asian house sparrows , which migrate and have only one clutch a year , average 6 @.@ 5 eggs in a clutch . Clutch size is also affected by environmental and seasonal conditions , female age , and breeding density .
Some intraspecific brood parasitism occurs , and instances of unusually large numbers of eggs in a nest may be the result of females laying eggs in the nests of their neighbours . Such foreign eggs are sometimes recognised and ejected by females . The house sparrow is a victim of interspecific brood parasites , but only rarely , since it usually uses nests in holes too small for parasites to enter , and it feeds its young foods unsuitable for young parasites . In turn , the house sparrow has once been recorded as a brood parasite of the American cliff swallow .
The eggs are white , bluish @-@ white , or greenish @-@ white , spotted with brown or grey . Subelliptical in shape , they range from 20 to 22 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 to 0 @.@ 87 in ) in length and 14 to 16 mm ( 0 @.@ 55 to 0 @.@ 63 in ) in width , have an average mass of 2 @.@ 9 g ( 0 @.@ 10 oz ) , and an average surface area of 9 @.@ 18 cm2 ( 1 @.@ 423 in2 ) . Eggs from the tropical subspecies are distinctly smaller . Eggs begin to develop with the deposition of yolk in the ovary a few days before ovulation . In the day between ovulation and laying , egg white forms , followed by eggshell . Eggs laid later in a clutch are larger , as are those laid by larger females , and egg size is hereditary . Eggs decrease slightly in size from laying to hatching . The yolk comprises 25 % of the egg , the egg white 68 % , and the shell 7 % . Eggs are watery , being 79 % liquid , and otherwise mostly protein .
The female develops a brood patch of bare skin and plays the main part in incubating the eggs . The male helps , but can only cover the eggs rather than truly incubate them . The female spends the night incubating during this period , while the male roosts near the nest . Eggs hatch at the same time , after a short incubation period lasting 11 – 14 days , and exceptionally for as many as 17 or as few as 9 . The length of the incubation period decreases as ambient temperature increases later in the breeding season .
Young house sparrows remain in the nest for 11 to 23 days , normally 14 to 16 days . During this time , they are fed by both parents . As newly hatched house sparrows do not have sufficient insulation they are brooded for a few days , or longer in cold conditions . The parents swallow the droppings produced by the hatchlings during the first few days ; later , the droppings are moved up to 20 m ( 66 ft ) away from the nest .
The chicks ' eyes open after about four days and , at an age of about eight days , the young birds get their first down . If both parents perish , the ensuing intensive begging sounds of the young will often attract replacement parents who feed them until they can sustain themselves . All the young in the nest leave it during the same period of a few hours . At this stage they are normally able to fly . They start feeding themselves partly after one or two days , and sustain themselves completely after 7 to 10 days , 14 at the latest .
= = Survival = =
In adult house sparrows , annual survival is 45 – 65 % . After fledging and leaving the care of their parents , young sparrows have a high mortality rate , which lessens as they grow older and more experienced . Only about 20 – 25 % of birds hatched survive to their first breeding season . The oldest known wild house sparrow lived for nearly two decades ; it was found dead 19 years and 9 months after it was ringed in Denmark . The oldest recorded captive house sparrow lived for 23 years . The typical ratio of males to females in a population is uncertain due to problems in collecting data , but a very slight preponderance of males at all ages is usual .
= = = Predation = = =
The house sparrow 's main predators are cats and birds of prey , but many other animals prey on them , including corvids , squirrels , and even humans — the house sparrow has been consumed in the past by people in many parts of the world , and it still is in parts of the Mediterranean . Most species of bird of prey have been recorded preying on the house sparrow in places where there are extensive records . Accipiters and the merlin in particular are major predators , though cats are likely to have a greater impact on house sparrow populations . The house sparrow is also a common victim of roadkill ; on European roads , it is the bird most frequently found dead .
= = = Parasites and disease = = =
The house sparrow is host to a huge number of parasites and diseases , and the effect of most is unknown . Ornithologist Ted R. Anderson listed thousands , noting that his list was incomplete . The commonly recorded bacterial pathogens of the house sparrow are often those common in humans , and include Salmonella and Escherichia coli . Salmonella is common in the house sparrow , and a comprehensive study of house sparrow disease found it in 13 % of sparrows tested . Salmonella epidemics in the spring and winter can kill large numbers of sparrows . The house sparrow hosts avian pox and avian malaria , which it has spread to the native forest birds of Hawaii . Many of the diseases hosted by the house sparrow are also present in humans and domestic animals , for which the house sparrow acts as a reservoir host . Arboviruses such as the West Nile virus , which most commonly infect insects and mammals , survive winters in temperate areas by going dormant in birds such as the house sparrow . There are a few records of disease extirpating house sparrow populations , especially from Scottish islands , but this seems to be rare .
The house sparrow is infested by a number of external parasites , which usually cause little harm to adult sparrows . In Europe , the most common mite found on sparrows is Proctophyllodes , the most common ticks are Argas reflexus and Ixodes arboricola , and the most common flea on the house sparrow is Ceratophyllus gallinae . A number of chewing lice occupy different niches on the house sparrow 's body . Menacanthus lice occur across the house sparrow 's body , where they feed on blood and feathers , while Brueelia lice feed on feathers and Philopterus fringillae occurs on the head .
= = Physiology = =
House sparrows express strong circadian rhythms of activity in the laboratory . They were among the first bird species to be seriously studied in terms of their circadian activity and photoperiodism , in part because of their availability and adaptability in captivity , but also because they can " find their way " and remain rhythmic in constant darkness . Such studies have found that the pineal gland is a central part of the house sparrow 's circadian system : removal of the pineal eliminates the circadian rhythm of activity , and transplant of the pineal into another individual confers to this individual the rhythm phase of the donor bird . The suprachiasmatic nuclei of the hypothalamus have also been shown to be an important component of the circadian system of house sparrows . The photoreceptors involved in the synchronisation of the circadian clock to the external light @-@ dark cycle are located in the brain and can be stimulated by light reaching them directly though the skull , as revealed by experiments in which blind sparrows , which normally can still synchronise to the light @-@ dark cycle , failed to do so once India ink was injected as a screen under the skin on top of their skull .
Similarly , even when blind , house sparrows continue to be photoperiodic , i.e. show reproductive development when the days are long but not when the days are short . This response is stronger when the feathers on top of the head are plucked , and is eliminated when India ink is injected under the skin at the top of the head , showing that the photoreceptors involved in the photoperiodic response to daylength are located inside the brain .
House sparrows have also been used in studies of nonphotic entrainment ( i.e. synchronisation to an external cycle other than light and dark ) : for example , in constant darkness , a situation in which the birds would normally reveal their endogenous , non @-@ 24 @-@ hour , " free @-@ running " rhythms of activity , they instead show 24 @-@ hour periodicity if they are exposed to two hours of chirp playbacks every 24 hours , matching their daily activity onsets with the daily playback onsets . House sparrows in constant dim light can also be entrained to a daily cycle based on the presence of food . Finally , house sparrows in constant darkness can be entrained to a cycle of high and low temperature , but only if the difference between the two temperatures is large ( 38 versus 6 degrees Celsius ) ; some of the tested sparrows matched their activity to the warm phase , and others to the cold phase .
= = Relationships with humans = =
The house sparrow is closely associated with humans . They are believed to have become associated with humans around 10 @,@ 000 years ago . Subspecies bactrianus is least associated with humans and considered to be evolutionarily closer to the ancestral non @-@ commensal populations . Usually , it is regarded as a pest , since it consumes agricultural products and spreads disease to humans and their domestic animals . Even birdwatchers often hold it in little regard because of its molestation of other birds . In most of the world the house sparrow is not protected by law . Attempts to control house sparrows include the trapping , poisoning , or shooting of adults ; the destruction of their nests and eggs ; or less directly , blocking nest holes and scaring off sparrows with noise , glue , or porcupine wire . However , the house sparrow can be beneficial to humans as well , especially by eating insect pests , and attempts at the large @-@ scale control of the house sparrow have failed .
The house sparrow has long been used as a food item . From around 1560 to at least the nineteenth century in northern Europe , earthenware " sparrow pots " were hung from eaves to attract nesting birds so that the young could be readily harvested . Wild birds were trapped in nets in large numbers , and sparrow pie was a traditional dish , thought , because of the association of sparrows with lechery , to have aphrodisiac properties . Sparrows were also trapped as food for falconers ' birds and zoo animals . In the early part of the twentieth century , sparrow clubs culled many millions of birds and eggs in an attempt to control numbers of this perceived pest , but with only a localised impact on numbers . House sparrows have been kept as pets at many times in history , though they have no bright plumage or attractive songs , and raising them is difficult .
= = = Status = = =
The house sparrow has an extremely large range and population , and is not seriously threatened by human activities , so it is assessed as least concern for conservation on the IUCN Red List . However , populations have been declining in many parts of the world . These declines were first noticed in North America , where they were initially attributed to the spread of the house finch , but have been most severe in Western Europe . Declines have not been universal , as no serious declines have been reported from Eastern Europe , but have even occurred in Australia , where the house sparrow was introduced recently .
In Great Britain , populations peaked in the early 1970s , but have since declined by 68 % overall , and about 90 % in some regions . In London , the house sparrow almost disappeared from the central city . The numbers of house sparrows in the Netherlands have dropped in half since the 1980s , so the house sparrow is even considered an endangered species . This status came to widespread attention after a female house sparrow , referred to as the " Dominomus " , was killed after knocking down dominoes arranged as part of an attempt to set a world record . These declines are not unprecedented , as similar reductions in population occurred when the internal combustion engine replaced horses in the 1920s and a major source of food in the form of grain spillage was lost .
Various causes for the dramatic decreases in population have been proposed , including predation , in particular by Eurasian sparrowhawks ; electromagnetic radiation from mobile phones ; and diseases . A shortage of nesting sites caused by changes in urban building design is probably a factor , and conservation organisations have encouraged the use of special nest boxes for sparrows . A primary cause of the decline seems to be an insufficient supply of insect food for nestling sparrows . Declines in insect populations result from an increase of monoculture crops , the heavy use of pesticides , the replacement of native plants in cities with introduced plants and parking areas , and possibly the introduction of unleaded petrol , which produces toxic compounds such as methyl nitrite .
Protecting insect habitats on farms , and planting native plants in cities benefit the house sparrow , as does establishing urban green spaces . To raise awareness of threats to the house sparrow , World Sparrow Day has been celebrated on 20 March across the world since 2010 . Over the recent years , the house sparrow population has been on the decline in many Asian countries and this decline is quite evident in India.To promote the conservation of these birds , in 2012 , the then Chief Minister of Delhi , Ms. Sheila Dikshit , declared the house sparrow as the state bird of Delhi .
= = = Cultural associations = = =
To many people across the world , the house sparrow is the most familiar wild animal and , because of its association with humans and familiarity , it is frequently used to represent the common and vulgar , or the lewd . One of the reasons for the introduction of house sparrows throughout the world was their association with the European homeland of many immigrants . Birds usually described later as sparrows are referred to in many works of ancient literature and religious texts in Europe and western Asia . These references may not always refer specifically to the house sparrow , or even to small , seed @-@ eating birds , but later writers who were inspired by these texts often had the house sparrow in mind . In particular , sparrows were associated by the ancient Greeks with Aphrodite , the goddess of love , due to their perceived lustfulness , an association echoed by later writers such as Chaucer and Shakespeare . Jesus 's use of " sparrows " as an example of divine providence in the Gospel of Matthew also inspired later references , such as that in Shakespeare 's Hamlet and the Gospel hymn His Eye Is on the Sparrow .
= Señorita ( Justin Timberlake song ) =
" Señorita " is a song recorded by American singer @-@ songwriter Justin Timberlake for his debut studio album , Justified ( 2002 ) . It was released on July 8 , 2003 by Jive Records as the fourth single from the album . The song was co @-@ written by Timberlake , and The Neptunes ' Pharrell Williams and Chad Hugo . It was also produced by the Neptunes .
According to Timberlake , the song was influenced by Stevie Wonder . Musically " Señorita " is an R & B , Pop , Jazz up @-@ tempo ballad , featuring an electric piano strut , cowbell in beat of the song , and a rhythm section . The song has been described as a Spanish " number " with a " Latin flavored " cut beat . In the track , Timberlake sings about a woman , whose attention he is trying to capture . " Señorita " received positive reviews from music critics , who commented on the track 's general sound and lyrics .
The song peaked at number five on Billboard 's Top 40 Mainstream chart . It also appeared on the Billboard Hot 100 at number twenty @-@ seven . Internationally , the single charted in Canada , New Zealand , Australia , and European countries including Belgium , the Netherlands , France , Austria , Switzerland , the United Kingdom and Ireland . The music video was nominated for an MTV Video Music Award in the category for Best Male Video in 2004 .
= = Background and recording = =
" Señorita " was co @-@ written by Justin Timberlake , and The Neptunes ' Pharrell Williams and Chad Hugo . Before the release of Timberlake 's solo album , Justified , Timberlake and the album 's producers , Williams and Hugo , gave MTV News a preview of the record in August 2002 . While in discussion of " Señorita " , Hugo said that he expected the song to make the track listing of Justified . In another interview , Timberlake revealed that the song was influenced by singer @-@ songwriter Stevie Wonder . Timberlake said that the song had " that groove that really fits into the summer " . While in development , Timberlake said he was " beatboxing the notes " . He wrote the song imagining a " dark @-@ skinned , voluptuous lady whose attention he is trying to capture . "
= = Composition = =
" Señorita " is a " Spanish number " infused with an R & B , up @-@ tempo ballad . The song has been described as a fast " hot mid @-@ tempo " and dance song . The song is composed in the key of Eb minor and is set in time signature of common time with a tempo of 96 beats per minute . The music begins with an electric piano strut , that provides the main chordal accompaniment . A cowbell chimes , in beat of the song , in the background . Timberlake sings in a " reasonable falsetto vamping " . The song 's musicscape also features hand claps , a rhythm section , and " cruises on an unconventional reedy rhythm and crackling beat " , according to Chuck Cavalaris of The Knoxville News @-@ Sentinel . The track is also considered a " blues inflected track " , and a dance jam . Kevin O 'Hare of the Sunday Republican said the song is " a Latin @-@ flavored cut with a pronounced beat " . Lisa Rose of The Star @-@ Ledger commented that the song has a " jazz @-@ funk ... embellished with a ground @-@ rumbling beat and horn section solos . " Fort Worth Star @-@ Telegram said that the song has a " minimalist funk strut " , while a contributor of the New Straits Times said that the single is " a funk song with an organic feel – and quite close to Stevie Wonder 's soulful style . "
According to Teresa Gubbins of The Dallas Morning News , she described the theme of the song as Timberlake singing about a girl with brown eyes . O 'Hare noted that there are " some very amusing " improvisations as Timberlake guides the " guys and the ladies though their background vocal segment . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic also reported that Timberlake exhorts " the fellas and ladies " in " Señorita " to sing separately " in a cringe @-@ worthy affectation " . He directs the men to sing , " It feels like something 's heatin ' up . Can I leave with you ? " and the women to sing , " I don 't know what I 'm thinking bout / really leavin wit you . "
= = Critical reception = =
Music critic David Browne of Entertainment Weekly , in review of the album , wrote : " In the latter category , he 's more engaging — the stud on the loose , making promises of romance and more in slurpy cuts like ' Senorita ' and ' Rock Your Body ' . " Denise Boyd of the BBC wrote : " The introduction [ of ] ' Senorita ' immediately grabs your attention . " Tyler Martin of Stylus said that the song 's rhythm section was " brilliant , a simple , yet distinctive beat that could only come from the Neptunes . The song allows for much amusement in the last minute and a half with a sing @-@ along that is more wonderful and surprising than most artists have offered us this year . " Jonathan Takiff of the Philadelphia Daily News wrote that the track and " Nothing Else " , another song from the album , reshape " Stevie Wonder @-@ style Latin pop " . Katie McDonald of Boston College wrote : " The album opens with the Latin and hip @-@ hop influenced ' Senorita ' . Although this reviewer was a little amused by Timberlake 's use of the word ' Momma ' in reference to a girl , this track is nothing to mock . Timberlake 's voice complements the dynamic beat ; and although the lyrics are in no way profound , at least he wrote them himself . " Lisa Verrico of The Times wrote that the song could be ' NSYNC " with a salsa flavour " . Christian Dahlager of Iowa State Daily noted that Timberlake " cops classic Michael Jackson " throughout the album , and on the tracks " Señorita " and " Rock Your Body " . Howard Cohen of Knight Ridder said that in the album Timberlake " appropriates Jackson 's trademark ' Thriller ' -era falsetto squeals and staccato vocal style on the tuneless first single ' Like I Love You ' , ' Senorita ' and a couple other cuts . "
The song received criticism as well . Jane Stevenson of Jam ! wrote : " In the minus category is silly lead @-@ off track ' Senorita ' , which suffers from being too cute and has an awful call @-@ and @-@ answer ending featuring ' the guys and the ladies . ' " A music contributor from the Daily Free Press reported that The Neptunes appeared to have " recycled beats from their N.E.R.D. project " for Justified and that " Señorita " sounded like N.E.R.D. ' s song , " Run to the Sun " .
= = Chart performance = =
In North America , the single was officially solicited to radio in September 2003 . " Señorita " appeared on the Billboard Hot 100 and debuted at number 27 . It reached number 5 on the Mainstream Top 40 , number 10 on the Top 40 Tracks and number 29 on the Rhythmic .
The single performed averagely when it was released internationally . It debuted at number 13 in the United Kingdom for the week ending September 27 , 2003 . The song failed to achieve any higher position , and it fell for eight consecutive weeks until it left the charts completely . When it entered the Irish Singles Chart , it did so at number 15 . It spent seven weeks on the chart , and failed to earn a higher position . In New Zealand , it charted at number 9 on September 14 , 2003 . During the following four weeks , it peaked at number 4 and remained there for two weeks . The song spent 15 weeks on the chart . In Australia , it peaked at number 6 and retired after spending eleven weeks on the chart . The track charted in the Canadian Singles Chart , where it reached a peak position of 19 . The single charted in European countries , it peaked in the Top 10s and Top 20s .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Señorita " was directed by Paul Hunter . The video was filmed in July 2003 and shot in a club in Los Angeles . The video also features cameo appearances by both Pharrell Wiliams and Chad Hugo . In mid @-@ 2003 , Timberlake was asked about the concept of the video , but said that the video was still in development . He was asked whether he would be aiming his affection at a " lovely lady " , to which Timberlake responded , " No . Why would you limit yourself to just one ? " In the " Señorita " video , Timberlake performed with his live band .
The video begins , with the song playing , at an outside scenery of a bar . Inside , Timberlake is seen and goes directly to the bar . He looks at the stage area and immediately goes there . He takes the microphone and begins singing the song . Pharrell is shown playing the drums while Chad is at the keyboards throughout the video . Timberlake continues singing , but grabs the attention of a woman in a red dress . Elsewhere , Timberlake , not on stage , is shown dancing with a woman wearing a white blouse , while he sings the song . In another part of the video , Timberlake dances with a different woman . In the bridge , he sings to the two women and dances with them , in separate shots . Following the bridge he is then seen performing on stage . In part of the song , Timberlake directs the crowd of men and women , telling the men to sing , " It feels like something 's heatin ' up . Can I leave with you ? " and the women to sing , " I don 't know what I 'm thinking bout / really leavin wit you . " Timberlake ends the song with " Gentlemen , good night / Ladies good morning " .
Actor Owen Wilson and his then @-@ girlfriend , Carolina Cerisola , appear in the video . Lanford Beard of Middlebury College Student Weekly , in review of the video , wrote that Timberlake 's " Mexicali saloon setting " for the video " embraced a certain macho , trashy playa aesthetic " for him " so we 'll take it on the chin that this is the image he 's building for himself and – love it or hate it – we might as well get used to it . " In 2004 , the video was nominated for an MTV Video Music Award in the category of Best Male Video .
= = Live performances = =
Timberlake performed the song live on the sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live in October 2003 , where he served as host and musical guest . At the 46th Grammy Awards in 2004 , he also performed the song live and was accompanied by Latin jazz trumpeter Arturo Sandoval . On August 25 , 2013 , he performed " Señorita " in a medley with other of his songs at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards .
" Señorita " was featured on Justin Timberlake : Live from London ( 2002 ) , Justified and Stripped Tour ( 2003 ) , FutureSex / LoveShow ( 2007 ) , Legends of the Summer ( 2013 ) and The 20 / 20 Experience World Tour ( 2013 / 14 ) .
= = Track listing = =
European CD Single
" Señorita " ( Album version ) – 4 : 54
" Señorita " ( Instrumental ) – 4 : 54
" Señorita " ( Eddie 's Extended Club Mix ) – 6 : 27
" Rock Your Body " ( Vasquez Club Anthem ) – 9 : 15
" Señorita " ( Video ) – 4 : 33
UK CD Single
" Señorita " ( Radio Edit Short Intro ) – 4 : 16
" Señorita " ( Eddie 's Crossover Rhythm Mix ) – 4 : 18
" Señorita " ( Eddie 's Extended Dance Mix ) – 6 : 27
" Señorita " ( Dr. Octavo 2 @-@ Step Mix ) – 3 : 50
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Kaleidoscope Dream =
Kaleidoscope Dream is the second studio album by American R & B recording artist Miguel , released on September 25 , 2012 , by RCA Records . After attaining commercial standing with his 2010 debut album All I Want Is You , Miguel wanted to play a larger creative role in his music and principally produced and wrote Kaleidoscope Dream . He recorded most of the album at Platinum Sound Recording Studios in New York City and MJP Studios in Los Angeles , and worked with producers Warren " Oak " Felder , Jerry " Wonda " Duplessis and Salaam Remi , among others .
The music on Kaleidoscope Dream draws on R & B , pop , funk , rock and soul styles , as well as elements from electronic and psychedelic music . The album 's producers incorporated dense bass lines , buzzing synthesizers , and hazy , reverbed sounds in the songs , which deal mostly with sex , romance , and existential ideas . Miguel titled Kaleidoscope Dream as a metaphor for life and wanted the songs to reflect his lifestyle and personality .
Before Kaleidoscope Dream was released , Miguel previewed its songs virally through a series of free EPs . It was also promoted with three singles , including his biggest hit to date " Adorn " , and his touring in North America and Europe during 2012 to 2013 . The album debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 with first @-@ week sales of 71 @,@ 000 copies , and by June 2015 , it had sold 535 @,@ 000 copies . Kaleidoscope Dream received rave reviews from critics , who praised its eccentric style and Miguel 's singing and songwriting .
= = Background = =
After it was shelved by Jive Records for two years , Miguel released his debut album All I Want Is You in November 2010 . It sold poorly at first and was underpromoted by Jive , amid the label 's dissolution . However , as its singles attained radio airplay and Miguel toured in its promotion , the album became a sleeper hit and helped him garner an audience and commercial standing . He also garnered a following with his fervent concert performances . After Jive was shut down and absorbed by RCA Records , Miguel acquired a new marketing team to develop himself as more than a typical urban artist , having felt pigeonholed into being marketed as one by Jive . He said that the experience of balancing creativity and business sense on his first album made him more confident in his approach on Kaleidoscope Dream .
Miguel sought to reintroduce himself artistically with the album . Inspired by his more alternative musical influences , he wanted to change the sound and expectations of R & B songs on urban radio . He explained the album 's title as " a metaphor for our life ; everyone has their own Kaleidoscope Dream , it is the life that they project and it is the life that they are solidifying with their conscious decision and their subconscious feelings . " Miguel also said that the album represents the fantasies that are conveyed through dreams , which he felt embody " the purest form of fantasy we unleash through our subconscious ... the truest freedom we can experience . Totally unrepressed and totally creative . "
= = Writing and recording = =
Miguel worked on the album for approximately three months . He sought to play a larger creative role than he had on All I Want Is You , and produced most of Kaleidoscope Dream and either wrote or co @-@ wrote every song on the album . He recorded most of the album at Platinum Sound Recording Studios in New York City and MJP Studios in Los Angeles ; the songs " Arch & Point " and " Gravity " were recorded at Gustavo 's Golden Gloves Gymnasium in Los Angeles . He spent almost two years in New York City , which he felt let him explore " the edgy side " of his life and consequently made his sonical approach grittier , saying in an interview for The Village Voice , " I 'm not the ' go to the club and pop bottles ' kind of guy . That 's not my lifestyle . I really like to party , but it 's ... just darker . I 'm looking for the speakeasy on the Lower East Side that has a secret door and a password . " Miguel recorded " Adorn " in 2011 in the bedroom of his Los Angeles apartment , which he used as a makeshift studio at the time . Parts of the album were edited by Miguel and his engineers using Pro Tools .
Miguel wanted the album to be " a pure and honest projection of my lifestyle and my kaleidoscope dream " , and used the music 's pace and sound to represent his lifestyle and the lyrics to represent his personality . To sustain his creative approach , Miguel avoided media outlets that he usually visited for music , including radio and Internet blogs . He drew on musical influences from early in his life , including classic rock , country rock and funk , to incorporate rock flourishes on the album . He also incorporated the Roland TR @-@ 808 to give the music a distinct percussive feel . He enlisted an orchestra and incorporated string arrangements , along with a drum loop , to the album 's title track , which he felt aurally defined the moods of his personality . Miguel also worked with previous collaborators Salaam Remi and Nathan " Happy " Perez , among other producers . Recording artist Alicia Keys sang background vocals on the song " Where 's the Fun in Forever " , Elle Varner co @-@ wrote " Use Me " and Brook D 'Leau of J * Davey played keyboards on " Candles in the Sun " .
Apart from sexual themes , Miguel wrote about conversational and existential topics . When writing " Pussy Is Mine " , he drew on his sexual behavior as a single man and " moments of power and vulnerability " with a sexually promiscuous woman . Miguel originally wrote " Where 's the Fun in Forever " with Alicia Keys for her 2012 album Girl on Fire at a recording studio in Jamaica . He conceived the song while spending time with Keys on the roof of the studio , which he recounted in an interview for MTV News : " [ A ] ll I had was this amazing blanket of stars in the sky and the sound of waves in the distance , great vibe ... So here I am trying to be creative for Alicia and it just dawned on me : Well , what if we did live forever ? Could we have accomplished all of these amazing things ? Would we have come so far ? ... Would we have come up with all these theories or built all of these amazing , amazing architectural beautiful things ... or would we have been lazy ? " The album 's title track was written by Miguel while he was working on All I Want Is You . In reaction to Jive 's request for more conventional R & B songs , he composed the song with unusual lyrics and without a hook , chorus , or form .
= = Music and lyrics = =
According to The Independent 's Holly Rubenstein , Kaleidoscope Dream is " widely considered a leading example " of alternative R & B ; Miguel himself described it as " avant soul " . In the opinion of NPR 's Frannie Kelley , the record combined R & B , pop , funk , rock and soul genres . Its music features sparse production , eccentric details , thick bass lines , buzzing synthesizers , and hazy , reverbed sounds . Allmusic 's Andy Kellman found the album " funkier and weirder " than All I Want Is You and observed an " illusory atmosphere ... intensified by some unexpected touches " . Maura Johnston said much of it " sounds , as the title might suggest , fractal . " As an R & B album , The A.V. Club 's Evan Rytlewski said , Kaleidoscope Dream deviated from genre conventions by minimizing the influence of hip hop ; Jim DeRogatis believed it drew heavily on psychedelic rock and psychedelic pop . Music writers compared the album 's style to Prince , Alex Macpherson of The Guardian perceives a " headier aesthetic " than on All I Want Is You , with " faded psychedelia " and " intimate experiments in Purple Rain @-@ esque rock " . Writing about the record for WNYC , Gretta Cohn claimed Miguel was " redefining what contemporary R & B can be " . Miguel said he " definitely think it 's an R & B record , though other people may not ... [ Listeners ] are so conditioned to expect certain things out of current R & B , and it 's about following a formula . But R & B was once live music , it was psychedelic , it was rock , it was funk , and all these genres stem from soul music ... There would be no hip @-@ hop or rock without R & B. It was important for me to be true to what R & B is , and that is soulful . "
The album 's lyrics generally deal with themes of adult love , meaningful sex , and romance . Andrew Ryce from Pitchfork Media interprets its " overarching theme " to be " the highly sexualized seen through the lens of the eager and innocent . " Miguel 's lyrics express modesty , yearning , vulnerability , and cheeky humor . Kelley likens his songwriting to Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! and observes " Little Richard @-@ level insinuations " and " absurd provocations in the style of Akinyele " . Music journalist Jim DeRogatis views that Miguel eschews braggadocio and is " man enough to admit his own insecurities and question whether he 's worthy of love — or lustful indulgence . " Kaleidoscope Dream also explores the anxiety and momentary nature of sex and clubbing . Consequence of Sound 's Jeremy D. Larson views that Miguel employs a " fangs @-@ out approach to R & B " similar to Frank Ocean and The Weeknd , writing that " nothing shrouds Miguel and his directives , and worries , and prayers , and cat calls – it 's all there , full of light and love , refracting through a kaleidoscope of rocks glasses , rainy windshields , and blood @-@ shot eyes . "
" Adorn " has both digital and analog sensibilities , with lyrics featuring brazen declarations of affection , and promises of adoration to a female subject . " Don 't Look Back " features amplified bass , bombastic drums , and metallic synths . Rob Markman of MTV News writes that the song " represents the morning after when the reality of the previous night 's efforts creep in . " Its closing interlude has Miguel crooning lyrics from The Zombies ' 1969 song " Time of the Season " over sentimental synths and musky , psychedelic music . " Use Me " features hollow , electronic sounds , heavily multitracked vocals , metronomic rhythms , and an industrialized mix of guitar and percussion . Its lyrics blur expressions of sexual nerves with gentle dominance , as the narrator instructs his lover how she can toy with him , An atmospheric pop rock song , " Do You ... " portrays a narcotic tryst and mixes ambiable come @-@ ons with drug imagery . The psychedelic title track incorporates synthesizer arpeggios , minor chords , oscillating blips , fuzzy guitar , and a bassline interpolation of Labi Siffre 's 1975 " I Got The " . The sample 's groove is played at a different tempo than other instruments on the song . The song 's lyrics feature synesthetic imagery ( " I taste you , infinite colors " ) , and a boast by the narrator about kissing his subject 's third eye .
" The Thrill " has a sparse bass groove , layered keyboards , and existential lyrics with YOLO imagery . " How Many Drinks ? " has sardonic , swaggering lyrics and a rap verse by Miguel , who veers between seducer and user . " Where 's the Fun in Forever " features atmospheric drums and bass , an a cappella bridge , and rolling dynamics with measures that advance an argument . The song celebrates youthful bliss and preachs a carpe diem philosophy . It transitions into the rock song " Arch & Point " , which has sexually charged ballet metaphors and bare power pop elements . " Pussy Is Mine " features a high vocal range by Miguel , a rudimentary chord progression played on electric guitar , and a stripped , demo quality . The song is about sexual jealousy and an ignoble man 's plea for exclusivity in a casual relationship . Its sexually explicit , bawdy lyrics eschew masculine hip hop tropes for feelings of insecurity . The song is bookended by background studio chatter . " Candles in the Sun " is a slow burning , political soul song . It touches on senseless killings , drug @-@ infested communities , and questions the existence of God and the motives of governments . Chris Kelly of Fact writes that , along with " Adorn " , " Candles in the Sun " " bookend [ s ] the album with another tribute to Marvin Gaye , a la ' What 's Going On ? ' "
= = Promotion = =
After pitching the strategy to RCA , Miguel first marketed Kaleidoscope Dream virally with a three @-@ volume series of EPs entitled Art Dealer Chic , which were released as free downloads during February to April 2012 and previewed songs from the album . He released two more EPs — Kaleidoscope Dream : Water Preview on July 31 and Air Preview on September 11 — to digital retailers . In an interview for The Village Voice , Miguel said that the strategy allowed listeners to absorb the songs at his desired pace and called it " a great way for me to reconnect with my peers ... the people that I hang out with — that go to the same shows , listen to the same music , read the same blogs , same magazines . "
" Adorn " was released as Kaleidoscope Dream 's lead single on August 7 , becoming a sleeper hit on urban radio . It was Miguel 's second number @-@ one single on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , and his highest charting single on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 17 . By September , the single had sold 190 @,@ 000 copies . According to NPR 's Audie Cornish , Miguel " broke through to a national audience in 2012 " with both " Adorn " and Kaleidoscope Dream . The second single " Do You ... " was released on September 18 , and reached number 32 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs . The album 's third and final single , " How Many Drinks ? " , was released on March 3 , 2013 .
In support of Kaleidoscope Dream , Miguel embarked on a short promotional tour in the United States on September 26 , 2012 . He also promoted the record with television performances on 106 & Park , The Wendy Williams Show , Late Show with David Letterman , and Jimmy Kimmel Live ! . He subsequently toured in support of the album for six months throughout North America and Europe , including concert dates as a supporting act on Trey Songz ' Chapter V World Tour during November 2012 to February 2013 , and a headlining tour in the UK and Ireland during January 2013 . Miguel opened for Alicia Keys on her Set The World On Fire Tour during March and April . Although he did not choreograph his shows , he routinely rehearsed in a dance studio and practiced singing in front of a mirror . In concert , he performed dramatic leaps , staggers , and other moves fashioned after Little Richard and James Brown . He started ripping his shirt off during performances after being inspired by Songz ' concerts .
= = Release and reception = =
Kaleidoscope Dream was first released in vinyl LP format on September 25 , in an effort by RCA to make the deadline for the Grammy Awards ' eligibility period without charting prematurely on lower sales . The following week , it debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 , selling 71 @,@ 000 copies in the US . It was Miguel 's first album to be released in the United Kingdom , where it spent 15 weeks on the country 's R & B chart , peaking at number 13 . By February 20 , 2013 , the record had charted for 20 weeks on the Billboard 200 and sold 321 @,@ 400 copies , according to Nielsen SoundScan . The album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in June 2015 , with 535 @,@ 000 copies sold in the US at that point .
Kaleidoscope Dream received widespread acclaim from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the album received an average score of 86 , based on 20 reviews . AllMusic 's Andy Kellman hailed it as " 2012 's most pleasurable pop @-@ R & B album " . Greg Kot said Miguel " creates a fluid , dreamscape environment that floats across eras with a connoisseur 's discerning feel for the telling detail . " Macpherson wrote in The Guardian of Miguel 's occasional " appeal to indie tropes " balanced by " genuinely thoughtful songwriting " , while admiring his use of a commercial breakthrough " as a springboard to radically change course " . Sean McCarthy from PopMatters wrote that , along with Frank Ocean 's Channel Orange , it showed R & B as the innovative genre in mainstream music during 2012 , while Los Angeles Times critic Randall Roberts said it " offers further evidence of a genre being reborn in 2012 . " Pitchfork Media 's Andrew Ryce hailed Miguel as " the rare vocalist who makes you feel what he 's singing about , even when his lyrics can be transparent . " Alfred Soto of The Quietus was appreciated Miguel 's ability to " articulate how a love man can be louche without being a douche . " Ken Capobianco from The Boston Globe was more critical , finding some of the songs overworked and Miguel " too remote for a true soul singer " . New York Times critic Jon Caramanica said Kaleidoscope Dream sounds inconsistent and " a little washed @-@ out , a blend of Prince @-@ isms and slurry grooves " , while Kellman complained of the lyrics occasionally veering " too close to ' artsy ' teenage erotic poetry " .
At the end of 2012 , Kaleidoscope Dream appeared on several critics ' lists of the year 's best records . Ann Powers named it the best album of 2012 . It was also ranked number 26 by Robert Christgau , number eleven by The Guardian , number 10 by the Chicago Tribune , number eight by Slate , number six by the Los Angeles Times , number five by AllMusic , Okayplayer , and Spin , number four by Entertainment Weekly , number three by Billboard , New York , and Now , and number one by Idolator . Metacritic named it the 12th best @-@ reviewed album of 2012 . The album was voted the fifth best album of 2012 in the Pazz & Jop , an annual poll of American critics nationwide , published by The Village Voice . Kaleidoscope Dream was nominated for the 2013 Grammy Award for Best Urban Contemporary Album , while " Adorn " was nominated for Best R & B Performance and Song of the Year , winning in the Best R & B Song category .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
" Don 't Look Back " contains a portion of " Time of the Season " written by Rod Argent .
" Kaleidoscope Dream " contains a sample from " I Got The " written and performed by Labi Siffre .
" How Many Drinks ? " contains a sample from " We 've Only Just Begun " written by Roger Nichols and Paul Williams , as performed by O 'Donel Levy .
= = Personnel = =
Credits were adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Episode 1 ( Twin Peaks ) =
" Episode 1 " , also known as " Traces to Nowhere " , is the second episode of the first season of the American mystery television series Twin Peaks . The episode was written by series creators David Lynch and Mark Frost , and directed by Duwayne Dunham . " Episode 1 " features series regulars Kyle MacLachlan , Michael Ontkean , and Richard Beymer .
Dunham was offered the role of directing the episode by Lynch , who wanted Dunham to edit his next film project , 1990 's Wild at Heart . Dunham continued to use several stylistic elements in his direction that he had observed in Lynch 's work on " Pilot " , including largely static camera work and the use of reddish color tints . The episode also marks the first appearance of Killer Bob , who was played by set decorator Frank Silva after Silva had been accidentally caught on camera .
" Episode 1 " continued the investigation of the series ' main plotline , the murder of schoolgirl Laura Palmer ( Sheryl Lee ) , with Federal Bureau of Investigation agent Dale Cooper ( MacLachlan ) interviewing several suspects connected to the victim . The episode was viewed by approximately 14 @.@ 9 million households upon its initial airing , which represented over a quarter of the available audience . Since its broadcast , the episode has earned positive reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
The small town of Twin Peaks , Washington , has been shocked by the murder of schoolgirl Laura Palmer ( Sheryl Lee ) and the attempted murder of her classmate Ronette Pulaski ( Phoebe Augustine ) . Federal Bureau of Investigation special agent Dale Cooper ( Kyle MacLachlan ) has come to the town to investigate , and initial suspicion has fallen upon Palmer 's boyfriend Bobby Briggs ( Dana Ashbrook ) and the man with whom she was cheating on Briggs , James Hurley ( James Marshall ) .
= = = Events = = =
Cooper takes breakfast at the Great Northern Hotel , enjoying a " damn fine cup of coffee " as Audrey Horne ( Sherilyn Fenn ) introduces herself and begins flirting with him . He makes his way to the sheriff 's department , where he and Sheriff Truman ( Michael Ontkean ) discuss the day 's plans . They interview Dr Hayward ( Warren Frost ) who has had an autopsy conducted on Palmer 's body . They learn that Laura had had sex with at least three men the night she died .
Waitress Shelley Johnson ( Mädchen Amick ) is about to leave for work when her abusive husband Leo ( Eric Da Re ) demands she do more laundry . She finds a bloodstained shirt among Leo 's clothes and hides it before he notices . However , he later realizes that it has gone missing . When she returns home that night , he questions her about its whereabouts , and savagely beats her with a bar of soap in a sock .
Cooper interviews Hurley about a video of Laura and Donna Hayward ( Lara Flynn Boyle ) ; Hayward had denied him being present the day it was taken but Cooper notices a reflection of his motorcycle in the video . Cooper confronts Hurley about the affair he was having with Palmer , and about her cocaine habit . Hurley admits seeing Palmer the night she died but denies killing her . James ' uncle Ed Hurley ( Everett McGill ) comes to the sheriff 's department to pick his nephew up . Ed tells Truman that he was drugged the previous night at The Roadhouse , the town 's bar ; he suspects bartender Jacques Renault ( Walter Olkewicz ) was responsible . Cooper takes a telephone call from his colleague Albert Rosenfield , who is on his way to aid the investigation . Meanwhile , Briggs and his friend Mike Nelson ( Gary Hershberger ) are in a jail cell , discussing money they owe to Leo . The $ 10 @,@ 000 they were meant to pay him is in a safe deposit box owned by Palmer , which they can now no longer access . They are later released by Cooper , who warns them not to approach James Hurley .
Josie Packard ( Joan Chen ) and Pete Martell ( Jack Nance ) discuss Packard 's trouble with her sister @-@ in @-@ law Catherine Martell ( Piper Laurie ) . Truman and Cooper arrive to speak with Packard , who had employed Palmer as an English tutor . Packard admits to sensing that Palmer was troubled but cannot help further ; Cooper picks up on the fact that Truman has been having a relationship with Packard . Catherine calls Packard to tell her that the latter 's sawmill lost $ 87 @,@ 000 the day before ; Catherine is having an affair with Benjamin Horne ( Richard Beymer ) , with whom she is conspiring a hostile takeover of the mill . That same day , Hayward visits Palmer 's mother Sarah ( Grace Zabriskie ) , attempting to console her . However , Sarah has a vision of a sinister man ( Frank Silva ) crouching in the corner of the room , and panics . Meanwhile , Laurence Jacoby ( Russ Tamblyn ) , Laura 's psychiatrist , listens to an audio tape she had made for him , and sobs as he toys with half of a golden heart necklace , the other half of which was found at the scene of the crime .
= = Production = =
" Episode 1 " was written by the series creators David Lynch and Mark Frost . The pair had co @-@ written " Pilot " , and would also write " Episode 2 " together . Frost would pen a further eight scripts for the series after that , while Lynch would write just one episode — the second season opening installment , " Episode 8 " . The episode was the first in the series to be directed by Duwayne Dunham , who would return to helm two further installments in the series ' second season . The episode features the first appearance of Frank Silva as Killer Bob , though the character is not yet identified at this point . Silva was the art director for the series , and had accidentally been caught on camera during a shot . Lynch was pleased with the result and decided to include Silva in the cast from then on .
Dunham had first met Lynch when he worked as the film editor for Lynch 's 1986 film Blue Velvet . Dunham then edited " Pilot " , and was about to look for another editing job elsewhere when he asked Lynch if the director had another film planned ; a week later Lynch decided to film Wild at Heart and asked Dunham to edit that as well . However , Dunham had committed to another project and felt uncomfortable leaving one editing job for another ; Lynch then offered him a directing position on Twin Peaks in the interim to justify cancelling his other project . Dunham finished principal photography on " Episode 1 " the same day that Lynch finished filming " Wild at Heart " .
The introduction of a sexual rapport between the characters of Audrey Horne and Dale Cooper was a suggestion of Dunham 's , who felt it would benefit both characters . Dunham felt that the central mystery in the series — the murder of schoolgirl Laura Palmer — was simply a " MacGuffin " to compel what he saw as the real focus , the interaction of the large ensemble cast . As such , he took care to introduce meaningful interactions between characters wherever possible . Dunham also spent time with each of the cast to help them develop their characters , having studied the scripts involved and basing his take on the characters on his experience with " Pilot " .
Dunham retained the frequent use of static cameras seen in " Pilot " , something he saw as a hallmark of Lynch 's directing style ; describing the result as " like framed pictures " . He also continued the use of a " warm " reddish tint to the footage , using soft coral filters and carefully selected props and costumes to obtain this coloring . This tint was considered important enough that Lynch sent a representative to the network to ensure they understood it was deliberate and not a mistake , for fear that they might correct the saturation to be more " realistic " before broadcasting it .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Episode 1 " was first broadcast on American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) on April 12 , 1990 . Upon its initial airing , it was seen by 14 @.@ 9 million households , or 27 percent of the available audience . It placed second in its timeslot after Cheers . This marked a decline from " Pilot " , which attracted 33 percent of the available audience . The following episode would be viewed by 21 percent of the available audience , representing a further drop in numbers .
Writing for The A.V. Club , Keith Phipps awarded the episode an " A − " rating . He felt that the scene showing Leo Johnson domestically abusing his wife was " among the show 's most disturbing moments " , comparing it to a scene from the 1990 film The Grifters . Phipps also felt the sound design in the episode was impressive , commenting positively on the blurred distinction between diegetic and non @-@ diegetic music . Writing for Allrovi , Andrea LeVasseur rated the episode four stars out of five . Television Without Pity 's Daniel J. Blau felt that the episode showed series composer Angelo Badalamenti to have limited range , repeating several similar musical cues throughout . He also considered Eric Da Re 's performance as Leo Johnson to be unconvincing , finding it difficult to believe that the character was as feared and menacing as was implied . However , Blau described the introduction of Killer Bob as still seeming powerful and frightening even several years after first being seen , considering it a potent and disturbing scene .
= The Legend of Zelda ( video game ) =
The Legend of Zelda ( Japanese : ゼルダの伝説 , Hepburn : Zeruda no Densetsu ) , subtitled The Hyrule Fantasy in its original Japanese release , is an action @-@ adventure video game developed and published by Nintendo and designed by Shigeru Miyamoto and Takashi Tezuka . Set in the fantasy land of Hyrule , the plot centers on a boy named Link , the playable protagonist , who aims to collect the eight fragments of the Triforce of Wisdom in order to rescue Princess Zelda from the antagonist , Ganon . During the course of the game , the player sees Link from a top @-@ down perspective and must navigate him through the overworld and several dungeons , defeating enemies and finding secrets along the way .
The inaugural game of the The Legend of Zelda series , it was originally released in Japan as a launch title for the Family Computer Disk System peripheral in 1986 . More than a year later , North America and Europe received releases on the Nintendo Entertainment System in cartridge format , making the game the first home console title to include an internal battery for saving data . This version was released in Japan in 1994 under the title The Legend of Zelda 1 ( ゼルダの伝説１ , Zeruda no Densetsu Wan ) . The game was ported to the GameCube and Game Boy Advance , and is available in emulated form via the Virtual Console on the Wii , Nintendo 3DS and Wii U.
The Legend of Zelda was a bestseller for Nintendo , selling over 6 @.@ 5 million copies . It is often featured in lists of games considered the greatest or most influential and is regarded as a spiritual forerunner of the role @-@ playing video game genre . A solitary sequel , Zelda II : The Adventure of Link , was first released in Japan less than a year after its predecessor 's debut . The game spawned several prequels and a number of spin @-@ offs , establishing a series that has become one of Nintendo 's most popular .
= = Gameplay = =
The Legend of Zelda incorporates elements of action , adventure , and role @-@ playing games . The player controls Link from a flip @-@ screen overhead perspective as he travels in the overworld , a large outdoor map with varied environments . Link begins the game armed only with a small shield , but a sword becomes available to Link after he ventures into a cave that is accessible from the game 's first map screen . Throughout the game , various characters aid Link by giving or selling equipment and clues . These people can be found in caves scattered throughout the overworld ; some are readily accessible , while others are hidden behind obstacles such as rocks , trees , and waterfalls .
Barring Link 's progress are creatures he must battle to locate the entrances to nine underground dungeons . Each dungeon is a unique , maze @-@ like collection of rooms connected by doors and secret passages , and guarded by monsters different from those found on the surface . Dungeons also contain useful items which Link can add to his arsenal , such as a boomerang for retrieving distant items and stunning enemies , and a recorder with magical properties . Link must successfully navigate through each of the first eight dungeons to obtain all eight pieces of the Triforce of Wisdom . Once he has completed the artifact , he can enter the ninth dungeon to rescue Zelda . Apart from this exception , the order of completing dungeons is somewhat left to the player , although they steadily increase in difficulty and some of them can only be reached or completed using items gained in a previous one . In addition , the entrances of the three highest @-@ level dungeons are hidden . Link can freely wander the overworld , finding and buying items at any point . This flexibility enables unusual ways of playing the game . For example , it is possible to reach the final boss of the game without ever receiving the sword .
After completing the game , the player has access to a more difficult quest , officially referred to as the " Second Quest " ( 裏ゼルダ , Ura Zeruda , lit . " other Zelda " ) , with new dungeon locations / layouts , different item placements , and stronger enemies . Although this more difficult " replay " was not unique to Zelda , few games offered entirely different levels to complete on the second playthrough . The Second Quest can be replayed each time the game is completed and can also be accessed at any time by starting a new file with the name " ZELDA " .
= = Plot and characters = =
The plot of The Legend of Zelda is described in the instruction booklet and in the short prologue after the title screen . A small kingdom in the land of Hyrule , the setting of the game , is engulfed in chaos after an army led by Ganon , the Prince of Darkness , invaded it and stole the Triforce of Power , a part of a magical artifact bestowing great strength . In an attempt to prevent Ganon from acquiring the Triforce of Wisdom , another of the pieces , Princess Zelda splits it and hides the eight fragments in secret dungeons throughout the land . Before the princess is eventually kidnapped by Ganon , she commands her nursemaid Impa to find someone courageous enough to save the kingdom . While wandering the land , the old woman is surrounded by Ganon 's henchmen , though a young boy named Link appears and rescues her . After hearing Impa 's plea , he resolves to save Zelda and sets out to reassemble the scattered fragments of the Triforce of Wisdom , to become powerful enough to defeat Ganon .
During the course of the game , Link locates the eight underground labyrinths , defeats several guardian monsters , and retrieves the fragments . With the completed Triforce of Wisdom , Link is able to infiltrate Ganon 's hideout , Death Mountain , eventually confronting the pig @-@ like enemy and destroying him with a Silver Arrow . Link picks up the Triforce of Power from Ganon 's ashes and returns both pieces of the Triforce to the rescued Princess Zelda , restoring peace to Hyrule .
= = History = =
= = = Development = = =
Development for this game was directed and designed by Shigeru Miyamoto ( credited as S. Miyahon ) and Takashi Tezuka ( credited as Ten Ten ) . Miyamoto produced the game , and Tezuka wrote the story and script . The development team worked on The Legend of Zelda and Super Mario Bros. concurrently , and tried to separate their ideas : Super Mario Bros. was to be linear , where the action occurred in a strict sequence , whereas The Legend of Zelda would be the opposite . In Mario , Miyamoto downplayed the importance of the high score in favor of simply completing the game . This concept was carried over to The Legend of Zelda . Miyamoto was also in charge of deciding which concepts were " Zelda ideas " or " Mario ideas . " Contrasting with Mario , Zelda was made non @-@ linear and forced the players to think about what they should do next . In the initial game designs , the player would start the game with the sword already in their inventory . According to Miyamoto , those in Japan were confused and had trouble finding their way through the multiple path dungeons . Rather than listening to the complaints , Miyamoto took away the sword , forcing players to communicate with each other and share their ideas to find the various secrets hidden in the game . This was a new form of game communication , and in this way , " Zelda became the inspiration for something very different : Animal Crossing . This was a game based solely on communication . "
With The Legend of Zelda , Miyamoto wanted to take the idea of a game " world " even further , giving players a " miniature garden that they can put inside their drawer . " He drew his inspiration from his experiences as a boy around Kyoto , where he explored nearby fields , woods , and caves , and through the Zelda titles he always tries to impart to players some of the sense of exploration and limitless wonder he felt . " When I was a child , " he said , " I went hiking and found a lake . It was quite a surprise for me to stumble upon it . When I traveled around the country without a map , trying to find my way , stumbling on amazing things as I went , I realized how it felt to go on an adventure like this . " The memory of being lost amid the maze of sliding doors in his family 's home in Sonobe was recreated in Zelda 's labyrinth dungeons .
A " symbol of courage , strength , and wisdom " , Link was designed by Miyamoto as a coming of age motif for players to identify with : he begins the game an ordinary boy but strengthens to triumph over the ultimate evil . The name of the princess was inspired by Zelda Fitzgerald : " Zelda was the name of the wife of the famous novelist F. Scott Fitzgerald . She was a famous and beautiful woman from all accounts , and I liked the sound of her name . So I took the liberty of using her name for the very first Zelda title , " Miyamoto explained .
The Zelda story setting was initially supposed to include technological elements , such as a time @-@ travelling main character and a Triforce made of electronic circuits . While the final game follows a more traditional heroic fantasy setting , subsequent games in the series have used more technology @-@ based concepts .
Koji Kondo ( credited as Konchan ) composed the game 's music . He initially planned to use Maurice Ravel 's Boléro as the game 's title theme , but was forced to change it when he learned , late in the game 's development cycle , that the copyright for the orchestral piece had not yet expired . As a result , Kondo wrote a new arrangement of the overworld theme within one day .
= = = Japanese release = = =
In February 1986 , Nintendo released the game as the launch title for the Family Computer 's new Disk System peripheral . The Legend of Zelda was joined by a re @-@ release of Super Mario Bros. , Tennis , Baseball , Golf , Soccer , and Mahjong in its introduction of the Disk System . It made full use of the Disk Card media 's advantages over traditional ROM cartridges with a disk size of 128 kilobytes , which was expensive to produce on cartridge format . Due to the still @-@ limited amount of space on the disk , however , it was only in katakana . Rather than passwords , it used rewritable disks to save the game . It used the extra sound channel provided by the Disk System for certain sound effects ; most notable are the sounds of Link 's sword when his health is full , the roars and growls of dungeon bosses , and enemy death sounds . The sound effects used the Famicom 's PCM channel in the cartridge version . It also used the microphone built into the Famicom 's controller that was not included in the NES . This led to confusion in the U.S. as the instruction manual reads that Pols Voice , a rabbit @-@ like enemy in the game , " hates loud noise " . Blowing or shouting into the Famicom 's microphone kills these creatures . However , they cannot be killed through use of the recorder , and on the NES must be killed with weapons . The cartridge version made use of the Memory Management Controller chip , specifically the MMC1 model . The MMC could use bank @-@ switching , allowing larger games than had been previously possible . They also allowed for battery @-@ powered RAM , which let players save progress for the first time on any cartridge @-@ based system or game .
= = = American release = = =
Contrary to the fears of Nintendo 's management , the game was popular and well received . Zelda had been available for a year and a half in Japan , and its sequel , Zelda II : The Adventure of Link had been released for six months before Nintendo brought this game to North America .
When Nintendo published the game in North America , the packaging design featured a small portion of the box cut away to reveal the unique gold @-@ colored cartridge . In 1988 , The Legend of Zelda sold two million copies . Nintendo of America sought to keep its strong base of fans ; anyone who purchased a game and sent in a warranty card became a member of the Fun Club , whose members got a four- , eight- and eventually 32 @-@ page newsletter . Seven hundred copies of the first issue were sent out free of charge , but the number grew as the data bank of names got larger .
From the success of magazines in Japan , Nintendo knew that game tips were a valued asset . Players enjoyed the bimonthly newsletter 's crossword puzzles and jokes , but game secrets were most valued . The Fun Club drew kids in by offering tips for the more complicated games , especially Zelda , with its hidden rooms , secret keys and passageways . The mailing list grew . By early 1988 , there were over 1 million Fun Club members , which led then @-@ Nintendo of America president Minoru Arakawa to start the Nintendo Power magazine .
Since Nintendo did not have many products , it made only a few commercials a year , meaning the quality had to be phenomenal . The budget for a single commercial could reach US $ 5 million , easily four or five times more than most companies spent . One of the first commercials made under Bill White , director of advertising and public relations , was the market introduction for The Legend of Zelda , which received a great deal of attention in the ad industry . In it , a wiry @-@ haired , nerdy guy ( John Kassir ) walks through the dark making goofy noises , yelling out the names of some enemies from the game , and screaming for Zelda .
Nintendo released a great deal of merchandise related to The Legend of Zelda , including toys , guidebooks , watches , apparel , trash cans and a breakfast cereal called Nintendo Cereal System . The game and its sequel , The Adventure of Link were adapted into an animated series , episodes of which were shown on television each Friday on The Super Mario Bros. Super Show ! . Link and Zelda appeared in several episodes of Captain N : The Game Master that revolved around themes from The Adventure of Link .
= = Reception = =
The Legend of Zelda was a bestseller for Nintendo , selling over 6 @.@ 5 million copies ; it was the first NES title to sell over 1 million . It was reissued in 1992 as part of Nintendo 's " Classic Series " and featured a grey cartridge . The game placed first in the player 's poll " Top 30 " in Nintendo Power 's first issue and continued to dominate the list into the early 1990s . The Legend of Zelda was also voted by Nintendo Power readers as the " Best Challenge " in the Nintendo Power Awards ' 88 . The magazine also listed it as the best Nintendo Entertainment System video game ever created , stating that it was fun despite its age and it showed them new ways to do things in the genre such as hidden dungeons and its various weapons . GamesRadar ranked it the third best NES game ever made . The staff praised its " mix of complexity , open world design , and timeless graphics " .
Computer Gaming World in 1988 named the game as the best adventure of the year for Nintendo , stating that Zelda had been a " sensational success " in translating a computer RPG to consoles . In 1990 the magazine stated that the game was a killer app , causing computer CRPG players who had dismissed consoles as " mere arcade toys " to buy the NES . Zelda was reviewed in 1992 by Total ! # 2 where it received a 78 % rating due in great part to mediocre subscores for music and graphics . A 1993 review of the game was printed in Dragon # 198 by Sandy Petersen in the " Eye of the Monitor " column . Petersen gave the game 4 out of 5 stars .
The Legend of Zelda is often featured in lists of games considered the greatest or most influential . It placed first in Game Informer 's list of the " Top 100 Games of All Time " and " The Top 200 Games of All Time " ( in 2001 and 2009 respectively ) , fifth in Electronic Gaming Monthly 's 200th issue listing " The Greatest 200 Videogames of Their Time " , seventh in Nintendo Power 's list of the 200 Best Nintendo Games Ever , 77th in Official Nintendo Magazine 's 100 greatest Nintendo games of all time and 80th among IGN readers ' " Top 99 Games " . Zelda was inducted into GameSpy 's Hall of Fame in August 2000 and voted by GameSpy 's editors as the tenth best game of all time . Editors of the popular Japanese magazine Weekly Famitsu voted the game among the best on the Famicom .
The Game Boy Advance port of The Legend of Zelda is rated 79 % and 87 % respectively on GameRankings ' and Game Ratio 's rankings compilations . In individual ratings , IGN scored The Legend of Zelda with an 8 out of 10 , GamePro a 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 , Nintendo Power a 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 , and 1UP.com an A.
Guinness World Records has awarded The Legend of Zelda series five world records in Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition , including " Highest @-@ Rated Game of All Time " and " First Game with a Battery Powered Save Feature " .
= = Impact and legacy = =
The Legend of Zelda is considered a spiritual forerunner of the role @-@ playing video game ( RPG ) genre . Though it is often not considered part of the genre since it lacked key RPG mechanics such as experience points , it had many features in common with RPGs and served as the template for the action role @-@ playing game genre . The game 's fantasy setting , musical style and action @-@ adventure gameplay were adopted by many RPGs . Its commercial success helped lay the groundwork for involved , non @-@ linear games in fantasy settings , such as those found in successful RPGs , including Crystalis , Soul Blazer , Square 's Seiken Densetsu series , Alundra , and Brave Fencer Musashi . The popularity of the game also spawned several clones trying to emulate the game .
Zelda was largely responsible for the surge of action @-@ oriented computer RPGs released since the late 1980s , such as the Origin Systems game Times of Lore . The Legend of Zelda series would continue to exert an influence on the transition of both console and computer RPGs from stat @-@ heavy turn @-@ based combat towards real @-@ time action combat in the following decades . When it was released in North America , Zelda was seen as a new kind of RPG with action @-@ adventure elements , with Roe R. Adams ( who worked on the Wizardry series ) stating in 1990 that , although " it still had many action @-@ adventure features , it was definitely a CRPG . " In more recent years , however , there has been much debate regarding whether or not The Legend of Zelda qualifies as an action RPG .
The Legend of Zelda spawned a solitary sequel , many prequels and spin @-@ offs and is one of Nintendo 's most popular series . It established important characters and environments of the Zelda universe , including Link , Princess Zelda , Ganon , Impa , and the Triforce as the power that binds Hyrule together . The overworld theme and distinctive " secret found " jingle have appeared in nearly every subsequent Zelda game . The theme has also appeared in various other games featuring references to the Zelda series .
An arcade system board , called the Triforce , was developed jointly by Namco , Sega , and Nintendo , with the first games appearing in 2002 . The name " Triforce " is a reference to Nintendo 's The Legend of Zelda series of games , and symbolized the three companies ' involvement in the project .
GameSpot featured The Legend of Zelda as one of the 15 most influential games of all time , for being an early example of open world , nonlinear gameplay , and for its introduction of battery backup saving , laying the foundations for later action @-@ adventure games like Metroid and role @-@ playing video games like Final Fantasy , while influencing most modern games in general . In 2009 , Game Informer called The Legend of Zelda " no less than the greatest game of all time " on their list of " The Top 200 Games of All Time " , saying that it was " ahead of its time by years if not decades " .
In 2011 , Nintendo celebrated the game 's 25th anniversary in a similar vein to the Super Mario Bros. 25th anniversary celebration the previous year . This celebration included a free mailout Club Nintendo offer of the Ocarina of Time soundtrack to owners of the 3DS version of that particular game , the first digital for Nintendo eShop release of Link 's Awakening DX , special posters that are mailed out as rewards through Club Nintendo , and a special stage inspired by the original Legend of Zelda in the video game Super Mario 3D Land for the Nintendo 3DS .
= = = Re @-@ releases = = =
The Legend of Zelda has been re @-@ released on multiple platforms since its original domestic and international releases . The game was first re @-@ released in cartridge format for the Famicom in 1994 . The cartridge version slightly modified the title screen of the Disk Card version of the game , such that it displayed the number 1 at the end of the title . In 2001 , the original game was re @-@ released in the GameCube game Animal Crossing . The only way to unlock the game is an Action Replay . An official re @-@ release was included in 2003 's The Legend of Zelda : Collector 's Edition for the GameCube , and the game was again re @-@ released on the Game Boy Advance in 2004 along with its sequel , The Adventure of Link , as part of the Famicom Mini / Classic NES Series . In 2006 , another rerelease was made available to players on the Wii 's Virtual Console , and most recently a timed demo of the game was released for the 2008 Wii game Super Smash Bros. Brawl , available in the Vault section . All re @-@ releases of the game are virtually identical to the original , though the GameCube , Game Boy Advance , and Virtual Console versions have been altered slightly to correct several instances of incorrect spelling from the original , most notably in the intro story . A tech demo called Classic Games was shown for the Nintendo 3DS at E3 2010 , showcasing more than a dozen classic games utilizing 3D effects , including The Legend of Zelda . It was announced by Reggie Fils @-@ Aimé , president of Nintendo of America , that the titles were slated for release on the 3DS , including The Legend of Zelda , Mega Man 2 , and Super Mario World 2 : Yoshi 's Island and would possibly make use of some of the 3DS 's features , such as 3D effects , analog control , or camera support . The Legend of Zelda standalone was released for 3DS Virtual Console on September 1 , 2011 for the Ambassador users while the full version was released on December 22 , 2011 in Japan , April 12 , 2012 in Europe and July 5 , 2012 in North America on the Nintendo eShop .
= = = Sequels = = =
There have also been a few substantially altered versions of the game that have been released as pseudo @-@ sequels , and ura- or gaiden @-@ versions . As part of a promotional advertisement campaign for their charumera ( チャルメラ ) noodles , Myojo Foods Co . , Ltd . ( 明星食品 , Myoujou Shokuhin ) released a version of the original The Legend of Zelda in 1986 entitled Zelda no Densetsu : Teikyō Charumera ( ゼルダの伝説 提供 チャルメラ ) . This game is one of the rarest video games available on the second @-@ hand collector 's market , and copies have sold for over US $ 1 @,@ 000 .
From August 6 , 1995 , to September 2 , 1995 , Nintendo , in collaboration with the St.GIGA satellite radio network , began broadcasts of a substantially different version of the original The Hyrule Fantasy : Legend of Zelda for a Super Famicom peripheral , the Satellaview — a satellite modem add @-@ on . The game , titled BS Zelda no Densetsu ( BS ゼルダの伝説 ) , was released for download in four episodic , weekly installments which were rebroadcast at least four times between the game 's 1995 premier and January 1997 . BS Zelda was the first Satellaview game to feature a " SoundLink " soundtrack — a streaming audio track through which , every few minutes , players were cautioned to listen carefully as a voice actor narrator , broadcasting live from the St.GIGA studio , would give them plot and gameplay clues . In addition to the SoundLink elements , BS Zelda also featured updated 16 @-@ bit graphics , a smaller overworld , and different dungeons . Link was replaced by one of the two Satellaview avatars : a boy wearing a backward baseball cap or a girl with red hair .
Between December 30 , 1995 , and January 6 , 1996 , a second version of the game , BS Zelda no Densetsu MAP 2 ( BS ゼルダの伝説ＭＡＰ２ ) , was broadcast to the Satellaview as the functional equivalent of the original The Legend of Zelda 's Second Quest . MAP 2 was rebroadcast only once , in March 1996 .
= Shandi Finnessey =
Shandi Ren Finnessey ( born June 9 , 1978 in Florissant , Missouri ) is an American actress , model , TV host and beauty queen . She is best known for winning the Miss USA title , as Miss Missouri USA . She previously held the title of Miss Missouri 2002 and competed in Miss America , where she won a preliminary award . She placed as first runner @-@ up at the Miss Universe 2004 competition . She is one of three women to have been both Miss Missouri USA and Miss Missouri and the only Missourian to have been Miss USA . Her first runner @-@ up finish at Miss Universe was the best placement in the 2000s and was the best United States placement between Brook Mahealani Lee 's Miss Universe 1997 competition victory and Olivia Culpo 's Miss Universe 2012 pageant win .
In 2002 , Finnessey authored an award @-@ winning children ’ s book , The Furrtails , on individuality and disabilities . In the mid @-@ 2000s , she was Chuck Woolery 's co @-@ host for the game show Lingo on the Game Show Network . Finessey has also hosted PlayMania as well as quiznation and has served as a sideline reporter for the CBS tournament blackjack series Ultimate Blackjack Tour .
= = Early life and education = =
Finnessey was born to Patrick and Linda Finnessey , and she grew up in Florissant , Missouri . She attended McCluer North High School public high school for two years where , according to an interview with ABILITY Magazine , she was teased a lot for her appearance . Finnessey recounted that she " had a mullet , tinted glasses , acne and braces . " The teasing made it difficult for her to focus on her studies , so for her junior year she transferred to the private all @-@ girls Incarnate Word Academy , where she graduated in 1996 . She completed a Bachelor of Science degree in psychology from Lindenwood University in December 1999 . Following graduation , she worked briefly as a full @-@ time substitute teacher in Jackson , Missouri before starting graduate school . She began working on her Masters in Counseling , also at Lindenwood , but postponed her studies after being crowned Miss USA in 2004 .
= = Pageants = =
= = = Participation = = =
Finnessey first competed in the Miss Missouri USA 2000 pageant in 1999 where , as Miss Saint Louis County in her senior year of college , she finished first runner @-@ up to Denette Roderick . She competed the following year ( 2000 ) and placed second runner @-@ up behind first runner @-@ up Melana Scantlin and winner Larissa Meek in the Miss Missouri USA 2001 event .
In 2000 , Finnessey competed in the Miss Oktoberfest pageant and was 3rd runner @-@ up . The pageant was won by Jenna Edwards , who had previously been 1999 Miss Teen All @-@ American and would later hold the Miss Florida 2004 and Miss Florida USA 2007 titles . First runner @-@ up was Jennifer Glover , the previous Miss United States International 1999 and the future Miss California 2002 and Miss California USA 2001 .
On November 18 , 2000 , Finnessey won the Miss Jackson title in the Miss Missouri system and finished 2nd runner @-@ up to Jennifer Hover in the June 3 – 9 , 2001 Miss Missouri pageant held in Mexico , MO . Finnessey won the Miss St. Louis Metro local title in the Miss Missouri system and went on to win the 2002 Miss Missouri title , succeeding Hover . She won the contest despite having slammed her hand in a car door that weekend . During the contest , she performed an arrangement of " Flight of the Bumblebee " on the piano for her talent . During her on @-@ stage interview as one of the five finalists , she was asked what she learned having three brothers and she answered to be quick in the bathroom .
She represented Missouri in the Miss America 2003 pageant , where she won an evening gown preliminary award but did not place . For the talent portion of the competition in the Miss America system events ( which the Miss USA system does not use ) at times she played the violin and at other times the piano . In the competition to be Miss America , she played the piano .
Less than a year after giving up her Miss Missouri title , as Miss Metro St. Louis ( USA ) , Finnessey won the Miss Missouri USA pageant on her third attempt at Black River Coliseum in Poplar Bluff , Missouri . During her six @-@ month reign as Miss Missouri USA , Finnessey was involved in such charities as the Variety Club Telethon , St. Louis Cardinals Winter Warm Up for local charities , AIDS Foundation , Special Olympics in St. Louis , Missouri and Gilda 's Club . She joined Barbara Webster ( Miss Missouri 1983 and Miss Missouri USA 1986 ) and Robin Elizabeth Riley ( Miss Missouri 1987 and Miss Missouri USA 1983 ) as qualifiers to both of the nationally televised beauty pageants .
She represented Missouri in the April 12 , 2004 nationally televised Miss USA 2004 pageant at the Kodak Theater in Los Angeles in front of hosts Nancy O 'Dell and Billy Bush and judges Jeff Gordon , Jerry Buss , John Salley , Mekhi Phifer , Rocco DiSpirito and Jill Stuart . Her final question was whether experience or education serves a person better in life to which she answered " Definitely experience because you get your knowledge through experience . " She competed on the platform of integrating people with mental challenges into society . In the nationally televised pageant , she became the first woman from Missouri to win the Miss USA title . During her reign as Miss USA , Finnessey became an advocate for breast cancer and ovarian cancer awareness and research . She has also worked with Special Olympics , the National Down Syndrome Convention , American Cancer Society and Derek Jeter 's Turn 2 Foundation ( which helps at @-@ risk kids choose healthier lifestyles ) . Finnessey resided in a luxury Riverside Drive apartment in New York City provided
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by the Miss Universe Organization and pageant co @-@ owner Donald Trump .
As Miss USA Finnessey went on to represent the United States at the international Miss Universe competition held in Quito , Ecuador in May 2004 , culminating on June 1 , 2004 . She placed first runner @-@ up in the internationally broadcast competition , behind winner Jennifer Hawkins of Australia . The event was hosted by Bush and Daisy Fuentes and the judges included Petra Nemcova , Emilio Estefan and Bo Derek .
As Miss USA , Finnessey represented the Miss Universe Organization . Her Miss Universe Organization " sister " 2004 titleholders were Jennifer Hawkins ( Miss Universe , of Australia ) and Shelley Hennig ( Miss Teen USA , of Louisiana ) . Her contemporary Miss America titleholder was Ericka Dunlap ( Florida ) .
= = = Ceremonial duties = = =
Finnessey provided color commentary at the Miss USA 2005 pageant live from Baltimore , Maryland on April 11 , where she was the outgoing titleholder . On July 23 , 2006 , she also co @-@ hosted the Miss Universe 2006 pageant live from Los Angeles , California as a commentator with Carson Kressley . The show 's main hosts were Carlos Ponce and Nancy O 'Dell . Finnessey has also co @-@ hosted subsequent Miss Missouri USA pageants . She again served as a commentator for the Miss Universe 2011 pageant in São Paulo , Brazil along with Jeannie Mai on September 12 , 2011 .
She joined a panel of celebrity judges to judged Miss USA 2009 pageant held at the Planet Hollywood Resort & Casino , Las Vegas , Nevada on April 19 , 2009 . That year when Miss California USA 2009 Carrie Prejean caused a notable controversy during her on @-@ stage finalist interview with a response that she was opposed to same @-@ sex marriage , Finnessey participated in a Miss California USA organization public service announcement promoting diversity along with several other Miss Universe Organization beauty pageant titlists .
= = Post @-@ pageants = =
After completing her reign as Miss USA , Finnessey became a co @-@ host of Lingo and PlayMania on GSN . She hosted Lingo from August 2005 at the start of the show 's fourth season until the show went on hiatus in 2008 . In April 2006 , she began her turn with the interactive series PlayMania , which broke into two shows on February 23 , 2007 . Finnessey became the co @-@ host of the quiznation spinoff , a revised but similar version of the original PlayMania . She remained a co @-@ host until October 21 , 2007 , several days before the show 's finale . She also was a sideline reporter for the CBS tournament blackjack series Ultimate Blackjack Tour .
She also has appeared in several documentaries produced by GSN . She has also appeared on the NBC reality show The Apprentice ( February 15 , 2005 , episode 3 @.@ 5 ) , in the November 13 , 2004 , 20 Sexiest Men and 20 Sexiest Women specials on CMT , and as Grand Marshal in the November 25 , 2004 Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade . She was named one of the Ten Outstanding Young Americans of 2006 by the Jaycees . She also appeared alongside Chris Myers as part of the coverage of the New Year 's Eve 2007 Festivities for Fox . On March 19 , 2007 , Finnessey debuted on the fourth season of Dancing with the Stars . Her professional dance partner was Brian Fortuna , and she was the second celebrity voted off the show . On October 31 and November 21 , 2007 , she appeared as a guest celebrity on NBC 's Phenomenon . She also hosted Hollywood Fast Track , a web based show about movies , music , and trends in Hollywood . She is also the host / co @-@ host of several TV Guide Network specials . On September 2 , 2008 , Shandi was on the season finale of Wanna Bet ? on ABC , where she made a record for the biggest successful bet on the show betting $ 20 @,@ 000 in the 1st best . Shandi lost in the end betting $ 40 @,@ 000 and guessing incorrectly . In August , 2010 , she appeared on a special " Girls of Summer " week airing of NBC 's Minute to Win It on an episode called " Last Beauty Standing . " The episode featured 10 beauty pageant winners competing for $ 100 @,@ 000 towards their chosen charities along with a chance to win a $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 challenge . At the Miss USA 2011 competition she was among the 31 former winners who were part of a photoshoot layout for Time Magazine . She played the role of Stephie in the Roger Corman @-@ produced Sharktopus ( 2010 ) which aired on the Syfy Channel three years before the same network made waves with its Sharknado movie franchise .
In January 2012 , she became one of the original reporters for ENTV News ( a branch of TVLine ) on a premium YouTube Channel . In March 2013 , she was selected as one of 36 bachelorettes to compete on the reality television show Ready For Love . Finnessey was the winner for bachelor Ernesto Arguello , but the relationship ended briefly after the show .
On August 8 , 2013 , she was named as one of five correspondents for the entertainment magazine , OK ! TV , that was scheduled to debut on September 9 .
= = Personal life = =
Her parents are Patrick and Linda Finnessey . She has three brothers ( Shane , Damion , and Paul ) , and her grandmothers ' names are Mildred Finnessey and Fern Miller .
According to the press release issued at the time of her first public appearance as Miss USA on April 17 , 2004 in New York City , she plays both the violin and piano . She also practices yoga , meditation and performs knitting and abstract painting . In 2003 , she dated August Busch IV and has also dated Italo Zanzi . She is a Republican , and during her Miss USA reign , she attended the The Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief 's Ball at the Second inauguration of George W. Bush .
Her Miss USA press release also notes that she began her professional modelling career at the age of 6 . She modeled with Ford Models in Chicago and Talent Plus in St. Louis . According to the Miss USA website at the time of her reign , her modelling experience included television commercials , runway modelling , newspaper and magazine ads as well as upscale fashion store experience . She claims to have once wrestled a greased pig . As of 2011 , her parents still lived in the house that she grew up in Florissant .
In 2013 , Finnessey became a contestant on Ready for Love where she competed for the attention of Ernesto Arguello . She won Arguello 's heart on the show , but the relationship was short @-@ lived in real life . Later that year , she posed nude for a PETA anti @-@ fur campaign opposing the distribution of fur coats as prizes during beauty pageants . On September 24 , 2014 , Finnessey announced on Twitter that she is engaged to be married to Ben Higgins . They were married on July 11th , 2015 , according to another autobiographical tweet . Finnessey announced the June 10 , 2016 , home birth of her son Finn Arthur Higgins via Instagram .
= = = Scholarly work = = =
Finnessey authored an award @-@ winning children 's book . Her book , which was published on August 1 , 2002 , was entitled Furrtails and helps the effort to integrate intellectually disabled children into regular classrooms and helps children appreciate individuality and understand their peers who have disabilities . She was recognized with an Authors Who Make a Difference award , known as AWMAD , ( from Infinity Publishing ) and a Ryan Brems Award for this work . She authored a second book entitled Suzanna the Banana .
= = Filmography = =
= = Pageantography = =
= Jesus nahm zu sich die Zwölfe , BWV 22 =
Jesus nahm zu sich die Zwölfe ( Jesus gathered the twelve to Himself ) , BWV 22 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach composed for Quinquagesima , the last Sunday before Lent . Bach composed it as an audition piece for the position of Thomaskantor in Leipzig and first performed it there on 7 February 1723 .
The work , which is in five movements , begins with a scene from the Gospel reading in which Jesus predicts his suffering in Jerusalem . The unknown poet of the cantata text took the scene as a starting point for a sequence of aria , recitative , and aria , in which the contemporary Christian takes the place of the disciples , who do not understand what Jesus is telling them about the events soon to unfold , but follow him nevertheless . The closing chorale is a stanza from Elisabeth Cruciger 's hymn " Herr Christ , der einig Gotts Sohn " . The music is scored for three vocal soloists , a four @-@ part choir , oboe , strings and continuo . The work shows that Bach had mastered the composition of a dramatic scene , an expressive aria with obbligato oboe , a recitative with strings , an exuberant dance , and a chorale in the style of his predecessor in the position as Thomaskantor , Johann Kuhnau . Bach directed the first performance of the cantata during a church service , together with another audition piece , Du wahrer Gott und Davids Sohn , BWV 23 . He performed the cantata again on the last Sunday before Lent a year later , after he had taken up office .
The cantata shows elements which became standards for Bach 's Leipzig cantatas and even the Passions , including a " frame of biblical text and chorale around the operatic forms of aria and recitative " , " the fugal setting of biblical words " and " the biblical narrative ... as a dramatic scena " .
= = History = =
= = = Background , Mühlhausen , Weimar and Köthen = = =
As far as we know , the earliest cantatas of Johann Sebastian Bach were performed in Mühlhausen from 1706 to 1708 . He was employed as an organist there , but he occasionally composed cantatas , mostly for special occasions . The cantatas were based mainly on biblical texts and hymns , such as Aus der Tiefen rufe ich , Herr , zu dir , BWV 131 ( a psalm setting ) , and the Easter chorale cantata Christ lag in Todes Banden , BWV 4 .
Bach was next appointed organist and chamber musician in Weimar on 25 June 1708 at the court of the co @-@ reigning dukes in Saxe @-@ Weimar , Wilhelm Ernst and his nephew Ernst August . He initially concentrated on the organ , composing major works for the instrument , including the Orgelbüchlein , the Toccata and Fugue in D minor , BWV 565 , and the Prelude and Fugue in E major , BWV 566 . He was promoted to Konzertmeister on 2 March 1714 , an honour that entailed performing a church cantata monthly in the Schlosskirche . The first cantatas he composed in the new position were Himmelskönig , sei willkommen , BWV 182 , for Palm Sunday , Weinen , Klagen , Sorgen , Zagen , BWV 12 for Jubilate Sunday , and Erschallet , ihr Lieder , BWV 172 , for Pentecost . Mostly inspired by texts by the court poet , Salomo Franck , they contain recitatives and arias . When Johann Samuel Drese , the Kapellmeister ( director of music ) , died in 1716 , Bach hoped in vain to become his successor . Bach looked for a better position and found it as Kapellmeister at the court of Leopold , Prince of Anhalt @-@ Köthen . However , the duke in Weimar did not dismiss him and arrested him for disobedience . He was released on 2 December 1717 .
In Köthen , Bach found an employer who was an enthusiastic musician himself . The court was Calvinist , therefore Bach 's work from this period was mostly secular , including the orchestral suites , the cello suites , the sonatas and partitas for solo violin , and the Brandenburg Concertos . He composed secular cantatas for the court for occasions such as New Year 's Day and the prince 's birthday , including Die Zeit , die Tag und Jahre macht , BWV 134a . He later parodied some of them as church cantatas without major changes , for example Ein Herz , das seinen Jesum lebend weiß , BWV 134 .
= = = Audition in Leipzig = = =
Bach composed his cantata as part of his application for the position of Thomaskantor in Leipzig , the official title being Cantor et Director Musices ( Cantor and Director of Music ) . As cantor , he was responsible for the music at four Lutheran churches , the main churches Thomaskirche ( St. Thomas ) and the Nikolaikirche ( St. Nicholas ) , but also the Neue Kirche ( New Church ) and the Peterskirche ( St. Peter ) . As director of music , the Thomaskantor was Leipzig 's " senior musician " , responsible for the music on official occasions such as town council elections and homages . Functions related to the university took place at the Paulinerkirche . The position became vacant when Johann Kuhnau died on 5 June 1722 . Bach was interested , mentioning as one reason that he saw more possibilities for future academic studies of his sons in Leipzig : " ... but this post was described to me in such favorable terms that finally ( particularly since my sons seemed inclined to [ university ] studies ) I cast my lot , in the name of the Lord , and made my journey to Leipzig , took my examination , and then made the change of position . "
= = = Audition in Leipzig = = =
By August 1722 , the town council had already chosen Georg Philipp Telemann as Kuhnau 's successor , but he declined in November . In a council meeting on 23 November , seven candidates were evaluated , but no agreement was reached on whether to prefer a candidate for academic teaching abilities or musical performance . The first council document with Bach named as a candidate dates from 21 December , together with Christoph Graupner . Of all candidates , Bach was the only one without a university education .
The decision to invite Bach was made by the council on 15 January 1723 . The council seemed to have preferred Bach and Graupner because they were invited to show two cantatas each , while other candidates were requested to show only one . Two candidates even had to present their work in the same service . Graupner 's performance took place on the last Sunday after Epiphany , 17 January 1723 . Two days before the event , the town council already agreed to offer him the position .
Christoph Wolff assumes that Bach received an invitation for the audition together with the texts , probably prescribed to the candidates and drawn from a printed collection , only weeks before the date . In Köthen Bach composed two cantatas on two different themes from the prescribed Gospel for the Sunday , Du wahrer Gott und Davids Sohn , BWV 23 , on the topic of healing the blind near Jericho and Jesus nahm zu sich die Zwölfe about Jesus announcing his suffering , which the disciples do not understand .
Bach had to travel to Leipzig early because he was not familiar with the location and the performers . Wolff assumes that Bach was in Leipzig already on 2 February for the Marian feast of Purification when candidate Georg Balthasar Schott presented his audition piece at the Nikolaikirche . Bach brought the scores and some parts , but additional parts had to be copied in Leipzig by students of the Thomasschule . Bach led the first performance of the two audition cantatas on 7 February 1723 as part of a church service at the Thomaskirche , this cantata before the sermon , and Du wahrer Gott und Davids Sohn after the sermon . The score of BWV 22 bears the note " This is the Leipzig audition piece " ( Das ist das Probe @-@ Stück für Leipzig ) .
Wolff notes that Bach employed the three lower voices in BWV 22 and the upper three voices in BWV 23 , and presents a list of the different composition techniques Bach employed in the two audition cantatas ; they displayed " a broad and highly integrated spectrum of ... vocal art " .
A press review reads : " On Sunday last in the morning the Hon. Capellmeister of Cöthen , Mr. Bach , gave here his test at the church of St. Thomas 's for the hitherto vacant cantorate , the music of the same having been amply praised on that occasion by all knowledgeable persons ... " .
Bach left Leipzig without hope for the position because it had been offered to Graupner , but he was not dismissed by his employer , Ernst @-@ Ludwig of Hesse @-@ Darmstadt . After a meeting on 9 April 1723 , with incomplete documentation containing " ... since the best could not be obtained , a mediocre one would have to be accepted ... " , Bach received an offer to sign a preliminary contract .
= = = Assuming the position = = =
Bach assumed the position of Thomaskantor on 30 May 1723 , the first Sunday after Trinity , performing two ambitious cantatas in 14 movements each : Die Elenden sollen essen , BWV 75 , followed by Die Himmel erzählen die Ehre Gottes , BWV 76 . They form the beginning of his attempt to create several annual cycles of cantatas for the occasions of the liturgical year .
He performed Jesus nahm zu sich die Zwölfe again on 20 February 1724 , as a printed libretto shows , and probably did so again in later years .
= = Composition = =
= = = Occasion and words = = =
Bach composed his cantata in 1723 for the Sunday Quinquagesima which Bach knew as Estomihi , the last Sunday before Lent . In the city of Leipzig , tempus clausum was observed during Lent , therefore it was the last Sunday with a cantata performance before a celebration of the Annunciation , Palm Sunday and the vespers service on Good Friday and Easter . The prescribed readings for the Sunday were taken from the First Epistle to the Corinthians , " praise of love " ( 1 Corinthians 13 : 1 – 13 ) , and from the Gospel of Luke , healing the blind near Jericho ( Luke 18 : 31 – 43 ) . The Gospel also contains the announcement by Jesus of his future suffering in Jerusalem , and that the disciples do not understand what he is saying .
The cantata text is the usual combination of Bible quotation , free contemporary poetry and as closing chorale a stanza from a hymn as an affirmation . An unknown poet chose from the Gospel verses 31 and 34 as the text for movement 1 , and wrote a sequence of aria , recitative and aria for the following movements . His poetic text places the Christian in general , including the listener at Bach 's time or any time , in the situation of the disciples : he is pictured as wanting to follow Jesus even in suffering , although he does not comprehend . The poetry ends on a prayer for " denial of the flesh " . The closing chorale is stanza 5 of Elisabeth Cruciger 's " Herr Christ , der einig Gotts Sohn " , intensifying the prayer , on a melody from the Lochamer @-@ Liederbuch .
Stylistic comparisons with other works by Bach suggest that the same poet wrote the texts for both audition cantatas and also for the two first cantatas which Bach performed when taking up his office . The poetry for the second aria has an unusually long first section , which Bach handled elegantly by repeating only part of it in the da capo .
= = = Scoring and structure = = =
The cantata has five movements and is scored for three vocal soloists ( an alto ( A ) , tenor ( T ) and bass ( B ) ) , a four @-@ part choir ( SATB ) , and for a Baroque orchestra of an oboe ( Ob ) , two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) and basso continuo . The duration is given as c . 20 minutes .
In the following table of movements , the scoring , divided in voices , winds and strings , follows the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The continuo group is not listed , because it plays throughout . The keys and time signatures are taken from Alfred Dürr . The symbol is used to denote common time ( 4 / 4 ) .
= = = Music = = =
= = = = 1 = = = =
The text of the first movement , " Jesus nahm zu sich die Zwölfe " ( Jesus gathered the Twelve to Himself ) is a quotation of two verses from the prescribed Gospel for the Sunday ( Luke 18 : 31 – 43 ) . The movement is a scene with different actors , narrated by the Evangelist ( tenor ) , in which Jesus ( bass , as the vox Christi or voice of Christ ) and his disciples ( the chorus ) interact . An " ever @-@ ascending " instrumental ritornello " evokes the image of the road of suffering embodied by going up to Jerusalem " . The Evangelist begins the narration ( Luke 18 : 31 ) . Jesus announces his future suffering in Jerusalem , Sehet , wir gehn hinauf gen Jerusalem ( " Behold , we go up to Jerusalem " ) . He sings , while the ritornello is played several times . After another repeat of the ritornello as an interlude , a choral fugue illustrates the reaction of the disciples , following verse 34 from the Gospel ( Luke 18 : 34 ) : Sie aber vernahmen der keines ( " However they understood nothing " ) . The voices are first accompanied only by the continuo , then doubled by the other instruments . Bach marks the voices in the autograph score as " concertists " for the first section and " ripienists " when the instruments come in .
The movement is concluded by an instrumental postlude . The musicologist Julian Mincham notes that the fugue deviates from the " traditional alternating of tonic and dominant entries ... as a rather abstruse indication of the lack of clarity and expectation amongst the disciples , Bach is hinting at this in musical terms by having each voice enter on a different note , B @-@ flat , F , C and G and briefly touching upon various related keys . The music is , as always , lucid and focussed but the departure from traditional fugal procedure sends a fleeting message to those who appreciate the subtleties of the musical processes " .
The musicologist Richard D. P. Jones points out that " the biblical narrative is set as a dramatic scena worthy of the Bach Passions " and that the " vivid drama of that movement has no real counterpart in Bach 's Cycle I cantatas . "
= = = = 2 = = = =
In the first aria , " Mein Jesu , ziehe mich nach dir " ( " My Jesus , draw me after You " ) , the alto voice is accompanied by an obbligato oboe , which expressively intensifies the text .
An aria is , according to Johann Mattheson in Der vollkommene Capellmeister ( Part II , chapter 13 , paragraph 10 ) , " correctly described as a well @-@ composed song , which has its own particular key and meter , is usually divided into two parts , and concisely expresses a great affection . Occasionally it closes with a repetition of the first part , occasionally without it . "
In this aria , an individual believer requests Jesus to make him follow , even without comprehending where and why . Mincham observes a mood or affekt of " deep involvement and pensive commitment " , with the oboe creating " an aura of suffering and a sense of struggling and reaching upwards in search of something indefinable in a way that only music can suggest . "
= = = = 3 = = = =
The recitative " Mein Jesu , ziehe mich , so werd ich laufen " ( " My Jesus , draw me , then I will run " ) is not a simple secco recitative , but is accompanied by the strings and leans towards an arioso , especially near the end . It is the first movement in a major mode , and illustrates in rapid runs the motion and the running mentioned .
= = = = 4 = = = =
The second aria , " Mein alles in allem , mein ewiges Gut " ( " My all in all , my eternal good " ) , again with strings , is a dance @-@ like movement in free da capo form , A B A ' . The unusually long text , of four lines for the A section and two for the B section , results in Bach 's solution to repeat the end of the first line ( my eternal good ) after all text of A , and then after the middle section B repeat only the first line as A ' , thus ending A and A ' the same way . In this modified repeat , the voice holds a long note on the word Friede ( " peace " ) , after which the same theme appears in the orchestra and again in the continuo . The musicologist Tadashi Isoyama notes the passepied character of the music , reminiscent of secular Köthen cantatas . Mincham describes : " Bach 's expression of the joy of union with Christ can often seem quite worldly and uninhibited " , and summarises : " The 3 / 8 time signature , symmetrical phrasing and rapid string skirls combine to create a sense of a dance of abandonment . "
= = = = 5 = = = =
The closing chorale is " Ertöt uns durch dein Güte " ( " Kill us through your goodness " or " Us mortify through kindness " ) , the fifth stanza of Elisabeth Cruciger 's " Herr Christ , der einig Gotts Sohn " . Its melody is based on one from Wolflein Lochamer 's Lochamer @-@ Liederbuch , printed in Nürnberg around 1455 . It first appears as a sacred tune in Johann Walter 's Wittenberg hymnal Eyn geystlich Gesangk Buchleyn ( 1524 ) .
The usual four @-@ part setting of the voices is brightened by continuous runs of the oboe and violin I. Isoyama thinks that Bach may have intentionally imitated the style of his predecessor Johann Kuhnau in the " elegantly flowing obbligato for oboe and first violin " . John Eliot Gardiner describes the movement 's bass line as a " walking bass as a symbol of the disciples ' journey to fulfilment . Mincham comments that Bach " chose to maintain the established mood of buoyancy and optimism with a chorale arrangement of almost unparalleled energy and gaiety " and concludes :
It would seem that Bach had not yet reached a conclusion , if indeed he ever did , as to the most appropriate way of utilising the chorales in his cantatas . Certainly the quiet , closing moments of reflection and introspection became the norm , particularly in the second cycle . But the chorale could , as here , act as a focus of bounding energy and positivity .
= = = Reception = = =
Jones summarises : " The audition cantatas ... show Bach feeling his way towards a compromise between the progressive , opera @-@ influenced and the conservative , ecclesiastical styles . " He acknowledges the standard BWV 22 sets for later church cantatas :
" places an ecclesiastical frame of biblical text and chorale around the operatic forms of aria and recitative , a frame that would become a standard in the cantatas of cycle I. Moreover , the impressive opening movement incorporates two modes of treatment that would recur regularly during Cycle I and beyond : the fugal setting of biblical words and the use as the bass voice as vox Christi , as in traditional Passion settings . "
Isoyama points out : " BWV 22 incorporates dance rhythms , and is written with a modern elegance . " Mincham interprets Bach 's approach in both audition works as " a fair example of the range of music which is suitable for worship and from which others might learn " , explaining the " sheer range of forms and musical expression in these two cantatas " . Gardiner , who conducted the Bach Cantata Pilgrimage with the Monteverdi Choir and wrote a diary on the project , comments on the disciples ' reaction ( " and they understood none of these things , neither knew they the things which were spoken " ) :
" One could read into this an ironic prophecy of the way Bach 's new Leipzig audience would react to his creative outpourings over the next twenty @-@ six years – in the absence , that is , of any tangible or proven signs of appreciation : neither wild enthusiasm , deep understanding nor overt dissatisfaction " .
= = = Recordings = = =
The sortable table follows the selection on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . Choirs and orchestras are roughly grouped :
Large choirs ( red background ) : Boys ( choir of all male voices )
Medium @-@ size choirs , such as Chamber
Large orchestras ( red background ) : Symphony
Chamber orchestra
Orchestra on period instruments ( green background )
= = Arrangement = =
In the 1930s Harriet Cohen 's piano arrangement of the cantata 's closing chorale was published by Oxford University Press under the title " Sanctify us by the goodness " . It was in the repertoire of , for example , Alicia de Larrocha .
= Scar ( The Lion King ) =
Scar is a fictional character who appears in Walt Disney Pictures ' 32nd animated feature film , The Lion King ( 1994 ) . The character is voiced by English actor Jeremy Irons , while his singing voice is provided by both Irons and American actor Jim Cummings , the latter of whom was hired to replace Irons when the former damaged his singing voice . Subsequently , Scar makes minor appearances in the film 's sequel The Lion King II : Simba 's Pride ( 1998 ) and The Lion King 1 ½ ( 2004 ) , in both of which he is voiced entirely by Cummings , as well as appearing in the Broadway musical adaptation of the film , in which the role of Scar was originated by American actor John Vickery .
Scar was created by screenwriters Irene Mecchi , Jonathan Roberts and Linda Woolverton , and animated by Andreas Deja . The Pride Lands ' reclusive heir presumptive , Scar is introduced in the first film as the conniving uncle of Simba and jealous younger brother of Mufasa . Originally first @-@ in @-@ line to Mufasa 's throne until he is suddenly replaced by nephew Simba , Scar decides to lead an army of hyenas in his plot to usurp the throne by murdering Mufasa and exiling Simba , ultimately blaming his brother 's death on his innocent nephew . Loosely based on King Claudius , the antagonist of William Shakespeare 's play Hamlet , Scar 's villainy was additionally inspired by German politician Adolf Hitler . As the character 's supervising animator , Deja based Scar 's appearance on that of Irons himself , as well as the actor 's Academy Award @-@ winning performance as Claus von Bülow in the film Reversal of Fortune ( 1990 ) . Before Irons was cast , the directors had considered offering the role to actors Tim Curry and Malcolm McDowell .
As a character , Scar has garnered widespread acclaim from film critics , who greeted Irons ' performance with equal enthusiasm . However , Scar 's violence , dark color palette and allegedly effeminate mannerisms were initially met with mild controversy , perceived by some as racist and homophobic . Nevertheless , Scar continues to be revered as one of Disney 's greatest villains by various media publications , topping The Huffington Post 's list and ranking within the top ten of similar lists published by Yahoo ! Movies , the Orlando Sentinel , E ! and CNN . Scar has also been ranked among the greatest villains in film history by Digital Spy and Entertainment Weekly .
= = Development = =
= = = Conception and influences = = =
The Lion King was first conceived in 1988 . The film was eventually pitched to Disney executives , one of whom was among the first to observe similarities between author Thomas M. Disch 's treatment and William Shakespeare 's play Hamlet . Although first citing these similarities as initially unintentional , director Rob Minkoff always felt that it was essential " to anchor [ the film ] with something familiar " . As directors , Minkoff and Roger Allers aspired to create " an animal picture based in a more natural setting , " describing the film as " More true @-@ life adventure than mythical epic . " Although not the first Disney film to have been inspired by Shakespeare 's work , The Lion King remains the studio 's most prominent example due to close parallels between its characters and Hamlet , while both stories revolve around main characters who struggle to come to terms with the reality that they must confront their treacherous uncles and avenge their fathers ' deaths . Scar is based on King Claudius , the antagonist of Hamlet . According to Slate , while Claudius is mostly " a second @-@ rate schemer ... consumed by anxiety and guilt , " Scar very much " delight [ s ] in his monstrosity ; " both characters are motivated by jealousy . Meanwhile , The Week observed that although both characters ultimately die , Claudius is killed by protagonist Hamlet while Scar dies " at the hand of his former hyena minions , and not Simba himself . " Additionally , the character shares similarities with Iago from Shakespeare 's play Othello ; both antagonists are skilled in exploiting their victims ' fears .
The original plot of The Lion King revolved around an ongoing rivalry between lions and baboons ; Scar , a baboon himself , was their leader . When this plot was abandoned , Scar was re @-@ written into a rogue lion , thus lacking any blood relation to Mufasa and Simba . Eventually , the writers felt that making Scar and Mufasa brothers would ultimately enhance the story by making it more interesting . An abandoned character , at one point Scar owned a pet python as a sidekick . Because the film was originally intended to be much more adult @-@ oriented , Scar was to have become infatuated with Simba 's childhood friend and eventual love interest Nala , wanting the young lioness to rule alongside him as his queen and consequentially banishing the character when she refuses . This concept was to have been further explored during a reprise of Scar 's song " Be Prepared " , but both the idea and the song were ultimately completely removed from the film because they were deemed too " creepy " . To further emphasize the character 's villainy and tyranny , the writers loosely based Scar on German politician Adolf Hitler . According to The Jerusalem Post , Scar 's song " Be Prepared " " features goose @-@ stepping hyenas in a formation reminiscent of a Nuremberg rally . " This idea was first suggested by story artist Jorgen Klubien .
According to the directors , " [ a ] patronizing quality " was vital to Scar 's role in the film . Minkoff told the Los Angeles Times , " When Scar puts the guilt trip on Simba , that 's an intense idea ... probably something that is not typical of the other Disney pictures , in terms of what the villain does . " Additionally , Scar serves as a departure from previous Disney villains because they " came off at least as buffoonish as they were sinister " . Because Scar is the film 's main antagonist , supervising animator Andreas Deja believed that " villains work really well when they 're subtle " , explaining , " to see them think and scheme and plot is much more interesting than showing them beating somebody up . " By blaming Mufasa 's death on an innocent Simba , Scar ultimately triggers " a cycle of guilt , flight , denial and redemption , as the hero goes into self @-@ imposed exile before finally reconciling with his father 's memory , returning to face his wicked uncle and generally coming of age . " The character 's first line in The Lion King essentially summarizes the entire film , providing foreshadowing . It reads , " Life 's not fair is it ? You see I @-@ well , I ... shall never be King . And you ... shall never see light of another day , " subtly revealing the plot as well as " the reason why [ Scar ] decides to murder his own brother . "
= = = Voice = = =
English actors Tim Curry and Malcolm McDowell were originally considered for the role of Scar . However , the role was ultimately won by English actor Jeremy Irons because of his classical theatre training ; the directors had deliberately wanted Scar " to come across as a Shakespearean character . " Successfully recruiting Irons for the film was considered an unprecedented achievement for the studio because , at the time , it was rare for a dramatic actor of Irons ' caliber to agree to voice an animated character , especially immediately after winning an Academy Award . In fact , the Oscar @-@ winning actor nearly declined because , in fear of jeopardizing his successful career , he was " [ h ] esitant to jump from a dramatic role to an animated feature . " Prior to The Lion King , Irons was famous for starring as several villains and antagonists in live @-@ action films " geared towards adults . " Although he had starred in a children 's film before , the actor admitted that it did not mirror the success of The Lion King , a film that has since gained notoriety for its cast of well known , award @-@ winning Hollywood actors , which animation historian Jerry Beck referred to in his book The Animated Movie Guide as " the most impressive list of actors ever to grace an animated film . "
As directors , Minkoff and Allers " work [ ed ] very closely with the actors to create their performance . " Describing Irons as " a gentleman and a brilliant actor , " Allers revealed that the actor was constantly offering " extra interpretations of lines which were fantastic . " Producer Don Hahn recalled that Irons " really wanted to play with the words and the pacing , " specifically referring to a scene in which Scar , voiced by Irons , coaxes Simba onto a rock and tricks the young cub to stay there and await his father 's arrival alone , dubbing it " a father and son ... thing . " According to Hahn , " The comedy in [ Irons ' ] inflection comes from Scar sounding so disdainful he can barely summon the will to finish the sentence . " Irons ' physical appearance and mannerisms served as inspiration for Scar 's supervising animator Andreas Deja , namely his flicking his paw in disgust . Critics have cited physical similarities between Irons and Scar .
In a reference to the role that earned Irons an Academy Award , Claus von Bülow in the film Reversal of Fortune ( 1990 ) , the writers gave Scar one of von Bülow 's lines , " You have no idea " , which is uttered by Irons in a similar tone . According to author Rachel Stein of New Perspectives on Environmental Justice : Gender , Sexuality , and Activism , Irons relies " on his history of playing sexually perverse , socially dangerous male characters to animate his depiction of Scar . " On the contrary , Irons revealed to Connect Savannah that the similarities between the voices of Scar and von Bülow were largely unintentional , explaining , " Whatever voice came was arrived at by looking at the initial sketches , and from the freedom the directors gave me to try anything . " Irons concluded , " The fact that he may occasionally remind you of Claus , comes from the fact that they both share the same voice box . "
While recording Scar 's song " Be Prepared , " Irons encountered challenges with his voice . The actor reportedly " blew out his voice " upon belting the line " you won 't get a sniff without me , " rendering him incapable of completing the musical number . Consequently , Disney was forced to recruit American voice actor Jim Cummings , who had also been providing the voice of The Lion King 's laughing hyena Ed at the time , to impersonate Irons and record the remainder of the song . Cummings told The Huffington Post that " [ s ] tunt singing " is actually something the actor continues to do regularly , having done the same for American actor Russel Means , voice of Chief Powhatan in Disney 's Pocahontas ( 1995 ) . Critics observed that Irons " fakes his way ... through ' Be Prepared ' in the grand tradition of talk @-@ singing , " drawing similarities between him and American actor James Cagney and English actor Rex Harrison . Deja revealed that , during a recording session , Irons ' stomach was grumbling . Deja joked , " The growling sound could be heard in his recording , so we had to record that part of his dialog all over again . " As a result of Irons ' prominent British accent , critics have compared both the actor and Scar to Shere Khan , the villain of Disney 's The Jungle Book ( 1967 ) , voiced by English actor George Sanders .
= = = Design and characterization = = =
The studio originally dismissed The Lion King as a risk because , at the time , it was believed that the greatest films starred people . Concerned about the novelty of the film , Disney CEO Jeffrey Katzenberg decided to divide the studio into two separate animated films , The Lion King and Pocahontas , the latter of which was dubbed " the home run " because it was expected to be the more successful of the two projects . Naturally , Disney 's more seasoned and experienced animators gravitated towards Pocahontas , while the studio 's newer animators were relegated to working on The Lion King , dubbing themselves the " B @-@ team " . However , Allers received Katzenberg 's decision positively as an opportunity for " newer animators ... to step up to leadership roles " , among them Andreas Deja , who became Scar 's supervising animator . Well known for animating several Disney villains , Deja summarized the experience as " more fun than drawing heroes " because " You have so much more to work with in terms of expressions and acting and drawing @-@ wise than you would have with a nice princess or a prince ... where you have to be ever so careful with the draftsmanship " .
Before becoming involved with The Lion King , Deja had already developed a reputation for animating Disney villains . Prior to animating Scar , Deja had just recently served as the supervising animator of Gaston and Jafar , the villains in Disney 's Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) and Aladdin ( 1992 ) , respectively . Initially , Deja had been considering the idea of animating a hero as opposed to a villain for a change , contemplating taking on the task of animating Simba instead . However , Deja soon relented upon learning that Scar would be voiced by Irons , feeling that it would be " fun " to animate a character voiced by such a prestigious actor . Meanwhile , Minkoff and Allers had already had Deja in mind for animating Scar long before the animator approached the directors about the position . The level anthropomorphism used in The Lion King exceeded that of any Disney animated film by which it was preceded . Because Scar is an animal as opposed to a human , Deja and the animators experienced certain challenges and limitations when it came to instilling movement in the character , and thus experimented with manipulating Scar 's facial expressions , specifically the way in which he tilts his head condescendingly , raises his eyebrows and lifts his chin . The animals were each drawn with certain human @-@ like attributes and characteristics in order to help convey emotions and tell the story . Meanwhile , the studio recruited live lions for the animators to study while drawing . As the film 's villain , Scar is the only lion drawn with claws .
Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly described Scar as " a figure of both pity and evil , and of treacherous comedy " with " Irons ... filling this devious coward with elegantly witty self @-@ loathing . " As an animator , Deja believes that " If you have a great voice to work with , your work is half done . " Enjoying the way in which Irons " has a way with words and phrasing , " Deja deliberately based much of Scar 's appearance on the actor himself , specifically the shape of his mouth and facial expressions . Several of the actor 's physical attributes were incorporated into Scar 's design , with Irons admitting to recognizing his own baggy eyes in his character . Additionally , Deja studied Irons ' performances in the films Reversal of Fortune ( 1990 ) and Damage ( 1992 ) for inspiration , while refusing to watch Disney 's The Jungle Book while working on The Lion King in order to avoid being influenced by the film 's villain Shere Khan , a tiger .
= = = Music = = =
Scar sings the musical number " Be Prepared , " written by songwriters Elton John and Tim Rice , while contemplating Mufasa 's death plot and bringing the hyenas along . Described as the film 's " darkest " song , a " pompous , " " fascistic paean to usurpers , " the musical sequence depicts the lion " as a big @-@ cat fascist . " According to Business Insider , in addition to loosely basing the character on Adolf Hitler to further emphasize Scar 's tyranny , the filmmakers very much directly based his song " Be Prepared , " which references Nazism by having Scar 's army of hyenas goosestep while addressing them from a high ledge – similar to the way in which Hitler would have from a balcony – on the Nazi propaganda film Triumph of the Will ( 1935 ) , a film that documents Nazi Germany during 1934 .
According to Entertainment Weekly , the concept originated from a sketch by story artist Jorgen Klubien , in which Scar was depicted as Hitler . Although hesitant that Disney CEO Jeffrey Katzenberg would approve , the filmmakers ultimately decided to pursue it , describing the sequence as a " Triumph of the Will @-@ style mock @-@ Nuremberg rally . " The St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch reviewed , " those goose @-@ stepping hyenas seem a little much in hindsight , " while Film School Rejects coined it a " hellish gathering . "
= = Appearances = =
= = = Film = = =
Scar debuted in The Lion King ( 1994 ) . The jealous younger brother of Mufasa , Scar was next @-@ in @-@ line to inherit the throne until his nephew Simba , Mufasa 's son , was born , replacing him . Determined to usurp the throne and become king himself , Scar devises a plan to eliminate both Simba and Mufasa . Cleverly trapping an unsuspecting Simba in a vast gorge , Scar signals his hyena minions Shenzi , Banzai and Ed to trigger a wildebeest stampede . Although Mufasa saves Simba , the king is greatly weakened , and thus unable to climb out of the gorge to safety . When a desperate Mufasa begs Scar for help , Scar instead throws his brother to his death below . Convincing Simba that he is to blame for Mufasa 's death , Scar advises the prince to run away and never return , then orders the hyenas to pursue and kill him . With his brother murdered and his nephew presumed dead , Scar returns to Pride Rock and tells the pride that both father and son are dead before becoming king .
Years go by as Scar squanders the kingdom 's resources and allows his army of hyenas to wreak havoc upon the Pride Lands , which turn barren . Meanwhile , an alive and young adult Simba is visited by Mufasa 's ghost , who encourages him to return to the Pride Lands and take his rightful place as king . Aided by his friends Nala , Timon and Pumbaa , Simba arrives at Pride Rock and witnesses Scar striking his mother Sarabi and confronts Scar , who demands that Simba admit to the pride that he killed Mufasa . As he prepares to throw Simba off Pride Rock and have him meet a similar fate to that of his father , Scar , having grown over @-@ confident , whispers that he was the one who killed Mufasa . Enraged , Simba tackles Scar and forces his uncle to admit the truth to the pride , initiating a ferocious battle between the pride , Timon , Pumbaa and Scar 's hyenas . Scar tries to escape , but is cornered by Simba on the top of Pride Rock ; Scar begs for mercy and even attempts to blame his crimes on the hyenas , unaware that they are listening nearby . Simba ignores Scar and gives him one last chance to run away and never return . When Simba 's back is turned , Scar attacks him and they fight . Simba bests Scar in combat and throws him over the cliff edge and into a pit . Scar survives the fall , but is attacked and killed by the vengeful hyenas .
= = = Broadway musical = = =
The success of The Lion King spawned a Broadway musical based on the film , directed by Julie Taylor with a book written by The Lion King co @-@ director Roger Allers and screenwriter Irene Mecchi . American actor John Vickery originated the role of Scar . In one scene in the musical , Scar , during the song " The Madness of King Scar " , tries to seduce a young adult Nala and make her his queen . Nala however , rejects Scar 's advances and leaves Pride Rock .
= = = The Lion King II : Simba 's Pride = = =
Having perished during The Lion King , Scar 's appearance and presence in its sequel The Lion King II : Simba 's Pride ( 1998 ) is , naturally , quite limited in comparison . Story @-@ wise , however , his role remains vital . Upon Scar 's demise , a rivaling pride of lions known as the Outsiders decide to remain loyal to him . The pride is led by Scar 's most faithful follower , Zira . Since Scar had no children of his own , Zira 's son Kovu is chosen to serve as Scar 's heir . Simba banishes the Outsiders to the Outlands , and forbids his daughter Kiara from going there . She goes there anyway , however , and meets and befriends Kovu . Meanwhile , Zira trains Kovu to murder Simba , but when he becomes a young adult , he has a change of heart as he begins to develop feelings for Kiara .
Scar makes a brief cameo appearance in the film in one of Simba 's nightmares . In the nightmare , an adult Simba runs down the cliffside where his father died , attempting to rescue him . Scar intervenes , however , and then turns into Kovu and throws Simba off the cliff . Scar makes another cameo appearance in a pool of water , as a reflection , after Kovu is exiled from Pride Rock .
= = = Miscellaneous = = =
Scar makes a brief cameo in Disney 's animated feature film Hercules ( 1997 ) in the form of a limp lion skin coat worn by Hercules , parodying the Nemean lion . Scar 's supervising animator Andreas Deja also served as the supervising animator of Hercules . The character appears in the 1994 video game The Lion King . According to AllGame , Scar appears towards the end of video game as Simba finally " must defeat his Uncle Scar " and " stop Scar and reclaim what is rightfully his . " Scar plays a similar role in the video game The Lion King : Simba 's Mighty Adventure ( 2000 ) ; Simba 's climactic " battle with Scar concludes the first six levels of the game . " According to IGN , the video game features the voices of the film 's cast , including Jeremy Irons as Scar . Voiced by James Horan , Scar appears as a non @-@ player character in Disney 's Extreme Skate Adventure ( 2003 ) and Kingdom Hearts II as a villain who ultimately transforms into a Heartless as a result of the character 's own " hatred and jealousy . "
Scar also makes a brief non @-@ speaking cameo appearance in an episode of Timon and Pumbaa .
= = = The Lion Guard = = =
Scar is briefly portrayed in The Lion Guard film and series , which explains some of his backstory . When Scar was younger — as per tradition to all second born children of the current reigning " Lion King " — he led The Lion Guard who protected " The Circle of Life " and was given a power called " The Roar of the Elders " which when used , causes the lions of Pride Lands past to roar with him . However , Scar vainly believed that with this power , he should be king instead of Mufasa and plotted to overthrow his elder brother . But when the previous members of The Lion Guard refused to help him do so , Scar used The Roar of the Elders to destroy them . Due to using The Roar of the Elders for evil , Scar lost his power completely and descended into madness and depression , becoming shriveled and horrible .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Scar has garnered widespread acclaim from film critics , some of whom praised him as a better character than Simba . Author Peter M. Nichols wrote in his book New York Times Essential Library : Children 's Movies : A Critic 's Guide to the Best Films Available on Video and DVD that Scar " is the most interesting character in the film , " describing Simba and Mufasa " bores in comparison . " Janet Maslin of The New York Times called Scar a " delectably wicked " villain . Maslin went on to praise Irons ' voice acting , writing that the actor " slithers through the story in grandiose high style , with a green @-@ eyed malevolence that is one of film 's chief delights . " Leah Rozen of People described Scar as " a flawless realization of Irons ' special talent . " Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune lauded Scar as the film 's " best character , " jokingly describing him as " Irons ' Claus von Bulow with fur . " Similarly , ComingSoon.net 's Joshua Starnes hailed Scar as " the best part of the film . " Praising both Scar and Irons ' acting , Starnes continued , " He switches so quickly and easily from campy to deadly its like a showcase for how to do an over @-@ the @-@ top villain right . " Concluding that " Villains are often the most memorable characters in a Disney animated film , " Roger Ebert described Scar " one of the great ones . " James Berardinelli of ReelViews reviewed , " Gone is the buffoonery that has marked the recent trio of Ursula , Gaston , and Jafar , " writing , " Scar is a sinister figure , given to acid remarks and cunning villainy . " Berardinelli concluded , " The cold @-@ hearted manner in which he causes Mufasa 's death lets us know that this is not a lion to be trifled with . "
" Simba is also influenced by his delectably wicked uncle , Scar ( Jeremy Irons ) . Scar arranges Mufasa 's disturbing on @-@ screen death in a manner that both banishes Simba to the wilderness and raises questions about whether this film really warranted a G rating ... For the grown @-@ ups , there is Mr. Irons , who has been as devilishly well @-@ captured by Disney 's graphic artists ( Scar 's supervising animator : Andreas Deja ) as Robin Williams was in Aladdin . Bored , wicked and royally sarcastic , Mr. Irons 's Scar slithers through the story in grandiose high style , with a green @-@ eyed malevolence that is one of film 's chief delights . ' Oh , and just between us , you might want to work on that little roar of yours , hmm ? ' he purrs to Simba , while purporting to be a mentor to his young nephew . Scar , who also gives a reprise of Mr. Irons 's best @-@ known line from Reversal of Fortune , may not be much of a father figure , but he 's certainly great fun . "
A film that features the voices of several well @-@ known A @-@ list actors , namely Irons as Scar , Matthew Broderick as Simba , James Earl Jones as Mufasa and Whoopi Goldberg as Shenzi , The Lion King has since gone on to be acclaimed as " one of the most impressive arrays of voice talents ever utilized in an animated film . " Critics have repeatedly singled out Irons ' performance , praising it extensively : Cindy White of IGN called Irons ' performance " deliciously smarmy , " while Andy Patrizio of IGN wrote that Irons voices Scar " in perfect Shakespearean villain mode . " Rolling Stone 's Peter Travers hailed Irons for " deliver [ ing ] a triumphantly witty vocal performance that ranks with Robin Williams ' in Aladdin . " Peter Stack of the San Francisco Chronicle commended Disney for " nail [ ing ] the voice talents , " specifically Irons . The Philadelphia Daily News ' Bill Wedo described Irons ' voice as " silken , " while Graham Young of the Birmingham Mail hailed the actor 's performance as " magnificent . " Radio Times ' Tom Hutchinson wrote , " Jeremy Irons [ is ] a vocal standout as the evil uncle Scar . " Annette Basile of Filmink echoed Hutchinson 's statement , writing that Scar is " voiced with relish by stand @-@ out Jeremy Irons . " The Guardian 's Philip French opined , " Jeremy Irons is excellent as the suavely villainous lion Scar . " David Sterritt of The Christian Science Monitor exalted Irons ' acting , describing him as " positively brilliant . " Also hailing the film 's cast as " incredible , " Desson Howe of The Washington Post highlighted Irons as a " standout . " Praising the film for successfully combining " grand @-@ opera melodrama and low @-@ comedy hi @-@ jinks , " the Orlando Sentinel 's Jay Boyar concluded that " One reason they work so well together is that even most of the serious sections contain an undercurrent of humor , provided ... by the deliciously droll voice @-@ performance of Jeremy Irons as Scar . " Mathew DeKinder of the St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch felt that Irons successfully " handle [ s ] all of the dramatic heavy lifting . "
Even film critics who generally disliked the film tended to enjoy Scar 's characterization and Irons ' performance . Terrence Rafferty of The New Yorker wrote , " Among the celebrity voices on the soundtrack , two performances stand out , " namely , " Jeremy Irons , as the villainous lion Scar " who " does an elegant , funny George Sanders impersonation . " ( Sanders himself had voiced Shere Khan for Disney in their 1967 version of The Jungle Book ) . Stephen Hunter of The Baltimore Sun described Irons ' voice as " plummy @-@ rich with rancid irony . " Television Without Pity 's Ethan Alter admitted to enjoying Scar , praising the character as " a fantastic villain and easily the most fully realized of the film 's characters , thanks both to Jeremy Irons ' marvelously wicked vocal performance and some clever character flourishes on behalf of the animators . " David Denby of New York , who otherwise criticized the film , felt that " Irons ... sounds like he 's having a better time than he 's ever had in movies before . " In a rare lukewarm review , Anthony Quinn of The Independent felt that Irons ' performance was too campy : " more Liberace than George Sanders . "
= = = Accolades and legacy = = =
According to IGN , Scar , Simba and Mufasa have since become " household names thanks to the [ film 's ] enormous popularity ... but back in 1994 who could have predicted that these characters would enter the lexicon of Disney 's most popular creations ? " Scar is considered to be among Disney 's greatest villains . Desmond Ryan of The Philadelphia Inquirer reviewed Scar as " the most vivid villain in Disney features in generations . " On a broader scale , Scar is often revered as one of the greatest animated villains of all @-@ time . Entertainment Weekly included the character in the article " 10 Over @-@ the @-@ top Animated Movie Villains " , explaining , " you could only expect over @-@ the @-@ top when you pair such a grasping , conniving character with Jeremy Irons ' seductive voice . " Likewise , Digital Spy 's Alex Fletcher wrote of Scar in his article " Who is Disney 's greatest ever villain ? " that " The scene in which he lets Mufasa ... fall into a stampede of wildebeests left lasting emotional trauma on an entire generation . "
The Huffington Post ranked Scar first in its " Definitive Ranking Of 25 Classic Disney Villains " countdown . Similarly , BuzzFeed also ranked Scar first in the website 's " Definitive Ranking Of The Top 20 Disney Villains " list , with author Javi Moreno accusing the character of removing " the innocence of an entire generation . " Scar also topped About.com 's " Top 10 Disney Villains " countdown ; author David Nusair concluded , " There are few figures within Disney 's body of work that are as deliciously reprehensible and vile as Scar ... heightened by Jeremy Irons ' gloriously smug voice work . " Nusair also included Irons among the " Top 5 Celebrity Voice Performances in Animated Films " , acknowledging the fact that although the actor " has played a lot of villains over the course of his career ... none have had the lasting impact as Scar from The Lion King . " The Orlando Sentinel ranked Scar the sixth " greatest Disney villain of all time " . Similarly , Babble.com also placed the character at number six . Included in the website 's " 12 most famous Disney villains from worst to best " countdown , Yahoo ! Movies ranked Scar second best , while Moviefone ranked the character sixth . E ! ranked Scar fifth , with author John Boone writing that the character " plotted one of the most painful deaths in Disney history , so you know he 'll never be forgotten . " Animation World Network ranked Scar the sixth best animated villain .
CNN considers Scar one of " Disney 's scariest characters . " While ranking the character fifth , The Stanford Daily wrote , " From his habit of sadistically toying with his prey to his dumb hyena coven to the way he leads the kingdom of Pride Rock into a period of starvation and sorrow , he 's a backstabbing dictator of an uncle . " Richard Crouse of Metro cited Scar 's " Long live the King " as the character 's " Most evil line . " Additionally , " Be Prepared " is often revered as one of the greatest Disney villain songs . Official Disney Blogs wrote that the song , with its " hyena backup singers , and the best bone @-@ rattling percussion of all the villains ' songs , " Scar proves himself " an expert crooner of villainous plots . " Aside from Disney and animation , Scar is often revered as one of the greatest movie villains of all @-@ time . Digital Spy featured the character who , according to author Simon Reynolds , " underlined the sheer blackness of his heart by ruthlessly killing Simba 's father , " among the " 25 greatest movie villains " . Similarly , in 2012 , Entertainment Weekly ranked the character the twenty @-@ fifth " Most Vile Movie Villain " ever , while Total Film ranked Scar sixty @-@ seventh in 2014 .
To @-@ date , Deja remains best known for animating several of Disney 's most famous villains , admitting to preferring animating villains over heroes . However , after The Lion King , Deja finally decided to take a break from animating villains in order to avoid repeating himself , subsequently refusing to animate villain Judge Claude Frollo in The Hunchback of Notre Dame ( 1996 ) in favor of working on Hercules from Hercules ( 1997 ) , along with Mickey Mouse in the animated short Runaway Brain ( 1995 ) . Comparing Scar to other villains that he has played , Irons said that he " measures very highly , " having " charm , " " Machiavellian qualities " and being " iconic in some of the things he says . "
= = Criticism and controversy = =
Scar became the first Disney villain to successfully explicitly kill someone . Like Disney 's Bambi before it , The Lion King – dubbed the studio 's " darkest " film at the time of its release – was unprecedented in terms of its serious themes , namely guilt , murder , treachery , revenge and death , specifically the on @-@ screen assassination of one of the film 's heroes . According to IGN , " The film 's story concepts of morality and mortality ... was new for Disney , " with The Washington Post predicting that " the death of the heroic Mufasa will be the most widely debated aspect of The Lion King , with people taking sides as to whether such things are good or bad for kids just as they did over the killing of Bambi 's mother . " Similarly , Variety opined , " a generation that remembers the death of Bambi 's mother as traumatizing should bear that experience in mind when deciding who goes to The Lion King . " Film critics and parents alike expressed concern that Scar 's violent ways would frighten and disturb younger viewers . Referring to Scar 's murdering of Mufasa , The New York Times questioned " whether this film really warranted a G rating . " Critics also cautioned Scar 's death ; Movieline warned audiences that the film " shows a fairy tale 's dark sense of justice , " for example when " Scar was eaten by his hyena allies after betraying them . " ReelViews ' James Berardinelli commented :
" Death , something not really touched on in the last three animated Disney tales , is very much at the forefront of The Lion King . In a scene that could disturb younger viewers , Mufasa 's demise is shown . It is a chilling moment that is reminiscent of a certain incident in Bambi . The film also contains a fair share of violence , including a rather graphic battle between two lions . Parents should carefully consider before automatically taking a child of , say , under seven years of age , to this movie . "
The Los Angeles Times warned that " The on @-@ screen death of Mufasa and a violent battle at the finale may disturb small children , " echoed by The Philadelphia Inquirer . However , film critics also felt that Disney 's treatment of Scar was at times too light @-@ hearted and comedic , with the Deseret News complaining , " a climactic battle between Simba and his evil Uncle Scar ... is [ a ] very bad choice near the end , as Simba and Scar battle in slow @-@ motion , a serious moment that seems unintentionally comic . " According to The Seattle Times , " Some critics have complained that the movie is too funny and good @-@ natured to accommodate the rather grim story it 's telling . " Considered " an odd mix of deadly seriousness and slapstick humor ... Simba fights Scar to the death " while " intercut with ... Poomba [ sic ] ... doing a parody of Travis Bickel . "
Although universally acclaimed , Scar has sparked considerable controversy regarding the character 's appearance and personality , specifically his darker @-@ colored fur and alleged sexuality . The general public , however , appears to have remained largely oblivious to such concerns according to David Parkinson , author of The Rough Guide to Film Musicals . The Washington Post felt that " Scar clearly is meant to represent an evil African American because ' while Simba 's mane is gloriously red , Scar 's is , of course , black . " Meanwhile , Scar 's mannerisms and voice which , according to Nightmare on Main Street : Angels , Sadomasochism , and the Culture of Gothic 's author Mark Edmundson , resemble " a cultivated , word @-@ weary , gay man , " has been deemed homophobic by some commentators because , according to The Independent , " the arch @-@ villain 's gestures are effeminate " while , in addition to the film being " full of stereotypes , " the character " speaks in supposed gay cliches . " Susan Mackey @-@ Kallis , author of The Hero and the Perennial Journey Home in American Film , observed that Scar is " more effeminate [ and ] less brawny ... than " both Mufasa and Simba . Additionally , " Even though [ Scar ] would be expected to mate with one of the lioness , he is never seen intimated by any . " While Disney executives ignored these accusations , Slant Magazine defended the studio , explaining that Scar 's black mane is simply an example of " the animators ' elementary attempts to color @-@ code evil for the film 's target audience . " Similarly , author Edward Schiappa wrote in his book Beyond Representational Correctness : Rethinking Criticism of Popular Media that Scar 's voice was simply meant " to convey the sort of upper @-@ class snobbishness evinced by George Sanders 's performance as Shere Khan in The Jungle Book . " More recently , the possibility of an incestuous relationship involving Simba , his mate Nala , Scar and Mufasa has surfaced . According to Johnson Cheu , author of Diversity in Disney Films : Critical Essays on Race , Ethnicity , Gender , Sexuality and Disability , the fact that Scar , Mufasa and Simba appear to be the only male lions present in The Lion King suggests the possibility that either Scar or Mufasa is Nala 's father , which would in turn make Nala either Simba 's half @-@ sister or cousin .
= California State Route 75 =
State Route 75 ( SR 75 ) is a short , 13 @-@ mile ( 21 km ) expressway in San Diego County , California . It is a loop route of Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) that begins near Imperial Beach , heading west on Palm Avenue . The route continues north along the Silver Strand , a thin strip of land , through Silver Strand State Beach . SR 75 passes through the city of Coronado as Orange Avenue and continues onto the San Diego – Coronado Bay Bridge , which traverses the San Diego Bay , before joining back with I @-@ 5 near downtown San Diego at a freeway interchange .
The Silver Strand Highway was constructed and open to the public by 1924 . What would become SR 75 was added to the state highway system in 1933 , and designated Legislative Route 199 in 1935 . SR 75 was not officially designated until the 1964 state highway renumbering . The Coronado Bay Bridge opened in 1969 , and provided a direct connection between San Diego and Coronado . Since then , various proposals have taken place to relieve commuter traffic between San Diego and Naval Air Station North Island that traverses the city of Coronado . However , none of these proposals have gained support , including an attempt in 2010 .
= = Route description = =
SR 75 begins as Palm Avenue at I @-@ 5 in the San Ysidro neighborhood of San Diego , heading westbound from the Southland Plaza mall . The route travels between the communities of Palm City and Nestor before entering the city limits of Imperial Beach . There , SR 75 curves to the north , becoming Silver Strand Boulevard and crossing into Coronado . SR 75 continues onto the peninsula containing Coronado Island , separated from the mainland by San Diego Bay . The highway passes through the Silver Strand Training Complex and the South Bay Study Area before entering the Coronado Cays subdivision and paralleling Silver Strand State Beach .
After this , SR 75 passes through the United States Naval Amphibious Base for a few miles before entering downtown Coronado . The highway becomes Orange Avenue and turns north @-@ northeast as the main street through Coronado . SR 75 intersects SR 282 at the one @-@ way couplet of Third and Fourth Streets ; SR 282 continues west on Third Street and returns to SR 75 on Fourth Street , while SR 75 continues east on Fourth Street and heads west towards Orange Avenue on Third Street . The one @-@ way couplet is brief , and SR 75 becomes a divided highway before crossing the Coronado Bridge . While on the bridge , SR 75 crosses into the city of San Diego again .
Once on the mainland , SR 75 has a northbound exit to National Avenue and a southbound entrance from Cesar E. Chavez Parkway . Through traffic is directed onto I @-@ 5 south or north in Logan Heights , where SR 75 ends .
SR 75 is eligible for the State Scenic Highway System . It is signed as a scenic route for nearly its entire length , from the Imperial Beach city limit to Avenida del Sol in Coronado , meaning that it is a substantial section of highway passing through a " memorable landscape " with no " visual intrusions " , where the potential designation has gained popular favor with the community . SR 75 is also part of the National Highway System , a network of highways that are essential to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . In 2013 , SR 75 had an annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) of 66 @,@ 000 on the Coronado Bay Bridge ( the highest AADT for the highway ) , and 16 @,@ 000 between Rainbow Drive and 7th Street in Imperial Beach ( the lowest AADT for the highway ) .
= = History = =
= = = Construction = = =
The intersection of Third Street and Orange Avenue dates back to at least 1890 . The process of paving portions of Orange Avenue began in 1893 , with an estimated cost of $ 50 @,@ 000 ( about $ 12 million in 2015 dollars ) ; three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) of sidewalks were also included . The plan was to make the avenue " one of the most beautiful in Southern California . " From Palm City to Imperial Beach , the road was paved by 1920 . The Silver Strand Highway opened in 1924 during a festival at the Tent City summer resort in Coronado , and went from Coronado to Palm City . By 1928 , all streets in the city of Coronado had been paved , which was expected to encourage people to visit Tent City .
Plans to transfer the Silver Strand Highway to state maintenance were in place as early as November 1931 , and were to take effect once Silver Strand State Park was completed and open . In 1933 , the highway from the San Diego – Coronado Ferry to Route 2 ( now I @-@ 5 ) was added to the state highway system , and was designated as Legislative Route 199 two years later . By that same year , Sign Route 75 was posted from U.S. Route 101 ( US 101 ) in Palm City to the ferry landing . After a subsequent highway project around 1939 , SR 75 passed through Tent City and , according to William Cecil , the city 's public works director in 1998 , " contributed to its demise . "
The first contract for widening the highway between Coronado and Coronado Heights was awarded in 1944 , as this part of the road was " now too narrow and dilapidated to meet traffic requirements . " The State Highway Commission allocated $ 25 @,@ 000 ( about $ 619 @,@ 000 in 2015 dollars ) to install traffic signals at the intersection of SR 75 and US 101 in March 1951 . Plans to widen the road to four lanes were put on hold in July .
By July 1952 , it had been disclosed that some local businesses near Palm City had lodged opposition to the widening of the highway after $ 500 @,@ 000 ( about $ 11 @.@ 9 million in 2015 dollars ) had been allocated to the project . Following protests from local businessmen regarding the design of the median , the planned removal of access to intersecting streets , and the planned changes to street parking , Governor Earl Warren wrote to the San Diego Public Safety Committee , hoping to have the dispute resolved . In November , funds were allocated to acquire land for the construction in the 1953 – 1954 state budget . A year later , $ 430 @,@ 000 ( about $ 9 @.@ 82 million in 2015 dollars ) had been allocated to the widening project . A contract was given to the Daley Corporation to carry out the construction in 1955 . The highway was to be widened to four lanes , and would add three pedestrian crossings . The completion of the widening project was announced on August 10 , 1956 . The final cost of the project was $ 850 @,@ 000 ( about $ 17 @.@ 7 million in 2015 dollars ) , with money from the City of Coronado and the state .
= = = Designation and bridge construction = = =
Discussion regarding a bridge dates back to 1926 ; however , the Navy opposed the plan over concerns that an enemy could destroy the bridge and trap ships in the harbor . In 1955 , the California Senate approved $ 200 @,@ 000 ( about $ 4 @.@ 33 million in 2015 dollars ) to conduct a study regarding a possible vehicular tunnel from San Diego to Coronado . Later , in June 1961 , a proposal for an underwater tube along SR 75 was formally proposed , and would not have needed the approval of the residents of Coronado . Interviews of commuters were planned in August , to determine the traffic patterns along SR 75 . The survey took place on October 2 along Silver Strand Boulevard .
The SR 75 designation was originally established in 1963 with two segments : from I @-@ 5 to the ferry across San Diego Bay from Coronado to downtown , and from SR 125 to I @-@ 5 . In 1967 , the Coronado Bridge was scheduled to be added to the route once it was completed , and the portion from Fourth Street to the ferry was deemed as temporary until the bridge opened . Construction began in February . Coronado residents largely opposed the bridge , but Governor Pat Brown " overrode their wishes " according to former city councilman Bob Odiorne , who also claimed that the opposition caused the city to lose opportunities to move the approaches to the bridge away from residential areas . Following attempts from Barbara Hutchinson , the vice president of the Kearny Mesa Town Council , to ask the Coronado and San Diego city councils to intervene in the construction , San Diego city attorney Edward Butler stated that the state had the ultimate authority to decide whether or not to build the bridge , and that the City of San Diego could not interfere . Before the bridge opened , in 1968 , the changes originally proposed by the Legislature in 1967 were made to the law ; the designation came into effect on February 21 , 1969 . The bridge eventually opened on August 3 , 1969 .
By 1969 , Palm Avenue was the primary commercial street in Imperial Beach , and was described by the San Diego Union as " a strip of large signs and businesses . It is not a ' downtown . ' " Plans were under way to add an interchange at Silver Strand State Beach for the Coronado Cays development . In September , the City of Coronado added Orange Avenue south of Third Street as a truck route leading to the base . By May 1970 , the part of SR 75 on the Coronado Bridge had been declared a scenic highway . President Richard Nixon and Mexican president Díaz Ordaz used Orange Avenue as a motorcade route on September 3 , 1970 , en route to the Hotel del Coronado .
= = = Proposals and renumbering = = =
Proposition N was proposed in 1974 to attempt to resolve concerns regarding traffic in Coronado . The plan was to build another highway along the northern and eastern shore of Coronado Island , to bypass the busy residential and commercial districts and provide easy access to the Silver Strand from the western end of the bridge . The proposition asked voters whether the City Council should " actively pursue " the matter . Critics contended that the highway would block the view of the San Diego Bay , and that the city would be unable to alter traffic patterns in the meantime . Coronado mayor Rolland McNeely opposed the proposal in early November 1974 as it would require approval from over thirty government agencies and would force the city to continue with building this road , although some declared it " impossible to build . " The voters rejected this plan .
The portion of SR 75 from Pomona Avenue in Coronado to Imperial Beach was also recommended to become a scenic highway in February 1974 . Future improvements to the Imperial Beach – Coronado portion were cancelled in April . In 1976 , the California State Legislature renumbered the portion from I @-@ 5 to SR 125 as SR 117 , which later became SR 905 . The change took effect at the beginning of 1977 . The renumbering was to reduce confusion with the Coronado portion , according to Caltrans regional director Jacob Dekema ; new signs were to be put into place shortly thereafter . The bridge and the resulting traffic continued to be a hotly debated issue in the early 1980s . A plan in 1981 to convert Fourth Street into an expressway leading to the naval station was strongly opposed by the public due to the required demolition of structures and a lack of evidence that the plan would succeed in reducing traffic ; by this time , Third and Fourth streets had been converted into one @-@ way streets between the bridge and the naval station . A major renovation of the bridge was scheduled for late 1992 , which would include a movable barrier to prevent head @-@ on collisions and necessary resurfacing of the roadway . Work was underway in January 1993 on the $ 4 million project ( about $ 8 million in 2015 dollars ) , but it was behind the three @-@ month schedule by 11 days due to rainfall and was expected to be completed by March .
When the Coronado Bridge opened , a toll of 60 cents was charged to use the bridge . In 1980 , the toll became $ 1 @.@ 20 , charged only in the westbound direction towards Coronado . A seventh toll booth was to be constructed in September 1987 . The toll dropped to $ 1 in 1988 . The bridge tolls ended at 10 p.m. on June 27 , 2002 , after the San Diego Association of Governments decided to stop collecting tolls ; drivers paid a total of $ 197 million throughout the years . The speed limit was decreased to 25 miles per hour ( 40 km / h ) in October 2005 along Third and Fourth streets , after traffic increased by 20 percent following the removal of the toll . Traffic barriers along Third Street to block traffic from turning onto intersecting streets were removed in November 2004 , following voter approval .
The City of Coronado has attempted to have a tunnel built from the Coronado bridge to the San Diego Naval Base numerous times , and hired Ledford Enterprises to help with the lobbying process in 2002 and 2006 . The city endorsed a proposed study in 2004 to determine possible alternatives to resolve the traffic issues , which included keeping the status quo . On June 8 , 2010 , Coronado voters decided against Proposition H , which would have advised the city to undergo further investigation into building the tunnel . This concluded ten years of studies and proposals by the city of Coronado to find a way to reduce traffic to the naval station during rush hour . Critics of the proposal did not believe that the tunnel would resolve the traffic issues on the northern part of SR 75 or on SR 282 . Following this , the Coronado City Council voted to abolish the Tunnel Commission that had been formed to study the issue .
Efforts were underway by Imperial Beach city officials to improve the reputation and economic standing of the Palm Avenue area in the first decade of the 21st century . The area was described by the San Diego Union @-@ Tribune as a " hodgepodge of vacant land and aging apartment buildings and businesses , many in need of a coat of paint " in 2003 . Residents hoped to revitalize the area , providing commerce right next to an entrance to the beach . City officials offered local business owners loans for necessary construction or rehabilitation in 2005 . The Imperial Beach city council approved the redevelopment of the Palm Avenue corridor in 2008 , following a study in 2003 . A Palm Avenue Commercial Corridor Master Plan was endorsed in February 2009 , in efforts to improve the commercial area . In September 2012 , the Imperial Beach city council raised objections over the Caltrans decision to increase the speed limit on SR 75 to 45 miles per hour ( 72 km / h ) from 40 miles per hour ( 64 km / h ) on the portion of the highway from Delaware Street to the western Imperial Beach city limit due to concerns about safety . The rest of the highway was to retain the 40 miles per hour ( 64 km / h ) speed limit .
= = Major intersections = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The entire route is in San Diego County .
= 2009 North Korean nuclear test =
The 2009 North Korean nuclear test was the underground detonation of a nuclear device conducted on Monday , May 25 , 2009 by the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea . This was its second nuclear test , the first test , a fizzle , having taken place in October 2006 . Following the nuclear test , Pyongyang also conducted several missile tests . A scientific paper later estimated the yield as 2 @.@ 35 kilotons .
The test was nearly universally condemned by the international community . Following the test , the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 1874 condemning the test and tightening sanctions on the country .
It was widely believed that the test was conducted as a result of a succession crisis in the country . After Kim Jong @-@ Il suffered a stroke in the summer of 2008 , arrangements were made for his third son , Kim Jong @-@ un , to take power upon his death . It is believed the North Koreans conducted the nuclear test to show that , even in a time of possible weakness , it did not intend to give up its nuclear weapons program .
= = Background = =
North Korea ( officially the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea , or DPRK ) had threatened to conduct a second nuclear test in protest after the United Nations Security Council adopted a presidential statement condemning the country after it launched a rocket , which it claimed was carrying the Kwangmyŏngsŏng @-@ 2 satellite , on 5 April 2009 . The launch was condemned by several nations , describing it as an intercontinental ballistic missile test .
The test also came after recent messages stating that North Korea had miniaturized nuclear warheads for medium @-@ range missiles and that the country had been recognized by analysts as a fully fledged nuclear power .
In June 2009 , after it was announced that Kim Jong @-@ un was to be the intended successor of North Korean leader Kim Jong @-@ il , U.S. government analysts speculated that the purpose of the nuclear test was to establish North Korea as a nuclear power within Kim Jong @-@ il 's lifetime .
= = North Korean statements = =
Without citing a specific time , Pyongyang notified both Washington , D.C. and Beijing of the test about an hour before the actual detonation , which occurred around 10 : 00 Korea Standard Time ( KST ) Monday ; the U.S. State Department promptly contacted the four other six @-@ party talks members .
The state @-@ run Korean Central News Agency ( KCNA ) released an announcement claiming , in part , that :
The Democratic People 's Republic of Korea successfully conducted one more underground nuclear test on May 25 as part of the measures to bolster up its nuclear deterrent for self @-@ defence in every way as requested by its scientists and technicians . The current nuclear test was safely conducted on a new higher level in terms of its explosive power and technology of its control and the results of the test helped satisfactorily settle the scientific and technological problems arising in further increasing the power of nuclear weapons and steadily developing nuclear technology .
This was interpreted as referring to the disputes over the low yield of the 2006 test .
= = Seismic activity = =
South Korea and Japan reported seismic activity at 09 : 50 KST ( 00 : 50 UTC ) . The United States Geological Survey reported a magnitude 4 @.@ 7 earthquake at a depth of zero and put the center of the tremor about 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) northwest of Kimchaek and 375 kilometres ( 233 mi ) northeast of Pyongyang , within a few kilometres of the country 's 2006 nuclear test site . The Japan Meteorological Agency measured the seismic activity at magnitude 5 @.@ 3 . The Korea Institute of Geoscience & Mineral Resources reported seismic activity in the same area but far stronger than in 2006 .
The Russian Defence Ministry confirmed it had detected a nuclear detonation in North Korea and was analysing the data to determine the yield . Geophysical Service of the Russian Academy of Sciences has registered underground nuclear explosion conducted in North Korea on May 25 , 2009 . Registration time of this explosion was 0 : 54 a.m. GMT ( 4 : 54 a.m. Moscow time ) with magnitude 5 @.@ 0 .
In China , tremors were felt in the prefecture of Yanbian , which borders North Korea , and forced students in some local schools to be evacuated . The test is believed to have taken place at Mantapsan in the vicinity of P ’ unggyeri ( Korean : 풍계리 ) , which was the site of the nuclear test held in 2006 .
= = Analysis of test = =
= = = Yield = = =
Analysts have generally agreed that the nuclear test was successful , despite uncertainty of the exact yield .
The U.S. intelligence community assessed that North Korea " probably " had conducted a nuclear test with a yield of " a few kilotons " . The Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization Preparatory Commission assessed the yield at only slightly larger than the 2006 test , which was one kiloton . Based on readings from 23 seismic stations , the Preparatory Commission estimated the blast to have a seismic magnitude of 4 @.@ 52 , corresponding to an explosive yield of 2 @.@ 4 kilotons , compared to a seismic magnitude of 4 @.@ 1 , corresponding to a yield of 0 @.@ 8 kilotons , for the 2006 blast .
Russia placed the yield of the test significantly higher at 10 to 20 kilotons . This was approximately the yield of the Fat Man and Trinity bombs developed by the United States during World War II . After the 2006 test the Russians estimated a far higher yield of 5 to 10 kilotons when other sources estimated a yield of 0 @.@ 5 to 0 @.@ 9 kilotons . Defense Minister Lee Sang @-@ Hee of South Korea said that more data were needed but that the yield might be between 1 and 20 kilotons .
Analyst Martin Kalinowski at the University of Hamburg estimated the yield at being from 3 to 8 kilotons , still a very successful test when compared with the 2006 test . Hans M. Kristensen of the Federation of American Scientists cautioned that " early news media reports about a ' Hiroshima @-@ size ' nuclear explosion seem to be overblown " . The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists asserted that the blast was more powerful than the 2006 test , though put the yield between 2 and 6 kilotons , but likely less than 4 kilotons and far short of a Hiroshima @-@ type device . The group concluded that the bomb failed to detonate correctly , but that still in that case the potential of this weapon should not be dismissed .
However , after the subsequent nuclear test in 2013 , the Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources , a state @-@ run geology research institute in Germany , estimated the yield ranging from a minimum of 5 kilotons to the maximum of 12 kilotons and the 2006 test ranging from minimum of 700 tons to the maximum of 2 kilotons instead with relevant statistics .
= = = Lack of radionuclide confirmation = = =
In June 2009 , the Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear @-@ Test @-@ Ban Treaty Organization ( CTBTO ) announced that no radionuclides had been detected that could be associated with the 25 May event . At the time of the test , the CTBTO global network included 40 radionuclide sampling stations . In addition , the United States reported that no radionuclides were detected by aircraft over the Sea of Japan ( East Sea of Korea ) , and South Korea also reported that no radionuclides were detected . By contrast , radionuclides were detected in at least two locations after the 2006 event . Lack of detection does not mean that the event was non @-@ nuclear : it is reasonable for a nuclear test with this yield , buried deep enough in the appropriate rock , to not yield remotely detectable radionuclides , but it makes it more difficult to prove whether the test was nuclear .
= = Missile tests = =
On the same day , North Korea also conducted short @-@ range surface @-@ to @-@ air missile tests . The number of fired missiles was first reported as three , but corrected to two by the South Korean defense ministry on 27 May 2009 . The first missile had a range of 130 km ( 81 mi ) . The South Korean news agency Yonhap cited military officials as saying that the launches seemed to be aimed at keeping U.S. and Japanese surveillance planes away from the site .
On 26 May 2009 , South Korea 's Yonhap news agency reported , citing officials , that North Korea fired three more short @-@ range missiles off an east @-@ coast base , one ground @-@ to @-@ ship missile and one surface @-@ to @-@ air missile . The move came as UN diplomats began work on a resolution to punish North Korea for its underground nuclear test .
By 27 May 2009 , at least five short range missiles were launched by North Korea . A military spokesman quoted by official media said that North Korea could no longer guarantee the safety of shipping off its west coast , suggesting a missile could also be fired in that direction .
Another short @-@ range missile was fired off North Korea 's east coast on 28 May 2009 .
On 29 May 2009 , U.S. officials said that satellite photos revealed vehicle activity at two sites in North Korea suggesting that North Korean military might be preparing to launch a long @-@ range ballistic missile . This was reaffirmed on 1 June 2009 by Defense Secretary Robert M. Gates who said at a news conference with his Philippine counterpart during a brief visit to Manila " We have seen some signs that they may be doing something with another Taepodong @-@ 2 missile , but at this point it 's not clear what they 're doing " .
Yonhap news agency reported on 2 June 2009 that North Korea was readying as many as three medium @-@ range missiles ( according to some analysts , Rodong missiles ) at a missile base in Anbyon region , Gangwon Province , northeast of the capital of Pyongyang . In addition , a South Korean defence ministry spokesman said that signs that North Korea was preparing to fire an intercontinental ballistic missile ( ICBM ) had been detected. verifying US defense officials ' reports and Defense Secretary Robert M. Gates 's statement made on 1 June . North Korea apparently has moved the ICBM to a new base in Dongchang @-@ ri along its west coast and a launch could take place in one or two weeks , according to Yonhap .
= = International reaction = =
The North Korean news agency KCNA confirmed the test as " successful " . The agency also said the test was " aimed at strengthening its self @-@ defense nuclear deterrent in every way " . South Korea 's Yonhap news agency reported citing KCNA that citizens of Pyongyang held a rally to celebrate the country 's second successful nuclear test on 26 May .
In general the International reactions to the 2009 North Korean nuclear test have been almost uniformly negative .
= = = Members of the six @-@ party talks = = =
South Korea : President Lee Myung @-@ bak called an emergency cabinet meeting . The decision was made to join the Proliferation Security Initiative , a move which the North has repeatedly warned would be construed as a declaration of war . The ROK @-@ US Combined Forces Command raised its surveillance condition from WATCHCON3 ( important indications of threat ) to WATCHCON2 ( vital indications of threat ) . President Lee Myung @-@ bak made another statement at the beginning of the ASEAN @-@ Republic of Korea Commemorative Summit saying " We will continue to work to have North Korea observe UN Security Council resolutions " . On 27 May , North Korea 's permanent military mission to the North @-@ South joint security area reacted to S. Korea 's decision to join the Proliferation Security Initiative saying it no longer is bound to the Korean War armistice and will militarily respond to any foreign attempt to inspect its ships .
People 's Republic of China : The Foreign Ministry released a statement : " The DPRK ignored universal opposition of the international community and once more conducted the nuclear test . The Chinese government is resolutely opposed to it " . The statement also strongly demanded that North Korea " return to the tracks of the six @-@ party talks " .
Japan : Japan said the test was " unacceptable " and a violation of UN Security Council resolutions . It was also considering tightening sanctions in response .
Russia : The Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs stated that " The latest steps of the DPRK escalate tensions in Northeast Asia and endanger regional security and stability " and violated UN Security Council Resolution 1718 , but added that " We still think that the nuclear problem of the Korean Peninsula may be resolved only at the six @-@ nation negotiations " . Natalya Timakova , the Press Attaché to the Russian President said Russia “ is seriously concerned ” about North Korea ’ s nuclear test and that “ Russian competent services express regret and voice serious concern about North Korea ’ s nuclear test in the area adjacent to the Russian Federation ” .
United States : The White House condemned the test , saying " North Korea is directly and recklessly challenging the international community . The danger posed by North Korea 's threatening activities warrants action by the international community . " President Barack Obama 's official statement promised that North Korea would not find " international acceptance " unless it complied . He also said that the country 's actions " pose a grave threat to the peace and stability of the world " . Susan Rice , US ambassador to the UN , added that , " North Korea needs to understand that its actions have consequences " and that they would " pay a price for their action , " in the form of further sanctions . Robert Gates , the US Defense Secretary , delivered a stark warning to North Korea , on 30 May 2009 " The policy of the United States has not changed , " he said . " Our goal is complete and verifiable denuclearisation of the Korean peninsula , and we will not accept North Korea as a nuclear weapons state . "
= = Aftermath = =
News of the tests immediately affected South Korean markets , sending the main KOSPI share index down 4 % , while the South Korean won dropped by 1 % against the US $ on the day of the nuclear test , 25 May . The yen fell to 95 @.@ 10 per dollar from its level of 94 @.@ 78 on 22 May .
On 28 May , North Korea threatened to end the Korean War armistice , stating that " the Korean peninsula will go back to a state of war " , whereupon the joint military command of South Korea and the United States increased its surveillance alert level from WATCHCON 3 to WATCHCON 2 , the second @-@ highest level of surveillance alert . However , the five @-@ stage combat alert level remained at DEFCON 4 , the second @-@ lowest level . Russia undertook security measures in case the war of nerves on the Korean peninsula erupted into a nuclear war .
North Korea also threatened on 29 May to attack South Korean and US warships near its coast if its sovereignty were infringed . In Japan a policy debate ensued regarding strengthening its military up to and including the possibility of an independent pre @-@ emptive strike capability and even nuclear armaments , subjects hitherto taboo .
On 30 May , the United Kingdom 's Ministry of Defence confirmed that a VC10 tanker plane , which is used for air @-@ to @-@ air refueling , had been sent to Kadena Air Base in Okinawa , Japan to help support the investigations , led by the U.S. military , to determine the power of the nuclear explosion and the type of material that was used . A Ministry spokesman said : “ Following the recent events in North Korea and to support the international community ’ s efforts during this time of increased political tension , we can confirm that the UK is supporting in the associated verification efforts . ” On the same day , a U.S. F @-@ 22 fighter jet arrived on Kadena Air Base , the first of twelve F @-@ 22 's and approximately 280 Langley Air Force Base Airmen from the 94th Fighter Squadron , along with members of the Virginia Air National Guard 's 192nd Fighter Wing , that are being deployed to Kadena Air Base as part of a theatre security package .
U.S. Deputy Secretary of State Jim Steinberg accompanied by Stephen Bosworth , the U.S. special envoy on North Korea , led a U.S. delegation to Asia on 1 June 2009 to consult regional forces on how to respond to North Korea 's latest nuclear test . The delegation also includes Stuart Levy , the Treasury under @-@ secretary for terrorism and financial intelligence , and Admiral James Winnefeld of the Joint Chiefs of Staff .
Japan approved on 2 June 2009 plans for a satellite missile early warning system as part of a new space policy document , a year after Japan dropped a decades @-@ old ban on military use of space with some ruling party lawmakers suggesting Japan should inspect North Korean ships , in the wake of reports that N. Korea was preparing to fire more mid @-@ range missiles . On the same day , as a response to the increased activity of the N. Korean military and after reports that North Koreans have stepped up naval drills near the western sea border , the site of deadly skirmishes between the two Koreas in 1999 and 2002 , South Korea deployed a high @-@ speed naval vessel , the Yoon Youngha guided missile patrol boat , to the area and vowed to " punish " any attacking forces .
After the North Korean nuclear test the U.S. has approved the sale of a number of weapon systems to South Korea , including GBU @-@ 28 " bunker buster " bombs , SM @-@ 2 Standard surface @-@ to @-@ air Missiles and F @-@ 16 Block 32 Aircraft Upgrades improving the aircraft and increasing the South Korean military 's operational abilities . The South Korean military has prepared plans for a counter @-@ attack in the event of a first strike by North Korea .
= = = UNSC Resolution 1874 = = =
The United Nations Security Council unanimously adopted resolution 1874 in response to the test , imposing further economic sanctions on the country and authorising UN member states to inspect North Korean cargo and destroy any that may be involved in the nuclear weapons program . In response to the sanctions , an unidentified spokesman for the North Korean Foreign Ministry released a statement through the official Korean Central News Agency saying that the country would begin to " weaponize " its plutonium stockpiles . The spokesman also said the country " will start uranium enrichment " and would view any US @-@ led attempts to " blockade " it as an " act of war " . The statement was said to have lacked the usual bitterness of most North Korean statements .
= Sheila Varian =
Sheila Varian ( August 8 , 1937 – March 6 , 2016 ) was a breeder of Arabian horses who lived and worked at the Varian Arabians Ranch near Arroyo Grande , California . She grew up with a strong interest in horses , and was mentored in horsemanship by Mary " Sid " Spencer , a local rancher and Morgan horse breeder who also introduced Varian to the vaquero or " Californio " tradition of western riding . She started her horse ranch , Varian Arabians , in 1954 with the assistance of her parents . Raising and training horses was her full @-@ time occupation beginning in 1963 . She used vaquero @-@ influenced methods of training horses , although she adapted her technique over the years to fit the character of the Arabian horse , which she viewed as a horse breed requiring a smart yet gentle approach .
Varian produced a number of influential Arabian horses whose bloodlines are found in a significant number of winning Arabian show horses in the United States . She began her breeding program with a small number of mares whom she bred to her national champion stallion , Bay Abi . She then acquired three mares from Arabian farms in Poland at a time when that nation was still behind the Iron Curtain and importation of horses to the United States was very difficult . These mares and Bay Abi formed her foundation bloodstock . As of 2016 , the Varian horses at stud represent the sixth generation of her stallion breeding line , and her foundation mare lines have produced nine generations of offspring . For her accomplishments , Varian received recognition from the United States Equestrian Federation , as well as several awards from various organizations within the Arabian horse industry . For her contributions as breeder and as a horse trainer in the vaquero tradition , she was inducted into the National Cowgirl Museum and Hall of Fame in 2003 .
After she was diagnosed with ovarian cancer in 2013 , she sought to place the 230 @-@ acre Varian Ranch into a conservation easement to protect the land from development , and in 2015 announced that the California Rangeland Trust would partner with her to purchase the development rights and to allow her long @-@ time ranch manager , Angela Alverez , to operate the horse breeding program after Varian . After Alvarez , the property would be gifted to the Trust to be sold , the conservation easement running with the land , and the Trust would try to find a buyer that would maintain the Arabian horse breeding program as well . Varian died on March 6 , 2016 at age 78 .
= = Early years = =
Varian grew up in Halcyon , California with a strong interest in horses , combined with a fondness for horse books such as the works of Marguerite Henry and The Black Stallion series written by Walter Farley . She credited Farley 's books as the origin of her interest in Arabian horses . She was given her first horse , a Morgan @-@ Percheron crossbred , at the age of eight , and rode bareback until she obtained her first saddle at age 12 . Although her parents , Eric and Wenonah Varian , did not have an equestrian background , they always supported her interest in horses , allowing both her and her older sister the freedom to ride horses as much as they wanted . Varian matured to be 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) tall , and has stated that while she " struggled " with her height as a young person , she found comfort in riding horses : " all my troubles went away . "
Varian and her parents began using the farm name " Varian Arabians " in 1954 . She credited her parents for helping her believe that she could do whatever she wanted to do and for trusting her own judgement , which gave her confidence in her own ability to work with horses . They worked as a team to build a horse business ; Eric , an electrical contractor , built fences and managed the land , Wenonah studied pedigrees , and Sheila handled the horses . In time , their ranch expanded from 21 to 150 acres . As a young adult , Varian completed college at Cal Poly San Luis Obispo and taught high school physical education for three years , until 1963 , when running the Varian Arabian ranch became her full @-@ time job . The ranch was self @-@ supporting from 1963 on , with the short @-@ term assistance of loans from Sheila 's aunt , Dorothy Varian , which were promptly repaid . Ultimately , the ranch grew to 230 acres .
= = The Varian horses = =
Varian preferred the Arabian breed because " their instinctual interest in and appreciation for people runs deep in their genes . The Arabian 's lightness and responsiveness are wonderful , as is their willingness to be your partner . And ... they are beautiful . Arabian horses have never let me down . " She valued horses with good dispositions and athletic ability as well as attractive appearance . She does not breed Arabians for a specific discipline , instead describes her breeding philosophy as “ consistently continuing to breed for more quality and never losing disposition or athletic ability . ” Following these principles , Varian has produced some of the most influential Arabian stallions in the breed .
When she was young , Varian developed an interest in finding the " perfect " horse . She soon realized that the way to achieve her goal was to begin breeding horses . Her first Arabian was the mare Farlotta ( Lotnik × Farza ) , obtained in 1952 . Farlotta became a finished spade bit horse who won both stock horse ( reining ) and western pleasure championships . Although loved and cared for by Varian , the mare had been neglected in her first two years prior to being purchased by Varian , and as a result of underlying health damage died at the age of seven .
In 1959 , Varian and her mother Wenonah purchased a two @-@ year @-@ old bay stallion named Bay @-@ Abi ( Errabi × Angyl ) . Trained and shown by Varian , he was the judges ' unanimous choice for U.S. National Champion Arabian Stallion in 1962 , later won U.S. National Top Ten awards in both Arabian English pleasure and Western pleasure , and thereafter was awarded the Legion of Merit . Even though he was not bred to any mares until after he was fully trained , and thus his first foals did not appear in the show ring until he was 7 , he sired 275 registered Arabians , including 65 champions and 24 national winners .
By 1961 , Varian Arabians had a small number of mares . The most notable of her early champions was Ronteza , a daughter of the stallion Witez II out of the mare Ronna . Ronteza was the second Arabian Varian purchased , and she trained the mare herself . The pair , undefeated in competition against other Arabian horses , went on to beat 50 horses of all breeds to win the 1961 Reined Cow Horse championship at the Cow Palace in San Francisco , California . Varian was aware that both Farlotta and Ronteza were sired by stallions imported from Poland , out of American @-@ bred mares , and believed this bloodline cross was a major source for the good qualities of these mares . Thus , Varian looked for Polish @-@ bred Arabian mares to breed to her American @-@ bred Bay @-@ Abi . However , Poland was at that time an Iron Curtain nation , and importing horses from there directly to America was quite complicated .
To accomplish her goal , Varian sought the assistance of British horse breeder Patricia Lindsay , who traveled to Poland and purchased three mares on Varian 's behalf . The mares arrived in California in December 1961 . They were Bachantka ( sired by Wielki Szlem out of Balalajka , who was by Amurath Sahib ) , purchased from the Albigowa stud ; Ostroga ( Duch × Orda by Omar 11 ) , from the Nowy Dwór stud ; and Naganka ( Bad Afas × Najada by Fetysz ) , from the Michalow stud . Bachantka and Naganka had been trained and raced in Poland . Bachantka had a record of 2 / 15 ( 0 @-@ 1 @-@ 3 ) , and Naganka a record of 2 / 12 ( 3 @-@ 4 @-@ 1 ) . After her arrival in the USA , Bachantka also had a brief but successful horse show career .
Crossing Bay @-@ Abi on these imported Polish mares proved particularly successful for Varian . As of 2016 , the Varian ranch bred nine generations of horses descended from these foundation mares , and stood six successive generations of stallions descended from Bay Abi . The cross produced , among other champions , Varian 's successor to Bay @-@ Abi , the 1969 colt Bay el Bey ( Bay Abi × Naganka ) , who was U.S. Reserve National Champion stallion twice , 1977 Canadian National Champion stallion , and a regional champion in English pleasure . At the time , the Arabian industry had little interest in western disciplines , so Varian competed with her horses in English riding classes . Of Bay el Bey , she commented , " He could easily have been an open reining horse , but I made him into an English pleasure horse because he could do it , he was so athletic . " Her English champions also included Bay el Bey 's full brother , Mikado , a gray stallion who was a champion park horse .
Bay el Bey was best known for his offspring , who collectively earned him the nickname , " The Kingmaker . " He sired 441 foals including three sons considered his finest : his own successor at Varian Arabians , Huckleberry Bey ( whose dam was Taffona , a daughter of Raffon ) ; U.S. Reserve National Champion Bey Shah ( out of Star of Ofir , who was by Bask ) ; and Barbary ( out of Balalinka ( Bask x Bachantka ) ) , who won a total of seven national titles in halter and park horse competition . Barbary was purchased from Varian as a yearling by film producer and Arabian owner Mike Nichols . These three sons of Bay el Bey alone sired a combined total of 650 champions .
Subsequent generations of Varian stallions continued the pattern of winning in the show ring and then producing champion show horses across multiple disciplines . Huckleberry Bey was 1979 U.S. National Reserve Champion Futurity Stallion , 1981 U.S. National Top Ten Stallion , and 1984 U.S. National Reserve Champion English Pleasure . He then became the leading sire of US National Champions for five years , and in 1999 his likeness was reproduced as a Breyer horse model . In turn , his son , Desperado V ( × Daraska by Dar ) became a leading sire of champions . In 2004 and 2005 , Desperado V was ranked the leading Arabian sire by the United States Equestrian Federation ( USEF ) , and was second in 2008 and 2009 . By 2009 , Desperado V had sired
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75 national winners . In addition , another Huckleberry Bey son , Bravado Bey V ( × Bachista V ) was USEF 's 10th @-@ ranked leading Arabian sire in 2008 .
In 2010 , of the top 25 leading sires of winning Arabian dressage horses since 1960 , Desperado V was ranked number 2 ( following Khemosabi ) , Bey Shah was number 4 , Huckleberry Bey was tied for fifth , and Barbary was also on the list , in addition to five other grandsons of Bay El Bey .
Over the years , she made use of outside bloodlines . She leased the young , then unproven stallion Khemosabi for his first breeding season in 1969 . She also made use of horses owned by other ranches , such as the Polish import Bask , whom she linebred to his 3 / 4 sister , Varian 's Polish import Bachantka , producing another significant foundation mare , Balalinka , dam of Barbary . In 2002 , requiring an outcross stallion not closely related to her own horses , she purchased the Brazilian @-@ foaled Jullyen El Jamaal , who has bloodlines not previously incorporated into the Varian program , as well as a line tracing back to Bay el Bey via Bey Shah . Varian continued to seek performance ability in her mares ; in the Varian program , every mare is trained under saddle and must prove suitable as a riding animal .
Varian did not originally work her ranch name into the names of her horses , but today all Varian @-@ bred horses have a registered name suffixed with the capital letter " V " . The Varian ranch also acknowledges the importance of the mares by using the first letter of each mare ’ s name to start the name of their foals . Varian @-@ bred horses are freeze branded with the Varian " V " logo .
= = Training philosophy and vaquero tradition = =
Vaqueros were the horsemen and cattle herders of Spanish Mexico , who first came to California with the Jesuit priest Eusebio Kino in 1687 , with two expeditions in 1769 , and the Juan de Anza expedition in 1774 . They were the first cowboys in the region . She learned horse training methods that derived from this tradition . In her teens , she was mentored in horsemanship by Morgan horse breeder and cattle rancher Mary " Sid " Spencer . The Spencer property , called Forsyth Ranch , was near Arroyo Grande on land that is now under Lopez Lake . Spencer helped Varian learn the underlying principles of training and riding horses , how to work cattle in the mountains , and introduced her to vaquero training methods . Spencer also did all of her own ranch work including shoeing , gelding , horse training , baling hay , and truck repairs . She learned how to handle well @-@ trained horses by riding one of the Spencer family 's finished Morgans , a gelding named Little Horse . With Spencer 's help , she also learned to recognize correct conformation and balance in horses .
After learning traditional vaquero methods of training from Spencer and others , Varian modified her training methods in her twenties , after meeting Tom Dorrance . He introduced her to his “ soft approach ” of working with horses , and his methods were an additional influence on Varian 's training philosophy . Varian utilized vaquero @-@ influenced methods in training her horses , but believed that modern well @-@ bred horses need a gentler approach , stating , “ All good horses , like smart children , need good instruction , but they don ’ t need harsh instruction . "
Varian was one of a very few experts in the 21st century who was still teaching about vaquero equipment , methods , and history . She had a strong interest in the history of the spade bit horse in California . The spade is an elaborate , complex bit that can only be properly used on a highly trained horse handled by a skilled rider . In the vaquero tradition , its use represents the highest level of trust and communication between horse and rider . The process of training the spade bit horse takes five to seven years to complete . Its emphasis has always been on producing a finely tuned working horse and partner , emphasizing quality rather than on how quickly the goal is reached . The conformation of the horse is also a factor ; to become a spade bit horse , the animal must be bred to have a higher neck set and well @-@ carried head . Varian compared the ride and handling of a horse trained in this manner to that of a Jaguar automobile .
Traditionally , the vaquero method starts a young horse using a hackamore , which is headgear that uses a heavy rawhide noseband , called a bosal instead of a bit to control the horse . As the horse gains skill with a rider , it moves to lighter bosals , and next into a transitional period in its training ; carrying a bridle with a type of curb bit called a " half breed " which is a modified spade bit worn in conjunction with a light bosal . The rider carries two sets of reins , one set on the bosal and one on the curb , giving this gear its name , the " two @-@ rein . " After several years in a two @-@ rein , the horse graduates into the spade bit .
Varian departed slightly from tradition . She started young horses under saddle at the age of three , beginning with a bridle and a snaffle bit because it sends clearer signals to a young horse , particularly one of sensitive disposition . She then introduced the traditional hackamore , and , after a couple of months to transition between the hackamore and the snaffle , began teaching neck reining , which allows a horse to be ridden one @-@ handed . After a year or two , when the horse became light in the hackamore , she introduced the young horse to the two @-@ rein , using a light bosal with either a " half @-@ breed " or a low @-@ port curb bit . Once the horse understood the bit , the bosal was removed and the horse was ridden in just the curb bit for a while until ready to go into the full spade bit , at which point the horse went back into the two @-@ rein when the spade is first introduced . She introduced horses to the spade bit at the age of seven or eight , if they had suitable conformation and temperament to carry it . When she selected and fully trained a spade bit horse for her own personal use , that particular horse stayed with her for life and was never sold .
Varian considered Arabians the most " people @-@ oriented " of any horse breed . " No other horse will leave his food to come and see you . " Noting that they are a " hot @-@ blooded " breed , she viewed them as sensitive horses that will not tolerate harsh handling , but strongly disagreed with those who considered Arabians to be too high @-@ spirited to be good trail horses . She emphasized teaching horses to have good manners . She roped off of her horses and took them into the mountains .
She viewed Arabians as requiring a smart and gentle approach . She advocated for trainers who used the methods of master horsemen such as Ray Hunt and Tom Dorrance , with Dorrance 's philosophy being especially suitable for Arabians . She considered the breed to be inherently gentle , and pointed out that any horse can become " hot " if they are kept in a stall 24 hours a day , fed a lot of grain , and never ridden . Varian explained the nature of Arabian horses by analogy , comparing them to precocious children who show their ability with delight , but cannot be bullied or pushed around .
= = Legacy and awards = =
The Varian Arabian Ranch has been ranked multiple times as one of the leading Arabian breeders of winning horses by the United States Equestrian Federation ( USEF ) , which since 2004 has ranked breeders based on points earned by horses shown in sanctoned USEF competitions . The ranch was first in calendar year 2008 , and in the top ten from 2006 through 2010 . In 2013 , the Varian breeding program was ranked by Arabian Horse World magazine as the all time number one breeder of both English @-@ type and Western @-@ type Arabian horses . Sheila Varian as an individual was honored by the USEF with the 2001 Ellen Scripps Davis Memorial Breeders ’ Cup , awarded to an individual who consistently breeds outstanding show horses . Within the Arabian industry itself , Varian was honored in 2005 with the Arabian Breeders Association 's lifetime achievement award , and was the Arabian Professional & Amateur Horseman 's Association 2009 Breeder of the Year .
Varian was inducted into the Cowgirl Hall of Fame in 2003 . She was honored for both her contributions as a horse breeder and as a trainer , but the honor represented , in many ways , her roots in the vaquero tradition . Other inductees that year included western artist Glenna Goodacre ; musician , artist , cowboy poet and pickup rider Ann Secrest Hanson ; and classic cowgirl trick rider and barrel racer Velda Tindall Smith ( 1908 – 1990 ) .
In November 2015 , Varian announced that she would be working with the California Rangeland Trust to place her ranch into a conservation easement to protect it from development . She had begun the project with the intent that her longtime ranch manager , Angela Alvarez , would operate the horse breeding program after Varian was no longer able to do so , and then once Alvarez was no longer able to run the ranch , the property would be gifted to the Trust to be sold , the conservation easement running with the land , and attempts made to find a buyer that would also be interested in maintaining the Arabian horse breeding program .
Varian was diagnosed with ovarian cancer in 2013 and died on March 6 , 2016 , at the age of 78 . At news of her death , the web site for the California Rangeland Trust crashed due to the high amount of web traffic , necessitating supporters of the trust to set up a backup crowdfunding site for donations to the conservation effort .
= Tropical Storm Flossie ( 2013 ) =
Tropical Storm Flossie yielded stormy weather to Hawaii in late July 2013 . The sixth tropical cyclone and named storm of the annual hurricane season , Flossie originated from a tropical wave that emerged off the western coast of Africa on July 9 . Tracking westward across the Atlantic with little development , it passed over Central America and into the eastern Pacific Ocean on July 18 , where favorable environmental conditions promoted steady organization . By 0600 UTC on July 25 , the wave acquired enough organization to be deemed a tropical depression ; it intensified into a tropical storm six hours later . Continuing westward , Flossie attained peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) on July 27 before entering the central Pacific Ocean . There , unfavorable upper @-@ level winds established a weakening trend ; on July 30 , Flossie weakened to a tropical depression , and by 1200 UTC that same day , the storm degenerated into a remnant low , northeast of Kauai .
In advance of Flossie , tropical cyclone warnings and watches were placed into effect for various Hawaiian Islands . In addition , numerous flash flood watches were issued in fear of over a foot of precipitation . Ports and numerous facilities were closed to the public , and authorities opened shelters for refuge . Upon approach , Flossie threatened to become the first tropical storm to make a direct hit on Hawaii in two decades ; however , the system weakened prior to doing so . Flossie brought high surf to the state , leading to minor beach erosion . Gusty winds exceeded tropical storm threshold , downing numerous power poles and trees ; as a result , several thousand locals were without power for a few days . The storm produced several inches of rainfall across the island , with a peak of 9 @.@ 27 inches ( 235 mm ) on Mount Waialeale . Though one man was injured due to lightnings , no fatalities were reported in association with Flossie . Damage totaled to $ 24 @,@ 000 ( 2013 USD ) as a consequence of lightning .
= = Meteorological history = =
On July 9 , 2013 , a tropical wave emerged off the western coast of Africa . Tracking swiftly westward across the Atlantic , it passed across Central America on July 18 and emerged into the eastern Pacific Ocean shortly thereafter . Early on July 21 , a broad low @-@ pressure area formed in association with the wave , and the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) began monitoring the disturbance for slow development into a tropical cyclone accordingly . Shower and thunderstorm activity coalesced over the subsequent days , prompting the NHC to increase its chances for development to the high category ; despite this , satellite data from early on July 24 did not reveal a well @-@ defined circulation necessary for classification . By that evening , a combination of visible and microwave satellite imagery depicted an improvement of the vortex , and the system was upgraded to a tropical depression at 0000 UTC on July 25 , while situated 980 miles ( 1 @,@ 575 km ) west @-@ southwest of the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula .
The depression tracked west to west @-@ northwest upon classification , steered by a mid @-@ level ridge centered over the southwestern United States . Deep convection increased in coverage and intensity over the following hours , leading to an increase in satellite intensity estimates ; at 0600 UTC , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Flossie . Within an environment of low wind shear and warm sea surface temperatures , Flossie gradually intensified over the next two days ; a mid @-@ level eye became observable in microwave imagery and intermittently on visible satellite imagery by early on July 27 . At 1200 UTC , the system attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 994 mb ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 35 inHg ) . Thereafter , Flossie crossed the 140th meridian west into the central Pacific Ocean , where the Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) assumed responsibility of the system . Unfavorable upper @-@ level winds in association with an upper @-@ level trough began to impede the system 's organization around this time , and it began a slow weakening trend .
In conjunction with high wind shear , marginal ocean temperatures caused deep convection in association with Flossie to weaken and become ragged ; as a result , the forecast called for continued weakening . Instead , a brief reprieve in upper @-@ level winds allowed the system to intensify to a secondary peak of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) by 1200 UTC on July 28 . An anticyclone northwest of the system increased shear atop the system once again by the following day , and dry air began to become ingested into the circulation . The low @-@ level vortex became exposed to view and progressively ill @-@ defined as outflow boundaries in association with a previous convective burst impeded on the low . At 0000 UTC on July 30 , Flossie was downgraded to a tropical depression ; after the circulation became indistinguishable on satellite imagery twelve hours later , the system was declared a remnant area of low pressure . At this time , the vortex was centered near the northern coast of Kauai .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Upon entering the central Pacific Ocean , Flossie prompted the issuance of a tropical storm watch for Hawaii and Maui counties on July 27 . This was upgraded to a tropical storm warning hours later , while Oahu was placed under a tropical storm watch . Due to the threat of heavy rain , forecast to reach 15 inches ( 380 mm ) in localized areas , a flash flood watch was issued for all of Hawaii , valid between July 29 and 30 . All Maui County parks were closed due to the storm as county authorities activated emergency operations . Along the Big Island , all courts and colleges were closed . Hawaii Governor Neil Abercrombie signed an emergency proclamation . Three ports were closed , including two on the Big Island and one on Maui . Under the anticipation that Flossie would become the first tropical storm to make landfall in the state since 1992 , authorities opened 11 shelters across the state , including four on Maui and seven on Oahu . In total , 177 persons used these shelters . A scheduled water outage in Hanalei and Waipa was postponed due to the storm .
While still offshore , Flossie brought high surf to much of the state . Upon passing narrowly by the island , gusty winds downed trees and power lines : Kahului reported a peak wind gust of 47 mph ( 76 km / h ) during Flossie . More than 10 @,@ 000 residences were without electricity across the state , with most outages concentrated in Maui and Big Island . Heavy rains impacted several islands ; rainfall rates of 3 to 4 inches ( 76 to 102 mm ) an hour were recorded in Haleakalā . Along the eastern side of Maui , a total of 5 @.@ 3 inches ( 130 mm ) was reported in the Kaupo Gap , while a storm @-@ total peak of 9 @.@ 27 inches ( 235 mm ) was observed on Mount Waialeale . One man was injured in Maui due to lightning . Damage from lightning across the state amounted to $ 24 @,@ 000 . Six vehicle accidents were reported and several roads required closure , but overall , damage from Flossie was relatively minor .
= Beonna of East Anglia =
Beonna ( also known as Beorna ) was King of East Anglia from 749 . He is notable for being the first East Anglian king whose coinage included both the ruler 's name and his title . The end @-@ date of Beonna 's reign is not known , but may have been around 760 . It is thought that he shared the kingdom with another ruler called Alberht and possibly with a third man , named Hun . Not all experts agree with these regnal dates , or the nature of his kingship : it has been suggested that he may have ruled alone ( and free of Mercian domination ) from around 758 .
Little is known of Beonna 's life or his reign , as nothing in written form has survived from this period of East Anglian history . The very few primary sources for Beonna consist of bare references to his accession or rule written by late chroniclers , that until quite recently were impossible to verify . Since 1980 , a sufficient number of coins have been found to show that he was indeed a historical figure . They have allowed scholars to make deductions about economic and linguistic links that existed between East Anglia and other parts of both England and northern Europe during his reign , as well as aspects of his own identity and rule .
= = Background = =
In contrast to the kingdoms of Northumbria , Mercia and Wessex , little reliable evidence about the kingdom of the East Angles has survived . The historian Barbara Yorke has maintained that this is due to the destruction of the kingdom 's monasteries and the disappearance of both of the East Anglian sees , which were caused by Viking raids and later settlement .
Ælfwald of East Anglia died in 749 after ruling for thirty @-@ six years . During Ælfwald 's rule , his kingdom enjoyed sustained growth and stability , albeit under the senior authority of the Mercian king Æthelbald , who ruled his kingdom from 716 until he was murdered by his own men in 757 . Ælfwald was the last of the Wuffingas dynasty , who had ruled East Anglia since the 6th century . A pedigree in the Anglian collection that lists Ælfwald and his descendants , includes many earlier Wuffingas kings .
= = Identity and joint rule = =
The identification of Beonna as a king of the East Angles is based upon a few written sources . One source is a statement in the twelfth century Historia Regum , that after Ælfwald 's death , " regnum ... ... hunbeanna et alberht sibi diviserunt " ( ' Hunbeanna and Alberht divided the kingdom of the East Angles between themselves ' ) . The Historia Regum is believed to have been compiled by Symeon of Durham , but it is now generally accepted that much of it was written by Byrhtferth of Ramsey around the end of the 10th century . Another source is a passage in the 12th century Chronicon ex chronicis , once thought to have been written by Florence of Worcester , which stated that " Beornus " was king of the East Angles . A third source is a regnal list in the Chronicon ex chronicis which states that " Regnante autem Merciorum rege Offa , Beonna regnavit in East @-@ Anglia , et post illum Æthelredus " ( ' During the reign of Offa , king of the Mercians , Beonna reigned in East @-@ Anglia , and after him Æthelred ... ' ) .
The annal for 749 in The Flowers of History , written by the chronicler Matthew Paris in the 13th @-@ century , also relates that " Ethelwold , king of the East Angles , died , and Beonna and Ethelbert divided his dominions between them " . The historians H. M. Chadwick and Dorothy Whitelock both suggested that the name Hunbeanna should be divided into two names , Hun and Beanna , and that a tripartite division of the kingdom might have existed . According to Steven Plunkett , the name Hunbanna may have been created by means of a scribal error .
The kingdom might never have been ruled jointly by Alberht and Beonna . It is generally accepted that Alberht and the later Æthelberht II , who ruled East Anglia until his death in 794 , are different kings , but the historian D. P. Kirby has identified them as being one person . According to Kirby , Beonna might have ascended the throne in around 758 and the issuing of his coins could indicate that East Anglia broke free of Mercian domination for a time , so linking Beonna 's reign with the eventual disintegration of Mercian hegemony that occurred after Æthelbald 's death .
= = = The diathematic element ' Hun ' = = =
The recognition of Beonna as a historical figure leaves the ' Hun ' element in the word Hunbeanna detached . Beanna is itself a hypocoristic form of a two @-@ part name , and the ' nn ' in the name has been interpreted as representing a geminate constanant .
Hun is familiar in 8th and 9th century England , for instance as part of a name with two elements . During the 9th century there were East Anglian bishops of Helmham named Ælfhun , Hunferthus and Hunbeorht and a bishop of Worcester called Æthelhun . Hun also occurred as part of a moneyer 's name . There are several placenames in England that contain the term as a personal name element , such as Hunsdon , Hertfordshire and Hunston , West Sussex ( but not Hunston , Suffolk ) . It is possible that Hun was a historical figure , whose name was run together with Beonna 's by a scribe .
An alternative theory is that the Latin annal that mentioned Hunbeanna was derived from an Old English source and that the translator scribe misread the opening word here for part of the name of Beonna . " Her " - ' in this year ' - is the usual opening for an Old English annal and the typical form of the letter ' r ' might easily be misread for an ' n ' .
= = = Beornred of Mercia = = =
Charles Oman proposed that Boernred , who in 757 emerged for a short time as ruler of Mercia before being driven out by Offa , could be the same person as Beonna . An alternative theory suggests that Beonna and Beornred may perhaps have been kinsmen from the same dynasty with ambitions to rule in both Mercia and East Anglia . No known member of the Wuffingas dynasty had a name commencing with B , but several Mercian rulers , including Beornred , used the letter .
In 1996 , Marion Archibald and Valerie Fenwick proposed an alternative hypothesis , based on the evidence of East Anglian coins and post @-@ Conquest documents . Acknowledging that Beonna and Beornred were the same person , they suggested that after Ælfwald 's death in 749 , Æthelwald of Mercia installed Beornred / Beonna to rule northern East Anglia and Alberht ( who probably belonged to the Wuffingas dynasty ) to rule in the south . According to Archibald and Fenwick , after Æthelbald was murdered in 757 , Beornred / Beonna became king of Mercia , during which his coinage was increased in East Anglia , perhaps to meet “ military requirements ” . Then , after a reign of only a few months , he was deposed by Offa and forced to flee from him back into East Anglia . Alberht , who had attempted to re @-@ establish East Anglia as an independent kingdom and rule alone , and had succeeded for a short time , was deposed by Beornred / Beonna when he arrived as an exile in about 760 . Soon afterwards , Offa asserted his authority over the East Angles in around 760 @-@ 5 and removed Beonna .
= = Coinage = =
Anglo @-@ Saxons kings produced coins from the 620s onwards , initially in gold , but then in electrum ( an alloy of gold and silver ) and eventually pure silver . Little is known of the organisation of coinage during the reign of Beonna , but it can be presumed that the moneyers who struck coins during this period acted under the auspices of the king , who would to some extent have supervised the design of his coins . A growing shortage of available bullion in north @-@ western Europe during the first half of the 8th century was probably the main cause for a deterioration in the proportion of precious metal found in locally produced sceattas . In around 740 , Eadberht of Northumbria became the first king to respond to this crisis by issuing a remodelled coinage , of a consistent weight and a high proportion of silver , which eventually replaced the debased currency . Other kings followed his example , including Beonna and the Frankish king Pepin the Short , who appears to have been strongly influenced by the newly introduced coins of both Beonna and Eadberht .
Examples of Beonna 's coins are known from two separate hoards , as well as from a number of individual finds . Until 1968 , only five of his coins were known . Several more coins came to light over the next decade , before a hoard of sceattas and other coins were discovered in 1980 at Middle Harling , north @-@ east of Thetford and close to the border between the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk . In all , fifty @-@ eight coins have been excavated from Middle Harling , fourteen were found at Burrow Hill ( Suffolk ) and thirty @-@ five from other places in East Anglia and elsewhere . Over a hundred ' Beonnas ' are now known : most of them have been acquired by the British Museum .
Beonna was the first of the East Anglian kings whose coinage named both the ruler and his title . His coins are larger than the earlier sceattas , but are small when compared with the pennies produced in Anglo @-@ Saxon England several decades later . As a whole , they provide an important dateable runic corpus and may reflect a distinctive East Anglian preference for runic lettering . Beonna had three moneyers whose names are known : Werferth , Efe and Wilred . The coins struck by Werferth are considered to be the earliest . His coins and those struck under the authority of Eadberht of Northumbria both contained 70 % silver and were similar in type and detail , which suggests the possibility of producing a chronology for Beonna 's coins , using the established sequence for the Northumbrian coins of Eadberht . However , as Eadberht 's reign began in 738 , several years before Beonna became king in East Anglia , the coins cannot be related to each other closely enough to construct a reliable chronology .
Produced later than Werferth 's coins are those by Efe : these , by far the most numerous , have dies which change in time . Distribution analysis suggests that Efe 's mint was possibly located in northern Suffolk or southern Norfolk . It is possible that the name of the village of Euston , Suffolk , a little southeast of Thetford , is derived from Efe .
Efe 's obverse dies show the king 's name and title , usually spelt with a mixture of runes and Latin script , with some aspects of the coins occasionally ill @-@ drawn or omitted altogether . The king 's name is generally arranged around the central motif of a pellet ( or a cross ) within a circle of pellets : this layout probably derived from Northumbrian coins . The reverse dies consisted of a cross and the letters E F E , placed in four sectors that were divided off by lines . It can be shown that Efe did not use his dies in any particular or consistent order . Calculations have been made that suggest that few of his dies remain undiscovered .
The coins struck by Beonna 's last known moneyer , Wilred , are so different from Efe 's that it is highly unlikely that they were produced at the same mint or at the same time . It can also be assumed that Wilred is the same moneyer who struck coins for Offa of Mercia , possibly at Ipswich . Wilred 's coins can be used to demonstrate that Offa 's influence over the East Angles occurred at an earlier date than has previously been supposed , but are of little use in determining a secure chronology for Beonna 's reign . Wilred 's name is always depicted in runes . Nearly all his reverse dies have two crosses placed between the elements of his name ( + wil + red ) : most of the obverse dies show crosses and the king 's name in a similar design , but also include an extra rune . This unique rune , similar to ᚹ , possibly meant walda ( ' ruler ' ) .
One type of coin for Beonna has no named moneyer and depicts an interlace motif on its reverse . A specimen of this type ( now lost ) was found at Dorestad , which was during Beonna 's time an important trading centre : these coins resemble Frankish or Frisian deniers that were issued from the Maastricht area during this period .
Beonna 's rule coincided with the anointing of Pippin III as king of the Franks after 742 and the subsequent disempowerment of the Merovingian dynasty , and also with the martyrdom of Saint Boniface and his followers in Frisia in 754 . A runic ' a ' in the name Beonna on two coins , which has only been found elsewhere in Fresia , implies that there were both trading and language links between the two regions during the 8th century .
= When Christmas Comes =
" When Christmas Comes " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey from her second Christmas album / thirteenth studio album , Merry Christmas II You ( 2010 ) . Carey wrote and produced the song in collaboration with James Poyser . A soul song with an influence of R & B , the lyrics are about giving the gift of love . In November 2011 , Carey re @-@ recorded the song as duet with John Legend , which was later released as a single . Both versions of the track were a hit in South Korea , with the duet debuting at number one with sales in excess of 80 @,@ 000 copies . The song 's accompanying music video features Carey and Legend at a hosting a Christmas house party . It has been performed by Carey at her ABC 2010 Christmas special and during her 2014 Beacon Theatre residency All I Want For Christmas Is You , A Night of Joy & Festivity in December 2014 .
= = Background and composition = =
" When Christmas Comes " was written and produced by Mariah Carey and James Poyser for the former 's second Christmas album / thirteenth studio album , Merry Christmas II You ( 2010 ) . Her vocals were recorded by Brian Garten at Guardian Angel Studios in Bel Air , Westlake Recording Studios and Hensons Studios , both located in Los Angeles , and Germano Studios in New York City . Carey performed her own background vocals along with Melonie Daniels , Sharlotte Gibson and Nicki Richards . The music for the song was recorded by Garten and Kevin Guarnieri ; Alex Evans played the drums , while John " Jubu " Smith played the guitar . On November 7 , 2011 , Carey revealed that she would be releasing " When Christmas Comes " as a duet with John Legend . The duet was released in the United States on November 21 and the United Kingdom on November 28 .
It as an R & B @-@ influenced soul song with a " simple groove " that lasts for a duration of four minutes and forty @-@ six seconds . The single release version with Legend lasts for additional second . The instrumental consists of horns , including the trumpet performed by Rick Baptist and Greg Adams , and the trombone by Nick Lane . Other brass instruments include Dan Higgins on the sax and flute . In addition to being a producer , Poyser performs the keyboard . Lyrically , the song is about " giving the gift of love " , as Carey and Legend harmonize the lyrics " And me and you gon ' have ourselves a holiday / And we don 't need nobody else to celebrate / And we 're gon ' kiss our worries and our cares away / I can 't wait / Because this Christmas time , get together / It 's gonna be so nice , better than ever / And baby you ’ re the one , special treasure . " Prior to the final chorus , the pair freelance the a portion of the lyrics from " Jingle Bells " . As noted by Scott Shelter of PopCrush , " listeners are treated to notes from the upper reaches of Mariah ’ s five @-@ octave range , which she rarely shows off anymore . " In an interview for Vevo , Carey stated that she felt that Legend was the " perfect choice " to re @-@ create the song as a duet with , and that his " soulful " creative decisions " took it up several notches " .
= = Critical reception = =
Mike Diver for BBC was complimentary of " When Christmas Comes " , writing although the effect is " less instant " compared to the first single , " Oh Santa ! " , it fits in well with the rest of the album and is " perfectly formed " . The Village Voice writer Rich Juzwiak thought that the use of a full band was a " retread " of the songs Carey recorded for her tenth studio album , The Emancipation of Mimi ( 2005 ) . Of the duet , Shelter described it as " sultry " , awarded it four stars out of a possible five , and labelled it as being superior to the original version with vocals solely by Carey included on the album .
= = Commercial performance = =
The original version of " When Christmas Comes " peaked at number seven on both the South Korea International Digital Singles chart and Download Singles chart , respectively , on November 20 , 2010 . The single version with Legend debuted at number one on South Korean Download chart on November 27 , 2011 , with sales of 81 @,@ 624 . The following week , it fell to number eight with 32 @,@ 952 copes sold . It sold a further 18 @,@ 947 and 13 @,@ 339 copies in its third and fourth weeks , respectively . Despite debuting atop Download chart with 81 @,@ 624 copies sold , it peaked at number two on the Digital chart . In the United States , the duet debuted at number twenty @-@ five on the Adult R & B Songs chart , and climbed to number seventeen the following week . It dropped one position to number eighteen in its third week , but resurged to a peak of number fifteen the week after on January 7 , 2012 . " When Christmas Comes " debuted at number seventy on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , becoming the " Hot Shot Debut " for the week dated December 17 , 2011 , and the first song from Merry Christmas II You to enter the chart . It is Carey 's fifty @-@ third entry overall . The track peaked at number fifty @-@ seven on the Japan Hot 100 in 2012 .
= = Promotion = =
An accompanying music video directed by Sanaa Hamri for " When Christmas Comes " was filmed at Carey 's Los Angeles home and features Carey and Legend throwing a celebratory Christmas house party , which includes a cameo by Nick Cannon . It features footage from the film A Charlie Brown Christmas . On November 15 , Carey posted images of the video shoot on her website , one of which shows the two singers sitting at piano . It premiered on December 13 , 2011 . Carey has performed the track live on her ABC Christmas Special in December 2010 , and at her Beacon Theatre residency called All I Want For Christmas Is You , A Night of Joy & Festivity in December 2014 .
= = Track listings = =
; Digital download ( 2010 album version )
" When Christmas Comes " – 4 : 46
; Digital download ( 2011 single release )
" When Christmas Comes " with John Legend – 4 : 45
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Lose My Breath =
" Lose My Breath " is a song by American group Destiny 's Child . It was written by Beyoncé , Kelly Rowland , Michelle Williams , Rodney " Darkchild " Jerkins , LaShawn Daniels , Fred Jerkins III , Sean Garrett , and Shawn Corey " Jay @-@ Z " Carter for the group 's fourth studio album , Destiny Fulfilled ( 2004 ) . Columbia Records released " Lose My Breath " as the first single from the album in late 2004 . The song was partially developed by Jerkins before being presented to Destiny 's Child and its chorus was afterwards written by Jay @-@ Z.
An uptempo R & B and dance song , " Lose My Breath " has a marching , military percussion @-@ led instrumentation with different sound effects in its backing track . It received positive reviews from music critics who generally praised its melody and instrumentation . The track further received a Grammy Award nomination in the category for Best R & B Vocal Performance by a Duo or Group . " Lose My Breath " was commercially successful peaking at number three on the US Billboard Hot 100 and reaching the top spot on many charts in Europe as well as appearing in the top ten in almost every chart .
The single 's music video directed by Marc Klasfeld and filmed in Los Angeles , California , featured Destiny 's Child performing dance choreographies portraying three different characters . The song was performed during the group 's tour Destiny Fulfilled ... and Lovin ' It ( 2005 ) and on numerous televised appearances and awards ceremonies in 2004 and 2005 . The American Broadcasting Company used " Lose My Breath " as the official song for the NBA playoffs in 2004 and 2005 .
= = Background and release = =
" Lose My Breath " was written by Beyoncé , Kelly Rowland , Michelle Williams , Rodney " Darkchild " Jerkins , Fred Jerkins , Sean Garrett , LaShawn Daniels and Jay @-@ Z. The production of the song was handled by Jerkins , Beyoncé , Rowland and Garrett . Record producer Jerkins , who had previously collaborated with the group for " Say My Name " ( 2000 ) , had worked on " Lose My Breath " without informing Destiny 's Child . Beyoncé and Williams heard the drum instrumentation of the track and they enjoyed it with the latter feeling that the song was nothing like the mainstream radio sound . They went to their band mate Kelly Rowland presenting the song . Alongside Jerkins , the group asked for help from American rapper Jay @-@ Z who immediately created a chorus including the lines " Can you keep up " without hearing the track . The group took his chorus and wrote the verses and bridge around it . During an interview with Complex , Garrett recalled the time he worked with Williams on the song , saying , " There was so much magic going on in the studio . We probably recorded all the songs in about a month and every day it was a new song coming out . ' Lose My Breath ' was towards the latter part of the album and that was an amazing song that we felt could not only be big on the radio but big with bands and marching bands . I was on a natural high after that . "
Following the three @-@ year hiatus of the group , " Lose My Breath " was considered as their comeback release . It premiered on September 9 , 2004 on AOL Music . In the US , the single was released in different versions ; " Lose My Breath " itself was available for digital purchase on October 5 , 2004 . On November 2 , it was released along with " Soldier " and " Game Over " separately , the former being an EP with several remixes of " Lose My Breath " being also available . A 12 @-@ inch vinyl single of the song was released on the same date . A dance mixes EP was released on December 7 , while a Remix 2 Pak containing two remixes by Peter Rauhofer was released on August 16 , 2005 . The single was released to markets in different dates . On October 29 , 2004 , a maxi single was released in Australia , featuring the album version of the track , two remixes and a new song " Why You Actin ' " . The song was included on the group 's compilation albums # 1 's ( 2005 ) and Playlist : The Very Best of Destiny 's Child ( 2012 ) .
= = Composition = =
" Lose My Breath " is an uptempo R & B and dance song with elements of dancehall music . It is performed with a brightdance beat and a tempo of 120 beats per minute . The song is set in common time , composed in the key of E ♭ major with the vocal elements spanning from the low note of C4 to the high note of D5 . The band members ' vocals in " Lose My Breath " were described as " breathy " . The song features fast snare drum sequences , choppy beats with hand @-@ clappy percussion , cymbal crashes , and itchy hi @-@ hats , creating a military sound reminiscent to a drumline of a marching band . The opening drum sequence is sampled from the drumline of " Taps " performed by the University of Michigan Marching Band . Synthesizer blips are also utilized in the song 's melody . Along with those instruments , the complex backing track of the song uses various sound effects such as ripple of claps , stomps , thumps , snare rolls , and gasps .
Lyrically , the female protagonists challenge their male " suitors " to keep up instead of being full of empty promises ; the women further feel that " He 's not fulfilling you like he says " . Williams further explained the meaning of the song during an interview with MTV News , " We 've had experiences with men doing a lot of talking but they can ’ t back it up . You said you could do this , but you can 't , whether that 's on the dance floor or wherever else . He said what he could do for you , but ... " The lyrics are constructed in the chorus @-@ verse pattern . The song opens with the lines " Hit me " and the first verses sang by Beyoncé follow : " I put it right there made it easy for you to get to / Now you want to act like you don 't know what to do " . The chorus follows during which the group repeatedly sings the lines " Can you keep up ? " . Rowland 's second verses follow where she sings the lines " Put it on me deep in the right direction " . The chorus is repeated twice before the bridge by Williams . After the bridge , the group sings the lines " Here 's your papers , baby you are dismissed " letting their man know that he is not good enough for them . Rowland sings a short ad lib , and then the trio ends with a repeated chorus . Nick Reynolds from BBC compared the song Missy Elliott 's " Pass That Dutch " and to songs by The Supremes . He further found a name check of Public Enemy 's " Bring the Noise " . Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine also compared " Lose My Breath with " Pass That Dutch " .
= = Critical reception = =
Jenny Eliscu of Rolling Stone referred to " Lose My Breath " a " sweat @-@ soaked " track and a " percussive sex romp " where Destiny 's Child " pant in time to a marching @-@ band beat . " Nick Reynolds of the BBC called the military drumming of the " fantastic " track " exciting " and its keyboard stabs " nasty " . A writer for Vibe hailed it as a " pounding , animalistic piece of music - as urgent as a war cry " with a " thunderous tribal beat " . In an album review of Destiny Fulfilled , Tom Sinclair of Entertainment Weekly felt that " Lose My Breath " opened the record with " a brisk enough start " and concluded , " While it 's no ' Bootylicious , ' it 's got more nervous energy and verve than almost anything else here . " . A writer of Billboard magazine felt that the song was " love 's exhilarating start " . Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times described it as " suitably calisthenic " . AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine considered the song to be an album highlight . Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine called the song a " thigh @-@ snapper " and said it responsible for the " increased use of paradiddling drumsticks as sex toys " . Barbara Ellen of The Observer felt that " Lose My Breath " was " of the exemplary standard " of the band 's previous albums , Survivor and The Writing 's on the Wall . In his review , Alex MacPherson of Stylus Magazine chose the song as one of the album 's best and wrote ,
It [ Destiny Fulfilled ] shoots its load quickly , although just as effectively : " Lose My Breath " and " Soldier " are stunning , both displaying the Beyoncé trademark of creepily submissive lyrics matched with dominatrix vocals and arrangements to superb effect . The former kicks off with a martial beat and a call of " hit me ! " which sounds like a military command , and proceeds to put you through a series of moves without pause for breath , Beyoncé and her minions cracking the whip every time you even think of flagging .
The A.V. Club 's Andy Battaglia felt that " Lose My Breath " gave the album an " opening charge by way of a raucous marching @-@ band beat and panting attempts to squeeze a lot of words into closing musical corners " . Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian described the song as " fantastic , legs @-@ in @-@ the @-@ air " . Paul Flynn of the same publication wrote that it " further relegated the other members of Destiny 's Child to the position of Beyoncé 's backing singers " . Tom Breihan of Pitchfork Media who complimented Jerkin 's " incredible " drum programming and the " mind @-@ boggling " backing track felt that it lacked a tune : " The vocals are too breathy , too whiny , and too processed , and the song 's one thrilling moment-- near the end , where the harmonies get a bit of room to play off each other with Abba @-@ esque rococo aplomb-- lasts only for a second . " Los Angeles Times writer Natalie Nichols deemed its production " nifty " with a " rat @-@ a @-@ tat drum line percussion propelling " but felt that it contained a single hook expanded into an entire song . Lindsey Weber from Vulture criticized Williams ' contribution to the bridge , describing it as " weak " .
= = = Recognition and accolades = = =
In 2005 , " Lose My Breath " was nominated in the category for Best R & B Vocal Performance by a Duo Or Group at the 47th Annual Grammy Awards . At the 23rd Annual ASCAP Pop Music Awards , " Lose My Breath " was recognized as one of the Most Performed Songs in 2005 along with the group 's other song " Soldier " . Sean Garrett won a BMI Urban Award at the 2006 BMI Awards for the song .
Clem Bastow from Stylus Magazine put " Lose My Breath " at number ten on his list Top Ten Drum Beats You Are Powerless To Resist . He wrote , " Rodney Jerkins ' masterstroke of a production technique ... propels this ... penultimate ... Destiny 's Child gem into the stratosphere " . The song was ranked at number 39 in the annual Pazz & Jop mass critics poll of the year 's best in music in 2004 . In 2013 , Weber from Vulture included " Lose My Breath " at number 19 on her list of the 25 best songs by the group . Houston Chronicle 's Joey Guerra also included the song in hist list of the band 's best songs writing that it gave a chance to Rowland and Williams to " shine vocally " . The same year , Erika Ramirez and Jason Lipshutz of Billboard magazine put it at number nine on their list of " Beyonce 's 30 Biggest Billboard Hits " . In 2014 , Official Charts Company writer Justin Myers listed the song as one of the essential " pop gems " in the UK , praising the group for coming back in 2004 with " classic DC [ elements ] : super @-@ speedy singing , a frantic beat and dramatic melody " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Lose My Breath " entered the top ten of the Billboard Hot 100 prior to its physical release debuting at number 30 for the week ending October 2 , 2004 . The next week it moved to number 12 due to being the fastest @-@ growing song on the radio . After its release as a single , " Lose My Breath " moved from number four to number three on November 6 which also became its peak position making it Destiny 's Child 's ninth top ten single . Staying at the third spot for four weeks , the single enjoyed a total of 23 weeks charting . Similarly , " Lose My Breath " performed well on other Billboard charts in the US ; it peaked at number one on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart for the week ending January 8 , 2005 and numbers three and ten on the Mainstream Top 40 and Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs respectively . On the latter chart , it became the band 's ninth top ten entry in their career by then . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on April 28 , 2005 for shipment of 500 @,@ 000 copies in the US .
" Lose My Breath " was also successful in different European charts . On the UK Singles Chart , the song debuted at number two on November 13 , 2004 , a spot which also became its peak position in that country . The single was held from the top by Eminem 's " Just Lose It " which sold 2 @,@ 000 more than " Lose My Breath " It remained at the second place for three consecutive weeks , within the top ten for seven consecutive weeks and spent a total of eleven weeks on the chart . As of September 2014 , " Lose My Breath " is the group 's third best @-@ selling single in that country with 340 @,@ 000 copies sold . The single topped the Ultratop chart in the Flanders region of Belgium and the singles charts in Ireland , Italy and Switzerland . It was certified Gold by the Belgian Entertainment Association ( BEA ) and the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) in Switzerland for sales of 25 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 copies in the countries respectively . " Lose My Breath " also entered the top ten in ten other countries across Europe . In Germany , it became the band 's best @-@ charting single , reaching number three on the singles chart . " Lose My Breath " further peaked at number one on the European Hot 100 Singles chart for the week ending December 4 , 2004 spending four consecutive weeks on top until the end of 2004 .
Across Oceania , the single had similar reception debuting at number five on the ARIA Charts in Australia on November 15 , 2004 . It peaked at number three , three weeks after its debut and stayed at that position for another week . " Lose My Breath " remained on the chart for a total of 17 weeks being seen for the last time at number 43 on March 6 , 2005 . The Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) awarded the single with a Platinum certification for shipment of 70 @,@ 000 copies in that region . On the New Zealand Singles Chart , the single debuted at number 16 on November 15 , 2004 . It spent seven weeks there peaking at number four in its fourth week of charting , on November 29 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and synopsis = = =
The music video for " Lose My Breath " was directed by Marc Klasfeld and was shot in Los Angeles , California on October 8 , 2004 . Destiny 's Child had dance rehearsals for the video in late September and continued the following month . During the rehearsals , Beyoncé tore her right hamstring , while overdoing the choreography . Following the injury , she was advised by a specialist to avoid dancing and other physical activities for a week ; MTV News further reported that the injury could further postpone the filming of the video . However , the next week , the group revealed in an interview with the publication that the video would be filmed as originally planned as Beyoncé 's leg healed fast . She said , " My leg was actually a blessing in disguise because it gave us more time to prepare for the video " . Speaking about the concept of the video , Beyoncé revealed
It 's really a dance @-@ off between a more sophisticated ' in @-@ fashion ' Destiny 's Child versus a more ' street ' Destiny 's Child . And in the end a third Destiny 's Child even more fierce takes over . It 's a lot of hard work for us because we have to learn three routines for the same song . People will be shocked because it 's different for us . They 've never seen us really dance .
The video mainly takes place in an alleyway , where the members of Destiny 's Child are having a dance @-@ off . As the song opens , it begins with Beyoncé , Williams and Rowland walking , representing the " fierce Destiny 's Child " dressed in stilettos and fur . It transitions to the group being dressed in @-@ fashion with red burgundy suits as they meet their identical street @-@ styled , hip hop copies with hoodies and Timberland boots , starting to perform a dance @-@ off ; the camera focuses on each member of the group performing a separate choreography with their rival in front of them during their solo lines . As the song progresses , Beyoncé , Williams and Rowland are joined by other male and female dancers at the start of the song 's chorus . During her lines , Rowland performs a dance sequence with two male dancers . Following the song 's bridge , the two different groups head towards another place where they are welcomed by more dancers and their third " fierce " rivals appear for the final chorus . The video ends in the same way it opened , with the " fierce " group members walking .
= = = Release and reception = = =
The music video of " Lose My Breath " premiered on MTV 's Total Request Live ( TRL ) . It debuted on the video program on October 26 , 2004 at number eight remaining for 36 days . On Muchmusic 's Top 30 countdown , the video debuted on November 6 , 2004 at number 26 . It peaked at number seven on January 15 , 2005 , stayed there for another week , and charted for a total of twelve weeks . The music video was featured on the DualDisc editions of the albums # 1 's and Destiny Fulfilled as well as on the bonus DVD of the Destiny Fulfilled Tour edition . It was also included on the Destiny 's Child Video Anthology , a video anthology album released in 2013 .
Erika Ramirez and Jason Lipshutz writing on behalf of Billboard magazine felt that Destiny 's Child " came back strong after a three @-@ year hiatus , showing off their dance skills in the video " for " Lose My Breath " . Jess Harvell of the website Pitchfork Media criticized the " weird mink stole " Beyoncé wore in the clip . A writer of People felt that the group borrowed from their old looks for their outfits in the video " glammed up in stilettos and fur " . Justin Myers from the Official Charts Company considered it to be a proof that the group was back in 2004 , and showed them being " totally kick @-@ ass – so pretty autobiographical " . The music video was nominated for the Best Dance Video category at the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards , but lost to Missy Elliott 's " Lose Control " ( 2005 ) . In 2014 , The Guardian editor Michael Cragg ranked the video for " Lose My Breath " in his list of the ten best videos by Beyoncé . He remarked that the clip featured bigger budget than the group 's previous visual efforts and praised the concept , saying , " It 's a simple idea executed perfectly , especially when Beyoncé gives herself side @-@ eye , flicks her hair and then watches while one of the other Beyoncé 's dances like a creature possessed . "
= = Live performances = =
The first live performance of " Lose My Breath " was during the opening of the 2004 NFL season on September 9 for which Destiny 's Child was surrounded by smoke from fog machines . Chicago Tribune writer Chris Malcolm reported , " I think what I love most is the blank look on some of the hard @-@ core Boston football fans who showed up early to watch kickers practice and instead got a live version of ' Lose My Breath . ' " On October 25 , 2004 , the group performed " Lose My Breath " during the Radio Music Awards in Las Vegas , Nevada starting with an a cappella jazz harmony . Destiny 's Child appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show in November 2004 where they closed their performance with a rendition of the song . On November 8 , 2004 , the trio appeared on Total Request Live ( TRL ) and performed the song along with " Say My Name " . They went to the German entertainment TV show Wetten , dass .. ? on November 13 , 2004 performing " Lose My Breath " . The group " Soldier " and " Lose My Breath " at the 2005 NBA All @-@ Star Game on February 20 , 2005 . They performed the song again at the 2005 ESPY Awards on July 13 with the ceremony being aired on ESPN four days later . Destiny 's Child performed " Lose My Breath " at the Fashion Rocks benefit concert at New York 's Radio City Music Hall in February 2006 which marked their last televised appearance as a group .
In 2005 , the song was part of the set list of the group 's tour Destiny Fulfilled ... and Lovin ' It where it was performed during the concert 's encore . The singers wore white T @-@ shirts and jeans and during the end of the performance went under cascading water on stage . While reviewing a show by the group in the UK , Adenike Adenitire writing for MTV News found the performance to be somehow casual : " It was like watching three young girls and their friends practicing their moves at a slumber party . It was a perfect note of DC harmony to end a night that celebrated both the group and the individuals within it . " Barbara Ellen from The Observer felt that the song worked as a " stupendous encore " . The song was included on the track listing of the group 's live album Destiny 's Child : Live in Atlanta ( 2006 ) chronicling a concert from the tour . Beyoncé performed " Lose My Breath " at the 2007 Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo on March 15 as part of a Destiny 's Child medley during the concert .
= = Cover versions and usage in media = =
Rihanna , Teairra Marí and Amerie performed " Lose My Breath " at the 2005 World Music Awards on August 31 as a tribute to Destiny 's Child . Starting with the Christmas Day 2004 Miami Heat @-@ Los Angeles Lakers telecast , the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) used the song as the music for their introductory montage for the 2004 NBA Playoffs . The song was used through the rest of the regular season , and through the first few weeks of the 2005 NBA Playoffs . During that time , it also served as part of many commercials until the playoffs . In February 2015 the song was performed by one of the Glee characters .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the liner notes of Destiny Fulfilled .
Lead vocals : Beyoncé Knowles , Kelly Rowland , Michelle Williams
Vocal production : Beyoncé Knowles , Kelly Rowland , Sean Garrett
Recorded by : Jeff Villanueva , Jim Caruna at Sony Music Studios , New York City
Audio mixing by : Tony Maserati
Master recording by : Tom Coyne
Introduction by : Michigan Marching Band Drumline
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Craigmillar Castle =
Craigmillar Castle is a ruined medieval castle in Edinburgh , Scotland . It is situated 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) south @-@ east of the city centre , on a low hill to the south of the modern suburb of Craigmillar . The Preston family of Craigmillar , the local feudal barons , began building the castle in the late 14th century and building works continued through the 15th and 16th centuries . In 1660 the castle was sold to Sir John Gilmour , Lord President of the Court of Session , who made further alterations . The Gilmours left Craigmillar in the 18th century , and the castle fell into ruin . It is now in the care of Historic Environment Scotland .
Craigmillar Castle is best known for its association with Mary , Queen of Scots . Following an illness after the birth of her son , the future James VI , Mary arrived at Craigmillar on 20 November 1566 to convalesce . Before she left on 7 December 1566 , a pact known as the " Craigmillar Bond " was made , with or without her knowledge , to dispose of her husband Henry Stuart , Lord Darnley .
Craigmillar is one of the best @-@ preserved medieval castles in Scotland . The central tower house , or keep , is surrounded by a 15th @-@ century courtyard wall with " particularly fine " defensive features . Within this are additional ranges , and the whole is enclosed by an outer courtyard wall containing a chapel and a doocot .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
The lands of Craigmillar were granted to the monks of Dunfermline Abbey by King David I in the 12th century . The Preston family were first granted land in the area by King David II in 1342 and held 2 / 3 of the estate . In a further grant of 1374 , King Robert II gave the remaining lands of Craigmillar to Sir Simon de Preston , Sheriff of Midlothian . It was Simon 's son , Simon Preston , or his grandson , Sir George Preston , who began work on the tower house which now forms the core of the castle . This was in place by 1425 , when a charter was sealed at Craigmillar by Sir John Preston . The courtyard wall was probably added by Sir William Preston ( d . 1453 ) , who had travelled in France , and drew on continental inspiration for his new work . He also brought back the arm of Saint Giles , which he presented to the High Kirk of Edinburgh , where the Preston Aisle is named for him . In the late 1470s , John Stewart , Earl of Mar , brother of King James III was held prisoner at Craigmillar , accused of practising witchcraft against the King . He later died in suspicious circumstances .
= = = 16th century = = =
In 1511 Craigmillar was erected into a barony , and the outer courtyard was built around this time , possibly by another Simon Preston ( d.1520 ) , Member of Parliament for Edinburgh in 1487 , who had succeeded in 1478 . In September 1517 , during an outbreak of plague in Edinburgh , the infant James V of Scotland moved to safety at Craigmillar . His French guardian De la Bastie had new locks made for his chamber and the two iron gates , and a stable was built for the king 's mule . The family chapel within the outer court was first recorded in 1523 . In 1544 , during the so @-@ called Rough Wooing of Henry VIII of England , the English attempted to impose , by military force , a marriage alliance between Edward , Prince of Wales , and the young Mary , Queen of Scots . Craigmillar Castle was burned by English troops under the Earl of Hertford . The baron , Sir Simon Preston ( d.1569 ) had the castle repaired , with domestic ranges in the courtyard being remodelled . Sir Simon served as Lord Provost of Edinburgh for several years , and was a loyal supporter of Queen Mary , who appointed him to her Privy Council .
Queen Mary stayed at Craigmillar twice , in September 1563 and from 20 November to 7 December 1566 . She is traditionally said to have slept in the small former kitchen within the tower house , although it is more likely that she occupied larger accommodation in the relatively new east range . On her second stay , Mary was still in poor health following a serious illness in October . Several of her noblemen were with her , and suggested to her that her unpopular husband , Henry Stuart , Lord Darnley , could be removed , either by divorce or by other means . An agreement , the " Craigmillar Bond " , was signed by Mary 's Secretary of State William Maitland of Lethington , and several nobles including the earls of Bothwell , Argyll and Huntly . The bond does not survive , but set out the conspirator 's intent to remove Darnley . Although Mary made it clear that she was unhappy with Darnley , she was not part of the conspiracy , and was probably unaware of the plot to kill her husband . It was initially intended that Darnley would lodge at Craigmillar when he returned to Edinburgh , although he opted to stay at Kirk o ' Field in the town , where he was murdered on 10 February 1567 . In 1572 , after Queen Mary 's flight into England , the Regent Mar used Craigmillar as a base during his siege of Edinburgh Castle , which was being held by supporters of the exiled Queen . King James VI later visited Craigmillar himself , in 1589 , when he was the guest of Sir David Preston .
= = = The Gilmours = = =
On the death of Sir Robert Preston in 1639 , Craigmillar passed to a distant cousin , David Preston of Whitehill . His son sold the castle out of the family , and it was bought by Sir John Gilmour ( d.1671 ) in 1660 , who purchased the neighbouring estate of The Inch at the same time . A Royalist , Gilmour was rewarded following the Restoration of King Charles II , becoming Lord President of the Court of Session in 1661 . He remodelled the west range to provide more modern accommodation in the 1660s , but in the early 18th century , the Gilmours left the castle for Inch House , just west of Craigmillar . It was claimed that two of the laird 's daughters continued to live in Craigmillar Castle after the rest of the family had left . Afterwards , Craigmillar Castle formed a romantic feature in the park of the Inch estate . It was ruined by 1775 , when the antiquarian and poet John Pinkerton wrote Craigmillar Castle : an Elegy . The castle became a popular tourist attraction from the late 18th century , and was drawn by numerous artists . A proposal to renovate the building for the use of Queen Victoria was put forward in 1842 , but came to nothing . Victoria herself visited the castle in 1886 , and much restoration work was undertaken by its then owner , Walter James Little Gilmour ( d.1887 ) .
Craigmillar Castle has been in state care since 1946 , and is now maintained by Historic Environment Scotland . The castle is a category A listed building , the highest level of protection for a historic building in Scotland , and is also a Scheduled Ancient Monument . The grounds of the castle are included on the Inventory of Gardens and Designed Landscapes , the national register of historic gardens .
= = Description = =
At the core of Craigmillar Castle is the 14th @-@ century L @-@ plan tower house , built on a rocky outcrop . Wrapped around this is the 15th @-@ century courtyard wall , with ranges of buildings at the south @-@ east , east , and west . Beyond the wall is a lower outer wall , enclosing a broad outer courtyard . This contained gardens and a chapel . Further gardens lay to the south , where the outline of a fish pond can be seen .
= = = The tower house = = =
The four @-@ storey tower forms the keep of the castle , although it originally stood alone . It measures 15 @.@ 8 metres ( 52 ft ) by 11 @.@ 6 metres ( 38 ft ) , with a projecting wing , or jamb , of 8 @.@ 5 metres ( 28 ft ) by 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 ft ) , to the south . The walls are up to 3 @.@ 3 metres ( 11 ft ) thick , and the second and fourth storeys have vaulted ceilings . The tower is built on the edge of a rock outcrop , with the original entrance door protected by a natural cleft in the rock . This would have been spanned by a wooden bridge , until it was filled in when the curtain wall was built . Above the door are the arms of the Preston family . A stair leads up from the entrance to a guard room in the jamb , which would probably have had " murder holes " through which missiles could be dropped on any attackers who gained entry . At ground floor level are cellars , which formerly had a timber loft above . The dividing wall and doors at either end are later additions .
On the second floor is the hall , with a kitchen occupying the jamb , and later passages connecting to the east and west ranges . The hall has a large carved stone fireplace of around 1500 , and once had a timber ceiling , probably painted . The kitchen was replaced by a larger one in the 16th @-@ century east range , and converted into a bedroom . A smaller fireplace was inserted into the large kitchen hearth , and larger windows added . The next storey , accessed via a spiral stair , contained a windowless room in the vault above the hall ceiling . Above the kitchen is the lord 's bedroom , the only original private chamber in the building . The stairs continue to give access to parapet walks around the stone @-@ flagged roof . A further storey was added to the jamb in the sixteenth century , containing a single chamber . The exterior of the castle formerly had two timber balconies , or viewing platforms , one overlooking the gardens to the south , and one looking east across the Lothian countryside .
= = = The inner courtyard = = =
The mid @-@ 15th @-@ century curtain wall encloses a courtyard around 10 metres ( 33 ft ) across , and is up to 1 @.@ 8 metres ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) thick . Externally , the curtain wall measures 40 metres ( 130 ft ) by 27 metres ( 89 ft ) . Round towers are located at each corner , with a postern , or side gate , located in the base of the south @-@ east tower . The towers have keyhole @-@ shaped gun holes , intended for decoration as well as defence . The round @-@ arched gate is in the north wall . Over it are the arms of the Preston family , with the royal arms of Scotland above . The walls are defended by machicolations , spaces through which missiles could be dropped on attackers , and battlement walks give access to the entire length of the wall . On the inside of the wall , traces of windows suggest that there was once a south range of buildings in the courtyard . There is no well in the courtyard , but a stone trough runs through the curtain wall , allowing water to be brought into the castle .
= = = = The east range = = = =
The east range occupies the south @-@ east and east sides of the inner courtyard . The original east range , contemporary with the courtyard wall , was rebuilt in the 16th century and linked to the tower house by a new , broad spiral stair . The building at the south @-@ east adjoins the tower house , and comprises two chambers on the first floor . Cellars below were occupied by a bakehouse and a possible prison . A corridor connects the tower to large , vaulted kitchens in the east range , also accessible via a straight stair from the courtyard . Another depiction of the Preston family arms , supported by monkeys , appears above the door to the east range . Below the kitchens are vaulted cellars , containing a blocked @-@ up postern gate through the courtyard wall . Above , a long gallery occupied the second floor , although only the lower walls of the gallery survive .
= = = = The west range = = = =
The west range was entirely rebuilt by the Gilmours , in the 1660s , to provide a spacious suite of modern accommodation , to suit Sir John 's position as a senior judge . The ground floor contained a large central drawing room dining room , with large windows , and a carved stone fireplace . This room would also have had plaster ceilings and other decorative features . To the north was a kitchen , and to the south a chamber , with a wine cellar below . The first floor had four bedrooms . Another new stair was built , connecting the west range with the tower house . The door to this tower has a classical pediment , above which is a 20th @-@ century plaque , erected by a descendant of the Gilmours , and bearing the arms of Sir John Gilmour and his wife . The west range is now roofless , the internal floor is also gone , and the large windows have been blocked up .
= = = The outer court and gardens = = =
The outer walls , dating from the early @-@ mid 16th century , are smaller and less formidable than the inner walls , but they enclose a much larger area . A round tower at the north @-@ east corner has gun holes and a doocot , or pigeon house , upstairs . The family chapel was built around 1520 , and dedicated to St Thomas Becket . It is now a roofless burial aisle , still used by the Gilmour family . Gardens occupied the east and west parts of the courtyard , with the western terrace overlooked by the large windows of the west range . The barn at the north @-@ west of the courtyard was converted into a Presbyterian church , for the village of Liberton , in 1687 . South of the castle were informal gardens and orchards , with the bases of 16th @-@ century viewing towers remaining at the corners of this drystone @-@ walled enclosure . The former fish pond , shaped like a letter P for Preston , is a nationally @-@ significant archaeological garden feature , due to its rarity . In the 1820s , a plan was drawn up to lay out picturesque landscape gardens between Inch House and the castle , which would have incorporated " Queen Mary 's Tree " , a Sycamore supposedly planted by Mary , Queen of Scots . Much of the woodland within the castle estate dates from the early to mid 19th century .
= Madonna Live : The Virgin Tour =
Madonna Live : The Virgin Tour is the second video album and the first live release by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna . It was released by Warner Music Video and Sire Records on November 13 , 1985 and contains the concert footage from The Virgin Tour , filmed at Cobo Arena in Detroit , Michigan on May 25 , 1985 . Director Daniel Kleinman , who presided over the shooting of the tour on video , submitted the footage to Warner Bros. Records , who decided to release it as a video album . Madonna wanted to have a proper introduction added before the concert footage and asked director James Foley to shoot one , which portrayed her with her first image makeover , reciting lines related to how she became famous .
After its release , Madonna Live : The Virgin Tour received mixed reviews from critics , but went on to become a commercial success , topping the Music Video Sales chart of Billboard and becoming the top selling music video cassette of 1986 . The video was certified two @-@ times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of 100 @,@ 000 copies and in September 1986 , it received a " Video Software Dealers Award " for the Most Popular Music Video . The live performances of " Like a Virgin " and " Dress You Up " were released as music videos on MTV to promote the video album . Both videos were nominated for " Best Choreography " at the 1986 MTV Video Music Awards .
= = Background = =
Madonna 's first concert tour , The Virgin Tour , promoted her first two studio albums , Madonna and Like a Virgin . The tour was a commercial success , with Billboard Boxscore reporting a gross of US $ 3 @.@ 3 million . After the tour was over , Madonna started recording her third studio album , True Blue . Film director Daniel Kleinman , who presided over the shooting of the tour on video , submitted the footage to Warner Bros. Records , who decided to release it as a video album . Madonna Live : The Virgin Tour chronicled The Virgin Tour as shot at Cobo Arena in Detroit , Michigan on May 25 , 1985 .
Madonna , who was busy with True Blue and shooting for the comedy film Shanghai Surprise , was contacted by Kleinman to ask about her approval of the shot footage . She felt that the video " needed a proper introduction . I asked [ James ] Foley darling to shoot me saying something for adding it before the concert starts . " Foley , who directed the music video of her song " Live to Tell " , shot an introduction which was added at the beginning of the video . It portrayed Madonna in her first image makeover , with platinum blond curls , and conservative wardrobe . Madonna wanted to include a summation of her biography — which was used at the beginning of The Virgin Tour — to be added with the footage . Hence , with the footage , Madonna 's voice was heard , declaring ,
" I went to New York . I had a dream . I wanted to be a big star , I didn 't know anybody , I wanted to dance , I wanted to sing , I wanted to do all those things , I wanted to make people happy , I wanted to be famous , I wanted everybody to love me . I wanted to be a star . I worked really hard , and
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advanced up Gue Hill and attacked the Italian force , while a small force of sappers would mine the road at the rear of the hill to ensure the Italian tanks could not retreat .
The battalion arrived at the hill without incident and began to prepare for the attack ; however , just prior to the beginning of the attack there were several loud explosions from the rear of the hill . The anti tank grenades carried by the sappers had accidentally detonated , killing all but two of them . The battalion lost the element of surprise , and Hill immediately ordered the two companies to advance up the hill . The force reached the top and engaged a mixed force of German and Italian soldiers , who were assisted by three light tanks . Hill drew his revolver , and with his adjutant and a small group of paratroopers advanced on the tanks , firing shots through their observation ports in an attempt to persuade the crews to surrender . This tactic worked on two tanks , but upon reaching the third tank Hill and his men were fired upon by the tank 's crew ; Hill was shot three times in the chest and his adjutant wounded , although the tank crew were swiftly dispatched with small arms fire . Hill survived because of prompt medical treatment , and was replaced as commander of the battalion by Major Pearson , who supervised the routing of the rest of the German and Italian soldiers .
= = = Normandy = = =
After his injuries were treated , Hill was evacuated to a hospital in North Africa to recover ; although forbidden to do so , he often exercised by climbing out of the window of his hospital ward at night . For his actions in North Africa , he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) , which " paid tribute to the brilliant handling of his force and his complete disregard of personal danger , " as well as the French Légion d 'honneur . By February 1943 he had recovered from his injuries , and was flown back to England where he met up with Brigadier Gerald W. Lathbury , commander of the newly raised 3rd Parachute Brigade . The War Office had authorised the raising of the brigade on 5 November 1942 , comprising the 7th , 8th and 9th Parachute Battalions , all converted infantry battalions . The 9th Parachute Battalion was in need of a commanding officer and Lathbury offered the job to Hill , who accepted . His first action was to send the entire unit on a forced march , at the end of which he announced that the battalion would " work a six and a half day week " with Sunday afternoons off , until it was well @-@ trained and fit . The 3rd Parachute Brigade was initially attached to the 1st Airborne Division , but in April 1943 Lathbury was given command of 1st Parachute Brigade , which departed with 1st Airborne Division at the end of April for the Mediterranean theatre and Operation Husky , the invasion of Sicily . The 3rd Parachute Brigade was detached from the division in March and remained in England , and on 23 April it was transferred into the newly formed 6th Airborne Division with Hill as the brigade 's new commander . On 11 August , 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion was attached to the 3rd Parachute Brigade ; although meant to be assigned to the newly formed 5th Parachute Brigade , also attached to the 6th Airborne Division , it instead replaced the 7th Parachute Battalion , which was transferred to the new parachute brigade .
The 6th Airborne Division , under the command of Major @-@ General Richard Nelson Gale , was fully mobilised by late December 1943 , with orders to prepare for airborne operations to be conducted during mid @-@ 1944 . The division 's first airborne operation would also be the first time it saw combat , conducting Operation Tonga , the British airborne landings in Normandy on the night of 5 / 6 June , D @-@ Day . It was tasked with guarding the left flank of the British amphibious landings by securing the area east of the city of Caen , capturing a number of bridges that spanned several rivers and canals , and then preventing any Axis forces from advancing on the British beaches . The 3rd Parachute Brigade was given several tasks to accomplish . The 9th Parachute Battalion , commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Terence Otway , was to assault and destroy the Merville Gun Battery , as well as capturing high ground and setting up roadblocks . The 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion was to destroy two bridges , and the 8th Parachute Battalion had the task of destroying three bridges . When the operation began , the brigade suffered from a combination of poor navigation by the pilots of their C @-@ 47 Dakota transport aircraft , heavy cloud cover and incorrectly marked drop zones , which led to all of its units being scattered over a wide area ; Hill himself was dropped with several sticks from the 1st Canadian and 9th Parachute Battalions near the River Dives . He landed in a submerged river rank approximately half a mile from Cabourg , and was forced to wade through four feet of water and a number of flooded irrigation ditches before reaching dry land ; the same flooded areas claimed the lives of a number of paratroopers from his brigade .
Collecting up a number of his men , he headed for the town of Sallenelles , where he hoped to find out how the 9th Parachute Battalion had fared assaulting the Merville Battery . En route , however , he and his party were strafed by low @-@ flying German aircraft , forcing the paratroopers to dive for cover ; when the aircraft had departed Hill stood up again , finding that he had been wounded in the buttocks and the officer next to him had been killed . Most of the other men had either been killed or wounded during the attack , leaving only himself and the commander of his headquarters defence platoon ; once first aid had been administered to the wounded , Hill continued on and finally managed reach Ranville , where the headquarters of the General Officer Commanding ( GOC ) , Major @-@ General Gale , had been set up . After being informed by Gale that his brigade had successfully completed its objectives , Hill had his wound tended to , and then travelled to his own headquarters ; there he found Lieutenant Colonel Pearson in temporary command , who informed him that many the brigade 's staff had been killed during the drop . By 00 : 00 on the night of 6 / 7 June , the entire division was fully deployed on the eastern flank of the invasion beaches . The 3rd Parachute Brigade was holding a 4 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) front , with the 9th Parachute Battalion at Le Plein , 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion at Les Mesneil and the 8th Parachute Battalion in the southern part of the Bois de Bavent .
For the rest of its time in Normandy the division acted in an infantry role . From 7 June until 16 August , it first consolidated and then expanded its bridgehead . The 3rd Parachute Brigade was responsible for a section of front around the Chateau Saint Come and a nearby manor , with the latter being used as the brigade 's primary defensive position . The brigade was positioned next to the 1st Special Service Brigade , and from 7 June onwards German pressure rapidly increased against both brigade 's positions , with a number of attacks being repelled between then and 10 June . On 10 June the decision was taken to expand the bridgehead to the east of the River Orne , with the 6th Airborne Division tasked with achieving this ; however , it was deemed not to be strong enough , and the 5th Battalion , Black Watch was placed under the 3rd Parachute Brigade 's command ; the battalion launched an attack on the town of Breville on 11 June , but was met with extremely heavy resistance and was repulsed after suffering a number of casualties . The next day 3rd Parachute Brigade 's entire front was subjected to fierce artillery bombardment and assaults by German tanks and infantry , with the Germans particularly focusing on the positions held by 9th Parachute Battalion . Both the 9th Parachute Battalion and the remnants of the 5th Black Watch defended the Chateau Saint Come but were gradually forced to retreat . Lieutenant Colonel Otway informed brigade headquarters , some 400 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) away , that his battalion would be unable to hold its ground for much longer ; upon hearing this message , Brigadier Hill gathered together forty paratroopers from the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion and led a counter @-@ attack that forced the German troops to withdraw .
German attempts to breach the 9th Parachute battalions ' positions did not end until 12 June , and Hill stated that the period 7 – 12 June were " five of the toughest days fighting I saw in five years of war . " It was during this period that Hill was awarded the first Bar to his Distinguished Service Order , after supervising an assault by 12th Parachute Battalion on the town of Breville ; the town dominated a long ridge near the Allied bridgehead , from which the German 346th Infantry Division launched repeated attacks . From then on until mid @-@ August the division remained in static positions , holding the left flank of the Allied bridgehead and conducting vigorous patrolling . Finally , on 7 August the division was ordered to prepare to move over to the offensive , and on the night of 16 / 17 August it began to advance against stiff German opposition , its ultimate objective being the mouth of the River Seine ( see 6th Airborne Division advance to the River Seine ) . Hill 's 3rd Parachute Brigade led the division 's advance , being held up until nightfall at the village of Goustranville , but then securing several bridges and allowing the 5th Parachute Brigade to pass through its positions and continue the division 's advance . The brigade remained around the Dives canal for several days , and then on 21 August it advanced towards Pont L 'Eveque , but was stalled by German infantry and armour near Annebault until 8th Parachute Battalion secured the village . Fighting continued to be fierce , but by 24 August the entire division had advanced across the River Touques . After another three days of reorganising and patrolling , the division 's time in Normandy came to an end ; in nine days it had advanced 45 miles , captured 400 square miles ( 1 @,@ 000 km2 ) of occupied territory and taken prisoner over 1 @,@ 000 German soldiers . Its casualties for the period were 4 @,@ 457 , of which 821 would be killed , 2 @,@ 709 wounded and 927 missing . It was finally withdrawn from the frontline in the last days of August , and embarked for England at the beginning of September .
= = = Ardennes = = =
On 16 December 1944 , the Germans launched a huge offensive in the Ardennes forest , with the German objective to split British and American forces apart and capture the port of Antwerp , an important logistical base for the Allies . The initial assaults were extremely successful , creating a salient some fifty miles wide and forty @-@ five miles deep , and by 23 December German units were advancing towards Dinant . American resistance was fierce , however , and blunted German advances in several areas , particularly the U.S. 101st Airborne Division around the town of Bastogne . By Christmas Day the offensive had been halted and contained , and an Allied counter @-@ offensive began . Although the majority of the troops committed belonged to the American First and Third Armies , British XXX Corps also participated , with the British 6th Airborne Division as one of its leading divisions . The division had been in England since the beginning of September , and had been due to go on Christmas leave only days before the counter @-@ offensive began ; however , it was quickly transported to the Ardennes , arriving on the night of 24 December . By 26 December the 6th Airborne Division , now commanded by Major @-@ General Eric Bols , had positioned itself between the towns of Dinant and Namur , and on 29 December it advanced against the German salient , with the 3rd Parachute Brigade , under James Hill , occupying an area around Rochefort .
When the German offensive had begun , Hill had been in hospital , undergoing reconstructive plastic surgery ; this meant that he was unable to join the 3rd Parachute Brigade for two days . When he had recovered , however , he and his batman were flown to the Ardennes and he was able to rejoin the brigade . The 5th Parachute Brigade launched several attacks against German positions in the village of Bure , which resulted in heavy British casualties , and both brigades conducted a large number of offensive patrols . The 3rd Parachute Brigade did not see any action , as those German units occupying positions opposite to it withdrew without fighting . By the end of January , however , the division was transferred back to the Netherlands and set up new positions along the Maas river , where it conducted more patrolling against elements of the German 7th Parachute Division , which held positions on the other side of the Maas . These operations came to an end in late February , when the 6th Airborne Division was withdrawn back to England to prepare for a major airborne operation in March .
= = = Rhine = = =
On 24 March 1945 Operation Varsity began , an airborne operation to aid in the establishment of a bridgehead on the east bank of the River Rhine which involved the British 6th Airborne Division and the U.S. 17th Airborne Division , under Major General William Miley . Varsity was the airborne component of Operation Plunder , in which the British Second Army , under Lieutenant @-@ General Miles C. Dempsey , and the U.S. Ninth Army , under Lieutenant General William Simpson , crossed the Rhine at Rees , Wesel , and an area south of the Lippe Canal . Both divisions would be dropped near the town of Hamminkeln , and were tasked with a number of objectives : they were to seize the Diersfordter Wald , a forest that overlooked the Rhine , including a road linking several towns together ; several bridges over a smaller waterway , the River Issel , were to be seized to facilitate the advance ; and the town of Hamminkeln was to be captured . The 6th Airborne Division was specifically tasked with securing the northern portion of the airborne bridgehead , including Hamminkeln , a section of high ground to the east of Bergen , and several bridges over the River Issel . Hill 's 3rd Parachute Brigade was to drop at the north @-@ eastern corner of the Diersfordterwald forest and clear the western portion of the forest . It would then seize a hill known as the Schneppenberg , secure a road junction near Bergen and eventually link up with the 5th Parachute Brigade .
The 3rd Parachute Brigade dropped nine minutes later than planned , but otherwise landed accurately on drop zone ' A ' . Hill landed near to the Diersfordterwald forest , which was occupied by German soldiers " who are switched @-@ on people , " killing a number of paratroopers whose parachutes became tangled up in the trees . His brigade headquarters was positioned by a copse which was supposed to have been immediately cleared , but when he arrived it was still occupied by German troops ; Hill immediately ordered a company commander of the 8th Parachute Battalion to clear the copse . The officer did so , but was killed in the process . Hill then moved his headquarters to the copse , but was then nearly killed by an approaching glider which barely managed to pull up in time , landing in the trees above him ; upon investigation , Hill discovered that it contained his batman and personal Jeep , which took some time to lower down safely . The brigade suffered a number of casualties as it engaged the German forces in the Diersfordter Wald , but by 11 : 00 hours the drop zone was all but completely clear of enemy forces and all battalions of the brigade had formed up . The key town of Schnappenberg was captured by the 9th Parachute Battalion in conjunction with the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion , the latter unit having lost its commanding officer to German small @-@ arms fire only moments after he had landed . Despite taking casualties the brigade cleared the area of German forces , and by 13 : 45 Hill could report that the brigade had secured all of its objectives .
With Varsity a success , the 6th Airborne Division was ordered by Major General Matthew Ridgway , commander of U.S. XVIII Airborne Corps , to advance eastwards . It was supported by the 6th Guards Tank Brigade , and many of the airborne troops used unconventional transport during the advance , including captured German staff cars , prams and even horses . Hill requisitioned a motorcycle for his batman and travelled alongside the 3rd Parachute Brigade as it advanced ; at one point his batman stopped the motorcycle and relieved a captured German colonel of his binoculars before driving off again . Hill disapproved of battlefield looting and admonished his batman , although eventually relented by stating " If you can get me a pair [ as well ] , you can keep them ! " At midnight , 27 / 28 March the division came under the control of British VIII Corps , commanded by Lieutenant @-@ General Evelyn Barker , and became part of the general Allied advance through Germany towards the Baltic Sea , with the 3rd Parachute Brigade as the division 's leading unit . German resistance continued to be heavy , but the division managed to advance at a rapid pace despite this , with the brigade at one point advancing fifteen miles in twenty @-@ four hours , with eighteen of those being spent in combat . By early April the 6th Airborne reached the River Weser , with the brigade approaching it near the town of Minden , accompanied by armoured support ; as it did so , the brigade found itself moving parallel to several German tanks , with Hill sitting on the rear of one of the British tanks . Both sides opened fire , but did little damage , the two German tanks managing to outpace the brigade .
The brigade continued its fast pace of advance , with Hill continuing to ride pillion on his motorcycle , and by 23 April it had reached the River Elbe , having advanced 103 miles in fourteen days ; the division had captured more than 19 @,@ 000 prisoners during this period . After crossing the Elbe , the division once again came under the command of U.S. XVIII Airborne Corps , with General Ridgway informing Major General Bols that it was vital the division reach the port of Wismar before the approaching Russian Army did , to ensure that Denmark was not occupied by the Soviet Union . Although the 5th Parachute Brigade was ordered to lead the division 's advance , Hill was determined to reach Wismar first ; after an extremely rapid advance he succeeded , with troops from the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion being the first to enter Wismar , beating an advancing Russian tank column by only a few miles . A few days later , on 7 May 1945 , Germany surrendered and the war in Europe came to an end . Hill was awarded a second Bar to his DSO for his command of the 3rd Parachute Brigade during its advance from the Rhine to the Elbe , as well as the American Silver Star .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
In May 1945 Hill served as military governor of Copenhagen , for which he was awarded the King Haakon VII Liberty Cross , and then assumed command of the 1st Parachute Brigade and oversaw its demobilisation . He retired from the British Army in July 1945 , although he continued to serve as an officer in the Territorial Army , raising the 4th Parachute Brigade ( Territorial Army ) in 1947 and serving as its commanding officer until 1949 . After standing down as commander of the brigade , Hill served on the board of a number of companies , including Lloyds Bank , the Associated Coal and Wharf Companies , and Powell Duffryn of Canada . Hill was an avid birdwatcher , with a particular claim to fame for being only the second person to discover a cuckoo 's egg in the nest of a whinchat . He also helped to set up the Parachute Regiment Association and the Airborne Forces Security fund , acting as a trustee of the latter organisation for thirty years and chairman for five years . Hill married for a second time , wedding Joan Patricia Haywood in 1986 . On 6 June 2004 he attended the 60th Anniversary of the Normandy landings , and a bronze statue of him was unveiled at Le Mesnil crossroads by Charles , Prince of Wales , Colonel @-@ in @-@ Chief of The Parachute Regiment . He died on 16 March 2006 , two days after his 95th birthday . He is survived by his second wife and a daughter from the first marriage , Gillian Bridget Sanda .
= Death and state funeral of Ronald Reagan =
On June 5 , 2004 , Ronald Reagan , the 40th President of the United States , died after having suffered from Alzheimer 's disease for nearly a decade . His seven @-@ day state funeral followed . After Reagan 's death , his body was taken from his Bel Air , Los Angeles home to the Gates , Kingsley and Gates Funeral Home in Santa Monica , California to prepare the body for burial . On June 7 , Reagan 's casket was transported by hearse and displayed at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley , California , then flown to Washington , D.C. on June 9 for a service , public viewing and tributes at the U.S. Capitol .
After lying in state for thirty @-@ four hours in the Capitol rotunda , a state funeral service was conducted at the Washington National Cathedral on June 11 , the day when President George W. Bush declared a national day of mourning . Later that day , after the service , Reagan 's casket was transported back to California for interment at the Reagan Presidential Library . The state funeral was executed by the Military District of Washington ( MDW ) and was the first since that of Lyndon B. Johnson in 1973 . Richard Nixon , who presided over Johnson 's funeral , declined to have a state funeral in 1994 . Reagan was the first U.S. former president to die in the 21st century .
= = Death = =
On the morning of June 5 , 2004 , there were reports that Reagan 's health had significantly deteriorated , following nine years of Alzheimer 's disease . He died of pneumonia at his home at 13 : 09 PDT , at the age of 93 .
President George W. Bush was in Paris when Reagan died and acknowledged the death in a press conference . President Bush made the following statement on June 5 , 2004 :
American flags at the White House , across the United States , and around the world over official U.S. installations and operating locations , were ordered flown at half @-@ staff for 30 days in a presidential proclamation by President Bush . In the announcement of Reagan 's death , Bush also declared June 11 a National Day of Mourning .
Some of the early international tributes to Reagan included those of Queen Elizabeth II , former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher , former Soviet Union Leader Mikhail Gorbachev , British Prime Minister Tony Blair , former Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney , Canadian Prime Minister Paul Martin , and French President Jacques Chirac . Martin advised Governor General Adrienne Clarkson to order all flags across Canada and at all Canadian diplomatic missions in the United States flown to half @-@ staff on the 11th as well , in sympathy with the U.S. ' s National Day of Mourning . In Germany , Chancellor Gerhard Schröder ordered flags flown at half @-@ staff above government buildings on the 11th as well .
People marked Reagan 's death by leaving tributes and condolences at U.S. embassies and consulates overseas , as well as at locales around the country significant to Reagan 's life , including his presidential library , his birthplace in Tampico , Illinois , the funeral home where his body was taken after he died , and the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity house in Eureka , Illinois .
After Reagan 's death , campaigning for the ongoing U.S. presidential election was considered disrespectful during a time of mourning , and was suspended . The 2004 Canadian federal election was also to be held ; Martin , Opposition Leader Stephen Harper , the Conservative leader , and NDP Leader Jack Layton suspended their campaigns , citing respect for Reagan .
= = Funeral events = =
= = = Reagan Library = = =
On June 7 , Reagan 's body was removed from the funeral home and driven in a 20 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour motorcade , by hearse , to the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley .
Reagan 's casket , a Marsellus Masterpiece model , was carried by a military honor guard representing all branches of the United States Armed Forces into the lobby of the library to lie in repose . There , a brief family service was conducted by the Reverend Dr. Michael H. Wenning , former pastor of Bel Air Presbyterian Church , where Reagan worshipped . When the prayer service concluded , Nancy Reagan and her family approached the casket , where Mrs. Reagan laid her head on it . After the family left , the doors of the presidential library opened , and the public began filing in at a rate of 2 @,@ 000 an hour throughout the night . In all , about 108 @,@ 000 people visited the presidential library to see the casket .
= = = Departure to Washington = = =
On June 9 , Reagan 's casket was removed from the presidential library and driven in a motorcade to NAS Point Mugu in Oxnard , California ; it was the same airfield Reagan flew into and out of during his presidency when visiting his California ranch . SAM 28000 , one of the two Boeing 747 @-@ 200s , which usually serves the president as Air Force One , arrived to transport the casket to Washington . Thousands of people gathered to witness the plane 's departure . Just before she boarded the VC @-@ 25A Presidential Aircraft , Nancy Reagan waved to the crowd with her military escort at her side . The plane lifted off at about 9 : 40 AM PST .
= = = Events in Washington = = =
In Washington , D.C. , members of Congress , and much of the public , paid tribute to Reagan immediately after his death and throughout his funeral .
= = = = Funeral procession = = = =
Events in the capital began when Reagan 's casket arrived at Andrews Air Force Base , Maryland . It was removed from the plane , driven by hearse in a procession through the Maryland and Virginia suburbs and the nation 's capital , across the Memorial Bridge , and onto Constitution Avenue .
Just before the plane arrived at Andrews , the Capitol was evacuated for a brief period , for a plane carrying Kentucky Governor Ernie Fletcher was off course and created a scare by entering restricted airspace ; the incident was attributed to radio problems on board the plane and did not affect funeral events .
Near the Ellipse , and within sight of the White House , the hearse halted and Reagan 's body was transferred to a horse @-@ drawn caisson for the procession down Constitution Avenue to Capitol Hill . Nancy Reagan stepped out of her limousine to witness the body 's transfer ; she was met with a warm greeting , including applause . The cortege began the 45 @-@ minute journey just after 6 : 00 PM EST , with the Reagan family following in limousines . Military units escorted the caisson as it made its way to the sounds of muffled drums . Behind the caisson was a riderless horse named Sergeant York , carrying Reagan 's riding boots reversed in the stirrups . The caisson paused at 4th Street and Constitution Avenue , where 21 Air Force F @-@ 15 's from Seymour Johnson Air Force Base , North Carolina , flew over in missing man formation .
= = = = Capitol Hill = = = =
The caisson stopped when it arrived at Capitol Hill ; military units removed it , and " Hail to the Chief " was played amidst a 21 @-@ gun salute . The casket was carried up the west front steps of the Capitol , mainly because Reagan was first inaugurated there and he wanted to face west , toward California . Two teams of military pallbearers carried the casket up the steps of the Capitol to " The Battle Hymn of the Republic " .
When the casket reached the top of the steps , Nancy Reagan and her military escort met it . As the casket passed them , Mrs. Reagan momentarily pulled away from her escort , reached out , and touched the casket . They followed it inside to the rotunda .
The casket was placed under the rotunda , where it lay in state on Abraham Lincoln 's catafalque . An evening memorial service then took place , with dignitaries primarily composed of Congressional members , members of the United States Supreme Court , and the diplomatic corps ; the Reverend Daniel Coughlin , Chaplain of the House of Representatives , gave the invocation . Eulogies were then delivered by Senate President pro tempore Ted Stevens , House Speaker Dennis Hastert , and Vice President Dick Cheney .
After the eulogies , the three speakers each laid a wreath at the casket , and the Senate Chaplain , the Reverend Barry Black , gave the benediction . Cheney escorted Mrs. Reagan to the casket , where she said her goodbyes . The dignitaries in the room paid their respects during the next half @-@ hour . In a rare instance , the doors of the Capitol were then opened to the public , who stood in lines stretching many blocks to view the casket .
= = = = = Public viewing = = = = =
The general public stood in long lines waiting for a turn to pay their respects to the president . People passed by the casket at a rate of about 5 @,@ 000 per hour ( 83 @.@ 3 per minute resp . 1 @.@ 4 per second ) and the wait time for some exceeded seven hours . In all , 104 @,@ 684 paid their respects when Reagan lay in state . The Washington Metro subway set a then daily record in ridership of 850 @,@ 636 as a result .
After returning to Washington following the G8 summit , President George W. Bush and First Lady Laura Bush visited the rotunda to pay their respects . Many world leaders did the same , including interim Iraqi President Ghazi al @-@ Yawer , former Polish president Lech Wałęsa , Gorbachev , and Thatcher , Reagan 's good friend and associate .
While Reagan 's casket lay in state , Nancy Reagan and her family took up temporary residence in Blair House , the official residence of guests of the President of the United States . There , she was greeted by additional dignitaries and public figures . During a visit from Thatcher , the former Prime Minister wrote in the Blair House condolence book , " To Ronnie , Well done , thou good and faithful servant . "
= = = State funeral service = = =
After thirty @-@ four hours of lying in state , the doors of the Capitol were closed to the public and Nancy Reagan was escorted in , where she had a moment alone with the casket . A military honor guard entered and carried it down the west steps of the Capitol to a 21 @-@ gun salute where Mrs. Reagan , holding her hand over her heart , met it . After it was placed in a hearse , the motorcade departed on the five mile @-@ trip to the Washington National Cathedral , where the state funeral service was to be held ; crowds lined the route of the cortege as the hearse made its way .
= = = = Dignitaries = = = =
About 4 @,@ 000 people gathered at the cathedral for the service , including President and Mrs. Bush , former presidents George H. W. and Barbara Bush , Gerald and Betty Ford , Jimmy and Rosalynn Carter , and Bill and Hillary Clinton . Members of Congress and past and present governors were also present .
Foreign dignitaries attended as well , coming from 165 nations . The dignitaries included 36 past and present heads of state and government , and UN Secretary General Kofi Annan . Leading the dignitaries were Gorbachev , Thatcher , Mulroney , and Prince Charles ( representing Queen Elizabeth II ) . Other world leaders included UK Prime Minister Tony Blair and his wife Cherie , German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder , former Japanese Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone , Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi , Jordan 's King Abdullah , as well as interim presidents Hamid Karzai of Afghanistan and Ghazi al @-@ Yawer of Iraq , and Irish President Mary McAleese . Blair , Schröder , Berlusconi , Karzai , King Abdullah , and al @-@ Yawer had been at the G8 summit in Sea Island , Georgia , and later decided to extend their stay in the U.S. to attend the funeral . Schröder said about attending the funeral : " It is appropriate that the German chancellor says , ' Thank you , ' and that is what I 'm doing . ' " For Karzai , the funeral was part of his week @-@ long visit to the U.S. and it was the beginning of his visit to Washington . He scrapped a visit to the West Coast to visit the Afghan community there to attend the funeral . World leaders who attended the summit , but decided not to extend their stay in the U.S. to attend the funeral , paid tribute at the summit , including Canadian Prime Minister Paul Martin , French President Jacques Chirac , Russian President Vladimir Putin , Irish Prime Minister Bertie Ahern , also president of the European Union , and Japanese Prime Minister Junichirō Koizumi . McAleese 's presence had special significance , as she paid tribute to Reagan 's Irish roots , recalling his visit to Ireland in 1984 . In addition , Taiwan 's President of the Control Yuan Frederick Chien and Representative Chen Chien @-@ jen attended the funeral .
The funeral for Reagan was the largest in the United States since that of John F. Kennedy in 1963 . President Kennedy 's daughter , Caroline , and her husband , Edwin Schlossberg , both attended .
= = = = Cathedral events = = = =
The motorcade arrived at the Cathedral and Reagan 's casket was removed . The bearers carrying it paused on the Cathedral steps , and an opening prayer was given by Bishop John Bryson Chane , Dean of the Washington National Cathedral . The casket was then carried down the aisle ; the Reagan family followed and Mrs. Reagan was escorted to her seat by President Bush . Rabbi Harold Kushner and Supreme Court Associate Justice Sandra Day O 'Connor ( the first female Supreme Court justice , whom Reagan appointed ) , then each gave a reading , which preceded the eulogies . The choir then sang hymns — " Faire is the Heaven " ; " Bring Us , O Lord " ; " And I saw a New Heaven " — before Thatcher delivered the first eulogy . In view of her failing mental faculties following several small strokes , the message had been pre @-@ recorded several months earlier and was broadcast throughout the Cathedral on plasma television screens . During the speech , Thatcher said , " We have lost a great president , a great American and a great man , and I have lost a dear friend . "
Following Thatcher 's eulogy , Mulroney delivered his , ending with : " In the presence of his beloved and indispensable Nancy , his children , his family , his friends and all of the American people that he so deeply revered , I say au revoir today to a gifted leader and historic president and a gracious human being . "
Former President George H. W. Bush then spoke , his voice breaking at one point when describing Reagan ; Bush had been Reagan 's Vice President from 1981 to 1989 . His son , President George W. Bush , was the last to give a eulogy , saying in part , " Ronald Reagan belongs to the ages now , but we preferred it when he belonged to us ... In his last years he saw through a glass darkly . Now he sees his Savior face to face . And we look for that fine day when we will see him again , all weariness gone , clear of mind , strong and sure and smiling again , and the sorrow of this parting gone forever . "
The choir then sang " The Battle Hymn of the Republic " and Theodore Edgar McCarrick , Cardinal Archbishop of Washington , delivered a Bible reading from the Gospel of Matthew . The celebrant , former Missouri Senator the Reverend John Danforth , delivered the homily and Irish tenor Ronan Tynan sang songs such as " Ave Maria " and " Amazing Grace " at the request of Nancy Reagan . The Reverend Ted Eastman , former Bishop of Maryland , delivered the benediction , flanked by Reverend Danforth and Reverend Chane .
= = = Interment at the Reagan Library = = =
= = = = Return to California = = = =
After the service , the casket was removed from the cathedral and driven to Andrews Air Force Base for the return to California , passing crowds along its route . The family and close friends boarded the VC 25 @-@ A Presidential Aircraft , and as she had done previously , Nancy Reagan waved farewell to the crowds just before boarding the plane .
About five hours after the aircraft departed Andrews , it touched down at Naval Base Ventura County , Point Mugu , California . The public , including sailors from the USS Ronald Reagan , was there to witness the plane 's arrival . Reagan 's body was driven in a large motorcade on one final trip though the streets of southern California .
= = = = Burial service and interment = = = =
The service drew 700 invited guests , including former Reagan administration officials such as George P. Shultz , and noted dignitaries ; Margaret Thatcher , who traveled on the plane from Washington , sat next to California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and his wife , Maria Shriver ; former California Governor Pete Wilson was in attendance , as well as former Los Angeles Mayor Richard Riordan . Hollywood actors and other celebrities also attended , including Mr. Reagan 's first wife , actress Jane Wyman , Kirk Douglas , Charlton Heston , Mickey Rooney , Dolores Hope ( widow of Bob Hope ) , Merv Griffin , Tommy Lasorda , Wayne Gretzky , Scott Baio , Bo Derek , Tom Selleck , Pat Sajak , Wayne Newton , and the Sinatra family . The three surviving Reagan children , Michael , Patti , and Ron , gave final eulogies at the interment ceremony .
Eulogies finished , and the service over , the Air Force Band of the Golden West played four " ruffles and flourishes " , and the U.S. Army Chorus sang " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " . Bagpiper Eric Rigler played " Amazing Grace " as the casket was moved to its grave site and placed on a plinth . There , burial rites were given , followed by a last 21 @-@ gun salute ; members of the armed services fired three volleys and a bugler played " Taps " . At that time , four Navy F / A @-@ 18 fighter jets flew over in missing man formation , and the flag that flew over the Capitol during President Reagan 's 1981 inauguration was folded by the honor guard and was presented to Nancy Reagan by Captain James Symonds , the commanding officer of the USS Ronald Reagan .
After Nancy Reagan accepted the flag , she approached the casket and spent several minutes patting and stroking it . She laid her head down on the casket , before breaking down and crying ; The Washington Post described Mrs. Reagan as having been " stoic through nearly a week of somber rituals " but she " surrendered to her grief after being handed the flag that had covered her husband 's coffin . " While she cried , she kissed the casket and said " I love you " . Her children surrounded her , and attempted to console her . Mrs. Reagan then walked away with her military escort , clutching the folded flag . The military band began to play the Victorian hymn " My Faith Looks Up to Thee " as the Reagan children said their goodbyes . Funeral attendees had an opportunity to file past the coffin .
The casket was lowered into the vault and closed approximately before 3 : 00 AM PDT the next day . The exterior of the horseshoe shaped monument is inscribed with a quote Ronald Reagan delivered in 1991 :
= = Music = =
Music played during the week @-@ long events included four ruffles and flourishes , " Hail to the Chief " , " My Country , ' Tis of Thee " , " The Battle Hymn of the Republic " , " Amazing Grace " , " Eternal Father , Strong to Save " ( also known as " The Navy Hymn " ) , " God of Our Fathers " , " Mansions of the Lord " , " God Bless America " , " America the Beautiful " , " Going Home " , and " On a Hymnsong of Philip Bliss " by David Holsinger .
= = Security measures = =
The state funeral marked the first time that Washington had hosted a major event since the September 11 attacks . As a result , the Department of Homeland Security ( DHS ) designated the state funeral a National Special Security Event ( NSSE ) . Special precautions were taken because many of the events were open to the public and there were multiple protectees . As means of assisting the motorcade , many streets were temporarily blocked off by law enforcement .
Attorney General John Ashcroft told a Senate hearing before the funeral : " It is a sad commentary when the observation of a memorial service for a former president of the United States must be labeled a National Special Security Event . Such is the fact of modern life in Washington and such is the nature of the war against al Qaeda . " MPDC Chief Charles H. Ramsey agreed saying , " In a post @-@ 9 / 11 world , we have to be very concerned ... and aware of the potential that something could happen , not that we 've received any information at all . "
However , DHS was handling another NSSE at the same time : the G @-@ 8 Summit in Sea Island , Georgia .
During the services , the news media made note that the security measures also made evident that the era of terrorism that the world was experiencing had its roots during the Reagan years . The worst act of terrorism against the United States prior to 9 / 11 , the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie , Scotland , which killed 189 Americans , happened during the Reagan years .
= = Public and media comments = =
The majority of those commemorating Reagan were supporters of his , although not all held the 40th president in high regard . In one noted example , Paul Mays , a retired engineer who never thought much of Reagan 's politics , witnessed the motorcade leave the tarmac at Andrews Air Force Base ; he commented " This is history " . Frank Dubois , an American University professor , also was there for the motorcade , though of the laudatory praise he remarked , " [ Reagan ] hurt the environment ; there was double @-@ digit inflation . I just don 't get it . "
The majority of media coverage of the event was deferential . Most major news organizations broadcast the various events live multiple times ; during the week , the cable channel C @-@ SPAN broadcast uninterrupted coverage of the funeral ceremonies . A few complained , however , that the television coverage was excessive and preempted coverage of other events . CBS News anchor Dan Rather was quoted as saying : " Even though everybody is respectful and wants to pay homage to the president , life does go on . There is other news , like the reality of Iraq . It got very short shrift this weekend . " Throughout the week , media experts reported that the national mourning , televised nearly non @-@ stop on many television networks , provided Americans welcome respite from unhappy reports that American troops were being killed in Iraq and Afghanistan , giving them a sense of good news they had been desperate for since the September 11 attacks .
Reagan 's obituaries also included a few criticisms . Richard Goldstein of The Village Voice criticized the funeral for its careful orchestration , writing , " Because the networks had so long to plan for this production ... this was the most precisely mounted news event in modern times . Each gesture was minutely choreographed , every tear strategically placed . "
Additionally , some media outlets were criticized for lionizing Reagan without paying equal attention to more controversial decisions made during his administration . Thomas Kunkel , dean of the University of Maryland , College Park 's journalism college , wrote in A magazine that the coverage " would have you believe that Reagan was a cross between Abe Lincoln and Mother Teresa , with an overlay of Mister Rogers . " Howard Kurtz , The Washington Post 's media columnist , said Reagan was " a far more controversial figure in his time than the largely gushing obits on television would suggest . " The Nation ran a series of articles about the many controversies of his presidency .
= = Gallery = =
= Harvey Kurtzman 's Jungle Book =
Harvey Kurtzman 's Jungle Book is a 1959 graphic novel by American cartoonist Harvey Kurtzman . The satirical stories are aimed at an adult audience , in contrast to Kurtzman 's earlier work for adolescents in periodicals such as Mad . The social satire in the book 's four stories targets Peter Gunn @-@ style private @-@ detective shows , Westerns such as Gunsmoke , capitalist avarice in the publishing industry , Freudian pop psychology , and lynch @-@ hungry yokels in the South . Kurtzman 's character Goodman Beaver makes his first appearance in one of the stories .
Kurtzman created the satirical Mad in 1952 , but left its publisher EC Comics in 1956 after a dispute over financial control . After two failed attempts with similar publications , Kurtzman proposed Jungle Book as an all @-@ original cartoon book to Ballantine Books to replace its successful series of Mad collections , which had moved to another publisher . Ballantine accepted Kurtzman 's proposal , albeit with reservations about its commercial viability . It was the first mass @-@ market paperback of original comics published in the United States . Though it was not a financial success , Jungle Book attracted fans and critics for its brushwork , satirical adult @-@ oriented humor , experimental dialogue balloons , and adventurous page and panel designs .
= = Contents = =
The full title of the book is Harvey Kurtzman 's Jungle Book : Or , Up from the Apes ! ( and Right Back Down ) — In Which Are Described in Words and Pictures Businessmen , Private Eyes , Cowboys , and Other Heroes All Exhibiting the Progress of Man from the Darkness of the Cave into the Light of Civilization by Means of Television , Wide Screen Movies , the Stone Axe , and Other Useful Arts . At 140 pages , Jungle Book remains Kurtzman 's longest solo work . Freed from the length constraints of magazine pieces , Kurtzman was able to make inventive use of page and panel rhythms . According to critic and publisher Kim Thompson , his satire never had " more pitiless a bite " at any other time in his career . Kurtzman had aimed his Mad stories at an adolescent audience ; his targeting Jungle Book at an adult audience was uncommon in American comics .
Four stories make up the book :
= = = " Thelonius Violence , Like Private Eye " = = =
Thelonius Violence speaks in jazz slang while surrounded by beautiful women and jazz background music , which was a parody of the jazz @-@ choreographed fight scenes in the Peter Gunn television series . Violence 's job is to protect a young , vapid woman named Lolita Nabokov who is being blackmailed over her infidelity . Violence suffers the onslaughts of a thug who attempts to keep him away from the young woman , but in the end it is revealed that the thug and Violence are partners in her extortion .
In his parody , Kurtzman retained little from the original Peter Gunn aside from the main character . Kurtzman stated he " was trying to get ... that Henry Mancini feel to the story " . " Thelonius Violence " appears first in the book , but was one of the last stories to be completed . It remained a favorite of Kurtzman 's , as he " had control of this story . The action and line are good . It took time and practice and effort to get it , but it 's there . "
= = = " The Organization Man in the Gray Flannel Executive Suit " = = =
Goodman Beaver is an editor hired by Schlock Publications Inc . During his time there , he loses his youthful idealism and succumbs to the corruption he finds in the publishing world . Goodman finds himself sexually harassing the secretaries , just as the other cynical executives at Schlock do , and ends up stealing from the company .
Goodman Beaver was a stand @-@ in for Kurtzman himself in this semi @-@ autobiographical tale . At this point in his career , Kurtzman had had several negative experiences with publishers , and he used this story to satirize the corrupting influence of capitalism and power . Kurtzman 's memories of his time at Timely Comics were a strong influence on the Schlock Publications he portrayed ; Timely publisher Martin Goodman was Kurtzman 's model for the publisher in the story . Kurtzman also used Burt Lancaster as his model for the editor of the men 's magazine in the story , and Hugh Hefner was his model for the editor of the " girlie " magazine . As Goodman Beaver did in the story , early in his career Kurtzman worked making crossword puzzles for Goodman . The title is an amalgamation of three bestselling 1950s novels : Executive Suite ( 1952 ) by Cameron Hawley , The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit ( 1955 ) by Sloan Wilson , and The Organization Man ( 1956 ) by William H. Whyte .
= = = " Compulsion on the Range " = = =
" Compulsion on the Range " is a satire that blends Westerns and Freudian pop psychology . In the 1950s , a trend of " adult " Westerns appeared in which characters were given psychological backgrounds to explain their motivations , as in The Left Handed Gun , in which an angst @-@ ridden Billy the Kid gets his revenge after losing his father figure . In " Compulsion " , a psychologist tries to work out why Marshall Matt Dolin ( a parody of James Arness as Marshal Matt Dillon from the popular Gunsmoke TV show ) insists on trying to outshoot Johnny Ringding , chasing him across the West .
" Compulsion " was the third story in the book , but the first to be drawn , and was Kurtzman 's least favorite , as he thought he had yet to perfect the style he had developed for the book . The story recycled ideas from a Kurtzman strip called " Endings to End the Fast Draw " that TV Guide had rejected in 1958 .
= = = " Decadence Degenerated " = = =
One of Kurtzman 's favorites , " Decadence Degenerated " is set in a town in the Deep South called Rottenville , where nothing happens until local beauty Honey Lou is found murdered . A quiet bookworm named Si Mednick is lynched for the murder because , as one of the yokels declares , " You cain not truss [ sic ] a man who reads ! " The town sheriff overlooks the lynching , despite the presence of a " Northern " reporter — actually from the northern part of the state .
At the time the story appeared , Hollywood was releasing adaptations of works set in the South by writers such as Tennessee Williams and William Faulkner . However , Kurtzman said his inspiration came from his real @-@ life memories of Paris , Texas , where he was stationed during World War II . He learned the Southern drawl used in the story from what he heard at United Service Organizations ( USO ) dances . He recalled , " I just wanted a parody of that town . I worked from memory . " The scene in which the unemployed townsmen mentally undress Honey Lou affected Art Spiegelman , who saw the possibilities of the comics medium in the formalities of the scene 's portrayal of motion .
= = Style and themes = =
The black @-@ and @-@ white art is in loose , fluid , and sketchy brushwork with a gray wash . The drawings are in an exaggerated cartoon style , with rounded , fluid , elongated characters . The rendering is simple and clean , and characters often have mere circles for eyes . Most of the women lack noses except when drawn in profile . Kurtzman blends the verbal and visual aspects of the work — for example , when an enraged Goodman Beaver confronts his diminutive boss Mr. Schlock , Goodman is graphically overwhelmed by Schlock 's word balloons , which demonstrates Goodman 's helpless subservience and Schlock 's effortless psychological dominance over his employees .
Kurtzman lettered the dialogue in an expressive , handwriting @-@ like style . Unlike as in the majority of American comic books , Kurtzman did not letter using all capitals . His tall and thin dialogue balloons necessitated frequent hyphenation , which made the dialogue more difficult to read . Kurtzman experimented with drawing on blue @-@ lined paper ; the blue lines were not supposed to reproduce visibly when the book was printed , but they were unintentionally reinforced by the gray wash Kurtzman used in the artwork .
Kurtzman used the book to lampoon humankind 's inability or incompetence , its failure to reach its supposed aspirations , and its self @-@ delusion . He also targeted middlebrow entertainment , deflating its pretensions . The women in the stories are extraordinarily curvaceous and are frequently objectified — although the character Sam in " Decadence Degenerated " avoids being ogled or groped , it is only because she is depicted as repulsive .
= = Publication = =
Kurtzman founded the satirical Mad at EC Comics as a color comic book in 1952 , and turned it into a black @-@ and @-@ white comics magazine in 1955 . In 1956 , Kurtzman left over a dispute with EC Comics publisher William Gaines about financial control . Kurtzman tried his hand at another magazine in 1957 with the financial backing of Hugh Hefner . The result , Trump , was slick and lavish , and lasted only two issues before Hefner canceled it . Kurtzman then co @-@ founded and co @-@ published Humbug along with a group of Mad and Trump artists . In 1958 , after eleven unprofitable issues , Humbug also came to an end . Kurtzman was left disillusioned and cynical about the business end of publishing , and struggling financially , with a wife , three children , and a mortgage to take care of .
While still at EC , Kurtzman had overseen the first five Mad pocket books published by Ballantine Books , which went on to become perennial sellers with sales in the millions . When Kurtzman left EC , his royalties from the successful books ceased and Gaines had Kurtzman 's name removed from them . In 1958 Gaines abandoned Ballantine for Signet Books . Kurtzman proposed an original paperback to Ian Ballantine , who was looking for something to replace the Mad line . Kurtzman was well respected at th Ballantine offices , and it was editor Bernard Shir @-@ Cliff who provided Kurtzman with the postcard of the gap @-@ toothed character that was to become Mad 's mascot Alfred E. Neuman . Ballantine had earlier published The Humbug Digest in the same format with material culled from Kurtzman 's Humbug magazine , though it fared poorly in the market .
Rather than reprint material cut @-@ and @-@ pasted to fit the narrow pages of the paperback format as had been done with Ballantine 's Mad books , Kurtzman wanted to create new material designed to fit the page dimensions . Ballantine accepted Kurtzman 's proposal on faith , but he had reservations . He suspected it was the Mad brand name that sold books rather than Kurtzman 's name , although the artist had been the creative force behind Mad . In January Kurtzman signed a contract with Ballantine that came with an advance of $ 1 @,@ 500 with a 4 % royalty per copy sold ; the dealine was 144 pages by May 1 , 1959 . The contracted book was to be called Pleasure Package , for which Kurtman mocked up a cover , but appeared as Harvey Kurtzman 's Jungle Book .
When it was published in September 1959 , Jungle Book was the first mass @-@ market paperback of original comics content in the United States . The 35 ¢ book had small dimensions at 4 1 ⁄ 4 × 7 inches ( 11 × 18 cm ) and was poorly printed from low @-@ grade Kodak Velox onto low @-@ quality paper . Ballantine printed 150 @,@ 000 copies for the books first run , a low number for the company . Jungle Book sold poorly ; after five years and despite an offer of copies with subscriptions to Kurtzman 's Help ! magazine only 78 @,@ 000 copies had sold — for Ballantine to break even 107 @,@ 000 copies would have to have been sold . Ballantine pulped the remaining copies , and Kurtzman and the company 's relationship came to an end .
Kurtzman lamented the book 's poor sales as he " truly liked the format " . Kurtzman had been developing at least one other story , a science @-@ fiction parody , but abandoned it after two pages . If Jungle Book had been a market success , Kurtzman had intended to continue producing books in the format . Kurtzman reprinted " Decadence Degenerated " in the second issue of Help ! , a magazine he edited in the 1960s . " Compulsion on the Range " was reprinted in the underground comic book Yellow Dog # 15 in 1969 . Kitchen Sink Press reprinted Jungle Book in 1986 in a deluxe hardcover format with the pages reproduced at the size in which they were drawn . The reprinting included an introduction by Art Spiegelman .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Jungle Book sold poorly , but developed a fan following and became a collectors ' item . This group included pioneering underground cartoonists such as Joel Beck , Denis Kitchen , Jay Lynch , Spain Rodriguez , Gilbert Shelton , Art Spiegelman , Skip Williamson , and Robert Crumb , who wrote " [ s ] ome of [ Kurtzman 's ] greatest stuff was done in a little Ballantine Book called Harvey Kurtzman ’ s Jungle Book " . Goodman Beaver later appeared in a series of stories drawn by Will Elder in Kurtzman 's Help ! , and was later adapted into Little Annie Fanny in Playboy magazine .
Biographers Denis Kitchen and Paul Buhle see the book as a precursor of the graphic novel . In 1962 , Kurtzman made another aborted attempt at this form with Marley 's Ghost , an adaptation of A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens , a project he had conceived in 1954 . He finished seven of the project 's projected 100 pages , and had long @-@ time collaborator Jack Davis reinterpret one of the pages as part of the proposal . The project failed to interest a publisher . Graphic novels did not start to become widespread until 1978 , a year which saw the publication of McGregor and Gulacy 's Sabre and Eisner 's A Contract with God , the latter a book also made up of four short stories . By the time of the publication of these books a well @-@ organized comics fandom had developed whose conventions , fanzines , and comic shops provided a more receptive environment for such innovations .
The Comics Journal placed Jungle Book 26th on its 1999 list of " Top 100 English @-@ Language Comics of the Century " , along with four other works with which Kurtzman was involved . Kim Thompson described the book as " the biggest ' if ' in comics ' history : What if it had been a success ? " Thompson speculated on what Kurtzman may have been capable of if he had not had to resort to teaching , illustration , and Little Annie Fanny . Thompson called the book " one of the artform 's most stunning successes , and one of the field 's most heartbreaking failures " . Kurtzman 's self @-@ portrait from the back cover of the book has become iconic , and is used in connection with the Harvey Awards , named in Kurtzman 's honor .
= Bovista pila =
Bovista pila , commonly known as the tumbling puffball , is a species of puffball fungus in the family Agaricaceae . A temperate species , it is widely distributed in North America , where it grows on the ground on road sides , in pastures , grassy areas , and open woods . There are few well @-@ documented occurrences of B. pila outside North America . B. pila closely resembles the European B. nigrescens , from which it can be reliably distinguished only by microscopic characteristics .
The egg @-@ shaped to spherical puffball of B. pila measures up to 8 cm ( 3 in ) in diameter . Its white outer skin flakes off in age to reveal a shiny , bronze @-@ colored inner skin that encloses a spore sac . The spores are more or less spherical , with short tube @-@ like extensions . The puffballs are initially attached to the ground by a small cord that readily breaks off , leaving the mature puffball to be blown about . Young puffballs are edible while their internal tissue is still white and firm . B. pila puffballs have been used by the Chippewa people of North America as a charm , and as an ethnoveterinary medicine for livestock farming in western Canada .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was described as new to science in 1873 by Miles Joseph Berkeley and Moses Ashley Curtis , from specimens collected in Wisconsin . In their short description , they emphasize the short pedicels ( tube @-@ like extensions ) on the spores , and indicate that these pedicels — initially about as long as the spore is wide — soon break off . According to the nomenclatural authority MycoBank , taxonomic synonyms ( i.e. , having different type specimens ) include Pier Andrea Saccardo 's 1882 Bovista tabacina , Job Bicknell Ellis and Benjamin Matlack Everhart 's 1885 Mycenastrum oregonense , and Andrew Price Morgan 's 1892 Bovista montana . William Chambers Coker and John Nathaniel Couch called B. pila " the American representative of B. nigrescens in Europe " , referring to their close resemblance .
Bovista pila is commonly known as the tumbling puffball , referring to the propensity of detached puffballs to be blown about by the wind . The specific epithet pila is Latin for " ball " .
= = Description = =
B. pila has an egg @-@ shaped to roughly spherical fruit body measuring up to 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter . The thin ( 0 @.@ 25 millimeter ) outer tissue layer ( exoperidium ) is white to slightly pink . Its surface texture , initially appearing as if covered with minute flakes of bran ( furfuraceous ) , becomes marked with irregular , crooked lines ( rivulose ) . The exoperidium flakes off in maturity to reveal a thin , inner peridium ( endoperidium ) . The color of this shiny inner skin , splotched with darker areas , resembles the metallic colors of bronze and copper . Bovista pila puffballs are attached to the ground by a small cord ( a rhizomorph ) that typically breaks off when the puffball is mature . The interior flesh , or gleba , comprises spores and surrounding capillitial tissue . Initially white and firm with tiny , irregularly shaped chambers ( visible with a magnifying glass ) , the gleba later becomes greenish and then brown and powdery as the spores mature . In age , the upper surface of the puffball cracks and tears open . The resilient texture of the inner peridium enables the puffball to maintain its ball @-@ like shape after it has detached from the ground . As the old puffballs get blown around , spores get shaken out of the tears .
The spores of Bovista pila are spherical , smooth ( when viewed with a light microscope ) , and measure 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 μm . They have thick walls and very short pedicels . Basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are club @-@ shaped , measuring 8 – 10 @.@ 5 by 14 – 18 μm . They are usually four @-@ spored ( rarely , some are three @-@ spored ) , with unequal length sterigmata between 4 and 7 @.@ 4 μm . The capillitia ( sterile fibers interspersed among the spores ) tend to form loose balls about 2 mm in diameter . The main , trunk @-@ like branches of the capillitia are up to 15 μm in diameter , with walls that are typically 2 – 3 μm thick .
= = = Similar species = = =
Characteristics typically used to identify Bovista pila in the field include its relatively small size , the metallic lustre of the endoperidium , and the presence of rhizomorphs . B. plumbea is similar in appearance , but can be distinguished by its typically smaller fruit body and the blue @-@ gray color of its inner coat . Unlike B. pila , B. plumbea is attached to the ground by a mass of mycelial fibers known as a sterile base . Microscopically , B. plumbea has larger spores ( 5 – 7 by 4 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 0 μm ) ; with long pedicels ( 9 – 14 μm ) . Another lookalike is the European B. nigrescens , which can most reliably be distinguished from B. pila by its microscopic characteristics . The spores of B. nigrescens are oval rather than spherical , rougher than those of B. pila , and have a hyaline ( translucent ) pedicel about equal in length to the spore diameter ( 5 μm ) . The puffball Disciseda pila was named for its external resemblance to B. pila . Found in Texas and Argentina , it has much larger , warted spores that measure 7 @.@ 9 – 9 @.@ 4 μm .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Bovista pila is found in corrals , stables , roadsides , pastures and open woods . The puffballs fruit singly , scattered , or in groups on the ground . It is also known to grow in lawns and parks . The puffball spore cases are persistent and may overwinter . Fruiting occurs throughout the mushroom season .
Bovista pila is widely distributed in North America ( including Hawaii ) . There are few well @-@ documented occurrences of B. pila outside North America . Hanns Kreisel recorded it from Russia , in what is now known as the Sakha Republic . The puffball has been tentatively identified from the Galápagos Islands , and has been collected from Pernambuco and São Paulo , Brazil . The South American material , however , has grayish @-@ yellow coloration in the gleba , which may be indicative of not yet fully matured specimens . This renders identification of this material tentative , as unripe material may have different microscopic characteristics from mature material . Although the puffball has been reported from both the European part of Turkey as well as Anatolia , and from Morocco , reports without supporting microscopic or macroscopic information are viewed with skepticism .
= = Uses = =
Edible when the interior gleba is still firm and white , Bovista pila puffballs have a mild taste and odor .
The puffball was used by the Chippewa people of North America as a charm , and medicinally as a hemostat . In British Columbia , Canada , it is used by livestock farmers who are not allowed to use conventional drugs under certified organic programs . The spore mass of the puffball is applied to bleeding hoof trimming ' nicks ' , and then wrapped with breathable first @-@ aid tape . It is also similarly used on bleeding areas resulting from disbudding , and wounds resulting from sternal abscesses .
= Cadet Nurse Corps =
The United States Cadet Nurse Corps was established by the U.S. Congress on June 15 , 1943 , and signed into law by president Franklin D. Roosevelt on July 1 , 1943 . Its purpose was to ensure the country had enough nurses to care for its citizens at home and abroad during World War II . It was a non @-@ discriminatory program that allowed Native Americans , African Americans , and relocated Japanese Americans to participate . The Corps was supervised by the United States Public Health Service ( USPHS ) , whose duty was to train young women as nurses during the war .
The program was open to all women between the ages of 17 and 35 , in good health , who had graduated from an accredited high school . Successful applicants were eligible for a government subsidy , paying for tuition , books , uniforms , and a stipend . In exchange , they were required to pledge to actively serve in essential civilian or federal government services for the duration of World War II . All state nursing schools were eligible to participate in the program . However , they needed to be accredited by the accrediting agency in their state , and connected with a hospital that had been approved by the American College of Surgeons .
Cadet nurses came from across the United States and from all backgrounds . Some joined because they wanted to become nurses , others for the free education , and others joined because their country needed them . Attrition rates for cadets were comparable to those reported for other nursing schools in the same period . The corps was the largest of the federal nurse @-@ training programs , and allowed young women to serve their country in uniform and without discrimination . The American Hospital Association credited the cadet student nurses with helping to prevent the collapse of civilian nursing during the war .
The unique feature of the program was its accelerated training curricula . The nursing schools were required to compress the traditional nursing program of 36 months to 30 months . Of the 1 @,@ 300 schools of nursing in the country , 1 @,@ 125 participated in the program . The Corps operated from 1943 until 1948 , and during this period 179 @,@ 294 student nurses enrolled in the program and 124 @,@ 065 of them graduated from participating nursing schools . The enrollment included over 3 @,@ 000 African Americans , 40 Native Americans , and 400 Japanese Americans . The federal government spent $ 160 @,@ 326 @,@ 237 on the nursing program .
The Cadet Nurse Corps alleviated the critical shortage of nurses during World War II and thus fulfilled its congressional mandate . In the process , it positively influenced the way future nurses would be educated and trained in the United States .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Nurses were in short supply before the United States entered World War II . In July 1940 , a meeting was organized by the American Nurses Association to discuss the role nursing might play in wartime . Those in attendance included representatives from six nursing organizations , the American Red Cross , and federal agencies involved with nursing . The gathering resulted in the formation of the Nursing Council for National Defense . One of the council 's first acts was to survey nursing resources and schools throughout the country . They determined that 100 @,@ 000 nurses were eligible for military service and found most nursing schools were ill @-@ equipped to expand their instructional or housing capabilities . In response , the Council urged the federal government to appropriate public funds to support nursing education .
In the subsequent fiscal years 1941 and 1942 , the federal government partially funded the education of 12 @,@ 000 students at 309 nursing schools . Through that initiative , 3 @,@ 800 inactive nurses received refresher courses and 4 @,@ 800 graduated nurses received postgraduate training . By the end of 1942 , 47 @,@ 500 students were enrolled in nursing schools but that did not meet the country 's need . At this point , it was clear that nurses could not be trained quickly enough to keep abreast of both civilian and military needs . The need for additional federal aid for the recruitment of nurses became apparent when the U.S. Army and Navy called for 2 @,@ 500 new nurses each month during the fiscal year 1943 .
Meanwhile , supporters of nurse training programs recommended the doubling of federal aid for basic nursing education in the fiscal year 1943 . Representative Frances P. Bolton of Ohio , an advocate of nursing , supported the proposed increase in federal aid . She told Congress further expansion of nursing schools might be needed the following year .
= = = Creation of the program = = =
On March 29 , 1943 , Bolton introduced H.R. 2326 , a bill that would " provide for the training of nurses for the armed forces , government and civilian hospitals , health agencies , and war industries through grants to the institutions providing the training " . The act also stated that the nurses trained by its funding would be a uniformed body . An amendment by the Senate prohibited discrimination against race , creed , or color . The Nurse Training Act , also called the Bolton Act , was passed unanimously by Congress on June 15 , 1943 , and became Public Law No. 74 on July 1 , 1943 . The Division of Nurse Education of the USPHS was established to supervise the program and was answerable to the U.S. Surgeon General , Thomas Parran , Jr . He appointed Lucile Petry , a registered nurse ( RN ) , as director of the corps ; she was the first woman to head a division in the USPHS .
Shortly after the Nurse Training Act was passed , the Surgeon General sent a lengthy telegram outlining the program to 1 @,@ 300 nursing schools in the United States and Puerto Rico . This was followed up with applications and instructions sent by mail . Hawaii 's two nursing schools were not eligible for the program because they were in the war zone ; Alaska did not have any nursing schools at the time .
Regulations required interested nursing schools to : ( 1 ) be state accredited ; ( 2 ) be connected with a hospital approved by the American College of Surgeons or a hospital of equal standards ; ( 3 ) maintain adequate instructional facilities and personnel ; ( 4 ) provide adequate clinical experience in four basic services — medicine , surgery , pediatrics and obstetrics ; ( 5 ) provide maintenance and a stipend of $ 30 @.@ 00 for all Senior Cadet Nurses , or arrange for their requested transfer to federal or other hospitals ; ( 6 ) provide satisfactory living facilities and an adequate health service for students ; ( 7 ) provide for an accelerated program ; and ( 8 ) restrict its hours of practice . The standards of the National League of Nursing Education were adopted to evaluate the participating schools . After issuing these regulations , the Surgeon General said , " The schools of nursing are free to select students , to plan curricula , and to formulate policies consistent with the Act and the traditions of the institution concerned . This is a partnership job between the USPHS , the institutions , and the students ... "
The Federal Security Administrator was required by law to appoint an advisory committee for federal nurse training programs . The committee , which was appointed for the Nurse Training Act , consisted of people in nursing and related fields drawn from various parts of the country . Once in place , the committee met with designated federal officials and formulated the regulations necessary to carry out the act . The agreed @-@ upon rules were then approved by the Surgeon General and published in the Federal Register . The committee was also responsible for naming the new program . The Victory Nurse Corps and the Student War Nursing Reserve were considered , but both were rejected in favor of the United States Cadet Nurse Corps .
By the time the Nurse Training Act was passed by congress in 1943 , the U.S. had been involved in World War II for nearly two years , and a serious shortage of nurses already existed at home and abroad . The Cadet Nurse Corps was open to all women between the ages of 17 and 35 , in good health , who had graduated from an accredited high school . Marriage was permissible subject to guidelines . Successful applicants were eligible for a government subsidy , which paid for tuition , books , uniforms , and a living stipend . In exchange , student cadets were required to pledge to actively serve in essential civilian or federal government services for the duration of World War II . All state accredited schools of nursing were eligible to participate in the program ; however , each school was required to apply individually . Of the 1 @,@ 300 nursing schools in the country , 1 @,@ 125 participated . For the purposes of the program , the traditional 36 @-@ month nurse training program was accelerated to a 30 @-@ month program . Senior nursing students were required to work for a six @-@ month period in a federal or non @-@ federal hospital , or in other health agency . In return , the federal government would pay the schools for the related tuition and fees of the students .
= = = Recruitment = = =
The USPHS and cooperating groups created the plan for the recruitment of cadet nursing students . It was broad in scope to attract the maximum number of potential applicants in the shortest time . The primary target was the high school graduate but college girls were also recruited . The selling point of the program was that the cadets would obtain a free education in a proud profession and provide an essential service to their country . Appeals to join the Corps reached more than 7 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 newspaper and magazine readers , millions of radio listeners , and movie patrons around the country . Pleas were made in a thousand speeches , through 2 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 car @-@ boards and billboards , and in several million leaflets . U.S. corporations donated $ 13 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 worth of advertising space and technical services to the program in one year . Few media sources lacked advertising for the Corps .
For example , Eastman Kodak sponsored a full @-@ page advertisement in Life magazine ( January 24 , 1944 ) touting the U.S. Cadet Nurse Corps as a way to serve the country in the war job with a future . The ad proposed that young women who could qualify as a Cadet Nurse were lucky girls , lucky in so many different ways . Ads promised free training with pay , room and board , and gray uniforms with gray berets . The uniforms were sold with the slogan " There 's one for summer and one for winter , and it 's hard to say which is the smarter , which you 'll wear with more pride " . Applicants were assured they could wear something " frilly and feminine " for dances and they would have time for dating .
In 1944 , David O. Selznick 's Vanguard Films produced a short film , Reward Unlimited , to promote the Cadet Nurse Corps . Starring Dorothy McGuire in one of her first films , and directed by Jacques Tourneur , the 10 @-@ minute film was exhibited in theaters and at Cadet Nurse Corps recruitment events in 1944 and 1945 . The story , by Mary C. McCall , Jr . , dramatizes the choice that young Peggy Adams makes to become a nurse , her training , and her volunteering for military nursing service . The cast includes Aline MacMahon , James Brown , Spring Byington and Tom Tully .
Recruitment centers were established by the American Hospital Association in all 1 @,@ 125 participating nursing schools . Using recruiting booths , volunteers disseminated information about the opportunities offered by the Corps to potential candidates . State and local nursing councils , and many other organizations , associations , and volunteers aided the recruitment effort . 65 @,@ 521 nursing students — 521 more than projected — registered for the program in the fiscal year 1943 , the first year of enrollment . In the 1944 enrollment period , 61 @,@ 471 registered , exceeding the estimate by 1 @,@ 471 . In the 1945 enrollment period , 3 @,@ 000 students were admitted to what would be the final class of the program . As a result of the non @-@ discriminatory provision , by 1945 , over 3 @,@ 000 African Americans , 40 Native Americans , and 400 Japanese Americans had enrolled in the Corps .
= = = Uniforms = = =
The official outdoor uniforms of the Cadet Nurse Corps were distinctive ; there was one for summer and another for winter . The summer uniform consisted of a two @-@ piece , gray @-@ and @-@ white @-@ striped cotton suit and a gray twill raincoat . The winter uniform was a gray , woollen , single @-@ breasted jacket suit , a gored skirt and a gray velour overcoat . A gray Montgomery beret was worn with both uniforms . The winter uniform was one of three designs created by professional designers and introduced at a fashion show in New York City on August 16 , 1943 . Thirty @-@ two fashion editors judged this uniform and the Montgomery beret — resembling the one worn by the British general — as the winners . The uniform was " ... heralded as the most attractive for all women who served during World War II , provided a strong incentive for young women to join the corps " .
The official outdoor uniforms — with the exception of blouse , gloves , shoes , and stockings — were supplied to the cadets by the institution in which they were enrolled . The students paid for the items . Indoor uniforms varied from school to school , and were purchased by the school from federal grants . Models recruiting for the corps wore the first available cadet uniforms , which were first issued to cadets in May 1944 .
The insignia of the Cadet Nurse Corps was the Maltese Cross . The patch was worn on the left shoulder of the uniforms and on the student nurse uniform of the official school of nursing . The USPHS official insignia was worn on jacket lapels and was also present on the silver buttons . On the Montgomery beret , the USPHS insignia was worn beneath the spread eagle and the American Shield .
= = = Training = = =
A key feature of the Cadet Nurse Corps program was its accelerated training curricula . Participating schools of nursing were required to compress the traditional nursing program of 36 months to 30 months . They were also bound to provide the students with the four clinical experiences of medical , surgical , obstetrics , and pediatrics . The students became senior cadets in the last six months before graduation , requiring them to serve in a federal or civilian hospital . They rendered full @-@ time service equivalent to that of a graduate nurse . During their first nine months of service , the cadets were protected by regulation from working on the wards for more than 24 hours each week . Junior cadets typically worked between 40 and 48 hours each week , including classes . Senior cadets were free of classes . All State Boards of Nursing modified their regulations to agree with the accelerated program .
The quality and standards of the educational systems in which the cadets would be trained varied considerably . In 1943 , nursing schools , hospital administrators , and government officials assured the U.S. Congress the federally , subsidized training of nurses would at least conform to minimum standards . With his rule @-@ making powers , the Surgeon General issued regulations ; schools had to :
be accredited by the appropriate accrediting agency for schools of nursing in the state or territory ;
be connected with a hospital that had been approved by the American College of Surgeons , or that maintained standards of nursing equivalent to those required by the college . In rural schools of nursing , the major hospital clinical unit had to meet these standards ;
require for admission not less than graduation from an accredited high school ;
maintain an educational staff adequate to provide satisfactory instruction and supervision ;
provide adequate clinical experience in the four basic services – medicine , surgery , pediatrics , and obstetrics ;
provide well @-@ balanced schedules of organized instruction , experience and study ;
provide adequate and well equipped class rooms , laboratories , libraries , and other necessary facilities for the program ;
provide satisfactory living facilities and health service for students .
Institutions offering degrees in nursing had to be accredited by the appropriate nursing agency for universities and colleges . The curriculum had to include all units of instruction necessary to conform with accepted practices in basic nursing education . It had to be arranged so the entire program of combined study and practice would be completed in 24 to 30 months . The standards of the National League of Nursing Education were to be used as a guide for evaluating the adequacy of school facilities to meet the requirements specified .
Congressional hearings on appropriations emphasized that all schools — regardless of location or size — should be allowed to participate in the cadet nurse program . However , when the educational consultants Division of Nurse Education tested the standards against actual conditions , they did not seem possible for some schools to achieve . Adjustments were made for certain schools , setting lower standards for them . They would be judged by criteria included the qualifications and number of instructional personnel , their clinical facilities , the curricula , the weekly schedule of hours , and the health and guidance programs . Borderline schools produced a small percentage of the total cadet force . The educational consultants traveled thousands of miles , wrote thousands of letters , and provided support services while monitoring the standards of the 1 @,@ 125 approved schools of nursing .
= = = Cadet nurses = = =
Cadet nurses came from across the U.S. and from all economic backgrounds . Some joined because they wished to become nurses , others for the education , and others joined for the temporary World War II service . Cadets shared accepted the pledge to serve and contributed nursing services to the nation when it was needed . The Cadet Pledge was :
At this moment of my induction into the United States Cadet Nurse Corps of the United States Public Health Service , I am solemnly aware of the obligations I assume toward my country and toward my chosen profession ; I will follow faithfully the teachings of my instructors and the guidance of the physicians with whom I work ; I will hold in trust the finest traditions of nursing and the spirit of the Corps ; I will keep my body strong , my mind alert , and my heart steadfast ; I will be kind , tolerant , and understanding ; Above all , I will dedicate myself now and forever to the triumph of life over death ; As a Cadet nurse , I pledge to my county my service in essential nursing for the duration of the war .
The cadet pledge was considered a statement of intention rather than a binding contract . The attrition rate for cadets was comparable to that reported for other schools of nursing in the same period . The main cause of withdrawals was homesickness ; some married students withdrew to be with their husbands when they were released from the military ; others when the hostilities ceased ; some failed in their studies ; others left for health reasons ; and some left because of the realities of a nursing career .
The Cadet Nurses Corps was the largest of the federal nurse @-@ training programs ; it allowed young women to serve their country in uniform and without discrimination . It also influenced the way in which nurses would be educated and trained in the United States . The American Hospital Association credited the cadet student nurses with helping to prevent the collapse of civilian nursing care , and commended them for replacing graduate nurses who enlisted in the armed forces during World War II .
= = = End of the Corps = = =
Following the surrender of Japan in August 1945 , President Harry Truman set October 5 , 1945 , as the final date for new student admissions , allowing for an “ orderly transition of an important wartime activity ” . At the time , 116 @,@ 498 students were still in training and 3 @,@ 000 more were admitted for the fall and final term . Student nurses were providing 80 % of the country 's nursing care in more than 1 @,@ 000 civilian hospitals . Of the 1 @,@ 300 nursing schools contacted by the Surgeon General , 1 @,@ 125 participated in the Cadet Nurse Corps . The program was operational from 1943 to 1948 , which included three enrollment periods , or fall terms : the first term was 1943 , the second was 1944 , and the third and final term was 1945 . During this time , 179 @,@ 294 student nurses enrolled in the program and 124 @,@ 065 of them graduated from participating nursing schools .
The federal government spent $ 160 @,@ 326 @,@ 237 on the Nurse Training Act of 1943 for administration , uniforms , maintenance , tuition , fees and stipends . By the end of the program , the records of all participating schools of nursing had been audited by up to 32 field auditors , who were assigned to each ( USPHS ) district office and covered the schools in that area . The work of the field auditors resulted in the recovery of $ 2 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 of prepaid funds .
In January 1945 , the Surgeon General , Thomas Parran , Jr . , appeared before the House Committee on Military Affairs and said , " In my opinion , the country has received and increasingly will receive substantial returns on this investment . We can not measure what the loss to the country would have been if civilian nursing service had collapsed , any more than we could measure the cost of failure at the Normandy beachheads . "
= A Fresh Start =
A Fresh Start is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film is the story of Jim , a chauffeur , who is fired from his job for drunkenness . Jim becomes a tramp , but decides to reform after a little girl orders her butler to give him food . He encounters her again at the zoo and notices that two men are following the girl and her parents . Jim uncovers a plot to kidnap her and takes the place of their chauffeur . Jim then drives the kidnappers to the police station and secures a new position as the family 's chauffeur . According to a trade review , the actual kidnapping scene and where Jim overpowers the villain 's chauffeur is not actually depicted . The reviewer also stated the strength of the production is not in the plot , but in the staging and photography . The film was released on September 2 , 1910 and it likely had a wide national release . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from September 3 , 1910 . It states : " Jim , an expert chauffeur , is discharged from a garage , for insobriety . Penniless and being unable to obtain a new situation , he takes to the road , a common tramp . At one house where he applies for food , he is harshly refused , and is about to turn away and try his luck elsewhere , when little Marie , the daughter of the house , comes to his assistance and orders the butler to at once give him the food he requires . She also picks a rose for him from the garden . Jim strolls into a nearby park and sits on a bench to enjoy his lunch . He is about to take a drink from the ever @-@ present flask , which he takes from his pocket , when the sight of the rose , which the sweet @-@ faced little girl gave him , inspires him with a desire to reform . He throws the flask from him , and refreshed by the lunch , he starts out with a new ambition to face the world . "
" Little Marie also visits the park with her parents . While viewing the wonderful zoo it contains she is seen and recognized by Jim . While admiring the little girl and viewing her enjoyment over the wonders of the zoo , Jim notices that two evil @-@ looking men are apparently shadowing the little one and her parents . Jim 's suspicions are aroused , and he determines to watch closely the actions of the mysterious pair . He finds that they have arranged with a chauffeur to assist in carrying off little Marie and holding her for ransom . Seizing an opportune moment , Jim forces the plotting chauffeur to turn over his auto , and disguised in the other man 's coat , cap and goggles , he calmly awaits the conspirators . When the two wicked men return , after having successful enticed Marie away from her parents , they give the driver of their auto directions as to where to drive . Jim simply nods assent and drives quickly off , but instead of taking them to the destination they directed , he lands them safe at the police station , where they are quickly taken into custody . Here Marie is united to her parents , whom she easily persuades to offer her rescuer a life position . "
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil . Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production , but at least two possible candidates exist . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . Only the role of Marie Eline is cited by Bowers , but a surviving film still raises the possibility of identifying several more actors in the production . Bowers states that most of the credits are fragmentary for 1910 Thanhouser productions .
Little is known on the actual production of the film , but the The New York Dramatic Mirror reviewer provided some insight into the production . The review and the synopsis are at odds on several aspects including on whether or not the man was fired for drunkenness or for no reason . In this case , it can be assumed that a drunken state was either not depicted or done inadequately . The reviewer states the " impossible parts of the plot are gracefully omitted " in reference to the abduction of the little girl played by Marie Eline and the overpowering of the chauffeur . Here the synopsis also differs , saying the girl is enticed away instead of being kidnapped . Though the overpowering of the chauffeur is required and acknowledged in the synopsis , the reviewer makes clear the actual method is not depicted . The reviewer also had a keen eye for detail , stating that the passengers disembarked into the middle of the street instead of on the sidewalk . The final scene 's setting is captured in a surviving film still that shows the little girl persuading her parents to hire Jim in the police station with three officers looking on in the background .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on September 2 , 1910 . The film was distributed by the Motion Picture Distributing and Sales Company . The film likely had a wide release like other Thanhouser releases . Known advertisements by theaters include those in Minnesota , Kansas , and Indiana . The film received mainly positive reviews from trade publications including The New York Dramatic Mirror which stated , " Although the story of the film does not promise a great deal , the scenes are developed with enough care for details to carry it easily . More is due to the stage management in this case than to the author . A chauffeur , dismissed for no reason by his employer , is down and out . Resorting to beggary , he is kindly treated by a little girl whom he later repays by rescuing her from two abductors . The grateful parents immediately give him a new chance at which he doubtless makes good . Except for the point where the beggar overhears the accomplices , the acting is good . The impossible parts of the plot are gracefully omitted - the abduction itself , and the overpowering of the chauffeur who was in the plot . In the last scene it is noted that the occupants of the automobile all disembark into the middle of the street instead of upon the sidewalk . Doubtless their excitement excuses their indiscretion . " This review serves to highlight the actual action of the lost film and some of the execution of the scenes . The reviewer states that the chauffeur is dismissed for no reason , whereas the synopsis for drunkenness and it is possible that the scene was not depicted . Walton of The Moving Picture News approved of the film for its plot and execution . The Moving Picture World review is a more neutral one , but it concludes that , " [ p ] ictures like this might serve as an encouragement to reformation , but it is better to consider them as a species of entertainment , not to be despised , and yet , on the other hand , not to be accepted too literally . "
= Thanksgiving ( Family Guy ) =
" Thanksgiving " is the sixth episode of the tenth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . The episode originally aired on Fox in the United States on November 20 , 2011 . The episode follows the Griffin family , and several of their neighbors , as they celebrate the Thanksgiving holiday . As they sit down for dinner , they are shocked to see that Kevin Swanson , son of Joe and Bonnie Swanson , has returned from Iraq .
The episode was written by Patrick Meighan and directed by Jerry Langford . It received mostly mixed reviews from critics for its storyline , and many cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 6 @.@ 04 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Max Burkholder , Jackson Douglas , Kevin Durand , Colin Ford , Zachary Gordon , Scott Grimes , Julie Hagerty , Jonathan Morgan Heit , Christine Lakin and Patrick Stewart , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series .
= = Plot = =
As the Thanksgiving holiday begins , Lois invites Glenn Quagmire and his father Dan / Ida , the Swansons , Carter and Babs Pewterschmidt , Mayor Adam West , and Carol Pewterschmidt to join the Griffin family in a Thanksgiving dinner .
Once the guests arrive , they then begin eating their meal , when suddenly another guest arrives at the door . It is revealed to be Kevin Swanson , the son of Joe and Bonnie Swanson , whom they had presumed had died fighting in the war in Iraq . Overjoyed , they ask why the army had reported that he had died in action . Kevin then tells them a story that he was in a coma following a bomb that had been placed inside a turkey during Thanksgiving years before . Later , while having dessert , Kevin voices his distaste of the war , and reveals several inconsistencies about his time in Iraq . Kevin then tells his father that he had actually gone A.W.O.L. , and because most of his unit was killed in the bombing but he miraculously survived , he faked his own death in order to leave the war and return home . Joe then arrests his son for the crime of desertion with the rest of the family criticizing him for lying about being a war hero .
Brian , the family dog , asks Kevin to explain why he deserted the army , with Kevin telling him that he had grown tired of the war , and had befriended many of the Iraqis , leading him to want to try to escape . Kevin and the family then begin fighting over the United States 's occupation of Iraq , with Brian sympathizing with him , and several others , including Quagmire 's Dad , a war veteran , disagreeing with Kevin 's choice to desert the army . Angered , Joe then begins to take his son to jail and handcuffs him . Kevin reminds his father of a time when he let a homeless man get away with stealing a can of tomato soup to feed his hungry family , for whom he had felt sorry . Emotional and sympathetic , Joe agrees to let his son off the hook , and the two make amends .
As the family goes to finish eating dinner , another man resembling Kevin Swanson enters the family 's home , saying that the other Kevin is an imposter , but Peter says " Guys , I don 't think we have time for this " and the episode ends .
= = Production and development = =
The episode was directed by series regular Jerry Langford , shortly after the conclusion of the ninth production season , in his first episode of the season . Langford joined the series in its seventh season , directing the episode " Tales of a Third Grade Nothing " . The episode was written by series regular Patrick Meighan , who joined the show as a writer in its fourth season , writing the episode " 8 Simple Rules for Buying My Teenage Daughter " . Series regulars Peter Shin and James Purdum served as supervising directors , with Andrew Goldberg , Alex Carter , Spencer Porter , Anthony Blasucci , Mike Desilets , and Deepak Sethi serving as staff writers for the episode . Composer Ron Jones , who has worked on the series since its inception , returned to compose the music for " Thanksgiving " .
The role of Kevin Swanson has been portrayed by several people , including actor Jon Cryer , in the second season episode " There 's Something About Paulie " . In subsequent appearances , Kevin was voiced by series creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane , until his eventual disappearance from the series , when it was revealed that he had supposedly died in Iraq . Actor Scott Grimes , who notably portrays the character Steve Smith in MacFarlane 's second animated series American Dad ! , took over the role of Kevin in the episode .
In addition to Grimes and the regular cast , actor Max Burkholder , actor Jackson Douglas , actor Kevin Durand , voice actor Colin Ford , actor Zachary Gordon , actress and model Julie Hagerty , actor Jonathan Morgan Heit , actress Christine Lakin and actor Patrick Stewart guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Alexandra Breckenridge , actor Chris Cox , writer Mike Desilets , actor Ralph Garman , writer Gary Janetti , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin , and writer John Viener also made minor appearances throughout the episode . Recurring guest cast members Adam West , Jennifer Tilly and Patrick Warburton also appeared in the episode as Mayor Adam West , Bonnie Swanson , and Joe Swanson respectively .
= = Cultural references = =
As the Griffin family prepare to sit down for their dinner , baby Stewie is shown watching television , with the annual Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade taking place on the screen . Stewie notices a hot air balloon in the parade resembling himself . After the family decides to go to the Griffin family 's backyard to play football , Joe approaches his son to encourage him to beat the other team . Joe then references the 2009 war film The Hurt Locker , with Kevin responding with disdain for the film , despite supposedly being in a coma during its release . Joe also goes on to point out that Kevin is wearing an Ed Hardy t @-@ shirt , which also became popularized during his supposed coma , and despite Kevin telling his father that he flew straight home after he awoke . Later during dinner , when Kevin reveals that he went A.W.O.L. , Peter makes an off the wall reference , causing the episode to cut to a room showing several of the show 's editors , who become confused about what cutaway to play on the screen . They then decide to play a clip involving several characters from The Wizard of Oz , including the Cowardly Lion , who is shown to be actress Lindsay Lohan 's gynecologist .
= = Reception = =
" Thanksgiving " was broadcast on November 20 , 2011 , as a part of an animated television night on Fox , and was preceded by The Simpsons and Allen Gregory , and followed by Family Guy creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane 's second show , American Dad ! . It was watched by 6 @.@ 04 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings , despite airing simultaneously with the American Music Awards on ABC , The Amazing Race on CBS and Sunday Night Football on NBC . The episode also acquired a 3 @.@ 1 / 7 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , beating The Simpsons , Allen Gregory , American Dad ! , in addition to significantly edging out all three shows in total viewership . The episode 's ratings increased slightly from the previous week 's episode , " Back to the Pilot " .
Reviews of the episode were mostly mixed , calling the storyline " a loudspeaker for political views . " Kevin McFarland of The A.V. Club wrote of the episode , " I had a hard time listening to the characters spout out opinions , since none of them really made sense as character views and felt distinctly like the writers just wanted a place to dump their liberalisms – I don 't want to only call out Seth MacFarlane because he didn 't write this episode , but considering the little bit I know about the show 's writer 's room , it 's pretty safe to assume he has final say on this sort of thing , especially given his 9 / 11 experience . " He also compared the A @-@ story to the television series South Park , noting , " It 's very clear that South Park benefits from the short turnaround time between production and air , because it allows that show to comment very quickly on current events , and stay timely . Family Guy seems to do the exact opposite , waiting an extraordinarily long time to weigh in on a serious issue it doesn ’ t satirize for comedy . " He ended his review by commenting , " After last week 's bright spot , I knew we were headed back down for another helping of the usual misery , but this week offered neither a surprise nor an all @-@ out failure , just expected , bland mediocrity . " He graded the episode as a C. In a much more positive review , Terren R. Moore of Ology , writing , " It 's just funny , and it 's got a lot of ways of achieving that funniness , and it 's definitely true that the show isn 't always in its best form , but " Thanksgiving " shows that Family Guy refuses to be dead yet . " He also praised the episode for giving each character their own part in the episode , adding , " while most of the story revolves around Joe , Kevin , and Peter , the three kids and Brian also get time in as well . " Moore also stated his enjoyment of the cultural references in the episode , stating , " It 's all good fun , and the cutaways are also top notch , including Peter 's First Holiday and The Cowardly Lion as Lindsay Lohan 's gynecologist . I nearly fell out when Peter described his probably @-@ black coworker who turned out to be a white guy , which I should have seen coming because it 's very Family Guy , but still managed to get a laugh out of me . " He gave the episode a nine out of ten .
= Homer Badman =
" Homer Badman " , also known as " Homer : Bad Man " , is the ninth episode of The Simpsons ' sixth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 27 , 1994 . It was written by Greg Daniels and directed by Jeffrey Lynch . In the episode , Homer is falsely accused of sexual harassment after a babysitter mistakes him grabbing a gummi candy stuck to her pants for a sexual pass at her , resulting in Homer becoming public enemy number one . Dennis Franz guest stars as himself .
= = Plot = =
Homer and Marge attend a candy convention and hire Ashley Grant , a feminist graduate student , to babysit Bart , Maggie and Lisa . At the convention , Homer outfits Marge with an oversized trenchcoat and is vigilant in smuggling out as much candy as possible in her pockets , including a rare gummy Venus de Milo .
That night , Homer searches for the gummy Venus amongst his smuggled goods , but is unable to find it . Marge reminds him to take Ashley home and Homer grudgingly obliges . As Ashley is exiting Homer 's car , he sees the gummy Venus stuck to the backside of her jeans . Homer innocently grabs the candy , and Ashley turns around to see Homer drooling lustfully at the piece of candy . Misinterpreting his poor tact and drooling as a deliberate sexual advance , Ashley runs off screaming in terror while Homer gleefully eats the candy .
The next morning , an angry mob marches onto the Simpsons ' lawn and claims that Homer sexually harassed Ashley . The crowd refuses to listen to Homer , who was trying to tell his side of the story . When Rock Bottom , a tabloid news show , asks to interview him about his predicament , he agrees in the hope that it will clear his name . However , the interview is heavily ( and poorly ) edited into a totally inaccurate segment where Homer is portrayed as a pervert . Things go from bad to worse as a media circus arrives at the Simpson home to provide 24 @-@ hour coverage of things such as Marge letting the cat out and the family watching TV ; Fox even produces a TV movie , Homer S. : Portrait of an Ass @-@ Grabber , starring Dennis Franz as a lascivious Homer . Lisa and Marge suggest Homer videotape himself telling his side of the story to air on a Public @-@ access television cable TV , but all he succeeds at accomplishing is angering an old @-@ time bicyclist . It was to appear Homer will most likely be guilty .
However , Groundskeeper Willie also saw Homer 's speech , and arrives at the Simpson home with a video tape of what happened the night Homer took Ashley home . The tape clearly shows that Homer was grabbing the Gummy Venus , and upon seeing it , Ashley and the media apologize for labeling Homer a monster . Later on , the Simpson family is watching a " Rock Bottom " episode that labels Willie as a disgusting voyeur and Homer immediately declares that he is evil . Marge asks Homer if he learned anything from his experiences , to which Homer replies that he has not learned a thing . After the rest of the family leaves the room , Homer embraces the television and quietly says to it , " Let 's never fight again . "
= = Production = =
Greg Daniels , the writer of the episode , originally pitched this episode as being more centered on Lisa and Homer 's opposing ideas on feminism . Eventually , the episode became more of a satire of the media and shows like Hard Copy . David Mirkin , the show runner at the time , felt very strongly about the " tabloidization of the media " and has said that the episode is as current today as it was at the time and things have since gotten worse . Several gags in the episode are based on what real life shows like Hard Copy would do , such as making people look to be guilty without a trial as well as a complete invasion of privacy by setting up camp outside people 's homes . The talk show " Ben " , which is hosted by a bear named " Gentle Ben " wearing a microphone on its head , reflects the writers ' feeling that anyone could host a talk show because all they need is a microphone and an audience .
Dennis Franz was the writers ' second choice for the role of Homer when the first choice pulled out . According to the DVD commentary , the original actor was more " barrel chested . "
= = Cultural references = =
The action sequence at the Candy convention is " based on every Bruce Willis movie ever made . " Homer 's imagination of living underwater is a parody of the song " Under the Sea " from the Disney film The Little Mermaid . David Mirkin says he thought the sequence would be funny because Homer would eat all of the characters from The Little Mermaid . Groundskeeper Willie is referred to as Rowdy Roddy Peeper , a reference to " Rowdy " Roddy Piper , a wrestler who used a Scotsman gimmick . When Homer is found naked by an invasive camera crew outside his bathroom window underneath his clear shower curtain , ( the helicopter camera crew startled Homer as he was taking his shower causing him to rip the curtain and fall underneath it ) , A channel 6 journalist reports that Homer sleeps under an oxygen tent giving him sexual powers , is a reference to the rumor about Michael Jackson sleeping in a hyperbaric oxygen chamber to extend his life . The talk show Ben , hosted by a bear named " Gentle Ben " , refers to the 1960s television series Gentle Ben about a wild black bear who became a little boy 's best friend . Among the TV shows parodied during the episode : Hard Copy , Sally Jessy Raphael , the Late Show with David Letterman and media coverage of the O.J. Simpson standoff .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Homer Badman " finished 50th in ratings for the week of November 21 – 27 , 1994 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 5 , equivalent to approximately 9 @.@ 1 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , beating Married ... with Children .
According to David Mirkin , this episode is very highly ranked among Simpsons fans . In Entertainment Weekly 's top 25 The Simpsons episodes in 2003 , " Homer Badman " was placed eighteenth . The Quindecim , a college newspaper , made their own top 25 list , with this episode at 15th place . The Daily Telegraph characterized the episode as one of " The 10 Best Simpsons TV Episodes . "
= The Secret of the Unicorn =
The Secret of the Unicorn ( French : Le Secret de la Licorne ) is the eleventh volume of The Adventures of Tintin , the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé . The story was serialised daily in Le Soir , Belgium 's leading francophone newspaper , from June 1942 to January 1943 amidst the German occupation of Belgium during World War II . The story revolves around young reporter Tintin , his dog Snowy , and his friend Captain Haddock , who discover a riddle left by Haddock 's ancestor , the 17th century Sir Francis Haddock , which could lead them to the hidden treasure of the pirate Red Rackham . To unravel the riddle , Tintin and Haddock must obtain three identical models of Sir Francis 's ship , the Unicorn , but they discover that criminals are also after these model ships and are willing to kill in order to obtain them .
The Secret of the Unicorn was a commercial success and was published in book form by Casterman shortly after its conclusion . Hergé concluded the arc begun in this story with Red Rackham 's Treasure , while the series itself became a defining part of the Franco @-@ Belgian comics tradition . The Secret of the Unicorn remained Hergé 's favourite of his own works until creating Tintin in Tibet ( 1960 ) . The story was adapted for the 1957 Belvision animated series , Hergé 's Adventures of Tintin , for the 1991 animated series The Adventures of Tintin by Ellipse and Nelvana , and for the feature film The Adventures of Tintin : The Secret of the Unicorn ( 2011 ) .
= = Synopsis = =
While browsing in a Brussels market , Tintin purchases an antique model ship which he intends to give Captain Haddock . Two strangers , model ship collector Ivan Ivanovitch Sakharine and antique @-@ scout Barnaby , independently try to persuade Tintin to sell the model to them . He also sees the two police detectives , Thomson and Thompson , on the look out for a pickpocket . At Tintin 's flat , Snowy accidentally knocks the model over and breaks its mainmast . Having repaired it , and shown the ship to Haddock , Tintin discovers that the ship is named the Unicorn , after a ship commanded by Haddock 's ancestor . While Tintin is out , the ship is stolen from his apartment ; in the investigation , he discovers that Sakharine owns an identical model , also named the Unicorn . At home , Tintin discovers a miniature scroll , and realises that this must have been hidden in the mast of the model which Snowy had broken . Written on the parchment is a riddle : " Three brothers joyned . Three Unicorns in company sailing in the noonday sunne will speak . For ' tis from the light that light will dawn , and then shines forth the Eagle 's cross " .
Upon hearing of the riddle , Captain Haddock explains that the Unicorn was a 17th @-@ century warship captained by his ancestor , Sir Francis Haddock , but seized by a pirate band led by Red Rackham . Alone of his crew to survive the capture , Sir Francis killed Rackham in single combat and destroyed the Unicorn ; but later built three models , which he left to his sons . Meanwhile , Barnaby requests a meeting with Tintin , but is gunned down on Tintin 's doorstep before he can speak , and points to sparrows as a cryptic clue to the identity of his assailant . Later , Tintin is kidnapped by the perpetrators of the shooting : the Bird brothers , two unscrupulous antique dealers who own the third model of the Unicorn , and who now seek the treasure plundered by Rackham . Tintin escapes from the cellars of the Bird brothers ' country estate , Marlinspike Hall , while the Captain arrives with officers Thomson and Thompson to arrest them . It is found that the Bird Brothers have only one of the parchments , as two were lost when their wallet was stolen . Tintin and Thomson and Thompson track down the pickpocket , Aristides Silk , a kleptomaniac who has a penchant for collecting wallets , and obtain the Bird Brothers ' wallet , containing the missing two parchments . By combining the three parchments and holding them to the light , Tintin and Haddock discover the coordinates ( 20 ° 37 ' 42 @.@ 0 " N 70 ° 52 ' 15 @.@ 0 " W ) of the lost treasure and plan an expedition to find it .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Amidst the German occupation of Belgium during World War II , Hergé had accepted a position working for Le Soir , Belgian 's largest Francophone daily newspaper . Confiscated from its original owners , the German authorities permitted Le Soir to reopen under the directorship of Belgian editor Raymond de Becker , although it remained firmly under Nazi control , supporting the German war effort and espousing anti @-@ Semitism . After joining Le Soir on 15 October 1940 , Hergé became editor of its new children 's supplement Le Soir Jeunesse , with assistance by old friend Paul Jamin and cartoonist Jacques Van Melkebeke , before paper shortages forced Tintin to be serialised daily in the main pages of Le Soir . Some Belgians were upset that Hergé was willing to work for a newspaper controlled by the occupying Nazi administration , although he was heavily enticed by the size of Le Soir 's readership , which reached 600 @,@ 000 . Faced with the reality of Nazi oversight , Hergé abandoned the overt political themes that had pervaded much of his earlier work , instead adopting a policy of neutrality . Without the need to satirise political types , entertainment producer and author Harry Thompson observed that " Hergé was now concentrating more on plot and on developing a new style of character comedy . The public reacted positively . "
The Secret of the Unicorn was the first of The Adventures of Tintin which Hergé had collaborated on with Van Melkebeke to a significant degree ; biographer Benoît Peeters suggested that Van Melkebeke should rightly be considered the story 's " co @-@ scriptwriter " . It was Hergé 's discussions with Van Melkebeke that led him to craft a more complex story than he had in prior Adventures . Van Melkebeke had been strongly influenced by the adventure novels of writers like Jules Verne and Paul d 'Ivoi , with this influence being apparent throughout the story . The inclusion of three hidden scrolls has parallels with Verne 's 1867 story , The Children of Captain Grant , which Van Melkebeke had recommended to Hergé . Hergé acknowledged Van Melkebeke 's contribution by including a cameo of him within the market scene at the start of the story ; this was particularly apt as Van Melkebeke had purchased his books in Brussels ' Old Market as a child .
The Secret of the Unicorn was the first half of a two @-@ part story arc that was concluded in the following adventure , Red Rackham 's Treasure . This arc was the first that Hergé had utilised since Cigars of the Pharaoh and The Blue Lotus ( 1934 – 36 ) . However , as Tintin expert Michael Farr related , whereas Cigars of the Pharaoh and The Blue Lotus had been largely " self @-@ sufficient and self @-@ contained " , the connection between The Secret of the Unicorn and Red Rackham 's Treasure would be far closer .
In previous works , Hergé had drawn upon a variety of pictorial sources , such as newspaper clippings , from which to draw the scenes and characters ; for The Secret of the Unicorn he drew upon an unprecedented variety of these sources . In drawing many of the old vessels , Hergé initially consulted the then recently published L 'Art et le Mer ( " Art and the Sea " ) by Alexandre Berqueman . Seeking further accurate depictions of old naval vessels , Hergé consulted a friend of his , Gérard Liger @-@ Belair , who owned a Brussels shop specialising in model ships . Liger @-@ Belair produced plans of a 17th @-@ century French fifty @-@ gun warship for Hergé to copy ; Le Brillant , which had been constructed in Le Havre in 1690 by the shipwright Salicon and then decorated by Jean Bérain the Elder .
He also studied other vessels from the period , such as the Le Soleil Royal , La Couronne , La Royale and Le Reale de France , to better understand 17th @-@ century ship design . It was from the Le Reale de France that he gained a basis for his design of the Unicorn 's jolly boat . No ship named the Unicorn was listed in the annals of the French Navy , but Hergé instead took the name from a British frigate which had been active in the mid @-@ 18th century ; the fictional ship 's unicorn figurehead was also adopted from the frigate .
The character of Red Rackham was partly inspired by Jean Rackam , a fictional pirate who appeared in a story alongside female pirates Anne Bonny and Mary Read that Hergé encountered in a November 1938 edition of Dimanche @-@ Illustré . Red Rackham 's looks and costumes were also inspired by the character , Lerouge , who appears in C. S. Forester 's novel , The Captain from Connecticut , and by the 17th @-@ century French buccaneer Daniel Montbars . The name of Marlinspike Hall — Moulinsart in French — was based upon the name of the real Belgian town , Sart @-@ Moulin . The actual design of the building was based upon the Château de Cheverny , albeit with the two outer wings removed . In introducing Francis Haddock to the story , Hergé made Captain Haddock the only character in the series ( except Jolyon Wagg , introduced later ) to have a family and an ancestry . The Secret of the Unicorn was set entirely in Belgium and was the last Adventure to be set there until The Castafiore Emerald . It would also be Hergé 's favourite story until Tintin in Tibet .
= = = Historical parallels = = =
After publishing the book , Hergé learned that there had actually been an Admiral Haddock who had served in the British Royal Navy during the late 17th and early 18th centuries : Sir Richard Haddock ( 1629 – 1715 ) . Richard Haddock was in charge of the Royal James , the flagship of the Earl of Sandwich during the Battle of Solebay of 1672 , the first naval battle of the Third Anglo @-@ Dutch War . During the fighting , the Royal James was set alight and Haddock escaped but had to be rescued from the sea , following which his bravery was recognised by the British monarch , King Charles II . He subsequently took command of another ship , the Royal Charles , before becoming a naval administrator in later life . Admiral Haddock 's grandfather , also named Richard , commanded the ship of the line HMS Unicorn during the reign of King Charles I.
Another individual known as Captain Haddock had lived in
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, and Reynardine was imprisoned in Gunnerkrigg Court until the events surrounding his first meeting with Antimony .
In addition to this plotline , the story includes several additional plot arcs interspersed with the main story . One concerns two girls from the Court , Zimmy and Gamma , who communicate with one another telepathically . Zimmy sees hallucinations of monsters which her etheric abilities turn into reality , which she relies on Gamma to dispel . In one chapter , Antimony and another student , Jack , also become trapped briefly in Zimmy 's hallucinatory world , and escape after they " find " Gamma there . Another storyline revolves around Kat 's attempts to repair Antimony 's robot ( which had been temporarily taken control of when it pushed her off the bridge ) , during which time they discover a set of highly complex robots that Antimony speculates are related in some way to the ghost she encountered at the river .
= = = Main characters = = =
= = Reception = =
In addition to being officially recognized at the Web Cartoonists ' Choice Awards , Gunnerkrigg Court has been critically acclaimed in a number of online reviews , and has a large readership and an active forum . Author Tom Siddell has been interviewed about his work numerous times , mostly by non @-@ mainstream online magazines such as ComixTalk . Kevin Powers of the Comics Bulletin and Graphic Smash listed Gunnerkrigg Court as one of the series he " respect [ s ] , " and ComixTalk ( then called Comixpedia ) listed Siddell as one of the twenty @-@ five " People of Webcomics " in 2006 .
The comic has received praise for its artwork and use of color , dark mood , slowly revealed mysteries , and pacing . Al Schroeder of ComixTalk has called Gunnerkrigg Court 's setting " marvelous " and " unique , " and said the comic is " delightfully fun " in spite of its moody backdrop . Along with the evolution in art style since the start of the comic , many reviewers have praised the age progression of the protagonists and their maturation with the plot , likening it to that of Harry Potter .
Some reviewers , on the other hand , have criticized its dark and depressing tone as potentially being frightening for younger audiences , also noting that there can be " lots [ of information ] to take in at times . "
In 2006 , science fiction author Neil Gaiman praised Gunnerkrigg Court in his blog , which brought the comic to the attention of many more readers .
= = = Awards = = =
Gunnerkrigg Court has been nominated for and has won a number of Web Cartoonist 's Choice Awards , shown in the table below . When the Web Cartoonists ' Choice Awards were discontinued in 2008 and replaced by The Webcomic List Awards ( run by The Webcomic List Community ) in 2009 , it won several of those as well . It was also nominated in 2006 for a Clickie award in the " International Clickie " category at Stripdagen Haarlem , a webcomics festival in the Netherlands . Gunnerkrigg Court : Orientation won a 2008 gold book of the year award from ForeWord magazine in their graphic novel category . Gunnerkrigg Court : Orientation was nominated for a 2009 Cybils Award in the graphic novel category . Gunnerkrigg Court was nominated for the 2014 Harvey Award for Best Online Comics Work .
= = Books = =
Siddell , Tom ( 2008 ) . Gunnerkrigg Court : Orientation . Gunnerkrigg Court . Kearny : Archaia Studios Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1932386349 . Diamond Code : FEB08 3463 . Archived from the original on 1 May 2010 .
Siddell , Tom ( 2008 ) . Gunnerkrigg Court : Orientation . Gunnerkrigg Court . Titan Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 1848561755 .
Siddell , Tom ( 2010 ) . Gunnerkrigg Court , Volume 2 : Research . Gunnerkrigg Court . Archaia Studios Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1932386776 .
Siddell , Tom ( 2011 ) . Gunnerkrigg Court Volume 3 : Reason . Gunnerkrigg Court . Archaia Studios Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 936393 @-@ 23 @-@ 7 .
Siddell , Tom ( 2013 ) . Gunnerkrigg Court , Volume 4 : Materia . Gunnerkrigg Court . Archaia Studios Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1936393992 .
Siddell , Tom ( 2015 ) . Gunnerkrigg Court Volume 5 : Refine . Gunnerkrigg Court . Archaia Studios Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1608866915 .
= = = Side comics = = =
Siddell , Tom ( 2013 ) . Annie in the Forest Part One . Beyond The Walls . Robot Voice Comics .
Siddell , Tom ( 2013 ) . Annie in the Forest Part Two . Beyond The Walls . Robot Voice Comics .
Siddell , Tom ( 2015 ) . Traveller . Beyond The Walls . Robot Voice Comics .
= = = Explanatory footnotes = = =
= = = Story notes = = =
= You da One =
" You da One " is a song by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna recorded for her sixth studio album , Talk That Talk ( 2011 ) . It was co @-@ written by Rihanna with Ester Dean , Henry Walter , John Hill and Lukasz Gottwald . Production of the song was completed by Gottwald , under his production name Dr. Luke , and Cirkut . Kuk Harrell and Marcas Tovar recorded the track at the Sofital Paris Le Laubourg , Room 538 , and Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles , California . It premiered on US radio on November 11 , 2011 , and was made available to download digitally throughout Europe and Australasia on November 14 , 2011 . It was added to US Mainstream , rhythmic and urban radio station playlists on November 29 , 2011 . Throughout December 2011 and January 2012 , a remix extended play ( EP ) was released worldwide .
Musically , " You Da One " is a mid @-@ tempo pop and reggae song , which incorporates elements of electropop , dancehall and dubstep . It also features a dubstep bridge before the final chorus . It garnered positive reviews from music critics , many of whom complimented the West Indian and Caribbean tone , and compared it to " What 's My Name ? " and " Man Down " , from her previous studio album Loud ( 2010 ) . The song achieved moderate chart success ; it peaked at number one on the US Hot Dance Club Songs and number 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 . Internationally , it peaked inside the top 10 in New Zealand , South Korea and on the UK R & B Chart , and attained top twenty positions in Canada , Hungary , Norway and Sweden .
To promote the song , an accompanying music video was shot in East London and directed by Melina Matsoukas . It was inspired by the 1971 film A Clockwork Orange , and premiered on December 23 , 2011 . It was mainly shot in black and white , and features Rihanna in a variety of different set ups , such as in a photo shoot and a lyric video game . At various points , lyrics are stamped across the video as Rihanna sings them . Hours after the release of the video , Norwegian photographer Sølve Sundsbø accused Rihanna and Matsoukas of plagiarism , suggesting that the scene featuring the singer wearing a white outfit with black dots was deliberately copied from his 2008 montage " Numero 93 " .
= = Recording and production = =
" You da One " was written by Ester Dean , Henry Walter , John Hill , Lukasz Gottwald and Rihanna . Production of the song was helmed by Dr. Luke and Cirkut . Rihanna recorded the song at several recording studios around the world during her Loud Tour ( 2011 ) , which included Sofital Paris Le Laubourg in Room 538 and at Westlake Recording Studios in Studio B in Los Angeles , California . Vocal recording and production was carried out by Kuk Harrell and Marcos Tovar . Alejandro Barajas and Jennifer Rosales served as the vocal recording and production assistants to Harrel and Tovar . " You da One " was mixed by Serban Ghenea and assisted by Phil Seaford , at Mixstar Studios , Virginia Beach , Virginia . John Hanes served as the mixing engineer . The song was engineered by Aubrey “ Big Juice ” Delaine and Clint Gibbs , and were assisted by Chris Sclafani and Jonathon Steer . All instrumentation was provided by Dr. Luke , Cirkut and Hill , and the production coordinators were Irene Richter and Katie Mitzell .
= = Background and release = =
During an interview with Ryan Seacrest on his radio show On Air with Ryan Seacrest , Rihanna revealed that she found " You da One " to be a highly addictive to listen to after she heard the final cut , saying " ' You da One ' is one of those records that became very addictive for me . I could not stop listening to this song . It 's very infectious . " The artwork for the single was shot in black @-@ and @-@ white , the same technique which was used for Rihanna 's previous single 's artwork , " We Found Love " . " You da One " ' s artwork displays the singer with her head tilted back and her eyes closed holding a cigarette between her lips . It prompted a mixed reaction from Sarah Anne Hughes for The Washington Post ; while she noted that Rihanna looks " perfectly coiffed , " she criticized the inclusion of the cigarette , and called it a " social taboo . "
The song was released as the second single from Talk That Talk , and premièred in the United States nationwide on November 11 , 2011 , via the Clear Channel Radio station network . " You Da One " was made available to download digitally via iTunes on November 14 , 2011 , in Australia , New Zealand , South America , the United States and multiple European countries .
= = Composition = =
" You da One " is a pop and reggae song with just a touch of a dubstep groove that embraces Caribbean rhythms , reggae , and pulsing house beats. which incorporates elements of dancehall The song also features a dubstep bridge before the final chorus . " You da One " runs for 3 minutes and 19 seconds , and it was composed in the key of E ♭ major using common time and a moderate groove of 126 beats per minute ; it follows a chord progression of A ♭ – Cm – E ♭ . Instrumentation is provided by a piano . Rihanna 's vocal range spans one octave from the low note of B ♭ 3 to the high note of B ♭ 4 on the song . According to Bradley Stern of MTV , the song 's musical structure bore a resemblance to Britney Spears ' " Inside Out " , writing that Rihanna " gets squeezed between a killer dubstep @-@ to @-@ death breakdown , not unlike the ex @-@ sexin ' jam Dr. Luke crafted for Britney 's ' Femme Fatale ' cut . " James Montgomery of the same publication commented on the song 's structure , writing that the song " starts in traditional [ Rihanna ] territory — building on a slow , skanking rhythm — expands with a starbursty chorus , then contracts nearly as quickly on a knotty , ratcheting middle . "
The lyrics to " You da One " are about a stable and comfortable relationship , which can be heard in the lyrics " You know how to love me hard / I won 't lie , I 'm falling hard / Yup , I 'm falling for ya , but there 's nothing wrong with that . " Michael Cragg of The Guardian explained some of the lyrics in the song as part of his review , writing " It 's perhaps less immediate , but there 's a lovely pre @-@ chorus of ' My love is your love , your love is my love ' that leads into a refrain about how great it is to have found someone decent , ( ' I 'm so happy that you came in my life ' ) .
= = Critical reception = =
" You da One " garnered positive reviews from music critics . In regards to the song 's sexually lewd demeanor , Jocelyn Vena of MTV News felt that Rihanna embodied a " potty @-@ mouthed sex kitten " ; Vena continued to write that the song is the most radio friendly on Talk That Talk , despite the excessive use of " NSFW lyrics " . Robert Copsey for Digital Spy praised the song , writing that it is " bouncy " and is " oozing with Caribbean flavor " . The song was also positively reviewed by Sadao Turner of On Air with Ryan Seacrest , who said that " ' You da One ' is a radio @-@ friendly record with island influence teeming with pop goodness and that signature Rihanna sound that carries across a dancefloor " . Amanda Dobbins of New York wrote that " You da One " and " We Found Love " are " relatively PG " compared to other songs on Talk That Talk . Entertainment Weekly 's Melissa Maerz praised the song , writing that " You da One " is " the perfect opener to set the tone for an album that embraces Caribbean rhythms , reggae , and pulsing house beats . " Maerz continued to call the song " an island @-@ breezy tribute to some guy who 's got [ Rihanna ] ' dreaming all the time ' . " Jason Lipshutz of Billboard magazine noted that the song is similar to some of Rihanna 's previous dancehall influenced songs , such as " What 's My Name ? " and " Man Down " , from her previous studio album Loud ( 2010 ) . Leah Collins of Dose praised the lyrics in the song which she described as " lovey @-@ dovey and most definitely radio @-@ friendly . "
Andrew Martin of Prefix Magazine commented on the infectiousness of the song , writing that once it has been listened to , it is hard to stop thinking about it . Martin continued to praise the " sugary sweetness of the song " , but criticized the incorporation of the dubstep breakdown toward the end of the song , citing that the reason as to why it was included was to try and make the song " even bigger " . Michael Cragg of The Guardian also noted that the song has a relaxed feel to it , and compared it to some of the singer 's previous dancehall songs , " What 's My Name ? " and " Rude Boy " . A reviewer for Spin criticized the song , writing " [ Rihanna ] is giving us a half @-@ limp reggae jam full of platitudes like , ' [ You da ] one I dream about all day ' . " The reviewer continued to write that there is " more chaste " on " You da One " than there was presented on Britney Spears ' guest vocal on " S & M " .
= = Chart performance = =
= = = North America = = =
In the United States , " You da One " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 chart at number 73 on November 16 , 2011 , two days after it was released to iTunes . The following week , it peaked at number 14 . It debuted at number 28 on the US Radio Songs , the apex of its stay , with a first week audience impression of 28 million . With this chart entry , the song became the highest chart position debut since Lady Gaga 's " Born This Way " , which debuted at number six in February 2011 . On the US Hot Digital Songs chart , the song debuted and peaked at number nine with digital download sales of 124 @,@ 000 units sold . With this chart entry , Rihanna became the first female artist in the history of the chart to have three songs in the top 10 of the Digital Songs Chart ; that week , the lead single from Talk That Talk , " We Found Love " , was at number one with sales of 211 @,@ 000 units , while her duet with Drake , " Take Care " from album of the same name , was at number four with sales of 162 @,@ 000 units . She became the first artist to have three songs in the top 10 of the chart since Michael Jackson had a record breaking six songs in the top 10 following his death in July 2009 .
On the US Pop Songs , " You da One " debuted at number 26 on November 26 , 2011 , and was awarded the honor of that week 's Greatest Gainer , and peaked at number 19 . " You da One " achieved the most success on the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart , where it peaked at number one , and became her seventeenth number one song on the chart . With this chart entry , she tied with Beyoncé Knowles for the third most Hot Dance Club Songs chart number one songs in the chart 's 35 @-@ year history . Only Madonna ( 42 ) and Janet Jackson ( 19 ) have achieved more number songs on the chart . The song also peaked at number 60 on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , and number 12 on the Canadian Hot 100 . In the United States , " You da One " was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on March 27 , 2012 , denoting shipments of over one million units
= = = Europe and Australasia = = =
In France , " You da One " debuted at number 64 on November 19 , 2011 , and reached a 2011 peak of 28 . In its ninth week on the chart , February 14 , 2012 , the song peaked at number 23 ; it spent 23 weeks on the chart in total . In The Netherlands , " You da One " debuted at number 92 on November 19 , 2011 , and peaked at number 53 in its third week . It made a re @-@ entry on the chart at number 61 on December 31 , 2011 , and remained on the chart for a further two weeks in January 2012 . Elsewhere in Europe , the song managed to peak inside the top twenty in Ireland at number 12 , in Norway at number 16 , and in Sweden at number 17 . It peaked inside the top fifty in Austria , Switzerland , and Spain . In the United Kingdom , " You da One " debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 39 on December 3 , 2011 . The following week , it fell by one position to number 40 . In the last week of December 2011 , it charted at number 22 . In the first week of January 2012 , the song reached its peak of number 16 . On the UK R & B Chart , " You da One " debuted at number 11 on December 3 , 2011 , and reached a 2011 peak of number six . On January 1 , 2012 , it peaked at number five .
In Australia , " You da One " debuted at number 41 on December 14 , 2011 , and peaked at number 26 in its third week . In 2012 , it reached a peak of number 35 . In total , it remained on that countries singles chart for a period of 10 weeks . It has since been certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) denoting shipments of over 70 @,@ 000 units . In New Zealand , it debuted at number 22 on November 21 , 2011 , and peaked at number 10 in its third week . In 2012 , it reached a peak of number 27 . It remained on the chart for a total of 10 weeks .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and synopsis = = =
The music video for " You da One " was filmed on November 30 , 2011 at MC Motors in Dalston , East London . It was directed by Melina Matsoukas , who also directed the controversial video for her previous single , " We Found Love " . In the first images from the London set , Rihanna sported short blonde hair , torn denim shorts , patterned leggings , and a white bowler hat . She held a black cane as she performed scenes in front of a bright pink wall in the visuals inspired by the 1971 film A Clockwork Orange . It premiered on December 23 , 2011 .
The clip is partly a photo shoot and a lyric video as lyrics are stamped across the screen and Rihanna 's body , and was shot mainly in black and white . She wears numerous outfits and blonde wigs throughout the video as she emulates the clothes from A Clockwork Orange by wearing a white bowler hat and cane from Laird Hatters , sporting a smoky eye in homage , and smacking her pink pouty lips with bubblegum . Rihanna later strips down to a flesh @-@ coloured leotard as she writhes on the floor with strategically placed artistic shards of light to create leopard spots and tiger stripes on her skin . Several scenes capture solely her mouth ; first with a gold grill covering her bottom row of teeth , and later with smoke billowing from her lips transitioning into and out of the words " Dream " and later " You Da One " . Another scene finds Rihanna in a white tank top and tattered jean shorts , swinging a cane in between two brick buildings . She continuously exudes sexuality ; in several scenes , she touches and thrusts her crotch ( reminiscent of Michael Jackson 's dance moves , as noted by Jason Lipshutz of Billboard ) , struts toward the camera with a pimp cane , endorses provocative dance moves , and drapes herself over a giant ball . Using the latter move , she is found in a black and white chequered background room where she moves around a larger than life playing card . The video ends with Rihanna running away from the camera and jumping into a chair , throwing her legs over the side with a smile on her face .
= = = Reception and plagiarism allegations = = =
A reviewer for Idolator described the video as " glorious . " Amy Sciarretto for PopCrush wrote " Judging from the song 's official video , it is , since RiRi can ’ t keep her hands to herself . The black and white video features the newly blond singer cavorting in an array of black and white outfits , dancing , smiling , giggling and grabbing her crotch with a great degree of regularity . " Hours after the release of the video , Norwegian photographer Sølve Sundsbø alleged that the scene of Rihanna wearing a white outfit with black dots shining on her ( pictured ) is the same as a photo shoot he completed in 2008 titled " Numero 93 ' " . A reviewer for Idolator wrote that " the evidence really doesn ’ t look to be in Rihanna 's favor . " The reviewer continued to write " Not only are the projected shapes similar , but both Rihanna and the model are wearing nearly @-@ identical body suits and wigs ( though the color differs ) . Plus , those pink lips providing the only splash of color also look pretty familiar . " A reviewer for The Huffington Post concurred with Idolator 's observations , and noted " The nakedness , the projections , the interplay of light and shadow ... even the haircut " were very similar to that of the work by Sundsbo .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording locations
Vocal recording – Sofital Paris Le Laubourg , Room 538 ; Westlake Recording Studios ( Studio B ) , Los Angeles , California .
Music recording – eightysevenfourteen Studios , Brentwood , California .
Mixing – Mixstar Studios , Virginia Beach , Virginia .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Talk That Talk , Def Jam Recordings , SRP Records .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Radio and release history = =
= Hurricane Gerda ( 1969 ) =
Hurricane Gerda was a North Atlantic tropical cyclone that formed during the 1969 Atlantic hurricane season . It was the seventh named storm , fifth hurricane and third major hurricane of the 1969 season . Gerda formed on September 6 and crossed Florida as a tropical depression . Gerda later became a tropical storm after making a hard right turn and moving northeast and reaching hurricane status on September 8 . Gerda brushed past the Outer Banks of North Carolina before reaching maximum intensity of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) and a low barometric pressure of 979 millibars ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) . On September 10 , Gerda made landfall near Eastport , Maine , and became extratropical the following day .
Hurricane Gerda brought light rain across southern Florida and moderate to heavy rain across eastern North Carolina and New England , causing minor damage to trees and powerlines . The highest amount of rain was 5 @.@ 67 inches ( 144 mm ) which was recorded in South Wellfleet , Massachusetts on Cape Cod . There were no fatalities or injuries from Gerda although planes at Otis Air Force Base were moved to their hangars and two ships from Naval Station Newport left their berth to ride out the storm .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved off the eastern coast of Africa on August 21 and moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean without development . On September 3 , the disturbance merged with a dissipating upper level low pressure system over Hispaniola and Puerto Rico and developed an increasing cloud mass as it continued westward . As the disturbance crossed the Bahamas , satellite imagery showed the disturbance gaining a distinct circulation on September 5 . On September 6 , the disturbance became a Tropical Depression before it made landfall in southeastern Florida on the same day .
After crossing Florida , the depression drifted northeastward back over the western Atlantic Ocean on September 7 . As the system headed northeastward , hurricane hunter aircraft recorded winds of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) , and barometric pressure fell to 1 @,@ 000 millibars ( 30 inHg ) . Forecasters at the National Hurricane Center upgraded the system to tropical storm status and named it Gerda . Gerda continued to move rapidly northeast in response to an approaching trough and the storm reached hurricane status on September 8 . Gerda 's forward speed approached 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) as the eye of the hurricane passed 50 miles ( 80 km ) east of Cape Cod on September 9 , with maximum sustained winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) . Because the storm was interacting with the trough to the west and was moving rapidly northeastward , the result was the minimum central barometric pressure was an unusually high 979 millibars ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) . Gerda later made landfall near Eastport , Maine later that day as a Category 2 hurricane , one of the strongest to ever make landfall in the state . Gerda then became extratropical as it crossed into Canada as an 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) extratropical storm on September 10 . The storm later dissipated the following day .
= = Preparations = =
Gale warnings and small craft advisories were issued along the coast of North Carolina stretching from Wilmington to Cape Hatteras . Storm shelters in Kitty Hawk and Manteo , North Carolina were opened and the American Red Cross sent relief workers and equipment to North Carolina . In Frederick County , Maryland , local forecasters and the National Weather Service issued a flood watch while the National Hurricane Center issued a hurricane watch for the county , as well as the rest of eastern Maryland . Officials at the National Weather Service and National Hurricane Center predicted that the western half of the storm would lash New York City and much of New England ( which were under a hurricane watch ) with high winds and torrential rainfall .
Ships and other water craft were advised to avoid the Cape Cod area as the storm was forecast to brush that area , which was put under a hurricane warning by the National Hurricane Center . In Massachusetts , schools were closed and emergency shelters were opened to accommodate evacuees . Evacuations were ordered for residents living in low lying areas in Cape Cod . In Boston , the threat of the storm caused both elementary and middle schools to close at noon while high schools were closed at 1 p.m. ( est ) . The approach of the storm also postponed a fair at a local hospital and planes at Otis Air Force Base were quickly moved to their hangars . Much of southeastern Massachusetts civil defense and fire departments were alerted in preparation of the storm 's impact . In Rhode Island , schools and other buildings were used as shelter to house evacuees . As Hurricane Gerda sped up the East Coast of the United States , the National Hurricane Center extended the hurricane warnings from Block Island , Rhode Island to Eastport , Maine . At Naval Station Newport in Newport , Rhode Island , two ships of the United States Navy left their berths to ride out the storm . One of which was the Comsixthflt flagship USS Puget Sound ( AD @-@ 38 ) .
= = Impact = =
Hurricane Gerda affected much of eastern North Carolina and New England with gusty rain and heavy rainfall causing minor to moderate damage . In Florida , Gerda dropped light rainfall across southern and central portions of the state . Damage there , if any , was unknown . In South Carolina , Gerda brought sustained winds of 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) . In Canada , Gerda passed over Labrador as a strong extratropical storm with hurricane force winds . Damage there is unknown .
In North Carolina , Gerda produced moderate rainfall across the Outer Banks . The highest rainfall total on the Outer Banks was 1 @.@ 32 inches ( 34 mm ) in Cape Hatteras . Elsewhere on the Outer Banks , the storm produced 27 mph ( 43 km / h ) winds with gusts up to 36 mph ( 58 km / h ) . A tide gauge in Ocracoke Island reported a tide of 1 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 45 meter ) above normal . Gerda then dropped heavy rainfall across eastern Virginia , Maryland , New Jersey and New York . There was no reported damage from Gerda 's impact on North Carolina and the Mid @-@ Atlantic States .
Gerda produced heavy rainfall throughout much of southeastern New England . In Massachusetts , a rain gauge in South Wellfleet reported rainfall of 5 @.@ 67 inches ( 144 mm ) . The city of Lowell also reported heavy rainfall from the storm as 2 inches ( 51 mm ) of rain fell in a 24 ‑ hour period . The heavy rainfall caused isolated street flooding due to clogged storm drains . In Fitchburg , the storm dropped 1 @.@ 87 inches ( 47 mm ) of rain while Cape Cod received tides 3 – 6 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 @-@ 1 @.@ 83 meters ) above normal . Elsewhere in New England , the storm caused minor damage to trees , powerlines and highways . There were no reported fatalities or injuries from Gerda 's impact on New England .
= Shelly Manne =
Sheldon " Shelly " Manne ( June 11 , 1920 – September 26 , 1984 ) , was an American jazz drummer . Most frequently associated with West Coast jazz , he was known for his versatility and also played in a number of other styles , including Dixieland , swing , bebop , avant @-@ garde jazz and fusion , as well as contributing to the musical background of hundreds of Hollywood films and television programs .
= = Family and origins = =
Manne 's father and uncles were drummers . In his youth he admired many of the leading swing drummers of the day , especially Jo Jones and Dave Tough . Billy Gladstone , a colleague of Manne 's father and the most admired percussionist on the New York theatrical scene , offered the teenage Shelly tips and encouragement . From that time , Manne rapidly developed his style in the clubs of 52nd Street in New York in the late 1930s and 1940s . His first professional job with a known big band was with the Bobby Byrne Orchestra in 1940 . In those years , as he became known , he recorded with jazz stars like Coleman Hawkins , Charlie Shavers , and Don Byas . He also worked with a number of musicians mainly associated with Duke Ellington , like Johnny Hodges , Harry Carney , Lawrence Brown , and Rex Stewart .
In 1943 , Manne married a Rockette named Florence Butterfield ( known affectionately to family and friends as " Flip " ) . The marriage would last 41 years , until the end of Manne 's life .
When the bebop movement began to change jazz in the 1940s , Manne loved it and adapted to the style rapidly , performing with Dizzy Gillespie and Charlie Parker . Around this time he also worked with rising stars like Flip Phillips , Charlie Ventura , Lennie Tristano , and Lee Konitz .
Manne rose to stardom when he became part of the working bands of Woody Herman and , especially , Stan Kenton in the late 1940s and early 1950s , winning awards and developing a following at a time when jazz was the most popular music in the United States . Joining the hard @-@ swinging Herman outfit allowed Manne to play the bebop he loved . The controversial Kenton band , on the other hand , with its " progressive jazz " , presented obstacles , and many of the complex , overwrought arrangements made it harder to swing . But Manne appreciated the musical freedom that Kenton gave him and saw it as an opportunity to experiment along with what was still a highly innovative band . He rose to the challenge , finding new colors and rhythms , and developing his ability to provide support in a variety of musical situations .
= = In California = =
In the early 1950s , Manne left New York and settled permanently on a ranch in an outlying part of Los Angeles , where he and his wife raised horses . From this point on , he played an important role in the West Coast school of jazz , performing on the Los Angeles jazz scene with Shorty Rogers , Hampton Hawes , Red Mitchell , Art Pepper , Russ Freeman , Frank Rosolino , Chet Baker , Leroy Vinnegar , Pete Jolly , Howard McGhee , Bob Gordon , Conte Candoli , Sonny Criss , and numerous others . Many of his recordings around this time were for Lester Koenig 's Contemporary Records , where for a period Manne had a contract as an " exclusive " artist ( meaning that he could not record for other labels without permission ) .
Manne led a number of small groups that recorded under his name and leadership . One consisting of Manne on drums , trumpeter Joe Gordon , saxophonist Richie Kamuca , bassist Monty Budwig , and pianist Victor Feldman performed for three days in 1959 at the famous Black Hawk club in San Francisco . Their music was recorded on the spot , and four LPs were issued . Highly regarded as an innovative example of a " live " jazz recording , the Black Hawk sessions were reissued on CD in augmented form years later .
= = West Coast jazz = =
Manne is often associated with the once frequently criticized West Coast school of jazz . He has been considered " the quintessential " drummer in what was seen as a West Coast movement , though Manne himself did not care to be so pigeonholed . In the 1950s , much of what he did could be seen as in the West Coast style : performing in tightly arranged compositions in what was a cool style , as in his 1953 album named The West Coast Sound , for which he commissioned several original compositions . Some of West Coast jazz was experimental , avant @-@ garde music several years before the more mainstream avant @-@ garde playing of Cecil Taylor and Ornette Coleman ( Manne also recorded with Coleman in 1959 ) ; a good deal of Manne 's work with Jimmy Giuffre was of this kind . Critics would condemn much of this music as overly cerebral .
Another side of West Coast jazz that also came under critical fire was music in a lighter style , intended for popular consumption . Manne made contributions here too . Best known is the series of albums he recorded with pianist André Previn and with members of his groups , based on music from popular Broadway shows , movies , and television programs . ( The first and most famous of these was the one based on My Fair Lady , recorded by Previn , Manne , and bassist Leroy Vinnegar in 1956 . See My Fair Lady ( Shelly Manne album ) . ) The music — with each album devoted to a single show — was improvised in the manner of jazz , but always in a light , immediately appealing style aimed at popular taste , which did not always go over well with aficionados of " serious " jazz music , which may be one reason why Manne has been frequently overlooked in accounts of major jazz drummers of the 20th century . Much of the music produced on the West Coast in those years , as Robert Gordon concedes , was in fact imitative and " lacked the fire and intensity associated with the best jazz performances " . But Gordon also points out that there is a level of musical sophistication , as well as an intensity and " swing " , in the music recorded by Manne with Previn and Vinnegar ( and later Red Mitchell ) that is missing in the many lackluster albums of this type produced by others in that period .
West Coast jazz , however , represented only a small part of Manne 's playing . In Los Angeles and occasionally returning to New York and elsewhere , Manne recorded with musicians of all schools and styles , ranging from those of the swing era through bebop to later developments in modern jazz , including hard bop , usually seen as the antithesis to the cool jazz frequently associated with West Coast playing .
= = Collaborations = =
From the 78 @-@ rpm recordings of the 1940s to the LPs of the 1950s and later , to the hundreds of film soundtracks he appeared on , Manne 's recorded output was enormous and often hard to pin down . According to the jazz writer Leonard Feather , Manne 's drumming had been heard on well " over a thousand LPs " — a statement that Feather made in 1960 , when Manne had not reached even the midpoint of his 45 @-@ year @-@ long career .
An extremely selective list of those with whom Manne performed includes Benny Carter , Earl Hines , Clifford Brown , Zoot Sims , Ben Webster , Maynard Ferguson , Wardell Gray , Lionel Hampton , Junior Mance , Jimmy Giuffre , and Stan Getz . In the 1950s , he recorded two solid albums with Sonny Rollins — Way Out West ( Contemporary , 1957 ) received particular acclaim and helped dispel the notion that West Coast jazz was always different from jazz made on the East Coast — and , in the 1960s , two with Bill Evans . Around the same time in 1959 , Manne recorded with the traditional Benny Goodman and the iconoclastic Ornette Coleman , a striking example of his versatility .
One of Manne 's most adventurous 1960s collaborations was with Jack Marshall , the guitarist and arranger celebrated for composing the theme and incidental music for The Munsters TV show in that period . Two duet albums ( Sounds Unheard Of ! , 1962 , and Sounds ! , 1966 ) feature Marshall on guitar , accompanied by Manne playing drums and a wide variety of percussion instruments unusual in jazz , from " Hawaiian slit bamboo sticks " , to a Chinese gong , to castanets , to piccolo Boo @-@ Bam .
Another example of Manne 's ability to transcend the narrow borders of any particular school is the series of trio albums he recorded with guitarist Barney Kessel and bassist Ray Brown as " The Poll Winners " . ( They had all won numerous polls conducted by the popular publications of the day ; the polls are now forgotten , but the albums endure , now reissued on CD . ) Manne even dabbled in Dixieland and fusion , as well as " Third Stream " music . He participated in the revival of that jazz precursor ragtime ( he appears on several albums devoted to the music of Scott Joplin ) , and sometimes recorded with musicians best associated with European classical music . He always , however , returned to the straight @-@ ahead jazz he loved best .
= = Style and influences = =
In addition to Dave Tough and Jo Jones , Manne admired and learned from contemporaries like Max Roach and Kenny Clarke , and later from younger drummers like Elvin Jones and Tony Williams . Consciously or unconsciously , he borrowed a little from all of them , always searching to extend his playing into new territory .
Despite these and numerous other influences , however , Shelly Manne 's style of drumming was always his own — personal , precise , clear , and at the same time multilayered , using a very broad range of colors . Manne was often experimental , and had participated in such musically exploratory groups of the early 1950s as those of Jimmy Giuffre and Teddy Charles . Yet his playing never became overly cerebral , and he never neglected that element usually considered fundamental to all jazz : time .
Whether playing Dixieland , bebop , or avant @-@ garde jazz , in big bands or in small groups , Manne 's self @-@ professed goal was to make the music swing . His fellow musicians attested to his listening appreciatively to those around him and being ultra @-@ sensitive to the needs and the nuances of the music played by the others in the band , his goal being to make them — and the music as a whole — sound better , rather than calling attention to himself with overbearing solos .
Manne refused to play in a powerhouse style , but his understated drumming was appreciated for its own strengths . In 1957 , critic Nat Hentoff called Manne one of the most " musical " and " illuminatively imaginative " drummers . Composer and multi @-@ instrumentalist Bob Cooper called him " the most imaginative drummer I 've worked with " . In later years this kind of appreciation for what Manne could do was echoed by jazz notables like Louie Bellson , John Lewis , Ray Brown , Harry " Sweets " Edison , and numerous others who had worked with him at various times . Composer , arranger , bandleader , and multi @-@ instrumentalist Benny Carter was " a great admirer of his work " . " He could read anything , get any sort of effect " , said Carter , who worked closely with Manne over many decades .
Though he always insisted on the importance of time and " swing " , Manne 's concept of his own drumming style typically pointed to his melody @-@ based approach . He contrasted his style with that of Max Roach : " Max plays melodically from the rhythms he plays . I play rhythms from thinking melodically " .
Manne had strong preferences in his choice of drum set . Those preferences , however , changed several times over his career . He began with Gretsch drums . In 1957 , intrigued by the sound of a kind of drum made by Leedy ( then owned by Slingerland ) , he had a line made for him that also became popular with other drummers . In the 1970s , after trying and abandoning many others for reasons of sound or maintainability , he settled on the Japanese @-@ made Pearl Drums .
= = Singers = =
Manne was also acclaimed by singers . Jackie Cain , of the vocal team of Jackie and Roy ( " Roy " being Roy Kral ) , claimed that she had " never heard a drummer play so beautifully behind a singer " . Jackie and Roy were only two of the many singers he played behind , recording several albums with that husband @-@ and @-@ wife team , with their contemporary June Christy , and with Helen Humes , originally made famous by her singing with the Count Basie orchestra .
Over decades , Manne recorded additional albums , or sometimes just sat in on drums here and there , with renowned vocalists like Ella Fitzgerald , Mel Tormé , Peggy Lee , Frank Sinatra , Ernestine Anderson , Sarah Vaughan , Lena Horne , Blossom Dearie , and Nancy Wilson . Not all the singers Manne accompanied were even primarily jazz artists . Performers as diverse as Teresa Brewer , Leontyne Price , Tom Waits , and Barry Manilow included Manne in their recording sessions .
= = Film and television = =
At first , jazz was heard in film soundtracks only as jazz bands performed in the story . Early in his career , Manne was occasionally seen and heard in the movies , for example in the 1942 film Seven Days Leave , as the drummer in the highly popular Les Brown orchestra ( soon to be known as " Les Brown and His Band of Renown " ) .
In the 1950s , however , jazz began to be used for all or parts of film soundtracks , and Manne pioneered in these efforts , beginning with The Wild One ( 1953 ) . As jazz quickly assumed a major role in the musical background of films , so did Manne assume a major role as a drummer and percussionist on those soundtracks . A notable early example was 1955 's The Man with the Golden Arm ; Manne not only played drums throughout but functioned as a personal assistant to director Otto Preminger and tutored star Frank Sinatra . The Decca soundtrack LP credits him prominently for the " Drumming Sequences " .
From then on , as jazz became more prominent in the movies , Manne became the go @-@ to percussion man in the film industry ; he even appeared on screen in some minor roles . A major example is Johnny Mandel 's jazz score for I Want to Live ! in 1958 .
Soon , Manne began to contribute to film music in a broader way , often combining jazz , pop , and classical music . Henry Mancini in particular found plenty of work for him ; the two shared an interest in experimenting with tone colors , and Mancini came to rely on Manne to shape the percussive effects in his music . Breakfast at Tiffany 's ( 1961 ) , Hatari ! ( 1962 ) and The Pink Panther ( 1963 ) are only a few of Mancini 's films where Manne 's drums and special percussive effects could be heard .
Manne frequently collaborated with Mancini in television as well , such as in the series Peter Gunn ( 1958 – 1961 ) and Mr. Lucky ( 1959 – 1960 ) . Although Mancini developed such a close partnership with Manne that he was using him for practically all his scores and other music at this time , the drummer still found time to perform on movie soundtracks and in TV shows with music by others , including the series Richard Diamond ( music by Pete Rugolo , 1959 – 1960 ) , and Checkmate ( music by John Williams , 1959 – 1962 ) , and the film version of Leonard Bernstein 's West Side Story ( 1961 ) .
In the late 1950s , Manne began to compose his own film scores , such as that for The Proper Time ( 1959 ) , with the music also played by his own group , Shelly Manne and His Men , and issued on a Contemporary LP . In later years , Manne divided his time playing the drums on , adding special percussive effects to , and sometimes writing complete scores for both film and television . He even provided a musical setting for a recording of the Dr. Seuss children 's classic Green Eggs and Ham ( 1960 ) and later performed in and sometimes wrote music for the backgrounds of numerous animated cartoons . For example , he joined other notable jazz musicians ( including Ray Brown and Jimmy Rowles ) in playing Doug Goodwin 's music for the cartoon series The Ant and the Aardvark ( 1969 – 1971 ) . Notable examples of later scores that Manne wrote himself and also performed in are , for the movies , Young Billy Young ( 1969 ) and Trader Horn ( 1973 ) , and , for television , Daktari , 1966 – 1969 . With these and other contributions to cartoons , children 's stories , movies , television programs ( and even commercials ) , Manne 's drumming became woven into the popular culture of several decades .
= = Later career = =
A star in Stan Kenton 's famous orchestra in the 1940s and 1950s , as well as that of Woody Herman , also in the 1940s , and winner of numerous awards , Manne slipped from public view as jazz became less central in popular music . In the 1960s and early 1970s , however , he helped keep jazz alive on the Los Angeles scene as part owner of the nightclub Shelly 's Manne @-@ Hole on North Cahuenga Boulevard . There , the house band was Shelly Manne and His Men , which featured some of his favorite sidemen , such as Russ Freeman , Monty Budwig , Richie Kamuca , Conte Candoli , and later Frank Strozier , John Morell , and Mike Wofford , among many other notable West Coast jazz musicians . Also appearing was a roster of jazz stars from different eras and all regions , including Ben Webster , Rahsaan Roland Kirk , Les McCann , Bill Evans , John Coltrane , Sonny Stitt , Thelonious Monk , Michel Legrand , Carmen McRae , Milt Jackson , Teddy Edwards , Monty Alexander , Lenny Breau , Miles Davis , and many , many others . Stan Getz was the last to be featured ( at a briefly occupied second location at Tetou 's restaurant on Wilshire Boulevard ) , when , late in 1973 , Manne was forced to close the club for financial reasons .
From that point , Manne refocused his attention on his own drumming . It might be argued that he never played with more taste , refinement , and soulful swing than in the 1970s , when he recorded numerous albums with musicians like trumpeter Red Rodney , pianist Hank Jones , saxophonists Art Pepper and Lew Tabackin , and composer @-@ arranger @-@ saxophonist Oliver Nelson .
From 1974 to 1977 he joined guitarist Laurindo Almeida , saxophonist and flutist Bud Shank , and bassist Ray Brown to perform as the group The L.A. Four , which recorded four albums before Manne left the ensemble .
In the 1980s , Manne recorded with such stars as trumpeter Harry " Sweets " Edison , saxophonist Zoot Sims , guitarists Joe Pass and Herb Ellis , and pianist John Lewis ( famous as the musical director of the Modern Jazz Quartet ) .
Meanwhile , he continued to record with various small groups of his own . Just one representative example of his work in this period is a live concert recorded at the Los Angeles club " Carmelo 's " in 1980 with pianists Bill Mays and Alan Broadbent and bassist Chuck Domanico . With their enthusiasm and spontaneity , and the sense that the audience in the intimate ambience of the club is participating in the music , these performances share the characteristics that had been celebrated more than two decades before in the better @-@ known Black Hawk performances . Although this phase of his career has frequently been overlooked , Manne , by this time , had greatly refined his ability to back other musicians sympathetically , yet make his own musical thoughts clearly heard .
Manne 's heavy load of Hollywood studio work sometimes shifted his attention from his mainstream jazz playing . Even in lackluster films , however , he nevertheless often succeeded in making art of what might be called hackwork . Still , for all his tireless work in the studios , Manne 's labor of love was his contribution to jazz as an American art form , to which he had dedicated himself since his youth and continued to work at almost to the last day of his life .
Manne died somewhat before the popular revival of interest in jazz had gained momentum . But in his last few years , his immense contribution to the music regained at least some local recognition , and the role Manne had played in the culture of his adopted city began to draw public appreciation . Two weeks before his sudden death of a heart attack , he was honored by the City of Los Angeles in conjunction with the Hollywood Arts Council when September 9 , 1984 was declared " Shelly Manne Day " .
= = Discography = =
= = = As leader = = =
" The Three " & " The Two " ( Contemporary , 1954 [ 1960 ] ) - compilation of previously issued 10 @-@ inch LPs
The West Coast Sound ( Contemporary , 1953 – 55 [ 1955 ] ) - re @-@ release of the first Shelly Manne & His Men 10 @-@ inch LP with additional material
Swinging Sounds ( Contemporary , 1956 )
More Swinging Sounds ( Contemporary , 1956 )
Shelly Manne & His Friends ( Contemporary , 1956 )
My Fair Lady ( Contemporary , 1956 )
Li 'l Abner ( Contemporary , 1957 )
Concerto for Clarinet & Combo ( Contemporary , 1955 @-@ 57 [ 1957 ] )
The Gambit ( Contemporary , 1957 @-@ 58 [ 1958 ] )
Bells Are Ringing ( Contemporary , 1958 )
Shelly Manne & His Men Play Peter Gunn ( Contemporary , 1959 )
Son of Gunn ! ! ( Contemporary , 1959 )
At the Black Hawk 1 ( Contemporary , 1959 )
At the Black Hawk 2 ( Contemporary , 1959 )
At the Black Hawk 3 ( Contemporary , 1959 )
At the Black Hawk 4 ( Contemporary , 1959 )
At the Black Hawk 5 ( Contemporary , 1959 [ 1991 ] )
The Proper Time ( Contemporary , 1960 ) - Motion Picture Soundtrack
Ruth Price with Shelly Manne & His Men at the Manne @-@ Hole ( Contemporary , 1961 ) - with Ruth Price
Live ! Shelly Manne & His Men at the Manne @-@ Hole ( Contemporary , 1961 ) - Double LP , reissued on 2 separate CDs
Shelly Manne & His Men Play Checkmate ( Contemporary , 1961 )
Sounds Unheard Of ! ( Contemporary , 1962 ) with Jack Marshall - stereo demonstration record
2 @-@ 3 @-@ 4 ( Impulse ! , 1962 ) , with Coleman Hawkins
Empathy ( Verve , 1962 ) with Bill Evans
My Son the Jazz Drummer ! ( Contemporary , 1962 ) - reissued as Steps to the Desert in 2004
My Fair Lady with the Un @-@ original Cast ( Capitol , 1964 ) , arranged and conducted by Johnny Williams with Jack Sheldon and Irene Kral
Manne – That 's Gershwin ! ( Capitol , 1965 ) , arranged and directed by John Williams
Sounds ! ( Capitol , 1966 ) with Jack Marshall
Boss Sounds ! ( Atlantic , 1966 )
Jazz Gunn ( Atlantic , 1967 )
Perk Up ( Concord , 1967 [ 1976 ] )
Daktari ( Atlantic , 1967 )
Young Billy Young ( United Artists , 1969 ) - Motion Picture Soundtrack
Outside ( Contemporary , 1969 [ 1970 ] )
Alive in London ( Contemporary , 1970 )
Mannekind ( Mainstream , 1972 )
Hot Coles ( Flying Dutchman , 1975 )
Essence ( Galaxy , 1977 )
French Concert ( Galaxy , 1977 [ 1979 ] ) with Lee Konitz
Rex : Shelly Manne Plays Richard Rogers ( Discovery , 1977 )
Double Piano Jazz Quartet in Concert at Carmelo 's ( Trend 1980 )
Hollywood Jam ( Atlas , 1981 )
Fingering ( Atlas , 1981 ) with Monty Alexander and Ray Brown
One on One ( Atlas , 1982 ) with Russ Freeman
The Shelly Manne Trio in Zurich ( Contemporary , 1984 )
= = = As sideman = = =
With Chet Baker
Grey December ( Pacific Jazz , 1953 [ 1992 ] )
Witch Doctor ( Contemporary , 1953 [ 1985 ] )
West Coast Live - with Stan Getz ( 1954 [ 1997 ] )
Pretty / Groovy ( World Pacific , 1953 @-@ 54 [ 1958 ] )
The Trumpet Artistry of Chet Baker ( Prestige , 1953 – 54 )
Chet Baker & Strings ( Columbia , 1954 )
Quartet : Russ Freeman / Chet Baker ( Pacific Jazz , 1956 )
With Elmer Bernstein
The Man with the Golden Arm ( Decca , 1956 )
Sweet Smell of Success ( Decca , 1957 )
With Brass Fever
Brass Fever ( Impulse ! , 1975 )
With Benny Carter
Jazz Giant ( Contemporary , 1958 )
Swingin ' the ' 20s ( Contemporary , 1958 ) with Earl Hines
With Teddy Charles
Collaboration West ( Prestige , 1953 )
Evolution ( Prestige , 1953 [ 1957 ] )
With Ornette Coleman
Tomorrow Is the Question ! ( Contemporary , 1959 )
With Buddy Collette
Nice Day with Buddy Collette ( Contemporary , 1957 )
At the Cinema ! ( Mercury , 1959 )
With Sonny Criss
I 'll Catch the Sun ! ( Prestige , 1969 )
With Bill Evans
A Simple Matter of Conviction ( Verve , 1966 )
With Art Farmer
On the Road ( Contemporary , 1976 )
With Maynard Ferguson
Maynard Ferguson 's Hollywood Party ( EmArcy , 1954 )
Dimensions ( EmArcy , 1955 )
Maynard Ferguson Octet ( EmArcy , 1955 )
With Ella Fitzgerald
Whisper Not ( Verve , 1967 )
With Stan Getz
West Coast Jazz ( Norgran , 1955 )
Stan Getz and the Cool Sounds ( Verve , 1953 @-@ 55 [ 1957 ] )
Hamp and Getz ( Norgran , 1955 ) with Lionel Hampton
With Dizzy Gillespie
The Complete RCA Victor Recordings ( Bluebird , 1937 – 1949 [ 1995 ] )
With Jimmy Giuffre
Jimmy Giuffre ( Capitol , 1955 )
The Jimmy Giuffre Clarinet ( Atlantic , 1956 )
With Hampton Hawes
Four ! ( Contemporary , 1958 )
Hampton Hawes at the Piano ( Contemporary , 1976 [ 1978 ] )
With Paul Horn
Plenty of Horn ( Dot , 1958 )
With Hank Jones
Just for Fun ( Galaxy , 1977 )
With Stan Kenton
Stan Kenton 's Milestones ( Capitol , 1943 @-@ 47 [ 1950 ] )
Stan Kenton Classics ( Capitol , 1944 @-@ 47 [ 1952 ] )
Artistry in Rhythm ( Capitol , 1946 )
Encores ( Capitol , 1947 )
A Presentation of Progressive Jazz ( Capitol , 1947 )
Innovations in Modern Music ( Capitol , 1950 )
Stan Kenton Presents ( Capitol , 1950 )
City of Glass ( Capitol , 1951 )
Popular Favorites by Stan Kenton ( Capitol , 1953 )
This Modern World ( Capitol , 1953 )
The Kenton Era ( Capitol , 1940 – 54 [ 1955 ] )
Kenton with Voices ( Capitol , 1957 )
Lush Interlude ( Capitol , 1958 )
The Innovations Orchestra ( Capitol , 1950 @-@ 51 [ 1997 ] )
With Barney Kessel
Easy Like ( Contemporary , 1953 – 56 )
Kessel Plays Standards ( Contemporary , 1954 )
To Swing or Not to Swing ( Contemporary , 1955 )
Music to Listen to Barney Kessel By ( Contemporary , 1956 )
The Poll Winners ( Contemporary , 1957 ) with Ray Brown
Let 's Cook ! ( Contemporary , 1957 [ 1962 ] )
The Poll Winners Ride Again ! ( Contemporary , 1958 ) with Ray Brown
Carmen ( Contemporary , 1959 )
Some Like It Hot ( Contemporary , 1959 )
Poll Winners Three ! ( Contemporary , 1959 )
Exploring the Scene ! ( Contemporary , 1960 )
With John Klemmer
Constant Throb ( Impulse ! , 1971 )
With John Lewis
Kansas City Breaks ( Finesse , 1982 )
With Henry Mancini
More Music from Peter Gunn ( RCA Victor , 1959 )
The Mancini Touch ( RCA Victor , 1960 )
Combo ! ( RCA Victor , 1961 )
With Johnny Mandel
I Want to Live ( United Artists , 1958 )
With Bill Mays
Tha 's Delights ( Trend , 1983 )
With Howard McGhee
Maggie 's Back in Town ! ! ( Contemporary , 1961 )
With Jack Montrose
Arranged by Montrose ( Pacific Jazz , 1954 )
Arranged / Played / Composed by Jack Montrose ( Atlantic , 1955 )
Jack Montrose Sextet ( Pacific Jazz , 1955 )
Blues and Vanilla ( RCA Victor , 1956 )
With Gerry Mulligan
I Want to Live ( United Artists , 1958 )
With Oliver Nelson
Sound Pieces ( Impulse ! , 1966 )
Skull Session ( Flying Dutchman , 1975 )
Stolen Moments ( East Wind , 1975 )
With Art Pepper
Popo ( Xanadu , 1951 [ 1980 ] ) with Shorty Rogers
Living Legend ( Contemporary , 1975 )
With André Previn
Pal Joey ( Contemporary , 1957 )
The Subterraneans ( Soundtrack ) ( MGM , 1960 )
A Different Kind of Blues ( Angel , 1980 ) with Itzhak Perlman
With Shorty Rogers
Shorty Rogers and His Giants ( RCA Victor , 1953 )
Cool and Crazy ( RCA Victor , 1953 )
Shorty Rogers Courts the Count ( RCA Victor , 1954 )
Collaboration ( RCA Victor , 1954 ) with André Previn
The Swinging Mr. Rogers ( Atlantic , 1955 )
Martians Come Back ! ( Atlantic , 1955 [ 1956 ] )
Way Up There ( Atlantic , 1955 [ 1957 ] )
Afro @-@ Cuban Influence ( RCA Victor , 1958 )
With Sonny Rollins
Way Out West ( Contemporary , 1957 )
With Joe Sample and Ray Brown
The Three , The Three ( East Wind , 1975 )
With Lalo Schifrin
Gone with the Wave ( Colpix , 1964 )
Music from Mission : Impossible ( Dot , 1967 )
There 's a Whole Lalo Schifrin Goin ' On ( Dot , 1968 )
With Bud Shank
Strings & Trombones ( Pacific Jazz , 1955 )
Barefoot Adventure ( Pacific Jazz , 1961 )
Windmills of Your Mind ( Pacific Jazz , 1969 )
With Sonny Stitt
Dumpy Mama ( Flying Dutchman , 1975 )
With Tom Waits
Small Change ( Asylum Records , 1976 )
Foreign Affairs ( Asylum Records , 1977 )
One from the Heart ( CBS Records , 1982 )
= Hurricane Isidore =
Hurricane Isidore was the ninth named storm and the second hurricane in the 2002 Atlantic hurricane season . Isidore was the fifth of eight named storms to occur in September . The tropical cyclone peaked as a Category 3 hurricane , causing damage as well as four fatalities in Jamaica , Cuba , Mexico , and the United States . Isidore is noted for threatening to strike the northern Gulf Coast as a Category 4 hurricane , but instead striking as a moderate tropical storm due to a track change that brought the storm over the Yucatán Peninsula for over a day , which significantly weakened the cyclone . Its primary impact was the heavy rainfall which fell across southeast Mexico and from the central United States Gulf coast into the Ohio Valley .
= = Meteorological history = =
On September 9 , a tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa . Despite moving through a dry environment , its convection became organized as an anticyclone developed over the wave . On September 14 , convection was well @-@ organized enough around a small closed wind circulation to classify the system as Tropical Depression Ten near Trinidad and Tobago . Land interaction from Venezuela later weakened the depression back to a tropical wave . The wave continued west @-@ northwestward through the Caribbean , and redeveloped into a tropical depression on September 17 while 140 miles ( 230 km ) south of Jamaica .
Embedded within a weak steering current , it drifted to the northwest , and strengthened into Tropical Storm Isidore on September 18 near Jamaica . After grazing the island , it quickly intensified to a hurricane late on September 19 while south of Cuba . Isidore 's maximum sustained winds reached 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) near the Isle of Youth , and weakened slightly to an 85 miles per hour ( 137 km / h ) hurricane as it made landfall on Cabo Frances late on September 20 . The hurricane crossed the island , then slowed as it moved westward across the Gulf of Mexico . Favorable conditions aloft with warm water temperatures allowed Isidore to quickly intensify to a peak of 125 miles per hour ( 201 km / h ) winds on September 21 .
Despite Dvorak satellite estimates of 145 miles per hour ( 233 km / h ) , reconnaissance aircraft indicated Isidore remained a 125 miles per hour ( 201 km / h ) Category 3 hurricane , with pressures dropping to 934 mbar ( 27 @.@ 6 inHg ) , typical of a Category 4 hurricane . It is the lowest minimum pressure ever observed for an Atlantic hurricane which did not exceed Category 3 intensity . With nearly ideal conditions for development , Isidore was forecast to reach winds of 150 miles per hour ( 240 km / h ) over the northern Gulf of Mexico . High pressures to its north forced it southward , and Isidore made landfall at Telchac Puerto in Yucatán as a major hurricane on September 22 . It weakened rapidly as it nearly stalled over Yucatán , and was only a minimal tropical storm after being inland for 30 hours .
The inner core of convection collapsed while over southeast Mexico , and upon moving northward and reaching the Gulf of Mexico again , it was a large but weak tropical storm . Conditions favored significant strengthening , but Isidore did not redevelop central convection until reaching the northern Gulf of Mexico . The strengthening system hit Grand Isle , Louisiana on September 26 as a 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) tropical storm , but weakened quickly into a tropical depression after moving inland . The system raced to the northeast , and became an extratropical cyclone on September 27 before becoming absorbed in a frontal zone over Pennsylvania that night .
= = Preparations = =
Before Isidore became a hurricane , there were fears that the storm would end up being a significant threat . The upper level environment ahead of the storm was very favorable , and the oceanic heat content was very high . Just ten months after the destructive Hurricane Michelle , Hurricane Isidore threatened to cause similar effects in Cuba . In preparation for the storm , about 292 @,@ 000 people and thousands of farm animals were evacuated in the Pinar del Río province . Hurricane Warnings were posted about 48 hours before landfall , leaving ample time to prepare for the storm .
Once in the Gulf of Mexico , Hurricane Isidore became a major Category 3 storm with winds of 125 miles per hour ( 201 km / h ) . The forecasts then predicted Isidore to move westward in the Gulf of Mexico for a few days , before turning northward towards the Gulf Coast as what was predicted by then to be a strong Category 4 hurricane . Initially expected to remain north of the peninsula , hurricane warnings were issued just over a day prior to landfall , with no watch preceding Isidore 's passage . More than 70 @,@ 000 people were evacuated , and ports on the Gulf coast of Yucatán were closed . Mexican authorities declared a state of emergency prior to the arrival of the storm . Due to Isidore 's unexpected southward turn into the Yucatán Peninsula , Isidore weakened significantly to a tropical storm which limited potential damage along the United States Gulf Coast . In preparation for the hurricane , the Red Cross mobilized its members across Texas , Alabama , Louisiana , Mississippi , and Florida days before Isidore 's expected landfall . Volunteers were sent in the days prior to ensure families had a family disaster plan and a disaster supplies kit in their household . Hurricane watches raised for the United States Gulf coast between Cameron , Louisiana and Pascagoula , Mississippi late on the morning of September 24 were discontinued early on the morning of September 25 , when the storm was no longer expected to restrengthen into a hurricane .
= = Impact = =
= = = Caribbean islands = = =
In the Windward Islands , Isidore was a weak tropical depression that caused no reported damage or casualties . The Cayman Islands reported tropical storm force winds , and likely experienced flooding to some degree , but Isidore caused no reported damage or casualties . Isidore brought heavy rains to Jamaica , totalling 27 @.@ 2 inches ( 690 mm ) at Cotton Tree Gully .
= = = Cuba = = =
Hurricane Isidore brought torrential rainfall , with many areas reporting over 1 foot ( 300 mm ) of rain . The maximum reported was 21 @.@ 7 inches ( 550 mm ) at Isabel Rubio in western Cuba . The rainfall , combined with a 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) storm surge , destroyed 77 houses , caused power outages , uprooted trees and blew off roofs . Over 130 tobacco drying houses were affected to some degree , damaging valuable tobacco stock . A total of 24 @,@ 000 metric tons of citrus and 132 metric tons of coffee were lost from the storm . Thousands of livestock perished . No deaths were reported .
= = = Southeast Mexico = = =
Hurricane Isidore was one of only four storms to hit the north side of the Yucatán since records have been kept . It was the first tropical cyclone to hit the area since Tropical Depression Greta in 1970 , the first tropical storm since 1935 , the first hurricane since 1888 , and only major hurricane to ever hit the area .
The storm shut down oil production of the Mexican state @-@ run oil company , PEMEX . Drilling operations , as well as exports from Mexico , stopped for one week which cost the oil company US $ 108 @.@ 7 million . The Gulf Coast island of Isla Arena was nearly covered by Isidore 's storm surge . Its residents evacuated prior to the storm 's passage .
Hurricane Isidore hit near Mérida , Yucatán , as a 125 miles per hour ( 201 km / h ) hurricane , and remained over the area for around 36 hours . Over 30 inches ( 760 mm ) of rainfall fell , with the maximum recorded near Campeche . The storm surge reached as high as 6 metres ( 20 ft ) over southern portions of Yucatán state . Nearly one @-@ third of all fishing vessels were damaged by Isidore . Nearly 36 @,@ 500 houses were destroyed in Yucatán from the intense winds , 83 @,@ 000 homes damaged , and 500 @,@ 000 were left homeless . Downed trees and power lines were common over much of the northern Yucatán Peninsula , and 75 % of barns and warehouses were either severely damage or destroyed . Damage to crops and livestock was extreme ; 2 @,@ 000 square kilometres of maize and 400 square kilometres of fruit trees were damaged across the country . A total of 70 % of the poultry production and livestock were lost during the storm in Yucatán . Damage to Mexico 's power grid reached US $ 19 @.@ 76 million . Over one @-@ fourth of the roads across the peninsula were moderately or severely damaged , which resulted in losses of US $ 9 @.@ 88 million to rural areas . Farming in Campeche experienced significant damage , with 30 @,@ 000 cattle and 100 @,@ 000 acres ( 400 km ² ) of agricultural land lost .
Throughout the Yucatán Peninsula , there were 17 deaths were attributed to Hurricane Isidore , two of which were indirectly related to the storm . Damage in the country totaled $ 950 million ( 2002 USD ) .
= = = Central America = = =
Isidore caused heavy rains in Guatemala due to upslope flow from the Pacific Ocean , which led to landslides and flooding across southern and western portions of the country . The rains led to the drowning of two people when they tried to cross a rain @-@ swollen river . Three hundred and fifty households reported losses .
= = = Eastern United States = = =
In the open Gulf of Mexico , Hurricane Isidore and later Hurricane Lili contributed to the shutdown of offshore oil and gas platforms . The effects of back @-@ to @-@ back storms resulted in the loss of production of 14 @.@ 4 million barrels ( 2 @,@ 290 @,@ 000 m3 ) of oil and 88 @.@ 9 billion cubic feet ( 2 @.@ 52 × 109 m3 ) of natural gas . A storm surge of 8 @.@ 3 feet ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) was measured at Rigoletes , Louisiana and at Gulfport Harbor , Mississippi . Hurricane Isidore brought widespread heavy rainfall from the central Gulf coast into the Ohio Valley , with a maximum of 15 @.@ 97 inches ( 406 mm ) at Metairie , Louisiana . The flooding was responsible for moderate crop damage , with a total of $ 330 million in damage ( 2002 USD , 360 million 2006 USD ) . Isidore claimed five lives ; four direct and one indirect . The indirect death was from a man that went into cardiac arrest in Mississippi , whereas the other four were drowning deaths .
= = = Retirement = = =
The name Isidore was retired in the spring of 2003 and will never be used for an Atlantic hurricane again . It was replaced with Ike in the 2008 season . That name itself was retired and replaced with Isaias after Hurricane Ike caused immense destruction in the United States and Cuba .
= Spanish conquest of the Maya =
The Spanish conquest of the Maya was a protracted conflict during the Spanish colonisation of the Americas , in which the Spanish conquistadores and their allies gradually incorporated the territory of the Late Postclassic Maya states and polities into the colonial Viceroyalty of New Spain . The Maya occupied a territory that is now incorporated into the modern countries of Mexico , Guatemala , Belize , Honduras and El Salvador ; the conquest began in the early 16th century and is generally considered to have ended in 1697 .
The conquest of the Maya was hindered by their politically fragmented state . Spanish and native tactics and technology differed greatly . The Spanish engaged in a strategy of concentrating native populations in newly founded colonial towns ; they viewed the taking of prisoners as a hindrance to outright victory , whereas the Maya prioritised the capture of live prisoners and of booty . Among the Maya , ambush was a favoured tactic ; in response to the use of Spanish cavalry , the highland Maya took to digging pits and lining them with wooden stakes . Native resistance to the new nucleated settlements took the form of the flight into inaccessible regions such as the forest or joining neighbouring Maya groups that had not yet submitted to the European conquerors . Spanish weaponry included broadswords , rapiers , lances , pikes , halberds , crossbows , matchlocks and light artillery . Maya warriors fought with flint @-@ tipped spears , bows and arrows , stones , and wooden swords with inset obsidian blades , and wore padded cotton armour to protect themselves . The Maya lacked key elements of Old World technology such as a functional wheel , horses , iron , steel , and gunpowder ; they were also extremely susceptible to Old World diseases , against which they had no resistance .
Before the conquest , Maya territory contained a number of competing kingdoms . Many conquistadors viewed the Maya as " infidels " who needed to be forcefully converted and pacified , disregarding the achievements of their civilization . The first contact between the Maya and European explorers came in the early 16th century when a Spanish ship sailing from Panama to Santo Domingo was wrecked on the east coast of the Yucatán Peninsula in 1511 . Several Spanish expeditions followed in 1517 and 1519 , making landfall on various parts of the Yucatán coast . The Spanish conquest of the Maya was a prolonged affair ; the Maya kingdoms resisted integration into the Spanish Empire with such tenacity that their defeat took almost two centuries . The Itza Maya and other lowland groups in the Petén Basin were first contacted by Hernán Cortés in 1525 , but remained independent and hostile to the encroaching Spanish until 1697 , when a concerted Spanish assault led by Martín de Urzúa y Arizmendi finally defeated the last independent Maya kingdom .
= = Geography = =
The Maya civilization occupied a wide territory that included southeastern Mexico and northern Central America ; this area included the entire Yucatán Peninsula , and all of the territory now incorporated into the modern countries of Guatemala and Belize , as well as the western portions of Honduras and El Salvador . In Mexico , the Maya occupied territory now incorporated into the states of Chiapas , Tabasco , Campeche , Quintana Roo and Yucatán .
The Yucatán Peninsula is bordered by the Caribbean Sea to the east and by the Gulf of Mexico to the north and west . It incorporates the modern Mexican states of Yucatán , Quintana Roo and Campeche , the eastern portion of the state of Tabasco , most of the Guatemalan department of Petén , and all of Belize . Most of the peninsula is formed by a vast plain with few hills or mountains and a generally low coastline . The northwestern and northern portions of the Yucatán Peninsula experience lower rainfall than the rest of the peninsula ; these regions feature highly porous limestone bedrock resulting in less surface water . In contrast , the northeastern portion of the peninsula is characterised by forested swamplands . The northern portion of the peninsula lacks rivers , except for the Champotón River – all other rivers are located in the south .
The Petén region consists of densely forested low @-@ lying limestone plain , crossed by low east – west oriented ridges and is characterised by a variety of forest and soil types ; water sources include generally small rivers and low @-@ lying seasonal swamps known as bajos . A chain of fourteen lakes runs across the central drainage basin of Petén . The largest lake is Lake Petén Itza ; it measures 32 by 5 kilometres ( 19 @.@ 9 by 3 @.@ 1 mi ) . A broad savannah extends south of the central lakes . To the north of the lakes region bajos become more frequent , interspersed with forest . To the south the plain gradually rises towards the Guatemalan Highlands . Dense forest covers northern Petén and Belize , most of Quintana Roo , southern Campeche and a portion of the south of Yucatán state . Further north , the vegetation turns to lower forest consisting of dense scrub .
Chiapas occupies the extreme southeast of Mexico ; it possesses 260 kilometres ( 160 mi ) of Pacific coastline . Chiapas features two principal highland regions ; to the south is the Sierra Madre de Chiapas and in central Chiapas are the Montañas Centrales ( Central Highlands ) . They are separated by the Depresión Central , containing the drainage basin of the Grijalva River , featuring a hot climate with moderate rainfall . The Sierra Madre highlands gain altitude from west to east , with the highest mountains near the Guatemalan border . The Central Highlands of Chiapas rise sharply to the north of the Grijalva , to a maximum altitude of 2 @,@ 400 metres ( 7 @,@ 900 ft ) , then descend gradually towards the Yucatán Peninsula . They are cut by deep valleys running parallel to the Pacific coast , and feature a complex drainage system that feeds both the Grijalva and the Lacantún River . At the eastern end of the Central Highlands is the Lacandon Forest , this region is largely mountainous with lowland tropical plains at its easternmost extreme . The littoral zone of Soconusco lies to the south of the Sierra Madre de Chiapas , and consists of a narrow coastal plain and the foothills of the Sierra Madre .
= = Maya region before the conquest = =
The Maya had never been unified as a single empire , but by the time the Spanish arrived Maya civilization was thousands of years old and had already seen the rise and fall of great cities .
= = = Yucatán = = =
The first large Maya cities developed in the Petén Basin in the far south of the Yucatán Peninsula as far back as the Middle Preclassic ( c . 600 – 350 BC ) , and Petén formed the heartland of the ancient Maya civilization during the Classic period ( c . AD 250 – 900 ) . The 16th @-@ century Maya provinces of northern Yucatán are likely to have evolved out of polities of the Maya Classic period . The great cities that dominated Petén had fallen into ruin by the beginning of the 10th century with the onset of the Classic Maya collapse . A significant Maya presence remained in Petén into the Postclassic period after the abandonment of the major Classic period cities ; the population was particularly concentrated near permanent water sources .
In the early 16th century , the Yucatán Peninsula was still dominated by the Maya civilization . It was divided into a number of independent provinces that shared a common culture but varied in their internal sociopolitical organisation . When the Spanish discovered Yucatán , the provinces of Mani and Sotuta were two of the most important polities in the region . They were mutually hostile ; the Xiu Maya of Mani allied themselves with the Spanish , while the Cocom Maya of Sotuta became the implacable enemies of the European colonisers .
At the time of conquest , polities in the northern Yucatán peninsula included Mani , Cehpech and Chakan ; further east along the north coast were Ah Kin Chel , Cupul , and Chikinchel . Ecab , Uaymil , Chetumal all bordered on the Caribbean Sea . Cochuah was also in the eastern half of the peninsula . Tases , Hocaba and Sotuta were all landlocked provinces . Chanputun ( modern Champotón ) was on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico , as was Acalan . In the southern portion of the peninsula , a number of polities occupied the Petén Basin . The Kejache occupied a territory between the Petén lakes and what is now Campeche . The Cholan Maya @-@ speaking Lakandon ( not to be confused with the modern inhabitants of Chiapas by that name ) controlled territory along the tributaries of the Usumacinta River spanning eastern Chiapas and southwestern Petén . The Lakandon had a fierce reputation amongst the Spanish .
Before their defeat in 1697 the Itza controlled or influenced much of Petén and parts of Belize . The Itza were warlike , and their capital was Nojpetén , an island city upon Lake Petén Itzá . The Kowoj were the second in importance ; they were hostile towards their Itza neighbours . The Kowoj were located around the eastern Petén lakes . The Yalain occupied a territory that extended eastwards to Tipuj in Belize . Other groups in Petén are less well known , and their precise territorial extent and political makeup remains obscure ; among them were the Chinamita , the Icaiche , the Kejache , the Lakandon Ch 'ol , the Manche Ch 'ol , and the Mopan .
= = = Maya Highlands = = =
What is now the Mexican state of Chiapas was divided roughly equally between the non @-@ Maya Zoque in the western half and Maya in the eastern half ; this distribution continued up to the time of the Spanish conquest . On the eve of the conquest the highlands of Guatemala were dominated by several powerful Maya states . In the centuries preceding the arrival of the Spanish the K 'iche ' had carved out a small empire covering a large part of the western Guatemalan Highlands and the neighbouring Pacific coastal plain . However , in the late 15th century the Kaqchikel rebelled against their former K 'iche ' allies and founded a new kingdom to the southeast with Iximche as its capital . In the decades before the Spanish invasion the Kaqchikel kingdom had been steadily eroding the kingdom of the K 'iche ' . Other highland groups included the Tz 'utujil around Lake Atitlán , the Mam in the western highlands and the Poqomam in the eastern highlands . The central highlands of Chiapas were occupied by a number of Maya peoples , including the Tzotzil , who were divided into a number of provinces ; the province of Chamula was said to have five small towns grouped closely together . The Tojolabal held territory around Comitán . The Coxoh Maya held territory in the upper reaches of the Grijalva drainage , near the Guatemalan border , and were probably a subgroup of the Tojolabal .
= = = Pacific lowlands = = =
Soconusco was an important communication route between the central Mexican highlands and Central America . It had been subjugated by the Aztec Triple Alliance at the end of the 15th century , under the emperor Ahuizotl , and paid tribute in cacao . The highland K 'iche ' dominated the Pacific coastal plain of western Guatemala . The eastern portion of the Pacific plain was occupied by the non @-@ Maya Pipil and Xinca .
= = Background to the conquest = =
Christopher Columbus discovered the New World for the Kingdom of Castile and Leon in 1492 . Private adventurers thereafter entered into contracts with the Spanish Crown to conquer the newly discovered lands in return for tax revenues and the power to rule . In the first decades after the discovery of the new lands , the Spanish colonised the Caribbean and established a centre of operations on the island of Cuba . By August 1521 the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan had fallen to the Spanish . Within three years of the fall of Tenochtitlan the Spanish had conquered a large part of Mexico , extending as far south as the Isthmus of Tehuantepec . The newly conquered territory became New Spain , headed by a viceroy who answered to the king of Spain via the Council of the Indies .
= = Weaponry , strategies and tactics = =
The conquistadors were all volunteers , the majority of whom did not receive a fixed salary but instead a portion of the spoils of victory , in the form of precious metals , land grants and provision of native labour . Many of the Spanish were already experienced soldiers who had previously campaigned in Europe . In addition to Spaniards , the invasion force probably included dozens of armed African slaves and freemen . The politically fragmented state of the Yucatán Peninsula at the time of conquest hindered the Spanish invasion , since there was no central political authority to be overthrown . However , the Spanish exploited this fragmentation by taking advantage of pre @-@ existing rivalries between polities . Among Mesoamerican peoples the capture of prisoners was a priority , while to the Spanish such taking of prisoners was a hindrance to outright victory . The Spanish engaged in a strategy of concentrating native populations in newly founded colonial towns , or reducciones ( also known as congregaciones ) . Native resistance to the new nucleated settlements took the form of the flight of the indigenous inhabitants into inaccessible regions such as the forest or joining neighbouring Maya groups that had not yet submitted to the Spanish . Those that remained behind in the reducciones often fell victim to contagious diseases ; coastal reducciones , while convenient for Spanish administration , were also vulnerable to pirate attacks .
= = = Spanish weapons and tactics = = =
Spanish weaponry and tactics differed greatly from that of the indigenous peoples . This included the Spanish use of crossbows , firearms ( including muskets , arquebuses and cannon ) , war dogs and war horses . Horses had never been encountered by the Maya before , and their use gave the mounted conquistador an overwhelming advantage over his unmounted opponent , allowing the rider to strike with greater force while simultaneously making him less vulnerable to attack . The mounted conquistador was highly manoeuvrable and this allowed groups of combatants to quickly displace themselves across the battlefield . The horse itself was not passive , and could buffet the enemy combatant .
The crossbows and early firearms were unwieldy and deteriorated rapidly in the field , often becoming unusable after a few weeks of campaigning due to the effects of the climate . The Maya lacked key elements of Old World technology , such as the use of iron and steel and functional wheels . The use of steel swords was perhaps the greatest technological advantage held by the Spanish , although the deployment of cavalry helped them to rout indigenous armies on occasion . The Spanish were sufficiently impressed by the quilted cotton armour of their Maya enemies that they adopted it in preference to their own steel armour . The conquistadors applied a more effective military organisation and strategic awareness than their opponents , allowing them to deploy troops and supplies in a way that increased the Spanish advantage .
The 16th @-@ century Spanish conquistadors were armed with one- and two @-@ handed broadswords , lances , pikes , rapiers , halberds , crossbows , matchlocks and light artillery . Crossbows were easier to maintain than matchlocks , especially in the humid tropical climate of the Caribbean region that included much of the Yucatán Peninsula .
In Guatemala the Spanish routinely fielded indigenous allies ; at first these were Nahua brought from the recently conquered Mexico , later they also included Maya . It is estimated that for every Spaniard on the field of battle , there were at least 10 native auxiliaries . Sometimes there were as many as 30 indigenous warriors for every Spaniard , and the participation of these Mesoamerican allies was decisive .
= = = Native weapons and tactics = = =
Maya armies were highly disciplined , and warriors participated in regular training exercises and drills ; every able @-@ bodied adult male was available for military service . Maya states did not maintain standing armies ; warriors were mustered by local officials who reported back to appointed warleaders . There were also units of full @-@ time mercenaries who followed permanent leaders . Most warriors were not full @-@ time , however , and were primarily farmers ; the needs of their crops usually came before warfare . Maya warfare was not so much aimed at destruction of the enemy as the seizure of captives and plunder . Maya warriors entered battle against the Spanish with flint @-@ tipped spears , bows and arrows and stones . They wore padded cotton armour to protect themselves . The Spanish described the weapons of war of the Petén Maya as bows and arrows , fire @-@ sharpened poles , flint @-@ headed spears and two @-@ handed swords crafted from strong wood with the blade fashioned from inset obsidian , similar to the Aztec macuahuitl . Maya warriors wore body armour in the form of quilted cotton that had been soaked in salt water to toughen it ; the resulting armour compared favourably to the steel armour worn by the Spanish . Warriors bore wooden or animal hide shields decorated with feathers and animal skins . The Maya had historically employed ambush and raiding as their preferred tactic , and its employment against the Spanish proved troublesome for the Europeans . In response to the use of cavalry , the highland Maya took to digging pits on the roads , lining them with fire @-@ hardened stakes and camouflaging them with grass and weeds , a tactic that according to the Kaqchikel killed many horses .
= = Impact of Old World diseases = =
Epidemics accidentally introduced by the Spanish included smallpox , measles and influenza . These diseases , together with typhus and yellow fever , had a major impact on Maya populations . The Old World diseases brought with the Spanish and against which the indigenous New World peoples had no resistance were a deciding factor in the conquest ; they decimated populations before battles were even fought . It is estimated that 90 % of the indigenous population had been eliminated by disease within the first century of European contact .
A single soldier arriving in Mexico in 1520 was carrying smallpox and initiated the devastating plagues that swept through the native populations of the Americas . Modern estimates of native population decline vary from 75 % to 90 % mortality . Maya written histories suggest that smallpox was rapidly transmitted throughout the Maya area the same year that it arrived in central Mexico . Among the most deadly diseases were the aforementioned smallpox , influenza , measles and a number of pulmonary diseases , including tuberculosis . Modern knowledge of the impact of these diseases on populations with no prior exposure suggests that 33 – 50 % of the population of the Maya highlands perished .
These diseases swept through Yucatán in the 1520s and 1530s , with periodic recurrences throughout the 16th century . By the late 16th century , malaria had arrived in the region , and yellow fever was first reported in the mid @-@ 17th century . Mortality was high , with approximately 50 % of the population of some Yucatec Maya settlements being wiped out . Those areas of the peninsula that experience damper conditions became rapidly depopulated after the conquest with the introduction of malaria and other waterborne parasites . The native population of the northeastern portion of the peninsula was almost completely eliminated within fifty years of the conquest . Soconusco also suffered catastrophic population collapse , with an estimated 90 – 95 % drop .
In the south , conditions conducive to the spread of malaria existed throughout Petén and Belize . In Tabasco the population of approximately 30 @,@ 000 was reduced by an estimated 90 % , with measles , smallpox , catarrhs , dysentery and fevers being the main culprits . At the time of the fall of Nojpetén in 1697 , there are estimated to have been 60 @,@ 000 Maya living around Lake Petén Itzá , including a large number of refugees from other areas . It is estimated that 88 % of them died during the first ten years of colonial rule owing to a combination of disease and war .
= = First encounters : 1502 and 1511 = =
On 30 July 1502 , during his fourth voyage , Christopher Columbus arrived at Guanaja , one of the Bay Islands off the coast of Honduras . He sent his brother Bartholomew to scout the island . As Bartholomew explored , a large trading canoe approached . Bartholomew Columbus boarded the canoe , and found it was a Maya trading vessel from Yucatán , carrying well @-@ dressed Maya and a rich cargo . The Europeans looted whatever took their interest from amongst the cargo and seized the elderly captain to serve as an interpreter ; the canoe was then allowed to continue on its way . This was the first recorded contact between Europeans and the Maya . It is likely that news of the piratical strangers in the Caribbean passed along the Maya trade routes – the first prophecies of bearded invaders sent by Kukulkan , the northern Maya feathered serpent god , were probably recorded around this time , and in due course passed into the books of Chilam Balam .
In 1511 the Spanish caravel Santa María de la Barca sailed along the Central American coast under the command of Pedro de Valdivia . The ship foundered upon a reef somewhere off Jamaica . There were just twenty survivors from the wreck , including Captain Valdivia , Gerónimo de Aguilar and Gonzalo Guerrero . They set themselves adrift in one of the ship 's boats and after thirteen days , during which half of the survivors died , they made landfall upon the coast of Yucatán . There they were seized by Halach Uinik , a Maya lord . Captain Vildivia was sacrificed with four of his companions , and their flesh was served at a feast . Aguilar and Guerrero were held prisoner and fattened for killing , together with five or six of their shipmates . Aguilar and Guerrero managed to escape their captors and fled to a neighbouring lord , who took them prisoner and kept them as slaves . After a time , Gonzalo Guerrero was passed as a slave to the lord Nachan Can of Chetumal . Guerrero became completely Mayanised and by 1514 Guerrero had achieved the rank of nacom , a war leader who served against Nachan Chan 's enemies .
= = Exploration of the Yucatán coast , 1517 – 1519 = =
= = = Francisco Hernández de Córdoba , 1517 = = =
In 1517 , Francisco Hernández de Córdoba set sail from Cuba with a small fleet . The expedition sailed west from Cuba for three weeks before sighting the northeastern tip of the Yucatán Peninsula . The ships could not put in close to the shore due to the coastal shallows . However , they could see a Maya city some two leagues inland . The following morning , ten large canoes rowed out to meet the Spanish ships , and over thirty Maya boarded the vessels and mixed freely with the Spaniards . The following day the conquistadors put ashore . As the Spanish party advanced along a path towards the city , they were ambushed by Maya warriors . Thirteen Spaniards were injured by arrows in the first assault , but the conquistadors regrouped and repulsed the Maya attack . They advanced to a small plaza upon the outskirts of the city . When the Spaniards ransacked nearby temples they found a number of low @-@ grade gold items , which filled them with enthusiasm . The expedition captured two Mayas to be used as interpreters and retreated to the ships . The Spanish discovered that the Maya arrowheads were fashioned from flint and tended to shatter on impact , causing infected wounds and a slow death ; two of the wounded Spaniards died from the arrow @-@ wounds inflicted in the ambush .
Over the next fifteen days the fleet followed the coastline west , and then south . The expedition was now perilously short of fresh water , and shore parties searching for water were left dangerously exposed because the ships could not pull close to the shore due to the shallows . On 23 February 1517 , the Spanish spotted the Maya city of Campeche . A large contingent put ashore to fill their water casks . They were approached by about fifty finely @-@ dressed and unarmed Indians while the water was being loaded into the boats ; they questioned the Spaniards as to their purpose by means of signs . The Spanish party then accepted an invitation to enter the city . Once inside the city , the Maya leaders made it clear that the Spanish would be killed if they did not withdraw immediately . The Spanish party retreated in defensive formation to the safety of the ships .
After ten more days , the ships spotted an inlet close Champotón , and a landing party discovered fresh water . Armed Maya warriors approached from the city , and communication was attempted with signs . Night fell by the time the water casks had been filled and the attempts at communication concluded . By sunrise the Spanish had been surrounded by a sizeable army . The massed Maya warriors launched an assault and all of the Spanish party received wounds in the frantic melee that followed , including Hernández de Córdoba . The Spanish regrouped and forced passage to the shore , where their discipline collapsed and a frantic scramble for the boats ensued , leaving the Spanish vulnerable to the pursuing Maya warriors who waded into the sea behind them . By the end of the battle , the Spanish had lost over fifty men , more than half their number , and five more men died from their wounds in the following days . The battle had lasted only an hour . They were now far from help and low on supplies ; too many men had been lost and injured to sail all three ships back to Cuba , so one was abandoned . The ship 's pilot then steered a course for Cuba via Florida , and Hernández de Cordóba wrote a report to Governor Diego Velázquez describing the voyage and , most importantly , the discovery of gold . Hernández died soon after from his wounds .
= = = Juan de Grijalva , 1518 = = =
Diego Velázquez , the governor of Cuba , was enthused by Hernández de Córdoba 's report of gold in Yucatán . He organised a new expedition and placed his nephew Juan de Grijalva in command over his four ships . The small fleet left Cuba in April 1518 , and made its first landfall upon the island of Cozumel , off the east coast of Yucatán . The Maya inhabitants of Cozumel fled the Spanish and would not respond to Grijalva 's friendly overtures . The fleet then sailed south along the east coast of the peninsula . The Spanish spotted three large Maya cities along the coast , but Grijalva did not land at any of these and turned back north to loop around the north of the peninsula and sail down the west coast . At Campeche the Spanish tried to barter for water but the Maya refused , so Grijalva opened fire against the city with small cannon ; the inhabitants fled , allowing the Spanish to take the abandoned city . Messages were sent with a few Maya who had been too slow to escape but the Maya remained hidden in the forest ; the Spanish boarded their ships and continued along the coast .
At Champotón , the fleet was approached by a small number of large war canoes , but the ships ' cannon soon put them to flight . At the mouth of the Tabasco River the Spanish sighted massed warriors and canoes but the natives did not approach . By means of interpreters , Grijalva indicated that he wished to trade and bartered wine and beads in exchange for food and other supplies . From the natives they received a few gold trinkets and news of the riches of the Aztec Empire to the west . The expedition continued far enough to confirm the reality of the gold @-@ rich empire , sailing as far north as Pánuco River . As the fleet returned to Cuba , the Spanish attacked Champotón to avenge the previous year 's defeat of the Spanish expedition led by Hernández . One Spaniard was killed and fifty were wounded in the ensuing battle , including Grijalva . Grijalva put into Havana five months after he had left .
= = = Hernán Cortés , 1519 = = =
Grijalva 's return aroused great interest in Cuba , and Yucatán was believed to be a land of riches waiting to be plundered . A new expedition was organised , with a fleet of eleven ships carrying 500 men and some horses . Hernán Cortés was placed in command , and his crew included officers that would become famous conquistadors , including Pedro de Alvarado , Cristóbal de Olid , Gonzalo de Sandoval and Diego de Ordaz . Also aboard were Francisco de Montejo and Bernal Díaz del Castillo , veterans of the Grijalva expedition .
The fleet made its first landfall at Cozumel ; Maya temples were cast down and a Christian cross was put up on one of them . At Cozumel Cortés heard rumours of bearded men on the Yucatán mainland , who he presumed were Europeans . Cortés sent out messengers to them and was able to rescue the shipwrecked Gerónimo de Aguilar , who had been enslaved by a Maya lord . Aguilar had learnt the Yucatec Maya language and became Cortés ' interpreter .
From Cozumel , the fleet looped around the north of the Yucatán Peninsula and followed the coast to the Grijalva River , which Cortés named in honour of the Spanish captain who had discovered it . In Tabasco , Cortés anchored his ships at Potonchán , a Chontal Maya town . The Maya prepared for battle but the Spanish horses and firearms quickly decided the outcome . The defeated Chontal Maya lords offered gold , food , clothing and a group of young women in tribute to the victors . Among these women was a young Maya noblewoman called Malintzin , who was given the Spanish name Marina . She spoke Maya and Nahuatl and became the means by which Cortés was able to communicate with the Aztecs . From Tabasco , Cortés continued to along the coast , and went on to conquer the Aztecs .
= = Preparations for conquest of the Highlands , 1522 – 1523 = =
After the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan fell to the Spanish in 1521 , the Kaqchikel Maya of Iximche sent envoys to Hernán Cortés to declare their allegiance to the new ruler of Mexico , and the K 'iche ' Maya of Q 'umarkaj may also have sent a delegation . In 1522 Cortés sent Mexican allies to scout the Soconusco region of lowland Chiapas , where they met new delegations from Iximche and Q 'umarkaj at Tuxpán ; both of the powerful highland Maya kingdoms declared their loyalty to the King of Spain . But Cortés ' allies in Soconusco soon informed him that the K 'iche ' and the Kaqchikel were not loyal , and were harassing Spain 's allies in the region . Cortés despatched Pedro de Alvarado with 180 cavalry , 300 infantry , 4 cannons , and thousands of allied warriors from central Mexico ; they arrived in Soconusco in 1523 .
= = Soconusco , 1523 – 1524 = =
Pedro de Alvarado passed through Soconusco with a sizeable force in 1523 , en route to conquer Guatemala . Alvarado 's army included hardened veterans of the conquest of the Aztecs , and included cavalry and artillery ; he was accompanied by a great many indigenous allies . Alvarado was received in peace in Soconusco , and the inhabitants swore allegiance to the Spanish Crown . They reported that neighbouring groups in Guatemala were attacking them because of their friendly outlook towards the Spanish . By 1524 , Soconusco had been completely pacified by Alvarado and his forces . Due to the economic importance of cacao to the new colony , the Spanish were reluctant to move the indigenous inhabitants far from their established cacao orchards . As a result , the inhabitants of Soconusco were less likely to be rounded up into new reducción settlements than elsewhere in Chiapas , since the planting of a new cacao crop would have required five years to mature .
= = Hernán Cortés in the Maya lowlands , 1524 – 25 = =
In 1524 , after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire , Hernán Cortés led an expedition to Honduras over land , cutting across Acalan in southern Campeche and the Itza kingdom in what is now the northern Petén Department of Guatemala . His aim was to subdue the rebellious Cristóbal de Olid , whom he had sent to conquer Honduras , and who had set himself up independently in that territory . Cortés left Tenochtitlan on 12 October 1524 with 140 Spanish soldiers , 93 of them mounted , 3 @,@ 000 Mexican warriors , 150 horses , artillery , munitions and other supplies . Cortés marched into Maya territory in Tabasco ; the army crossed the Usumacinta River near Tenosique and crossed into the Chontal Maya province of Acalan , where he recruited 600 Chontal Maya carriers . Cortés and his army left Acalan on 5 March 1525 .
The expedition passed onwards through Kejache territory , and arrived at the north shore of Lake Petén Itzá on 13 March 1525 . The Roman Catholic priests accompanying the expedition celebrated mass in the presence of the king of the Itza , who was said to be so impressed that he pledged to worship the cross and to destroy his idols . Cortés accepted an invitation from Kan Ek ' to visit Nojpetén . On his departure , Cortés left behind a cross and a lame horse that the Itza treated as a deity , but the animal soon died .
From the lake , Cortés continued on the arduous journey south along the western slopes of the Maya Mountains , during which he lost most of his horses . The expedition became lost in the hills north of Lake Izabal and came close to starvation before they captured a Maya boy who led them to safety . Cortés found a village on the shore of Lake Izabal , and crossed the Dulce River to the settlement of Nito , somewhere on the Amatique Bay , with about a dozen companions , and waited there for the rest of his army to regroup over the next week . By this time the remnants of the expedition had been reduced to a few hundred ; Cortés succeeded in contacting the Spaniards he was searching for , only to find that Cristóbal de Olid 's own officers had already put down his rebellion . Cortés then returned to Mexico by sea .
= = Fringes of empire : Belize , 16th – 17th centuries = =
No Spanish military expeditions were launched against the Maya of Belize , although both Dominican and Franciscan friars penetrated the region in attempts at evangelising the natives . The only Spanish settlement in the territory was established by Alonso d 'Avila in 1531 and lasted less than two years . In 1574 , fifty households of Manche Ch 'ol were relocated from Campin and Yaxal , in southern Belize , to the shore of Lake Izabal , but they soon fled back into the forest . In order to counter Spanish encroachment into their territory , the local Maya maintained an uneasy friendship with British loggers operating in central Belize . In 1641 , the Franciscans established two reducciones among the Muzul Maya of central Belize , at Zoite and Cehake ; both settlements were sacked by Dutch corsairs within a year .
= = Conquest of the Maya Highlands , 1524 – 1526 = =
= = = Subjugation of the K 'iche ' , 1524 = = =
Pedro de Alvarado and his army advanced along the Pacific coast unopposed until they reached the Samalá River in western Guatemala . This region formed a part of the K 'iche ' kingdom , and a K 'iche ' army tried unsuccessfully to prevent the Spanish from crossing the river . Once across , the conquistadors ransacked nearby settlements . On 8 February 1524 Alvarado 's army fought a battle at Xetulul , ( modern San Francisco Zapotitlán ) . The Spanish and their allies stormed the town and set up camp in the marketplace . Alvarado then headed upriver into the Sierra Madre mountains towards the K 'iche ' heartlands , crossing the pass into the valley of Quetzaltenango . On 12 February 1524 Alvarado 's Mexican allies were ambushed in the pass and driven back by K 'iche ' warriors but a Spanish cavalry charge scattered the K 'iche ' and the army crossed to the city of Xelaju ( modern Quetzaltenango ) to find it deserted . The Spanish accounts relate that at least one and possibly two of the ruling lords of Q 'umarkaj died in the fierce battles upon the initial approach to Quetzaltenango . Almost a week later , on 18 February 1524 , a 30 @,@ 000 @-@ strong K 'iche ' army confronted the Spanish army in the Quetzaltenango valley and was comprehensively defeated ; many K 'iche ' nobles were among the dead . This battle exhausted the K 'iche ' militarily and they asked for peace , and invited Pedro de Alvarado into their capital Q 'umarkaj . Alvarado was deeply suspicious of K 'iche ' intentions but accepted the offer and marched to Q 'umarkaj with his army . At Tzakahá the Spanish conducted a Roman Catholic mass under a makeshift roof ; this site was chosen to build the first church in Guatemala . The first Easter mass held in Guatemala was celebrated in the new church , during which high @-@ ranking natives were baptised .
In March 1524 Pedro de Alvarado encamped on the plain outside the Q 'umarkaj . Not wishing to enter the narrow streets of Q 'umarkaj , he invited the K 'iche ' lords Oxib @-@ Keh ( the ajpop , or king ) and Beleheb @-@ Tzy ( the ajpop k 'amha , or king elect ) to visit him in his camp . As soon as they did so , he seized them and kept them as prisoners . In response , the K 'iche ' warriors attacked the Spaniards ' indigenous allies and killed one of the Spanish soldiers . At this point Alvarado had the captured K 'iche ' lords burnt to death , and then proceeded to burn the entire city . After the destruction of Q 'umarkaj , Pedro de Alvarado sent messages to Iximche , capital of the Kaqchikel , proposing an alliance against the remaining K 'iche ' resistance . Alvarado wrote that they sent 4000 warriors to assist him , although the Kaqchikel recorded that they sent only 400 . With the capitulation of the K 'iche ' kingdom , various non @-@ K 'iche ' peoples under K 'iche ' dominion also submitted to the Spanish . This included the Mam inhabitants of the area now within the modern department of San Marcos .
= = = Kaqchikel alliance and conquest of the Tz 'utujil , 1524 = = =
On 14 April 1524 , the Spanish were invited into Iximche and were well received by the lords Belehe Qat and Cahi Imox . The Kaqchikel kings provided native soldiers to assist the conquistadors against continuing K 'iche ' resistance and to help with the defeat of the neighbouring Tz 'utujil kingdom . The Spanish only stayed briefly before continuing to Atitlan and the Pacific coast . The Spanish returned to the Kaqchikel capital on 23 July 1524 and on 27 July Pedro de Alvarado declared Iximche as the first capital of Guatemala , Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala ( " St. James of the Knights of Guatemala " ) .
After two Kaqchikel messengers sent by Pedro de Alvarado were killed by the Tz 'utujil , the conquistadors and their Kaqchikel allies marched against the Tz 'utujil . Pedro de Alvarado led 60 cavalry , 150 Spanish infantry and an unspecified number of Kaqchikel warriors . The Spanish and their allies arrived at the lakeshore after a day 's march , and Alvarado rode ahead with 30 cavalry along the lake shore until he engaged a hostile Tz 'utujil force , which was broken by the Spanish charge . The survivors were pursued across a causeway to an island on foot before the inhabitants could break the bridges . The rest of Alvarado 's army soon arrived and they successfully stormed the island . The surviving Tz 'utujil fled into the lake and swam to safety . The Spanish could not pursue them because 300 canoes sent by the Kaqchikels had not yet arrived . This battle took place on 18 April .
The following day the Spanish entered Tecpan Atitlan , the Tz 'utujil capital , but found it deserted . The Tz 'utujil leaders responded to Alvarado 's messengers by surrendering to Pedro de Alvarado and swearing loyalty to Spain , at which point Alvarado considered them pacified and returned to Iximche ; three days later , the lords of the Tz 'utujil arrived there to pledge their loyalty and offer tribute to the conquistadors .
= = = Reconnaissance of the Chiapas Highlands , 1524 = = =
In 1524 Luis Marín led a small party on a reconnaissance expedition into Chiapas . He set out from Coatzacoalcos ( renamed Espíritu Santo by the Spanish ) , on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico . His party followed the Grijalva upriver ; near modern Chiapa de Corzo the Spanish party fought and defeated the Chiapanecos . Following this battle , Marín headed into the central highlands of Chiapas ; around Easter he passed through the Tzotzil Maya town Zinacantan without opposition from the inhabitants . The Zinacantecos , true to their pledge of allegiance two years earlier , aided the Spanish against the other indigenous peoples of the region .
Marín was initially met by a peaceful embassy as he approached the Tzoztzil town of Chamula . He took this as the submission of the inhabitants , but was met by armed resistance when he tried to enter the province . The Spanish found that the Chamula Tzotzil had abandoned their lands and stripped them of food in an attempt to discourage the invaders . A day after their initial approach , Marín found that the Chamula Tzotzil had gathered their warriors upon a ridge that was too steep for the Spanish horses to climb . The conquistadors were met with a barrage of missiles and boiling water , and found the nearby town defended by a formidable 1 @.@ 2 @-@ metre ( 4 ft ) thick defensive wall . The Spanish stormed the wall , to find that the inhabitants had withdrawn under cover of torrential rain that had interrupted the battle . After taking the deserted Chamula , the Spanish expedition continued against their allies at Huixtan . Again the inhabitants offered armed resistance before abandoning their town to the Spanish . Conquistador Diego Godoy wrote that the Indians killed or captured at Huixtan numbered no more than 500 . The Spanish , by now disappointed with the scarce pickings , decided to retreat to Coatzacoalcos in May 1524 .
= = = Kaqchikel rebellion , 1524 – 1530 = = =
Pedro de Alvarado rapidly began to demand gold in tribute from the Kaqchikels , souring the friendship between the two peoples , and the Kaqchikel people abandoned their city and fled to the forests and hills on 28 August 1524 . Ten days later the Spanish declared war on the Kaqchikel . Two years later , on 9 February 1526 , a group of sixteen Spanish deserters burnt the palace of the Ahpo Xahil , sacked the temples and kidnapped a priest , acts that the Kaqchikel blamed on Pedro de Alvarado .
The Spanish founded a new town at nearby Tecpán Guatemala . The Spanish abandoned Tecpán in 1527 , because of continuous Kaqchikel attacks , and moved to the Almolonga Valley to the east , refounding their capital at Ciudad Vieja . The Kaqchikel kept up resistance against the Spanish for a number of years , but on 9 May 1530 , exhausted by warfare , the two kings of the most important clans returned from the wilds . A day later they were joined by many nobles and their families and many more people ; they then surrendered at the new Spanish capital at Ciudad Vieja . The former inhabitants of Iximche were dispersed ; some were moved to Tecpán , the rest to Sololá and other towns around Lake Atitlán .
= = = Siege of Zaculeu , 1525 = = =
At the time of the conquest , the main Mam population was situated in Xinabahul ( modern Huehuetenango city ) , but Zaculeu 's fortifications led to its use as a refuge during the conquest . The refuge was attacked by Gonzalo de Alvarado y Contreras , brother of Pedro de Alvarado , in 1525 , with 40 Spanish cavalry and 80 Spanish infantry , and some 2 @,@ 000 Mexican and K 'iche ' allies . Gonzalo de Alvarado left the Spanish camp at Tecpán Guatemala in July 1525 and marched to Momostenango , which quickly fell to the Spanish after a four @-@ hour battle . The following day Gonzalo de Alvarado marched on Huehuetenango and was confronted by a Mam army of 5 @,@ 000 warriors from Malacatán . The Mam army advanced across the plain in battle formation and was met by a Spanish cavalry charge that threw them into disarray , with the infantry mopping up those Mam that survived the cavalry . The Mam leader Canil Acab was killed and the surviving warriors fled to the hills . The Spanish army rested for a few days , then continued onwards to Huehuetenango only to find it deserted .
Kayb 'il B 'alam had received news of the Spanish advance and had withdrawn to his fortress at Zaculeu , with some 6 @,@ 000 warriors gathered from the surrounding area . The fortress possessed formidable defences , and Gonzalo de Alvarado launched an assault on the weaker northern entrance . Mam warriors initially held firm against the Spanish infantry but fell back before repeated cavalry charges . Kayb 'il B 'alam , seeing that outright victory on an open battlefield was impossible , withdrew his army back within the safety of the walls . As Alvarado dug in and laid siege to the fortress , an army of approximately 8 @,@ 000 Mam warriors descended on Zaculeu from the Cuchumatanes mountains to the north , drawn from towns allied with the city ; the relief army was annihilated by the Spanish cavalry . After several months the Mam were reduced to starvation . Kayb 'il B 'alam finally surrendered the city to the Spanish in the middle of October 1525 . When the Spanish entered the city they found 1 @,@ 800 dead Indians , and the survivors eating the corpses . After the fall of Zaculeu , a Spanish garrison was established at Huehuetenango , and Gonzalo de Alvarado returned to Tecpán Guatemala .
= = = Pedro de Alvarado in the Chiapas Highlands , 1525 = = =
A year after Luis Marín 's reconnaissance expedition , Pedro de Alvarado entered Chiapas when he crossed a part of the Lacandon Forest in an attempt to link up with Hernán Cortés ' expedition heading for Honduras . Alvarado entered Chiapas from Guatemala via the territory of the Acala Ch 'ol ; he was unable to locate Cortés , and his scouts eventually led him to Tecpan Puyumatlan ( modern Santa Eulalia , Huehuetenango ) , in a mountainous region near the territory of the Lakandon Ch 'ol . The inhabitants of Tecpan Puyumatlan offered fierce resistance against the Spanish @-@ led expedition , and Gonzalo de Alvarado wrote that the Spanish suffered many losses , including the killing of messengers sent to summon the natives to swear loyalty to the Spanish Crown . After failing to locate Cortés , the Alvarados returned to Guatemala .
= = = Central and eastern Guatemalan Highlands , 1525 – 1532 = = =
In 1525 Pedro de Alvarado sent a small company to conquer Mixco Viejo ( Chinautla Viejo ) , the capital of the Poqomam . The Spanish attempted an approach through a narrow pass but were forced back with heavy losses . Alvarado himself launched the second assault with 200 Tlaxcalan allies but was also beaten back . The Poqomam then received reinforcements , and the two armies clashed on open ground outside of the city . The battle was chaotic and lasted for most of the day , but was finally decided by the Spanish cavalry . The leaders of the reinforcements surrendered to the Spanish three days after their retreat and revealed that the city had a secret entrance in the form of a cave . Alvarado sent 40 men to cover the exit from the cave and launched another assault along the ravine , in single file owing to its narrowness , with crossbowmen alternating with musketmen , each with a companion sheltering him with a shield . This tactic allowed the Spanish to break through the pass and storm the entrance of the city . The Poqomam warriors fell back in disorder in a chaotic retreat through the city . Those who managed to retreat down the neighbouring valley were ambushed by Spanish cavalry who had been posted to block the exit from the cave , the survivors were captured and brought back to the city . The siege had lasted more than a month , and because of the defensive strength of the city , Alvarado ordered it to be burned and moved the inhabitants to the new colonial village of Mixco .
There are no direct sources describing the conquest of the Chajoma by the Spanish but it appears to have been a drawn @-@ out campaign rather than a rapid victory . After the conquest , the inhabitants of the kingdom were resettled in San Pedro Sacatepéquez , and San Martín Jilotepeque . The Chajoma rebelled against the Spanish in 1526 , fighting a battle at Ukub 'il , an unidentified site somewhere near the modern towns of San Juan Sacatepéquez and San Pedro Sacatepéquez .
Chiquimula de la Sierra ( " Chiquimula in the Highlands " ) was inhabited by Ch 'orti ' Maya at the time of the conquest . The first Spanish reconnaissance of this region took place in 1524 . In 1526 three Spanish captains invaded Chiquimula on the orders of Pedro de Alvarado . The indigenous population soon rebelled against excessive Spanish demands , but the rebellion was quickly put down in April 1530 . However , the region was not considered fully conquered until a campaign by Jorge de Bocanegra in 1531 – 1532 that also took in parts of Jalapa . The afflictions of Old World diseases , war and overwork in the mines and encomiendas took a heavy toll on the inhabitants of eastern Guatemala , to the extent that indigenous population levels never recovered to their pre @-@ conquest levels .
= = Francisco de Montejo in Yucatán , 1527 – 28 = =
The richer lands of Mexico engaged the main attention of the Conquistadors for some years , then in 1526 Francisco de Montejo ( a veteran of the Grijalva and Cortés expeditions ) successfully petitioned the King of Spain for the right to conquer Yucatán . On 8 December of that year he was issued with the hereditary military title of adelantado and permission to colonise the Yucatán Peninsula . In 1527 he left Spain with 400 men in four ships , with horses , small arms , cannon and provisions . One of the ships was left at Santo Domingo as a supply ship to provide later support ; the other ships set sail and reached Cozumel , an island off the east coast of Yucatán , in the second half of September 1527 . Montejo was received in there in peace by the lord Aj Naum Pat . The ships only stopped briefly before making for the mainland , making landfall somewhere near Xelha in the Maya province of Ekab .
Montejo garrisoned Xelha with 40 soldiers and posted 20 more at nearby Pole . Xelha was renamed Salamanca de Xelha and became the first Spanish settlement in the peninsula . The provisions were soon exhausted and additional food was requisitioned from the local Maya villagers ; this too was soon consumed . Many local Maya fled into the forest and Spanish raiding parties scoured the surrounding area for food , finding little . With discontent growing among his men , Montejo took the drastic step of burning his ships ; this strengthened the resolve of his troops , who gradually acclimatised to the harsh conditions of Yucatán . Montejo was able to get more food from the still @-@ friendly Aj Nuam Pat of Cozumel . Montejo took 125 men and set out on an expedition to explore the north @-@ eastern portion of the Yucatán peninsula . At Belma , Montejo gathered the leaders of the nearby Maya towns and instructed them to swear loyalty to the Spanish Crown . After this , Montejo led his men to Conil , a town in Ekab , where the Spanish party halted for two months .
In the spring of 1528 , Montejo left Conil for the city of Chauaca , which was abandoned by its Maya inhabitants under cover of darkness . The following morning the inhabitants attacked the Spanish party but were defeated . The Spanish then continued to Ake , where they engaged in a major battle , which left more than 1 @,@ 200 Maya dead . After this Spanish victory , the neighbouring Maya leaders all surrendered . Montejo 's party then continued to Sisia and Loche before heading back to Xelha . Montejo arrived at Xelha with only 60 of his party , and found that only 12 of his 40 @-@ strong garrison survived , while the entire garrison at Pole had been slaughtered .
The support ship eventually arrived from Santo Domingo , and Montejo used it to sail south along the coast , while he sent his second @-@ in @-@ command Alonso d 'Avila via land . Montejo discovered the thriving port city of Chaktumal ( modern Chetumal ) . The Maya at Chaktumal fed false information to the Spanish , and Montejo was unable link up with d 'Avila , who returned overland to Xelha . The fledgling Spanish colony was moved to nearby Xamanha , modern Playa del Carmen , which Montejo considered to be a better port . After waiting for d 'Avila without result , Montejo sailed south as far as Honduras before turning around and heading back up the coast to finally meet up with his lieutenant at Xamanha . Late in 1528 , Montejo left d 'Avila to oversee Xamanha and sailed north to loop around the Yucatán Peninsula and head for the Spanish colony of New Spain in central Mexico .
= = Conquest of the Chiapas Highlands , 15
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27 – 1547 = =
Pedro de Portocarrero , a young nobleman , led the next expedition into Chiapas after Alvarado , again from Guatemala . His campaign is largely undocumented but in January 1528 he successfully established the settlement of San Cristóbal de los Llanos in the Comitán valley , in the territory of the Tojolabal Maya . This served as a base of operations that allowed the Spanish to extend their control towards the Ocosingo valley . One of the scarce mentions of Portocarrero 's campaign suggests that there was some indigenous resistance but its exact form and extent is unknown . Portocarrero established Spanish dominion over a number of Tzeltal and Tojolabal settlements , and penetrated as far as the Tzotzil town of Huixtan .
By 1528 , Spanish colonial power had been established in the Chiapas Highlands , and encomienda rights were being issued to individual conquistadores . Spanish dominion extended from the upper drainage of the Grijalva , across Comitán and Teopisca to the Ocosingo valley . The north and northwest were incorporated into the Villa de Espíritu Santo district , that included Ch 'ol Maya territory around Tila . In the early years of conquest , encomienda rights effectively meant rights to pillage and round up slaves , usually in the form of a group of mounted conquistadores launching a lightning slave raid upon an unsuspecting population centre . Prisoners would be branded as slaves , and were sold in exchange for weapons , supplies , and horses .
= = = Diego Mazariegos , 1528 = = =
In 1528 , captain Diego Mazariegos crossed into Chiapas via the Isthmus of Tehuantepec with artilley and raw recruits recently arrived from Spain . By this time , the indigenous population had been greatly reduced by a combination of disease and famine . They first travelled to Jiquipilas to meet up with a delegation from Zinacantan , who had asked for Spanish assistance against rebellious vassals ; a small contingent of Spanish cavalry was enough to bring these back into line . After this , Mazariegos and his companions proceeded to Chiapan and set up a temporary camp nearby , that they named Villa Real . Mazariegos had arrived with a mandate to establish a new colonial province of Chiapa in the Chiapas Highlands . He initially met with resistance from the veteran conquistadores who had already established themselves in the region . Mazariegos heard that Pedro de Portocarrero was in the highlands , and sought him out in order to persuade him to leave . The two conquistadors eventually met up in Huixtan . Mazariegos entered into protracted three @-@ month negotiations with the Spanish settlers in Coatzacoalcos ( Espíritu Santo ) and San Cristóbal de los Llanos . Eventually an agreement was reached , and the encomiendas of Espíritu Santo that lay in the highlands were merged those of San Cristóbal to form the new province . Unknown to Mazariegos , the king had already issued an order that the settlements of San Cristóbal de los Llanos be transferred to Pedro de Alvarado . The end result of the negotiations between Mazariegos and the established settlers was that Villa de San Cristóbal de los Llanos was broken up , and those settlers who wished to remain were transferred to Villa Real , which had been moved to the fertile Jovel valley . Pedro de Portocarrero left Chiapas , and he returned to Guatemala . Mazariegos proceeded with the policy of moving the Indians into reducciones ; this process was made easier by the much reduced indigenous population levels . Mazariegos issued licences of encomienda covering still unconquered regions in order to encourage colonists to conquer new territory . The Province of Chiapa had no coastal territory , and at the end of this process about 100 Spanish settlers were concentrated in the remote provincial capital at Villa Real , surrounded by hostile Indian settlements , and with deep internal divisions .
= = = Rebellion in the Chiapas Highlands , 1528 = = =
Although Mazariegos had managed to establish his new provincial capital without armed conflict , excessive Spanish demands for labour and supplies soon provoked the locals into rebellion . In August 1528 , Mazariegos replaced the existing encomenderos with his friends and allies ; the natives , seeing the Spanish isolated and witnessing the hostility between the original and newly arrived settlers , took this opportunity to rebel and refused to supply their new masters . Zinacantán was the only indigenous settlement that remained loyal to the Spanish .
Villa Real was now surrounded by hostile territory , and any Spanish help was too far away to be of value . The colonists quickly ran short of food and responded by taking up arms and riding against the Indians in search of food and slaves . The Indians abandoned their towns and hid their women and children in caves . The rebellious populations concentrated themselves on easily defended mountaintops . At Quetzaltepeque a lengthy battle was fought between the Tzeltal Maya and the Spanish , resulting in the deaths of a number of Spanish . The battle lasted several days , and the Spanish were supported by indigenous warriors from central Mexico . The battle eventually resulted in a Spanish victory , but the rest of the province of Chiapa remained rebellious .
After the battle of Quetzaltepeque , Villa Real was still short on food and Mazariegos was ill ; he retreated to Copanaguastla against the protests of the town council , which was left to defend the fledgling colony . By now , Nuño de Guzmán was governor in Mexico , and he despatched Juan Enríquez de Guzmán to Chiapa as end @-@ of @-@ term judge over Mazariegos , and as alcalde mayor ( a local colonial governor ) . He occupied his post for a year , during which time he attempted to reestablish Spanish control over the province , especially the northern and eastern regions , but was unable to make much headway .
= = = Founding of Ciudad Real , Chiapa , 1531 – 1535 = = =
In 1531 , Pedro de Alvarado finally took up the post of governor of Chiapa . He immediately reinstated the old name of San Cristóbal de los Llanos upon Villa Real . Once again , the encomiendas of Chiapa were transferred to new owners . The Spanish launched an expedition against Puyumatlan ; it was not successful in terms of conquest , but enabled the Spanish to seize more slaves to trade for weapons and horses . The newly acquired supplies would then be used in further expeditions to conquer and pacify still @-@ independent regions , leading to a cycle of slave raids , trade for supplies , followed by further conquests and slave raids . The Mazariegos family managed to establish a power base in the local colonial institutions and , in 1535 , they succeeded in having San Cristóbal de los Llanos declared a city , with the new name of Ciudad Real . They also managed to acquire special privileges from the Crown in order to stabilise the colony , such as an edict that specified that the governor of Chiapa must govern in person and not through a delegated representative . In practise , the quick turnover of encomiendas continued , since few Spaniards had legal Spanish wives and legitimate children who could inherit . This situation would not stabilise until the 1540s , when the dire shortage of Spanish women in the colony was alleviated by an influx of new colonists .
= = = Establishment of the Dominicans in Chiapa , 1545 – 1547 = = =
In 1542 , the New Laws were issued with the aim of protecting the indigenous peoples of the Spanish colonies from their overexploitation by the encomenderos . Friar Bartolomé de las Casas and his followers left Spain in July 1544 to enforce the New Laws . Las Casas arrived in Ciudad Real with 16 fellow Dominicans on 12 March 1545 . The Dominicans were the first religious order to attempt the evangelisation of the native population . Their arrival meant that the colonists were no longer free to treat the natives as they saw fit without the risk of intervention by the religious authorities . The Dominicans soon came into conflict with the established colonists . Colonial opposition to the Dominicans was such that the Dominicans were forced to flee Ciudad Real in fear of their lives . They established themselves nearby in two indigenous villages , the old site of Villa Real de Chiapa and Cinacantlán . From Villa Real , Bartolomé de las Casas and his companions prepared for the evangelisation of all the territory that fell within the Bishopric of Chiapa . The Dominicans promoted the veneration of Santiago Matamoros ( St. James the Moor @-@ slayer ) as a readily identifiable image of Spanish military superiority . The Dominicans soon saw the need to reestablish themselves in Ciudad Real , and the hostilities with the colonists were calmed . In 1547 , the first stone for the new Dominican convent in Ciudad Real was placed .
= = Francisco de Montejo and Alonso d 'Avila , Yucatán 1531 – 35 = =
Montejo was appointed alcalde mayor ( a local colonial governor ) of Tabasco in 1529 , and pacified that province with the aid of his son , also named Francisco de Montejo . D 'Avila was sent from eastern Yucatán to conquer Acalan , which extended southeast of the Laguna de Terminos . Montejo the Younger founded Salamanca de Xicalango as a base of operations . In 1530 d 'Avila established Salamanca de Acalán as a base from which to launch new attempts to conquer Yucatán . Salamanca de Acalán proved a disappointment , with no gold for the taking and with lower levels of population than had been hoped . D 'Avila soon abandoned the new settlement and set off across the lands of the Kejache to Champotón , arriving there towards the end of 1530 , where he was later joined by the Montejos .
In 1531 Montejo moved his base of operations to Campeche . Alonso d 'Avila was sent overland to the east of the peninsula , passing through Maní where he was well received by the Xiu Maya . D 'Avila continued southeast to Chetumal where he founded the Spanish town of Villa Real just within the borders of modern Belize . The local Maya fiercely resisted the placement of the new Spanish colony and d 'Avila and his men were forced to abandon it and make for Honduras in canoes .
At Campeche , a strong Maya force attacked the city , but was repulsed by the Spanish . Aj Canul , the lord of the attacking Maya , surrendered to the Spanish . After this battle , the younger Francisco de Montejo was despatched to the northern Cupul province , where the lord Naabon Cupul reluctantly allowed him to found the Spanish town of Ciudad Real at Chichen Itza . Montejo parcelled out the province amongst his soldiers as encomiendas . After six months of Spanish rule , Naabon Cupul was killed during a failed attempt to kill Montejo the Younger . The death of their lord only served to inflame Cupul anger and , in mid 1533 , they laid siege to the small Spanish garrison at Chichen Itza . Montejo the Younger abandoned Ciudad Real by night , and he and his men fled west , where the Chel , Pech and Xiu provinces remained obedient to Spanish rule . Montejo the Younger was received in friendship by the lord of the Chel province . In the spring of 1534 he rejoined his father in the Chakan province at Dzikabal , ( near modern Mérida ) .
The Xiu Maya maintained their friendship with the Spanish throughout the conquest and Spanish authority was eventually established over Yucatán in large part due to Xiu support . The Montejos founded a new Spanish town at Dzilam , although the Spanish suffered hardships there . Montejo the Elder returned to Campeche , where he was received with friendship by the local Maya . He was accompanied by the friendly Chel lord Namux Chel . Montejo the Younger remained behind in Dzilam to continue his attempts at conquest of the region but soon retreated to Campeche to rejoin his father and Alonso d 'Avila , who had returned to Campeche shortly beforehand . Around this time the news began to arrive of Francisco Pizarro 's conquests in Peru and the rich plunder there . Montejo 's soldiers began to abandon him to seek their fortune elsewhere ; in seven years of attempted conquest in the northern provinces of the Yucatán Peninsula , very little gold had been found . Towards the end of 1534 or the beginning of the next year , Montejo the Elder and his son retreated to Veracruz , taking their remaining soldiers with them .
Montejo the Elder became embroiled in colonial infighting over the right to rule Honduras , a claim that put him in conflict with Pedro de Alvarado , captain general of Guatemala , who also claimed Honduras as part of his jurisdiction . Alvarado was ultimately to prove successful . In Montejo the Elder 's absence , first in central Mexico , and then in Honduras , Montejo the Younger acted as lieutenant governor and captain general in Tabasco .
= = = Conflict at Champoton = = =
The Franciscan friar Jacobo de Testera arrived in Champoton in 1535 to attempt the peaceful incorporation of Yucatán into the Spanish Empire . His initial efforts were proving successful when Captain Lorenzo de Godoy arrived in Champoton at the command of soldiers despatched there by Montejo the Younger . Godoy and Testera were soon in conflict and the friar was forced to abandon Champoton and return to central Mexico . Godoy 's attempt to subdue the Maya around Champoton was unsuccessful , so Montejo the Younger sent his cousin to take command ; his diplomatic overtures to the Champoton Kowoj were successful and they submitted to Spanish rule . Champoton was the last Spanish outpost in the Yucatán Peninsula ; it was increasingly isolated and the situation there became difficult .
= = San Marcos : Province of Tecusitlán and Lacandón , 1533 = =
In 1533 Pedro de Alvarado ordered de León y Cardona to explore and conquer the area around the Tacaná , Tajumulco , Lacandón and San Antonio volcanoes ; in colonial times this area was referred to as the Province of Tecusitlán and Lacandón . De León marched to a Maya city named Quezalli by his Nahuatl @-@ speaking allies with a force of fifty Spaniards ; his Mexican allies also referred to the city by the name Sacatepequez . De León renamed the city as San Pedro Sacatepéquez . The Spanish founded a village nearby at Candacuchex in April that year , renaming it as San Marcos .
= = Campaigns in the Cuchumatanes and Lacandon Forest = =
In the ten years after the fall of Zaculeu various Spanish expeditions crossed into the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes and engaged in the gradual and complex conquest of the Chuj and Q 'anjob 'al . The Spanish were attracted to the region in the hope of extracting gold , silver and other riches from the mountains but their remoteness , the difficult terrain and relatively low population made their conquest and exploitation extremely difficult . The population of the Cuchumatanes is estimated to have been 260 @,@ 000 before European contact . By the time the Spanish physically arrived in the region this had collapsed to 150 @,@ 000 because of the effects of the Old World diseases that had run ahead of them .
= = = Eastern Cuchumatanes , 1529 – 1530 = = =
After Zaculeu fell to the Spanish , the Ixil and Uspantek Maya were sufficiently isolated to evade immediate Spanish attention . The Uspantek and the Ixil were allies and in 1529 Uspantek warriors were harassing Spanish forces and the city of Uspantán was trying to foment rebellion among the K 'iche ' ; the Spanish decided that military action was necessary . Gaspar Arias , magistrate of Guatemala , penetrated the eastern Cuchumatanes with sixty Spanish infantry and three hundred allied indigenous warriors . By early September he had imposed temporary Spanish authority over the Ixil towns of Chajul and Nebaj . The Spanish army then marched east toward Uspantán ; Arias then handed command over to the inexperienced Pedro de Olmos and returned to the capital . Olmos then launched a disastrous full @-@ scale frontal assault on the city . As soon as the Spanish attacked , they were ambushed from the rear by over two thousand Uspantek warriors . The Spanish forces were routed with heavy losses ; many of their indigenous allies were slain , and many more were captured alive by the Uspantek warriors only to be sacrificed .
A year later Francisco de Castellanos set out from Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala ( by now relocated to Ciudad Vieja ) on another expedition , leading eight corporals , thirty @-@ two cavalry , forty Spanish infantry and several hundred allied indigenous warriors . The expedition recruited further forces on the march north to the Cuchumatanes . On the steep southern slopes they clashed with between four and five thousand Ixil warriors ; a lengthy battle followed during which the Spanish cavalry outflanked the Ixil army and forced them to retreat to their mountaintop fortress at Nebaj . The Spanish besieged the city , and their indigenous allies managed to penetrate the stronghold and set it on fire . This allowed the Spanish to storm the entrance and break the defences . The victorious Spanish branded surviving warriors as slaves . The inhabitants of Chajul immediately capitulated to the Spanish as soon as news of the battle reached them . The Spanish continued east towards Uspantán to find it defended by ten thousand warriors , including forces from Cotzal , Cunén , Sacapulas and Verapaz . Although heavily outnumbered , the Spanish cavalry and firearms decided the battle . The Spanish overran Uspantán and again branded all surviving warriors as slaves . The surrounding towns also surrendered , and December 1530 marked the end of the military stage of the conquest of the Cuchumatanes .
= = = Western Cuchumatanas and Lacandon Forest , 1529 – 1686 = = =
In 1529 the Chuj city of San Mateo Ixtatán ( then known by the name of Ystapalapán ) was given in encomienda to the conquistador Gonzalo de Ovalle together with Santa Eulalia and Jacaltenango . In 1549 , the first reduction ( reducción in Spanish ) of San Mateo Ixtatán took place , overseen by Dominican missionaries , in the same year the Q 'anjob 'al reducción settlement of Santa Eulalia was founded . Further Q 'anjob 'al reducciones were in place by 1560 . Q 'anjob 'al resistance was largely passive , based on withdrawal to the inaccessible mountains and forests . In 1586 the Mercedarian Order built the first church in Santa Eulalia . The Chuj of San Mateo Ixtatán remained rebellious and resisted Spanish control for longer than their highland neighbours , resistance that was possible owing to their alliance with the lowland Lakandon Ch 'ol to the north .
By the mid @-@ 16th century , the Spanish frontier expanding outwards from Comitán and Ocosingo reached the Lacandon Forest , and further advancement was impeded by the region 's fiercely independent inhabitants . At the time of Spanish contact in the 16th century , the Lacandon Forest was inhabited by Ch 'ol people referred to as Lakam Tun . This name was Hispanicised to Lacandon . The Lakandon were aggressive , and their numbers were swelled by refugees from neighbouring indigenous groups fleeing Spanish domination . The ecclesiastical authorities were so worried by this threat to their peaceful efforts at evangelisation that they eventually supported military intervention . The first Spanish expedition against the Lakandon was carried out in 1559 , commanded by Pedro Ramírez de Quiñones . Repeated expeditions into the Lacandon Forest succeeded in destroying some villages but did not manage to subdue the inhabitants of the region , nor bring it within the Spanish Empire . This successful resistance against Spanish attempts at domination served to attract ever more Indians fleeing colonial rule .
In 1684 , a council led by Enrique Enríquez de Guzmán , the governor of Guatemala , decided on the reduction of San Mateo Ixtatán and nearby Santa Eulalia . On 29 January 1686 , Captain Melchor Rodríguez Mazariegos , acting under orders from the governor , left Huehuetenango for San Mateo Ixtatán , where he recruited indigenous warriors from the nearby villages . To prevent news of the Spanish advance reaching the inhabitants of the Lacandon area , the governor ordered the capture of three of San Mateo 's community leaders , and had them sent under guard to be imprisoned in Huehuetenango . The governor joined Captain Rodríguez Mazariegos in San Mateo Ixtatán on 3 February ; he ordered the captain to remain in the village and use it as a base of operations for penetrating the Lacandon region . Two Spanish missionaries also remained in the town . Governor Enriquez de Guzmán subsequently left San Mateo Ixtatán for Comitán in Chiapas , to enter the Lacandon region via Ocosingo .
= = = Conquest of the Lakandon , 1695 – 1696 = = =
In 1695 the colonial authorities decided to act upon a plan to connect the province of Guatemala with Yucatán , and a three @-@ way invasion of the Lacandon was launched simultaneously from San Mateo Ixtatán , Cobán and Ocosingo . Captain Rodriguez Mazariegos , accompanied by Fray de Rivas and 6 other missionaries together with 50 Spanish soldiers , left Huehuetenango for San Mateo Ixtatán . Following the same route used in 1686 , they managed on the way to recruit 200 indigenous Maya warriors from Santa Eulalia , San Juan Solomá and San Mateo . On 28 February 1695 , all three groups left their respective bases of operations to conquer the Lacandon . The San Mateo group headed northeast into the Lacandon Jungle , and joined up with Jacinto de Barrios Leal , president of the Royal Audiencia of Guatemala .
The soldiers commanded by Barrios Leal conquered a number of Ch 'ol communities . The most important of these was Sakb 'ajlan on the Lacantún River , which was renamed as Nuestra Señora de Dolores , or Dolores del Lakandon , in April 1695 . The Spanish built a fort and garrisoned it with 30 Spanish soldiers . Mercederian friar Diego de Rivas was based at Dolores del Lakandon , and he and his fellow Mercederians baptised several hundred Lakandon Ch 'ols in the following months and established contacts with neighbouring Ch 'ol communities . The third group , under Juan Díaz de Velasco , marched from Verapaz against the Itza of northern Petén . Barrios Leal was accompanied by Franciscan friar Antonio Margil , who remained in Dolores del Lakandon until 1697 . The Ch 'ol of the Lacandon Forest were resettled in Huehuetenango , in the Guatemalan Highlands , in the early 18th century .
= = Land of War : Verapaz , 1537 – 1555 = =
By 1537 the area immediately north of the new colony of Guatemala was being referred to as the Tierra de Guerra ( " Land of War " ) . Paradoxically , it was simultaneously known as Verapaz ( " True Peace " ) . The Land of War described an area that was undergoing conquest ; it was a region of dense forest that was difficult for the Spanish to penetrate militarily . Whenever the Spanish located a centre of population in this region , the inhabitants were moved and concentrated in a new colonial settlement near the edge of the jungle where the Spanish could more easily control them . This strategy resulted in the gradual depopulation of the forest , simultaneously converting it into a wilderness refuge for those fleeing Spanish domination , both for individual refugees and for entire communities . The Land of War , from the 16th century through to the start of the 18th century , included a vast area from Sacapulas in the west to Nito on the Caribbean coast and extended northwards from Rabinal and Salamá , and was an intermediate area between the highlands and the northern lowlands .
Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas arrived in the colony of Guatemala in 1537 and immediately campaigned to replace violent military conquest with peaceful missionary work . Las Casas offered to achieve the conquest of the Land of War through the preaching of the Catholic faith .
In this way they congregated a group of Christian Indians in the location of what is now the town of Rabinal . Las Casas was instrumental in the introduction of the New Laws in 1542 , established by the Spanish Crown to control the excesses of the colonists against the indigenous inhabitants of the Americas . As a result , the Dominicans met substantial resistance from the Spanish colonists ; this distracted the Dominicans from their efforts to establish peaceful control over the Land of War .
In 1555 Spanish friar Domingo de Vico offended a local Ch 'ol ruler and was killed by the Acala Ch 'ol and their Lakandon allies . In response to the killing , a punitive expedition was launched , headed by Juan Matalbatz , a Q 'eqchi ' leader from Chamelco ; the independent Indians captured by the Q 'eqchi ' expedition were taken back to Cobán and resettled in Santo Tomás Apóstol .
The Dominicans established themselves in Xocolo on the shore of Lake Izabal in the mid @-@ 16th century . Xocolo became infamous among the Dominican missionaries for the practice of witchcraft by its inhabitants . By 1574 it was the most important staging post for European expeditions into the interior , and it remained important in that role until as late as 1630 , although it was abandoned in 1631 .
= = Conquest and settlement in northern Yucatán , 1540 – 46 = =
In 1540 Montejo the Elder , who was now in his late 60s , turned his royal rights to colonise Yucatán over to his son , Francisco Montejo the Younger . In early 1541 Montejo the Younger joined his cousin in Champton ; he did not remain there long , and quickly moved his forces to Campeche . Once there Montejo the Younger , commanding between three and four hundred Spanish soldiers , established the first permanent Spanish town council in the Yucatán Peninsula . Shortly afterwards , Montejo the Younger summoned the local Maya lords and commanded them to submit to the Spanish Crown . A number of lords submitted peacefully , including the ruler of the Xiu Maya . The lord of the Canul Maya refused to submit and Montejo the Younger sent his cousin against them ( also called Francisco de Montejo ) ; Montejo the Younger remained in Campeche awaiting reinforcements .
Montejo the Younger 's cousin met the Canul Maya at Chakan , not far from T 'ho . On 6 January 1542 he founded the second permanent town council , calling the new colonial town Mérida . On 23 January , Tutul Xiu , the lord of Mani , approached the Spanish encampment at Mérida in peace . He was greatly impressed by a Roman Catholic mass celebrated for his benefit and converted to the new religion . Tutul Xiu was the ruler of the most powerful province of northern Yucatán and his submission to Spain and conversion to Christianity had repercussions throughout the peninsula , and encouraged the lords of the western provinces of the peninsula to accept Spanish rule . The eastern provinces continued to resist Spanish overtures .
Montejo the Younger then sent his cousin to Chauaca where most of the eastern lords greeted him in peace . The Cochua Maya resisted fiercely but were soon defeated . The Cupul Maya also opposed Spanish domination , but were quickly defeated . Montejo continued to the eastern Ekab province . When nine Spaniards were drowned in a storm off Cozumel and another was killed by hostile Maya , rumours grew in the telling and both the Cupul and Cochua provinces once again rose up against their would @-@ be overlords . The Spanish hold on the eastern portion of the peninsula remained tenuous and a number of Maya polities remained independent , including Chetumal , Cochua , Cupul , Sotuta and the Tazes .
On 8 November 1546 an alliance of eastern provinces launched a coordinated uprising against the Spanish . The provinces of Cupul , Cochua , Sotuta , Tazes , Uaymil , Chetumal and Chikinchel united in an effort to drive the invaders from the peninsula ; the uprising lasted four months . Eighteen Spaniards were surprised in the eastern towns , and were sacrificed , and over 400 allied Maya were killed . Mérida and Campeche were forewarned of the impending attack ; Montejo the Younger and his cousin were in Campeche . Montejo the Elder arrived in Mérida from Chiapas in December 1546 , with reinforcements gathered from Champoton and Campeche . The rebellious eastern Maya were finally defeated in a single battle , in which twenty Spaniards and several hundred allied Maya were killed . This battle marked the final conquest of the northern portion of the Yucatán Peninsula . As a result of the uprising and the Spanish response , many of the Maya inhabitants of the eastern and southern territories fled to the still unconquered Petén Basin , in the extreme south .
= = Southern lowlands , 1618 – 97 = =
The Petén Basin covers an area that is now part of Guatemala ; in colonial times it originally fell under the jurisdiction of the Governor of Yucatán , before being transferred to the jurisdiction of the Audiencia Real of Guatemala in 1703 . The Contact Period in the Petén lowlands lasted from 1525 through to 1700 . Superior Spanish weaponry and the use of cavalry , although decisive in the northern Yucatán , were ill @-@ suited to warfare in the dense forests of lowland Petén .
= = = Early 17th century = = =
The leaders of Xocolo and Amatique , backed by the threat of Spanish action , persuaded a community of 190 Toquegua to settle on the Amatique coast in April 1604 . The new settlement immediately suffered a drop in population , but although the Amatique Toquegua were reported extinct before 1613 in some sources , Mercedarian friars were still attending to them in 1625 . In 1628 the towns of the Manche Ch 'ol were placed under the administration of the governor of Verapaz , with Francisco Morán as their ecclesiastical head . Morán moved Spanish soldiers into the region to protect against raids from the Itza to the north . The new Spanish garrison in an area that had not previously seen a heavy Spanish military presence provoked the Manche to revolt , which was followed by abandonment of the indigenous settlements .
Following Cortés ' visit in 1525 , no Spanish attempted to visit the warlike Itza inhabitants of Nojpetén for almost a hundred years . In 1618 two Franciscan friars set out from Mérida on a mission to attempt the peaceful conversion of the still pagan Itza in central Petén . Bartolomé de Fuensalida and Juan de Orbita were accompanied by some Christianised Maya . They were well received at Nojpetén by the current Kan Ek ' . Attempts to convert the Itza failed , and the friars left Nojpetén on friendly terms with the Itza king . The friars returned in October 1619 , and again Kan Ek ' welcomed them in a friendly manner , but this time the Maya priesthood were hostile and the missionaries were expelled without food or water , but survived the journey back to Mérida .
In March 1622 , Captain Francisco de Mirones Lezcano set out from Yucatán with 20 Spanish soldiers and 80 Mayas to launch an assault upon the Itza . His was joined by Franciscan friar Diego Delgado . In May the expedition advanced to Sakalum , where they waited for reinforcements . En route to Nojpetén , Delgado left the expedition to make his own way to Nojpetén with eighty Christianised Maya from Tipuj in Belize ; he was joined by an escort of 13 soldiers . Soon after their arrival at the Itza capital , the Itza seized and sacrificed the Spanish party . Soon afterwards , on 27 January 1624 , an Itza war party led by AjK 'in P 'ol caught Mirones and his soldiers off guard and unarmed in the church at Sakalum and slaughtered them . Spanish reinforcements arrived too late . A number of local Maya men and women had also been killed , and the attackers burned the town .
Following these massacres , the Maya governor of Oxkutzcab , Fernando Kamal , set out with 150 Maya archers to track AjK 'in P 'ol down . The captured Itza captain and his followers were taken back to the Spanish Captain Antonio Méndez de Canzo , interrogated under torture , tried , and executed . These events ended all Spanish attempts to contact the Itza until 1695 . In the 1640s internal strife in Spain distracted the government from attempts to conquer unknown lands ; the Spanish Crown lacked the time , money or interest in such colonial adventures for the next four decades .
= = = Late 17th century = = =
In 1692 Basque nobleman Martín de Ursúa y Arizmendi proposed to the Spanish king the construction of a road from Mérida southwards to link with the Guatemalan colony , in the process " reducing " any independent native populations into colonial congregaciones ; this was part of a greater plan to subjugate the Lakandon and Manche Ch 'ol of southern Petén and the upper reaches of the Usumacinta River . At the beginning of March 1695 , Captain Alonso García de Paredes led a group of 50 Spanish soldiers south into Kejache territory , accompanied by native guides , muleteers and labourers . He rounded up some natives to be moved into colonial settlements , but met with armed Kejache resistance , and retreated around the middle of April .
In March 1695 , Captain Juan Díaz de Velasco set out from Cahabón in Alta Verapaz , Guatemala , with 70 Spanish soldiers , accompanied by a large number of Maya archers from Verapaz , native muleteers , and four Dominican friars . They pressed ahead to Lake Petén Itzá and engaged in a series of fierce skirmishes with Itza hunting parties . At the lakeshore , the Spanish encountered such a large force of Itzas that they retreated south , back to their main camp . The expedition almost immediately withdrew back to Cahabón .
In mid @-@ May 1695 García again marched southwards from Campeche , with 115 Spanish soldiers and 150 Maya musketeers , plus Maya labourers and muleteers . The expedition was joined by two companies of Maya musketeers . García ordered the construction of a fort at Chuntuki , some 25 leagues ( approximately 65 miles or 105 km ) north of Lake Petén Itzá , which served as the main military base for the Camino Real ( " Royal Road " ) project .
The Sajkab 'chen company of native musketeers engaged in a skirmish with about 25 Kejache near the abandoned Kejache town of Chunpich . Several musketeers were injured , and the Kejache retreated without injury . The company seized large amounts of abandoned food from two more deserted settlements and then also retreated . A small group of Franciscans led by friar Andrés de Avendaño sought out the Chunpich Kejache that had engaged the Sajkab 'chen musketeers but were unable to find them , and Avendaño returned to Mérida . Meanwhile , another group of Franciscans continued following the roadbuilders into Kejache territory . Around 3 August García moved his entire army forward to Chunpich , and by October Spanish soldiers had established themselves near the source of the San Pedro River . By November Tzuktok ' was garrisoned with 86 soldiers and more at Chuntuki . In December 1695 the main force was reinforced with 250 soldiers , of which 150 were Spanish and pardo and 100 were Maya , together with labourers and muleteers .
= = = = Franciscan expeditions , September 1695 – January 1696 = = = =
Juan de San Buenaventura 's small group of Franciscans arrived in Chuntuki on 30 August 1695 . In early November 1695 , two Franciscans were sent to establish a mission at Pak 'ek 'em , where they were well received by the cacique ( native chief ) and his pagan priest . Pak 'ek 'em was sufficiently far from the new Spanish road that it was free from military interference , and the friars oversaw the building of a church in what was the largest mission town in Kejache territory . A second church was built at B 'atkab ' to attend to over 100 K 'ejache refugees who had been gathered there under the stewardship of a Spanish friar ; a further church was established at Tzuktok ' , overseen by another friar .
Franciscan Andrés de Avendaño left Mérida on 13 December 1695 , and arrived in Nojpetén around 14 January 1696 , accompanied by four companions . The Franciscans baptised over 300 Itza children over the following four days . Avendaño tried to convince Kan Ek ' to convert to Christianity and surrender to the Spanish Crown , without success . The king of the Itza , cited Itza prophecy and said the time was not yet right . Kan Ek ' learnt of a plot by the Kowoj and their allies to ambush and kill the Franciscans , and the Itza king advised them to return to Mérida via Tipuj .
= = = = February – March 1696 = = = =
When Captain García de Paredes arrived at Chuntuki in mid @-@ January , he only had 90 soldiers plus labourers . Captain Pedro de Zubiaur , García ’ s senior officer , arrived at Lake Petén Itza with 60 musketeers , two Franciscans , and allied Yucatec Maya warriors . They were also accompanied by about 40 Maya porters . They were approached by about 300 canoes carrying approximately 2 @,@ 000 Itza warriors . The warriors mingled freely with the Spanish party and the encounter degenerated into a skirmish . About a dozen of the Spanish party were seized , and three were killed . The Spanish soldiers opened fire with their muskets , and the Itza retreated across the lake with their prisoners , who included the two Franciscans . The Spanish party retreated from the lake shore and regrouped on open ground where they were surrounded by thousands of Itza warriors . Zubiaur ordered his men to fire a volley that killed between 30 and 40 Itzas . Realising that they were hopelessly outnumbered , the Spanish retreated towards Chuntuki , abandoning their captured companions . Martín de Ursúa now began to organise an all @-@ out assault on Nojpetén . Work on the road was redoubled and about a month after the battle at Ch 'ich ' the Spanish arrived at the lakeshore , now supported by artillery .
A Guatemalan expedition against the Itza set out from Cahabón in early 1696 . An advance party was led into an Itza trap and 87 expedition members were lost , including 50 soldiers , two Dominicans and about 35 Maya helpers . The rest of the party arrived at the shore of Lake Petén Itzá , but quickly retreated back to Guatemala .
= = = = Assault on Nojpetén = = = =
Martín de Urzúa y Arizmendi arrived on the western shore of Lake Petén Itzá with his soldiers on 26 February 1697 . Once there they built a heavily @-@ armed galeota attack boat , which carried 114 men and at least five artillery pieces . On 10 March , Ursúa received a mixed Itza and Yalain embassy in peace , and invited Kan Ek ' to visit his encampment three days later . On the appointed day , Kan Ek ' failed to arrive ; instead Maya warriors amassed both along the shore and in canoes upon the lake . That morning , a waterbourne assault was launched upon Kan Ek 's capital . The galeota , commanded by Ursúa , rowed east with 108 soldiers ; half way across the lake it encountered a large fleet of canoes blocking the approach to Nojpetén – and simply rowed through them . A large quantity of defenders had gathered along the shore of Nojpetén and on the roofs of the city . Itza archers shot at the invaders from the canoes , but the defending Itza soon fled from the withering Spanish gunfire .
The city fell after a brief but bloody battle in which many Itza warriors died ; the Spanish suffered only minor casualties . After the battle the surviving defenders swam across to the mainland and melted away into the forests , leaving the Spanish to occupy the abandoned town . Martín de Ursúa renamed Nojpetén as Nuestra Señora de los Remedios y San Pablo , Laguna del Itza ( " Our Lady of Remedy and Saint Paul , Lake of the Itza " ) . Kan Ek ' was soon captured with help from the Yalain Maya ruler Chamach Xulu ; The Kowoj king was also soon captured , together with other Maya nobles and their families . With the defeat of the Itza , the last independent and unconquered native kingdom in the Americas fell to the European colonisers .
= = Final years of conquest = =
During the campaign to conquer the Itza of Petén , the Spanish sent expeditions to harass and relocate the Mopan north of Lake Izabal and the Ch 'ol Maya of the Amatique forests to the east . They were resettled on the south shore of the lake . By the latter half of the 18th century , the local inhabitants consisted entirely of Spaniards , mulattos and others of mixed race , all associated with the Castillo de San Felipe de Lara fort guarding the entrance to Lake Izabal . There was a drastic depopulation of Lake Izabal and the Motagua Delta due to constant slave raids by the Miskito Sambu of the Caribbean coast that effectively ended the Maya population of the region ; the captured Maya were sold into slavery in the British colony of Jamaica .
In the late 17th century the small population of Ch 'ol Maya in southern Petén and Belize was forcibly removed to Alta Verapaz , where the people were absorbed into the Q 'eqchi ' population . The Ch 'ol of the Lacandon Jungle were resettled in Huehuetenango in the early 18th century . By 1699 the neighbouring Toquegua no longer existed as a separate people because of a combination of high mortality and intermarriage with the Amatique Indians . At around this time the Spanish decided on the reduction of the independent Mopan Maya living to the north of Lake Izabal . Catholic priests from Yucatán founded several mission towns around Lake Petén Itzá in 1702 – 1703 . Surviving Itza and Kowoj were resettled in the new colonial towns by a mixture of persuasion and force . Kowoj and Itza leaders in these mission towns rebelled in 1704 , but although well @-@ planned , the rebellion was quickly crushed . Its leaders were executed and most of the mission towns were abandoned . By 1708 only about 6 @,@ 000 Maya remained in central Petén , compared to ten times that number in 1697 . Although disease was responsible for the majority of deaths , Spanish expeditions and internecine warfare between indigenous groups also played their part .
= = Legacy of the Spanish conquest = =
The initial shock of the Spanish conquest was followed by decades of heavy exploitation of the indigenous peoples , allies and foes alike . Over the following two hundred years colonial rule gradually imposed Spanish cultural standards on the subjugated peoples . The Spanish reducciones created new nucleated settlements laid out in a grid pattern in the Spanish style , with a central plaza , a church and the town hall housing the civil government , known as the ayuntamiento . This style of settlement can still be seen in the villages and towns of the area . The introduction of Catholicism was the main vehicle for cultural change , and resulted in religious syncretism . Old World cultural elements came to be thoroughly adopted by Maya groups . The greatest change was replacement of the pre @-@ Columbian economic order by European technology and livestock ; this included the introduction of iron and steel tools to replace Neolithic tools , and of cattle , pigs and chickens . New crops were also introduced ; however , sugarcane and coffee led to plantations that economically exploited native labour . Some indigenous elites such as the Xajil Kaqchikel noble family did manage to maintain a level of status into the colonial period . During the second half of the 18th century , adult male Indians were heavily taxed , often being forced into debt peonage . Western Petén and neighbouring Chiapas remained sparsely populated , and the Maya inhabitants avoided contact with the Spanish .
= = Historical sources = =
The sources describing the Spanish conquest of Guatemala include those written by the Spanish themselves , among them two letters written by conquistador Pedro de Alvarado in 1524 , describing the initial campaign to subjugate the Guatemalan Highlands . Gonzalo de Alvarado y Chávez wrote an account that mostly supports that of Pedro de Alvarado . Pedro de Alvarado 's brother Jorge wrote another account to the king of Spain that explained it was his own campaign of 1527 – 1529 that established the Spanish colony . Bernal Díaz del Castillo wrote a lengthy account of the conquest of Mexico and neighbouring regions , the Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España ( " True History of the Conquest of New Spain " ) ; his account of the conquest of Guatemala generally agrees with that of the Alvarados . He also included his own description of Cortes ' expedition , and an account of the conquest of the Chiapas highlands . Conquistador Diego Godoy accompanied Luis Marín on his reconnaissance of Chiapas , and wrote an account of the battle against the inhabitants of Chamula . Hernán Cortés described his expedition to Honduras in the fifth letter of his Cartas de Relación . Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas wrote a highly critical account of the Spanish conquest of the Americas and included accounts of some incidents in Guatemala .
The Tlaxcalan allies of the Spanish wrote their own accounts of the conquest ; these included a letter to the Spanish king protesting at their poor treatment once the campaign was over . Other accounts were in the form of questionnaires answered before colonial magistrates to protest and register a claim for recompense . Two pictorial accounts painted in the stylised indigenous pictographic tradition have survived ; these are the Lienzo de Quauhquechollan , and the Lienzo de Tlaxcala . Accounts of the conquest as seen from the point of view of the defeated highland Maya kingdoms are included in a number of indigenous documents , including the Annals of the Kaqchikels . A letter from the defeated Tz 'utujil Maya nobility to the Spanish king written in 1571 details the exploitation of the subjugated peoples . Francisco Antonio de Fuentes y Guzmán was a colonial Guatemalan historian of Spanish descent who wrote La Recordación Florida . The book was written in 1690 and is regarded as one of the most important works of Guatemalan history . Field investigation has tended to support the estimates of indigenous population and army sizes given by Fuentes y Guzmán .
In 1688 colonial historian Diego López de Cogolludo detailed the expeditions of the Spanish missionaries in 1618 and 1619 in his Los tres siglos de la dominación española en Yucatán o sea historia de esta provincia ( " The three centuries of Spanish domination in Yucatán , or the history of this province " ) ; he based it upon Fuensalida 's report , which is now lost .
Franciscan friar Andrés Avendaño y Loyola recorded his own account of his late 17th century journeys to Nojpetén . When the Spanish finally conquered Petén in 1697 they produced a vast quantity of documentation . Juan de Villagutierre Soto @-@ Mayor was a Spanish colonial official who wrote the Historia de la Conquista de la Provincia de el Itza , reduccion , y progressos de la de el Lacandon , y otras naciones de indios barbaros , de la mediacion de el Reyno de Guatimala , a las provincias del Yucatan en la América Septentrional ( " History of the Conquest of the Province of the Itza , reduction , and advances in that of the Lacandon , and other nations of barbarous indians , and the intervention of the Kingdom of Guatemala , and the provinces of Yucatan in Northern America " ) . This detailed the history of Petén from 1525 through to 1699 .
= Editors ( band ) =
Editors are an English rock band , formed in 2002 in Stafford . Previously known as Pilot , The Pride and Snowfield , the band currently consists of Tom Smith ( lead vocals , guitar , piano ) , Russell Leetch ( bass guitar , synthesizer , backing vocals ) , Ed Lay ( drums , percussion , backing vocals ) , Justin Lockey ( lead guitar ) , and Elliott Williams ( keys , synthesizers , guitars , and backing vocals ) .
Editors have so far released two platinum studio albums , and five in total , with several million combined sales . Their debut album The Back Room was released in 2005 . It contained the hits " Munich " and " Blood " and the following year received a Mercury Prize nomination .
Their follow @-@ up album An End Has a Start went to number 1 in the UK Album Chart in June 2007 and earned the band a Brit Awards nomination for best British Band . It also spawned another Top 10 hit single , " Smokers Outside the Hospital Doors " . The band 's third album , In This Light and on This Evening , was released in October 2009 and went straight to number 1 in the UK Album Chart . The band released their fourth studio album , The Weight of Your Love , in July 2013 , followed by self @-@ produced In Dream in October 2015 .
Alongside their critical acclaim and strong success in the charts , Editors have consistently enjoyed sold @-@ out tours and numerous headlining festival slots . Their brand of dark indie rock is commonly compared to the sound of bands such as Echo & the Bunnymen , Joy Division , Interpol , The Chameleons and U2 .
= = History = =
= = = Formation ( 2002 – 2004 ) = = =
The band met while studying Music Technology at Staffordshire University , but they realised technology wasn 't the right career for them and instead formed a band , and went on to perform in Wolverhampton , Birmingham and Stafford .
The band was initially known as Pilot and played its first show under this name in 2002 . While in college , the band constructed a marketing strategy which involved placing hundreds of promotional stickers across the walls of Stafford asking " Who 's the Pilot ? " . However , they realised the name was already taken by a 1970s Scottish pop group , so they changed their name to The Pride .
They made a promo under this name with the tracks " Come Share the View " and " Forest Fire " and then uploaded them onto the internet , making the songs available to listen to on BBC Radio 1 's Onemusic Unsigned . A review of the songs reads " The Pride keep things subliminally lo @-@ fi . Refreshingly simple and restrained , " Come Share The View " is a lesson in welding hypnotic soundscapes with white noise while showing allegiance to the school of slo @-@ mo on " Forest Fire " " . The band then took its music offline to create mystery and anxiousness and ensure that more " A & R " representatives came to see them perform .
They then changed the line @-@ up with Ed Lay replacing Geraint Owen on drums as he began to focus on his Welsh band The Heights . Under this lineup they became known as Snowfield . They played their debut gig under this name at the request of Fused Magazine in March 2003 . The following summer the band self @-@ released a demo six @-@ track EP , all of which went on to become future Editors songs . Then , as it was the home of their management and the nearest big city , the band relocated to Birmingham after graduation in the autumn of 2003 .
For the next year , the different band members then worked part @-@ time jobs along with the rest of their work with the band . After continuous gigging around the Midlands , it wasn 't long until word of mouth helped them become a popular unsigned band . The band then sent out a one track demo cd of Bullets , earning them the interest of several British labels , with thirty A & R reps coming to see them play at Birmingham . In October 2004 , the group signed to Newcastle based indie label Kitchenware Records . Upon signing to the record label they changed their band name to Editors .
= = = The Back Room ( 2005 – 2006 ) = = =
After supporting bands such as Puressence and Oceansize , Editors released debut single " Bullets " recorded with producer Gavin Monaghan as a limited edition of 1000 copies on Kitchenware Records on 24 January 2005 . The song had previously been played by BBC Radio 1 disc jockey Zane Lowe , where it earned the honour of ' Single of the Week ' . The limited run then sold out on the day of its release , with copies famously then sold later in the week for more than £ 30 on eBay .
The release of " Munich " followed in April of that year and gave the band their first Top 25 hit , another sold out UK tour and a place on MTV ’ s Spanking New Music show in Manchester . At this point , due to the band 's increasing popularity , Editors and Kitchenware signed an exclusive distribution deal with Sony BMG . " Blood " was released two months later , reaching number 18 in the UK Singles Chart in its first week , selling 5 @,@ 286 copies . With these releases their fanbase continued to grow and on 25 July 2005 their debut album The Back Room was released to critical acclaim and commercial success . In its first week , the album entered the charts at number 13 , selling 17 @,@ 627 copies . After re @-@ issuing " Bullets " and achieving another Top 30 hit , Editors gained a high profile support slot , supporting Franz Ferdinand in arenas across the UK and Europe .
Editors then re @-@ issued " Munich " in January 2006 , selling one and half thousand more copies than the last time it was released . The song gave Editors their first Top 10 single and an appearance on Top of the Pops . With the single release , The Back Room also rose back up the album charts , peaking at number 2 . It sold an additional 40 @,@ 000 copies in the week of " Munich " ' s release and went platinum in the process . A joint North American tour with Stellastarr * coincided with the American release of The Back Room in March 2006 . It was released by Fader Label and sold 35 @,@ 000 albums after 20 weeks . The band went on to play influential American festivals in 2006 such as Coachella and Lollapalooza . Editors proceeded to perform " Munich " on the American television show Late Night with Conan O 'Brien .
At the end of March , Editors released " All Sparks " as a single in the United Kingdom , achieving a position of 21 in the singles chart . After a European tour which included three successive nights at Brixton Academy , Editors re @-@ issued a limited edition of " Blood " . It entered the Top 40 , pushing the album up the chart 45 places . Shortly after this , The Back Room hit the million mark in sales worldwide and was also nominated for the 2006 Mercury Prize . After a string of high @-@ profile festival shows across Europe , including slots on T in the Park , V 2006 and the Isle of Wight Festival , Editors began work on their second album .
= = = An End Has a Start ( 2007 – 2008 ) = = =
Editors recorded their second album An End Has a Start with producer Jacknife Lee in Grouse Lodge , Ireland over a two @-@ month period beginning in late November 2006 . It was released on 25 June 2007 and went straight to number 1 in the UK album charts , selling 59 @,@ 405 copies in its first week . The album was preceded by the Top 10 single " Smokers Outside the Hospital Doors " on the 18th . The song was Editors ' highest @-@ charting single at number 7 and it also earned its own Making the Video episode on MTV .
Just after its release , Editors played at the Glastonbury Festival with a second from top slot on The Other Stage . They also played many other festivals such as Oxegen , Lowlands and Pukkelpop over the following weeks , as well as playing their first ever tour dates in Australia and New Zealand . They then released the album 's title track " An End Has a Start " in September to coincide with their North American tour . Editors went on to play the song live on American television shows such as Jimmy Kimmel Live ! and The Tonight Show with Jay Leno .
Upon returning to the UK , the band contributed a cover of The Cure 's " Lullaby " to the Radio 1 Established 1967 compilation , which was released on 1 October 2007 . Shortly after this , Editors played a 75 @-@ minute set for the BBC Electric Proms at KOKO in London with backing from a classical string quartet . In November , they released " The Racing Rats " as the third single off the album . Editors played it live on ' Friday Night with Jonathan Ross ' and it helped the song reach number 26 in the UK Charts . It also reached number 12 in the Dutch Top 40 , the band 's highest ever single charting outside of the UK at that point .
For the first two months of 2008 , Editors played 30 shows on a tour across America and Canada . During the tour Editors were nominated for a Brit Award , in the Best British Group Category . The nomination resulted in increased acclaim from the media with The Mail on Sunday newspaper declaring them as the second biggest British band of the 2000s decade after Arctic Monkeys . Also as a result of the nomination , one of the North American tour dates had to be cancelled , as the band had to return to London to attend the prize ceremony . A month later , Editors announced " Push Your Head Towards the Air " to be the fourth single from An End Has a Start . This release was a limited special edition which was ineligible to chart . Along with this release Editors engaged in their biggest and most extensive British tour to date . They played arenas such as the 12 @,@ 000 capacity National Indoor Arena in Birmingham and two sold out dates in London 's Alexandra Palace .
In June , they released " Bones " as a download only single in Continental Europe to coincide with the summer festival season , the video of which was directed by the band 's bassist Russell Leetch . Shortly afterwards , Editors played at the Glastonbury Festival , playing on the pyramid stage for the first time . The band then played their second major support slot of their history supporting R.E.M. on a 16 date summer tour across Europe alongside their festival dates which included the headlining of the Lowlands Festival in August .
= = = In This Light and on This Evening ( 2009 – 2010 ) = = =
Lead singer Smith revealed that the band will explore a new direction on their next album , pursuing a new , rawer sound . Before January 2009 , Editors had written around eighteen new songs for the new album and they have been described as some of the most synthetic , raw and anthemic songs they have written to date . In October the band went to the studio to record some demos . The band spent the first week of April recording the album and on 8 April , they released a short video with information about the recording process . It announced that Mark ' Flood ' Ellis would be the producer for the album . Earlier on in the year , the sound of the album was said to have a very electric feel ; the band often using the Terminator theme song as a reference .
On 2 June 2009 , it was announced that the new album title would be In This Light and on This Evening and that they would be the first band to play at the new O2 Academy Birmingham . Through producer Flood 's heavy usage of synthesisers , the album provided a synthpop / post @-@ punk sound to Editors ' production . Flood , who is famous for collaborating with electronic music influenced bands like U2 , Depeche Mode , The Killers and Erasure , helped develop synthetic elements on the album , which resulted in a mixed reception from long @-@ term fans as to the group 's new direction .
The album was released on 12 October and debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart . Alongside the album , the band released lead single " Papillon " and it led them to their first taste of number one success outside the UK , with the song hitting the top position in Belgium and being certified Gold in the process . After releasing singles " You Don 't Know Love " , " Last Day " and " Eat Raw Meat = Blood Drool " to limited chart success , it was announced that their unreleased song " No Sound But the Wind " would appear on the New Moon soundtrack . A live version of the song was later released in continental Europe in September 2010 and again achieved the same success as " Papillon " in Belgium , going to number 1 and being certified Gold .
In November 2010 it was confirmed that a boxset called Unedited compiling the first 3 albums , as well as b @-@ sides and previously unreleased songs on 7 12 " vinyls , 7 CDs and 7 MP3 albums , alongside a book of photos and words , would be released in early 2011 . The boxset included the full band version of " No Sound But The Wind " , demos of " Camera " and " These Streets Are Still Home To Me " , and an unreleased version of " The Weight of the World " , called " Every Little Piece " .
= = = The Weight of Your Love and Urbanowicz 's departure ( 2011 – 2014 ) = = =
On 26 November 2010 Smith announced on the band 's website that they had started work on a new album , that it would again be produced by Flood , and that they were recording " in stages over 2011 " , and that first rehearsals started in " a matter of days " .
On 26 March 2011 , Editors performed their first tour date of the year at the Royal Albert Hall as the headline act for the penultimate show in the 2011 Teenage Cancer Trust , during which they showcased two new songs , " Two Hearted Spider " and " The Sting " . In October 2011 , Editors played their first shows ever in Latin America with two dates in Mexico City .
In October 2011 , Smith spoke to Q Radio about the new album . " It 's still going to be fairly electronic , I think , compared to our earlier records . So far it feels quite muscular with a bit of swagger and a bit more of a groove . The last record was liberating in lots of different ways and I think we just need to , kind of , build on that ..... with a nod to our past as well . It 's our fourth record and we don 't want to feel like we 're doing the same thing again . "
On 22 November 2011 , Russell Leetch , the band 's bassist posted on the band 's official site saying they have seven songs ready to record and some more ideas " floating around " and that the album " will be with you next year . "
On 16 April 2012 , it was announced that Chris Urbanowicz had left the group due to a difference in musical direction .
Following Urbanowicz 's departure the band played their first shows as a five piece with new members Justin Lockey and Elliot Williams in Birmingham , UK on 26 and 27 June 2012 . On 29 June , they played at Main Square Festival in Arras , France , and on 30 June they headlined Rock Werchter festival in Belgium . At the shows they played new versions of " Two Hearted Spider " and " The Sting " as well as two new songs , " Sugar " and " Nothing " .
On 8 April 2013 Tom Smith stated , via his official Twitter account , that " the record is being mastered today. it 's finished. done . "
On 6 May 2013 Zane Lowe stated , via his official Twitter account , that the new Editors record would be entitled The Weight of Your Love . The first single for this album is " A Ton of Love " . In February 2014 the band released their fourth single , " Sugar " .
During 2014 , Elliot Williams left the band for a period of touring to work on his own music project YdotOdotU , supporting The 1975 . The band continued to tour with musician Nicholas Willes .
= = = In Dream ( 2014 – present ) = = =
In October 2014 , the band reconvened in Scotland to work on their fifth album . During a session supporting Andy Burrows on Jo Wiley 's Radio 2 show , Tom Smith confirmed the album 's songs had been written .
On 20 April 2015 , the band released a new song entitled ' No Harm ' for free download . The song later became available through retailers , and on 11 May , its official video was posted on their YouTube channel . On 18 June , they released a video for the album 's lead single , ' Marching Orders ' . The video , directed by Rahi Rezvani ( as was ' No Harm ' ) , was filmed in the Western Highlands of Scotland . The song was released on 19 June for digital download , and a limited run of 300 12 " vinyl test pressings were distributed randomly throughout Oxfam stores .
On 15 July 2015 the band announced the album In Dream via Facebook . It is the first Editors record to feature a duet . The third single and video ' Life is a Fear ' got its first play on Zane Lowe 's Apple Music Beats1 radio show on 11 August 2015 . Its video , again directed by Rahi Rezvani , was uploaded to YouTube on the same day . On 22 September , Editors shared ' The Law ' , an album track which features Rachel Goswell of Slowdive .
The fifth album In Dream , produced by Editors themselves and mixed by Alan Moulder , was released on 2 October 2015 . It marks the band 's collaboration with the Iranian born Dutch photographer , film and music video director Rahi Rezvani who also directed the video for ' Ocean of Night ' , released on 24 November . In October 2015 , Editors together with Brussels Beer Project has released their own beer ' Salvation ' , named after a track on their album In Dream .
In support of the album the band embarked on a 42 @-@ date tour , playing throughout October , November and December in the UK , Ireland and Europe . Editors supported Manic Street Preachers across the UK on the 20th anniversary tour of the album Everything Must Go . They are confirmed for the Glastonbury , Bråvalla , Hurricane / Southside , Rock Werchter and Bilbao BBK Live 2016 festivals , among many others .
= = Musical style = =
Editors ' own variation of dark indie guitar rock draws on influences from both older and contemporary bands . Their influences include Echo & the Bunnymen , Joy Division , The Strokes , The Walkmen , Elbow. and R.E.M .. The band draw their musical style particularly from the latter two bands ' debut albums Asleep in the Back and Murmur . While often compared to Joy Division and Echo and the Bunnymen by the media , the band commented that those bands are too old to have a major impact on their musical style . Upon Editors ' first appearances in the British music scene , they were also heavily compared to American indie band Interpol .
Editors ' first album , The Back Room , was described as having a wiry and raw sound , which led it to being famously dubbed ' dark disco ' by the NME . This sound was created by the use of synthesizers , catchy guitar riffs and simple , ambiguous lyrics . An End Has a Start showed progression to a new ' bigger ' sound . This new sound was created by adding more textured layers to the songs as well as incorporating new forms of music into them . These include the adding of a choir in " Smokers Outside the Hospital Doors " and the inclusion of the sounds of the band playing Hide @-@ and @-@ seek in the song " Spiders " .
Lead singer Smith announced that the band would explore a new direction on their next album , pursuing a new , rawer sound . The new sound materialised itself on the third album through the use of traditional synthesizers instead of the band 's previous use of guitars . The producer of In This Light and on This Evening , Flood also increased the importance of " vibe " in the music 's sound , making it darker than the previous two albums , while also attempting to make the album sound as if it had been recorded live .
While Smith tends to write the lyrics and chords , song writing overall is a collaborative effort . The song writing starts with Smith on the piano or acoustic guitar where he records them and sends them to the other band members where the song is turned into a full ' Editors song ' . Smith has said that he purposely makes the lyrics ambiguous so people can draw their own conclusions .
" To us , it 's interesting if it has a darkness , " said Smith in 2015 . " Whatever that is . On the lyric side of things , if I was singing about dancefloors or happier or rosier things , it wouldn 't ring true for me . I don 't know why that is . People quite often say , ' oh , you write these sad lyrics but you 're not a sad person ' - and I 'm not ... I don 't think you need to be sad to write a sad song , everybody has a dark side . "
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
The Back Room ( 2005 )
An End Has a Start ( 2007 )
In This Light and on This Evening ( 2009 )
The Weight of Your Love ( 2013 )
In Dream ( 2015 )
= Darren O 'Dea =
Darren O 'Dea ( born 4 February 1987 ) is an Irish professional footballer who plays as a centre @-@ back for Scottish Premiership club Dundee .
O 'Dea began his career on the youth team of Celtic , with whom he played from 2006 to 2012 . During his time on Celtic , he was loaned to Reading , Ipswich Town and Leeds United . While playing for Leeds , O 'Dea won the Ireland Young International Player of the Year Award . For more first @-@ team opportunities he switched clubs and countries , joining Toronto FC of Major League Soccer for a year until 2013 . The following season , he represented FC Metalurh Donetsk in Ukraine . O 'Dea 's stint was cut short due to the Ukrainian political situation , and he returned to England with Blackpool . In July 2015 , he signed with Indian Super League club Mumbai City FC .
After being capped by the youth national teams of the Republic of Ireland , O 'Dea made his senior @-@ team debut in 2009 and has been capped 20 times . He represented Ireland at the 2012 UEFA European Championship .
= = Club career = =
= = = Celtic = = =
Born in Dublin , O 'Dea played for Home Farm before he was signed by Celtic as a teenager . After making his way through the reserves and academy side , he made his first @-@ team debut for Celtic in the Scottish League Cup against St Mirren in September 2006 . A month later , O 'Dea made his league debut against Inverness Caledonian Thistle , where he played the last thirty minutes after substituting for Gary Caldwell . His UEFA Champions League debut was on 6 December against Danish club F.C. Copenhagen as a substitute for the injured Stephen McManus . O 'Dea made his first league starting appearance against Dunfermline Athletic four days after his Champions League debut . Later that month he scored his first goal in a match against Dundee United , with his rebound of a 78th @-@ minute free kick by Shunsuke Nakamura tying the match 2 – 2 . O 'Dea 's first season saw Celtic win the 2007 Scottish Cup Final , where he scored a goal against Livingston .
After playing 16 times for Celtic , O 'Dea signed a three @-@ year contract in March 2007 and considered it a " reward for the hard work " he had done . In his second season he incorporated Celtic win the league championship , although he did not feature in the final against Dundee . After O 'Dea did not play for two months ( since his last Champions League match against FC Spartak Moscow ) , the BBC reported in October that he would be recalled to the injury @-@ plagued team as a replacement for Gary Caldwell , and he played the entire league match against Rangers on 20 October 2007 . That season , he primarily played centre @-@ back .
During the 2008 – 09 season O 'Dea made a total of sixteen appearances , scoring twice . His extra @-@ time goal in the 2009 Scottish League Cup Final gave Celtic the trophy . After playing fifty times for the club , O 'Dea was loaned to championship club Reading in September 2009 for more first @-@ team experience and he called it a " massive chance " to represent Celtic . He made his debut in a 0 – 0 draw against Doncaster Rovers , with his second @-@ half shot saved by Doncaster goalkeeper Neil Sullivan . In a September interview , O 'Dea was reluctant to return to Celtic 's few match opportunities .
Returning from Reading in January 2010 , he started all five games that month . O 'Dea was appointed stand @-@ in captain after Stephen McManus went on loan to Middlesbrough and Gary Caldwell left for Wigan . Again superfluous on Celtic , he was loaned to Ipswich Town on 18 August 2010 until January 2011 and made his Ipswich debut against Crystal Palace on 21 August . In January O 'Dea said he was uncertain if his loan would be extended because of the sacking of Ipswich manager Roy Keane , expressing his desire to stay . New manager Paul Jewell unexpectedly extended his loan to the end of the season . Vital Football praised O 'Dea 's performance in a league cup match against Arsenal , with Jewell calling it " tremendous and crucial in the result " . Two months later , he expressed a desire to return to Celtic instead of signing permanently with Ipswich . O 'Dea said he would play for another club if he did not have first @-@ team opportunities at Celtic , since he felt that playing was " not about sitting on a bench " .
In May 2011 , he said he " may quit Celtic " to play regularly and represent the national team at the 2012 UEFA Euro qualifiers . The following month Leeds United signed him on loan until the end of the season , and he said his objective on his new club was to win promotion to Premier League . O 'Dea made his Leeds debut in a 3 – 1 loss to Southampton . He scored his first goal for the club against Coventry City , an " angled shot " for a 1 – 1 draw . O 'Dea again found the net in the next game , against Peterborough United , in the 95th minute for a 3 – 2 win . Against Cardiff City , according to the BBC Leeds conceded a goal due to O 'Dea 's " indecision " which " opened the door for Joe Mason " . In a January 2012 interview he expressed his desire to sign permanently with Leeds , although he received a red card in a loss to Blackpool . O 'Dea played 38 times for Leeds , scoring twice . Due to his form with Leeds and Ireland , O 'Dea and teammate Aidy White were nominated for the Young International Player of the Year at the Football Association of Ireland International Football Awards . He won the award in a ceremony held in February 2012 .
After spending the previous two seasons out on loan , O 'Dea was released by Celtic at the end of his contract on 1 June 2012 despite a one @-@ year contract @-@ extension option . He said he " had a great time at Celtic and have a lot of friends there so it was important for me that I left properly " .
= = = Toronto FC = = =
O 'Dea signed with Major League Soccer club Toronto FC on 3 August 2012 , and made his club debut on 18 August in a 1 – 0 home loss to Sporting Kansas City . According to CBC News , he looked " lively " in his first match with the team . In a match against Houston Dynamo he passed to Terry Dunfield , who scored , and at the end of the game said he was " delighted " with the result . Manager Paul Mariner named O 'Dea team captain in September , succeeding the injured Torsten Frings . The following month , he was unable to play a match against Montreal Impact due to a thigh injury sustained during World Cup qualifying play for Ireland . In O 'Dea 's first season for Toronto , he played nine times as Toronto finished tenth in the Eastern Conference . O 'Dea was employed at left back for the 2013 season after the regular player at that position was injured . According to him , it had been two years since he had previously played left back . O 'Dea scored his first goal for Toronto on 3 July 2013 in a 3 – 3 home draw with Canadian rivals Montreal Impact . Because of his " keen sense of positioning and timing " against Sporting Kansas City , he was named to the Team of the Week for 12 March . Originally part of a transfer ( a " win @-@ win for both parties " , according to head coach Ryan Nelsen , since O 'Dea was the highest @-@ paid player in the league ) , he was released by Toronto on 18 July 2013 to sign with FC Metalurh Donetsk . Club president Kevin Payne wished him luck and hoped he would return in the future . O 'Dea played a total of 26 times for Toronto , scoring one goal and setting up three , and was succeeded as team captain by Steven Caldwell .
= = = Metalurh Donetsk = = =
After his release from Toronto O 'Dea signed a three @-@ year contract with Ukraine 's FC Metalurh Donetsk . He debuted for the team in a July 20 , 2013 1 – 1 draw with FC Karpaty Lviv , playing 46 minutes before being substituted . O 'Dea scored his first goal for Metalurh in his second game , a 2 – 1 away win over Vorskla Poltava . He left the club in August 2014 , terminating his contract two years early due to the unrest in Ukraine . O 'Dea described the situation in the country as " hostile and intense , but also surreal " .
= = = Blackpool = = =
O 'Dea then signed with championship club Blackpool in December 2014 , making his debut in a 6 – 1 loss to Bournemouth . Bournemouth 's fourth goal was scored by Brett Pitman , converting a penalty shot incurred by O 'Dea ( who fouled Callum Wilson in the penalty area ) . Against Wolverhampton Wanderers , the BBC reported that he " got into a terrible muddle trying to cut out a pass from Kevin McDonald " and allowed Benik Afobe ( in his first game for Wolverhampton ) to score the second goal . O 'Dea was injured in a match against Nottingham Forest in February 2015 , forcing him to miss the game with Blackburn Rovers . Released when his contract expired in May , he said the club had a " disastrous season " . O 'Dea played 20 times for Blackpool .
= = = Mumbai City = = =
Although the Toronto Sun reported in May 2015 that O 'Dea might re @-@ sign with the city 's MLS club , he signed a contract until 22 December with Indian Super League club Mumbai City FC , managed by Nicolas Anelka . Calling his signing " a new experience , a new chapter " , he said he knew little about the quality of football in the league . O 'Dea made his ISL debut on 10 October , starting in a goalless draw at Kerala Blasters . He left the club after making nine appearances .
= = = Dundee = = =
O 'Dea signed a short @-@ term contract with Dundee in January 2016 . On 22 March 2016 , he signed a new three @-@ year contract .
= = International career = =
After playing for the Irish under @-@ 19 and under @-@ 21 teams , O 'Dea was called up to the international squad within a year . Promoted to the Irish under @-@ 21 international squad by manager Don Givens on 3 March 2007 , he was the team captain . Less than a week later , O 'Dea was named to the international squad for Ireland 's UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying Group D matches on 24 and 28 March .
On 13 May 2008 , he was listed on Giovanni Trapattoni 's first squad as Ireland 's manager for the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification – UEFA Group 8 matches against Bulgaria and Italy . O 'Dea made his senior @-@ team debut on 8 September 2009 in a 1 – 0 friendly win over South Africa at Thomond Park in Limerick as a 60th @-@ minute substitute for Paul McShane .
After a match against the Czech Republic , O 'Dea said he dreamed of being named to the Irish squad for UEFA Euro 2012 . Although he was on the roster for the tournament in Poland and Ukraine , he did not appear ; the Irish were eliminated from the group stage . O 'Dea scored his first senior goal for Ireland , an 88th @-@ minute header , in a World Cup qualifying match against the Faroe Islands on 16 October 2012 which Ireland won 4 – 1 .
= = Playing style = =
O 'Dea 's manager at Toronto FC , Paul Mariner , described him as a " different specimen " with " fantastic habits " and a good leader . According to Miloš Kocić , he is a good defender of set pieces .
= = Career statistics = =
As of 23 July 2016
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Celtic
Scottish Premier League : 2006 – 07 , 2007 – 08
Scottish League Cup : 2008 – 09
Scottish Cup : 2006 – 07
International
Nations Cup : 2011
= = = Individual = = =
Ireland Young International Player of the Year Award 2012
= Star Alliance =
Star Alliance is the world 's largest global airline alliance . Founded on 14 May 1997 , its current CEO is Mark Schwab and its headquarters is in Frankfurt am Main , Germany . As of 31 March 2014 , Star Alliance is the largest global alliance by passenger count with 637 @.@ 6 million , ahead of SkyTeam ( 588 million ) and Oneworld ( 512 @.@ 8 million ) . Its slogan is " The Way The Earth Connects " .
Star Alliance 's 27 member airlines operate a fleet of approximately 4 @,@ 000 aircraft , serve more than 1 @,@ 000 airports in 194 countries and carry 637 @.@ 6 million passengers per year on more than 18 @,@ 000 daily departures . The alliance has a two @-@ tier rewards program , Silver and Gold , with incentives including priority boarding and upgrades . Like other airline alliances , Star Alliance airlines share airport terminals ( known as co @-@ location ) and many member planes are painted in the alliance 's livery .
= = History = =
= = = 1997 – 1999 : First alliance = = =
On 14 May 1997 , an agreement was announced forming Star Alliance from five airlines on three continents : Scandinavian Airlines , Thai Airways International , Air Canada , Lufthansa , and United Airlines . The alliance chose Young & Rubicam for advertising , with a budget of $ 25 million ( € 18 million ) . The airlines shared the star logo from the beginning , with its five points representing the founding airlines . The alliance adopted its first slogan , " The Airline Network for Earth " , with its goal " an alliance that will take passengers to every major city on earth " .
= = = Additions = = =
The now defunct Brazilian airline VARIG joined the Star Alliance network on 22 October 1997 , extending the alliance into South America . Also joining were Ansett Australia and Air New Zealand , expanding Star Alliance to Australia and the Pacific . With the addition of the latter two carriers , the alliance served 720 destinations in 110 countries with a combined fleet of 1 @,@ 650 aircraft . The next airline to join was All Nippon Airways ( ANA ) , the group 's second Asian airline , on 15 October 1999 .
= = = 2000 @-@ 2006 : Expansion = = =
During the early 2000s , a number of airlines joined Star Alliance ; the Austrian Airlines Group ( Austrian Airlines , Tyrolean Airways and Lauda Air ) joined on 26 March 2000 and Singapore Airlines on 1 April . BMI ( British Midland ) and Mexicana Airlines joined on 1 July , bringing the alliance 's membership to 13 . The addition of BMI made London Heathrow the only European hub with two alliances . During the year , Emirates considered joining Star Alliance , but decided against it . That year the now @-@ defunct BWIA West Indies Airways , which had entered an alliance with United Airlines , considered becoming a member but did not . In 2000 , the alliance also opened its first three business centers ( in Los Angeles , Frankfurt , and Bangkok ) and announced the formation of an Alliance Management Team ( AMT ) , the partnership 's executive body . In September 2001 , Ansett Australia ( the alliance 's only Australian member ) left Star Alliance due to bankruptcy , giving most of the Australian market to Qantas ( a Oneworld member ) . That year , Star Alliance announced the appointment of a new CEO , Jaan Albrecht .
Asiana Airlines joined the alliance on 1 March 2003 , Spanair on 1 May , and LOT Polish Airlines ( Poland 's flag carrier ) in October . Around this time , Mexicana Airlines left the alliance after deciding not to renew a codeshare agreement with United Airlines , later joining Oneworld . US Airways joined the alliance in May 2003 , becoming its second US @-@ based airline . In November Adria Airways , Blue1 and Croatia Airlines joined the alliance as its first three regional members .
Although Star Alliance invited Lineas Aereas Azteca in 2005 to join in mid @-@ 2007 , the airline filed for bankruptcy . TAP Portugal joined on 14 March 2005 , adding African destinations to the network . In April 2006 Swiss International Air Lines , the alliance 's sixth European airline , and South African Airways ( its first African carrier ) became the 17th and 18th members .
= = = 2007 : Tenth anniversary = = =
By May 2007 , Star Alliance 's 10th anniversary , its members had a combined 16 @,@ 000 daily departures to 855 destinations in 155 countries and served 406 million passengers annually . The alliance introduced Biosphere Connections , a partnership with UNESCO , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) , and the Ramsar Convention On Wetlands to promote environmental sustainability .
Today , nearly 30 % of global air travellers use the services of our member carriers or , looking at it from an overall industry perspective , two thirds of worldwide air travellers use one of the three airline alliances .
VARIG left the alliance on 31 January 2007 , and the two Chinese airlines Air China and Shanghai Airlines joined on 12 December .
= = = 2008 – 2010 : Second decade of operations = = =
On 1 April 2008 , Turkish Airlines joined the alliance after a 15 @-@ month integration process beginning in December 2006 , becoming its seventh European airline and 20th member . EgyptAir , Egypt 's national airline and Star Alliance 's second African carrier , joined on 11 July 2008 .
On 27 October 2009 , Continental Airlines became the 25th member of Star Alliance after leaving SkyTeam three days earlier . According to alliance CEO Jaan Albrecht , " Bringing Continental Airlines into Star Alliance has been a truly unique experience . This is the first time an airline has moved directly from one alliance to another and I would like to thank all those involved in ensuring a smooth switch " . At the time , it was rumored that the switch was Continental 's first move in a planned United Airlines @-@ Continental merge . Two months later , Brussels Airlines joined the alliance .
Brazilian carrier TAM Airlines joined Star Alliance on 13 May 2010 , increasing its foothold in South America . Aegean Airlines , Greece 's largest airline by number of passengers , joined on 30 June .
Shanghai Airlines left the alliance on 31 October 2010 when it merged with China Eastern Airlines , a SkyTeam member . On 29 September , the chief executive board approved Ethiopian Airlines as Star Alliance 's 30th member . In 2010 the alliance flew to 1 @,@ 172 airports in 181 countries , with about 21 @,@ 200 daily departures .
= = = 2011 @-@ present : Further expansion = = =
Since 2011 , more airlines have joined , and others have left due to their collapse or restructuring . In August 2011 , after several delays , Air India was rejected for membership when it did not meet alliance requirements . On 13 December 2011 , Ethiopian Airlines joined , adding five countries and 24 destinations to the alliance 's map .
Star Alliance had a tumultuous 2012 , with Spanair leaving early in the year when the carrier ceased operations . In early March , Continental merged with United Airlines , ending its membership in the alliance . BMI left on 20 April after its acquisition by International Airlines Group ( IAG ) , the parent company of Oneworld members Iberia and British Airways . On 21 June , Avianca , TACA Airlines and Copa Airlines joined the alliance , increasing its Latin American presence . In November , Blue1 left the alliance , becoming an affiliate of parent Scandinavian Airlines . Shenzhen Airlines joined on 29 November , augmenting Air China 's Chinese network .
On 8 March 2013 , TAM Airlines announced its departure due to its merger with LAN Airlines to become LATAM Airlines Group . With the addition of EVA Air on 18 June and TACA 's integration into Avianca , the alliance now had 28 members and was the largest of the three major airline alliances . On 13 December , Air India was again invited to begin an integration process with Star Alliance . On 31 March 2014 , TAM Airlines moved to Oneworld , and US Airways and an American Airlines affiliate also left the alliance . That day , Avianca Brazil announced that it would join Star Alliance in 2014 as an affiliate of Avianca . After TAM Airlines and US Airways left , the alliance had 26 members . On 24 June , Air India was approved , joining the alliance on 11 July . Avianca Brazil then joined the alliance on 22 July 2015 . Future Connecting Partners member Mango , South African Airways ' low @-@ cost subsidiary , will be joining in 3Q 2016 .
= = Member airlines and affiliates = =
= = = Members and affiliates = = =
A Founding member.B Airlines operating under Air Canada Express , Air New Zealand Link , Cimber A / S , Lufthansa Regional , Tyrolean Airways and United Express are not necessarily members of Star Alliance . However , flights are operated on behalf of the respective member airlines , carry their designator code and are Star Alliance flights.C Members of Lufthansa Regional that are fully owned by Deutsche Lufthansa AG.D Air Canada Express flights are operated by Air Georgian , EVAS Air , Jazz Aviation , Sky Regional Airlines.E Air India Regional flights are operated by Alliance Air.F Air New Zealand Link flights are operated by Air Nelson , Eagle Airways and Mount Cook Airline.G Lufthansa Regional flights are operated by Air Dolomiti , Eurowings and Lufthansa CityLine.H United Express flights are operated by Cape Air , CommutAir , ExpressJet Airlines , GoJet Airlines , Mesa Airlines , Republic Airlines , Shuttle America , SkyWest Airlines and Trans States Airlines.I South African low @-@ cost airline Mango will join the alliance as a Connecting Partner in the third quarter of 2016.K Vanilla Air and Tigerair are now part of Value Alliance .
= = Former members and affiliates = =
= = Customer service = =
Codeshare flights of Star Alliance airlines are consistent . This cooperation led to suspicions of anti @-@ competitive behavior ; the alliance was suspected by the European Union of being a virtual merger of its members , and speculation existed that if government regulations were relaxed the members would merge into one corporation .
Star Alliance developed a " regional " concept in 2004 , which helped it penetrate markets with participation by smaller regional carriers . Regional Star Alliance members had to be sponsored by an alliance member . The alliance no longer designates airlines as " regional " members , now referring to its 27 airlines as " members " .
In 2007 , alliance members flew 18 @,@ 521 daily flights to 1 @,@ 321 airports in 193 countries with a fleet of 4 @,@ 025 aircraft . Its members carried a total of 627 @.@ 52 million passengers , with revenue of US $ 156 @.@ 8 billion ( € 145 billion ) . It had 28 percent of the global market based on revenue passenger kilometers ( RPK ) , greater than the combined market share of all airlines not in one of the three major alliances . All alliance carriers combined employed over 405 @,@ 000 pilots , flight attendants , and other staff . Star Alliance was voted best airline alliance in the Skytrax 2007 World Airline Awards .
= = = Member hubs = = =
= = = Co @-@ location at airports ( under one roof ) = = =
= = = Premiums = = =
Star Alliance has two premium levels ( Silver and Gold ) , based on a customer 's status in a member 's frequent @-@ flyer program . Member and regional airlines recognize Star Silver and Gold status , with a few exceptions mostly pertaining to airport lounge access . Membership is based on the frequent @-@ flyer programs of the individual airlines . Many members have a premium status beyond Gold , which is not recognized across the alliance .
= = = = Star Alliance Silver = = = =
Star Alliance Silver status is given to customers who have reached a premium level of a member carrier 's frequent @-@ flyer program . Benefits are priority reservation wait @-@ listing and airport stand @-@ by . Some airlines also offer priority airport check @-@ in , baggage handling and boarding ; preferred seating ; an additional checked @-@ luggage allowance , and waived fees for two checked bags .
= = = = Star Alliance Gold = = = =
Star Alliance Gold status is given to customers who have reached a higher level of a member airline 's frequent @-@ flyer program . Benefits are priority reservations wait @-@ listing , airport stand @-@ by and check @-@ in and baggage handling ; an additional checked luggage allowance of 20 kg ( or one extra piece , where the piece rule applies ) , and access to designated Star Alliance Gold lounges the day and place of departure with the presentation of a Star Alliance boarding pass . Some airlines also offer preferred seating ( an exit seat or a special section of the plane ) ; guaranteed seating on fully booked flights , subject to the booking class code and notice period , and free upgrades in the form of a voucher , certificate or automatic upgrade at check @-@ in . United restricts US lounge access for their Gold Members to long @-@ haul international passengers ; Gold members from other carriers are welcome in US lounges run by United on all itineraries .
= = = = Qualifying tiers by airline = = = =
= = Livery and logo = =
Some Star Alliance members paint some of their aircraft with the alliance livery , usually a white fuselage with " Star Alliance " across it and a black tail fin with the alliance logo ; the color or design of the engine cowlings or winglets remains , depending on the member 's livery . Singapore Airlines is the only exception , formerly keeping its own logo on the tails of its aircraft but now using the Star Alliance logo on white tails . Asiana Airlines was the first Star Alliance member to paint its aircraft in the current Star Alliance livery . Aircraft painted in an airline 's regular livery have the Star Alliance logo between the cockpit and the first set of cabin doors .
= Arrow ( Israeli missile ) =
The Arrow or Hetz ( Hebrew : חֵץ , pronounced [ ˈχet ͡ s ] ) is a family of anti @-@ ballistic missiles designed to fulfill an Israeli requirement for a theater missile defense system that would be more effective against ballistic missiles than the MIM @-@ 104 Patriot surface @-@ to @-@ air missile . Jointly funded and produced by Israel and the United States , development of the system began in 1986 and has continued since , drawing some contested criticism . Undertaken by Israel Aerospace Industries ( IAI ) and Boeing , it is overseen by the Israeli Ministry of Defense 's " Homa " ( Hebrew : חומה , pronounced [ χoma ] , " rampart " ) administration and the U.S. Missile Defense Agency .
The Arrow system consists of the joint production hypersonic Arrow anti @-@ missile interceptor , the Elta EL / M @-@ 2080 " Green Pine " early @-@ warning AESA radar , the Elisra " Golden Citron " ( " Citron Tree " ) C3I center , and the Israel Aerospace Industries " Brown Hazelnut " ( " Hazelnut Tree " ) launch control center . The system is transportable , as it can be moved to other prepared sites .
Following the construction and testing of the Arrow 1 technology demonstrator , production and deployment began with the Arrow 2 version of the missile . The Arrow is considered one of the most advanced missile defense programs currently in existence . It is the first operational missile defense system specifically designed and built to intercept and destroy ballistic missiles . The first Arrow battery was declared fully operational in October 2000 . Although several of its components have been exported , the Israeli Air Defense Command within the Israeli Air Force ( IAF ) of the Israel Defense Forces ( IDF ) is currently the sole user of the complete Arrow system .
= = Background = =
The Arrow program was launched in light of the acquisition by Arab states of long ranged surface @-@ to @-@ surface missiles . It was chosen over RAFAEL Armament Development Authority 's AB @-@ 10 missile defense system since the Arrow was judged to be a more complete concept and have greater range . The AB @-@ 10 system was criticized as being merely an improved MIM @-@ 23 Hawk , rather than a system designed from the outset for missile interception .
The United States and Israel signed a memorandum of understanding to co @-@ fund the Arrow program on May 6 , 1986 , and in 1988 the United States Department of Defense Strategic Defense Initiative Organization ( SDIO ) placed an order with Israel Aircraft Industries for the Arrow 1 technology demonstrator . The Gulf War , which exposed the controversial performance of the Patriot missile against Iraqi " Al Hussein " missiles , gave further impetus to the development of the Arrow . It was initially designed to intercept missiles such as the SS @-@ 1 " Scud " , its " Al Hussein " derivative , the SS @-@ 21 " Scarab " operated by Syria , and the CSS @-@ 2 operated by Saudi Arabia . The Arrow evolved also with an eye on the advanced missile programs of Iran . Yitzhak Rabin , then Defense Minister of Israel , viewed the emerging missile threat as one of the most dangerous future threats on Israel 's security . He said of the program that :
The Israeli Administration for the Development of Weapons and Technological Infrastructure , part of the Israeli Ministry of Defense , runs the Arrow development project under the " Homa " administration . The " Homa " administration , which is also commonly referred to as the IMDO – Israel Missile Defense Organization , is responsible for coordinating industrial activities of Israel 's different defense companies involved in the development of the Arrow system .
= = = Funding = = =
The multibillion @-@ dollar development program of the Arrow is undertaken in Israel with the financial support of the United States . When the development program began , the projection for the total cost of its development and manufacture – including the initial production of missiles – was an estimated $ 1 @.@ 6 billion . The price of a single Arrow missile was estimated at $ 3 million . Between 1989 and 2007 some $ 2 @.@ 4 billion had been reportedly invested in the Arrow program , 50 – 80 percent of which was funded by the United States . Israel contributes approximately $ 65 million annually .
= = = Criticism and opposition = = =
The Arrow program encountered opposition from the IAF , whose traditional doctrine of deterrence and use of preemptive strikes stand in sharp contrast with the nature of the missile . In addition , the IAF feared that the procurement of the costly missiles would diminish the resources allocated towards offensive projects such as fighter aircraft .
A criticism of the concept of missile defense for Israel was aired by Dr. Reuven Pedatzur in a comprehensive study published in 1993 by the Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies . The arguments made in the study conformed to the opinions of numerous defense officials and analysts , and echoed many of the arguments made by the Strategic Defense Initiative critics in the United States .
Pedatzur argued that it was exceedingly simple to fool an Arrow @-@ type defensive system with simple , cheap , and easily installed countermeasures , which would render the Arrow system ineffective . He doubted Israel 's defense industries could rise to the challenge of such a complex system , citing anonymous experts in the IDF who predicted that the system would not be available before 2010 . He envisaged enormous costs , around $ 10 billion , that would distort budgeting priorities and divert funds from the vital enhancement of the IDF 's warfighting capability , thus forcing a profound revision of Israel 's national security doctrine . He further argued that even if effective against missiles with conventional , chemical or biological warheads , the Arrow would not be relevant against future threats of missiles with nuclear warheads , since it would never be able to supply hermetic defense and the impact of even a single nuclear warhead in Israel 's densely populated urban area would be an existential threat to Israel .
At the same time , John E. Pike , who worked then with the Federation of American Scientists , stated that " given technical problems with the systems radar and command system , coupled with its high development cost , the Arrow program may soon fall by the wayside " . Victoria Samson , a research associate of the Center for Defense Information , also stated in October 2002 that the Arrow system cannot track an incoming missile that has split its warhead into submunitions .
In June 2003 a group of Israeli chief engineers , co @-@ inventors , and project managers of IAI and subcontractors were awarded the Israel Defense Prize for the development and production of the Arrow system .
According to Dr. Uzi Rubin , first Director of IMDO , with the passage of time most of the pessimistic predictions have proven to be unfounded . Israel 's defense industries overcame the technical challenge , the system 's development was completed a full decade ahead of what was predicted , and there are no indications that the expenditures for the Arrow harmed other IDF procurement plans to any degree whatsoever . Rubin insists that Israel 's missile defense is now an established fact and that most of the warnings issued by critics have failed to materialize . Pedatzur , however , remained unconvinced .
= = Development = =
= = = Arrow 1 = = =
The first launch of the Arrow interceptor took place on August 9 , 1990 , designed to test the missile 's control and guidance systems . The test came to a halt seconds after take off and the missile was intentionally destroyed due to fears it might go off track and hit a settled location . This was caused by the failure of the ground tracking radars to track the missile 's trajectory . Test number two took place on March 25 , 1991 . Designed to check missile components during launch , it was conducted from a ship at sea . Once again a missile malfunction resulted in the abortion of the experiment . A third test , designed to examine the Arrow 's interception capabilities , was conducted on October 31 , 1991 . The missile was once again launched from a ship at sea , and was once more aborted because of a repeat of previous malfunctions .
On September 23 , 1992 , in another test of the missile components during launch , the systems finally operated as planned and the Arrow reached its designated point in the sky , 45 seconds after launch . As planned , the missile was then destroyed . This successful experiment ended the system 's preliminary testing phase . The fifth , sixth , and seventh tests took place on February 28 , July 14 , and October 14 , 1993 respectively . During these , the Arrow managed to pass in close proximity to the target missiles , thereby proving its ability to intercept surface @-@ to @-@ surface missiles . During test number eight on March 1 , 1994 , the missile was not launched due to a ground computer failure . The ninth test launch on June 12 , 1994 , also known as ATD # 1 ( Arrow Demonstration Test 1 ) , saw an Arrow 1 successfully intercepted a target missile launched from a ship anchored in the middle of the Mediterranean .
The Arrow 1 was reportedly a two @-@ stage solid propellant missile , with an overall length of 7 @.@ 5 m ( 25 ft ) , a body diameter of 1 @,@ 200 mm ( 47 in ) , and a launch weight of around 2 @,@ 000 kg ( 4 @,@ 400 lb ) . It was estimated that the second stage had a length of 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) , and that it had inertial and command update mid @-@ course guidance , with a terminal infrared focal plane array . The missile was described as being relatively high @-@ speed and maneuverable , with thrust vectoring in the both stages . The range capability has been described as around 50 km ( 31 mi ) . On the other hand , the Arrow 1 could be a single stage missile . Development of the " big and cumbersome " Arrow 1 then ceased and further research continued with the " smaller , faster and more lethal " Arrow 2 .
= = = Arrow 2 = = =
Two successful tests ( designated IIT # 21 and IIT # 22 ) of the steering , control and cruising systems were conducted without target missiles on July 30 , 1995 and February 20 , 1996 . Two successful interceptions took place on August 20 , 1996 and March 11 , 1997 , and were designated AIT # 21 and AIT # 22 . Another interception test ( AIT # 23 ) was conducted on August 20 , 1997 , but the missile was destroyed when its steering system malfunctioned . The fault was corrected in time to ensure the success of AST # 3 , the first comprehensive test of the entire system . On September 14 , 1998 , all system components successfully countered a computer @-@ simulated threat . On November 29 , 1998 , Israel Aerospace Industries delivered the first operational Arrow 2 interceptor to the Israeli Ministry of Defense .
A full system interception test ( AST # 4 ) was held on November 1 , 1999 . During this test the Arrow system located , tracked and intercepted a TM @-@ 91C target missile simulating a " Scud " missile , launched on a very steep trajectory from a ship located offshore . The IAI TM @-@ 91C target missile was itself based on the Arrow 1 interceptor . On March 14 , 2000 , the first complete Arrow 2 battery was rolled out in a ceremony at Palmachim Airbase . In his speech , then IAF commander Aluf Eitan Ben Eliyahu said :
Another Arrow 2 test ( AST # 5 ) took place on September 14 , 2000 , this time with a new target missile , the Rafael Advanced Defense Systems " Black Sparrow " . This airborne ballistic target missile , launched by an IAF F @-@ 15 towards Israel 's coastline at a ballistic trajectory simulating an aggressor " Scud " , was intercepted and destroyed . Consequently , the following month saw the Palmachim Arrow battery declared operational by the Israeli Air Defense Command . The " Black Sparrow " has since been used as the aggressor target in the AST # 6 , AST # 9 , and AST # 10 tests . Reportedly , in June 2001 Arrow missiles were test @-@ fired in the course of a joint American @-@ Israeli @-@ Turkish exercise code @-@ named Anatolian Eagle , in the southeast of Turkey . On August 27 , 2001 ( AST # 6 ) , the Arrow system successfully intercepted its target at some 100 km ( 62 mi ) from shore , the highest and farthest that the Arrow 2 had been tested to date . In October 2002 the second battery was declared operational .
= = = = Block @-@ 2 = = = =
A successful test of the Arrow 2 block @-@ 2 took place on January 5 , 2003 ( AST # 8 ) . Four missiles were launched towards four simulated targets in order to examine the interceptor 's performance during special flight conditions as well as system performance during a sequence of launches . The test did not include actual interceptions . Another successful test held on December 16 , 2003 ( AST # 9 ) , examined the system 's ability to intercept and destroy incoming missiles at significantly high altitudes , around 60 km ( 37 mi ) . Reportedly , AST # 8 and AST # 9 also tested integration of the Arrow with Patriot batteries .
On July 29 , 2004 , Israel and the United States carried out a joint test at the Naval Air Station Point Mugu ( NAS Point Mugu ) Missile Test Center in California , in which the Arrow interceptor was launched against a real " Scud @-@ B " missile . The test represented a realistic scenario that could not have been tested in Israel due to test @-@ field safety restrictions . To enable the test a full battery was shipped to Point Mugu . The " Green Pine " radar and command @-@ and @-@ control systems were deployed at the base , while the Arrow launcher was installed 100 km ( 62 mi ) offshore on an island that forms part of the test range . The test was a success , with the interceptor destroying the " Scud " that flew a 300 km ( 190 mi ) trajectory at an altitude of 40 km ( 25 mi ) , west of San Nicolas Island . This was the twelfth Arrow interceptor test and the seventh test of the complete system , the first interception of a real " Scud " . This significant test became known as the AST USFT # 1 . Following this test , then Defense Minister of Israel , Shaul Mofaz , said :
AST USFT # 2 was conducted at NAS Point Mugu a month later , on August 26 . This test was aimed at examining the Arrow 's ability to detect a splitting warhead of a separating ballistic missile . It detected the true target , but a technical malfunction reportedly prevented it from maneuvering to strike it , leading to a suspension of testing . In March – April 2005 the ability of " Green Pine " and " Golden Citron " to work with Patriot system elements operated by U.S. Army was successfully tested against simulated " Scud " -type targets during regular series of U.S. – Israeli biennial exercises code @-@ named " Juniper Cobra " . Actual testing of the complete Arrow system was resumed in December 2005 , when the system successfully intercepted a target at an unspecified but reported record low altitude . This test ( AST # 10 ) was the fourteenth test of the Arrow missile and the ninth test of the complete system .
= = = = Block @-@ 3 = = = =
On February 11 , 2007 an Arrow 2 block @-@ 3 successfully intercepted and destroyed a " Black Sparrow " target missile simulating a ballistic missile at high altitude . It was the first so @-@ called distributed weapon system test conducted in Israel , which required two Arrow units deployed some 100 km ( 62 mi ) apart to share data on incoming threats and coordinate launching assignments . It was also the first time the Link 16 data distribution system was used to connect two Arrow units , although the system had been used in previous tests to connect Arrow and Patriot batteries . Furthermore , an improved launcher was used . Another " Juniper Cobra " exercises ran from March 10 to 20 , 2007 . The computer simulation used for " Juniper Cobra 2007 " was similar to the computer simulation used in " Juniper Cobra 2005 " .
A precursor of the next block was launched without a target on March 26 , 2007 in order to gather information on its flight and performance , introducing unspecified modifications to its hardware and electronics and reduced manufacturing costs by some 20 percent . Arieh Herzog , then Director of IMDO , has said : " Our Arrow operational system can without a doubt deal with all of the operational threats in the Middle East , particularly in Iran and Syria . "
= = = = Block @-@ 4 = = = =
On April 15 , 2008 the Arrow weapon system successfully detected and made a simulated intercept of a new target missile , the " Blue Sparrow " , a successor of the " Black Sparrow " capable of simulating " Scud @-@ C / D " missiles and reportedly the Iranian Shahab @-@ 3 as well . During the test , a target missile was launched from an IAF F @-@ 15 at a height of 90 @,@ 000 feet ( 27 @.@ 5 km ) . The missile split into multiple warheads , making it harder to intercept it . Nevertheless , " Green Pine " tracked the warhead , simulating an intercept . In September 2008 the IDF attempted a test of actual Arrow 2 block @-@ 4 missile against the " Blue Sparrow " . The drill had to be aborted , however , when the target missile malfunctioned shortly after launch . Eventually the Arrow 2 block @-@ 4 was successfully tested against the " Blue Sparrow " on April 7 , 2009 .
A July 22 , 2009 , joint test of the Arrow 2 block @-@ 4 against an airborne target missile with a range of over 1 @,@ 000 km ( 620 mi ) once again at the NAS Point Mugu , was reportedly aborted in the final second before launch after the missile failed to establish a communications link . A target had been released from a C @-@ 17 Globemaster III aircraft , the radar detected the target and transferred its tracks , but the interceptor was not launched . " Tracking of the target worked well , but tracking trajectory information that the radar transferred to the battle management center erroneously showed we would be out of the prescribed safety range , so the mission was aborted , " a program source said . The aborted interception came after two earlier setbacks in the planned test , initially scheduled for July 17 . The first try was scuttled due to a technical glitch in the C @-@ 17 aircraft , and a planned July 20 attempt was scrubbed due to a malfunctioning electric battery that was not providing enough power to a key element of the Arrow system . The test was widely referred to as a failure , however objectives of interoperability with other ballistic missile defense systems were achieved .
On February 22 , 2011 the Arrow system successfully intercepted a long @-@ range ballistic target missile during a flight test conducted at NAS Point Mugu . The target missile was launched from a mobile launch platform off the coast of California , within the Point Mugu test range . The test validated new block @-@ 4 versions designed to improve discriminating capabilities of the Arrow 2 interceptor . It was a body @-@ to @-@ body impact that completely destroyed the target .
On February 10 , 2012 developers successfully conducted the final target @-@ tracking test prior to delivery of block @-@ 4 Arrow system . The Blue Sparrow target missile was detected and tracked by the radar , the intercept solutions were plotted by the battle management controller and transferred to the launch units .
According to Arieh Herzog , block @-@ 4 upgrades " improve the process of discrimination of what happens in the sky and the transmission of target data for much better situational control . " Block @-@ 4 upgrades also refine midcourse guidance which , when coupled with improved target identification and discrimination capabilities , improves lethality .
Block @-@ 4 @.@ 1 is expected to include a new Battle Management Center , armored launchers with high shooting availability , better communication with other missile systems and wider ranges of interceptions . On September 9 , 2014 an intercept test was conducted over the Mediterranean Sea with block @-@ 4 @.@ 1 versions of the operational system . The outcome was inconclusive and remained so until data was fully analyzed . In February 2015 , an official at the IMDO acknowledged that a test successfully acquired , but narrowly missed its target . The exact reason behind the failure was not provided , but officials initially attributed the glitch to easily correctable software issues .
= = = = Block @-@ 5 = = = =
IMDO recently launched initial definition of a new block @-@ 5 upgrade to the complete Arrow system that will merge the lower @-@ tier Arrow 2 and exoatmospheric Arrow 3 into a single national missile defense system . According to Arieh Herzog , the planned block @-@ 5 will include new ground- and airborne sensors , a command and control system , and a new target missile – the Silver Sparrow – to simulate potentially nuclear @-@ capable delivery vehicles developed by Iran . According to the U.S. Missile Defense Agency , block @-@ 5 is expected to be able to deal with " more stressing regional threats " by increasing total defended area by some 50 percent .
The planned block @-@ 5 will optimize the existing Super Green Pine radar to operate with the AN / TPY @-@ 2 radar as well as with radars commanding anti @-@ ballistic missiles aboard United States Navy destroyers . U.S. radars will be used to support closed @-@ loop operations if Israel and U.S. targets in the region come under attack .
= = = Arrow 3 = = =
By August 2008 the United States and Israeli governments have initiated development of an upper @-@ tier component to the Israeli Air Defense Command , known as Arrow 3 . The development is based on an architecture definition study conducted in 2006 – 2007 , determining the need for the upper @-@ tier component to be integrated into Israel 's ballistic missile defense system . According to Arieh Herzog , the main element of this upper tier will be an exoatmospheric interceptor , to be jointly developed by IAI and Boeing .
= = Specifications = =
The Arrow system was originally designed and optimized to intercept short and medium @-@ range ballistic missiles with ranges above 200 km ( 120 mi ) . It is not intended to intercept either military aircraft or artillery rockets , the second of which are relatively small and short ranged . In contrast to THAAD , RIM @-@ 161 Standard Missile 3 , and MIM @-@ 104 Patriot PAC @-@ 3 , that use kinetic , direct impact to destroy the target ( " hit @-@ to @-@ kill " ) the Arrow 2 relies on explosive detonation . Arrow 2 is able to intercept its targets above the stratosphere , high enough so that any nuclear , chemical , or biological weapons do not scatter over Israel . The developers ' intention was to perform the destruction sequence away from populated locations . According to Dr. Uzi Rubin , the missile was tested to determine whether chemical warfare agents would reach the ground should such a warhead be intercepted . The conclusion was that nothing would reach the ground if the warhead is destroyed above the jet stream , which flows from west to east and would therefore blow any chemical residue . Nevertheless , Arrow is also capable of low altitude interception , as well as multi @-@ tactical ballistic missiles interception .
The two @-@ stage missile is equipped with solid propellant booster and sustainer rocket motors . The missile uses an initial burn to carry out a vertical hot launch from the container and a secondary burn to sustain the missile 's trajectory towards the target at a maximum speed of Mach 9 , or 2 @.@ 5 km / s ( 1 @.@ 6 mi / s ) . Thrust vector control is used in the boost and sustainer phases of flight . At the ignition of the second stage sustainer motor , the first stage assembly separates . The Arrow missile is launched before the threat missile 's trajectory and intercept point are accurately known . As more trajectory data becomes available , the optimum intercept point is more precisely defined , towards which the missiles is then guided . The 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) kill vehicle section of the missile , containing the warhead , fusing and the terminal seeker , is equipped with four moving delta aerodynamic control fins to give low altitude interception capability . The dual mode missile seeker has a passive infrared seeker for the acquisition and tracking of tactical ballistic missiles and an active radar seeker used to home on air @-@ breathing targets at low altitudes . The infrared seeker is an indium antimonide focal plane array . The kill vehicle is designed to achieve a hit @-@ to @-@ kill interception , but if this is not achieved , the proximity fuze will direct the warhead fragments at the target shortly before reaching the closest point to the target . The high explosive directed blast fragmentation warhead is capable of destroying a target within a 40 – 50 m ( 130 – 160 ft ) radius . In this manner , Arrow also differs from Patriot PAC @-@ 3 , THAAD , and Standard Missile 3 , which rely purely on hit @-@ to @-@ kill technology in which the kinetic force of a precise impact causes the destruction of the threat .
According to Dov Raviv , a senior developer dubbed " the father of the Arrow anti @-@ ballistic missile " , a single Arrow interceptor has a 90 percent probability of destroying a target missile at the highest altitude possible . In case of failure two more interceptors can be launched towards the target at short time intervals . If the first of these destroys the target , the second can be directed to another target . Using this technique , three independent interception possibilities are provided which raise the interception probability from 90 percent to 99 @.@ 9 percent , thus satisfying the leakage rate requirement . The Arrow also has the capability to simultaneously intercept a salvo of more than five incoming missiles , with the target missiles arriving within a 30 @-@ second span . Such capability is currently possessed only by the United States and Russia . According to Raviv , the Arrow can discriminate between a warhead and a decoy .
Each Arrow battery is equipped with typically four to eight erectors – launchers , its manning requires about 100 personnel . Each trailer @-@ mounted erector – launcher weighs 35 tonnes ( 77 @,@ 000 lb ) when loaded with six launch tubes with ready @-@ to @-@ fire missiles . After firing the launchers can be reloaded in an hour . The system is transportable rather than mobile , as it can be moved to other prepared sites , but cannot be set up just anywhere .
= = = Green Pine = = =
The " Green Pine " is an active electronically scanned array ( AESA ) solid state radar operating at L band in the range 500 MHz to 1 @,@ 000 MHz , or 1 @,@ 000 MHz to 2 @,@ 000 MHz . It operates in search , detection , tracking , and missile guidance modes simultaneously . It is capable of detecting targets at ranges of up to about 500 km ( 310 mi ) and is able to track more than 30 targets at speeds over 3 @,@ 000 m / s ( 10 @,@ 000 ft / s ) . The radar illuminates the target and guides the Arrow missile to within 4 m ( 13 ft ) of the target .
Super Green Pine
An advanced version of the radar , called " Super Green Pine " , " Green Pine " Block @-@ B , or " Great Pine " ( Hebrew : אורן אדיר , pronounced [ oʁen adiʁ ] ) , is to take the place of the original " Green Pine . As of 2008 both versions were active . The " Super Green Pine " extends detection range to about 800 – 900 km ( 500 – 560 mi ) . An even more advanced upgrade of the Super Green Pine is under development .
= = = Golden Citron = = =
The " Golden Citron " ( Hebrew : אתרוג זהב , pronounced [ etʁoɡ zahav ] ) truck @-@ mounted net @-@ centric open systems architecture Battle Management Command , Control , Communication & Intelligence Center can control up to 14 intercepts simultaneously . As of 2007 it was one of the world 's most advanced net @-@ centric systems . The system provides fully automatic as well as Human @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Loop options at every stage of battle operation management . It is also capable of interoperability with other theater missile defense systems and C3I systems . Notably Link 16 , TADIL @-@ J , communications were being altered to allow interoperability with Patriot fire control units . Assigned targets can be handed over to the Patriot 's AN / MPQ @-@ 53 fire control radar . Tests carried out by the U.S and Israel have successfully linked the Arrow with both U.S and Israeli versions of the Patriot .
The " Citron Tree " has three banks of operator consoles laid out in a U shape . In the center sits the officer in command who oversees the engagement , but also has links to the other parts of the battery as well as to IAF headquarters . On the commander 's right sits the engagement officer , who ensures that targets are assigned to other engagement officers sitting on the right @-@ hand leg of the U. Each is assigned a geographical area to defend and two of the officers are more senior as they have an overview of Patriot batteries . To the left of the commander is the resource officer , who monitors the status and readiness of the missiles . On the left of the U sits the sky picture officer , who is in contact with the Home Front Command and uses the center 's ability to predict impact point to alert the civil authorities . Also at these consoles are an intelligence officer and an after @-@ action / debrief officer , who uses recordings as it is impossible to absorb all the information during engagements . All in all , the " Golden Citron " is manned by 7 – 10 operators .
= = = Brown Hazelnut = = =
The " Brown Hazelnut " ( Hebrew : אגוז חום , pronounced [ eɡoz χum ] ) launch control center is located at the launch site , up to 300 km ( 190 mi ) from the " Golden Citron " fire control center . It employs microwave and radio data and voice communications links to the " Green Pine " and " Golden Citron " . The launch method is a vertical hot launch from a sealed canister , providing all @-@ azimuth coverage . " Brown Hazelnut " also has missile maintenance and diagnostic capabilities .
= = Production = =
Israel initially produced the Arrow system domestically , but on February 11 , 2003 IAI and Boeing signed an agreement , valued at over $ 25 million for fiscal years 2003 – 2004 , to establish production facilities for the manufacture of components for the Arrow missile in the United States . In March 2004 , IAI awarded a $ 78 million production contract to Boeing ; the total contract value could exceed $ 225 million through second quarter 2008 . As a result of successful implementation of this contract Boeing is responsible for production of about 35 percent of Arrow missile components , including the electronics section , booster motor case and missile canister , at its Huntsville , Alabama facilities . IAI , the prime contractor of the Arrow system , is responsible for integration and the final assembly of the Arrow missile in Israel . Boeing also coordinates the production of Arrow missile components manufactured by more than 150 American companies located in over 25 states . Boeing delivered its first Arrow 2 interceptor to Israel in 2005 . Co @-@ produced interceptors has been tested since February 12 , 2007 . Final deliveries to the Israel Air Force were planned by the end of 2010 .
Other major contractors are :
Elta – produces the " Green Pine " / " Super Green Pine " radar ;
Elisra – produces the " Golden Citron " C3I Center ;
Rafael Advanced Defense Systems – produces the sustainer motor and the warhead ;
Israel Military Industries – produces the booster motor ;
Alliant Techsystems – produces the motor cases and the first stage nozzle ;
Lockheed Martin – produces the active radar seeker ;
Raytheon – produces the infrared seeker ;
Ceradyne – produces the ceramic radome .
= = Deployment = =
According to its original 1986 schedule , the Arrow system was supposed to enter operational service in 1995 . The first operational Arrow battery was deployed , however , in March 2000 in Palmachim Airbase , near the city of Rishon LeZion , south of the Tel Aviv metropolitan area . It was declared operational in October 2000 , and reached its full capacity in March 2001 . Deployment of the second battery at Ein Shemer ( Ein Shemer Airfield ) , near the city of Hadera , Haifa District , northern Israel , was delayed by strong opposition from local residents who feared its radar would be hazardous to their health . The situation was eventually resolved and Israel 's second battery completed its deployment , turned operational and linked up with first battery in October 2002 . In 2007 the IDF has reportedly decided to modify its missile defense doctrine and in order to counter possible Syrian and Iranian missile barrages and has quietly modified its deployment of the Arrow in northern Israel .
The IDF planned to procure 50 – 100 interceptors for each battery . As of 1998 , a battery was estimated to cost about $ 170 million . As of 2012 , reportedly one " Great Pine " radar is deployed alongside two " Green Pine " radars .
Israel had originally planned to deploy two Arrow 2 batteries but has since sought and won promises of funding for a third battery . Some reports stated that a third battery was already deployed , or in development in the south , while others claimed that a decision on deployment of a third battery has not yet been made , although it was under discussion for service entry in 2012 . Another report stated that Israel planned to deploy not one , but two additional Arrow 2 batteries to defend the country 's southern region , also covering sensitive sites such as the Negev Nuclear Research Center . However the decision about the third battery was taken in October 2010 . The new battery was expected to be put into operational use in 2012 in the center of the country . According to Jane 's Defence Weekly , some sources indicate that the new Arrow 2 battery became operational in 2012 in an Israeli Air Force facility at Tal Shahar , roughly halfway between Jerusalem and Ashdod , near Beit Shemesh .
= = = Export = = =
Apart from Israel no country has purchased a full Arrow system , although India had acquired and deployed three " Green Pine " radars by August 2005 . The Indian government has sought to purchase the Arrow system since 1999 , however in early 2002 the U.S. vetoed Israel 's request to sell the Arrow 2 missiles to India , exercising its right as a major funding contributor . U.S. officials argued that the sale would violate the Missile Technology Control Regime ( MTCR ) . Although the Arrow 2 could possibly achieve a range of 300 km ( 190 mi ) , it is designed for intercepts at shorter ranges , and it is unclear whether it could carry a 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) payload to this range specified in the MTCR . In 2011 once again an Indian Army official said that the Arrow 2 might become part of India 's missile defense solution .
Turkey also planned to buy anti @-@ missile air defense systems worth more than $ 1 billion . The Arrow was considered a potential contender , but was rejected on political grounds . In the past , the United Kingdom , Japan , and Singapore were mentioned as then potential foreign customers of the Arrow system . Netherlands reportedly expressed interest in the " Golden Citron " C3I center in November 1999 .
In the late 1990s officials of Jordan have expressed concern that any conflagration between Israel and Iraq or Iran would impact its territory . The problem becomes more difficult for Jordan when the warheads are not conventional . Therefore , Benjamin Netanyahu , during his first term of office as Prime Minister of Israel , reportedly offered Jordan " a defensive umbrella of Arrow 2 " . Without allowing Israel to forward deploy the Arrow launchers close to the Iraqi border , the other option is for Israel to sell Jordan the Arrow system . This is most likely what Prime Minister Netanyahu meant above . In May 1999 Israel reportedly requested U.S. approval for selling Arrow batteries to Jordan , but apparently no such approval has been given yet .
Armed with marketing approval by their respective governments , a U.S. – Israeli industrial team plans to offer the Arrow system to South Korea . The potential deal , estimated to exceed $ 1 billion .
For the United States , the Arrow has provided important technical and operational data . It remains a key element in the Missile Defense Agency ’ s plan for a layered missile defense architecture , and an example of a successful , affordable program . At the moment , however , the United States does not have any plans to procure and deploy the Arrow . Nevertheless , in September 2009 the Arrow system was mentioned by then U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert Gates and then Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General James Cartwright among the alternative to the proposed
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hours after being named , Waka attained sustained winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . During December 30 , the center of the storm brushed Wallis Island before turning towards the southeast and accelerating due to an approaching trough from the northwest . Continuing to intensify , Waka passed directly over Niuafo 'ou on December 31 with winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) . Later that day , the cyclone attained its peak intensity as a Category 4 severe tropical cyclone with ten @-@ minute sustained winds of 185 km / h ( 115 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 930 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 46 inHg ) . The JTWC assessed the storm to have attained similar one @-@ minute sustained winds upon peaking ; however , this was due to discrepancies between the two warning centers . At this time , Waka displayed a well @-@ defined , circular eye roughly 60 km ( 37 mi ) in diameter . Shortly after attaining its peak intensity , the center of Waka passed over Vava 'u .
Continuing into the new year , Waka gradually weakened on January 1 , 2002 as it entered a less favorable region for tropical cyclones . As a result , wind shear displaced convection from the center and its eyewall broke apart . Moving over decreasing sea surface temperatures , Waka began to undergo an extratropical transition , which it completed on January 2 . Tracking southeastward , the remnant cyclone briefly slowed over open waters before again accelerating . Over the following few days , the system gradually weakened , with sustained winds decreasing below gale @-@ force by January 5 . The storm was last noted on January 6 near the Southern Ocean , about 2 @,@ 200 km ( 1 @,@ 400 mi ) north @-@ northwest of Antarctica , at which time it had a pressure of 972 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 7 inHg ) .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Tonga = = =
On December 30 , just a day before Waka passed through Tonga , warnings were issued for numerous islands , including parts of Fiji and Samoa . Forecasts showed the storm passing directly over the low @-@ lying Tongan capital of Nuku 'alofa as a Category 3 cyclone . Owing to warnings from local media , all New Year 's Eve celebrations were canceled as residents and tourists boarded up their homes . All airports in the region were shut down and ferry service was suspended . Many residents on the small island of Niuafo 'ou , about 35 km2 ( 13 @.@ 5 mi2 ) in size , evacuated to other islands prior to Waka 's arrival .
When the storm was moving through the islands of Tonga at peak strength , a few islands recorded hurricane @-@ force winds ; the city of Neiafu measured the strongest winds , peaking at 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . In the southern islands , wind gusts up to 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) affected isolated areas . In the Haʻapai islands , sustained winds reached 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) and gusted to 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) . Heavy rains also fell during Waka 's passage , amounting to over 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) in Haʻapai .
Initial reports from Nukuʻalofa on December 31 indicated severe agricultural damage but few infrastructural losses . Following the passage of Waka , communication with Niuas and Vava 'u were lost . According to local reports , high winds sandblasted Neiafu and downed nearly every tree . Surveys by the Red Cross revealed that roughly 200 homes in the city were severely damaged or destroyed and those left standing lost their roofs . Vava 'u lost roughly 90 % of its crops , including essential food crops such as taro , yams and bananas . In Ha 'apai , one person died from cardiac arrest brought on by the storm . Fallen trees blocked numerous roads ; power and water supplies were also interrupted to most residents . Severe damage also took place on Niuatoputapu where coastal homes were impacted by Waka 's storm surge and several structures lost their roofs . In one instance , a yacht was brought onshore by the surge and crashed into a restaurant , destroying both .
According to damage surveys , 13 of the country 's islands sustained damage ; 470 homes and 6 schools were destroyed and hundreds more damaged . Damage throughout Tonga amounted to 104 @.@ 2 million paʻanga ( $ 51 @.@ 3 million USD ) . In addition to infrastructural and public damage , the environment sustained catastrophic losses on Tonga . The Insular Flying Fox ( Pteropus tonganus ) , a native species of bat , suffered great losses from Waka . Compared to pre @-@ cyclone population levels , 79 @.@ 8 % ( ± 9 @.@ 9 % ) of the species was killed across six islands . This was due to widespread destruction of their natural food source , which decreased by 85 % ( ± 11 @.@ 8 % ) following Waka . Trees across Vava 'u were completely defoliated , although only 6 @.@ 6 % were killed , leaving no food for the bats . The greatest decline in bats was on Utula 'aina Island at 95 @.@ 7 % ; A 'a Island sustained a complete loss of food @-@ bearing plants . Six months after the storm , the bat population in Vava 'u was still only 20 % of the pre @-@ storm level .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
During the cyclone 's formative stages , it brought significant winds and swells to Tokelau , resulting in localized flooding and crop damage . American Samoa also experienced heavy rains , amounting to 56 @.@ 9 mm ( 2 @.@ 24 in ) , and gusts up to 90 km / h ( 56 mph ) . The winds downed a few trees and caused minor crop damage , with losses amounting to US $ 120 @,@ 000 . Large swells affected the island for roughly a week as the storm developed and moved away from the region . Cyclone Waka also affected Wallis and Futuna , prompting tropical cyclone watches and warnings from December 28 to 31 , and later impacted Niue , prompting warnings there from December 30 to January 1 . On Wallis Island , one home was destroyed and 50 % of the banana crop was lost . A maximum of 112 mm ( 4 @.@ 4 in ) of rain fell in Hihifo during the passage of Waka . A wind gust of 126 km / h ( 78 mph ) and swells up to 7 m ( 23 ft ) were recorded in Wallis . Niue received more significant damage , experiencing a storm surge of up to 8 m ( 26 ft ) and sea spray up to 100 m ( 330 ft ) inland . Numerous fallen trees and power lines blocked roads and left southern areas of the island without power for roughly six hours . Damage in Niue amounted to US $ 10 @,@ 000 .
After moving through the Tongan islands , the remnants of Waka brought large swells , estimated up to 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) , to the North Island of New Zealand . Thousands of residents and tourists were in the region following the New Year 's holiday . Meteorologists warned that the oceans would be increasingly dangerous and advised people not to venture into the water . Every lifeguard in Whangamata , as well as former lifeguards , were called in to assist in keeping an estimated 8 @,@ 000 people out of the water . Although most people stayed within a designated swimming area , several rescues had to be made . Rip currents also pulled 38 people out to sea in Mount Maunganui Main Beach ; all were quickly rescued by lifeguards .
= = Aftermath = =
Within a day of Cyclone Waka 's passage in Tonga , the Government of New Zealand deployed an aircraft to survey the scale of damage and reestablish contact with the Tongan Islands . This aircraft was sent in accordance with the FRANZ Agreement , enacted in 1992 , which states that assests from one country would be used in relief operations . On January 2 , the head of Tonga 's Disaster Office announced that they would likely need international assistance to recover from the storm . Due to the substantial damage to agriculture , food shortages were expected to impact the region over the following months . By January 7 , the Red Cross began sending supplies to Tonga . Hundreds of tents and tarpaulins were brought in by an Australian AC @-@ 130 to help with the recovery process . On January 12 , a New Zealand Lockheed C @-@ 130 Hercules carrying US $ 700 @,@ 000 worth of supplies flew to the area to deliver aid . An additional US $ 700 @,@ 000 was given in relief funds to repair damage wrought by the storm . Of this , US $ 500 @,@ 000 would be used to repair schools that were damaged or destroyed and the remaining US $ 200 @,@ 000 would be used for emergency lighting , cooking and food supply recovery .
Further funds came from the United States Agency for International Development , which offered US $ 25 @,@ 000 by mid @-@ January . The French Polynesian assembly in Tahiti also provided US $ 770 @,@ 000 worth of relief supplies and aid . The main industry of Tonga , tourism , was devastated by the storm as no tourists were allowed to travel to the region for at least two weeks after Waka 's passage . The Government of Tonga requested a total of US $ 39 @.@ 2 million in international aid , most of which was dedicated to rehabilitation of infrastructure . Medical supplies and personnel were later deployed by the World Health Organization . In early March , a relief fund based on donations was set up by the United Methodist Committee on Relief to provide US $ 210 @,@ 000 for 30 families impacted by the storm . About 180 people were given assistance in rebuilding their homes by the Church World Service later that month . As food shortages became severe in April , emergency supplies were sent to the outlying Niuas islands of Tonga . In May , US $ 5 @.@ 85 million was approved for emergency funds by the World Bank to assist in infrastructural rehabilitation .
Vava 'u suffered a tremendous decrease in agricultural exports due to Waka , dropping 86 @.@ 5 % from the previous year . Despite substantial agricultural losses , the sector ended up expanding roughly 2 % by the end of 2002 and the overall economy grew by 2 @.@ 9 % . Owing to the severity of damage wrought by the cyclone , the World Meteorological Organization retired the name Waka following its using and replaced it with Wiki .
= 1990 Andhra Pradesh cyclone =
The 1990 Andhra Pradesh cyclone or the 1990 Machilipatnam Cyclone was the worst disaster to affect Southern India since the 1977 Andhra Pradesh cyclone . The system was first noted as a depression on May 4 , 1990 , while it was located over the Bay of Bengal about 600 km ( 375 mi ) to the southeast of Chennai , India . During the next day the depression intensified into a cyclonic storm and started to intensify rapidly , becoming a super cyclonic storm early on May 8 . The cyclone weakened slightly before it made landfall on India about 300 km ( 190 mi ) to the north of Madras in the Andhra Pradesh state as a very severe cyclonic storm with winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) . While over land the cyclone gradually dissipated . The cyclone had a severe impact on India , with over 967 people reported to have been killed . Over 100 @,@ 000 animals also died in the cyclone with the total cost of damages to crops estimated at over $ 600 million ( 1990 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
On May 4 , 1990 the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) reported that a depression had developed over the Bay of Bengal about 600 km ( 375 mi ) to the southeast of Chennai , India . During that day the system gradually developed further and became the subject of a tropical cyclone formation alert , by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center as it moved westwards under the influence of the subtropical ridge of high pressure . The depression subsequently intensified into a cyclonic storm early the next day , before the JTWC initiated advisories on the system and designated it as Tropical Cyclone 02B later that day . At this stage the JTWC only expected the cyclone to intensify marginally , before it weakened as it made landfall in Southern India within 72 hours . During May 6 , the system started to move more towards the north @-@ west because of a weakness in the subtropical ridge , as it continued to intensify and became a Very Severe Cyclonic Storm . This turn towards the northwest turned out to be more northerly than had been expected , which as a result allowed the system to stay offshore for longer than had been expected by the JTWC .
Over the next couple of days the system rapidly intensified before the JTWC reported early on May 8 , that the system had peaked with 1 @-@ minute sustained windspeeds of 230 km / h ( 145 mph ) , which made the system equivalent to a category 4 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . At around the same time the IMD also reported that the cyclone had peaked as a Super Cyclonic Storm , with 3 @-@ minute sustained wind speeds of 235 km / h ( 145 mph ) and an estimated central pressure of 920 hPa ( 27 @.@ 17 inHg ) . By this time the system was located about 150 km ( 95 mi ) to the northeast of Madras and was moving northwards slowly . Later that day as the ship Visvamohini moved through the systems eye region , it measured a central pressure of 912 hPa ( 26 @.@ 93 inHg ) , which the IMD reported would be one of the lowest central pressures ever measured in the Bay of Bengal if it was correct . The system subsequently started to weaken and had become a Very Severe Cyclonic Storm by the time it made landfall during May 9 , near the mouth of the Krishna River in southern Andhra Pradesh . The system subsequently moved north @-@ westwards and gradually weakened further , before it was last noted during May 11 , by both the IMD and JTWC .
= = Preparations , impact and aftermath = =
= = = Preparations = = =
As a result of timely warnings issued by the IMD , the Indian government was able to launch an evacuation campaign and order that all fisherman return to shore . This led to more than 150 @,@ 000 people being evacuated to relief camps which had been set up on higher ground . Due to the thorough preparations , there was fewer deaths than in the 1977 Andhra Pradesh cyclone .
= = = Impact = = =
On Edurumandi Island over 7 @,@ 000 people were left stranded after they refused to evacuate . The island itself was reported to have experienced the full brunt of the system . However , all of the residents reportedly sought protection within a shelter provided by the government . The cyclone had a significant effect on India , with storm surge tides as high as 4 @.@ 9 meters ( 16 ft ) above normal . Consequently , over 100 villages were submerged in water and destroyed . At least 967 people were killed by the cyclone ; most of the deaths occurred when houses made mostly out of mud and straw collapsed . Other people were killed when electrical wires were knocked down and while some people were carried away by flooded rivers . The storm left at least 3 million people homeless , while over 100 @,@ 000 farm animals were killed . At least 435 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 760 km2 ) of rice paddies were destroyed along with huge tracts of mango and banana trees . The total damage to crops and property was estimated at over $ 600 million ( 1990 USD ) . The cyclone was described as the worst disaster in southern India since the 1977 storm . Sea water contaminated fresh drinking wells , prompting warnings about outbreaks of Cholera and Typhoid as many people were drinking and cooking with water from the drains which was causing stomach disorders .
= = = = Tamil Nadu = = = =
Overall the cyclone only caused minor damage to Tamil Nadu with the worst affected area being the district of Chingleput , where one of the old shrines of Kasiviswanather Temple collapsed as high waves hit the coast . A large number of huts were also washed away by the waves , while six deaths were reported in the state .
= = = = Andhra Pradesh = = = =
= = = Aftermath = = =
On May 11 , two days after the cyclone had hit , the Indian Government launched a massive relief and rescue operation . The Indian Army and Naval helicopters took surveys of areas affected by the cyclone , and also dropped food packets . Although the Indian Government did not request international assistance , the Red Cross provided food , oil , medicines and water tanks for the affected families ; the wcc / cicarws issued an appeal for $ 262 thousand ( 1990 USD ) so they could provide immediate needs with World Vision providing $ 160 thousand ( 1990 USD ) for food blankets and utensils .
= Mary McLeod Bethune =
Mary Jane McLeod Bethune ( born Mary Jane McLeod ; July 10 , 1875 – May 18 , 1955 ) was an American educator , stateswoman , philanthropist , humanitarian and civil rights activist best known for starting a private school for African @-@ American students in Daytona Beach , Florida . She attracted donations of time and money , and developed the academic school as a college . It later continued to develop as Bethune @-@ Cookman University . She also was appointed as a national adviser to President Franklin D. Roosevelt as part of what was known as his Black Cabinet . She was known as " The First Lady of The Struggle " because of her commitment to gain better lives for African Americans .
Born in Mayesville , South Carolina , to parents who had been slaves , she started working in fields with her family at age five . She took an early interest in becoming educated ; with the help of benefactors , Bethune attended college hoping to become a missionary in Africa . She started a school for African @-@ American girls in Daytona Beach , Florida . It later merged with a private institute for African @-@ American boys , and was known as the Bethune @-@ Cookman School . Bethune maintained high standards and promoted the school with tourists and donors , to demonstrate what educated African Americans could do . She was president of the college from 1923 to 1942 , and 1946 to 1947 . She was one of the few women in the world to serve as a college president at that time .
Bethune was also active in women 's clubs , which were strong civic organizations supporting welfare and other needs , and became a national leader . After working on the presidential campaign for Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1932 , she was invited as a member of his Black Cabinet . She advised him on concerns of black people and helped share Roosevelt 's message and achievements with blacks , who had historically been Republican voters since the Civil War . At the time , blacks had been largely disenfranchised in the South since the turn of the century , so she was speaking to black voters across the North . Upon her death , columnist Louis E. Martin said , " She gave out faith and hope as if they were pills and she some sort of doctor . "
Honors include designation of her home in Daytona Beach as a National Historic Landmark , her house in Washington , D.C. as a National Historic Site , and the installation of a sculpture of her in Lincoln Park in Washington , D.C.
= = Early life and education = =
Mary Jane McLeod was born in 1875 in a small log cabin near Mayesville , South Carolina , on a rice and cotton farm in Sumter County . She was the fifteenth of seventeen children born to Sam and Patsy ( McIntosh ) McLeod , both former slaves . Most of her siblings had been born into slavery . Her mother worked for her former master , and her father farmed cotton near a large house they called " The Homestead . "
Her parents wanted to be independent so had sacrificed to buy a farm for the family . As a child , Mary would accompany her mother to deliver " white people ’ s " wash . Allowed to go into the white children ’ s nursery , Mary became fascinated with their toys . One day she picked up a book and as she opened it , a white child took it away from her , saying she didn ’ t know how to read . Mary decided then that the only difference between white and colored people was the ability to read and write . She was inspired to learn .
McLeod attended Mayesville 's one @-@ room black schoolhouse , Trinity Mission School , which was run by the Presbyterian Board of Missions of Freedmen . She was the only child in her family to attend school , so each day , she taught her family what she had learned . To get to and from school , Mary walked five miles each day . Her teacher Emma Jane Wilson became a significant mentor in her life . Wilson had attended Scotia Seminary ( now Barber @-@ Scotia College ) . She helped McLeod attend the same school on a scholarship , which she did from 1888 – 1893 . The following year , she attended Dwight L. Moody 's Institute for Home and Foreign Missions in Chicago ( now the Moody Bible Institute ) , hoping to become a missionary in Africa . Told that black missionaries were not needed , she planned to teach , as education was a prime goal among African Americans .
= = Marriage and family = =
McLeod married Albertus Bethune in 1898 , and they lived for a year in Savannah , Georgia , where she did social work . They had a son Albert together . Coyden Harold Uggams , a visiting Presbyterian minister , persuaded the couple to relocate to Palatka , Florida , to run a mission school . The Bethunes moved in 1899 ; Mary ran the mission school and began an outreach to prisoners . Albertus left the family in 1907 ; he never got a divorce but relocated to South Carolina . He died in 1918 from tuberculosis .
= = Teaching career = =
= = = Foundations with Lucy Craft Laney = = =
Bethune worked as a teacher briefly at her former elementary school in Sumter County . In 1896 , she began teaching at Haines Normal and Industrial Institute in Augusta , Georgia , which was part of a Presbyterian mission organized by northern congregations . It was founded and run by Lucy Craft Laney . As the daughter of former slaves , Laney ran her school with a Christian missionary zeal , emphasizing character and practical education for girls . She also accepted the boys who showed up eager to learn . Laney 's mission was to imbue Christian moral education in her students to arm them for their life challenges . Of her year at Laney 's school , Bethune said ,
" I was so impressed with her fearlessness , her amazing touch in every respect , an energy that seemed inexhaustible and her mighty power to command respect and admiration from her students and all who knew her . She handled her domain with the art of a master . "
Bethune adopted many of Laney 's educational philosophies , including her emphasis on educating girls and women to improve the conditions of black people : " I believe that the greatest hope for the development of my race lies in training our women thoroughly and practically . " ( This is a strategy being followed by organizers in numerous developing countries . Educating women raises the lives of families as a whole . ) After one year at Haines , Bethune was transferred by the Presbyterian mission to the Kindell Institute in Sumter , South Carolina , where she had met her current husband .
= = = School in Daytona = = =
After her marriage and move to Florida , Bethune became determined to start a school for girls . Bethune moved from Palatka to Daytona because it had more economic opportunity ; it had become a popular tourist destination and businesses were thriving . In October 1904 , she rented a small house for $ 11 @.@ 00 per month . She made benches and desks from discarded crates , and acquired other items through charity . Bethune used $ 1 @.@ 50 to start the Literary and Industrial Training School for Negro Girls . She initially had six students — five girls aged six to twelve , and her son Albert . The school bordered Daytona 's dump . Bethune , parents of students , and church members raised money by making sweet potato pies , ice cream , and fried fish , and selling them to crews at the dump .
In the early days , the students made ink for pens from elderberry juice , and pencils from burned wood ; they asked local businesses for furniture . Bethune wrote later , " I considered cash money as the smallest part of my resources . I had faith in a loving God , faith in myself , and a desire to serve . " The school received donations of money , equipment , and labor from local black churches . Within a year , Bethune was teaching more than 30 girls at the school .
Bethune also courted wealthy white organizations , such as the ladies ' Palmetto Club . She invited influential white men to sit on her school board of trustees , gaining participation by James Gamble ( of Procter & Gamble ) and Thomas H. White ( of White Sewing Machines ) . When Booker T. Washington of Tuskegee Institute visited in 1912 , he advised her of the importance of gaining support by white benefactors for funding . Bethune had met with Washington in 1896 and was impressed by his clout with his donors .
The rigorous curriculum had the girls rise at 5 : 30 a.m. for Bible study . The classes in home economics and industrial skills such as dressmaking , millinery , cooking , and other crafts emphasized a life of self @-@ sufficiency for them as women . Students ' days ended at 9 pm . Soon Bethune added science and business courses , then high school @-@ level courses of math , English , and foreign languages . Bethune was always seeking donations to keep her school operating ; as she traveled , she was fundraising . A donation of $ 62 @,@ 000 by John D. Rockefeller helped , as did her friendship with Franklin D. Roosevelt and his wife , beginning in the 1930s , who gave her entree to a progressive network .
In 1931 , the Methodist Church helped the merger of her school with the boys ' Cookman Institute , forming the Bethune @-@ Cookman College , a coeducational junior college . Bethune became president . Through the Great Depression , Bethune @-@ Cookman School continued to operate , and met the educational standards of the State of Florida . From 1936 to 1942 , Bethune had to cut back her time as president because of her duties in Washington , DC . Funding declined during this period of her absence . But , by 1941 the college had developed a four @-@ year curriculum and achieved full college status . By 1942 Bethune gave up the presidency , as her health was being adversely affected by her many responsibilities .
= = Career as a public leader = =
= = = National Association of Colored Women = = =
In 1896 , the National Association of Colored Women was formed to promote the needs of black women . Bethune served as the Florida chapter president of the NACW from 1917 to 1925 . She worked to register black voters , which was resisted by white society and had been made almost impossible by a variety of obstacles in Florida law and practices controlled by white administrators . She was threatened by members of the resurgent Ku Klux Klan in those years . Bethune also served as the president of the Southeastern Federation of Colored Women 's Clubs from 1920 to 1925 , which worked to improve opportunities for black women .
She was elected as national president of the NACW in 1924 . While the organization struggled to raise funds for regular operations , Bethune envisioned its acquiring a headquarters and hiring a professional executive secretary ; she implemented this when NACW bought a property at 1318 Vermont Avenue in Washington , DC . She led it to be the first black @-@ controlled organization with headquarters in the capital .
Gaining a national reputation , in 1928 Bethune was invited to attend the Child Welfare Conference called by Republican President Calvin Coolidge . In 1930 President Herbert Hoover appointed her to the White House Conference on Child Health .
= = = Southeastern Association of Colored Women 's Clubs = = =
The Southeastern Federation of Colored Women ’ s Clubs ( eventually renamed as the Southeastern Association of Colored Women ’ s Clubs ) elected Bethune as president after its first conference in 1920 at the Tuskegee Institute . They intended to reach out to Southern Women ( specifically white women ) for support and unity in gaining rights for black women . The women met in Memphis , Tennessee to discuss interracial problems . In many respects , all of the women agreed about what needed to be changed , until they came to the topic of suffrage . The white women at the conference tried to strike down a resolution on black suffrage . The SACWC responded by issuing a pamphlet entitled Southern Negro Women and Race Co @-@ Operation ; it delineated their demands regarding conditions in domestic service , child welfare , conditions of travel , education , lynching , the public press , and voting rights . The group went on to help register black women to vote after they were granted suffrage a few months later after passage of the constitutional amendment . Within the state , however , and in other southern states , black men and women were largely disenfranchised by discriminatory application of literacy and comprehension tests , as well as requirements to pay poll taxes , lengthy residency requirements , and the need to keep and display records .
= = = National Council of Negro Women = = =
In 1935 Bethune founded the National Council of Negro Women in New York City , bringing together representatives of 28 different organizations to work to improve the lives of black women and their communities . Bethune said of the council :
" It is our pledge to make a lasting contribution to all that is finest and best in America , to cherish and enrich her heritage of freedom and progress by working for the integration of all her people regardless of race , creed , or national origin , into her spiritual , social , cultural , civic , and economic life , and thus aid her to achieve the glorious destiny of a true and unfettered democracy . "
In 1938 , the NCNW hosted the White House Conference on Negro Women and Children , demonstrating the importance of black women in democratic roles . During World War II , the NCNW gained approval for black women to be commissioned as officers in the Women 's Army Corps . Bethune also served as a political appointee and the Special Assistant to the Secretary of War during the war .
In the 1990s , the headquarters for the National Council for Negro Women moved to Pennsylvania Avenue , centrally located between the White House and the U.S. Capitol . The former headquarters , where Bethune also lived at one time , has been designated as a National Historic Site .
= = = National Youth Administration = = =
The National Youth Administration ( NYA ) was a federal agency created under Roosevelt 's Works Progress Administration ( WPA ) . It provided programs specifically to promote relief and employment for young people . It focused on unemployed citizens aged sixteen to twenty @-@ five years who were not in school . Bethune lobbied the organization so aggressively and effectively for minority involvement that she earned a full @-@ time staff position in 1936 as an assistant .
Within two years , Bethune was appointed to position of Director of the Division of Negro Affairs , and as such , became the first African @-@ American female division head . She managed NYA funds to help black students through school @-@ based programs . She was the only black agent of the NYA who was a financial manager . She ensured black colleges participation in the Civilian Pilot Training Program , which graduated some of the first black pilots . The director of the NYA said in 1939 : " No one can do what Mrs. Bethune can do . "
Bethune ’ s determination helped national officials recognize the need to improve employment for black youth . The NYA ’ s final report , issued in 1943 , stated ,
" more than 300 @,@ 000 black young men and women were given employment and work training on NYA projects . These projects opened to these youth , training opportunities and enabled the majority of them to qualify for jobs heretofore closed to them . "
Within the administration , Bethune advocated for the appointment of black NYA officials to positions of political power . Bethune ’ s administrative assistants served as liaisons between the National Division of Negro Affairs and the NYA agencies on the state and local levels . The high number of administrative assistants composed a work force commanded by Bethune . They helped gain better job and salary opportunities for blacks across the country . During her tenure , Bethune also pushed federal officials to approve a program of consumer education for blacks , and a foundation for black crippled children . She planned for studies for black workers ’ education councils . National officials did not support these due to inadequate funding and fear of duplicating the work of private non @-@ governmental agencies . The NYA was terminated in 1943 .
= = = Black Cabinet = = =
Bethune became a close and loyal friend of Eleanor and Franklin Roosevelt . At the Southern Conference on Human Welfare in 1938 , held in Birmingham , Alabama , Eleanor Roosevelt requested a seat next to Bethune despite state segregation laws . Roosevelt frequently referred to Bethune as " her closest friend in her age group . " Bethune told black voters about the work being done on their behalf by the Roosevelt Administration , and made their concerns known to the Roosevelts . She had unprecedented access to the White House through her relationship with the First Lady .
She used her access to form a coalition of leaders from black organizations called the Federal Council of Negro Affairs , but which came to be known as the Black Cabinet . It served as an advisory board to the Roosevelt administration on issues facing black people in America . It was composed of numerous talented blacks , mostly men , who had been appointed to positions in federal agencies . This was the first collective of black people working in higher positions in government . It showed voters that the Roosevelt administration cared about black concerns . The group gathered in Bethune 's office or apartment and met informally , rarely keeping minutes . Although as advisers they did not directly create public policy , they were a respected leadership among black voters ; they influenced political appointments and disbursement of funds to organizations that would benefit black people .
= = = Civil Rights = = =
In 1931 the Methodist Church supported merging of the Daytona Normal and Industrial School and the Cookman College for Men into Bethune @-@ Cookman College , established first as a junior college . Bethune became a member of the church but it was segregated in the South . Essentially two organizations operated in the Methodist denomination . Bethune was prominent in the primarily black Florida Conference . While she worked to integrate the mostly white Methodist Episcopal Church , South , she protested its initial plans for integration because they proposed separate jurisdictions based on race .
Bethune worked to educate both whites and blacks about the accomplishments and needs of black people , writing in 1938 @,@
" If our people are to fight their way up out of bondage we must arm them with the sword and the shield and buckler of pride – belief in themselves and their possibilities , based upon a sure knowledge of the achievements of the past . " A year later she wrote , " Not only the Negro child but children of all races should read and know of the achievements , accomplishments and deeds of the Negro . World peace and brotherhood are based on a common understanding of the contributions and cultures of all races and creeds . "
On Sundays she opened her school to tourists in Daytona Beach , showing off her students ' accomplishments , hosting national speakers on black issues , and taking donations . She ensured that these Community Meetings were integrated . A black who was a teenager in Daytona at the turn of the 20th century later recalled : " Many tourists attended , sitting wherever there were empty seats . There was no special section for white people . "
When the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education ( 1954 ) that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional , Bethune defended the decision by writing in the Chicago Defender that year :
There can be no divided democracy , no class government , no half @-@ free county , under the constitution . Therefore , there can be no discrimination , no segregation , no separation of some citizens from the rights which belong to all .... We are on our way . But these are frontiers which we must conquer .... We must gain full equality in education ... in the franchise ... in economic opportunity , and full equality in the abundance of life .
Bethune organized the first officer candidate schools for black women . She lobbied federal officials , including Roosevelt , on behalf of African @-@ American women who wanted to join the military .
= = Death and accolades = =
On May 18 , 1955 , Bethune died of a heart attack . Her death was followed by editorial tributes in African @-@ American newspapers across the United States . The Oklahoma City Black Dispatch stated she was , " Exhibit No. 1 for all who have faith in America and the democratic process . " The Atlanta Daily World said her life was , " One of the most dramatic careers ever enacted at any time upon the stage of human activity . " And the Pittsburgh Courier wrote , " In any race or nation she would have been an outstanding personality and made a noteworthy contribution because her chief attribute was her indomitable soul . "
The mainstream press praised her as well . Christian Century suggested , " the story of her life should be taught to every school child for generations to come . " The New York Times noted she was , " one of the most potent factors in the growth of interracial goodwill in America . " The Washington Post said : " So great were her dynamism and force that it was almost impossible to resist her ... Not only her own people , but all America has been enriched and ennobled by her courageous , ebullient spirit . " Her hometown newspaper , the Daytona Beach Evening News printed , " To some she seemed unreal , something that could not be .... What right had she to greatness ? ... The lesson of Mrs. Bethune 's life is that genius knows no racial barriers . "
= = Honors = =
In 1930 , journalist Ida Tarbell included Bethune as number 10 on her list of America 's greatest women . Bethune was awarded the Spingarn Medal in 1935 by the NAACP .
Mary McLeod Bethune was the only black woman present at the founding of the United Nations in San Francisco in 1945 , representing the NAACP with W. E. B. Du Bois and Walter White . In 1949 she became the first woman to receive the National Order of Honour and Merit , Haiti 's highest award . She served as the US emissary to the induction of President William V.S. Tubman of Liberia in 1949 .
She also served as an adviser to five of the Presidents of the United States . Calvin Coolidge and Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed her to several government positions which included : Special Advisor in Minority Affairs , director of the Division of Negro Affairs of the National Youth Administration , and chair of Federal Council of Negro Affairs . Among her honors , she was an assistant director of the Women 's Army Corps . She was also an honorary member of Delta Sigma Theta sorority .
= = Personal life = =
Bethune was described as " ebony " in complexion . She carried a cane , not for support but for effect . She said it gave her " swank " . She was a teetotaler and preached temperance for African Americans , taking opportunities to chastise drunken blacks she encountered in public . Bethune said more than once that the school and the students in Daytona were her first family , and that her son and extended family came second . Her students often referred to her as " Mama Bethune . "
She was noted for achieving her goals . Dr. Robert Weaver , who also served in Roosevelt 's Black Cabinet , said of her , " She had the most marvelous gift of effecting feminine helplessness in order to attain her aims with masculine ruthlessness . " But when a white Daytona resident threatened Bethune 's students with a rifle , Bethune worked to make an ally of him . The director of the McLeod Hospital recalled , " Mrs. Bethune treated him with courtesy and developed such goodwill in him that we found him protecting the children and going so far as to say , ' If anybody bothers old Mary , I will protect her with my life . ' "
Self @-@ sufficiency was a high priority throughout her life . Bethune invested in several businesses , including the Pittsburgh Courier , a black newspaper , and several life insurance companies . She founded Central Life Insurance of Florida . She eventually retired in Florida . Due to state segregation , blacks were not allowed to visit the beach . Bethune and several other business owners invested in Paradise Beach : they purchased a 2 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) stretch of beach and the surrounding properties , selling these to black families . They did allow white families to visit the waterfront . Paradise Beach was later renamed as Bethune @-@ Volusia Beach in her honor . She also was a one @-@ fourth owner of the Welricha Motel in Daytona .
= = Legacy and honors = =
In 1973 , Mary McLeod Bethune was inducted into the National Women 's Hall of Fame . On July 10 , 1974 , the anniversary of her 99th birthday , the Mary McLeod Bethune Memorial , by artist Robert Berks , was erected in her honor in Lincoln Park ( Washington , D.C. ) The funds for the monument were raised by the National Council of Negro Women . It was the first monument honoring an African American or a woman to be installed in a public park in the District of Columbia . The inscription on the pedestal reads " let her works praise her , " while the side is engraved with a passage from her " Last Will and Testament " :
I leave you love . I leave you hope . I leave you the challenge of developing confidence in one another . I leave you a thirst for education . I leave you a respect for the use of power . I leave you faith . I leave you racial dignity . I leave you a desire to live harmoniously with your fellow men . I leave you a responsibility to our young people .
Approximately 250 @,@ 000 people attended the unveiling ceremony , including Shirley Chisholm , the first African @-@ American woman elected to Congress .
In 1985 the US Postal Service issued a stamp in Bethune 's honor . In 1989 Ebony Magazine listed her as one of " 50 Most Important Figures in Black US History . " In 1999 , Ebony Magazine included her as one of the " 100 Most Fascinating Black Women of the 20th century . "
In 1991 , the International Astronomical Union named the Bethune Patera on planet Venus in her honor .
In 1994 , the National Park Service acquired Bethune 's last residence , the NACW Council House at 1318 Vermont Avenue . The former headquarters was designated as the Mary McLeod Bethune Council House National Historic Site . The NACW is now located on Pennsylvania Avenue .
Schools have been named in her honor in Los Angeles , Chicago , San Diego , Dallas , Palm Beach , Florida , Moreno Valley , California , Minneapolis , Ft . Lauderdale , Atlanta , Philadelphia , Folkston and College Park , Georgia , New Orleans , Rochester , New York , Cleveland , South Boston , Virginia , Jacksonville , Florida , and Milwaukee , Wisconsin .
In 2002 , scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Mary McLeod Bethune on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans .
In 2004 , Bethune @-@ Cookman University celebrated its hundredth anniversary from its founding as a primary school . It has a 82 @.@ 2 acres ( 333 @,@ 000 m2 ) campus in Daytona Beach and 40 buildings . The former 2nd Avenue on one side of the university was renamed as Mary Mcleod Bethune Boulevard . The university offers 35 majors in six major colleges . The university 's website says , " the vision of the founder remains in full view over one @-@ hundred years later . The institution prevails in order that others might improve their heads , hearts , and hands . " The university 's vice president recalled her legacy : " During Mrs. Bethune 's time , this was the only place in the city of Daytona Beach where Whites and Blacks could sit in the same room and enjoy what she called ' gems from students ' — their recitations and songs . This is a person who was able to bring Black people and White together . "
An historical marker in Mayesville , Sumter County , South Carolina , commemorates her birthplace .
= Hartford City Glass Company =
Hartford City Glass Company was among the top three window glass manufacturers in the United States between 1890 and 1899 , and continued to be one of the nation 's largest after its acquisition . It was also the country 's largest manufacturer of chipped glass , with capacity double that of its nearest competitor . The company 's works was the first of eight glass plants that existed in Hartford City , Indiana during the Indiana Gas Boom . It became the city 's largest manufacturer and employer , peaking with 600 employees .
Many of the skilled workers employed at the Hartford City Glass Company were from Belgium , at the time the world ’ s leading manufacturer of window glass . The Belgian workers and their families accounted for over one @-@ third of Hartford City 's population during the 1890s , and lived on the city 's south side . Because of the importance of the French @-@ speaking Belgians , one of the local newspapers featured articles in French .
In 1899 , Hartford City Glass was acquired by the American Window Glass Company , which controlled 85 percent of the American window glass manufacturing capacity . During the next decade , the company began replacing its skilled and well – paid Belgian glass blowers with machines and less @-@ skilled machine operators . The company used the Hartford City plant to test and refine the new technology . Most of the Belgian glass workers left town .
During the 1920s , competitors developed new window glass production processes that eclipsed the American Window Glass technology , and the company lost its advantage . By the time the Great Depression struck , the Hartford City plant had closed .
= = Manufacturers drawn to Indiana = =
During the late 1880s , the discovery of natural gas in Eaton , Indiana started an economic boom period in East Central Indiana . Manufacturers were lured to the region to take advantage of the low cost fuel . Blackford County , a small rural county located close to Eaton , had only 181 people working in manufacturing in 1880 . By 1901 , the county had over 1 @,@ 100 people employed at manufacturing plants in small communities such as Hartford City , Indiana . Between 1880 and 1900 , populations doubled in area counties such as Blackford , Delaware , and Grant . The region became Indiana ’ s major manufacturing center .
= = = Hartford City = = =
Like many Indiana communities during the gas boom , Hartford City ’ s leaders sought to take advantage of their newfound energy resource . The Hartford City Land Company was formed in 1891 as part of the effort to attract manufacturers . The company offered " free sites , free gas , excellent switching facilities , and reasonable cash subsidies " as enticements for manufacturers to locate in the boom town . Manufacturers that used high quantities of energy were especially attracted to no @-@ cost or low @-@ cost natural gas sites , and glassmaking was one of those energy @-@ consuming industries .
Hartford City 's success in attracting manufacturers can be indirectly measured by its population growth . The city 's population was 2 @,@ 287 in 1890 , but grew to 5 @,@ 912 by 1900 . In 1890 , the city convinced glassmaker Richard Heagany to relocate from Kokomo , Indiana . An additional glass maker , Sneath Glass Company , relocated from Tiffin , Ohio , in 1894 . During 1901 , Indiana state inspectors visited 15 manufacturing facilities in Hartford City . These manufacturers employed 1 @,@ 077 people , and the American Window Glass plant ( the former Hartford City Glass Company ) plus the Sneath Glass works accounted for over half of the manufacturing employees . By 1902 , Hartford City was the home of 8 glass factories .
= = Organization and management = =
In 1878 , glassmaker Richard Heagany organized a window glass plant in New York and was the factory 's superintendent . That plant became the largest window glass plant in the state . In 1886 , he moved to Kokomo , Indiana and opened the first window glass plant in the region to use natural gas as a fuel source . Heagany 's Kokomo plant lasted three years before it was destroyed by fire . Instead of rebuilding in Kokomo , he moved to Hartford City and organized the Hartford City Glass Company . The company was organized in 1890 with the financial assistance of several capitalists . Production began in early 1891 after the plant was constructed . Heagany was the plant manager until his retirement in 1899 .
= = = Capitalists = = =
One of the principal stockholders of the new company was multi @-@ millionaire A. M. Barber . Barber was involved in grain and banking in Akron , Ohio . Another important investor from Akron was Colonel Arthur Latham Conger , who was the company 's first president . Conger was a Civil War veteran who invested in companies in Ohio and Indiana ( including in Kokomo ) . He was also elected president of the Hartford City Land Company in 1893 . Hartford City 's Sydney W. Cantwell was secretary of the Hartford City Glass Company during its early years . He was also president of the state organization of window glass manufacturers . Cantwell was an attorney involved with the Blackford County Bank , Akron Oil Company , and Hartford City Land Company . Another Hartford City investor , Henry " H. B. " Smith , was president of Hartford City 's Citizen 's Bank .
= = = Management change = = =
Top management changed during 1895 after the company 's annual shareholders ' meeting . Colonel A. L. Conger , who had been president since the company 's beginning , lost his position to another colonel from Akron , George T. Perkins . Conger had fallen into disfavor with many of the local citizens . He immediately expressed his unhappiness with the election by selling his company stock and leaving town . Conger 's stock was purchased by Kokomo banker John A. Jay . Officers of Hartford City Glass in 1896 were George T. Perkins , President ; John A. Jay , Vice President ; H.B. Smith , Treasurer ; Richard Heagany , General Manager ; and John Rodgers Johnston , Secretary .
Colonel George Tod Perkins was a Civil War veteran and president of the B. F. Goodrich Company . He was also involved in banking and had been president of the Bank of Akron . John R. Johnston began working at the Hartford City plant in 1890 as a bookkeeper . He was elected secretary after 4 years . Johnston lived in Hartford City and helped Heagany run the business . Heagany submitted his resignation at the August 1899 board meeting , retiring after 42 years in the glass business . Johnston became plant manager at that time . Johnston resigned a short time later , effective April 1900 . He formed Hartford City 's Johnston Glass Company in September of the same year .
= = Workforce = =
During its peak years , Hartford City Glass Company employed 500 to 600 people . In 1894 , it employed 100 glass blowers as part of a total workforce of 540 people . The wages for that workforce were said to be equivalent to " about 1500 men in any other industry . " Not only was the glass works the largest industry in the county , it was thought to be the second @-@ largest plant of any industry located in the Indiana Gas Belt . To help meet the housing needs for the factory 's many employees , 184 houses were built nearby . In 1896 , 443 workers at the plant lived in Hartford City , especially on the south side . Assuming each local worker had a family of five , over one @-@ third of the city 's population ( 2 @,@ 235 of " an estimated 6 @,@ 000 " ) was financially dependent upon Hartford City Glass .
= = = Glassmakers = = =
The window glass manufacturing process used by Hartford City Glass was known as the Cylinder Method . The process was labor @-@ intensive , and required the services of a glass blower and glass cutter — who were both highly skilled and well paid . The glass blower led a small production crew that included skilled and unskilled workers . At older plants , the glass blower 's workstation was adjacent to a ceramic pot located inside the furnace . Each pot contained molten glass created by melting a batch of ingredients that included sand , soda , and lime . At newer plants such as the Hartford City works , tanks were used instead of pots . The tanks were essentially huge brick pots with multiple workstations . A tank furnace is more efficient than a pot furnace , but more costly to build .
In the first step of the glass @-@ making process , molten glass was extracted from the pot or tank . The glass blower and his helper used a blowpipe , which was typically 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) to 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) long , to create a bubble of molten glass . The glass blower manipulated the bubble into a cylinder , and removed it from the pot or tank . The cylinders were 12 inches ( 30 @.@ 5 cm ) to 16 inches ( 40 @.@ 6 cm ) in diameter , and 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) or 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) long .
Next , the glass – cutter cut the cylinder , and the glass was flattened . It was necessary to gradually cool the glass , a process known as annealing , to prevent it from breaking . A lehr or annealing oven was used to anneal the product . A typical 20th @-@ century lehr was a large conveyor inside a long oven . The newly made glass gradually moved from the hot end of the lehr to its opposite end , which was at room temperature . The glass would then be cut into the desired window glass size , placed in a box , and moved to inventory . It is not known if ( or when ) the lehrs at the Hartford City plant had conveyors .
= = = The Belgians = = =
During the late 19th century , glass blowers were difficult to find . Belgium was the largest exporter of window glass to the United States , and plant manager Heagany previously used the skills of glass blowers from that country in his Kokomo glass works . In Hartford City , Heagany again relied upon Belgian workers for the skilled positions in his glass works .
The city 's influx of French @-@ speaking Belgians had an impact on the town . The south side ( south of Lick Creek ) became known as Belgium Town . Most Belgians were Catholic , and they built the city 's Catholic church near their homes on the city 's south side . The church 's Father Dhe was a native of France and was also involved with glass making . During the early 1900s , the local Blackford County Gazette claimed to be the " only newspaper in State that prints French and circulates among the window glass and iron workers , the highest paid skilled mechanics in the world . "
The Belgian workforce also had an impact on the city 's north side . Hartford City 's Presbyterian Church , which is now part of the National Register of Historical Places , was built one block north of the courthouse in 1894 — and features large stained glass windows imported from Belgium . For over 50 years , the bigger of two huge windows was considered the largest single @-@ frame window in the state of Indiana . These stained @-@ glass windows , plus at least four smaller ones , were installed by the local ( and mostly Catholic ) Belgian glass workers .
= = Infrastructure = =
Construction of Hartford City 's new glass works was completed in early January 1891 , and production started shortly thereafter . The glass works was located on Hartford City 's south side , and originally occupied 12 acres ( 4 @.@ 9 ha ) . Natural gas was the plant 's original fuel source for both the furnace used to make the glass and the ovens used to gradually cool it .
In the United States , two systems were used during the 1890s to create molten glass . The older system used a pot furnace , where ceramic pots were heated inside the furnace to melt the batch of ingredients needed to make the molten glass . The newer system used a large brick tank that could be operated continuously or by the batch . The Hartford City plant used the tank system , and it was originally the " largest tank window glass factory in the world " . The tank had a capacity equivalent to 30 pots , giving the Hartford City plant more than double the capacity of some of the window glass plants built a few years earlier in Ohio .
With its size , newest technology , and newly built facilities , the plant was " said to be the largest and best arranged window glass works in the world . " During its existence , the plant was always one of the largest window glass works in the United States .
Initial production at the Hartford City plant continued until June , when the works was shut down to decrease inventories . Summer shutdowns were normal in the glass industry at that time . The heat from the furnaces combined with summer weather made extremely uncomfortable working conditions , justifying the summer months as the best time to shut down for maintenance ( or for manipulation of inventories ) . In the case of the first year 's shutdown for the Hartford City Glass works , production was restarted in October .
= = = Expansion = = =
In 1892 , management decided to expand the factory 's capacity by adding a second tank . The new tank would add approximately 50 pots of capacity . In early April , construction of the facilities for the new tank began . " Modern and improved methods in all departments of the works " were used , improving the efficiency in manufacturing and shipping . The new buildings were made fire @-@ resistant by using stone , brick , and iron for construction materials . They were also well ventilated , which made the work environment more comfortable for the glass workers . The expansion increased total capacity to about 90 pots . This made the works the second @-@ largest glass factory in the United States . Expenditures necessary to finance the expansion were $ 100 @,@ 000 ( over $ 2 @.@ 5 million in 2012 dollars ) .
During 1893 , the company considered adding a third tank , which would add another 60 pots of capacity . The expansion cost estimate was $ 150 @,@ 000 ( over $ 3 @.@ 8 million in 2012 dollars ) , and was said to " give employment to 350 men . " Two major concerns voiced by management to community leaders were adequate fire protection and housing for the workers . Community leaders did not respond soon enough , and the expansion was postponed . However , it is no coincidence that Hartford City 's waterworks began operations in 1894 , and the plant was built on the city 's south side . The city also acquired a chemical fire engine from the Chicago Fire Extinguisher Company , which was delivered in February 1894 .
Although the third tank was not added in 1893 , a new ware room was built . The room was 60 feet ( 18 @.@ 3 m ) long by 120 feet ( 36 @.@ 6 m ) wide , and could hold 20 @,@ 000 boxes . The roof and walls were covered in iron . By September ( without the capacity expansion ) , the plant had a payroll of $ 45 @,@ 000 ( over $ 1 @.@ 1 million in 2012 dollars ) per month , and employed 500 glass workers .
In 1896 , the plant employed 550 people , and produced about 2 million square feet of window glass per month . In addition to window glass , the company was the nation ’ s largest producer of chipped glass , with capacity double that of the second @-@ largest manufacturer . Chipped glass was a popular ornamental glass used for interiors of office buildings and with furniture . At that time , the plant was the second @-@ largest window glass producer in the country , although it became the third @-@ largest later in the year . Its grounds had grown to cover 25 acres ( 10 @.@ 1 ha ) , and included a railroad spur off of the Pennsylvania Railroad . The grounds contained two melting rooms , two warehouses , a blacksmith shop , and a machine shop . The tank in one of the melting rooms was 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) long , 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) wide , and 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) deep . One tank required 4 flattening ovens and a cutting room .
Plans for the addition of another tank began again in late 1896 . A third tank would make the Hartford City plant the largest in the country . As part of the conditions for expansion , the plant owners requested housing for its potential new workers . Although the houses were built , the company was not satisfied , as the expansion was never consummated . Without the third tank , the workforce still grew to 600 by 1898 .
= = Acquisition = =
In 1898 , a group of men led by James A. Chambers organized a glass trust called American Window Glass Company . The company was formed from the American Glass Company , but did not incorporate until 1899 . The trust planned to acquire 70 glass plants , " some of which it will close to bring the production down to the demand . " The prices offered for the glass plants were very generous . Owners of the glass plants could sell their plant for either cash or a combination of cash and stock in the new company . Many owners chose to receive stock .
The trust was incorporated effective August 2 , 1899 . James A. Chambers continued as president , and Hartford City ’ s H.B. Smith was one of the directors of the newly incorporated company . Initial acquisitions included over 20 major window glass plants , including Hartford City Glass Company . Most of the original acquisitions were from Indiana and Pennsylvania . Those glass plants were important enough to enable American Window Glass to control 85 percent of the window glass production in the United States .
Many of the Indiana glass works acquired by the trust were from the East Central Indiana Gas Belt . Among those plants were the Hartford City Glass Company ; and the nearby Muncie plants of Maring , Hart , and Company and C. H. Over . Other plants were located in Anderson , Dunkirk , and Fairmount , Indiana . The Hartford City Glass Company became known as Plant Number 3 of the American Window Glass Company . J. R. Johnston , already manager for Hartford City Glass Company , was named manager of the American Window Glass version of the same plant in December . A second window glass factory from Hartford City , Jones Glass Company , was also acquired — and became plant No. 32 . Eventually , the company acquired 41 glass factories .
= = American Window Glass = =
After the acquisition , the Hartford City Glass works became known as plant number 3 of the American Window Glass Company . The plant employed 450 people in 1901 . As natural gas supplies in Indiana became depleted , many manufacturers moved or did not survive . The major plants of the American Window Glass successfully changed energy sources from natural gas to gas made from coal . The company also had a technological advantage . Instead of using a glass blower , American Window Glass plants extracted molten glass with a machine . The machine , which was not immediately utilized at all American Window Glass plants , was known as the Lubbers blowing machine . Refinements to the machine and glass @-@ making process were made at the Hartford City works by plant manager Harry G. Slingluff . Production records for the entire company were set at the Hartford City plant in 1905 and 1907 — using the Lubbers machines .
= = = Lubbers machine = = =
The glass blowing machine used by American Window Glass factories was created by Pittsburgh resident John H. Lubbers , and he continued to contribute improvements to the machine over the next decade . By using the Lubbers machine , human glass blowers were replaced with a machine operator paid 30 percent of the glass blower wage . The machine was also five times more productive than the human blowers . It could make windows four times as large because a larger cylinder was extracted from the tank of molten glass . Thus , the highest – paid skilled workers in the United States were considered obsolete . In the case of Hartford City , machines replaced most of the human glass blowers by 1908 .
= = = Consolidation = = =
During the spring of 1900 , rumors circulated that American Window Glass planned to move production from smaller plants in nearby Dunkirk and Redkey ( factories 17 , 30 , 34 , and 41 ) to the large southside Hartford City plant . If the Hartford City plant would have its capacity expanded equal to the capacity of the plants to be consolidated , then Hartford City would have " become the greatest window glass town in the world . " The plant would have employed nearly 1000 people , equaling the largest window glass plant in the world in capacity . That plant in combination with Hartford City 's two other window glass factories , not even considering the flint glass plants or bottle plants , would make the city 's window glass capacity the highest in the world . The rumor had some truth — smaller plants were eventually closed . However , Hartford City 's large southside plant was not expanded .
In 1905 American Window Glass sold some of its smaller plants , including Hartford City 's plant number 32 . Plant number 3 still continued operations . It employed 500 people in 1910 . Before the start of World War I , American Window Glass Company was still the dominant window glass manufacturer , accounting for over half of the nation 's window glass manufacturing capacity . In 1913 , the company continued to close many of its smaller plants , while the large plants were equipped with the glass blowing machines . Plant number 3 was the third largest window glass factory in the United States , and the largest west of Pennsylvania . The Belgian portion of Hartford City 's glassmaking workforce was dramatically reduced because of two factors : the glass @-@ blowing machine replaced human glass blowers ; and Belgians had difficulty returning from summer vacations in their European homeland after the start of World War I.
American Window Glass made record profits in 1920 . All of the company 's small plants had been sold or closed by that time . The glass @-@ blowing machines were still being used to extract molten glass . The company was described as having " six large and well @-@ equipped plants located near the Pittsburgh district , and one large plant at Hartford City , Ind . "
= = Decline = =
During the beginning of the 20th century , competitors of the American Window Glass trust used a different approach to gain a technological advantage . The machines used by American Window Glass replaced glass blowers , but still used the same blowing and cutting process used in the 1880s — although the company was constantly working to make the process more efficient . Competitors such as American inventor Irving W. Colburn began working on a machine that produced window glass using a different process . Colburn patented his work during the first decade of the 20th century . Although he filed for bankruptcy in 1912 , his patents were purchased by Edward Drummond Libbey and Michael J. Owens — who hired Colburn to continue work on the machine . Owens was the creator of the Owens Bottling Machine that revolutionized the glass bottle industry . Working with Colburn , Owens improved the window glass machine enough that it began being used for production in 1921 . By 1926 , Libbey @-@ Owens had gained a window glass market share of 29 percent , while American Window Glass 's share was 59 percent . During the 1920s , Pittsburgh Plate Glass also developed a new process for making window glass , creating even more competition in the window glass industry .
Because of the improved technology and processes utilized by competitors , many of the American Window Glass patents , and much of its machinery , became obsolete . By the late 1920s , American Window Glass was forced to begin re @-@ equipping its plants with new machinery . The company underwent a financial reorganization in 1929 . Dividends on its preferred stock were lowered . Although a few plants were re @-@ equipped , the Hartford City plant was not . Hartford City 's natural gas supply was depleted , and the type of sand used to produce glass was in better supply near other American Window Glass plants in Pennsylvania . Thus , American Window Glass Company plant number 3 , the former Hartford City Glass Company , was closed in 1929 .
= Byzantine Empire =
The Byzantine Empire , sometimes referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire , was the continuation of the Roman Empire in the East during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages , when its capital city was Constantinople ( modern @-@ day Istanbul , originally founded as Byzantium ) . It survived the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 . During most of its existence , the empire was the most powerful economic , cultural , and military force in Europe . Both " Byzantine Empire " and " Eastern Roman Empire " are historiographical terms created after the end of the realm ; its citizens continued to refer to their empire as the Roman Empire ( Ancient Greek : Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων , tr . Basileia tôn Rhōmaiōn ; Latin : Imperium Romanum ) , or Romania ( Ῥωμανία ) , and to themselves as " Romans " .
Several signal events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the period of transition during which the Roman Empire 's Greek East and Latin West divided . Constantine I ( r . 324 – 337 ) reorganised the empire , made Constantinople the new capital , and legalised Christianity . Under Theodosius I ( r . 379 – 395 ) , Christianity became the Empire 's official state religion and other religious practices were proscribed . Finally , under the reign of Heraclius ( r . 610 – 641 ) , the Empire 's military and administration were restructured and adopted Greek for official use instead of Latin . Thus , although the Roman state continued and Roman state traditions were maintained , modern historians distinguish Byzantium from ancient Rome insofar as it was centred on Constantinople , oriented towards Greek rather than Latin culture , and characterised by Orthodox Christianity .
The borders of the Empire evolved significantly over its existence , as it went through several cycles of decline and recovery . During the reign of Justinian I ( r . 527 – 565 ) , the Empire reached its greatest extent after reconquering much of the historically Roman western Mediterranean coast , including North Africa , Italy , and Rome itself , which it held for two more centuries . During the reign of Maurice ( r . 582 – 602 ) , the Empire 's eastern frontier was expanded and the north stabilised . However , his assassination caused the Byzantine – Sasanian War of 602 – 628 , which exhausted the Empire 's resources and contributed to major territorial losses during the Muslim conquests of the seventh century . In a matter of years the Empire lost its richest provinces , Egypt and Syria , to the Arabs .
During the Macedonian dynasty ( 10th – 11th centuries ) , the Empire again expanded and experienced the two @-@ century long Macedonian Renaissance , which came to an end with the loss of much of Asia Minor to the Seljuk Turks after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 . This battle opened the way for the Turks to settle in Anatolia as a homeland .
The Empire recovered again during the Komnenian restoration , such that by the 12th century Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest European city . However , it was delivered a mortal blow during the Fourth Crusade , when Constantinople was sacked in 1204 and the territories that the Empire formerly governed were divided into competing Byzantine Greek and Latin realms . Despite the eventual recovery of Constantinople in 1261 , the Byzantine Empire remained only one of several small rival states in the area for the final two centuries of its existence . Its remaining territories were progressively annexed by the Ottomans over the 15th century . The Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 finally ended the Byzantine Empire .
= = Nomenclature = =
The first use of the term " Byzantine " to label the later years of the Roman Empire was in 1557 , when the German historian Hieronymus Wolf published his work Corpus Historiæ Byzantinæ , a collection of historical sources . The term comes from " Byzantium " , the name of the city of Constantinople before it became Constantine 's capital . This older name of the city would rarely be used from this point onward except in historical or poetic contexts . The publication in 1648 of the Byzantine du Louvre ( Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae ) , and in 1680 of Du Cange 's Historia Byzantina further popularised the use of " Byzantine " among French authors , such as Montesquieu . However , it was not until the mid @-@ 19th century that the term came into general use in the Western world .
The Byzantine Empire was known to its inhabitants as the " Roman Empire " , the " Empire of the Romans " ( Latin : Imperium Romanum , Imperium Romanorum ; Greek : Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων Basileia tōn Rhōmaiōn , Ἀρχὴ τῶν Ῥωμαίων Archē tōn Rhōmaiōn ) , " Romania " ( Latin : Romania ; Greek : Ῥωμανία Rhōmania ) , the " Roman Republic " ( Latin : Res Publica Romana ; Greek : Πολιτεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων Politeia tōn Rhōmaiōn ) , Graikia ( Greek : Γραικία ) , and also as Rhōmais ( Greek : Ῥωμαΐς ) . The inhabitants called themselves Romaioi and Graikoi , and even as late as the 19th century Greeks typically referred to their modern language as Romaika and Graikika .
Although the Byzantine Empire had a multi @-@ ethnic character during most of its history and preserved Romano @-@ Hellenistic traditions , it became identified by its western and northern contemporaries with its increasingly predominant Greek element . The occasional use of the term " Empire of the Greeks " ( Latin : Imperium Graecorum ) in the West to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire and of the Byzantine Emperor as Imperator Graecorum ( Emperor of the Greeks ) were also used to separate it from the prestige of the Roman Empire within the new kingdoms of the West .
The authority of the Byzantine emperor as the legitimate Roman emperor was challenged by the coronation of Charlemagne as Imperator Augustus by Pope Leo III in the year 800 . Needing Charlemagne 's support in his struggle against his enemies in Rome , Leo used the lack of a male occupant of the throne of the Roman Empire at the time to claim that it was vacant and that he could therefore crown a new Emperor himself . Whenever the Popes or the rulers of the West made use of the name Roman to refer to the Eastern Roman Emperors , they usually preferred the term Imperator Romaniae ( meaning Emperor of Romania ) instead of Imperator Romanorum ( meaning Emperor of the Romans ) , a title that they applied only to Charlemagne and his successors .
No such distinction existed in the Islamic and Slavic worlds , where the Empire was more straightforwardly seen as the continuation of the Roman Empire . In the Islamic world , the Roman Empire was known primarily as Rûm . The name millet @-@ i Rûm , or " Roman nation , " was used by the Ottomans through the 20th century to refer to the former subjects of the Byzantine Empire , that is , the Orthodox Christian community within Ottoman realms .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The Roman army succeeded in conquering many territories covering the entire Mediterranean region and coastal regions in southwestern Europe and north Africa . These territories were home to many different cultural groups , both urban populations and rural populations . Generally speaking , the eastern Mediterranean provinces were more urbanised than the western , having previously been united under the Macedonian Empire and Hellenised by the influence of Greek culture .
The West also suffered more heavily from the instability of the 3rd century AD . This distinction between the established Hellenised East and the younger Latinised West persisted and became increasingly important in later centuries , leading to a gradual estrangement of the two worlds .
= = = Decentralization of power = = =
To maintain control and improve administration , various schemes to divide the work of the Roman Emperor by sharing it between individuals were tried between 285 and 324 , from 337 to 350 , from 364 to 392 , and again between 395 and 480 . Although the administrative subdivisions varied , they generally involved a division of labour between East and West . Each division was a form of power @-@ sharing ( or even job @-@ sharing ) , for the ultimate imperium was not divisible and therefore the empire remained legally one state — although the co @-@ emperors often saw each other as rivals or enemies .
In 293 , emperor Diocletian created a new administrative system ( the tetrarchy ) , to guarantee security in all endangered regions of his Empire . He associated himself with a co @-@ emperor ( Augustus ) , and each co @-@ emperor then adopted a young colleague given the title of Caesar , to share in their rule and eventually to succeed the senior partner . The tetrarchy collapsed , however , in 313 and a few years later Constantine I reunited the two administrative divisions of the Empire as sole Augustus .
= = = Recentralisation = = =
In 330 , Constantine moved the seat of the Empire to Constantinople , which he founded as a second Rome on the site of Byzantium , a city strategically located on the trade routes between Europe and Asia and between the Mediterranean and the Black Sea . Constantine introduced important changes into the Empire 's military , monetary , civil and religious institutions . As regards his economic policies in particular , he has been accused by certain scholars of " reckless fiscality " , but the gold solidus he introduced became a stable currency that transformed the economy and promoted development .
Under Constantine , Christianity did not become the exclusive religion of the state , but enjoyed imperial preference , because the emperor supported it with generous privileges . Constantine established the principle that emperors could not settle questions of doctrine on their own , but should summon instead general ecclesiastical councils for that purpose . His convening of both the Synod of Arles and the First Council of Nicaea indicated his interest in the unity of the Church , and showcased his claim to be its head . The rise of Christianity was briefly interrupted on the accession of the emperor Julian in 361 , who made a determined effort to restore polytheism throughout the empire and was thus dubbed " Julian the Apostate " by the Church . However this was reversed when Julian was killed in battle in 363 .
Theodosius I ( 379 @-@ 395 ) was the last Emperor to rule both the Eastern and Western halves of the Empire . In 391 and 392 he issued a series of edicts essentially banning pagan religion . Pagan festivals and sacrifices were banned , as was access to all pagan temples and places of worship . The last Olympic Games are believed to have been held in 393 . In 395 , Theodosius I bequeathed the imperial office jointly to his sons : Arcadius in the East and Honorius in the West , once again dividing Imperial administration . In the 5th century the Eastern part of the empire was largely spared the difficulties faced by the West — due in part to a more established urban culture and greater financial resources , which allowed it to placate invaders with tribute and pay foreign mercenaries . This success allowed Theodosius II to focus on the codification of Roman law and further fortification of the walls of Constantinople , which left the city impervious to most attacks until 1204 . Large portions of the Theodosian Walls are preserved to the present day .
To fend off the Huns , Theodosius had to pay an enormous annual tribute to Attila . His successor , Marcian , refused to continue to pay the tribute , but Attila had already diverted his attention to the West . After his death in 453 , the Hunnic Empire collapsed , and many of the remaining Huns were often hired as mercenaries by Constantinople .
= = = Loss of the Western Roman Empire = = =
After the fall of Attila , the Eastern Empire enjoyed a period of peace , while the Western Empire deteriorated due to continuing migration and expansion by the Germanic nations ( its end is usually dated in 476 when the Germanic Roman general Odoacer deposed the usurper Western Emperor Romulus Augustulus ) .
In 480 with the death of the Western Emperor Julius Nepos , Eastern Emperor Zeno became sole Emperor of the empire . Odoacer , now ruler of Italy , was nominally Zeno 's subordinate but acted with complete autonomy , eventually providing support to a rebellion against the Emperor .
Zeno negotiated with the invading Ostrogoths , who had settled in Moesia , convincing the Gothic king Theodoric to depart for Italy as magister militum per Italiam ( " commander in chief for Italy " ) with the aim of deposing Odoacer . By urging Theodoric to conquer Italy , Zeno rid the Eastern Empire of an unruly subordinate ( Odoacer ) and moved another ( Theodoric ) further from the heart of the Empire . After Odoacer 's defeat in 493 , Theodoric ruled Italy de facto , although he was never recognised by the eastern emperors as " king " ( rex ) .
In 491 , Anastasius I , an aged civil officer of Roman origin , became Emperor , but it was not until 497 that the forces of the new emperor effectively took the measure of Isaurian resistance . Anastasius revealed himself as an energetic reformer and an able administrator . He perfected Constantine I 's coinage system by definitively setting the weight of the copper follis , the coin used in most everyday transactions . He also reformed the tax system and permanently abolished the chrysargyron tax . The State Treasury contained the enormous sum of 320 @,@ 000 lb ( 150 @,@ 000 kg ) of gold when Anastasius died in 518 .
= = = Justinian dynasty = = =
The Justinian dynasty was founded by Justin I , who though illiterate , rose through the ranks of the military to become Emperor in 518 . He was succeeded by his nephew Justinian I in 527 , who may already have exerted effective control during Justin 's reign . One of the most important figures of late antiquity and possibly the last Roman emperor to speak Latin as a first language , Justinian 's rule constitutes a distinct epoch , marked by the ambitious but only partly realized renovatio imperii , or " restoration of the Empire " . His wife Theodora was particularly influential .
In 529 , Justinian appointed a ten @-@ man commission chaired by John the Cappadocian to revise Roman law and create a new codification of laws and jurists ' extracts , known as the " Corpus Juris Civilis " . In 534 , the Corpus was updated and , along with the enactments promulgated by Justinian after 534 , formed the system of law used for most of the rest of the Byzantine era . The Corpus forms the basis of civil law of many modern states .
In 532 , attempting to secure his eastern frontier , Justinian signed a peace treaty with Khosrau I of Persia agreeing to pay a large annual tribute to the Sassanids . In the same year , he survived a revolt in Constantinople ( the Nika riots ) , which solidified his power but ended with the deaths of a reported 30 @,@ 000 to 35 @,@ 000 rioters on his orders . The western conquests began in 533 , as Justinian sent his general Belisarius to reclaim the former province of Africa from the Vandals who had been in control since 429 with their capital at Carthage . Their success came with surprising ease , but it was not until 548 that the major local tribes were subdued . In Ostrogothic Italy , the deaths of Theodoric , his nephew and heir Athalaric , and his daughter Amalasuntha had left her murderer , Theodahad ( r . 534 – 536 ) , on the throne despite his weakened authority .
In 535 , a small Byzantine expedition to Sicily met with easy success , but the Goths soon stiffened their resistance , and victory did not come until 540 , when Belisarius captured Ravenna , after successful sieges of Naples and Rome . In 535 – 536 , Theodahad sent Pope Agapetus I to Constantinople to request the removal of Byzantine forces from Sicily , Dalmatia , and Italy . Although Agapetus failed in his mission to sign a peace with Justinian , he succeeded in having the Monophysite Patriarch Anthimus I of Constantinople denounced , despite empress Theodora 's support and protection .
The Ostrogoths were soon reunited under the command of King Totila and captured Rome in 546 . Belisarius , who had been sent back to Italy in 544 , was eventually recalled to Constantinople in 549 . The arrival of the Armenian eunuch Narses in Italy ( late 551 ) with an army of 35 @,@ 000 men marked another shift in Gothic fortunes . Totila was defeated at the Battle of Taginae and his successor , Teia , was defeated at the Battle of Mons Lactarius ( October 552 ) . Despite continuing resistance from a few Gothic garrisons and two subsequent invasions by the Franks and Alemanni , the war for the Italian peninsula was at an end . In 551 , Athanagild , a noble from Visigothic Hispania , sought Justinian 's help in a rebellion against the king , and the emperor dispatched a force under Liberius , a successful military commander . The empire held on to a small slice of the Iberian Peninsula coast until the reign of Heraclius .
In the east , the Roman – Persian Wars continued until 561 when the envoys of Justinian and Khosrau agreed on a 50 @-@ year peace . By the mid @-@ 550s , Justinian had won victories in most theatres of operation , with the notable exception of the Balkans , which were subjected to repeated incursions from the Slavs and the Gepids . Tribes of Serbs and Croats were later resettled in the northwestern Balkans , during the reign of Heraclius . Justinian called Belisarius out of retirement and defeated the new Hunnish threat . The strengthening of the Danube fleet caused the Kutrigur Huns to withdraw and they agreed to a treaty that allowed safe passage back across the Danube .
Although polytheism had been suppressed by the state since at least the time of Constantine in the 4th century , traditional Greco @-@ Roman culture was still influential in the Eastern empire in the 6th century . Philosophers such as John Philoponus drew on neoplatonic ideas in addition to Christian thought and empiricism . Nevertheless , Hellenistic philosophy began to be gradually supplanted by or amalgamated into newer Christian philosophy . The closure of the Platonic Academy in 529 was a notable turning point . Hymns written by Romanos the Melodist marked the development of the Divine Liturgy , while the architects Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles worked to complete the new Church of the Holy Wisdom , Hagia Sophia , which was designed to replace an older church destroyed during the Nika Revolt . Completed in 537 , the Hagia Sophia stands today as one of the major monuments of Byzantine architectural history . During the 6th and 7th centuries , the Empire was struck by a series of epidemics , which greatly devastated the population and contributed to a significant economic decline and a weakening of the Empire .
After Justinian died in 565 , his successor , Justin II refused to pay the large tribute to the Persians . Meanwhile , the Germanic Lombards invaded Italy ; by the end of the century only a third of Italy was in Byzantine hands . Justin 's successor , Tiberius II , choosing between his enemies , awarded subsidies to the Avars while taking military action against the Persians . Though Tiberius ' general , Maurice , led an effective campaign on the eastern frontier , subsidies failed to restrain the Avars . They captured the Balkan fortress of Sirmium in 582 , while the Slavs began to make inroads across the Danube .
Maurice , who meanwhile succeeded Tiberius , intervened in a Persian civil war , placed the legitimate Khosrau II back on the throne and married his daughter to him . Maurice 's treaty with his new brother @-@ in @-@ law enlarged the territories of the Empire to the East and allowed the energetic Emperor to focus on the Balkans . By 602 , a series of successful Byzantine campaigns had pushed the Avars and Slavs back across the Danube . However , Maurice 's refusal to ransom several thousand captives taken by the Avars , and his order to the troops to winter in the Danube caused his popularity to plummet . A revolt broke out under an officer named Phocas , who marched the troops back to Constantinople ; Maurice and his family were murdered while trying to escape .
= = = Shrinking borders = = =
= = = = Heraclian dynasty = = = =
After Maurice 's murder by Phocas , Khosrau used the pretext to reconquer the Roman province of Mesopotamia . Phocas , an unpopular ruler invariably described in Byzantine sources as a " tyrant " , was the target of a number of Senate @-@ led plots . He was eventually deposed in 610 by Heraclius , who sailed to Constantinople from Carthage with an icon affixed to the prow of his ship .
Following the accession of Heraclius , the Sassanid advance pushed deep into the Levant , occupying Damascus and Jerusalem and removing the True Cross to Ctesiphon . The counter @-@ attack launched by Heraclius took on the character of a holy war , and an acheiropoietos image of Christ was carried as a military standard ( similarly , when Constantinople was saved from a combined Avar - Sassanid - Slavic siege in 626 , the victory was attributed to the icons of the Virgin that were led in procession by Patriarch Sergius about the walls of the city ) . In this very siege of Constantinople of the year 626 , amidst the climactic Byzantine – Sasanian War of 602 – 628 , the combined Avar , Sassanid , and Slavic forces unsuccessfully besieged the Byzantine capital between June and July . After this , the Sassanid army was forced to withdraw to Anatolia . The loss came just after news had reached them of yet another Byzantine victory , where Heraclius 's brother Theodore scored well against the Persian general Shahin . Following this , Heraclius led an invasion into Sassanid Mesopotamia once again .
The main Sassanid force was destroyed at Nineveh in 627 , and in 629 Heraclius restored the True Cross to Jerusalem in a majestic ceremony , as he marched into the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon , where anarchy and civil war reigned as a result of the enduring war . Eventually , the Persians were obliged to withdraw all armed forces and return Sassanid @-@ ruled Egypt , the Levant and whatever imperial territories of Mesopotamia and Armenia were in Roman hands at the time of an earlier peace treaty in c . 595 . The war had exhausted both the Byzantines and Sassanids , however , and left them extremely vulnerable to the Muslim forces that emerged in the following years . The Byzantines suffered a crushing defeat by the Arabs at the Battle of Yarmouk in 636 , while Ctesiphon fell in 637 .
= = = = Siege of Constantinople ( 674 – 678 ) = = = =
The Arabs , now firmly in control of Syria and the Levant , sent frequent raiding parties deep into Asia Minor , and in 674 – 678 laid siege to Constantinople itself . The Arab fleet was finally repulsed through the use of Greek fire , and a thirty @-@ years ' truce was signed between the Empire and the Umayyad Caliphate . However , the Anatolian raids continued unabated , and accelerated the demise of classical urban culture , with the inhabitants of many cities either refortifying much smaller areas within the old city walls , or relocating entirely to nearby fortresses . Constantinople itself dropped substantially in size , from 500 @,@ 000 inhabitants to just 40 @,@ 000 – 70 @,@ 000 , and , like other urban centres , it was partly ruralised . The city also lost the free grain shipments in 618 , after Egypt fell first to the Persians and then to the Arabs , and public wheat distribution ceased .
The void left by the disappearance of the old semi @-@ autonomous civic institutions was filled by the theme system , which entailed dividing Asia Minor into " provinces " occupied by distinct armies that assumed civil authority and answered directly to the imperial administration . This system may have had its roots in certain ad hoc measures taken by Heraclius , but over the course of the 7th century it developed into an entirely new system of imperial governance . The massive cultural and institutional restructuring of the Empire consequent on the loss of territory in the 7th century has been said to have caused a decisive break in east Mediterranean Romanness and that the Byzantine state is subsequently best understood as another successor state rather than a real continuation of the Roman Empire .
The withdrawal of large numbers of troops from the Balkans to combat the Persians and then the Arabs in the east opened the door for the gradual southward expansion of Slavic peoples into the peninsula , and , as in Asia Minor , many cities shrank to small fortified settlements . In the 670s , the Bulgars were pushed south of the Danube by the arrival of the Khazars . In 680 , Byzantine forces sent to disperse these new settlements were defeated .
In 681 , Constantine IV signed a treaty with the Bulgar khan Asparukh , and the new Bulgarian state assumed sovereignty over a number of Slavic tribes that had previously , at least in name , recognised Byzantine rule . In 687 – 688 , the final Heraclian emperor , Justinian II , led an expedition against the Slavs and Bulgarians , and made significant gains , although the fact that he had to fight his way from Thrace to Macedonia demonstrates the degree to which Byzantine power in the north Balkans had declined .
Justinian II attempted to break the power of the urban aristocracy through severe taxation and the appointment of " outsiders " to administrative posts . He was driven from power in 695 , and took shelter first with the Khazars and then with the Bulgarians . In 705 , he returned to Constantinople with the armies of the Bulgarian khan Tervel , retook the throne , and instituted a reign of terror against his enemies . With his final overthrow in 711 , supported once more by the urban aristocracy , the Heraclian dynasty came to an end .
= = = = Isaurian dynasty to the accession of Basil I = = = =
Leo III the Isaurian turned back the Muslim assault in 718 and addressed himself to the task of reorganising and consolidating the themes in Asia Minor . His successor , Constantine V , won noteworthy victories in northern Syria and thoroughly undermined Bulgarian strength .
Taking advantage of the Empire 's weakness after the Revolt of Thomas the Slav in the early 820s , the Arabs re @-@ emerged and captured Crete . They also successfully attacked Sicily , but in 863 general Petronas gained a decisive victory against Umar al @-@ Aqta , the emir of Melitene ( Malatya ) . Under the leadership of emperor Krum , the Bulgarian threat also re @-@ emerged , but in 815 – 816 Krum 's son , Omurtag , signed a peace treaty with Leo V.
= = = = Religious dispute over iconoclasm = = = =
The 8th and early 9th centuries were also dominated by controversy and religious division over Iconoclasm , which was the main political issue in the Empire for over a century . Icons ( here meaning all forms of religious imagery ) were banned by Leo and Constantine from around 730 , leading to revolts by iconodules ( supporters of icons ) throughout the empire . After the efforts of empress Irene , the Second Council of Nicaea met in 787 and affirmed that icons could be venerated but not worshiped . Irene is said to have endeavoured to negotiate a marriage between herself and Charlemagne , but , according to Theophanes the Confessor , the scheme was frustrated by Aetios , one of her favourites .
In the early 9th century , Leo V reintroduced the policy of iconoclasm , but in 843 empress Theodora restored the veneration of icons with the help of Patriarch Methodios . Iconoclasm played a part in the further alienation of East from West , which worsened during the so @-@ called Photian schism , when Pope Nicholas I challenged the elevation of Photios to the patriarchate .
= = = Macedonian dynasty and resurgence ( 867 – 1025 ) = = =
The accession of Basil I to the throne in 867 marks the beginning of the Macedonian dynasty , which would rule for the next two and a half centuries . This dynasty included some of the most able emperors in Byzantium 's history , and the period is one of revival and resurgence . The Empire moved from defending against external enemies to reconquest of territories formerly lost .
In addition to a reassertion of Byzantine military power and political authority , the period under the Macedonian dynasty is characterised by a cultural revival in spheres such as philosophy and the arts . There was a conscious effort to restore the brilliance of the period before the Slavic and subsequent Arab invasions , and the Macedonian era has been dubbed the " Golden Age " of Byzantium . Though the Empire was significantly smaller than during the reign of Justinian , it had regained significant strength , as the remaining territories were less geographically dispersed and more politically , economically , and culturally integrated .
= = = = Wars against the Arabs = = = =
In the early years of Basil I 's reign , Arab raids on the coasts of Dalmatia were successfully repelled , and the region once again came under secure Byzantine control . This enabled Byzantine missionaries to penetrate to the interior and convert the Serbs and the principalities of modern @-@ day Herzegovina and Montenegro to Orthodox Christianity . An attempt to retake Malta ended disastrously , however , when the local population sided with the Arabs and massacred the Byzantine garrison .
By contrast , the Byzantine position in Southern Italy was gradually consolidated so that by 873 Bari had once again come under Byzantine rule , and most of Southern Italy would remain in the Empire for the next 200 years . On the more important eastern front , the Empire rebuilt its defences and went on the offensive . The Paulicians were defeated and their capital of Tephrike ( Divrigi ) taken , while the offensive against the Abbasid Caliphate began with the recapture of Samosata .
Under Basil 's son and successor , Leo VI the Wise , the gains in the east against the now @-@ weak Abbasid Caliphate continued . However , Sicily was lost to the Arabs in 902 , and in 904 Thessaloniki , the Empire 's second city , was sacked by an Arab fleet . The weakness of the Empire in the naval sphere was quickly rectified , so that a few years later a Byzantine fleet had re @-@ occupied Cyprus , lost in the 7th century , and also stormed Laodicea in Syria . Despite this revenge , the Byzantines were still unable to strike a decisive blow against the Muslims , who inflicted a crushing defeat on the imperial forces when they attempted to regain Crete in 911 .
The death of the Bulgarian tsar Simeon I in 927 severely weakened the Bulgarians , allowing the Byzantines to concentrate on the eastern front . Melitene was permanently recaptured in 934 , and in 943 the famous general John Kourkouas continued the offensive in Mesopotamia with some noteworthy victories , culminating in the reconquest of Edessa . Kourkouas was especially celebrated for returning to Constantinople the venerated Mandylion , a relic purportedly imprinted with a portrait of Christ .
The soldier @-@ emperors Nikephoros II Phokas ( reigned 963 – 969 ) and John I Tzimiskes ( 969 – 976 ) expanded the empire well into Syria , defeating the emirs of north @-@ west Iraq . The great city of Aleppo was taken by Nikephoros in 962 , and the Arabs were decisively expelled from Crete in 963 . The recapture of Crete put an end to Arab raids in the Aegean , allowing mainland Greece to flourish once again . Cyprus was permanently retaken in 965 , and the successes of Nikephoros culminated in 969 with the recapture of Antioch , which he incorporated as a province of the Empire . His successor John Tzimiskes recaptured Damascus , Beirut , Acre , Sidon , Caesarea , and Tiberias , putting Byzantine armies within striking distance of Jerusalem , although the Muslim power centres in Iraq and Egypt were left untouched . After much campaigning in the north , the last Arab threat to Byzantium , the rich province of Sicily , was targeted in 1025 by Basil II , who died before the expedition could be completed . Nevertheless , by that time the Empire stretched from the straits of Messina to the Euphrates and from the Danube to Syria .
= = = = Wars against the Bulgarian Empire = = = =
The traditional struggle with the See of Rome continued through the Macedonian period , spurred by the question of religious supremacy over the newly Christianised state of Bulgaria . Ending eighty years of peace between the two states , the powerful Bulgarian tsar Simeon I invaded in 894 but was pushed back by the Byzantines , who used their fleet to sail up the Black Sea to attack the Bulgarian rear , enlisting the support of the Hungarians . The Byzantines were defeated at the Battle of Boulgarophygon in 896 , however , and agreed to pay annual subsidies to the Bulgarians .
Leo the Wise died in 912 , and hostilities soon resumed as Simeon marched to Constantinople at the head of a large army . Though the walls of the city were impregnable , the Byzantine administration was in disarray and Simeon was invited into the city , where he was granted the crown of basileus ( emperor ) of Bulgaria and had the young emperor Constantine VII marry one of his daughters . When a revolt in Constantinople halted his dynastic project , he again invaded Thrace and conquered Adrianople . The Empire now faced the problem of a powerful Christian state within a few days ' marching distance from Constantinople , as well as having to fight on two fronts .
A great imperial expedition under Leo Phocas and Romanos I Lekapenos ended with another crushing Byzantine defeat at the Battle of Achelous in 917 , and the following year the Bulgarians were free to ravage northern Greece . Adrianople was plundered again in 923 , and a Bulgarian army laid siege to Constantinople in 924 . Simeon died suddenly in 927 , however , and Bulgarian power collapsed with him . Bulgaria and Byzantium entered a long period of peaceful relations , and the Empire was now free to concentrate on the eastern front against the Muslims . In 968 , Bulgaria was overrun by the Rus ' under Sviatoslav I of Kiev , but three years later , John I Tzimiskes defeated the Rus ' and re @-@ incorporated Eastern Bulgaria into the Byzantine Empire .
Bulgarian resistance revived under the rule of the Cometopuli dynasty , but the new emperor Basil II ( r . 976 – 1025 ) made the submission of the Bulgarians his primary goal . Basil 's first expedition against Bulgaria , however , resulted in a humiliating defeat at the Gates of Trajan . For the next few years , the emperor would be preoccupied with internal revolts in Anatolia , while the Bulgarians expanded their realm in the Balkans . The war dragged on for nearly twenty years . The Byzantine victories of Spercheios and Skopje decisively weakened the Bulgarian army , and in annual campaigns , Basil methodically reduced the Bulgarian strongholds . At the Battle of Kleidion in 1014 the Bulgarians were annihilated : their army was captured , and it is said that 99 out of every 100 men were blinded , with the hundredth man left with one eye so he could lead his compatriots home . When Tsar Samuil saw the broken remains of his once formidable army , he died of shock . By 1018 , the last Bulgarian strongholds had surrendered , and the country became part of the Empire . This victory restored the Danube frontier , which had not been held since the days of the emperor Heraclius .
= = = = Relations with the Kievan Rus ' = = = =
Between 850 and 1100 , the Empire developed a mixed relationship with the new state of the Kievan Rus ' , which had emerged to the north across the Black Sea . This relationship would have long @-@ lasting repercussions in the history of the East Slavs , and the Empire quickly became the main trading and cultural partner for Kiev . The Rus ' launched their first attack against Constantinople in 860 , pillaging the suburbs of the city . In 941 , they appeared on the Asian shore of the Bosphorus , but this time they were crushed , an indication of the improvements in the Byzantine military position after 907 , when only diplomacy had been able to push back the invaders . Basil II could not ignore the emerging power of the Rus ' , and , following the example of his predecessors , he used religion as a means for the achievement of political purposes . Rus ' – Byzantine relations became closer following the marriage of Anna Porphyrogeneta to Vladimir the Great in 988 , and the subsequent Christianisation of the Rus ' . Byzantine priests , architects , and artists were invited to work on numerous cathedrals and churches around Rus ' , expanding Byzantine cultural influence even further , while numerous Rus ' served in the Byzantine army as mercenaries , most notably as the famous Varangian Guard .
Even after the Christianisation of the Rus ' , however , relations were not always friendly . The most serious conflict between the two powers was the war of 968 – 971 in Bulgaria , but several Rus ' raiding expeditions against the Byzantine cities of the Black Sea coast and Constantinople itself are also recorded . Although most were repulsed , they were often followed by treaties that were generally favourable to the Rus ' , such as the one concluded at the end of the war of 1043 , during which the Rus ' gave an indication of their ambitions to compete with the Byzantines as an independent power .
= = = = Apex = = = =
By 1025 , the date of Basil II 's death , the Byzantine Empire stretched from Armenia in the east to Calabria in Southern Italy in the west . Many successes had been achieved , ranging from the conquest of Bulgaria to the annexation of parts of Georgia and Armenia , and the reconquest of Crete , Cyprus , and the important city of Antioch . These were not temporary tactical gains but long @-@ term reconquests .
Leo VI achieved the complete codification of Byzantine law in Greek . This monumental work of 60 volumes became the foundation of all subsequent Byzantine law and is still studied today . Leo also reformed the administration of the Empire , redrawing the borders of the administrative subdivisions ( the Themata , or " Themes " ) and tidying up the system of ranks and privileges , as well as regulating the behaviour of the various trade guilds in Constantinople . Leo 's reform did much to reduce the previous fragmentation of the Empire , which henceforth had one center of power , Constantinople . However , the increasing military success of the Empire greatly enriched and empowered the provincial nobility with respect to the peasantry , who were essentially reduced to a state of serfdom .
Under the Macedonian emperors , the city of Constantinople flourished , becoming the largest and wealthiest city in Europe , with a population of approximately 400 @,@ 000 in the 9th and 10th centuries . During this period , the Byzantine Empire employed a strong civil service staffed by competent aristocrats that oversaw the collection of taxes , domestic administration , and foreign policy . The Macedonian emperors also increased the Empire 's wealth by fostering trade with Western Europe , particularly through the sale of silk and metalwork .
= = = = Split between Orthodox Christianity and Catholicism ( 1054 ) = = = =
The Maced
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6 – 25 mi ) per day , and they could potentially reach a top speed of 20 – 30 km ( 12 – 19 mi ) per hour . The slow locomotion of sauropods may be due to their minimal muscling , or to recoil after strides . A trackway of a juvenile has led some to believe that they were capable of bipedalism , though this is disputed .
= = = Neck posture = = =
Diplodocids like Apatosaurus are often portrayed with their necks held high up in the air , allowing them to browse on tall trees . Some studies state diplodocid necks were less flexible than previously believed because the structure of the neck vertebrae would not have allowed the neck to bend far upwards , and that sauropods like Apatosaurus were adapted to low browsing or ground feeding .
Other studies by Taylor find that all tetrapods appear to hold their necks at the maximum possible vertical extension when in a normal , alert posture ; they argue the same would hold true for sauropods barring any unknown , unique characteristics that set the soft tissue anatomy of their necks apart from that of other animals . Apatosaurus , like Diplodocus , would have held its neck angled upwards with the head pointing downwards in a resting posture . Kent Stevens and Michael Parrish ( 1999 and 2005 ) state Apatosaurus had a great feeding range ; its neck could bend into a U @-@ shape laterally . The neck 's range of movement would have also allowed the head to feed at the level of the feet .
Matthew Cobley et al . ( 2013 ) dispute this , finding that large muscles and cartilage would have limited movement of the neck . They state the feeding ranges for sauropods like Diplodocus were smaller than previously believed and the animals may have had to move their whole bodies around to better access areas where they could browse vegetation . As such , they might have spent more time foraging to meet their minimum energy needs . The conclusions of Cobley et al. are disputed by Taylor , who analyzed the amount and positioning of intervertebral cartilage to determine the flexibility of the neck of Apatosaurus and Diplodocus . He found that the neck of Apatosaurus was very flexible .
= = = Physiology = = =
Given the large body mass and long neck of sauropods like Apatosaurus , physiologists have encountered problems determining how these animals breathed . Beginning with the assumption that like crocodilians , Apatosaurus did not have a diaphragm , the dead @-@ space volume ( the amount of unused air remaining in the mouth , trachea and air tubes after each breath ) has been estimated at about 0 @.@ 184 m3 ( 184 l ) for a 30 t ( 30 long tons ; 33 short tons ) specimen . Paladino calculates its tidal volume ( the amount of air moved in or out during a single breath ) at 0 @.@ 904 m3 ( 904 l ) with an avian respiratory system , 0 @.@ 225 m3 ( 225 l ) if mammalian , and 0 @.@ 019 m3 ( 19 l ) if reptilian .
On this basis , its respiratory system would likely have been parabronchi , with multiple pulmonary air sacs as in avian lungs , and a flow @-@ through lung . An avian respiratory system would need a lung volume of about 0 @.@ 60 m3 ( 600 l ) compared with a mammalian requirement of 2 @.@ 95 m3 ( 2 @,@ 950 l ) , which would exceed the space available . The overall thoracic volume of Apatosaurus has been estimated at 1 @.@ 7 m3 ( 1 @,@ 700 l ) , allowing for a 0 @.@ 50 m3 ( 500 l ) , four @-@ chambered heart and a 0 @.@ 90 m3 ( 900 l ) lung capacity . That would allow about 0 @.@ 30 m3 ( 300 l ) for the necessary tissue . Evidence for the avian system in Apatosaurus and other sauropods is also present in the pneumaticity of the vertebrae . Though this plays a role in reducing the weight of the animal , Wedel ( 2003 ) states they are also likely connected to air sacs , as in birds .
James Spotila et al . ( 1991 ) concludes that the large body size of sauropods would have made them unable to maintain high metabolic rates because they would not be able to release enough heat . They assumed sauropods had a reptilian respiratory system . Wedel says that an avian system would have allowed it to dump more heat . Some scientists state that the heart would have had trouble sustaining sufficient blood pressure to oxygenate the brain . Others suggest that the near @-@ horizontal posture of the head and neck would have eliminated the problem of supplying blood to the brain because it would not have been elevated .
James Farlow ( 1987 ) calculates that an Apatosaurus @-@ sized dinosaur about 35 t ( 34 long tons ; 39 short tons ) would have possessed 5 @.@ 7 t ( 5 @.@ 6 long tons ; 6 @.@ 3 short tons ) of fermentation contents . Assuming Apatosaurus had an avian respiratory system and a reptilian resting @-@ metabolism , Frank Paladino et al . ( 1997 ) estimate the animal would need to consume only about 262 litres ( 58 imp gal ; 69 US gal ) of water per day .
= = = Growth = = =
A 1999 microscopic study of Apatosaurus and Brontosaurus bones concluded the animals grew rapidly when young and reached near @-@ adult sizes in about 10 years . In 2008 , a study on the growth rates of sauropods was published by Thomas Lehman and Holly Woodward . They said that by using growth lines and length @-@ to @-@ mass ratios , Apatosaurus would have grown to 25 t ( 25 long tons ; 28 short tons ) in 15 years , with growth peaking at 5 @,@ 000 kg ( 11 @,@ 000 lb ) in a single year . An alternative method , using limb length and body mass , found Apatosaurus grew 520 kg ( 1 @,@ 150 lb ) per year , and reached its full mass before it was about 70 years old . These estimates have been called unreliable because the calculation methods are not sound ; old growth lines would have been obliterated by bone remodelling . One of the first identified growth factors of Apatosaurus was the number of sacral vertebrae , which increased to five by the time of the creatures ' maturity . This was first noted in 1903 and again in 1936 .
Long @-@ bone histology enables researchers to estimate the age that a specific individual reached . A study by Eva Griebeler et al . ( 2013 ) examined long bone histological data and concluded the Apatosaurus sp . SMA 0014 weighed 20 @,@ 206 kg ( 22 @.@ 3 short tons ) , reached sexual maturity at 21 years , and died aged 28 . The same growth model indicated Apatosaurus sp . BYU 601 – 17328 weighed 18 @,@ 178 kg ( 20 @.@ 0 short tons ) , reached sexual maturity at 19 years , and died aged 31 .
= = = = Juveniles = = = =
Compared with most sauropods , a relatively large amount of juvenile material is known from Apatosaurus . Multiple specimens in the OMNH are from juveniles of an undetermined species of Apatosaurus ; this material includes partial shoulder and pelvic girdles , some vertebrae , and limb bones . OMNH juvenile material is from at least two different age groups and based on overlapping bones likely comes from more than three individuals . The specimens exhibit features that distinguish Apatosaurus from its relatives , and thus likely belong to the genus . Juvenile sauropods tend to have proportionally shorter necks and tails , and a more pronounced forelimb @-@ hindlimb disparity than in adults .
= = = Tail = = =
An article published in 1997 reported research of the mechanics of Apatosaurus tails by Nathan Myhrvold and paleontologist Philip J. Currie . Myhrvold carried out a computer simulation of the tail , which in diplodocids like Apatosaurus was a very long , tapering structure resembling a bullwhip . This computer modeling suggested sauropods were capable of producing a whiplike cracking sound of over 200 decibels , comparable to the volume of a cannon being fired .
A pathology has been identified on the tail of Apatosaurus , caused by a growth defect . Two caudal vertebrae are seamlessly fused along the entire articulating surface of the bone , including the arches of the neural spines . This defect might have been caused by the lack or inhibition of the substance that forms intervertebral disks or joints . It has been proposed that the whips could have been used in combat , but the tails of diplodocids were quite light and narrow compared to Shunosaurus and mamenchisaurids , and thus to injure another animal with the tail would severely injure the tail itself .
= = Paleoecology = =
The Morrison Formation is a sequence of shallow marine and alluvial sediments which , according to radiometric dating , dates from between 156 @.@ 3 mya at its base , and 146 @.@ 8 mya at the top , placing it in the late Oxfordian , Kimmeridgian , and early Tithonian stages of the Late Jurassic period . This formation is interpreted as originating in a locally semiarid environment with distinct wet and dry seasons . The Morrison Basin , where dinosaurs lived , stretched from New Mexico to Alberta and Saskatchewan ; it was formed when the precursors to the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains started pushing up to the west . The deposits from their east @-@ facing drainage basins were carried by streams and rivers and deposited in swampy lowlands , lakes , river channels , and floodplains . This formation is similar in age to the Lourinhã Formation in Portugal and the Tendaguru Formation in Tanzania .
Apatosaurus was the second @-@ commonest sauropod in the Morrison Formation ecosystem , after Camarasaurus . Apatosaurus may have been more solitary than other Morrison Formation dinosaurs . Supersaurus has a greater total length and is the greatest of all sauropods from the Morrison Formation . Apatosaurus fossils have only been found in the upper levels of the formation . Those of Apatosaurus ajax are known exclusively from the upper Brushy Basin Member , about 152 – 151 mya . A. louisae fossils are rare , known only from one site in the upper Brushy Basin Member ; they date to the late Kimmeridgian stage , about 151 mya . Additional Apatosaurus remains are known from similarly aged or slightly younger rocks , but they have not been identified as any particular species , and thus may instead belong to Brontosaurus .
The Morrison Formation records a time when the local environment was dominated by gigantic sauropod dinosaurs . Dinosaurs known from the Morrison Formation include the theropods Allosaurus , Ceratosaurus , Ornitholestes , Saurophaganax and Torvosaurus ; the sauropods Brontosaurus , Brachiosaurus , Camarasaurus , and Diplodocus ; and the ornithischians Camptosaurus , Dryosaurus , and Stegosaurus . Apatosaurus is commonly found at the same sites as Allosaurus , Camarasaurus , Diplodocus , and Stegosaurus . Allosaurus accounted for 70 – 75 % of theropod specimens and was at the top trophic level of the Morrison food web . Many of the dinosaurs of the Morrison Formation are of the same genera as those seen in Portuguese rocks of the Lourinhã Formation — mainly Allosaurus , Ceratosaurus , and Torvosaurus — or have a close counterpart — Brachiosaurus and Lusotitan , Camptosaurus and Draconyx , Apatosaurus and Dinheirosaurus . Other vertebrates that are known to have shared this paleo @-@ environment include ray @-@ finned fishes , frogs , salamanders , turtles , sphenodonts , lizards , terrestrial and aquatic crocodylomorphans , and several species of pterosaur . Shells of bivalves and aquatic snails are also common . The flora of the period has been evidenced in fossils of green algae , fungi , mosses , horsetails , cycads , ginkgoes , and several families of conifers . Vegetation varied from river @-@ lining forests of tree ferns and ferns ( gallery forests ) , to fern savannas with occasional trees such as the Araucaria @-@ like conifer Brachyphyllum .
= Partners in Crime ( Doctor Who ) =
" Partners in Crime " is the first episode of the fourth series of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who . It was broadcast on BBC One on 5 April 2008 . The episode reintroduced comedian Catherine Tate as Donna Noble , who had previously appeared in " The Runaway Bride " . Donna and the Doctor ( David Tennant ) meet while separately investigating Adipose Industries , a company that has created a revolutionary diet pill . Together , they attempt to stop the death of thousands of people in London after the head of the company , the alien Miss Foster ( Sarah Lancashire ) , creates the Adipose , short white aliens made from human body fat .
The episode 's alien creatures , the Adipose , were created using the software MASSIVE , commonly used for crowd sequences in fantasy and science fiction films . The episode is stylistically different from other Doctor Who episodes ; " Partners in Crime " has no clear antagonist , and the creatures are in a different style to Doctor Who 's regular " big [ and ] scary " monsters .
" Partners in Crime " features the return of three supporting characters : Jacqueline King reprises her role as Sylvia Noble from " The Runaway Bride " ; Bernard Cribbins reprises his role as Wilfred Mott from " Voyage of the Damned " , to replace the character of Geoff Noble after actor Howard Attfield died ; and Billie Piper briefly reprises her role as Rose Tyler for the first time since the second series ' finale " Doomsday " , in a scene that was not included in preview showings .
The episode received many positive reviews . Most critics liked the special effects used to create the Adipose . Critics also praised Tate 's subdued acting in comparison to " The Runaway Bride " ; Donna was changed from a " shouting fishwife " to a more emotional person when she became a full @-@ time companion . Critics ' opinions were split over the episode 's plot : opinion on executive producer Russell T Davies ' writing ranged from " pure pleasure " to " the back of a fag packet " .
= = Plot = =
Donna Noble has become disenchanted with her normal life for two years since meeting the Doctor in " The Runaway Bride " . She finds herself regretting her decision to decline the Doctor 's invitation to travel in the TARDIS . She has started investigating conspiracy theories in the hope that she will find him again . She confides her regrets to her grandfather Wilfred Mott , who met the Doctor before in " Voyage of the Damned " .
The Doctor and Donna , neither one aware of the other 's involvement , both investigate Adipose Industries , which is marketing a special diet pill to the people of London . They find that the pill 's slogan , The Fat Just Walks Away , is literal . The pills use latent body fat to parthenogenetically create small white aliens called Adipose that spawn at night and leave the host 's body . The Doctor and Donna separately infiltrate the offices of Adipose Industries , each unaware that the other is there . Donna hides out in a toilet cubicle until they close , the Doctor stays in a storage room . As they explore the building , they suddenly encounter each other through opposite windows in an office . They are confronted by Miss Foster , an alien who is using Britain 's overweight population to create the Adipose babies for the Adiposian First Family . Miss Foster pursues the Doctor and Donna around the building , finally catching them in an office . She tells the Doctor that the Adipose lost their breeding planet and hired Miss Foster to find a replacement . The Doctor uses Miss Foster 's sonic pen and his sonic screwdriver to create a diversion and escape .
Miss Foster accelerates her plans , knowing that the Doctor will attempt to stop her . Throughout London , the Adipose begin to spawn and soon number several thousand . The Doctor and Donna prevent total emergency parthenogenesis occurring , which would have killed those who had taken the pill , and the remainder of the young Adipose make their way to Adipose Industries . The Adiposian First Family arrive in a spaceship and begin collecting their young . The Doctor tries to warn Miss Foster about her safety , but she disregards him and is killed when the Adipose drop her from their transport beam to her death , to cover their unsanctioned colonization efforts . The Doctor refrains from killing the young Adipose because they are children , to which Donna remarks that his previous companion Martha Jones made him more human .
At the end of the episode , Donna accepts the Doctor 's original offer to travel in the TARDIS . The Doctor makes it clear to her that he only wants to be friends and nothing more , and she emphatically agrees . She makes a detour to leave her car keys in a litter bin , telling her mother Sylvia to collect them later . While there , she meets a blonde woman and asks her to help Sylvia find the keys . The woman turns out to be Rose Tyler , who fades from view as she walks away from the area . In the final scene , Donna asks the Doctor to fly by her grandfather , Wilfred . He sees her in his telescope and celebrates on his allotment .
= = Production = =
= = = Casting = = =
" Partners in Crime " features several actors returning to the series . Catherine Tate was offered the opportunity to return as Donna Noble during lunch with executive producer Julie Gardner . Tate , who expected Gardner would ask about appearing in a biopic , later admitted it was " the furthest thing from [ her ] mind " . Tate 's return was controversial amongst Doctor Who fans ; the criticism she received was compared to Daniel Craig after he was cast as James Bond . Howard Attfield , who appeared as Donna 's father Geoff in " The Runaway Bride " , filmed several scenes for this episode , but died before his scenes for the remainder of the season were completed . The producers retired his character out of respect , and dedicated him in the closing credits for the episode . Producer Phil Collinson suggested transferring his traits to the unrelated character Stan Mott from " Voyage of the Damned " , and rewriting his role as Donna 's grandfather . Executive producers Russell T Davies and Gardner liked the idea and recalled Bernard Cribbins to the role to re @-@ film Attfield 's scenes , with the character renamed as Wilfred — a name Davies favoured for Donna 's grandfather — in time for the credits of " Voyage of the Damned " to be changed .
= = = Writing = = =
Davies took a different approach while writing the episode . David Tennant and Sarah Lancashire noted the character of Miss Foster had good intentions but was morally ambiguous . The premise of the Adipose pill was equally ambiguous with rare side @-@ effects , but was a " win @-@ win situation " for anyone involved . Davies based the character of Miss Foster on Supernanny star Jo Frost and Argentine philanthropist and politician Eva Perón , and Lancashire compared her character to Mary Poppins . The Adipose are a different style to regular Doctor Who villains ; antagonists such as Lazarus in " The Lazarus Experiment " or the werewolf in " Tooth and Claw " were singular monsters designed to scare the audience ; the Adipose were written as " cute " to provide a " bizarre [ and ] surreal " experience .
Davies made some changes to Donna 's character . The character was " rounded ... out from being a shouting fishwife to someone who 's quite vulnerable and emotional " . Donna was written to provide a " caustic " and " grown @-@ up " attitude towards the Doctor , in opposition to Rose and Martha , who fell in love with him . Tate considered Donna to be more equal to the Doctor because her character did not romanticise him , allowing her to question his morality more easily .
= = = = Donna 's mime = = = =
In this production , the script requires Catherine Tate , as Donna Noble , to reintroduce herself to the Doctor in mime . The stage directions by writer Russell T Davies are as follows .
Donna does a little mime : " I came here , trouble , read about it , internet , I thought , trouble = you ! And this place is weird ! Pills ! So I hid . Back there . Crept along . Looked . You . Cos they ... "
Tate says Davies had suggested that she might come up with something on the day . She improvised her mime during filming .
= = = Filming = = =
The episode was in the fourth production block in the season , and was filmed in October 2007 . The out @-@ of @-@ sequence filming allowed producers to use props to " seed " later episodes ; ATMOS , a plot device in the episodes " The Sontaran Stratagem " and " The Poison Sky " , is referred to by a sticker on a taxi 's windscreen . As the episode mostly takes place at night , many scenes were filmed in the early morning .
The scene where Donna and the Doctor investigate Adipose was difficult to film . The scene took thirty shots to complete , and Tennant and Tate experienced problems avoiding each other on @-@ screen . The scene was filmed in Picture Finance 's call centre on the outskirts of Newport on an early Sunday morning , with the company 's telephonists serving as extras .
Exterior shots of Adipose Industries were filmed at the British Gas building ( Helmont House ) in Cardiff 's city centre . For health and safety reasons , Tennant was prohibited from performing his own stunts in the window cleaning platform . His only shot that required stunts was when he catches Miss Foster 's sonic pen , a shot that took several takes to perfect .
= = = Adipose = = =
The Adipose were inspired by a stuffed toy Davies owned . The name comes from the scientific name for body fat , adipose tissue . Davies ' brief outlined a " cute " child @-@ friendly creature shaped like a block of lard , similar to the Pillsbury Doughboy . Further consultation with post @-@ production team The Mill resulted in the ears and the singular fang each Adipose has . Stephen Regelous , who won an Academy Award for his software Massive , flew to London to supervise the creation of the crowd special effects . Regelous , a Doctor Who fan , was enthusiastic about helping The Mill with special effects , stating that " When I first found out that the Mill was working on Doctor Who , I was quietly hoping that Massive might be used to create hordes of Daleks or Cybermen and with series 4 , I jumped at the opportunity to be involved . " The Mill created two types of Adipose : extras with artificial intelligence and independent movement , and " hero " Adipose , which were hand @-@ animated .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
= = = Broadcast and ratings = = =
The episode was broadcast on 5 April 2008 at 18 : 20 , the earliest timeslot since the show 's revival in 2005 . Davies criticised the BBC 's scheduling department and claimed the show could lose 1 @.@ 5 million viewers . The show retained a similar time of broadcast for a further four episodes , before returning to around 19 : 00 @.@ from " The Doctor 's Daughter " onwards .
The preview version of the episode supplied to the press and aired at the press launch omitted the scene that features Rose ; before broadcast , only the production team , Tate , and Tennant had seen the scene . The scene contains Rose 's departure theme , " Doomsday " . Tennant commented " on the night of transmission ... the Radio Times won 't have told you it 's coming , it 'll come as a genuine [ ... ] prickle up the spine " .
Overnight figures estimated the show was watched by 8 @.@ 4 million viewers , with a peak of 8 @.@ 7 million , 39 @.@ 4 % of the television audience . The consolidated rating was 9 @.@ 1 million viewers . Doctor Who was therefore the most watched show on 5 April , although the Grand National had a higher peak with 10 @.@ 1 million viewers . The episode 's Appreciation Index was 88 ( considered " Excellent " ) , the highest for any television show aired on 5 April .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode received many positive reviews . John Preston , writing for The Daily Telegraph , called the episode an " undiluted triumph " . Opening his review , he said " last night 's episode struck me as being as close to 50 minutes of pure pleasure as you 're likely to get on television " . He noted the episode 's clever tackling of the topical theme of obesity , and its mixture of emotion and special effects . In closing , he said " the dejected critic , denied even the smallest nit to pick , walks glumly away " . Scott Matthewman of The Stage lamented that the Adipose were not threatening enough . He liked the Adipose 's execution of Miss Foster , a " momentary pause in mid @-@ air , gravity only kicking in when the character looks down " , comparing it to Wile E. Coyote and Chuck Jones , which " [ was ] a nice little touch in an episode ... full of them " . He also appreciated Tate , saying that " David Tennant finally has a partner who is approaching an equal " . Sam Wollaston of The Guardian wrote that Tate was " not right for this role " and " too hysterical , too comedy , not cool enough " , and felt her inclusion was an attempt to trade on the popularity of her own series and " broaden the appeal of [ Dr Who ] still further " . He also found the music " a bit oppressive " but concluded that , despite these criticisms , the show was " still awfully nice television " . Keith Watson of Metro gave the episode 4 stars out of 5 . He admitted that despite his dislike of Tate , " she isn 't that bad " . His review of the Adipose was positive , citing them as a reason of the quality of the show . Closing , he said " it split [ his ] sides " .
Jon Wise of The People said " Doctor Who is a super @-@ galactic way of spending a Saturday night indoors " , and appreciated that Donna was not romantically interested in the Doctor , unlike Martha or Rose . Ben Rawson @-@ Jones gave the episode a wholly positive review , summarising it as containing " pure fantastic family fun , delivering a winning blend of action , comedy , poignancy and one unexpected shock cameo " .
The episode received several negative reviews . Andrew Billen , writing for The Times , lamented that Davies had " forgotten that Doctor Who 's main task is to send children scuttling behind sofas while entertaining their fathers with the odd philosophical idea , the occasional classical reference , a joke or two they would probably not wish to explain and a wee bit of space totty " . Billen also criticised the writing and acting , but commended Tate for a " toned down performance " . Alan Stanley Blair of SyFy Portal summarised it as " a runaway Saturday morning cartoon in desperate need to a solid story " . Blair found flaws with the comedy and the music in the episode , but was impressed with Tate 's acting and Piper 's cameo . Kevin O 'Sullivan of the Sunday Mirror criticised Tate and Tennant for overacting , and had concerns about the writing : " It didn 't exactly ooze tension . All we got in the way of terrifying space enemies was Sarah Lancashire hamming it up as an intergalactic super nanny , a couple of security guards with guns and lots of cute little fat babies . " Ian Hyland of News of the World criticised the child @-@ friendly storyline , comparing it to " the back of a fag packet " . He also criticised Tennant for appearing " jaded " and Tate for " still shouting " .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Partners in Crime " reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide
= Jacob Svetoslav =
Jacob Svetoslav ( Bulgarian : Яков Светослав , Yakov Svetoslav ) ( ca . 1210s / 1220s – 1275 or 1276 / 1277 ) was a prominent 13th @-@ century Bulgarian noble ( bolyarin ) of princely Russian origin . Bestowed the title of despot , Jacob Svetoslav was the ruler of a widely autonomous domain of the Second Bulgarian Empire most likely located around Sofia . Seeking further independence and claiming the title of Emperor of Bulgaria , he twice changed allegiance from Bulgaria to the Kingdom of Hungary and vice versa , and the Hungarians recognized his Bulgarian royal rank as their vassal and ruler of Vidin ( medieval Bdin ) .
= = Bulgarian despot = =
Jacob Svetoslav 's exact origin is not clear , though he is known to have been either a Russian noble himself or the son of one . Jacob or his father most likely arrived in Bulgaria with the wave of Russians fleeing the Mongol invasion of Rus ' in the first half of the 13th century . Historian Plamen Pavlov theorizes that Jacob Svetoslav was a descendant of the princes ( knyaze ) of Kievan Rus ' , and estimates his birth date as being in the 1210s or 1220s . In the late 1250s , Jacob Svetoslav was already an influential noble . He married a daughter of Theodore II Laskaris from his marriage with Tsar Ivan Asen II 's daughter Elena . By 1261 , he had become a despot , a high @-@ ranking noble in the Bulgarian hierarchy . The title was awarded to him probably by his own suzerain , the ruler of Bulgaria , rather than a Byzantine emperor , possibly Constantine Tih . Jacob Svetoslav was close to the Bulgarian court and pledged loyalty to Constantine . Thus , the tsar made him the ruler of a domain usually considered to have been south of the Vidin region in the west of the Bulgarian Empire . Byzantine sources indicate his possessions lay " near Haemus " , thus close to Sofia , between the Hungarian possessions to the north and Macedonia to the south .
In 1261 , he commanded the Bulgarian forces in a war against Hungary near Severin ( western Wallachia ) , and in 1262 he possibly fought against Byzantium , as a Byzantine army invaded his lands in the following year during an anti @-@ Bulgarian campaign . Jacob Svetoslav 's continuing ties to his Russian homeland are evidenced by his request to the Bulgarian patriarch . Jacob requested the making of a copy of the Nomocanon which was then sent to Cyril III , the Metropolitan of Kiev . It was supplemented by a letter from Jacob in which the noble calls the metropolitan " the bishop of the entire Russian land ... of my ancestors " . The copy finishes with a passage in which Jacob is called a " Bulgarian despot " . He also minted his own coins bearing the imperfect images of Saint Demetrius of Thessaloniki or Jacob himself , dressed as a warrior wearing a helmet and holding a sword .
= = Hungarian and Bulgarian ruler of Vidin = =
In 1263 , the situation in Bulgaria was far from stable , as Constantine was facing both the threat of his predecessor Mitso Asen 's throne ambitions and a large @-@ scale Byzantine invasion . Because Constantine was unable to assist Jacob against the advancing Byzantines , Jacob sought aid from his northern neighbour , Hungarian king Stephen V. The Hungarians drove the Byzantines out of Jacob 's domain and themselves invaded Byzantine @-@ controlled territories . Rescued from the Byzantine threat , Jacob Svetoslav submitted to Hungarian suzerainty . Stephen V placed him as the ruler of the Vidin province on the Danube River , previously governed for Hungary by the then @-@ deceased Rostislav Mikhailovich , and allowed him to retain his lands to the south . Had it not been for the appointment of Jacob Svetoslav as a Hungarian vassal at Vidin , Bulgaria would have re @-@ established control over the city in 1263 .
In 1264 , however , Hungary was precipitated into another civil war between Stephen V and his father Béla IV . Fearing Bulgarian retribution and lack of Hungarian support should Béla IV come out victorious , in 1265 Jacob Svetoslav changed allegiance to Bulgaria and acknowledged the authority of Constantine Tih . The two crossed the Danube in 1265 and raided the Hungarian fortresses north of the river . By the spring of 1266 , however , Stephen V had established himself as the sole ruler of Hungary , and on 23 June 1266 , conquered Vidin back from Jacob after a brief siege . Two waves of Hungarian raids proceeded to devastate the Vidin province and enter the possessions of Constantine . In spite of Bulgarian resistance , the Hungarians subjugated a number of cities including Pleven . Jacob Svetoslav 's previous defection to Bulgarian suzerainty notwithstanding , the Hungarians restored him as the puppet ruler of the Vidin region . In 1266 , he was even referred to as " Tsar of the Bulgarians " ( imperator Bulgarorum ) in Hungarian sources , possibly to encourage a rivalry between Constantine and Jacob Svetoslav for the Bulgarian throne or simply to satisfy Jacob 's ambitions .
= = Final submission to Bulgaria and death = =
The death of Stephen V in 1272 meant that he was succeeded by his infant son Ladislaus IV , with the widowed consort and mother of the boy , Elizabeth , as his regent . At the time , Jacob Svetoslav still held Vidin as a Hungarian vassal . Possibly in 1273 , Hungarian rule in Braničevo , west of Jacob 's domain , was put to an end by two Cuman – Bulgarian nobles , Darman and Kudelin . Cut off from his Hungarian suzerains and facing the menace of a Bulgarian attack from the east , Jacob Svetoslav once again submitted to Bulgarian rule . He arrived in the capital Tarnovo to negotiate his submission with Constantine 's consort Maria Palaiologina Kantakouzene , who was the dominant figure in the empire at the time due to the Tsar 's paralysis . There , Jacob was formally adopted by the much younger Maria as her second son , after the infant heir Michael Asen II . This adoption solidified Jacob 's ties to the court and meant that he could safely retain his autonomous domain as a Bulgarian vassal . He also harboured hopes to ascend to the throne by ousting Michael when Constantine died . Suspicious of these disloyal intentions of Jacob 's , Constantine 's consort Maria is thought to have poisoned him , and he died in 1275 or 1276 / 1777 , shortly before the Uprising of Ivaylo .
While the fate of the city of Vidin itself is unclear , at least part of Jacob 's possessions were certainly restored to direct Bulgarian rule in the wake of his death . One such territory was the Svrljig region lying southwest of Vidin , which in 1278 was documented as belonging to Bulgaria .
= Melly Goeslaw =
Mellyana Goeslaw Hoed ( [ məliˈana ˈɡʊslau ̯ ˈhʊt ̚ ] ; born 7 January 1974 ) , better known by her stage name " Melly Goeslaw " , is an Indonesian singer and songwriter . She began singing while in the fifth grade , then began writing songs and took work as a backing vocalist for Elfa Secioria in high school . This led to her family and her moving to Jakarta to further her career . While providing backing vocals for a promotional tour by Katon Bagaskara , she met Anto Hoed and Andi Ayunir . After marrying Hoed , the three formed the band Potret in 1993 . Their 1995 debut album was well received , bringing Goeslaw and her bandmates to fame . After releasing several albums with Potret , Goeslaw attempted to begin a solo career , releasing her self @-@ titled debut album Melly in 1999 . Although Melly sold well , she became more popular as a solo artist after providing the soundtrack for the 2002 hit film Ada Apa dengan Cinta ? together with her husband . Her later releases include solo albums and soundtracks . In 2005 , she released a collection of short stories to celebrate her tenth year anniversary as a popular musician ; four years later , she directed a concert to celebrate the bicentenary of Bandung city . As of 2011 , she has written over 500 songs .
Goeslaw 's onstage persona has been compared to Björk , with " eccentric " costumes , heavy make @-@ up , and " wild " hair colours . Her early songs have been described by The Jakarta Post as being " deliberately antagonistic " , with controversial themes including materialism , sadomasochism , and violence against women . Two of her songs with Potret , " Salah " and " Bunda " , were selected by Rolling Stone Indonesia as some of the best Indonesian songs of all time , while her work with Ada Apa dengan Cinta ? garnered her and her husband a Citra Award at the 2004 Indonesian Film Festival . However , Rolling Stone notes a decline in song quality after Ada Apa dengan Cinta ? . According to The Jakarta Post , Goeslaw is one of the most sought after movie songwriters in Indonesia .
= = Early life = =
Goeslaw was born in Bandung on 7 January 1974 . She is the daughter of Melky Goeslaw , a singer and songwriter , and his wife Ersi Sukaesih . After her parents ' divorce , Goeslaw was raised by her mother ; her sister Yuli , who now serves as her manager , was born from a second marriage . While in elementary school , she enjoyed writing poetry , later recalling that she " was happiest when doodling on paper , writing [ her ] poetry " . While she was in the fifth grade , she began singing after being convinced by her mother , who was convinced that Goeslaw could sing like her father ; originally she did not want to be a singer .
She later switched to songwriting while in high school , writing lyrics on napkins and schoolbooks and recording her humming on a Walkman because she could not play any instruments . During high school , she worked as a backing vocalist for Elfa Secioria . Her family eventually moved to Jakarta to further her singing career , and she was requested to be a backing vocalist for three different pop singers . At one point , she was recording at three different studios every day . The money that she earned convinced her to continue singing .
= = Career = =
= = = 1995 @-@ 99 : Potret band = = =
After replacing a backing vocalist for Katon Bagaskara 's promotional tour for the album Dinda , Goeslaw met Anto Hoed and his friend Arie Ayunir . After marrying Anto later that year , they went on to form the band Potret . The band 's first album was released in 1995 , with the song " Terbujuk " ( " Seduced " ) , dealing with " the ultimate material girl " , becoming instantly popular . The band was very popular between 1995 and 1998 . While with Potret , Goeslaw wrote numerous songs . Some were written conservatively as they were ordered by singers such as Krisdayanti and Ruth Sahanaya ; other songs , generally the more " biting " ones , were used for Potret 's albums .
One of the her songs on Potret 's third album , " Diam " ( " Silent " ) , which dealt with the abuse of women , caused some controversy due to the perceived amount of violence in the music video . Despite this controversy , " Diam " won Video Musik Indonesia 's award for best interpretation of a song .
= = = 1999 @-@ 2009 : Solo career = = =
In 1999 , Goeslaw started her solo career with her self @-@ titled debut album , which sold well . Her second album , the soundtrack for the 2002 teen movie Ada Apa dengan Cinta ? ( What 's Up with Love ) , in which most songs were sung by her and written by her and her husband , led to her being more popular as a solo artist than with Potret ; she was also given the nickname the Queen of Movie Music . Ada Apa Dengan Cinta 's soundtrack later won Best Soundtrack at the Indonesian Film Festival .
Goeslaw later provided the soundtracks for 2003 's Eiffel I 'm in Love , 2005 's Apa Artinya Cinta ( What does Love Mean ) , 2007 's The Butterfly , and 2009 's Ketika Cinta Bertasbih ( When Love Prays ) . She considered the writing of songs for Ketika Cinta Bertasbih to be more difficult than her previous work in teen romances , as it was a religious film . As such , she felt that she had to be extra careful .
In 2005 Goeslaw released a collection of short stories that she had written to celebrate her tenth year as a singer . One of the stories , " Tentang Dia " ( " About Him / Her " ) , was later filmed by Rudy Soedjarwo , the director of Ada Apa dengan Cinta ? . In 2008 Goeslaw wrote and sang " Dibius Cinta " ( " Drugged by Love " ) for the soundtrack of Cicakman 2 – Planet Hitam ( Cicakman 2 – Black Planet ) with Malaysian singer and director of the film Yusri , from the band KRU . Melly requested permission to help with the scoring after watching the original Cicak Man .
After initially refusing to perform solo concerts because of creative differences with the event managers , in 2009 Goeslaw held her first concert , " Glow , Melly Live in Concert " , at Senayan Stadium in Jakarta . The concert , directed by John Fair Kaune and presented by Krisdayanti 's KD Productions , featured a " virtual duet " with Goeslaw 's deceased father and was divided into two portions , one featuring songs from her time with Potret , and one with songs from her solo career . It also featured new songs written by Hoed especially for the concert . The following year she was head of Kampung GASS , an organising committee for a concert celebrating the 200th year since the founding of Bandung .
= = = 2010 @-@ present : Mentoring new singers = = =
Goeslaw is also active scouting for new singers and assisting others , having supported the careers of pop singers Irwansyah and Acha Septriasa . In 2011 she invited aspiring singers to post videos of themselves singing her songs to YouTube or her Facebook profile , later noting that she had already discovered several new talents in that manner . As of 2011 , she has written over 500 songs . Goeslaw released a compilation album , Balance , in January 2013 .
From September through November 2015 , Goeslaw served as a judge on the reality television series La Academia Junior Indonesia for its second season .
= = Songwriting = =
Goeslaw has noted that her most popular songs are generally those which are written quickly , citing the award @-@ winning " Menghitung Hari " ( " Counting the Days " ) , which was written in four days , as an example . She has noted that she abandons songs which leave her with a writer 's block , as even when they are finished they are not well received . Her husband does the arrangement , sometimes meaning that songs are put on hold because he is busy .
The Jakarta Post has described her lyrics as being " deliberately antagonistic " , to which Goeslaw has agreed . Her songs written while with Potret include themes of materialism , sexual deviation , " misbehaving women " , flatulence , and sadomasochism ; she has said that she tries to avoid writing about " issues of ethnicity , religion , race and intergroup relations , especially political matters " . The Jakarta Post also calls her a " deft satirist " . She does not consider herself a feminist , as her songs are written about real women and not about female empowerment ; she has said that her lyrics are not of the " ' hear me roar ' type " .
= = Fashion = =
Goeslaw is known for wearing " eccentric " costumes when performing , leading to her being compared to Icelandic singer Björk , whom she admires . She also dyed her hair in " wild colors " and applied heavy stage make up in the late 1990s , when contemporary Indonesian singers were focusing on " conventional " beauty . In 2008 , Goeslaw said that her make up and hairstyles used to hide her insecurity when she was first starting . She has continued to use them because it is " part of the package " , although she now discusses ideas with her creative team .
= = Awards and recognition = =
Goeslaw 's songs have won awards . In the first Indonesian Film Festival ( after the festival 's twelve @-@ year hiatus between 1992 and 2004 ) , Goeslaw and her husband won Best Soundtrack for their work in Ada Apa Dengan Cinta ? ; it was one of three awards won by the movie at the festival , which covered films from 2002 to 2004 . The Jakarta Post calls her Indonesia 's most sought after movie songwriter , and notes that her songs have been successfully covered by other singers . Her work as a songwriter has led to her becoming an active proponent of intellectual property rights .
In 2009 , Rolling Stone Indonesia listed two songs that Goeslaw performed while with Potret in its list of the 150 Best Indonesian Songs of All Time , both of which were from the album Potret II . " Salah " ( " Wrong " ) was ranked 74th , being noted as the best example of Goeslaw 's " fresh , direct , and often provocative nuances " when writing songs and writing that her " sweet " vocals challenged the paradigm that a singer singing about an affair should be either a victim or full of revenge . The other song , " Bunda " ( " Mother " ) was ranked at 110 ; it was noted being capable of making anyone , " even the most cruel man " , pause for a moment to think of their mother . Rolling Stone Indonesia noted a decrease in the quality of Goeslaw 's songs since Ada Apa Dengan Cinta ? .
= = Personal life = =
Goeslaw is married to guitarist Anto Hoed . Together they have two children , Anakku Lelaki Hoed and Lelaki Bernama Hoed ( literally My Son Hoed and Boy Named Hoed ) . In her spare time she enjoys shopping , playing with her children , and browsing the internet ; she has stated that she finds it increasingly difficult to enjoy shopping due to being constantly recognised . She has stated that she prefers being backstage over giving concerts , as she does not have to wear make @-@ up or rehearse .
= = Discography = =
Pilihanku Deritaku ( 1988 ) – listed as Meliana Cessy
Melly ( 1999 )
Ada Apa dengan Cinta ? ( OST ; 2002 )
Eiffel I 'm in Love ( OST ; 2003 )
Intuisi ( 2005 )
Apa Artinya Cinta ? ( OST ; 2005 )
Mindsoul ( 2007 )
The Butterfly ( OST ; 2008 )
Ketika Cinta Bertasbih ( 2009 )
Glow ( 2009 )
Dancing In The Silence ( 2011 )
Mungkin ( 2009 )
Ada Apa dengan Cinta ? 2 ( OST ; 2016 )
= = Filmography = =
Kabayan Jadi Milyuner ( 2010 )
= Down Street tube station =
Down Street , also known as Down Street ( Mayfair ) , is a disused station on the London Underground , located in Mayfair , west London . It was opened in 1907 by the Great Northern , Piccadilly and Brompton Railway . It was latterly served by the Piccadilly line and was situated between Dover Street ( now named Green Park ) and Hyde Park Corner stations .
The station was little used and trains often passed through it without stopping . Its lack of patronage coupled with its proximity to other stations resulted in its closure in 1932 . During the Second World War it was used as a bunker by prime minister Winston Churchill and his War Cabinet . The station building survives today and is close to Down Street 's junction with Piccadilly . Part of it is now converted to a retail outlet .
= = History = =
= = = Operation = = =
The station is in Down Street in Mayfair , just off Piccadilly and a short distance from Park Lane . It lies between Green Park ( originally named Dover Street ) and Hyde Park Corner on the Piccadilly line . It was opened by the Great Northern , Piccadilly and Brompton Railway ( GNP & BR ; the precursor to the Piccadilly line ) on 15 March 1907 , a few months after the rest of the line opened . The delay was due to difficulties in purchasing the site for the station building and agreeing a safe layout of the passages below ground with the Board of Trade . The surface building was designed by the Underground Electric Railways Company of London 's ( UERL 's ) architect Leslie Green in the UERL house style of a two @-@ storey steel @-@ framed building faced with red glazed terracotta blocks , with wide semi @-@ circular windows on the upper floor . The station had a pair of Otis lifts , with the platforms located 22 @.@ 2 metres ( 73 ft ) below the street level of Piccadilly .
Down Street was never a busy station , as the surrounding area was largely residential and its residents mostly wealthy enough to travel by other means . The neighbouring stations were also close by , with Dover Street station about 550 metres ( 600 yd ) to the east and Hyde Park Corner 500 metres ( 550 yd ) to the west , . From 1909 , like Brompton Road , Down Street was often skipped by trains . From 1918 it was closed on Sundays .
In 1929 , Down Street was one of the stations suggested for closure in connection with the extension of the Piccadilly line : the elimination of less @-@ busy stations in the central area would improve both reliability and journey times for long @-@ distance commuters . Additionally , the neighbouring stations were being rebuilt with escalators in place of lifts and their new entrances were even nearer to Down Street , further squeezing its catchment area . The station was permanently closed on 21 May 1932 .
After the station was closed it was almost immediately modified . The western headwalls of both platform tunnels were rebuilt to allow a step plate junction to be installed , providing access from the eastbound and westbound tunnels to a new siding located between Down Street and Hyde Park Corner . The siding is mainly used to reverse westbound trains , but could also be used for servicing trains . The siding tunnel is accessible at its western end through a small foot tunnel constructed from Hyde Park Corner station . The lifts were removed and the shafts adapted to provide additional tunnel ventilation .
= = = Wartime use and after = = =
The station was selected for use as an underground bunker in early 1939 as part of a programme of developing deep shelters to protect government operations from bombing in the event of war . The platform faces were bricked up and the enclosed platform areas and space in the circulation passages were divided up into offices , meeting rooms and dormitories . The engineering and structural work was carried out by the London Passenger Transport Board and the fitting @-@ out of the rooms and installation of the power and communications equipment was done by the London , Midland and Scottish Railway . A two @-@ person lift was installed in the original emergency stairwell and a telephone exchange , toilets and bathrooms were added . The main occupant of the shelter was the Railway Executive Committee , but it was also used by prime minister Winston Churchill and his war cabinet until the Cabinet War Rooms were ready for use . Churchill called the establishment at Down Street " The Barn " .
Since the end of the war , the station has been used only as an emergency exit point from the Underground .
In April 2015 , Transport for London announced that it was seeking proposals for the commercial use of parts of the surface building , disused lift shaft and underground passages . Suggested possible uses included a restaurant , a bar , a theatre , a gallery or retail space .
= = Use in media = =
Down Street is the inspiration for a location in the television series and novel Neverwhere , where it provides an entrance to an underground labyrinth . A much modified and expanded version of the station appears as a part of a level in the video game Shadow Man .
Part of the 2004 British horror film Creep was set in Down Street station , although the scenes were actually shot at the disused Aldwych station and on studio sets . The British band Hefner released a song titled " Down Street " on their 2006 album Catfight ; according to its sleeve notes , it is set in the early 1930s and tells the story of two lovers who meet at the station . Steve Hackett also recorded a song titled " Down Street " on his 2006 album Wild Orchids , about the station .
The station features in Billy Connolly 's World Tour Of England , Ireland and Wales , Dan Cruickshank 's National Geographic Channel series Great Railway Adventures and the 2012 TV Series The Tube .
= Closure ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Closure " is the eleventh episode of the seventh season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files , and the 150th episode overall . It was directed by Kim Manners and written by series creator Chris Carter and Frank Spotnitz . The installment explores the series ' overarching mythology and is the conclusion of a two @-@ part episode revolving around the final revelation of what really happened to Fox Mulder 's ( David Duchovny ) sister , Samantha . Originally aired by the Fox network on February 13 , 2000 , " Closure " received a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 1 and was seen by 15 @.@ 35 million viewers . The episode received mostly positive reviews from critics ; many felt that the final reveal was emotional and powerful , although some were unhappy with the resolution .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work , but the two have developed a deep friendship . In this episode , after Mulder is forced to accept that his mother ’ s death was by her own hand , he is led by a man whose son disappeared years earlier to another truth : that his sister , Samantha , was among the souls taken by ‘ walk @-@ ins ’ , saving the souls of children doomed to live unhappy lives .
" Closure " was a story milestone for the series , finally revealing Samantha 's fate ; this story @-@ arc had driven a large part of the series ' earlier episodes . The episode was written as a continuation to the previous episode , " Sein und Zeit , " but branched off into different territory . Although a majority of the episode was filmed on a soundstage , several scenes were shot on location , such as the scenes at the former Norton Air Force Base in San Bernardino , California . Several of the sequences , specifically those featuring the souls of dead children , required elaborate filming techniques . The episode has been analyzed due to its themes of belief and hope .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
For the first five seasons of the series , FBI federal agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) sought to gain understanding about the disappearance of Mulder 's sister , Samantha , who was abducted when Mulder was 12 years old . In the previous episode , " Sein und Zeit " , Mulder and Scully tracked down a serial killer who targeted children . While investigating the case , Mulder began to get emotionally involved , due to the similarities with his sister 's disappearance .
= = = Events = = =
Mulder and Scully aid the Sacramento Police in the investigation of a brutal murder committed by Truelove , the owner of the Santa Village . As the remains of more children are discovered , he admits killing twenty @-@ four children , but denies murdering Amber Lynn LaPierre , who disappeared from her home in the previous episode . Mulder is approached by psychic Harold Piller , who tells Mulder that he has helped law enforcement across the world , and has proved in various cases that children had been taken by " walk @-@ ins " , beings composed of starlight . Piller believes that walk @-@ ins save children who suffer terrible fates .
Scully becomes worried about Piller 's influence over Mulder . The agents return to Washington , D.C. , where Mulder keeps searching for evidence in the case . Meanwhile , Piller gets another vision of Samantha , leading Mulder to April Air Force Base . Scully finds evidence that Samantha 's disappearance is linked to The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) ; when she returns to her apartment , she finds him waiting for her . He tells her that he had called off the search for Mulder 's sister when she vanished because he knew she was dead .
When Mulder returns to April Air Force Base , he uncovers proof that Samantha lived with the Smoking Man along with his son , Jeffrey Spender , and that she was forced to undergo painful tests . Scully finds a 1979 police report of a girl matching Samantha 's description , and learns that she was taken to a hospital emergency room . She and Mulder find the nurse who treated her , and the nurse describes how Samantha disappeared the same way as Amber — without a trace . Mulder later walks through the forest and receives a vision of Samantha along with the spirits of other children . Upon telling Scully and Piller — who reacts badly upon hearing that his son is dead — of his vision , Mulder accepts that his sister is dead and in a better place . When Scully comforts Mulder and asks if he is all right , he responds with a choked " I 'm fine . I 'm free . "
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" Closure , " written by series creator Chris Carter and executive producer Frank Spotnitz , brought an end to Mulder 's quest for his sister , Samantha , who had been abducted when he was a child . The idea to close the story arc received mixed reactions from various production and crew members . However , many of the show 's producers realized that the time had come to answer one of the show 's biggest questions . Spotnitz explained that , " I think [ series star , David Duchovny ] grew tired of playing the man who is missing his sister . [ ... ] I told him , ' This is going to be the last time you 're going to have to play [ that part ] . ' " Paul Rabwin noted that , " It 's been seven years . I don 't think any of us are going to miss Samantha Mulder . That device and motivation were very strong in the early years of the show . But as the years have gone by , the speculation kind of melted away . "
" Closure " continued the story of the previous episode " Sein und Zeit " and branched off into different territory . Carter later explained that , " emotionally , it was heavy stuff for everybody , but necessarily so . These episodes involved two very personal cases , the search for a serial killer [ in ' Sein und Zeit ' ] and the search for Mulder 's sister [ in ' Closure ' ] . " Marc Shapiro , in his book All Things : The Official Guide to The X @-@ Files , Vol . 6 noted that , in addition to bringing an end to the Samantha story arc , the episode was " very much a [ Smoking Man ] episode " in that it explored his involvement in Samantha 's abduction and revealed to the audience that he was seriously ill . The episode 's tagline was changed from the usual " The Truth is Out There " to " Believe to Understand " .
= = = Filming = = =
Manners noted that " Closure " was one of the first episodes in which the production staff was able to " shoot in Los Angeles with the sun out " . According to Manners , the show was struggling with the fact that " we weren 't in Vancouver anymore and that our show had suddenly become very bright and cheery " . To amend this , Bill Roe , director of photography , used tree branches and c @-@ stands to block out the sunlight . The first scene with the walk @-@ ins rising up from their grave , shot at Griffith Park above the playground , was " tricky , " according to director Kim Manners . Manners felt uncomfortable telling the children to rise out of " graves " , feeling it could psychologically hurt them , so instead the crew called the holes in the ground " forts . " The scenes taking place at April Air Force Base was shot in San Bernardino , California at a closed airfield , the former Norton Air Force Base . On the airbase was a large abandoned house complex of over 400 buildings constructed and used by the United States military . According to Manners , the entire area was " eerie " , and many of the houses still had furniture in them . Originally , the producers wanted to name the fictitious air force March Air Force Base . However , the presence of an actual air force base with the same name necessitated a change to April Air Force Base . One of the shots in the April Air Force Base was filmed at a sound stage in Los Angeles . The scene at the restaurant was shot in a location on Sepulveda Boulevard , at a hotel that had been standing there for 30 to 40 years .
During filming , David Duchovny decided to act out the reunion scene in a manner contrary to what the script called for . Manners later noted , " In the script , it called for his sister to run up and hug him , and Mulder was to start crying . David didn 't want to cry . I said , ' David , you 're finally realizing your sister is , in fact , dead . [ … ] He said , ' Just watch what I do ; trust me . ' And , he held that little girl actress — there was a beatific smile on his face that was absolutely astounding . " Manners was very happy with the change and included it in the final cut of the episode . To create the scene featuring the ghosts of the dead children interacting with the characters , various layers of film had to be overlaid onto each other . Many passes of the shot were taken , which took hours to complete . After the shots had been secured , the film of the ghosts had to be made transparent . The scenes wherein Mulder is interacting with the walk @-@ ins was actually shot in daylight . However , specialized " day for night " photography was used to make the finished scene look as if it had been filmed at night . To achieve this , the subjects were illuminated with bright lights and the sky was completely avoided . The entire scene was shot at 48 frames a second , twice that of normal speed . Rebecca Toolan was flown down from Vancouver specifically for this episode , and " Sein Und Zeit " . To create her ghostly apparition , the production staff had to shoot multiple frames , which were then spliced into footage of Duchovny . Manners played the part of the hypnotist in the video which Scully watches of Mulder under hypnosis . Manners later noted that " I only act when you can 't actually see my face " . Manners was critical of Duchovny 's wig — which had been added to make the footage seem older . He sardonically noted that " this is [ not ] one of the episodes that Cheri Medcalf [ the show 's make @-@ up director ] won an Emmy for . "
Composer Mark Snow described his score as possessing a " sense of biblical fervor and religiosity — an elegy — a feeling about it that was so poignant and touching to me . " " My Weakness " , a song by Moby from his 1999 album Play , is used in this episode , during the first scene when the FBI discover the mass grave and near the end when Mulder encounters his sister 's spirit . Carter never told Snow about the decision to use someone else 's music , although Snow has since said that his reaction to the use of the song was very positive and that the song was a " perfect " fit for the scenes in which it can be heard . Another Moby song , " The Sky is Broken " also from Play , would be featured in the late seventh season episode " all things " .
= = Themes = =
According to Amy M. Donaldson in her book We Want to Believe : Faith and Gospel in The X @-@ Files , Mulder 's opening monologue may be an example of " Mulder now being more receptive to the possibility of God 's intervention " . Throughout much of the series , Mulder has shown a disdain for religion . However , in " Closure " , Donaldson points out that " Mulder 's belief in God , as always , revolves around his beliefs about his sister 's fate " . As such , Mulder expresses hope that those who die in a cruel fashion " live on in some other way " . Furthermore , she argues that because " Closure " opens with the tagline " Believe to understand " , Mulder must " take the leap of faith " in order to find enlightenment , and ultimately the truth about his sister . The first half of the episode plays out according to the tagline ; Mulder first believes in " his desire stated in the opening voiceover " , and then finds closure .
Donaldson also parallels elements in the episode to the plots of other episodes such as the fourth season entry " Paper Hearts " , wherein it is suggested that a serial killer murdered Samantha . In " Paper Hearts " , a father of a victim notes that the uncertainty of his daughter 's murder allowed those who were involved to " consider the possibilities , both for the best and for the worst " . However , once it is revealed that his daughter was murdered , all hope was removed . Conversely , Mulder holds onto the possibility that Samantha is alive through much of the series , but when he realizes that she is indeed dead in " Closure " , hope is removed but in its place is found peace . To parallel Mulder 's acceptance , Harold Piller refuses to believe his son is dead ; as such , he " cling [ s ] to the possibility [ because ] uncertainly allows him hope . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Closure " first aired in the United States on February 13 , 2000 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 9 @.@ 1 , with a 13 share . Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the U.S. This means that roughly 9 @.@ 1 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 13 percent of households watching television , were watching the episode . It was viewed by 15 @.@ 35 million viewers in the United States . On May 28 , 2000 the episode debuted on Sky 1 in the United Kingdom and gathered 0 @.@ 68 million viewers , making it the eighth most watched program shown on Sky 1 that week , in front of Angel and The Simpsons . The episode was later included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 3 – Colonization , a DVD collection that contains episodes involved with the alien Colonist 's plans to take over the earth .
= = = Initial reviews = = =
Initial reviews were mixed , with some critics applauding the story 's conclusion , and others deriding it . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files , opined that the episode worked best " if some of the previous Samantha @-@ related clues were forgotten " , such as when the Alien Bounty Hunter told Mulder that she was still alive in " End Game " . Despite this , he wrote that " it was only right that Samantha be dead since Mulder 's life had always been defined by what he has lost , not what he has found " . He surmised that the episode was not " perfect " , but that its " plusses greatly outweighed any missteps along the way " . He was also complimentary towards " the ethereal quality of the final few moments " , writing that they " lifted this episode up and made it one of the season 's most memorable " . Kenneth Silber from Space.com was pleased with the episode , and wrote , " ' Closure ' is a satisfying episode , one that puts to bed the now @-@ tiresome search for Mulder 's sister Samantha . " Jeremy Conrad from IGN referred to the episode as " excellent " and noted that a large portion of The X @-@ Files mythology ended with the resolution of Samantha 's abduction , saying , " [ ' Closure ' is ] a final , and concrete , answer to the single thing that was driving Mulder for the entire run of the series . In some ways , when he got that answer a major part of The X @-@ Files story ended . "
Not all reviews were positive . Paula Vitaris from CFQ gave the episode a negative review and awarded it one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . She wrote , " Instead of a grand , breath @-@ taking , heart @-@ breaking finale that should be the climax of Mulder 's search for Samantha , the story expires limply with some nonsense about Samantha being of the starlight children . " Bobby Bryant and Tracy Burlison of The State named the episode the " Worst Conspiracy " episode . The two noted that because " a tenet of The X @-@ Files was that Mulder 's sister , Samantha , had been ( a ) kidnapped by aliens or ( b ) kidnapped by government conspirators " , the fact that she had actually been turned into a spirit " insanely offers a supernatural explanation to a science @-@ fiction mystery " .
= = = Later reviews = = =
Later reviews , however , have seen " Closure " in a much more positive light , with many critics praising its ending . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club awarded the episode an " A – " . He argued that the episode worked due to two scenes : the sequence in which Mulder reads aloud from Samantha 's diary , and the final shot of Mulder being reunited with his sister . He wrote that the " stark simplicity " of the former made it emotionally powerful , and that the latter was " a bit sappy , a bit surreal , a bit lovely " but nonetheless " a beautiful moment " . Meghan Deans of Tor.com felt that the story was " silly " , but that , when paired with the idea that Samantha was truly an innocent victim , successfully becomes a " comfort " . She called it a move that " the show must give Mulder , and us , in order to shut down this storyline for good . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five , and called it " brave " . The two noted that while some of the sentimentality is pushed too far — such as when Mulder finds his sister 's diary speaking to him , or when Mulder talks about all lost souls being stars — the " critical moment " featuring Mulder reuniting with his sister 's spirit is " extraordinarily moving " .
= El Ejemplo =
El Ejemplo ( The Example ) is a studio album by Mexican recording artists Los Tigres del Norte . It was released by Fonovisa Records on May 2 , 1995 and includes fourteen tracks written by Teodoro Bello and Enrique Valencia , which span musical genres such as ballad , bolero , corrido , cumbia and ranchera .
The album was a commercial success peaking at number eight in the Billboard Top Latin Albums in the United States , where it was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America . To promote the album , Los Tigres del Norte released four singles , " La Fama de la Pareja " , the title track and " Golpes en el Corazón " that reached top ten in the Billboard Hot Latin Songs , while the single " No Puedo Más " peaked at number 15 in the same chart . " Golpes en el Corazón " , was later included in the setlist of their live album MTV Unplugged : Los Tigres del Norte and Friends as a duet with Mexican singer Paulina Rubio .
= = Release and reception = =
Mexican band Los Tigres del Norte released their twenty @-@ sixth studio album titled El Ejemplo on May 2 , 1995 . The album included twelve tracks written by Teodoro Bello and two songs written by Enrique Valencia . Four corridos ( " El Tamal " , " Tiempos de Mayo " , " La Fama de la Pareja " and " Morir Matando " ) , seven rancheras ( " El Ejemplo " , " Devuélveme " , " No Puedo Más " , " Quién " , " Como Aceite y Como el Agua " , " Un Mar de Vino " and " Te He de Olvidar " ) , one cumbia ( " Me Quedas a la Medida " ) , one ballad ( " Golpes en el Corazón " ) and one bolero ( " Nos Estorbó la Ropa " ) were recorded . The website AllMusic gave the album four stars out of five . Billboard magazine named the album a " likable batch of moving anecdotal corridos , spirited rancheras , and a pair of ballads that would be superb singles : ' Golpes en el Corazón ' and ' Nos Estorbó la Ropa ' . " The first single " La Fama de la Pareja " also received praise , being referred to as a " highlight " of the album .
= = Singles = =
The album lead single " La Fama de la Pareja " ( " The Fame of the Couple " ) , a corrido about a husband and wife dedicated to contraband and drug trafficking , peaked at number five in the Billboard Top Latin Songs chart and at number four in the Regional Mexican Songs chart . The title track was selected as the second single , and is a ranchera track about a love relationship that ended and the impossibility of getting a divorce , staying married for the sake of their children . " El Ejemplo " ( " The Example " ) reached number six at the Billboard Hot Latin Songs and three at the Regional Mexican Songs charts , respectively . " Golpes en el Corazón " ( " Punches to the Heart " ) was released as third single and became the biggest hit of the album , peaking at number two in the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart for a month ( blocked at the top by " Tú Sólo Tú " by Selena and " Si Nos Dejan " by Luis Miguel for two weeks each ) . " Golpes en el Corazón " , about a failed love relationship , spent eight non @-@ consecutive weeks at the top of the Regional Mexican Songs chart and at the Broadcast Music , Inc. awards of 1997 won the Latin Song of the Year award . It was also nominated Regional Mexican Song of the Year at the 1996 Lo Nuestro Awards . The track regained interest when was included in the setlist for the MTV Unplugged : Los Tigres del Norte and Friends recorded by the band in 2011 with the participation of Mexican singer Paulina Rubio . This version was nominated for Record of the Year at the 12th Latin Grammy Awards ceremony . " No Puedo
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a budget of about $ 68 @,@ 000 . Both Roger and Gene Corman were present for most of the film 's production and involved creatively as well as financially . Gene was more involved with running the day @-@ to @-@ day operations while the more experienced Roger Corman supervised and provided guidance to both Gene and Kowalski . Martin Varno was also present for shooting . They operated out of the Charlie Chaplin Studios , which was called Kling Studios at the time . Some rewriting was done as the filming progressed , and director Bernard L. Kowalski called it a collaborative process that involved himself , the Cormans and the whole crew . Varno , however , said he was not happy with how the filming process went , and that the Cormans changed dialogue and story elements without his consultation or permission . He said it reached the point where he called his agent and said , " I am not working for these sons of bitches any more ! I am sick and tired of the whole thing ! "
All of the interior scenes were shot at sound stages inside Kling Studios . Most of the exterior shots were filmed as Bronson Canyon , a set of caves at Griffith Park in Los Angeles that was a popular shooting location for low @-@ budget films . The exterior scenes of the tracking station were shot at a television station on Mount Lee , not far from the Hollywood Sign . Varno said it was the first television station built in Los Angeles , but was only being used for emergency broadcasts when Blood Beast was filmed ; it had also been used during World War II to send information and propaganda to the Allied Forces ' overseas allies . Varno secured permission to film there simply by calling the city of Los Angeles and asking permission , something he said nobody else considered trying because they assumed the city would not allow it . Varno was familiar with the station because his father , Roland Varno , appeared in the first dramatic television show released in Los Angeles and it was transmitted from that station . For the Blood Beast shoot , Los Angeles charged a fee of $ 8 per actor to shoot at the station , but the crew could be any size . All shooting took place outside the station and none inside . Most of the station night scenes there were shot during the day , and the film crew often had to find shadows to shoot in or block out the sun to give the impression of nighttime . Gene Corman said of the shooting : " That was one of the more mobile units I 've ever been involved with . Normally , everybody chases the sun ; we were chasing the shadows . "
The alien costume featured in Night of the Blood Beast was the same as the one used in another Roger Corman film , Teenage Cave Man ( 1958 ) . This was done to save money , as the Cormans often tried to incorporate existing sets , costumes and other elements from previous films into new ones for financial savings . Varno said the Corman brothers were so conscious of their spending that " ' cheap ' was the main word in their vocabulary " . The monster costume scenes in Teenage Cave Man and Night of the Blood Beast were shot within about two weeks of each other . The costume was modified slightly for Blood Beast ; Varno claimed somebody on the set said " the nose looks too Jewish " , so it was cut down slightly to more resemble a beak . Ross Sturlin wore the costume for the scenes in both Teenage Cave Man and Night of the Blood Beast . Filming was very difficult for Sturlin because it grew extremely hot inside the costume during the exterior shots . John Mathew Nickolaus , Jr. was director of photography for the film , and Jack Bohrer was the production manager . Daniel Haller , who went on to become a film director himself , worked as art director on Night of the Blood Beast . Haller did much of the manual construction work on the set himself , and brought a trailer in to the sound stage so he could sleep there and between work sessions . Among the props he built was the rocket @-@ ship , the frame of which was made of plywood that had been cut into circles , then covered with a plastic sheet and spray @-@ painted to look metallic . Haller also created blood cells that the characters looked at under a microscope , and the baby aliens ( which resembled seahorses ) they looked at under a fluoroscope . Alexander Laszlo composed the music for the film . Almost the entire crew went on to work on Attack of the Giant Leeches with the Corman brothers and Kowalski .
= = WGA arbitration = =
Martin Varno 's dissatisfaction with the Cormans eventually led him to take them into formal arbitration proceedings . Although Varno was not a member of the Writers Guild of America when he wrote the Blood Beast script , he was encouraged by actor Jay Jostyn to discuss the matter with them . According to Varno , Jostyn claimed several actors and writers had similar problems with the Cormans in the past , but were not taking action because the Cormans provided them continued work in their films . After meeting with the Writers Guild , Varno became a member and filed arbitration papers against the Cormans for not paying him enough . Roger Corman was in the process of editing the film when he received the arbitration notice , and he became so angry he started screaming and throwing things in the cutting room . Varno claims one of the film crew members approached him and promised the Cormans would hire Varno to work on many of their future films if he dropped the matter , but Varno refused .
Varno later filed a second arbitration upon learning that Gene Corman was to receive writing credit for the original story . Varno claimed Corman had nothing to do with the story , and produced large amounts of dated notes he claimed proved he wrote it himself . Varno won both arbitration matters . However , Roger Corman refused to pay Varno , and as a result he was not allowed to use Writers Guild of America members on his films . Corman used non @-@ union writers for several years , but he finally agreed to pay Varno when he wanted to use a union writer on one of his films . Varno said he would have sought more money for the delay , but he was out of the country when Corman paid the money and missed his opportunity . Additionally , despite winning arbitration in the writing credit matter , Gene Corman was given on @-@ screen original story credit in Night of the Blood Beast . When contacted by the distributor , American International Pictures , he was told removing Corman 's credit would mean recalling all of the prints and changing them , which would have cost thousands of dollars , and Varno agreed to allow it remain unchanged .
= = Release = =
= = = Distribution = = =
Night at the Blood Beast was distributed by American International Pictures . It was test @-@ screened for audiences in unadvertised sneak previews , in which audiences attending a different film were surprised with a screening of Blood Beast instead . Coincidentally , Martin Varno attended one of these sneak previews without any advance knowledge of what it was . The screening was also attended by Roger and Gene Corman , who were not pleased by Varno 's presence . It was the first time the screenwriter had seen the completed film , which he did not enjoy , and he said of watching it : " On my left side was sitting Forry Ackerman , and on my right side was sitting Jerry Bixby . And their main job was to keep my hands held down so I wouldn 't cut my throat . " During its theatrical release , Night of the Blood Beast was a double feature co @-@ billed with She Gods of Shark Reef .
= = = Reviews = = =
John L. Flynn , a Towson University English professor who has written extensively about science @-@ fiction film , unfavorably compared Night of the Blood Beast to The Creeping Terror ( 1964 ) , which was also about an astronaut returning from space with a stowaway alien creature . Although Flynn said it lacked the " epic pretentiousness " of that film , he nevertheless said of Blood Beast : " Corman made a career out of making cheap knock @-@ offs of popular films , but he seems to be scraping the bottom of the barrel here " . The Washington Post writer Tom Shales said " it would be hard to find a worse movie " and that the monster " looks like the San Diego Chicken after having been tarred and feathered " . Film critic and historian Steven H. Scheuer said the plot was a good idea but criticized what he called a " sloppy execution " . Literary and film critic John Kenneth Muir said he considered the film a failure because the monster " simply could not live up to expectations once revealed " . Leonard Maltin 's Movie Guide gave the film one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of four stars with the entry : " Well directed , but too low budget to succeed . " Night of the Blood Beast was among several films universally considered terrible that film reviewer Michael Adams watched as part of a book about his quest to find the worst film of all time . However , Adams said he enjoyed it on a B movie level , calling it " cheap but enjoyable and buoyed by its ideas " . John Stanley , who hosted the San Francisco television show Creature Features about science @-@ fiction films , said Night of the Blood Beast deliberately imitated the best scenes from The Thing from Another World .
= = Cultural references = =
Night of the Blood Beast was featured in the seventh season premiere episode of Mystery Science Theater 3000 . It was originally broadcast on November 23 , 1995 as a Thanksgiving special . The film ran along with Once Upon a Honeymoon ( 1956 ) , a short film about a married couple forced to postpone their honeymoon even further so that the husband can write a song for a telephone company and an angel who helps them out . Night of the Blood Beast was one of several Roger Corman @-@ produced or -directed films that were featured on the show , along with It Conquered the World ( 1956 ) , The Viking Women and the Sea Serpent ( 1957 ) , Teenage Cave Man ( 1958 ) , and Attack of the Giant Leeches ( 1959 ) . Night of the Blood Beast was featured along with three other episodes in the DVD box @-@ set " Mystery Science Theater 3000 : Volume XVI " , which was released on December 1 , 2009 .
= Oscar Pistorius =
Oscar Leonard Carl Pistorius OIB ( / pɪsˈtɔːriəs / ; Afrikaans pronunciation : [ pisˈtɔrjus ] ; born 22 November 1986 ) is a South African sprint runner and convicted murderer . Both of Pistorius ' legs were amputated below the knee when he was 11 months old . He was the first athlete to compete at the Paralympic Games and Olympic Games , competing in sprint events for below @-@ knee amputees in Paralympic events , and in non @-@ disabled sprint events .
After becoming a Paralympic champion , Pistorius attempted to enter non @-@ disabled international competition , over persistent objections of the IAAF and charges that his artificial limbs gave an unfair advantage . Pistorius eventually prevailed in this legal dispute . At the 2011 World Championships in Athletics , Pistorius became the first amputee to win a non @-@ disabled world track medal . At the 2012 Summer Olympics , Pistorius became the first double @-@ leg amputee to participate in the Olympics .
On Valentine 's Day ( 14 February ) in 2013 , Pistorius fatally shot his girlfriend , model Reeva Steenkamp , in his Pretoria home . He claimed he had mistaken Steenkamp for an intruder hiding in the bathroom , but he was arrested and charged with murder . At his trial the following year , Pistorius was found guilty of culpable homicide . He received a five @-@ year prison sentence for culpable homicide and a concurrent three @-@ year suspended prison sentence for a separate reckless endangerment conviction .
In November 2014 , prosecutors asked the sentencing judge for permission to appeal the verdict . Permission was granted in December , and the case was presented to a five @-@ person panel at the Supreme Court of Appeal . He was released on house arrest , and on 3 December 2015 the Appeal Court overturned the culpable homicide verdict and convicted him of murder . Pistorius appeared in court on 13 June 2016 to start the sentence hearing for the murder conviction which concluded on 15 June 2016 after Judge Thokozile Masipa adjourned the sentencing until 6 July 2016 when she sentenced Pistorius to six years imprisonment for murder .
= = Early life = =
Oscar Pistorius was born to Henke and Sheila Pistorius on 22 November 1986 in Sandton , Johannesburg , in what was then Transvaal Province ( now Gauteng Province ) of South Africa . He grew up in a Christian home and has an elder brother , Carl , and a younger sister , Aimée . Pistorius credits his mother , who died at the age of 43 when Pistorius was 15 years old , as a major influence in his life . He is a white South African with Italian ancestry from his mother 's grandfather , an Italian emigrant to Kenya . He is an Afrikaner with Afrikaans as a mother tongue and is also fluent in English .
Pistorius was born with fibular hemimelia ( congenital absence of the fibula ) in both legs . When he was 11 months old , his legs were amputated halfway between his knees and ankles . He attended Constantia Kloof Primary School and Pretoria Boys High School , where he played rugby union in the school 's third XV team . He played water polo and tennis at provincial level between the ages of 11 and 13 . In addition , Pistorius took part in club Olympic wrestling , and trained at Jannie Brooks 's garage gym in Pretoria , South Africa . After a serious rugby knee injury in June 2003 , he was introduced to running in January 2004 while undergoing rehabilitation at the University of Pretoria 's High Performance Centre with coach Ampie Louw , and " never looked back " . His first racing blades were fitted by South African prosthetist Francois van der Watt . Because he was unable to find suitable running blades in Pretoria , Van der Watt ordered some to be made by a local engineer . However , as these quickly broke , Van der Watt referred Pistorius to American prosthetist and Paralympic sprinter Brian Frasure to be fitted for blades by Icelandic company Össur .
Pistorius began studying for a Bachelor of Trade & Commerce ( B.Com. ) in business management with sports science at the University of Pretoria in 2006 . In a June 2008 interview for his University 's website , he joked : " I won 't graduate soon . With all the training I have had to cut down on my subjects . Hopefully I 'll finish by the time I 'm 30 ! " Asked by a journalist for his " sporting motto " , he said : " You 're not disabled by the disabilities you have , you are able by the abilities you have . "
= = Sporting career = =
Pistorius competes in T44 ( single below @-@ knee amputees ) events though he is actually classified in T43 ( double below knee amputee ) . Sometimes referred to as the " Blade Runner " and " the fastest man on no legs " , Pistorius took part in the 2004 Summer Paralympics in Athens and came third overall in the T44 ( one leg amputated below the knee ) 100 @-@ metre event . Despite falling in the preliminary round for the 200 metres , he qualified for the final . He went on to win the final in a world record time of 21 @.@ 97 seconds , beating a pair of American runners both possessing a single amputation , Marlon Shirley and Brian Frasure .
In 2005 , Pistorius finished sixth in the non @-@ disabled South African Championships over 400 metres with a world @-@ record time of 47 @.@ 34 seconds , and at the Paralympic World Cup in the same year , he won gold in the 100 metres and 200 metres , beating his previous 200 @-@ metre world record . At the 2006 IPC Athletics World Championships , Pistorius won gold in the 100- , 200- and 400 @-@ metre events , breaking the world record over 200 metres . On 17 March 2007 , he set a disability sports world record for the 400 metres ( 46 @.@ 56 seconds ) at the South African Senior Athletics Championships in Durban ; and at the Nedbank Championships for the Physically Disabled held in Johannesburg in April 2007 , he became the world record holder of the 100- and 200 @-@ metre events with times of 10 @.@ 91 and 21 @.@ 58 seconds respectively .
Pistorius was invited by the IAAF to take part in what would have been his first international non @-@ disabled event , the 400 @-@ metre race at the IAAF Grand Prix in Helsinki , Finland , in July 2005 . He was unable to attend , however , because of school commitments . On 13 July 2007 , Pistorius ran in the 400 @-@ metre race at Rome 's Golden Gala and finished second in run B with a time of 46 @.@ 90 seconds , behind Stefano Braciola who ran 46 @.@ 72 seconds . This was a warm @-@ up for his appearance at the 400 metres at the Norwich Union British Grand Prix at the Don Valley Stadium in Sheffield on 15 July 2007 . As American Olympic champion Jeremy Wariner stumbled at the start of the race and stopped running , Pistorius took seventh place in a field of eight in wet conditions with a time of 47 @.@ 65 seconds . However , he was later disqualified for running outside his lane . The race was won by American Angelo Taylor with a time of 45 @.@ 25 seconds . Pistorius had ambitions of competing in other non @-@ disabled events . In particular , he had set his sights on competing at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , China , but was ultimately not selected by the South African Olympic Committee ( see below ) .
= = = Dispute over prosthetics = = =
Pistorius has been the subject of criticism because of claims that his artificial limbs give him an advantage over runners with natural ankles and feet . He runs with J @-@ shaped carbon @-@ fibre prosthetics called the " Flex @-@ Foot Cheetah " developed by biomedical engineer Van Phillips and manufactured by Össur .
On 26 March 2007 , the IAAF amended its competition rules to include a ban on the use of " any technical device that incorporates springs , wheels or any other element that provides a user with an advantage over another athlete not using such a device " . It claimed that the amendment was not specifically aimed at Pistorius . To decide whether he was running with an unfair advantage , the IAAF monitored his track performances using high @-@ definition cameras to film his race against Italian club runners in Rome on 13 July , and his 400 metres in Sheffield on 15 July 2007 , at which he placed last .
In November 2007 , Pistorius was invited to take part in a series of scientific tests at the Cologne Sports University under the guidance of Professor of Biomechanics Dr Peter Brüggemann in conjunction with Elio Locatelli , who was responsible with the IAAF of all technical issues . After two days of tests , Brüggemann reported on his findings on behalf of the IAAF . The report claimed that Pistorius 's limbs used 25 % less energy than runners with complete natural legs to run at the same speed , and that they led to less vertical motion combined with 30 % less mechanical work for lifting the body . In December , Brüggemann told Die Welt newspaper that Pistorius " has considerable advantages over athletes without prosthetic limbs who were tested by us . It was more than just a few percentage points . I did not expect it to be so clear . " Based on these findings , on 14 January 2008 , the IAAF ruled Pistorius 's prostheses ineligible for use in competitions conducted under the IAAF rules , including the 2008 Summer Olympics . Pistorius called the decision " premature and highly subjective " and pledged to continue fighting for his dream . His manager Peet van Zyl said his appeal would be based on advice from United States experts who had said that the report " did not take enough variables into consideration " .
Pistorius subsequently appealed against the adverse decision to the Court of Arbitration for Sport ( CAS ) in Lausanne , Switzerland , and appeared before the tribunal at the end of April 2008 . After a two @-@ day hearing , on 16 May 2008 , the Court of Arbitration for Sport upheld Pistorius 's appeal and the IAAF council decision was revoked with immediate effect . The CAS panel unanimously determined that Dr Brüggemann tested Pistorius 's biomechanics only at full @-@ speed when he was running in a straight line ( unlike a real 400 @-@ metre race ) ; that the report did not consider the disadvantages that Pistorius suffers at the start and acceleration phases of the race ; and that overall there was no evidence that he had any net advantage over non @-@ disabled athletes . In response to the announcement , Pistorius said : " My focus throughout this appeal has been to ensure that disabled athletes be given the chance to compete and compete fairly with non @-@ disabled athletes . I look forward to continuing my quest to qualify for the Olympics . "
= = = Attempts to qualify for 2008 Summer Olympics = = =
To have a chance of representing South Africa at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing in the individual 400 @-@ metre race , Pistorius had to attain the Olympic " A " standard time of 45 @.@ 55 seconds ; the " B " qualifying time of 45 @.@ 95 seconds if no other athlete from his country achieved the faster time did not apply . Each national athletics federation is permitted to enter three athletes in an event if the " A " standard is met , and only one athlete if the " B " standard is met . However , he was eligible for selection as a member of the relay squad without qualifying . His best chance was to try for a time of close to 46 seconds to make the 4 × 400 @-@ metre relay team . However , he said : " If I make the team I don 't want to be the reserve for the relay , I want to be in the top four . I want to bring something to the race and make the relay stronger . " To give him a chance of making the South African Olympic team , selectors delayed naming the team until 17 July .
On 2 July 2008 , Pistorius competed in the 400 metres in the B race of the Notturna International in Milan but was " disappointed " when he failed to achieve the minimum Olympic qualification time , completing the race in fourth place in 47 @.@ 78 seconds . His performance on 11 July 2008 at the Rome Golden Gala was an improvement of more than a second , though his sixth @-@ place time of 46 @.@ 62 seconds in the B race was still short of the Olympic qualification time . Nonetheless , he was pleased with his performance , commenting that he felt he could improve on it .
On 15 July 2008 , IAAF general secretary Pierre Weiss commented that the world athletics body preferred that the South African Olympic Committee not select Pistorius for its 4 × 400 metres relay team " for reasons of safety " , saying that Pistorius could cause " serious damage " and risk the physical safety of himself and other athletes if he ran in the main pack of the relay . Pistorius branded this as the IAAF 's " last desperate attempt " to get him not to qualify , and threatened legal action if the Federation did not confirm that it had no objections to his participation in the relay . The IAAF responded by issuing a statement saying that Pistorius was welcome to seek qualification for the Olympics and future competitions under IAAF rules : " The IAAF fully respects the recent CAS decision regarding the eligibility of Oscar Pistorius to compete in IAAF competitions , and certainly has no wish to influence the South African Olympic Committee , who has full authority to select a men 's 4x400m relay team for the Beijing Olympics . "
Coming third with a personal best time of 46 @.@ 25 seconds at the Spitzen Leichtathletik meeting in Lucerne on 16 July 2008 , Pistorius failed to qualify for the 400 metres at the 2008 Summer Olympics by 0 @.@ 70 seconds . Athletics South Africa later announced that he would also not be selected for the 4 × 400 metres relay team as four other runners had better times . Had Pistorius been selected , he would have been one of the first competitors with a leg amputation to participate in the Olympic Games . Pistorius 's compatriot Natalie du Toit , a swimmer whose left leg was amputated above the knee after a traffic accident , duly became the first athlete with an amputation to qualify for the 2008 Summer Olympics . Asked about the possibility of the IAAF offering him a wild card to take part in the Olympics , Pistorius responded : " I do not believe that I would accept . If I have to take part in the Beijing Games I should do it because I qualified . " He expressed a preference for focusing on qualification for the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , stating that it was a more realistic target as " [ s ] printers usually reach their peak between 26 and 29 . I will be 25 in London and I 'll also have two , three years ' preparation . "
= = = 2008 Summer Paralympics = = =
Pistorius participated in the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing in the 100 , 200 and 400 metres ( T44 ) . On 9 September , in the heats of the 100 metres , he set a Paralympic record with his time of 11 @.@ 16 seconds . Later , following a slow start , he rallied to snatch gold from the United States ' Jerome Singleton in the 100 metres in a time of 11 @.@ 17 seconds , 0 @.@ 03 seconds ahead of the silver medallist . Four days later , on 13 September , the defending Paralympic champion in the 200 @-@ metre sprint won his second gold in the event in a time of 21 @.@ 67 seconds , setting another Paralympic record . He completed a hat @-@ trick by winning gold in the 400 metres in a world @-@ record time of 47 @.@ 49 seconds on 16 September , calling it " a memory that will stay with me for the rest of my life " .
= = = 2011 and qualification for 2012 Summer Olympics = = =
In January 2011 , a slimmer , trimmer Pistorius won three IPC Athletics World titles in New Zealand but was beaten for the first time in seven years in the 100 metres by American Jerome Singleton . He subsequently won the T44 400 metres in 47 @.@ 28 seconds and the 100 metres in 11 @.@ 04 seconds at the BT Paralympic World Cup in May to reassert himself as the world 's leading Paralympic sprinter .
Pistorius competed across a number of non @-@ disabled races in the summer of 2011 and posted three times under 46 seconds , but it was at the 19th Internazionale di Atletica Sports Solidarity Meeting in Lignano , Italy , on 19 July that he set a personal best of 45 @.@ 07 seconds in the 400 metres , attaining the World Championships and Olympic Games " A " standard qualification mark . Pistorius won the 400 @-@ metres event with a posted time that ranked him as 15th fastest in the world .
On 8 August 2011 it was announced that he had been included in the South African team for the World Championships in Daegu , South Korea , and had been selected for the 400 @-@ metre and the 4 × 400 metre relay squad . In the heats of the 400 metres , Pistorius ran in 45 @.@ 39 seconds and qualified for the semifinal . However , in the semifinal , he ran 46 @.@ 19 seconds and was eliminated .
In the heats of the 4 × 400 metres relay , Pistorius ran the opening leg as South Africa advanced to the finals with a national record time of 2 minutes 59 @.@ 21 seconds . However , he was not selected to run in the finals based on having the slowest split time of 46 @.@ 20 . This caused a controversy , as the first leg is normally Pistorius 's slowest since it requires a start from blocks , and he was restricted to the first leg by Athletics South Africa " on safety grounds " . He initially tweeted " Haven 't been included in final . Pretty gutted . " , but later added " Well done to the SA 4 × 400m team . Was really hard watching , knowing I deserved to be part of it . " Pistorius still won the silver medal because he ran in the heats , becoming the first amputee to win an non @-@ disabled world track medal . Reflecting on his World Championship debut , Pistorius said : " I really enjoyed the whole experience . I ran my second fastest time ever in the heats and was really pleased to have reached the semifinals . In the relay I was unbelievably chuffed to have broken the South African record , and hopefully my name will stay on that for a long time to come . "
On 4 July 2012 , the South African Sports Confederation and Olympic Committee ( SASCOC ) announced that Pistorius had been included in the Olympic team for the 400 @-@ metre and the 4 × 400 metres relay races .
= = = 2012 Summer Olympics = = =
At the 2012 Summer Olympics on 4 August 2012 , Pistorius became the first amputee runner to compete at an Olympic Games . In the 400 metres race , he took second place in the first heat of five runners , finishing with a time of 45 @.@ 44 seconds ( his best time of the season so far ) to advance to the semifinals on 5 August . He ran in the second semifinal , where he finished eighth and last with a time of 46 @.@ 54 seconds .
In the first semifinal of the 4 × 400 metres relay race on 9 August , the second runner of the South African team , Ofentse Mogawane , fell and was injured before reaching Pistorius , who was to have run the third leg . South Africa was passed into the final on appeal to the IAAF , due to interference by Vincent Kiilu , the Kenyan athlete who downed Mogawane . The South African relay team eventually finished eighth out of the field of nine in the final on 10 August . However , it established a season 's best time for the team of 3 minutes 3 @.@ 46 seconds , with Pistorius running the final leg in 45 @.@ 9 seconds . Pistorius was chosen to carry the South African flag for the closing ceremony .
= = = 2012 Summer Paralympics = = =
Pistorius also carried the flag at the opening ceremony of the 2012 Summer Paralympics on 29 August . He entered the T44 classification men 's 100 metres , 200 metres and 400 metres races , and the T42 – T46 4 × 100 metres relay .
In the 200 @-@ metre competition , Pistorius established a new T43 world record of 21 @.@ 30 seconds in his heat on 1 September , but he was defeated in the final the next day by Alan Oliveira of Brazil . Pistorius took silver , and then created a controversy by complaining about the length of Oliveira 's blades . He later apologised for the timing of his remarks , but not the content of his complaint . The IPC confirmed the length of Oliveira ’ s blades were proportional to his body , with all the finalists measured before the race . The IPC also confirmed that Pistorius had raised the issue of blade length with it six weeks prior to the race . SASCOC issued a statement welcoming Pistorius 's apology for his outburst and declared their full support for him and promised to assist him in discussions with the IPC about the issue of lengthened prosthetics after the conclusion of the Games . The IPC expressed willingness to engage with Pistorius about the issue . Australian runner Jack Swift , USA runner Jerome Singleton , and other athletes also expressed support for Pistorius 's position .
Pistorius won a gold medal on 5 September running the anchor leg as part of the South African 4 × 100 metres relay team . The team set a world record time of 41 @.@ 78 seconds . He was unsuccessful in defending his Beijing Olympics 100 @-@ metre title when he came fourth with a season 's best time of 11 @.@ 17 seconds , and the race was won by Great Britain 's Jonnie Peacock . On 8 September , the last full day of competition , Pistorius won gold in the T44 400 metres with a time of 46 @.@ 68 seconds , breaking the Paralympic record .
= = Achievements = =
= = = Disability sports events = = =
= = = Non @-@ disabled sports events = = =
= = = Other awards and accolades = = =
In 2006 , Pistorius was conferred the Order of Ikhamanga in Bronze ( OIB ) by the President of South Africa for outstanding achievement in sports . On 9 December 2007 , Pistorius was awarded the BBC Sports Personality of the Year Helen Rollason Award , which is conferred for outstanding courage and achievement in the face of adversity .
In May 2008 , Pistorius made the " Time 100 " – Time magazine 's annual list of the world 's most influential people – appearing third in the " Heroes & Pioneers " section . Erik Weihenmayer , the first blind person to climb Mount Everest , wrote in an essay that Pistorius was " on the cusp of a paradigm shift in which disability becomes ability , disadvantage becomes advantage . Yet we mustn 't lose sight of what makes an athlete great . It 's too easy to credit Pistorius ' success to technology . Through birth or circumstance , some are given certain gifts , but it 's what one does with those gifts , the hours devoted to training , the desire to be the best , that is at the true heart of a champion . " In 2012 he made the list again .
In February 2012 , Pistorius was awarded the Laureus World Sports Award for Sportsperson of the Year with a Disability for 2012 . On 22 August 2012 , he was honoured with the unveiling of a large mural depicting his achievements in the town of Gemona , Italy .
On 9 September 2012 , Pistorius was shortlisted by the IPC for the Whang Youn Dai Achievement Award as a competitor " who is fair , honest and is uncompromising in his or her values and prioritises the promotion of the Paralympic Movement above personal recognition " . According to director Craig Spence , he was nominated by an unnamed external organisation from South Korea . The award went to two other athletes .
After the 2012 Summer Paralympics , the University of Strathclyde in Glasgow announced they would confer on Pistorius , among others , an honorary doctorate .
= = Sponsorship and charitable activities = =
Pistorius has sponsorship deals worth US $ 2 million a year with Össur , BT , Nike , Oakley and Thierry Mugler . In 2011 , Pistorius participated as a model in an advertising campaign for a Thierry Mugler fragrance called A * Men .
In 2008 , Pistorius collaborated in the release of a music CD called Olympic Dream . Produced in Italy , it consists of disco remixes of music pieces that Pistorius finds inspirational , and two tracks written for him , " Olympic Dream " and " Run Boy Run " , for which he provided voiceovers . Part of the CD 's proceeds of sale went to charity . Pistorius also actively supports the Mineseeker Foundation , a charity that works to raise awareness for landmine victims and has a support programme to provide prosthetics for victims .
On 21 February 2013 , after previously suspending adverts that featured Pistorius and the line " I am the bullet in the chamber " in the wake of his shooting of Reeva Steenkamp , sportswear manufacturer Nike suspended its contract with Pistorius . A company spokesperson stated : " We believe Oscar Pistorius should be afforded due process and we will continue to monitor the situation closely . "
= = Personal life = =
Pistorius has two visible tattoos . The dates of his mother 's birth and death ( " LVIII V VIII – II III VI " – 8 May 1958 – 6 March 2002 ) are tattooed on the inside of his right arm . The other tattoo , which is on his back , is the Bible verse 1 Corinthians 9 : 26 – 27 which begins , " I do not run like a man running aimlessly . " He used to own a house in South Africa which was sold in June 2014 , and used to train for the European season in Gemona del Friuli , Italy . Aside from running , his interests include architecture , motorbiking , and breeding race horses .
Pistorius 's autobiography , Dream Runner , was published in Italian in 2008 with Gianni Merlo , a journalist with La Gazzetta dello Sport . An English version entitled Blade Runner was released in 2009 . In 2010 , Pistorius appeared on L 'isola dei famosi , an Italian version of Celebrity Survivor . On 7 January 2012 , he appeared as a special guest on the Italian version of Dancing with the Stars called Ballando con le Stelle at Auditorium Rai in Rome , where he danced a tango with Annalisa Longo to ABBA 's " The Winner Takes It All " . On 9 October 2012 , Pistorius appeared on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno . He was also scheduled to appear on Piers Morgan Tonight and the Larry King Now show at later dates .
In February 2009 , Pistorius was seriously injured when he was thrown from a boat in an accident on the Vaal River near Johannesburg . He was airlifted to Milpark Hospital , where he underwent surgery to repair broken facial bones including his nose and jaw . There were initial concerns about his fitness , but he recovered fully . However , the accident affected his training and running schedule for that year .
Pistorius was scheduled as an amateur golfer in the 2012 Alfred Dunhill Links Championship held at St Andrews , Carnoustie and Kingsbarns in Scotland . Pistorius has a 21 handicap in South Africa , but played off an 18 handicap for the Championship . In 2010 he played in the Laureus World Sports Awards Golf Challenge at the Abu Dhabi Golf Club in Abu Dhabi , United Arab Emirates and the Help @-@ net Fund Celebrity Charity Golf Day .
= = Murder of Reeva Steenkamp = =
In the early morning of Thursday , 14 February 2013 , Pistorius shot and killed South African model Reeva Steenkamp at his home in Pretoria . Pistorius acknowledged that he shot Steenkamp , causing her death , but said that he mistook her for a possible intruder .
Pistorius ' trial for murder began on 3 March 2014 in Pretoria . On 20 May 2014 , the trial proceedings were adjourned until 30 June to enable Pistorius to undergo psychiatric evaluation to establish whether he could be held criminally responsible for shooting Steenkamp . Judge Thokozile Masipa agreed to a request for the evaluation by prosecutor Gerrie Nel after forensic psychiatrist Merryll Vorster testified for the defence that she had diagnosed Pistorius with generalized anxiety disorder . On 30 June 2014 , the trial resumed after the evaluation reports which said Pistorius could be held criminally responsible . The state prosecutor was quoted as saying , " Mr. Pistorius did not suffer from a mental illness or defect that would have rendered him criminally not responsible for the offence charged " . The defence closed its case on 8 July and closing arguments were heard on 7 and 8 August .
On 12 September , Pistorius was found guilty of culpable homicide and one firearm @-@ related charge , of reckless endangerment related to discharging a firearm in a restaurant . He was found not guilty of two firearm @-@ related charges relating to illegal possession of ammunition and firing a firearm through the sunroof of a car . On 21 October 2014 , he received a prison sentence of a maximum of five years for culpable homicide and a concurrent three @-@ year suspended prison sentence for the separate reckless endangerment conviction .
= = = Prison term = = =
Pistorius ' brother Carl told a South African weekly that his brother did not receive any special privileges during his first six weeks in prison . He was incarcerated for 17 hours per day in his cell and was allowed one hour of outdoor exercise and one hour in the weight room daily . He did not have a private bathroom , but was given a stool to use in the communal shower room . According to his brother , Pistorius advised inmates in the hospital wing about exercise , and wanted to initiate a prison basketball program .
In June 2015 , Pistorius was recommended for early release as early as August . South African Commissioner of Correctional Services Zach Modise told the BBC of the decision by the case management committee at the Kgosi Mampuru II prison in Pretoria , where Pistorius was being held : " Under South African law he is eligible for release under ' correctional supervision ' having served a sixth of his sentence . "
After Pistorius served approximately one @-@ sixth of his prison term , his release date to house arrest was announced for 21 August 2015 . This release was based on good behavior and the fact that he was not considered a danger to the community . Pistorius was expected to remain under house arrest and correctional supervision , and was expected to perform community service as part of his continuing sentence . Regardless of his release from prison , Pistorius could not return to official athletic competition until the whole five years of his sentence was complete . On 19 August 2015 , his release was unexpectedly blocked by South Africa 's Justice Minister Michael Masutha . According to Masutha , the parole board 's decision for early release was " premature . " Legal experts noted that the move was likely due to political pressure and had implications for other cases of pending early release . He was released from prison on 19 October 2015 .
= = = Case appeal = = =
On 4 November 2014 , prosecutors applied to the sentencing judge for permission to appeal the culpable homicide verdict , stating that the five @-@ year prison term was " shockingly light , inappropriate and would not have been imposed by any reasonable court " . Judge Thokozile Masipa ruled on 10 December 2014 that the prosecution could challenge her ruling of acquitting Pistorius of premeditated murder and the lesser charge of culpable homicide . However , she ruled that the state could not appeal the length of the sentence . The case was then set for appeal in front of a five @-@ person panel at the Supreme Court of Appeal .
The date for prosecutors to submit court papers outlining their arguments was set for 17 August 2015 , and the date for the defense team 's response was set for 17 September 2015 . The date for the appeal hearing was set for November 2015 . The prosecutors ' argument rested on Judge Masipa 's application of the legal principle of dolus eventualis ( whether an accused did actually foresee the outcome of his actions , rather than whether he or she should have ) , and that the judge made an error in concluding Pistorius had not foreseen that by firing four shots through the closed door of the toilet cubicle , he would kill or injure whoever was behind the door .
The appeal was heard on 3 November 2015 , in the Supreme Court of Appeal , Bloemfontein . The matter was heard before 5 Supreme Court judges . By a unanimous decision , the court overturned Pistorius ' culpable homicide conviction and found him guilty of murder in the death of Reeva Steenkamp . Judge Eric Leach read the summary of judgment . The panel of five judges found for the prosecutor 's argument that Pistorius must have known that someone would die if he fired through the closed door into a small toilet cubicle . In the words of Judge Leach , " Although he may have been anxious , it is inconceivable that a rational person could have believed he was entitled to fire at this person with a heavy @-@ calibre firearm , without taking even that most elementary precaution of firing a warning shot , which the accused said he elected not to fire as he thought the ricochet might harm him . "
According to the judgement , the person who Pistorius thought was in the cubicle had nothing to do with the results of his actions . The culpable homicide verdict was replaced with a murder conviction , and the case was referred back to the trial court for a sentencing hearing when it reconvenes on 18 April 2016 .
On 8 December 2015 , it was announced Pistorius would continue to remain free on bail but under house arrest pending his appeal to the Constitutional Court . On 3 March 2016 it was announced Pistorius had been denied his right to appeal , and will next be due in court on 13 June 2016 to begin a 5 @-@ day sentencing hearing for the murder conviction , concluding on 17 June 2016 .
On 15 June 2016 , the sentencing was adjourned by Judge Thokozile Masipa until 6 July 2016 .
= = = Second prison term = = =
On 6 July 2016 Pistorius was sentenced to six years imprisonment for murder by Judge Thokozile Masipa ; once again he was incarcerated on the hospital wing at the Kgosi Mampuru II jail . It is anticipated that Pistorius will be eligible for release on parole after serving between 2 – 4 years of his sentence .
= Battle for Henderson Field =
The Battle for Henderson Field , also known as the Battle of Henderson Field or Battle of Lunga Point by the Japanese , took place from 23 – 26 October 1942 on and around Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands . The battle was a land , sea , and air battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II and was fought between the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy and Allied ( mainly United States ( U.S. ) Marine and U.S. Army ) forces . The battle was the third of the three major land offensives conducted by the Japanese during the Guadalcanal campaign .
In the battle , U.S. Marine and Army forces , under the overall command of Major General Alexander Vandegrift , repulsed an attack by the Japanese 17th Army , under the command of Japanese Lieutenant General Harukichi Hyakutake . The U.S. forces were defending the Lunga perimeter , which guarded Henderson Field on Guadalcanal , that had been captured from the Japanese by the Allies in landings on Guadalcanal on 7 August 1942 . Hyakutake 's force was sent to Guadalcanal in response to the Allied landings with the mission of recapturing the airfield and driving the Allied forces off of the island .
Hyakutake 's soldiers conducted numerous assaults over three days at various locations around the Lunga perimeter , all repulsed with heavy Japanese losses . At the same time , Allied aircraft operating from Henderson Field successfully defended U.S. positions on Guadalcanal from attacks by Japanese naval air and sea forces .
The battle was the last serious ground offensive conducted by Japanese forces on Guadalcanal . After an attempt to deliver further reinforcements failed during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal in November 1942 , Japan conceded defeat in the struggle for the island and evacuated many of its remaining forces by the first week of February 1943 .
= = Background = =
= = = Guadalcanal campaign = = =
On 7 August 1942 , Allied forces ( primarily U.S. ) landed on Guadalcanal , Tulagi , and Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands . The landings on the islands were meant to deny their use by the Japanese as bases for threatening the supply routes between the U.S. and Australia , and to secure the islands as starting points for a campaign with the eventual goal of isolating the major Japanese base at Rabaul while also supporting the Allied New Guinea campaign . The landings initiated the six @-@ month @-@ long Guadalcanal campaign .
Taking the Japanese by surprise , by nightfall on 8 August , the 11 @,@ 000 Allied troops — under the command of then Major General Alexander Vandegrift and mainly consisting of U.S. Marine Corps units — had secured Tulagi and nearby small islands , as well as an airfield under construction at Lunga Point on Guadalcanal . The airfield was later named " Henderson Field " by Allied forces . The Allied aircraft that subsequently operated out of the airfield became known as the " Cactus Air Force " ( CAF ) after the Allied codename for Guadalcanal . To protect the airfield , the U.S. Marines established a perimeter defense around Lunga Point .
In response to the Allied landings on Guadalcanal , the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters assigned the Imperial Japanese Army 's 17th Army — a corps @-@ sized command based at Rabaul and under the command of Lieutenant @-@ General Harukichi Hyakutake — with the task of retaking Guadalcanal from Allied forces . On 19 August , various units of the 17th Army began to arrive on Guadalcanal with the goal of driving Allied forces from the island .
Because of the threat by CAF aircraft based at Henderson Field , the Japanese were unable to use large , slow transport ships to deliver troops and supplies to the island . Instead , the Japanese used warships based at Rabaul and the Shortland Islands to carry their forces to Guadalcanal . The Japanese warships , mainly light cruisers or destroyers from the Eighth Fleet under the command of Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa , were usually able to make the round trip down " The Slot " to Guadalcanal and back in a single night , thereby minimizing their exposure to CAF air attack . Delivering the troops in this manner , however , prevented most of the soldiers ' heavy equipment and supplies , such as heavy artillery , vehicles , and much food and ammunition , from being carried to Guadalcanal with them . These high speed warship runs to Guadalcanal occurred throughout the campaign and were later called the " Tokyo Express " by Allied forces and " Rat Transportation " by the Japanese .
The first Japanese attempt to recapture Henderson Field failed when a 917 @-@ man force was defeated on 21 August in the Battle of the Tenaru . The next attempt took place from 12 – 14 September , with the 6 @,@ 000 soldiers under the command of Major General Kiyotake Kawaguchi being defeated in the Battle of Edson 's Ridge . After their defeat at Edson 's Ridge , Kawaguchi and the surviving Japanese troops regrouped west of the Matanikau River on Guadalcanal .
Hyakutake immediately began to prepare for another attempt to recapture Henderson Field . The Japanese navy promised to support Hyakutake 's next offensive by delivering the necessary troops , equipment , and supplies to the island , and by stepping @-@ up air attacks on Henderson Field and sending warships to bombard the airfield .
As the Japanese regrouped , the U.S. forces concentrated on shoring up and strengthening their Lunga defenses . On 18 September , an Allied naval convoy delivered 4 @,@ 157 men from the U.S. 7th Marine Regiment to Guadalcanal . This regiment had previously formed part of the 3rd Provisional Marine Brigade and was fresh from garrison duty in Samoa . These reinforcements allowed Vandegrift , beginning on 19 September , to establish an unbroken line of defense completely around the Lunga perimeter .
General Vandegrift and his staff were aware that Kawaguchi 's troops had retreated to the area west of the Matanikau and that numerous groups of Japanese stragglers were scattered throughout the area between the Lunga Perimeter and the Matanikau River . Vandegrift , therefore , decided to conduct a series of small unit operations around the Matanikau Valley .
The first U.S. Marine operation against Japanese forces west of the Matanikau , conducted between 23 and 27 September 1942 by elements of three U.S. Marine battalions , was repulsed by Kawaguchi 's troops under Colonel Akinosuke Oka 's local command . In the second action , between 6 and 9 October , a larger force of U.S. Marines successfully crossed the Matanikau River , attacked newly landed Japanese forces from the 2nd ( Sendai ) Infantry Division under the command of generals Masao Maruyama and Yumio Nasu and inflicted heavy casualties on the Japanese 4th Infantry Regiment . The second action forced the Japanese to retreat from their positions east of the Matanikau .
In the meantime , Major General Millard F. Harmon , commander of U.S. Army forces in the South Pacific , convinced Vice Admiral Robert L. Ghormley , commander of Allied forces in the South Pacific Area , that U.S. Marine forces on Guadalcanal needed to be reinforced immediately if the Allies were to successfully defend the island from the next expected Japanese offensive . Thus on 13 October , a naval convoy delivered the 2 @,@ 837 @-@ strong 164th U.S. Infantry Regiment , a North Dakota Army National Guard formation from the U.S. Army 's Americal Division , commanded by Colonel Robert Hall , to Guadalcanal .
Mikawa 's ships continued nocturnal deliveries of men and materiel to Guadalcanal . Between 1 and 17 October , Japanese convoys delivered 15 @,@ 000 Japanese troops , comprising the remainder of the 2nd Infantry Division and one regiment of the 38th Infantry Division , plus artillery , tanks , ammunition , and provisions , to Guadalcanal . One of these — on 9 October — landed General Hyakutake on the island to personally lead the Japanese forces in the planned offensive . Mikawa also sent heavy cruisers on several occasions to bombard Henderson Field . On the night of 11 October , one of these bombardment missions was intercepted by U.S. naval forces and defeated in the Battle of Cape Esperance .
On 13 October , in order to help protect the transit of an important supply convoy to Guadalcanal that consisted of six slower cargo ships , the Japanese Combined Fleet commander Isoroku Yamamoto sent a naval force from Truk — commanded by Vice @-@ Admiral Takeo Kurita — to bombard Henderson Field . Kurita 's force — consisting of the battleships Kongō and Haruna , escorted by one light cruiser and nine destroyers — approached Guadalcanal unopposed and opened fire on Henderson Field at 01 : 33 on 14 October . Over the next 83 minutes , they fired nine hundred and seventy @-@ three 14 in ( 360 mm ) shells into the Lunga perimeter , most of them falling in and around the 2 @,@ 200 m ² area of the airfield . The bombardment heavily damaged the airfield 's two runways , burned almost all of the available aviation fuel , destroyed 48 of the CAF 's 90 aircraft , and killed 41 men , including six CAF aircrew .
Despite the heavy damage , Henderson personnel were able to restore one of the runways to operational condition within a few hours . Over the next several weeks , the CAF gradually recovered as Allied forces delivered more aircraft , fuel , and aircrew personnel to Guadalcanal . Observing the Japanese deliveries of troops and supplies to the island , American forces were expecting an imminent offensive by Japanese ground forces , but they were not sure where and when it would take place .
= = = Troop movement = = =
Because of the loss of their positions on the east side of the Matanikau , the Japanese decided that an attack on the U.S. defenses along the coast would be prohibitively difficult . Thus , after observation of the American defences around Lunga Point by his staff officers , Hyakutake decided that the main thrust of his planned attack would be from south of Henderson Field . His 2nd Division ( augmented by one regiment from 38th Division ) , under Lieutenant General Masao Maruyama and comprising 7 @,@ 000 soldiers in three infantry regiments of three battalions each was ordered to march through the jungle and attack the American defences from the south near the east bank of the Lunga River . The 2nd Division was split into three units ; the Left Wing Unit under Major General Yumio Nasu containing the 29th Infantry Regiment , the Right Wing Unit under Major General Kiyotake Kawaguchi consisting of the 230th Infantry Regiment ( from the 38th Infantry Division ) , and the division reserve led by Maruyama comprising the 16th Infantry Regiment . The date of the attack was set for 22 October . To distract the Americans from the planned attack from the south , Hyakutake 's heavy artillery plus five battalions of infantry ( about 2 @,@ 900 men ) under Major General Tadashi Sumiyoshi were to attack the American defenses from the west along the coastal corridor . The Japanese estimated that there were 10 @,@ 000 American troops on the island , when in fact there were about 23 @,@ 000 .
At this time , the Lunga perimeter was defended by four American regiments comprising 13 infantry battalions . The 164th Infantry Regiment guarded the easternmost sector . Extending from the 164th south and west across Edson 's Ridge to the Lunga River was the 7th Marine Regiment . Covering the sector west of the Lunga to the coast were the 1st and 5th Marine Regiments . Defending the mouth of the Matanikau for the Americans were two battalions under the command of Lieutenant Colonel William J. McKelvy : the 3d Battalion , 1st Marines , and the 3d Battalion , 7th Marines . McKelvy 's force was separated from the Lunga perimeter by a gap that was covered by patrols .
= = Battle = =
= = = Prelude = = =
On 12 October , a company of Japanese engineers began to break a trail , called the " Maruyama Road " , from the Matanikau towards the southern portion of the U.S. Lunga perimeter . The trail traversed some 15 mi ( 24 km ) of the most difficult terrain on Guadalcanal , including numerous rivers and streams , deep , muddy ravines , steep ridges , and dense jungle . Between 16 and 18 October , the 2nd Division began their march along the Maruyama Road , led by Nasu 's unit and followed in order by Kawaguchi and Maruyama . Each soldier had been ordered to carry one artillery shell plus his pack and rifle .
Early on the morning of 20 October , Maruyama reached the Lunga River . Believing that his units were about 4 mi ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) south of the airfield , he ordered the left and right wing units to advance abreast of each other parallel to the Lunga north towards the American lines and set the time of the attack for 18 : 00 on 22 October . Maruyama , however , was mistaken . He and his troops were actually 8 mi ( 13 km ) south of the airfield . By the evening of 21 October , it was clear to Maruyama that his units would not be in position to attack the next day , so he postponed the attack to 23 October and put his men on half rations to conserve their dwindling food supply . At nightfall on 22 October , much of the 2nd Division still remained strung out along the Maruyama Road , but Maruyama ruled out any postponement of the attack .
During this time , Sumiyoshi prepared his command to attack the American forces from the west . On 18 October , he began shelling Henderson Field with 15 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) howitzers . What remained of the 4th Infantry Regiment under Colonel Nomasu Nakaguma began to gather openly near Point Cruz ( on the coast just west of the Matanikau ) . On 19 October , Colonel Akinosuka Oka led the 1 @,@ 200 troops of his 124th Infantry Regiment inland across the Matanikau and began moving up the east bank towards high ground east of the river .
On 23 October , Maruyama 's forces struggled through the jungle to reach the American lines . Kawaguchi , on his own initiative , began to shift his right wing unit to the east , believing that the American defenses were weaker in that area . Maruyama — through one of his staff officers — ordered Kawaguchi to keep to the original attack plan . When he refused , Kawaguchi was relieved of command and replaced by Colonel Toshinari Shoji , commander of the 230th Infantry Regiment . That evening , after learning that the left and right wing forces were still struggling to reach the American lines , Hyakutake postponed the attack to 19 : 00 on 24 October . The Americans remained completely unaware of the approach of Maruyama 's forces .
On this day , the Japanese 11th Air Fleet under Jinichi Kusaka based at Rabaul sent 16 Mitsubishi G4M2 " Betty " bombers and 28 A6M2 Zero fighters to attack Henderson Field . In response , 24 F4F @-@ 4 Wildcats and four P @-@ 400 Airacobras from the CAF ( Cactus Air Force ) rose to meet them , resulting in a large aerial battle . The Japanese appeared , to Allied observers , to lose several aircraft in the day 's engagements , but their actual losses are unknown . The CAF lost one Wildcat to battle damage but the pilot was uninjured .
= = = Nakaguma 's attack on the Matanikau = = =
Sumiyoshi was informed by Hyakutake 's staff of the postponement of the offensive to 24 October , but was unable to contact Nakaguma to inform him of the delay . Thus , at dusk on 23 October , two battalions of Nakaguma 's 4th Infantry Regiment and the nine tanks of the 1st Independent Tank Company launched attacks on the U.S. Marine defenses at the mouth of the Matanikau .
Nakaguma 's tanks attacked in pairs across the sandbar at the mouth of the Matanikau behind a barrage of artillery . Marine 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 46 in ) anti @-@ tank guns and artillery quickly destroyed all nine tanks . At the same time , four battalions of Marine artillery , totalling 40 howitzers , fired over 6 @,@ 000 rounds into the area between Point Cruz and the Matanikau , causing heavy casualties in Nakaguma 's infantry battalions as they tried to approach the Marine lines . Nakaguma 's attacks ended by 01 : 15 on 24 October , inflicting only light casualties on the Marines and gaining no ground .
Partly in response to Nakaguma 's attacks , on 24 October the 2nd Battalion , 7th Marines under Lieutenant Colonel Herman H. Hanneken deployed to the Matanikau . After Oka 's forces were sighted approaching the Marine Matanikau positions from the south , Hanneken 's battalion was placed on a ridge facing south which formed a continuous extension of the inland flank of the Marine 's horseshoe @-@ shaped Matanikau defenses . A gap , however , still remained between Hanneken 's left ( east ) flank and the main perimeter .
= = = Maruyama 's first attacks on the perimeter = = =
With the redeployment of Hanneken 's battalion , the 700 troops of 1st Battalion , 7th Marines under Lieutenant Colonel Chesty Puller were left alone to hold the entire 2 @,@ 500 yd ( 2 @,@ 300 m ) line on the southern face of the Lunga perimeter east of the Lunga River . Late on 24 October , Marine patrols detected Maruyama 's approaching forces , but it was now too late in the day for the Marines to rearrange their dispositions .
At 14 : 00 on 24 October , Maruyama 's left and right wing units began to deploy for their attacks . Maruyama 's troops had very little artillery or mortar support for their upcoming assault , having abandoned most of their heavy cannons along the Maruyama Road . Between 16 : 00 and 21 : 00 , heavy rain fell , delaying the Japanese approach and causing " chaos " in the Japanese formations , already exhausted from the long march through the jungle . Shoji 's right wing force accidentally turned parallel to the Marine lines , and all but one battalion failed to make contact with the Marine defenses . Shoji 's 1st Battalion , 230th Infantry Regiment " stumbled " into Puller 's lines about 22 : 00 and were driven off by Puller 's men . For unknown reasons , Maruyama 's staff then reported to Hyakutake that Shoji 's men had overrun Henderson Field . At 00 : 50 on 25 October , Hyakutake signaled Rabaul that , " A little before 23 : 00 the Right Wing captured the airfield . "
At about this time , Nasu 's left wing battalions finally began to reach the Marine defenses . At 00 : 30 on 25 October , the 11th Company of Nasu 's 3rd Battalion under Captain Jiro Katsumata found and attacked Company A of Puller 's battalion . Katsumata 's attack was impeded by heavy barbed wire in front of the Marine line and then hit heavily by American machine gun , mortar , and artillery fire . By 01 : 00 , the Marine fire had killed most of Katsumata 's company .
Further west , the 9th Company of Nasu 's 3rd Battalion charged straight into Puller 's Company C at 01 : 15 . Within five minutes , a Marine machine gun section led by Sergeant John Basilone killed almost every member of the 9th Company . By 01 : 25 , heavy fire from the Marine divisional artillery was falling into Nasu 's troop assembly and approach routes , causing heavy casualties .
Recognizing that a major Japanese attack was underway , Puller requested reinforcement . At 03 : 45 , the 3rd Battalion , 164th Infantry , commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Robert Hall and being held in reserve , was fed piecemeal into Puller 's line . In spite of the darkness and intermittent heavy rain , the Army National Guard troops were placed in Puller 's defences before daybreak .
Just before dawn , Colonel Masajiro Furimiya , the commander of the 29th Infantry , with two companies from his 3rd Battalion plus his headquarters staff , was able to penetrate the Marine artillery fire and reach Puller 's lines about 03 : 30 . Most of Furimiya 's troops were killed during their assault , but about 100 broke through the American defenses and carved a salient 150 yd ( 140 m ) in width and 100 yd ( 91 m ) deep in the center of Puller 's line . After sunrise , Furimiya 's 2nd Battalion joined in the assault on Puller , but were thrown back . At 07 : 30 , Nasu decided to withdraw most of the remainder of his troops back into the jungle and prepare for another attack that night .
During the day of 25 October , Puller 's men attacked and eradicated the salient in their lines and hunted small groups of Japanese infiltrators , killing 104 Japanese soldiers . More than 300 of Maruyama 's men in total were killed in their first attacks on the Lunga perimeter . At 04 : 30 , Hyakutake rescinded the message announcing the capture of the airfield , but at 07 : 00 declared that the results of Maruyama 's attack were unknown .
= = = Naval and air attacks = = =
The Japanese 8th Fleet had task units ready to support the Army 's attacks on Guadalcanal . Upon receipt of Hyakutake 's message declaring success at 00 : 50 on 24 October , the task units went into action . The light cruiser Sendai and three destroyers patrolled west of Guadalcanal to interdict any Allied ships that tried to approach the island . A First Assault Unit with three destroyers and a Second Assault Unit with the light cruiser Yura and five destroyers approached Guadalcanal to attack any Allied ships off the island 's north or east coast and to provide gunfire support for Hyakutake 's forces .
At 10 : 14 , the First Assault Unit arrived off Lunga Point and chased away two old U.S. destroyers converted to minesweepers — Zane and Trevor — which were delivering aviation fuel to Henderson Field . The Japanese destroyers then sighted and sank the U.S. tugboat Seminole and patrol boat YP @-@ 284 before beginning their bombardment of the U.S. positions around Lunga Point . At 10 : 53 , a Marine shore gun hit and damaged the destroyer Akatsuki , and all three Japanese destroyers withdrew while being strafed by four CAF Wildcat fighters .
As the Second Assault Unit approached Guadalcanal through Indispensable Strait , it was attacked by five CAF SBD @-@ 3 Dauntless dive bombers . Bomb hits caused heavy damage to Yura , and the unit reversed course to try to escape . More CAF air attacks on Yura throughout the day caused further damage , and the cruiser was abandoned and scuttled at 21 : 00 that night .
Meanwhile , 82 Japanese bombers and fighters from the 11th Air Fleet and from the aircraft carriers Junyō and Hiyō attacked Henderson Field in six waves throughout the day and were engaged by CAF fighters and Marine anti @-@ aircraft guns . By the end of the day , the Japanese had lost 11 fighters , two bombers , and one reconnaissance aircraft along with most of the aircrews in the downed aircraft . Two CAF fighters were destroyed in the day 's fighting but both pilots survived . The Japanese air attacks caused only light damage to Henderson Field and the American defenses . The Americans later referred to this day as " Dugout Sunday " because the continuous Japanese air , naval , and artillery attacks kept many of the Lunga defenders in their foxholes and shelters throughout the day .
= = = Maruyama 's second attacks on the perimeter = = =
Throughout the day of 25 October , the Americans redeployed and improved their defences against the Japanese attack they were expecting that night . In the west , Hanneken and the 5th Marines closed the gap between their two forces . Along the southern portion of the perimeter , Puller 's and Hall 's troops disentwined and repositioned . Puller 's men fortified the western 1 @,@ 400 yd ( 1 @,@ 300 m ) of the sector and the 164th soldiers took the eastern 1 @,@ 100 yd ( 1 @,@ 000 m ) segment . The division reserve , the 3rd Battalion , 2nd Marine Regiment was placed directly behind Hall 's and Puller 's positions .
Maruyama committed his reserve force , the 16th Infantry Regiment , to Nasu 's left wing unit . Beginning at 20 : 00 on 25 October , and extending into the early morning hours of the 26th , the 16th and what remained of Nasu 's other units conducted numerous , unsuccessful frontal assaults on Puller 's and Hall 's lines . U.S. Marine and Army rifle , machine gun , mortar , artillery and direct canister fire from 37 mm anti @-@ tank guns " wrought terrible carnage " on Nasu 's men . Colonel Toshiro Hiroyasu , the commander of the 16th , and most of his staff as well as four Japanese battalion commanders were killed in the assaults . Nasu was hit by rifle fire and mortally wounded , dying a few hours later . A few small groups of Nasu 's men broke through the American defenses , including one led by Colonel Furimiya , but were all hunted down and killed over the next several days . Shoji 's right wing units did not participate in the attacks , choosing instead to remain in place to cover Nasu 's right flank against a possible attack in that area by U.S. forces that never materialized .
= = = Oka 's attack = = =
At 03 : 00 on 26 October , Oka 's unit finally reached and attacked the Marine defenses near the Matanikau . Oka 's troops assaulted all along an east @-@ west saddle ridge held by Hanneken 's battalion but concentrated particularly on Hanneken 's Company F , which defended the extreme left flank of the Marine positions on the ridge . A Company F machine gun section under Mitchell Paige killed many of the Japanese attackers , but Japanese fire eventually killed or injured almost all the Marine machine gunners . At 05 : 00 , Oka 's 3rd Battalion , 4th Infantry succeeded in scaling the steep slope of the ridge and pushed the surviving members of Company F off of the crest .
Responding to the Japanese capture of part of the ridgeline , Major Odell M. Conoley — Hanneken 's battalion executive officer — quickly gathered a counterattack unit of 17 men , including communications specialists , messmen , a cook , and a bandsman . Conoley 's scratch force was joined by elements of Hanneken 's Company G , Company C , and a few unwounded survivors from Company F and attacked the Japanese before they could consolidate their positions on top of the ridge . By 06 : 00 , Conoley 's force had pushed the Japanese back off of the ridge , effectively ending Oka 's attack . The Marines counted 98 Japanese bodies on the ridge and 200 more in the ravine in front of it . Hanneken 's unit suffered 14 killed and 32 wounded .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Retreat = = =
At 08 : 00 on 26 October , Hyakutake called off any further attacks and ordered his forces to retreat . Maruyama 's men recovered some of their wounded from near the American lines on the night of 26 – 27 October , and began to withdraw back into the deep jungle . The Americans recovered and buried or burned as quickly as possible the remains of 1 @,@ 500 of Maruyama 's men left lying in front of Pullers 's and Hall 's lines . Said one U.S. Army participant , John E. Stannard , of the scene after the battle , " The carnage of the battlefield was a sight that perhaps only the combat infantryman , who has fought at close quarters , could fully comprehend and look upon without a feeling of horror . One soldier , after a walk among the Japanese dead , said to his comrade : ' My God , what a sight . There 's dead Japs stretched from the Corner back along the edge of the jungle for a half a mile . ' "
Maruyama 's left wing survivors were ordered to retreat back to the area west of the Matanikau River while Shoji 's right wing was told to head for Koli Point , east of the Lunga perimeter . The left wing soldiers , who had run out of food several days before , began the retreat on 27 October . During the retreat , many of the Japanese wounded succumbed to their injuries and were buried along the Maruyama road . One of Maruyama 's men , Lieutenant Keijiro Minegishi , noted in his diary , " I never dreamed of retreating over the same mountainous trail through the jungle we crossed with such enthusiasm ... we haven 't eaten in three days and even walking is difficult . On the up hill my body swayed around unable to walk . I must rest every two meters . "
Leading elements of the 2nd Division reached the 17th Army headquarters area at Kokumbona , west of the Matanikau on 4 November . The same day , Shoji 's unit reached Koli Point and made camp . Decimated by battle deaths , combat injuries , malnutrition , and tropical diseases , the 2nd Division was incapable of further offensive action and would fight as a defensive force for the rest of the campaign . Later in November , U.S. forces drove Shoji 's soldiers from Koli Point back to the Kokumbuna area , with a battalion @-@ sized Marine patrol attacking and harassing them almost the entire way . Only about 700 of Shoji 's original 3 @,@ 000 men ultimately returned to Kokumbuna .
= = = Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands = = =
At the same time that Hyakutake 's troops were attacking the Lunga perimeter , Japanese warships under the overall direction of Isoroku Yamamoto moved into a position near the southern Solomon Islands . From this location , the Japanese naval forces hoped to engage and decisively defeat any Allied ( primarily U.S. ) naval forces , especially carrier forces , that responded to Hyakutake 's ground offensive . Allied naval carrier forces in the area , now under the command of William Halsey , Jr. who had replaced Ghormley , also hoped to meet the Japanese naval forces in battle .
The two opposing carrier forces confronted each other on the morning of October 26 , in what became known as the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands . After an exchange of carrier air attacks , Allied surface ships were forced to retreat from the battle area with the loss of one carrier sunk and another heavily damaged . The participating Japanese carrier forces , however , also retreated because of high aircraft and aircrew losses and significant damage to two carriers . Although an apparent tactical victory for the Japanese in terms of ships sunk and damaged , the loss of many irreplaceable , veteran aircrews by the Japanese provided a long @-@ term strategic advantage for the Allies , whose aircrew losses in the battle were relatively low .
= = = Later events = = =
Although the Japanese Army 's attack on the Allied Lunga perimeter was decisively defeated in this battle , the Japanese were not yet ready to give up the struggle for Guadalcanal . The Japanese Army and navy made immediate plans to move the rest of the 38th Division to the island , along with the 51st Infantry Division , to try a further offensive against Henderson Field in November 1942 .
The Japanese again planned to bombard Henderson Field with battleships in order to allow a convoy of transport ships to deliver the 38th 's troops and heavy equipment . In contrast , however , to what occurred on 14 October , this time the U.S. Navy moved to intercept the battleship forces sent by Yamamoto from Truk to shell the airfield . During the ensuing Naval Battle of Guadalcanal from 13 – 15 November , Allied naval and air forces turned back two Japanese attempts to bombard Henderson Field and almost completely destroyed the transport convoy carrying the remainder of the 38th Division . After this failure to deliver significant additional troops to the island , the Japanese commanders finally conceded defeat in the battle for Guadalcanal and evacuated most of their surviving troops by the first week of February 1943 . Building on their success at Guadalcanal and elsewhere , the Allies continued their island @-@ hopping campaign against Japan , ultimately culminating in Japan 's defeat and the end of World War II .
= = = Print = = =
Dull , Paul S. ( 1978 ) . A Battle History of the Imperial Japanese Navy , 1941 – 1945 . Naval Institute Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 87021 @-@ 097 @-@ 1 .
Frank , Richard ( 1990 ) . Guadalcanal : The Definitive Account of the Landmark Battle . New York : Random House . ISBN 0 @-@ 394 @-@ 58875 @-@ 4 .
Gilbert , Oscar E. ( 2001 ) . Marine Tank Battles in the Pacific . Da Capo . ISBN 1 @-@ 58097 @-@ 050 @-@ 8 .
Griffith , Samuel B. ( 1963 ) . The Battle for Guadalcanal . Champaign , Illinois , USA : University of Illinois Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 252 @-@ 06891 @-@ 2 .
Jersey , Stanley Coleman ( 2008 ) . Hell 's Islands : The Untold Story of Guadalcanal . College Station , Texas : Texas A & M University Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 58544 @-@ 616 @-@ 5 .
Lundstrom , John B. ( 2005 ) . First Team And the Guadalcanal Campaign : Naval Fighter Combat from August to November 1942 ( New ed . ) . Naval Institute Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 59114 @-@ 472 @-@ 8 .
Miller , Thomas G. ( 1969 ) . Cactus Air Force . Admiral Nimitz Foundation . ISBN 0 @-@ 934841 @-@ 17 @-@ 9 .
Morison , Samuel Eliot ( 1958 ) . The Struggle for Guadalcanal , August 1942 – February 1943 , vol . 5 of History of United States Naval Operations in World War II . Boston : Little , Brown and Company . ISBN 0 @-@ 316 @-@ 58305 @-@ 7 .
Rottman , Gordon L. ( 2004 ) . US Marine Corps Pacific Theatre of Operations 1941 – 43 . Dr. Duncan Anderson ( consultant editor ) . Oxford : Osprey . ISBN 1 @-@ 84176 @-@ 518 @-@ X.
Rottman , Gordon L. ( 2005 ) . Japanese Army in World War II : The South Pacific and New Guinea , 1942 – 43 . Dr. Duncan Anderson ( consultant editor ) . Oxford and New York : Osprey . ISBN 1 @-@ 84176 @-@ 870 @-@ 7 .
Smith , Michael T. ( 2000 ) . Bloody Ridge : The Battle That Saved Guadalcanal . New York : Pocket . ISBN 0 @-@ 7434 @-@ 6321 @-@ 8 .
= = = Web = = =
Anderson , Charles R. ( 1993 ) . Guadalcanal . The U.S. Army Campaigns of World War II . United States Army Center of Military History . CMH Pub 72 @-@ 8 . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 09 .
Cagney , James ( 2005 ) . " The Battle for Guadalcanal " ( javascript ) . HistoryAnimated.com. Retrieved 2006 @-@ 05 @-@ 17 . – Interactive animation of the battle
Chen , C. Peter ( 2004 – 2006 ) . " Guadalcanal Campaign " . World War II Database . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 05 @-@ 17 .
Flahavin , Peter ( 2004 ) . " Guadalcanal Battle Sites , 1942 – 2004 " . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 08 @-@ 02 . – Web site with many pictures of Guadalcanal battle sites from 1942 and how they look now .
Hackett , Bob ; Sander Kingsepp . " HIJMS Yura : Tabular Record of Movement " . Imperial Japanese Navy Page ( CombinedFleet.com ) . Archived from the original on 14 May 2006 . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 06 @-@ 14 .
Hough , Frank O. ; Ludwig , Verle E. ; Shaw , Henry I. , Jr . " Pearl Harbor to Guadalcanal " . History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II . Archived from the original on 27 June 2006 . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 05 @-@ 16 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
Miller , John Jr . ( 1949 ) . Guadalcanal : The First Offensive . United States Army in World War II . Washington , D.C. : United States Army Center of Military History . CMH Pub 5 @-@ 3 . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 04 .
Shaw , Henry I. ( 1992 ) . " First Offensive : The Marine Campaign For Guadalcanal " . Marines in World War II Commemorative Series . Archived from the original on 14 June 2006 . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 25 .
Zimmerman , John L. ( 1949 ) . " The Guadalcanal Campaign " . Marines in World War II Historical Monograph . Archived from the original on 19 June 2006 . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 04 .
= Entoprocta =
Entoprocta , whose name means " anus inside " , is a phylum of mostly sessile aquatic animals , ranging from 0 @.@ 1 to 7 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 004 to 0 @.@ 3 in ) long . Mature individuals are goblet @-@ shaped , on relatively long stalks . They have a " crown " of solid tentacles whose cilia generate water currents that draw food particles towards the mouth , and both the mouth and anus lie inside the " crown " . The superficially similar Bryozoa ( Ectoprocta ) have the anus outside a " crown " of hollow tentacles . Most families of entoprocts are colonial , and all but 2 of the 150 species are marine . A few solitary species can move slowly .
Some species eject unfertilized ova into the water , while others keep their ova in brood chambers until they hatch , and some of these species use placenta @-@ like organs to nourish the developing eggs . After hatching , the larvae swim for a short time and then settle on a surface . There they metamorphose , and the larval gut rotates by up to 180 ° , so that the mouth and anus face upwards . Both colonial and solitary species also reproduce by cloning — solitary species grow clones in the space between the tentacles and then release them when developed , while colonial ones produce new members from the stalks or from corridor @-@ like stolons .
Fossils of entoprocts are very rare , and the earliest specimens that have been identified with confidence date from the Late Jurassic . Most studies from 1996 onwards have regarded entoprocts as members of the Trochozoa , which also includes molluscs and annelids . However , a study in 2008 concluded that entoprocts are closely related to bryozoans . Recently , the Maotianshan Shales fossil , Cotyledion tylodes , has been reevaluated as being an ancient , sclerite @-@ bearing entoproct ( originally having been identified as a putative carpoid echinoderm ) . This entoproct interpretation of Cotyledion , however , has been questioned by Mark McMenamin , who considers it best interpreted as a stem group echinoderm based on the morphology of its stem sclerites .
= = Names = =
" Entoprocta " , coined in 1870 , means " anus inside " . The alternative name " Kamptozoa " , meaning " bent " or " curved " animals , was assigned in 1929 . Some authors use " Entoprocta " , while others prefer " Kamptozoa " .
= = Description = =
Most species are colonial , and their members are known as " zooids " , since they are not fully independent animals . Zooids are typically 1 millimetre ( 0 @.@ 039 in ) long but range from 0 @.@ 1 to 7 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 004 to 0 @.@ 3 in ) long .
= = = Distinguishing features = = =
Entoprocts are superficially like bryozoans ( ectoprocts ) , as both groups have a " crown " of tentacles whose cilia generate water currents that draw food particles towards the mouth . However , they have different feeding mechanisms and internal anatomy , and ectoprocts undergo a metamorphosis from larva to adult that destroys most of the larval tissues ; their colonies also have a founder zooid which is different from its " daughters " .
= = = Zooids = = =
The body of a mature entoproct zooid has a goblet @-@ like structure with a calyx mounted on a relatively long stalk that attaches to a surface . The rim of the calyx bears a " crown " of 8 to 30 solid tentacles , which are extensions of the body wall . The base of the " crown " of tentacles is surrounded by a membrane that partially covers the tentacles when they retract . The mouth and anus lie on opposite sides of the atrium ( space enclosed by the " crown " of tentacles ) , and both can be closed by sphincter muscles . The gut is U @-@ shaped , curving down towards the base of the calyx , where it broadens to form the stomach . This is lined with a membrane consisting of a single layer of cells , each of which has multiple cilia .
The stalks of colonial species arise from shared attachment plates or from a network of stolons , tubes that run across a surface . In solitary species , the stalk ends in a muscular sucker , or a flexible foot , or is cemented to a surface . The stalk is muscular and produces a characteristic nodding motion . In some species it is segmented . Some solitary species can move , either by creeping on the muscular foot or by somersaulting .
The body wall consists of the epidermis and an external cuticle , which consists mainly of criss @-@ cross collagen fibers . The epidermis contains only a single layer of cells , each of which bears multiple cilia ( " hairs " ) and microvilli ( tiny " pleats " ) that penetrate through the cuticle . The stolons and stalks of colonial species have thicker cuticles , stiffened with chitin .
There is no coelom ( internal fluid @-@ filled cavity lined with peritoneum ) and the other internal organs are embedded in connective tissue that lies between the stomach and the base of the " crown " of tentacles . The nervous system runs through the connective tissue and just below the epidermis , and is controlled by a pair of ganglia . Nerves run from these to the calyx , tentacles and stalk , and to sense organs in all these areas .
= = Feeding , digestion , excretion , circulation and respiration = =
A band of cells , each with multiple cilia , runs along the sides of the tentacles , connecting each tentacle to its neighbors , except that there is a gap in the band nearest the anus . A separate band of cilia grows along a groove that runs close to the inner side of the base of the " crown " , with a narrow extension up the inner surface of each tentacle . The cilia on the sides of the tentacles create a current that flows into the " crown " at the bases of the tentacles and exits above the center of the " crown " . These cilia pass food particles to the cilia on the inner surface of the tentacles , and the inner cillia produce a downward current that drives particles into and around the groove , and then to the mouth .
Entoprocts generally use one or both of : ciliary sieving , in which one band of cilia creates the feeding current and another traps food particles ( the " sieve " ) ; and downstream collecting , in which food articles are trapped as they are about to exit past them . In entoprocts , downstream collecting is carried out by the same bands of cilia that generate the current ; trochozoan larvae also use downstream collecting , but use a separate set of cilia to trap food particles .
In addition , glands in the tentacles secrete sticky threads that capture large particles . A non @-@ colonial species reported from around the Antarctic Peninsula in 1993 has cells that superficially resemble the cnidocytes of cnidaria , and fire sticky threads . These unusual cells lie around the mouth , and may provide an additional means of capturing prey .
The stomach and intestine are lined with microvilli , which are thought to absorb nutrients . The anus , which opens inside the " crown " , ejects solid wastes into the outgoing current after the tentacles have filtered food out of the water ; in some families it is raised on a cone above the level of the groove that conducts food to the mouth . Most species have a pair of protonephridia which extract soluble wastes from the internal fluids and eliminate them through pores near the mouth . However , the freshwater species Urnatella gracilis has multiple nephridia in the calyx and stalk .
The zooids absorb oxygen and emit carbon dioxide by diffusion , which works well for small animals .
= = Reproduction and life cycle = =
Most species are simultaneous hermaphrodites , but some switch from male to female as they mature , while individuals of some species remain of the same sex all their lives . Individuals have one or two pairs of gonads , placed between the atrium and stomach , and opening into a single gonopore in the atrium . The eggs are thought to be fertilized in the ovaries . Most species release eggs that hatch into planktonic larvae , but a few brood their eggs in the gonopore . Those that brood small eggs nourish them by a placenta @-@ like organ , while larvae of species with larger eggs live on stored yolk . The development of the fertilized egg into a larva follows a typical spiralian pattern : the cells divide by spiral cleavage , and mesoderm develops from a specific cell labelled " 4d " in the early embryo . There is no coelom at any stage .
In some species the larva is a trochophore which is planktonic and feeds on floating food particles by using the two bands of cilia round its " equator " to sweep food into the mouth , which uses more cilia to drive them into the stomach , which uses further cilia to expel undigested remains through the anus . In some species of the genera Loxosomella and Loxosoma , the larva produces one or two buds that separate and form new individuals , while the trochophore disintegrates . However , most produce a larva with sensory tufts at the top and front , a pair of pigment @-@ cup ocelli ( " little eyes " ) , a pair of protonephridia , and a large , cilia @-@ bearing foot at the bottom . After settling , the foot and frontal tuft attach to the surface . Larvae of most species undergo a complex metamorphosis , and the internal organs may rotate by up to 180 ° , so that the mouth and anus both point upwards .
All species can produce clones by budding . Colonial species produce new zooids from the stolon or from the stalks , and can form large colonies in this way . In solitary species , clones form on the floor of the atrium , and are released when their organs are developed .
= = Taxonomy = =
The phylum consists of about 150 recognized species , grouped into 4 families :
= = Evolutionary history = =
= = = Fossil record = = =
Since entoprocts are small and soft @-@ bodied , fossils have been extremely rare . In 1977 , Simon Conway Morris provided the first description of Dinomischus , a sessile animal with calyx , stalk and holdfast , found in Canada 's Burgess Shale , which was formed about 505 million years ago . Morris regarded this animal as the earliest known entoproct , since its mouth and anus lay inside a ring of structures above the calyx , but noted that these structures were flat and rather stiff , while the tentacles of modern entoprocts are flexible and have a round cross @-@ section .
In 1992 J.A. Todd and P.D. Taylor concluded that Dinomischus was not an entoproct , because it did not have the typical rounded , flexible tentacles , and the fossils showed no other features that clearly resembled those of entoprocts . In their opinion , the earliest fossil entoprocts were specimens they found from Late Jurassic rocks in England . These resemble the modern colonial genus Barentsia in many ways , including : upright zooids linked by a network of stolons encrusting the surface to which the colony is attached ; straight stalks joined to the stolons by bulky sockets with transverse bands of wrinkles ; overall size and proportions similar to that of modern species of Barentsia .
Another species , Cotyledion tylodes , first described in 1999 , was larger than extant entoprocts , reaching 8 – 56 mm in height , and unlike modern species , was " armored " with sclerites , scale @-@ like structures . C. tylodes did have a similar sessile lifestyle to modern entoprocts . The identified fossils of C. tylodes were found in 520 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old rocks from southern China . This places early entoprocts in the period of the Cambrian explosion .
= = = Family tree = = =
When entoprocts were discovered in the nineteenth century , they and bryozoans ( ectoprocts ) were regarded as classes within the phylum Bryozoa , because both groups were sessile animals that filter @-@ fed by means of a " crown " of tentacles that bore cilia . However , from 1869 onwards , increasing awareness of differences , including the position of the entoproct anus inside the feeding structure and the difference in the early pattern of division of cells in their embryos , caused scientists to regard the two groups as separate phyla . " Bryozoa " then became just an alternative name for ectoprocts , in which the anus is outside the feeding organ . However , studies by one team in 2007 and 2008 argue for sinking Entoprocta into Bryozoa as a class , and resurrecting Ectoprocta as a name for the currently identified bryozoans .
The consensus of studies from 1996 onwards has been that entoprocts are part of the Trochozoa , a protostome " superphylum " whose members are united in having as their most basic larval form the trochophore type . The trochozoa also include molluscs , annelids , flatworms , nemertines and others . However , scientists disagree about which phylum is mostly closely related to enctoprocts within the trochozoans . An analysis in 2008 re @-@ introduced the pre @-@ 1869 meaning of the term " Bryozoa " , for a group in which entoprocts and ectoprocts are each other 's closest relatives .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Distribution and habitats = = =
All species are sessile . While the great majority are marine , two species live in freshwater : Loxosomatoides sirindhornae , reported in 2004 in central Thailand , and Urnatella gracilis , found in all the continents except Antarctica . Colonial species are found in all the oceans , living on rocks , shells , algae and underwater buildings . The solitary species , which are marine , live on other animals that feed by producing water currents , such as sponges , ectoprocts and sessile annelids .
= = = Interaction with other organisms = = =
Some species of nudibranchs ( " sea slugs " ) , particularly those of the genus Trapania , as well as turbellarian flatworms , prey on entoprocts .
Small colonies of the freshwater entoproct Urnatella gracilis have been found living on the aquatic larvae of the dobsonfly Corydalus cornutus . The ectoprocts gain a means of dispersal , protection from predators and possibly a source of water that is rich in oxygen and nutrients , as colonies often live next to the gills of the larval flies . In the White Sea , the non @-@ colonial entoproct Loxosomella nordgaardi prefers to live attached to bryozoan ( ectoproct ) colonies , mainly on the edges of colonies or in the " chimneys " , gaps by which large bryozoan colonies expel water from which they have sieved food . Observation suggests that both the entoprocts and the bryozoans benefit from the association : each enhances the water flow that the other needs for feeding ; and the longer cilia of the entoprocts may help them to capture different food from that caught by the bryozoans , so that the animals do not compete for the same food .
Entoprocts are small and have been little studied by zoologists . Hence it is difficult to determine whether a specimen belongs to a species that already occurs in the same area or is an invader , possibly as a result of human activities .
= Castiel ( Supernatural ) =
Castiel / ˌkæstiˈɛl / is a fictional character portrayed by Misha Collins on the CW Television Network 's American television series Supernatural . An Angel of the Lord , he first appears in the fourth season , and is used to introduce the theme of Christian theology to the series . In the series , Castiel brings Dean Winchester back from Hell and frequently helps him and his brother Sam in their battles with various demons and angels along the way . During his travels with the Winchesters , Castiel develops friendships with both men . As an angel , he possesses a number of supernatural abilities , including the ability to kill demons . Initially , the character demonstrates complete devotion to God and little emotion . However , his interactions and experiences with Dean Winchester and Sam Winchester , as well as certain revelations about God and his fellow angels , have a humanizing effect on him . This , despite the stress and harm it causes his character , allows him to develop an independent will as the series progresses and helps the show address topics related to free will .
Unlike the stereotypical portrayal of television angels , Castiel does not always help people , and is willing to kill innocents if needed . Collins originally read for the part of a demon , as series creator Eric Kripke did not want fans to find out that angels were being introduced to the series . Collins prepared for the role by reading the Book of Revelation , and based his portrayal on his younger brother . Critics and fans have responded highly favorably to the character . In response , the show 's creators expanded his role in the series , upgrading him to a main cast member in the fifth and sixth seasons . After being a special guest star in the seventh and eighth seasons , Collins was upgraded once again to regular cast member status for the ninth season .
= = Plot = =
= = = Arrival on Earth = = =
At the end of the third season of Supernatural , main character Dean Winchester is in Hell after being killed by the hellhounds of the demonic antagonist Lilith . In the season four premiere " Lazarus Rising " , the angel Castiel is introduced as the one who brought Dean back from Hell and resurrected him . Because merely perceiving his actual form typically results in blindness , he takes a human host – James " Jimmy " Novak , a " devout man " who prayed for it – to communicate with Dean , and tells him that he has been brought back because God has work for him . Lilith is breaking the 66 seals in order to free Lucifer , and Dean must stop her .
Castiel continues to appear throughout the season , at one point sending Dean back in time and later tasking him and his brother Sam with stopping witches from breaking another seal . He returns with fellow angel Uriel at the end of the episode " I Know What You Did Last Summer " , seeking to kill Anna Milton , a fallen angel with the ability to " hear " the communications between angels . In the following episode , " Heaven and Hell " , Anna uses an ancient Enochian sigil to send the angels away , though they manage to track them down later . Once there , Castiel expresses regret at having to kill Anna . Before they can carry out their duty , however , they are confronted by the demon Alastair and two of his minions . A fight ensues , and Castiel is nearly defeated in the battle by Alastair . He is saved by Dean , and they in turn are rescued when Anna regains her powers . Although Uriel nearly vents his frustration on Dean , Castiel stops him , and the two leave . Castiel later becomes suspicious of Uriel and confronts him in " On the Head of a Pin " . Uriel admits he and certain other angels are now working together to free Lucifer , having grown weary of never hearing from God and jealous of His favoritism for humanity . He asks Castiel to join him , but Castiel refuses and attacks him . Uriel eventually overpowers Castiel , but is killed by Anna before he can strike the finishing blow . During this time , the orders he is getting from Heaven of questionable morality and the influence of Anna cause him to start to have doubts about Heaven 's plans . He later returns in " The Monster At the End of This Book " to explain Chuck 's role as a Prophet and later when Dean calls him to help save Sam . Castiel informs Dean he can 't interfere due to how important Prophets are , but he impresses upon Dean how the archangel protecting a Prophet will intervene if said Prophet is in trouble to secretly let him know a way to save Sam .
= = = Jimmy Novak alone = = =
In " The Rapture " , Castiel enters Dean 's dreams and arranges a meeting to tell him something important . However , when Sam and Dean go to meet him , they instead find Jimmy , Castiel 's vessel , who claims to have little memory of his life as a vessel . Anna theorizes Castiel must have angered his superiors , prompting him to be taken back to Heaven . When Jimmy is shot at the end of the episode trying to save his family from demons , Castiel returns , taking Jimmy 's daughter as his new vessel . After the demons are killed , a dying Jimmy begs Castiel to take him back as a host so his daughter will not have to go through what he did , and the angel acquiesces . Dean then asks him what he needed to tell him , but Castiel coldly replies his loyalty is to Heaven , not to mankind or to him .
= = = Servant of Heaven = = =
In " When the Levee Breaks " , Castiel has Dean take the oath of allegiance to God and His angels , to which Dean agrees under the impression it will keep Sam safe . Later in the episode , Castiel releases Sam , who is on detox from Ruby 's demon blood , from Bobby 's Panic Room . When Anna confronts him about his actions , other angels appear and capture her .
With Sam closing in on Lilith , Castiel and Zachariah imprison Dean within an idyllic waiting room , where he will be made comfortable until the time comes for him to play his role in stopping the Apocalypse . Dean refuses to remain idle , and continually requests to be able to see Sam , which is denied . Once Dean discovers the angels are allowing the Apocalypse to happen , he implores for Castiel to help him stop the final seal from being broken . Though Castiel refuses at first , he returns ready to help not long after . He takes Dean to see the prophet Chuck for information on Sam . Their presence does not fall in line with Chuck 's Gospel , so the Archangel Raphael begins to descend . Castiel sends Dean to Sam , remaining behind to hold back the archangel and any others who might come . He is subsequently killed , with his host 's body being blown to pieces .
= = = Fall to Earth = = =
However , Castiel later returns – still in Jimmy Novak 's body – in the fifth season premiere , " Sympathy for the Devil " , killing two fellow angels in order to save Sam and Dean . He is uncertain as to how he was resurrected , but alludes to Zachariah it may have been God 's doing . After ordering Zachariah away , Castiel carves Enochian sigils into Sam and Dean 's ribs to hide them from all angels , including Lucifer . Castiel later returns to the brothers in " Good God Y 'All ! " , and reveals his plans to find God . He borrows Dean 's amulet , as it burns hot in God 's presence , and departs . He has also been completely cut off from Heaven as a result of his rebellion and has lost some of his powers as a result , including his ability to heal injuries . He remains on Earth hunting for God , although acquires a cellphone so that the Winchesters can call for his aid when dealing with particularly challenging cases , such as their discovery of the Antichrist or their latest confrontation with the Trickster ( who is revealed to be the lost archangel Gabriel ) .
In " Abandon All Hope ... " , Castiel helps the Winchesters retrieve the Colt , and joins them on their hunt for Lucifer . However , he ventures off after discovering hundreds of Reapers are already in the town , hoping to discover what has called them there . He soon becomes imprisoned by Lucifer , who tries to tempt Castiel into joining him , pointing out they are both targets of Heaven , but Castiel refuses . He later manages to free himself , but finds he no longer has the power to kill demons . After Sam and Dean fail in their attempt to kill the Devil , Castiel teleports them to safety . After exhausting most of his remaining power to take Sam and Dean back in time to save their parents from renegade angel Anna , Castiel aids the Winchesters in their battle with Famine , the Horseman of the Apocalypse – the brothers having already defeated War – but his weakened powers render him susceptible to Famine 's influence , Famine attacking Jimmy 's hunger for red meat to make Castiel more interested in eating burgers than actually fighting . When the brothers are killed by vengeful hunters in " Dark Side of the Moon " , Castiel – unable to return to Heaven – briefly communicates with them . He tasks them with finding the angel Joshua , who communicates directly with God . Although Joshua reveals God is alive , he claims He is apathetic to the Apocalypse ; having saved the brothers and Castiel , God feels He has done enough . When relayed to Castiel , his hopes and faith are shattered ,
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incomplete . On the contrary , in her home country fans and press remained always loyal and favorable to Doro , who received in her career five nominations for the German Echo music award , which she won in 1994 as Best National Female Artist .
Her frequent European tours in the 1990s maintained her visibility in the eyes of the fans and granted her enough income to survive the bleak period . She became so popular in Spain that she was voted for 13 times Best International Singer by the readers of the music magazine Heavy Rock in their annual polls . She often declared to live and tour for the fans and said that she " would never cancel a tour and everybody knows that about me " . Lemmy , in a 2003 interview , testified how nice and professional Doro is .
With the return of heavy metal in the charts worldwide and the diffusion on the internet of hundreds of webzines and fanzines dedicated to hard rock , Doro became again a star of the metal scene , highly requested all over the world and treated by the media as a revered veteran and inspiration for new female singers . Her career and commitment are held in high esteem by the new generation of female heavy metal singers . As Floor Jansen of After Forever stated in a 2007 interview , to duet with Doro " was a huge honor and we chose her because she was a pioneer of the female fronted scene " . Doro herself was apparently aware early in her career to have the role " to give other women self @-@ confidence " in the metal world , acting as a pioneer for female fans and musicians .
As further evidence of her influence on the heavy metal scene , in December 2008 Pure Steel Records released Tribute to Steel : A Tribute to Warlock , the first official tribute album to Warlock and Doro ; the album includes contributions from bands like Custard , Crystal Viper , Sabaton and Lonewolf , paying homage to the songs of Doro 's first four albums with the participation of Warlock 's original members .
= = Personal life = =
Doro Pesch has always been very reserved and careful in protecting her privacy off @-@ stage . She consciously renounced a family and children in order to dedicate all of her time to her musical career and her fans . The lyrics of the song " You Are My Family " , which opens the album Warrior Soul , exemplify this decision . After the death of her father in 2000 , her mother Barbara manages the Doro fan club .
She has homes in Düsseldorf , Germany and in Long Island , New York , where she usually resided when not on tour , until her house was destroyed by Hurricane Irene in August 2011 . She received her green card to live and work in the USA in 1991 . Doro owns , together with former Die Krupps members Chris Lietz and Jürgen Engler , Atom H recording studios in Düsseldorf , where she has recorded some of her albums .
Doro 's stage clothes are handmade , following models she designs and using synthetic materials which imitate leather after the singer 's adhesion to PETA . She also supports the no @-@ profit organization Terre des Femmes , which helps women and girls in need all over the world . Doro has been a trained Thai boxer , sport that she started practicing in 1995 . She still enjoys graphic arts and painting in her limited free time .
= = Touring band = =
Current line @-@ up
Doro Pesch ( 1988 – present ) – vocals
Nick Douglas ( 1990 – present ) – bass , keyboards , backing vocals
Johnny Dee ( 1993 – 1995 , 1998 – present ) – drums , percussion , backing vocals
Bas Maas ( 2008 – present ) – guitars , backing vocals
Luca Princiotta ( 2009 – present ) – guitar , keyboards , backing vocals
Former
Jon Levin ( 1988 – 1989 ) – guitars
Tommy Henriksen ( 1988 – 1989 ) – bass
Bobby Rondinelli ( 1988 – 1989 ) – drums
Paul Morris ( 1989 – 1990 ) – keyboards
Thomas Jude ( 1990 ) – guitars
Tom Coombs ( 1990 ) – drums
Michael Tyrrell aka Michael Shawn ( 1991 – 1992 ) – guitars
Jeff Bruno ( 1991 – 1992 ) – guitar , keyboards
Tony Mac ( 1991 – 1992 ) – drums
Chris Branco ( 1993 ) – drums
Jimmy DiLella ( 1993 – 1995 ) – guitar , keyboards
Joe Taylor ( 1993 – 2009 ) – guitars
Russ Irwin ( 1995 – 1996 ) – guitar , keyboards
Frank Ferrer ( 1995 – 1996 ) – drums
Mario Parillo ( 1998 – 2001 ) – guitar , keyboards
Oliver Palotai ( 2001 – 2011 ) – guitar , keyboards
Robert Katrikh ( 2008 ) – guitars
Harrison Young ( 2009 – 2015 ) – guitar , keyboards , backing vocals
= = Discography = =
= = = With Warlock = = =
Burning the Witches ( 1984 )
Hellbound ( 1985 )
True as Steel ( 1986 )
Triumph and Agony ( 1987 )
= = = Solo albums = = =
Force Majeure ( 1989 )
Doro ( 1990 )
True at Heart ( 1991 )
Angels Never Die ( 1993 )
Machine II Machine ( 1995 )
Love Me in Black ( 1998 )
Calling the Wild ( 2000 )
Fight ( 2002 )
Classic Diamonds ( 2004 )
Warrior Soul ( 2006 )
Fear No Evil ( 2009 )
Raise Your Fist ( 2012 )
Strong and Proud ( 2016 )
= Eric Nystrom =
Eric Thore Nystrom ( born February 14 , 1983 ) is an American professional ice hockey left winger who is currently an unrestricted free agent of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . He was a first round selection of the Calgary Flames , taken 10th overall in the 2002 NHL Entry Draft , and made his NHL debut with Calgary in 2005 . Nystrom has also played for the Minnesota Wild , Dallas Stars and Nashville Predators . He played four seasons of college hockey with the Michigan Wolverines before he turned professional . On four occasions , Nystrom has played with the United States national team , most recently at the 2010 World Championship . He is the son of former NHL player Bob Nystrom .
= = Early life = =
Nystrom was born and raised in Syosset , New York , where his father , Bob , was an NHL player for the New York Islanders . Bob , who was himself born in Sweden but grew up in Hinton , Alberta , won four consecutive Stanley Cups between 1980 and 1983 . Bob coached his son during his formative years in hockey . Nystrom is Jewish as is his mother , and became a Bar Mitzvah . He attended high school at Portledge School in Locust Valley , New York . He has an older sister , Marissa .
Nystrom grew up playing several sports , including soccer and baseball , and only seriously considered a hockey career in his mid @-@ teens . While Eric was regarded as an NHL prospect himself , his father encouraged him to seek an education first , which the younger Nystrom did upon earning a scholarship to play for the University of Michigan Wolverines in 2000 . He spent four years at Michigan where he earned a degree in liberal arts .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior and college = = =
Nystrom established a hard @-@ working style similar to his father 's , which helped earn him an invite to play with the US National Development Program ( USDP ) . He played 55 games for USDP in the North American Hockey League in 1999 – 2000 , scoring seven goals and 23 points . He split the 2000 – 01 season with the national under @-@ 18 program and the junior team in the United States Hockey League , also representing the United States at the 2001 IIHF World U18 Championships . He later represented the United States at the 2002 and 2003 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships .
He moved onto the University of Michigan , earning a place on the Central Collegiate Hockey Association ( CCHA ) All @-@ Rookie team in 2002 after scoring 18 goals and 31 points . On the strength of that season , the Calgary Flames selected him with their first pick , 10th overall , at the 2002 NHL Entry Draft . Before turning professional , Nystrom completed his final three seasons of college eligibility , finishing with 111 points in 160 career games , and serving as the Wolverines ' captain in his senior year of 2004 – 05 .
= = = Calgary Flames = = =
Upon turning professional in 2005 , Nystrom was assigned to the Omaha Ak @-@ Sar @-@ Ben Knights of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) . He was recalled by the Flames at the start of the 2005 – 06 season and made his NHL debut against the Colorado Avalanche on October 10 , 2005 . He played two games with the Flames before being returned to the AHL to complete the season . Nystrom missed most of the 2006 – 07 after suffering a tear in his right shoulder during a pre @-@ season game . He attempted to rehab the injury and then play , before opting on surgery . The injury limited Nystrom to just 12 regular season games for Omaha , but he returned in time to play five playoff games for the Knights .
Nystrom split the 2007 – 08 season between the Calgary and the Quad City Flames . He appeared in 44 regular season games for Calgary , and scored his first NHL goal on October 30 , 2007 , against the Nashville Predators . He scored a career @-@ high four points , two goals and two assists , in the Flames final game of the regular season , a 7 – 1 victory over the Vancouver Canucks . Following the season , he signed a two @-@ year contract extension with the Flames .
Nystrom played his first full NHL season with the Flames in 2008 – 09 , playing in 76 games and scoring five goals , three of them game @-@ winning . He added a fourth game @-@ winning goal in the 2009 Stanley Cup Playoffs against the Chicago Blackhawks . He more than doubled his career high in 2009 – 10 , scoring 11 goals despite struggling through a groin injury for a large part of the season . He was invited to play with the American team at the 2010 IIHF World Championships .
= = = Minnesota and Dallas = = =
Nystrom chose to leave Calgary as a free agent , signing a three @-@ year , $ 4 @.@ 2 million contract with the Minnesota Wild on July 1 , 2010 . He scored four goals and eight assists in his first season with the Wild , a season which Nystrom admitted was not good , and " snowballed negatively " for him . The 2011 – 12 season posed early challenges for Nystrom . In a pre @-@ season game against the Edmonton Oilers , his attempt to avoid an icing call resulted in his stick getting caught up in the skates of Edmonton 's Taylor Fedun , sending the latter player crashing into the boards at high speed . Fedun suffered a broken leg and the play renewed calls for the NHL to move to no @-@ touch icing to avoid similar incidents in the future . He was waived by Minnesota prior to the season 's start , but went unclaimed by any other team and was demoted to the AHL 's Houston Aeros , with whom he appeared in one game .
On October 12 , 2011 , the Wild dealt him to the Dallas Stars . Minnesota had to place him through re @-@ entry waivers first , and while Dallas could have claimed him at that point and been responsible for only half of his $ 1 @.@ 4 million salary , they took on his full salary via trade so as to meet the league 's minimum payroll rules . Dallas general manager Joe Nieuwendyk praised Nystrom as being an effective penalty killer who would add depth to his team . Though he was anticipated to play in a defensive checking role , Nystrom added an offensive touch for Dallas , scoring 10 goals in his first 21 games with the team . His 12th goal of the season set a new career high , and he finished the year with 16 .
Due to the 2012 – 13 NHL lockout , Nystrom signed with Stavanger Oilers late November and made his debut in the Norwegian GET @-@ ligaen in a match against Vålerenga on December 20 . Nystrom had four goals and three assists in his first game . He played only six games with the team , but recorded 14 points . Returning to the NHL once the lockout was resolved , Nystrom scored 11 points in 48 games with Dallas .
= = = Nashville Predators = = =
Nystrom left the Stars as a free agent following the 2012 – 13 NHL season and signed a four @-@ year deal with the Nashville Predators worth $ 10 million . He recorded the first hat trick of his NHL career on January 24 , 2014 , against the Calgary Flames and finished with a franchise record four goals . The Predators lost the game , however , 5 – 4 in a shootout .
On June 29 , 2016 , Nystrom 's three @-@ year tenure with the Predators was brought to an end , as he was placed on waivers for the intent to buy @-@ out the remaining year of his contract .
= = Off the ice = =
Nystrom has frequently involved himself with charitable endeavors throughout his career . While with Quad City , he performed an on @-@ ice striptease that mimicked the one performed by the character Ned Braden in the movie Slap Shot as part of a team jersey auction . The event raised $ 30 @,@ 000 . He served as a player ambassador for the Reading ... Give it a Shot ! program as a member of the Flames and visited local schools as part of the team 's campaign to increase literacy among students . Nystrom is active with Garth Brooks ' Teammates for Kids Foundation .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards and honours = =
= M @-@ 61 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 61 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan that runs between Marion and Standish . The highway runs along the boundary area between Northern Michigan and Central Michigan in the Lower Peninsula . M @-@ 61 runs through rural forestland connecting several smaller communities together as it connects M @-@ 115 , US Highway 127 ( US 127 ) , Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) and US 23 . Less than 10 @,@ 000 vehicles a day use various segments of the roadway on average .
The trunkline was first designated along a portion of its current alignment by 1919 . M @-@ 61 was extended in segments through 1940 , with a truncation at the end of the 1950s . One change in routing in the 1970s resulted in the current routing of the highway .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 61 starts in eastern Osceola County south of Marion at an intersection with M @-@ 115 . It runs eastward and meets M @-@ 66 before crossing into Clare County . The highway runs along the boundary between the regions of Northern and Central Michigan through forest land and crosses the Muskegon River en route to Harrison . There it follows Main Street into town to an intersection with 1st Street near Budd Lake . M @-@ 61 turns south at the intersection and joins the business loop of US 127 ( Bus . US 127 ) through town . Bus . US 127 / M @-@ 61 follows Clare Avenue south of the city to exit 170 on the US 127 freeway . The business loop ends , and M @-@ 61 turns east along Gladwin Road .
The highway passes south of Wiggins Lake as it approaches the junction with M @-@ 18 in Gladwin . The two highways run concurrently on Cedar Avenue for approximately ten blocks through downtown . M @-@ 61 leaves town on the east side near the airport . The highway continues eastward to a junction with M @-@ 30 ( Meridian Road ) in White Star on the west banks of the Smallwood Lake section of the Tittabawassee River . The highway crosses the river and runs through Wooden Shoe Village as it continues through the Au Sable State Forest , crossing extreme northern Bay County . The trunkline crosses into Arenac County before meeting I @-@ 75 and US 23 in Arenac County near Standish .
The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) maintains M @-@ 61 like all other state trunkline highways in the state . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic along its roadways using a metric called average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) . This is a measurement of the traffic along a segment of roadway for any average day of the year . The highest traffic level for M @-@ 61 in MDOT 's 2009 surveys was 9 @,@ 257 vehicles per day along the Harrison business loop . The lowest AADT was 981 vehicles daily between the Osceola – Clare county line and the Muskegon River crossing . No section of M @-@ 61 has been added to the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's defense , economy and mobility .
= = History = =
On July 1 , 1919 , when the rest of the state highway system was first signed , M @-@ 61 ran between M @-@ 18 at Gladwin to M @-@ 30 at White Star . A decade later in 1929 , M @-@ 61 was extended south to Winegars along M @-@ 30 and then northeasterly zig @-@ zagging through Highwood and Bentley to Standish . This eastern extension was straightened in 1932 , bypassing the route south through Winegars and Bentley to use a direct course between White Star and Standish . At the same time , a second , discontinuous section of M @-@ 61 was created when a section of the contemporary M @-@ 63 was redesignated M @-@ 61 between US 131 at Tustin and M @-@ 115 near Marion . At the same time , additional county roads were upgraded to state highways , extending the western M @-@ 61 to US 127 in Harrison . The gap between Harrison and Gladwin was eliminated in 1940 when the roadway was built between the two towns . At the end of the 1950s , M @-@ 61 's designation was removed between M @-@ 115 and US 131 . The western end was realigned in 1974 to bypass Marion , shortening the route of M @-@ 61 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Gospel of the Hebrews =
The Gospel of the Hebrews ( Greek : τὸ καθ ' Ἑβραίους εὐαγγέλιον ) , or Gospel according to the Hebrews , was a syncretic Jewish – Christian gospel , the text of which is lost ; only fragments of it survive as brief quotations by the early Church Fathers and apocryphal writings such as reference table in The Lost Books of the Bible in Table 1 ( as The Gospel According to the Hebrews ) . The fragments contain traditions of Jesus ' pre @-@ existence , incarnation , baptism , and probable temptation , along with some of his sayings . Distinctive features include a Christology characterized by the belief that the Holy Spirit is Jesus ' Divine Mother and a first resurrection appearance to James , the brother of Jesus , showing a high regard for James as the leader of the Jewish Christian church in Jerusalem . It was probably composed in Greek in the first decades of the 2nd century , and is believed to have been used by Greek @-@ speaking Jewish Christians in Egypt during that century .
It is the only Jewish – Christian gospel which the Church Fathers referred to by name , believing there was only one Hebrew Gospel , perhaps in different versions . Passages from the gospel were quoted or summarized by three Alexandrian Fathers – Clement , Origen and Didymus the Blind ; it was also quoted by Jerome , either directly or through the commentaries of Origen . The gospel was used as a supplement to the canonical gospels to provide source material for their commentaries based on scripture . Eusebius included it in his list of disputed writings known as the Antilegomena , noting that it was used by " Hebrews " within the Church ; it fell out of use when the New Testament canon was codified at the end of the 4th century .
Modern scholars classify the Gospel of the Hebrews as one of the three Jewish – Christian gospels , along with the Gospel of the Nazarenes and the Gospel of the Ebionites . All are known today only from fragments preserved in quotations by the early Church Fathers . The relationship between the Jewish – Christian gospels and a hypothetical original Hebrew Gospel remains a speculation .
= = Origin and characteristics = =
The Gospel of the Hebrews is the only Jewish – Christian gospel which the Church Fathers refer to by name . The language of composition is thought to be Greek . The provenance has been associated with Egypt ; it probably began circulating in Alexandria , Egypt in the first decades of the 2nd century and was used by Greek @-@ speaking Jewish – Christian communities there . The communities to which they belonged were traditional , conservative Christians who followed the teaching of the primitive Christian church in Jerusalem , integrating their understanding of Jesus with strict observance of Jewish customs and law , which they regarded as essential to salvation . Despite this , the gospel displays no connection with other Jewish – Christian literature , nor does it appear to be based on the Gospel of Matthew or the other canonical gospels of what is now orthodox Christianity . Instead , it seems to be taken from alternative oral forms of the same underlying traditions . Some of the fragments suggest a syncretic gnostic influence , while others support close ties to traditional Jewish Wisdom literature .
= = Content = =
The Gospel of the Hebrews is preserved in fragments quoted or summarized by various early Church Fathers . The full extent of the original gospel is unknown ; according to a list of canonical and apocryphal works drawn up in the 9th century known as the Stichometry of Nicephorus , the gospel was 2200 lines , just 300 lines shorter than Matthew . Based on the surviving fragments , the overall structure of the gospel appears to have been similar to the canonical ones . It consisted of a narrative of the life of Jesus which included his baptism , temptation , transfiguration , last supper , crucifixion , and resurrection . The gospel also contained sayings of Jesus . The events in the life of Jesus have been interpreted in a way that reflects Jewish ideas present in a Hellenistic cultural environment .
There is wide agreement about seven quotations cited by Philipp Vielhauer in the critical 3rd German edition of Wilhelm Schneemelcher 's New Testament Apocrypha , translated by George Ogg . The translations below follow Vielhauer 's order :
1 . When Christ wished to come upon the earth to men , the good Father summoned a mighty power in heaven , which was called Michael , and entrusted Christ to the care thereof . And the power came into the world and was called Mary , and Christ was in her womb seven months . ( Cyril of Jerusalem , Discourse on Mary Theotokos 12 )
Fragment 1 identifies Jesus as the son of the Holy Spirit ; this idea is found also in the Egyptian Coptic Epistle of James , another indication of the Egyptian origin of the gospel .
2 . And it came to pass when the Lord was come up out of the water , the whole fount of the Holy Spirit descended upon him and rested on him and said to him : My Son , in all the prophets was I waiting for thee that thou shouldest come and I might rest in thee . For thou art my rest ; thou art my first @-@ begotten Son that reignest for ever . ( Jerome , Commentary on Isaiah 4 )
Fragment 2 uses the language of Jewish Wisdom literature , but applies it to the Holy Spirit : the Spirit has waited in vain through all the prophets for the Son . The " rest " that the Holy Spirit finds in the Son belongs to the Christian gnostic idea of the pre @-@ existent Redeemer who finally becomes incarnate in Jesus .
3 . Even so did my mother , the Holy Spirit , take me by one of my hairs and carry me away on to the great mountain Tabor . ( Origen , Commentary on John 2 @.@ 12 @.@ 87 )
Fragments 2 and 3 , giving accounts of Jesus ' baptism and temptation or transfiguration , spring from the widespread Greco @-@ Roman myth of the descent of divine Wisdom ; this underlies the parallel passages in the gospels of Matthew ( 11 @.@ 25 – 30 ) , Luke ( 7 @.@ 18 – 35 and 11 @.@ 49 – 51 ) and John ( 1 @.@ 1 – 18 ) , as well as the Gospel of Thomas . The differences between fragment 3 and the orthodox canonical gospels are considerable : their third @-@ person narrative has become an account by Jesus himself , Satan is replaced by the Holy Spirit , and the Holy Spirit is identified as Jesus ' mother .
4a . He that marvels shall reign , and he that has reigned shall rest . ( Clement , Stromateis 2 @.@ 9 @.@ 45 @.@ 5 )
4b . He that seeks will not rest till he finds ; and he that has found shall marvel ; and he that has marveled shall reign ; and he that has reigned shall rest . ( Clement , Stromateis 5 @.@ 14 @.@ 96 @.@ 3 )
Fragment 4 is a " chain @-@ saying " , seek – find – marvel – reign – rest , describing the steps towards salvation , where " rest " equals the state of salvation . The saying is similar to themes found in Jewish Wisdom literature , and the similarity to a saying in the Gospel of Thomas suggests that the text may have been influenced by gnostic Wisdom teaching .
5 . And never be ye joyful , save when ye behold your brother with love . ( Jerome , Commentary on Ephesians 3 )
6 . In the Gospel according to the Hebrews ... there is counted among the most grievous offenses : He that has grieved the spirit of his brother . ( Jerome , Commentary on Ezekiel 6 )
Fragments 5 ( on Ephesians 5 @.@ 4 ) and 6 ( on Ezekiel 18 @.@ 7 ) are ethical saying of Jesus , suggesting that such teachings formed a significant part of the gospel .
7 . The Gospel according to the Hebrews ... records after the resurrection of the Savior : And when the Lord had given the linen cloth to the servant of the priest , he went to James and appeared to him . For James had sworn that he would not eat bread from that hour in which he had drunk the cup of the Lord until he should see him risen from among them that sleep . And shortly thereafter the Lord said : Bring a table and bread ! And immediately it is added : He took the bread , blessed it and brake it and gave it to James the Just and said to him : My brother , eat thy bread , for the Son of man is risen from among them that sleep . ( Jerome , De viris inlustribus 2 )
Fragment 7 emphasizes the importance of James , the brother of Jesus and head of the Jewish – Christian movement in Jerusalem after Jesus ' death , thereby testifying to the Jewish character of the community of the gospel .
In addition to direct quotations , other gospel stories were summarized or cited by the Church Fathers . The translations below are from Vielhauer & Strecker ( 1991 ) , except " b2 " which is from Klauck ( 2003 ) :
a . ( Scripture ) seems to call Matthew " Levi " in the Gospel of Luke . Yet it is not a question of one and the same person . Rather Matthias , who was installed ( as apostle ) in place of Judas , and Levi are the same person with a double name . This is clear from the Gospel of the Hebrews . ( Didymus the Blind , Commentary on the Psalms 184 @.@ 9 – 10 )
The summary of a gospel passage identifies Mattias , rather than Matthew , as the name of the tax @-@ collector who was called to follow Jesus .
b1 . And he ( Papias ) has adduced another story of a woman who was accused of many sins before the Lord , which is contained in the Gospel according to the Hebrews . ( Eusebius , Historia ecclesiastica 3 @.@ 39 @.@ 17 )
The citation by Eusebius of a story he found in the writings of Papias is believed to refer to an alternate version of the account in John 's gospel of Jesus and the woman taken in adultery .
b2 . It is related in some gospels that a woman was condemned by the Jews because of a sin and was taken to the customary place of stoning , in order that she might be stoned . We are told that when the Savior caught sight of her and saw that they were ready to stone her , he said to those who wanted to throw stones at her : Let the one who has not sinned , lift a stone and throw it . If someone is certain that he has not sinned , let him take a stone and hit her . And no one dared to do so . When they examined themselves and they recognized that they too bore responsibility for certain actions , they did not dare to stone her . ( Didymus the Blind , Commentary on Ecclesiastes 4 @.@ 223 @.@ 6 – 13 )
Although Didymus does not name his source , he found this independent tradition of the story of the sinful woman in a non @-@ canonical gospel in Alexandria which may have been the Gospel of the Hebrews .
= = Christology = =
The theology of the gospel is strongly influenced by Jewish – Christian wisdom teaching . The Holy Spirit is represented as a manifestation of Divine Wisdom who is called " Mother " . The feminine aspect of the Spirit is an indication of Semitic influence on the language of the gospel . The Spirit takes Jesus to Mount Tabor by a single hair , echoing Old Testament themes in the stories of Ezekiel ( Ezk . 8 @.@ 3 ) and Habbakuk ( Dan . 14 @.@ 36 LXX ) . The gospel emphasizes the fulfillment of the prophecy of Isaiah 11 @.@ 2 in Jesus ' baptism , but also adopts elements of Jewish Wisdom theology . The Spirit has been gathered in one place at the moment of Jesus ' baptism , so that he has become the only Son of the Spirit in which he has found eternal " rest " and reigns forever . The " seek – find " and " rule – rest " language also comes from Jewish Wisdom tradition as stages on the way to salvation during which the believer is encouraged to emulate divine Wisdom .
The " rest " that the Holy Spirit waits for and finally finds in the Son is also found in gnostic speculations . The wisdom chain @-@ saying which describes the progression of seeking , marveling , and finding salvation , is similar to the Hermetic conception of salvation found in the Alexandrian Corpus Hermetica . " Rest " is not only to be understood as the ultimate goal of the seeker after truth , which leads to salvation ; it is also descriptive of a unity with the wisdom which lies at the heart of the Godhead . The " resting " of the Holy Spirit at the moment of Jesus ' Baptism may also be understood in this timeless sense , as the union and rest of the pre @-@ existent Son with his Father , in keeping with the gnostic conception of " rest " as the highest gift of salvation .
= = Reception = =
Eusebius listed the Gospel of the Hebrews in his Antilegomena as one of the disputed writings of the early Church . Despite this , the Church Fathers occasionally used it , with reservations , as a source to support their exegetical arguments . Eusebius reports that the 2nd century Church Father Hegesippus used the gospel as a source for writing his Hypomneumata ( " Memoranda " ) in Rome ( c . 175 – 180 ) . The Alexandrian Fathers – Clement , Origen , and Didymus the Blind – relied directly on the gospel to provide prooftexts as a supplement to the canonical gospels . Clement quoted from the gospel as part of a discourse on divine Wisdom . Origen used it to compare differing views of the relationship between the Word and the Holy Spirit . Jerome claimed to have used the gospel as a prooftext , although he may have relied in part on excerpts from the commentaries of Origen . He quoted from it as a proof from prophecy based on Isaiah 11 @.@ 2 to explain how Jesus was the fulfillment of messianic expectations . The Gospel of the Hebrews was excluded from the canon by the Catholic Church with the closing of the New Testament canon at the end of the 4th century , and was no longer cited as a source in Church literature .
Subsequent to the closing of the canon , the gospel is mentioned in a homily " On the Virgin Mary " attributed to Cyril of Jerusalem in a collection of apocryphal stories believed to have been written in Coptic in the first half of the 6th century . The author ( known to scholars as Pseudo @-@ Cyril ) refers to the Gospel of the Hebrews in a polemical dialogue between a monk and Cyril over the nature of Mary , whom the monk contends was a divine Power sent from heaven . Cyril condemns the monk 's teaching as a heresy , which the author attributes to Carpocrates , Satornilus , and Ebionites . Not all later mentions of the gospel were polemical ; Bede ( c . 673 – 735 ) , after listing some apocryphal gospels rejected by the Church , includes the Gospel of the Hebrews among the " ecclesiastical histories " and refers to its usage by Jerome .
= = Relationship to other texts = =
The early Church Fathers believed there was only one Jewish – Christian gospel , perhaps in different versions ; however , scholars have long recognized the possibility there were at least two or three . Jerome 's references to a Gospel of the Hebrews , or variants of that name , are particularly problematic because it is unclear which gospel he is referring to as the source of his quotations . Hegesippus , Eusebius , and Jerome all used an Aramaic gospel , which Jerome referred to as the gospel used by a Jewish Christian sect known as the Nazarenes . Gospel of the Nazarenes is the name adopted by scholars to describe the fragments of quotations believed to originate from an Aramaic gospel that was based on traditions similar to the Gospel of Matthew . A third gospel was known only to Epiphanius of Salamis , which he attributed to a second Jewish Christian group known as the Ebionites . Scholars have conventionally referred to seven fragments of a Greek gospel harmony preserved in quotations by Epiphanius as the Gospel of the Ebionites . The existence of three independent Jewish – Christian gospels with distinct characteristics has been regarded as an established consensus . However , that conclusion has recently been challenged with respect to the composition of the gospel known to the Nazarenes and its relationship to the Gospel of the Hebrews . The relationship between the Gospel of the Hebrews and the other Jewish – Christian gospels , as well as a hypothetical original Hebrew Gospel , is uncertain and has been an ongoing subject of scholarly investigation .
= Indiana General Assembly =
The Indiana General Assembly is the state legislature , or legislative branch , of the state of Indiana . It is a bicameral legislature that consists of a lower house , the Indiana House of Representatives , and an upper house , the Indiana Senate . The General Assembly meets annually at the Indiana Statehouse in Indianapolis .
Members of the General Assembly are elected from districts that are realigned every ten years . Representatives serve terms of two years and senators serve terms of four years . Both houses can create bills , but bills must pass both houses before it can be submitted to the governor and enacted into law .
= = Structure = =
The Indiana General Assembly is made up of two houses , the House of Representatives and the Senate . Indiana has a part @-@ time legislature that does not meet year @-@ round . The General Assembly convenes on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in January . During odd @-@ numbered years the legislature meets for 61 days ( not necessarily consecutively ) and must be adjourned by April 30 . During even @-@ numbered years the legislature meets for 30 days ( not necessarily consecutively ) and must be adjourned by March 15 . The General Assembly may not adjourn for more than three days without a resolution approving adjournment being passed in both houses . The governor has the authority to call on the General Assembly to convene a special session if legislators are unable to complete necessary work within time allotted by the regular sessions . Special sessions of the General Assembly were rarely called in the state 's early history , but have become more commonplace in modern times .
The General Assembly delegates are elected from districts . Every ten years the districts are realigned by the General Assembly using information from the U.S. Census Bureau to ensure that each district is roughly equal in population . The districting is maintained to comply with the United States Supreme Court ruling in Reynolds v. Sims .
The Indiana Senate and House of Representatives each have several committees that are charged with overseeing certain areas of the state . Committees vary in size , from three to eleven members . The committees are chaired by senior members of the majority party . Senators and representatives can be members of multiple committees . Most legislation begins within the committees who have responsibility for the area that the bill will affect . Once approved by a committee , a bill can be entered into the agenda for debate and vote in the full chamber . Although not common , bills can be voted on by the full house without going through the committee process .
Indiana legislators make a base annual salary of $ 22 @,@ 616 , plus $ 155 for each day in session or at a committee hearing and $ 62 in expense pay every other day .
= = = Terms and qualifications = = =
Article 4 , Section 7 , of the Indiana Constitution states the qualifications to become a Senator or Representative . The candidate must have been a U.S. citizen for a minimum of two years prior to his candidacy and must have been resident of the district that he seeks to represent for one year . Senators must be at least twenty @-@ five years of age and representatives must be twenty @-@ one when sworn into office . The candidate cannot hold any other public office in the state or federal government during their term . The candidate must also be a registered voter within the district they seek to represent . Candidates are required to file papers stating their economic interests .
Article 4 , Section 3 , of the state constitution places several limitation on the size and composition of the General Assembly . The Senate can contain no more than fifty members , and the senators serve for term of four years . The House of Representatives can contain no more than one hundred members , and the representatives serve terms of two years . There is no limit to how many terms a state senator or representative may serve .
= = = Checks and balances = = =
There are several checks and balances built into the state constitution that limit the power of the General Assembly . Other clauses allow the General Assembly to balance and limit the authority of the other branches of the government . Among these checks and balances is the governor 's authority to veto any bill passed by the General Assembly . The General Assembly may in turn override his veto by simple majority vote in both houses . Bills passed by a super majority automatically become law without requiring the signature of the governor . Once the bill is made law , it can be challenged in the state courts which may rule the law to be unconstitutional , effectively repealing the law . The General Assembly could then override the court 's decision by amending the state constitution to include the law . The General Assembly has historically been the most powerful branch of the state government , dominating a weak governor 's office . Although the governor has gained more power in the past fifty years , the General Assembly still retains the power to remove much of that authority .
= = = Powers = = =
The authority and powers of the Indiana General Assembly are established in the state constitution . The General Assembly has sole legislative power within the state government . Each house can initiate legislation , with the exception that the Senate is not permitted to initiate legislation that will affect revenue . Bills are debated and passed separately in each house , but must be passed by both houses before they can submitted to the governor . Each law passed by the General Assembly must be applied uniformly to the entire state ; the General Assembly has no authority to create legislation that targets only a particular community .
The General Assembly is empowered to regulate the state 's judiciary system by setting the size of the courts and the bounds of their districts . The body also has the authority to monitor the activities of the executive branch of the state government , has limited power to regulate the county governments within the state , and has sole power to initiate the process to amend the state constitution .
Under Indiana law , legislators cannot be arrested while the General Assembly is in session unless the crime they commit is treason , a felony , or breach of the peace .
= = = Indiana Senate = = =
The Indiana Senate consists of 50 members elected to four @-@ year terms . Eric Holcomb , the Lieutenant Governor of Indiana , presides over the Senate while it is in session and casts the deciding vote in the event of a tie . The Senate President Pro Tempore is Senator David C. Long of Fort Wayne . The 2015 – 2016 Senate has a Republican super @-@ majority , with Republicans holding 40 out of 50 seats . The Senate offices are located in the west wing of the second floor of the Indiana Statehouse , and the Senate chambers are on the west wing of the third floor .
= = = Indiana House of Representatives = = =
The Indiana House of Representatives consists of 100 members elected to two @-@ year terms . The Speaker of the House for the 2015 – 2016 term is Representative Brian C. Bosma . In 2015 , the House of Representatives has a Republican majority of 71 seats , while the Democrats have 29 seats . The House offices are located in the east wing of the second floor of the Indiana Statehouse and the House chambers are on the third floor .
= = History = =
= = = 1816 Constitution = = =
Indiana 's first constitution was ratified on June 10 , 1816 , and the election of the first General Assembly took place on August 5 of that year . They convened in the original three @-@ room statehouse located in Corydon . The body consisted of ten senators and twenty @-@ nine representatives , sixteen of whom had been signers of the Indiana state constitution . There , the General Assembly began its development into the institution it is today . The original constitution provided that representatives served terms of one year and senators served terms of three years , and permitted an annual meeting of the assembly from December until March .
At first , there was only one political party of any consequence in Indiana , the Democratic @-@ Republicans . The party was , however , broken into three divisions that would later split off into their own parties . The divisions were mainly over the issue of slavery , but they would develop more differences in later years . The Jennings party , made up of abolitionists , was dominant in the beginning . The Noble party was in favor of slavery , and the Hendricks party was generally neutral , although Hendricks himself was openly anti @-@ slavery . In 1818 , the Noble party tried to impeach Governor Jennings over his role in the negotiations of the Treaty of St. Mary 's . After two months of debate in the House , and Jennings having destroyed the evidence of his role , the House of Representatives dropped the investigation and issued a resolution that confirmed Jennings in his position as governor .
In its first two decades , the General Assembly laid the foundation of the state . They created the framework for the state 's public school system , began construction on the State Seminary and of roads in the southern part of the state . Initially , the General Assembly was faced with low tax revenues . In response to the problem , they created the Bank of Indiana and sold nine million acres ( 36 @,@ 000 km ² ) of public lands to finance their projects . The General Assembly relocated the capitol to Indianapolis in 1824 , and in 1831 they authorized the construction of the first dedicated statehouse .
In the 1830s , the Whigs split from the Democratic @-@ Republicans in response to national policies . The Whigs held a strong majority in the General Assembly in that decade . In 1843 , the remnants of the old slavery party had strengthened into the Democratic Party and swept into power , the Whigs never regained their majority and the Democrats maintained power until the middle of the American Civil War . In 1836 the General Assembly passed the Mammoth Internal Improvement Act and set plans into motion to modernize the state 's infrastructure . The wilderness of northern and central Indiana was slowly developed as the General Assembly approved the construction of roads , canals , railroads , and numerous other infrastructure projects . This led the state to near bankruptcy in the late 1830s , but it was avoided when the General Assembly spun off the failing canals , and half of their debts , to private companies in 1841 . The failure of the projects was the main factor in the Whig 's loss of power .
The state constitution had come under considerable criticism beginning in the 1840s because it allowed most government positions to be filled by appointment . The problem with this method of filling positions did not manifest itself until the advent of the state 's political parties . Once in power , a party could stack the government with its own members , making it difficult for the minority to regain power . Another problem was that the authority for many trivial issues were not delegated to other authorities . For example , if a man was to divorce his wife , the divorce bill had to be approved by the General Assembly before he or she could legally remarry .
= = = 1851 Constitution = = =
In 1851 , a new state constitution was created and ratified . Among the constitution 's new clauses was an extension of the terms of representatives to two years and senators to four years . It also made many of the previously appointed positions open to public election . The new constitution delegated many minor tasks to newly created elected offices . With its workload considerably decreased , instead of meeting annually , the General Assembly only convened a session every two years . The new constitution also placed new limits on the General Assembly 's power to create local laws , the General Assembly having become notorious for creating state level laws that were only applied to one town or county .
The new constitution led to the gradual erosion of the Democratic majority . In 1854 , the Republican Party was established and drew in many of the former Whigs . That year the General Assembly was split with no party attaining a majority . The Democrats held the most seats , but the Whigs and Republicans caucused to form a majority and control the assembly . The result was deadlock on most issues because Republicans and Whigs could not agree on most major issues . By 1858 , the Whigs were almost completely disempowered and the Republicans gained enough seats to become the largest party , but not enough to form a majority on their own . That year Governor Ashbel P. Willard called the first special session of the General Assembly because they had been unable to pass an appropriations bill . Democrats regained a small majority by gaining the votes of the disaffected Whigs in the 1860 election .
During the 1860s and the American Civil War , the legislature was the scene of intense debate . At the beginning of the war , the General Assembly was controlled by the southern sympathetic Democrats . Governor Oliver Morton and the Republican minority were able to prevent the General Assembly from meeting in 1862 and 1863 by denying the body quorum . Morton even had some members of the body arrested or detained on suspicions of disloyalty . The lack of funding created by this crisis again led to the near bankruptcy of the state . In 1864 , the Republicans gained a majority and convened the General Assembly to remedy the state 's funding problems .
During the 1880s and 1890s , Indiana industry began to grow rapidly because of the Indiana Gas Boom , leading to the creation of many labor unions and a return to Democratic control of the General Assembly . One of the events to occur during the period was the Black Day of the General Assembly , a situation arising from Governor Isaac P. Gray 's desire to be elected to the United States Senate . Beginning with the state senate 's refusal to seat a new lieutenant governor , fighting broke out in the chamber and spread throughout the statehouse . Shots were fired , and Democrats and Republicans threatened to kill each other before police could bring the situation under control . A second bout of violence broke out in the 1894 regular session when Republicans locked the doors of the House chambers preventing Governor Claude Matthews from delivering a veto of a bill that repealed over a decade of Democratic legislation . The governor personally led fellow party members in beating down the door and unsuccessfully attempting to fight their way to the podium to deliver the vetoed bill ; one newspaper said Democrats and Republicans " fought like beasts of the forest . " During those decades , the General Assembly enacted a series of laws to protect the rights of workers and encourage more industrial growth . The women 's suffrage movement also began in the state and rallies were held in Indianapolis to support the female suffrage legislation that was ultimately voted down in the General Assembly .
During 1907 , the General Assembly made Indiana the first state to enact eugenics legislation , and the law remained in effect until 1921 . The law led to the forced sterilization of thousands of criminals until it was ruled unconstitutional by the Indiana Supreme Court in 1921 . Scandal erupted in 1925 when it was discovered that the Indiana Branch of the Ku Klux Klan controlled over half the seats in the General Assembly . During the session , Grand Dragon D. C. Stephenson boasted " I am the law in Indiana " . During the next two years , the federal government intervened , Stephenson was convicted of murder . After the governor refused to pardon him , Stephenson indicted his co @-@ conspirators , leading to many of the state government being charged with various crimes and removing much of the Klan 's power .
In the 1930s , the General Assembly established the state 's first general welfare programs to help the poor affected by the Great Depression . The General Assembly passed the nation 's first DUI laws in 1939 , establishing a blood alcohol level of .15 as the legal limit . The 1940s led to the first African American being elected to the Indiana Senate and legislation that desegregated the public schools in 1949 .
The General Assembly established the state 's first sales tax at two percent in 1962 . The revenues from the tax led to a host of new projects across the state . The General Assembly also passed the Indiana Civil Rights bill in 1963 , granting equal protection to minorities in seeking employment . In 1970 a series of constitutional amendments were passed . Among them was one that authorized the General Assembly to meet annually instead of biennially .
During the 1988 session , the Indiana House of Representatives was split evenly between both parties for the first time in Indiana 's history . After a period of negotiations , both parties agreed to share majority powers , alternating which party controlled the position of speaker each day . The same General Assembly legalized horse racing in the state in 1989 .
Governor Evan Bayh called a special session of the General Assembly in 1992 because no budget had been passed in the regular session . During the special session , the General Assembly passed the budget and also legalized the operation of riverboat casinos in the state , overriding the governor 's veto to prevent it .
The General Assembly passed property tax reform legislation in 2008 , capping property taxes at one percent , making Indiana one of the lowest property tax locations in the nation .
= More popular than Jesus =
" More popular than Jesus " ( or " Bigger than Jesus " ) was a controversial remark made by the Beatles ' John Lennon in 1966 . Lennon said that Christianity was in decline and that the Beatles had become more popular than Jesus Christ . The comment drew no controversy when originally published in the United Kingdom , but angry reactions flared up in Christian communities when it was republished in the United States five months later .
Lennon had originally made the remark in March 1966 during an interview with Maureen Cleave for the London Evening Standard , which drew no public reaction . When Datebook , a US teen magazine , quoted Lennon 's comments in August , five months later , extensive protests broke out in the Southern United States . Some radio stations stopped playing Beatles songs , their records were publicly burned , press conferences were cancelled , and threats were made . The controversy coincided with the group 's US tour in August 1966 , and Lennon and Brian Epstein attempted to quell the dispute at a series of press conferences . Some tour events experienced disruption and intimidation , including a picketing by the Ku Klux Klan . The controversy contributed to the Beatles ' lack of interest in public live performances , and the US tour was the last they undertook , after which they became a studio @-@ only band .
= = Background = =
In March 1966 , the London Evening Standard ran a weekly series of articles entitled " How Does a Beatle Live ? " which featured John Lennon , Ringo Starr , George Harrison , and Paul McCartney respectively . The articles were completed by journalist Maureen Cleave , who knew the group well and had interviewed them regularly since the start of Beatlemania in the UK . Three years previously she had written they were " the darlings of Merseyside " , and had accompanied them on the plane on the group 's first US tour in February 1964 . For her lifestyle series in March 1966 , she chose to interview the group individually , rather than all together , as was the norm .
Cleave interviewed Lennon on 4 March 1966 . At his home , Kenwood , in Weybridge , she found a full @-@ size crucifix , a gorilla costume , a medieval suit of armour and a well @-@ organised library , with works by Alfred , Lord Tennyson , Jonathan Swift , Oscar Wilde , George Orwell , Aldous Huxley , and The Passover Plot , by Hugh J. Schonfield , which had influenced Lennon 's ideas about Christianity . Cleave 's article mentioned that Lennon was " reading extensively about religion " , and quoted a comment he made :
Christianity will go . It will vanish and shrink . I needn 't argue about that ; I 'm right and I 'll be proved right . We 're more popular than Jesus now ; I don 't know which will go first — rock ' n ' roll or Christianity . Jesus was all right but his disciples were thick and ordinary . It 's them twisting it that ruins it for me .
Cleave 's interview with Lennon was published in the Evening Standard in March 1966 and provoked no public reaction in the UK . Church attendance there was in decline and the Christian churches were making no secret of their efforts to transform their image into something more relevant to modern times . Music historian Jonathan Gould wrote , " The satire comedians had had a field day with the increasingly desperate attempts of the Church to make itself seem more relevant ( ' Don 't call me vicar , call me Dick ... ' ) . " In 1963 , the Anglican Bishop of Woolwich , John A. T. Robinson , published a controversial but popular book , Honest to God , urging the nation to reject traditional church teachings on morality and the concept of God as an " old man in the sky " , and instead embrace a universal ethic of love . Bryan R. Wilson 's 1966 text Religion in Secular Society explained that increasing secularization led to British churches being abandoned . However , in the US , churches remained popular .
Both McCartney and Harrison had been baptised in the Roman Catholic Church , but neither of them followed Christianity . At the start of Beatlemania , the group came into contact with the Revd Ronald Gibbons , who told reporters that a Beatles version of " O Come All Ye Faithful " might provide the Church of England with " the very shot in the arm it needs " .
= = Response in the US = =
The day after Cleave 's article appeared in the Evening Standard , Beatles press officer Tony Barrow offered Datebook , a US teen magazine , rights to all four interviews . Barrow believed the pieces were important to show fans that the Beatles were progressing beyond simple pop music and producing more intellectually challenging work . As Datebook had already run pieces on fashion designer Mary Quant and on the effects of LSD , it seemed like a suitable vehicle to carry this information .
In late July 1966 , nearly five months after UK publication , Datebook republished the interviews . However , art editor Art Unger decided to deliberately put Lennon 's quote about Christianity on its front cover , cutting the prose before it . In Birmingham , Alabama , WAQY DJ Tommy Charles heard about the quotation from his coworker Doug Layton , and was immediately incensed , saying " That does it for me . I am not going to play the Beatles any more " . Charles and Layton asked for listeners ' views on Lennon 's comment and the response was overwhelmingly negative . Charles later stated , " We just felt it was so absurd and sacrilegious that something ought to be done to show them that they can 't get away with this sort of thing " . Al Benn , who was the Bureau Manager for United Press International News , heard the WAQY show and immediately filed a news report in New York City , culminating in a major news story in The New York Times on 5 August . Around two dozen other stations followed WAQY 's lead with similar announcements . Some stations in the Deep South went further , organising demonstrations with bonfires , drawing hordes of teenagers to publicly burn their Beatles records and other memorabilia .
Epstein was so concerned by the reaction that he considered cancelling the group 's upcoming US tour , believing they would be seriously harmed in some way . He then flew to the US and held a press conference in New York City , where he publicly criticised Datebook , saying the magazine had taken Lennon 's words out of context , and expressed regret on behalf of the group that " people with certain religious beliefs should have been offended in any way " . Epstein 's efforts had little effect , as the controversy quickly spread beyond the borders of the US . In Mexico City there were demonstrations against the group , and a number of countries , including South Africa and Spain , made the decision to ban the Beatles ' music on national radio stations . The Vatican issued a public denouncement of Lennon 's comments .
The Beatles left for their US tour on 11 August 1966 . According to Lennon 's wife , Cynthia , he was nervous and upset that he had made people angry simply by expressing his opinion . The Beatles attended a press conference in Chicago , Illinois ; Lennon did not want to apologise but was advised by Epstein and Barrow that he should . Lennon quipped that " if I had said television was more popular than Jesus , I might have got away with it " but stressed that he was simply remarking on how other people viewed and popularised the band . He described his own belief in God by quoting the Bishop of Woolwich , saying , " ... not as an old man in the sky . I believe that what people call God is something in all of us . " Adamant that he was not comparing himself with Christ , he tried to explain the decline of Christianity in the UK . Pressed for an apology by a reporter , he said " if you want me to apologise , if that will make you happy , then OK , I 'm sorry . " Journalists gave a sympathetic response , and told Lennon that the Bible Belt were " quite notorious for their Christian attitude . "
When the tour began , it was marred by protests and disturbances . Telephone threats were received , and concerts were picketed by the Ku Klux Klan . Daily Express writer Robert Pitman , responding to the US outcry , wrote , " It seems a nerve for Americans to hold up shocked hands , when week in , week out , America is exporting to us a subculture that makes the Beatles seem like four stern old churchwardens . " The reaction was also criticised in the US ; a Kentucky radio station declared that it would give the Beatles ' music airplay to show its " contempt for hypocrisy personified " , and the Jesuit magazine America wrote : " Lennon was simply stating what many a Christian educator would readily admit " .
The Memphis city council , aware that a Beatles concert was scheduled at the Mid @-@ South Coliseum during the tour , voted to cancel it rather than have " municipal facilities be used as a forum to ridicule anyone 's religion " , and also saying , " the Beatles are not welcome in Memphis " . The Ku Klux Klan nailed a Beatles album to a wooden cross , vowing " vengeance " , with conservative groups staging further public burnings of Beatles records . The Reverend Jimmy Stroad stated that a Christian rally in Memphis " would give the youth of the mid @-@ South an opportunity to show Jesus Christ is more popular than the Beatles " . The Memphis shows did take place on 19 August ; the afternoon show went as planned , but there was a minor panic when a firecracker was set off on stage during the evening performance , which led the group to believe they were the target of gunfire .
The group hated the tour , partly due to the controversy and adverse reaction from Lennon 's comments , and were unhappy about Epstein continuing to organise live performances that were increasingly at odds with their studio work . Harrison seriously contemplated leaving the band , but was persuaded to stay on the condition that the Beatles would from now on be a studio @-@ only group . After a break , they reconvened to record Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band , which drew strong commercial success and critical praise when released in June 1967 .
= = Aftermath = =
Lennon was asked about the controversy three years later during a trip to Canada , in 1969 . He repeated his opinion that the Beatles were more influential on young people than Christ , adding that some ministers had agreed with him . He called the protestors in the US " fascist Christians " , saying he was " very big on Christ . I 've always fancied him . He was right . " In 1978 , he thanked Jesus for an end to the Beatles ' touring , saying " if I hadn 't said [ that ] and upset the very Christian Ku Klux Klan , well , Lord , I might still be up there with all the other performing fleas ! God bless America . Thank you , Jesus . "
In 1993 , Michael Medved wrote in The Sunday Times that " today , comments like Lennon 's could never cause controversy ; a contemptuous attitude to religion is all but expected from all mainstream pop performers . " In 1997 , Noel Gallagher claimed that his band Oasis were " bigger than God " , but reaction was minimal .
In a 2008 article marking the 40th anniversary of the Beatles ' double album The Beatles ( also known as the " White Album " ) , the Vatican newspaper , L 'Osservatore Romano , issued the statement :
" The remark by John Lennon , which triggered deep indignation , mainly in the United States , after many years sounds only like a ' boast ' by a young working @-@ class Englishman faced with unexpected success , after growing up in the legend of Elvis and rock and roll . The fact remains that 38 years after breaking up , the songs of the Lennon @-@ McCartney brand have shown an extraordinary resistance to the passage of time , becoming a source of inspiration for more than one generation of pop musicians . "
In response to the statement , Starr said " Didn 't the Vatican say we were Satanic or possibly Satanic , and they 've still forgiven us ? I think the Vatican 's got more to talk about than the Beatles . " In its 14 April 2010 edition , L 'Osservatore Romano responded to Starr 's comments , stating that " John Lennon had no need of forgiveness from the Vatican , L 'Osservatore Romano reprinted its 1966 article on John Lennon 's comments . The 1966 L 'Osservatore Romano article noted that Lennon had apologised for his comments and that fellow Beatle Paul McCartney had criticized them . " In 2010 , Starr said that he had now found religion , adding , " For me , God is in my life ... I think the search has been on since the 1960s . "
In 2012 , the Houston Press music blog compared several aspects of popular media and concluded Jesus is more popular than the Beatles .
In 2015 , The Philippine Star said that almost half a century , Lennon 's statement proved half @-@ wrong : Rock ‘ n roll is dead but Christianity expanded with Catholicism experiencing exceptional growth through Pope Francis ’ lead .
= = Other mentions = =
On 18 May 1968 , Lennon summoned the other Beatles to a meeting at Apple Corps to announce that he was the living reincarnation of Jesus : " I have something very important to tell you all . I am Jesus Christ . I 'm back again . " The meeting was adjourned for lunch and Lennon never mentioned the subject again . In May 1969 , Lennon and McCartney recorded " The Ballad of John and Yoko " , with Lennon singing the lines , " Christ , you know it ain 't easy , You know how hard it can be , The way things are going , They 're gonna crucify me . " In a BBC interview a few months later , Lennon called himself " One of Christ 's biggest fans " , talked about the Church of England , his vision of heaven , and unhappiness over being unable to marry Yoko Ono in church .
On 3 December 1969 , Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice asked Lennon to play the part of Jesus in the stage production of Jesus Christ Superstar , which he declined , although he said he would have been interested if Ono could play the part of Mary Magdalene . Lennon mentioned Jesus again in his 1970 song , " God " , singing , " I don 't believe in Jesus " , but also sang that he did not believe in the Bible , Buddha , Gita , and the Beatles . While living in Los Angeles with May Pang , Lennon once said to DJ Wolfman Jack , " To boogie or not to boogie , that is the Christian . " Critics of Lennon 's lyrics also focused the line " Imagine there 's no heaven " on Lennon 's 1971 song , " Imagine " .
Lennon was murdered on 8 December 1980 by Mark David Chapman , who had become a born @-@ again Christian in 1970 and was incensed by Lennon 's " more popular than Jesus " remark , calling it blasphemy . He later stated that he was further enraged by the songs " God " and " Imagine " — even singing the latter with the altered lyric : " Imagine John Lennon dead " .
= Cleomenean War =
The Cleomenean War ( 229 / 228 – 222 BC ) was fought by Sparta and its ally , Elis , against the Achaean League and Macedon . The war ended in a Macedonian and Achaean victory .
In 235 BC , Cleomenes III ( r . 235 – 222 BC ) ascended the throne of Sparta and began a program of reform aimed at restoring traditional Spartan discipline while weakening the influence of the ephors , elected officials who wielded extraordinary political power , although they had sworn to uphold the rule of Sparta 's kings . When , in 229 BC , the ephors sent Cleomenes to seize a town on the border with Megalopolis , the Achaeans declared war . Cleomenes responded by ravaging Achaea . At Mount Lycaeum he defeated an army under Aratus of Sicyon , the strategos of the Achaean League , that had been sent to attack Elis , and then routed a second army near Megalopolis .
In quick succession , Cleomenes cleared the cities of Arcadia of their Achaean garrisons , before crushing another Achaean force at Dyme . Facing Spartan domination of the League , Aratus was forced to turn to Antigonus III Doson ( r . 229 – 221 BC ) of Macedon and request that he assist the Achaeans ' efforts to defeat the Spartans . In return for Macedonian assistance , the Achaeans were obliged to surrender the citadel overlooking Corinth to Antigonus . Cleomenes eventually invaded Achaea , seizing control of Corinth and Argos . But Cleomenes was forced to retreat to Laconia when Antigonus arrived in the Peloponnese . Cleomenes fought the Achaeans and the Macedonians at Sellasia , where the Spartans were routed . He then fled to the court of his ally , Ptolemy III of Egypt ( r . 246 – 222 BC ) , where he ultimately committed suicide in the wake of a failed revolt against the new Pharaoh , Ptolemy IV ( r . 221 – 205 BC ) .
= = Prelude = =
Cleomenes III ascended the throne of Sparta in 236 BC or 235 BC , after deposing his father , Leonidas II . His accession to power ended a decade @-@ long period of heightened conflict between the two royal families . Sparta 's ancient dual kingship was explained by the founding legend , that the original conquerors of Sparta were twin brothers and their descendants shared Sparta . During the turmoil , Leonidas II had executed his rival king , the reformist Agis IV .
In 229 BC , Cleomenes took the important cities Tegea , Mantineia , Caphyae and Orchomenus in Arcadia , who had by then allied themselves with the Aetolian League , a powerful Greek confederation of city states in central Greece . Historians Polybius and Sir William Smith claim that Cleomenes seized the cities by treachery ; however , Richard Talbert , who translated Plutarch 's account of Sparta , and historian N. G. L. Hammond say Cleomenes occupied them at their own request . Later that year , the ephors sent Cleomenes to seize the Athenaeum , near Belbina . Belbina was one of the entrance points into Laconia and was disputed at the time between Sparta and Megalopolis . Meanwhile , the Achaean League summoned a meeting of her assembly and declared war against Sparta . Cleomenes in return fortified his position .
Aratus of Sicyon , the strategos of the Achaean League , tried to re @-@ take Tegea and Orchomenus in a night attack . Efforts from inside the city failed , though , and Aratus quietly retreated , hoping to remain unnoticed . Cleomenes nonetheless discovered the plan and sent a message to Aratus asking about the goal of his expedition . Aratus replied that he had come to stop Cleomenes from fortifying Belbina . Cleomenes responded to this by saying : " If it 's all the same to you , write and tell me why you brought along those torches and ladders . "
= = Early years and Spartan success = =
After fortifying Belbina , Cleomenes advanced into Arcadia with 3 @,@ 000 infantry and a few cavalry . However , he was called back by the ephors , and this retreat allowed Aratus to seize Caphyae as soon as Cleomenes returned to Laconia . Once this news reached Sparta , the ephors sent Cleomenes out again ; he managed to capture the Megalopian city Methydrium before ravaging the territory surrounding Argos .
Around this time , the Achaean League sent an army under a new strategos — Aristomachos of Argos , who had been elected in May 228 BC — to meet Cleomenes in battle . The Achaean army of 20 @,@ 000 infantry and 1 @,@ 000 cavalry advanced on the 5 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Spartan army at Pallantium . Aratus , who had accompanied Aristomachos , advised him to retreat because even 20 @,@ 000 Achaeans were no match for 5 @,@ 000 Spartans . Aristomachos , listening to Aratus ' advice , retreated with the Achaean army .
Meanwhile , Ptolemy III of Egypt , who had been an ally of the Achaean League in their wars against Macedon , shifted his financial support to Sparta . Ptolemy made this decision after calculating that a resurgent Sparta would be a more valuable ally against Macedon than a failing Achaean League .
In May 227 BC , Aratus was once again elected strategos and attacked Elis . The Elians appealed to Sparta for aid ; as the Achaeans were returning from Elis , Cleomenes attacked and routed their entire army near Mount Lycaeum . Taking advantage of a rumour that he had been killed during the fighting , Aratus attacked and seized Mantinea .
Meanwhile , the Eurypontid King of Sparta Eudamidas III , son of Agis IV , died . Pausanias , the Greek writer , claims that Cleomenes had him poisoned . In order to strengthen his position against the ephors , who were opposed to his expansionist policy , Cleomenes recalled his uncle Archidamus V from his exile in Messene to ascend the Eurypontid throne , but as soon as Archidamus returned to the city , he was assassinated . Cleomenes ' involvement in the plot is unclear , since ancient sources contradict each other : Polybius claims that Cleomenes ordered the murder , but Plutarch disagrees .
= = Battle of Ladoceia and reforms = =
Later in 227 BC , Cleomenes bribed the ephors to allow him to continue his campaign against the Achaeans . Having succeeded with his bribe , Cleomenes advanced into the territory of Megalopolis and captured the village of Leuctra . In response , an Achaean army arrived , relieved the city and inflicted a minor defeat on the Spartan army based nearest the city walls . Cleomenes was therefore obliged to retreat with his troops across a series of ravines . Aratus ordered the Achaeans not to pursue the Spartans across the ravine , but Lydiadas of Megalopolis disobeyed the order and charged with the cavalry in pursuit of the Spartans . Taking advantage of the difficult terrain and the scattered cavalry , Cleomenes sent his Cretan and Tarentine soldiers against Lydiadas . They routed the cavalry , and Lydiadas was amongst the dead . The Spartans , encouraged by these events , charged against the main Achaean forces and defeated the entire army . The Achaeans were so outraged and demoralized by Aratus ' failure to support Lydiadas that they made no further attacks in that year .
Cleomenes , who was now confident of the strength of his position , began plotting against the ephors . He first recruited his stepfather , persuading him of the need to do away with the ephors . Cleomenes contended they could then make the ephors ' property common to all citizens and work toward the achievement of Spartan supremacy in Greece . Having won over his stepfather , Cleomenes started preparing his revolution . Employing the men he considered most likely to oppose him ( probably in an attempt to get them killed ) , he captured Heraea and Asea . He also brought in food for the citizens of Orchomenus — which the Achaeans were besieging — before camping outside Mantinea . This campaign exhausted his opponents , who asked to remain in Arcadia so they could rest . Cleomenes then advanced upon Sparta with his mercenaries and sent some loyal followers to slay the ephors . Four of the five ephors were killed ; the sole survivor was Agylaeus , who managed to escape and sought sanctuary in a temple .
With the ephors vanquished , Cleomenes initiated his reforms . First , he handed over his land to the state ; he was soon followed by his stepfather and his friends , and then by the rest of the citizens . He divided up all of the Spartan land , awarding an equal lot to each citizen . He increased the citizen population by granting citizenship to some perioeci , who constituted the Spartan middle class , but did not at that time have Spartan citizenship . Expanding the citizen population meant that Cleomenes could build a larger army ; he trained 4 @,@ 000 hoplites and restored the old Spartan social and military discipline . He also strengthened his army by introducing the Macedonian sarissa ( pike ) . Cleomenes completed his reforms by placing his brother , Eucleidas , in charge , making him the first Agiad king on the Eurypontid throne .
= = Domination of the Peloponnese = =
Ptolemy III of Egypt offered continued assistance to Cleomenes on the condition that the Spartan king would offer his mother and children as hostages . Cleomenes hesitated but his mother , after learning of Ptolemy 's offer , went voluntarily to Egypt .
In 226 BC , the citizens of Mantinea appealed to Cleomenes to expel the Achaean garrison from the city . One night , he and his troops crept into the city and removed the Achaean garrison before marching off to nearby Tegea . From Tegea , the Spartans advanced into Achaea , where Cleomenes hoped to force the League to face him in a pitched battle . Cleomenes advanced with his army to Dyme and was met by the entire Achaean army . In the battle , the Spartans routed the Achaean phalanx , killing many of the Achaeans and capturing others . Following this victory , Cleomenes captured the city of Lasium and presented it to the Elians .
The Achaean League was demoralized by this battle ; Aratus declined the generalship , and when both Athens and the Aetolian League turned down their appeals , they sued Cleomenes for peace . Initially , Cleomenes made only minor requests of the Achaean delegates , but as the talks progressed , Cleomenes ' demands became greater and he eventually insisted that leadership of the League be surrendered to him . In exchange , he would return to the Achaeans the prisoners and strongholds he had seized . The Achaeans invited Cleomenes to Lerna , where they were holding council . While marching there , Cleomenes drank too much water , which caused him to lose his voice and cough up blood — a situation that forced him to return to Sparta .
Aratus took advantage of this incident , and began plotting against Cleomenes with King Antigonus III Doson of Macedon . Previously , in 227 BC , two ambassadors from Megalopolis were sent to Macedon to request help . Antigonus showed little interest at the time , and these efforts failed . Aratus wanted the Macedonian king to come to the Peloponnese and defeat Cleomenes , in return for control of Acrocorinth . This was not a sacrifice that the League was willing to make , however , and they declined to seek help from Macedon .
When the Achaeans arrived at Argos for an assembly , Cleomenes came down from Tegea to meet them . However , Aratus — who had reached an agreement with Antigonus — demanded that Cleomenes present 300 hostages to the Achaeans and enter the city alone , or approach the city with all his forces . When this message reached Cleomenes , he declared that he had been wronged and once again declared war on the Achaeans .
Achaea was now in turmoil , and some cities were close to revolt ; many residents were angered at Aratus ' decision to invite the Macedonians into the Peloponnese . Some also hoped that Cleomenes would introduce constitutional changes in their cities . Encouraged by this development , Cleomenes invaded Achaea and seized the cities of Pellene , Pheneus and Penteleium , effectively splitting the Achaean League in half . The Achaeans , concerned about developing treachery in Corinth and Sicyon , dispatched their mercenaries to garrison the cities and then went to Argos to celebrate the Nemean Games .
Cleomenes estimated that Argos would be easier to capture while filled with festival @-@ goers and spectators to cause panic . During the night , he seized the rugged area above the city 's theatre . The people of the city were too terrified to offer resistance . They accepted a garrison , delivered twenty hostages to Cleomenes and became Spartan allies . The capture of Argos gave Cleomenes ' reputation a massive boost , since no Spartan king had ever managed to seize Argos . Even Pyrrhus of Epirus , one of the most famous generals of the age , had been killed while trying to take the city .
Soon after the seizure of Argos , Cleonae and Phlius surrendered themselves to Cleomenes . Meanwhile , Aratus was in Corinth investigating those suspected of supporting Sparta . When he heard what had happened at Argos , Aratus expected the city to fall to Sparta . He summoned an assembly and , with all the citizens present , he took his horse and fled to Sicyon . The Corinthians did surrender the city to Cleomenes , but the Spartan king criticized them for failing to arrest Aratus . Cleomenes sent his stepfather Megistonous to Aratus , asking for the surrender of Acrocorinth — the citadel of Corinth , which had an Achaean garrison — in return for a large amount of money .
In quick succession , Hermione , Troezen and Epidaurus surrendered to Cleomenes , who went from Argos to Corinth and started besieging the citadel . He sent a messenger to Aratus proposing that Acrocorinth should be garrisoned jointly by both the Spartans and the Achaeans , and that he would deliver a twelve talent pension . Aratus faced the hard decision of whether to give the city to Antigonus or to let it fall to Cleomenes . He chose to conclude an alliance with Antigonus and sent his son as a hostage to Macedon . Cleomenes invaded the territory of Sicyon and blockaded Aratus inside the city for three months before Aratus was able to escape to attend the Achaean council at Aegium .
= = Macedonian intervention = =
Antigonus , who had brought with him a large force of 20 @,@ 000 infantry and 1 @,@ 300 cavalry , was marching through Euboea towards the Peloponnese . The hostile Aetolian League occupying parts of Thessaly had threatened to oppose him if he went further south than Thermopylae , despite their neutrality at that point in the war . Aratus met Antigonus at Pagae , where he was pressured by Antigonus into giving Megara to Boeotia . When Cleomenes heard of the Macedonian advance through Euboea , he abandoned his siege of Sicyon and constructed a trench and palisade running from Acrocorinth to the Isthmus . He chose this location to avoid facing the Macedonian phalanx head @-@ on .
Despite numerous attempts to break through the defensive line and reach Lechaeum , Antigonus ' force failed and suffered considerable losses . These defeats took such a toll on Antigonus that he considered abandoning his attack of the palisade and moving his army to Sicyon . However , Aratus was visited one evening by some friends from Argos who invited Antigonus to come to their city . The Argives were ready to revolt under the command of Aristoteles , as they were irritated that Cleomenes had not made any reforms in the city . Antigonus sent 1 @,@ 500 men under the command of Aratus to sail to Epidaurus and , from there , march to Argos . At the same time the Achaean strategos for the year , Timoxenos , advanced with more men from Sicyon . When the Achaean reinforcements arrived , the entire city except for the citadel was in the hands of the Argives .
When Cleomenes heard about the revolt at Argos , he sent his stepfather with 2 @,@ 000 men to try and save the situation . Megistonous was killed while assaulting the city , however , and the relief force retreated , leaving the Spartans in the citadel to continue resistance . Cleomenes abandoned his much stronger position at the Isthmus for fear of being encircled and left Corinth to fall into the hands of Antigonus . Cleomenes advanced his troops upon Argos and forced his way into the city , rescuing the men stuck in the citadel . He retreated to Mantinea when he saw Antigonus ' army on the plain outside the city .
After retreating into Arcadia and receiving news of his wife 's death , Cleomenes returned to Sparta . This left Antigonus free to advance through Arcadia and on the towns that Cleomenes had fortified , including Athenaeum — which he gave to Megalopolis . He continued to Aegium , where the Achaeans were holding their council . He gave a report on his operations and was made chief @-@ in @-@ command of all the allied forces .
Antigonus took the opportunity to revive the Hellenic League of Philip II of Macedon , under the name League of Leagues . Most of the Greek city states took part in the league . These included Macedon , Achaea , Boeotia , Thessaly , Phocis , Locris , Acarnania , Euboea and Epiros . Peter Green claims that for Antigonus , the League was just a way to further Macedon 's power .
In the early spring of 223 BC , Antigonus advanced upon Tegea . He was joined there by the Achaeans and together they laid siege to it . The Tegeans held out for a few days before being forced to surrender by the Macedonians ' siege weapons . After the capture of Tegea , Antigonus advanced to Laconia , where he found Cleomenes ' army waiting for him . When his scouts brought news that the garrison of Orchomenus was marching to meet Cleomenes , however , Antigonus broke camp and ordered a forced march ; this caught the city by surprise and forced it to surrender . Antigonus proceeded to capture Mantinea , Heraea and Telphusa , which confined Cleomenes to Laconia . Antigonus then returned to Aegium , where he gave another report about his operations before dismissing the Macedonian troops to winter at home .
Knowing that Cleomenes got the money to pay for his mercenaries from Ptolemy , Antigonus , according to Peter Green , seems to have ceded some territory in Asia Minor to Ptolemy in return for Ptolemy withdrawing his financial support of Sparta . Whether this assumption is accurate or not , Ptolemy certainly withdrew his support , which left Cleomenes without money to pay for his mercenaries . Desperate , Cleomenes freed all helots able to pay five Attic minae ; in this way he accumulated 500 talents of silver . He also armed 2 @,@ 000 of the ex @-@ helots in Macedonian style to counter the White Shields , the Macedonian crack troops , before planning a major initiative .
Cleomenes noted that Antigonus had dismissed his Macedonian troops and only traveled with his mercenaries . At the time Antigonus was in Aegium , a three @-@ day march from Megalopolis . Most of the Achaeans of military age had been killed at Mount Lycaeum and Ladoceia . Cleomenes ordered his army to take five days ' worth of rations and sent his troops toward Sellasia , to give the appearance of raiding the territory of Argos . From there he went to the territory of Megalopolis ; during the night he ordered one of his friends , Panteus , to capture the weakest section of the walls , while Cleomenes and the rest of the army followed . Panteus managed to capture that section of the wall after killing the sentries . This allowed Cleomenes and the rest of the Spartan army to enter the city .
When dawn came , the Megalopolitans realised that the Spartans had entered the city ; some of them fled , while others stood and fought against the invaders . Cleomenes ' superior numbers forced the defenders to retreat , but their rearguard action allowed most of the population to escape — only 1 @,@ 000 were captured . Cleomenes sent a message to Messene , where the exiles had gathered , offering to give back their city if they became his allies . The Megalopolitans refused ; in retaliation the Spartans ransacked the city and burnt it to the ground . Nicholas Hammond estimated that Cleomenes managed to accumulate around 300 talents of loot from the city .
= = Battle of Sellasia = =
The destruction of Megalopolis shook the Achaean League . Cleomenes set off with his army to raid the territory of Argos , knowing that Antigonus would not resist him due to a lack of men . Cleomenes also hoped that his raid would cause the Argives to lose confidence in Antigonus because of his failure to protect their territory . Walbank describes this raid as being " an impressive demonstration , but it had no effect other than to make it even more clear that Cleomenes had to be defeated in a pitched battle . "
In the summer of 222 BC , Antigonus summoned his troops from Macedon , who arrived together with other allied forces . According to Polybius , the Macedonian army consisted of 10 @,@ 000 Macedonian infantry , most of them armed as phalangites , 3 @,@ 000 peltasts , 1 @,@ 200 cavalry , 3 @,@ 000 mercenaries , 8 @,@ 600 Greek allies , and 3 @,@ 000 Achaean infantry , making a total of 29 @,@ 200 men .
Cleomenes had fortified all the passes into Laconia with barricades and trenches before setting off with his army of 20 @,@ 000 men to the pass at Sellasia , on the northern border of Laconia . Overlooking the pass at Sellasia were two hills , Evas and Olympus . Cleomenes positioned his brother , Eucleidas , with the allied troops and the Perioeci on Evas ; he stationed himself on Olympus with 6 @,@ 000 Spartan hoplites and 5 @,@ 000 mercenaries .
When Antigonus reached Sellasia with his army , he found it well guarded and decided against storming the strong position . Instead he pitched camp near Sellasia and waited for several days . During this time , he sent scouts to reconnoiter the areas and feign attacks on Cleomenes ' position .
Unable to force a move from Cleomenes , Antigonus decided to risk a pitched battle . He positioned some of his Macedonian infantry and Illyrians facing the Evas hill in an articulated phalanx . The Epirots , the Acarnanians and 2 @,@ 000 Achaean infantry stood behind them as reinforcements . The cavalry took a position opposite Cleomenes ' cavalry , with 1 @,@ 000 Achaean and Megalopolitan infantry in reserve . Together with the rest of his Macedonian infantry and mercenaries Antigonus took his position opposite that of Cleomenes .
The battle started when the Illyrian troops on the Macedonian right wing attacked the Spartan force on Evas . The Spartan light infantry and cavalry , noticing that the Achaean infantry was not protected at the rear , launched an assault on the back of the Macedonian right wing , and threatened to rout it . However , at the critical moment , Philopoemon of Megalopolis ( who later became one of the greatest heroes of the Achaean League , eventually conquering Sparta ) , tried to point out the danger to the senior cavalry commanders . When they did not take notice of him , Philopoemon gathered a few other cavalrymen and charged the Spartan cavalry . The Spartans attacking from the rear broke off their engagement with the enemy , which encouraged the Macedonians to charge at the Spartan positions . The Spartans ' left flank was eventually forced back and thrown from their position and their commander , Eucleidas , killed ; they fled the field .
Meanwhile , the Macedonian phalanx on the left flank engaged the Spartan phalanx and mercenaries . During the initial assault , the Macedonian phalanx gave a considerable amount of ground before its weight drove back the Spartan phalanx . The Spartans , overwhelmed by the deeper ranks of Macedonian phalanx , were routed , but Cleomenes managed to escape with a small group of men . The battle was very costly for the Spartans ; most of their army was routed with only 200 of the 6 @,@ 000 Spartans that fought surviving the battle .
= = Aftermath = =
Following his defeat at Sellasia , Cleomenes briefly returned to Sparta and urged the citizens to accept Antigonus ' terms . Under cover of darkness , he fled from Sparta with some friends and went to the city 's port of Gythium , where he boarded a ship heading to Egypt .
Antigonus entered Sparta triumphantly , its first foreign conqueror . Nevertheless , he treated the population generously and humanely . He ordered that the reforms of Cleomenes be revoked , and restored the ephors , although he did not force Sparta to join the League . However , Antigonus ' failure to restore the Spartan Kings suggests to historian Graham Shipley that this restoration of laws was a sham . Within three days , he left Sparta and returned to Macedon to deal with a Dardanii invasion , leaving a garrison in Acrocorinth and Orchomenos . With Cleomenes ' defeat , Sparta 's power collapsed and it fell into the hands of successive tyrants .
On his arrival at Alexandria , Cleomenes was greeted by Ptolemy , who welcomed him with smiles and promises . At first Ptolemy was guarded towards Cleomenes , but soon came to respect him and promised to send him back to Greece with an army and a fleet . He also promised to provide Cleomenes with an annual income of twenty @-@ four talents . However , before he could fulfill his promise , Ptolemy died — and with him any hope for Cleomenes to return to Greece , as the weak Ptolemy IV ascended the throne .
Ptolemy IV began treating Cleomenes with neglect and soon his chief minister , Sosibius , had Cleomenes put under house arrest after he was falsely accused of plotting against the king . In 219 BC , Cleomenes and his friends escaped from house arrest and ran through the streets of Alexandria , trying to encourage an uprising against Ptolemy . When this failed , Cleomenes and all of his friends committed suicide .
= Virtual Theatre =
The Virtual Theatre is a computer game engine designed by Revolution Software to produce adventure games for computer platforms . The engine allowed their team to script events , and move animated sprites against a drawn background with moving elements using a point @-@ and @-@ click style interface . Upon its first release , it rivaled competing engines like LucasArts ' SCUMM and Sierra 's Creative Interpreter , due to its then high level of artificial intelligence . The engine was first proposed in 1989 , while the first game to use it , Lure of the Temptress , was released in 1992 , followed by Beneath a Steel Sky ( 1994 ) , Broken Sword : The Shadow of the Templars ( 1996 ) and Broken Sword II : The Smoking Mirror ( 1997 ) .
It allowed in @-@ game characters to wander around the gameworld independently of each other , performing " everyday life " actions , which was not previously possible , and all characters and objects occupied space , and consequently , non @-@ player characters had to side @-@ step the player 's protogonist and any other object they came across , as well as the player had to side step them , achieving a more realistic game world than previous engines were unable to provide , though non @-@ player characters could unwittingly block a path as the player was traversing the game scene . Non @-@ player characters performed much simpler tasks with each release due to size constraints .
Two games ( Broken Sword : The Shadow of the Templars and Broken Sword II : The Smoking Mirror ) that use a Virtual Theatre variant engine can now be played on modern hardware using ScummVM , which as a result allows the engine to run on platforms where the titles were not officially released . In 2012 , it was confirmed that the engine will be revived as " Virtual Theatre 7 " for the upcoming fifth Broken Sword titled Broken Sword : The Serpent 's Curse ( 2013 ) .
= = Development = =
Charles Cecil and Tony Warriner had worked together at Artic Computing , an English video game development company . In 1990 , they decided that they would set up their own video game development company , together with David Sykes and Noirin Carmody . For their debut adventure game , Lure of the Temptress , released in 1992 for Amiga , Atari ST and PC , Cecil , Warriner , Sykes and Dan Marchant created the concept of the game engine titled Virtual Theatre , which Warriner wrote .
For Beneath a Steel Sky , released in 1994 for Amiga , and PC , Revolution used an updated version of Virtual Theatre , Virtual Theatre 2 @.@ 0 , written by Warriner and Sykes . However , because the game was six times the size of Lure of the Temptress , non @-@ player characters had to perform much simpler tasks than in its predecessor . Broken Sword : The Shadow of the Templars , released in 1996 for PC , Mac and PlayStation , and its sequel , Broken Sword II : The Smoking Mirror , released in 1997 for PC and PlayStation , also used modified versions of the Virtual Theatre engine . The engine got various updates since then . For Broken Sword : The Serpent 's Curse a brand new engine ( VT7 ) was developed in order to deal with multiple platforms and , in particular screen resolution ( The system is built on C + + and OpenGL , and a custom scripting language to implement the game itself ) .
= = Features = =
Traditionally in adventure game engines , non @-@ player characters were static awaiting the player to interact with them to trigger an event . However , Virtual Theatre allowed non @-@ player characters to traverse the world in
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the principal physical quantities and maintenance of the international prototype standards .
In 1881 first International Electrical Congress adopted the BAAS recommendations on electrical units , followed by a series of congresses in which further units of measure were defined and the International Electrotechnical Commission ( IEC ) was set up with the specific task of overseeing electrical units of measure . This was followed by the International Congress of Radiology ( ISR ) who , at their inaugural meeting in 1926 , initiated the definition of radiological @-@ related units of measure . In 1921 the Metre Convention was extended to cover all units of measure , not just length and mass and in 1933 the 8th CGPM resolved to work with other international bodies to agree standards for electrical units that could be related back to the international prototypes . Since 1954 the CIPM committee that oversees the definition of units of measurement , the Consultative Committee for Units , has representatives from many international organisations including the ISR , IEC and ISO under the chairmanship of the CIPM .
= = Variants = =
A number of variants of the metric system evolved , all using the Mètre des Archives and Kilogramme des Archives ( or their descendants ) as their base units , but differing in the definitions of the various derived units .
= = = Centimetre @-@ gram @-@ second systems = = =
The centimetre gram second system of units ( CGS ) was the first coherent metric system , having been developed in the 1860s and promoted by Maxwell and Thomson . In 1874 , this system was formally promoted by the British Association for the Advancement of Science ( BAAS ) . The system 's characteristics are that density is expressed in g / cm3 , force expressed in dynes and mechanical energy in ergs . Thermal energy was defined in calories , one calorie being the energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of water from 15 @.@ 5 ° C to 16 @.@ 5 ° C. The meeting also proposed two sets of units for electrical and magnetic properties – the electrostatic set of units and the electromagnetic set of units .
= = = Metre @-@ kilogram @-@ second systems = = =
The CGS units of electricity were cumbersome to work with . This was remedied at the 1893 International Electrical Congress held in Chicago by defining the " international " ampere and ohm using definitions based on the metre , kilogram and second . In 1901 , Giovanni Giorgi showed that by adding an electrical unit as a fourth base unit , the various anomalies in electromagnetic systems could be resolved . The metre @-@ kilogram @-@ second @-@ coulomb ( MKSC ) and metre @-@ kilogram @-@ second @-@ ampere ( MKSA ) systems are examples of such systems .
The International System of Units ( Système international d 'unités or SI ) is the current international standard metric system and is also the system most widely used around the world . It is an extension of Giorgi 's MKSA system — its base units are the metre , kilogram , second , ampere , kelvin , candela and mole .
= = = Metre @-@ tonne @-@ second systems = = =
The metre @-@ tonne @-@ second system of units ( MTS ) was based on the metre , tonne and second – the unit of force was the sthène and the unit of pressure was the pièze . It was invented in France for industrial use and from 1933 to 1955 was used both in France and in the Soviet Union .
= = = Gravitational systems = = =
Gravitational metric systems use the kilogram @-@ force ( kilopond ) as a base unit of force , with mass measured in a unit known as the hyl , Technische Mass Einheit ( TME ) , mug or metric slug . Although the CGPM passed a resolution in 1901 defining the standard value of acceleration due to gravity to be 980 @.@ 665 cm / s2 , gravitational units are not part of the International System of Units ( SI ) .
= = = International System of Units = = =
The 9th CGPM met in 1948 , three years after the end of the Second World War and fifteen years after the 8th CGPM . In response to formal requests made by the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics and by the French Government to establish a practical system of units of measure , the CGPM requested the CIPM to prepare recommendations for such a system , suitable for adoption by all countries adhering to the Metre Convention . The recommendation also catalogued symbols for the most important MKS and CGS units of measure and for the first time the CGPM made recommendations concerning derived units . At the same time the CGPM formally adopted a recommendation for the writing and printing of unit symbols and of numbers .
The CIPM 's draft proposal , which was an extensive revision and simplification of the metric unit definitions , symbols and terminology based on the MKS system of units , was put to the 10th CGPM in 1954 . In accordance with Giorgi 's proposals of 1901 , the CIPM also recommended that the ampere be the base unit from which electromechanical units would be derived . The definitions for the ohm and volt that had previously been in use were discarded and these units became derived units based on the metre , ampere , second and kilogram . After negotiations with the International Commission on Illumination ( CIE ) and IUPAP , two further base units , the degree kelvin and the candela were also proposed as base units . The full system and name " Système International d 'Unités " were adopted at the 11th CGPM in October 1960 . During the years that followed the definitions of the base units and particularly the methods of applying these definitions have been refined .
The formal definition of International System of Units ( SI ) along with the associated resolutions passed by the CGPM and the CIPM are published by the BIPM in brochure form at regular intervals . The eighth edition of the brochure Le Système International d 'Unités — The International System of Units was published in 2006 and is available on the internet . In October 2011 , at the 24th CGPM proposals were made to change the definitions of four of the base units . These changes should not affect the average person .
= = Relating SI to the real world = =
Although SI , as published by the CGPM , should , in theory , meet all the requirements of commerce , science and technology , certain units of measure have acquired such a position within the world community that it is likely they will be used for many years to come . In order that such units are used consistently around the world , the CGPM catalogued such units in Tables 6 to 9 of the SI brochure . These categories are :
Non @-@ SI units accepted for use with the International System of Units ( Table 6 ) . This list includes the hour and minute , the angular measures ( degree , minute and second of arc ) and the historic [ non @-@ coherent ] metric units , the litre , tonne and hectare ( originally agreed by the CGPM in 1879 )
Non @-@ SI units whose values in SI units must be obtained experimentally ( Table 7 ) . This list includes various units of measure used in atomic and nuclear physics and in astronomy such as the dalton , the electron mass , the electron volt , the astronomical unit , the solar mass , and a number of other units of measure that are well @-@ established , but dependent on experimentally @-@ determined physical quantities .
Other non @-@ SI units ( Table 8 ) . This list catalogues a number of units of measure that have been used internationally in certain well @-@ defined spheres including the bar for pressure , the ångström for atomic physics , the nautical mile and the knot in navigation .
Non @-@ SI units associated with the CGS and the CGS @-@ Gaussian system of units ( Table 9 ) . This table catalogues a number of units of measure based on the CGS system and dating from the nineteenth century . They appear frequently in the literature , but their continued use is discouraged by the CGPM .
= = Usage around the world = =
The usage of the metric system varies around the world . According to the US Central Intelligence Agency 's Factbook ( 2007 ) , the International System of Units has been adopted as the official system of weights and measures by all nations in the world except for Myanmar ( Burma ) , Liberia and the United States , while the NIST has identified the United States as the only industrialised country where the metric system is not the predominant system of units . However , reports published since 2007 hold this is no longer true of Myanmar or Liberia . An Agence France @-@ Presse report from 2010 stated that Sierra Leone had passed a law to replace the imperial system with the metric system thereby aligning its system of measurement with that used by its Mano River Union ( MRU ) neighbours Guinea and Liberia . Reports from Myanmar suggest that the country is also planning to adopt the metric system .
In the United States metric units , authorised by Congress in 1866 , are widely used in science , medicine , military , and partially in industry , but customary units predominate in household use . At retail stores the litre is a commonly used unit for volume , especially on bottles of beverages , and milligrams are used to denominate the amounts of medications , rather than grains . On the other hand , non @-@ metric units are used in certain regulated environments such as nautical miles and knots in international aviation . Resistance to metrication , particularly in the UK and the US , has been connected to the perceived cost involved , a sense of patriotism and lack of desire to conform internationally .
In the countries of the Commonwealth of Nations the metric system has replaced the imperial system by varying degrees : Australia , New Zealand and Commonwealth countries in Africa are almost totally metric , India is mostly metric while Canada is partly metric . In the United Kingdom , the metric system , the use of which was first permitted for trade in 1864 , is used in much government business , in most industries including building , health and engineering and for pricing by measure or weight in most trading situations , both wholesale and retail . However the imperial system is widely used by the British public , such as feet and inches as a measurement of height , weight in stone and pounds , and is legally mandated in various cases , such as road @-@ sign distances , which must be given in yards and miles . In 2007 , the European Commission announced that it was to abandon the requirement for metric @-@ only labelling on packaged goods in the UK , and to allow dual metric – imperial marking to continue indefinitely .
Some other jurisdictions , such as Hong Kong , have laws mandating or permitting other systems of measurement in parallel with the metric system in some or all contexts .
= = = Variations in spelling = = =
The SI symbols for the metric units are intended to be identical , regardless of the language used but unit names are ordinary nouns and use the character set and follow the grammatical rules of the language concerned . For example , the SI unit symbol for kilometre is " km " everywhere in the world , even though the local language word for the unit name may vary . Language variants for the kilometre unit name include : chilometro ( Italian ) , Kilometer ( German ) , kilometer ( Dutch ) , kilomètre ( French ) , χιλιόμετρο ( Greek ) , quilómetro / quilômetro ( Portuguese ) , kilómetro ( Spanish ) and километр ( Russian ) .
Variations are also found with the spelling of unit names in countries using the same language , including differences in American English and British spelling . For example , meter and liter are used in the United States whereas metre and litre are used in other English @-@ speaking countries . In addition , the official US spelling for the rarely used SI prefix for ten is deka . In American English the term metric ton is the normal usage whereas in other varieties of English tonne is common . Gram is also sometimes spelled gramme in English @-@ speaking countries other than the United States , though this older usage is declining .
= = = Conversion and calculation incidents = = =
The dual usage of or confusion between metric and non @-@ metric units has resulted in a number of serious incidents . These include :
Flying an overloaded American International Airways aircraft from Miami , Florida to Maiquetia , Venezuela on 26 May 1994 . The degree of overloading was consistent with ground crew reading the kilogram markings on the cargo as pounds .
In 1999 the Institute for Safe Medication Practices reported that confusion between grains and grams led to a patient receiving phenobarbital 0 @.@ 5 grams instead of 0 @.@ 5 grains ( 0 @.@ 03 grams ) after the practitioner misread the prescription .
The Canadian " Gimli Glider " accident in 1983 , when a Boeing 767 jet ran out of fuel in mid @-@ flight because of two mistakes made when calculating the fuel supply of Air Canada 's first aircraft to use metric measurements : mechanics miscalculated the amount of fuel required by the aircraft as a result of their unfamiliarity with metric units .
The root cause of the loss in 1999 of NASA 's US $ 125 million Mars Climate Orbiter was a mismatch of units – the spacecraft engineers calculated the thrust forces required for velocity changes using US customary units ( lbf · s ) whereas the team who built the thrusters were expecting a value in metric units ( N · s ) as per the agreed specification .
= = Conversion between SI and legacy units = =
During its evolution , the metric system has adopted many units of measure . The introduction of SI rationalised both the way in which units of measure were defined and also the list of units in use . These are now catalogued in the official SI Brochure . The table below lists the units of measure in this catalogue and shows the conversion factors connecting them with the equivalent units that were in use on the eve of the adoption of SI .
The SI Brochure also catalogues certain non @-@ SI units that are widely used with the SI in matters of everyday life or units that are exactly defined values in terms of SI units and are used in particular circumstances to satisfy the needs of commercial , legal , or specialised scientific interests . These units include :
= = Future developments = =
After the metre was redefined in 1960 , the kilogram was the only SI base unit that relied on a specific artefact . After the 1996 – 1998 recalibrations a clear divergence between the international and various national prototype kilograms was observed .
At the 23rd CGPM ( 2007 ) , the CIPM was mandated to investigate the use of natural constants as the basis for all units of measure rather than the artefacts that were then in use . At a meeting of the CCU held in Reading , United Kingdom in September 2010 , a resolution and draft changes to the SI brochure that were to be presented to the next meeting of the CIPM in October 2010 were agreed to in principle . The CCU proposed to
in addition to the speed of light , define four constants of nature — Planck 's constant , an elementary charge , Boltzmann constant and Avogadro constant – to have exact values
retire the international prototype kilogram
revise the current definitions of the kilogram , ampere , kelvin and mole to make use of the above four constants of nature
tighten the wording of the definitions of all the base units
The CIPM meeting of October 2010 found that " the conditions set by the General Conference at its 23rd meeting have not yet been fully met . For this reason the CIPM does not propose a revision of the SI at the present time " . The CIPM did however sponsor a resolution at the 24th CGPM in which the changes were agreed in principle and which were expected to be finalised at the 25th CGPM in 2014 .
= 1982 British Army Gazelle friendly fire incident =
On 6 June 1982 , during the Falklands War , the British Royal Navy Type 42 destroyer HMS Cardiff engaged and destroyed a British Army Gazelle helicopter , serial number XX377 , in a friendly fire incident , killing all four occupants . Cardiff , on the lookout for aircraft flying supplies to the Argentine forces occupying the Falkland Islands , had misidentified the helicopter as an enemy C @-@ 130 Hercules . Although the helicopter 's loss was initially blamed on enemy action , a subsequent inquiry found Cardiff 's missiles to be the cause .
On the night of 5 June , HMS Cardiff was stationed to the east of the islands to provide gunfire support to the land forces and intercept enemy aircraft . At around 02 : 00 a radar contact was detected ; a British Army Air Corps Gazelle helicopter was making a routine delivery of personnel and equipment to a radio rebroadcast station on East Falkland . From the contact 's speed and course , Cardiff 's operations room crew assumed it to be hostile . Two Sea Dart missiles were fired , destroying the target . The Gazelle 's wreckage and crew were discovered the next morning , and the loss was attributed to enemy fire . Although Cardiff was suspected , later scientific tests on the wreckage proved inconclusive .
No formal inquiry was held until four years later . Defending their claim that the helicopter had been lost in action , the United Kingdom 's Ministry of Defence ( MoD ) stated that they had not wanted to " cause further anguish to relatives " while they were still trying to ascertain how the Gazelle had been shot down . The board of inquiry finally confirmed that the soldiers fell due to friendly fire . It recommended that " neither negligence nor blame should be attributed to any individual " , but identified several factors . A lack of communication between the army and the navy meant that 5th Infantry Brigade had not notified anyone of the helicopter 's flight . The navy had not informed the land forces that Cardiff had changed position to set up an ambush for Argentine aircraft travelling over the area . The helicopter 's identification friend or foe ( IFF ) transmitter was turned off , because it caused interference with the army 's Rapier anti @-@ aircraft missile system . The board of inquiry 's findings prompted criticism of the MoD 's initial response to the incident .
= = Background = =
On 2 April 1982 , the British overseas territory of the Falkland Islands was invaded by neighbouring Argentina . The United Kingdom , nearly 8 @,@ 000 miles ( 13 @,@ 000 km ) away , assembled and dispatched a naval task force of 28 @,@ 000 troops to recapture the islands . The conflict ended that June with the surrender of the Argentine forces ; the battles fought on land , at sea , and in the air had cost the lives of some 900 British and Argentine servicemen .
In early May , British troops landed at San Carlos on the western side of East Falkland , and from there moved overland towards the islands ' capital of Stanley . To support the advance , logistical supplies were ferried to the troops by helicopter from San Carlos . The Argentine forces occupying Stanley were supplied throughout the war by C @-@ 130 Hercules aircraft from the Argentine mainland . These " milk @-@ runs " , as the British termed them , were a source of concern to the Royal Navy , and various attempts were made to intercept them .
= = Incident = =
On the night of 5 June , the British Type 42 destroyer HMS Cardiff took up station on the " Bluff Cove Gunline " to the east of the islands . Tasked with a dual mission , Cardiff was to provide fire support to the marines of 3 Commando Brigade , and to interdict any Argentine aircraft attempting to fly into Stanley . The destroyer had performed a similar role four nights previously , when she unsuccessfully attempted to shoot down a re @-@ supply aircraft as it landed , and again as it took off .
Meanwhile , pilots Staff Sergeant Christopher Griffin and Lance Corporal Simon Cockton , of 656 Squadron Army Air Corps , had been ordered to fly equipment and personnel to a malfunctioning radio re @-@ broadcast station on top of Pleasant Peak . The station had been established the previous day to provide a communications link between the 5th Infantry Brigade headquarters at Darwin , and the 2nd Battalion , Parachute Regiment at Fitzroy . Night flying conditions were excellent , with a clear sky , a prominent moon and a wind speed of 20 kn ( 37 km / h ) . The crew departed from Goose Green in Gazelle serial number XX377 and collected the replacement equipment from the headquarters at Darwin . They also took on board two passengers ; Major Michael Forge , the OC of 205 Signal Squadron , and one of his technicians , Staff Sergeant John Baker . Griffin was an experienced pilot ; the flight to the re @-@ broadcast station was expected to take ten minutes .
At 02 : 00 local time , Cardiff 's operations room detected XX377 on her surface plot radar at a range of 25 nautical miles ( 46 km ) . The helicopter 's identification friend or foe ( IFF ) system was turned off , so receiving no friendly transmissions and with the contact apparently heading towards Stanley , the operations room crew assumed it to be hostile . After calculating its speed they believed they were tracking an Argentine fixed @-@ wing aircraft — either a Hercules conducting a resupply mission , or a FMA IA 58 Pucará ground @-@ attack aircraft sent to retaliate for Cardiff 's shelling . Cardiff fired two of her Sea Dart missiles . 5th Infantry Brigade lost radio contact with the Gazelle , and simultaneously the exploding missile warheads were seen and heard by the re @-@ broadcast station 's personnel atop Pleasant Peak . Cardiff 's crew were able to see the fireball , but only with the aid of night vision goggles .
The helicopter 's loss caused the British to suspect that Argentine forces were still operating in the area , so patrols were mounted by Gurkha soldiers . When the Gurkhas came across the personnel manning the Pleasant Peak station there was potential for another friendly fire incident to occur . At first light a proper search was carried out , and the Gazelle 's wreckage was found along with the dead aircrew and passengers ; 5th Infantry Brigade 's first casualties of the war . Immediately there were suspicions that Cardiff had been responsible for the shootdown , and later that evening Rear Admiral " Sandy " Woodward declared a " Weapons Tight " order , forbidding the engagement of any aircraft not positively identified as hostile , for all contacts detected flying over East Falkland at less than 200 kn ( 370 km / h ) and under 610 m ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) .
= = Investigations = =
The crew 's bodies were initially examined by senior medical officer , Surgeon @-@ Captain Richard " Rick " Jolly of the Royal Navy . The helicopter 's wreckage was inspected on @-@ site , but the British were unable to determine if it had been destroyed by Cardiff 's missiles or by Argentine fire . This uncertainty prompted the decision not to hold a board of inquiry , and XX377 was declared " lost in action " . It was surmised that , if the relatives of the deceased were told that the Gazelle might have been lost to friendly fire , it would add to their grief . After the war , missile fragments found in the wreckage were taken to the British government 's aviation research facility at RAE Farnborough for analysis . The scientific tests concluded that the fragments were not from a British Sea Dart missile , despite a Sea Dart casing later being found " several hundred yards " away from the wreckage .
In December 1982 an inquest was held by a Southampton coroner into the death of Lance Corporal Cockton after his body was repatriated to the UK . Based on RAE Farnborough 's test results , the Army Air Corps submitted evidence stating that the analysis of the warhead fragments found in the wreckage indicated that the helicopter had been destroyed by a type of anti @-@ aircraft missile " known to have been in the possession of the enemy " . The test results were reviewed in November 1985 and determined that there could be " no definitive conclusion as to the exact source of the missile fragments recovered from the crash site " . In June 1986 , John Stanley , the Minister of State for the Armed Forces , announced in his written answers to the House of Commons : " the [ Southampton ] coroner has been informed accordingly . "
In October 1986 , partly due to pressure from Cockton 's mother and the anti @-@ war politician Tam Dalyell , an official board of inquiry was finally opened . The board took a month to reach the conclusion that XX377 was shot down by Cardiff . Historian Hugh Bicheno remarks : " It took [ the ] MoD four years and two investigations , the first either incompetent or a deliberate cover @-@ up , even to admit the Gazelle blue @-@ on @-@ blue . " The board 's findings were made public by a Freedom of Information Act request in July 2008 , although Paragraph 13 of the report was redacted under Section 26 of the act as it " contains operational details of the Royal Navy 's activities , which , even with the passage of time since the Falklands campaign , would be of use to potential enemies . "
The board of inquiry found that standard operating procedure dictated that the commanders of 5th Infantry Brigade were not required to declare the helicopter 's mission to any other authority , as the flight was to occur in brigade airspace on a brigade task . Gazelle XX377 was equipped with an IFF transmitter , but this was turned off . In the opinion of the board , " had IFF been in use there is little doubt that Cardiff would not have engaged the aircraft that night . " At the time , less than half of the land force 's helicopters were fitted with IFF transmitters , and those that were had been ordered not to use them because they inhibited the tracking systems of the British ground @-@ based Rapier anti @-@ aircraft missile batteries . A misconception about the Royal Navy 's ability to engage air targets over land led to the navy not being informed that the army 's helicopters were not using IFF . The board of inquiry concluded that it was this failure to communicate , together with the navy 's assumption that all helicopters would be operating IFF , which " had a cumulative effect [ and ] was a major cause of [ the ] accident . " However , the board recommended that " neither negligence nor blame should be attributed to any individual " .
= = Effects = =
Given that the role of helicopters in land force operations was increasing , as was the integration of guided missile destroyers for coastal defence , the board of inquiry recommended an amendment to NATO procedures for amphibious warfare and naval gunfire support , to alert other armed forces to the danger of underestimating a ship 's missile engagement zone over land . During the late 1980s , the British government placed more emphasis on joint warfare training , with exercises , such as Purple Warrior , taking place in Oman and Scotland . The board noted the establishment of the Permanent Joint Headquarters , designed to put an end to the " ad hoc and reactive way " in which operations had been carried out while under single service control . IFF transmitters were fitted to all Army Air Corps and Royal Marine Gazelle and Lynx helicopters , and the problem of operating IFF in the vicinity of Rapier batteries was successfully addressed . The board supported a recommendation that the responsibilities of naval gunfire @-@ support liaison officers could be broadened to include the interpretation of air defence problems during inshore joint warfare operations .
A memorial cross was installed on Pleasant Peak , and the number " 205 " was painted at the crash site by the soldiers of 205 Signal Squadron . The number is approximately 40 m ( 130 ft ) wide and can be seen from the air ( 51 @.@ 783600 ° S 58 @.@ 467786 ° W / -51.783600 ; -58.467786 ) .
= Thespis ( opera ) =
Thespis , or The Gods Grown Old , is an operatic extravaganza that was the first collaboration between dramatist W. S. Gilbert and composer Arthur Sullivan . No musical score of Thespis was ever published , and most of the music has been lost . Gilbert and Sullivan went on to become the most famous and successful artistic partnership in Victorian England , creating a string of comic opera hits , including H.M.S. Pinafore , The Pirates of Penzance and The Mikado , which continue to be popular .
Thespis premièred in London at the Gaiety Theatre on 26 December 1871 . Like many productions at that theatre , it was written in a broad , burlesque style , considerably different from Gilbert and Sullivan 's later works . It was a success , for a Christmas entertainment of the time , and closed on 8 March 1872 , after a run of 63 performances . It was advertised as " An entirely original Grotesque Opera in Two Acts " .
The story follows an acting troupe headed by Thespis , the legendary Greek father of the drama , who temporarily trade places with the gods on Mount Olympus , who have grown elderly and ignored . The actors turn out to be comically inept rulers . Having seen the ensuing mayhem down below , the angry gods return , sending the actors back to Earth as " eminent tragedians , whom no one ever goes to see " . Gilbert would return to this theme twenty @-@ five years later in his last opera with Sullivan , The Grand Duke , in which a theatre company temporarily replaces the ruler of a small country and decides to " revive the classic memories of Athens at its best " .
Seasonal works like Thespis were not normally expected to endure , and apart from a benefit performance shortly after the original staging , Thespis was not performed again during its creators ' lifetimes . A renewed interest in the piece began in the 1950s , and numerous productions have been performed since , either with music taken from Sullivan 's other works , or with original music .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Act I = = =
Scene : A Ruined Temple on the Summit of Mount Olympus
On Mount Olympus , the elderly deities complain of feeling old and lament their waning influence on Earth . Mercury complains that the older gods are lazy and leave all their duties to him , while he gets no credit for all his drudgery . Jupiter says that matters have reached a crisis , but he is unsure what can be done about it . Just then , the gods see a swarm of mortals ascending the mountain and withdraw to observe them from a distance .
Thespis 's acting company enters for a picnic celebrating the marriage of two of its members , Sparkeion and Nicemis . The actors , being cheap , have failed to contribute substantial food items to the picnic . Sparkeion flirts with his former fiancée , Daphne , which annoys Nicemis . In retaliation , Nicemis flirts with her old suitor , Thespis , but he declines to flirt back . Thespis explains to his troupe that a successful manager must be aloof from those he manages , or he will lose his authority .
Jupiter , Mars and Apollo enter . All of the actors flee in terror , except for Thespis . Jupiter asks Thespis whether he is impressed with the father of the gods . Thespis replies that the gods are unimpressive and suggests that they go down to earth in disguise to " mingle " and judge for themselves what people think of them . They agree to invest the actors with their powers , as they take a merry holiday below on Earth . Thespis agrees that he and his company will keep things running on Mount Olympus during the gods ' absence . Each actor takes the place of one of the gods , with Thespis himself replacing Jupiter . Mercury stays behind to offer any advice the actors may need .
= = = Act II = = =
The Same Scene , One Year Later , with the Ruins Restored
Under Thespis 's direction , Olympus has been restored to its former splendour , and the Thespians enjoy ambrosia and nectar . Thespis 's rule is very liberal , and he has advised his troupe not to " be hampered by routine and red tape and precedent " . The celestial assignments , however , have caused some difficulties , as the romantic entanglements of the actors in real life conflict with those of the gods that they are playing . Venus , played by Pretteia , is supposed to be married to Mars , but the actor playing Mars is her father . A possible solution is discovered in Venus having actually married Vulcan , but Vulcan is her grandfather . Sparkeion , who took on the role of Apollo , accompanies his wife , Nicemis , who plays Diana , on her nightly duties , so that the sun is up during the night .
Mercury informs Thespis that the substitute gods have received many complaints from mortals because some are not performing their functions , and others ' ill @-@ judged experiments have wreaked havoc in the world below . For instance , Timidon , the replacement for Mars , is a pacifist and a coward ; the substitute for Hymen refuses to marry anyone ; and the ersatz Pluto is too tenderhearted to let anyone die . Daphne , who plays the muse Calliope , comes to Thespis and claims , based on a bowdlerised edition of the Greek myths , that Calliope was married to Apollo . She points out that Apollo , played by Sparkeion , is the brother of Diana ( played by Sparkeion 's wife , Nicemis ) . Thespis decides that Sparkeion is married to Daphne while they are gods , but his marriage to Nicemis will resume when they are mortals once again .
When the gods return , they are furious and tell Thespis that he has " deranged the whole scheme of society " . Thespis says that they should calm down , as the list of mortals ' complaints is about to be read . The gods watch incognito as Mercury presents the complaints : The actors have ruined the weather ; caused strife among the nations ; and there is no wine , since Bacchus is a teetotaller . After listening to these grievances , the gods angrily shed their disguises . The actors beg to stay on Olympus , but Jupiter punishes them for their folly by sending them back to earth cursed as " eminent tragedians , whom no one ever goes to see " .
= = Roles and original cast = =
Gods
Jupiter , Aged Deity – John Maclean
Apollo , Aged Deity – Fred Sullivan
Mars , Aged Deity – Frank Wood
Diana , Aged Deity – Mrs. Henry Leigh
Venus , Aged Deity [ uncredited ] – ( Miss Jolly )
Mercury – Ellen " Nellie " Farren
Thespians
Thespis , Manager of a Travelling Theatrical Co . – J. L. Toole
Sillimon , his Stage Manager – J. G. Taylor
Timidon – Mr. Marshall
Tipseion – Robert Soutar ( Nellie Farren 's husband )
Preposteros – Harry Payne
Stupidas – Fred Payne
Sparkeion – Mlle. Clary ( Real name : Mlle. Poirel @-@ Tardieu )
Nicemis – Constance Loseby
Pretteia – Rose Berend
Daphne – Annie Tremaine
Cymon – Miss L. Wilson
Principal dancers : Mlle. Esta , Misses Lizzie Wright and Smithers
Chorus of aged deities and thespians ; Gaiety Corps de Ballet
The first performance was conducted by Arthur Sullivan . Subsequent performances were conducted by Meyer Lutz , the theatre 's musical director . In addition to playing Tipseion , the theatre 's stage manager , Robert Soutar , stage managed the piece . The Ballet Master was W. H. Payne
= = Background = =
= = = Genesis = = =
Impresario and author John Hollingshead , the lessee of London 's Gaiety Theatre since 1868 , had produced a number of successful musical burlesques and operettas there . Indeed , Hollingshead " boasted that he kept alight ' the sacred lamp of burlesque . ' " Gilbert and Sullivan were each well acquainted with the Gaiety and its house artistes . Gilbert 's Robert the Devil ( a burlesque of the opera Robert le Diable ) had been on the programme on the theatre 's opening night on 21 December 1868 , with Nellie Farren in the title role , and played successfully for over 100 nights . Constance Loseby and Annie Tremaine ( both of whom had roles in Thespis ) were also in the cast of Robert , and Arthur Sullivan was in the audience on that opening night as one of Hollingshead 's guests . It was a great success , " received with a storm of approbation " . Less successfully , Gilbert had also written a play for the theatre in 1869 called An Old Score . Hollingshead would later say that the piece was " too true to nature " . By late September or early October 1871 , Gaiety programmes announced that " The Christmas Operatic Extravaganza will be written by W. S. Gilbert , with original music by Arthur Sullivan . " There would be prominent roles for the popular comedian J. L. Toole , as well as Farren , the theatre 's star " principal boy " in all of its burlesques .
How and when the pair came to collaborate on Thespis is uncertain . Gilbert was a logical choice for the assignment . With seven operas and plays premièring that year and over a dozen other burlesques , farces and extravaganzas under his belt , he was well known to London theatregoers as a comic dramatist . Sullivan , however , was at this point mainly known for his serious music . His completed music that year included the choral cantata On Shore and Sea , a suite of incidental music for Shakespeare 's The Merchant of Venice , and numerous hymns , including " Onward , Christian Soldiers " . He did have two comic operas to his credit , Cox and Box ( 1866 ) and The Contrabandista ( 1867 ) , but the latter was four years in the past and had been unsuccessful . In September 1871 , Sullivan had been engaged to conduct at The Royal National Opera , but it failed abruptly , leaving him unexpectedly without commitments . Hollingshead 's offer of a role to his brother , Fred Sullivan , may have encouraged him to write the music for Thespis .
The production " aroused a great deal of interest and speculation " . Ironically , it had " probably the largest audience " of any Gilbert and Sullivan première , as the Gaiety was the largest of the five London theatres at which their joint works premièred .
= = = Composition = = =
Gilbert had a busy autumn . His play On Guard had an unsuccessful run at the Court Theatre , opening on 28 October 1871 , while his most successful play to date , Pygmalion and Galatea , opened on 9 December , only a few days before rehearsals for Thespis were to begin . Sullivan , however , had more time on his hands after a Manchester production of The Merchant of Venice , for which he supplied incidental music , had its première on 9 September .
Both Gilbert and Sullivan recalled that Thespis was written in some haste . Sullivan recalled , simply , that " both music and libretto were very hurriedly written " . In his 1883 autobiography , Gilbert wrote :
Soon after the production of Pygmalion and Galatea I wrote the first of many libretti , in collaboration with Mr Arthur Sullivan . This was called Thespis ; or , the Gods Grown Old . It was put together in less than three weeks , and was produced at the Gaiety theatre after a week 's rehearsal . It ran eighty nights , but it was a crude and ineffective work , as might be expected , taking into consideration the circumstances of its rapid composition .
By 1902 , Gilbert 's recollection of the time frame had expanded to five weeks :
I may state that " Thespis " was in no sense a failure although it achieved no considerable success . I believe it ran about seven [ ty ] nights — a fair run in those days . The piece was produced under stress of tremendous hurry . It was invented , written , composed , rehearsed , and produced within five weeks .
Gilbert 's five @-@ week estimate is " in conflict with other apparently incontrovertible facts " . Sullivan 's nephew , Herbert Sullivan , wrote that the libretto was already in existence before his uncle became involved in the project : " Gilbert showed [ Hollingshead ] the libretto of an operatic Extravaganza Thespis , and Hollingshead forthwith sent it to Sullivan to set . " Gilbert generally sketched out his libretti some months in advance of a production but did not write a finished libretto until he had a firm commitment to produce it . At the very least , a " rough draft of the plot " must have existed by 30 October , in light of a letter on that date from Gilbert 's agent to R. M. Field of the Boston Museum Theatre , which reads :
At Xmas will be produced at the Gaiety Theatre , a new and original Opera Bouffe in English , by W. S. Gilbert , Esq . , & Arthur Sullivan , Esq. does the new music . It is expected to be a Big Thing — and the purport of my present letter to you is — first — to send you ( this day ) rough sketch of the piece for your own reading , and secondly to ask you — if you care and will cause the piece to be rightly protected — with a view to sale in all places possible in the United States . ... Messrs. G. & S. are now hard at work on said piece .
Gilbert did , in fact , conclude an agreement with Field , and the first published libretto advised : " Caution to American Pirates . — The Copyright of the Dialogue and Music of this Piece , for the United States and Canada , has been assigned to Mr. Field , of the Boston Museum , by agreement , dated 7th December , 1871 . " If Field mounted the work , however , the production has not been traced . Gilbert 's concern about American copyright pirates foreshadowed the difficulties he and Sullivan would later encounter with unauthorised " pirated " productions of H.M.S. Pinafore , The Mikado and their other popular works . In any case , the libretto was " published and circulated " in London in mid @-@ December .
= = = Production = = =
With the piece set to open on 26 December , Gilbert first read the libretto to the cast on 14 December , but Toole , who was playing the central role of Thespis , did not return from a tour of the British provinces until 18 December . He then appeared in nine performances at the Gaiety in the six days immediately after his return , and other actors had similar commitments . In addition , Hollingshead had committed the company to perform a pantomime at The Crystal Palace on 21 December , which included many of the performers who would be in Thespis . Lastly , Thespis was to play as the afterpiece to an H. J. Byron comedy , Dearer than Life , which shared many of its actors , including Toole and Fred Sullivan , and had to be rehearsed at the same time .
Despite the short time available for rehearsals , Sullivan recalled that Gilbert insisted that the chorus play a major role , as it would do in their later Savoy operas :
Until Gilbert took the matter in hand choruses were dummy concerns , and were practically nothing more than a part of the stage setting . It was in ' Thespis ' that Gilbert began to carry out his expressed determination to get the chorus to play its proper part in the performance . At this moment it seems difficult to realise that the idea of the chorus being anything more than a sort of stage audience was , at that time , a tremendous novelty . In consequence of this innovation , some of the incidents at the rehearsal of ' Thespis ' were rather amusing . I remember that , on one occasion , one of the principals became quite indignant and said , ' Really , Mr. Gilbert , why should I stand here ? I am not a chorus @-@ girl ! ' to which Gilbert replied curtly , ' No , madam , your voice is not strong enough , or no doubt you would be.'
= = Reception = =
= = = Opening night = = =
The première was under rehearsed , as several critics noted , and the work was also evidently in need of cutting : Gaiety management had advised that carriages should be called for 11 : 00 p.m. , but Thespis was still playing past midnight . The Orchestra reported that " scarcely one player ... was more than ' rough perfect ' in his part . " The Observer commented that " the acting , as well as the business , will want working up before it can be fairly criticized ... the opera ... was not ready " . The Daily Telegraph suggested that " It is more satisfactory for many reasons to look upon the performance last evening as a full dress rehearsal .... When Thespis ends at the orthodox Gaiety closing hour , and the opera has been energetically rehearsed , few happier entertainments will be found . "
Some critics could not see past the production 's state of disarray . The Hornet captioned its review , " Thespis ; or , the Gods Grown Old and WEARISOME ! " The Morning Advertiser found it " a dreary , tedious two @-@ act rigmarole of a plot ... grotesque without wit , and the music thin without liveliness ... however , not entirely devoid of melody .... The curtain falls before a yawning and weary audience . " But others found much to admire in the work , despite the poor opening performance . The Illustrated Times wrote :
It is terribly severe on Mr. W. S. Gilbert and Arthur Sullivan , the joint authors of Thespis , that their work was produced in such a crude and unsatisfactory state . Thespis on its own merits — merits of literary worth , merits of fun , merits of song writing deserves to succeed ; but the management has crippled a good play by insufficiency of rehearsals and a want of that requisite polish and aplomb without which these merry operas are useless . I must state , however , that Thespis is well worth seeing ; and when it has been corrected and attracts the proper Gaiety audience , it will hold its own bravely . It is a pity , indeed , that such a play , so rich in humour and so delicate in music , was produced for the edification of a Boxing @-@ Night audience . Anything would have done for such an occasion .... Unless I am very much mistaken , and despite the hisses of Boxing @-@ Night ... the ballads and wit of Mr. Gilbert [ and ] the pretty strains of Mr. Arthur Sullivan ... will carry Thespis through and make it — as it deserves to be — the most praiseworthy piece of the Christmas season .
Clement Scott , writing in the Daily Telegraph , had a mostly favourable reaction :
Possibly a holiday audience is disinclined to dive into the mysteries of heathen mythology , and does not care to exercise the requisite intellect to unravel an amusing , and by no means intricate , plot .... Certain it is , however , that the greeting which awaited Thespis , or The Gods Grown Old , was not so cordial as might have been expected . The story , written by Mr. W. S. Gilbert in his liveliest manner , is so original , and the music contributed by Mr. Arthur Sullivan so pretty and fascinating , that we are inclined to be disappointed when we find the applause fitful , the laughter scarcely spontaneous , and the curtain falling not without sounds of disapprobation . Such a fate as this was certainly not deserved , and the verdict of last evening cannot be taken as final . Thespis is too good to be put on one side and cold @-@ shouldered in this fashion : and we anticipate that judicious curtailment and constant rehearsal will enable us shortly to tell a very different tale .
The Observer commented , " ... we have authors and musicians quite as talented as [ the French ] .... The subject of Thespis is unquestionably funny .... Mr. Arthur Sullivan has entered with heart into the spirit of Mr. Gilbert 's fun , he has brightened it up with the most fanciful and delightful music " .
= = = Subsequent performances = = =
Many writers in the early 20th century perpetuated a myth that Thespis ran only a month and was considered a failure . In fact , it remained open until 8 March . Of the nine London pantomimes that appeared during the 1871 – 72 holiday season , five closed before Thespis did . By its nature , the genre did not lend itself to long runs , and all nine had closed by the end of March . Moreover , the Gaiety normally only ran productions for two or three weeks ; the run of Thespis was extraordinary for the theatre .
As they would do with all their operas , Gilbert and Sullivan made cuts and alterations after the first performance . Two days after the opening , Sullivan wrote to his mother , " I have rarely seen anything so beautiful put upon the stage . The first night I had a great reception , but the music went badly , and the singer sang half a tone sharp , so that the enthusiasm of the audience did not sustain itself towards me . Last night I cut out the song , the music went very well , and consequently I had a hearty call before the curtain at the end of Act II . " The piece eventually settled into a respectable state , and later critics were much more enthusiastic than those on opening night .
By the third night , the London Figaro could report : " I must say that not a single hitch in the performance is now to be perceived , and that the applause and evident delight of the audience from beginning to end , the piece occupying a space of time within two hours . " On 6 January 1872 , the Penny Illustrated Paper commented that " Mr. Gilbert 's Gaiety extravaganza grows in public favour and deservedly so " . On 9 January , the Daily Telegraph reported a visit by His Royal Highness , the Duke of Edinburgh . By 27 January , the Illustrated Times noted that " a chance playgoer will certainly not find a seat at the Gaiety .... Thespis can , after all , boast the success which was predicted " . Land and Water reported on 3 February that " Thespis is now in capital working order . "
Performances of Thespis were interrupted on 14 February 1872 , Ash Wednesday , since London theatres refrained from presenting costumed performances out of respect for the religious holiday . Instead , a " miscellaneous entertainment " was given at the Gaiety , consisting of ventriloquists , performing dogs and , coincidentally , a sketch parodying a penny reading by the young George Grossmith , who , several years later , became Gilbert and Sullivan 's principal comedian .
On 17 February , Henry Sutherland Edwards wrote in the Musical World : " In almost all conjunctions of music and words , there is a sacrifice of one to the other ; but in Thespis ... Sufficient opportunities have been given for music ; and the music serves only to adorn the piece . " Similar reports continued to appear through early March , when Thespis closed . The final performance during the authors ' lifetimes was given less than two months later , on 27 April , at a matinée for the benefit of Mlle. Clary , the original Sparkeion . On such an occasion , a performer would normally choose a piece likely to sell well , as the beneficiary was entitled to the income ( after expenses ) , and tickets were generally offered at " inflated prices " . The actress was a Gaiety favourite , " not only in respect of her voice but also her delicious French accent and , of course , her figure . " Others recalled " the charm of Mlle. Clary , with her pretty face and piquant broken English " . She had been particularly successful as Sparkeion , and her song in Act II , " Little Maid of Arcadee " , was the only one chosen for publication .
= = = Aftermath = = =
After the production of Thespis , Gilbert and Sullivan went their separate ways , reuniting three years later , with Richard D 'Oyly Carte as their manager , to produce Trial by Jury in 1875 . When that work was a surprise success , there were discussions of quickly reviving Thespis for the 1875 Christmas season . Gilbert wrote to Sullivan :
They seem very anxious to have it and wanted me to name definite terms . Of course I couldn 't answer for you , but they pressed me so much to give them an idea of what our terms would be likely to be that I suggested that possibly we might be disposed to accept two guineas a night each with a guarantee of 100 nights minimum . Does this meet your views , & if so , could you get it done in time . I am going to re @-@ write a considerable portion of the dialogue .
The proposed revival was mentioned in several more letters throughout the autumn of 1875 , until on 23 November Gilbert wrote , " I have heard no more about Thespis . It is astonishing how quickly these capitalists dry up under the magic influence of the words ' cash down ' . " In 1895 , with Richard D 'Oyly Carte struggling to rediscover success at the Savoy , he once again proposed a revival of Thespis , but the idea was not pursued . No mention of the whereabouts of the music of Thespis exists since 1897 , and scholars have searched for it among many of the extant collections . Except for two songs and some ballet music , it is presumed lost .
The reasons why Thespis went unrevived are not known . Some commentators speculate that Sullivan used the music in his other operas . If this were true , then " for this reason alone a revival would have become impossible " . However , evidence that Sullivan did so has eluded discovery . Another possible explanation is that Gilbert and Sullivan came to regard Thespis , with its " brazen girls in tights and short skirts " , and broad burlesque @-@ style humour , as " the kind of work they wished to avoid " . They later renounced travesti roles and revealing dresses on their actresses , and made publicly known their disapproval of them . In 1885 , Hollingshead wrote to the Pall Mall Gazette , " Mr. Gilbert is somewhat severe on a style of burlesque which he did much to popularise in the old days before he invented what I may call burlesque in long clothes . … Mr Gilbert never objected to the dresses in Robert the Devil nor to the dresses in Thespis . "
In 1879 , Sullivan , Gilbert and Carte were in the midst of a legal battle with the former directors of the Comedy Opera Company , which had produced H.M.S. Pinafore . Sullivan wrote to Hollingshead , saying : " You once settled a precedent for me which may just at present be of great importance to me . I asked you for the band parts of the Merry Wives of Windsor ... and [ you ] said , ' They are yours , as our run is over .... ' Now will you please let me have them , and the parts of Thespis also at once . I am detaining the parts of Pinafore , so that the directors shall not take them away from the Comique tomorrow , and I base my claim on the precedent you set . "
= = = Modern productions = = =
After its last performance at the Gaiety in 1872 , Thespis appears to have remained unperformed until 1953 , although an attempted reconstruction from the 1940s has been discovered . Tillett and Spencer , who discovered the ballet music , identified twenty separate reconstructions of Thespis between 1953 and 2002 . About half of these use music adapted from Sullivan 's other works ; the others use new music for all but the surviving songs , or , in a few cases , re @-@ compose those as well . No version has become predominant in recent productions .
Theatre historian Terence Rees developed a version of the libretto that attempts to correct the many errors noted in the surviving libretto . Rees also prepared a performance version , based on the libretto , which included a few interpolated lyrics from Gilbert 's non @-@ Sullivan operas in an attempt to replace the missing songs . A score was supplied by Garth Morton , based on music from lesser @-@ known Sullivan operas , and this version has been recorded . A version with a score by Bruce Montgomery has been performed several times , including in 2000 at the International Gilbert and Sullivan Festival . In 1996 , a version with new music by Quade Winter was produced by the Ohio Light Opera .
In 2008 , a Sullivan pastiche score ( with some Offenbach added ) , arranged by Timothy Henty , was first used with Gilbert 's libretto adapted by Anthony Baker , at the Normansfield Theatre in Teddington , Middlesex , England , the first professional British production since 1872 . This was performed several times subsequently , including at the 2014 International Gilbert and Sullivan Festival . Also in 2008 , an original score by Thomas Z. Shepard was first performed in concert by the Blue Hill Troupe in New York City and was finally given a fully staged amateur production in 2014 .
= = Assessment = =
= = = More than the usual burlesque = = =
Thespis was an advance on the types of burlesques to which Gaiety audiences were accustomed . François Cellier recalled much later :
I retain a dim recollection of witnessing the piece and being impressed with the freshness of Gilbert 's libretto , especially as regards the lyrics , which were , indeed , a treat to read after the vapid , futile jingle of rhymes without reason which had hitherto passed muster on those degenerate days . To all play @-@ goers it was a new " sensation " in musical plays . As for Arthur Sullivan 's music , need I say how every number charmed and charmed again ?
Several critics suggested that the piece may have been too sophisticated for its audience — or at least , the audience that greeted its first performance on Boxing Night . The Times wrote : " The dialogue throughout is superior in ability and point to that with which ordinary burlesque and extravaganza have familiarized us ; so much so , in fact , that it was a daring experiment to produce such a piece on such a night . It met , however , with an excellent reception , and on any other occasion than Boxing Night the numerous merits of the piece cannot fail to secure for it in the public estimation a high place among the novelties of the season . " Other reviews of the first night took up a similar theme : Sporting Life suggested that " It may be that they looked for something less polished than Mr. Gilbert 's verse , and went for something broader and coarser than that delightful author 's humour . It may be , too , that Thespis was a little — I only say , just a little — ' over their heads ' . " The Orchestra carried a similar sentiment : " In fact , both music and idea were somewhat over the heads of the audience . "
= = = Libretto = = =
The plot of Thespis , with its elderly gods tired of their life in Olympus , is similar to some of Offenbach 's operas , notably Orphée aux Enfers ( Orpheus in the Underworld ) . In Orphée aux Enfers , like Thespis , classical mythology , particularly the Olympian gods , are ruthlessly parodied . In Thespis , the gods swap places with the actors and descend to Earth ; in Orphée aux Enfers , the gods head to hell for a pleasant holiday away from too much boring perfection . Offenbach 's plot – for although Crémieux and Halévy wrote the libretto , the idea was Offenbach 's – places Orpheus , the great musician , in the centre ; however , Gilbert 's plot focuses on Thespis , the Father of the Drama . While this may be a coincidence , it could also be seen as a response to Offenbach , as his plot places music at the centre of his operetta , but Gilbert 's elevates the dramatist .
The libretto has been praised by several biographers and historians . One said that " The dialogue contains many an authentic Gilbertian touch . " Another found it " a gay , sparkling libretto " . Sidney Dark and Rowland Gray wrote that " the book of Thespis is genuine Gilbert , the Gilbert whom nowadays all the world loves .... Thespis once more emphasizes the fact that Gilbert 's artistry was hardly affected with the passing of the years . Many of its songs might well have appeared in the later operas . " They point out Mercury 's " I 'm the celestial drudge " , which anticipates Giuseppe 's " Rising early in the morning " in The Gondoliers , and find the " real brand of Gilbertian topsy @-@ turvydom " in the song about the former head of a railway company , " I once knew a chap who discharged a function " . Isaac Goldberg thought that " Thespis looks forward far more often than it glances backward : " It forecasts the characteristic methods , and now and then a character , of the later series . Its dialogue is comical , and , if anything , somewhat above the heads of the Gaiety audiences of 1871 . "
Goldberg wrote in 1929 that the libretto " seems to have no specific ancestry .... neither in his burlesques nor in his ballads ... had Gilbert played with the gods and goddesses of Greek mythology . " However , Gilbert did write a series of humorous sketches parodying the Greek myths , mainly the heroes of the Iliad , for the illustrated magazine Fun in 1864 , and Pygmalion and Galatea , which he produced just before Thespis , was a more serious treatment of Greek mythology . Jane W. Stedman points out that Thespis " looks backward to French opéra bouffe " , but it is " fundamentally a Gilbertian invasion plot in which outsiders penetrate and affect a given society , often for the worse . " She compares the theatrical company in Thespis to the politicians that remodel fairyland in Gilbert 's 1873 play The Happy Land and the Englishmen who reform the island nation of Utopia in Utopia , Limited ( 1893 ) . Elements of Thespis also appear in Gilbert and Sullivan 's last opera together , The Grand Duke ( 1896 ) , where a theatre company replaces the ruler and decides to " revive the classic memories of Athens at its best " .
= = = The music = = =
Sullivan 's score generally came in for praise , though critics carped — as they would throughout his life — that theatrical scores were beneath his ability . In the Standard , A. E. T. Watson wrote :
" Mr. John Hollingshead ... has judiciously called on Mr. W. S. Gilbert to furnish him with an original opera @-@ extravaganza , and entrusted its musical setting to Mr. Arthur Sullivan . From the association of these two names the most pleasing result has for some weeks past been anticipated , which the success of last evening fully justified .... Mr. Gilbert in ' Thespis ' has happily provided the composer with everything he could desire , mastering the character of opera @-@ extravaganza , which precludes the exercise of the highest flights of genius of which a musician is capable and sets a limit to the exercise of his talents .
Clement Scott in The Daily Telegraph found the opera " not marred by ambitious music " . But he added , " Tuneful throughout , always pretty , frequently suggestive , the songs and dances are quite in character with the author 's design .... Some of the numbers will certainly live , and the impression caused by the music as a whole is that it will have far more than a passing interest . "
Many critics praised the originality of the title character 's song in the first act about the head of a railway company , which may have been a joke about the Duke of Sutherland , " who was fond of running railway engines " . Scott called the song a " ludicrous ballad " , but " quite in the spirit of the well @-@ known compositions of ' Bab , ' and , as it has been fitted with a lively tune and a rattling chorus , a hearty encore was inevitable . Though the ditty was long , the audience would have been well content to hear it all over again . " The Pall Mall Gazette found the orchestration " very novel , including , as it does , the employment of a railway bell , a railway whistle , and some new instrument of music imitating the agreeable sound of a train in motion . " Similarly The Sunday Times noted , " The entire company join in the chorus , the music of which admirably expresses the whirl and thunder of a railway train at express speed . " The Era called it " a screaming , whistling and shouting chorus [ that ] fairly brings down the house " .
The similarity to French models was much commented upon . Vanity Fair thought that " the music in the piece itself is charming throughout , and promises for the first time a rival to Offenbach .... Thespis is quite as good as Orphée aux Enfers . " Another wrote :
Mr. W. S. Gilbert and Mr. Arthur Sullivan have attempted , with not a little success , to imitate French comic opera , concerning which we have heard so much for the last half @-@ dozen years .... In these days — when the French critics are savagely turning round on us , and calling us pickpockets — it is not disagreeable to find that we have authors and musicians quite as talented as our neighbours .... Mr. Sullivan has certainly persuaded us of one thing — that a musician can write to any metre .
The Morning Advertiser thought that " There is an evident attempt to copy the creations of a foreign composer who is so popular at the present time , and who has written some charming music for the gods and goddesses en bouffes . " Others accused Sullivan of blatant copying . The Athenaeum wrote that the music " was arranged and composed by Mr A. S. Sullivan ( the first verb was not in the bills as it ought to have been ) " . One critic thought that the duet for Sparkeion and Nicemis , " Here far away from all the world " , was one of the " single best items of the piece " . In 1873 , the arranger Joseph Rummell ( who had arranged Sullivan 's Merchant of Venice score for the piano ) wrote to Sullivan , asking about the song , with a view to publication . The composer replied , " Thespis is not published but if you like I will send you the Full Score of the Duet in question " , but nothing came of it .
= = Surviving music = =
Only three musical passages from Thespis are known to survive : the ballad " Little maid of Arcadee " , the chorus " Climbing over rocky mountain " , and the ballet music . The fate of Sullivan 's score has long been a subject for speculation . In 1978 , Isaac Asimov wrote a time travel story , " Fair Exchange ? " , which focused on a character travelling back to 1871 to rescue the score to Thespis before Sullivan could destroy it . But Sullivan is not known to have destroyed it , and the ballet , at least , was still available to be reused in 1897 .
= = = Little maid of Arcadee = = =
Sparkeion 's song in Act II , " Little maid of Arcadee " , was the only number from the opera to achieve contemporaneous publication . It was one of four numbers to be encored on the first night . The Daily Telegraph wrote : " With the public no doubt the musical gem will be a ballad called ' Cousin Robin ' — pathetic and tender words , with a dreamy and somewhat Gounodish air . So sweetly was this sung by Mdlle . Clary that another encore was inevitable . " The Observer agreed that the song " ... will cause most delight on account of the quaint simplicity and tenderness of the words , the charming singing of Mdlle . Clary , and the really exquisite setting by Mr. Sullivan .... This is a musical gem " .
The song enjoyed long @-@ standing popularity . Wyndham writes , " Little maid of Arcadee " was " popular for a quarter of a century " . Sullivan 's first biographer suggested that " Thespis will be best remembered by the exquisite musical setting to the simple little Gilbertian ballad " . Several later commentators write favourably of the song . Walbrook finds it " one of the neatest of Gilbert 's ditties , packed with cynicism and slyness , expressed in terms of sentimental tenderness . " Goldberg says that it is " dainty , simple and quite in the vein of Gilbert 's words , to which , as in almost every later instance , Sullivan 's setting provides an original rhythmic piquancy . " Fitz @-@ Gerald considers it " quite a forerunner of Gilbert at his easiest " , while Dark and Gray call it " a typically dainty Gilbertian love @-@ song worthy to be compared to the best that he ever wrote . " Jacobs dissents : " As music it is as trivial as Sullivan ever wrote . "
The separately published version had several significant wording differences from the theatrical version , owing to " the contrast between the Gaiety Theatre 's suggestiveness and the prudery expected in the drawing room " . In the drawing room version , the song 's little maid sat by Cousin Robin 's knee , not on it . Rather than weary of his lover 's play , he became fickle as the month of May . And rather than Cousin Richard came to woo , it was till another came to woo .
= = = Climbing over rocky mountain = = =
" Climbing over rocky mountain " is the best known piece from Thespis , as it was transplanted in 1879 into one of Gilbert and Sullivan 's most successful operas , The Pirates of Penzance . In 1902 , Gilbert told a correspondent that this had happened accidentally . He and Sullivan had arrived in New York to produce the new opera , but the composer discovered that he had left his sketches behind in England . Fortunately , the entrance chorus from Thespis fitted the situation almost exactly , so it was substituted instead .
Several scholars have doubted that explanation . In Sullivan 's autograph score for the later work , the first part of " Climbing over rocky mountain " is actually taken from a Thespis copyist score , with the Thespis words cancelled and the new words written in , which raises the question of why Sullivan had a Thespis score to hand , if not for that purpose .
Some suggest that other music from Thespis could have been used in Pirates . Goldberg suggests that " It is reasonable to believe that Sullivan made generous use of his Thespis music in other operettas : perhaps owing to the circumstances under which The Pirates of Penzance was written , it contains more than one unacknowledged borrowing from the unlucky firstling of the lucky pair . " Reginald Allen says that " it seems certain " from its " rhythmic structure " that part of the Act I finale of Thespis , " Here 's a pretty tale for future Iliads and Odysseys " became the original Act II finale in Pirates , " At length we are provided with unusual felicity " , which was later deleted . Tillett and Spencer propose that most of Act I of Pirates was taken from Thespis . However , there is only circumstantial evidence for these suggestions . Except for " Climbing over rocky mountain " , neither author admitted to borrowing from Thespis for later works .
= = = Ballet = = =
A five @-@ movement ballet occurred somewhere in Act II , staged by W. H. Payne . A heading in the libretto , " Chorus and Ballet " , attaches it to the last section of the finale but does not indicate how it figured in the plot . Most press accounts placed it at about this point , although some placed it slightly earlier in the act . At some performances , the ballet was performed in Act I , but it was certainly in Act II on opening night , and it seems finally to have settled there .
In 1990 , Roderick Spencer and Selwyn Tillett discovered the ballet from Act II of Thespis . Two of the five movements , in the same hand that had copied the score of " Climbing over rocky mountain " , were found together with the surviving performance materials for Sullivan 's 1864 ballet , L 'Île Enchantée . Another section was found in the material for his 1897 ballet , Victoria and Merrie England . The page numbering of the surviving three sections gave approximate lengths for the missing pieces , and a contemporary engraving , seen at left , along with other circumstantial evidence , allowed plausible identifications of the two remaining movements : a dragon costume , used nowhere in the libretto , is presumably from the ballet , and the harp visible in the orchestra pit was an unusual instrument for the Gaiety 's orchestra . Movements of appropriate length that made sense of these oddities were found in Sullivan 's other ballets , and the reconstructed ballet has been recorded twice on CD .
Sullivan tended to re @-@ use his ballet music . Of the five movements that Tillett and Spencer identified , only one ( the Waltz , No. 3 ) is not known to have been used in any other work . Three of the movements had previously been used in L 'Île Enchantée . Two of those , and one other , were eventually re @-@ used in Victoria and Merrie England . One was also used in his incidental music to Macbeth . Sullivan was asked in 1889 to supply a ballet for a French @-@ language production of The Mikado in Brussels , which he duly did . Tillett suggests that the Thespis ballet was almost certainly the music that Sullivan provided , given that it was the only ballet that he wrote for use in an opera , and that three weeks after producing The Gondoliers he is unlikely to have written something original .
= = Text = =
The surviving libretto is not the version heard by audiences at the Gaiety Theatre . There are numerous discrepancies between the original libretto and what was described as happening on stage , and reviewers repeatedly quoted dialogue that has no equivalent in the published libretto . At least one song is missing , and an entire character , Venus , is mentioned in at least five reviews as stout , elderly , and heavily made @-@ up , but does not appear in either the programme or the libretto . Stage directions in the original are slip @-@ shod : characters reappear without an entrance being noted , or enter twice in quick succession , without having exited . In addition , Sullivan told his mother that at least one song was cut after opening night , and there must certainly have been other cuts , given the undue length of the first performance . But the text of the libretto , as published , remained " virtually unchanged " between December 1871 and March 1872 .
In a letter to Percy Strzelecki on 23 April 1890 , Gilbert apologised for the condition of the libretto . He wrote , " I was in the United States when it was published & I had no opportunity of correcting proofs . This will explain the presence of innumerable typographical & other errors . " But several scholars conclude that Gilbert must have been remembering a trip the following year , as in the fall of 1871 it " would have been impossible for Gilbert to travel to America and back in time for rehearsals of Thespis . " Even after the first printing , there does not seem to have been any effort to correct the errors : There were four separate issues of the libretto between December and March , but no corrections were made .
Gilbert 's final disposition of the libretto came in 1911 , when it was included in the fourth volume of his Original Plays . However , Gilbert died before he could correct proofs for that edition , and so it reprinted the 1871 text , correcting only a few spelling mistakes .
= = Musical numbers = =
This is the order in which the musical numbers appear in the libretto . The music is known to survive for numbers shown in bold ; a ballet also survives , but its location is uncertain . Reviews of the opera hint at three additional numbers not in the libretto , but as their names and exact locations are unknown , they are not listed .
= = Recordings = =
As most of the music to Thespis is lost , there is no complete recording of the original score . The ballet , as reconstructed by Spencer and Tillett , has been issued twice on CD :
Penny , Andrew , conductor ( 1992 ) . " Thespis " . On Sir Arthur Sullivan – Ballet Music ( CD ) . Marco Polo 8 @.@ 223460 .
Pryce @-@ Jones , John , conductor ( 1991 ) . " Thespis – Ballet in Act 2 " . On Iolanthe ( CD ) . That 's Entertainment Records CDTER2 1188 .
A recording of the Rees / Morton version of Thespis was issued on LP records , which included the original " Little maid of Arcadee
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regeneration of the town hall area was awarded by Bath and North East Somerset Council to Aedas in 2010 , with the works cost stated in 2011 to be £ 33 million ( £ 34 million in 2012 ) . Realisation of the plans is hoped to " attract new business and jobs " , in the aftermath of the announcement of the Cadbury Somerdale Factory closure .
In January 2012 , it was announced that the Willmott Dixon Group had been appointed as contractor on the scheme . The Council 's planning committee in August 2012 deferred the approval decision , pending alterations to the external appearance of the building . These were approved in October 2012 , with demolition commencing in the same month . The regenerated Civic Centre area came back into use in late 2014 and early 2015 .
= = Governance = =
The town council has responsibility for local issues , including setting an annual precept ( local rate ) to cover the council ’ s operating costs and producing annual accounts for public scrutiny . The town council evaluates local planning applications and works with the local police , district council officers , and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime , security , and traffic . The town council 's role includes projects for the maintenance and repair of parish facilities , such as the village hall or community centre , as well as consulting with the district council on the maintenance , repair , and improvement of highways , drainage , footpaths , public transport , and street cleaning .
Playing fields and playgrounds are provided in Memorial Park , Downfield , Kelston Road , Teviot Road , Holmoak Road and Manor Road with basketball facilities at Teviot Road and Holmoak Road and a BMX track at Keynsham Road . The Keynsham town council is also responsible for the football pitches and pavilion at Manor Road and the floodlit Multi Sport Site in Memorial Park . It also provides support for community groups organising music and cultural events . Conservation matters ( including trees and listed buildings ) and environmental issues are also of interest to the council . The town council was formed in 1991 and consists of 15 members elected every four years . There are 2 Labour and 13 Conservative . Keynsham has one official twin town : Libourne in France .
From 1974 to 1996 , Keynsham was administered as part of the short @-@ lived county of Avon ; it has since formed part of the unitary authority of Bath and North East Somerset , in the ceremonial county of Somerset . Bath and North East Somerset which was created in 1996 , was established by the Local Government Act 1992 . The town is divided into Keynhsam North , which has five Conservative councillors , Keynsham South which is represented by three Conservative and two Labour councillors , and Keynsham East , which has the remaining 5 councillors , all of whom are Conservatives .
Bath and North East Somerset provides a single tier of local government with responsibility for almost all local government functions within its area including local planning and building control , local roads , council housing , environmental health , markets and fairs , refuse collection , recycling , cemeteries , crematoria , leisure services , parks , and tourism . It is also responsible for education , social services , libraries , main roads , public transport , trading standards , waste disposal and strategic planning , although fire , police and ambulance services are provided jointly with other authorities through the Avon Fire and Rescue Service , Avon and Somerset Constabulary and the Great Western Ambulance Service .
Bath and North East Somerset 's area covers part of the ceremonial county of Somerset but it is administered independently of the non @-@ metropolitan county . Its administrative headquarters is in Bath , but many departments are headquartered in Keynsham . Between 1 April 1974 and 1 April 1996 , it was the Wansdyke district and the City of Bath of the county of Avon . Before 1974 that the parish was part of the Keynsham Urban District .
The parish is represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom as part of the North East Somerset constituency , which is a county constituency created by the Boundary Commission for England as the successor seat to the Wansdyke Parliamentary Seat . It came into being at the 2010 general election , and is represented by the Conservative Jacob Rees @-@ Mogg . It elects one Member of Parliament ( MP ) by the first past the post system of election . It is also part of the South West England constituency of the European Parliament which elects six MEPs using the d 'Hondt method of party @-@ list proportional representation .
= = Geography = =
Keynsham is located where the River Chew meets the River Avon . Fishing rights for the Millground and Chewton sections of the Chew are owned by Keynsham Angling Club . The Mill Ground stretch of the River Chew consists of the six fields on the western bank from Chewton Place at Chewton Keynsham to the Albert Mill . The water is home to Chub , Roach , European perch and Rudd , along with good numbers of Gudgeon , Dace and Trout . Keynsham Lock on the Avon opened in 1727 . Just above the lock are some visitor moorings and a pub , on an island between the lock and the weir . The weir side of the island is also the mouth of the River Chew .
Memorial Park , the northern part of which has existed as parkland since the 19th century , as shown by the ordnance Survey maps of 1864 and 1867 , was formally laid out after World War II was extended after the floods of 1968 . It covers 10 @.@ 7 hectares ( 26 acres ) of woodland and grass alongside the River Chew . It commemorates the war dead of Keynsham and includes facilities including two children 's play areas , a skateboard park , multi @-@ sport area , bowling green , public toilets , a bandstand and refreshment kiosk . The formal gardens within the park are adjacent to the River Chew with the Dapps Hill Woods at its western end . Part of the park is known locally as Chew Park because of its proximity to the River and another area , close to Keynsham Abbey as Abbey Park . The park received the Green Flag Award in 2008 / 09 , and again for 2009 / 10 .
On the outskirts of Keynsham lies Keynsham Humpy Tumps , one of the most floristically rich acidic grassland sites within the Avon area . The site is on a south @-@ facing slope running alongside the Bristol to Bath railway line . It consists of open patches of grassland and bare rock , interspersed with blocks of scrub . It is the only site in Avon at which Upright Chickweed Moenchia erecta , occurs . Other locally notable plant species found here include Annual Knawel Scleranthus annuus , Sand Spurrey Spergularia rubra , Subterranean Clover Trifolium subterraneus and Prickly Sedge Carex muricata ssp. lamprocarpa . The site does not have any statutory conservation status , and is not managed for its biodiversity interest . Threats to its ecological value include the encroachment of scrub onto the grassland areas , and damage from motorcycle scrambling . Between Keynsham and Saltford , a 15 hectares ( 37 acres ) area of green belt has been planted , with over 19 @,@ 000 trees , as the Manor Road Community Woodland , which has been designated as a Nature Reserve . Nearby is the Avon Valley Country Park tourist attraction .
Along with the rest of South West England , Keynsham has a temperate climate which is generally wetter and milder than the rest of England . The annual mean temperature is about 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) with seasonal and diurnal variations , but due to the modifying effect of the sea , the range is less than in most other parts of the United Kingdom . January is the coldest month with mean minimum temperatures between 1 ° C ( 34 ° F ) and 2 ° C ( 36 ° F ) . July and August are the warmest months in the region with mean daily maxima around 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) . In general , December is the dullest month and June the sunniest . The south west of England enjoys a favoured location , particularly in summer , when the Azores High extends its influence north @-@ eastwards towards the UK .
Cloud often forms inland , especially near hills , and reduces exposure to sunshine . The average annual sunshine totals around 1600 hours . Rainfall tends to be associated with Atlantic depressions or with convection . In summer , convection caused by solar surface heating sometimes forms shower clouds and a large proportion of the annual precipitation falls from showers and thunderstorms at this time of year . Average rainfall is around 800 – 900 mm ( 31 – 35 in ) . About 8 – 15 days of snowfall is typical . November to March have the highest mean wind speeds , with June to August having the lightest . The predominant wind direction is from the south west .
= = Demography = =
In the 2001 census Keynsham had a population of 15 @,@ 533 , in 6 @,@ 545 households , of which 6 @,@ 480 described themselves as White . Keynsham East Ward had a population of 5 @,@ 479 , Keynsham North 5 @,@ 035 and Keynsham South 5 @,@ 019 . In each of the wards between 75 and 80 % of the population described themselves as Christians , and around 15 % said that they had no religion .
In 1881 the population of the civil parish was 2 @,@ 482 . This grew gradually until 1931 when there were 4 @,@ 521 , before there was a steeper rise to 1951 when there were 8 @,@ 277 . Over the next ten years this nearly doubled to 15 @,@ 152 in 1961 .
= = Economy = =
An important industry in the town was Cadbury 's chocolate factory , the Somerdale Factory . The J. S. Fry & Sons business merged with Cadbury in 1919 , and moved their factory in the centre of Bristol to Keynsham in 1935 . As Quakers , the factory was built in a 228 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 92 km2 ) greenfield site with social facilities , including playing fields and recreational sports grounds . Called Somerdale after a national competition in 1923 , Keynsham Cadbury was the home of Fry 's Chocolate Cream , the Double Decker , Dairy Milk and Mini Eggs , Cadbury 's Fudge , Chomp and Crunchie .
On 3 October 2007 , Cadbury announced plans to close the Somerdale plant by 2010 with the loss of some 500 jobs . Production will be moved to factories in Birmingham and Poland . In the longer term it is likely the greenfield site will be re @-@ classified and provide Keynsham with additional housing . Labour MP for Wansdyke , Dan Norris , said " news of the factory 's closure is a hard and heavy blow , not just to the workforce , but to the Keynsham community as a whole " . In late 2007 campaigns to save the Cadbury 's factory in Somerdale were in full swing . One local resident started a campaign to urge English Heritage to protect the site , and preserve the history of the factory . The campaign did not succeed and as of February 2009 the site is still scheduled for closure , and likely demolition . Cadbury have suggested that the land be redeveloped as a mixture of housing and commercial interests , giving a figure of approximately 900 jobs being created as a result .
Before their takeover of Cadbury in February 2010 , Kraft Foods had pledged to keep the Cadbury factory at Somerdale open if they were successful in their bid for the company . However , within a week of completing their purchase of Cadbury , Kraft CEO Irene Rosenfeld released a statement announcing that Kraft were to close the factory by 2011 , as originally planned by Cadbury . The stated reason for this was that it was only after the purchase had been made that Kraft realised how advanced Cadbury 's plans were . Industry experts have however questioned this explanation , arguing that Kraft invested so much in researching their bid for Cadbury that they should have been aware of the extent to which plans had been advanced .
= = Culture = =
In 1969 the town was featured as the title of the fourth album Keynsham by the Bonzo Dog Band . The title was chosen in honour of Horace Batchelor , who had been referenced in previous Bonzo Dog Band recordings . In the early 1960s , Batchelor became known through his regular advertisements on Radio Luxembourg for his football pools prediction service . When giving his contact address , he would slowly spell out ' Keynsham ' letter by letter , and this became an amusing feature for many young listeners .
Keynsham Festival , which started in the late 1990s , takes place in the Memorial Park each July , and attracts around 16 @,@ 000 people . There is also a Victorian evening held in the town each November . Keynsham and Saltford local history society was formed in 1965 and is concerned with researching and recording the history of the area .
Keynsham was chosen as the outdoor location for a dramatic story @-@ line in the BBC One TV serial EastEnders in September 2012 with filming taking place in a cordoned @-@ off section of the High Street .
In Northanger Abbey by Jane Austen , Catherine and her friends ride to ″ within view of the town of Keynsham ″ .
= = Transport = =
The town is served by Keynsham railway station on the London @-@ Bristol and Bristol @-@ Southampton trunk routes . It opened in 1840 and was renamed Keynsham and Somerdale in 1925 . The factory had its own rail system which was connected to the mainline . The connection to Fry 's chocolate factory was taken out of use on the 26 – 27 July 1980 . The station 's name reverted to Keynsham on 6 May 1974 . The station was rebuilt in 1985 as a joint project between British Rail and Avon County Council .
The A4 road used to run through the town , however much of this traffic is now carried on the bypass , which was constructed in 1964 . The bypass runs from Saltford , a village which adjoins Keynsham , to Brislington , Bristol . Keynsham is on the Monarch 's Way long distance footpath which approximates the escape route taken by King Charles II in 1651 after being defeated in the Battle of Worcester .
The town is served by no less than 9 bus routes , 5 of which connect Bath with Bristol , 1 which runs from Ashton Way at the back of the shops to Bristol City Centre via Kingswood , another bus service runs from Ashton Way at the back of the shops to Southmead Hospital and one bus service runs to Cribbs Causeway . One bus runs to Mangotsfield . In numerical order :
A4 Bath to Bristol Airport
17 / 17A Keynsham to Southmead Hospital
38 Bath to Bristol
39 Bath to Bristol
178 Bath to Bristol via Radstock
349 Keynsham to Bristol
= = Education = =
State @-@ funded schools are organised within the unitary authority of Bath and North East Somerset . A review of Secondary Education in Bath was started in 2007 , primarily to reduce surplus provision and reduce the number of single @-@ sex secondary schools in Bath , and to access capital funds available through the government 's Building Schools for the Future programme . There are several primary schools in Keynsham , including St Johns primary school , Castle Primary school , Chandag infants and junior school and new school St Keyna primary school ( a merge of Keynsham primary school and 150 yr old Temple Primary school ) . There are also two secondary schools , Wellsway School and Broadlands School .
Wellsway School is an 11 – 18 , mixed comprehensive school which was established in 1971 , by amalgamating Keynsham Grammar School and Wellsway County Secondary School both of which opened on a shared site in the mid @-@ 1950s . Most students that attend the school live in Keynsham and Saltford or the nearby villages . As of 2007 , approximately 1350 students attend the school , ranging in age of 11 – 18 , with 64 % achieving 5 or more A @-@ C grades at GCSE . Wellsway 's bid for specialist school status was accepted in September 2007 . Meaning that Wellsway School now specialises as a Sports and Science College . This means the School has joined the national network of specialist schools , resulting in every school in Bath and North East Somerset now having a specialism . A joint bid is unusual as there are only six schools in the country with a combined Sports and Science specialism .
Broadlands School , with has specialist Science College and Engineering College status , has 1058 students , between the ages of 11 and 16 years . The school opened in 1935 .
Nearby Bath has two universities . The University of Bath was established in 1966 . It is known , academically , for the physical sciences , mathematics , architecture , management and technology . Bath Spa University was first granted degree @-@ awarding powers in 1992 as a university college ( Bath Spa University College ) , before being granted university status in August 2005 . It has schools in Art and Design , Education , English and Creative Studies , Historical and Cultural Studies , Music and the Performing Arts , and Social Sciences . The city contains one further education college , City of Bath College , and several sixth forms as part of both state , private , and public schools . In England , on average in 2006 , 45 @.@ 8 % of pupils gained 5 grades A @-@ C including English and Maths ; for Bath and North East Somerset pupils taking GCSE at 16 it is 52 @.@ 0 % . Special needs education is provided by Three Ways School .
= = Religious sites = =
Begun in 1292 , the Anglican parish church of St John the Baptist gradually evolved until taking its present general form during the reign of Charles II , after the tower collapsed into the building during a storm in 1632 . The tower , built over the north @-@ east corner of the nave , now rises in three stages over the Western entrance and is surmounted by a pierced parapet and short croketted pinnacles and is said to have been built from the ruins of the abbey church . The south aisle and south porch date from 1390 . The chancel , then the responsibility of the abbey , was rebuilt in 1470 and further restoration was carried out in 1634 – 1655 , following the collapse of the tower . There is a pulpit dating from 1634 and is also a screen of the same age which shuts off the choir vestry . It has been designated as a Grade II * listed building .
A former organ is said to have stood in the church , but " had tones so mellow " that Handel bargained for it , offering a peal of bells in exchange . The offer was accepted . The musician went off with the organ and the bells were delivered . There are eight bells in total , some made by the Bilbie family of Chew Stoke , the smallest bears these lines :
" I value not who doth me see
For Thomas Bilbie casted me ;
Althow my sound it is but small
I can be heard amongst you all . "
St. John the Baptist church is one of five churches in the Church of England Parish of Keynsham , the others being the village churches of St. Michael 's in Burnett and St. Margaret 's in Queen Charlton , the " Mission Church " in Chewton Keynsham ( formerly the school building ) , and St. Francis ' Church on the Park Estate which in 2013 - 2015 underwent extensive modernisation and offers two halls for use by community groups .
There are also the Victoria and Queens Road Methodist churches , St. Dunstan 's Roman Catholic Church and an Elim Church . The churches work together , also with churches in Saltford , under the banner of " Churches Together in Keynsham and Saltford " and often with the strapline " More to Life " .
= = Sport = =
Keynsham Cricket Club play at the Frank Taylor Memorial Ground , their 1st XI compete in the West of England Premier League Division 2 . Marcus Trescothick is the most noticeable player to have played for the club . His family remain members of the club , which incorporates over 100 senior members and 100 junior members .
Keynsham rugby football club play at Crown Field . The club 's most notable and tragic event occurred on 24 December 1992 , when there was a fatal road accident outside the club 's ground . A Ford Fiesta car ploughed into 11 people leaving the annual festive disco . One woman , 21 @-@ year @-@ old Sarah Monnelle , died at the scene . A second person , 24 @-@ year @-@ old rugby player Richard Barnett , died in hospital two days later from his injuries . Clive Sutton was later found guilty on a double charge of causing death by dangerous driving and sentenced to four years in prison at Bristol Crown Court .
Keynsham Town F.C. were founded in 1895 . They have played continuously apart from a break during World War II and moved to their current ground , the Crown Field , in 1945 . They first played in the Bristol & District League and progressed through the Bristol Combination , Bristol Premier and Somerset Senior League and won the Somerset Senior Cup in 1951 – 52 and 1957 – 58 . They were elected to the Western League in 1973 but were relegated three years later in 1976 . Since then they have been promoted to the Premier Division three times and relegated three times . They won the Somerset Senior Cup for the third time in 2002 – 03 and reached the 5th round of the FA Vase in 2003 – 04 . They currently play in the Western Football League Division 1 .
There is a bowls club situated at the Memorial Park . Keynsham leisure centre was built in 1965 by British Gas as a gift to the town . It includes a swimming pool , gymnasium and sauna .
= = Notable residents = =
Several notable people have been born or lived in Keynsham . The comedian Bill Bailey was raised in the town . Another entertainer Neil Forrester , who was a research assistant and became known as a cast member on The Real World : London was also a local . Sports players from Keynsham include Mark Regan a professional rugby player and a former player at Keynsham Rugby Football Club , Luke Sutton of Lancashire County Cricket Club who played as both a wicket @-@ keeper and batsman , Marcus Trescothick , the Somerset and England cricketer. and Judd Trump , a professional snooker player . Horace Batchelor , the football pools forecaster lived in Keynsham , making the town famous by spelling its name on Radio Luxembourg adverts . Author Christina Hollis was born and raised in Queen 's Road .
= SMS Bremen =
SMS Bremen ( " His Majesty 's Ship Bremen " ) was the lead ship of the seven @-@ vessel Bremen class , built by the Imperial German Navy . She was built by the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen , her namesake city . She was laid down in 1902 , launched in July 1903 , and commissioned into the High Seas Fleet in May 1904 . Armed with a main battery of ten 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns and two 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , Bremen was capable of a top speed of 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) .
Bremen served on the East American Station for the majority of her career , including the ten years before the outbreak of World War I. She returned to Germany in 1914 before the start of the war . At the onset of hostilities , she was attached to the fleet in the Baltic tasked with containing the Russians . In August 1915 , she participated in the Battle of the Gulf of Riga , but did not see significant action during the battle . Four months later , on 17 December , she struck two Russian naval mines and sank , with the loss of 250 of her crew .
= = Construction = =
Bremen was ordered under the contract name " L " and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in the ship 's namesake city in 1902 and launched on 9 July 1903 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 19 May 1904 . The ship was 111 @.@ 1 meters ( 365 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 3 m ( 44 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 53 m ( 18 @.@ 1 ft ) forward . She displaced 3 @,@ 797 t ( 3 @,@ 737 long tons ; 4 @,@ 185 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two triple @-@ expansion engines , designed to give 10 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 7 @,@ 500 kW ) for a top speed of 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) . The engines were powered by ten coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers . Bremen carried up to 860 tonnes ( 850 long tons ) of coal , which gave her a range of 4 @,@ 270 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 910 km ; 4 @,@ 910 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . She had a crew of 14 officers and 274 – 287 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with ten 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 40 guns in single mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , six were located amidships , three on either side , and two were placed side by side aft . The guns could engage targets out to 12 @,@ 200 m ( 40 @,@ 000 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 500 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . She was also equipped with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes . They were submerged in the hull on the broadside . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was up to 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the guns were protected by 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick shields .
= = Service history = =
After her commissioning , Bremen served on the East American station , and she frequently visited the United States . In April 1907 , she and the armored cruiser Roon sailed to the United States to participate in the Jamestown Exposition commemorating the anniversary of the arrival of colonists in Chesapeake Bay on 26 April . In addition to the German delegation , the international fleet consisted of warships from Great Britain , Japan , Austria @-@ Hungary , France , Italy , and several other nations .
Wilhelm Canaris , the future admiral and head of the Abwehr during World War II , served aboard the ship starting on 2 November 1907 , his first assignment after graduating from the naval academy . Bremen conducted a tour of South America in late 1908 , beginning in September with a call on Buenos Aires , followed by a stop in Rio de Janeiro in Brazil . The tour lasted through February 1909 , and included stops in Costa Rica , Panama , Guatemala , and the Dutch Antilles . In March , Bremen returned to the northern Atlantic and visited American ports for the next three months .
In September – October 1909 , Bremen , joined the protected cruisers Victoria Louise and Hertha , and the light cruiser Dresden , which had traveled to the United States to represent Germany during the Hudson @-@ Fulton Celebration . In early 1912 , Bremen was assigned to a goodwill cruise to the United States , along with the battlecruiser Moltke and the light cruiser Stettin . On 11 May 1912 the ships left Kiel and arrived off Hampton Roads , Virginia , on 30 May . There , they met the US Atlantic Fleet and were greeted by then @-@ President William Howard Taft aboard the presidential yacht USS Mayflower . After touring the East Coast for two weeks , they returned to Kiel on 24 June .
Bremen remained abroad until 1914 , when she returned to Germany . After the outbreak of World War I in July 1914 , she was assigned to the fleet in the Baltic Sea . While there , she participated in the Battle of the Gulf of Riga in August 1915 . She was assigned to the second attack on the Gulf , which took place on 16 August . She and the cruisers Graudenz , Augsburg , and Pillau escorted the dreadnoughts Nassau and Posen while they attempted to force their way into the Gulf . The German flotilla penetrated the Russian defenses by 19 August and steamed into the Gulf , but withdrew shortly thereafter due to the threat of Allied submarines and mines . On 17 December 1915 , Bremen and the torpedo boat V191 ran into a Russian minefield ; Bremen struck a pair of mines off Windau and sank , as did V191 . The majority of Bremen 's crew died in the sinking , with 250 men killed .
= Illinois v. McArthur =
Illinois v. McArthur , 531 U.S. 326 ( 2001 ) , was a United States Supreme Court case decided in 2001 . The case concerned the extent of the government ’ s power to limit an individual ’ s complete control of his or her home pending the arrival of a search warrant . A divided Court held that the search was not unconstitutional because there was a reasonable law @-@ enforcement need to acquire a warrant , namely , to prevent the potential destruction of evidence within the home .
= = Background = =
Tera McArthur asked two police officers to accompany her to a trailer home where she lived with her husband Charles , so that she could take her belongings out of the home . Just after she came out of the trailer , she told the police that Charles McArthur had drugs inside . The police knocked and asked Charles if they could search , which he refused . He then came out of the trailer ; an officer prevented him from going back inside while the other policeman rushed to get a warrant . The Illinois Appellate Court held that this action violated the Fourth Amendment , which prohibits unreasonable searches and seizures without a warrant . The Supreme Court granted certiorari to hear the case in 2000 .
= = Opinion of the Court = =
The Court voted 8 @-@ 1 to reverse the Illinois Appellate Court to hold the actions of the police officers at question constitutional . Justice Breyer wrote the majority opinion which upheld the search . Due to the specific circumstances of the case , the police needed to prevent the investigation scene from being contaminated . Breyer wrote that the Court found " no case in which [ we have ] held unlawful a temporary seizure that was supported by probable cause and was designed to prevent the loss of evidence while the police diligently obtained a warrant in a reasonable period of time . " Moreover , McArthur 's argument that his decision to remain on his porch and not allow the police entry did not amount to " a constructive eviction " . Instead , Breyer noted that the Court found in a prior case that the doorway of a house is in a ' public place ' and thus not subject to warrant rules . He noted in conclusion that the hard @-@ to @-@ contest fact of probable cause made it difficult to accept McArthur 's claims .
= = = Souter 's concurrence = = =
Justice Souter joined Breyer 's opinion in all respects but wrote separately to condition his support on the belief that the search was appropriate only because of the immediate danger that the evidence could have been destroyed . Only in this unique instance could the warrant requirement be waived .
= = = Stevens ' dissent = = =
Justice Stevens wrote a brief dissenting opinion arguing that the case should have been dismissed because the Illinois legislature has largely reduced penalties for marijuana possession , which made it ridiculous for the officers to rush to get a warrant . He said that even if he reached the merits of the question , he would affirm and hold the search unconstitutional because the majority misapplied a balancing of “ privacy @-@ related and law enforcement @-@ related concerns " . He wanted to give broader protection to the idea of the home as a place for protection , even if the home in this case was a trailer .
= Albany Highway =
Albany Highway links Western Australia 's capital city Perth with its oldest settlement , Albany , on the state 's south coast . The 405 @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 252 mi ) highway travels through the southern Wheatbelt and Great Southern regions , and is designated State Route 30 for most of its length . Outside of Perth the highway is predominately a sealed , single carriageway with regular overtaking lanes in some undulating areas . Albany Highway commences at The Causeway , a river crossing that connects to Perth 's central business district . The highway heads south @-@ east through Perth 's metropolitan region , bypassed in part by Shepparton Road and Kenwick Link , and continues south @-@ eastwards through to Albany . It intersects several major roads in Perth , including the Leach , Tonkin , Brookton , and South Western highways . The rural section of Albany Highway connects to important regional roads at the few towns and roadhouses along the route , including Coalfields Road at Arthur River , Great Southern Highway at Cranbrook , and Muirs Highway at Mount Barker .
Prior to European settlement , the indigenous Noongar people had a considerable network of tracks , including a trade route between the areas now known as Perth and Albany . Construction of a road between Perth and Albany began soon after the naming of Albany in 1832 , but progress was slow , with only 16 miles ( 26 km ) completed by 1833 . A monthly mail route which operated in the 1840s had such trouble with the journey that a new contractor was required each year , and from 1847 the mail route detoured via Bunbury . The introduction of convicts in 1850 , and thus convict labour , allowed a road along the direct route to be fully constructed by 1863 .
The rise of the motor vehicle era in the early 20th century saw the road gain prominence once more , and by 1939 the whole road had been sealed . Congestion at the Perth end of the road in the 1930s led to parallel roads Berwick Street and Shepparton Road being upgraded to provide bypasses . The entire Perth − Albany road was renamed Albany Highway on 2 October 1940 , in recognition of its importance as an arterial traffic route . From the late 1970s , $ 49 million over ten years was spent on repairing Albany Highway , and the experience saw Main Roads develop a program of interventions to prevent costly road reconstruction . Since the 1990s Main Roads has been upgrading various portions along the length of Albany Highway , including widening sections to dual carriageways in Perth , and the construction of the Kenwick Link bypass .
= = Route description = =
Albany Highway commences at The Causeway , a river crossing that connects to Perth 's central business district . The highway heads south @-@ east through Perth 's metropolitan region , and continues through the southern Wheatbelt and Great Southern regions to Albany on the south coast of Western Australia . Albany Highway is generally a two @-@ lane single carriageway road , but with additional lanes and dual @-@ carriageway sections in Perth and Albany . The highway is allocated State Route 30 , except for bypassed sections in Perth , and the southernmost portion in Albany . The part bypassed by Kenwick Link is allocated Alternate State Route 30 , and a short length in Arthur River is concurrently allocated State Route 107 . Albany Highway also carries sections of Heritage Country Tourist Drive ( Tourist Drive 205 ) and Great Southern Tourist Way ( Tourist Drive 356 ) .
Main Roads Western Australia monitors traffic volume across the state 's road network , including various locations along Albany Highway . In the 2013 / 14 financial year , the recorded traffic volumes ranged between 3880 and 70 @,@ 690 vehicles per weekday in Perth , 1980 to 3880 in the Wheatbelt , and 1720 to 5120 in the Great Southern . The highest percentage of heavy traffic was 29 @.@ 2 % , south of Jarrahdale Road in the Wheatbelt . Reports commissioned by the Royal Automobile Club of Western Australia ( RAC ) in 2006 and 2008 gave the majority of the highway a three @-@ star safety rating out of five , with an approximately 20 @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 12 mi ) section south @-@ east of Armadale rated at a two star level . The overall highway network was generally rated as three @-@ star or four @-@ star , but around 10 % in 2006 and 5 % in 2008 received a two @-@ star rating .
= = = Perth to Armadale = = =
In Perth , Albany Highway 's north @-@ western terminus is at a parclo interchange with The Causeway , Shepparton Road , and Great Eastern and Canning Highways in Victoria Park . The first 200 metres ( 660 ft ) of the road is one @-@ way into the interchange , but only connecting to The Causeway and Canning Highway – there is no direct access to the other roads . For the next four kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) , the highway is a two @-@ lane , two @-@ way high street serving Victoria Park 's town centre , and continuing south @-@ east through East Victoria Park . The nearby four @-@ lane Shepperton Road serves as a bypass , carrying through @-@ traffic as well as State Route 30 .
The two roads converge at an intersection with Welshpool Road , and for 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) Albany Highway serves as an arterial route in Perth 's south @-@ eastern suburbs , varying between a single carriageway and dual carriageway , and between a four- and six @-@ lane capacity . This part of the highway is dominated by commercial shopping precincts in Bentley , Cannington , Maddington , Gosnells and Kelmscott , with numerous sets of traffic lights . The section of Albany Highway through Beckenham and Kenwick is allocated Alternate State Route 30 , while State Route 30 follows a bypass , Kenwick Link .
Albany Highway has a folded diamond interchange with Tonkin Highway in Gosnells , and continues south for seven kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) past commercial and residential properties in Kelmscott and Mount Nasura . The highway has a T junction that is the western terminus of Brookton Highway , at the boundary between Kelmscott , and Mount Nasura . Further south in Armadale , the highway intersects the eastern end of Armadale Road and northern end of South Western Highway .
= = = Regional highway = = =
Albany Highway proceeds east and then south from Armadale , around the suburb of Mount Richon . The road continues south @-@ east , with signs of human activity becoming more sparse as the highway crosses the Darling Scarp , and the scenery transitions to native forest . Further south , after 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) , it transitions again to pastures , with farming activities such as livestock rearing and orchards . Over the next 300 kilometres ( 190 mi ) , the highway encounters few towns : Williams , Kojonup and Mount Barker are on the highway , but are 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) apart . Roadhouses exist at North Bannister , Crossman and Arthur River , while many of the service towns in the region are approximately 30 kilometres ( 20 mi ) to the east on Great Southern Highway , including Narrogin , Wagin and Katanning .
Closer to Albany , there are large tracts of blue gum eucalypt plantations . Twelve kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) from the road 's south @-@ eastern terminus , it passes Albany Airport . The highway passes by suburban areas before intersecting South Coast Highway at a Y intersection , and only 100 metres ( 330 ft ) beyond it , a large five @-@ way roundabout . This roundabout is the southern terminus of State Route 30 , and connects the highway with Chester Pass Road ( which continues east to South Coast Highway ) , North Road , and Hanrahan Road . The final two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) stretch takes the highway south @-@ east into the centre of Albany .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Prior to European settlement , the indigenous Noongar people had a considerable network of tracks around their territory in the south @-@ west of Western Australia . One such track , used as a trade route , linked the Swan River ( in modern @-@ day Perth ) with the area now known as Albany . The track followed a similar alignment to modern @-@ day Albany Highway .
On 25 December 1826 , the New South Wales colonial government brig Amity , under the command of Major Edmund Lockyer , arrived at King George Sound to establish a military garrison . On 21 January 1827 , as instructed by the Colonial Secretary , the Union Jack was raised and a feu de joie fired by the troops , formally annexing the territory , in assertion of the first official claim by the Imperial Government to British possession over the whole continent of Australia . On 7 March 1831 the King George Sound and colony was made part of the Swan River Colony and a free settlement . Albany was officially named by Governor Stirling at the beginning of 1832 , at the time that political authority passed to the Swan River colony . The construction of a road from Albany to Perth began soon thereafter , but only 16 miles ( 26 km ) had been completed by 1833 . Due to this slow progress , the settlers of Albany petitioned England to supply convicts to work on the road . At the time the government in Perth derided the proposal , and Western Australia would not become a penal colony until 1849 .
= = = Surveying and initial routes = = =
In October and November 1835 , Governor Stirling and Surveyor @-@ General John Septimus Roe travelled overland from Perth to Albany , with the focus of the journey being the route south of the Hotham River . A more comprehensive survey was undertaken in July – September 1836 by Assistant Surveyors Alfred Hillman and D. Smith . Hillman started from the Albany end , while Smith concurrently commenced from Perth . A few months later , in February 1837 , Hillman accompanied a group that made the trip to Perth in 12 days travelling time , journeying via Chorkurup , Thokokup , Mount Barker , Lake Matilda , Kojonup , Williams and Arthur River . This group was led by Mr J. Harris , and included Lieutenant Armstrong with eight soldiers of the 21st Fusiliers , Albany settlers Patrick Taylor and Dr. Thomas Harrison , as well as " the native ' Handsome ' " . In April 1838 four bridges were built near Albany by John Young , and in 1839 Governor John Hutt ventured out to Albany on an official visit , travelling through Williams and Kojonup . Assistant Surveyor Hillman led a large group of Albany settlers to Perth in 1940 , via Kinunup , Yarenup , Joseph 's Wells , Balgarrup and Mandalup ; whilst in the same year Edward John Eyre shepherded 550 sheep and 70 cattle from Albany to York , and then over to Perth .
A monthly mail route was set up in June 1841 , travelling from Albany to Perth via Kojonup and Williams . The following year , a service through Guildford commenced . The tough conditions of the mail route saw a different contractor providing the service each year . The 1845 contractor James Martin had particular trouble with debts , which led to his mail horse being seized ; while he managed to acquire a replacement animal , he also had trouble servicing the resultant debt of £ 2 . In 1847 , the Perth – Albany route was adjusted , so that the mail would travel from Albany to Kojonup , then head to Bunbury on the coast , and subsequently up to Perth via Rockingham and Fremantle . The new route still had difficulties , such as flooding in the winter of 1847 that resulted in a " terrible trip " which took a month to complete . The people of Albany , who could travel as passengers on the mail cart , found the trip to Perth long and deplorable .
With the arrival of the convict ship Scindian on 1 June 1850 and the advent of convict labour , early completion of the Perth – Albany road seemed assured . Investigations of a direct route via Kelmscott , Hotham , Williams and Kojonup began in late 1851 . Assistant Surveyor A. C. Gregory reported in 1852 that the direct route would be 57 miles ( 92 km ) shorter than the route via Bunbury , and 40 miles ( 64 km ) shorter than the York route . Construction was recommended in late 1852 , after the mail contractor George Maxwell completed a journey along the proposed route in September , and soon commenced . Fifty miles ( 80 km ) had been completed by October 1853 , and the whole road was finished in 1863 . The road served as the main link between Perth and Albany until the 1880s , when the Great Southern Railway opened .
= = = Early 20th century = = =
The rise of the motor vehicle era in the early 20th century saw the road gain prominence once more . The newly formed Main Roads Board took over control and maintenance of the Perth – Albany road and twenty @-@ one other important roads between 1926 and 1928 , which were declared " main roads " . At this stage the Perth – Albany road was not much more developed than a bush track . To increase the usability of the overall main road network , the Board 's work schedule prioritised upgrading the worst individual segments , rather than any one road . In 1928 / 29 , twenty @-@ two separate sections of the Perth – Albany road were improved , but many were short , and drivers would experience quite varied conditions , from new sealed road to gravel road , and then a boggy dirt in just a few miles . By 1932 , the improved conditions allowed an average speed of 35 to 40 miles per hour ( 55 to 65 km / h ) to be reached , for a total trip of eight to nine hours instead of two days . In 1938 , a total of eight miles ( 13 km ) had been sealed , and the following year the whole route had been completed .
In 1935 , a town planning report for the City of Perth noted traffic congestion on Albany Road in Victoria Park . As widening the existing road would have left the council liable for compensation from affected businesses and properties , the provision of bypass routes was recommended instead . To provide the bypasses , parallel roads would be upgraded and extended : Berwick Street to the south @-@ west , and Shepparton Road to the north @-@ east . In 1937 , work had progressed on extending Berwick Street eastwards , and it had been extended to Alday Street by November 1938 . A new causeway to extend Berwick Street north over the Swan River , and make it a truck route , was considered by the state government in 1940 . The existing Causeway , from which Albany Road commenced , had experienced almost a doubling of traffic volume between 1930 and 1939 . However , the new Causeway was eventually constructed adjacent to old Causeway , which was then demolished .
The cooperation of the Canning Road District would be required to continue the Berwick Street bypass south @-@ east beyond the city 's boundary at Boundary Road , and ultimately through to Albany Road . The South Perth Road Board was also in favour of such a bypass , which would improve access for South Perth residents . A deputation from the Canning and South Perth Road Boards to the Acting Minister For Works , Mr E. H. Gray , in June 1940 complained about the congestion in Albany Road . The traffic delays were worsened by cars parked on both sides of the road and slow @-@ moving trams . The deputation suggested extending Berwick Street to Albany Highway as the solution , as well as removing the trams . Gray contended that parking should be prohibited , and refused to scrap the trams , but said he would consider the resumption of land east of Berwick Street to enable a one @-@ quarter @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) extension to Albany Road . However , Berwick Street was diverted to the south @-@ west to connect with Chapman Road , providing a longer continuous route west of Albany Highway .
Shepperton Road ran parallel to Albany Road between Harvey Street , 45 chains ( 3 @,@ 000 ft ; 910 m ) from The Causeway , and Somerset Street , one and a half miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) further along . In 1937 , a road from Asquith Street to Albany Road was constructed , to eventually link in with Shepperton Road . In the same year , the intersection of Albany Road , Milford Street , and Welshpool Road was reconfigured to improve visibility , and in anticipation of an eastern extension to Shepperton Road . In April 1940 , that extension was nearing completion , which was expected to be by the end of May , while the demolition of houses on land resumed for the western extension was being arranged . On 29 September 1941 , the Perth City Council decided to construct the link between Asquith Street and Harvey Street early the following year , completing the Shepperton Road bypass . Buses were rerouted onto Shepperton Road in 1946 , by which time it had become the preferred route for motorists .
In November 1939 , the State Advisory Committee on Nomenclature recommended that the Perth – Albany road be named Great Southern Highway , in recognition of its importance as an arterial traffic route . This suggestion followed on from the naming of Great Eastern Highway , in April of the previous year . The committee sent letters to all the local governments in the area to advise them of the proposal . Feedback was mixed ; whilst the name was " thoroughly approved " by the Tambellup Road Board , and the Perth City Council 's general purposes committee recommended that no objection be raised , the Kojonup Road Board believed that " sufficient grounds [ did ] not exist for the proposed change " , and the Albany Municipal Council objected strongly to not retaining " Perth – Albany " in the name .
The State Advisory Committee made a new recommendation in April 1940 for Albany Highway instead of Great Southern Highway . This new proposal received support from the Albany Municipal Council and Tambellup Road Board . However , the Perth City Council still preferred Great Southern Highway , and recommended that within its boundaries – from The Causeway to Welshpool – the road be named Albany Road , and that one of the proposed bypasses in the area would be better suited to the highway name . The entire road was renamed Albany Highway on 2 October 1940 , superseding the previously used names Albany Road , Perth – Albany Road , and High Street in Kojonup .
= = = Post @-@ World War II = = =
During World War II , the Main Roads Department focused its activities on the war effort . Roads in rural areas deteriorated , especially after the Pearl Harbour attack brought the war to the Pacific , and only the most urgent maintenance works were authorised on roads for civilian purposes . Following the war , Main Roads returned to its usual operations , repairing and maintaining the road network . The rural road network expanded in the 1950s , with Main Roads both repairing the worst segments of its roads , through numerous small jobs , and assisting local governments to seal their roads . Such activity was spurred on by the closure of railway lines in addition to the establishment of new land settlements .
In Perth , a roundabout was constructed at the north @-@ western end of Albany Highway , to improve the flow of traffic onto and off The Causeway . It opened in 1952 , with guides on the usage of the roundabout published in newspapers . In 1973 construction began to upgrade the intersection to a partial cloverleaf interchange at the eastern end of The Causeway . The $ 1 @.@ 3 million interchange opened on 8 March 1974 .
By the late 1970s , the road sections sealed in the 1950s and 1960s were in need of repair or maintenance to prolong the pavement life . Old bitumen surfaces would deteriorate and crack . Resealing such cracks was a high priority , as expensive reconstruction would be required if water was allowed to enter the road base . Over a ten @-@ year period , $ 49 million was spent on repairing Albany Highway . The techniques used in this process were then formalised into the 4R Program , which aimed to alleviate a growing maintenance problem – based on a thirty @-@ five @-@ year pavement lifespan , the amount of reconstruction required would be more than double the actual rate of reconstruction . " 4R " abbreviated the options that could be used keep roads serviceable :
Restoration – maintaining the condition of a road
Resurfacing – resealing a bitumen surface which was no longer waterproof , to prevent pavement failure
Rehabilitation – improving a deteriorated road to its original condition
Reconstruction – done when deterioration was beyond the point of repairs
Interventions to prevent a road requiring reconstruction , the most costly option , would save money .
From the 1980s Main Roads began planning for the future needs of Albany Highway within the City of Canning in Perth , in conjunction with the City and the Metropolitan Region Planning Authority . A three @-@ kilometre ( 2 mi ) section between Leach Highway and Nicholson Road was subsequently upgraded between November 1992 and June 1994 . The four @-@ lane undivided road had been one of the most congested in Perth but was improved by adding a third lane in each direction as well as a median strip . The project was recognised with an Excellence Award from the Institution of Engineers Australia in 1994 . In the 1990s several other improvement projects were planned across the length of the highway , including between Bedfordale and North Bannister , through Mount Barker , and between Narrikup and Albany . Closer to Perth , the section along Bedfordale Hill ( south @-@ east of Armadale ) was upgraded to a four @-@ lane dual carriageway , with work completed in June 1999 .
This period also saw the planning and construction of additional junctions with new major roads in Perth . At Armadale , Armadale Road would connect to what had been a three @-@ way junction with South Western Highway , while a highway deviation was proposed to connect to the extension of Roe Highway through Beckenham . The proposed deviation became Kenwick Link , constructed as part of the Roe Highway extension towards Fremantle . It was initially built as a single carriageway , and upgraded to a dual carriageway later . It opened on 17 April 1998 , ahead of the Roe Highway extensions from Welshpool Road to Kenwick Link ( opened 30 November 2002 ) and from Kenwick Link to Nicholson Road ( opened 21 January 2003 ) .
Further work was undertaken in Perth in 2011 and 2012 , between John Street in Bentley and Leach Highway . The road was widened and a median installed to increase both safety and efficiency . The works also upgraded intersection , including installation of new traffic lights . Downer EDI Works Pty Ltd completed the work under a $ 3 @.@ 65 million contract . In January 2014 , work began on widening and reconstructing 2 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 5 mi ) of Albany Highway north of Kojonup .
= = Major intersections = =
= Lost ! =
" Lost ! " is a song by the British alternative rock band Coldplay . The band co @-@ produced it with Brian Eno and Markus Dravs for their fourth album , Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends . The song was released on 10 November 2008 as the fourth overall single from the album to generally positive critical reviews . A live version was released via digital download following a performance of the band and Jay @-@ Z at the 2009 Grammy Awards , spurring high digital sales and giving " Lost ! " a new peak at number 40 in the United States .
Several official versions of the song exist , including vocalist Chris Martin 's separate recording with a piano accompaniment ( known as " Lost ? " ) which appears as a B @-@ side for " Violet Hill " , and a version that features Jay @-@ Z ( known as " Lost + " ) which appears on their 2008 EP Prospekt 's March . The accompanying music video to the single features a live performance of the band in the United States . Coldplay launched a contest through their website , in which fans submitted self @-@ made music videos . The winning entries were posted on the band 's website . The song was used in the 2010 film , The Way .
= = Writing and composition = =
According to Coldplay drummer Will Champion in a fan mailout , " Lost ! " had been developed long before the band began recording tracks for their fourth studio album , Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends , and was not getting into completion . Champion recalls , " I was starting to get into using a particular drum programming programme . I was messing around with that and I built this beat up from scratch . ... Then Chris overheard it and played ' Lost ! ' over the top of it . " Martin revealed that the song 's drumbeat took inspiration from Justin Timberlake 's " Cry Me a River " , which was one of Champion 's favourite songs at that time .
" Lost ! " was one of the earliest songs the band worked on for the album . Coldplay revealed that " Sing " ( a track off Blur 's 1991 debut album Leisure ) was a source of inspiration in having provided a starting point for writing " Lost ! " . While in Detroit , Michigan , for a concert tour , the band was listening to " Sing " in their dressing room . Once they went on stage for a soundcheck , they thought of writing a song based from it . According to guitarist Jonny Buckland , " We recorded some of it in a church up the road that 's now a studio . In a huge room with a piano and organ going at the same time . " In an interview with The Sun , Martin said , " The line in this song ' Just because I 'm losing doesn 't mean I 'm lost ' is what the whole record came out of because we were feeling down at the end of the last tour . That line arrived and it was , ' OK , that 's how we kinda feel . We know we can improve . " The ensuing track evolved in different versions .
The song 's musicscape features a church organ riff , tribal drum @-@ circle groove , and minimal handclaps . Towards the end of the track , it builds into a " rhythmically soaring , Edge @-@ like " guitar solo . Coldplay 's use of " exotic " instruments for majority of tracks in the album , including " Lost ! " , was a result of a goal in wanting to present their songs differently , something " which have never been heard " in previous releases . In a review Alex Denney of The Guardian , he described the music of " Lost ! " as " tabla @-@ assisted gospel @-@ hop " . Kitty Empire of The Guardian wrote in a review that " Lost ! " , " a great organ @-@ driven tune , alive with handclaps and foot @-@ stomps " , is the most obvious homage to Canadian indie rock band Arcade Fire among other tracks off the album .
According to Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly magazine , the lyrics to " Lost ! " are " a lament about spiritual bereftness " . Rolling Stone magazine 's Will Hermes interpreted the lyrics as about " holding on against the odds that has the breathtaking loft " of " I Still Haven 't Found What I 'm Looking For " , a song off Irish band U2 's 1987 album The Joshua Tree . The chorus to the lyrics is noted by Ian Youngs of BBC " a typical Chris Martin chorus that mixes insecurity with determination " .
= = Song versions = =
The following songs are different variations of " Lost ! " :
" Lost ? " is a separate recording of the song featuring only singer Chris Martin and a piano . It was initially released as the B @-@ side on the CD version of " Violet Hill " , later as a bonus track to the Japanese , iTunes Store and Amazon MP3 editions of Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends and finally on the " Lost ! " digital EP .
" Lost + " features a rap section by Jay @-@ Z , with whom the band recorded the reworked track in New York . This version was premiered on BBC Radio 1 on 16 October 2008 . " Lost + " was released as the lead track from " Lost ! " ' s digital EP release , and was included on the Prospekt 's March EP . Jay @-@ Z 's rap was based on a freestyle he performed on Funkmaster Flex 's show on the Hot 97 radio station . This took place on 31 October 2008 , while Jay @-@ Z was promoting his Kingdom Come album.Coldplay performed the song at the 2009 Grammy Awards . They opened it with a rendition of " Lost ? " but Jay @-@ Z joined singer Chris Martin on stage and rapped over the piano solo . This version is also referred to as " Lost + " by the website and was released digitally .
" Lost- " is an instrumental track , identical to " Lost ! " but without vocals .
" Lost @ " is a recording of the song performed live at the United Center , Chicago on 22 July 2008 . This version also forms the basis for the single 's music video .
" Lost + / Viva la Vida ( Live At the 51st Annual Grammy Awards ) " is a recording of " Viva la Vida " and this song , performed live at the 51st Annual Grammy Awards .
= = Release and reception = =
" Lost ! " was released as a promotional CD single in September 2008 . On 10 November 2008 , Coldplay officially released a four @-@ track digital EP of " Lost ! " , confirming the song 's status as a single .
The song has been well received by critics . Will Hermes of Rolling Stone magazine noted " Lost ! " as " probably " the " album 's most sublime pop moment " . NME 's critic Mark Beaumont had the same view of Hermes , complimenting , " It 's not until [ ' Lost ! ' ] – all church organ funkiness , stomporific handclap rhythms and Chris pouting like a preacher in a jacuzzi full of strippers – that [ Viva la Vida ] really hits its stride . " Chris Jones of BBC writes , " ... ' Lost ! ' seems to sport bongos in its mix , yet it 's the plaintive voice with its vague sense of regret , the lifts from minor key piano forays into vast , pumping rock and also a strident optimism that people are going to come here for . " Ryan Dombal of Pitchfork Media had the same sentiment : " Thanks to a bubbling bit of exotic percussion that wouldn 't sound out of place on Peter Gabriel 's latter @-@ day LPs , ' Lost ! ' is transformed from Just Another Coldplay Song into a uniquely alluring smash and live staple for years to come . " An article in The Guardian lambasted " Lost ! " : " This song is a deflated balloon , or , put another way , a used empty condom . He has , I think , merged visual , audio and textual into a kind of polysensory jam ; no part of it works without the other two . "
Since it did not match the commercial success of the album 's previous singles , " Lost ! " charted in some countries during the week of the album being released and due to high digital sales , despite not officially being a single at the time . It has charted most notably the United Kingdom where it peaked at number 54 in the UK Singles Chart and in the United States where it debuted at number 94 on the Billboard Hot 100 . The single has peaked at number 10 on the Billboard Hot Modern Rock Tracks . Its UK peak made the single Coldplay 's first to fail to chart in the UK Top 40 although considering the fact that it was not physically released ( though it was still available as a digital download at the time ) .
Buoyed by the band 's success at the 2009 Grammy Awards , a live Grammy performance of the single featuring Jay @-@ Z was released exclusively to iTunes , spurring digital download sales . As a result , " Lost ! " achieved a new peak position on the Billboard Hot 100 , re @-@ entering at number 40 . Billboard called the collaboration a " gloomy instrumentation with a series of drums and claps that perfectly fits the lyrical content of the song and makes the transition from Martin 's singing to Jay 's rapping seem effortless . " Christian Hoard of Rolling Stone , in his review of Prospekt 's March , praised " Lost + " as containing a " great Jay @-@ Z cameo . "
= = Music video = =
The music video to " Lost ! " was officially released on Coldplay 's website on 26 September 2008 . It features a live performance of the song at United Center in Chicago , Illinois . It shows views of different members of the band playing the song and Chris Martin actively moving around stage while singing . The video was filmed and directed by Mat Whitecross . According to Luke Lewis of NME , the video is a tribute to U2 's tour documentary Rattle and Hum . An alternative version was released for " Lost + " . This video is the same as the original but with the camera angles slightly altered , primarily to show a screen on stage which features Jay @-@ Z whose performance was added digitally .
Coldplay launched a contest in October 2008 in which fans submitted homemade music videos for the " Lost ? " acoustic version . Open to all fans worldwide , the competition closed on 1 December 2008 . All members of the band picked the finalists and judged the winning entries on 5 December . The winner was awarded a pair of " ultra @-@ VIP " tickets to the band 's show in O2 arena in London in December 2008 , and it included backstage passes . The winning video was announced on 8 December 2008 , with the winner being Paul O 'Brien for a " Wonderful blend of Claymation and Computer Graphics " . O 'Brien 's video and the runner up , made by Martin Buzora , are featured on Coldplay 's official website .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = = Lost ! = = =
= = = Lost + = = =
= Tropical Storm Ana ( 2009 ) =
Tropical Storm Ana was the first named storm of the 2009 Atlantic hurricane season and the first tropical cyclone to impact the Caribbean islands during 2009 . Forming out of an area of low pressure associated with a tropical wave on August 11 , Ana briefly attained tropical storm intensity on August 12 before weakening back to a depression . The following day , the system degenerated into a non @-@ convective remnant low as it tracked westward . On August 14 , the depression regenerated roughly 1 @,@ 075 mi ( 1 @,@ 735 km ) east of the Leeward Islands . Early on August 15 , the storm re @-@ attained tropical storm status , at which time it was named Ana . After reaching a peak intensity with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 1003 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 65 inHg ) , the storm began to weaken again due to increasing levels of wind shear and the unusually fast movement of Ana . In post @-@ storm analysis , it was discovered that Ana had degenerated into a tropical wave once more on August 16 , before reaching any landmasses .
Numerous tropical storm watches were issued for the Lesser Antilles , Puerto Rico , Dominican Republic between August 15 and 17 . Several islands took minor precautions for the storm , including St. Croix which evacuated 40 residents from flood @-@ prone areas ahead of the storm . In the Dominican Republic , officials took preparations by setting up relief agencies and setting up shelters . Impact from Ana was minimal , mainly consisting of light to moderate rainfall . In Puerto Rico , up to 2 @.@ 76 in ( 70 mm ) of rain was reported , causing street flooding and forcing the evacuation of three schools .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 9 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) began monitoring a tropical wave associated with a small area of convective activity between the Cape Verde Islands and the western coast of Africa . The system eventually spawned an area of low pressure as it tracked towards the west . After slowly organising for a few days , the NHC reported early on August 11 , that the system had developed into a tropical depression . The system at this time was located about 280 mi ( 455 km ) , west of the Cape Verde Islands . The depression developed deep convection around the center of circulation and continued to track generally towards the west in response to a mid @-@ level subtropical ridge to the north . The depression was expected to gradually intensify as it moved over marginally warm sea surface temperatures and into an area of low wind shear ; however it was anticipated that dry air would hamper the depressions chances of intensifying further .
By August 12 , the NHC reported that Tropical Depression Two was near tropical storm intensity after a burst of deep convection over the center . At this point , the system was not upgraded to a tropical storm ; however , in a post @-@ storm analysis , it was determined that the system had attained tropical storm @-@ force winds , peaking at 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) for 12 hours on August 12 . Several hours later , the system became disorganized due to increased wind shear . By the afternoon of August 13 , the system had weakened to a tropical depression and shortly thereafter , degenerated into a non @-@ convective remnant low @-@ pressure area as it failed to maintain convection around the center for 24 hours . At this time , the NHC issued their final advisory on the system but noted that there was the possibility of regeneration .
On August 14 , roughly 24 hours after degenerating into a remnant low , convection began to redevelop over the system . Later that day , a Hurricane Hunter reconnaissance plane deployed dropsondes into the system . They found that the system was regenerating and shortly after , the NHC began re @-@ issuing advisories on the depression when it was located roughly 1 @,@ 075 mi ( 1 @,@ 735 km ) east of the Leeward Islands . The depression continued to track westward in response to an upper @-@ level high over the north Atlantic . Early on August 15 , the NHC upgraded the depression to a tropical storm , giving it the name Ana as deep convection developed around the center of circulation . Later that day , wind shear caused convection to become displaced from the circulation , exposing the center of Ana again .
By August 16 , the forward motion of Ana began to increase , and the storm quickly entered a region of dry , stable air . By the afternoon , a Hurricane Hunter reconnaissance mission did not find any evidence of tropical storm @-@ force winds , resulting in Ana being downgraded to a tropical depression . It was determined in post @-@ storm analysis , that Ana had degenerated into a tropical wave shortly afterwards , and was no longer a tropical cyclone . Several hours later , the system redeveloped convection as it raced towards the west @-@ northwest at 26 mph ( 42 km / h ) . Early on August 17 , radar imagery from Guadeloupe and San Juan , Puerto Rico depicted a system without a closed , low @-@ level circulation . Despite this , the NHC continued operational advisories until confirmation could be made with visible satellite imagery . Later that day , a final reconnaissance plane flew into the storm and did not find a low @-@ level circulation . Following this , the NHC stated that Ana had dissipated off the coast of Puerto Rico , despite having already degenerated into a tropical wave the previous day . The remnants of Ana were once more monitored for signs of regeneration , but land interaction with Hispaniola and Cuba spoiled the system 's chances of redevelopment .
= = Preparations and impact = =
On August 15 , a tropical storm watch was issued for much of the Leeward Islands . Two days later , the watch was expanded to include Puerto Rico and areas in the eastern Dominican Republic between Cabo Engaño and Cabo Beata . As Ana weakened and dissipated , the watches were discontinued .
In San Maarten , cruise agencies redirected ships to avoid the storm and secured vessels docked at port . Several ships were moved to Simpson Bay Lagoon where waves are generally small . In St. Kitts , officials evacuated 40 families in flood @-@ prone areas to shelters ahead of the storm . On August 17 , the National Weather Service in San Juan , Puerto Rico issued an Urban and Small Stream Flood Advisory for all of the eastern municipalities on the island . Flights in the area were delayed by several hours to avoid the depression . In the Dominican Republic , officials posted flood alerts for 12 provinces as the remnants of Ana were forecast to produce up to 6 in ( 150 mm ) of rain in the country . General Luna Paulino of the civil army activated relief agencies ahead of the storm and notified residents of possible mandatory evacuations . Officials inspected the dams threatened by the storm to protect several towns and villages . Emergency officials stated that roughly 35 @,@ 000 personnel were on standby in case of a disaster . Shelters were also prepped throughout the country ; however , these were not opened and the residents who had voluntarily evacuated had returned home by the afternoon of August 17 . In nearby Haiti , officials placed the country under yellow alert as the remnants of Ana could produce heavy rainfall over mountainous areas .
In St. Thomas , sustained winds reached 28 mph ( 45 km / h ) and gusts peaked at 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . In Puerto Rico , rainfall was limited due to the storms ' fast motion , triggering minor flooding but little damage . A maximum of 2 @.@ 76 in ( 70 mm ) of rain fell in Río Grande . The rains caused the Río Fajardo to rise , resulting in the issuance of an alert as officials warned it could overflow its banks . Several streets were temporarily shut down due to flooding , including one tunnel , and three schools had to be evacuated . Throughout the island , roughly 6 @,@ 000 people were left without power as numerous branches were snapped off trees and knocked down power lines . There were also reports of waterspouts and tornadoes associated with Ana in Puerto Rico . Winds on the island gusted up to 42 mph ( 67 km / h ) . The remnants of Ana produced widespread rainfall across Hispaniola ; however , there were no reports of damage from the system .
= 1933 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1933 Atlantic hurricane season was the second most active Atlantic hurricane season on record , with 20 storms forming in the northwest Atlantic Ocean . The season ran through the summer and the first half of fall in 1933 , with activity as early as May and as late as November . A tropical cyclone was active for all but 13 days from June 28 to October 7 . The year was surpassed in total number of tropical cyclones by the 2005 season , which broke the record with 28 storms . Tropical cyclones that did not approach populated areas or shipping lanes , especially if they were relatively weak and of short duration , may have remained undetected . Because technologies such as satellite monitoring were not available until the 1960s , historical data on tropical cyclones from this period are often not reliable . Compensating for the lack of comprehensive observation , one hurricane researcher estimates the season could have produced 24 tropical cyclones .
Of the 20 storms during the season , 11 attained hurricane status . Six of those were major hurricanes , with sustained winds of over 111 mph ( 179 km / h ) . Two of the hurricanes reached winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) , which is a Category 5 – the highest of 5 – on the modern Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . The season produced several deadly storms , with eight storms killing more than 20 people . All but 3 of the 20 known storms affected land at some point during their durations .
= = Season summary = =
The 1933 season was the most active of its time , surpassing the previous record @-@ holder of 19 storms in 1887 . Fifteen of the season 's storms made landfall as tropical cyclones , and another struck land as an extratropical storm . Eight tropical storms , including six hurricanes , hit the United States during the season , including the Chesapeake – Potomac hurricane , which the U.S. Weather Bureau described as one of the most severe in history along the Mid @-@ Atlantic States . Seven tropical storms , including four hurricanes , hit Mexico , two of which caused severe damage in the Tampico area .
The season was continuously active , with six storms forming during the month of August alone . At the time , many storms received the distinction of being the earliest nth storm to form , such as the earliest fifth tropical storm to form in a season . Most of the records were broken in later years . During the season , the U.S. Weather Bureau issued storm and hurricane warnings for eight storms , including coastal portions of Texas , as well as from Florida to Massachusetts , forcing the evacuations of thousands of people . The deadliest storm of the season was a hurricane that struck Tampico , Mexico , killing over 184 residents . The costliest hurricane was the Chesapeake – Potomac hurricane , which caused $ 27 million in damage from North Carolina to New Jersey . The hurricane produced rainfall that resulted in severe crop damage in Maryland .
In addition to the 20 tropical storms , there were several tropical depressions of lesser intensity . The first developed on June 1 in the northwest Caribbean and dissipated a few days later . Another depression developed on July 11 over Panama and also quickly dissipated . A tropical depression developed on July 17 in the northeastern Atlantic west of the Azores , and one ship reported hurricane @-@ force winds ; however , there was little evidence that the tropical system was organized , so it was not classified as a tropical storm . Originally , there was a tropical storm in the database in the Caribbean in the middle of August , but it was downgraded to a tropical depression due to lack of any reports of gale @-@ force winds . Similarly , there was a tropical storm in the database in late September , but it was also downgraded to a tropical depression due to lack of gale @-@ force winds .
The season produced the highest Accumulated Cyclone Energy ( ACE ) on record with a total of 259 . The measurement is a method to compare tropical cyclone activity between seasons . Originally , 1933 had an ACE of 213 , which was surpassed by 1950 and 2005 . However , the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project found that the storms in 1933 were stronger than initially reported .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm One = = =
The first storm of the season formed on May 14 in the southwestern Caribbean Sea off the east coast of Nicaragua . It moved quickly to the north @-@ northwest , passing just northeast of the eastern tip of Honduras . On May 15 , the storm turned to the west and entered the Gulf of Mexico while moving around the Yucatán Peninsula . The next day , it attained peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) , based on a ship report . Turning southward , the storm made landfall on Ciudad del Carmen in Mexico early on May 19 with winds of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) . It dissipated over land later that day .
= = = Hurricane Two = = =
A westward @-@ moving tropical wave spawned a tropical depression on June 24 about halfway between the southern Lesser Antilles and the coast of Africa . The depression quickly intensified into a tropical storm , and by June 27 it became a hurricane off the northern coast of Guyana . At 2100 UTC that day , the hurricane struck extreme southern Trinidad with winds of 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) . After crossing the island , the hurricane moved across the Paria Peninsula in northeastern Venezuela with the same intensity . The hurricane was earliest to affect the region on record , and was the first storm in over 50 years to affected Trinidad and Venezuela . In Trinidad , 13 people were killed , about 1 @,@ 000 people were left homeless , and damage was estimated at $ 3 million . In Venezuela , the hurricane caused power outages , destroyed several houses , and killed several people .
After crossing Venezuela into the eastern Caribbean , the hurricane moved northwestward and gradually intensified . On July 3 it struck western Cuba with winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . In the country , the storm killed 22 people , while damage amounted to $ 4 million . A building high pressure area turned the hurricane westward in the Gulf of Mexico , and after further strengthening the storm attained peak winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) on July 5 . It turned to the west @-@ southwest and made landfall in northeastern Mexico on July 7 with winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) , about halfway between Tampico and the Mexico / United States border . It dissipated about 11 hours later over Mexico . There were several deaths and heavy damage in the area where the storm moved ashore . Across its path , the hurricane killed 35 people .
= = = Tropical Storm Three = = =
The third tropical storm of the season ( initially classified as two separate storms but later identified as a single track ) was first observed on July 14 near St. Kitts . It moved quickly westward and passed just south of Puerto Rico and Hispaniola as a weak storm . The system curved slightly to the west @-@ northwest and brushed the northern coast of Jamaica before turning slightly westward and hitting the Mexican state of Quintana Roo . As it crossed the Yucatán Peninsula the cyclone weakened and eventually crossed into the Bay of Campeche . It moved quickly to the northwest , and made landfall near Matagorda Bay , in Texas on July 23 as a 45 mph ( 70 km / h ) tropical storm . The system turned to the northeast , and became extratropical to the east of Dallas , Texas . The extratropical system moved slowly through northern Louisiana , turned to the northeast , and dissipated over northeastern Arkansas near Memphis , Tennessee .
While passing near Jamaica , the storm dropped heavy rainfall , including 9 inches ( 230 mm ) in Kingston which led to flooding and washouts . The rainfall also damaged several bridges and roads and resulting in delays in train schedules . Mudslides and overflowing rivers flooded several towns with knee @-@ deep waters . Moderate winds downed several banana trees across the island . Prior to the arrival of the storm in Texas , numerous coastal residents boarded up their houses and businesses and voluntarily evacuated further inland . Upon making landfall , the storm produced high tides . In eastern Texas and western Louisiana , the system dropped very heavy precipitation , which in places reached accumulations exceeding 20 inches ( 500 mm ) . The highest storm total occurred in Logansport , Louisiana , which reported 21 @.@ 30 inches ( 541 mm ) in a 4 @-@ day period . In Louisiana , the flooding severely damaged crops and forced about 250 families near Shreveport to evacuate their flooded homes . The torrential rainfall also resulted in overflowing rivers ; numerous highways , roads , and railroads were either impassable or closed , with some locations experiencing water depths of up to 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) . Total damage reached nearly $ 2 million .
= = = Tropical Storm Four = = =
A dissipating cold front spawned a tropical depression east of Bermuda on July 24 . It moved east @-@ northeastward initially , and intensified into a tropical storm early on July 25 . Based on ship observations , it is estimated the storm attained peak winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . The storm turned to the northeast and was absorbed by a cold front southeast of Newfoundland early on July 27 .
= = = Hurricane Five = = =
On July 24 , a tropical storm was detected . Located to the southeast of Antigua , it tracked west @-@ northwestward , passing near St. Thomas with winds of up to 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . The storm strengthened and attained hurricane status the next day north of Puerto Rico , and it continued its west @-@ northwest movement . After moving through the northern Bahamas , the hurricane struck near Fort Pierce , Florida , with winds of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) . The hurricane crossed the state and weakened to minimal tropical storm intensity . It turned to the west @-@ southwest and re @-@ strengthened to a hurricane on August 4 off the coast of Texas . It weakened again to tropical storm status and made its final landfall near Brownsville , Texas , on August 5 as a strong tropical storm . The system rapidly dissipated over northern Mexico .
While moving over Saint Christopher , the storm killed six people . Heavy rain was reported throughout the Virgin Islands . The hurricane caused the drowning of one person in the Bahamas , and moderate winds produced severe structural damage to the buildings in the archipelago . In Florida , the National Weather Bureau issued storm warnings between Miami to Titusville , while Governor David Sholtz issued a mandatory evacuation for 4 @,@ 200 residents in vulnerable areas around Lake Okeechobee . Damage in Florida was minimal , limited to minor crops , roofs , and signs . In southern Texas , the hurricane produced moderate damage of $ 500 @,@ 000 , including disrupted telephone and telegraph lines . The hurricane produced high tides along the coast of Texas , covering parts of South Padre Island , and heavy rains in northern Mexico caused heavy damage .
= = = Hurricane Six = = =
A ship first reported a tropical depression near the Cape Verde islands on August 13 . This system would become one of the most destructive hurricanes of the season . The storm moved towards the northwest and attained hurricane status on August 16 . The hurricane continued to strengthen , and on August 21 , it passed about 150 miles ( 240 km ) southwest of Bermuda as a Category 3 hurricane . St. George 's avoided a direct hit but reported wind speeds of up to 64 mph ( 103 km / h ) . On August 22 , the hurricane turned west @-@ northwest and reached its peak intensity , with maximum sustained winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) , equivalent to a Category 4 hurricane in the modern @-@ day Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . However , it weakened quickly afterwards . On August 23 , the storm made landfall on the Outer Banks of North Carolina as a Category 1 hurricane and continued to quickly weaken as it moved inland , away from its energy source . The storm turned to the north , then to the northeast , passing through Virginia , Maryland , and Pennsylvania before weakening to a tropical depression over New York . The storm became extratropical on August 25 and turned to the east , moving through Atlantic Canada and dissipating on August 28 .
The hurricane caused damage ranging from moderate to severe in the corridor between North Carolina and
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one of which would later be rebuilt and used by the Atomic Energy Commission in the late 1960s . At its peak , the occupancy of Amchitka reached 15 @,@ 000 troops .
The Aleutian Islands campaign was successfully completed on August 24 , 1943 . In that month , a strategic intercept station was established on the island , which remained until February 1945 . On 31 December 1949 the Air Force Base was closed due to insufficient personnel and staff . The Army closed its communications facility at Amchitka in August 1950 . On 31 December 1950 the Air Force 2107th Air Weather Group pulled the last of its personnel out of Amchitka and the facility was abandoned .
The site later hosted an Air Force White Alice telecommunication system in 1959 to 1961 , and a temporary relay station in the 1960s and 1970s . A prototype Relocatable Over @-@ the @-@ Horizon Radar system existed on Amchitka between 1991 and 1993 to conduct surveillance on Russia .
= = Nuclear testing = =
= = = Plans for nuclear testing = = =
With the pullout of military forces from Amchitka in 1950 , the Department of Defense initially considered the island for nuclear testing planned for 1951 . Requiring information about the cratering potential of nuclear weapons , plans were made to detonate two 20 @-@ kiloton ( 84 TJ ) devices . After approximately 34 test holes had been drilled , the site was deemed unsuitable , and the project was moved to the Nevada test site .
In the late 1950s , scientists realized that improved seismological knowledge was necessary for the detection of Soviet underground nuclear explosions . The 1 @.@ 7 @-@ kiloton ( 7 @.@ 1 TJ ) " Rainier " test ( part of Operation Plumbbob , performed in Nevada ) produced strong seismic signals , but looked much like an ordinary earthquake . In 1959 , Dr. James R. Killian , the Special Assistant to the President for Science and Technology , formed the Panel on Seismic Improvement ( which subsequently recommended the program that came to be known as Vela Uniform ) , with the twin goals of improving seismic instruments and deploying them globally , and researching in more depth the seismic effects of nuclear explosions . The project was subsequently initiated by the Eisenhower administration .
Together with the Atomic Energy Commission , the DoD began assessing Amchitka for use as part of the Vela Uniform tests .
= = = Long Shot test = = =
To conduct the Vela Uniform test Long Shot , 51 ° 25 ′ 35 @.@ 84 ″ N 179 ° 11 ′ 14 @.@ 13 ″ E the Department of Defense occupied Amchitka from 1964 to 1966 , with the AEC providing the device , measuring instruments , and scientific support . The goal was " to determine the behavior and characteristics of seismic signals generated by nuclear detonations and to differentiate them from seismic signals generated by naturally occurring earthquakes . "
Although it would not be publicly announced until March 18 , 1965 , senior Alaskan officials were notified the previous February . After the devastating Great Alaska earthquake of March 27 , 1964 , the governor expressed concern about the psychological effects of the test on the populace . He was quickly reassured .
Long Shot was detonated on October 29 , 1965 , and the yield was 80 kilotons ( 330 TJ ) . It was the first underground test in a remote area , and the first test managed by the DoD . While there was no surface collapse , tritium and krypton were found at the surface following the test ; this was not made public until 1969 .
= = = Milrow and Cannikin tests = = =
Though performed as part of the Nuclear Weapons Testing Program , " [ the ] purpose of the Milrow test was to test an island , not a weapon . " It was a " calibration shot " , intended to produce data from which the impact of larger explosions could be predicted , and specifically , to determine whether the planned Cannikin detonation could be performed safely . Milrow was detonated on October 2 , 1969 51 ° 24 ′ 52 @.@ 06 ″ N 179 ° 10 ′ 44 @.@ 84 ″ E , with an approximate yield of 1 to 1 @.@ 2 megatons ( 4 @.@ 2 – 5 @.@ 0 PJ ) .
The shockwave reached the surface with an acceleration of over 35 g ( 340 m / s2 ) , causing a dome of the Earth 's surface , approximately 3 km ( 2 mi ) in radius , to rise about 5 meters ( 16 ft ) . The blast " turned the surrounding sea to froth " and " forced geysers of mud and water from local streams and lakes 50 feet ( 15 m ) into the air " . A " surface collapse feature " , also known as a subsidence crater , was formed by material collapsing into the cavity formed by the explosion .
Cannikin was intended to test the design of the Spartan anti @-@ ballistic missile ( ABM ) interceptor – a high @-@ yield warhead that " produced copious amounts of x @-@ rays and minimized fission output and debris to prevent blackout of ABM radar systems . " The test would " measure the yield of the device , measure the x @-@ ray flux and spectrum , and assure deployment of a reliable design . "
= = = = Controversy = = = =
A few days after the Milrow test , the Don 't Make A Wave Committee was organized at a meeting in Vancouver , Canada . The Committee 's name referred to predictions made by a Vancouver journalist named Bob Hunter , later to become Greenpeace member 000 . He wrote that the test would cause earthquakes and a tsunami . On the agenda was whether to fight another blast at the island , or whether to expand their efforts to fight all perceived threats against the environment . As he was leaving , one man gave the traditional farewell of the peace @-@ activist movement , " Peace . " " Make it a green peace , " replied another member . The Committee would later become Greenpeace .
The AEC considered the likelihood of the test triggering a severe earthquake " very unlikely " , unless one was already imminent on a nearby fault , and considered a tsunami " even more unlikely " . Others disagreed . Russell Train , then Chairman of the Council on Environmental Quality , argued that " experience with Milrow ... does not provide a sure basis for extrapolation . In the highly nonlinear phenomena involved in earthquake generation , there may be a threshold value of the strain that must be exceeded prior to initiation of a large earthquake . ... The underground explosion could serve as the first domino of the row of dominoes leading to a major earthquake . ... as in the case of earthquakes it is not possible at this time to assess quantitatively the probability of a tsunami following the explosion . "
In July 1971 , a group called the Committee for Nuclear Responsibility filed suit against the AEC , asking the court to stop the test . The suit was unsuccessful , with the Supreme Court denying the injunction by 4 votes to 3 , and Richard Nixon personally authorized the $ 200 million test , in spite of objections from Japan , Peru , and Sweden . " What the Court didn ’ t know , however , was that six federal agencies , including the departments of State and Interior , and the fledgling EPA , had lodged serious objections to the Cannikin test , ranging from environmental and health concerns to legal and diplomatic problems . Nixon issued an executive order to keep the comments from being released . " The Don 't Make A Wave Committee chartered a boat , in which they had intended to sail to the island in protest , but due to weather conditions they were unable to reach their destination .
= = = = Cannikin tested = = = =
Cannikin was detonated on November 6 , 1971 51 ° 28 ′ 13 @.@ 20 ″ N 179 ° 6 ′ 40 @.@ 75 ″ E , as the thirteenth test of the Operation Grommet ( 1971 – 1972 ) underground nuclear test series . The announced yield was 5 megatons ( 21 PJ ) – the largest underground nuclear test in US history . ( Estimates for the precise yield range from 4 @.@ 4 to 5 @.@ 2 megatons or 18 to 22 PJ ) . The ground lifted 20 feet ( 6 m ) , caused by an explosive force almost 400 times the power of the Hiroshima bomb . Subsidence and faulting at the site created a new lake , over a mile wide . The explosion caused a seismic shock of 7 @.@ 0 on the Richter scale , causing rockfalls and turf slides of a total of 35 @,@ 000 square feet ( 3 @,@ 300 m2 ) . Though earthquakes and tsunamis predicted by environmentalists did not occur , a number of small tectonic events did occur in the following weeks , ( some registering as high as 4 @.@ 0 on the richter scale ) thought to be due to the interaction of the explosion with local tectonic stresses .
According to wildlife surveys following the Cannikin event by the University of Alaska Fairbanks , 700 – 2 @,@ 000 sea otters were killed by overpressures in the Bering Sea as a direct result of the explosion . This survey showed that number of sea otters endangered by the blast was far greater than the Atomic Energy Commission had predicted .
= = = 1973 and beyond = = =
The AEC withdrew from the island in 1973 , though scientists continue to visit the island for monitoring purposes . In 2001 , the DoE returned to the site to remove environmental contamination . Drilling mud pits were stabilized by mixing with clean soil , covering with a polyester membrane , topped with soil and re @-@ seeded .
Concerns have been expressed that new fissures may be opening underground , allowing radioactive materials to leak into the ocean . A 1996 Greenpeace study found that Cannikin was leaking both plutonium and americium into the environment , . In 2004 , scientific divers from the University of Alaska Fairbanks collected shallow subtidal organisms and reported that " There were no indications of any radioactive leakage , and all that was really wonderful news . " Similar findings are reported by a 2006 study , which found that levels of plutonium " were very small and not significant biologically " .
The Department of Energy continues to monitor the site as part of their remediation program . This is expected to continue until 2025 , after which the site is intended to become a restricted access wildlife preserve .
= Tropical Depression Ten ( 2005 ) =
Tropical Depression Ten was the tenth tropical cyclone of the record @-@ breaking 2005 Atlantic hurricane season . It formed on August 13 from a tropical wave that emerged from the west coast of Africa on August 8 . As a result of strong wind shear , the depression remained weak and did not strengthen beyond tropical depression status . The cyclone degenerated on August 14 , although its remnants partially contributed to the formation of Tropical Depression Twelve , which eventually intensified into Hurricane Katrina . The cyclone had no effect on land , and did not directly result in any fatalities or damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 8 , a tropical wave emerged from the west coast of Africa and entered the Atlantic Ocean . Tracking towards the west , the depression began to exhibit signs of convective organization on August 11 . The system continued to develop , and it is estimated that Tropical Depression Ten formed at 1200 UTC on August 13 . At the time , it was located about 1 @,@ 600 miles ( 2 @,@ 600 km ) east of Barbados . Upon its designation , the depression consisted of a large area of thunderstorm activity , with curved banding features and expanding outflow . However , the environmental conditions were predicted to quickly become unfavorable . The depression moved erratically and slowly towards the west , and wind shear inhibited any significant intensification . Late on August 13 , it was " beginning to look like Irene @-@ junior as it undergoes southwesterly mid @-@ level shear beneath the otherwise favorable upper @-@ level outflow pattern " . The wind shear was expected to relent within 48 hours , prompting some forecast models to suggest the depression would eventually attain hurricane status .
By early August 14 , the shear had substantially disrupted the storm , leaving the low @-@ level center of circulation exposed from the area of convection , which was also deteriorating . After meandering , the storm began to move westward . Forecasters expected it to resume a northwestward track as high pressure to the south of Bermuda was forecast to weaken and another high was predicted to form southwest of the Azores . By 1800 UTC on August 14 , the strong shear had further weakened the storm , and it no longer met the criteria for a tropical cyclone . It degenerated into a remnant low , and the National Hurricane Center issued their final advisory on the cyclone . Moving westward , it occasionally produced bursts of convective activity , before dissipating on August 18 .
Tropical Depression Twelve formed over the southeastern Bahamas at 2100 UTC on August 23 , partially from the remains of Tropical Depression Ten . While the normal standards for numbering tropical depressions in the Atlantic stipulate that the initial designation be retained when a depression regenerates , satellite imagery indicated that a second tropical wave had combined with Tropical Depression Ten north of Puerto Rico to form a new , more complex weather system , which was then designated as Tropical Depression Twelve . In post @-@ season reanalysis , it was found that the low @-@ level circulation of Tropical Depression Ten had completely detached and dissipated ; only the remnant mid @-@ level circulation moved on and merged with the second tropical wave . As a result , the criteria for keeping the same name and identity were not met . Tropical Depression Twelve later became Hurricane Katrina .
= = Impact = =
Because Tropical Depression Ten never approached land as a tropical cyclone , no tropical cyclone watches and warnings were issued for any land masses . No effects , damages , or fatalities were reported , and no ships reported tropical storm @-@ force winds in association with the depression . The system did not attain tropical storm status ; as such , it was not given a name by the National Hurricane Center . The storm partially contributed to the formation of Hurricane Katrina , which became a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale and made landfall in Louisiana , causing catastrophic damage . Katrina was the costliest hurricane , and one of the five deadliest , in the history of the United States .
= Haunted ( Beyoncé song ) =
" Haunted " is a song by American recording artist Beyoncé from her fifth studio album , Beyoncé ( 2013 ) . It was written and produced by Beyoncé herself and Boots . Conceived by the latter following an infuriating meeting with a record label , the song was presented to Beyoncé who decided to record it following similar experiences in the music industry . The song was inspired by the works of English musician Aphex Twin and contains a stream of consciousness rap .
Musically , it consists of two parts titled " Ghost " and " Haunted " . A predominantly R & B , dance @-@ pop , dubstep and hip hop song , it contains a minimalistic sound with keyboards , bass and percussion . Beyoncé raps the spoken word segment of " Ghost " with robotic and reverbed vocals . Lyrically , " Haunted " contains sexually explicit and frank lyrics talking about desire . Many music critics compared its sound with various artists and noted different influences and elements explored in its composition . Upon its release , the song was met with positive reviews , with critics praising its experimentalistic sound and the minimalistic approach .
Two accompanying music videos were filmed for both parts of the song and placed separately on the visual album . The clip for " Ghost " was directed by Pierre Debusschere while Jonas Åkerlund served as the director for the second part , " Haunted " . The former visual shows various close @-@ up shots of Beyoncé lip @-@ syncing the lyrics , while the latter features her walking in the corridor of a big mansion meeting various actors seen inside the rooms . Critics compared the video of " Haunted " and the singer 's look with works by Madonna , most notably with her song " Justify My Love " ( 1990 ) . The song was performed live during the last European leg of The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour and at the On the Run Tour in 2014 . Beyoncé also performed it at the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards as part of a medley consisting of songs from her fifth studio album .
= = Background = =
" Haunted " was written and produced by Beyoncé and New York @-@ based musician Boots , who was relatively unknown before the release of Beyoncé ( 2013 ) . He was signed to Roc Nation , about six months prior to the album 's release and produced 85 % of Beyoncé also having writing credits on four of its tracks . During an interview with Pitchfork Media , Boots revealed that " Haunted " was the first song written by him which Beyoncé heard ; it was originally titled " I 'm Onto You " at that time . Beyoncé liked the song upon hearing it , leaving Boots confused as he felt the song was only showcasing his sad vocals , with a piano recorded on his iPhone as a voice memo .
He also played her the rap of stream of consciousness of " Ghost " during one of their early meetings inspired by an infuriating meeting with a record label . Beyoncé could immediately connect to the topic as she had also experienced the same things in the record industry when people advised her about the sound of her music . For the music of " Ghost " , Boots created a beat from a " dreamlike , hypnotic place " working with guitars and building layers inspired by the work of musician Aphex Twin . Boots said , " [ Aphex Twin 's ] works like that are more floaty , more without than within , but I made mine grounded in that thumping beat , so you can 't get out of that feeling . " He also elaborated about its concept , " It 's like that song is leading you by the hand , but you 're blindfolded and you don 't know where you 're going . You 're scared and you 're not sure what to expect from it , but as the album unfolds , we take the blindfold off and you realize it 's a surprise party for you . "
Beyoncé also explained the meaning of " Haunted " on her iTunes Radio channel where she also revealed her admiration for Boots , " The song is really about temptation in this music industry and being exposed to this crazy madness . " The vocal production of the song was handled by Beyoncé and contains background vocals provided by Boots and Kwane Wyatt . " Haunted " was recorded at Jungle City Studios and Oven Studios , both located in New York City under the guidance of Boots and Stuart White . It was later mixed by Tony Maserati and White at Mirrorball Studios in North Hollywood . The track was eventually mastered by Tom Coyne and Aya Merril in Sterling Sound in New York City . All instruments were provided by Boots , with additional drum programming by Hit @-@ Boy .
= = Composition = =
" Haunted " is a two @-@ part song , consisting of " Ghost " and " Haunted " collectively running for a length of approximately six minutes . Its composition was described as ranging from contemporary R & B to " straight up experimentalism " . Mojo 's Priya Elan compared the song 's composition with works by English band The xx . The song features sexually explicit and frank lyrics in line with a prominent theme of the album about sexuality also present in other songs . Its instrumentation consists of " murky " keyboards and a " creeping " , pulsating bassline . Beyoncé sings over mournful piano stabs which are repeated along with drums and airy vocals along with a pounding club rhythm .
" Ghost " is an alt hip hop and dubstep song featuring Beyoncé rapping with recessed and reverbed vocals . The song contains ambient beats , bass and percussion and a poetic spoken word vocal with high loop . It was created by using a minimal approach and a falsetto vocal was applied along with various " warped , ghost @-@ ly " effects . " Ghost " opens with an audio recording of the singer winning a Sammy Davis Jr . Award in 1989 in Houston for a townwide talent show . It continues with a person incorrectly pronouncing her name as " ' Bee Awnz ' [ sic ] Knowles " . According to Spin columnist Brandon Soderberg , the song begins with a " random , frustrating indignity from her youth into a full @-@ blown , racially loaded origin story " and also features expressions of her celebrity . Lyrically , Beyoncé makes a prediction about her album 's sales and offers commentary on record labels through a spoken word intro : " I don 't trust these record labels , I 'm tourin ' " and later adds , " Soul not for sale / Probably won 't make no money off this / Oh well . " Speaking about the record industry , she sings about being bored with labels during the lines , " All the shit I do is boring / All these record labels ... boring " . The lyrics of the song also discuss the failure of taking risks in the music industry . She also expresses sadness for people having to work banal and monotonous jobs in the lines , " All these people on the planet / Workin ' nine to five just to stay alive / How come ? " .
Soderberg felt that the fast conversational vocal style adopted by the singer was reminiscent of rapper Kendrick Lamar . Anupa Mistry of the same publication felt that she borrowed Lamar 's " alien @-@ robot cadence and sings in a pinched choral croon " which she further compared with Bat for Lashes . Una Mullally of The Irish Times wrote that the singer 's " monotone " rapping is accompanied by " the flatness of the tone reflecting the repetition of labour " . Janice Llamoca from HipHopDX compared the part where Beyoncé sings the line " oh well " with Kanye West 's " shrug [ s ] " . Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune found the same line to be sarcastic . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine described her vocals during the line as half @-@ rapped and " half @-@ shrug [ ed ] as if directly countering Scheinman 's silver linings playbook " . Rob Sheffield from Rolling Stone felt that the singer confessed she got " bored " with the " popstar routine " in " Ghost " .
During the end , " Ghost " quickly transitions into " Haunted " which contains elements of hip hop and R & B music . Kitty Empire of The Observer described it as a dance @-@ pop track talking about " being haunted in love " . Instrumentally , it consists of percussion and an off @-@ kilter club beat which was compared with Jacques Greene and Burial . Its sound is operatic and the lyrics undersung , with piano chords and various rhythmic effects , such as foot @-@ tapping . Lyrically , it talks about desire , with Ryan Dennehy from AbsolutePunk noting it was about " frank sexual desires " . The Village Voice 's Brittany Spanos felt the song was discussing lingering memories of the past . Trent Wolbe of The Verge compared the sound of " Haunted " with music by bands The Knife , Sade and Boards of Canada . Andrew Barker from Variety found a trance genre similar to Madonna 's Bedtime Stories . The song includes sexual lyrics that are reflected throughout the album , including , " The bedroom 's my runway / Slap me ! / I 'm pinned to the doorway / Kiss , bite , foreplay " and " My wicked tongue / Where will it be ? " set to " sonorous ... and chilly charged beats " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Haunted " was well received by music critics . Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph felt that the " modernist sonic approach is pushed to the fore " on " Ghost " . Spin 's Brandon Sorderberg felt that the line " nine @-@ to @-@ five " just to stay alive " was repeated " way too many times " . Anupa Mistry of the same publication described the song as " multi @-@ directional , mood @-@ shifting " . Cosmopolitan 's Alex Rees said the song is a " sharp critique of postmodern culture , except then all of a sudden there 's a bunch of nasty sex talk . " Mesfin Fekadu from the Associated Press described " Haunted " as a " gloomy " song . Writing for the website The 405 , editor White Caitlin felt the singer offered part of her insecurities and flaws through the song and " sheds slut @-@ shaming , the shackled role of uptight matriarch or calculated star " . Fact 's Chris Kelly described its composition as " foreboding " and found a " seductive " and " haunting " hook ; he further described the first part as " smoky ethereality " . Mojo 's Priya Elan felt that some of the lines were a " nihilistic streak " . In a review for The Quietus , Mof Gimmers described " Haunted " as a " perfect slice of vanguard @-@ pop " . Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune described it as a " two @-@ part dream " . Robert Leedham of the website Drowned in Sound felt that the album 's " confessional moments are when you connect with it the most " , exemplifying the statement with lyrics from " Haunted " . Andrew Hampp and Erika Ramirez of Billboard magazine felt that " Haunted " was one of the best songs on the album along with being " [ the ] most insightful [ one ] " . They concluded that while the song was " one of the album 's most staunchly non @-@ commercial moments , but endlessly listenable just the same " . Nick Catucci from Entertainment Weekly chose " Haunted " as one of the best songs from the album , describing it as a " moody , genre @-@ melding epic " and noting , " [ it ] treat [ s ] relationships with the same raw instinct that suffuses her sex songs " . AllMusic reviewer Andy Kellman also chose " Haunted " as one of the highlights on Beyoncé . Una Mullally of The Irish Times deemed " Haunted " the best song on the album and an indicator of the prominent minimalism throughout the whole record .
AbsolutePunk writer Ryan Dennehy remarked in his review that " ethereal echoes " of the singer 's voice " elevate it above just a post @-@ Weeknd , dark update to staid topics " . Philip Matusavage of musicOMH described the sound of " Ghost " as " sleek ambient " dubstep , adding that it sounded typical for the singer and served as a " Beyoncé manifesto " . He concluded his review by stating that if the references to disagreements Beyoncé talked about in the song were real , " the result proves to be the most sonically adventurous album of Beyoncé 's career . " Julia Leconte writing for Now praised Beyoncé 's vocals as " perfect " . Exclaim ! ' s Ryan B. Patrick felt that the song 's minimalistic sound allowed the singer to " ironically champion artistic integrity and proclaim her thoughts on the industry " . Chris Bosman from the website Consequence of Sound who felt that the song was the record 's " mood setter " and contained " ghostly vibes " , wrote that it " dabbles in R & Burial , Evian Christ 's drag @-@ influenced codeine hip @-@ hop , and Nothing Was the Same 's Xanax club rap " . He felt that during the lines " Slap me , I 'm pinned to the doorway / Kiss , bite , foreplay " , Beyoncé " slides " the last word , making the song sound " even less radio friendly " . Bosman further stated that " Haunted " along with " Partition " and " Mine " , " are confident enough to take one , two , three left turns while maintaining thematic cohesion . " The Guardian journalist Michael Cragg compared the song with works by Janelle Monae and described its sound as " doom @-@ laden " . Ryan E.C. Hamm from Under the Radar magazine felt that " It 's remarkable to hear a pop star at the height of her arena @-@ tour powers taking chances like ' Haunted , ' a dirge of a song that behaves more as spoken word until it 's ' Vogue ' -y breakdown " .
Having described the track as " eerie " , Jason Newman from Fuse added it was suitable for softcore pornography with the singer being " in her best coo " . He further described it as an erotic ballad and a " slow , creeping burn " , noting that it sounded like Trent Reznor remixing Madonna 's " Justify My Love " . Claire Lobenfeld from Complex magazine described it as Beyoncé 's version of " Justify My Love " . Joey Guerra from the Houston Chronicle described the song as " ominous " . Mike Wass from Idolator felt that the singer explored a new soundscape with " Haunted " with " minimal beats hover [ ing ] like fog " . Wass also praised Boots ' production and noted that the singer declared her artistic integrity with the lyrics . In a review of the song , Randall Roberts of the Los Angeles Times compared its break with Madonna 's work during Ray of Light with a chopped and screwed sound characteristic for Houston . Melissa Locker from Time magazine stated that the lyrics of the song were one of the " best humblebrags ever " while also noting that they hinted at the singer " dabbling in fiction " . USA Today writer Elysa Gardner wrote that in " Haunted " along with another song on the album , " Jealous " , the singer " embodies success and privilege on the surface , but there is a sense that her contentment is fragile " . Korina Lopez of the same publication stated that she seemed " surprisingly in touch with the 9 @-@ to @-@ 5 grind , echoing her own career frustration " . MTV News writer James Montgomery felt that Beyoncé showcased a " newfound sense of self " on the " cold , coital " song . Tim Finney of Complex magazine considered " Ghost " " a collision of opposites ... less a song than a transfixing eye @-@ hole glimpse into another , entirely separate world the singer could inhabit if she chose " . Deeming the song a " [ c ] reepy mood piece " , Jody Rosen of Vulture noted a lack of a music hook . In the annual Pazz and Jop mass critics poll of the year 's best in music in 2013 , " Haunted " was ranked at number 228 .
= = Music videos = =
Music videos for both " Ghost " and " Haunted " were released on December 13 , 2013 through the iTunes Store on Beyoncé itself along with a clip for every other track on the album . Todd Tourso served as the creative director for both of the visuals as well as the rest of the album 's videos . On November 24 , 2014 the videos for " Ghost " and " Haunted " were uploaded to the singer 's Vevo account .
= = = " Ghost " = = =
The music video for " Ghost " was directed by Belgian director Pierre Debusschere . Beyoncé is seen wearing a swimsuit by Seafolly with a nude mesh midsection and her look is also complete with red lips . While creating the video for " Pretty Hurts " , she sent a note to director Melina Matsoukas requesting from her to include footage from her childhood as the clip was meant to connect to the next one on the album , " Ghost " . The video openes with a close @-@ up shot of Beyoncé 's face lip @-@ syncing the song 's lyrics . Various shots of the singer with different outfits and placed at different sets are featured . Other scenes show a dancer with his whole body covered in a white clothing .
Writing for MTV , John Walker wrote that Beyoncé " serves multiple levels of Martha Graham realness " in the video for " Ghost " . Lindsey Weber from the website Vulture compared the dancer seen in the video with a " bodysock " one from Yeezus . Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph felt that the singer looked " perfect " in a bikini in the song 's music video . Insanul Ahmed of Complex praised her look as " sexy " . A writer from The New York Times described the singer 's look in the video as " minimalist " . Brent DiCrescenzo of the magazine Time Out called the video a " Cover Girl ad with full @-@ body condoms " . Whitney Phaneuf of the website HitFix compared it with Comme des Garçons and found a " deadpan expression of a model " . Michelle Collins from Vanity Fair wrote in her review that the video was " jarring as it is soul @-@ crushing " . Jody Rosen from Vulture felt that the clip " has its moments , mostly involving billowing fabric " . Michael Zelenko from The Fader praised the director 's work on the video and remarked it included " stark portraits of a blase Beyonce , slithering , perching and dancing against black and white backgrounds " . While reviewing the album , Emily Mackay of NME talked about the video for " Ghost " ,
" Some joyous shagging songs , though , are paltry excitement beside that of seeing an artist of such fame , long held as iconic without enough genuinely exciting music to back it up , reach her full throttle of awesomeness . The video for ' Ghost ' sums it up best , Beyonce glaring and writhing defiantly as she speak @-@ sings ' I 'm climbing up the wall ’ cause all the shit I hear is boring / All the shit I do is boring / All these record labels boring ' . Let 's hope Beyonce keeps finding new ways to amuse herself – there could be some very interesting times ahead . "
= = = " Haunted " = = =
= = = = Background = = = =
The music video for " Haunted " was directed by Swedish film and music video director Jonas Åkerlund and styled by Dagmarette Yen and B. Åkerlend . It was shot using four cameras and in a period of two days . On November 15 , 2013 , Popjustice reported that one of the actors who was featured in the video , J @-@ Hustle , shared a picture on his Twitter account while being on a five @-@ day set for the filming . He added that a song with " a slow vibe " was played in the background during the shooting and that its potential name was " Ghost Haunted " . Beyoncé first discussed about the video with Åkerlend during a concert she had in Stockholm in 2013 . Having invited him for the performance , the singer played several songs for the director afterwards and the pair went on to exchange several ideas about its concept . During an interview with Vulture , Åkerlend talked about the process , " It was not like a solid plan of ' This is what I think we should do . ' It was a pretty long process . And she was traveling and touring , so we had time to bounce ideas back and forth , figure out what the best vision was . And meanwhile , she was shooting all these other videos and I wasn 't really involved in what those other ideas were . " He noted that several ideas of the video which were initially conceived were similar with " other videos that people were working on " . Beyoncé conceived some of the initial ideas behind the looks and the scenarios for many of the rooms which were eventually shot . He also explained that the video contained many sexually explicit scenes and ideas when initially shot . However , he felt that the team managed to balance between the singer 's look , her performance and a strong idea along with several other things . Åkerlund further noted that its concept remained largely unchanged as none of the big ideas were excluded . Beyoncé 's look remained largely the same as the director pictured it before the filming of the video had started .
On December 2 , 2014 , a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes video consisting of footage from the making of the video for " Haunted " and " Superpower " with commentary by Jonas Åkerlund was released online . In the clip , he explained how both videos were slightly different compared to the singer 's previous work as they contained less choreography . He went on saying the video for " Haunted " had a " cinematic " and " surreal " tone inspired by its music , further comparing it with a score for a movie . He concluded that the team had " all the elements to create something special "
= = = = Synopsis = = = =
The video opens with a three @-@ second film countdown and proceeds with shots of several empty rooms and televisions in a big mansion . Most of the scenes were shot at the Villa de Leon . Beyoncé is seen driving a car and eventually arriving at the mansion while a song is played in the background . She enters inside the building with two luggages embellished with the letter " B " and throws her coat on the ground while a servant is seen lighting a cigarette she had previously taken from her hair . He hands her a key and the singer is seen climbing up the stairs . As she arrives in the hallway on the second floor , the song starts playing in the background and Beyoncé starts a journey , looking from room to room as she goes forward in the corridor .
In the various rooms , she meets men wearing vest tops with their faces painted white with black eyes staring at her as she passes down the corridor . Later she meets other people in leather and masks , before being surrounded by a troop of lace @-@ clad dancers . One shot shows a man in colourful clothes and leopard print Speedos surrounded by bubbles in a bathtub . Another room contains a family of four mannequins in a 1960s @-@ styled kitchen , preparing for a plastic @-@ looking meal . A bare African @-@ American is seen dancing and painting herself with a large brush while being almost naked . She is also seen with her legs spread around a TV screen and Beyoncé is seen on it , singing the song . During one scene , Beyoncé performs a dance choreography on a couch along with several other female dancers . Throughout the video , she is seen wearing a tuxedo with a tie , a white fur jacket and platform heels designed by Saint Laurent . The black @-@ and @-@ white jumpsuit she wears is designed by Russian designer Ulyana Sergeenko . Her look is further complete with dark make @-@ up around the eyes and red lipstick while her hair is marcelled and blonde .
= = = = Reception = = = =
Anupa Mistry from Spin wrote that the location where the video was filmed was filled with " freaks and weirdos " in order to channel Madonna during the 1990s in a better way . Lauren Cochrane of The Guardian wrote in her review of the video that it was a " homage " to Madonna with the suit and marcel wave Beyoncé had . She added that anyone who watched the video for " Justify My Love " , " knows that a hotel corridor is an excellent place to film a video " and went on to praise Beyoncé 's looks and outfits . Kitty Empire of The Observer stated , " Less originally , the high @-@ concept Haunted video finds Beyoncé in a posh hotel populated by sexually motivated freaks , with many shades of Madonna invoked . " Bronwyn Barnes of Entertainment Weekly found similarities with the singer 's look and Madonna 's .
Whitney Phaneuf writing for the website HitFix felt that the video was a fit for the song 's industrial sound and described the singer 's look as " goth @-@ glam " . She concluded the scenes are quickly cut throughout the video , " never culminating in a linear narrative and forcing the viewer to fill in the blanks " . Sharing what he perceived to be " key " moments in each of the seventeen music videos , Walker of MTV identified one for " Haunted " where Beyoncé " begins to crack under the pressures of her iconic status " . Jon Dolan of Rolling Stone described the video for the song as the " [ c ] reppiest " on the album . A writer from The New York Times focused on the singer 's look in the video , saying that she portrayed a fashionista . Randal Roberts of Los Angeles Times also provided a positive review for her " stunning " look while smoking a cigarette . Brent DiCrescenzo of Time Out described the video as " Stanley Kubrick meets Robert Palmer " . Michelle Collins of Vanity Fair noted the scary atmosphere of the video and described the singer 's look as " straight @-@ up 1920s glamour " with a hair styled similar to Josephine Baker . Collins went on to compare it with the opening credits of American Horror Story and found " [ n ] ightmarish images strung together in one very long , very creepy sequence of Beyoncé looking for her hotel room " .
Andrew Hampp and Erika Ramirez from Billboard magazine compared the video with Madonna 's work and American Horror Story , concluding " [ t ] he spine @-@ tinglingly glam ... video for this track is worth Beyoncé 's case for making this a simultaneous visual @-@ and @-@ audio experience alone " . Describing the video as " scary " , Lindsay Weber from Vulture further called it the singer 's best impression of American Horror Story . Jason Newman from the website Fuse described the video as " equally frightening [ as the song ] ; part Korean horror film , part Lynchian psychosexual fantasy . " The Fader editor Michael Zelenko noted the clip presented a classic story where an " innocent guest [ is ] caught in ghost @-@ infested hotel " . Insanul Ahmed of Complex described the visual as " creepy " . ABC News journalist Michael Rothman compared the video 's opening with horror movies and The Ring in particular and went on to praise it overally as Beyoncé 's " best yet " . Trent Wolbe of The Verge criticized Åkerlund 's work on the album , feeling that his contributions " feel like boring opulence porn " , something he found on " Haunted " .
= = Live performances and usage in media = =
" Haunted " was performed as the opening song for Beyoncé 's first concert of the last European leg of The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour in Glasgow on February 20 , 2014 . The performance of the song featured backing dancers and strobing lights with the singer 's look being completed by a glittery gown . Digital Spy 's Robert Copsey felt that " Haunted " worked as a " brilliantly spooky opener " . David Pollock from The Independent found a " thundering bass containing a heavy dubstep influence " during the performance of the song . Mark Savage from BBC News felt that the concert included various " unparalleled " vocal styles and ranges , including the " hushed and sultry " " Haunted " . A professionally recorded live performance of the song from the tour aired on June 30 , 2014 , as the first episode of Beyonce : X10 , an HBO series documenting renditions of the song performed during The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour . Anna Silman from Vulture discussed the performance saying that it was full of " kaleidoscopic visuals and headache @-@ inducing strobe lights and fog to make you grateful you weren 't there for the live performance ( almost ) " .
The song was later also added to the set list of Beyoncé 's co @-@ headlining tour with Jay @-@ Z , the On the Run Tour . During the performance , her look was complete with a drop @-@ sleeve piece with black lace . While reviewing a concert of the show , Erica K. Landau of USA Today compared Beyoncé 's look to Stevie Nicks . She went on to deem the song a highlight of the performance praising her " creamy " vocals in contrast with the other songs on the set list . Similarly , Dan DeLuca writing for Philadelphia Media Network considered the song to be a showcase of her vocals . Leila Cobo of the magazine Billboard considered the song to be a highlight of the show , showcasing the singer 's " vocal prowess " and " her ability to connect as a singer and not just as a striking personality " . While reviewing another concert , Mike Wass of Idolator considered the performance a religious experience . In another concert review , Mikael Wood of the Los Angeles Times noted that the attention among the people in the crowd " drift [ ed ] noticeably during ' Haunted ' " resulting in a mild reception of the song 's performance .
At the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards , Beyoncé performed " Haunted " along with a medley of songs from her fifth studio album . It served as the second song of the set and it featured the singer dressed in a jeweled bodysuit . After concluding with " Mine " she announced " MTV , welcome to my world " and performed " Haunted " surrounded by smoke on stage . As she sang the song , Beyoncé was surrounded by dancers wearing bustiers , sleeves and face cages by fashion label Chromat . Nadeska Alexis of MTV News stated that the performance of the song was among the " most soul @-@ baring of the night " .
In March 2014 , " Haunted " was used during the screening of the film Fifty Shades of Grey at CinemaCon . On November 13 , 2014 , the song was used in the film 's second trailer .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adopted from the album 's liner notes and the singer 's official website .
Song credits
" Ghost " video credits
" Haunted " video credits
= = Charts = =
The song debuted at number 99 on the French Singles Chart on November 22 , 2014 . The following week , which also marked its last week on the chart , it fell to the position of 171 .
= Battle of Fort Lahtzanit =
The Battle of Fort Lahtzanit took place on October 6 , 1973 , between the Egyptian Army and the Israel Defense Forces ( IDF ) . Part of the Egyptian @-@ initiated Operation Badr , the battle was one of the first of the Yom Kippur War , fought in and around Fort Lahtzanit , a fortification of the Bar Lev Line , located 19 kilometres ( 12 mi ) south of Port Fouad in the Sinai Peninsula .
Commencing the battle with an artillery barrage against the fort , the Egyptians surrounded and isolated the fort prior to assaulting it . Firing ramps intended for Israeli tanks were occupied by Egyptian infantry , who defeated several Israeli attempts to reinforce the fort with armor . The Egyptians managed to breach the defenses and swiftly capture the fort , and proceeded to clear the bunkers , utilizing flamethrower teams . By nighttime , the fort was completely under Egyptian control .
= = Background = =
Operation Badr , an Egyptian military operation , had the objective of crossing the Suez Canal and seizing the Bar Lev line of fortifications . Three of these fortifications , codenamed Budapest , Orkal and Lahtzanit , fell within the area of operations of the Port Said Military Sector . Commanded by Major General Omar Khaled , the sector was a military command independent of the Egyptian Second Field Army to the south . The military sector incorporated the towns of Port Said and Port Fouad on the Mediterranean Sea and surrounding areas . Two independent infantry brigades , the 30th and 135th , were under the military sector 's command along with some coast guard units .
The commander of Fort Lahtzanit was Lieutenant Muli Malhov , who had served on the canal before . During the week leading up to the Yom Kippur War , Israeli patrols between Lahtzanit and Orkal discovered footprints coming from the canal and moving inwards , almost on a daily basis , indicating that the Egyptians were possibly sending men on long @-@ range intelligence missions , or to act as artillery observers . Two days before the outbreak of the war , Malhov expressed concern to his superior officer of the observations being made on the canal line , and that the forts would not stand a chance if they were attacked .
= = = Plan of attack = = =
The 30th Independent Infantry Brigade was tasked with capturing Fort Lahtzanit , located at the Kilometer 19 mark south of Port Fuoad . Fort Lahtzanit was surrounded by minefields and barbed wire to a depth of 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) , and incorporated seven bunkers . The commander of the 30th Brigade , Colonel Mustafa el- ' Abassi , committed an infantry battalion to capture the Israeli fort . The battalion would cross at three different points , between an area 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) south and 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) north of the fort . Initially the battalion would encircle the fort and cut it off from north , east and south , before the battalion 's assault units would move to attack the fort from several directions . ' Abassi was also tasked with overseeing the defense of the Port Said Sector , and thus deployed two battalions on the west bank to defend against an Israeli naval landing or canal @-@ crossing . Additionally , ' Abassi was reinforced with a Sa 'iqa company ( lit. lightning ; Egyptian commandos ) . Per planning the company would cross the canal south of the fort , then advance eastward to seize a crossroads located eight kilometers east of the canal , while simultaneously working to intercept enemy reserves headed towards the fort .
= = Battle = =
= = = Isolation = = =
At 1 : 55 p.m. , just before the start of the war , a reconnaissance force swam to the east bank of the Suez Canal , two kilometers south of Fort Lahtzanit , and laid two ropes across the canal to facilitate the crossing of friendly forces . At 2 : 05 p.m. , as Operation Badr began , an artillery barrage was initiated against the fort using just the 85 mm guns and B @-@ 10 recoilless rifles of the brigade 's anti @-@ tank company ; the use of high trajectory artillery guns was forbidden since a number of Egyptian aircraft were flying over this area .
The troops tasked with isolating Fort Lahtzanit began crossing the canal in dinghies at 2 : 15 p.m .. Ten minutes later they reached the east bank and proceeded to climb the sand wall . They succeeded in attracting Israeli fire , thereby facilitating the main assault force in its mission to attack the fort later on . The troops tasked with isolating the fort from the east reached and occupied a firing ramp prepared for tanks , and raised the Egyptian flag over it . This severely demoralized the Israeli soldiers inside Fort Lahtzanit . Soon after the Sa 'iqa company ( less one platoon ) arrived at the firing ramp as well .
A reserve of eight M48 Patton tanks were pushed forward to reinforce the fort . They came up against the eastern isolation force , which destroyed one of the tanks at a range of 300 metres ( 980 ft ) . Another tank broke through the Egyptian position and proceeded immediately north towards Fort Orkal , but was destroyed at Kilometer 14 by the northern isolation force . The remaining tanks retreated eastwards to Baluza .
= = = Attack = = =
At around 2 : 50 p.m. , the B @-@ 10 rifles on the west bank managed to open a breach in the barbed wire surrounding the fort , and also destroyed other significant targets , such as the observation equipment . Meanwhile , combat engineers were breaching further openings using Bangalore torpedoes , under heavy small arms fire and hand grenades . The battalion 's main assault force was crossing at the same time . The main assault force then funneled through the breaches and entered the Israeli trenches . The Israeli command in Northern Sinai kept receiving frantic calls for help from the fort 's radio operator , and gunfire could also be heard . The Egyptians captured the southern sector of the fort by 3 : 05 p.m .. Five minutes later , the assault force moved against the northern sector of the fort . Within fifteen minutes , the Egyptians were in control of the fort . The power generator inside the fort was destroyed , and all electricity and communication lines leading to the fort were severed . At 3 : 30 p.m. , Maj. Gen. Khaled was informed that Lahtzanit had been seized and that Israeli soldiers had been captured . The Israelis reported losing radio contact with the fort at around 4 : 00 p.m.
The Egyptians proceeded to clear the bunkers . They utilized flamethrower teams , which had a visible psychological impact on the fort 's garrison . At one point , the Egyptians , with the help of a wounded Israeli prisoner , managed to secure a bunker by convincing the panicked Israelis inside to come out and surrender . Soon after losing contact with the fort , the Israelis attempted to reach it once more . By this time , Malhov was dead . A group of tanks from Baluza advanced to Lahtzanit , but the Sa 'iqa company occupying the firing ramp managed to destroy two tanks , forcing the remainder to retreat . Another group of tanks and half @-@ tracks tried to break through the southern isolation force , but were ambushed and withdrew after losing a tank .
At 4 : 00 p.m. , two anti @-@ tank teams joined the Sa 'iqa company on the firing ramp . Both teams , along with the company , were ordered to advance eastward and seize the crossroads . At around 5 : 00 p.m. , the Israeli Air Force began attacking Egyptian forces in the fort and on the west bank of the canal . One group of four aircraft attempted to bomb the fort ; the first aircraft dropped its payload of seven bombs , then descended to a low altitude to escape anti @-@ aircraft fire . An anti @-@ air platoon at the Kilometer 17 mark soon shot down an Israeli aircraft ( either a Mirage III or an A @-@ 4 Skyhawk ) with a Strela 2 missile , destroying it . Between 6 : 00 and 7 : 00 p.m. all bunkers and troop shelters inside the fort were cleared , and the Egyptians transferred 26 Israeli prisoners to the west bank of the canal , and thereafter transferred them to Port Said for intelligence gathering . The Israelis concentrated heavy artillery fire against the fort , once they were sure it had been captured by the Egyptians .
At 9 : 30 p.m. , the Sa 'iqa company reported an Israeli armored column advancing towards the fort . Two Egyptian tanks on the west bank opened fire , forcing the Israeli tanks and armored vehicles to withdraw . The company continued eastwards , eventually reaching the crossroads , facing no resistance along the way . With the reinforcing anti @-@ tank teams , the company established defensive positions , and el- ' Abassi dispatched patrols to secure the roads leading to the fort .
= = Aftermath = =
Fort Lahtzanit was the first defensive fortification of the Bar Lev Line to be captured , over one hour after the start of the assault . Israeli casualties were 60 killed and 26 captured ; Egyptian losses were 23 killed , including one officer , and 7 wounded , including two officers . The most important factor leading to the capture of the fort was its isolation on all sides , and the speed with which the infantry reached and seized the firing ramp east of the fort before Israeli tanks occupied it . In contrast to the capture of Fort Lahtzanit , the attempt to capture Fort Orkal by the 135th Brigade went awry , and el- ' Abassi was forced to commit a reserve infantry company on the west bank to help seize the fort . The company crossed at 4 : 00 p.m. on October 6 , and the following day Fort Orkal was captured .
= Are You Experienced =
Are You Experienced is the debut studio album by English @-@ American rock band the Jimi Hendrix Experience . Released in 1967 , the LP was an immediate critical and commercial success , and it is widely regarded as one of the greatest debuts in the history of rock music . The album features Jimi Hendrix 's innovative approach to songwriting and electric guitar playing which soon established a new direction in psychedelic and hard rock music .
By mid @-@ 1966 , Hendrix was struggling to earn a living playing the R & B circuit as a backing guitarist . After being referred to Chas Chandler , who was leaving the Animals and interested in managing and producing artists , Hendrix was signed to a management and production contract with Chandler and ex @-@ Animals manager Michael Jeffery . Chandler brought Hendrix to London and began recruiting members for a band designed to showcase the guitarist 's talents , the Jimi Hendrix Experience . In late October , after having been rejected by Decca Records , the Experience signed with Track , a new label formed by the Who 's managers Kit Lambert and Chris Stamp .
Are You Experienced and its preceding singles were recorded over a five @-@ month period from late October 1966 through early April 1967 . The album was completed in sixteen recording sessions at three London locations , including De Lane Lea Studios , CBS , and Olympic . Released in the UK on May 12 , 1967 , Are You Experienced spent 33 weeks on the charts , peaking at number two . The album was issued in the US on August 23 by Reprise Records , where it reached number five on the Billboard 200 , remaining on the chart for 106 weeks , 27 of those in the Top 40 . The album also spent 70 weeks on the US Billboard R & B chart , where it peaked at # 10 . The US version contained some of Hendrix 's best known songs , including the Experience 's first three singles , which , though omitted from the British edition of the LP , were top ten hits in the UK : " Purple Haze " , " Hey Joe " , and " The Wind Cries Mary " .
In 2005 , Rolling Stone ranked Are You Experienced fifteenth on its list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . They placed four songs from the album on their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time : " Purple Haze " ( 17 ) , " Foxy Lady " ( 153 ) , " Hey Joe " ( 201 ) , and " The Wind Cries Mary " ( 379 ) . That same year , the record was one of 50 recordings chosen by the Library of Congress in recognition of its cultural significance to be added to the National Recording Registry . Writer and archivist Rueben Jackson of the Smithsonian Institution wrote : " it 's still a landmark recording because it is of the rock , R & B , blues ... musical tradition . It altered the syntax of the music ... in a way I compare to James Joyce 's Ulysses . "
= = Background = =
By May 1966 , Jimi Hendrix was struggling to earn a living playing the R & B circuit as a back @-@ up guitarist . During a performance at one of New York City 's most popular nightspots , the Cheetah Club , he was noticed by Linda Keith , the girlfriend of Rolling Stones guitarist Keith Richards . Soon afterward , Hendrix relocated to the city 's Greenwich Village and began a residency at the Cafe Wha ? fronting his own band , Jimmy James and the Blue Flames . Keith recommended Hendrix to Stones manager Andrew Loog Oldham and producer Seymour Stein . They failed to see Hendrix 's musical potential , and rejected him . She then referred him to Chas Chandler , who was leaving the Animals and interested in managing and producing artists . Chandler liked the Billy Roberts song " Hey Joe " , and was convinced he could create a hit single with the right artist . Impressed with Hendrix 's live version of the song with his band , he brought him to London on September 24 , 1966 , and signed him to a management and production contract with himself and ex @-@ Animals manager Michael Jeffery .
Immediately following Hendrix 's arrival in London , Chandler began recruiting members for a band designed to showcase the guitarist 's talents , the Jimi Hendrix Experience . Hendrix met the guitarist Noel Redding at an audition for the New Animals , where Redding 's knowledge of blues progressions impressed Hendrix . Chandler asked Redding if he wanted to play bass guitar in Hendrix 's band ; Redding agreed . Chandler then began looking for a drummer and soon after , he contacted Mitch Mitchell through a mutual friend . Mitchell , who had recently been fired from Georgie Fame and the Blue Flames , participated in a rehearsal with Redding and Hendrix where they bonded over their shared interest in rhythm and blues . When Chandler phoned Mitchell later that day to offer him the position , he readily accepted . In late October , after having been rejected by Decca Records , the Experience signed with Track , a new label formed by the Who 's managers Kit Lambert and Chris Stamp .
= = Recording = =
Are You Experienced and its preceding singles were recorded over a five @-@ month period from late October 1966 through early April 1967 . The album was completed in sixteen recording sessions at three London locations , including De Lane Lea Studios , CBS , and Olympic . Chandler booked many of the sessions at Olympic because the facility was acoustically superior and equipped with most of the latest technology , though it was still using four @-@ track recorders , whereas American studios were using eight @-@ track .
Chandler 's budget was limited , so in an effort to reduce expenditures he and Hendrix completed much of the album 's pre @-@ production work at their shared apartment . From the start , Chandler intentionally minimized the creative input of Mitchell and Redding . He later explained : " I wasn 't concerned that Mitch or Noel might feel that they weren 't having enough — or any — say ... I had been touring and recording in a band for years , and I 'd seen everything end as a compromise . Nobody ended up doing what they really wanted to do . I was not going to let that happen with Jimi . " When the Experience began studio rehearsals , Hendrix already had the chord sequences and tempos worked @-@ out for Mitchell , and Chandler would direct Redding 's bass parts .
= = = October to December 1966 = = =
Chandler and the Experience found time to record between performances in Europe . They began on October 23 , recording " Hey Joe " at De Lane Lea Studios , with Chandler as producer and Dave Siddle as engineer . The song featured backing vocals by the Breakaways . Soon after the session began , Chandler asked Hendrix to turn his guitar amplifier down , and an argument ensued . Chandler commented : " Jimi threw a tantrum because I wouldn 't let him play guitar loud enough ... He was playing a Marshall twin stack , and it was so loud in the studio that we were picking up various rattles and noises . " According to Chandler , Hendrix then threatened to leave England , stating : " If I can 't play as loud as I want , I might as well go back to New York . " Chandler , who had Hendrix 's immigration papers and passport in his back pocket , laid the documents on the mixing console and told Hendrix to " piss off " . Hendrix laughed and said : " All right , you called my bluff " , and they got back to work . Redding wrote in his diary that they completed two songs during the October 23 session , but the second one has never been positively identified . Author Sean Egan speculated that it might have been Howlin ' Wolf 's " Killing Floor " or Wilson Pickett 's " Land of a Thousand Dances " . Chandler decided that they should use an Experience original for the B @-@ side of the single , so he encouraged Hendrix to start writing ; he composed his first Experience song , " Stone Free " , the following day . Chandler , in an effort to minimize studio expenses , purchased rehearsal time at the Aberbach House in London . He abandoned this practice after realizing how quickly the group could learn songs while warming @-@ up in the studio . On November 2 , 1966 , the Experience returned to De Lane Lea to continue work on their first single . During the session , they recorded " Stone Free " and a demo version of " Can You See Me " . This marked the first time that the Experience recorded a song that was eventually included on the original UK release of the album .
Chandler had been dissatisfied with the sound quality at De Lane Lea , so he took the advice of Kit Lambert and booked time at CBS Studios . On December 13 , 1966 , after taking a five @-@ week break from recording while they performed in Europe , the Experience reconvened at CBS . Assisted by engineer Mike Ross , the band were especially productive during the session , recording instrumentation and vocals for " Foxy Lady " and basic instrumental tracks for " Love or Confusion " , " Can You See Me " , and " Third Stone from the Sun " . Ross recalled the impact of Hendrix 's Marshall stacks : " It was so loud you couldn 't stand in the studio ... I 'd never heard anything like it in my life . " When Ross asked Hendrix where he would like the microphone placed Hendrix replied : " Oh , man , just put a mic about twelve feet away on the other side of the studio . It 'll sound great . " Ross agreed , and with a Neumann U87 tube mic he recorded Hendrix 's guitar playing in a large room that , according to Ross , " was absolutely vital to the uniquely powerful Experience sound . " Ross noted that input from Mitchell and Redding was minimized , and he asserted that Chandler was clearly " the one in charge " of the sessions . The band played together live at CBS ; the lead and backup vocals were overdubbed . Despite his dwindling finances , Chandler encouraged the Experience to record numerous takes of a song , affording them the luxury of repeated attempts at a satisfactory recording . With a live instrument track as the foundation of the recordings , they eschewed the common practice of piecing together parts of several takes to make one continuous piece . After the December 13 recording session , the band made their television debut , on Britain 's Ready Steady Go !
On December 15 , 1966 , finishing touches were made on the four rhythm tracks that were recorded the previous session . Although Chandler enjoyed working at CBS and he appreciated the high @-@ quality of the recordings they made there , he ended his professional connection with the studio after a disagreement between him and owner Jake Levy over his failure to make payment . Chandler had planned to pay Levy for the sessions after the album was completed , but Levy demanded payment upfront . Chandler viewed this as an unreasonable expectation , and he vowed that he would never again do business with CBS . The fifth and final song recorded there was " Red House " . As stereophonic sound was not yet popular among music fans , these recordings were all monaural mixes ; Ross explained : " back then ... mono was king . All the effort went into the mono . " He estimated that they spent no more than 30 minutes mixing any one track .
The first Experience single , with " Hey Joe " as the A @-@ side and " Stone Free " as the B @-@ side , was released in the UK on December 16 , 1966 . Track Records was not yet operational , so their distributor , Polydor Records , issued the single with their logo . It reached number six on the UK chart in early 1967 . On December 21 , 1966 , Chandler and the Experience returned to De Lane Lea with Dave Siddle as engineer . They recorded two alternate versions of " Red House " and began work on " Remember " ; both tracks were significantly re @-@ worked in April 1967 at Olympic Studios .
= = = January to April 1967 = = =
= = = = January = = = =
After a three @-@ week break from recording while they played gigs in England , including a December 29 appearance on Top of the Pops , the Experience reconvened at De Lane Lea on January 11 , 1967 . As " Hey Joe " was gaining chart momentum in the UK , they began working on their second single , which featured Hendrix 's second songwriting effort , " Purple Haze " , as its A @-@ side . The track presented a more complex arrangement than the band 's previous recordings , and required four hours of studio time to complete , which Chandler considered extravagant . The session was the first time that he and the group had experimented with guitar effects . Acoustic engineer Roger Mayer introduced Hendrix to the Octavia , an octave @-@ doubling effect pedal , in December 1966 , and he first recorded with the effect during the guitar solo of " Purple Haze " . When Track Records sent the master tapes for " Purple Haze " to Reprise for remastering , they wrote on the tape box : " Deliberate distortion . Do not correct . "
On January 11 , 1967 , the Experience worked on their second A @-@ side , " The Wind Cries Mary " , a song that marked their first use of overdubbing in lieu of retakes as a method of achieving a satisfactory track . Chandler explained : " There were five guitar overdubs all linking in together to sound like one guitar . " The song , which Redding and Mitchell had not yet heard before that day , was completed during the session . Chandler had decided that they should discard the rough version of " Third Stone from the Sun " from December 13 and re @-@ record the song ; they completed a basic track for the piece , but were unable to achieve a finished master . The group managed to produce an acceptable live recording of the basic track for " Fire " after seven takes . Next , they attempted Hendrix 's newly written ballad , " The Wind Cries Mary " . Without the benefit of rehearsals , the band recorded the song in one take , to which Hendrix added several guitar overdubs ; Chandler estimated that they spent approximately 20 minutes on the completed rhythm track . According to Chandler , by this time Redding and Mitchell had begun to complain about their limited input . Chandler explained that financial considerations influenced the creative dynamic : " [ They ] were sort of fighting the fact that they had no say during recording sessions ... they were starting to come up with suggestions , but ... We didn 't need to be arguing with Noel for ten minutes and Mitch for five ... We just couldn 't afford the time . "
Between January 12 and February 2 , 1967 , the Experience took a break from recording while they played 20 dates in England , including a second appearance on Top of the Pops , on January 18 . Chandler was dissatisfied with the sound quality of the January 11 recordings and frustrated by the large number of noise complaints that they had received from people living and working near De Lane Lea . He explained : " There was a bank above the studio ... and it was at the time when computers were just coming in ... we would play so loud that it would foul up the computers upstairs . " Brian Jones and Bill Wyman of the Rolling Stones encouraged Chandler to try Olympic Studios , which was considered the top independent London studio . Despite the growing chart success of their first single , Chandler 's money problems persisted . Olympic required advance payment for studio time , but Polydor had not yet released any funds to Track for disbursement . When Chandler went to Polydor asking for relief they responded by guaranteeing him a line of credit at Olympic .
= = = = February = = = =
With his budget concerns alleviated , Chandler booked time at Olympic , where on February 3 , 1967 , he and the Experience met sound engineer Eddie Kramer . During Kramer 's first session with the group , he deviated from the standard recording method that they had been using at CBS and De Lane Lea , which was to record bass and drums in mono on two tracks . He instead recorded Mitchell 's drums on two tracks in stereo , leaving the remaining two tracks available for Redding 's bass and rhythm guitar parts played by Hendrix . Kramer 's unorthodox approach , which was inspired by Hendrix 's complaints regarding the limitations of four @-@ track recordings , captured the live sound of the band using all four available tracks . Kramer and Chandler then pre @-@ mixed and reduced the first four tracks down to two , making two more tracks available for lead guitar overdubs and vocals . This method satisfied both Hendrix 's perfectionism and Chandler 's desire to reduce the number of takes required for a satisfactory rhythm track , thus minimizing their expenses . Another change instigated by Kramer was the use of a mixture of close and distant microphone placements when recording Hendrix 's guitar parts whereas , during previous sessions , the microphones had been placed about twelve feet away from Hendrix 's amplifiers . In addition to the usual choices , Kramer used Beyer M1 60 ribbon microphones , which were typically not used to record loud music .
During the February 3 , 1967 , session at Olympic , the Experience improved the January 11 master tape of " Purple Haze " by re @-@ recording the vocal and lead guitar parts , and adding another Octavia guitar overdub , which was sped @-@ up and panned at the end of the song . The group reconvened at Olympic on February 7 , continuing their work on " Purple Haze " by recording Hendrix 's rhythm guitar and vocal parts , as well as Redding 's background vocals . They spent time overdubbing ambient background sounds by playing tapes through a set of headphones that were held near a microphone , creating an echo effect as the headphones were moved closer ; they completed a final mix of " Purple Haze " the following day . During the session , they worked on the De Lane Lea master tape of " Fire " , replacing everything except Redding 's bass line , which he double @-@ tracked in an effort to accentuate the recording 's lower frequencies . Kramer placed the second bass line on a dedicated track and blended Redding 's original bass line with Mitchell 's newly recorded drum part . They also recorded Mitchell and Redding 's backing vocals . " Foxy Lady " was also reworked on February 8 ; Redding recorded a new bass line and Hendrix and Mitchell added overdubs to their existing parts . After recording backing vocals by Redding and lead vocals from Hendrix , Kramer prepared the song 's final mix .
Hendrix was not as confident a singer as he was a guitarist , and because he strongly disliked anyone watching him sing he asked the engineers at Olympic to construct a privacy barrier between him and the control room . This created problems when the studio lights were low , and the engineers were unable to see him , making his visual cues and prompts difficult to communicate . As was the case at De Lane Lea , Hendrix 's penchant for using multiple amplifiers at extreme volume drew criticism and complaints from the people living and working near to the studio . Olympic tape operator George Chkiantz recalled : " Sometimes , it got so loud we 'd turn the [ control booth ] monitors off and there was really very little difference . " Chkiantz noted that reactions to Hendrix 's music were not always positive : " I seem to recall a lot of musicians , a lot of people , saying , ' I can 't see what all the fuss is about myself ' , or ' I don 't know how you listen to all that noise ; I 'd be scared to work with him ' ... Chas was convinced that he was on to something . Not everyone was convinced that Chas was right . " Another issue that complicated the sessions were the large number of female fans who would show up at the studio wanting to watch the Experience record . As a habit , Hendrix would indiscriminately tell people where we would be on any given day , which led to large groups of fans following him everywhere . Olympic employees were tasked with keeping them under control and at a safe distance so as to not unduly burden the recording process . Chkiantz commented : " It was extraordinary . I worked with the Stones . I worked with the Beatles . I worked with Led Zeppelin . I was not as jumpy ; it was not as difficult as with Hendrix . It was something of an open house . Hendrix was not difficult at all , but I personally would have preferred not to have loads of girls lurking in the woodwork . "
On February 20 , 1967 , the Experience continued working on Are You Experienced , but scheduling conflicts at Olympic led Chandler to book time at De Lane Lea . During the session they recorded " I Don 't Live Today " , which featured a manual wah effect that predated the pedal unit . They managed to complete a working master by the end of the day , though Hendrix eventually recorded a new lead vocal at Olympic .
= = = = March and April = = = =
The Experience took a week break from recording while playing gigs in England , and returned to De Lane Lea on March 1 , 1967 , to attempt a studio recording of Bob Dylan 's " Like a Rolling Stone " . Although the song had long been a staple of the group 's live show , they failed to achieve an acceptable basic track , owing mostly to Mitchell 's inability to keep consistent time during the session .
The second Experience single , " Purple Haze " / " 51st Anniversary " , was released on March 1 . It entered the UK singles chart on the 23rd , peaking at number three . During that month , the band took another long break from recording while they played gigs in Belgium , Germany , and England , including appearances on the UK television show Dee Time and the BBC radio show Saturday Club . Scheduling conflicts at Olympic led Chandler to book a March 29 session at De Lane Lea . On this date the band worked on another newly written Hendrix composition , " Manic Depression " ; they finished a rough mix by the end of the session that was later rejected in favor of a re @-@ mix completed at Olympic . On April 3 , the Experience returned to Olympic , adding overdubs and completing final mixes on several unfinished masters . During the eight @-@ hour session , the band recorded three new songs , including " Highway Chile " , " May This Be Love " , and " Are You Experienced ? " . As the album 's title track featured backwards rhythm guitar , bass , and drums , replication of the beat caused Mitchell some consternation when attempting the song live . Chandler completed final mixes for " I Don 't Live Today " , " Are You Experienced ? " , and " May This Be Love " before the end of a session that Kramer described as " very organized . "
In an effort to free @-@ up space for Hendrix 's lead vocals , further reduction mixing was completed for " Are You Experienced ? " during a session at Olympic on April 4 , 1967 . With the title track complete , the Experience shifted their focus to the January 11 rough demo of " Third Stone from the Sun " . Chandler decided that they should discard the original De Lane Lea tape and record a new version of the song . During the session , Kramer prepared a reduction mix of " Highway Chile " , which made two tracks available for Hendrix 's lead guitar and vocal overdubs . Though stereo and mono mixes were completed for the song , Chandler preferred the mono version , which he paired with " The Wind Cries Mary " for release as the group 's third UK single . A reduction mix was prepared for " Love or Confusion " , and Hendrix took advantage of the newly vacant tracks by adding lead guitar and vocals . A final mix was completed before the end of the session . On April 5 , Chandler participated in a mastering session at Rye Muse Studios for " Highway Chile " and " The Wind Cries Mary " , during which preparations were made so that Track could begin manufacturing vinyls . On the 10th , he and the Experience returned to Olympic , spending the bulk of the session on editing dialogue segments for " Third Stone from the Sun " , which were then slowed down and mixed into the song . Kramer concentrated his efforts on the song 's complicated mix : " The song was like a watercolor painting ... each track was composed of four , fairly dense composite images . "
After the April 10 , 1967 , recording session , the Experience spent the next two weeks playing shows and attending promotional appearances in England , including a spot on the BBC television program Monday Monday and BBC2 's Late Night Line @-@ Up . Chandler , Hendrix , and Kramer completed the final mixing of Are You Experienced at Olympic by 3 a.m. on April 25 . Chandler had agreed to audition the finished LP for Polydor 's head of A & R , Horst Schmaltze , at 11 a.m. , so after a couple hours of sleep he prepared a suitable vinyl demo and traveled to Polydor . Chandler recalled : " As Horst started to put the needle on the record , I broke out in a cold sweat , thinking ... when he hears this , he 's going to order the men in white coats to take me away ... Horst played the first side through and didn 't say a word . Then he turned the disk over and played the other side . I started thinking about how I was going to talk my way out of this . At the end of the second side , he just sat there . Finally , he said , ' This is brilliant . This is the greatest thing I 've ever heard . ' " Horst immediately became an ardent supporter of the album and the band , championing the marketing and distribution of their debut LP .
= = Music and lyrics = =
According to Hendrix biographer Harry Shapiro , the music on Are You Experienced incorporates a variety of music genres from rhythm and blues to free jazz ; author Peter Doggett noted its " wide variety of styles " , while journalist Chris Welch said " each track has a different personality " . Musicologist Gilbert Chase asserted that the album " marked a high peak in hard rock " , and music critic Jim DeRogatis characterized the LP and its preceding singles as " raw , focused psychedelic rock " . A contemporary review published in Newsweek in October 1967 identified the influence of soul music on the Experience and the album . In 1989 , Hit Parader magazine ranked it number 35 in a list of the top 100 heavy metal albums . In 2006 , writer and archivist Rueben Jackson of the Smithsonian Institution wrote : " it 's still a landmark recording because it is of the rock , R & B , blues ... musical tradition . It altered the syntax of the music ... in a way I compare to , say , James Joyce 's Ulysses . "
Included on the UK edition of Are You Experienced were two tracks that represented the music Hendrix had played in the US before the formation of the Experience : the blues track " Red House " and the rhythm and blues song " Remember " . The album 's psychedelic title track , which author Sean Egan described as impressionistic , featured the post @-@ modern soundscapes of backwards guitar and drums that pre @-@ date scratching by 10 years . Musicologist Ritchie Unterberger considers the lyrics to " I Don 't Live Today " to be more at home in a gothic rock setting than in psychedelia , however ; he describes the music as being " played and sung with an ebullience that belies the darkness of the lyrics . " The song 's tribal rhythms served as a platform for Hendrix 's innovative guitar feedback improvisations . Whereas " Fire " is a funk and soul hybrid driven by Mitchell 's drumming , " May This Be Love " and " The Wind Cries Mary " are soft ballads that demonstrate Hendrix 's ability to write thoughtful lyrics and subtle melodies . The influence of raga rock can be heard in his sitar @-@ like guitar solo on " Love or Confusion " . " Can You See Me " is an uptempo rocker that features Hendrix 's double tracked vocals and his use of a one @-@ note bend in the style of Hank Marvin . Although " Hey Joe " is a folk song , and the only cover on the album , it would become one of Hendrix 's most requested tracks .
The UK edition of Are You Experienced opened with " Foxy Lady " , a track that , with the exception of a few overdubs , was recorded in one session at CBS . Hendrix wrote the song about Heather Taylor , a highly desirable London socialite who later married the Who 's Roger Daltrey . It begins with the fade @-@ in of an F note that Hendrix is bending @-@ up to F ♯ while applying generous finger vibrato . Using his guitar 's control knob , he slowly increases volume until an audio feedback loop develops and he slides into the song 's dominant F ♯ m7 chord . Hendrix used a combination of natural amplifier overdrive and fuzz box effects units to create the song 's razor @-@ sharp guitar tone . Its blues – inspired solo — his fourth since arriving in England — used pentatonic scales while showcasing his innovative approach to melody ; by exploiting the increased sustain created by overdriving his amplifiers , he moved seamlessly between the middle and high registers with a fluid , singing tone . While author Peter Doggett compared its slow beat to Memphis soul , David Stubbs described the track as a prototype for heavy metal bands such as Black Sabbath .
Although the lyrics to " Purple Haze " , which opened the US edition of Are You Experienced , are often mis
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interpreted as describing an acid trip , Hendrix explained : " [ It ] was all about a dream I had that I was walking under the sea . " He speculated that the dream may have been inspired by a science fiction story about a purple death ray . Redding stated that Hendrix had not yet taken LSD at the time of the song 's writing , which was after a gig in London on December 26 , 1966 . The first draft of the lyrics was exceedingly long , so Chandler and Hendrix reduced its length to something appropriate for mainstream pop music . It opens with a guitar / bass harmony in the interval of a tritone that was known as the diabolus in musica during the time of the Spanish Inquisition . The Catholic Church prohibited medieval composers of religious music from using the tritone , or flattened fifth , because as musicologist Dave Whitehill wrote : " to play it was like ringing Satan 's doorbell . " In the opinion of the author Ritchie Unterberger , the opening riff has " become a permanent part of rock 's vocabulary . " Whereas Rolling Stone described the song as the beginning of late @-@ 60s psychedelia , the authors Harry Shapiro and Caesar Glebbeek identified Hendrix 's use of R & B , funk , and soul elements in the track .
In 1967 , Hendrix told the journalist Keith Altham that " Third Stone from the Sun " is about a visiting space alien who , upon evaluation of the human species , decides that people are not fit to rule Earth , destroys their civilization , and places the planet in the care of chickens . The song is composed of two contrasting sections , one that features a jazzy guitar melody played in the style of Wes Montgomery over a straightforward rock tempo , and another that showcases Hendrix 's free @-@ form mixolydian mode guitar lines with a jazz beat . The track contains no proper vocals , instead using spoken words played at half @-@ speed to invoke images of interstellar space travel . In addition to jazz elements , Unterberger identified Hendrix 's use of surf music motifs in the track that are reminiscent of earlier works by the Ventures , a group from the Pacific Northwest that Hendrix would have heard during his childhood .
Hendrix described " Manic Depression " as " ugly times music " ; during a live performance he explained the meaning of the lyrics : " It 's a story about a cat wishing he could make love to music instead of the same old everyday woman . " The song is unusual in that its written in triple meter , or 3 / 4 time , which is the time signature commonly associated with a waltz , whereas most rock music is written in 4 / 4 . Although his delivery is rock oriented , Mitchell 's drumming on the track is reminiscent of Elvin Jones 's fluid jazz patterns . Musicologist Andy Aledort noted Hendrix 's " dramatic use of chromaticism " during the song 's opening bars and the " heavily vibratoed unison bends " that presage what he described as one of Hendrix 's best guitar solos .
" The Wind Cries Mary " is the first ballad recorded by the Experience ; Hendrix wrote the lyrics after an argument with his girlfriend , Kathy Etchingham , whose middle name is Mary . She explained : " I smashed plates on the floor , [ and ] he swept them up . He locked me in the bathroom for absolutely ages and ... eventually Chas 's girlfriend Lotta let me out ... I ran out to get a taxi and was standing under the traffic lights , and I had red hair and a red dress . I went back after I 'd cooled down and he 'd already written it . " The song featured a chord progression inspired by Curtis Mayfield and lyrics that reflected Hendrix 's admiration of Bob Dylan . " Stone Free " expressed Hendrix 's desire to preserve his personal freedom , demurring the concepts of conformity and long @-@ term relationships . He revisited this theme in " 51st Anniversary " and " Highway Chile " . Omitted from the American version of the album , " Red House " would not see an official release in US until the 1969 compilation , Smash Hits . An unusual feature of the recording is that it does not include a bass guitar track ; Redding instead played rhythm guitar with his equalization set strongly in favor of bass tones . It is Hendrix 's only original twelve @-@ bar blues .
= = Album cover = =
Chris Stamp designed the cover of the UK version of Are You Experienced , which featured a picture of Hendrix , Mitchell , and Redding by Bruce Fleming . The image shows Hendrix wearing a long dark cape while standing over Mitchell and Redding , striking what Egan described as a " Dracula @-@ esque pose " . Chandler contacted Fleming based on the photographer 's previous work with the Hollies , the Dave Clark Five , and the Animals . The photo shoot took place in February after Fleming had attended several recording sessions and Experience gigs . Chandler made a point of requesting that the band member 's faces be clearly visible in the photograph ; Fleming explained : " [ Album covers ] got much more esoteric as time went on , but to establish the artist we had to get their faces across so the kids would recognize them . " He took monochrome and color shots of the band ; Track selected an image from the latter group . Fleming had indicated which picture he preferred they use , marking the shot with a cross , but after the album 's release he realized that they had selected another , less desirable image . According to Fleming , the shot that he chose was " more sinister ; more interesting " . Stamp hired graphic artist Alan Aldridge to design the sleeve 's psychedelic lettering . Track inexplicably put only the album 's title on the cover , omitting the band 's name ; Polydor issued the release throughout Europe with Hendrix 's name printed at the top in matching font . The cover art 's combination of dull green and brown tones , juxtaposed with the jocular nature of the subject 's pose , created a weak overall visual impression ; Stamp commented : " It 's not a great cover at all . Hopefully , we made up for that in all the other covers . "
Hendrix disliked the UK cover of Are You Experienced , so arrangements were made for a photo shoot with graphic designer Karl Ferris . Hendrix wanted " something psychedelic " , so he requested Ferris because he appreciated the photographer 's sleeve @-@ work on the Hollies June 1967 release , Evolution . During a meeting with the band , Ferris told Hendrix that he wanted to hear more of their music from which to draw inspiration . They accommodated his request by allowing him to attend several sessions for their second album , Axis : Bold as Love . Ferris brought home tapes from the sessions , which along with Are You Experienced he listened to intently . His first impression of the music was that it was " so far out that it seemed to come from outer space " , which inspired him to develop a backstory about a " group travelling through space in a Biosphere on their way to bring their unworldly space music to earth . " With this concept in mind , he took color photographs of the band at Kew Gardens in London , using a fisheye lens which was then popular in Mod sub @-@ culture . Ferris used what Egan described as " an infrared technique of his own invention which combined color reversal with heat signature " , further enhancing the exotic nature of the image . Ferris was an experienced fashion photographer , and his interest in the finer details of his covers led him to choose the band 's wardrobe . After seeing Hendrix with his hair combed away from the scalp , Ferris requested that he wear it that way during the photo shoot . Hendrix 's girlfriend , Kathy Etchingham , trimmed his hair to improve its symmetry , forming an afro that became the basis of a homogenized Experience image . Redding and Mitchell liked Hendrix 's new hairstyle , so Ferris hired a hairdresser to style their hair in a similar fashion . After purchasing clothing for Redding and Mitchell at the boutiques on King 's Road — Hendrix wore clothes from his wardrobe , including a psychedelic jacket with a pair of eyes printed on the front which had been given to him by a fan — the Experience travelled to Kew Gardens . In an effort to focus on Hendrix 's hands , Ferris shot the band at a low angle . The daylight faded soon after their arrival at the garden , so they returned the following day for a second shoot , which was not needed ; the image selected for the US cover of Are You Experienced was the first shot taken the previous day . Ferris chose the cover 's yellow background and its surreal lettering , and he intended for a textured gatefold jacket that Reprise , as a cost @-@ saving measure , did not approve .
= = Release = =
= = = Europe = = =
The third Experience single , " The Wind Cries Mary " backed by " Highway Chile " , was released in the UK on May 5 , 1967 , while " Purple Haze " occupied the number three spot in the charts . The management 's decision to release the single while the previous one was still present in the UK charts was unorthodox , as was the choice of " The Wind Cries Mary " , which differed greatly from " Purple Haze " . Stamp recalled : " We did that on purpose ... We wanted musically to show who this person was . " Egan wrote : " It alerted the public to the fact that the so @-@ called Wild Man of Borneo was capable of songs of delicacy and sensitivity . " " The Wind Cries Mary " reached number six in the UK in May .
Track Records released Are You Experienced in the UK on May 12 , 1967 . It entered the charts on May 27 , where it spent 33 weeks , peaking at number two . It remained in the charts long enough that it was still present when the Experience released their second album , Axis : Bold as Love . The album , which was released in the UK without the first three singles , was prevented from reaching the top spot by the Beatles ' Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band .
= = = North America = = =
Although popular in Europe at the time , the Experience 's first US single , " Hey Joe " , failed to reach the Billboard Hot 100 chart upon its release on May 1 , 1967 . The group 's fortunes improved when Paul McCartney recommended them to the organizers of the Monterey Pop Festival . He insisted that the event would be incomplete without Hendrix , whom he called " an absolute ace on the guitar " , and he agreed to join the board of organizers on the condition that the Experience perform at the festival in mid @-@ June . During the climax of the festival , which was filmed by D. A. Pennebaker for the documentary Monterey Pop , Hendrix burned and smashed his guitar on stage for dramatic effect .
After the show @-@ stealing performance , Reprise Records agreed to distribute Are You Experienced . However , despite the increased awareness that the Experience 's performance at Monterey provided , the second Experience single , " Purple Haze " / " The Wind Cries Mary " , released in the US on August 16 , 1967 , stalled at number 65 on the Billboard Hot 100 . Although the single performed poorly in the US charts , its presence on underground FM radio stations , which were transitioning from easy listening and classical music formats to album cuts , significantly aided sales of the LP . Reprise allocated a $ 20 @,@ 000 promotional budget for the LP , which was an unprecedented amount for an unproven artist . Released in the US on August 23 by Reprise , Are You Experienced reached number five on the Billboard 200 . The album remained on Billboard 's album chart for 106 weeks , 27 of those in the Top 40 . The North American edition of Are You Experienced featured a new cover by Karl Ferris and a new track list , with Reprise omitting " Red House " , " Remember " , and " Can You See Me " , and including the first three A @-@ sides omitted from the UK release : " Hey Joe " , " Purple Haze " , and " The Wind Cries Mary " .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Music critics widely regard Are You Experienced as one of the greatest debut albums in the history of rock and roll . An immediate commercial success , within seven months of its release it had sold more than one million copies . Melody Maker praised the work 's artistic integrity and the Experience 's varied use of tempo . NME 's Keith Altham said it is " a brave effort by Hendrix to produce a musical form which is original and exciting " . However , not all contemporary writers gave the LP a favorable review ; in November 1967 , Rolling Stone 's Jon Landau wrote that although he considered Hendrix a " great guitarist and a brilliant arranger " , he disapproved of his singing and songwriting . He criticized the quality of the material and described the lyrics as inane : " Above all this record is unrelentingly violent , and lyrically , inartistically violent at that . "
Journalist Ritchie Unterberger described Are You Experienced as " one of the definitive albums of the psychedelic era . " In the opinion of author Chris Smith , the release was " a landmark in a summer of landmark albums " . Noe Goldwasser , the founding editor of Guitar World magazine , called it " a veritable textbook of what a musician can do with his instrument " and " the measure by which everything ... in rock and roll has been compared since . " According to music journalist Charles Shaar Murray , the album " completely changed notions of what a guitar could sound like , or indeed , what music could sound like " , while The Miami Herald credited Are You Experienced with introducing acid rock , classic rock , and the guitar aesthetic of heavy metal . Critic Robert Christgau called it a " bombshell debut " in his review for Blender and said its songs were innovative for how they utilized three @-@ minute pop structures as a medium for Hendrix 's unprecedentedly heavy and turbulent guitar and loud , powerful hooks , which greatly appealed to young listeners .
Mojo magazine listed Are You Experienced as the greatest guitar album of all time . Rolling Stone called the double @-@ platinum LP Hendrix 's " epochal debut " , and they ranked it number fifteen on their list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time , noting his " exploitation of amp howl " , and characterizing his guitar playing as " incendiary ... historic in itself " . They ranked it as the number three debut album of all time , crediting it as the LP " that established the transcendent promise of psychedelia " , stating : " Every idea we have of the guitarist as groundbreaking individual artist comes from this record . " They placed four songs from the album on their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time : " Purple Haze " ( 17 ) , " Foxy Lady " ( 153 ) , " Hey Joe " ( 201 ) , and " The Wind Cries Mary " ( 379 ) . In 2005 , Are You Experienced was one of 50 recordings chosen by the Library of Congress to be added to the National Recording Registry , which selects recordings annually that are " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " .
= = Track listing = =
Since the first release of Are You Experienced in 1967 , there have been six distinct versions of the track listing . As of 1997 , compact disc editions in the US and UK feature 17 tracks , including all songs that appeared on either the original UK / international edition of the album , or the original North American edition , or the Experience 's first three singles ( Stone Free , 51st Anniversary , and Highway Chile ) .
= = = Original UK and international edition = = =
All songs written and composed by Jimi Hendrix .
= = = Original North American edition = = =
All songs written and composed by Jimi Hendrix except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
Jimi Hendrix — vocals , guitars
Noel Redding — bass ; backing vocals on " Foxy Lady , " " Fire , " and " Purple Haze "
Mitch Mitchell — drums ; backing vocals on " I Don 't Live Today " and " Stone Free "
= = = Additional personnel = = =
The Breakaways — backing vocals on " Hey Joe "
Chas Chandler — producer
Dave Siddle — engineering on " Manic Depression , " " Can You See Me , " " Love or Confusion , " " I Don 't Live Today , " " Fire , " " Remember , " " Hey Joe , " " Stone Free , " " Purple Haze , " " 51st Anniversary , " and " The Wind Cries Mary "
Eddie Kramer — engineering on " The Wind Cries Mary , " " Are You Experienced ? , " and " Red House " ; additional engineering on " Love or Confusion , " " Fire , " " Third Stone from the Sun , " and " Highway Chile "
Mike Ross — engineering on " Foxy Lady , " " Red House , " and " Third Stone from the Sun "
= = Certifications = =
= The Simpsons 138th Episode Spectacular =
" The Simpsons 138th Episode Spectacular " is the tenth episode of The Simpsons ' seventh season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 3 , 1995 . As the title suggests , it is the 138th episode and the third clip show episode of The Simpsons after " So It 's Come to This : A Simpsons Clip Show " and " Another Simpsons Clip Show " . While the " 138th Episode Spectacular " compiles sequences from episodes throughout the entire Simpsons series like the previous two , it also shows clips from the original Simpsons shorts from The Tracey Ullman Show and other previously unaired material . Like the Halloween specials , the episode is considered non @-@ canon and falls outside of the show 's regular continuity .
The " 138th Episode Spectacular " was written by Jon Vitti and directed by David Silverman , and is a parody of the common practice among live @-@ action series to produce clip shows . It has received positive reviews , and was one of the most watched episodes of the season with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 5 .
= = Synopsis = =
Troy McClure hosts this episode , which highlights individual scenes and sequences from throughout the show and offers never @-@ before @-@ seen outtakes . McClure starts the episode by showing a brief presentation of how The Simpsons series was conceived by Matt Groening , James L. Brooks , and Sam Simon . He goes on to present some clips of the original shorts that aired on The Tracey Ullman Show , including the first one , " Good Night " , in its entirety . Next , a presumed commercial break is introduced with a trivia question about the message that appears when Maggie Simpson is scanned by the cash register during the show 's opening sequence ; the answer is revealed ( falsely ) to be " NRA4EVER . " The show then returns to McClure , who responds to questions from fan mail by showing clips that contain the answers . The letters include questions on Homer 's growing stupidity , how the cast and crew can create an episode per week , and hints of Waylon Smithers ' homosexuality .
Another commercial break is then introduced with a trivia question , this time concerning which two popular characters have died within the past year ; the answer is revealed to be Bleeding Gums Murphy and Dr. Marvin Monroe , although neither of them were ever popular ( and the latter was not actually dead , as revealed in " Diatribe of a Mad Housewife " ) . McClure then presents deleted scenes from Simpsons episodes , " Krusty Gets Kancelled " , " $ pringfield ( Or , How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love Legalized Gambling ) " , " Mother Simpson " , " Treehouse of Horror IV " , " Homer and Apu " , and " Burns ' Heir " .
McClure also reveals that alternate endings to part two of " Who Shot Mr. Burns ? " were created to prevent the staff on The Simpsons from spoiling the mystery that " all of America was trying to solve [ ... ] this past summer " . These alternate endings , most of which consist of random characters shooting Mr. Burns , conclude with a more elaborate ending in which Smithers is revealed to be the assailant . Troy McClure ends the episode by showing a montage of " hardcore nudity " ( scenes of The Simpsons characters naked ) , set to the KC and the Sunshine Band song " ( Shake , Shake , Shake ) Shake Your Booty " .
= = Production = =
As the title suggests , " The Simpsons 138th Episode Spectacular " is the 138th episode of The Simpsons , although it is the 155th episode when placed in production order . It is the third Simpsons clip show , after " So It 's Come to This : A Simpsons Clip Show " and " Another Simpsons Clip Show " . It was written by Jon Vitti , who used the pseudonym " Penny Wise " in the closing credits because he did not want to be credited for writing a clip show . The episode was directed by David Silverman , who also did not want to be credited , and used the pseudonym " Pound Foolish " in the closing credits .
During the early years of the show , Fox network officials forced the Simpsons staff to produce clip shows in order to save money . Originally , the producers were ordered to produce one clip show per season in order to meet episode limits imposed by the network . Fox network officials reasoned that clip shows could be produced at half the cost of a normal episode , but syndication rights could be sold at full price . The staff , however , felt such a large number of clip shows would alienate fans of the series .
Former show runner Bill Oakley thought the episode was one of the better clip shows of The Simpsons , because it had more original and interesting material than the others . Oakley enjoyed showing deleted scenes from previous episodes and the Simpsons shorts , and particularly enjoyed the montage of couch gags at the beginning of the episode . The staff tried to entertain themselves while producing the clip show , and Oakley said by having the only actor be Phil Hartman as Troy McClure , it was " guaranteed to be fun " .
One of the clips shown in the episode comes from the season four episode " Marge Gets a Job " , in which Smithers has a dream that he is sleeping and Mr. Burns flies through a window into his room . The sequence shows Burns flying towards a happy @-@ looking Smithers . The original clip went on for a few seconds longer , but had to be trimmed down in order to remove portions that showed " Mr. Burns land [ ing ] in a particular position on Smithers anatomy " . There were also issues with " the lump in his bed " , which the animators said they had drawn as his knee , but the censors had mistakenly believed was an erection .
A deleted scene from the season five episode " Burns ' Heir " is also shown , in which a robotic Richard Simmons dances outside Burns 's mansion to the 1976 song " ( Shake , Shake , Shake ) Shake Your Booty " . It was cut from " Burns ' Heir " because the writers did not think it was funny , nor did it do well with a test audience , although Oakley thought the animation was terrific . To the production staff 's surprise , the scene would make the audience " erupt with laughter " when screened at animation conventions and college presentations , so they decided to insert it in this episode .
The montage of nude scenes over the ending credits includes the original animation of Homer and Marge snuggling from Grampa vs. Sexual Inadequacy , which was dropped from that episode and reanimated after Fox censors thought it was too explicit .
Due to the amount of interest in the ending of the " Who Shot Mr. Burns ? " episode , David Mirkin wrote several " terrible endings " and recorded several alternate endings with Harry Shearer serving as the only voice actor . Mirkin 's original intention was to fool the production staff and also leak the endings to various media outlets ; much to his surprise , Mirkin failed to successfully fool the staff . Several endings were animated that showed various characters , such as Barney , Moe , and Apu , shooting Mr. Burns , and were presented as part of this episode .
= = = Referenced clips = = =
During the opening credits the episode is advertised as having " twenty @-@ three percent new footage " , while the rest are clips taken from previous episodes . The five shorts used in this episode are " Good Night " , which was featured in its entirety , and portions of " The Perfect Crime " , " Space Patrol " , " World War III " , and " Bathtime " . Some parts of the episode contain montages of only a few seconds @-@ long clips , such as those referring to Homer 's increased stupidity ( " Blood Feud " , " Flaming Moe 's " , " Marge vs. the Monorail " , " Deep Space Homer " , and " Treehouse of Horror V " ) , or those suggesting Smithers ' homosexuality ( " Rosebud " , " Dog of Death " , " Lisa vs. Malibu Stacy " , and " Marge Gets a Job " ) .
= = Cultural references = =
The entire setup of Troy McClure presenting the episode is a parody of the practice by live @-@ action series to produce clip shows in general , by celebrating a completely arbitrary milestone and by making exaggerated use of the conventions of traditional highlights shows , such as a grand introduction and relentlessly showbizzy host .
The episode makes references to several films and television shows . The Tracey Ullman Show is referred to as " the nation 's showcase for psychiatrist jokes and musical comedy numbers " , while the outtakes right before the commercial breaks parodies television series such as Roseanne and Home Improvement ( which regularly aired similar outtakes ) . The deleted scene from " $ pringfield " in which Homer plays blackjack with James Bond parodies the 1967 film Casino Royale . The deleted scene from " Burns ' Heir " in which the robotic Richard Simmons is shot through the head and repairs itself parodies the liquid metal T @-@ 1000 in Terminator 2 : Judgment Day ( 1991 ) . The episode satirizes the Fox network in particular , as the two specials mentioned in the beginning , Alien Nose Job and Five Fabulous Weeks Of ' The Chevy Chase Show ' , are references to two actual programs that have aired on the network : The Chevy Chase Show ( 1993 ) and Alien Autopsy : Fact or Fiction ( 1995 ) . Several famous musical themes are used or parodied in the clips , such as when Homer sings the theme song from The Flintstones , and Johann Strauss II 's Blue Danube is heard in the background of one scene . The show 's producers are depicted as animated characters in the introduction : Groening is a bald Southern patriot who wields a gun wearing an eye patch , a reference to the promotional poster of the 1970 film Patton , and his own comic strip Life in Hell ; Brooks is seen as Rich Uncle Pennybags , the tycoon from Monopoly ; and Simon 's appearance resembles Howard Hughes . One of Smithers ' fantasies is a parody of Marilyn Monroe 's famous happy birthday song to President John F. Kennedy , while another one is an allusion to Peter Pan flying through the window . The book that Krusty tries to sell is a reference to Madonna 's book entitled Sex . " NRA4EVER , " the message that appears on a cash register during the opening sequence reference in a trivia question , is a reference to the National Rifle Association .
= = Reception = =
The episode ranked among the ten most heavily viewed episodes of the seventh season . After its initial American airing , the episode received a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 5 , and a Nielsen rank of 48 . The episode has become study material for sociology courses at University of California , Berkeley , where it is used to " examine issues of the production and reception of cultural objects , in this case , a satirical cartoon show " , and to figure out what it is " trying to tell audiences about aspects primarily of American society , and , to a lesser extent , about other societies . " Some questions asked in the courses include : " What aspects of American society are being addressed in the episode ? What aspects of them are used to make the points ? How is the satire conveyed : through language ? Drawing ? Music ? Is the behavior of each character consistent with his / her character as developed over the years ? Can we identify elements of the historical / political context that the writers are satirizing ? What is the difference between satire and parody ? " Considered a spoof of television clip shows , the episode is seen drawing attention to prevailing televisual conventions and reminds viewers that The Simpsons itself participates actively in that same cultural legacy .
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , thought " the out @-@ takes are up to standard " and contains " a number of great self @-@ referential moments " . Simone Knox praised its visual style in her article Reading the Ungraspable Double @-@ Codedness of " The Simpsons " . The episode itself has been described by some critics as a kind of self @-@ imposed benchmark of the show itself , with writer Bill Keveney commenting , " the show picks its own benchmarks , as it did in 1995 " . Knox referred to it as not simply a clip show , " but a ‘ clip show ’ that looks at the series with a sense of hyper @-@ self @-@ consciousness about its own textuality . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson said even though the episode is a clip show , it " gussies up the concept with some interesting elements , and keeps repetitive material to a minimum . Instead , it offers lots of then @-@ unseen footage as well as old snippets from The Tracey Ullman Show . It still feels like a cheap way to crank out a new episode , but it ’ s one of the better clip shows you ’ ll see . " Jennifer Malkowski of DVD Verdict gave the episode a B + grade and commented , " apart from the creative material , what really makes this [ episode ] shine is the hilarious hosting by Troy McClure . " Dave Foster of DVD Times criticized the episode : " Despite some interesting concepts such as a bored Troy McClure presenting to much amusement and the presence of deleted scenes and Tracey Ullman shorts amongst the clips , this is an episode that tries hard to find a hook but never quite manages , assuring it 'll never make it into regular rotation on this viewer 's watch . "
= Busher Jackson =
Ralph Harvey " Busher " Jackson ( January 17 , 1911 – June 25 , 1966 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey player . Jackson played 15 National Hockey League ( NHL ) seasons between 1929 and 1944 for the Toronto Maple Leafs , New York Americans and Boston Bruins . He was a member of the famed Kid Line with Joe Primeau and Charlie Conacher , one of the early NHL 's dominant scoring trios . Jackson led the league in scoring in 1931 – 32 and was member of Toronto 's 1932 Stanley Cup championship team . He was named to five NHL All @-@ Star Teams and played in three benefit all @-@ star games , including the Ace Bailey Benefit Game , the first all @-@ star game in NHL history .
Off the ice , Jackson was well known for his high @-@ spending lifestyle and drinking habit that prompted his trade from Toronto to New York in 1939 . He was remembered as one of hockey 's tragic figures following his retirement , as he struggled with alcoholism and financial difficulty . He was a figure of controversy within the Hockey Hall of Fame selection committee as Jackson 's lifestyle and personal problems were used to block his induction . He finally earned a place in the Hall of Fame in 1971 , five years after his death . Jackson is also an honoured member of Canada 's Sports Hall of Fame , inducted in 1975 .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior = = =
Jackson grew up in Toronto , playing his youth hockey at " Poverty Pond " in the city 's east side before playing at the Ravina Rink where he was discovered by Frank Selke , the assistant general manager of the Toronto Maple Leafs . Selke signed Jackson to a contract and assigned him to the Toronto Marlboros in the Ontario Hockey Association ( OHA ) ' s junior league for the 1927 – 28 season . Jackson scored four goals in four regular season games that season , and though the Marlboros were considered a favourite to win the Memorial Cup , the team was defeated in the Eastern final by the Ottawa Gunners . He returned to the team for the 1928 – 29 season , scoring 10 goals and 14 points in 9 regular season games . He then led the OHA playoffs with seven goals and nine points as the Marlboros won the OHA championship . Jackson was a leading offensive player for Toronto in the 1929 Memorial Cup playdowns , scoring 15 goals and 25 points in 13 games . The Marlboros reached the final , defeating the Elmwood Millionaires in a best @-@ of @-@ three series to win the franchise 's first Memorial Cup championship .
= = = Toronto Maple Leafs = = =
Joining the Maple Leafs for the 1929 – 30 season , 18 @-@ year @-@ old Jackson was the youngest player in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . In his league debut , against the Montreal Canadiens , Jackson knocked over his idol Howie Morenz with a bodycheck . Assessing the youngster 's potential following the hit , Morenz offered , " you 'll do " . Jackson appeared in 31 games for the Maple Leafs , scoring 12 goals and adding 6 assists . He missed some time due to injury , during which he earned his nickname from the team 's trainer , Tim Daly . According to Jackson : " Daly asked me to carry sticks for him . I told him I wasn 't a stick boy , I was a hockey player . So he said I was nothing but a fresh busher [ a term for someone who had just been called up from the minors ] and the name stuck . "
During his first season , Jackson was placed on a line with two other young players . Charlie Conacher , a teammate of his with the Marlboros , played right wing and Joe Primeau was their centre . The trio formed what became known as the " Kid Line " , one of the early NHL 's most famous scoring trios . Primeau was the playmaker whose passes set up both Conacher and Jackson 's goal @-@ scoring ability .
Following a 31 @-@ point season in 1930 – 31 , Jackson led the NHL in scoring with 53 points in 1931 – 32 . At 21 years , 3 months old , Jackson became the youngest scoring champion in NHL history , a record he would hold until broken by Wayne Gretzky in 1980 – 81 . Jackson 's 28 goals that season was the most he would score in his career , and he was named to the NHL 's First All @-@ Star Team for the first time of his career . He added five goals in the 1932 playoffs , including one of Toronto 's six in the deciding game of the 1932 Stanley Cup Final , a 6 – 4 victory over the New York Rangers that clinched Toronto 's first Stanley Cup championship since 1922 .
The Kid Line remained Toronto 's top offensive threat for several years ; Jackson , Conacher and Primeau were the team 's top three scorers for four consecutive seasons between 1932 and 1935 . Following his league @-@ leading season , Jackson led Toronto offensively in 1932 – 33 with 44 points . On November 20 , 1934 , Jackson set an NHL record when he became the first player in NHL history to score four goals in a period , notching four markers in the third period of a 5 – 2 victory over the St. Louis Eagles . The record has not been surpassed through 2012 , though eleven players have matched it . He was named to three additional All @-@ Star Teams during this time , placed on the second team in 1932 – 33 and on the first team in both 1933 – 34 and 1934 – 35 . Additionally , Jackson played in the Ace Bailey Benefit Game on February 14 , 1934 . Held in support of injured teammate Ace Bailey , it was the first all @-@ star game in NHL history . Jackson scored two goals for the Maple Leafs in a 7 – 3 victory over the NHL All @-@ Stars .
Following four consecutive 20 @-@ goal seasons , Jackson slipped to 11 goals in 1935 – 36 . The Kid Line was finally broken up . While they remain consistent offensive performers , they lacked defensive ability and opposing teams began to find success playing their own top scoring lines against the trio . Primeau subsequently retired in 1936 in favour of his business interests . Despite the break @-@ up , Jackson scored 21 goals and 40 points in 1936 – 37 to earn his fourth and final appearance on the First All @-@ Star Team .
Prior to the start of the 1937 – 38 season , Jackson played with the NHL All @-@ Stars in the Howie Morenz Memorial Game , the NHL 's second benefit all @-@ star contest . In regular league play , his offence entered a decline as he scored 34 points that season , then 27 in 1938 – 39 . Following the season , the Maple Leafs traded him to the New York Americans along with Jimmy Fowler , Murray Armstrong , Doc Romnes and Buzz Boll in exchange for Sweeney Schriner on May 18 , 1939 . The five @-@ for @-@ one deal was unprecedented in NHL history at that time .
= = = New York and Boston = = =
Prior to his first season in New York , Jackson played in his third benefit all @-@ star game , the Babe Siebert Memorial Game , on October 29 , 1939 . He represented the NHL All @-@ Stars in a 5 – 2 victory over the Montreal Canadiens . In NHL play , he posted 12 goals and 20 points for the Americans , then improved to 26 points in 1940 – 41 . He was unable to come to terms with team manager Red Dutton on a new contract for the 1941 – 42 season however , and did not join the team at the start of the season . The impasse lasted for half the season , until Dutton sold Jackson 's rights to the Boston Bruins for $ 7 @,@ 500 on January 4 , 1942 .
Joining the Bruins gave Jackson the opportunity to play alongside his younger brother Art . He played only 26 games that season due to his holdout , just over half of an NHL season of 48 games , scoring 12 points . Though he played the left wing throughout his career , the Bruins switched him part @-@ time to defence when they lost players to injury or the Second World War . He scored 34 points in 1942 – 43 , and his 19 goals was Jackson 's highest total in six seasons . The Bruins reached the 1943 Stanley Cup Final by defeating Montreal , but lost the series to the Detroit Red Wings in four straight games . Jackson played a final season in 1943 – 44 , after which he announced his retirement as a player following a 15 @-@ year career .
= = Personal life = =
A handsome man with even features , Jackson lived a lifestyle of a Hollywood actor during his playing career , spending money freely , driving fast cars and attending posh parties . Maple Leafs ' owner Conn Smythe unsuccessfully tried to convince Jackson to save his money for the future , even offering to match his player 's savings dollar for dollar . Jackson 's habits , particularly his drinking , ultimately played a role in his trade away from Toronto . Jackson 's lifestyle came crashing down following his retirement as a player as he no longer had the money to fund his pursuits . He unsuccessfully tried to overcome his alcoholism , lost two marriages to divorce , struggled to hold a job , and it was said that he could be found outside Maple Leaf Gardens trying to sell broken sticks of Maple Leaf players to try to make some money . He emerged as one of hockey 's tragic figures .
Jackson suffered a series of injuries and ailments in his later years . In 1958 , he broke his neck after falling down a flight of stairs . His recovery took 18 @-@ months and cost him mobility in his right hand . Two months after his release , Jackson returned to hospital with a bout of jaundice . He was hospitalized again in 1962 following an epileptic seizure .
As Jackson 's health failed , he became the focus of a controversy within the Hockey Hall of Fame selection committee . Though he was considered one of hockey 's greatest left wingers , and he was famed for his offensive , attacking style and backhand shot , Jackson 's personal problems led Conn Smythe to blacklist him from entry into the Hall . Though Primeau and Conacher had gained induction , Jackson died on June 25 , 1966 , without being given the same honour . It would be another five years until the remainder of the selection committee finally overruled Smythe and posthumously inducted Jackson into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1971 . Smythe quit the committee in protest , while Jackson 's son Kim accepted the honour on his father 's behalf . In 1975 , he was inducted into Canada 's Sports Hall of Fame , and The Hockey News ranked him 55th in its 1997 book , The Top 100 NHL players of All @-@ Time .
= = Career statistics = =
= Saw 3D =
Saw 3D ( also known as Saw : The Final Chapter , or simply Saw VII ) is a 2010 American 3D horror film directed by Kevin Greutert , written by Patrick Melton and Marcus Dunstan , and starring Tobin Bell , Costas Mandylor , Betsy Russell , Sean Patrick Flanery and Cary Elwes . It is the seventh ( and originally intended final ) installment of the Saw franchise , and the only film in the series to be in 3D .
The film focuses on a man who falsely claims to be a Jigsaw survivor , becoming a local celebrity . However , he soon finds himself part of a real Jigsaw game where he must ultimately save his wife . Meanwhile , Jill Tuck reveals to an internal affairs officer that rogue Detective Mark Hoffman is the man responsible for the recent Jigsaw games , and Hoffman hunts her down .
An eighth installment was planned , but the decrease in the box office performance for Saw VI compared to previous installments led to Saw 3D being the final planned film in the series , and the plot concept for Saw VIII being incorporated into Saw 3D . Saw V director David Hackl was to direct the film , but two weeks before filming Lionsgate announced that Greutert , who directed the sixth film , would direct . Principal photography took place in Toronto , Ontario from February to April 2010 and was shot with the SI @-@ 3D digital camera system , as opposed to shooting with traditional cameras and later transferring to 3D in post @-@ production .
Saw 3D was originally scheduled to be released on October 22 , 2010 , but was pushed back a week to October 29 , 2010 in the United States and Canada ; it was released a day earlier in the United Kingdom and Australia . Saw 3D opened at number one making over $ 22 @.@ 5 million .
= = Plot = =
Two men , Brad and Ryan , awaken in a metropolitan storefront window , bound at the wrists to opposite sides of a worktable with a circular saw in front of each of them . Their mutual lover , Dina , is suspended above a third saw . As the scene draws attention and police arrive , a puppet informs the men that they can kill each other or let Dina die . They initially fight each other , during which Brad is cut , but ultimately choose to allow Dina to die instead .
Matt Gibson , an internal affairs detective at Mark Hoffman 's precinct , is met by Jill Tuck , who incriminates Hoffman in exchange for protection and immunity from prosecution . Gibson , who has mistrusted Hoffman ever since Hoffman saved his life by gunning down a homeless man , agrees to her terms . Meanwhile , Hoffman abducts a skinhead gang - Dan , Evan , Jake and Kara - and places them in a trap that kills them all , leaving the reverse bear trap at the scene to incriminate Jill , who is put into protective custody . After a meeting of Jigsaw survivors , including Lawrence Gordon , who cauterized his leg on a steam pipe after escaping the bathroom and now uses a leg brace and cane , Hoffman abducts Bobby Dagen , a self @-@ help guru who achieved fame and fortune by falsifying his own survival story . He sends Gibson videos with cryptic clues to the game 's location , offering to end the games if Jill is given to him .
Dagen awakens in a cage in an asylum and is told that his wife Joyce will die if he doesn 't save her within one hour . Joyce is chained at the neck to a steel platform that gradually pulls her down as she watches Dagen 's progress . After he escapes the cage , which dangles over a floor of spikes , he begins searching for Joyce . Along the way , he finds Nina , his publicist ; Suzanne , his lawyer ; and Cale McNamara , his best friend and co @-@ conspirator . All three are in separate traps representing the three wise monkeys and are killed despite his efforts to save them . After he removes his upper wisdom teeth to obtain the combination for a security door , Dagen finds Joyce and is forced to reenact the trap he claimed to survive : he must drive hooks through his pectoral muscles and hoist himself up to the ceiling to deactivate her trap . He fails , and is forced to watch as a brazen bull capsule closes around Joyce and incinerates her .
Gibson eventually discovers the game 's location and sends a SWAT team , who are sealed in another room and killed by toxic gas . Simultaneously , he and two officers infiltrate Hoffman 's command center in the junkyard , where they find Dan 's corpse sat in front of several monitors connected to the police headquarters security cameras . He sees Hoffman brought into the morgue in a body bag and tries to warn Palmer , but is killed by an automatic turret gun along with his men . Hoffman kills Dr. Heffner , Palmer , and everyone else in his path to Jill , who briefly escapes before she is caught and knocked unconscious . He straps her to a chair and locks a reverse bear trap to her head ; she awakens as the timer starts and is killed when the trap activates , tearing apart her face .
After destroying his workshop , Hoffman is attacked and subdued by three pig @-@ masked figures , led by Gordon . Flashbacks show that John Kramer found him unconscious by the steam pipe and nursed him back to health , and Gordon has assisted him ever since . This was known only by Jill , who delivered a package to him at the hospital , a videotape in which Kramer asked him to watch over Jill and take action if anything happened to her . To this end , Gordon has Hoffman brought to the disused bathroom and shackled by the ankle to a pipe . He enters and tosses out of the bathroom the hacksaw he 'd used to sever his own foot , and then turns off the lights and seals the door , leaving Hoffman to die .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Variety reported in July 2009 that Lionsgate greenlit Saw VII and announced David Hackl would return to direct , his last film being Saw V. Producers Mark Burg and Oren Koules , and writers Patrick Melton and Marcus Dunstan also returned . Brian Gedge replaced series ' cinematographer David Armstrong . Pre @-@ production began on September 14 , 2009 . According to Melton , there were plans to title the film Saw : Endgame . Originally two sequels were planned after the sixth , but in December 2009 Melton stated in a podcast interview with the UK radio station Demon FM that Saw VII was the final installment and would address unanswered questions from previous Saw films , such as the fate of the first film 's protagonist Dr. Lawrence Gordon and other Jigsaw survivors from previous films , while bringing a final resolution to the series . The storyline for a Saw VIII was combined into Saw VII ; this decision was primarily due to Saw VI 's below average box office performance . On July 22 , 2010 in an interview with USA Today the producers confirmed that Saw VII will officially end the film series . Burg told Reuters that , " In every Saw movie , we left questions open and in Saw VII we answer every question the audience has ever had " . He added that , " even new viewers will be able to follow and get caught up to speed " .
In January 2010 , Kevin Greutert , who made his directorial debut with the sixth film , was about to begin work on Paramount 's Paranormal Activity 2 when Twisted Pictures suddenly dismissed Hackl and forced Greutert on the project by exercising a " contractual clause " in his contract , much to Greutert 's dismay . When Greutert arrived on set two weeks before filming began , he performed a " compressive re @-@ write " of the script . Melton explained that , " He has a lot of ideas , but it 's a bit hard and extreme to implement all of these ideas because sets have been built , people have been cast , props have been bought or created , and with the Saw films they are so specific in set design because of the traps . It becomes very problematic and difficult to change things a whole bunch right in the middle of it " .
= = = Casting = = =
Casting began in mid @-@ December 2009 . On February 22 , 2010 , Cary Elwes was listed on the Toronto Film & Television 's official list of personnel website for Saw 3D but on March 8 his name along with other cast members were removed from the list . The following month , Lionsgate confirmed his reprisal of the role of Lawrence Gordon , last seen in the first film . Dunstan and Melton said that Elwes filmed new scenes . The filmmakers wanted to bring Elwes back earlier , but Elwes wanted to wait until the last film . He described his character as having Stockholm syndrome . Chad Donella appeared in the film as Internal Affairs Detective Gibson , who was also Hoffman 's former partner .
Gabby West , who won the second season of Scream Queens , plays Kara in the film . Chester Bennington , the lead vocalist of the alternative rock band Linkin Park , has a role in the film playing Evan , a white power skinhead . Bennington met with an acting coach to prepare for his role . He said , " It was actually a little more difficult than I expected because it took a lot for me to figure out how to portray this guy and what exactly his motives were going to be throughout . I thought maybe I was overthinking it , and I met with this really great acting coach who helped me walk through and make sense of the , ' Motivation ' " . Devon Bostick was offered to reprise his role as Brent from Saw VI , but turned it down due to scheduling conflicts .
= = = Filming in 3D = = =
Saw 3D was shot entirely in RealD 3D using the SI @-@ 3D digital camera system ; rather than filming on set traditionally and later transferring the footage to 3D . Before choosing 3D , Burg and others viewed a minute of the original Saw film rendered in 3D and were pleased , which led to them choosing 3D for the seventh film . The sets and traps were designed to take advantage of 3D . To continue the fast pace of the previous films , the SI @-@ 3D cameras ' light weight allowed three @-@ quarters of film to be shot handheld . Saw 3D was Greutert 's first time directing a 3D film . He said in an interview with Popular Mechanics that composing a shot in 3D was tricky compared to 2D ; he explained , " If you 've got both cameras looking at a subject and there 's a very bright sheen on the side of the person 's arm that only one camera can see , there 's a good chance that when you look at a composite of the two images that sheen will not register in 3D space . It looks like a mistake . These things aren 't an issue at all in 2D but in 3D are obsessively problematic " . Given the cost of filming in 3D , Greutert said the budget was $ 17 million , the most expensive of the series . Principal photography began on February 8 , 2010 in Toronto , Ontario and wrapped on April 12 , 2010 . Filming took place mostly at Toronto 's Cinespace Film Studios .
When determining the style of 3D shooting they wanted to use , Burg felt that the audience would want several moments where objects move into the audience , comparing this to My Bloody Valentine 3D . He acknowledged that this method would be used , but expressed an interest in shooting from the victim 's perspective , similar to that of first @-@ person shooter video games being rendered in 3D . Dunstan added that " It adds a whole new layer of discipline and criteria to creating these moments . We 've had a very flat surface to try to get a reaction out of you . Now , we get to push out a bit and envelop the viewer , still maintaining the patterns that have worked and been successful , but also to raise it up a notch . " Commenting on the change to filming in 3D , Bell stated it would not affect his performance or methods of acting , noting that it would be an " interesting experience " . Mandylor called the 3D shoot " more tedious and longer " . Flannery described the 3D aspect as being " [ not ] shot in 3D so that you can , per se , see blood coming directly at you . It 's in 3D for the texture and the depth , for the architecture , to get a sense that you 're in the scene but there 's no ' we want to see blood coming at the lens ' it 's nothing like that . But I think we made a good movie . " Post @-@ production services were provided by Deluxe .
= = = Traps = = =
Filming of the trap scenes , which was done last , began in March . The film 's opening trap scene was filmed at Metro Hall in Toronto , Ontario , just outside Roy Thomson Hall , and included 400 extras . In the trap , the circular saw blades were actually real and functional , but safety precautions were taken for the actors . One actor that was in the trap , Jon Cor , told Demon FM that he had scars on his hands from the shackles , and said the other actors , Sebastian Pigott chipped his tooth and Anne Lee Greene lost the feeling in her feet and had to receive medical attention .
Producer Oren Koules told horror news website ShockTilYouDrop.com that there are eleven traps in the film , the most ever in the franchise . There is one " trap " scene in the film that producers would not allow in previous Saw films that they described as " too violent " , " too disgusting " , and " just wrong " . Melton later confirmed that was the " Garage Trap " , which involved a car and sets off a " chain reaction " with other characters . Gabby West was part of the trap . She told VH1 , " They molded my entire face , and basically my entire upper body after my belly button . They put layers and layers of different materials on you and you have two straws in your nose so you can breathe . It was so scary ! They put so much of it on , you can 't see and they put it in your ears so you can barely hear anything . That was part of the prep for the film , which was really cool , to have a dummy made of yourself . But scary . " Over 25 gallons of fake blood was used in the film , which was two and half times more than Saw II .
= = Music = =
The film 's score was composed by Charlie Clouser and released on iTunes through Evolution Music Partners on November 2 , 2010 . The Saw 3D soundtrack is " inspired by the film " and features music from rock bands including Dir En Grey , Boom Boom Satellites , Saliva , Krokus , Hinder , Karnivool , My Darkest Days and Chester Bennington 's Dead By Sunrise . It was released through SonyMusic Independent Network ( SIN ) and Artists ' Addiction Records on October 26 , 2010 . The song " Life Won 't Wait " by Ozzy Osbourne was announced in the Production Notes , but was not actually played during the film 's end credits .
Track listing
= = Marketing = =
On July 8 , 2010 , in some press materials for San Diego Comic @-@ Con , the film was referred to as Saw 3D : The Final Chapter , which led to the media assuming it was the final name . The following day , Burg and Koules said that " The Final Chapter " was simply a tagline that had been misinterpreted as part of the title . Koules said that if they included the seventh Roman numeral followed by " 3D " ( Saw VII 3D ) , it would have been " cumbersome " and not made the impact they wanted . He explained , " It was such a process in 3D , so much hard work was put in . Saw VII 3D is too much . This is like a new movie . [ ... ] "
In the same interview , the producers addressed Saw 's presence at Comic @-@ Con 2010 in San Diego . They said that the footage that was going to be used for the convention could not get approved for the audience ; Koules explained , " It 's going to be different than what we 've done before , we 're going to be at Comic @-@ Con but we 're not in Comic @-@ Con " . " The Comic @-@ Con teaser trailer was released via IGN on July 22 , 2010 . The next day of the convention , the first eight minutes of the film were screened for the press and a few fans .
The trailer shown in the United Kingdom during a break from The Gadget Show was banned after a ten @-@ year @-@ old child complained that it was " distressing " and " inappropriately scheduled " . Clearcast had cleared the trailer for 19 : 00 GMT , but did not actually air until 20 : 29 . In one scene of the trailer , people in a cinema become trapped to the seats by metal restraints with a hand coming through the screen pulling a person in . The Advertising Standards Authority said it was " likely to cause distress to young children " . In Massachusetts , a branch of Showcase Cinemas showed Saw 3D instead of the cartoon Megamind , which was being watched by a seven @-@ year @-@ old celebrating a birthday . It took several minutes before the cinema employees fixed the mistake .
= = Release = =
Saw 3D was distributed theatrically by Lionsgate in the United States and through Maple Pictures in Canada . The film was originally scheduled to be released on October 22 , 2010 , but in July 2010 , three months prior to release , the date was pushed back to October 29 . It also had preview screenings on October 28 , 2010 in 2 @,@ 000 locations . Since the release of Saw IV , each film has been released a day earlier in Australia and New Zealand ; Saw 3D continued the tradition in Australia , though the New Zealand release was not released until March 3 , 2011 . The film was initially rated NC @-@ 17 ( no children 17 and under admitted ) by the Motion Picture Association of America ( MPAA ) and had to be edited and re @-@ submitted six times to secure an R rating . In Australia , the Australian Classification Board gave a heavy R18 + ( restricted to 18 and over ) for " high impact violence , blood and gore " , whereas all previous Saw films were rated MA15 + ( with the exception of the director 's cut version of Saw V ) .
= = = Censorship in Germany = = =
Germany banned its showing as a whole because the Amtsgericht Tiergarten has noted that several scenes in the film violate the violence act § 131 StGB . Thereby , the film is banned in Germany . Private copies are still legal to own and personal use is not punishable ; however any public screening is a highly prohibited and punishable act . There is a censored " Keine Jugendfreigabe / No youth admitted " version , but it has all the violent scenes cut out . Retailing this copy is still legal , since " KJ " rated films cannot be indexed / banned .
= = = Home media = = =
Burg said in an interview with Bloomberg Television on October 25 , 2010 that the DVD will only be released in the 2D version . Lionsgate Home Entertainment released Saw 3D : The Final Chapter on January 25 , 2011 in three versions . The first is a standard DVD release consisting of the theatrical version of the film , a selection of bonus features and a second disc with a digital copy ; a second edition is a 2D combo pack that includes an unrated Blu @-@ ray , DVD and digital copy of the film . The last edition of the release is a 3D combo pack consisting of an unrated Blu @-@ ray 3D , Blu @-@ ray , DVD , and digital copy version of the film . According to the Nielsen VideoScan chart , the DVD and Blu @-@ ray formats placed number three in its first week .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Saw 3D had preview screenings on October 28 , 2010 in 2 @,@ 000 locations and made $ 1 @.@ 7 million . It opened in wide release the following day in 2 @,@ 808 locations playing on 3 @,@ 500 screens , the second smallest release behind the first Saw . The film earned $ 8 @,@ 976 @,@ 000 on its opening day , taking the number one spot from Paranormal Activity 2 . It grossed $ 22 @,@ 530 @,@ 123 its opening Halloween weekend , with 92 % of tickets coming from more than 2 @,@ 100 3D @-@ equipped locations and 57 % of the audience being under the age of 25 . It had the fifth best opening weekend in the Saw series . After only four days of wide release , Saw 3D had out @-@ grossed Saw VI 's $ 27 @.@ 7 million final domestic gross . On its second weekend , the film dropped 66 % in ticket sales and made $ 7 @.@ 7 million , moving to the number five spot with Megamind taking its number one spot . Saw 3D closed on December 2 , 2010 , after 35 days of release in the United States and Canada .
Saw 3D opened in 25 territories with $ 14 @.@ 4 million ( including preview screenings ) placing first place in the United Kingdom ( UK ) with $ 5 @.@ 8 million , beating Saw III 's $ 4 @.@ 7 million UK opening . It opened in second place in Russia with $ 2 @.@ 2 million ; Australia and Japan grossed $ 909 @,@ 000 and $ 864 @,@ 800 , respectively . Saw 3D grossed $ 12 @.@ 8 million in the United Kingdom , Ireland and Malta ; $ 10 @.@ 9 million in Germany ; $ 7 million in Italy ; $ 5 @.@ 3 million in Russia ; and $ 2 @.@ 4 million in Australia . The film has grossed $ 45 @.@ 7 million in the United States and Cinema of Canada , with $ 90 @.@ 4 million in other markets , for a worldwide total of $ 136 @.@ 1 million . This makes Saw 3D the highest grossing film in the series in the foreign market . Also , it made more than double the amount of the previous installment Saw VI and is the most successful film in the franchise since Saw IV .
= = = Critical response = = =
As with the previous four Saw films , Saw 3D was not screened in advance for critics . Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a rating of 9 % , based on 74 reviews , with an average rating of 3 @.@ 1 / 10 , making it the poorest rated film in the series . The site 's consensus reads , " Sloppily filmed , poorly acted , and illogically plotted , Saw 3D leaves viewers trapped in the most lackluster installment of the series . " Metacritic gave the film a score of 24 out of 100 , based on 17 critics , indicating " generally unfavorable reviews " .
Luke Thompson of E ! Online gave the film a " B " . He called the film 's gore " over @-@ the @-@ top " and " in your face " while admitting the film had an " unusual amount of self @-@ parody " . He said the central storyline of the films was beginning to feel " played out " . Rob Nelson of Variety gave the film a negative review . He called the film " relentlessly repugnant " that would please fans , but offer no surprise . He went on to say , " Apart from these limb @-@ pulling setpieces , tech credits appear fairly shoddy , as do any 3D effects that don 't include flying viscera . The editing relies on lazy flashbacks , while the dialogue remains as horrific as the killings . " Kim Newman of Empire gave the film two out of five stars , calling it " a step down from last year 's much more pointed Saw VI " . He criticized the repetition of the plot but thought bringing back Jigsaw survivors was a " nice idea " . He closed his review with , " There are a scattering of infallibly cringe @-@ making horrors , but on the whole Saw 3D could do with more depth " .
Eric Goldman of IGN Movies gave the film two out of five stars . He was unhappy with the little screen time Bell and Elwes had been given , saying that the time the film did spend with them , didn 't have much impact . He said the traps were a step down from Saw VI , but did point out his favorite and highlight of the film as the " garage trap " . About the film 's 3D effects , Goldman said " The 3D is used as you might expect it to be – which is to say , this is no James Cameron immersive experience . Instead , blades jut out of the screen , and there is some fun had with blood and guts literally shooting forward at several points " . Frank Scheck of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a mixed review . He said Saw 3D is " consistent both stylistically and thematically with previous editions " , but said most of the film 's traps lack the " Rube Goldberg @-@ style cleverness that marked the series " . Scheck went on to say that it was " unfortunate " the creators killed Bell 's character so early in the series and called Mandylor 's character ( Hoffman ) an " exceedingly bland stand @-@ in " . He called the visual impact of the 3D " negligible " .
Roger Moore of the Orlando Sentinel gave the film one out of five stars saying , " It 's all bunk and has been for years . These are all no @-@ win scenarios . Whatever moral lessons were presented in the earliest Saw films seem to have been dispensed with as the movies grow more and more gruesome , with filmmakers caught up in ' What would it look like if somebody 's jaw was ripped out , or their skin was glued to a car seat ? ' Pandering to the ' Cool , let 's see that again ' crowd has made Lionsgate rich but done nothing for this unendurable endurance contest of this long @-@ enduring film franchise " . Mike Hale of The New York Times called the film the most " straightforward " of the series and the " most consistently ( though not inventively ) violent " . He ended his review saying , " If you see the film in a theater equipped with RealD 3D and Dolby sound , you 'll come away with a pretty good idea of what it would feel like to have flying body parts hit you in the face " .
Elizabeth Weitzman of the New York Daily News gave the film one out of five stars . She criticized the lack of Bell 's screentime saying , " What the filmmakers of the last four Saw movies have somehow overlooked is that Tobin Bell 's Jigsaw is the linchpin of these films . It 's right there in the title , so you 'd think they 'd realize what they lost when they killed him off in Saw III . But it 's been downhill ever since , and we hit bottom today " . She admitted that the performances have become " painfully stilted " and called the script " a jumble of nothing punctuated by barely @-@ trying death traps " . She went on to say , " It 's also disappointing to watch a once @-@ original franchise morph into a generic slasher series , in which random people are killed in banal ways just to up the body count " and closed her review with , " No matter how much money The Final Chapter makes over Halloween weekend , it 's time to acknowledge that this game is over " .
Wesley Morris of The Boston Globe called the film the " most gruesome and least coherent of the seven movies " . He felt that some of the film 's " games " were just randomly forced into the film , saying that kind of " episodic approach " and 3D works for a " far more innovative series like Jackass 3D " . Morris closed his review by saying " This alleged final edition trashes the perverse morality of [ Jigsaw 's ] legacy to make him the Jerry Springer of gore " . Jason Anderson of the Toronto Star gave the film two out of four stars . He praised Saw 3D 's plot for not being as confusing as previous films , for which he described as having to " generally require an encyclopedic knowledge of the series ' many plot strands " in order to understand them . He thought Greutert gave the film a " pulpy energy " and described the film 's traps and gore as having an " unpretentious sensibility " to films by Herschell Gordon Lewis . Alan Jones of the Radio Times gave the film four out of five stars saying , " though the film initially borders on parody , once the ever @-@ ingenious trapping begins – using fishhooks , superglue , ovens and dental equipment – the chills run on turbo drive right through to the greatest hits flashback finale " . He implied that the " shock scenarios " were borrowed from sources such as , A Man Called Horse and the work of Lucio Fulci . Jones said the 3D did not add to the experience saying " the CGI blood splatter something of a distraction to the almost Shakespearean crescendo of anguish and carnage " . The film was nominated for a Golden Raspberry Award for " Worst Eye @-@ Gouging Misuse of 3D " , but it lost to The Last Airbender .
= = Sequel = =
The film was intended to be the finale for the film series . However , it was reported in February 2016 that an eighth film titled Saw : Legacy was being developed . The report stated that Legacy would be written by Josh Stolberg and Pete Goldfinger .
= Solomon Asch =
Solomon Eliot Asch ( September 14 , 1907 – February 20 , 1996 ) was a Polish gestalt psychologist and pioneer in social psychology in the United States . He created seminal pieces of work in impression formation , prestige suggestion , conformity , and many other topics in social psychology . His work follows a common theme of Gestalt psychology that the whole is not only greater than the sum of its parts , but the nature of the whole fundamentally alters the parts . Asch stated : " Most social acts have to be understood in their setting , and lose meaning if isolated . No error in thinking about social facts is more serious than the failure to see their place and function " ( Asch , 1952 , p . 61 ) . He is most well known for his conformity experiments , in which he demonstrated the influence of group pressure on opinions . A Review of General Psychology survey , published in 2002 , ranked Asch as the 41st most cited psychologist of the 20th century .
= = Early life = =
Asch was born in Warsaw , Poland on September 14 , 1907 to a Jewish family . He grew up in a small town , Łowicz , Poland .
In 1920 Asch emigrated at the age of 13 with his family to the United States . They lived on the Lower East Side of New York , a dense area of many Jewish , Italian and Irish immigrants . His friends called him Shlaym .
= = Education = =
Asch was shy when he moved to the United States and did not speak English fluently . He went to the neighborhood public school , P.S. 147 , to attend 6th grade . As a result of the language barrier , Asch had a very difficult time understanding in class . He learned English by reading Charles Dickens . Asch later attended Townsend Harris High School , a very selective high school attached to the City College of New York . After high school , he attended the City College of New York , majoring in both literature and science . He became interested in psychology towards the end of his undergraduate career after reading the work of William James and a few philosophers . In 1928 , when he was 21 years old , he received his Bachelor of Science .
Asch went on to pursue his graduate degree at Columbia University . He initially was not very interested in social psychology , but he was interested in anthropology . With the help of Gardner Murphy , Lois Murphy , Franz Boas , and Ruth Benedict to gain a summer fellowship , he investigated how children became members of their culture . His master 's thesis was a statistical analysis of the test scores of 200 children under the supervision of Woodworth . Asch received his master 's degree in 1930 . His doctoral dissertation examined whether all learning curves have the same form ; H.E. Garrett assigned the topic to him . He received his PhD in 1932 .
Asch was exposed to Gestalt psychology through Gardner Murphy , then a young faculty member at Columbia . He became much more interested in Gestalt psychology after meeting and working closely with his adviser at Columbia Max Wertheimer , one of the founders of Gestalt psychology . He later became close friends with Wertheimer .
= = Family life = =
Asch met Florence Miller in a library on East Broadway on the lower East Side in New York City . He married her in 1930 . Their relationship was reported as being " easy , good @-@ humored " ( Rock , pg . 5 ) . Asch remained married to Florence his entire life . They had their first and only son , Peter , in 1937 . Peter Asch became a Professor of Economics at Rutgers University , married Ruth Zindler and had two sons , Eric and David . Peter died of heart failure at age
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[ ing ] the West 's mainstream acquaintance with Hindu religion " through his leadership in this aspect of the Beatles ' career , author Ian MacDonald describes " Blue Jay Way " as a " farewell to psychedelia " , just as " It 's All Too Much " , which the Beatles recorded in May 1967 , became Harrison 's " farewell to acid " .
= = Composition = =
= = = Music = = =
" Blue Jay Way " was one of several songs that Harrison composed on a keyboard over 1966 – 68 – a period when , aside from in his work with the Beatles , he had abandoned his first instrument , the guitar , to master the sitar , partly under Shankar 's tutelage . The song is in 4 / 4 time throughout ; its structure consists of an intro , three combinations of verse and chorus , followed by repeated choruses . While MacDonald gives the musical key as " C major ( minor , diminished ) " , musicologist Alan Pollack views it as a mix of C major and C modal , and acknowledges the " highly unusual " incorporation of the notes D ♯ and F ♯ . The inclusion of the latter note suggests the Lydian mode , which , according to musicologist Walter Everett , had only been heard previously in popular music in the Left Banke 's 1966 single " Pretty Ballerina " .
The song 's melody oscillates over the chords of C major and C diminished , a chord favoured by Harrison in his Indian music @-@ inspired compositions for the Beatles . Acknowledging Harrison 's statement that the tune is " slightly Indian " , Everett considers " Blue Jay Way " to be related to the ragas Kosalam and Multani . According to author Simon Leng , however , Harrison based the song partly on Raga Marwa . Following the inclusion of a raga @-@ style introduction ( or alap ) in his previous Indian compositions , " Love You To " and " Within You Without You " , " Blue Jay Way " begins with a preview of the song 's melody played softly , in free time , over the opening drone . Author Ian Inglis credits the song 's incorporation of ambient drone , specifically its role in providing " an anchorage point for vocal and instrumental improvisation " , as one of the first examples of a musical device that soon became prevalent in the work of Fairport Convention , the Incredible String Band and other folk artists .
The length of the verses falls short of an even eight bars through the omission of a final beat . Pollack recognises this detail as reflecting a sense of impatience , in keeping with the circumstances surrounding the song 's creation . Following the third verse – chorus combination , the outro comprises four rounds of the chorus , with the lyrics to the final round consisting of the repeated " Don 't be long " refrain . As a feature that Pollack terms " compositionally impressive " , each of the four sections in this outro varies in structure by being either shorter in length or less musically detailed .
= = = Lyrics = = =
The lyrics to " Blue Jay Way " relate entirely to Harrison 's situation on that first night in Los Angeles . He refers to fighting off sleep and recalls his advice to Taylor to ask a policeman for directions to Blue Jay Way . Author Jonathan Gould views the song as " darkly funny " , with the singer 's concern over his friends ' tardiness almost resembling " a metaphysical crisis " . In the choruses , Harrison repeatedly urges " Please don 't be long / Please don 't you be very long " , a refrain that Inglis identifies as central to the composition 's " extraordinary sense of yearning and melancholy " .
Taylor later expressed amusement at how some commentators interpreted " don 't be long " as meaning " don 't belong " – a message to Western youth to opt out of society – and at how the line " And my friends have lost their way " supposedly conveyed the idea that " a whole generation had lost direction " . With regard to whether Harrison was telling contemporary listeners not to " belong " , Inglis writes , this " alternative reading " of the song aligned with Timothy Leary 's catchphrase for the 1960s American psychedelic experience , " Turn on , tune in , drop out " . In Gould 's opinion , the continual repetition of the line at the end of " Blue Jay Way " transforms the words into " a plea for nonattachment – ' don 't belong ' " . Rather than attaching any countercultural significance to this , however , Gould views it as the Beatles repeating the wordplay first used in the chorus of Lennon 's 1963 song " It Won 't Be Long " .
= = Production = =
= = = Recording = = =
The Beatles began recording " Blue Jay Way " on 6 September 1967 at EMI 's Abbey Road Studios in London . The song was Harrison 's contribution to the television film Magical Mystery Tour , the first project undertaken by the band following the death of their manager , Brian Epstein . Author Nicholas Schaffner describes " Blue Jay Way " as the first Harrison @-@ written Beatles recording on which he " adapt [ ed ] some of his Indian @-@ derived ideas to a more Western setting " , with Hammond organ , cello and drums serving the function of , respectively , tambura drone , sitar and tabla .
The group achieved a satisfactory rhythm track in a single take . On 7 September , this recording – comprising two organ parts , bass guitar and drums – was reduced to two tracks on the 4 @-@ track master tape , after which Harrison overdubbed his double @-@ tracked lead vocal , and he , Lennon and Paul McCartney added backing vocals . Among Beatles biographers , MacDonald credits Harrison as the sole organ player on the song , while Kenneth Womack and John Winn write that Lennon played the second keyboard part . Recording was completed at Abbey Road on 6 October , with the addition of tambourine , played by Ringo Starr , and cello . The latter was performed by an unnamed session musician . As with all the songs recorded for Magical Mystery Tour , final mixing was carried out on 7 November .
= = = Studio effects = = =
" Blue Jay Way " features extensive use of three studio techniques employed by the Beatles over 1966 – 67 : flanging , an audio delay effect ; sound @-@ signal rotation via a Leslie speaker ; and ( in the stereo mix only ) reversed tapes . Beatles historian Mark Lewisohn compares " Blue Jay Way " with two Lennon tracks from this period , " Strawberry Fields Forever " and " I Am the Walrus " , in that the recording " seized upon all the studio trickery and technical advancements of 1966 and 1967 and captured them in one song " . Together with the pedal drone supplied by the keyboard parts , the various sound treatments reinforce the sense of dislocation evident in the song .
In the case of the reversed @-@ tape technique , a recording of the completed track was played backwards and faded in at key points during the performance . This effect created a response to Harrison 's lead vocal over the verses , as the backing vocals appear to answer each line he sings . Due to the limits of multitracking , the process of feeding in reversed sounds was carried out live during the final mixing session . Described by Lewisohn as " quite problematical " , the process was not repeated when the Beatles and their production team worked on the mono mix .
= = Appearance in Magical Mystery Tour film = =
The song 's segment in Magical Mystery Tour was shot mainly at RAF West Malling , an air force base near Maidstone in Kent , during the week beginning on 19 September . Described by Womack as " the movie 's hazy , psychedelic sequence " , it features Harrison sitting on a pavement and playing a chalk @-@ drawn keyboard . Dressed in a red suit , he is shown busking on a roadside ; next to his keyboard are a white plastic cup and a message written in chalk , reading : " 2 wives and kid to support " . The depiction of Harrison , seated in the lotus position and seemingly zoned out , matched his public image as the most committed of the Beatles to Transcendental Meditation and Eastern philosophy .
The filming took place in an aircraft hangar , with the scene designed to re @-@ create a typically smog @-@ ridden Los Angeles . Music journalist Kit O 'Toole writes that the smoke surrounding Harrison " almost engulf [ s ] him , mimicking the ' fog ' described in the lyrics " . Through the use of prismatic photography , the " Blue Jay Way " segment also shows Harrison 's " image refracted as if seen through a fly 's eye " , according to author Alan Clayson , who describes the scene as mirroring " the requisite misty atmosphere " suggested by the recording . In its preview of Magical Mystery Tour in 1967 , the NME highlighted the segment as one of the film 's " extremely clever " musical sequences , saying : " For ' Blue Jay Way ' George is seen sitting cross @-@ legged in a sweating mist which materialises into a variety of shapes and patterns . It 's a pity that most TV viewers will be able to see it only in black and white . "
At other times during the sequence , the four Beatles alternate in the role of a solo cellist . These scenes were filmed on 3 November , on the rockery at Sunny Heights , Starr 's house in Weybridge , Surrey . Tony Barrow , the production manager for Magical Mystery Tour , recalls that , as " a colourful conclusion " to the segment , they set off fireworks that had been bought for the upcoming Guy Fawkes Night celebrations . The version of " Blue Jay Way " appearing in the 2012 DVD release of Magical Mystery Tour is an alternative edit and includes some previously unused footage . O 'Toole admires the " Blue Jay Way " sequence as " one of the film 's too @-@ few bright spots " and " a perfect representation of the track 's hallucinatory qualities " .
= = Release and reception = =
" Blue Jay Way " was issued in Britain as the final song on the Magical Mystery Tour double EP on 8 December 1967 . In America , where Capitol Records had combined the six EP tracks with five songs issued on the band 's singles throughout the year , creating a full album , the release took place on 27 November .
Reviewing the EP for the NME , Nick Logan considered it to be " Sergeant Pepper and beyond , heading for marvellous places " , during which " we cruise down ' Blue Jay Way ' with [ Harrison ] almost chanting the chorus line . A church organ starts this one off and leads us into a whirlpool of sound ... " Among reviews of the US release , Saturday Review admired the album as a " description of the Beatles ' acquired Hindu philosophy and its subsequent application to everyday life " , while Robert Christgau wrote in Esquire that , despite three of the new songs being " disappointing " , Magical Mystery Tour was " worth buying ... especially for Harrison 's hypnotic ' Blue Jay Way ' " . Christgau described the track as " an adaptation of Oriental modes in which everything works , lyrics included " .
In a combined review of concurrent releases such as Magical Mystery Tour , the Rolling Stones ' Their Satanic Majesties Request and Cream 's Disraeli Gears , Hit Parader praised the Beatles for further " widening the gap between them and 80 scillion other groups " . The reviewer added : " The master magicians practice their alchemy on Harrison 's ' Blue Jay Way ' , recorded perhaps in an Egyptian tomb , and ' I Am The Walrus ' , a piece of terror lurking in foggy midnight moors . These two songs accomplish what the Stones attempted . "
= = Retrospective assessment = =
A critic of the Beatles ' output immediately post @-@ Sgt. Pepper , Ian MacDonald found " Blue Jay Way " " as unfocused and monotonous as most of the group 's output of this period " , adding that the song " numbingly fails to transcend the weary boredom that inspired it " . Writing for Rolling Stone in 2002 , Greg Kot considered it to be " one of [ Harrison 's ] least @-@ memorable Beatles tracks … a song essentially about boredom – and it sounds like it " . Similarly unimpressed with Magical Mystery Tour , Tim Riley describes " Blue Jay Way " as a song that " goes nowhere tiresomely " , with a vocal that " sounds as tired and droning " as the musical accompaniment .
Ian Inglis writes that the emotion Harrison conveys on the track " belies its apparently trivial lyrics " and that , together with the instrumentation and backing vocals , his pleas " create an unusually atmospheric and strangely moving song " . Writing for Rough Guides , Chris Ingham deems the song to be " essential Beatlemusic " ; he views it as Harrison 's " most haunting and convincing musical contribution of the period " , after " Within You Without You " , as well as " possibly the most unnerving of all Beatles tracks " . In a 2002 review for Mojo , Charles Shaar Murray described the song as " eerie , serpentine " and " a fine and worthy companion for Pepper 's Within You Without You " . Writing in Uncut that same year , Carol Clerk called it " a weirdly atmospheric triumph " .
In his book Indian Music and the West ( 1997 ) , Gerry Farrell refers to the song when discussing its author 's contribution to popularising Indian classical music , writing : " It is a mark of Harrison 's sincere involvement with Indian music that , nearly thirty years on , the Beatles ' ' Indian ' songs remain among the most imaginative and successful examples of this type of fusion – for example , ' Blue Jay Way ' and ' The Inner Light . ' " Simon Leng writes of the song : " Harrison was working at a sophisticated level of extrapolating Indian scales to the Western setting , something no one else had done … ' Blue Jay Way ' explores the structures of Indian music just as ' Within You Without You ' debates its philosophical roots . " In her song review for the music website Something Else ! , Kit O 'Toole describes " Blue Jay Way " as one of its composer 's " most eccentric and abstract compositions " and " the perfect snapshot of the Beatles ' most unusually creative artistic phase " . Former Record Collector editor Peter Doggett , writing in Barry Miles ' The Beatles Diary , similarly admires the recording , saying that the Beatles rendered the song " an exotic , almost mystical journey " that evokes a mysterious Eastern mood " without a single Indian instrument being employed " .
In his 2009 review for Consequence of Sound , Dan Caffrey highlights the track among the " stellar moments in the album 's first half " and considers it to be " George Harrison 's most underrated song " . Caffrey adds : " For a piece inspired by the simple act of waiting for a friend to arrive at his Los Angeles home on a foggy night , ' Blue Jay Way ' is a haunted house of a hit , adding an ethereal , creepy mythos to the City of Angels . " Writing for The A.V. Club , Chuck Klosterman describes the song as being among " the trippiest ... material [ the Beatles ] ever made " , while Mark Kemp of Paste views it as " wonderfully wobbly " . Scott Plagenhoef of Pitchfork Media includes " Blue Jay Way " among the EP 's four " low @-@ key marvels " , about which he opines : " Few of them are anyone 's all @-@ time favorite Beatles songs ... yet this run seems to achieve a majesty in part because of that : It 's a rare stretch of amazing Beatles music that can seem like a private obsession rather than a permanent part of our shared culture . "
= = Cover versions and cultural references = =
Lord Sitar included " Blue Jay Way " on his 1968 album of Indian music @-@ style recordings , titled Lord Sitar . The artist credit was a pseudonym for London session guitarist Big Jim Sullivan , although rumours circulated that Lord Sitar was in fact Harrison himself , partly as a result of EMI / Capitol 's refusal to deny the claim . Also in 1968 , jazz saxophonist and flautist Bud Shank , another associate of Ravi Shankar , recorded the song for his album Magical Mystery .
" Blue Jay Way " was a rare Beatles song released before their 1968 self @-@ titled double album that Charles Manson adopted as part of his theory of an impending social revolution in the United States , a scenario that led to his followers carrying out a series of murders in Los Angeles during the summer of 1969 . Finding parallels between the Beatles ' lyrics and the Book of Revelation , and believing himself to be the messiah , Manson interpreted Harrison 's opening verse and chorus as the Beatles calling out to Jesus Christ .
Colin Newman , singer and guitarist with the post @-@ punk band Wire , included a cover of " Blue Jay Way " on his 1982 solo album Not To . In March 2015 , the song was also his selection for the NME 's " 100 Greatest Beatles Songs " poll . Newman cited the track as an example of how the Beatles were " properly serious about their art " and why they now " need to be rescued from the clammy clutches of the heritage industry " .
Borbetomagus released a live recording of the song on their 1992 album Buncha Hair That Long , a version that Trouser Press later said " could easily reunite the Beatles for good if it were played in the presence of the surviving trio " . On their 2003 live album Seven Year Itch , Siouxsie and the Banshees included a reading that , according to The Guardian 's reviewer , " transformed [ the song ] into an apocalyptic howl " . Other artists who have covered " Blue Jay Way " include Tracy Bonham , on her 2007 album In the City + In the Woods , and the Secret Machines , whose version appears in the Julie Taymor @-@ directed film Across the Universe ( 2007 ) . Former Cars keyboardist Greg Hawkes recorded a ukulele rendition for his 2008 solo album The Beatles Uke .
Harrison 's experience when writing " Blue Jay Way " is referenced in the Jonathan Kellerman novel Obsession ( 2007 ) , as the lead character , Alex Delaware , waits among the " bird streets " overlooking Sunset Strip . The US hip hop group Death Grips quote from the song 's lyrics in their 2012 track " Double Helix " , released on The Money Store , an album that Clash magazine described as sounding like " the burning skies of LA 's decaying empire " .
In a 2011 interview , music producer and radio host Kim Fowley identified " Blue Jay Way " as the first song in which a member of the Beatles wrote about America and cited it as evidence of Harrison 's standing as " the most American of all the Beatles " during the 1960s . Fowley highlighted this connection – including Harrison 's friendships with David Crosby of the Byrds and other California @-@ based musicians , such as Leon Russell – as the foundation for rock music 's first all @-@ star charity concert , the Concert for Bangladesh , which Harrison staged in New York in August 1971 .
Due to the attention created by the Beatles ' song , the street signs for Blue Jay Way have long been collector 's items for fans visiting the Hollywood Hills . In May 2015 , a lane in the Heavitree area of Exeter , in the English county of Devon , was named Blue Jay Way after the song . In addition to much of the filming for Magical Mystery Tour having taken place at various locations in the West Country , the title commemorates the Beatles ' three concert appearances at Exeter 's ABC Cinema over 1963 – 64 .
= = Personnel = =
According to Ian MacDonald :
George Harrison – lead vocals , Hammond organ , backing vocal
John Lennon – backing vocal
Paul McCartney – backing vocal , bass
Ringo Starr – drums , tambourine
Session musician – cello
= Terry Pratchett 's The Colour of Magic =
Terry Pratchett 's The Colour of Magic is a two @-@ part television adaptation of the bestselling novels The Colour of Magic and The Light Fantastic by Terry Pratchett . The fantasy film was produced for Sky1 by The Mob , a small British studio , starring David Jason , Sean Astin , Tim Curry and Christopher Lee as the voice of Death . Vadim Jean both adapted the screenplay from Pratchett 's original novels , and served as director .
Terry Pratchett 's The Colour of Magic was broadcast on Sky One , and in high definition on Sky 1 HD , on Easter Sunday ( 23 March ) and 24 March 2008 . The first part drew audiences of 1 @.@ 5 million , with the second part attracting up to 1 @.@ 1 million viewers . The film was well received by fans , but drew mixed reviews from critics , who generally praised the acting talent of the all @-@ star cast , but criticised the film 's script and direction .
The production is the second adaptation of Pratchett 's novels as a live @-@ action film , following the successful release of Hogfather on Sky 1 over Christmas 2006 . A third adaptation , Going Postal , followed in 2010 with more planned for the future .
= = Plot = =
The plot of the adaptation largely follows the first two Discworld novels , The Colour of Magic and The Light Fantastic . The story follows the exploits of Rincewind , a wizard who is expelled from Unseen University after spending 40 years failing to learn even the most basic magic . In fact , Rincewind 's head holds one of the eight spells from the Octavo , the most powerful spellbook in the Discworld , and he has been unable to learn others because " they were afraid to be in the same head " as the Octavo spell . Rincewind is forced by the Patrician of Ankh @-@ Morpork to act as a local guide for Twoflower , a property insurance salesman and the Discworld 's first tourist , who is visiting Ankh @-@ Morpork , and Twoflower 's luggage , which is made from Sapient Pearwood and can run on its own legs .
After a misunderstanding over an insurance policy causes the owner of the inn where Twoflower and Rincewind are staying to commit arson , the pair flee the city . They proceed across the disc , encountering a variety of mythical creatures , most of which lead to near @-@ death experiences for Rincewind . Fortunately for Rincewind , the Octavo spell in his head precludes him from actually dying , resulting in several comic encounters with Death . Meanwhile , a significant power struggle is occurring within the Unseen University . Narrator Brian Cox explains that " in the competitive world of wizardry , the way to the top is via dead men 's pointy shoes ... even if you have to empty them yourself " . The power @-@ hungry wizard Ymper Trymon ( Tim Curry ) plans to become Archchancellor . Trymon assassinates several faculty members but is thwarted by the incumbent Archchancellor , Galder Weatherwax , and his superior magical knowledge of the Octavo . Trymon knows there is no point in deposing the Archchancellor until he learns how to control the Octavo , which is growing increasingly restless as Rincewind ( and the spell in his head ) moves further away from Ankh @-@ Morpork and into greater danger .
Rincewind and Twoflower are eventually washed rimwards to the kingdom of Krull , which lies on the very rim of the disc , where they are taken prisoner . The astronomers and " astrozoologists " of Krull have for many years attempted to determine the sex of Great A 'Tuin , and are on the verge of launching a space vehicle to carry a pair of " cosmochelonians " on a new mission over the rim of the disc . Unaware of this , Rincewind and Twoflower take the place of the two cosmonauts and ' escape ' to the spacecraft , which they accidentally launch , catapulting them off the rim . The prospect of losing the eighth spell in this fashion prompts the Octavo to act , causing A 'Tuin to perform a barrel roll to recapture Rincewind , landing the pair near the centre of the disc . Watching the Octavo 's restlessness , the Archchancellor reveals his intention to use the Rite of AshkEnte to ask Death about the Octavo and also about a large red star that has recently appeared in the sky . Now knowing all he needs , Trymon throws Weatherwax from the Tower of Art and becomes Archchancellor in his place .
The red star grows steadily larger , and the worried people of Ankh @-@ Morpork mob the Unseen University because the wizards appear unable to save the disc from it . Trymon learns from Death that all eight spells of the Octavo must be said together at the solstice to save the disc from destruction and that Great A 'Tuin is flying towards the red star for a purpose that Death says is " nothing to do with me . " Trymon dispatches a group of mercenaries , led by Herrena , to capture Rincewind and retrieve the eighth spell , along with a force of wizards . Meanwhile , Rincewind and Twoflower encounter Cohen the Barbarian ( 87 years old and retired ) , and Twoflower rescues Bethan , a human sacrifice in a druid ritual . A battle between the wizards and Rincewind leaves Twoflower in a coma ; Rincewind rescues him from Death 's door , and Cohen in turn rescues Rincewind and Twoflower from Herrena and the mercenaries .
The four take a ferry to Ankh @-@ Morpork , where the populace is rioting because the star is now larger than the disc 's own sun . Trymon assembles the senior wizards of the University , and orders them to unchain the Octavo . When they release the spellbook , Trymon steals it and locks the wizards in its chamber . Rincewind releases them and they follow Trymon to the top of the Tower of Art , afraid that he will attempt to say the spells and that they will destroy his mind ( and the rest of the world ) . Trymon , however , says the first seven spells successfully and gains near @-@ ultimate power , and turns the wizards to stone . Rincewind fights Trymon , who is eventually killed , returning the spells to the Octavo . Rincewind expunges the eighth spell from his head , completing the set , and reads the entire spellbook .
The red star is finally revealed as a world @-@ turtle breeding ground : the Octavo spells prompt several eggs orbiting the star to hatch into juvenile discworlds , which follow Great A 'Tuin as it returns to deep space . The narrator tidies up a few loose ends : the Octavo is eaten by the luggage , which Twoflower donates to Rincewind . Rincewind , now able to learn new spells with the departure of the 8th spell from his head , re @-@ enrolls at Unseen University . Cohen and Bethan decide to get married ( despite the 60 year age difference ) , with Cohen celebrating by commissioning some Din Chewers , made from troll 's teeth ( pure diamond ) . Twoflower presents them with a dozen gold coins as a wedding gift . Although Twoflower , who comes from the Counterweight Continent where gold is extremely common , considers this a small sum Rincewind comments that in Ankh @-@ Morpork a dozen gold coins is enough to buy a small kingdom . Twoflower returns home on a ship and Rincewind returns to the Unseen Universty with the Luggage happily following .
= = = Differences from original texts = = =
Although the film generally remains true to the original novels , several scenes and characters were removed or merged with others to bring the script to a reasonable length . Noting that " there wasn 't time for everything " , the producers cut completely the scene in the Temple of Bel @-@ Shamharoth and the associated plotline about the significance of the number eight ; Director Vadim Jean defended the decision , saying " we could have gone there , but we went to the Wyrmberg instead . There [ were ] time constraints and we could have gone one way or the other , so we went the whole hog on just one . " The scenes in the Wyrmberg were themselves shortened and simplified , reducing the character of Li ! ort to a cameo and losing the characters of K ! sdra , Greicha and Hrun completely . The inter @-@ wizard rivalry at Unseen University , by contrast , was expanded and spread out throughout the film , while in the novels the sequences are short and mainly found in The Light Fantastic . This established Trymon as a more easily recognisable antagonist . To avoid the necessity of explaining the deus ex machina in detail , the Octavo in the film simply causes A 'Tuin to roll to recapture Rincewind , whereas in the novel , a complicated ' change spell ' returns him to the disc . The creatures from the Dungeon Dimensions which invade reality at the end of The Light Fantastic , and Rincewind 's fight in the Dungeon Dimensions themselves , are completely omitted , and Trymon is simply driven mad by reading the Octavo spells at the end of the film version . Galder Weatherwax is also killed by Trymon in the film version , whereas , in the books , he is killed by accidentally summoning the Luggage instead of Rincewind . Furthermore , when Rincewind spotted the Luggage in the film , it was after he had attempted to jump into the River Ankh , whereas in the book he spotted the Luggage when he was sitting the Broken Drum .
= = Production = =
The adaptation was produced by The Mob , with Rod Brown , Ian Sharples , Elaine Pyke and Sarah Conroy credited as producers . Vadim Jean continued his involvement with the film as director .
= = = Adaptation = = =
The Colour of Magic is the second live @-@ action adaptation of Terry Pratchett 's Discworld series , following the highly successful Hogfather , which was broadcast over Christmas 2006 to an audience of 2 @.@ 6 million . After the success of Hogfather , Pratchett was easily persuaded to release the rights for The Colour of Magic and The Light Fantastic . Vadim Jean was employed to adapt the two literary works into a three @-@ hour , two @-@ part screenplay . While Pratchett was given " carte blanche " to " turn up whenever [ he ] wanted " , he was happy to see a more liberal interpretation of his first two works than he had been for Hogfather . Speaking to Sky Magazine , Pratchett said that , " There [ was ] not so much emotional baggage ... riding on The Colour of Magic and The Light Fantastic . It was just this book of mine that suddenly started selling incredibly well " . Jean 's main challenge was to streamline the plot and remove the many irrelevant , but highly amusing , tangents that are an iconic feature of Pratchett 's work , without destroying the appeal of the books . Jean said that " there [ was ] a real danger , with this story , that one could strip out the ' Pratchett @-@ ness ' ... I had to fight to keep [ it ] in " . Pratchett was pleased with the final script , saying " it wasn 't the slaughter job I thought it would have to be " , and " [ we 've managed ] to keep the soul ... it 's still recognisably [ the same ] book " .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming took place at Pinewood Studios for the interior scenes of the Wyrmberg , the Octavo room in the Unseen University , and for exterior shots of Ankh @-@ Morpork and the Broken Drum . Pinewood 's exterior water tank , the largest in Europe , was also employed for the scenes where Rincewind and Twoflower are washed towards the edge of the world . These sequences , as well as being the most challenging to film , were also one of the most physically exhausting for the cast . Background shots of Niagara Falls were also taken , and digitally merged with the bluescreen film shot at Pinewood , location shots taken on a river in Wales , and CGI sequences of A 'Tuin and the Discworld . Digitally combining all this material together in a believable fashion was , according to Jean , " the toughest week of the shoot " . All the digital effects and CGI for the film were provided by Fluid Pictures , a small digital effects group based in Soho .
Jean , who had adapted and directed Hogfather in 2006 , was keen to return to some of the locations used in that film to provide continuity . The scenes in the Great hall of the Unseen University were filmed in the crypt of the Guildhall in the City of London , and the same Victorian country home was used for Death 's house as had been seen in Hogfather . This time around , Jean was able to film more extensive panoramic shots in the latter location , thanks to The Colour of Magic 's larger budget . Other filming locations included Anglesey and Snowdonia for exterior shots , Gloucester docks as the docks of Ankh @-@ Morpork , and the Royal Courts of Justice as the Patrician 's Palace .
= = = Effects = = =
When choreographing the various fight sequences in the film , Jean sought to maintain the atmosphere and humour of the Discworld while still creating an exciting action sequence . Jean explained that " the tone of all these fights is the tone of Discworld ... it has a kind of chaos to it ... there are very few set pieces , it 's more about the chaos and the humour " . Although all the fight sequences were carefully controlled for safety , some were choreographed to be more haphazard than others ; each fighter was also given their own style for variety and humour . Liz May Brice ( Herrena ) noted the contrast in the ferry fight sequence , saying " the way we 've done the fight , he [ Cohen the Barbarian ] is almost [ winning ] by mistake ... it 's sort of fun , whereas [ Herrena ] is very deliberate " .
The inverted fight between Rincewind and Liessa in the Wyrmberg , by contrast , was the most meticulously choreographed sequence in the film . In addition to the need to add CGI backdrops to every shot , hanging upside down from wires whilst fighting proved to be what David Jason described as " a nauseous experience " . The sequence had to be filmed in very short bursts as " all of the actors and stunt people could only manage around four to five minutes before they wanted to [ vomit ] " . Karen David , who played Liessa , pulled several stomach muscles during the filming , and Jason described the experience as like " being hung upside @-@ down like the last chicken at Sainsbury 's ... I wouldn 't do that again in a hurry " .
= = Casting = =
David Jason was the first actor to be cast for the production , as it had always been his desire to play Rincewind in a film adaptation of The Colour of Magic . Jason had mentioned in an interview some fifteen years previously that , of all the parts available , the character of Rincewind was the one he coveted the most . Jason describes the wizard as " just such an amusing , endearing character ... I always kept this idea in my head that one day I [ would ] play Rincewind " . Jason 's appointment to the role , announced in April 2007 , drew mixed reactions , with comments ranging from " terrible choice " to " brilliant " . A common criticism was that Jason , at 68 , was too old to play a character who is , according to the books , middle @-@ aged .
From the day Jason was cast , rumours began to fly that a major American actor would be cast alongside him to bolster the film 's international appeal . On 31 July 2007 it was revealed that Sean Astin , world @-@ famous for his part in the Lord of the Rings film trilogy , had been signed for the role . - before filming started , Sean had to ask his agent just who " Dave Jason " was and left the video store with two large bags of David Jason 's back catalogue to watch . The casting of Tim Curry as Trymon and Christopher Lee as the voice of Death was revealed at the same time . The choice of Astin as Twoflower was criticised by some fans , who had anticipated that the tourist would be Oriental . Pratchett responded to this criticism in an open letter , where he noted that he had only described Twoflower as " exotically foreign " until Interesting Times . The choice of Lee to replace Ian Richardson , who had voiced Death in Hogfather , was more widely accepted ; Lee had previously voiced the part in the animated adaptations of Soul Music and Wyrd Sisters .
The part of the Patrician of Ankh @-@ Morpork , Havelock Vetinari , was not revealed until the premiere of The Colour of Magic , where Jeremy Irons , billed as a " guest star " , was revealed to have played the role . A small number of Pratchett fans were invited to participate as extras in the mob scenes towards the end of the film , and the bar fight in the Mended Drum .
Several members of the cast previously had roles in Sky One 's previous adaptation of Pratchett 's novel Hogfather , including David Jason as Albert , Nigel Planer as Mr. Sideney , and Stephen Marcus as Banjo . Pratchett himself had also made a cameo in Hogfather as The Toymaker . Nigel Planer had also previously contributed his voice to Discworld audiobooks , as well as the computer games Discworld II : Missing Presumed ... ! ? and Discworld Noir .
= = = Principal cast = = =
David Jason as Rincewind , a failed wizard and the main protagonist .
Sean Astin as Twoflower , the discworld 's first tourist .
Tim Curry as Trymon , the power @-@ hungry senior wizard at the Unseen University .
Christopher Lee as the voice of Death .
Jeremy Irons as Lord Vetinari , the Patrician of Ankh @-@ Morpork .
David Bradley as Cohen the Barbarian , the most famous barbarian in the discworld , now ' retired ' .
Laura Haddock as Bethan , a druid sacrifice , who falls in love with Cohen .
James Cosmo as Galder Weatherwax , the incumbent Archchancellor of the Unseen University .
Nicolas Tennant as Head Librarian of the Unseen University , who is turned into an orangutan during the events of the film .
Karen David as Liessa , a dragonlady from the Wyrmberg .
Liz May Brice as Herrena , a mercenary who is employed to capture Rincewind .
Nigel Planer as the Arch @-@ Astronomer of Krull .
Richard Da Costa as The Luggage .
Roger Ashton @-@ Griffiths as Lumuel Panter .
Miles Richardson as Zlorf , the leader of the Ankh @-@ Morpork Assassins ' Guild .
James Perry as Kring , the enchanted sword .
Stephen Marcus as Broadman , the bartender at the Broken Drum .
Toby Jones as one of the heads of the eight orders of Wizardry .
Terry Pratchett appears in a cameo role , playing Astrozoologist # 2 in the opening and closing scenes of the film . Richard Woolfe , the director of programming at Sky One , also appears as the Alchemist .
= = Release and reception = =
A teaser trailer , released in late February 2008 , featured principal cast members , including Rincewind , Twoflower , Trymon and the Arch @-@ Astronomer of Krull , attempting to describe octarine , the ' colour of magic ' . The teaser concludes with the film 's tagline : " a pigment of your imagination " . Two more trailers were released in March 2008 , containing a more complete synopsis , with narration by Brian Cox . The trailers formed part of a multimillion @-@ dollar advertising campaign in partnership with Amazon.com and Borders Books . In addition to conventional adverts in national newspapers and banner ads on sites including MSN.com and Yahoo ! .com , Sky launched a viral marketing campaign , and established a bluetooth hotspot at Victoria station , London , where fans could download video clips and ringtones to mobile phones .
The film was premiered at the Curzon Cinema , London , on 3 March 2008 ; the event was covered in several major newspapers after David Jason , somewhat inebriated , got into the wrong limousine by mistake when departing from the premiere .
The film was released in two parts , breaking at roughly the same place as the literary versions of The Colour of Magic and The Light Fantastic , although some scenes ( such as Trymon 's murder of the Archchancellor ) were moved across the break for dramatic effect . The first part , concluding with Rincewind and Twoflower falling off the edge of the disk in the Krullian spaceship , was broadcast on Easter Sunday ( 23 March 2008 ) , at 6pm GMT on Sky1 and Sky 1 HD . The second part was broadcast on the same channels at 6pm the following day ( Easter Monday ) . Viewing audience for the first part reached 1 @.@ 5 million , 8 % of the viewing total . The second part of the film attracted an average audience of 967 @,@ 000 , peaking at 1 @.@ 1 million during the 15 minute block from 7 : 15 pm .
The film was generally well received by critics , with The Times believing it to be " better than Sky 's previous Discworld adaptation Hogfather " . The Scotsman admitted that it was a " good @-@ looking production that proper fans probably appreciated " , but criticised the film for being " far too long ... with leaden direction and script " . The Times agreed , saying that " It looked good , in an over @-@ glossy , Hallmark Productions kind of way , although every now and again the budget ... looked stretched " .
Pratchett himself said he was " very pleased " with the casting and production of the film , although he admitted that seeing his literary work adapted for the screen was " very bad for me : it 's like I 'm wandering around on the inside of my own head " .
The film was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc on 3 November 2008 .
In the United States and Canada , it is premiering as The Color of Magic on the Ion channel .
The North American DVD was released on 14 July 2009 . It is considerably shorter ( 132 min ) than the British version ( 184 min ) . The version available on Netflix is the original British presentation .
= Weldy Walker =
Weldy Wilberforce Walker ( July 27 , 1860 – November 23 , 1937 ) , sometimes known as Welday Walker and W. W. Walker , was an American baseball player . In 1884 , he became the second African American to play Major League Baseball .
Walker played college baseball at Oberlin College and the University of Michigan . In July 1884 , he joined the Toledo Blue Stockings of the American Association which was then part of Major League Baseball . His brother Moses Fleetwood Walker , commonly known as Fleetwood ( or " Fleet " ) Walker , was the first African American to play Major League Baseball , making his debut two months before Weldy . In 1887 , as racial segregation took hold in professional baseball , Weldy joined the Pittsburgh Keystones of the short @-@ lived National Colored Base Ball League .
His March 1888 open letter to The Sporting Life protesting the racial segregation of baseball has been described as " perhaps the most passionate cry for justice ever voiced by a Negro athlete . "
After retiring from baseball , Walker operated restaurants and a hotel in eastern Ohio . In 1897 , he served on the Executive Committee of the Negro Protective Party , a newly formed political party established in Ohio in protest of the failure of the Republican governor to investigate the lynching of an African American in June 1897 at Urbana , Ohio . In the 1900s , Weldy and his brother Fleetwood became active in the Back @-@ to @-@ Africa movement and promoted emigration to Liberia . The brothers also established and edited The Equator , a black issues newspaper .
= = Early years = =
Walker was born in 1860 in Steubenville , Ohio , an industrial city in the eastern part of the state with a reputation for racial tolerance . Weldy 's name was a combination of the biblical word for wealthy ( " weldy " ) and the surname of English abolitionist William Wilberforce .
His parents , Moses W. Walker and Caroline ( O 'Hara ) Walker , moved to Steubenville from Mount Pleasant , Ohio . His father was a minister in the Methodist Episcopal Church , a physician , and a leader in Steubenville 's African @-@ American community . In June 1870 , at the time of the 1870 United States Census , the Walker family was living in Steubenville 's First Ward . Walker 's father was identified as a minister who had been born in Virginia . The couple had four children listed in the Census : William ( age 25 ) , Mary ( age 21 ) , Sarah ( age 19 ) , Moses F. ( age 11 ) and Weldy W. ( age 9 ) . In June 1880 , at the time of the 1880 United States Census , the family was still living in Steubenville and consisted of Moses ( age 59 , clergyman ) , Caroline ( age 57 ) , William ( age 35 , teamster ) , Sarah ( age 22 ) , Moses ( age 21 , at school ) , Weldan ( age 19 , at school ) , and Mary Alexander ( age 13 , adopted ) .
Weldy attended Steubenville 's integrated public high school in the 1870s .
= = College baseball = =
While Weldy was still in high school , his older brother , Fleetwood Walker , enrolled at Oberlin College , which was among the first colleges in the United States to become racially integrated . In 1881 , Weldy joined his brother at Oberlin College , enrolling as a student in the Oberlin 's preparatory school . In the spring of 1881 , the Walker brothers played on Oberlin College 's first varsity inter @-@ collegiate baseball team . Weldy , a freshman , played right field while Fleetwood , a junior , was the catcher . According to one account , Weldy played second base and finished the 1881 season as Oberlin 's second leading batter .
After the 1881 baseball season , Weldy 's brother Fleetwood transferred to the University of Michigan and played as a catcher for the Michigan Wolverines baseball team in 1882 . Fleetwood became the first African American to play on a varsity sports team at Michigan and helped lead the Wolverines to a 10 – 3 record , a conference championship , and the best record for a Michigan baseball team up to that time . Weldy initially remained at Oberlin , but he transferred to Michigan in the fall of 1882 as a student in the homeopathic medical school . In the fall of 1882 , the Oberlin Review reported : " Weldy Walker , ' 85 leaves to assist his brother in making the ' Ann Harbor ' [ sic ] nine a little more able to compete with Oberlin . " Two weeks later , a writer for an Ann Arbor newspaper noted that " we have added to the list Weldy Walker , a magnificent fielder , safe batter , and phenomenal base runner . " Before the 1883 baseball season began , Fleetwood left Michigan to play professional baseball for a team from New Castle , Pennsylvania .
During the 1883 season , Weldy became the second African American to play for the Michigan baseball team . He played third base for Michigan and also served on the Board of Directors of the University Base @-@ Ball Association . Weldy also played for Michigan as a catcher during part of the 1884 baseball season . Weldy scored four runs and had four hits in five at @-@ bats to help Michigan defeat Michigan Agricultural College ( later known as Michigan State University ) on June 14 , 1884 . According to Rich Adler 's book Baseball at the University of Michigan , each of the Walker brothers was " accepted as a member of the student body , " although neither received a degree from the university .
= = Professional baseball = =
= = = Toledo Blue Stockings = = =
At the start of the 1884 baseball season , Weldy continued to study homeopathic medicine and play baseball at Michigan . Meanwhile , Fleetwood was playing for the Toledo Blue Stockings of the American Association , which was considered to be part of Major League Baseball . On May 1 , 1884 , Fleetwood became the first African American to play in Major League Baseball .
As the 1884 baseball season progressed , the roster of the Toledo Blue Stockings was depleted by injuries . In need of additional players , the team recruited Weldy to join his brother in Toledo . Weldy appeared in his first game for the Blue Stockings on July 15 , 1884 , becoming the second African American to play Major League Baseball . Weldy appeared in five games as an outfielder for the Blue Stockings between July 15 and August 6 , 1884 . He had four hits , two runs batted in , and one run scored in 18 at @-@ bats for a .222 batting average . After a series in Indianapolis , an article in The Sporting Life noted that " the Toledos were short @-@ handed and played Weldy Walker , a brother of the catcher ; he played well . " The Walker brothers in 1884 were the last African Americans to play Major League Baseball for more than 60 years until Jackie Robinson joined the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1947 .
= = = Segregation of baseball and minor leagues = = =
Weldy blamed Chicago White Stockings player @-@ manager Cap Anson for the fact that neither he , his brother , nor any other African Americans were allowed to play in the major leagues after 1884 . During the 1884 season , Anson refused to play against Toledo until the Walker brothers were benched . In 1887 , Anson again refused to play against the Newark team on which Fleetwood played . Anson biographer David L. Fleitz shared Weldy 's belief that Anson was responsible for the game 's segregation : " Cap Anson , more than anyone else , was the man who wielded the infamous pen . "
Following his time with the Blue Stockings , Weldy played for the Cleveland team in the Western League . During the 1885 season , Weldy compiled a .375 batting average for the Cleveland Forest Cities . In 1886 , Weldy played third base for the Excelsior Club in Cleveland .
= = = Open letter on racial segregation = = =
By early 1887 , 13 African Americans were playing in the " white " minor leagues , including four in the Ohio State League . Weldy began the season with the Akron Acorns of the Ohio State League . However , he appeared in only four games for the Acorns . During the 1887 season , racial segregation began to become the official policy in certain minor leagues . Weldy was outraged by a report that the Tri @-@ State League ( successor to the Ohio State League ) had abandoned racial integration . In March 1888 , he wrote a letter to the league 's president protesting the decision . In his 1970 history of racial segregation in baseball , Robert Peterson described Weldy 's letter as " perhaps the most passionate cry for justice ever voiced by a Negro athlete . " In the letter , Walker wrote :
The law is a disgrace to the present age , and reflects very much upon the intelligence of your last meeting , and casts derision at the laws of Ohio – the voice of the people – that say all men are equal . I would suggest that your honorable body , in case that black law is not repealed , pass one making it criminal for a colored man or woman to be found on a ball ground ... There should be some broader cause – such as lack of ability , behavior and intelligence – for barring a player , rather than his color . It is for these reasons and because I think ability and intelligence should be recognized first and last – at all times and by everyone – I ask the question again , ' Why was the law permitting colored men to sign repealed , etc . ? '
On March 14 , 1888 , and at Weldy 's request , his letter was published in The Sporting Life under the headline " Why Discriminate ? " In his book on baseball 's segregation , Robert Peterson wrote that Weldy 's question " went unanswered , because it was unanswerable . . . but the truth was plain for all who wished to see it : Jim Crow was warming up . "
= = = Pittsburgh Keystones = = =
In 1887 , Weldy joined the Pittsburgh Keystones in the newly formed National Colored Base Ball League and compiled a .360 batting average in five games as a player . Although the National Colored Base Ball League disbanded after a short time , the Keystones continued to play as an independent team . Weldy took over as the team 's manager in 1888 and led the Keystones to a 9 – 1 record in the first ten games of the season . The Keystones ' lineup in 1888 also included Sol White . In early June 1888 , The Cleveland Gazette wrote that Weldy was " making quite a success of the Keystone Base Ball Club . "
= = Civil rights efforts and business career = =
= = = 1884 civil rights lawsuit = = =
Walker became involved in a civil rights lawsuit in 1884 after a roller @-@ skating rink in Steubenville denied entry to Walker and his friend , Hannibal Lyons . The Cleveland Gazette , an African @-@ American weekly newspaper , described the circumstances as follows :
Steubenville , like many other places , is suffering now from the roller skate craze . There are now three in full blast and prospects for more . Discrimination on account of color never was carried on in Steubenville until these strangers starting rinks here issued the edict " No Negroes need apply except for positions of menials . " On the 16th there was an opening night at the South Side Rink , and two of our young men of gentlemanly deportment and honest reputation applied for admission . The proprietor of the rink flatly told them , " You are colored and you can 't skate . "
Walker and Lyons filed a civil rights lawsuit accusing the operator , Massey & Son , of racial discrimination . Some local newspaper accounts of the suit suggested that " Walker and Lyons were troublemakers stirring a ' political and social racket . ' " Following a trial in January 1885 , the presiding judge , Justice May , ruled that the skating rink operator had violated the rights of Walker and Lyons " under the civil rights law , and a special law of the Ohio Legislature giving the colored man certain privileges . " The court awarded them each fifteen dollars each in damages , with costs . However , the court declined to enter an order requiring the rink operator to admit African Americans . In his biography of Fleetwood Walker , David Zang called the court 's ruling " a judgment that nominally supported integration while doing nothing to promote it in everyday reality . "
= = = Negro Protective Party = = =
During the 1890s , Walker became active in politics . Walker 's activism was heightened by an incident in June 1897 in which residents of Urbana , Ohio , formed a lynch mob , removed a black man named " Click " Mitchell from the town jail , and publicly killed him by hanging . Believing that Ohio 's Republican Governor Asa Bushnell had failed to conduct an appropriate investigation into the lynching , Walker and other African Americans in Ohio left the Republican Party and formed the Negro Protective Party . As a member of the party 's Executive Committee , Walker helped organize the party 's convention at Columbus , Ohio in September 1897 . The party adopted a platform demanding " an immediate recognition of our rights as citizens such as have been repeatedly pledged and as often violated , " and declaring an intention " to take immediate political action that we may show to the world that we are no longer the plaything of politicians or chattels for sale to the highest bidder . " The party also began publishing " The Negro Protector " as its official organ . When former slave and Republican Party official , Nelson T. Gant , attacked Walker and the Negro Protective Party , Walker responded with an open letter that was published in Ohio newspapers . In the letter , Walker wrote :
Notwithstanding N. T. Gant there are many " intelligent Negroes " who will support the Negro protective ticket and will hurl back at him with contempt his insults to their manhood that they are not free to leave the republican party without being branded as " betrayers of their party " and " ungrateful to their Creator and their race . " Such fumings are manifestly the strongest evidence of an enslaved mind ... Republicans ... believe , or make pretense of believing , that the Negro owes eternal allegiance to the G. O. P. no matter what the issue ... We shall not trespass further upon your valuable space , except to say that the Negro Protective party will live and its supporters hope never to regret the stand taken for free and independent manhood as a protest against every disregard , from whatever source , of the rights and privileges of the Negro as an American citizen .
When Ohio 's Republican Secretary of State Charles Kinney refused to print the Negro Protective Party 's emblem ( an image of Abraham Lincoln ) on the state ballot , the party filed a mandamus action to compel him to do so . When the party 's gubernatorial candidate , S. J. Lewis , received 4 @,@ 276 votes in the official vote count , The Cleveland Gazette opined that Governor Bushnell 's narrow plurality victory was " a direct result of the governor 's failure to do his duty during the life of the mob that lynched innocent Afro @-@ American , ' Click " Mitchell , at Urbana . "
= = = Business interests = = =
Even before retiring from baseball , Weldy became active in business . In October 1884 , Weldy and a partner went into business operating Delmonico Dining Rooms in Mingo Junction , Ohio , near Steubenville . In 1897 , Weldy and Joe Jetters opened an oyster and fish store on North Sixth Street in Steubenville .
The 1890s were a turbulent decade for Weldy 's older brother Fleetwood . In 1891 , Fleetwood stabbed a man to death outside a saloon , but was acquitted on grounds of self @-@ defense . In 1898 , while employed as a railroad postal clerk , Fleetwood was charged with embezzling the contents of registered letters addressed to a dozen different persons and served a year in jail . In 1899 , while Fleetwood was still in jail , Weldy began operating the Union Hotel at 105 Market Street in downtown Steubenville . Following Fleetwood 's release from jail , the hotel / boarding house was jointly operated by Fleetwood and Weldy . In June 1900 , at the time of the 1900 United States Census , Walker was living at the Union Hotel with Fleetwood , Fleetwood 's second wife Ednah , and their three children . The family also had a live @-@ in servant , Sarah Richmond ( age 45 ) . Fleetwood was identified in the 1900 Census as the operator of a boarding house , and Weldy as a " porter . " A 1902 city directory listed Fleetwood as the hotel 's proprietor and Weldy as the clerk , but a 1904 – 05 directory listed Weldy as the proprietor and Fleetwood and Ednah as residents . By 1906 , Weldy had temporarily relocated several miles downriver to Wheeling , West Virginia , and rumors circulated that the Union Hotel would be sold and turned into " a first class house for the accommodation of Afro @-@ American visitors . "
= = = Back @-@ to @-@ Africa movement = = =
In the 1900s , the Walker brothers became active in the Back @-@ to @-@ Africa movement . In 1902 , Fleetwood and Weldy established and edited a black @-@ issues newspaper called The Equator . Six years later , Fleetwood and Weldy published a 47 @-@ page book titled Our Home Colony : A Treatise on the Past , Present , and Future of the Negro Race in America . Fleetwood 's biographer , David Zang , has written that Fleetwood " was effected by the political vigilance which his younger brother , Weldy , had brought to the black cause . " In the credits to Our Home Colony , Fleetwood was identified as the author , and Weldy was identified as " General Agent , " though much of the book is written in the first @-@ person plural . In the book , the Walkers wrote : " The only practical and permanent solution of the present and future race troubles in the United States is entire separation by Emigration of the Negro from America . " They added : " The Negro race will be a menace and the source of discontent as long as it remains in large numbers in the United States . The time is growing very near when the whites of the United States must either settle this problem by deportation , or else be willing to accept a reign of terror such as the world has never seen in a civilized country . "
The Walker brothers also opened an office to begin the work of resettlement to Africa at the time Our Home Colony was published . In his 1908 response to an Oberlin College alumni questionnaire , Weldy listed his occupation as " General Agent " for Our Home Colony and Liberian emigration .
= = Later years = =
By 1910 , Fleetwood had moved to Cadiz , Ohio , where he operated an 800 @-@ seat vaudeville theater . In April 1910 , at the time of the 1910 United States Census , Weldy was still living at 105 Market Street in Steubenville , and the property was being operated as a boarding house . The proprietor and head of the household was identified as Thomas F. Walker , Weldy 's nephew and Fleetwood 's son . Weldy was listed as a " waiter . "
In January 1920 , at the time of the 1920 United States Census , Walker was living at 100 Market Street in Steubenville with nephew Thomas and Thomas 's wife , Jeanette . Thomas was listed as the " keeper " of the hotel , and Weldy ( identified as " Welda " ) was listed as having no employment . Weldy remained politically active in his later years and was a friend of Harry C. Smith , the owner and editor of The Cleveland Gazette , the longest @-@ publishing African @-@ American weekly in the United States . After Smith helped the Republican Party elect President Warren Harding in 1920 , Weldy sent Smith a congratulatory letter noting that the Negro vote played a role in Harding 's victory . Still focused on the practice of lynching in the Southern states , Weldy added : " The North would not have known there had been an election in Florida unless that old game of killing six or more Negroes for wanting to vote had been pulled off . When will ' Uncle Sam ' allow the poor southern Negro ' life , liberty and the pursuit of happiness . ' "
When Fleetwood died in Cleveland in May 1924 , Weldy and Thomas traveled to Cleveland and returned Fleetwood 's remains to Steubenville in a casket costing $ 525 . According to Fleetwood biographer , David Zang , Weldy became a bootlegger during Prohibition , and nephew Thomas was a numbers bookie .
In April 1930 , at the time of the 1930 United States Census , Walker was a " roomer " in an all @-@ black boarding house at 117 South 6th Street in Steubenville operated by Eugene Williams . His occupation was listed as a clerk .
Walker never married . In November 1937 , he died from pneumonia at his home at 100 Market Street in Steubenville . His occupation was listed as a retired hotel manager at the time of his death .
= Like a Virgin ( album ) =
Like a Virgin is the second studio album by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna , released on November 12 , 1984 , by Sire Records . It was reissued worldwide in 1985 , with the inclusion of " Into the Groove " . In 2001 , Warner Bros. Records released a remastered version with two bonus remix tracks . After the release of her self @-@ titled debut album , Madonna wanted to solidify her future in the music business , by building on the success of the first album . She decided to become one of the record producers , but Warner Bros. was not ready to give her the artistic freedom that she wanted . Nile Rodgers was chosen as the primary producer of the album , due to his work with David Bowie .
The album was recorded at Power Station Studio in New York at a quick pace . Rodgers enlisted the help of his former Chic band mates Bernard Edwards , who was the bassist , and Tony Thompson , who played drums ; they appeared on several tracks of the album . Rodgers decided to be the guitarist , when Edwards requested him to do so , in exchange of their help . Jason Corsaro , the record 's audio engineer , persuaded Rodgers to use digital recording , a new technique introduced at that time . The cover sleeve and images were shot by Steven Meisel . Madonna wanted the album title and the cover image to make provocative link between her own religious name Madonna , as the Roman Catholic title for Jesus ' mother Mary , and the Christian concept of the virgin birth .
While not a substantial musical departure from Madonna 's first album , she felt that the material from Like a Virgin was stronger . Along with Rodgers , Madonna also collaborated with her former boyfriend Steve Bray , who co @-@ wrote many songs on the album . Consisting of dance @-@ pop oriented music , the songs also incorporated new wave . After its release , Like a Virgin received mixed reviews from the critics , but was a commercial success . It became Madonna 's first number one album on the Billboard 200 , while reaching the top of the charts in Germany , Italy , Netherlands , New Zealand , Spain and the United Kingdom . The Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified it diamond for shipment of ten million copies across the United States . Worldwide it has sold 21 million copies , becoming one of the best @-@ selling albums of all time .
Five singles were released from the album , including Madonna 's first US number @-@ one " Like a Virgin " and her first UK number @-@ one " Into the Groove " . To promote the album , she embarked on The Virgin Tour , which had shows in cities of North America only . Like a Virgin has attained significance as a cultural artifact of the 1980s . Madonna proved that she was not a one @-@ hit wonder and was able to provide herself with a permanent footing in the music world . Her songs became a lightning rod for both criticism by conservatives and imitation by the younger female population , especially " Material Girl " and " Like a Virgin " . According to author J. Randy Taraborrelli , " Every important artist has at least one album in his or her career whose critical and commercial success becomes the artist 's magic moment ; for Madonna , Like a Virgin was just such a defining moment " .
= = Background = =
A former dancer and fixture on the New York club scene , Madonna Louise Ciccone became known to the world simply as Madonna , with the release of her 1983 self @-@ titled debut album Madonna . Fueled by hit songs like " Holiday " , " Borderline " and " Lucky Star " , the album was one of the best selling of the year and helped Madonna become one of the most exciting new artists of the 1980s . When she started work on her second album , Madonna felt that her first album had succeeded in introducing her " street @-@ smart dance queen " persona , and she wanted to solidify and build upon that concept . According to her , " My work , my dedication — the stubbornness for getting Madonna released — had paid off . Now it was time to solidify my future . "
For Like a Virgin , Madonna attempted to become one of the primary record producers , feeling the need to control the various aspects of her music . She believed that depending on a particular producer for her album was not something that suited her . Madonna said " I learnt my lesson while creating my debut album , and the way Lucas left me in the water with the project , you can 't trust men " — referring to the incident , when due to certain difference of opinion between producer Reggie Lucas and Madonna , Lucas had left the project half @-@ way . However , Warner Bros. Records was not ready to give her the artistic freedom that she wanted . In J. Randy Taraborrelli 's biography of Madonna , she commented ,
" Warner Bros. Records is a hierarchy of old men and it 's a chauvinist environment to be working in because I 'm treated like this sexy little girl . I had to prove them wrong , which meant not only proving myself to my fans but to my record company as well . That is something that happens when you 're a girl . It wouldn 't happen to Prince or Michael Jackson . I had to do everything on my own and it was hard trying to convince people that I was worth a record deal . After that , I had the same problem trying to convince the record company that I had more to offer than a one @-@ shot singer . I had to win this fight . "
Ultimately , Nile Rodgers was chosen by Madonna as the producer of the album , with the approval of the Warner Brothers executives . Madonna chose Rodgers mostly because of his work as a member of the seventies band Chic , and his most recent production work with David Bowie on his 1983 album Let 's Dance . She commented , " When I was making the record , I was just so thrilled and happy to be working with Nile Rodgers . I idolized Nile because of the whole Chic thing . I couldn 't believe that the record company gave me the money so that I could work with him . "
For his part , Rodgers recalled that he had first seen Madonna perform at a small club in New York in 1983 . In an interview with Time magazine , Rodgers explained : " I went to the club to see another woman sing , but when I got there Madonna was onstage . I loved her stage presence and then we met right after that . I kept thinking to myself , ' Damn , is she a star ' , but she wasn 't at that time . I always wanted to work with her and Like a Virgin seemed like a perfect opportunity . "
= = Recording = =
The album was recorded at Power Station Studio in New York at a quick pace . Rodgers enlisted the help of his former Chic band mates Edwards , who was the bassist , and Tony Thompson , who played the drums ; they appeared on several tracks of the album . Rodgers decided to be the guitarist , when Edwards requested him to do so , in exchange for their help .
The recording sessions did not start until the afternoon as Rodgers , who attended late @-@ night parties , was not accustomed to work in early mornings . The schedule was also difficult for Madonna , who recalled that she used to " go to the swim club on the Upper West Side and go swimming and walk from there to the recording studio . It was impossible for me to reach there at morning . " Rodgers recalled that Madonna was a real hard worker and incredibly tenacious . He commented : " I am always amazed by Madonna 's incredible judgement when it comes to making pop records . I 've never seen anyone do it better , and that 's the truth . When we did that album , it was the perfect union , and I knew it from the first day in the studio . The thing between us , man , it was sexual , it was passionate , it was creativity ... it was pop . "
Jason Corsaro , the record 's audio engineer , persuaded Rodgers to use digital recording , a new technique at the time which Corsaro believed was going to be the future of recording . To ensure this , Corsaro used a Sony 3324 24 @-@ track digital tape recorder and a Sony F1 two @-@ track during the mixing of the tracks . Madonna recorded the lead parts of the songs in a small , wooden , high @-@ ceilinged piano room at the back of Studio C , also known as Power Station 's " R & B room " . Corsaro then placed gobos around her while using the top capsule of a stereo AKG C24 tube microphone , with a Schoeps microphone preamplifier and a Pultec equalizer . Once the tracks met with everybody 's approval , Robert Sabino added the keyboard parts , playing mostly a Sequential Circuits Prophet @-@ 5 , as well as some Rhodes piano and acoustic piano , while Rodgers also played a Synclavier . Madonna , although not required , was present every minute of the recording sessions and the mixing process , Corsaro commented : " Nile was there most of the time , but she was there all of the time . She never left " .
= = Packaging and title = =
The cover sleeve and images were shot by Steven Meisel , who would become a regular collaborator with Madonna , in a suite at the St. Regis Hotel . Madonna wanted the album title to make provocative link between her own religious name — Madonna as the Roman Catholic title for Jesus ' mother Mary — and the Christian concept of the virgin birth . With the title song alluding to this concept , Madonna wanted the album cover to have mixed messages as well . Author Graham Thompson described that " reclining on a satin sheet , with a bouquet on her lap and wearing a wedding dress , a closer inspection reveals Madonna 's image as highly fetishized and sexualized . " He added that the heavy make @-@ up , pouting lips , and despoiled hair , along with the tight @-@ fitting bustier and full @-@ length gloves , turned Madonna 's image into a figure not of virtue , but of desire . This point , according to Thompson , is further emphasized by the belt she is wearing , the wording on which is just visible as " Boy Toy " . He added : " The image was ambiguous and was based upon the fact that Madonna 's appeal at that point of her career was not presenting herself just as an object of desire , but also as a desiring female subject " .
Erlewine commented that the " Steven Meisel @-@ shot cover ... was as key to her reinvention as the music of the album itself . " William McKeen , author of Rock and roll is here to stay : an anthology , felt that the image was another trigger and testament to the fact that Madonna was the last word on fashion for women and young girls of that era , the epitome of cool . Costume designer Arianne Phillips commented of the Like a Virgin look : " This was one of the most shocking , liberating and influential moments in pop culture / fashion history ... Fashion has never been the same . " Madonna herself declared : " I have always loved to play cat and mouse with the conventional stereotypes . My Like a Virgin album cover is a classic example . People were thinking who was I pretending to be — the Virgin Mary or the whore ? These were the two extreme images of women I had known vividly , and remembered from childhood , and I wanted to play with them . I wanted to see if I can merge them together , Virgin Mary and the whore as one and all . The photo was a statement of independence , if you wanna be a virgin , you are welcome . But if you wanna be a whore , it 's your fucking right to be so . "
= = Composition = =
According to Taraborrelli , " Madonna and Rodgers ' collective energy — she wanting to score with a smash second album and he wanting to be the producer to give it to her — drove the production of Like a Virgin with great precision . " Madonna also collaborated with her former boyfriend Steve Bray , who co @-@ wrote many of the album 's songs . Reflecting on the music composition for the album , Bray noted : " I 've always kind of made the rib cage and the skeleton of the songs already — she 's there for the last things like the eyebrows and the haircut . " The opening track " Material Girl " was written by Peter Brown and Roberta Rans . Madonna explained that the concept of the song was similar to her life 's situation at that time . According to her , the song was provocative , hence she was attracted to it . " Material Girl " incorporated new wave music and consists of synth arrangements with a robotic voice repeating the hook . The lyrics identify with materialism , with Madonna asking for a rich and affluent life , rather than romance and relationships . Written by Madonna and Steve Bray , " Angel " is the second track on the album . It was one of the first songs developed for the project and , according to Madonna , was inspired by a girl who is saved by , and subsequently falls in love with an angel . " Angel " consists of a three @-@ chord ascending hook , which serves as the verse and chorus . It has vocal harmonies beneath the main chorus and the lyrics repeat the angel @-@ like image of Madonna 's savior . The title track " Like a Virgin " was written by Billy Steinberg and Tom Kelly . Steinberg said that the song was inspired by his personal experiences of romance . It was chosen for Madonna by Michael Ostin of Warner Bros. Records , after listening to a demo sung by Kelly . However , Rodgers initially felt that the song did not have a good enough hook and was not suitable for Madonna , but subsequently changed his opinion after the hook was stuck in his mind . He credits Madonna with recognizing the song 's potential : " I handed my apology to Madonna and said , ' you know ... if it 's so catchy that it stayed in my head for four days , it must be something . So let 's do it . ' " " Like a Virgin " is a dance @-@ oriented song , composed of two hooks . Madonna 's voice is heard in a high register while a continuous arrangement of drums are heard along the bassline . According to author Rikky Rooksby , the lyrics of the song are ambiguous and consist of hidden innuendo . In sexual terms , the lyrics can be interpreted in different ways for different people .
In " Over and Over " , Madonna sings about determination and picking yourself up from disappointments . The song consists of instrumentation from drums , synths and has a three @-@ chord progression . An emotional moment occurred in the recording studio when Madonna covered the 1978 Rose Royce song " Love Don 't Live Here Anymore " . Rodgers recalled : " Madonna had never performed with a live orchestra before . I was very much into doing everything live , so I just said , ' Madonna , you go out there and sing and we will follow you . ' At first Madonna was hesitant , but the live setting ended up producing memorable results . She sang and she was overcome with emotions and she started crying , but I left it on the record . " The song features Madonna 's vocals supported by acoustic guitars and synth strings , with Thompson playing the drum in the second verse . Towards the end , Madonna emotes in the voice of a soul singer .
" Into the Groove " is the sixth track on the 1985 worldwide reissue of Like a VIrgin ; it has never been part of Like a Virgin on any North American release . Madonna 's inspiration behind the song was the dance floor , and she wrote it while watching a handsome Puerto Rican man across her balcony . Initially written for her friend Mark Kamins , Madonna later decided to use it in the soundtrack of her 1985 film Desperately Seeking Susan . Unlike the other songs on Like A Virgin , " Into the Groove " was recorded at Sigma Sound Studios , and produced by Madonna and Steve Bray . Madonna 's friend Erika Belle was present during the recording and watched the whole process . In Andrew Morton 's Madonna biography , she noted that at one point of the recording , Bray was facing difficulties with the bridge of the song , as the melody thought by him was not syncing with the rest of the composition . Undeterred by his obvious difficulties , Madonna stepped up to the microphone and sang the words " Live out your fantasy here with me " . Bray 's problem was solved ; Belle remembered the experience as : " [ The song ] seemed to come out of her , I was awestruck . " The song consists of instrumentation from drums , percussion , congas and whistles . Madonna 's voice is double @-@ tracked in the chorus . The lyrics are simple , and written as an invitation to dance with the singer , with sexual innuendos and undertones in the meaning .
" Dress You Up " was the last track to be added to the album as it was submitted late by songwriters Andrea LaRusso and Peggy Stanziale . Although Rodgers rejected it as there was no time to compose a melody and record it for the album , Madonna pushed for the song 's inclusion on Like a Virgin , as she particularly liked its lyrics . The song is a drum beat @-@ driven dance track featuring instrumentation of guitars and vocals from a choir . The lyrics are an extended metaphor for fashion and sex , comparing dressing up with passion . " Shoo @-@ Bee @-@ Doo " contains homage to Motown music . Beginning with a slow introduction , the song is in the doo @-@ wop genre and resembles the songs of early Sixties girl groups like The Shirelles or The Crystals . The saxophone breakdown is played by Lenny Pickett . The lyrics discuss relationship problems , and are phrased as clichés in the coda . " Pretender " starts with the chorus and then moves to the verse . It talks about seduction and the insecurity felt by a woman who feels that things are moving too quickly for her with her man . " Stay " is the final track on the album . Using triple @-@ rhythms and double @-@ tracked vocals , the song includes a noise resembling someone slapping a microphone and a spoken sequence which fades away in the end .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Live performances = = =
Madonna debuted the first single " Like a Virgin " at the first MTV Video Music Awards on September 14 , 1984 , where she appeared on stage atop a giant wedding cake dressed in a wedding dress , adorned with the infamous " Boy Toy " belt buckle , and veil . The climax of her risqué performance found her masturbating and rolling around on the stage . The performance is noted as one of the iconic performance in MTV 's history . On December 13 , 1984 , Madonna performed " Like a Virgin " on BBC One 's program Top of the Pops , wearing punky torn tights , a vivid pink wig , religious accessories and layered mesh tops . It was later voted as the second best Top of the Pops performance of all time . She also appeared at the 1985 Live Aid charity concert , where she performed " Into the Groove " .
The album was further promoted on her first headlining tour , The Virgin Tour , which only visited cities in the United States and Canada . Early on there were plans to schedule dates in England and Japan due to Madonna 's large fan base in both countries . However , the final schedule did not reflect the idea . In the end several more US dates were added and moved to larger concert venues due to overwhelmingly strong ticket sales .
Madonna 's performance on the tour was described by Taraborrelli as " full of excitement " , singing songs from her debut album as well as Like a Virgin , and asking the audience " Will you marry me ? " The costumes included colorful new wave jackets for " Holiday " and white wedding gowns similar to the one worn in her " Like a Virgin " music video . Referring to her Detroit roots and contemporary artist Michael Jackson , Madonna sang a verse of " Billie Jean " during " Like a Virgin " .
The Virgin Tour was a success and collected a total of more than US $ 5 million . During a 2009 interview with Rolling Stone , interviewer Austin Scaggs asked Madonna regarding her feelings and emotions during the tour , since it was the first time she was playing in arenas . Madonna replied saying ,
" That whole tour was crazy , because I went from playing CBGB and the Mudd Club to playing sporting arenas . I played a small theater in Seattle , and the girls had flap skirts on and the tights cut off below their knees and lace gloves and rosaries and bows in their hair and big hoop earrings . I was like , ' This is insane ! ' After Seattle , all of the shows were moved to arenas . I 've never done a bus tour . Everyone says they are really fun . "
= = = Singles = = =
" Like a Virgin " was released as the lead single from the album in late 1984 . It received positive reviews from contemporary as well as old critics , who frequently called it as one of the defining songs for Madonna . It became her first number @-@ one single on the Billboard Hot 100 , while reaching the top of the charts in Australia , Canada and Japan and the top @-@ ten of the other countries . The song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on January 10 , 1985 , for shipping a million copies across United States – the requirement for a gold single prior to 1989 . The music video portrayed Madonna sailing down the riverways of Venice in a gondola , as well as roaming around a palace wearing a white wedding dress . With the video , scholars noted Madonna 's portrayal of a sexually independent woman , the symbolism of the appearance of a man with lion 's mask to that of Saint Mark , and compared the eroticism of the video to the vitality of the city of Venice .
" Material Girl " was the second single from the album , released in November 1984 . Critics have frequently noted " Material Girl " and " Like a Virgin " as the songs that made Madonna an icon . " Material Girl " was a commercial success , reaching the top @-@ five in Australia , Belgium , Canada , Ireland , Japan and United Kingdom . It reached position two on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States . The music video was a mimicry of Marilyn Monroe 's performance of the song " Diamonds Are a Girl 's Best Friend " from the 1953 film Gentlemen Prefer Blondes . The mimicked scenes are interspersed with scenes of a Hollywood director trying to win the heart of an actress , played by Madonna herself . Discovering that , contrary to her song , the young woman was not impressed by money and expensive gifts , he pretended to be penniless and succeeded in taking her out on a date . " Angel " was the third released single from the album , in April 1985 . Critics gave mixed review of the song , with one group denoting it as a classic while the others felt it was sub @-@ par compared to the other Madonna singles . " Angel " became Madonna 's fifth consecutive top @-@ five single on the Billboard Hot 100 and reached the top of its dance chart .
" Into the Groove " was released as the album 's fourth single outside North America in July 1985 . The song was appreciated by contemporary critics as well as authors , who have frequently called it " Madonna 's first great single " . " Into the Groove " reached the top of the charts in Australia , Belgium , Ireland , Italy , Japan , Netherlands , New Zealand , and the United Kingdom , where it was Madonna 's first number @-@ one single . In the United States , the song was only available as the B @-@ side of the 12 @-@ inch single of " Angel " , therefore it was ineligible to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 at the time . It reached number one on the US Hot Dance Club Play chart where it was listed as a double @-@ sided single with " Angel " . " Dress You Up " was the last single from the album . Critics reacted positively to the dance @-@ pop nature of the track . " Dress You Up " became Madonna 's sixth consecutive top @-@ five single in the United States . It also reached the top @-@ ten in Australia , Belgium , Canada , Ireland , New Zealand and the United Kingdom .
= = Critical reception = =
According to Q magazine , Like a Virgin was the album that " propelled [ Madonna ] into the stratosphere - and rightly so . The songs are smart , funny , sexy and irresistible . " Taraborrelli said , " It was Like a Virgin which reflected Madonna as a more versatile and artistic performer and vocals on this album being reflectively sharper in contrast to her early works in the music industry . " Michael Paoletta from Billboard commented that the songs on the album sustain a " fevered dance @-@ rock momentum " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic commented , " Overall , the album adds up to less than the sum of its parts — partially because the singles are so good , but also because on the first album , she stunned with style and a certain joy . Here , the calculation is apparent , and while that 's part of Madonna 's essence — even something that makes her fun — it throws the record 's balance off a little too much for it to be consistent , even if it justifiably made her a star . " Debby Miller from Rolling Stone preferred Madonna 's debut album over Like a Virgin . In The Village Voice , Robert Christgau was also lukewarm towards the record , writing " [ Madonna 's ] so sure of herself she 's asking men and women both to get the hots for the calculating bitch who sells the fantasy even while she bids for the sincerity market where long @-@ term superstars ply their trade . And to make the music less mechanical , she 's hired Nile Rodgers , who I won 't blame for making it less catchy . "
Jim Farber from Entertainment Weekly said that " In addition to raising the Madonna / whore ante with songs like the title cut , Virgin cradled the kind of ' 80s hits ( " Dress You Up " ) built to transcend the Dynasty era . " Alfred Soto from Styl
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focuses on the synergy of dreams and reality .
After Paprika , Kon teamed up with Mamoru Oshii and Makoto Shinkai to create the 2007 NHK television production Ani * Kuri15 , for which Kon created the short Ohayō . That same year , Kon helped establish and served as a member of the Japan Animation Creators Association ( JAniCA ) .
= = = Health deterioration and death = = =
Following Ohayō , Kon began work on his next film , Dreaming Machine . In May 2010 , Kon was diagnosed with terminal pancreatic cancer . Given half a year to live , Kon chose to spend the remainder of his life in his home . Shortly before his death Kon composed a final message , which was uploaded to his blog by his family upon his death . As Kon explained in the message , he chose not to make news of his rapidly advancing illness public , in part out of embarrassment at how drastically emaciated and ravaged his body had become . The result was that the announcement of his death was met with widespread shock and surprise , particularly given that Kon had shown no signs of illness at relatively recent public events , as the cancer progressed to a terminal state in a matter of months after being diagnosed . Kon died on August 24 , 2010 at the age of 46 . After his death , Kon was mentioned among the Fond Farewells in TIME 's people of the year 2010 . Darren Aronofsky wrote a eulogy to him , which was printed in Satoshi Kon 's Animation Works ( 今敏アニメ全仕事 ) , a Japanese retrospective book of his animation career .
As of 2013 , the completion of Dreaming Machine remains uncertain due to funding difficulties , with only 600 of the 1500 shots being animated . At Otakon 2012 , Madhouse founder Masao Maruyama stated : " Unfortunately , we still don 't have enough money . My personal goal is to get it within five years after his passing . I 'm still working hard towards that goal . " In July 2015 , Madhouse reported that Dreaming Machine remains in production but they are looking for a director to match Kon 's abilities and similar vision .
= = Themes = =
When asked about his interest in female characters , Kon stated that female characters were easier to write because he is not able to know the character in the same way as a male character , and " can project my obsession onto the characters and expand the aspects I want to describe . " With a frame of reference up to Tokyo Godfathers , Susan J. Napier notes that while the theme of performance is the one obvious commonality in his works , she finds that the concept of the male gaze is the more important topic for discussion . Napier shows the evolution of Kon 's use of the gaze from its restrictive and negative aspects in Magnetic Rose and Perfect Blue , to a collaborative gaze in Millennium Actress before arriving at a new type of gaze in Tokyo Godfathers which revels in uncertainty and illusion .
Dean DeBlois said , " Satoshi Kon used the hand @-@ drawn medium to explore social stigmas and the human psyche , casting a light on our complexities in ways that might have failed in live action . Much of it was gritty , intense , and at times , even nightmarish . Kon didn 't shy away from mature subject matter or live @-@ action sensibilities in his work , and his films will always occupy a fascinating middle ground between ' cartoons ' and the world as we know it . "
= = Influences = =
Satoshi Kon 's most prominent influences were the works of Philip K. Dick and Yasutaka Tsutsui . Kon viewed various manga and anime up until high school . He was particularly fond of Space Battleship Yamato , Future Boy Conan , Galaxy Express 999 ( 1978 ) , Mobile Suit Gundam and Domu : A Child 's Dream . Western films also served as an influence , most notably George Roy Hill 's Slaughterhouse @-@ Five ( 1972 ) , The City of Lost Children ( 1995 ) and the works of Terry Gilliam ( particularly Time Bandits ( 1981 ) , Brazil ( 1985 ) and The Adventures of Baron Munchausen ( 1989 ) ) . In addition to Gilliam , he also blogged about watching Monty Python . He was fond of the works of Akira Kurosawa , and worked in a reference to him in Paprika . However he claimed to be largely unfamiliar with Japanese film in general .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Manga = = =
= = = Other literary works = = =
= Drama dari Krakatau =
Drama dari Krakatau ( [ drˈama daˈri kraˈkatau ] ; Drama of Krakatoa ) is a 1929 vernacular Malay novel written by Kwee Tek Hoay . Inspired by Edward Bulwer @-@ Lytton 's 1834 novel The Last Days of Pompeii and the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa , the sixteen @-@ chapter book centres on two families in 1920s Batam that are unknowingly tied together by siblings who were separated in 1883 . The brother becomes a political figure , while the sister marries a Baduy priest @-@ king . Ultimately these families are reunited by the wedding of their children , after which the priest sacrifices himself to calm a stirring Krakatoa .
First published as a serial in Kwee 's magazine Panorama between 7 April and 22 December 1928 , Drama dari Krakatau was written over a period of two months after the author was asked to prepare a " sensational " story for a film . Before the final instalment had been published , the novel had already been adapted for the stage . Although Kwee was known as a realist and researched the volcano before writing , Drama dari Krakatau is replete with mysticism . Thematic analyses have focused on the depiction of indigenous cultures by Kwee ( himself ethnic Chinese ) , as well as geography and nationalism . As with other works of Chinese Malay literature , the book is not considered part of the Indonesian literary canon .
= = Plot = =
In 1883 , Krakatoa begins stirring for the first time in 200 years . In the nearby village of Waringin , Sadidjah confides to her husband , village head Tjakra Amidjaja , that she has had a bad dream about the volcano ; she fears that it will be the death of them . Tjakra Amidjaja consoles her , and tells her that they will leave the village in two days . In the meantime , the volcano grows increasingly violent and Tjakra Amidjaja and Sadidjah stay behind to manage the evacuation . They send their children , Hasan and Soerijati , to stay with family in Rangkas Gombong . Krakatoa erupts several hours later . The village is wiped out in the resulting tsunami , and Soerijati is lost after she falls out of the carriage she is in ; Hasan , however , arrives safely in Rangkas Gombong .
Forty @-@ four years pass . Moelia , the son of the Regent of Rangkas Gombong and Assistant Wedana of Sindanglaut , hears of a Baduy priest , Noesa Brama , who is curing the sick and injured . Moelia travels to Mount Ciwalirang to interview him , and finds Noesa Brama an intelligent and well @-@ spoken man . Over lunch Moelia falls in love with the priest 's daughter , Retna Sari . He learns that she must marry a man of equal standing to her father , one who is " no less than the Sultan of Yogyakarta or the Sunan of Solo " . Upon returning home , Moelia realises that Noesa Brama must be the last male descendent of the Hindu kings of Pajajaran , and that both Retna Sari and her mother bear a striking resemblance to his own grandmother . Several days later , he returns to the mountain and overhears a group of men from Palembang planning to kidnap Retna Sari . He chases them away , then briefly visits Noesa Brama before returning home . Though he attempts to forget Retna Sari , he is unable to do so .
The following week , the men from Palembang lie to the police , leading to Noesa Brama 's arrest for planning a rebellion ; the men then persuade Retna Sari and her mother to follow them to Sumatra . Learning of this , Moelia arranges for Noesa Brama 's release . The priest returns home to find that his wife and daughter have gone – seemingly willingly – with the men from Palembang , while Moelia takes a steamboat and chases the kidnappers . Before he can stop them , Krakatoa erupts again , overturning the fleeing ship . Moelia barely has enough time to rescue the women before the mountain erupts a second time , killing the fugitives .
Moelia informs his father , revealed to be Hasan , of the eruptions , and the older man comes to his son 's home . There he meets Retna Sari and her mother . They discover that Retna Sari 's mother is Soerijati , explaining the familial resemblance . She reveals that she had been found and raised by Noesa Brama 's father ; she also tells of a statue of Vishnu in a cave atop Mount Ciwalirang with the inscription " At the time when I am damaged , the land and all your descendants will be destroyed , cursed by Rakata 's anger " , damage to which the priests believe caused the Krakatoa eruption . Unknown to them , Noesa Brama – enraged at the thought of his daughter marrying a commoner – has deliberately destroyed this statue by throwing it down a well , causing the eruption which stopped the fugitives .
Moelia and his family depart for Ciwalirang the following morning , hoping that Noesa Brama will consent to the marriage of Moelia and Retna Sari . The priest accepts the proposal , but expresses regret over the destruction of the statue after he discovers that Retna Sari and Soerijati had not gone willingly with the men from Palembang . He weds Moelia and Retna Sari and has them promise that their first son will be raised a Hindu and become king of the Baduy ; he then surrenders all his power to his daughter . Later , hoping that his spirit and those of his ancestors can control the volcano , Noesa Brama secretly commits suicide by jumping into the well . Several weeks later , activity at the volcano drops , although it remains active .
= = Writing = =
Drama dari Krakatau was written by the journalist Kwee Tek Hoay . Born to an ethnic Chinese textile merchant and his native wife , Kwee had been raised in the Chinese culture and educated at schools that focused on preparing students for life in a modern world , as opposed to promoting tradition for its own sake . By the time he wrote the novel , Kwee was an active proponent of Buddhist teachings . He also wrote extensively on themes relating to the archipelago 's indigenous population , and was a keen social observer . He read extensively in Dutch , English , and Malay and drew on these influences after becoming a writer . His first novel , Djadi Korbannja " Perempoean Hina " ( The Victim of a " Contemptible Woman " ) , was published in 1924 .
In 1928 Kwee was asked by a friend , who was hoping to establish a film company , to write a " sensational " story which could be used as the basis for a movie . Ongoing activity at Krakatoa was foremost in the author 's mind and , after reading Edward Bulwer @-@ Lytton 's 1834 novel The Last Days of Pompeii , Kwee asked himself " is it impossible for one to write a drama about Krakatoa ? " Owing to the length of time between the 1883 and 1928 eruptions , Kwee decided to begin his story with the separation of two young siblings . Further elements of the story were inspired by the mountain @-@ dwelling Baduy , a group which tended to avoid outsiders and claimed to be descended from the Hindu kings of Pajajaran .
Kwee thought himself a realist , considering it " better to say things as they are , than to create events out of nothing , which although perhaps more entertaining and satisfying to viewers or readers , are falsehoods and lies , going against the truth . " He was highly critical of contemporary writers who relied more on their fantasies than logic and truth . Hoping to keep his story grounded in reality , Kwee researched the history of the Baduy , the geological formation of Krakatoa , and the events of 1883 and 1928 ; in total he consulted 15 books , all in English or Dutch . Writing began on 19 March 1928 and was completed on 28 May of that year . Drama dari Krakatau consists of sixteen chapters , which were spread over 125 pages in the first printing .
= = Themes = =
Although Kwee was a staunch supporter of realism in literature , Drama dari Krakatau includes a degree of mysticism , as evidenced by the apparent connection between the statue in the cave and the eruption of Krakatoa . Indeed , in many of his writings ( both fiction and non @-@ fiction ) , Kwee exhibited an interest in the occult ; this includes writing detailed depictions of Therese Neumann , a fasting girl from Germany ; and Omar Khayyám , a Persian Sufi mystic , philosopher and poet . The Indonesian literary critic Jakob Sumardjo finds the mystical elements ( and the fact that no Hindu @-@ era statues with inscriptions have been found ) detract from the overall value of the novel .
Kwee 's work is the earliest of three Chinese Malay novels which were inspired by volcanic eruptions . The second , Liem Khing Hoo 's Meledaknja Goenoeng Keloet ( The Eruption of Mount Kelud ) , was inspired by Kelud in East Java and was published in the monthly magazine Tjerita Roman in 1929 . The third , Kwee 's Drama dari Merapie ( Drama of Merapi ) , was inspired by Central Java 's Mount Merapi and was published as a serial in Moestika Romans from March to September 1931 . Volcanic eruptions also featured in contemporary Chinese Malay poetry . Claudine Salmon records one syair , Ong Tjong Sian 's Sair Petjanja Goenoeng Krakatau ( Syair on the Eruption of Mount Krakatoa ; 1929 ) , as dealing with the community 's fears after Krakatoa resumed activity .
Unlike many contemporary works by ethnic Chinese authors , Drama dari Krakatau features no Chinese characters in major roles ; the only such characters are mentioned in passing , shopowners who provide emergency food supplies to the regent . Historically , Malay @-@ language works by ethnic Chinese authors centred on Chinese characters , to the point that terms such as tanah @-@ air ( homeland ) were often understood to mean mainland China , rather than the Malay Archipelago or Dutch East Indies . Chinese Malay works which featured exclusively indigenous characters had only developed in the 1920s . Uncommonly for ethnic Chinese writers of this period , Kwee attempts to centre the novel around indigenous people and present it from their perspective , " impersonating " these indigenous cultures through his narrative .
As with many stories with predominantly indigenous casts , Drama dari Krakatau is set in a rural area , far from the cities where the ethnic Chinese populace were concentrated . Geography plays a major role . The novel starts on a macro scale , depicting the origins of the archipelago from rising sea levels caused by the sinking of Poseidonis , then progresses increasingly towards the micro scale , passing through views of Java , Sumatra , and Krakatoa , before focusing on the home of Tjakra Amidjaja and the beginning of the plot . A later passage details the view from Mount Ciwalirang , showing Java , Krakatoa and Sumatra .
The Indonesian literary scholar Melani Budianta argues that this " geographic panorama " , combined with the sympathetic depiction of other cultures and religions , shows elements of nationalism in the novel ; such a theme has also been found in Kwee 's Drama dari Boeven Digoel ( Drama of Boeven Digoel ; 1938 ) . She writes that the panoramic views of the archipelago " help the readers to imagine the geography of a nation yet to be united " , whereas the " impersonation " presents a " region of theosophy where religious difference is unified in the belief of goodness . "
= = Publication history and reception = =
Drama dari Krakatau was first published in serial form in Kwee 's magazine Panorama , between 7 April and 22 December 1928 . This serial was then published as a novel by Hoa Siang In Kiok in 1929 . A new printing , adopting the 1972 spelling reform , was included in the second volume of Kesastraan Melayu Tionghoa dan Kebangsaan Indonesia , an anthology of Chinese Malay literature . This volume also included Kwee 's novella Roema Sekola jang Saja Impiken ( The Schoolhouse of My Dreams ; 1925 ) and the novel Boenga Roos dari Tjikembang ( The Rose of Cikembang ; 1927 ) .
As with Kwee 's earlier work Boenga Roos dari Tjikembang , an adaptation of Drama dari Krakatau was performed on stage before its completion . On 28 March 1928 , the Moon Opera performed Drama dari Krakatau at Pasar Senen in Weltevreden , Batavia ( now Senen , Jakarta ) . The troupe performed the story again on 31 March and 5 April , the latter at Mangga Besar , Batavia . Kwee prepared the story for the performances , abbreviating and simplifying it for the stage . One of the main difficulties , he wrote , was presenting Krakatoa on stage : it was a technical challenge , yet could not be abandoned as " performing this play without showing the eruption of Krakatoa would be like performing Hamlet without the Prince of Denmark . "
As with all works written in vernacular Malay , the novel has not been considered part of the Indonesian literary canon . In his doctoral thesis , J. Francisco B. Benitez posits a socio @-@ political cause for this . The Dutch colonial government used Court Malay as a " language of administration " , a language for everyday dealings , while the Indonesian nationalists appropriated the language to help build a national culture . Chinese Malay literature , written in " low " Malay , was steadily marginalised . Sumardjo , however , sees a question of classification : though vernacular Malay was the lingua franca of the time , it was not Indonesian , and as such , he asks whether works in vernacular Malay should be classified as local literature , Indonesian literature , or simply Chinese Malay literature .
= = Explanatory notes = =
= 1992 Queensland storms =
The 1992 Queensland storms were a series of thunderstorms which struck southeastern Queensland , Australia on 29 November 1992 . The storms produced strong winds , flash flooding and large hailstones in the region , including the capital city of Brisbane . The storms also spawned two of the most powerful tornadoes recorded in Australia , including the only Australian tornado to be given an official ' F4 ' classification on the Fujita scale .
The meteorological instability in the region resulted in the formation of at least five supercell thunderstorms in the space of around three hours . The storms , which spawned progressively further up the coast from Brisbane to Gladstone as the afternoon progressed , left a trail of damage resulting from hail , rain and wind . The event has been described as " one of the most widespread outbreaks of severe thunderstorms recorded " by veteran meteorologist Richard Whitaker .
= = Climatology and conditions = =
November is traditionally the start of the thunderstorm season along the eastern seaboard of Australia , with a rise in average humidity and warmer ground temperatures combining with more frequent occurrences of cool air in the upper atmosphere . These conditions are conducive for producing severe thunderstorms , particularly those which feature hail .
The conditions on Sunday , 29 November were extremely unsettled . There were a series of thunderstorm cells that formed early in the morning — despite it being more common for thunderstorms to form in the late afternoon in the south @-@ east Queensland region . These storms , which had periodic bursts of severe lightning , cleared quickly .
Thunderstorms began to form again just before midday , as the hot and humid conditions became more acute in the middle part of the day . The Bureau of Meteorology radar picked up a series of cells to the north @-@ west of Brisbane , the capital of Queensland , and the data suggested that there was a possibility of large hail . The Bureau immediately issued a Severe Thunderstorm Warning for the coastal region between Brisbane and the Sunshine Coast , 100 km to the north .
The main cell in the thunderstorm system appeared from Bureau of Meteorology radar analysis to split into two separate and distinct cells . This development resulted in one part of the major storm to head north , to Maroochydore , while the other part headed south towards Brisbane . The southern cell struck Brisbane just after 1 : 00pm , with intense lightning activity and hailstones the size of marbles falling . The storm caused a lengthy delay during the First Test of the series between Australia and the West Indies , when hail forced play to be stopped at the Brisbane Cricket Ground around 1 : 15pm .
The northern cell continued to intensify throughout the afternoon . The Bureau of Meteorology then recognised it as a supercell , which often bring erratic developments and often last for long periods of time . The storm dropped hailstones which were between eight and ten centimeters around Maroochydore , on the Sunshine Coast , damaging the roofs of around 80 houses in the area . The hail also damaged aircraft at a local airport and dented cars , as well as inflicting injuries to a handful of swimmers at beaches near Maroochydore .
= = Tornadoes = =
The extreme instability in this area caused at least three more severe supercells in the region . Two separate cells both produced a tornado that were recorded as two of the most powerful in Australian history . The third supercell , which formed just after 3 : 00pm ( immediately after the two tornadoes ) near Gladstone , produced golf ball @-@ sized hail that caused crop damage around Gladstone . The total damage to crops from the event was placed in the millions ( A $ ) .
= = = Oakhurst tornado = = =
Early in the afternoon , another supercell developed around the town of Maryborough , around 300 km north of Brisbane . It developed rapidly also , and at 2 : 30pm a number of reports sent to the Bureau of Meteorology reported a tornado had touched down in Oakhurst , a rural area 10 km west of Maryborough . However , due to the low population density in the area the reported damage was sparse , with one house destroyed , several others unroofed and hundreds of trees were snapped .
Upon investigation and analysis of measurements and the damage caused by the tornado , it was given a rating of ' F3 ' on the Fujita scale . This was one of the most powerful tornadoes ever recorded in Australia , and the scale indicated the tornado may have produced winds of between 252 and 300 kilometres per hour .
= = = Bucca tornado = = =
Only minutes after the Oakhurst tornado , another supercell developed to the south @-@ west of Bundaberg , around 400 km north of Brisbane and 150 km north of the Oakhurst tornado . It strengthened and moved in a north @-@ east direction , causing severe damage to Bullyard and Bucca areas with giant hailstones , described as the size of a " cricket ball " .
The supercell then spawned a tornado in the Bucca and Kolan area . According to reports by meteorologists , the tornado was so strong and the effects caused on the area it hit were so extreme that household appliances were displaced , small objects were embedded in trees and house walls , and " a 3 @-@ tonne truck body was carried 300 metres across the ground " . However , as with Oakhurst , the rural nature of the area affected limited the damage caused by the tornado .
Examination by a severe weather team from the Bureau of Meteorology examined the damage in the Bucca and Kolan region and recorded it as an ' F4 ' on the Fujita scale . This corresponds to the tornado being able to produce winds between 331 and 417 kilometres per hour and of ' devastating ' intensity . This is the first tornado ever to be recorded as an F4 in Australian history .
= Turkey Tolson Tjupurrula =
Turkey Tolson Tjupurrula ( sometimes just Turkey Tolson ; c . 1938 – 10 August 2001 ) was a Pintupi @-@ speaking Indigenous artist from Australia 's Western Desert region . Born near Haasts Bluff , Northern Territory , Turkey Tolson was a major figure in the Papunya Tula art movement , and the longest @-@ serving chairman of the company formed to represent its artists .
A painter whose creative output spanned nearly three decades , controversy erupted briefly in 1999 , when disputed declarations were made by the artist regarding whether some works under his signature had been painted by some female relatives . Creator of the work Straightening spears at Ilyingaungau ( 1990 ) , Tolson 's paintings are held by several major Australian public galleries , including the Art Gallery of South Australia , National Gallery of Victoria and the National Museum of Australia .
= = Life = =
Son of Toba Tjakamarra , one of the first Pintupi people to come into European settlements out of the Western Desert , Turkey Tolson was born near Haasts Bluff , west of Alice Springs , Northern Territory . Sources differ on his birth year : researcher and art historian Vivien Johnson gives an estimate of 1938 , while the National Museum of Australia suggests 1943 . His mother was one of Toba 's three wives : the other two ( his stepmothers ) were the artists Wintjiya Napaltjarri and Tjunkiya Napaltjarri . He had five half @-@ siblings , the children of Toba and Wintjiya : Bundy ( born 1953 ) , Lindsey ( born 1961 and now deceased ) , Rubilee ( born 1955 ) , Claire ( born 1958 ) and Eileen ( born 1960 ) .
'Tjupurrula ' ( in Pintupi ) ( also commonly seen as ' Jupurrula ' , this being the Warlpiri spelling ) is a skin name , one of sixteen used to denote the subsections or subgroups in the kinship system of central Australian Indigenous people . These names define kinship relationships that influence preferred marriage partners and may be associated with particular totems . Although they may be used as terms of address , they are not surnames in the sense used by Europeans . Thus ' Turkey Tolson ' is the element of the artist 's name that is specifically his .
As a young man , Turkey Tolson worked in construction and as a stockman around Haasts Bluff , and was a skilled spear @-@ thrower . He only came to know his birth country in 1959 , after his initiation . He married and with his family moved to Papunya , Northern Territory at the time of its construction . His first wife died , and after remarrying to Mary Napanungka in 1984 he moved to Kintore , which lies within his family 's traditional country . Later in life he suffered heart trouble , and was in Alice Springs receiving dialysis treatment at the time of his death on 10 August 2001 .
= = Art = =
Contemporary Indigenous Australian art arose in western desert communities when Indigenous men at Papunya began painting in 1971 , assisted by teacher Geoffrey Bardon . Soon afterwards they established Papunya Tula , a company owned and controlled by the artists , which went on to be Australia 's pre @-@ eminent Indigenous art centre . Turkey Tolson was one of the first to paint – his name appears in the company 's records in 1973 ; he was also one of the youngest . He was influential within the Papunya Tula movement and spent a period as the longest @-@ serving chairman of the company . In addition to painting , Turkey Tolson also made prints , with an example held in the collection of the National Gallery of Australia .
Turkey Tolson 's painting style developed in two broad phases . His early work was classical , tightly controlled and with a strong sense of symmetry characterising the geometrical arrangement of symbols and the patterns of dots surrounding them . Works from the mid @-@ 1970s , painted at Papunya , show this iconography . They include Dreaming at Kamparrarrpa ( Kampurarrpa ) ( 1976 ) , Kampurrarrpa ( Kampurarrpa ) ( 1976 ) Two Women Mythology at Putja Rockhole ( 1977 ) , and Tjunyinkya ( 1977 ) , all held by the National Museum of Australia , and all painted in synthetic polymer paint . Turkey Tolson collaborated with Johnny Scobie Tjapanangka , a fellow Papunya artist , in creating the last of the works .
After his father 's death , the artist took over ceremonial responsibility for his country . This shift to a senior place in the community was associated with a looser style and a more individualised iconography . It was during this period that he created the work Straightening spears at Ilyingaungau ( 1990 ) , held by the Art Gallery of South Australia . This painting was described by both art expert Vivian Johnson and critic Susan McCulloch @-@ Uehlin as his masterpiece , and by obituarist Rebecca Hossack as his most famous work : " a series of shimmering horizontal lines representing spears being heated and straightened over a fire by Tolson 's ancestors " . This and other similar works were described by art critic Susan McCulloch @-@ Uehlin as representing not only the preparation of the spears , but also elements of Dreamings concerning fights between ancestral figures at a rock bluff west of Alice Springs .
In 1999 , controversy erupted when Tolson signed a statutory declaration in which he stated that , in return for payments , he had put his signature on paintings that had been created by some of his female relatives , but then , shortly afterwards , signed a contradictory declaration . The case raised important questions about the nature of Aboriginal art , and about the " corrupting " effects of the art market . Anthropologist Fred Myers analysed the case , and concluded that the issue was not that Turkey Tolson was painting for money , or even being paid money . Rather , " Turkey ’ s work is threatened by corruption because the conditions of his presence in Alice Springs – his need for more regular income and his dealer ’ s need for ' product ' – draw him away from the experiences that inform his painting . "
Major exhibitions in which Turkey Tolson 's work has featured have included Papunya Tula : Out of the Australian desert at the National Museum of Australia in 2010 , and Almanac : The gift of Ann Lewis AO at the Museum of Contemporary Art , Sydney , also in 2010 . The following year , his painting Spear straightening ceremony ( 1993 ) was included in a Newcastle Region Art Gallery exhibition , Speaking in Colour .
= = Major collections = =
Art Gallery of New South Wales
Art Gallery of South Australia
National Gallery of Australia
National Gallery of Victoria
National Museum of Australia
= New York State Route 117 =
New York State Route 117 ( NY 117 ) is a 15 @.@ 57 @-@ mile ( 25 @.@ 06 km ) state highway in Westchester County , New York , in the United States . The southern terminus of the route is at an intersection with U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) north of the village of Sleepy Hollow . The northern terminus is at an interchange with the Saw Mill River Parkway south of Katonah , a hamlet in the town of Bedford . NY 117 meets the Taconic State Parkway in Pleasantville and parallels the Saw Mill Parkway from Pleasantville to Bedford .
NY 117 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York and originally extended from Tarrytown to Katonah . The Tarrytown – Pleasantville portion of NY 117 passed through Kykuit , the estate of the Rockefeller family . Construction on a new limited @-@ access highway bypassing the estate to the north began in the late 1960s and was completed in 1971 , at which time NY 117 was realigned to follow the highway . Another highway bypassing Katonah was built in the early 1990s and opened c . 1992 as a realignment of NY 117 .
= = Route description = =
= = = Mount Pleasant and Pleasantville = = =
NY 117 begins just north of the village of Sleepy Hollow at an interchange with US 9 ( Broadway ) in the town of Mount Pleasant . The route proceeds generally northeastward along Phelps Way , a four @-@ lane , divided highway bypass of Sleepy Hollow and Kykuit , the Rockefeller family 's estate . For its first 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) , the highway runs through a wooded area along the northern edge of the Rockefeller State Park Preserve , crossing under several of the park 's hiking and walking trails . Phelps Way ends at the northeastern tip of the park , where NY 117 intersects with the northern terminus of NY 448 at Bedford Road . While NY 448 ends here , Bedford Road continues on as part of NY 117 .
After NY 448 , NY 117 becomes a four @-@ lane , undivided at @-@ grade street as it heads northeast through a residential area of Mount Pleasant . Just past the NY 448 junction , NY 117 enters adjacent interchanges with Saw Mill River Road ( NY 9A and NY 100 ) and the northbound direction of the Taconic State Parkway near Graham Hills County Park . From here , the highway passes south of Pace University 's Pleasantville campus on its way into the village of Pleasantville , where it narrows to two lanes and initially serves mostly commercial neighborhoods . NY 117 remains on Bedford Road for its first few blocks in Pleasantville ; however , it veers northeast onto Manville Road just southwest of the community 's central business district .
As Manville Road , the highway heads past five residential blocks , connecting to the southbound direction of the Saw Mill River Parkway before entering Pleasantville 's commercial center at Memorial Plaza . Within Memorial Plaza is Metro @-@ North Railroad 's Pleasantville station , located on the south side of NY 117 . After crossing the Metro @-@ North tracks , the route continues east along several commercial blocks before turning to the northeast and entering another residential section of Pleasantville . The highway eventually reaches the northern edge of the village , where it rejoins Bedford Road at a junction with the northern terminus of NY 141 . NY 117 turns north here , following Bedford Road out of Pleasantville and into the nearby town of New Castle .
= = = New Castle , Chappaqua and Mount Kisco = = =
Upon crossing into New Castle , NY 117 changes names to South Bedford Road . The road takes a generally northeasterly track away from the town line to the hamlet of Chappaqua , a community just 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) from the center of Pleasantville . NY 117 serves as Chappaqua 's main north – south street , passing by commercial and residential neighborhoods ahead of an intersection with NY 120 ( King Street ) in Chappaqua 's center . NY 120 turns north here , overlapping with NY 117 for one block before splitting off to the west on Quaker Road . NY 117 continues north from this point as North Bedford Road , passing a strip mall before leaving Chappaqua .
Outside of Chappaqua , NY 117 loosely parallels the Saw Mill River Parkway as it winds its way northeastward across residential parts of New Castle . The two parallel roads connect again by way of Roaring Brook Road , a four @-@ lane arterial located midway between Chappaqua and the next community along NY 117 , the village of Mount Kisco . Roaring Brook Road also connects NY 117 and the Saw Mill River Parkway to the global headquarters of Reader 's Digest , which comprises a large complex bounded by NY 117 to the east and the Metro @-@ North tracks to the west . From here , NY 117 takes on a more pronounced northeasterly alignment that takes the route past Mount Kisco Country Club and into the village of Mount Kisco .
Just inside the village limits , NY 117 meets the north end of NY 128 at Park Avenue . Past Park Avenue , NY 117 continues north through Mount Kisco , changing names to Main Street ahead of the village 's central business district . Here , the route enters a junction with the western terminus of NY 172 ( South Bedford Road ) at the main entrance to Northern Westchester Hospital . The commercial surroundings continue north for another eight blocks to Jeff Feigel Square , where NY 117 connects to the east end of NY 133 . Main Street turns northwest onto NY 133 while NY 117 splits to the northeast along Bedford Road .
= = = Mount Kisco , Bedford , and Bedford Hills = = =
As the route heads away from Main Street , it proceeds through a brief wooded , residential area before entering a commercial district surrounding Mount Kisco Commons . Several businesses and an industrial complex follow after as NY 117 continues northeast through the northernmost part of Mount Kisco and into the town of Bedford . Across the town line , the development along the route remains commercial as the road parallels the nearby railroad tracks and the Saw Mill River Parkway to the northwest . About 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) from Mount Kisco , NY 117 enters the hamlet of Bedford Hills , where the route initially serves residential neighborhoods .
In the commercial center of the community , NY 117 serves the Bedford Hills Metro @-@ North station before widening to four lanes as it crosses the railroad tracks and connects to exit 39 of the Saw Mill River Parkway . For the next mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , NY 117 runs alongside the northern edge of the Saw Mill River Parkway as it heads through another residential part of Bedford Hills as a two @-@ lane road . At Harris Road , the route turns southeastward , crossing the parkway and the adjacent railroad tracks again as it intersects with the parkway 's exit 42 . NY 117 's southeastward run on Harris Road ends just past the railroad crossing , where the highway turns northeast onto an unnamed road leading to a commercial and industrial area south of the hamlet of Katonah . After turning onto the highway , NY 117 serves various businesses before the route ends at the southbound @-@ only exit 43 of the Saw Mill River Parkway . NY 117 northbound feeds into the northbound direction of the parkway , while exit 43 serves as the start of NY 117 southbound .
= = History = =
= = = Origins and local realignments = = =
NY 117 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . It initially began at the junction of Bedford and County House Roads in Tarrytown ( both part of NY 9A at the time ) and followed Bedford Road northeast to NY 132 ( now NY 35 ) at Jay Street in Katonah . NY 9A was realigned c . 1939 to follow Sleepy Hollow Road instead , bypassing Tarrytown completely . The former routing of NY 9A on Bedford Road to US 9 became a short extension of NY 117 . The route was also extended on its northern end in the mid @-@ 1970s after NY 35 was moved onto a new highway that bypassed Katonah to the north .
On September 1 , 1980 , ownership and maintenance of NY 117 between Manville Road southwest of the Pleasantville village limits and Broadway within Pleasantville was transferred from the state of New York to Westchester County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . In return , ownership and maintenance of the entirety of Manville Road through Pleasantville was given to the state of New York from Westchester County . NY 117 was rerouted to follow Manville Road while NY 141 was extended one block north along NY 117 's former routing to intersect Manville Road . The remainder of NY 117 's former routing is now County Route 27A ( CR 27A ) from Manville Road to the Pleasantville village line , part of CR 106 from View Street to Pleasantville Road , and CR 27 from the Mount Pleasant village line to View Street and from Pleasantville Road to NY 141 .
= = = Phelps Way = = =
The portion of NY 117 's original routing between Tarrytown and Pleasantville passed through the center of Kykuit , the estate of the Rockefeller family , and was designed to handle 1 @,@ 900 cars per day . The actual volume of traffic on the roadway was much higher as the actual average annual daily traffic reached upwards of 5 @,@ 000 vehicles per day . As a result , the Rockefeller family looked into having the route realigned as early as 1932 . The family suggested that a new highway be built along the northern end of the estate .
In 1965 , Rockefeller unveiled plans for the Potantico Expressway , a connector from the to @-@ be @-@ constructed Hudson River Expressway ( NY 9A ) to the Taconic State Parkway . Some opposition to the idea arose on the grounds that the new highway would only benefit the Rockefeller estate and not the residents . Nonetheless , construction began on the Potantico Expressway ( now known as Phelps Way ) in 1969 . When the highway was completed in 1971 , it became part of a rerouted NY 117 . NY 117 's former alignment along Bedford Road became NY 448 . The Hudson River Expressway project was cancelled in 1971 , and the western stub of the expressway now serves Phelps Hospital .
= = = Katonah Bypass = = =
The easternmost portion of NY 117 in Katonah passed through a historic district containing several homes dating back to the late 19th century . Following the construction of nearby I @-@ 684 in 1968 , this segment of NY 117 became a truck route between the Interstate Highway and industrial areas along NY 117 south of Katonah . While the Saw Mill River Parkway would have provided an alternate route to I @-@ 684 from NY 117 , commercial traffic was prohibited from using the highway . The trucks that used NY 117 would shake the historic homes as it passed through the hamlet , causing small amounts of damage to the structures . A study analyzing the issue of truck traffic along NY 117 in Katonah began in 1976 at the request of the town of Bedford .
The study was completed in 1978 , at which time the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) concluded that traffic would never become heavy enough along NY 117 to bring about a need for a bypass . However , the state continued to keep abreast of the situation and eventually performed a second study in 1983 . Unlike the first study , this one found traffic along the highway to be on the rise . As a result , the state began making plans to construct a bypass that would divert truck traffic away from Katonah . Over the next three years , NYSDOT proposed a total of nine different routings for the bypass . The route selected by the town of Bedford would begin at Harris Road and head north and east to the Saw Mill Parkway , which it would merge into . An exception would then be made to allow commercial traffic on the parkway between the Katonah Bypass and I @-@ 684 . The routing of the highway , projected to cost $ 8 @.@ 7 million ( equivalent to $ 18 @.@ 1 million in 2016 ) , was approved in November 1987 .
In October 1990 , NYSDOT accepted a low bid of $ 8 @.@ 5 million ( equivalent to $ 15 @.@ 4 million in 2016 ) for the project , clearing the way for construction to begin on the bypass by the following month . The Katonah Bypass opened c . 1992 and became part of a realigned NY 117 . The portion of Bedford Road from Harris Road to NY 35 is now maintained by the town of Bedford .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Westchester County .
= Mortal Kombat ( 2011 video game ) =
Mortal Kombat is the ninth main installment in the Mortal Kombat series of fighting video games . It is a reboot of the franchise and was developed by NetherRealm Studios and published exclusively by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment . The game was released for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 systems in April 2011 , and a PlayStation Vita port was released in May 2012 . An expanded version of the game , titled Mortal Kombat : Komplete Edition , was released for Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 in February 2012 and for Microsoft Windows in July 2013 .
Although beginning during the events of Mortal Kombat : Armageddon , the plot is a retcon to the earliest period in the Mortal Kombat series , the trilogy of Mortal Kombat , Mortal Kombat II and Mortal Kombat 3 . The storyline involves the divine protector of Earth , Raiden , attempting to change the aftermath of the events of Armageddon by contacting his past self as he faces defeat at the hands of the evil emperor of Outworld , Shao Kahn . While having characters and levels rendered in three @-@ dimensions , the gameplay distances itself from the fully 3D graphics one seen in the last four games , bearing closer resemblance to that of the 2D era of the series , using a camera that is perpendicular to the two @-@ dimensional playing field .
Upon release , Mortal Kombat received very positive reviews and won several awards for fighting game of the year . It was also a commercial success , selling more than two million copies in the first month alone . Due to its extremely violent content , the game was banned in Australia due to the lack of appropriate ratings category , and South Korea , and it has been reportedly indexed in Germany ; the Australian ban was later lifted due to the introduction of an R18 classification and the game was released with many other R rated games in May 2014 . Mortal Kombat was followed by the sequel Mortal Kombat X in 2015 .
= = Gameplay = =
Principal gameplay involves one @-@ on @-@ one 2.5D style fighting . Mortal Kombat uses a single two @-@ dimensional fighting plane ( at 60 frames per second ) , although characters are rendered in three @-@ dimensional fashion , intended to give depth and range to portrayals of various projectiles . Unlike previous Mortal Kombat games , four buttons on the game controller represent attacks and are each linked to a corresponding limb .
A new feature is the " super meter " , which can be charged by various actions during battle such as performing special moves , getting blocked by the opponent , or getting hit by them . The super meter can be charged to three levels , each of them enabling a different action to be performed . At the first level , it can be used to deliver an enhanced version of one of the character 's special attacks ; two levels can be used to interrupt a combo attack , and the full three levels allow for the delivery of a special attack called an " X @-@ ray move " . The X @-@ ray move unleashes a series of attacks during which the game provides an internal view of the character being attacked , which shows their bones and organs being broken or ruptured .
Extra features include a story mode during which the player plays as multiple characters , a Fatality training mode ( allowing players to practice executing finishing moves ) , the Challenge Tower , tag team fighting , and an online mode . The Challenge Tower mode is a single @-@ player option that includes 300 specific challenges of various difficulties providing currency rewards upon completion ; players have the option of using in @-@ game currency to bypass other difficult challenges , completing them later . Among the various challenges are " Test Your Might " ( rapidly pressing buttons and using specific timing to destroy blocks of varying difficulty ) , " Test Your Sight " ( following an object hidden under a cup or skull and revealing the object after a shuffle ) , " Test Your Strike " ( destroying a specific block in a stack ) and " Test Your Luck " ( fighting under certain conditions , such as no jumping ) . The four @-@ player tag @-@ team feature is an original feature , allowing two players to play together . During tag gameplay , two new types of attacks become available . The first of them is the " tag assist " attack , in which the off @-@ screen character temporarily jumps in and performs certain attacks during the active character 's combo . The other is the " tag kombo " , in which the active character performs a combo that is finished by the off @-@ screen character as they enter the fight .
The online mode includes a " King of the Hill " option , where up to eight players can act as spectators and play the winner of a fight . Spectators may also rate the fights and use the " forum " to determine how to perform various combos or moves observed during a fight . A single @-@ use online pass is also included with the game which is mandatory to access the online components . Online passes are also available from the PlayStation Store and Xbox Live Marketplace .
There is also a PlayStation 3 @-@ exclusive 3D display mode , for which 3D glasses are not necessary .
= = Plot = =
The game 's director , Ed Boon , described it as an altered re @-@ telling of the events of the first three Mortal Kombat games ( Mortal Kombat , Mortal Kombat II and Mortal Kombat 3 ) :
" Raiden is about to be killed by Shao Kahn , and just before he delivers the last blow , Raiden sends a mental message to his earlier self by saying that he must win , and the camera rewinds back to Mortal Kombat 1 . The Raiden from Mortal Kombat 1 then gets the message and experiences a premonition . The game then spans Mortal Kombat 1 , 2 , and 3 , retelling the story with an enlightened Raiden , who has changed the course of events . Eventually , everything the player has seen happen before — Liu Kang winning , Lin Kuei turning into cybernetic ninjas , has been altered . You might see a cybernetic character who wasn 't before , and a different version of events . "
= = = Story = = =
Following the events of Mortal Kombat : Armageddon , both the forces of light and darkness have been wiped out , with only the thunder god Raiden and the Outworld emperor Shao Kahn remaining to represent their parties . A severely weakened Raiden is about to be killed by Shao Kahn , but casts a last @-@ minute spell on the shattered pieces of his magical amulet , directing it to contact his past self with the vague message " He must win " .
During the events of the first tournament hosted by Shang Tsung , the past version of Raiden sees visions of the future courtesy of his cracked amulet . Raiden initially comes to the conclusion that fighter Liu Kang is to win the tournament and save Earthrealm from Outworld . Pivotal characters such as Johnny Cage , Sonya Blade , Jax Briggs , Sektor , Cyrax , Nightwolf , Kitana , Jade , and Sub @-@ Zero are introduced , the latter being killed by the hellspawn Scorpion . In time , Liu Kang becomes the only remaining Earthrealm contestant , and succeeds in defeating the Shokan Prince Goro , as well as Shang Tsung . However , Raiden 's amulet continues to deteriorate , a sign that future events remain unchanged . Disappointed with Shang Tsung 's failure , Shao Kahn orders his execution , but relents when the sorcerer suggests holding the second tournament in Outworld . Raiden initially refuses , but is forced to relent when Shang Tsung threatens to unleash Outworld 's armies upon Earthrealm .
As each of the Earthrealm warriors are defeated , the younger Sub @-@ Zero ( originally named Tundra , who adopts the moniker Sub @-@ Zero to honor his fallen brother ) and Smoke arrive in Outworld on Lin Kuei terms , who are also fighting in the tournament . They are pursued by cybernetic Lin Kuei assassins , including Sektor and Cyrax , who attempt to take them back to Earthrealm for automation . Raiden attempts to change the timeline by rescuing Smoke from his transformation , but as a result , the younger Sub @-@ Zero is automated in his place . Also during this time , Kitana uncovers the existence of Mileena , a mutant clone of herself crafted by Shang Tsung on Shao Kahn 's orders . Infuriated by the betrayal , Kitana defects from Kahn and joins the Earthrealm warriors , with Jade following her later on . In the final round of the tournament , Raiden once again tampers with the timeline by substituting Kung Lao for Liu Kang , the original winner of the Outworld tournament , as the champion of the second tournament . Shao Kahn , however , kills Kung Lao near the end of the tournament , with Liu Kang retaliating and mortally wounding the Outworld emperor . Raiden notes the timeline is still unaffected as his amulet continues to deteriorate .
Healed by the sorcerer Quan Chi , Shao Kahn enters into an alliance with the Netherrealm and has Quan Chi resurrect his wife , Sindel . In doing so , they nullify the ward that prevents Kahn 's access to Earthrealm , initiating a full @-@ scale invasion . Shortly afterwards , Raiden prevents the death of Johnny Cage by slaying Motaro . Joined by fighters Kurtis Stryker and Kabal , the Earthrealmers attempt to stop Kahn 's invasion , but many of them are killed by Sindel , who had been vastly empowered by the souls extracted from Shang Tsung 's body , thus killing the sorcerer . Kitana is then overpowered by Sindel 's new strength and is brutally beaten . Kitana , critically injured , pleads to her mother that Shao Kahn has corrupted her , but Sindel ignores and attempts to finish her off . Nightwolf , however , comes in time to stop Sindel and sacrifices himself to kill her . Raiden confronts Quan Chi and , learning of the alliance with Kahn , he realizes that the message " He must win " refers to Kahn himself — if he is allowed to merge Outworld and Earthrealm , he will be punished by the Elder Gods for a violation of the Mortal Kombat code for taking a realm without winning the tournament . Liu Kang , however , blames Raiden for the death of their allies and attacks an approaching Shao Kahn . In an attempt to change history , Raiden accidentally kills Liu Kang . Grief @-@ stricken , Raiden " surrenders " to Shao Kahn . The Elder Gods intervene , restoring Raiden 's strength which he in turn uses to defeat and punish Kahn for breaking the Mortal Kombat code .
After defeating Kahn , Raiden vows to rebuild Earthrealm with survivors Johnny Cage and Sonya Blade . Quan Chi is then revealed to be an agent of Shinnok , who intends to take advantage of the chaos and the elimination of Kahn to conquer both Outworld and Earthrealm in the name of the Netherrealm .
= = = Characters = = =
^ a PlayStation exclusive ^ b Available as downloadable content or as part of the Komplete Edition ^ c Boss character ( nonselectable ) ^ d Secret character
= = Development = =
In a November 2008 interview , Ed Boon stated that game sales for Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe would dictate what features would appear in " the next game " . In 2009 , Midway Games Chicago filed for bankruptcy and was purchased by Warner Bros. Interactive . This led the game to be developed by NetherRealm Studios , becoming the first installment in the series to be published exclusively under the Warner Bros. label . On June 18 , 2009 , Boon confirmed on his Twitter page that developers were performing motion capture for the game and that it would not feature superheroes . Dan Forden was also expected to return as the music composer for the game . In late 2009 , Boon stated that the franchise was returning to its bloody origins and that the production team were aiming for a " Mature " rating , as opposed to the " Teen " on the previous game . Boon also showed concern about content being classified under the " Adults Only " rating .
Mortal Kombat was officially revealed on June 10 , 2010 with a release for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 in 2011 . It was revealed at the Sony E3 press conference that Mortal Kombat would be 3D compatible , and Boon said that in dealing with the 3D capability , more attention to detail was required so as to not obstruct the gameplay . Boon said that the extras mode from previous games ( " The Krypt " ) would return with an " elaborate and sophisticated unlocking system " and put " the other games in the series to shame . " He also said they intended for Mortal Kombat to be accessible to the casual player and more " engaging " , with experts on the fighting genre consulted . New features were made to create a deeper fighting experience . Some mild humorous elements were also included , such as the Babality finishing moves . At the time , Boon said that the production team were considering a PC port of Mortal Kombat as " there seems to be a market for [ PC games ] in Europe . "
Mortal Kombat runs on a heavily modified version of the Unreal Engine 3 , similar to the engine used by its predecessor , Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe . Developers recreated the entire fighting engine so that it was restricted to a two @-@ dimensional plane of fighting , with senior producer Hans Lo stating at gamescom 2010 that the change from 3D gameplay to 2D was advantageous for Mortal Kombat , as it increased graphical detail for characters and arenas and improved gameplay speed . Another new mechanic is the inclusion of " blood physics " ( blood loss is portrayed as being more natural and being clearly visible on characters or surroundings ) . Developers stated that online gameplay for Mortal Kombat would be a main priority , declaring interest in capabilities to link the player 's progression feed to their accounts on social networking websites such as Facebook and Twitter , and recreate the feel of socializing with players in an arcade .
According to Dave Pindara , one of lead artists for Mortal Kombat , environments were developed to create active objects and effects such as " scripted cinema events " , " dynamic lighting effects " and " characters and objects that animated and reacted to the fights . " Arena development began with 18 arenas , but development of environments with different times of day and original arenas related to the plot scaled up arena development to roughly 30 arenas . One unique feature is included with each stage such as " The Desert " which has a " sand tech " , allowing for realistic sand motion during characters ' interaction . Dan Forden , lead sound designer , said the intent was to create a " cinematic game audio experience " . Sound effect design included use and enhancement of the " bone @-@ crunching audio design " of previous titles and , while the " dynamic experience " was vital , small details such as the " rustling of fighter 's clothes " and background sounds were also included . Music for each stage was similar to previous games but with " a completely new arrangement " .
Boon said that there was a focus on including characters from the first three Mortal Kombat games and that " if you have a favorite character from those games , you 're probably going to see him or her in the game . " The game 's developers stated that the characters had been designed with the intent to make each character unique – each having his or her own individual stance , victory pose and Fatality with no shared animations . Lead designer John Edwards said that characters are differentiated by features such as power and speed . Producer Shaun Himmerick said that the internal and external character design required " two months or ten weeks " . Boon said that an exclusive character was planned for the Xbox 360 version , but " unfortunately , the circumstances didn 't allow us to make a 360 exclusive . " Ed Boon mentioned that Marcus Fenix of the Gears of War franchise was considered for the Xbox 360 version as the console guest fighter . He also said they were in talks to include Sweet Tooth from Sony 's Twisted Metal franchise .
On April 5 , 2011 , Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment and NetherRealm Studios announced Mortal Kombat was finished and ready for mass production , with pre @-@ orders having gone " gold " . Asked what would be the correct way to call it , for example " MK9 " or " MK2011 " , Boon answered he would say " The Mortal Kombat game they rebooted in 2011 . "
= = Release = =
= = = Promotion = = =
On August 31 , 2010 , a teaser trailer " Shadows " debuted on IGN , featuring a track " Another Way to Die " from the band Disturbed 's album Asylum . On September 28 , 2010 , the slogan " Kombat Begins In ... " appeared with a clock counting down on the Mortal Kombat official website , the countdown ending on Monday October 11 , 2010 . At the conclusion of the countdown , a link to the Facebook page was added to the website and an accompanying Facebook application was also released that showcased a teaser trailer for the game .
On October 4 , 2010 , the " Environment Bio " trailer of the Mortal Kombat arena , The Pit , was released to explain the in @-@ game backstory on its origins and evolution . Similar videos featuring The Living Forest , the Dead Pool , and Kahn 's Coliseum were released afterward , also explaining background information on the stages . In a similar fashion , character profile videos were released for Scorpion , Sub @-@ Zero , Mileena , Liu Kang and Raiden . In April 2011 , Playboy models Jo Garcia and Brittney Palmer ( dressed as Mileena and Kitana , respectively ) promoted the game in a sponsored vlog advertisement . In April 2011 , Bespoke Arcades created a series of arcade machines to promote the game at the Gadget Show Live 2011 . In April 2012 , two live @-@ action cosplay trailers featuring Rachelle Glover ( Kitana ) and Danni Levy ( Mileena ) were released ; they were later combined into one commercial video titled " Fight Anywhere " .
On March 8 , 2011 , a demo version of the game was released for download globally , initially exclusively for PlayStation Plus members . The demo ( an arcade ladder with single- or two @-@ player capability ) showcases four characters ( Johnny Cage , Mileena , Scorpion and Sub @-@ Zero ) and the stages The Living Forest and The Pit . Performance Design Products sponsored the inaugural National Mortal Kombat Championship , which took place in Las Vegas in May 2011 . Mortal Kombat was also internationally presented in the 2011 Evolution Championship Series ( Evo ) , being recognized as a " main tournament fighting game " . Professional gamers Justin Wong ( winner of the PDP championship ) and Carl ' Perfect Legend ' White ( the Evo 2011 champion ) spoke positively of Mortal Kombat 's place in future tournament events .
= = = Retail versions = = =
Mortal Kombat was available for pre @-@ order in three different editions : Standard , Kollector 's Edition ( includes a copy of the game , art book , Sub @-@ Zero and Scorpion figurine bookends and a downloadable content ( DLC ) skin , dubbed a Mortal Kombat Klassic costume ) , and the Tournament Edition ( includes a fight stick controller instead of the bookends and art book ) . A European version of the Kollector 's Edition was also released , which includes the game , art book , a Scorpion & Sub @-@ Zero figurine , a Steelbook case and downloadable skins .
In the United States , pre @-@ orders at retailers Toys " R " Us and Wal @-@ Mart were provided with classic Mortal Kombat skins for Kitana and Mileena , modeled after their Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3 appearances . A classic Jade skin ( also using her UMK3 model ) was also included with preorders of Mortal Kombat or Mortal Kombat : Annihilation on Blu @-@ ray ( both released April 19 , 2011 ) . GameStop , Best Buy and Amazon.com also participated in preorder bonuses and included classic costumes and Fatalities for Scorpion , Sub @-@ Zero and Reptile respectively . Mortal Kombat @-@ themed costumes were also provided for the owners of Xbox 360 avatars who preordered any version of the game .
= = = Downloadable content = = =
Netherrealm Studios released the Klassic DLC pack ( containing the classic outfits and Fatalities that were exclusive to pre @-@ order deals ) on June 7 , 2011 . Downloadable characters include Skarlet ( a red female character based on a rumor about Mortal Kombat II ) , Kenshi ( first introduced in Mortal Kombat : Deadly Alliance ) , Rain ( first seen in Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3 ) , Kratos from the God of War series , and Freddy Krueger from the A Nightmare on Elm Street franchise . A free compatibility pack is available alongside each character that contains " klassic " skins for two characters and is available to all players . A " Season Pass " available to Xbox 360 users offered the first four DLC characters together at an overall discounted price . Warner Bros. is one of the first game companies that introduced the concept of season pass : a long term , pre @-@ paid , post @-@ launch downloadable content plan .
= = = PlayStation Vita port = = =
The PlayStation Vita version of Mortal Kombat was announced on January 18 , 2012 . It was released on May 1 , 2012 in North America and on May 4 in Europe . The Vita version of the game includes all the features from the PlayStation 3 version of Komplete Edition , and adds new costumes and a new Challenge Tower that are not available in the console versions , as well as touchscreen controls for finishing moves and other exclusive features .
= = = Komplete Edition = = =
On January 9 , 2012 , Warner Bros Interactive Entertainment announced Mortal Kombat : Komplete Edition . This version was released for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 on February 28 , 2012 in North America and on March 2 in the United Kingdom , and consists of the game with all of the downloadable content released for it . The North American release also includes download codes for the album Mortal Kombat : Songs Inspired by the Warriors , as well as the 1995 film Mortal Kombat ( available via the PlayStation Store or Xbox Live ) .
In May 2011 , Ed Boon hinted on his Twitter account that a Mac version of the game was more likely than a PC one . By February 2012 , developers stated there were no immediate plans for a PC version , but were " gauging interest " . On May 22 , 2013 , it was announced that the Komplete Edition would be released for Windows on July 3 , 2013 . Initially , the game became only available through Steam but a retail version followed during the first days of August .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Prior to the game 's release , Techtree listed Mortal Kombat as " one of the reasons for people to own a gaming console in 2011 " , with PC Magazine and 2D @-@ X editor Jeffrey L. Wilson claiming this was one of the most anticipated titles of E3 2010 . The E3 2010 showcase version of Mortal Kombat received the Best Fighting Game of E3 and Best Stage Demo of E3 awards by GameSpot , and the Best Fighting Game of E3 award by GameTrailers . Later , Mortal Kombat won several Game of the Year type awards for the best fighting game of 2011 ; some of them are listed in the table on the right .
" Mortal Kombat " has received critical acclaim . GameZone 's David Sanchez considered describing Mortal Kombat as " a fitting reboot for the series " to be an understatement , as " while offering plenty of nostalgia " the game is also " a major step up for the series " . Andrew Reiner of Game Informer called it " the best Mortal Kombat yet . " According to Mark Waltron of GameSpot , " over @-@ the @-@ top , bloody , and bursting with content , Mortal Kombat is a return to form for the franchise . " IGN 's Ryan Clements called it an " amazing " game that " combines the novelty of extreme violence with a great fighting engine . " Neidel Crisan of 1UP.com stated it " has simply set the standard for future fighting games to follow . " Eurogamer 's Matt Edwards was more critical of the game , but added that " to judge Mortal Kombat harshly simply because it isn ’ t the equal of BlazBlue or Street Fighter IV on a technical level would be unfair to what the game does right . " Brett Elston of GamesRadar was also more cautious in his review , stating it is " a successful sequel that both reboots and redeems the wayward series , though it ’ s not a flawless victory . "
Mortal Kombat 's gameplay was generally well received due to its balance , violence and use of what GameTrailers called a " classic 2D template " . Reiner wrote that " the only area where Mortal Kombat feels antiquated is in its AI . " Waltron praised the game for having " one of the most in @-@ depth story modes to grace a fighting game . " Crisan compared it to " watching a full length CG movie " , and said that while " incredibly corny , it 's also oddly addicting " due to its over @-@ the @-@ top plot . One complaint concerned the shifting levels of difficulty in the game 's story mode , described by Clements as forcing the player " to fight cheap tactics with cheap tactics . " According to Elston , " character balance , inconsistent detection and a stingy coin reward system drag down an otherwise bloody good time . "
According to Ed Boon , during its release month , Mortal Kombat sold two million copies between both PlayStation 3 and Xbox versions . Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment , publisher of NetherRealm Studios ’ Mortal Kombat , reported that Mortal Kombat had sold close to three million units as of August 2011 . According to Warner Bros. , this covered the cost of the entire Midway asset acquisition . One year after the game 's release , GameZone 's Sanchez stated that Mortal Kombat has still remained " the best fighter currently on the market , " calling it " today 's greatest modern fighter " and " one of the most compelling fighters to come along in years . "
The PlayStation Vita version of the game was also well received . Dan Ryckert of Game Informer called it " the most complete version of Mortal Kombat available , " while Brett Zeidler of Destructoid hailed it as " a perfect example of keeping the best graphical fidelity possible and including an already astronomical amount of content . " According to Walton , " despite a few control issues " regarding tag team combos , " Mortal Kombat on the Vita is every bit the great and gruesome fighter as its console counterparts . " Steven Hopper of IGN recommended this " great port " for those who did not play the original release enough .
The PC version of Mortal Kombat : Komplete Edition was well @-@ received despite being released two years later than the console versions ; the PC version received an 82 / 100 Metascore on Metacritic , with users of the same site rating it an average score of 8 @.@ 9 / 10 . In August 2013 , questioned about the sales performance of the Windows version of the game , Boon tweeted that it was " WAY , WAY above expectations " .
= = = Controversy = = =
In February 2011 , the game was refused classification by the Australian Classification Board due to " violence that exceeds strong in impact " . Warner Bros. unsuccessfully appealed the decision to the Classification Review Board , who ruled " the impact of the violence in Mortal Kombat is higher than strong and thus could not be accommodated within the MA15 + classification . " The Australian Customs and Border Protection Service listed the game as a prohibited item and the Australian Minister for Home Affairs Brendan O 'Connor asked to be briefed on the Mortal Kombat decision , citing " public disquiet on the issue " . In 2012 , the Vita version of Mortal Kombat was banned in Australia as well . A spokesperson for Warner Bros. commented : " We felt that because of the Vita 's size , the smaller screen would minimise the impact of the violence in the game and we felt it might fit within the MA15 + category . Obviously , the Classification Board of Australia did not agree . " In 2013 , however , following the introduction of an R18 + classification , Mortal Kombat was released uncensored on May 1 , 2013 , with the R18 + rating .
Mortal Kombat was also indexed in Germany by the Federal Department for Media Harmful to Young Persons due to " drastic representations of violence , " and was banned in South Korea due to its excessive depiction of blood and gore .
= = Sequel = =
A sequel for the game , Mortal Kombat X , was developed by NetherRealm Studios for the PC , PlayStation 4 , and Xbox One and was released in April 2015 .
= Black Widower =
" Black Widower " is the 21st episode of The Simpsons ' third season , originally airing on the Fox network in the United States on April 9 , 1992 . It was written by Jon Vitti , directed by David Silverman , and saw Kelsey Grammer guest star as Sideshow Bob for the second time . In the episode , Sideshow Bob — Bart 's archenemy — marries Bart 's Aunt Selma . Bart believes that Bob is planning something sinister rather than marrying for love . He realizes that Bob is planning to kill Selma ; he prevents the attempted murder , and Bob is sent back to prison . " Black Widower " finished 39th in Nielsen ratings for the week that it originally aired . Reviewers generally enjoyed the episode , and gave Grammer 's portrayal of Sideshow Bob particular praise .
= = Plot = =
The Simpsons have dinner with Aunt Selma and her new boyfriend , Sideshow Bob , Bart 's arch @-@ enemy . According to Bob , while he was in prison he spent every moment planning his revenge on Bart for exposing his plan to frame Krusty the Clown ; after receiving Selma 's response to his " Prison Pen Pal " ad , he was inspired to become a model prisoner and earned an early release .
Bob proposes to Selma and she accepts . He makes an appearance at a Krusty the Clown telethon and makes amends ; Lisa encourages Bart to forgive Bob , but he refuses to believe he has changed . When Selma discovers that Sideshow Bob detests her beloved MacGyver , the marriage is nearly called off until he agrees to Homer 's suggestion to take a walk when Selma watches it .
Selma reveals that she is unconcerned about money , as she made a good profit in the stock market ; Bob tells her he hopes he is not marrying her for her money . She also reveals that she has no sense of smell or taste and has cut back on cigarettes , now smoking only after meals and after episodes of MacGyver . Selma sends the Simpsons a tape of their honeymoon , including Bob 's tirade over the absence of a gas fireplace in their hotel room . Bart realizes that Selma has one hour to live and the Simpsons rush to the hotel room .
In the hotel , when Selma retires to watch MacGyver , Bob enjoys a drink downstairs . The hotel room explodes behind him . He goes back to the wrecked room , assuming Selma is dead , but she is unscathed and the Simpsons are waiting for him along with the police . Bart explains how he deduced Bob 's plot : Bob opened the gas valve in the room knowing Selma would not smell the leak , then left while she watched MacGyver , knowing that Selma would light a cigarette afterwards and cause an explosion . Bob asks why the room still exploded if Bart foiled his plot . Chief Wiggum explains that he absent @-@ mindedly threw a match into the room after smoking a celebratory cigar . Bob is taken away by the police , vowing revenge .
= = Production = =
" Black Widower " was written by Jon Vitti , and directed by David Silverman . The staff wanted an episode involving a " mystery " , so executive producer Sam Simon approached Thomas Chastain , head of the organization Mystery Writers of America , to help construct the mystery . A number of clues leading up to the revelation at the end were inserted into the script so that the viewers would be able to solve the mystery on their own . As the episode was being written , the writers had their eyes towards winning an Edgar Award , which is awarded to the best mystery fiction in television and film published or produced in the past year . Despite their efforts , " Black Widower " did not win an Edgar Award .
In the episode , the writers echoed the premise of Wile E. Coyote chasing the Road Runner from Looney Tunes cartoons by having Bob unexpectedly insert himself into Bart 's life and attempt to kill him . Executive producer Al Jean has compared Bob 's character to that of Wile E. Coyote , noting that both are intelligent , yet always foiled by what they perceive as an inferior intellect . For " Black Widower " , director David Silverman updated the character model of Bob to reflect the animation of director Brad Bird . One of Bob 's friends from jail seen in the episode is Snake Jailbird . The character first appeared in the season two episode " The War of the Simpsons " only as " Jailbird " , but his full name was first mentioned in " Black Widower " . The writers gave him the name Snake because of the snake tattoo on his arm , and the character has gone by that name ever since .
" Black Widower " was the second episode Kelsey Grammer guest starred in as the voice of Sideshow Bob . He had previously appeared in the season one episode " Krusty Gets Busted " , in which Bart gets Bob sentenced to jail for framing Krusty for armed robbery . Grammer initially expected Bob to be a one @-@ time role , but it eventually became one of the most popular roles he ever played , as Bob became a recurring character on the show . Grammer bases his Bob voice on theatre actor and director Ellis Rabb . He had once worked for Rabb , whose " lamenting tones became [ the ] foundation for Sideshow Bob . "
= = Cultural references = =
The episode begins with the family , except for Marge , watching a parody of the show Dinosaurs on television . The staff thought Dinosaurs was a knock @-@ off of The Simpsons , so at one point Bart exclaims " It 's like they saw our lives and put it right on screen , " and points at the television screen . Before she reveals to the Simpson family that Selma 's new boyfriend is Bob , Patty says there is something " disturbing " about him , which results in Lisa imagining him as being The Elephant Man . As Bob remembers his time in prison , a scene with him picking up road side trash is seen , referencing the film Cool Hand Luke . The music in the scene is a reference to the soundtrack of the film as well . Bob also remembers winning a Daytime Emmy Award in the " Best Supporting Performer in a Children 's Program " category . In Selma 's letters to Sideshow Bob , she refers to him by his prison number , 24601 , which is Jean Valjean 's prisoner number in the novel Les Misérables . The reunion between Krusty and Bob at the telethon is a reference to a surprise reunion between former comedy partners Jerry Lewis and Dean Martin on a 1970s telethon . The telethon logo features an Al Hirschfeld @-@ style caricature of Krusty .
" Black Widower " was the second episode to show Patty and Selma 's obsession with the character Angus MacGyver from the television show MacGyver , which has become a recurring joke on The Simpsons . When Sideshow Bob goes into the room to see Selma 's corpse , he turns around the chair , only to see Bart sitting in it . Sideshow Bob turns around and sees Selma in the doorway . These shots , from Bob turning the chair to Selma in the doorway , are a reference to the ending of the film Psycho . The music in the scene , written by composer Alf Clausen , is also a reference to Psycho . In Bart 's retelling of the story at the end of the episode , Homer 's shouts " To the Simpsonmobile ! " as the family rushes to the hotel to save Selma 's life . This is a reference to Batman 's Batmobile and his recurring catchphrase , " To the Batmobile ! " .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Black Widower " finished 39th in Nielsen ratings for the week of April 6 – 12 , 1992 , making The Simpsons the third @-@ highest rated television series on the Fox network that week , after Married ... with Children and In Living Color . In I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn wrote that he considered the episode a " terrific show " , appreciating Grammer 's work in particular , and he also enjoyed the Dinosaurs gag and Bob 's reaction to McGyver , which he remarked " make the whole thing great fun " . Bill Gibron of DVD Verdict rated the episode 97 % , and considered it a " timeless treat " because of Sideshow Bob 's appearance , calling it " excellent from beginning to end " . Nate Meyers of the website digitallyOBSESSED rated the episode 3 out of 5 . He felt that the episode was " not a strong entry to the series " , noting that " the love story between Bob and Selma never seems to play as well as it should " . Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide remarked that later episodes of The Simpsons seasons were typically of lesser quality than episodes that appeared earlier in a season because of " general tiredness and the pressure of creating so many programs " . However , he found that " Black Widower " was an exception , noting that most episodes featuring Sideshow Bob rarely disappoint . Hock Guan Teh of DVD Town applauded Grammer 's performance as Sideshow Bob in the episode , saying he could not " get over Sideshow Bob ´ s evil and conniving tone of voice , all delivered in a pseudo @-@ Anglophile accent " .
= 2008 Pittsburgh Steelers season =
The 2008 Pittsburgh Steelers season was the franchise 's 76th season in the National Football League ( NFL ) . The season concluded with the team winning Super Bowl XLIII to become the first franchise in the NFL with six Super Bowl titles .
The Steelers entered the season as defending champions of the AFC North Division , coming off a 10 – 6 record in 2007 . Based on the previous season 's results , the team faced the most difficult schedule in over 30 years ; however , they were called Super Bowl contenders by ESPN . The Steelers opened their regular season on September 7 , with a win over the Houston Texans en route to a 12 – 4 record , and a second straight AFC North Division title . In his second season as head coach Mike Tomlin was selected in fan balloting as the Motorola Coach of the Year . Linebacker James Harrison was named the NFL 's Defensive Player of the Year after leading a defense which set the standard for the league in nearly every defensive category , including total yardage allowed , points allowed , passing yardage allowed , first downs allowed , yards per play , and yards per pass , among others . The playoffs began on January 11 , 2009 , with a win over the San Diego Chargers . The following week saw the third victory of the season over the Baltimore Ravens in the AFC Championship game and the advancement to Super Bowl XLIII where the Steelers defeated the Arizona Cardinals on February 1 , 2009 .
= = Personnel = =
= = = Staff = = =
= = = Roster = = =
= = Off @-@ season = =
Entering the 2008 season , the Pittsburgh Steelers lost ten @-@ year lineman Alan Faneca , after his contract expired , and he signed with the New York Jets . Allen Rossum , Jerame Tuman , and Clint Kriewaldt were released on February 22 . The team also lost Dan Kreider , Verron Haynes , Brian St. Pierre , and eight @-@ year veteran Clark Haggans to free agency .
The Steelers renewed quarterback Ben Roethlisberger 's contract with an eight @-@ year , $ 102 million agreement , the largest in franchise history . The team re @-@ signed Max Starks to the largest single @-@ year deal in franchise history , despite him not being a starter during the 2007 season . Nate Washington , Chris Kemoeatu , and Trai Essex also agreed to one @-@ year deals . Seven @-@ year center Justin Hartwig and running back Mewelde Moore were signed to multi @-@ year deals , and linebacker Keyaron Fox agreed to a one @-@ year deal . Entering the season , 14 players were in the final year of their contracts .
= = = Draft = = =
The 2008 NFL Draft was held on April 26 and April 27 , 2008 , at Radio City Music Hall . In the first round , the Steelers selected running back Rashard Mendenhall , from the University of Illinois , with the 23rd overall pick . He was the first running back selected in the first round by the franchise since 1989 . The Steelers selected Limas Sweed , from the University of Texas , in the second round . Sweed was ranked by the Steelers as one of the top three receivers in the draft . The drafting of Sweed came after quarterback Ben Roethlisberger 's suggestion of acquiring a tall wide receiver ; Sweed is 6 @-@ feet 4 @-@ inches in height . In round three , the Steelers selected Bruce Davis , of UCLA . Davis primarily played defensive end at his alma mater , however , he is expected to switch to linebacker at the pro level . The Steelers traded their fourth @-@ round pick ( 123rd overall ) to the New York Giants for the Giants ' fourth and sixth @-@ round selections , 130th and 194th overall , respectively . The Steelers selected offensive tackle Tony Hills with the 130th overall selection , in the fourth round . Like second @-@ round pick Sweed , Hills came out of the University of Texas where he had been elected a captain of the football team during his senior season . With their fifth @-@ round selection , the Steelers chose quarterback Dennis Dixon . Prior to an injury in 2007 , Dixon was a Heisman Trophy candidate . The sixth round selection was the Steelers ' second linebacker of the draft , Mike Humpal out of the University of Iowa . Also in the sixth round , the final selection of the team was safety Ryan Mundy , a Pittsburgh native . The Steelers did not pick in the seventh round , due to a 2007 trade with the Atlanta Falcons . Kevin Colbert , Director of Football Operations , said of the draft , " we ’ re happy with the way things turned out . " Also stating that the first and second @-@ round selections were players who the team expected to have already been chosen . Coach Mike Tomlin said that the Steelers tried to select skilled offensive " weapons " over a strong offensive line , which struggled the previous season . The following day , the Steelers signed twelve free @-@ agent rookies . All draft picks agreed to terms by July 25 , two days prior to the start of training camp .
= = = Mini @-@ camp and OTAs = = =
A mandatory three @-@ day mini @-@ camp was held in early May . Hines Ward , Aaron Smith and Troy Polamalu attended the camp , but did not fully participate because of injuries . First round draft pick , Rashard Mendenhall was welcomed by Steelers current running back Willie Parker . Parker was " surprised " when he heard a running back was selected in the first round , but hoped to work with Mendenhall like Jerome Bettis worked with Parker during his rookie season . During the mini @-@ camp , the offense experimented with formations using Parker and Mendenhall in the backfield simultaneously . Receiver Hines Ward took a similar approach to Parker 's in welcoming second round draft pick Limas Sweed . As with other receivers in the past , Ward was " very hands @-@ on with Sweed throughout the weekend " . Coach Mike Tomlin called the new draft picks " humble " , adding that he liked their " spirit and attitude " ; however , it was too early to tell how well they will ultimately perform .
The team held two Organized Team Activities ( OTAs ) prior to the draft , in addition to 12 throughout May and June . The OTAs were voluntary , however , most players did attend . Many players routinely worked on their conditioning and strength together , in addition to " informal " on field training . A week prior to the end of OTAs Mike Tomlin said he was happy with the team 's progress during the sessions . Also stating , “ We are having a productive off @-@ season and that is what we are here for . We are here to get better individually and collectively and I think we are doing that . ” Limas Sweed experimented on special teams play for the first time ever , with a concentration in punt blocking . On the day of the final OTA , June 12 , Tomlin stated that while he was pleased with the progress of the team , no positions would be gained or lost based on the voluntary camp . Tomlin added , " it 's been teach @-@ oriented , it 's been skill @-@ develop @-@ oriented . It 's different than playing the game of football . " The team was given 44 days off until the beginning of training camp .
= = = Off @-@ field activity = = =
In May , ESPN The Magazine released the findings of its annual survey of over 80 @,@ 000 fans entitled the " Ultimate Standings : Fan Satisfaction Ranking . " The Steelers ranked as the 25th best major league sports franchise out of 122 teams from MLB , NFL , NBA , and the NHL . The franchise finished one position behind the cross @-@ town hockey team Pittsburgh Penguins . The Steelers were sixth among all NFL teams . In August , ESPN.com ranked Steelers ' fans as the best in the National Football League , citing their " unbelievable " sellout streak of 299 consecutive games .
During the Pittsburgh Penguins run for the Stanley Cup multiple members of the Steelers showed support for the cross @-@ town team . Ben Roethlisberger attended Stanley Cup Finals games in Detroit , where he and the Steelers won Super Bowl XL three years prior . Mike Tomlin watched Game Six of the finals outside Mellon Arena , along with 3 @,@ 000 other fans , on a JumboTron which had been erected for fans unable to acquire tickets to the sold @-@ out game . Kevin Colbert , Charlie Batch , and Tomlin attended many games throughout the regular season . In September , Penguins ' coach Michel Therrien attended the Steelers ' first game of the season .
On February 17 , Ernie Holmes , who played for the Steelers from 1972 to 1977 , was killed in a car crash . Ten days later , on February 27 , award @-@ winning journalist , Steelers radio announcer of 35 years , and inventor of the Terrible Towel , Myron Cope , died at age 79 . On June 6 , Dwight White , a defensive end on the Steel Curtain died from a blood clot . Upon his death , Dan Rooney called White , " one of the greatest players to ever wear a Steelers uniform . " A pre @-@ game ceremony was held in their honor prior to the first game of the season .
= = = Training camp = = =
Training camp was held at Saint Vincent College , in Latrobe , Pennsylvania , for the 42nd consecutive year . Players reported on July 27 , practices commenced the following day and ran through August 17 . Throughout the twenty three day span , seventeen included practices ; making the camp one of the shortest in Steelers history . The camp was less demanding under Tomlin , who was in his second year as coach . " We are a veteran team in some areas . You have to approach it differently because of that , " said Tomlin .
Pittsburgh looked to build on their defense , which was ranked first in the league throughout the 2007 season . At over thirty years in age each , all three starting linemen returned . First round draft pick , Rashard Mendenhall entered camp with expectations to make an impact on the team throughout his rookie season . Pittsburgh 's Willie Parker , who returned after suffering a broken leg in the 2007 season , was expected to share the load with Mendenhall . On July 29 , punter Daniel Sepulveda tore the ACL in his right leg and was placed on season @-@ ending injured reserve . The Steelers acquired Paul Ernster later in the day as a possible replacement . After concluding practices at St. Vincent 's , the Steelers began to practice at their facility on Pittsburgh 's South Side . Tomlin called the camp " very productive " .
= = Preseason = =
Pittsburgh opened their pre @-@ season schedule with a 16 – 10 victory over the Philadelphia Eagles . The Steelers scored on their first possession , after driving 80 yards on eight plays . Ben Roethlisberger 's 19 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Santonio Holmes completed the drive . In the first quarter , Charlie Batch was removed from the game after breaking his clavicle . Jeff Reed converted three field goals from 20 , 24 , and 50 yards . Toronto 's Rogers Centre hosted the second pre @-@ season game ; it was the first pre @-@ season game Pittsburgh played in Toronto since 1960 . Pittsburgh 's starting offense played longer in the second game . Willie Parker increased his output over the first game by playing on third downs . However , the team failed run the ball consistently and struggled on defense , losing the game 24 – 21 . " We fell short essentially in all three phases , " stated coach Tomlin after the game .
Pittsburgh traveled to Minnesota to play the Vikings for their third pre @-@ season game . The Steelers 's defense held the Vikings early , led by Aaron Smith who had three tackles , including one sack , in the first quarter . The offense failed to score a touchdown , with Rashard Mendenhall fumbling twice . Quarterback Byron Leftwich , who was signed to replace the injured Batch , lead the team with 129 yards passing . Jeff Reed accounted for all of the Steelers ' points , kicking four field goals — the final with 4 seconds remaining — to give Pittsburgh a 12 – 10 victory . Entering their final pre @-@ season game the Steelers had selected every starting player except the punter . Carolina tied the game with 1 : 54 remaining in regulation , but rookie Dennis Dixon lead the Steelers on a 47 @-@ yard drive , which was capped with Reed kicking the game winning 43 @-@ yard field goal as time expired . After the three point victory , Tomlin stated , " It has been a pleasure working with this group guys , but it is that time of year where we need to make tough decisions . " The Steelers cut 22 players on August 30 , to bring their roster to the required 53 player total . The following day the Steelers signed nine players from their pre @-@ season team to the practice squad .
= = Regular season = =
Based on 2007 records , the Steelers boasted the NFL 's most difficult schedule in 2008 , with an opponent winning percentage of .598 ; ten games were played against teams that finished 2007 with winning records . The Steelers played each of the teams in the AFC North twice , once home and once on the road . The Steelers also faced the teams from the AFC South and NFC East divisions throughout the season . Pittsburgh 's matchups included the San Diego and New England , who each won their division in the 2007 season . The Steelers played five nationally televised primetime games , the maximum allowed number by the NFL .
Entering the first week of the season , players voted Ben Roethlisberger , Hines Ward , James Farrior , and Jeff Reed team captains . Farrior , James Harrison , and Troy Polamalu were voted to represent the Steelers at the 2009 Pro Bowl . James Harrison set the Steelers ' franchise single @-@ season record for sacks , surpassing Mike Merriweather 's previous record of 15 sacks in 1984 . Harrison also became the first undrafted player to win the NFL 's Defensive Player of the Year Award . He was the fifth Steeler to win the award — the first since Rod Woodson in 1993 . Harrison and Polamalu were also voted to the NFL 's All @-@ Pro team .
The Steelers ' defense tied the 1973 Los Angeles Rams record by holding 14 consecutive opponents under 300 yards of total offense . The defense finished ranked first in the league in total and passing yards given up and second in rushing yards . For the fifth time in his career Hines Ward received for over 1 @,@ 000 yards throughout the season . The team 's offense ranked 22nd in overall offense , 17th in passing , and 23rd in rushing . Rashard Mendenhall was the team 's only rookie to start a game ; the fewest rookie starts of any team in the league .
= = = Schedule = = =
Green background indicates win .
Red background indicates loss .
= = = Standings = = =
The 2008 season was the Steelers ' seventh as members of the AFC North Division . Pittsburgh defended their division title from the 2007 season , which they obtained by tying the Cleveland Browns ' 10 – 6 record , but holding the tie @-@ breaker with two wins over the Browns . Through 2008 , Pittsburgh is the only team to have won the AFC North four times , since its inception prior to the 2002 NFL season . Entering the 2008 season , the Steelers were chosen to win the division by sportswriter Ron Borges , as well as nine of 13 analysts interviewed by ESPN.com. Four NFL.com analysts predicted that the Steelers would finish with a 10 – 6 record . The Steelers finished the regular season with a record of 12 – 4 , going undefeated against opponents in the AFC North and winning 12 games for the fourth season since 1979 . The team clinched the second seed in the AFC for the playoffs and received a bye the first week of the post @-@ season . The Baltimore Ravens finished at second place in the AFC North with an 11 – 5 record , clinching a playoff seed as an AFC wild card . The Cincinnati Bengals finished 4 – 11 – 1 , winning their final three games of the season . The Cleveland Browns finished in the AFC North 's fourth position at 4 – 12 ; the team fired head coach Romeo Crennel after the season .
= = = Week 1 : vs. Houston Texans = = =
The Steelers started their regular season , against the Houston Texans , in front of 64 @,@ 001 spectators at Heinz Field in Pittsburgh . The Steelers drove the ball 52 yards on their opening drive , with their biggest gain coming on a 17 @-@ yard run from quarterback Ben Roethlisberger . Willie Parker scored a touchdown at 5 : 44 of the opening quarter and added a second touchdown in the following quarter . After a LaMarr Woodley interception the Steelers extended their lead to 21 points when Roethlisberger completed a 13 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Ward . With 4 : 34 remaining in the half , former @-@ Steelers ' kicker Kris Brown converted a 34 @-@ yard field goal . Pittsburgh led the game 21 – 3 as time expired on the first half .
In the second half , Parker scored his third touchdown of the game — surpassing his touchdown total for the entire 2007 season — and was named the AFC offensive player of the week for his performance . Pittsburgh 's defense held Houston to six yards on their ensuing drive and the Steelers drove 80 yards to take a 35 – 3 lead . The Texans scored two touchdowns in the final quarter , but Pittsburgh 's James Harrison led the team with three sacks — forcing a fumble on the third — and the Steelers won their first game of the season starting out 1 – 0 .
= = = Week 2 : at Cleveland Browns = = =
The Steelers entered their first matchup with the Cleveland Browns having won 15 of the last 16 games between the two teams . Ben Roethlisberger started the game despite missing practice time during the week due to a shoulder injury suffered in Week One . The Steelers ' defense held the Browns to 16 yards on their first four drives , as the teams played to a scoreless tie after the first quarter . After a Bryant McFadden interception the Steelers drove 70 yards and Roethlisberger connected with Hines Ward for their third touchdown combination of the season . Cleveland responded with a 14 play , 71 yard drive , but Troy Polamalu intercepted a Cleveland pass as time expired in the first half solidifying Pittsburgh 's seven point halftime lead .
A 48 @-@ yard pass from Roethlisberger to Santonio Holmes and a 48 @-@ yard field goal from Jeff Reed on the team 's second drive of the second half brought the score to 10 – 0 . The Browns ' Phil Dawson converted two consecutive field goals , to pull Cleveland within four points with 3 : 21 remaining . After a fourth down stop , Cleveland 's offense took over with 26 seconds remaining , but failed to gain yardage as time expired . With the win , the Steelers increased their win streak over the Browns to 10 consecutive games — the longest current winning streak over a single opponent in the NFL . With the win the Steelers improved to 2 – 0 and led the AFC North by 1 / 2 a game ahead of the Ravens .
= = = Week 3 : at Philadelphia Eagles = = =
Pittsburgh 's first inter @-@ conference opponent of the season was the Philadelphia Eagles . The Steelers scored on their first drive , with a Jeff Reed field goal . The Eagles offense drove 85 yards to take the lead on a touchdown pass from Donovan McNabb to Correll Buckhalter . The Eagles defense sacked Ben Roethlisberger eight times throughout the game , two of which resulted in fumbles . Bryant McFadden intercepted his second pass of the season which allowed Reed to add his second field goal of the day — this one from 53 @-@ yards . The field goal brought the half time score to 10 – 6 .
A third quarter diving Troy Polamalu interception , on Kevin Kolb 's first NFL pass , was named a " Can 't Miss Play " by NFL Network . The Steelers did not capitalize , punting two more times in the third quarter . The Eagles entered the final quarter leading 10 – 6 , and added two more points when Roethlisberger was called for Intentional grounding while in the end zone . Roethlisberger was forced to leave the game after his hand was stepped on in the final quarter . Offensive coordinator Bruce Arians took responsibility for the offense 's performance . " Anybody who wants anybody to blame for Philadelphia , you just blame me , " Arians stated , " and then we can get ready for Baltimore . "
= = = Week 4 : vs. Baltimore Ravens = = =
Donning their throwback uniforms , the Steelers played the Baltimore Ravens in their first Monday Night game of the season . Multiple Steelers starters did not play in the game , due to various injuries . After a 3 – 3 first quarter , Baltimore took a ten @-@ point lead into half time with a field goal and touchdown pass in the second quarter . Rashard Mendenhall — in his first NFL start — left the game in the third quarter with a season @-@ ending shoulder injury . On Pittsburgh 's third drive of the half , Roethlisberger connected with Santonio Holmes for a 38 @-@ yard touchdown pass . On the first play of Baltimore 's ensuing drive , James Harrison 's forced fumble was picked up by LaMarr Woodley and returned 7 yards for a touchdown . The two touchdowns within 15 seconds took the Steelers from ten points behind to four points ahead . In the final quarter , the Steelers ' offense was stopped on the one yard line and Reed kicked his second field goal of the night . Baltimore drove 76 yards and tied the game with a touchdown . Neither team was able to score on their final drive as the regulation clock expired .
Baltimore won the overtime coin toss and elected to receive . The Ravens started the drive at their own 15 yard line . The Steelers held them for no gain on the first two plays and Lawrence Timmons sacked Flacco on third down . The Steelers took over after a punt and Mewelde Moore caught a 24 yard reception to bring the Steelers to Baltimore 's 31 @-@ yard line . Jeff Reed converted a 46 @-@ yard field goal to win the game for the Steelers . Reed was named the NFL 's special teams player of the week . With the win the Steelers passed the Ravens for first place in the AFC North at 3 – 1 , as well as extending their all @-@ time record of 14 consecutive home wins on Monday Night Football .
= = = Week 5 : at Jacksonville Jaguars = = =
The Steelers ' matchup with the Jacksonville Jaguars — their first since the Jaguars knocked the Steelers out of the 2007 playoffs — was featured as the Pro Football Hall of Fame 's Throwback Game of the Week . On the Steelers opening drive , Roethlisberger — who missed practice time during the week due to injections for his shoulder — was intercepted by Rashean Mathis who returned the ball 72 yards for a touchdown . Pittsburgh responded by driving 71 yards , with Heath Miller receiving a 1 @-@ yard touchdown pass to tie the game . Jacksonville re @-@ gained the lead on the next drive when Maurice Jones @-@ Drew ran for a touchdown . Pittsburgh took the lead in the second quarter with two field goals and a 48 yard touchdown pass from Roethlisberger to Nate Washington .
Jacksonville scored first in the final quarter with a touchdown pass from David Garrard to Marcedes Lewis . The Steelers drove from their 20 yard line in the fourth quarter , Ward received an 8 @-@ yard touchdown pass to put the Steelers up by 5 points with 1 : 53 remaining in regulation , however , the 2 @-@ pt conversion failed . Roethlisberger received the AFC offensive player of the week award for his 309 yard , 3 touchdown pass performance , despite having an injured throwing shoulder . The NFL selected the game as the league 's Week Five Game of the Week .
= = = Week 6 : Bye Week = = =
The Steelers used their bye week to rest injured players including Brett Keisel , Willie Parker , Jeff Reed , and Ben Roethlisberger . The team hosted an event to honor wounded veterans of Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom at Heinz Field . Players signed autographs and held on @-@ field drills with the veterans , while soldiers and Marines spoke of their experiences . Chris Hoke , who attended the event said , " These are the people who fight for us to have our freedom and be who we are as Americans . To come out here and spend a couple hours with them and hear their stories is unbelievable . There 's nothing better than this . "
= = = Week 7 : at Cincinnati Bengals = = =
Willie Parker was expected to return after missing two games , but aggravated his knee injury during a weekday practice and missed the game . Pittsburgh received the opening kickoff and drove 75 yards to open the scoring with a 2 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Ben Roethlisberger to Mewelde Moore to put the Steelers up 7 – 0 . The Steelers ' defense forced the Bengals offense into five consecutive three @-@ and @-@ outs , before the Bengals scored on their final possession of the opening half . The 5 @-@ yard pass from Ryan Fitzpatrick to Chad Johnson brought the Bengals within three points of the Steelers , who added a field goal from Jeff Reed .
Pittsburgh added their second touchdown of the game on their opening drive of the second half when Moore rushed to the left side for 13 yards . Cincinnati retaliated on their ensuing drive adding a field goal from Dave Rayner . The Steelers scored three consecutive touchdowns in the final quarter , while holding the Bengals scoreless . At 8 : 26 of the fourth quarter Roethlisberger connected with Nate Washington for a 50 @-@ yard touchdown pass . Pittsburgh 's Moore scored his third touchdown of the day — his second rushing — and Hines Ward 's 16 @-@ yard touchdown reception gave the Steelers 31 points to the Bengals ' ten . Moore finished the game with 120 yards rushing , while Santonio Holmes lead the Steelers with 89 receiving yards .
= = = Week 8 : vs. New York Giants = = =
Willie Parker missed his fourth game due to a knee injury . Santonio Holmes also missed the game after a " small quantity of marijuana " was found in his car and the team placed him on the inactive list . Mewelde Moore opened up the game 's scoring with a 32 @-@ yard touchdown run on the Steelers opening drive . The 5 – 1 New York Giants responded with a field goal on the ensuing drive . Pittsburgh stopped the Giants on four consecutive plays from inside the Steelers 2 @-@ yard line to force a turnover on downs . But were unable to score when two Ben Roethlisberger interceptions and a punt lead to two more field goals in the second quarter for the Giants .
At 10 : 10 of the third quarter Roethlisberger completed a 65 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Nate Washington to give the Steelers a 14 – 9 lead . Later in the quarter , a Steelers 53 @-@ yard touchdown pass was negated due to a holding penalty and Pittsburgh was forced to punt . In the final quarter Pittsburgh kept New York out of the end zone on three plays inside the 10 @-@ yard line , however , the Giants connected on a field goal to bring the Giants to within two points . On the next drive , James Harrison — who was called in to replace injured long snapper Greg Warren — snapped the ball out of the end zone to give the Giants a safety and tie the game . The Giants drove after receiving the safety 's kickoff to score a touchdown — taking a 21 – 14 lead with 3 : 07 remaining . Pittsburgh was unable to convert on their final two drives , as Roethlisberger threw his fourth interception of the day .
= = = Week 9 : at Washington Redskins = = =
The night before the United States presidential election , the Steelers played in the nation 's capitol , Washington , D.C. ; both major party candidates were interviewed at half @-@ time . The Washington Redskins took a 6 – 0 lead in the first quarter with two field goals . The Steelers defense shut out the Redskins in the second quarter while the Steelers scored on a field goal to cut the lead in half . A blocked punt with 2 : 21 remaining in the half led to a Steelers 1 @-@ yard touchdown run from Ben Roethlisberger .
Due to an injury to Roethlisberger , Byron Leftwich took over as quarterback in the second half . Leftwich completed a 50 yard pass to Nate Washington on the opening drive of the third quarter ; the Steelers capped the drive with a Willie Parker touchdown run . Pittsburgh extended their lead in the final quarter with a touchdown pass from Leftwich to Santonio Holmes . The Redskins gained 124 yards in the final quarter , but were unable to score . The Steelers ' 17 point win took their record to 6 – 2 on the season .
= = = Week 10 : vs. Indianapolis Colts = = =
Both the Steelers and Indianapolis Colts drove more than 60 yards on their opening offensive drives , each scored a touchdown to bring the score to 7 – 7 after the first quarter . A Steelers 42 @-@ yard flea flicker advanced the ball to the 2 yard line . On the following play Mewelde Moore scored his second touchdown of the game . The Steelers extended their lead to ten , but an interception with 1 : 30 remaining in the half led to a Colts touchdown — bringing the halftime score to 17 – 14 .
The Colts kicked a 36 @-@ yard field goal in the third quarter to tie the game at 17 . A Steelers field goal in the final quarter gave them a three @-@ point lead . The Colts scored on Peyton Manning 's third touchdown pass of the game to take the lead with 3 : 10 remaining in regulation . The Steelers drove from their own 27 yard line , but were unable to score .
= = = Week 11 : vs. San Diego Chargers = = =
Pittsburgh entered week eleven with starters having missed 31 games due to injuries . The San Diego Chargers scored first , and led 7 – 0 after the first quarter of play . On the second play of the second quarter , the Steelers ' James Harrison forced a fumble in the endzone , then forced a safety by tackling Marcus McNeill after he had recovered the fumble . Jeff Reed converted on a field goal as time expired on the first half , pulling the Steelers within two points .
Reed kicked his second field goal of the game from 41 @-@ yards to give the Steelers the lead going into the final quarter . The Chargers drove 74 yards on 17 plays , converting on a field goal to give them the lead again , with 6 : 45 remaining . On the Steelers ' ensuing drive , the offense drove 73 yards and Reed converted on his third field goal of the day , giving the Steelers an 11 – 10 lead with 15 seconds remaining in regulation . The Chargers attempted to score on their final play , but Troy Polamalu forced and recovered a fumble , returning it for a touchdown . The call was reversed when the officials ruled that San Diego had made an illegal forward pass . After the game , head referee Scott Green admitted that the touchdown should have been counted . With the touchdown not counted the final score kept Pittsburgh under the 5 point spread by which they were favored , and resulted in over $ 32 million being lost in bets . The game was the first regular season game in NFL history to end with a final score of 11 – 10 .
= = = Week 12 : vs. Cincinnati Bengals = = =
The Steelers concluded their primetime schedule with their only Thursday night game of the season . The Cincinnati Bengals took a 7 – 0 lead in the first quarter after a 62 yard drive . In the second quarter the Steelers tied the game on a touchdown pass from Ben Roethlisberger to Heath Miller . Jeff Reed converted a field goal with 1 : 56 remaining in the first half to give the Steelers a 10 – 7 halftime lead .
Pittsburgh added another ten points in the third quarter when Gary Russell ran for his first rushing touchdown of the season , after Reed 's second field goal . In the final quarter , Roethlisberger rushed for a touchdown to put the Steelers up by a score of 27 – 10 . Roethlisberger passed for 243 yards and one touchdown , while Santonio Holmes led the game with 84 receiving yards . James Farrior led the Steelers with 8 tackles .
= = = Week 13 : at New England Patriots = = =
The Steelers fell behind the New England Patriots less than three minutes into the first quarter , after an interception of Ben Roethlisberger was driven to the endzone . The Steelers came back with 2 : 55 remaining in the initial quarter to convert on a 20 yard Jeff Reed field goal . The Patriots extended their lead to seven points with a 29 yard field goal in the second quarter . Pittsburgh drove 63 yards on nine plays , capping their drive with a touchdown pass to Santonio Holmes to tie the game at ten points at the halfway point .
Pittsburgh took their first lead of the game on their first drive of the second half , after Reed 's second field goal put them up by three points . On the ensuing kickoff the Steelers recovered a Patriots ' fumble and Roethlisberger connected with Hines Ward for an 11 @-@ yard touchdown pass . James Harrison forced his first of two fumbles on the Patriots ' next drive and the Steelers recovered as Reed added his third field goal of the game — putting the Steelers up 23 – 10 . Gary Russell scored a touchdown after Lawrence Timmons returned an interception 89 yards to the Patriots ' one @-@ yard line .
= = = Week 14 : vs. Dallas Cowboys = = =
The Dallas Cowboys and the Steelers held each other scoreless in the first quarter . Troy Polamalu intercepted a pass in his fourth consecutive game , overall he led the league with seven interceptions . The Steelers scored first on a 24 @-@ yard field goal from Jeff Reed with 2 : 44 remaining in the second quarter . The Cowboys converted a 44 @-@ yard field goal as time expired on the first half to tie the game at 3 – 3 .
A Tony Romo touchdown pass in the third quarter gave the Cowboys their first lead of the game . The lead was extended when Nick Folk converted his second field goal of the day , putting the Cowboys up 13 – 3 as the game entered the final quarter . Reed converted his second field goal of the game , bringing the Steelers within seven points with 7 : 20 remaining in regulation . On the Steelers next drive , Ben Roethelisberger threw a touchdown pass to Heath Miller — tying the game with 2 : 04 remaining . Deshea Townsend intercepted Romo 's next pass and returned the ball 25 yards , scoring a touchdown to give the Steelers a seven @-@ point lead , which they held to the end of the game .
= = = Week 15 : at Baltimore Ravens = = =
Entering their second game of the season against Baltimore , the Steelers ' defense ranked first in the league , while the Ravens ' defense ranked second . " We 're going to win by any means necessary . If the defense has to score , if the special teams have to kick in a score , or if the offense has to score 50 points – whatever it takes to win , " stated James Harrison prior to the game .
Both teams were held scoreless before a record crowd at M & T Bank Stadium until a Baltimore field goal gave the Ravens a 3 – 0 lead at 12 : 34 of the second quarter . Pittsburgh tied the game on a Jeff Reed field goal ; Matt Stover converted a second time to give the Ravens a three @-@ point lead at halftime . Stover kicked his third field goal of the game in the third quarter , extending their lead to six points . In the final quarter , Reed kicked his second field goal of the game to put the Steelers within three points . On the Steelers final drive of the game , the offense drove 92 yards over 2 : 53 , with Ben Roethlisberger completing a touchdown pass to Santonio Holmes with 50 seconds remaining . The Ravens embarked on one more drive , but the Steelers second interception of the game prevented them from scoring . With the victory the Steelers won their second consecutive AFC North title and clinched a first round bye and became the first AFC franchise to amass 550 wins .
= = = Week 16 : at Tennessee Titans = = =
Pittsburgh entered their final road game of the regular season with a chance to surpass the Tennessee Titans for the top seed in the AFC . The Steelers and the Titans were scoreless after the first quarter , when Tennessee took a 3 – 0 lead on the second play of the second quarter . Justin Gage 's 34 @-@ yard reception later in the quarter extended the lead to 10 – 0 . Pittsburgh 's Santonio Holmes also received a touchdown pass in the second quarter , bringing the halftime score to 10 – 7 .
In the second half , Ben Roethlisberger threw his second touchdown pass of the game — to Hines Ward — to give the Steelers their only lead of the game . After a 21 @-@ yard touchdown run on Tennessee 's ensuing drive , the Titans entered the final quarter with a three @-@ point lead . The Titans scored two touchdowns in the final quarter , and the Steelers were unable overcome two Roethlisberger fumbles and two interceptions throughout the game .
= = = Week 17 : vs. Cleveland Browns = = =
Although guaranteed the second seed in the AFC Tomlin stated , " It is a big week for us . " Willie Parker 's 34 @-@ yard touchdown run in the second quarter was the Steelers longest run of the season . With less than two minutes left in the first half , Ben Roethlisberger was hit by D 'Qwell Jackson and Willie McGinist and had to be immobilized and carried off the field after suffering from a concussion . Byron Leftwich replaced Roethlisberger and scored the Steelers second touchdown of the game to give the Steelers a 14 – 0 lead at halftime .
Pittsburgh scored the only points of the third quarter when Jeff Reed converted his sole field goal attempt of the game . The Steelers added two touchdowns in the final quarter — on a Gary Russell rush and Tyrone Carter 's return of his second interception of the game . " We were so upset we had to practice on Christmas , we had to take it out on the Browns , " said Larry Foote after the victory .
= = Postseason = =
Their 12 – 4 regular season record gave the Steelers a second @-@ place finish in the AFC . Along with the Tennessee Titans , who finished with the best record in the AFC , the Steelers received a bye during the opening week of the post @-@ season . The 2008 season was the seventh of the past 16 that the Steelers were the first or second seed in the AFC entering the playoffs — never winning the Super Bowl during those seasons . Pittsburgh defeated the San Diego Chargers in the Divisional round , giving up a franchise post @-@ season low of 15 rushing yards . The victory was head coach Mike Tomlin 's first in the post @-@ season . The Steelers defeated the Baltimore Ravens in the AFC Championship Game . The Steelers won Super Bowl XLIII over the NFC Champion Arizona Cardinals on February 1 .
= = = Schedule = = =
= = = Wild Card round : Bye week = = =
The team rested on December 29 — the day following their final regular @-@ season game . They began preparations for their first post @-@ season game on Tuesday , December 30 through Thursday , January 1 , before three days of weekend rest . Roethlisberger did not practice until Monday , January 5 — Tomlin stated of the injury , " We will proceed slowly with him because we have that luxury . But we feel comfortable with where he is relative to Sunday and where he ’ s capable of being next week . " Although the January 1 practice was expected to be normal , Tomlin allowed players to leave after team meetings and a walk @-@ through . Multiple Steelers stated that they would watch the games of the Wild Card round . Some including James Farrior and Ryan Clark watched as fans ; however , Chris Hoke said , " I will be watching the guys I am going against ... That is how I watch it . "
= = = AFC Divisional round : vs. San Diego Chargers = = =
Pittsburgh hosted the San Diego Chargers at Heinz Field due to the Chargers ' overtime victory over the Indianapolis Colts during the Wild Card round . The Chargers scored on the game 's first drive with a 41 @-@ yard pass from Philip Rivers to Vincent Jackson for a touchdown . After the Steelers defense stopped the Chargers on their next drive , Pittsburgh 's Santonio Holmes returned a punt 67 yards to tie the game at seven . With two minutes remaining in the first half Nate Kaeding converted a 42 @-@ yard field goal to reclaim the lead for the Chargers . Pittsburgh 's offense responded with a 7 play , 66 yard drive in 1 : 33 to take their first lead of the game after a 3 @-@ yard touchdown run from Willie Parker .
The Steelers opened the second half with a 7 : 56 , 13 play drive which concluded with Ben Roethlisberger 's sole touchdown pass to Heath Miller . San Diego had one offensive play in the third quarter , which resulted in an interception . The Steelers entered the final quarter with a 21 – 10 lead . Gary Russell scored on a 1 @-@ yard touchdown rush to extend the Steelers lead . The Chargers scored on their next possession , when Legedu Naanee received Rivers ' second touchdown pass of the game to conclude a 73 yard drive . With 4 : 17 remaining Willie Parker scored his second touchdown of the game — with a 16 @-@ yard run . The Chargers ' Darren Sproles concluded the game 's scoring with a 62 @-@ yard touchdown reception , bringing the final score to 35 – 24 .
= = = AFC Championship : vs. Baltimore Ravens = = =
Pittsburgh hosted the Baltimore Ravens — who defeated the Miami Dolphins and Tennessee Titans in the Wild Card and Divisional rounds respectively — for the AFC Championship Game . During the week before the game , Pittsburgh mayor Luke Ravenstahl temporarily changed his name to Luke Steelerstahl in order to remove the " Raven " . Though the change was not official the mayor did comment that " As soon as [ he ] heard [ the idea ] , [ he ] thought it was a great idea . "
Pittsburgh scored the game 's first points , with Jeff Reed converting on field goals from 34 and 42 yards in the first quarter . Santonio Holmes received a pass from Ben Roethlisberger in the second quarter and ran for a touchdown to give the Steelers a 13 – 0 lead . Baltimore 's Willis McGahee ran into the endzone for a touchdown with 2 : 44 remaining in the second quarter — bringing the halftime score to 13 – 7 . Reed converted his third field goal of the game from 46 yards in the third quarter . McGahee scored his second touchdown of the game with 9 : 32 remaining in the final quarter bringing the Ravens within two points . Troy Polamalu intercepted a pass from Joe Flacco and returned it 40 yards to score the final touchdown of the game , giving Pittsburgh a 23 – 14 victory .
= = = Super Bowl : at Arizona Cardinals = = =
Jeff Reed concluded the first drive of Super Bowl XLIII with a field goal — giving the Steelers a 3 – 0 lead over the Arizona Cardinals . Gary Russell scored on a 1 yard touchdown rush on the Steelers ' second drive and the Cardinals responded by scoring a touchdown on the ensuing drive . On the final play of the first half James Harrison intercepted a pass from Kurt Warner and returned it 100 yards for a touchdown . As he did in the first quarter , Reed scored the sole points of the third quarter giving the Steelers a 20 – 7 lead entering the final quarter .
The Cardinals scored three consecutive times in the fourth quarter — with two Larry Fitzgerald touchdown receptions and a Steelers ' holding call in the endzone that resulted in a safety — to give them a 23 – 20 lead with 2 : 37 remaining in regulation . Pittsburgh drove 78 yards in 2 : 02 and scored on a touchdown pass from Ben Roethlisberger to Santonio Holmes . The Steelers four point lead held as time expired and the Pittsburgh Steelers became the first team to win six Super Bowl titles .
Santonio Holmes was voted the game 's Most Valuable Player . Mike Tomlin became the youngest coach to win a Super Bowl . Harrison 's interception return was the longest play in Super Bowl history . On February 3 a parade was held in Pittsburgh to celebrate the victory , according to the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette an estimated 400 @,@ 000 people attended . The city 's name was ceremonially changed to " the City of Sixburgh " for the duration of 2009 .
= Nobody Knows Me =
" Nobody Knows Me " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna . The song was written and produced by Madonna and Mirwais Ahmadzaï for her ninth studio album American Life ( 2003 ) . It was released as a promotional single in the United States on October 15 , 2003 , with a remixed version appearing on the remix compilation Remixed & Revisited ( 2003 ) . " Nobody Knows Me " carries on the main theme of American Life , with its usage of negative tones on the songs . It is an dance and electronic song , with vocoder effects , spacey synths and a bubbly bass , and lyrically , Madonna rejects tabloid culture 's " social disease " , denouncing both TV and magazines .
The song received generally favorable reviews from music critics , with many of whom calling it as a highlight from American Life . Four remixes were released in club stations around the United States , with one of them peaking at number four on the US Hot Dance Club Play chart . The song , along with " Nothing Fails " , topped the US Hot Dance Singles Sales chart and also charted on the ARIA Club Tracks in Australia . Madonna did a performance of the song alone on stage on her Re @-@ Invention World Tour in 2004 . It was also used as a video interlude on The MDNA Tour in 2012 , showing Madonna 's face morphed with a number of famous figures . French far right politician Marine Le Pen sued Madonna for superimposing a swastika and Adolf Hitler 's face with hers .
= = Background = =
American Life became Madonna 's final studio album with Maverick Records , and marked the end of an eleven @-@ year recording history with the label . In an interview with VH1 , Madonna discussed her motivations behind the record discussing her 20 years in the industry and stating that " material things " were unimportant , stating " I look back at the 20 years behind me and I realized that a lot of things that I 'd valued weren 't important " , in response to the non @-@ materialistic themes of the record . The album has been deemed by some as a concept album featuring political themes based around the United States . " [ The songs ] are examining things I valued and things I found myself worrying about , caring too much about , and realizing that those things aren 't important and wanting to get out from underneath that cloud , the world of illusion " , Madonna stated . According to Lucy O 'Brien , author of Madonna : Like an Icon , the main concept of American Life was about " nothing " . This was evident in the titles of the songs like " Nobody Knows Me " , usage of " no " in " Love Profusion " , as well as " Nothing Fails " . Usage of the negative tone led Madonna to be sarcastic on people 's assumptions about her and emphasize about her knowledge of romantic love . O 'Brien described the concept of the album and the song :
" If Like a Prayer was her divorce album , American Life is her psycho
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seen as the Grand Staircase glass dome implodes and water surges in .
Bernard Fox as Colonel Archibald Gracie IV : The film depicts Gracie making a comment to Cal that " women and machinery don 't mix " , and congratulating Jack for saving Rose from falling off the ship , though he is unaware that it was a suicide attempt . Fox had portrayed Frederick Fleet in the 1958 film A Night to Remember .
Michael Ensign as Benjamin Guggenheim : A mining magnate traveling in first @-@ class . He shows off his French mistress Madame Aubert ( Fannie Brett ) to his fellow passengers while his wife and three daughters wait for him at home . When Jack joins the other first @-@ class passengers for dinner after his rescue of Rose , Guggenheim refers to him as a " bohemian " . He is seen in the flooding Grand Staircase during the sinking , saying he is prepared to go down as a gentleman .
Jonathan Evans @-@ Jones as Wallace Hartley : The ship 's bandmaster and violinist who plays uplifting music with his colleagues on the boat deck as the ship sinks . As the final plunge begins , he leads the band in a final performance of Nearer , My God , to Thee , to the tune of Bethany , and dies in the sinking .
Mark Lindsay Chapman as Chief Officer Henry Wilde : The ship 's chief officer , who lets Cal on board a lifeboat because he has a child in his arms . Before he dies , he tries to get the boats to return to the sinking site to rescue passengers by blowing his whistle . After he freezes to death , Rose uses his whistle to attract the attention of Fifth Officer Lowe , which leads to her rescue .
Ewan Stewart as First Officer William Murdoch : The officer who is put in charge of the bridge on the night the ship struck the iceberg . During a rush for the lifeboats , Murdoch shoots Tommy Ryan as well as another passenger in a momentary panic , then commits suicide out of guilt . When Murdoch 's nephew Scott saw the film , he objected to his uncle 's portrayal as damaging to Murdoch 's heroic reputation . A few months later , Fox vice @-@ president Scott Neeson went to Dalbeattie , Scotland , where Murdoch lived , to deliver a personal apology , and also presented a £ 5000 donation to Dalbeattie High School to boost the school 's William Murdoch Memorial Prize . Cameron apologized on the DVD commentary , but stated that there were officers who fired gunshots to enforce the " women and children first " policy . According to Cameron , his depiction of Murdoch is that of an " honorable man , " not of a man " gone bad " or of a " cowardly murderer . " He added , " I 'm not sure you 'd find that same sense of responsibility and total devotion to duty today . This guy had half of his lifeboats launched before his counterpart on the port side had even launched one . That says something about character and heroism . "
Jonathan Phillips as Second Officer Charles Lightoller . The film depicts Lightoller informing Captain Smith that it will be difficult to see icebergs without breaking water . He is seen brandishing a gun and threatening to use it to keep order . He can be seen on top of Collapsible B when the first funnel collapses . Lightoller was the most senior officer to have survived the disaster .
Kevin De La Noy as Third Officer Herbert Pitman : In charge of Lifeboat 5 .
Simon Crane as Fourth Officer Joseph Boxhall : The officer in charge of firing flares and manning Lifeboat 2 during the sinking . He is shown on the bridge wings helping the seamen firing the flares .
Ioan Gruffudd as Fifth Officer Harold Lowe : The ship 's only officer to lead a lifeboat to retrieve survivors of the sinking from the icy waters . The film depicts Lowe rescuing Rose .
Edward Fletcher as Sixth Officer James Moody : The ship 's only junior officer to have died in the sinking . The film depicts Moody admitting Jack and Fabrizio onto the ship only moments before it departs from Southampton . Moody is later shown following Mr. Murdoch 's orders to put the ship to full speed ahead , and informs First Officer Murdoch about the iceberg . He is last seen clinging to one of the davits on the starboard side after having unsuccessfully attempted to launch collapsible A.
James Lancaster as Father Thomas Byles : Father Byles , a Catholic priest from England , is portrayed praying and consoling passengers during the ship 's final moments .
Lew Palter and Elsa Raven as Isidor Straus and Ida Straus : Isidor is a former owner of R.H. Macy and Company , a former congressman from New York , and a member of the New York and New Jersey Bridge Commission . During the sinking , his wife Ida is offered a place in a lifeboat , but refuses , saying that she will honor her wedding pledge by staying with Isidor . They are last seen lying on their bed embracing each other as water fills their stateroom .
Martin Jarvis as Sir Cosmo Duff @-@ Gordon : A Scottish baronet who is rescued in Lifeboat 1 . Lifeboats 1 and 2 were emergency boats with a capacity of 40 . Situated at the forward end of the boat deck , these were kept ready to launch in case of a person falling overboard . On the night of the disaster , Lifeboat 1 was the fourth to be launched , with 12 people aboard , including Duff @-@ Gordon , his wife and her secretary . The baronet was much criticized for his conduct during the incident . It was suggested that he had boarded the emergency boat in violation of the " women and children first " policy and that the boat had failed to return to rescue those struggling in the water . He offered five pounds to each of the lifeboat 's crew , which those critical of his conduct viewed as a bribe . The Duff @-@ Gordons at the time ( and his wife 's secretary in a letter written at the time and rediscovered in 2007 ) stated that there had been no women or children waiting to board in the vicinity of the launching of their boat , and there is confirmation that lifeboat 1 of the Titanic was almost empty and that First Officer William Murdoch was apparently glad to offer Duff @-@ Gordon and his wife and her secretary a place ( simply to fill it ) after they had asked if they could get on . Duff @-@ Gordon denied that his offer of money to the lifeboat crew represented a bribe . The British Board of Trade 's inquiry into the disaster accepted Duff @-@ Gordon 's denial of bribing the crew , but maintained that , if the emergency boat had rowed towards the people who were in the water , it might very well have been able to rescue some of them .
Rosalind Ayres as Lady Duff @-@ Gordon : A world @-@ famous fashion designer and Sir Cosmo 's wife . She is rescued in Lifeboat 1 with her husband . She and her husband never lived down rumors that they had forbidden the lifeboat 's crew to return to the wreck site in case they would be swamped .
Rochelle Rose as Noëlle , Countess of Rothes : The Countess is shown to be friendly with Cal and the DeWitt Bukaters . Despite being of a higher status in society than Sir Cosmo and Lady Duff @-@ Gordon , she is kind , and helps row the boat and even looks after the steerage passengers .
Scott G. Anderson as Frederick Fleet : The lookout who saw the iceberg . Fleet escapes the sinking ship aboard Lifeboat 6 .
Paul Brightwell as Quartermaster Robert Hichens : One of the ship 's six quartermasters and at the ship 's wheel at the time of collision . He is in charge of lifeboat 6 . He refuses to go back and pick up survivors after the sinking and eventually the boat is commandeered by Molly Brown .
Martin East as Reginald Lee : The other lookout in the crow 's nest . He survives the sinking .
Gregory Cooke as Jack Phillips : Senior wireless operator on board the Titanic whom Captain Smith ordered to send the distress signal .
Craig Kelly as Harold Bride : Junior wireless operator on board the Titanic .
Liam Tuohy as Chief Baker Charles Joughin : The baker appears in the film on top of the railing with Jack and Rose as the ship sinks , drinking brandy from a flask . According to the real Joughin 's testimony , he rode the ship down and stepped into the water without getting his hair wet . He also admitted to hardly feeling the cold , most likely thanks to alcohol .
Terry Forrestal as Chief Engineer Joseph G. Bell : Bell and his men worked until the last minute to keep the lights and the power on in order for distress signals to get out . Bell and all of the engineers died in the bowels of the Titanic .
= = = Cameos = = =
Several crew members of the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh appear in the film , including Anatoly Sagalevich , creator and pilot of the MIR self @-@ propelled Deep Submergence Vehicle . Anders Falk , who filmed a documentary about the film 's sets for the Titanic Historical Society , makes a cameo appearance in the film as a Swedish immigrant whom Jack Dawson meets when he enters his cabin ; Edward Kamuda and Karen Kamuda , then President and Vice President of the Society who served as film consultants , were cast as extras in the film .
= = Pre @-@ production = =
= = = Writing and inspiration = = =
James Cameron had a fascination with shipwrecks , and , for him , the RMS Titanic was " the Mount Everest of shipwrecks . " He was almost past the point in his life when he felt he could consider an undersea expedition , but said he still had " a mental restlessness " to live the life he had turned away from when he switched from the sciences to the arts in college . So when an IMAX film was made from footage shot of the wreck itself , he decided to seek Hollywood funding to " pay for an expedition and do the same thing . " It was " not because I particularly wanted to make the movie , " Cameron said . " I wanted to dive to the shipwreck . "
Cameron wrote a scriptment for a Titanic film , met with 20th Century Fox executives including Peter Chernin , and pitched it as " Romeo and Juliet on the Titanic " . Cameron stated , " They were like , ' Oooooohkaaaaaay – a three @-@ hour romantic epic ? Sure , that 's just what we want . Is there a little bit of Terminator in that ? Any Harrier jets , shoot @-@ outs , or car chases ? ' I said , ' No , no , no . It 's not like that . ' " The studio was dubious about the idea 's commercial prospects , but , hoping for a long @-@ term relationship with Cameron , they gave him a greenlight .
Cameron convinced Fox to promote the film based on the publicity afforded by shooting the Titanic wreck itself , and organized several dives to the site over a period of two years . " My pitch on that had to be a little more detailed , " said Cameron . " So I said , ' Look , we 've got to do this whole opening where they 're exploring the Titanic and they find the diamond , so we 're going to have all these shots of the ship . " Cameron stated , " Now , we can either do them with elaborate models and motion control shots and CG and all that , which will cost X amount of money – or we can spend X plus 30 per cent and actually go shoot it at the real wreck . " The crew shot at the real wreck in the Atlantic Ocean twelve times in 1995 and actually spent more time with the ship than its passengers . At that depth , with a water pressure of 6 @,@ 000 pounds per square inch , " one small flaw in the vessel 's superstructure would mean instant death for all on board . " Not only were the dives high @-@ risk , but adverse conditions prevented Cameron from getting the high quality footage that he wanted . During one dive , one of the submersibles collided with Titanic 's hull , damaging both sub and ship and leaving fragments of the submersible 's propeller shroud scattered around the superstructure . The external bulkhead of Captain Smith 's quarters collapsed , exposing the interior . The area around the entrance to the Grand Staircase was also damaged .
Descending to the actual site made both Cameron and crew want " to live up to that level of reality .... But there was another level of reaction coming away from the real wreck , which was that it wasn 't just a story , it wasn 't just a drama , " he said . " It was an event that happened to real people who really died . Working around the wreck for so much time , you get such a strong sense of the profound sadness and injustice of it , and the message of it . " Cameron stated , " You think , ' There probably aren 't going to be many filmmakers who go to Titanic . There may never be another one – maybe a documentarian . " Due to this , he felt " a great mantle of responsibility to convey the emotional message of it – to do that part of it right , too " .
After filming the underwater shots , Cameron began writing the screenplay . He wanted to honor the people who died during the sinking , so he spent six months researching all of the Titanic 's crew and passengers . " I read everything I could . I created an extremely detailed timeline of the ship 's few days and a very detailed timeline of the last night of its life , " he said . " And I worked within that to write the script , and I got some historical experts to analyze what I 'd written and comment on it , and I adjusted it . " He paid meticulous attention to detail , even including a scene depicting the Californian 's role in Titanic 's demise , though this was later cut ( see below ) . From the beginning of the shoot , they had " a very clear picture " of what happened on the ship that night . " I had a library that filled one whole wall of my writing office with Titanic stuff , because I wanted it to be right , especially if we were going to dive to the ship , " he said . " That set the bar higher in a way – it elevated the movie in a sense . We wanted this to be a definitive visualization of this moment in history as if you 'd gone back in a time machine and shot it . "
Cameron felt the Titanic sinking was " like a great novel that really happened " , but that the event had become a mere morality tale ; the film would give audiences the experience of living the history . The treasure hunter Brock Lovett represented those who never connected with the human element of the tragedy , while the blossoming romance of Jack and Rose , Cameron believed , would be the most engaging part of the story : when their love is finally destroyed , the audience would mourn the loss . He said : " All my films are love stories , but in Titanic I finally got the balance right . It 's not a disaster film . It 's a love story with a fastidious overlay of real history . "
Cameron framed the romance with the elderly Rose to make the intervening years palpable and poignant . While Winslet and Stuart stated their belief that , instead of being asleep in her bed , the character dies at the end of the film , Cameron stated that , although he knows what he intended with the ending , he will not reveal its intention , adding , " The answer has to be something you supply personally ; individually . "
= = = Scale modeling = = =
Harland and Wolff , the RMS Titanic 's builders , opened their private archives to the crew , sharing blueprints that were thought lost . For the ship 's interiors , production designer Peter Lamont 's team looked for artifacts from the era . The newness of the ship meant every prop had to be made from scratch . Fox acquired 40 acres of waterfront south of Playas de Rosarito in Mexico , and began building a new studio on May 31 , 1996 . A horizon tank of seventeen million gallons was built for the exterior of the reconstructed ship , providing 270 degrees of ocean view . The ship was built to full scale , but Lamont removed redundant sections on the superstructure and forward well deck for the ship to fit in the tank , with the remaining sections filled with digital models . The lifeboats and funnels were shrunk by ten percent . The boat deck and A @-@ deck were working sets , but the rest of the ship was just steel plating . Within was a fifty @-@ foot lifting platform for the ship to tilt during the sinking sequences . Towering above was a 162 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 49 m ) tower crane on 600 feet ( 180 m ) of rail track , acting as a combined construction , lighting , and camera platform .
The sets representing the interior rooms of the Titanic were reproduced exactly as originally built , using photographs and plans from the Titanic 's builders . " The liner 's first @-@ class staircase , which figures prominently in the script was constructed out of real wood and actually destroyed in the filming of the sinking . " The rooms , the carpeting , design and colors , individual pieces of furniture , decorations , chairs , wall paneling , cutlery and crockery with the White Star Line crest on each piece , completed ceilings , and costumes were among the designs true to the originals . Cameron additionally hired two Titanic historians , Don Lynch and Ken Marschall , to authenticate the historical detail in the film .
= = Production = =
Principal photography of Titanic began in July 1996 at Dartmouth , Nova Scotia with the filming of the modern day expedition scenes aboard the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh . In September 1996 , the production moved to the newly built Fox Baja Studios at Rosarito , Mexico where a full scale RMS Titanic had been constructed . The poop deck was built on a hinge which could rise from zero to ninety degrees in a few seconds as the ship 's stern rose during the sinking . For the safety of the stuntmen , many props were made of foam rubber . By November 15 , the boarding scenes were being shot . Cameron chose to build his RMS Titanic on the starboard side as a study of weather data showed prevailing north @-@ to @-@ south wind which blew the funnel smoke aft . This posed a problem for shooting the ship 's departure from Southampton , as it was docked on its port side . Any writing on props and costumes had to be reversed , and if someone walked to their right in the script , they had to walk left during shooting . In post @-@ production , the film was flipped to the correct direction .
A full @-@ time etiquette coach was hired to instruct the cast on the manners of the upper class gentility in 1912 . Despite this , several critics picked up on anachronisms in the film , not least involving the two main stars .
Cameron sketched Jack 's nude portrait of Rose for a scene which he feels has the backdrop of repression . " You know what it means for her , the freedom she must be feeling . It 's kind of exhilarating for that reason , " he said . The nude scene was DiCaprio and Winslet 's first scene together . " It wasn 't by any kind of design , although I couldn 't have designed it better . There 's a nervousness and an energy and a hesitance in them , " Cameron stated . " They had rehearsed together , but they hadn 't shot anything together . If I 'd had a choice , I probably would have preferred to put it deeper into the body of the shoot . " He said he and his crew " were just trying to find things to shoot " because the big set was not yet ready . " It wasn 't ready for months , so we were scrambling around trying to fill in anything we could get to shoot . " After seeing the scene on film , Cameron felt it worked out considerably well .
Other times on the set were not as smooth . The shoot was an arduous experience that " cemented Cameron 's formidable reputation as ' the scariest man in Hollywood ' . He became known as an uncompromising , hard @-@ charging perfectionist " and a " 300 @-@ decibel screamer , a modern @-@ day Captain Bligh with a megaphone and walkie @-@ talkie , swooping down into people 's faces on a 162ft crane " . Winslet chipped a bone in her elbow during filming , and had been worried that she would drown in the 17m @-@ gallon water tank the ship was to be sunk in . " There were times when I was genuinely frightened of him . Jim has a temper like you wouldn 't believe , " she said . " ' God damn it ! ' he would yell at some poor crew member , ' that 's exactly what I didn 't want ! ' " Her co @-@ star , Bill Paxton , was familiar with Cameron 's work ethic from his earlier experience with him . " There were a lot of people on the set . Jim is not one of those guys who has the time to win hearts and minds , " he said . The crew felt that Cameron had an evil alter ego , and nicknamed him " Mij " ( Jim spelt backwards ) . In response to the criticism , Cameron stated , " Film @-@ making is war . A great battle between business and aesthetics . "
During the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh shoot in Canada , an angry crew member put the dissociative drug PCP into the soup that Cameron and various others ate one night in Dartmouth , Nova Scotia . It sent more than 50 people to the hospital including actor Bill Paxton . " There were people just rolling around , completely out of it . Some of them said they were seeing streaks and psychedelics , " said actor Lewis Abernathy . Cameron managed to vomit before the drug took a full hold . Abernathy was shocked at the way he looked . " One eye was completely red , like the Terminator eye . A pupil , no iris , beet red . The other eye looked like he 'd been sniffing glue since he was four . " The person behind the poisoning was never caught .
The filming schedule was intended to last 138 days but grew to 160 . Many cast members came down with colds , flu , or kidney infections after spending hours in cold water , including Winslet . In the end , she decided she would not work with Cameron again unless she earned " a lot of money " . Several others left and three stuntmen broke their bones , but the Screen Actors Guild decided , following an investigation , that nothing was inherently unsafe about the set . Additionally , DiCaprio said there was no point when he felt he was in danger during filming . Cameron believed in a passionate work ethic and never apologized for the way he ran his sets , although he acknowledged :
I 'm demanding , and I 'm demanding on my crew . In terms of being kind of militaresque , I think there 's an element of that in dealing with thousands of extras and big logistics and keeping people safe . I think you have to have a fairly strict methodology in dealing with a large number of people .
The costs of filming Titanic eventually began to mount , and finally reached $ 200 million . Fox executives panicked , and suggested an hour of specific cuts from the three @-@ hour film . They argued the extended length would mean fewer showings , thus less money even though long epics are more likely to help directors win Oscars . Cameron refused , telling Fox , " You want to cut my movie ? You 're going to have to fire me ! You want to fire me ? You 're going to have to kill me ! " The executives did not want to start over , because it would mean the loss of their entire investment , but they also initially rejected Cameron 's offer of forfeiting his share of the profits as an empty gesture ; they felt that profits would be unlikely . Cameron explained forfeiting his share as complex . " ... the short version is that the film cost proportionally much more than T2 and True Lies . Those films went up seven or eight percent from the initial budget . Titanic also had a large budget to begin with , but it went up a lot more , " said Cameron . " As the producer and director , I take responsibility for the studio that 's writing the checks , so I made it less painful for them . I did that on two different occasions . They didn 't force me to do it ; they were glad that I did . "
= = Post @-@ production = =
= = = Effects = = =
Cameron wanted to push the boundary of special effects with his film , and enlisted Digital Domain to continue the developments in digital technology which the director pioneered while working on The Abyss and Terminator 2 : Judgment Day . Many previous films about the RMS Titanic shot water in slow motion , which did not look wholly convincing . He encouraged them to shoot their 45 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 14 m ) miniature of the ship as if " we 're making a commercial for the White Star Line " . Afterwards , digital water and smoke were added , as were extras captured on a motion capture stage . Visual effects supervisor Rob Legato scanned the faces of many actors , including himself and his children , for the digital extras and stuntmen . There was also a 65 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 20 m ) model of the ship 's stern that could break in two repeatedly , the only miniature to be used in water . For scenes set in the ship 's engines , footage of the SS Jeremiah O 'Brien 's engines were composited with miniature support frames and actors shot against a greenscreen . In order to save money , the first @-@ class lounge was a miniature set incorporated into a greenscreen backdrop .
An enclosed 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 19 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 L ) tank was used for sinking interiors , in which the entire set could be tilted into the water . In order to sink the Grand Staircase , 90 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 340 @,@ 000 L ) of water were dumped into the set as it was lowered into the tank . Unexpectedly , the waterfall ripped the staircase from its steel @-@ reinforced foundations , although no one was hurt . The 744 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 227 m ) exterior of the RMS Titanic had its first half lowered into the tank , but being the heaviest part of the ship meant it acted as a shock absorber against the water ; to get the set into the water , Cameron had much of the set emptied and even smashed some of the promenade windows himself . After submerging the dining saloon , three days were spent shooting Lovett 's ROV traversing the wreck in the present . The post @-@ sinking scenes in the freezing Atlantic were shot in a 350 @,@ 000 @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 L ) tank , where the frozen corpses were created by applying a powder on actors that crystallized when exposed to water , and wax was coated on hair and clothes .
The climactic scene , which features the breakup of the ship directly before it sinks , as well as its final plunge to the bottom of the Atlantic , involved a tilting full @-@ sized set , 150 extras and 100 stunt performers . Cameron criticized previous Titanic films for depicting the final plunge of the liner as sliding gracefully underwater . He " wanted to depict it as the terrifyingly chaotic event that it really was " . When carrying out the sequence , people needed to fall off the increasingly tilting deck , plunging hundreds of feet below and bouncing off of railings and propellers on the way down . A few attempts to film this sequence with stunt people resulted in some minor injuries and Cameron halted the more dangerous stunts . The risks were eventually minimized " by using computer generated people for the dangerous falls " .
= = = Editing = = =
There was one " crucial historical fact " Cameron chose to omit from the film – the ship that was close to the Titanic , but had turned off its radio for the night and did not hear their SOS calls . " Yes , the [ SS ] Californian . That wasn 't a compromise to mainstream filmmaking . That was really more about emphasis , creating an emotional truth to the film , " stated Cameron . He said there were aspects of retelling the sinking that seemed important in pre and post @-@ production , but turned out to be less important as the film evolved . " The story of the Californian was in there ; we even shot a scene of them switching off their Marconi radio set , " said Cameron . " But I took it out . It was a clean cut , because it focuses you back onto that world . If Titanic is powerful as a metaphor , as a microcosm , for the end of the world in a sense , then that world must be self @-@ contained . "
During the first assembly cut , Cameron altered the planned ending , which had given resolution to Brock Lovett 's story . In the original version of the ending , Brock and Lizzy see the elderly Rose at the stern of the boat , and fear she is going to commit suicide . Rose then reveals that she had the " Heart of the Ocean " diamond all along , but never sold it , in order to live on her own without Cal 's money . She tells Brock that life is priceless and throws the diamond into the ocean , after allowing him to hold it . After accepting that treasure is worthless , Brock laughs at his stupidity . Rose then goes back to her cabin to sleep , whereupon the film ends in the same way as the final version . In the editing room , Cameron decided that by this point , the audience would no longer be interested in Brock Lovett and cut the resolution to his story , so that Rose is alone when she drops the diamond . He also did not want to disrupt the audience 's melancholy after the Titanic 's sinking .
The version used for the first test screening featured a fight between Jack and Lovejoy which takes place after Jack and Rose escape into the flooded dining saloon , but the test audiences disliked it . The scene was written to give the film more suspense , and featured Cal ( falsely ) offering to give Lovejoy , his valet , the " Heart of the Ocean " if he can get it from Jack and Rose . Lovejoy goes after the pair in the sinking first @-@ class dining room . Just as they are about to escape him , Lovejoy notices Rose 's hand slap the water as it slips off the table behind which she is hiding . In revenge for framing him for the " theft " of the necklace , Jack attacks him and smashes his head against a glass window , which explains the gash on Lovejoy 's head that can be seen when he dies in the completed version of the film . In their reactions to the scene , test audiences said it would be unrealistic to risk one 's life for wealth , and Cameron cut it for this reason , as well as for timing and pacing reasons . Many other scenes were cut for similar reasons .
= = = Music and soundtrack = = =
The soundtrack album for Titanic was composed by James Horner . For the vocals heard throughout the film , subsequently described by Earle Hitchner of The Wall Street Journal as " evocative " , Horner chose Norwegian singer Sissel Kyrkjebø , commonly known as " Sissel " . Horner knew Sissel from her album Innerst i sjelen , and he particularly liked how she sang " Eg veit i himmerik ei borg " ( " I Know in Heaven There Is a Castle " ) . He had tried twenty @-@ five or thirty singers before he finally chose Sissel as the voice to create specific moods within the film .
Horner additionally wrote the song " My Heart Will Go On " in secret with Will Jennings because Cameron did not want any songs with singing in the film . Céline Dion agreed to record a demo with the persuasion of her husband René Angélil . Horner waited until Cameron was in an appropriate mood before presenting him with the song . After playing it several times , Cameron declared his approval , although worried that he would have been criticized for " going commercial at the end of the movie " . Cameron also wanted to appease anxious studio executives and " saw that a hit song from his movie could only be a positive factor in guaranteeing its completion " .
= = Release = =
= = = Initial screening = = =
20th Century Fox and Paramount Pictures co @-@ financed Titanic , with Paramount handling the North American distribution and Fox handling the international release . They expected Cameron to complete the film for a release on July 2 , 1997 . The film was to be released on this date " in order to exploit the lucrative summer season ticket sales when blockbuster films usually do better " . In April , Cameron said the film 's special effects were too complicated and that releasing the film for summer would not be possible . With production delays , Paramount pushed back the release date to December 19 , 1997 . " This fueled speculation that the film itself was a disaster . " A preview screening in Minneapolis on July 14 " generated positive reviews " and " [ c ] hatter on the internet was responsible for more favorable word of mouth about the [ film ] " . This eventually led to more positive media coverage .
The film premiered on November 1 , 1997 , at the Tokyo International Film Festival , where reaction was described as " tepid " by The New York Times . Positive reviews started to appear back in the United States ; the official Hollywood premiere occurred on December 14 , 1997 , where " the big movie stars who attended the opening were enthusiastically gushing about the film to the world media " .
= = = Box office = = =
Including revenue from the 2012 reissue , Titanic earned $ 658 @,@ 672 @,@ 302 in North America and $ 1 @,@ 526 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 in other countries , for a worldwide total of $ 2 @,@ 185 @,@ 372 @,@ 302 . It became the highest @-@ grossing film of all time worldwide in 1998 , and remained so for twelve years , until Avatar ( 2009 ) , also written and directed by Cameron , surpassed it in 2010 . On March 1 , 1998 , it became the first film to earn more than $ 1 billion worldwide and on the weekend April 13 – 15 , 2012 — a century after the original vessel 's foundering , Titanic became the second film to cross the $ 2 billion threshold during its 3D re @-@ release . Box Office Mojo estimates that Titanic is the fifth highest @-@ grossing film of all time in North America when adjusting for ticket price inflation . The site also estimates that the film sold over 128 million tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run .
= = = = Initial theatrical run = = = =
The film received steady attendance after opening in North America on Friday , December 19 , 1997 . By the end of that same weekend , theaters were beginning to sell out . The film earned $ 8 @,@ 658 @,@ 814 on its opening day and $ 28 @,@ 638 @,@ 131 over the opening weekend from 2 @,@ 674 theaters , averaging to about $ 10 @,@ 710 per venue , and ranking number one at the box office , ahead of the eighteenth James Bond film , Tomorrow Never Dies . By New Year 's Day , Titanic had made over $ 120 million , had increased in popularity and theaters continued to sell out . Its highest grossing single day was Saturday , February 14 , 1998 , on which it earned $ 13 @,@ 048 @,@ 711 , more than eight weeks after its North American debut . It stayed at number one for 15 consecutive weeks in North America , a record for any film . The film stayed in theaters in North America for almost 10 months before finally closing on Thursday , October 1 , 1998 with a final domestic gross of $ 600 @,@ 788 @,@ 188 . Outside North America , the film made double its North American gross , generating $ 1 @,@ 242 @,@ 413 @,@ 080 and accumulating a grand total of $ 1 @,@ 843 @,@ 201 @,@ 268 worldwide from its initial theatrical run .
= = = = Commercial analysis = = = =
Before Titanic 's release , various film critics predicted the film would be a significant disappointment at the box office , especially due to it being the most expensive film ever made at the time . When it was shown to the press in autumn of 1997 , " it was with massive forebodings " since the " people in charge of the screenings believed they were on the verge of losing their jobs – because of this great albatross of a picture on which , finally , two studios had to combine to share the great load of its making " . Cameron also thought he was " headed for disaster " at one point during filming . " We labored the last six months on Titanic in the absolute knowledge that the studio would lose $ 100 million . It was a certainty , " he stated . As the film neared release , " particular venom was spat at Cameron for what was seen as his hubris and monumental extravagance " . A film critic for the Los Angeles Times wrote that " Cameron 's overweening pride has come close to capsizing this project " and that the film was " a hackneyed , completely derivative copy of old Hollywood romances " .
When the film became a success , with an unprecedented box office performance , it was credited for being a love story that captured its viewers emotions . The film was playing on 3 @,@ 200 screens ten weeks after it opened , and out of its fifteen straight weeks on top of the charts , jumped 43 % in total sales in its ninth week of release . It earned over $ 20 million a week for ten weeks , and after 14 weeks was still bringing in more than $ 1 million a week . 20th Century Fox estimated that seven percent of American teenage girls had seen Titanic twice by its fifth week . Although young women who saw the film several times , and subsequently caused " Leo @-@ Mania " , were often credited with having primarily propelled the film to its all @-@ time box office record , other reports have attributed the film 's success to positive word of mouth and repeat viewership due to the love story combined with the ground @-@ breaking special effects .
The film 's impact on men has also been especially credited . Now considered one of the films that " make men cry " , MSNBC 's Ian Hodder stated that men admire Jack 's sense of adventure , stowing away on a steamship bound for America . " We cheer as he courts a girl who was out of his league . We admire how he suggests nude modeling as an excuse to get naked . So when [ the tragic ending happens ] , an uncontrollable flood of tears sinks our composure , " he said . Titanic 's ability to make men cry was briefly parodied in the 2009 film Zombieland , where character Tallahassee ( Woody Harrelson ) , when recalling the death of his young son , states : " I haven 't cried like that since Titanic . "
In 2010 , the BBC analyzed the stigma over men crying during Titanic and films in general . " Middle @-@ aged men are not ' supposed ' to cry during movies , " stated Finlo Rohrer of the website , citing the ending of Titanic as having generated such tears , adding that " men , if they have felt weepy during [ this film ] , have often tried to be surreptitious about it . " Professor Mary Beth Oliver , of Penn State University , stated , " For many men , there is a great deal of pressure to avoid expression of ' female ' emotions like sadness and fear . From a very young age , males are taught that it is inappropriate to cry , and these lessons are often accompanied by a great deal of ridicule when the lessons aren 't followed . " Rohrer said , " Indeed , some men who might sneer at the idea of crying during Titanic will readily admit to becoming choked up during Saving Private Ryan or Platoon . " For men in general , " the idea of sacrifice for a ' brother ' is a more suitable source of emotion " .
Scott Meslow of The Atlantic stated while Titanic initially seems to need no defense , given its success , it is considered a film " for 15 @-@ year @-@ old girls " by its main detractors . He argued that dismissing Titanic as fodder for 15 @-@ year @-@ old girls fails to consider the film 's accomplishment : " that [ this ] grandiose , 3 + hour historical romantic drama is a film for everyone — including teenage boys . " Meslow stated that the despite the film being ranked high by males under the age of 18 , matching the ratings for teenage boy @-@ targeted films like Iron Man , it is common for boys and men to deny liking Titanic . He acknowledged his own rejection of the film as a child while secretly loving it . " It 's this collection of elements — the history , the romance , the action — that made ( and continues to make ) Titanic an irresistible proposition for audiences of all ages across the globe , " he stated . " Titanic has flaws , but for all its legacy , it 's better than its middlebrow reputation would have you believe . It 's a great movie for 15 @-@ year @-@ old girls , but that doesn 't mean it 's not a great movie for everyone else too . "
Quotes in the film aided its popularity . Titanic 's catchphrase " I 'm the king of the world ! " became one of the film industry 's more popular quotations . According to Richard Harris , a psychology professor at Kansas State University , who studied why people like to cite films in social situations , using film quotations in everyday conversation is similar to telling a joke and a way to form solidarity with others . " People are doing it to feel good about themselves , to make others laugh , to make themselves laugh " , he said .
Cameron explained the film 's success as having significantly benefited from the experience of sharing . " When people have an experience that 's very powerful in the movie theatre , they want to go share it . They want to grab their friend and bring them , so that they can enjoy it , " he said . " They want to be the person to bring them the news that this is something worth having in their life . That 's how Titanic worked . " Media Awareness Network stated , " The normal repeat viewing rate for a blockbuster theatrical film is about 5 % . The repeat rate for Titanic was over 20 % . " The box office receipts " were even more impressive " when factoring in " the film 's 3 @-@ hour @-@ and @-@ 14 @-@ minute length meant that it could only be shown three times a day compared to a normal movie 's four showings " . In response to this , " [ m ] any theatres started midnight showings and were rewarded with full houses until almost 3 : 30 am " .
Titanic held the record for box office gross for twelve years . Cameron 's follow @-@ up film , Avatar , was considered the first film with a genuine chance at surpassing its worldwide gross , and did so in 2010 . Various explanations for why the film was able to successfully challenge Titanic were given . For one , " Two @-@ thirds of Titanic 's haul was earned overseas , and Avatar [ tracked ] similarly ... Avatar opened in 106 markets globally and was no . 1 in all of them " and the markets " such as Russia , where Titanic saw modest receipts in 1997 and 1998 , are white @-@ hot today " with " more screens and moviegoers " than ever before . Brandon Gray , president of Box Office Mojo , said that while Avatar may beat Titanic 's revenue record , the film is unlikely to surpass Titanic in attendance . " Ticket prices were about $ 3 cheaper in the late 1990s . " In December 2009 , Cameron had stated , " I don 't think it 's realistic to try to topple Titanic off its perch . Some pretty good movies have come out in the last few years . Titanic just struck some kind of chord . " In a January 2010 interview , he gave a different take on the matter once Avatar 's performance was easier to predict . " It 's gonna happen . It 's just a matter of time , " he said .
Author Alexandra Keller , when analyzing Titanic 's success , stated that scholars could agree that the film 's popularity " appears dependent on contemporary culture , on perceptions of history , on patterns of consumerism and globalization , as well as on those elements experienced filmgoers conventionally expect of juggernaut film events in the 1990s – awesome screen spectacle , expansive action , and , more rarely seen , engaging characters and epic drama . "
= = = Critical reception = = =
Titanic garnered mainly positive reviews from film critics , and was positively reviewed by audiences and scholars , who commented on the film 's cultural , historical and political impacts . It holds an overall 88 % approval rating on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes , based on 178 reviews , with a rating average of 8 out of 10 . The site 's consensus reads : " A mostly unqualified triumph for Cameron , who offers a dizzying blend of spectacular visuals and old @-@ fashioned melodrama . " At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 0 – 100 reviews from film critics , the film has a rating score of 74 based on 34 reviews , classified as a generally favorably reviewed film .
With regard to the film 's overall design , Roger Ebert stated , " It is flawlessly crafted , intelligently constructed , strongly acted , and spellbinding ... Movies like this are not merely difficult to make at all , but almost impossible to make well . " He credited the " technical difficulties " with being " so daunting that it 's a wonder when the filmmakers are also able to bring the drama and history into proportion " and " found [ himself ] convinced by both the story and the sad saga " . He named it his ninth best film of 1997 . On the television program Siskel & Ebert , the film received " two thumbs up " and was praised for its accuracy in recreating the ship 's sinking ; Ebert described the film as " a glorious Hollywood epic " and " well worth the wait , " and Gene Siskel found Leonardo DiCaprio " captivating " . James Berardinelli stated , " Meticulous in detail , yet vast in scope and intent , Titanic is the kind of epic motion picture event that has become a rarity . You don 't just watch Titanic , you experience it . " It was named his second best film of 1997 . Almar Haflidason of the BBC wrote that " the sinking of the great ship is no secret , yet for many exceeded expectations in sheer scale and tragedy " and that " when you consider that [ the film ] tops a bum @-@ numbing three @-@ hour running time , then you have a truly impressive feat of entertainment achieved by Cameron " . Joseph McBride of Boxoffice Magazine concluded , " To describe Titanic as the greatest disaster movie ever made is to sell it short . James Cameron 's recreation of the 1912 sinking of the ' unsinkable ' liner is one of the most magnificent pieces of serious popular entertainment ever to emanate from Hollywood . "
The romantic and emotionally charged aspects of the film were equally praised . Andrew L. Urban of Urban Cinefile said , " You will walk out of Titanic not talking about budget or running time , but of its enormous emotive power , big as the engines of the ship itself , determined as its giant propellers to gouge into your heart , and as lasting as the love story that propels it . " Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly described the film as , " A lush and terrifying spectacle of romantic doom . Writer @-@ director James Cameron has restaged the defining catastrophe of the early 20th century on a human scale of such purified yearning and dread that he touches the deepest levels of popular moviemaking . " Janet Maslin of The New York Times commented that " Cameron 's magnificent Titanic is the first spectacle in decades that honestly invites comparison to Gone With the Wind . " Richard Corliss of Time magazine , on the other hand , wrote a mostly negative review , criticizing the lack of interesting emotional elements .
Some reviewers felt that the story and dialogue were weak , while the visuals were spectacular . Kenneth Turan 's review in the Los Angeles Times was particularly scathing . Dismissing the emotive elements , he stated , " What really brings on the tears is Cameron 's insistence that writing this kind of movie is within his abilities . Not only is it not , it is not even close . " , and later claimed that the only reason that the film won Oscars was because of its box office total . Barbara Shulgasser of The San Francisco Examiner gave Titanic one star out of four , citing a friend as saying , " The number of times in this unbelievably badly written script that the two [ lead characters ] refer to each other by name was an indication of just how dramatically the script lacked anything more interesting for the actors to say . " Also , filmmaker Robert Altman called it " the most dreadful piece of work I 've ever seen in my entire life " . In his 2012 study of the lives of the passengers on the Titanic , historian Richard Davenport @-@ Hines said , " Cameron 's film diabolized rich Americans and educated English , anathematizing their emotional restraint , good tailoring , punctilious manners and grammatical training , while it made romantic heroes of the poor Irish and the unlettered " .
Titanic suffered backlash in addition to its success . In 2003 , the film topped a poll of " Best Film Endings " , and yet it also topped a poll by Film 2003 as " the worst movie of all time " . The British film magazine Empire reduced their rating of the film from the maximum five stars and an enthusiastic review , to four stars with a less positive review in a later edition , to accommodate its readers ' tastes , who wanted to disassociate themselves from the hype surrounding the film , and the reported activities of its fans , such as those attending multiple screenings . In addition to this , positive and negative parodies and other such spoofs of the film abounded and were circulated on the internet , often inspiring passionate responses from fans of various opinions of the film . Benjamin Willcock of DVDActive.com did not understand the backlash or the passionate hatred for the film . " What really irks me ... , " he said , " are those who make nasty stabs at those who do love it . " Willcock stated , " I obviously don 't have anything against those who dislike Titanic , but those few who make you feel small and pathetic for doing so ( and they do exist , trust me ) are way beyond my understanding and sympathy . "
Cameron responded to the backlash , and Kenneth Turan 's review in particular . " Titanic is not a film that is sucking people in with flashy hype and spitting them out onto the street feeling let down and ripped off , " he stated . " They are returning again and again to repeat an experience that is taking a 3 @-@ hour and 14 @-@ minute chunk out of their lives , and dragging others with them , so they can share the emotion . " Cameron emphasized people from all ages ( ranging from 8 to 80 ) and from all backgrounds were " celebrating their own essential humanity " by seeing it . He described the script as earnest and straightforward , and said it intentionally " incorporates universals of human experience and emotion that are timeless – and familiar because they reflect our basic emotional fabric " and that the film was able to succeed in this way by dealing with archetypes . He did not see it as pandering . " Turan mistakes archetype for cliche , " he said . " I don 't share his view that the best scripts are only the ones that explore the perimeter of human experience , or flashily pirouette their witty and cynical dialogue for our admiration . "
Empire eventually reinstated its original five star rating of the film , commenting , " It should be no surprise then that it became fashionable to bash James Cameron 's Titanic at approximately the same time it became clear that this was the planet 's favourite film . Ever . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Titanic began its awards sweep starting with the Golden Globes , winning four , namely Best Motion Picture – Drama , Best Director , Best Original Score , and Best Original Song . Kate Winslet and Gloria Stuart were also nominees . It won the ACE " Eddie " Award , ASC Award , Art Directors Guild Award , Cinema Audio Society Awards , Screen Actors Guild Award ( Best Supporting Actress for Gloria Stuart ) , The Directors Guild of America Award , and Broadcast Film Critics Association Award ( Best Director for James Cameron ) , and The Producer Guild of America Award . It was also nominated for ten BAFTA awards , including Best Film and Best Director ; it failed to win any .
The film garnered fourteen Academy Awards nominations , tying the record set in 1950 by Joseph L. Mankiewicz 's All About Eve and won eleven : Best Picture ( the second film about the Titanic to win that award , after 1933 's Cavalcade ) , Best Director , Best Art Direction , Best Cinematography , Best Visual Effects , Best Film Editing , Best Costume Design , Best Sound ( Gary Rydstrom , Tom Johnson , Gary Summers , Mark Ulano ) , Best Sound Effects Editing , Best Original Dramatic Score , Best Original Song . Kate Winslet , Gloria Stuart and the make @-@ up artists were the three nominees that did not win . James Cameron 's original screenplay and Leonardo DiCaprio were not nominees . It was the second film to win eleven Academy Awards , after Ben @-@ Hur . The Lord of the Rings : The Return of the King would also match this record in 2004 .
Titanic won the 1997 Academy Award for Best Original Song , as well as three Grammy Awards for Record of the Year , Song of the Year , and Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or Television . The film 's soundtrack became the best @-@ selling primarily orchestral soundtrack of all time , and became a worldwide success , spending sixteen weeks at number @-@ one in the United States , and was certified diamond for over eleven million copies sold in the United States alone . The soundtrack also became the best @-@ selling album of 1998 in the U.S. " My Heart Will Go On " won the Grammy Awards for Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or for Television . The film also won Best Male Performance for Leonardo DiCaprio and Best Movie at the MTV Movie Awards , Best Film at the People 's Choice Awards , and Favorite Movie at the 1998 Kids ' Choice Awards . It won various awards outside the United States , including the Awards of the Japanese Academy as the Best Foreign Film of the Year . Titanic eventually won nearly ninety awards and had an additional forty @-@ seven nominations from various award @-@ giving bodies around the world . Additionally , the book about the making of the film was at the top of The New York Times ' bestseller list for several weeks , " the first time that such a tie @-@ in book had achieved this status " .
Since its release , Titanic has appeared on the American Film Institute 's award @-@ winning 100 Years … series . So far , it has ranked on the following six lists :
= = = Home media = = =
Titanic was released worldwide in widescreen and pan and scan formats on VHS and laserdisc on September 1 , 1998 . The VHS was also made available in a deluxe boxed gift set with a mounted filmstrip and six lithograph prints from the movie . A DVD version was released on August 31 , 1999 in a widescreen @-@ only ( non @-@ anamorphic ) single @-@ disc edition with no special features other than a theatrical trailer . Cameron stated at the time that he intended to release a special edition with extra features later . This release became the best @-@ selling DVD of 1999 and early 2000 , becoming the first DVD ever to sell one million copies . At the time , fewer than 5 % of all U.S. homes had a DVD player . " When we released the original Titanic DVD , the industry was much smaller , and bonus features were not the standard they are now , " said Meagan Burrows , Paramount 's president of domestic home entertainment , which made the film 's DVD performance even more impressive .
Titanic was re @-@ released to DVD on October 25 , 2005 when a three @-@ disc Special Collector 's Edition was made available in the United States and Canada . This edition contained a newly restored transfer of the film , as well as various special features . An international two and four @-@ disc set followed on November 7 , 2005 . The two @-@ disc edition was marketed as the Special Edition , and featured the first two discs of the three @-@ disc set , only PAL @-@ enabled . A four @-@ disc edition , marketed as the Deluxe Collector 's Edition , was also released on November 7 , 2005 .
Also , available only in the United Kingdom , a limited 5 @-@ disc set of the film , under the title Deluxe Limited Edition , was released with only 10 @,@ 000 copies manufactured . The fifth disc contains Cameron 's documentary Ghosts of the Abyss , which was distributed by Walt Disney Pictures . Unlike the individual release of Ghosts of the Abyss , which contained two discs , only the first disc was included in the set .
As regards to television broadcasts , the film airs occasionally across the United States on networks such as TNT . To permit the scene where Jack draws the nude portrait of Rose to be shown on network and specialty cable channels , in addition to minor cuts , the sheer , see @-@ through robe worn by Winslet was digitally painted black . Turner Classic Movies also began to show the film , specifically during the days leading up to the 82nd Academy Awards .
= = = 3D conversion = = =
A 2012 re @-@ release , also known as Titanic in 3D , was created by re @-@ mastering the original to 4K resolution and post @-@ converting to stereoscopic 3D format . The Titanic 3D version took 60 weeks and $ 18 million to produce , including the 4K restoration . The 3D conversion was performed by Stereo D and Sony with Slam Content 's Panther Records remastering the soundtrack . Digital 2D and in 2D IMAX versions were also struck from the new 4K master created in the process . For the 3D release , Cameron opened up the Super 35 film and expanded the image of the film into a new aspect ratio , from 2 : 35 : 1 to 1 : 78 : 1 , allowing the viewer to see more image on the top and bottom of the screen . The only scene entirely redone for the re @-@ release was Rose 's view of the night sky at sea , on the morning of April 15 , 1912 . The scene was replaced with an accurate view of the night @-@ sky star pattern , including the Milky Way , adjusted for the location in the North Atlantic Ocean in April 1912 . The change was prompted by astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson , who had criticized the scene for showing an unrealistic star pattern . He agreed to send film director Cameron a corrected view of the sky , which was the basis of the new scene .
The 3D version of Titanic premiered at the Royal Albert Hall in London on March 27 , 2012 , with James Cameron and Kate Winslet in attendance , and entered general release on April 4 , 2012 , six days shy of the centenary of RMS Titanic embarking on her maiden voyage .
Rolling Stone film critic Peter Travers rated the reissue 3 @.@ 5 stars out of 4 , explaining he found it " pretty damn dazzling " . He said , " The 3D intensifies Titanic . You are there . Caught up like never before in an intimate epic that earns its place in the movie time capsule . " Writing for Entertainment Weekly , Owen Gleiberman gave the film an A grade . He wrote , " For once , the visuals in a 3 @-@ D movie don 't look darkened or distracting . They look sensationally crisp and alive . " Richard Corliss of Time who was very critical in 1997 remained in the same mood , " I had pretty much the same reaction : fitfully awed , mostly water @-@ logged . " In regards to the 3D effects , he noted the " careful conversion to 3D lends volume and impact to certain moments ... [ but ] in separating the foreground and background of each scene , the converters have carved the visual field into discrete , not organic , levels . " Ann Hornaday for The Washington Post found herself asking " whether the film 's twin values of humanism and spectacle are enhanced by Cameron 's 3 @-@ D conversion , and the answer to that is : They aren 't . " She further added that the " 3 @-@ D conversion creates distance where there should be intimacy , not to mention odd moments in framing and composition . "
The film grossed an estimated $ 4 @.@ 7 million on the first day of its re @-@ release in North America ( including midnight preview showings ) and went on to make $ 17 @.@ 3 million over the weekend , finishing in third place . Outside North America it earned $ 35 @.@ 2 million finishing second , and improved on its performance the following weekend by topping the box office with $ 98 @.@ 9 million . China has proven to be its most successful territory where it earned $ 11 @.@ 6 million on its opening day , going on to earn a record @-@ breaking $ 67 million in its opening week and taking more money in the process than it did in the entirety of its original theatrical run . The reissue ultimately earned $ 343 @.@ 4 million worldwide , with $ 145 million coming from China and $ 57 @.@ 8 million from Canada and United States .
The 3D conversion of the film was also released in the 4DX format in selected international territories , which allows the audience to experience the film 's environment using motion , wind , fog , lighting and scent @-@ based special effects .
= Interstate 296 =
Interstate 296 ( I @-@ 296 ) is a part of the Interstate Highway System in the US state of Michigan . It is a state trunkline highway that runs for 3 @.@ 43 miles ( 5 @.@ 52 km ) entirely within the Grand Rapids area . Its termini are I @-@ 96 on the north side of Grand Rapids in Walker and I @-@ 196 near downtown Grand Rapids . For most of its length , the Interstate is concurrent with U.S. Highway 131 ( US 131 ) , which continues as a freeway built to Interstate Highway standards north and south of the shorter I @-@ 296 . The highway was first proposed in the late 1950s and opened in December 1962 , but the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) has since eliminated all signage for I @-@ 296 and removed the designation from their official state map . The designation is therefore unsigned , but still listed on the Interstate Highway System route log maintained by the Federal Highway Administration ( FHWA ) .
= = Route description = =
I @-@ 296 begins at the I @-@ 196 interchange west of the Grand River and downtown Grand Rapids . For a short distance , the three northbound lanes are on the left and the three southbound lanes are on the right , contrary to the normal traffic arrangement in the US . This anomaly is reversed north of the ramps for I @-@ 196 as the southbound lanes go over the northbound lanes . Running parallel to the Grand River on the west bank , the freeway designation begins across the river from the 6th Street Bridge Park and Belknap Hill north of the Gerald R. Ford Presidential Museum and the DeVos Place Convention Center . The west side of the freeway faces residential neighborhoods and the east side borders commercial businesses and the river . South of the Ann Street interchange , the highway crosses a line of the Grand Rapids Eastern Railroad . After crossing both the railroad and Ann Street , the highway widens to allow for a grassy median . The freeway leaves Grand Rapids and enters Walker north of Ann Street .
Approaching I @-@ 96 from the south , the freeway passes east of the DeltaPlex Arena , and it median widens further across the river from Comstock Riverside Park in Walker . An extra lane is added on the left , widening the freeway to four lanes . Unsigned I @-@ 296 occupies the left two lanes that form the left exit for I @-@ 96 from US 131 . At the split between I @-@ 296 and US 131 , I @-@ 296 curves northwest , and US 131 curves northeast to follow a bend in the Grand River . Once I @-@ 296 diverges from US 131 , the highway crosses a rail line owned by CSX Transportation and passes over West River Drive . To the northwest of these crossings , exits emerge on the right for eastbound I @-@ 96 and the left for northbound M @-@ 37 ( Alpine Avenue ) . Past these exits , I @-@ 296 merges into westbound I @-@ 96 and terminates . Southbound unsigned I @-@ 296 begins where the ramps to US 131 southbound split from eastbound I @-@ 96 at the Alpine Avenue overpass , merging with southbound US 131 north of Ann Street .
= = History = =
The development of a freeway along the modern @-@ day I @-@ 296 / US 131 corridor was proposed in the 1950s . The 1955 General Location of National System of Interstate Highways , an early platform for what would become the Interstate Highway System , contained an inset of the proposed freeways in and around the Grand Rapids area including a north – south freeway near the downtown area . Designated as part of the Interstate Highway System in 1957 , I @-@ 296 's construction was funded by the federal government .
The US 131 freeway was officially opened at 10 a.m. on December 17 , 1962 , between Pearl Street and ( at the time ) the I @-@ 196 / US 16 freeway north of downtown . This freeway section encompassed all of I @-@ 296 , which would connect I @-@ 196 north of town with I @-@ 96 downtown . ( The I @-@ 96 and I @-@ 196 designations were later flipped west of Grand Rapids . ) M @-@ 37 was relocated in Grand Rapids to utilize I @-@ 96 around the northeast side of town instead of I @-@ 296 / US 131 in 1969 .
At the end of the 1970s , MDOT took part in a FHWA @-@ backed initiative called the Positive Guidance Demonstration Project , and the two agencies audited signage practices in the vicinity of the I @-@ 96 / M @-@ 37 and I @-@ 296 / US 131 interchange in Walker . MDOT determined that usage of the I @-@ 296 designation was " a potential source of confusion for motorists . " FHWA agreed with the department 's proposal to eliminate all signage and public map references to the designation in April 1979 . MDOT then petitioned the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ( AASHTO ) on June 22 , 1979 , for their permission to make the change , saying " it is felt that the I @-@ 296 designation serves no useful purpose other than to designate an Interstate routing . " AASHTO approved the request on October 13 . On October 24 that year , MDOT also requested formal permission from the FHWA to remove all signage and map references to I @-@ 296 . The FHWA granted permission on December 3 , 1979 , on the condition that MDOT would continue to use the designation on official documents . The approval explicitly retained the highway in the Interstate system for funding and other purposes . The last state map to show the I @-@ 296 designation was published in 1979 , as the 1980 map lacks any reference to the designation . Other maps , like the one published by the Kent County Road Commission , occasionally show I @-@ 296 , and FHWA includes the designation in their Route Log and Finder List for the Interstate Highway System .
= = Exit list = =
The entire highway is in Kent County .
= Stewie Kills Lois and Lois Kills Stewie =
" Stewie Kills Lois " and " Lois Kills Stewie " is a two @-@ part episode of the sixth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy , which was originally produced for the end of Season 5 . Respectively , both are the fourth and fifth episode of their season , and they premiered in the United States on Fox on November 4 and 11 , 2007 . In the former , housewife Lois receives cruise tickets from anthropomorphic dog Brian , and invites Peter on the cruise with her . This upsets Stewie , and he ultimately appears to murder Lois while she is on the cruise , only to find out that she had survived the attack as the year passes . In the latter , Lois is able to expose Stewie as the villain that he is , but he soon accomplishes his dream of world domination .
" Stewie Kills Lois " was written by David A. Goodman and directed by John Holmquist , while " Lois Kills Stewie " was written by Steve Callaghan and directed by Greg Colton . Both episodes received relatively positive reviews for their combined story arc and cultural references . " Lois Kills Stewie " featured appearances by Patrick Stewart , Paula Abdul , Randy Jackson , Simon Cowell , and Willem Dafoe ( although Dafoe did not provide his voice ) and both episodes featured cameos by various recurring voice actors for the series .
= = Plot = =
= = = " Stewie Kills Lois " = = =
It is Lois ' birthday , and Brian gives her a pair of cruise tickets with the intention of traveling with her , but she invites Peter instead . Stewie is upset at not being invited on the cruise , and concocts a plan to embarrass Lois . Brian makes Stewie realize that he has never followed through with any of his plans , and he resolves to change this . Meanwhile , Peter proves to be a frequent embarrassment to Lois . A mortified Lois walks onto the promenade to be away from Peter , but is confronted by Stewie , who has traveled to the ship by speedboat , and shoots at her , sending her overboard .
Six days pass since Stewie has killed Lois and Joe informs Peter that he has called off the search for Lois since he and his police squad cannot find her . A year passes since then , with Peter not only trying to find someone new , but also talking Joe into posing as Lois so that her death doesn 't leave Chris emotionally scarred and Meg gaining more self @-@ esteem , while Stewie indirectly reveals to Brian what he had done . Disturbed by the revelation , Brian vows to bring him to justice . Stewie realizes that keeping the evidence of his crime as souvenirs is too risky , and disposes of his gun and his drawings depicting Lois being killed . After Peter reveals that Lois ' life insurance policy has recently been cashed , Joe , Quagmire , and Cleveland search the Griffins ' garbage and find Stewie 's souvenirs . Joe is convinced that Peter is the one who killed Lois , given that Stewie inherited Peter 's handwriting . At his trial in the murder , Peter is close to receiving life in prison , but Lois suddenly appears in the courtroom , and reveals that Stewie tried to kill her .
= = = " Lois Kills Stewie " = = =
Everyone is shocked that Stewie would try to murder Lois , but she insists that he is evil , and explains what happened ; after being shot at and falling overboard , she was rescued by a reverse merman , and became employed at a fat camp and later a diner , where she found a new boyfriend in a white supremacist also visiting the diner , as she had developed amnesia . She eventually regains her memory after a blow to the head at a supremacist rally , and returns to Quahog . While Lois explains her situation , Stewie escapes , captures and restrains his family when they return home , and shoots Cleveland dead when he visits . Stewie kidnaps Brian and forces him into driving him to the CIA , where he gains access to a supercomputer and takes control of the planet 's power grid , thus dominating the world .
After Stewie implements numerous draconian laws , Lois becomes angered and prepares to assassinate him in order to save the world . After taking several weapons from Stewie 's secret weapons vault , she engages Stewie in a destructive battle in the Oval Office . Lois eventually gains the upper hand and prepares to shoot Stewie , but she cannot bring herself to do so , since he is her own child . Stewie takes the opportunity to disarm her and prepare to kill , but is shot dead by Peter before he can do so . They start to mourn over Stewie 's dead body , but it is then revealed that much of what has happened was actually a computer simulation . Brian wonders if a hypothetical external viewer of the simulation would feel cheated by what was ultimately a " dream sequence , " but Stewie argues that a computer simulation is totally different . Stewie then claims that he is not ready to kill Lois or take over the world , until the right time . As Brian and Stewie argue over the differences between " dream sequence " and " computer simulation , " Brian says Stewie ticks a lot of people off . Stewie claims that the computer simulation didn 't end like the final episode of The Sopranos where it just cut to black in mid @-@ sentence , but , just like in Made in America , the final episode of The Sopranos , the final scene cuts to black in mid @-@ sentence , followed by the end credits .
= = Production = =
" Stewie Kills Lois " and " Lois Kills Stewie " are the 102nd and 103rd episodes of Family Guy respectively . They are the fourth and fifth episodes of the sixth season of the show . " Stewie Kills Lois " was written by executive producer and former Futurama and South Park writer David A. Goodman . The episode was directed by John Holmquist . " Lois Kills Stewie " was written by recurring voice actor and future showrunner Steve Callaghan , and directed by Greg Colton . Colton and Callaghan previously worked on the season 5 episode " Whistle While Your Wife Works " .
Before the airing of the episode , a 100th episode tribute special , hosted by MacFarlane , aired on Fox . The special showcases various clips of MacFarlane 's favorite moments from the last 99 episodes of the show . It also included MacFarlane asking people questions related to Family Guy .
" Stewie Kills Lois " and " Lois Kills Stewie " , along with the final five episodes of the fifth season and the first seven episodes of the sixth season , were also released on DVD under the title " Volume 6 " by 20th Century Fox in the United States and Canada on October 21 , 2008 , five months after they had completed broadcast on television . The DVD release also features bonus material including deleted scenes , commentaries , and a ' making of ' feature .
Both episodes aired before the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike , and were the last episodes to air before it . In November 2007 , Variety reported that MacFarlane had joined the strike and refused to complete more Family Guy episodes . A spokesperson for Fox said : " Our hope is that he returns to work and completes his non @-@ writing obligations on those episodes " . Fox aired two new episodes during November 2007 . The following episode , " Padre de Familia " , was the first of these two episodes to air . The strike ended on February 12 , 2008 and the series resumed airing regularly .
In addition to the main cast , actors Patrick Stewart and Phil LaMarr , and American Idol judges Simon Cowell , Randy Jackson and Paula Abdul guest starred in the episode . The episode also featured the recurring voices of actress Jennifer Tilly and Patrick Warburton , and writers Danny Smith and John Viener in minor appearances . Future showrunner Mark Hentemann also made some appearances .
= = Cultural references = =
When Stewie becomes disappointed that Lois did not take him on the cruise , he relates that he has not expressed it much since he saw The Lake House . Peter and Lois watch the sunset ; Lois noting that she feels like Kate Winslet 's character in Titanic , but Peter believes that she was portrayed by Philip Seymour Hoffman . Leonardo DiCaprio is also referenced in the scene .
The cliffhanger ending where Lois returns to reveal Stewie as her attempted killer is a tribute to part one of the Star Trek : The Next Generation two @-@ parter " The Best of Both Worlds " with similar cliffhanger music and " To Be Continued ... " title cards . Since they 're both Trekkies , Seth MacFarlane and David A. Goodman had wanted to use the cliffhanger music from " The Best of Both Worlds " if they ever got up to 100 episodes of Family Guy . Paramount wouldn 't give them the rights , however , so composer Ron Jones , who wrote the music for " The Best of Both Worlds " and several other episodes of Star Trek : The Next Generation , wrote and recorded the music heard in the episode .
While looking for Stewie , Joe and other police officers travel to the Fortress of Solitude , where the maid Consuela works for Superman . Stewie is seen participating on American Idol in a cutaway , singing " Lost in Your Eyes " before judges Simon Cowell , Randy Jackson and Paula Abdul .
American Dad ! characters Stan Smith and Avery Bullock make a crossover appearance in " Lois Kills Stewie " when Stewie hacks into the supercomputer . This crossover is extended on the Volume 6 DVD when , before the confrontation , Brian and Stewie first bump into Stan and Bullock in the restroom . The episode concludes with a reference to The Sopranos as the screen blacks out on Stewie criticizing the series ' finale .
The news anchor , Tom Tucker , copies Dennis Miller 's signature phrase from Weekend Update on Saturday Night Live , saying , " Well , folks , that 's the news , and I am outta here ! " while drawing a circle on a paper .
" Stewie Kills Lois " features the recurring gag of the Kool @-@ Aid Man bursting through the courtroom wall at an inopportune time , exclaiming " OH YEAH ! ! " after a series of people in the courtroom say " Oh no ! ! " in turn . The Kool @-@ Aid Man then slowly backs out of the hole in the wall in embarrassment . This time , the judge implores the people of the court to please stop saying " Oh no ! , " because , as he puts it , " The f * * kin ' Kool @-@ Aid guy 's gonna keep showing up ! ! "
" Lois Kills Stewie " also mocks the varying quality of direct @-@ to @-@ video Disney films in general , in which a cutaway shows Jafar , the main antagonist in Aladdin , undergoing an eye exam . In addition , Lois is seen wearing John Rambo 's combat outfit from Rambo III in her final battle against Stewie .
= = Reception = =
Ahsan Haque of IGN rated " Stewie Kills Lois " a 9 / 10 , while rating " Lois Kills Stewie " a 9 @.@ 4 / 10 , saying " For the hundredth episode of Family Guy , Seth McFarlane and friends tackle the subject of one of Stewie Griffin 's greatest ambitions — his not @-@ so @-@ secret desire to kill his mother . For the disturbed fans waiting for some form of a matricidal manifestation , you can feel comfort knowing , without spoiling too much , that the youngest Griffin absolutely means business and ensures that he doesn 't fail this time around . [ ... ] There are some tense courtroom moments , a birthday celebration with the gift of Lionel Richie , a cruise ship , machine guns , and the reappearance of the Kool Aid Man that help round out this carefully crafted and well @-@ told cohesive storyline . With the amount of cheap manatee jokes kept to a reasonable level , this episode also manages to find an excellent balance between comedy and storytelling . It 's a fantastic way to celebrate the Family Guy one @-@ hundredth episode milestone . [ ... ] With the writers ' strike in full effect , it seems that this might be the last new episode of Family Guy we 'll be seeing for a while . It 's a bittersweet way to end the abruptly short season as the quality is reminiscent of the series ' brilliance from the early years and it seems like the show was really starting to hit its stride for the season . Hopefully the series will be able to live up to the high bar set by this two @-@ part classic upon its eventual return . "
Richard Keller of TV Squad gave " Stewie Kills Lois " a much more negative review . He pointed out that the episode was hyped because before the episode aired a retrospective premiered featuring clips from the last 99 episodes , he stated that the episode was a huge disappointment . He stated that he did not find the episode funny , but rather disjointed , with little story and too many cutaway gags and flashbacks . In his review of " Lois Kills Stewie " , Keller gave a much more positive review . He did mention that the end of the episode was somewhat predictable , as they had killed Cleveland and Stewie . He commented positively to some of the jokes of the episode , and in the overall he mentioned he liked the two episodes , but he was not so keen of the ending of the episode .
On her review of " Stewie Kills Lois " , Genevieve Koski of the The A.V. Club rated the episode a B + . She commented that it was " a bit weird " that the show was focusing on Stewie 's desire to kill Lois , since in the last couple of seasons the Stewie and Brian dynamic had taken precedence , while Lois was being more foil to Peter than Stewie . She felt that most of the cutaway humor felt familiar and that there was no real moment that would deserve any callback status in future episodes . She did praise the cliffhanger , stating that she was intrigued about how the storyline would turn out . She also praised the storyline and liked how it was able to create drama . In her review of " Lois Kills Stewie " , Koski rated the episode a B , calling the end of the story a bit predictable as she thought that the deaths of Lois , Cleveland and Stewie were a one time joke . She praised and disliked some jokes and gags in the episode , including Stewie demanding praise for his macaroni picture of an owl and Lois ' salvation via merman , respectively . She commented that the fight sequence was extended and highly choreographed .
" Lois Kills Stewie " was voted # 9 , and " Stewie Kills Lois " was voted # 8 on BBC Three 's list of Top Ten Family Guy Episodes .
= Mary : A Fiction =
Mary : A Fiction is the only complete novel by the 18th @-@ century British feminist Mary Wollstonecraft . It tells the tragic story of a heroine 's successive " romantic friendships " with a woman and a man . Composed while Wollstonecraft was a governess in Ireland , the novel was published in 1788 shortly after her summary dismissal and her momentous decision to embark on a writing career , a precarious and disreputable profession for women in 18th @-@ century Britain .
Inspired by Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau 's idea that geniuses are self @-@ taught , Wollstonecraft chose a rational , self @-@ taught heroine , Mary , as the central character of her novel . Helping to redefine genius ( a word which at the end of the 18th century was only beginning to take on its modern meaning of exceptional or brilliant ) , Wollstonecraft describes Mary as independent and capable of defining femininity and marriage for herself . It is Mary 's " strong , original opinions " and her resistance to " conventional wisdom " that mark her as a genius . Making her heroine a genius allowed Wollstonecraft to criticize marriage as well : geniuses were " enchained " rather than enriched by marriage .
Through this heroine Wollstonecraft also critiques 18th @-@ century sensibility and its damaging effects on women . Mary rewrites the traditional romance plot through its reimagination of gender relations and female sexuality . Yet , because Wollstonecraft employs the genre of sentimentalism to critique sentimentalism itself , her " fiction " , as she labels it , sometimes reflects the same flaws of sentimentalism that she is attempting to expose .
Wollstonecraft later repudiated Mary , writing that it was laughable . However , scholars have argued that , despite its faults , the novel 's representation of an energetic , unconventional , opinionated , rational , female genius ( the first of its kind in English literature ) within a new kind of romance is an important development in the history of the novel because it helped shape an emerging feminist discourse .
= = Plot summary = =
Mary begins with a description of the conventional and loveless marriage between the heroine 's mother and father . Eliza , Mary 's mother , is obsessed with novels , rarely considers anyone but herself , and favours Mary 's brother . She neglects her daughter , who educates herself using only books and the natural world . Ignored by her family , Mary devotes much of her time to charity . When her brother suddenly dies , leaving Mary heir to the family 's fortune , her mother finally takes an interest in her ; she is taught " accomplishments " , such as dancing , that will attract suitors . However , Mary 's mother soon sickens and requests on her deathbed that Mary wed Charles , a wealthy man she has never met . Stunned and unable to refuse , Mary agrees . Immediately after the ceremony , Charles departs for the Continent .
To escape a family who does not share her values , Mary befriends Ann , a local girl who educates her still further . Mary becomes quite attached to Ann who is in the grip of an unrequited love and does not reciprocate Mary 's feelings . Ann 's family falls into poverty and is on the brink of losing their home , but Mary is able to pay off their debts after her marriage to Charles gives her limited control over her money .
Ann becomes consumptive and Mary travels with her to Lisbon in hopes of nursing her back to health . There they are introduced to Henry , who is also trying to regain his health . Ann dies and Mary is grief @-@ stricken . Henry and Mary subsequently fall in love but are forced to return to England separately . Mary , depressed by her marriage to Charles and bereft of both Ann and Henry , remains unsettled , until she hears that Henry 's consumption has worsened . She rushes to his side and cares for him until he dies .
At the end of the novel , Charles returns from Europe ; he and Mary establish something of a life together , but Mary is unhealthy and can barely stand to be in the same room with her husband ; the last few lines of the novel imply that she will die young .
= = Biographical and literary influences = =
Wollstonecraft wrote Mary at the town of Hotwells in Bristol while a governess for the Anglo @-@ Irish Kingsborough family . Her relationships with the family provided fodder for the novel , a work that Wollstonecraft herself admitted was " drawn from Nature " . Eliza , for example , is partially based on Lady Kingsborough , who Wollstonecraft believed cared more for her dogs than for her children . More importantly , the friendship between Mary and Ann closely resembles the relationship between Wollstonecraft and her intimate companion Fanny Blood , who meant " all the world " to her and , as Wollstonecraft 's husband William Godwin later put it , " for whom she contracted a friendship so fervent , as for years to have constituted the ruling passion of her mind " . Wollstonecraft 's representation of Fanny as Ann has been called " condescending " ; critics have speculated that because Wollstonecraft felt betrayed by Fanny 's decision to marry , she depicted Ann as a friend who could never satisfy the heroine .
Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau 's philosophical treatise on education , Emile ( 1762 ) , is one of the major literary influences on Mary . A few months before starting the work , Wollstonecraft wrote to her sister Everina : " I am now reading Rousseau 's Emile , and love his paradoxes ... however he rambles into that chimerical world in which I have too often wandered ... He was a strange inconsistent unhappy clever creature — yet he possessed an uncommon portion of sensibility and penetration " ( emphasis Wollstonecraft 's ) . Rousseau , she notes , " chuses [ sic ] a common capacity to educate — and gives as a reason , that a genius will educate itself " ( emphasis Wollstonecraft 's ) . When Mary was published , the title page included a quotation from Rousseau : " L 'exercice des plus sublimes vertus éleve et nourrit le génie " ( " the exercise of the most sublime virtues raises and nourishes genius " ) . The novel is therefore , in many ways , an early bildungsroman , or novel of education .
Wollstonecraft 's epigrammatic allusion to Rousseau 's Julie ( 1761 ) signifies her debt to the novel of sensibility , one of the most popular genres during the last half of the 18th century . Along with other female writers , such as Mary Hays , Helen Maria Williams , Charlotte Turner Smith , Mary Robinson , Maria Edgeworth , and Hannah More , Wollstonecraft felt compelled to respond to the Rousseauvean ideological aesthetic that had come to dominate British fiction . Romantic heroines , Wollstonecraft scholar Gary Kelly writes , " represent woman constructed for man : the heroic feminine victim of the courtly rake and gallant , the virtuous feminine companion of the ideal professionalized gentleman , and the intellectually and erotically subservient companion of the ideal bourgeois man " . Wollstonecraft would also attack Rousseau in her best @-@ known work , A Vindication of the Rights of Woman , because of his sexism in the second part of Emile . She announces in the " Advertisement " ( a section similar to a preface ) of Mary that she is offering her heroine , who is a " genius " , as a contrast to characters such as Samuel Richardson 's Clarissa and Rousseau 's Sophie . In addition the text is peppered with allusions to popular sentimental novels such as The History of Eliza Warwick ( 1778 ) and The Platonic Marriage ( 1787 ) , which critique their presentation of the heroine of feminine sensibility . Mary is more akin to the charitable and industrious heroines of Bluestocking Sarah Scott 's Millenium Hall ( 1762 ) than to the passive , weepy heroines found in most sentimental novels . Debate concerning the relationship between gender and sensibility continued into the early 19th century ; Jane Austen , for example , made it the explicit focus of her novel Sense and Sensibility ( 1811 ) .
= = Themes = =
As Wollstonecraft scholar Virginia Sapiro points out in her description of Mary , the novel anticipates many of the themes that would come to dominate Wollstonecraft 's later writings , such as her concern with the " slavery of marriage " and the absence of any respectable occupations for women . From the beginning of her career , Wollstonecraft was concerned with how sensibility affected women as well as the perception of women in society . All of her works address these topics from one vantage point or another . Connected to this is her analysis of the legitimate and illegitimate foundations for relationships between men and women . Wollstonecraft 's oeuvre is filled with continual reassessments of the definition of femininity and masculinity and the role that sensibility should fill in those definitions . In order to explore these ideas , Wollstonecraft continually turns to herself as an example ( all of her works are highly autobiographical , particularly her two novels and the Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark ( 1796 ) ) . As one of Wollstonecraft 's first attempts to explore these questions , Mary is at times awkward and it occasionally falls short of what Gary Kelly calls the " Revolutionary feminism " of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman ( 1792 ) and Maria : or , The Wrongs of Woman ( 1798 ) .
= = = Sensibility and the sentimental heroine = = =
Claudia Johnson argues that Mary is " a bold and dangerous novel " , because it presents a new kind of heroine , a " woman who has thinking powers " ( in Wollstonecraft 's words ) who is also capable of having intimate relationships with both men and women . Wollstonecraft attempts to show how a gifted woman can learn to think for herself : through solitary nature walks ; by reading philosophical and medical texts ; by travelling ; and through close friendships . Juxtaposing her new heroine with the traditional sentimental heroine , Wollstonecraft criticizes the " fatuous " and " insipid " romantic heroine . Eliza , Mary 's mother , with her fondness for vacuous novels and lapdogs , embodies this type . Wollstonecraft even pokes fun at readers who expect the book to conform to their romantic expectations and desires :
If my readers would excuse the sportiveness of fancy , and give me credit for genius , I would go on and tell them such tales as would force sweet tears of sensibility to flow in copious showers down beautiful cheeks , to the discomposure of rouge , & c . & c . Nay , I would make it so interesting , that the fair peruser should beg the hair @-@ dresser to settle the curls himself , and not interrupt her .
Mary , however , is depicted as authentic rather than artificial , detesting fashionable life rather than yearning after it . Mary 's charitable works , for example , are not a passing fad : they are a heartfelt reaction to social injustice . Even though she is older and intellectual instead of young and pretty , Mary asserts her right to sexual desire rather than sublimating it .
Mary 's erotic relationships with both Ann and Henry challenge traditional conceptions of the marriage plot . Most of Mary 's positive attributes , such as her rationality , her ability to reject convention , and her sexuality would have been read in the 18th century as masculine traits . Eliza , Ann , and Henry embody the feminine weakness and passivity , often associated with sentimentality , that Wollstonecraft was criticizing . Although the novel critiques sentimentality , the text appears , in the end , to be unable to resist those very conventions as Mary begins to pine for Henry . Furthermore , the book does not present an alternative way of life for women — it offers only death . Yet , at the same time , the last few lines of the novel hold out the promise of a better world " where there is neither marrying , nor giving in marriage " ( emphasis Wollstonecraft 's ) .
As literary scholar Diane Long Hoeveler has demonstrated , Mary is not only a sentimental novel , but , with its emphasis on death , hyperbolic emotion , and persecution , also a gothic novel . Hoeveler identifies in the text what she calls " Gothic feminism " , an ideology that values the persecuted heroine above all : it " is not about being equal to men " but rather " about being morally superior to men . It is about being a victim " . In other words , Hoeveler argues that the position of victim grants women moral authority . In a Freudian reading , she focuses on how Mary " displaces and projects her own anger and disappointment " onto other characters , such as Ann and Henry . In this interpretation , Ann and Henry become surrogate parents to Mary ; she is " unable to move out of her childish identifications with parental figures , and so she just keeps constructing one parent @-@ substitute after another , never being able to accept the demands and realities required for marriage " .
= = = = Genre : " A Fiction " = = = =
Wollstonecraft 's subtitle — A Fiction — explicitly rejects a number of popular 18th @-@ century genres , such as the longer " history " or novel ( Mary is substantially shorter than Richardson 's Clarissa , for example ) . In the advertisement , she defends writing a reality @-@ based " fiction " about a female genius :
Without arguing physically about possibilities — in a fiction , such a being may be allowed to exist ; whose grandeur is drawn from the operations of its own faculties , not subjugated to opinion ; but drawn by the individual from the original source . ( emphasis Wollstonecraft 's )
Through her choice of the subtitle " fiction " , Wollstonecraft implies that other genres , such as the novel , restrict the plots available for women ; she therefore attempts to invent a new genre , one that offers choice and self @-@ confidence to female characters .
= = = Love and friendship = = =
One of the key differences between Wollstonecraft 's novels and her philosophical treatises , as feminist critic Cora Kaplan has argued , is that her fiction celebrates female emotion and argues for its value while her treatises present emotion as " reactionary and regressive , almost counter @-@ revolutionary " . Johnson has extended this argument and contends that Wollstonecraft is interested in presenting the benefits of romantic friendship over marriage : " whereas Wollstonecraft shrinks from homosocial ' familiarity ' and advocates the ennobling properties of domestic heterosexuality in Rights of Woman , her novels not only resist the heterosexual plot , but displace it with protolesbian narratives wrested from sentimentality itself . " While many critics have argued that Mary " capitulates to " or " matures into " both sentimentality and heterosexuality , Johnson 's interpretation has become the standard .
Mary 's relationship with Ann challenges the definition of friendship ; as Johnson explains , it " is no ordinary friendship " . Mary looks to Ann , in Wollstonecraft 's words , " to experience the pleasure of being beloved " . Mary is " coded as masculine ( agentive , sublime ) while Ann is stereotypically feminine in [ her ] ' die @-@ away ' delicacy " . This gendered divide is even reflected in Mary 's choice of reading material ; she reads books associated with the masculine sublime such as Edward Young 's Night Thoughts ( 1742 – 45 ) and John Milton 's Paradise Lost ( 1667 ) . Although Ann does not feel the love for Mary that Mary does for her , Mary devotedly nurses Ann and is distraught by her death . The unusual intensity of this relationship is revealed in Wollstonecraft 's description of Mary 's sorrow :
The ladies . . . began to administer some common – place comfort , as , that it was our duty to submit to the will of Heaven , and the like trite consolations , which Mary did not answer ; but waving her hand , with an air of impatience , she exclaimed , " I cannot live without her ! — I have no other friend ; if I lose her , what a desart [ sic ] will the world be to me . " " No other friend , " re – echoed they , " have you not a husband ? "
Mary shrunk back , and was alternately pale and red . A delicate sense of propriety prevented her from replying ; and recalled her bewildered reason .
Johnson cautions against labelling Mary and Ann 's relationship lesbian , since the identity @-@ defining concepts of heterosexuality and homosexuality did not exist during the 18th century ; she maintains , rather , that their relationship is a bond which cannot be articulated through language . This bond is perhaps best described as erotic rather than overtly sexual . Further evidence to support such an interpretation comes from Wollstonecraft 's life . Wollstonecraft based her portrait of Ann on her close friend , Fanny Blood , and when her husband , William Godwin , came to write his Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman ( 1798 ) , he described Fanny and Wollstonecraft 's first meeting as similar to the one between the tortured lovers Charlotte and Werther in Goethe 's sentimental novel The Sorrows of Young Werther ( 1774 ) . One biographer of Wollstonecraft notes that Hester Chapone 's Letters on the Improvement of the Mind , which influenced Wollstonecraft 's earlier Thoughts on the Education of Daughters ( 1787 ) , dedicates several chapters to these " friends of the heart " ; such friendships would not have seemed unusual to 18th @-@ century readers .
After Ann 's death , Mary replaces her with Henry ; as Johnson writes , " this tale of forbidden and unnarratable passionate friendship becomes a tale of forbidden but narratable adulterous love " . Like Ann , Henry is a feminine counterpart to Mary 's masculine persona . Mary 's relationship with Henry is both erotic and paternal :
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were rated at 29 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 22 @,@ 000 kW ) and provided a top speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . Coal storage amounted to 2 @,@ 680 t ( 2 @,@ 640 long tons ; 2 @,@ 950 short tons ) .
Provence 's main battery consisted of ten Canon de 340 mm Modéle 1912 guns mounted in five twin gun turrets , numbered from front to rear . They were placed all on the centerline ; two were in a superfiring pair forward , one amidships , and the last two in a superfiring arrangement aft . The secondary battery consisted of twenty @-@ two Canon de 138 mm Modèle 1910 guns in casemates along the length of the hull . She also carried seven 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns for defense against aircraft , two on the conning tower and one on the roof of each turret . The ship was also armed with four submerged 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . The ship 's main belt was 270 mm ( 10 @.@ 6 in ) thick and the main battery was protected by up to 300 mm ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) of armor . The conning tower had 314 mm ( 12 @.@ 4 in ) thick sides .
= = Service = =
After entering service in 1916 , Provence and her sisters were assigned to the 1st Division of the 1st Battle Squadron , with Provence as the fleet flagship . The three ships remained in the unit for the remainder of the war . They spent the majority of their time at Corfu to prevent the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet from attempting to break out of the Adriatic . The fleet 's presence was also intended to intimidate Greece , which had become increasingly hostile to the Triple Entente . Later in the war , men were drawn from their crews for anti @-@ submarine warfare vessels . As the Austro @-@ Hungarians largely remained in port for the duration of the war , Provence saw no action during the conflict . Indeed , she did not leave port at all for the entirety of 1917 . In April 1919 , she returned to Toulon . The French Navy intended to send the ship to the Black Sea to join operations against the Bolsheviks , but a major mutiny prevented the operation . She and Lorraine went to Constantinople in October 1919 , where they formed the core of the Eastern Mediterranean Squadron .
In June 1921 , Provence and Bretagne went to Le Havre for a naval review , and were back in Toulon in September . In 1922 , Provence and Lorraine were placed in reserve , leaving Bretagne the only member of her class in service ; while out of service , Provence underwent a significant refit . The work lasted from 1 February 1922 to 4 July 1923 , and was carried out in Toulon . The ship had her armament improved ; her main guns were given greater elevation to increase their range , and four 75 mm M1897 guns were installed on the forward superstructure . A heavy tripod mast with a fire control station and a rangefinder for the ship 's anti @-@ aircraft guns were also added .
Another refit followed on 12 December 1925 – 11 July 1927 . The elevation of the main battery guns was again increased , the bow section of the belt armor was removed , and half of her boilers were converted to oil @-@ firing models . A third and final modernization began on 20 September 1931 and lasted until 20 August 1934 . The rest of the coal @-@ fired boilers were replaced with six Indret oil @-@ fired boilers , new turbines and main battery guns were installed , along with eight new 75 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns . After emerging from the refit , Provence and Bretagne were assigned to the 2nd Squadron in the Atlantic . There , they joined fleet exercises off the Azores , Madeira , and Morocco . The two ships took part in a cruise to Africa in 1936 . In August , they were involved in non @-@ intervention patrols after the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War ; these patrols lasted until April 1937 .
= = = World War II = = =
At the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 , Provence was in Toulon along with Bretagne in the 2nd Squadron , with Provence serving as the flagship of Vice Admiral Ollive . On 21 October , she went into drydock for periodic maintenance , which lasted until 2 December . Two days later , Provence and Bretagne , along with numerous cruisers and destroyers , sortied from Dakar to cover French merchant shipping off West Africa and the Azores . Around the middle of the month , the French warships returned to port .
Provence was then sent to Casablanca , where she joined Force Y. The unit conducted several fruitless sweeps into the Atlantic . While in Gibraltar , she was damaged and forced to return to Toulon for repairs . While en route , she intercepted the Italian passenger ship Oceania ; Provence dispatched her to Marseilles so she could be inspected for contraband . Provence sailed for Oran on 24 January 1940 , and then returned to Force Y in Dakar . Force Y was transferred to Oran on 11 April ; they arrived five days later . On 27 April , Provence , her two sisters , and several cruisers were moved to Alexandria . On 18 May , Provence and Bretagne returned to Mers El Kébir .
Following the French surrender on 22 June , the French fleet was to be disarmed under German and Italian supervision , under the terms of the Armistice . The British high command , however , was concerned that the French ships would be seized by the Axis powers and placed in service . The Axis navies would then outnumber the British Royal Navy . Prime Minister Winston Churchill therefore ordered Vice Admiral James Somerville , the commander of Force H , to neutralize the French fleet at Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir . He was instructed to order the French vessels to join the British with the Free French , to move them to French possessions like Martinique where they would be outside the reach of the Axis powers , to move them to the USA where they would be interned , to scuttle themselves , or be sunk . On 3 July , Somerville arrived and delivered the ultimatum . After 10 hours of discussions and the French rejection of any part of the ultimatum , the British ships opened fire .
Provence returned fire about 90 seconds after the British attacked , though she had no success against her assailants . Bretagne was hit by several 15 @-@ inch ( 380 mm ) shells and exploded , killing most of her crew . Provence was also hit several times and badly damaged ; the shells set her on fire and caused her to settle to the bottom of the harbor , but she did not explode like her sister ship . The ship was subsequently refloated and temporarily repaired , and on 5 November , she was transferred to Toulon , arriving on the 8th . Provence was escorted by the destroyers Épée , Fleuret , Le Hardi , Lansquenet , and Mameluk . Beginning on 1 January 1942 , Provence became the flagship of the Flag Officer , Training Division . On 27 November , the German Army occupied Toulon , and to prevent them from seizing the fleet there , including Provence , the French scuttled their ships . At the time , Provence was moored next to the old pre @-@ dreadnought Condorcet and the seaplane carrier Commandant Teste . The Italians moved into Toulon and raised Provence on 11 July 1943 . Two of her 340 mm guns were removed from the ship and emplaced in a coastal battery at Saint @-@ Mandrier @-@ sur @-@ Mer outside Toulon . The Axis then scuttled the ship a second time , as a blockship in the harbor . Provence was ultimately raised in April 1949 and was broken up for scrap .
= U.S. Route 491 =
U.S. Route 491 ( US 491 ) is a north – south U.S. Highway serving the Four Corners region of the United States . One of the newest designations in the U.S. Highway System , it was created in 2003 as a renumbering of U.S. Route 666 ( US 666 ) . With the 666 designation , this road was nicknamed the " Devil 's Highway " because of the significance of number 666 to many Christian denominations , which is believed by some that 666 is the Number of the Beast . This Satanic connotation , combined with a high fatality rate along the New Mexico portion , convinced some people the highway was cursed . The problem was compounded by persistent sign theft . These factors led to two efforts to renumber the highway , first by officials in Arizona , later in New Mexico . There have been safety improvement projects in recent years , and fatality rates have subsequently decreased .
The highway , now a spur route of US 91 via its connection to US 191 , runs through Colorado , New Mexico , and Utah , as well as the tribal nations of the Navajo Nation and Ute Mountain Ute Tribe . The highway passes by two mountains considered sacred by Native Americans : Ute Mountain and an extinct volcanic core named Shiprock . Other features along the route include Mesa Verde National Park and Dove Creek , Colorado , the self @-@ proclaimed pinto @-@ bean capital of the world .
= = Route description = =
US 491 serves the states of New Mexico , Colorado and Utah . Before 1992 , US 666 also served Arizona . The Arizona portion was renumbered separately and is now part of US 191 . The former US 666 was the only highway to have passed through each of the Four Corners states , even though it never came near the Four Corners Monument , which is accessed via US 160 . At several points along US 491 , mountain ranges in all of the Four Corners states are visible from a single location . The alignment of the highway is mostly north – south , however the Utah portion is signed east – west .
= = = New Mexico = = =
US 491 begins at Gallup , at a junction with Interstate 40 ( I @-@ 40 ) , and currently runs north along Muñoz Drive . The routing has changed to bypass the downtown area . The original route used 9th Street , starting at US 66 . US 491 leaves Gallup and passes north through the eastern half of the Navajo Nation . Along the way , the road passes through the small tribal communities and trading posts of Tohatchi , Buffalo Springs , Naschitti , Sheep Springs and Newcomb . The Navajo tribal capital at Window Rock , Arizona , is just west of the highway corridor , accessed by State Road 264 ( NM 264 ) . The largest city served by US 491 in the Navajo Nation is Shiprock , which takes its name from one of several extinct volcano cores in the area . Shiprock is known as " the winged rock " in the Navajo language , and the mountain is considered sacred by the Navajo people . Shiprock is where the US 491 crosses the San Juan River and is briefly concurrent with US 64 . After passing Shiprock , the route continues north to the Colorado state line . The New Mexico portion has been designated the " John Pinto Highway " by the New Mexico state legislature .
It is on the Trails of the Ancients Byway , one of the designated New Mexico Scenic Byways .
= = = Colorado = = =
The New Mexico – Colorado state line is where the highway passes from the Navajo Nation to Ute Mountain Ute tribal lands . The highway passes to the east of the tribe 's namesake , Ute Mountain , believed to belong to a great warrior god of the Ute People . US 491 proceeds diagonally to the northwest in the extreme southwestern corner of the state . The highway exits tribal lands near Cortez and Mesa Verde National Park . After leaving Cortez , the road gradually rises in elevation while proceeding towards Utah . Here , the route features large pinto bean farming regions including Dove Creek , which bills itself as the " pinto bean capital of the world " . Canyons of the Ancients National Monument is located along the ascent , just west of the highway . Along this ascent is an access road for Hovenweep National Monument at the state line . A portion of the road in Colorado has been designated the Trail of the Ancients , a National Scenic Byway , which uses US 491 as an access for these parks and monuments in southwest Colorado .
= = = Utah = = =
Once in Utah , US 491 gradually ascends to the Abajo Mountains . Still visible are large farming regions . Upon reaching an elevation of 7 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) , the highway arrives at a weigh station and reaches the town of Monticello . US 491 enters the town on Central Street and terminates near the city park at an intersection with US 191 , which runs along Main Street . All highways in Utah are codified into law ; US 491 is defined at Utah Code Annotated § 72 @-@ 4 @-@ 137 ( 11 ) .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ 1926 = = =
Before the Mexican – American War , when this area was ceded to the United States , the main trade route through this part of Mexico was the Old Spanish Trail . This trail extended from Santa Fe , New Mexico to Los Angeles . The trail had multiple routes ; however , the main route proceeded north towards Moab , Utah , one of the few places where the Colorado River can be crossed without having to traverse steep cliffs . The modern US 491 roughly correlates with the main route of the Old Spanish Trail between Cortez , Colorado and its northern terminus .
Before 1926 , all of modern US 491 existed as state routes . In New Mexico , US 666 absorbed a portion of State Road 32 ( NM 32 ) from Gallup to Shiprock , and completely replaced NM 121 from Shiprock to the Colorado state line . The portion in Colorado was numbered State Highway 108 ( SH 108 ) from the New Mexico state line to Cortez , and SH 10 from Cortez to Utah . At the time , SH 10 traversed the southern portion of Colorado . While most of this route was absorbed by the U.S. Highway System , a portion of it still exists . In Utah , the route was originally numbered State Route 9 ( SR 9 ) , which also included what is now US 191 from Monticello to Crescent Junction . Utah has since re @-@ used the SR 9 designation for a different road .
= = = U.S. Route 666 = = =
The route was upgraded to a U.S. Highway in 1926 , as U.S. Route 666 . This number was appropriate and in accordance with the road numbering guidelines for U.S. Highways , being the sixth spur along the highway 's parent highway , the famed cross @-@ continental highway U.S. Route 66 , from which US 491 breaks around Gallup , New Mexico . This number was assigned by the American Association of State Highway Officials ( AASHO ) , a coordinating body that created the U.S. Highway System . At that time , the northern terminus of the route was in Cortez , at an intersection with then US 450 ( modern US 160 ) .
Over time the route became known as the " Devil 's Highway " , a reference to the Number of the Beast . This nickname and association made some visitors uncomfortable , as well as making the signs targets for theft . Because of the highway 's number , accidents and other phenomena became repeated as legend . These legends convinced some people the highway was cursed . One unnamed highway patrol officer was quoted in USA Today as stating a drunk @-@ driving suspect told him , " Triple 6 is evil . Everyone dies on that highway . " Skeptics point out that the highway has a lower than average fatality rate in Utah and Colorado ; only the New Mexico portion is statistically a dangerous highway . Skeptics further state the high fatality rate in New Mexico can be explained by an inadequate design for the traffic loads at the time . Several people suggested that the highway improvements , started at the same time as the renumbering , have done more to reduce fatalities than the renumbering itself .
The curse of US 666 is briefly discussed in Jonathan D. Rosenblum 's book , Copper Crucible , which investigates the Arizona Copper Mine Strike of 1983 . This strike occurred along the highway near Morenci , Arizona . The highway was used as a plot element in films and television , including Route 666 , Natural Born Killers , and Repo Man , as well as a two @-@ part episode of the series Married With Children , titled " Route 666 " . These pieces are not accurate in portraying the route ; for example , one depicts the route in Nevada .
= = = Extensions into Arizona and Utah = = =
By 1942 , the southern terminus of the route was extended to Douglas , Arizona , at the Mexican border . It ran concurrent with US 66 for 30 miles ( 48 @.@ 3 km ) before the turn south . The Arizona portion of the highway is known as the Coronado Trail Scenic Byway , as it approximated the path of the Spanish explorer , Francisco Vásquez de Coronado . This portion is noted for mountainous terrain , with hairpin turns and steep grades , that reaches an altitude of over 9 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) . The curves force a speed limit of 10 miles per hour ( 16 km / h ) in spots .
In 1970 , several U.S. Highways in the Four Corners region were re @-@ aligned . As part of this change , US 160 was rerouted west of Cortez to serve the Four Corners Monument and enter Arizona instead of Utah . US 666 was extended up part of the old route of US 160 to Monticello , Utah , at an intersection with then US 163 ( now US 191 ) .
In 1985 , the Utah Department of Transportation petitioned to extend US 666 northwest to Richfield , but the proposal was rejected . The proposed extension followed SR 95 , SR 24 , and SR 119 . A concurrency with US 191 would have been routed through Blanding and Monticello to connect to the rest of the route . One of the reasons cited for rejecting the proposal was that portions of SR 24 were not built to standards desired for additions to the U.S. Highway System .
= = = Elimination and renumbering of US 666 = = =
In 1985 , the US 66 designation was eliminated , leaving US 666 ( and other routes ) as " orphans " . This fact would be used as a supporting factor in later petitions to renumber the highway . In 1992 , the part in Arizona was renumbered as an extension of US 191 . This truncated US 666 again at Gallup , New Mexico , now at I @-@ 40 .
The route in the other three states became U.S. Route 491 in 2003 , mainly through efforts of New Mexico Governor Bill Richardson . He requested the change due to the " infamy brought by the inopportune naming of the road " . While campaigning for governor , Richardson promised to renumber the highway as part of a larger plan to improve the highway and build relations between New Mexico and the Navajo Nation . Although traditional Navajo culture does not share the belief of 666 being an evil number , some Navajos had attempted for years to change the number as a way to raise awareness about the dangerous highway . The highway had largely been ignored , with few improvements made since it was first paved . By 1997 , US 666 was named one of the 20 most dangerous highways in the United States . Some Navajo leaders were concerned that efforts to reduce poverty on Navajo lands , via promoting tourism and outside investment , were being hampered by the Christian aversion to the number .
In New Mexico 's motion to renumber the highway , they selected U.S. Route 393 . Since the route came nowhere near US 93 , AASHTO instead suggested US 491 , noting it as a branch of US 191 at Monticello , Utah . Although the next three @-@ digit child of US 91 would have been U.S. Route 291 , both the 291 and 391 designations were already in use as state route numbers in at least one of the affected states . At the news that the motion had passed , a New Mexico spokesperson stated , " The devil 's out of here , and we say goodbye and good riddance . " Referring to the motion passing with a different number from what New Mexico requested , another spokesperson responded , " As long as it 's not 666 and it 's nothing satanic , that 's OK . " US 666 officially ceased to exist on May 31 , 2003 , although temporary " New 491 – Old 666 " signs were posted after the change to aid travelers using old maps .
Although sign theft has always been a problem along this highway , thefts reached epidemic proportions when the pending number change was announced . Within days of the announcement , virtually every US 666 sign had been stolen , some for sale on eBay . Officials in Utah reported that five entire sign assemblies had been cut down with a chainsaw and stolen , while New Mexico officials reported that even signs welded to metal posts , as a theft deterrent , had been stolen . Officials speculated from one scene that someone had intentionally crashed a car into the sign post to break the welds .
The dedication of the " new " highway was postponed until July 30 , 2003 , to coincide with the start of construction projects to improve safety on the highway . At the dedication George Blue Horse , a Navajo medicine man , performed a ceremony to remove the curse from the highway . In the Navajo language he stated , " The road itself never ends . It goes on generation to generation . The new number is a good one . The new road will be a medicine . "
Newspapers and television stations interviewed people along the route about their opinions on the changing of the highway 's number . Even some people who believed in the 666 curse disagreed with the change . One went on record as stating highway officials , " are messing with the wrong guy . They 're making the devil mad . They should have left the 666 alone . " Others were more sarcastic . One Monticello resident stated , " We 'll really miss all the potheads stopping and taking pictures of the Route 666 sign . " Most residents took pride in living along the Devil 's Highway and opposed the change . Some commented that no matter the number they would still call the road the Devil 's Highway .
= = = Post @-@ renumbering = = =
Since the renumbering in 2003 , portions of US 491 in New Mexico have been upgraded to a four @-@ lane divided highway , with grade separations at the busiest interchanges . The New Mexico Department of Transportation has noted that , as sections are upgraded , fatality rates improve on the four @-@ lane portions , but remain high on the two @-@ lane portions . As construction has proceeded , the most dangerous portions of the highway have moved to points where the four @-@ lane portion ends , and traffic merges to two lanes . This has caused the department to coordinate the phases of the upgrades to minimize the number of two @-@ lane / four @-@ lane transitions . Construction on the final phase was originally scheduled to begin January 2008 , however the state applied for American Recovery and Reinvestment Act funds to finish the project and completion was delayed until 2012 .
= = Major intersections = =
Note : The Utah mileposts are posted in a north @-@ to @-@ south direction , while Colorado 's and New Mexico 's mileposts are posted in a south @-@ to @-@ north direction .
= United States Battleship Division Nine ( World War I ) =
United States Battleship Division Nine was a division of four , later five , dreadnought battleships of the United States Navy 's Atlantic Fleet that constituted the American contribution to the British Grand Fleet during World War I. Although the U.S. entered the war on 6 April 1917 , hesitation among senior officers of the U.S. Navy as to the wisdom of dividing the American battle fleet prevented the immediate dispatch of any capital ships for service in the war zone . Following a direct request from the British Admiralty and a series of high level staff meetings , American opinion changed , and Battleship Division Nine joined the Grand Fleet on 7 December 1917 . Within that organization , the Division served as the Sixth Battle Squadron .
While serving with the Grand Fleet , Battleship Division Nine was forced to adapt quickly to unfamiliar British methods and standards . New signals and maneuvers were adopted relatively smoothly , while more stringent gunnery standards proved more difficult to achieve . On a personal level , relations between American and British officers and men were notably cordial .
Throughout 1918 , the Division participated in all major Grand Fleet exercises and deployments , as well as conducting several detached convoy missions in the North Sea . Following the signing of the Armistice on November 11 , 1918 , Battleship Division Nine was present for the surrender of the German High Seas Fleet on November 21 , 1918 . On December 1 , 1918 , the Division departed from the Grand Fleet to return to the U.S.
Although Battleship Division Nine 's service was limited mainly to convoy duty and the maintenance of the blockade of the German coast , its presence greatly augmented the strength of the Grand Fleet , thus making major combat between the British and German fleets even more unlikely in 1918 . By helping to keep the High Seas Fleet effectively blockaded in port , Battleship Division Nine played a role in ensuring Allied control of the oceans .
= = Background = =
When the U.S. entered World War I on the side of the Allies on 6 April 1917 , the war at sea was hanging in the balance . Having resumed unrestricted submarine warfare in February 1917 , Germany had quickly inflicted staggering losses on the British merchant marine to an extent completely unknown to the American government , or indeed to anyone but a select few at the British Admiralty . At the first meeting between representatives of the two navies in April 1917 , the British First Sea Lord — Admiral Sir John Jellicoe — had astonished the new American naval envoy — Rear Admiral William S. Sims — by informing him that Allied shipping loses had recently surpassed 600 @,@ 000 long tons ( 610 @,@ 000 t ) per month , and that the Admiralty did not see any immediate solution to the problem .
Jellicoe announced that at present loss rates , Britain would be effectively starved into submission by November 1917 . After a meeting at Scapa Flow later in July between Sims , Jellicoe , and Admiral David Beatty ( commander of the Grand Fleet ) , the Admiralty requested that the U.S. Navy send four dreadnoughts and six destroyers to join the Grand Fleet . The Admiralty intended that the arrival of the American dreadnoughts would allow it to decommission five ships of the pre @-@ dreadnought King Edward VII class , freeing up four thousand officers and ratings to serve on new light cruisers , destroyers , and submarines then under construction .
Despite the endorsement of Admiral Sims , the Navy Department initially rejected the British request . Like other navies of the late @-@ 19th and early @-@ 20th centuries , the U.S. Navy rigidly adhered to the doctrine of Alfred Thayer Mahan , whose first tenet was that under no circumstances should a battle fleet be divided . U.S. Chief of Naval Operations Admiral William S. Benson and Admiral Henry T. Mayo — Commander of the U.S. Atlantic Fleet — were particularly worried that if Britain fell , as developments at sea suggested it might , the U.S. Navy would be left to face the German High Seas Fleet completely on its own .
Having already released precious destroyers for convoy duty , they were unwilling to further weaken the ability of the U.S. to defend itself through the scattering of the all @-@ important battle fleet . Furthermore , Admiral Benson was uneasy about the prospect , ever @-@ present in the early 20th century , of a second war breaking out with Japan . For the moment , the U.S. Navy would send destroyers to Europe , but no battleships .
A series of high level meetings in London , beginning with Admiral Mayo 's visit in August 1917 and culminating in a naval mission led by Admiral Benson in November , proved decisive in changing the viewpoint of the Navy Department . Despite Admiral Sims 's frequent warnings of the severity of British losses to the U @-@ boat campaign , it was not until both men had seen things with their own eyes that they truly understood the direness of the situation . On 10 November 1917 , Admiral Benson cabled Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels , recommending the dispatch of four dreadnoughts for service with the Grand Fleet , noting " If , in any encounter , it should be indicated that the outcome would have been more favorable or more decisive had more Allied forces been available , it would be difficult to satisfactorily explain the absence of our ships . " On the advice of his trusted aide , Secretary Daniels agreed to dispatch the ships .
The question now came down to which battleships to send . The Admiralty requested that the Americans send coal @-@ burning dreadnoughts , as , due to the submarine blockade , the British were extremely short of the oil needed to fuel the latest classes of American dreadnoughts , the oil @-@ burning Nevada @-@ class and Pennsylvania @-@ class ships . As a result , Secretary Daniels decided to send Battleship Division Nine , made up of the coal @-@ burners New York , Wyoming , Florida , and Delaware .
Though they were not the newest American ships , they were still formidable ; each was capable of a 21 kn ( 24 mph ; 39 km / h ) maximum speed and armed with ten or twelve 14 in ( 360 mm ) or 12 in ( 300 mm ) guns . Furthermore , they were commanded by an experienced and highly capable officer in Rear Admiral Hugh Rodman , a 37 @-@ year veteran who had been commended for valor at the Battle of Manila Bay , and was known both as an expert seaman and an extremely affable man . Both of these characteristics would serve him in good stead in his new role as joint admiral and diplomat . After nearly five months of hesitation , the departure of the division was finally set for the last week of November .
= = Crossing the Atlantic = =
The four ships of Battleship Division Nine — accompanied by the destroyer Manley — got underway from Lynnhaven Roads , Virginia on 25 November 1917 , bound for the anchorage of the Grand Fleet at Scapa Flow in the Orkney Islands . What should have been an uneventful transit was complicated by weather that began bad and only got worse as the voyage progressed . After battling a vicious northwester that brought sleet , hail , and snow , the division was further buffeted by a severe gale off the Grand Banks that began on 29 November . Captain Henry Wiley of Wyoming would later recall of that storm , " At the height of the gale , it blew as hard as I have ever seen it , and the seas were the worst I could recollect . "
Severe storm damage allowed over 250 long tons ( 250 t ) of seawater to flood the forward compartments of New York , lowering her bow to the point where she was in danger of foundering in the heavy seas . Three days of continuous bailing were required to help keep her afloat . To make matters worse , the high winds — reportedly gusting to 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) — carried away the topmasts on all four battleships , rendering radio communication impossible .
The sheer force of the gale drove Delaware , Florida , and Manley off station in the night of 30 November . Though Florida eventually rejoined the flagship when the storm blew itself out , Delaware sailed on alone to the scheduled rendezvous with the British light cruiser Caroline off Cape Wrath , Scotland , where the division would reassemble in the early hours of 7 December . Manley — short of fuel after her fight with the sea — could not rejoin the rest of the force and proceeded directly to her ultimate destination , the naval base at Queenstown , Ireland .
Battered , Battleship Division Nine steamed into the anchorage of the Grand Fleet later that day to the tremendous cheering of the men on the assembled British warships . Wasting no time , Admiral Rodman called upon the commander of the Grand Fleet — Admiral Sir David Beatty — to offer the services of himself , his men , and his ships to the Allied cause . With Beatty 's acceptance , the American battleships , while retaining their American designation of Battleship Division Nine , officially became the Sixth Battle Squadron of the Grand Fleet .
= = New standards = =
From the beginning , the battleships of Division Nine faced a hard task in adapting to the new methods and practices they encountered in the Grand Fleet . Any difficulties , however , that might have arisen from this transition based on national pride or rivalry were dissipated in large part by the professional example set by Admiral Rodman himself . As he would later note of his squadron 's assimilation : " I realized that the British fleet had had three years of actual warfare and knew the game from the ground floor up ; that while we might know it theoretically , there would be a great deal to learn practically . There could not be two independent commands in one force if our work was to be harmonious , and the only logical course was to amalgamate our ships and serve under the command of the British commander @-@ in @-@ chief . " This cooperative attitude trickled down through the division , and elicited the admiration and appreciation of the British .
The first task facing the Americans was the adoption of an entirely new set of signals , radio codes , and cipher methods . Although the Americans had studied the general British code while crossing the Atlantic , it was some time before they could use it with anything like the proficiency of other ships in the Grand Fleet . To help in the transition , signalmen and radio operators from the Royal Navy were posted to the American battleships to aid their U.S. Navy counterparts . Though learning an entirely new system of signals was , as Admiral Rodman put it , " almost the same as if in reading we had substituted a new set of letters , " within three days of their arrival , the ships of Battleship Division Nine were able to take part in fleet maneuvers in the North Sea with no apparent difficulty .
Less successful at first were the efforts of the American battleships to match their British counterparts in excellence of gunnery . Having provided numerous veteran gun @-@ crews to serve aboard armed merchantmen in the previous months , the gunnery complements of Division Nine were badly depleted and filled with inexperienced officers and recent recruits . The inevitable effect of this loss of talent became apparent when , on December 17 , 1917 , Battleship Division Nine conducted its first full @-@ caliber target practice in nearby Pentland Firth .
The results were relatively poor . Where British battleships by the end of 1917 generally managed a rate of fire per salvo of 40 seconds or less , and an average spread ( that is , the distance measured between the closest and furthest shots in a salvo ) of 300 – 500 yd ( 270 – 460 m ) , the four ships of the American squadron proved both slow and inaccurate . The rate of fire of Delaware ( with an acceptable spread of 475 yd ( 434 m ) ) was 108 seconds , and Wyoming ' and Florida 's average spreads were 956 and 1 @,@ 131 yd ( 874 and 1 @,@ 034 m ) , respectively .
Only the flagship New York managed to match British practice in both categories . In Admiral Beatty 's words , the results were " distinctly poor and disappointing " , and led him to the initial conclusion that he could not consider the American division the equivalent of a British one . The Americans worked to catch up , however , and with every target practice registered improved results . By the end of June 1918 , Admiral Rodman was able to report that " the firing was exceptionally fine , most encouraging and much better than we have ever done previously " .
= = Operations = =
Within days of their arrival at Scapa Flow , Battleship Division Nine began participating in the frequent maneuvers and drills that typified the day to day existence of the Grand Fleet . Because of the good condition and high speed of the American battleships , Admiral Beatty assigned them to be one of the two divisions of " fast battleships " that operated at either ends of the Grand Fleet when it was steaming in battle line formation . As stipulated by the Grand Fleet Battle Orders , the Sixth Battle Squadron was to take station at the rear of the line , where its duty was to engage the rear division of German battleships . However , should the fleet execute a sudden turnaround maneuver , the American ships would become the van squadron , meaning they would lead into battle . The position was an important one , and the Americans were particularly proud of it .
Tasked with this assignment , the Americans got their first true practice in their new role at the end of January 1918 , when the entire Grand Fleet went to sea for four days of war games . Under Admiral Beatty 's direction , the fleet divided into two opposing forces , with " Blue Fleet " representing the German High Seas Fleet , and the " Red Fleet " including the Sixth Battle Squadron , playing the role of the Royal Navy . At a prearranged point in the middle of the North Sea , the two sides converged for " battle " . During one of these exercises , the American sailors were treated to their first encounter with an enemy warship when a German U @-@ boat 's conning tower was sighted by the two British battleships directly ahead of New York . Although one of the British battleships attempted to ram it and destroyers rushed to drop depth charges , the U @-@ boat managed to escape .
Though the maneuvers were otherwise unremarkable , they proved a valuable learning tool for the Americans , who got a chance not only to experience British methods , but the violent conditions of the North Sea , as well . As Admiral Rodman noted upon returning from the exercise , " I have seen the largest battleships apparently sucked under until only the superstructures on the upper deck were visible when they would slowly rise from their submergence and the water pour off their decks as it might from some huge turtle ... [ coming ] to the surface . "
= = = Convoy duty = = =
Hard as the Americans worked to incorporate themselves into the Grand Fleet , they had yet to shake a belief among the veteran British that they were amateurs merely playing at war . In writing to his American @-@ born wife following the maneuvers , Admiral Beatty noted that , " The American Squadron enjoyed themselves greatly while we were out , and did well , and will do better next time . I am sending old Rodman out on an operation of his own , which pleases him and gives them an idea that they are really taking part in the war . I trust they will come to no harm . "
Despite the qualified nature of this comment , the operation Beatty had in mind was both important and potentially dangerous . On 6 February 1918 , Battleship Division Nine stood out of Scapa Flow to guard the high value Scandinavian Convoy to and from Norway . Twice in the previous year , this convoy — with its essential cargos of iron ore , nitrates , and other chemicals — had been raided by German cruisers and destroyers , with the loss of 15 allied freighters . To avoid a repeat of these attacks , the British had taken to escorting the convoys with dreadnought squadrons . Still , the possibility existed that the Germans would send out their entire fleet to cut off and annihilate the overmatched battleship squadron , with severe strategic effect .
With this possibility in mind , the American battleships set out , accompanied by the ships of the British Third Light Cruiser Squadron and two flotillas of destroyers , all under the command of Admiral Rodman . This marked the first time in history that British warships had ever served under the command of a sea @-@ going American admiral . Although the outbound trip to Norway was uneventful , things began to heat up for the escort force on 8 February , as they waited just outside Norwegian territorial waters for the return convoy to assemble . Shortly before 14 : 00 , both Florida and Delaware reported sighting numerous torpedoes running in the water , and began maneuvering sharply to avoid being struck .
Delaware also fired a 3 in ( 76 mm ) shell at what appeared to be a conning tower about 2 @,@ 000 yd ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) distant , and the escorting destroyers dropped depth charges , with no apparent success . After the convoy returned to Scapa Flow on 10 February , Rodman officially reported to Admiral Beatty that two torpedoes had been fired at Florida , and two at Delaware , and that only the skillful handling of both ships had saved them from harm .
However , post @-@ war examination of German war records revealed that no German submarines had made any attacks that day . It is likely the two ships had instead seen the wakes of porpoises frolicking in the waves . As Captain Wiley of Wyoming noted , such misidentifications were common for inexperienced ships : " new ships arriving in the war zone usually did a good deal of shooting at submarines which were not submarines . With experience , they saw fewer . "
Less than a week after their return , Battleship Division Nine was once again called upon to protect the Scandinavian Convoy as part of a general Grand Fleet response to intelligence reports suggesting German battlecruisers were loose in the North Sea . The mission took place in a strong gale that caused damage to ships throughout the Fleet . Delaware suffered damage to her ventilators that caused the generators to stop working , cutting electrical power throughout the ship and forcing a reduction in speed to 12 kn ( 14 mph ; 22 km / h ) for nearly an hour . On New York , the strong seas carried a man overboard who could not be rescued , one of the 12 or more men lost throughout the Fleet that day . To make matters worse , the Grand Fleet failed to find the German battlecruisers , and was forced to return to Scapa Flow empty @-@ handed .
In March – April 1918 , Battleship Division Nine escorted the Scandinavian Convoy two more times . Both missions were hampered by storms that made the going particularly slow , but were otherwise uneventful . Still , confidence in the wisdom of using battleships as an escort was fading at the Admiralty , and Admiral Beatty in particular was opposed to it . When the American ships returned to the new Grand Fleet base at Rosyth at the end of the second mission on 20 April , it was the last time they were used to escort the Scandinavian Convoy .
Just days later , however , on 24 April 1918 , Battleship Division Nine joined the Grand Fleet in one last attempt to bring the High Seas Fleet to battle . German Admiral Reinhard Scheer , aware of the strategic potential of destroying a squadron of British battleships , had finally decided to make an attempt on the Scandinavian Convoy , using the overwhelming force of his entire fleet . Under strict radio silence , the High Seas Fleet sailed on the morning of 23 April to attempt an intercept , leaving the British completely unaware that they had left their base .
It was not until an engine malfunction aboard the German battlecruiser SMS Moltke forced it to break radio silence to ask for assistance that the British became aware of the presence of the Germans in the North Sea . A recent change in the sailing schedule of the Scandinavian Convoy , however , meant there was no exposed squadron of battleships in danger of being overwhelmed that day . Alerted by the enemy wireless transmissions , the entire Grand Fleet sortied to find the High Seas Fleet , offering the prospect of the decisive battle of the war .
However , with Moltke crippled , Admiral Scheer decided to return to base . Though scouting units of the Grand Fleet made brief contact with the Germans on the morning of 25 April , no action followed , and the High Seas Fleet made it home without incident . At one point in the chase , however , a reversal of course by the Germans meant that the entire Grand Fleet was forced to reorient itself in the opposite direction , placing Battleship Division Nine in the van . The result was that , if an encounter between the two fleets had occurred , American battleships would have led the British fleet into what could have been the largest naval battle of the war .
Years later , Admiral Rodman wrote in his memoir that he " often thought what a glorious day it would have been for the ships of our country to have led the Grand Fleet into action . " It was not to be , however , nor would another chance present itself : the German fleet did not sail as a unit again in World War I.
= = = New arrivals = = =
Through the first months of 1918 , the composition of Battleship Division Nine changed to reflect the lessons learned from operating in a war zone with the Grand Fleet . It soon became apparent that with only four ships , the division could not maintain the level of preparedness required by the constant need to be ready to sail at limited notice . The inevitable result was machinery breakdowns that reduced the squadron to three ships , a development considered unacceptable given the Division 's important position at the tail end of the battle line . The British — faced with the same problem — responded by allocating a spare battleship to each of their squadrons . In this way , each squadron always remained at full strength even when a ship was being repaired .
Recognizing the practicality of this solution , Admiral Rodman requested that the Navy Department send another battleship to operate with his division . Specifically , Rodman requested the ship be New York 's sister ship Texas , to better match Grand Fleet policy , which encouraged the use of matched pairs to aid in rangefinding . Although there was some grumbling at the Navy Department that a five ship division was counter to U.S. Navy policy , they eventually agreed , and on 11 February 1918 , Texas arrived at Scapa Flow .
This arrangement , however , left Wyoming — the third @-@ most powerful ship of the division — as the spare ship because she lacked a matched pair . As a result , Rodman requested that Delaware — the oldest ship in the division — be replaced with Wyoming 's sister ship Arkansas , leaving Florida as the spare . Arkansas , however , did not join Battleship Division Nine until 29 July 1918 . Delaware sailed from Scapa Flow for the United States the next day .
= = = Northern Mine Barrage = = =
In late June 1918 , Battleship Division Nine began escorting American mine laying craft participating in the setting of the Northern Mine Barrage , a gargantuan project spearheaded by the U.S. Navy designed to close the North Sea passage between Scotland and Norway to U @-@ boat traffic . A novel attempt to end the submarine menace relying heavily on American industrial capacity , the Barrage called for more than 70 @,@ 000 mines to be placed across a stretch of water 250 nmi ( 290 mi ; 460 km ) wide .
Because the minelayers were operating within range of German surface raiders , the American battleships were detailed to provide an escort for them , along with other units of the Grand Fleet . For the most part , these expeditions proved uneventful , but on two occasions , on 30 June and again on 8 August , lookouts on the battleships reported seeing U @-@ boats or torpedoes in the water , forcing the Division to maneuver accordingly . Like the previous sightings made while escorting the Scandinavian Convoy , subsequent review of German war records revealed that both cases were false alarms .
Just days after the second incident , however , Battleship Division Nine was called to more serious action . Having received intelligence that German vessels were loose in the North Sea , the Division sortied from Scapa Flow on 12 October , in company with the British Second Battlecruiser Squadron and the Third Light Cruiser Squadron in the hope of engaging the enemy raiders . From the beginning , the autumn weather was particularly rough , impeding progress and making any chance of sighting the German ships unlikely .
On the evening of 14 October , as New York led the force back into Pentland Firth , she was rocked by a violent underwater collision on her starboard side , followed shortly after by another to the stern that broke off two of her propeller blades , reducing the ship to one engine and a speed of 12 kn ( 14 mph ; 22 km / h ) . It was immediately clear to the men on board that she had struck an underwater object , but the depth of the channel meant it could not have been a shipwreck . Both Admirals Rodman and Beatty concluded that New York must have accidentally collided with a submerged German U @-@ boat . They agreed that the submarine had rammed its bow into the ship 's side , then been struck moments later by the ship 's propeller . In their opinion , the damage would have been fatal to the German craft .
Postwar examination of German records revealed that the submarine lost may have been UB @-@ 113 or UB @-@ 123 . This strange — and accidental — encounter marked the only time in all of Battleship Division Nine 's service with the Grand Fleet that one of its ships sank a German vessel .
New York 's ordeal was not over , however . Badly damaged by the loss of a propeller , the ship sailed to Rosyth under heavy escort for repairs on 15 October . At 01 : 00 the next morning , a U @-@ boat launched three torpedoes at the damaged vessel , all of which passed ahead of her . Unlike in previous cases , sufficient evidence existed to suppose that this torpedo attack was not a false alarm — a number of officers and men aboard New York clearly saw the wakes of the torpedoes in the full moonlight , and a submarine was spotted in the immediate vicinity by a patrol shortly after the attack .
The battleship 's wounded condition is possibly what saved her : although standard procedure was to steam at 16 kn ( 18 mph ; 30 km / h ) , New York could make only 12 kn ( 14 mph ; 22 km / h ) on her one operable propeller . Due to this , historian Jerry Jones believes that the German U @-@ boat captain misjudged the ship 's speed . With no further damage , however , the battleship was able to safely arrive at drydock in Rosyth . As the water dropped in the drydock , a large dent commensurate with a submarine bow was found in her hull .
As the war began to draw to a close , the ships of Battleship Division Nine remained busy . With frequent gunnery drill , the ships showed marked improvement in performance compared to the early days with the Fleet . The average spread for the whole division , including the newcomers Texas and Arkansas , was now less than 600 yd ( 550 m ) , which was much better than previously , if still not as good as the British average .
Maneuvers and war games continued , as well . During exercises in late September 1918 , the Grand Fleet , once again divided into Red and Blue Fleets , " engaged " each other at ranges as extreme as 23 @,@ 000 yd ( 21 @,@ 000 m ) , a battle @-@ distance unimagined prior to World War I. The rest of the Division 's time was spent in escorting minecraft on the Northern Barrage . Though a monumental endeavor , the barrage proved largely ineffective . After an investment of 70 @,@ 263 mines and more than $ 40 million ( the equivalent of $ 572 million in 2009 ) , only six submarines were confirmed as sunk by the barrage .
= = Life in the Grand Fleet = =
Throughout Battleship Division Nine 's time with the Grand Fleet , combating boredom was a constant difficulty . Located at the northeastern tip of Scotland , the islands surrounding Scapa Flow were little more than barren , cold , windswept specks of land devoid of the trappings of civilization . Due to the efforts of the officers to keep their men entertained , however , morale remained high throughout the war . The British worked hard to turn the anchorage into a more inviting place . Central to these efforts were sporting events . The Fleet held numerous inter @-@ ship competitions , including soccer , rugby , rowing , track , and boxing , which were followed with intense interest by the men of the respective ships .
When the Americans arrived , the British made every effort to include them in the athletics . Space was allotted on the sports fields to provide a football field and a baseball diamond . In short order , the division developed a baseball league that played 17 games during the summer of 1918 . Texas won the division championship , but lost to a visiting team from American naval headquarters in London . Football games occurred throughout the fall .
The American sailors participated in Fleet sporting events , as well , giving excellent account of themselves . At the Fleet track meet , Battleship Division Nine finished second , and did even better at the annual boxing championships , the pinnacle of the Grand Fleet sporting year . An engineman from Florida won the lightweight title , a chief carpenter 's mate from New York won the middleweight title , and a fireman from the same ship reached the heavyweight finals .
The men found other ways to keep busy besides sports . Throughout the year , every ship in the squadron produced theater productions , and motion pictures were shown whenever possible . Furthermore , leave was granted to the men on a frequent basis whenever the ships were in Rosyth for repairs . On 4 July 1918 , Admiral Beatty provided a special treat for the men of Battleship Division Nine by granting them a few days off from all drills and maneuvers in order to celebrate what he termed " this greatest of Liberty Days " .
On 22 July , the ships of the Grand Fleet received a visit from King George V. After inspecting the Fleet from the decks of the destroyer HMS Oak , the king presided over an investiture ceremony on board Admiral Beatty 's flagship HMS Queen Elizabeth . King George presented numerous decorations , but the first recipient was Admiral Rodman himself . Invested as a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath , Rodman received the highest honor awarded that day .
After lunch aboard Queen Elizabeth , the king visited Admiral Rodman 's flagship New York , where he inspected the ship . King George visited her engine and fire @-@ rooms , remarking with admiration to Rodman , " Admiral , your fire @-@ room is as clean as a dining room . " After the inspection , the pair retreated to Rodman 's cabin for coffee , a smoke , and casual conversation , something Rodman noted the king seemed to particularly enjoy .
Following his departure from the Grand Fleet , the king had a message sent to the officers and men of the ships he had just left . It began with a warm reference to the American squadron : " I am happy to have found myself once more with the Grand Fleet , and this pleasure has been increased by the opportunity I have had of seeing the splendid ships of the United States in line with our own , and of meeting Admiral Rodman together with the officers and men under him . We value their comradeship and are proud of their achievements . "
To this , Admiral Beatty replied : " We are glad that Your Majesty should have been able personally to observe our complete accord with the United States Squadron and the firm friendship which binds their officers and men to Your own . " These expressions accurately reflected the goodwill that existed between the officers and men of the two organizations . Admiral Rodman , for instance , later wrote that he came away from his service in the Grand Fleet as probably the most anglophile officer in the U.S. Navy , and many a relationship was forged among the junior officers that served both nations well in World War II .
Despite being located in remote Scapa Flow , Battleship Division Nine was unable to avoid a global killer that struck just as World War I was coming to a close . Spanish Influenza — which killed millions worldwide in 1918 @-@ 1919 — did not spare the Grand Fleet . By late fall , an average of seven men per day were dying of the virus throughout the Fleet , and some ships were so badly affected that they were practically unmanageable . Though they were not as badly hit as some of the British vessels , the American battleships were not immune . By early November , only Florida was not in quarantine , and Arkansas had 259 cases , with 11 deaths .
= = Armistice = =
Though the situation in the North Sea in late 1918 remained much as it had been for the previous four years — with the Grand Fleet maintaining its endless watch over the High Seas Fleet — the war on the Western Front was rapidly drawing to a close . Operation Michael , the last German offensive , had been stopped in late summer , and with the aid of hundreds of thousands of American doughboys , the Allies had begun to overwhelm the German Army . On 3 October , Prince Max of Baden replaced Georg von Hertling as Chancellor of Germany , and immediately asked President Woodrow Wilson to arrange an armistice .
To the naval leaders of the High Seas Fleet , however , there appeared to be no reason for an armistice . In their eyes , the German Imperial Navy remained unbeaten . Determined not to go down without a fight , Admiral Scheer , by this time head of the German Admiralty , ordered the new commander of the High Seas Fleet , Admiral Franz Hipper , to prepare for a final sortie against the Grand Fleet " even if it should become a death struggle " . Accordingly , Hipper developed Plan 19 , which called for destroyer strikes against the Thames Estuary and Flanders to draw the Grand Fleet south , where a waiting line of U @-@ boats would attempt to even the odds . At this point , the High Seas Fleet would emerge to engage its opponent in one last titanic encounter .
The admirals , however , were reckoning without their sailors . The enlisted men of the High Seas Fleet , aware that Germany had lost the war , had no interest in dying for the sake of the Navy 's honor . When the details of Plan 19 were leaked to the fleet , a mutiny almost instantly broke out , with sailors raising the red flag of revolution and refusing to obey their officers . Faced with a complete breakdown of discipline within his fleet , Admiral Hipper had no choice but to disperse his ships to their homeports in early November . Days later , on November 11 , 1918 , World War I came to an end .
With the defeat of Germany , the question became what to do with the ships of the High Seas Fleet . Because no neutral nation wanted to host the rebellious sailors of the mutinous armada , the Allies eventually decided to have the force interned at Scapa Flow , with the guns of the Grand Fleet 's ships nearby in case of any attempt at a break @-@ out . On November 15 , Beatty met with Hipper 's representative , Rear Admiral Hugo Meurer , to arrange the surrender of the German ships . Meurer agreed to surrender to Beatty in the Firth of Forth . From there , the German vessels would proceed to Scapa Flow , until their ultimate fate was decided by the Paris Peace Conference .
= = = The surrender of the German fleet = = =
On November 21 , the ships of Battleship Division Nine joined the rest of the Grand Fleet to witness Operation ZZ — the surrender of the German fleet . The Grand Fleet — composed of 370 ships and 90 @,@ 000 men — formed two columns through which the defeated German ships passed . Despite the magnitude of the occasion , it was a bittersweet moment for the men of the Grand Fleet . For four years , the British — later joined by the Americans of Battleship Division Nine — had tried constantly to bring the High Seas Fleet to a decisive battle . To see them coming to surrender , as Admiral Beatty put it , " like sheep being herded by dogs to their folds " , left many feeling cheated .
After the ceremony had concluded , Beatty declared , " The Fleet , my Fleet , is brokenhearted . " In a similar vein , Admiral Rodman wrote , " It was hard to realize that the ships which we had expected and hoped to engage , would all be given up without a struggle or fleet action , and surrender without a fight . " Though such statements reflected the fact that the Grand Fleet had not won the great battle its officers had sought , the peaceful surrender of the High Seas Fleet served as testimony to the strength the Grand Fleet had maintained continuously through four years of war .
= = = Significance = = =
With the war over , the ships of Battleship Division Nine departed from the Grand Fleet on December 1 , almost exactly one year after joining it . Though the fact that the American battleships never had the opportunity to confront their German opposites dampened the sense of their achievements , they nonetheless played an important part in the winning of the War at Sea . The presence of the American squadron augmented the strength of the Grand Fleet to the point where any confrontation attempted by the Germans would likely have been futile . Admiral Beatty put it best in his farewell speech to the American sailors , on December 1 :
I had always had certain misgivings [ that the German fleet would not come out to fight ] , and when the Sixth Battle Squadron became part of the Grand Fleet those misgivings were doubly strengthened , and I knew then they would throw up their hands . Apparently , the Sixth Battle Squadron was the straw that broke the camel 's back . "
= Mayan languages =
The Mayan languages form a language family spoken in Mesoamerica and northern Central America . Mayan languages are spoken by at least 6 million Maya peoples , primarily in Guatemala , Mexico , Belize and Honduras . In 1996 , Guatemala formally recognized 21 Mayan languages by name , and Mexico recognizes eight more within their territory .
The Mayan language family is one of the best @-@ documented and most studied in the Americas . Modern Mayan languages descend from the Proto @-@ Mayan language , thought to have been spoken at least 5 @,@ 000 years ago ; it has been partially reconstructed using the comparative method . The proto @-@ Mayan language diversified into at least 6 different branches , the Huastecan , Quichean , Yucatecan , Qanjobalan , Mamean and Ch 'olan @-@ Tzeltalan branches .
Mayan languages form part of the Mesoamerican language area , an area of linguistic convergence developed throughout millennia of interaction between the peoples of Mesoamerica . All Mayan languages display the basic diagnostic traits of this linguistic area . For example , all use relational nouns instead of prepositions to indicate spatial relationships . They also possess grammatical and typological features that set them apart from other languages of Mesoamerica , such as the use of ergativity in the grammatical treatment of verbs and their subjects and objects , specific inflectional categories on verbs , and a special word class of " positionals " which is typical of all Mayan languages .
During the pre @-@ Columbian era of Mesoamerican history , some Mayan languages were written in the logo @-@ syllabic Maya script . Its use was particularly widespread during the Classic period of Maya civilization ( c . 250 – 900 ) . The surviving corpus of over 10 @,@ 000 known individual Maya inscriptions on buildings , monuments , pottery and bark @-@ paper codices , combined with the rich postcolonial literature in Mayan languages written in the Latin script , provides a basis for the modern understanding of pre @-@ Columbian history unparalleled in the Americas .
= = History = =
= = = Proto @-@ Mayan = = =
Mayan languages are the descendants of a proto @-@ language called Proto @-@ Mayan or , in K 'iche ' Maya , Nab 'ee Maya ' Tzij ( " the old Maya Language " ) . The Proto @-@ Mayan language is believed to have been spoken in the Cuchumatanes highlands of central Guatemala in an area corresponding roughly to where Q 'anjobalan is spoken today . The earliest proposal was that of Sapper ( 1912 ) which identified the Chiapas @-@ Guatemalan highlands as the likely " cradle " of Mayan languages was published by the German antiquarian and scholar Karl Sapper . Terrence Kaufman and John Justeson have reconstructed more than 3000 lexical items for the proto @-@ Mayan language .
According to the prevailing classification scheme by Lyle Campbell and Terrence Kaufman , the first division occurred around 2200 BCE , when Huastecan split away from Mayan proper after its speakers moved northwest along the Gulf Coast of Mexico . Proto @-@ Yucatecan and Proto @-@ Ch 'olan speakers subsequently split off from the main group and moved north into the Yucatán Peninsula . Speakers of the western branch moved south into the areas now inhabited by Mamean and Quichean people . When speakers of proto @-@ Tzeltalan later separated from the Ch 'olan group and moved south into the Chiapas highlands , they came into contact with speakers of Mixe – Zoque languages . According to an alternative theory by Robertson and Houston , Huastecan stayed in the Guatemalan highlands with speakers of Ch 'olan @-@ Tzeltalan , separating from that branch at a much later date than proposed by Kaufman .
In the Archaic period ( before 2000 BCE ) , a number of loanwords from Mixe – Zoquean languages seem to have entered the proto @-@ Mayan language . This has led to hypotheses that the early Maya were dominated by speakers of Mixe – Zoquean languages , possibly the Olmec . In the case of the Xincan and Lencan languages , on the other hand , Mayan languages are more often the source than the receiver of loanwords . Mayan language specialists such as Campbell believe this suggests a period of intense contact between Maya and the Lencan and Xinca people , possibly during the Classic period ( 250 – 900 ) .
= = = Classic Period = = =
During the Classic period the major branches began diversifying into separate languages . The split between Proto @-@ Yucatecan ( in the north , that is , the Yucatán Peninsula ) and Proto @-@ Ch 'olan ( in the south , that is , the Chiapas highlands and Petén Basin ) had already occurred by the Classic period , when most extant Maya inscriptions were written . Both variants are attested in hieroglyphic inscriptions at the Maya sites of the time , and both are commonly referred to as " Classic Maya language " . Although a single prestige language was by far the most frequently recorded on extant hieroglyphic texts , evidence for at least five different varieties of Mayan have been discovered within the hieroglyphic corpus — an Eastern Ch 'olan variety found in texts written in the southern Maya area and the highlands , a Western Ch 'olan variety diffused from the Usumacinta region from the mid @-@ 7th century on , a Yukatekan variety found in the texts from the Yucatán Peninsula , a Tzeltalan variety found in the Western Lowlands ( i.e. Toniná , Pomona ) , and possibly a highland Maya language belonging to K 'ichean major within texts painted on Nebaj ceramics . The reason why only few linguistic varieties are found in the glyphic texts is probably that these served as prestige dialects throughout the Maya region ; hieroglyphic texts would have been composed in the language of the elite .
Stephen Houston , John Robertson and David Stuart have suggested that the specific variety of Ch 'olan found in the majority of Southern Lowland glyphic texts was a language they dub " Classic Ch 'olti 'an " , the ancestor language of the modern Ch 'orti ' and Ch ’ olti ’ languages . They propose that it originated in western and south @-@ central Petén Basin , and that it was used in the inscriptions and perhaps also spoken by elites and priests . However , Mora @-@ Marín has argued that traits shared by Classic Lowland Maya and the Ch 'olti 'an languages are retentions rather than innovations , and that the diversification of Ch 'olan in fact post @-@ dates the classic period . The language of the classical lowland inscriotions then would have been proto @-@ Ch 'olan .
= = = Colonial period = = =
During the Spanish colonization of Central America , all indigenous languages were eclipsed by Spanish , which became the new prestige language . The use of Mayan languages in many important domains of society , including administration , religion and literature , came to an end . Yet the Maya area was more resistant to outside influence than others , and perhaps for this reason , many Maya communities still retain a high proportion of monolingual speakers . The Maya area is now dominated by the Spanish language . While a number of Mayan languages are moribund or are considered endangered , others remain quite viable , with speakers across all age groups and native language use in all domains of society .
= = = Modern period = = =
As Maya archaeology advanced during the 20th century and nationalist and ethnic @-@ pride @-@ based ideologies spread , the Mayan @-@ speaking peoples began to develop a shared ethnic identity as Maya , the heirs of the Maya civilization .
The word " Maya " was likely derived from the postclassical Yucatán city of Mayapan ; its more restricted meaning in pre @-@ colonial and colonial times points to an origin in a particular region of the Yucatán Peninsula . The broader meaning of " Maya " now current , while defined by linguistic relationships , is also used to refer to ethnic or cultural traits . Most Mayans identify first and foremost with a particular ethnic group , e.g. as " Yucatec " or " K 'iche ' " ; but they also recognize a shared Maya kinship . Language has been fundamental in defining the boundaries of that kinship . Fabri writes : " The term Maya is problematic because Maya peoples do not constitute a homogenous identity . Maya , rather , has become a strategy of self @-@ representation for the Maya movements and its followers . The Academia de Lenguas Mayas de Guatemala ( ALMG ) finds twenty @-@ one distinct Mayan languages . " This pride in unity has led to an insistence on the distinctions of different Mayan languages , some of which are so closely related that they could easily be referred to as dialects of a single language . But , given that the term " dialect " has been used by some with racialist overtones in the past , as scholars made a spurious distinction between Amerindian " dialects " and European " languages " , the preferred usage in Mesoamerica in recent years has been to designate the linguistic varieties spoken by different ethnic group as separate languages .
In Guatemala , matters such as developing standardized orthographies for the Mayan languages are governed by the Academia de Lenguas Mayas de Guatemala ( ALMG ; Guatemalan Academy of Mayan Languages ) , which was founded by Maya organisations in 1986 . Following the 1996 peace accords , it has been gaining a growing recognition as the regulatory authority on Mayan languages both among Mayan scholars and the Maya peoples .
= = Genealogy and classification = =
= = = Relations with other families = = =
The Mayan language family has no demonstrated genetic relationship to other language families . Similarities with some languages of Mesoamerica are understood to be due to diffusion of linguistic traits from neighboring languages into Mayan and not to common ancestry . Mesoamerica has been proven to be an area of substantial linguistic diffusion .
A wide range of proposals have tried to link the Mayan family to other language families or isolates , but none is generally supported by linguists . Examples include linking Mayan with the Uru – Chipaya languages , Mapuche , the Lencan languages , Purépecha and Huave . Mayan has also been included in various Hokan and Penutian hypotheses . The linguist Joseph Greenberg included Mayan in his highly controversial Amerind hypothesis , which is rejected by most historical linguists as unsupported by available evidence .
Writing in 1997 Lyle Campbell , an expert in Mayan languages and historical linguistics , argued that the most promising proposal is the " Macro @-@ Mayan " hypothesis , which posits links between Mayan , the Mixe – Zoque languages and the Totonacan languages , but more research is needed to support or disprove this hypothesis . In 2015 , Campbell noted that recent , yet unpublished , evidence uncovered by David Mora @-@ Marin strengthened the case for a relationship between Mayan and Mixe @-@ Zoquean languages , although he did not yet consider it conclusive .
= = = Subdivisions = = =
The Mayan family consists of thirty languages . Typically , these languages are grouped into 5 @-@ 6 major subgroups ( Yucatean , Huastecan , Ch 'olan @-@ Tseltalan , Q 'anjob 'alan , Mamean , and K 'ichean ) . The Mayan language family is extremely well documented , and its internal genealogical classification scheme is widely accepted and established , except for some minor unresolved differences .
One point still at issue is the position of Ch 'olan and Q 'anjobalan – Chujean . Some scholars think these form a separate Western branch ( as in the diagram below ) . Other linguists do not support the positing of an especially close relationship between Ch 'olan and Q 'anjobalan – Chujean ; consequently they classify these as two distinct branches emanating directly from the proto @-@ language . An alternative proposed classification groups the Huastecan branch as springing from the Ch 'olan @-@ Tzeltalan node , rather than as an outlying branch springing directly from the proto @-@ Mayan node .
= = Distribution = =
Studies estimate that Mayan languages are spoken by more than 6 million people . Most of them the speakers live in Guatemala where depending on estimates 40 % -60 % of the population speaks a Mayan language . In Mexico the Mayan speaking population was estimated at 2 @,@ 5 million people in 2010 , whereas the Belizean speaker population figures around 30 @,@ 000 .
= = = Western branch = = =
The Ch 'olan languages were formerly widespread throughout the Maya area , but today the language with most speakers is Ch 'ol , spoken by 130 @,@ 000 in Chiapas . Its closest relative , the Chontal Maya language , is spoken by 55 @,@ 000 in the state of Tabasco . Another related language , now endangered , is Ch 'orti ' , which is spoken by 30 @,@ 000 in Guatemala . It was previously also spoken in extreme west of Honduras and El Salvador , but the Salvadorian variant is now extinct and the Honduran one is considered moribund . Ch 'olti ' , a sister language of Ch 'orti ' , is also extinct . Ch 'olan languages are believed to be the most conservative in vocabulary and phonology , and are closely related to the language of the Classic @-@ era inscriptions found in the Central Lowlands . They may have served as prestige languages , coexisting with other dialects in some areas . This assumption provides a plausible explanation for the geographical distance between the Ch 'orti ' zone and the areas where Ch 'ol and Chontal are spoken .
The closest relatives of the Ch 'olan languages are the languages of the Tzeltalan branch , Tzotzil and Tzeltal , both spoken in Chiapas by large and stable or growing populations ( 265 @,@ 000 for Tzotzil and 215 @,@ 000 for Tzeltal ) . Tzeltal has tens of thousands of monolingual speakers .
Q 'anjob 'al is spoken by 77 @,@ 700 in Guatemala 's Huehuetenango department , with small populations elsewhere . The region of Q 'anjobalan speakers in Guatemala , due to genocidal policies during the Civil War and its close proximity to the Mexican border , was the source of a number of refugees . Thus there are now small Q 'anjob 'al , Jakaltek , and Awakatek populations in various locations in Mexico , the United States ( such as Tuscarawas County , Ohio and Los Angeles , California ) , and , through postwar resettlement , other parts of Guatemala . Jakaltek ( also known as Popti ' ) is spoken by almost 100 @,@ 000 in several municipalities of Huehuetenango . Another member of this branch is Akatek , with over 50 @,@ 000 speakers in San Miguel Acatán and San Rafael La Independencia .
Chuj is spoken by 40 @,@ 000 people in Huehuetenango , and by 9 @,@ 500 people , primarily refugees , over the border in Mexico , in the municipality of La Trinitaria , Chiapas , and the villages of Tziscau and Cuauhtémoc . Tojolab 'al is spoken in eastern Chiapas by 36 @,@ 000 people .
= = = Eastern branch = = =
The Quichean – Mamean languages and dialects , with two sub @-@ branches and three subfamilies , are spoken in the Guatemalan highlands .
Q 'eqchi ' ( sometimes spelled Kekchi ) , which constitutes its own sub @-@ branch within Quichean – Mamean , is spoken by about 400 @,@ 000 people in the southern Petén , Izabal and Alta Verapaz departments of Guatemala , and also in Belize by 9 @,@ 000 speakers . In El Salvador it is spoken by 12 @,@ 000 as a result of recent migrations .
The Uspantek language , which also springs directly from the Quichean – Mamean node , is native only to the Uspantán municipio in the department of El Quiché , and has 3 @,@ 000 speakers .
Within the Quichean sub @-@ branch K 'iche ' ( Quiché ) , the Mayan language with the largest number of speakers , is spoken by around 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 K 'iche ' Maya in the Guatemalan highlands , around the towns of Chichicastenango and Quetzaltenango and in the Cuchumatán mountains , as well as by urban emigrants in Guatemala City . The famous Maya mythological document , Popol Vuh , is written in an antiquated K 'iche ' often called Classical K 'iche ' ( or Quiché ) . The K 'iche ' culture was at its pinnacle at the time of the Spanish conquest . Q 'umarkaj , near the present @-@ day city of Santa Cruz del Quiché , was its economic and ceremonial center . Achi is spoken by 85 @,@ 000 people in Cubulco and Rabinal , two municipios of Baja Verapaz . In some classifications , e.g. the one by Campbell , Achi is counted as a form of K 'iche ' . However , owing to a historical division between the two ethnic groups , the Achi Maya do not regard themselves as K 'iche ' . The Kaqchikel language is spoken by about 400 @,@ 000 people in an area stretching from Guatemala City westward to the northern shore of Lake Atitlán . Tz 'utujil has about 90 @,@ 000 speakers in the vicinity of Lake Atitlán . Other members of the K 'ichean branch are Sakapultek , spoken by about 15 @,@ 000 people mostly in El Quiché department , and Sipakapense , which is spoken by 8 @,@ 000 people in Sipacapa , San Marcos .
The largest language in the Mamean sub @-@ branch is Mam , spoken by 478 @,@ 000 people in the departments of San Marcos and Huehuetenango . Awakatek is the language of 20 @,@ 000 inhabitants of central Aguacatán , another municipality of Huehuetenango . Ixil ( possibly three different languages ) is spoken by 70 @,@ 000 in the " Ixil Triangle " region of the department of El Quiché . Tektitek ( or Teko ) is spoken by over 6 @,@ 000 people in the municipality of Tectitán , and 1 @,@ 000 refugees in Mexico . According to the Ethnologue the number of speakers of Tektitek is growing .
The Poqom languages are closely related to Core Quichean , with which they constitute a Poqom @-@ K 'ichean sub @-@ branch on the Quichean – Mamean node . Poqomchi ' is spoken by 90 @,@ 000 people in Purulhá , Baja Verapaz , and in the following municipalities of Alta Verapaz : Santa Cruz Verapaz , San Cristóbal Verapaz , Tactic , Tamahú and Tucurú . Poqomam is spoken by around 49 @,@ 000 people in several small pockets in Guatemala .
= = = Yucatecan branch = = =
Yucatec Maya ( known simply as " Maya " to its speakers ) is the most commonly spoken Mayan language in Mexico . It is currently spoken by approximately 800 @,@ 000 people , the vast majority of whom are to be found on the Yucatán Peninsula . It remains common in Yucatán and in the adjacent states of Quintana Roo and Campeche .
The other three Yucatecan languages are Mopan , spoken by around 10 @,@ 000 speakers primarily in Belize ; Itza ' , an extinct or moribund language from Guatemala 's Petén Basin ; and Lacandón or Lakantum , also severely endangered with about 1 @,@ 000 speakers in a few villages on the outskirts of the Selva Lacandona , in Chiapas .
= = = Huastecan branch = = =
Wastek ( also spelled Huastec and Huaxtec ) is spoken in the Mexican states of Veracruz and San Luis Potosí by around 110 @,@ 000 people . It is the most divergent of modern Mayan languages . Chicomuceltec was a language related to Wastek and spoken in Chiapas that became extinct some time before 1982 .
= = Phonology = =
= = = Proto @-@ Mayan sound system = = =
Proto @-@ Mayan ( the common ancestor of the Mayan languages as reconstructed using the comparative method ) has a predominant CVC syllable structure , only allowing consonant clusters across syllable boundaries . Campbell & Kaufman ( 1985 ) Most Proto @-@ Mayan roots were monosyllabic except for a few disyllabic nominal roots . Due to subsequent vowel loss many Mayan languages now show complex consonant clusters at both ends of syllables . Following the reconstruction of Lyle Campbell and Terrence Kaufman , the Proto @-@ Mayan language had the following sounds . It has been suggested that proto @-@ Mayan was a tonal language , based on the fact that four different contemporary Mayan languages have tone ( Yucatec , Uspantek , San Bartolo Tzotzil and Mocho ' ) , but since these languages each can be shown to have innovated tone in different ways , Campbell considers this unlikely .
= = = Phonological evolution of Proto @-@ Mayan = = =
The classification of Mayan languages is based on changes shared between groups of languages . For example , languages of the western group ( such as Huastecan , Yucatecan and Ch 'olan ) all changed the Proto @-@ Mayan phoneme * / r / into [ j ] , some languages of the eastern branch retained [ r ] ( K 'ichean ) , and others changed it into [ tʃ ] or , word @-@ finally , [ t ] ( Mamean ) . The shared innovations between Huastecan , Yucatecan and Ch 'olan show that they separated from the other Mayan languages before the changes found in other branches had taken place .
The palatalized plosives [ tʲʼ ] and [ tʲ ] are not found in any of the modern families . Instead they are reflected differently in different branches , allowing a reconstruction of these phonemes as palatalized plosives . In the eastern branch ( Chujean @-@ Q 'anjobalan and Ch 'olan ) they are reflected as [ t ] and [ tʼ ] . In Mamean they are reflected as [ ts ] and [ tsʼ ] and in Quichean as [ tʃ ] and [ tʃʼ ] . Yucatec stands out from other western languages in that its palatalized plosives are sometimes changed into [ tʃ ] and sometimes [ t ] .
The Proto @-@ Mayan velar nasal * [ ŋ ] is reflected as [ x ] in the eastern branches ( Quichean – Mamean ) , [ n ] in Q 'anjobalan , Ch 'olan and Yucatecan , [ h ] in Huastecan , and only conserved as [ ŋ ] in Chuj and Jakaltek .
= = = Diphthongs = = =
Vowel quality is typically classified as having monophthongal vowels . In traditionally diphthongized contexts , Mayan languages will realize the V @-@ V sequence by inserting a hiatus @-@ breaking glottal stop or glide insertion between the vowels . Some K 'ichean @-@ branch languages have exhibited developed diphthongs from historical long vowels , by breaking / e : / and / o : / .
= = Grammar = =
The morphology of Mayan languages is simpler than that of other Mesoamerican languages , yet its morphology is still considered agglutinating and polysynthetic . Verbs are marked for aspect or tense , the person of the subject , the person of the object ( in the case of transitive verbs ) , and for plurality of person . Possessed nouns are marked for person of possessor . There are no cases or genders in Mayan languages .
= = = Word order = = =
Proto @-@ Mayan is thought to have had a basic verb – object – subject word order with possibilities of switching to VSO in certain circumstances , such as complex sentences , sentences where object and subject were of equal animacy and when the subject was definite . Today Yucatecan , Tzotzil and Tojolab 'al have a basic fixed VOS word order . Mamean , Q 'anjob 'al , Jakaltek and one dialect of Chuj have a fixed VSO one . Only Ch 'orti ' has a basic SVO word order . Other Mayan languages allow both VSO and VOS word orders .
= = = Numeral classifiers = = =
When counting it is , in many Mayan languages , necessary to use numeral classifiers which specify the class of items being counted ; the numeral cannot appear without an accompanying classifier . Some Mayan languages , such as Kaqchikel , do not use numeral classifiers . Class is usually assigned according to whether the object is animate or inanimate or according to an object 's general shape . Thus when counting " flat " objects , a different form of numeral classifier is used than when counting round things , oblong items or people . In some Mayan languages such as Chontal , classifiers take the form of affixes attached to the numeral ; in others such as Tzeltal , they are free forms . Jakaltek has both numeral classifiers and noun classifiers , and the noun classifiers can also be used as pronouns .
The meaning denoted by a noun may be altered significantly by changing the accompanying classifier . In Chontal , for example , when the classifier -tek is used with names of plants it is understood that the objects being enumerated are whole trees . If in this expression a different classifier , -ts 'it ( for counting long , slender objects ) is substituted for -tek , this conveys the meaning that only sticks or branches of the tree are being counted :
= = = Possession = = =
The morphology of Mayan nouns is fairly simple : they inflect for number ( plural or singular ) , and , when possessed , for person and number of their possessor . Pronominal possession is expressed by a set of possessive prefixes attached to the noun , as in Kaqchikel ru @-@ kej " his / her horse " . Nouns may furthermore adopt a special form marking them as possessed . For nominal possessors , the possessed noun is inflected as possessed by a third @-@ person possessor , and followed by the possessor noun , e.g. Kaqchikel ru @-@ kej ri achin " the man 's horse " ( literally " his horse the man " ) . This type of formation is a main diagnostic trait of the Mesoamerican Linguistic Area and recurs throughout Mesoamerica .
Mayan languages often contrast alienable and inalienable possession by varying the way the noun is ( or is not ) marked as possessed . Jakaltek , for example , contrasts inalienably possessed wetʃel " my photo ( in which I am depicted ) " with alienably possessed wetʃele " my photo ( taken by me ) " . The prefix we- marks the first person singular possessor in both , but the absence of the -e possessive suffix in the first form marks inalienable possession .
= = = Relational nouns = = =
Mayan languages which have prepositions at all normally have only one . To express location and other relations between entities , use is made of a special class of " relational nouns " . This pattern is also recurrent throughout Mesoamerica and is another diagnostic trait of the Mesoamerican Linguistic Area . In Mayan most relational nouns are metaphorically derived from body parts so that " on top of " , for example , is expressed by the word for head .
Relational nouns are possessed by the constituent that is the reference point of the relation , and the relational noun names the relation . Thus in Mayan one would say " the mountain 's head " ( literally " its head the mountain " ) to mean " on ( top of ) the mountain " . Thus in the Classical Quiché of the Popol Vuh we read u @-@ wach ulew " on the earth " ( literally " its face the earth " ) .
= = = Subjects and objects = = =
Mayan languages are ergative in their alignment . This means that the subject of an intransitive verb is treated similarly to the object of a transitive verb , but differently from the subject of a transitive verb .
Mayan languages have two sets of affixes that are attached to a verb to indicate the person of its arguments . One set ( often referred to in Mayan grammars as set A ) indicates the person of subjects of intransitive verbs , and of objects of transitive verbs . They can also be used with adjective or noun predicates to indicate the subject .
Another set ( set B ) is used to indicate the person of subjects of transitive verbs ( and in some languages , such as Yucatec , also the subjects of intransitive verbs , but only in the incompletive aspects ) , and also the possessors of nouns ( including relational nouns ) .
= = = Verbs = = =
In addition to subject and object ( agent and patient ) , the Mayan verb has affixes signalling aspect , tense , and mood as in the following example :
Tense systems in Mayan languages are generally simple . Jakaltek , for example , contrasts only past and non @-@ past , while Mam has only future and non @-@ future . Aspect systems are normally more prominent . Mood does not normally form a separate system in Mayan , but is instead intertwined with the tense / aspect system . Kaufman has reconstructed a tense / aspect / mood system for proto @-@ Mayan that includes seven aspects : incompletive , progressive , completive / punctual , imperative , potential / future , optative , and perfective .
Mayan languages tend to have a rich set of grammatical voices . Proto @-@ Mayan had at least one passive construction as well as an antipassive rule for downplaying the importance of the agent in relation to the patient . Modern K 'iche ' has two antipassives : one which ascribes focus to the object and another that emphasizes the verbal action . Other voice @-@ related constructions occurring in Mayan languages are the following : mediopassive , incorporational ( incorporating a direct object into the verb ) , instrumental ( promoting the instrument to object position ) and referential ( a kind of applicative promoting an indirect argument such as a benefactive or recipient to the object position ) .
= = = Statives and positionals = = =
In Mayan languages , words are usually viewed as belonging to one of four classes : verbs , statives , adjectives , and nouns .
Statives are a class of predicative words expressing a quality or state , whose syntactic properties fall in between those of verbs and adjectives in Indo @-@ European languages . Like verbs , statives can sometimes be inflected for person but normally lack inflections for tense , aspect and other purely verbal categories . Statives can be adjectives , positionals or numerals .
Positionals , a class of roots characteristic of , if not unique to , the Mayan languages , form stative adjectives and verbs ( usually with the help of suffixes ) with meanings related to the position or shape of an object or person . Mayan languages have between 250 and 500 distinct positional roots :
Telan ay jun naq winaq yul b 'e .
There is a man lying down fallen on the road .
Woqan hin k 'al ay max ek 'k'u .
I spent the entire day sitting down .
Yet ewi xoyan ay jun lob 'aj stina .
Yesterday there was a snake lying curled up in the entrance of the house .
In these three Q 'anjob 'al sentences , the positionals are telan ( " something large or cylindrical lying down as if having fallen " ) , woqan ( " person sitting on a chairlike object " ) , and xoyan ( " curled up like a rope or snake " ) .
= = = Word formation = = =
Compounding of noun roots to form new nouns is commonplace ; there are also many morphological processes to derive nouns from verbs . Verbs also admit highly productive derivational affixes of several kinds , most of which specify transitivity or voice .
Some Mayan languages allow incorporation of noun stems into verbs , either as direct objects or in other functions . However , there are few affixes with adverbial or modal meanings .
As in other Mesoamerican languages , there is widespread metaphorical use of roots denoting body parts , particularly to form locatives and relational nouns such as Tzeltal / Tzotzil ti ' na " door " ( lit . " mouth of house " ) , or Kaqchikel chi ru @-@ pam " inside " ( lit . " mouth its @-@ stomach " ) .
= = Mayan loanwords = =
A number of loanwords of Mayan or potentially Mayan origins are found in other languages , principally Spanish , English , and some neighboring Mesoamerican languages . In addition , there are words in Mayan languages that are known or suspected to ultimately derive from non @-@ Mayan languages , especially Spanish .
According to Mayan language scholars , the English word " shark " comes directly from the Yucatec Maya xoc for " fish " . The OED print edition describes the origin of shark as " uncertain " , noting that it " seems to have been introduced by the sailors of Captain ( afterwards Sir John ) Hawkins 's expedition , who brought home a specimen which was exhibited in London in 1569 " .
Another Mayan loanword is " cigar " . " Sic " is Mayan for " tobacco " and " sicar " means " to smoke tobacco leaves " . This is the most likely origin for cigar and thus cigarette .
The English word " hurricane " , which is a borrowing from the Spanish word huracán is considered to be related to the name of Maya storm deity Jun Raqan . However , it is probable that the word passed into European languages from a Cariban language or Taino .
= = Writing systems = =
The complex script used to write Mayan languages in pre @-@ Columbian times and known today from engravings at several Maya archaeological sites has been deciphered almost completely . The script is a mix between a logographic and a syllabic system .
In colonial times Mayan languages came to be written in a script derived from the Latin alphabet ; orthographies were developed mostly by missionary grammarians . Not all modern Mayan languages have standardized orthographies , but the Mayan languages of Guatemala use a standardized , Latin @-@ based phonemic spelling system developed by the Academia de Lenguas Mayas de Guatemala ( ALMG ) . Orthographies for the languages of Mexico are currently being developed by the Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas ( INALI ) .
= = = Glyphic writing = = =
The pre @-@ Columbian Maya civilization developed and used an intricate and fully functional writing system , which is the only Mesoamerican script that can be said to be almost fully deciphered . Earlier @-@ established civilizations to the west and north of the Maya homelands that also had scripts recorded in surviving inscriptions include the Zapotec , Olmec , and the Zoque @-@ speaking peoples of the southern Veracruz and western Chiapas area — but their scripts are as yet largely undeciphered . It is generally agreed that the Maya writing system was adapted from one or more of these earlier systems . A number of references identify the undeciphered Olmec script as its most likely precursor .
In the course of the deciphering of the Maya hieroglyphic script , scholars have come to understand that it was a fully functioning writing system in which it was possible to express unambiguously any sentence of the spoken language . The system is of a type best classified as logosyllabic , in which symbols ( glyphs or graphemes ) can be used as either logograms or syllables . The script has a complete syllabary ( although not all possible syllables have yet been identified ) , and a Maya scribe would have been able to write anything phonetically , syllable by syllable , using these symbols .
At least two major Mayan languages have been confidently identified in hieroglyphic texts , with at least one other language probably identified . An archaic language variety known as Classic Maya predominates in these texts , particularly in the Classic @-@ era inscriptions of the southern and central lowland areas . This language is most closely related to the Ch 'olan branch of the language family , modern descendants of which include Ch 'ol , Ch 'orti ' and Chontal . Inscriptions in an early Yucatecan language ( the ancestor of the main surviving Yucatec language ) have also been recognised or proposed , mainly in the Yucatán Peninsula region and from a later period . Three of the four extant Maya codices are based on Yucatec . It has also been surmised that some inscriptions found in the Chiapas highlands region may be in a Tzeltalan language whose modern descendants are Tzeltal and Tzotzil . Other regional varieties and dialects are also presumed to have been used , but have not yet been identified with certainty .
Use and knowledge of the Maya script continued until the 16th century Spanish conquest at least . Bishop Diego de Landa Calderón of the Catholic Archdiocese of Yucatán prohibited the use of the written language , effectively ending the Mesoamerican tradition of literacy in the native script . He worked with the Spanish colonizers to destroy the bulk of Mayan texts as part of his efforts to convert the locals to Christianity and away from what he perceived as pagan idolatry . Later he described the use of hieroglyphic writing in the religious practices of Yucatecan Maya in his Relación de las cosas de Yucatán .
= = = Colonial orthography = = =
Colonial orthography is marked by the use of c for / k / ( always hard , as in cic / kiik / ) , k for / q / in Guatemala or for / k ’ / in the Yucatán , h for / x / , and tz for / ts / ; the absence of glottal stop or vowel length ( apart sometimes for a double vowel letter for a long glottalized vowel , as in uuc / u ’ uk / ) , the use of u for / w / , as in uac / wak / , and the variable use of z , ç , s for / s / . The greatest difference from modern orthography , however , is in the various attempts to transcribe the ejective consonants .
In ca . 1550 , Francisco de la Parra invented distinctive letters for ejectives in the Mayan languages of Guatemala , the tresillo and cuatrillo ( and derivatives ) . These were used in all subsequent Franciscan writing , and are occasionally seen even today . In 1605 , Alonso Urbano doubled consonants for ejectives in Otomi ( pp , tt , ttz , cc / cqu ) , and similar systems were adapted to Mayan . Another approach , in Yucatec , was to add a bar to the letter , or to double the stem .
* Only the stem of 𝕡 is doubled , but that is not supported by Unicode .
A ligature ꜩ for tz is used alongside ꜭ and ꜫ . The Yucatec convention of dz for / tsʼ / is retained in Maya family names such as Dzib .
= = = Modern orthography = = =
Since the colonial period , practically all Maya writing has used a Latin alphabet . Formerly these were based largely on the Spanish alphabet and varied between authors , and it is only recently that standardized alphabets have been established . The first widely accepted alphabet was created for Yucatec Maya by the authors and contributors of the Diccionario Maya Cordemex , a project directed by Alfredo Barrera Vásquez and first published in 1980 . Subsequently , the Guatemalan Academy of Mayan Languages ( known by its Spanish acronym ALMG ) , founded in 1986 , adapted these standards to 22 Mayan languages ( primarily in Guatemala ) . The script is largely phonemic , but abandoned the distinction between the apostrophe for ejective consonants and the glottal stop , so that ejective / tʼ / and the non @-@ ejective sequence / tʔ / ( previously t ' and t7 ) are both written t ' . Other major Maya languages , primarily in the Mexican state of Chiapas , such as Tzotzil , Tzeltal , Ch 'ol , and Tojolab 'al , are not generally included in this reformation , and are sometimes written with the conventions standardized by the Chiapan " State Center for Indigenous Language , Art , and Literature " ( CELALI ) , which for instance writes " ts " rather than " tz " ( thus Tseltal and Tsotsil ) . In Mexico , names of archaeological sites and other items of historical record retain the colonial spellings , rather than the revised orthography .
One element of the revised orthographies that is not widely accepted , especially outside the Guatemalan context , is the conversion of proper nouns ( such as names of archaeological sites , modern settlements , and cultures ) . Thus , the Cordemex continues to use the term " Yucatán " ( rather than " Yukatan " ) in its preface , despite the fact that its orthography does not utilize a " c " , and most scholarly archaeological texts continue to print the original spellings for archaeological sites and cultures that have been canonized in the literature over the centuries .
= = Literature = =
From the classic language to the present day , a body of literature has been written in Mayan languages . The earliest texts to have been preserved are largely monumental inscriptions documenting rulership , succession , and ascension , conquest and calendrical and astronomical events . It is likely that other kinds of literature were written in perishable media such as codices made of bark , only four of which have survived the ravages of time and the campaign of destruction by Spanish missionaries .
Shortly after the Spanish conquest , the Mayan languages began to be written with Latin letters . Colonial @-@ era literature in Mayan languages include the famous Popol Vuh , a mythico @-@ historical narrative written in 17th century Classical Quiché but believed to be based on an earlier work written in the 1550s , now lost . The Título de Totonicapán and the 17th century theatrical work the Rabinal Achí are other notable early works in K 'iche ' , the latter in the Achí dialect . The Annals of the Cakchiquels from the late 16th century , which provides a historical narrative of the Kaqchikel , contains elements paralleling some of the accounts appearing in the Popol Vuh . The historical and prophetical accounts in the several variations known collectively as the books of Chilam Balam are primary sources of early Yucatec Maya traditions . The only surviving book of early lyric poetry , the Songs of Dzitbalche by Ah Bam , comes from this same period .
In addition to these singular works , many early grammars of indigenous languages , called " artes " , were written by priests and friars . Languages covered by these early grammars include Kaqchikel , Classical Quiché , Tzeltal , Tzotzil and Yucatec . Some of these came with indigenous @-@ language translations of the Catholic catechism .
While Mayan peoples continued to produce a rich oral literature in the postcolonial period ( after 1821 ) which has been collected by linguists and ethnologists gathering oral literature , very little written literature was produced in this period .
Because indigenous languages were excluded from the education systems of Mexico and Guatemala after independence , Mayan peoples remained largely illiterate in their native languages , learning to read and write in Spanish , if at all . However , since the establishment of the Cordemex and the Guatemalan Academy of Mayan Languages ( 1986 ) , native language literacy has begun to spread and a number of indigenous writers have started a new tradition of writing in Mayan languages . Notable among this new generation is the K 'iche ' poet Humberto Ak 'ab 'al , whose works are often published in dual @-@ language Spanish / K 'iche ' editions , as well as K 'iche ' scholar Luis Enrique Sam Colop ( 1955 – 2011 ) whose translations of the Popol Vuh into both Spanish and modern K 'iche ' achieved high acclaim .
= The Boat Race 1883 =
The 40th Boat Race , an annual side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames , took place on 15 March 1883 . Following confusion at the start of the race and a snow storm during the event , Oxford won by a margin of three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 21 minutes 18 seconds .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions having won the previous year 's race by seven lengths , and held the overall lead , with 21 victories to Cambridge 's 17 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Cambridge 's coaches were John Goldie ( who had rowed for Cambridge four times in the 1869 , 1870 , 1871 and 1872 races ) and Herbert Edward Rhodes ( who was also a four @-@ time Blue , rowing in each race between 1873 and 1876 ) . Oxford were coached by William Grenfell ( who rowed for Oxford in the 1877 and 1878 races ) and Walter Bradford Woodgate ( who represented Oxford in the 1862 and 1863 races ) . Woodgate also briefly coached the Light Blues the same year . The umpire for the race was Robert Lewis @-@ Lloyd ( who had rowed for Cambridge four times between 1856 and 1859 ) and the starter was Edward Searle , who had fulfilled that position since the 1840 race .
Oxford chose to discard their old boat which they had used since the 1878 race in favour of one built by Harry Clasper . The Cambridge crew was subject to several late changes to the stroke seat ; three times in quick succession the occupant was replaced as a result of illness and tactical decisions .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 12 st 2 @.@ 75 lb ( 77 @.@ 3 kg ) , 4 @.@ 75 pounds ( 2 @.@ 2 kg ) more than their opponents . Oxford 's crew contained six former Blues , including A. R. Paterson , L. R. West and cox E. H. Lyon , all of whom were making their third appearance in the event . Cambridge saw five participants return , including the Cambridge University Boat Club president Charles William Moore and Peter Wilson Atkin who were rowing in their third Boat Race . The race featured two non @-@ British participants : Cambridge 's Steve Fairbairn ( whose brother Charles had competed in the 1879 race ) was born in Victoria in Australia , while Oxford 's George Quinlan Roberts hailed from Tasmania .
= = Race = =
Cambridge were pre @-@ race favourites although former Oxford rower and author George Drinkwater noted that the public had been unaware of the significant improvements from Oxford following their transition to the Clasper vessel . Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge . The race started at 5 : 39 p.m. and quickly descended into chaos : darkness was falling and it became quickly apparent that the Cambridge crew had not heard the command to " go " from the starter Searle . By now , according to Oxford 's bow G. C. Bourne , he was " old with a feeble voice " , and although the Oxford stroke L. R. West saw Searle drop his handkerchief , and set off , the Cambridge boat did not move .
West seized the initiative and took the Dark Blue crew off to an immediate lead which , despite a " blinding snowstorm " , they extended to three lengths by Hammersmith Bridge . They went on to win by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 21 minutes 18 seconds . It was Oxford 's fourth consecutive victory and took the overall record to 22 – 17 in their favour .
= Djaoeh Dimata =
Djaoeh Dimata ( [ dʒaˈu diˈmata ] ; Perfected Spelling : Jauh Dimata ; Indonesian for Out of Sight ) is
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a 1948 film from what is now Indonesia written and directed by Andjar Asmara for the South Pacific Film Corporation ( SPFC ) . Starring Ratna Asmara and Ali Joego , it follows a woman who goes to Jakarta to find work after her husband is blinded in an accident . SPFC 's first production , Djaoeh Dimata took two to three months to film and cost almost 130 @,@ 000 gulden .
The first domestically produced feature film to be released in five years , Djaoeh Dimata received favourable reviews , although financially it was outperformed by Roestam Sutan Palindih 's Air Mata Mengalir di Tjitarum ( released soon after ) . The film 's cast remained active in the Indonesian film industry , some for another thirty years , and SPFC produced six more works before closing in 1949 . A copy of the film is stored at Sinematek Indonesia .
= = Plot = =
A poor villager , Asrad ( Ali Joego ) , is blinded following a traffic accident and thus unable to work . As a result , his wife Soelastri ( Ratna Asmara ) travels to the capital , Jakarta , to find a job . As Asrad does not trust his wife and fears she may be unfaithful , he writes her a letter telling her to not come back . Soelastri becomes a singer , and – unknown to Asrad – soon achieves wide acclaim . Her most popular song , " Djaoeh Dimata " , receives heavy airplay on the radio and soon becomes one of Asrad 's favourites . Ultimately Soelastri is brought home by Soekarto ( Iskandar Sucarno ) , who attempts to pass her off as a maid for Asrad . When Asrad recognises his wife 's voice , they are reconciled .
= = Background = =
The first two years of the 1940s saw a growth in the cinema of the Dutch East Indies , with over forty domestic productions released . Following the Japanese occupation in February 1942 , production slowed greatly and nearly all film studios were closed . The last studio , the ethnic Chinese @-@ owned Multi Film , was confiscated by the Japanese to establish the film production company Nippon Eigasha in Jakarta , the colony 's capital . This included Multi Film 's equipment , with which Nippon Eigasha produced one feature film – Rd Ariffien 's Berdjoang ( Struggle ; 1943 ) – six short films , and several newsreels . All were pro @-@ Japanese propaganda .
After the Japanese surrender in August 1945 , a number of native Indonesian employees of Nippon Eigasha formed Berita Film Indonesia , which first made use of the studios . This company was allied with the newly proclaimed Indonesian government . During the ensuing revolution , allied Dutch and British forces occupied Jakarta in November 1945 . The Dutch took over the studio , and production of newsreels at Multi Film 's studios began in 1947 under the banner Regerings Film Bedrijf . The following year the Dutch established a subsidiary company to produce fictional films . This new company , the South Pacific Film Corporation ( SPFC ) , was subsidised in part by the Netherlands Indies Civil Administration , a continuation of the former Dutch colonial government of the Indies .
= = Production = =
SPFC hired Andjar Asmara , a former journalist and stagewriter who had been active with The Teng Chun 's Java Industrial Film before the Japanese occupation , to direct Djaoeh Dimata ; he based the screenplay on his stageplay of the same name . However , as with his pre @-@ war ventures , the native Indonesian Andjar was more of an acting and dialogue coach ; the Dutch cinematographer , A.A. Denninghoff @-@ Stelling , held more creative power over the final product . Max Tera served as assistant cinematographer on this black @-@ and @-@ white film .
The film starred Ratna Asmara ( wife of Andjar ) , Ali Yugo , Iskandar Sucarno , and Djauhari Effendi , all of whom had previous theatrical experience . Ratna and Ali , together with Andjar , had been members of the travelling troupe Dardanella in the early 1930s and entered the film industry together in 1940 with Kartinah . Iskandar and Djauhari , meanwhile , had been active in the theatre during the occupation ; both made their feature film debuts with Djaoeh Dimata .
Principal photography was conducted on sets constructed by artistic director Hajopan Bajo Angin in SFPC 's studio in Jakarta . The company 's equipment was of good quality , but conditions were detrimental to filming ; a contemporary report notes that one take , done inside the studio , was ruined by the sound of a passing car . Filming , which took two to three months , was completed on 10 November 1948 . Production costs were almost 130 @,@ 000 gulden , which was partially obtained from ethnic Chinese backers . The film included multiple songs , including Gesang Martohartono 's 1940 hit " Bengawan Solo " .
= = Release and reception = =
Djaoeh Dimata was released in late 1948 , the first domestic feature film since Berdjoang . Despite this five @-@ year gap , film critic Usmar Ismail writes that it did not stray from the formula which had been proven before the war , one which Indonesian film historian Misbach Yusa Biran notes focused on songs , beautiful scenery and romance . Roestam Sutan Palindih 's Air Mata Mengalir di Tjitarum ( Tears Flow in Citarum ) , which had similar themes , was released shortly after Djaoeh Dimata by the rival Tan & Wong Bros. ; it proved the greater financial success . Only three domestic productions were released in 1948 ; the last was another SPFC production , entitled Anggrek Bulan ( Moon Orchid ) , which was also directed by Andjar .
Reviews of the film , which was rated for all ages , were mixed . One in the Jakarta @-@ based Het Dagblad found the film to have many ( unspecified ) weak moments as well as strong ones . It particularly praised Ali 's acting as a blind man , as well as Denninghoff @-@ Stelling 's camerawork . Another reviewer , in the magazine Mestika , described Ratna as an " unprecedented tragedienne " capable of making viewers cry " unrestrained tears of emotion " . After Djaoeh Dimata was released in Singapore in June 1949 , a reviewer for The Straits Times praised the film 's " fine photography and almost perfect sound " .
Andjar directed two further films for South Pacific , Anggrek Bulan and Gadis Desa ( Maiden from the Village ; 1949 ) . Ratna had no further acting roles , although in 1950 she became Indonesia 's first female director with Sedap Malam ( Sweetness of the Night ) , for Djamaluddin Malik 's company Persari . Ali , Iskandar , and Djauhari remained active as actors , Ali and Iskandar through the 1960s and Djauhari until the 1970s . SPFC made another six films before shutting down at the end of the Indonesian National Revolution in 1949 . A 35 mm copy of Djaoeh Dimata is stored at Sinematek Indonesia in Jakarta .
= George S. Patton 's speech to the Third Army =
Patton 's Speech to the Third Army , alternatively known simply as " Patton 's Speech " or " The Speech " , was a series of speeches given by General George S. Patton to troops of the United States Third Army in 1944 , prior to the Allied invasion of France . Patton , already established as a highly effective and charismatic leader , sought to motivate the inexperienced Third Army for its pending combat duty . In the oration , Patton implored his soldiers to do their duty regardless of personal fear , imploring them to aggressiveness and constant offensive action . Patton 's profanity @-@ laced speaking was viewed as unprofessional by some other officers but the speech resounded well with his men . Some historians have acclaimed the oration as Patton 's greatest speaking as well as one of the greatest motivational speeches of all time .
An abbreviated and less profane version of the speech became iconic after the 1970 movie Patton , as performed by actor George C. Scott before an enormous American flag . The performance was instrumental in bringing Patton into popular culture and transforming him into a folk hero .
= = Background = =
In January 1944 , Lieutenant General George S. Patton was given command of the Third United States Army , a field army which was newly arrived in the United Kingdom and which was composed largely of inexperienced troops . Patton 's job had been to train the Third Army to prepare it for the upcoming Allied invasion of France , where it would join in the Operation Cobra breakout into Brittany seven weeks after the Operation Overlord amphibious invasion at Normandy .
By 1944 , Patton had been established as a highly effective and successful leader , noted for his ability to inspire his men with charismatic speeches , which he delivered from memory because of a lifelong trouble with reading . Patton deliberately cultivated a flashy , distinctive image in the belief that this would inspire his troops . He carried a trademark ivory @-@ handled , Smith & Wesson Model 27 .357 Magnum . He was usually seen wearing a highly polished helmet , riding pants , and high cavalry boots . His jeep bore oversized rank placards on the front and back , as well as a klaxon horn which would loudly announce his approach from afar . Patton was an effective combat commander , having rehabilitated the U.S. II Corps during the North African Campaign and then led the Seventh United States Army through the Invasion of Sicily during 1943 , at times personally appearing to his troops in the middle of battle in hopes of inspiring them . Patton 's army had beaten British general Bernard Law Montgomery to Messina which gained him considerable fame , though a " slapping incident " sidelined his career for several months thereafter .
At the time of the speeches , Patton was attempting to keep a low profile among the press , as he had been ordered to by General Dwight Eisenhower . Patton was made a central figure in an elaborate phantom army deception scheme , and the Germans believed he was in Dover preparing the First United States Army Group for an invasion of Pas de Calais . On each occasion , he would wear his polished helmet , full dress uniform , and gleaming riding boots , and carry a riding crop to snap for effect . Patton frequently kept his face in a scowl he referred to as his " war face " . He would arrive in a Mercedes and deliver his remarks on a raised platform surrounded by a very large audience seated around the platform and on surrounding hills . Each address was delivered to a division @-@ sized force of 15 @,@ 000 or more men .
= = The speech = =
Patton began delivering speeches to his troops in the United Kingdom in February 1944 . The extent of his giving the particular speech that became famous is unclear , with different sources saying it had taken this form by March , or around early May , or in late May . The number of speeches given is also not clear , with one source saying four to six , and others suggesting that every unit in the Third Army heard an instance . The most famous and well known of the speeches occurred on 5 June 1944 , the day before D @-@ Day . Though he was unaware of the actual date for the beginning of the invasion of Europe ( as the Third Army was not part of the initial landing force ) , Patton used the speech as a motivational device to excite the men under his command and prevent them from losing their nerve . Patton delivered the speech extemporaneously , without notes of his own , and so though it was substantially the same at each occurrence , the order of some of its parts varied . One notable difference occurred in the speech he delivered on 31 May 1944 , while addressing the U.S. 6th Armored Division , when he began with a remark that would later be among his most famous :
No bastard ever won a war by dying for his country . You won it by making the other poor dumb bastard die for his country .
Patton 's words were later written down by a number of troops who witnessed his remarks , and so a number of iterations exist with differences in wording . Historian Terry Brighton constructed a full speech from a number of soldiers who recounted the speech in their memoirs , including Gilbert R. Cook , Hobart R. Gay , and a number of other junior soldiers . Patton only wrote briefly of his orations in his diary , noting , " as in all of my talks , I stressed fighting and killing . " The speech later became so popular that it was called simply " Patton 's speech " or " The speech " when referencing the general .
Be seated .
Men , all this stuff you hear about America not wanting to fight , wanting to stay out of the war , is a lot of bullshit . Americans love to fight . All real Americans love the sting and clash of battle . When you were kids , you all admired the champion marble shooter , the fastest runner , the big @-@ league ball players and the toughest boxers . Americans love a winner and will not tolerate a loser . Americans play to win all the time . That 's why Americans have never lost and will never lose a war . The very thought of losing is hateful to Americans . Battle is the most significant competition in which a man can indulge . It brings out all that is best and it removes all that is base .
You are not all going to die . Only two percent of you right here today would be killed in a major battle . Every man is scared in his first action . If he says he 's not , he 's a goddamn liar . But the real hero is the man who fights even though he 's scared . Some men will get over their fright in a minute under fire , some take an hour , and for some it takes days . But the real man never lets his fear of death overpower his honor , his sense of duty to his country , and his innate manhood .
All through your army career you men have bitched about what you call ' this chicken @-@ shit drilling . ' That is all for a purpose — to ensure instant obedience to orders and to create constant alertness . This must be bred into every soldier . I don 't give a fuck for a man who is not always on his toes . But the drilling has made veterans of all you men . You are ready ! A man has to be alert all the time if he expects to keep on breathing . If not , some German son @-@ of @-@ a @-@ bitch will sneak up behind him and beat him to death with a sock full of shit . There are four hundred neatly marked graves in Sicily , all because one man went to sleep on the job — but they are German graves , because we caught the bastard asleep before his officer did .
An army is a team . It lives , eats , sleeps , and fights as a team . This individual hero stuff is bullshit . The bilious bastards who write that stuff for the Saturday Evening Post don 't know any more about real battle than they do about fucking . And we have the best team — we have the finest food and equipment , the best spirit and the best men in the world . Why , by God , I actually pity these poor bastards we 're going up against .
All the real heroes are not storybook combat fighters . Every single man in the army plays a vital role . So don 't ever let up . Don 't ever think that your job is unimportant . What if every truck driver decided that he didn 't like the whine of the shells and turned yellow and jumped headlong into a ditch ? That cowardly bastard could say to himself , ' Hell , they won 't miss me , just one man in thousands . ' What if every man said that ? Where in the hell would we be then ? No , thank God , Americans don 't say that . Every man does his job . Every man is important . The ordnance men are needed to supply the guns , the quartermaster is needed to bring up the food and clothes for us because where we are going there isn 't a hell of a lot to steal . Every last damn man in the mess hall , even the one who boils the water to keep us from getting the GI shits , has a job to do .
Each man must think not only of himself , but think of his buddy fighting alongside him . We don 't want yellow cowards in the army . They should be killed off like flies . If not , they will go back home after the war , goddamn cowards , and breed more cowards . The brave men will breed more brave men . Kill off the goddamn cowards and we 'll have a nation of brave men .
One of the bravest men I saw in the African campaign was on a telegraph pole in the midst of furious fire while we were moving toward Tunis . I stopped and asked him what the hell he was doing up there . He answered , ' Fixing the wire , sir . ' ' Isn 't it a little unhealthy up there right now ? ' I asked . ' Yes sir , but this goddamn wire has got to be fixed . ' I asked , ' Don 't those planes strafing the road bother you ? ' And he answered , ' No sir , but you sure as hell do . ' Now , there was a real soldier . A real man . A man who devoted all he had to his duty , no matter how great the odds , no matter how seemingly insignificant his duty appeared at the time .
And you should have seen the trucks on the road to Gabès . Those drivers were magnificent . All day and all night they crawled along those son @-@ of @-@ a @-@ bitch roads , never stopping , never deviating from their course with shells bursting all around them . Many of the men drove over 40 consecutive hours . We got through on good old American guts . These were not combat men . But they were soldiers with a job to do . They were part of a team . Without them the fight would have been lost .
Sure , we all want to go home . We want to get this war over with . But you can 't win a war lying down . The quickest way to get it over with is to get the bastards who started it . We want to get the hell over there and clean the goddamn thing up , and then get at those purple @-@ pissing Japs . The quicker they are whipped , the quicker we go home . The shortest way home is through Berlin and Tokyo . So keep moving . And when we get to Berlin , I am personally going to shoot that paper @-@ hanging son @-@ of @-@ a @-@ bitch Hitler .
When a man is lying in a shell hole , if he just stays there all day , a Boche will get him eventually . The hell with that . My men don 't dig foxholes . Foxholes only slow up an offensive . Keep moving . We 'll win this war , but we 'll win it only by fighting and showing the Germans that we 've got more guts than they have or ever will have . We 're not just going to shoot the bastards , we 're going to rip out their living goddamned guts and use them to grease the treads of our tanks . We 're going to murder those lousy Hun cocksuckers by the bushel @-@ fucking @-@ basket .
Some of you men are wondering whether or not you 'll chicken out under fire . Don 't worry about it . I can assure you that you 'll all do your duty . War is a bloody business , a killing business . The Nazis are the enemy . Wade into them , spill their blood or they will spill yours . Shoot them in the guts . Rip open their belly . When shells are hitting all around you and you wipe the dirt from your face and you realize that it 's not dirt , it 's the blood and gut of what was once your best friend , you 'll know what to do .
I don 't want any messages saying ' I 'm holding my position . ' We 're not holding a goddamned thing . We 're advancing constantly and we 're not interested in holding anything except the enemy 's balls . We 're going to hold him by his balls and we 're going to kick him in the ass ; twist his balls and kick the living shit out of him all the time . Our plan of operation is to advance and keep on advancing . We 're going to go through the enemy like shit through a tinhorn .
There will be some complaints that we 're pushing our people too hard . I don 't give a damn about such complaints . I believe that an ounce of sweat will save a gallon of blood . The harder we push , the more Germans we kill . The more Germans we kill , the fewer of our men will be killed . Pushing harder means fewer casualties . I want you all to remember that . My men don 't surrender . I don 't want to hear of any soldier under my command being captured unless he is hit . Even if you are hit , you can still fight . That 's not just bullshit either . I want men like the lieutenant in Libya who , with a Luger against his chest , swept aside the gun with his hand , jerked his helmet off with the other and busted the hell out of the Boche with the helmet . Then he picked up the gun and he killed another German . All this time the man had a bullet through his lung . That 's a man for you !
Don 't forget , you don 't know I 'm here at all . No word of that fact is to be mentioned in any letters . The world is not supposed to know what the hell they did with me . I 'm not supposed to be commanding this army . I 'm not even supposed to be in England . Let the first bastards to find out be the goddamned Germans . Some day , I want them to rise up on their piss @-@ soaked hind legs and howl ' Ach ! It 's the goddamned Third Army and that son @-@ of @-@ a @-@ bitch Patton again ! '
Then there 's one thing you men will be able to say when this war is over and you get back home . Thirty years from now when you 're sitting by your fireside with your grandson on your knee and he asks , ' What did you do in the great World War Two ? ' You won 't have to cough and say , ' Well , your granddaddy shoveled shit in Louisiana . ' No sir , you can look him straight in the eye and say ' Son , your granddaddy rode with the great Third Army and a son @-@ of @-@ a @-@ goddamned @-@ bitch named George Patton ! '
All right , you sons of bitches . You know how I feel . I 'll be proud to lead you wonderful guys in battle anytime , anywhere . That 's all .
= = Impact = =
The troops under Patton 's command received the speech well . The general 's strong reputation caused considerable excitement among his men , and they listened intently , in absolute silence , as he spoke . A majority indicated they enjoyed Patton 's speaking style . As one officer recounted of the end of the speech , " the men instinctively sensed the fact and the telling mark that they themselves would play in world history because of it , for they were being told as much right now . Deep sincerity and seriousness lay behind the General 's colorful words , and the men well knew it , but they loved the way he put it as only he could do it . " Patton gave a humorous tone to the speech , as he intentionally sought to make his men laugh with his colorful delivery . Observers later noted the troops seemed to find the speeches very funny . In particular , Patton 's use of obscene humor was well received by the enlisted men , as it was " the language of the barracks " .
A notable minority of Patton 's officers were unimpressed or displeased with their commander 's use of obscenities , viewing it as unprofessional conduct for a military officer . Among some officers ' later recounting of the speech , " bullshit " would be replaced by " baloney " and " fucking " by " fornicating " . At least one account replaced " we 're going to hold the enemy by the balls " to " we 're going to hold the enemy by the nose . " Among the critics of Patton 's frequent use of vulgarities was General Omar Bradley , Patton 's former subordinate . It was well known that the two men were polar opposites in personality , and there is considerable evidence that Bradley disliked Patton both personally and professionally . In response to criticisms of his coarse language , Patton wrote to a family member , " When I want my men to remember something important , to really make it stick , I give it to them double dirty . It may not sound nice to a bunch of little old ladies , at an afternoon tea party , but it helps my soldiers to remember . You can 't run an army without profanity , and it has to be eloquent profanity . An army without profanity couldn 't fight its way out of a piss @-@ soaked paper bag . "
Under Patton , the Third Army landed in Normandy during July 1944 and would go on to play an integral role in the last months of the war in Europe , closing the Falaise Pocket in mid @-@ August , and playing the key role in relieving the siege of Bastogne during the Battle of the Bulge in December , a feat regarded as one of the most notable achievements in the war . The rapid offensive action and speed that Patton called for in the speech became actions which brought the Third Army wide acclaim in the campaign .
Historians acclaim the speech as one of Patton 's best works . Author Terry Brighton called it " the greatest motivational speech of the war and perhaps of all time , exceeding ( in its morale boosting effect if not as literature ) the words Shakespeare gave King Henry V at Agincourt . " Alan Axelrod contended it was the most famous of his many memorable quotes .
The speech became an icon of popular culture after the 1970 film Patton , which was about the general 's wartime exploits . The opening of the movie saw actor George C. Scott , as Patton , delivering a toned @-@ down version of the speech before an enormous American flag . It began with a version of Patton 's " No bastard ever won a war by dying for his country ... " quote . Scott 's iteration omitted much of the middle of the speech relating to Patton 's anecdotes about Sicily and Libya , as well as his remarks about the importance of every soldier to the war effort . In contrast to Patton 's humorous approach , Scott delivered the speech in an entirely serious , low and gruff tone . Still , Scott 's depiction of Patton in this scene is an iconic depiction of the General which earned Scott an Academy Award for Best Actor , and was instrumental in bringing Patton into popular culture as a folk hero .
In the 8th episode of Ken Burns ' PBS documentary The Civil War , Southern writer and historian , Shelby Foote makes reference to the opening scene in the film Patton , in particular to Patton 's quote , " Americans have never lost a war . " Foote states , " That ’ s a rather amazing statement for him to make as Patton because Patton ’ s grandfather was in Lee ’ s Army of Northern Virginia and he certainly lost a war . "
= Hilston Park =
Hilston Park is a country house and estate located between the villages of Newcastle and Skenfrith , in Monmouthshire , Wales , close to the border with Herefordshire , England . The house and park are situated in the Monnow valley , beside the B4347 road , 7 @.@ 9 miles ( 12 @.@ 7 km ) by road northwest of Monmouth and just over 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) southwest of Skenfrith .
The Palladian mansion , built in 1838 for Bristolian banker George Cave , is a Grade II * listed building and the park 's flower meadow is a Site of Special Scientific Interest . The park includes two early 20th century lodges at both entrance gates , a ruined coach house , a lake and boathouse , a pond , and several streams , several gardens and areas of woodland , and Hilston Tower , a late 18th @-@ century folly made of red sandstone in the northeastern corner of the grounds . The house now serves as a residential outdoor education centre run by Gwent Outdoor Centres , an organisation jointly supported by the local authorities of Newport , Torfaen , Blaenau Gwent and Monmouthshire .
= = History = =
Hilston House was for many years the principal estate and mansion in the parish of St. Maughans . In the 17th and 18th centuries it was the residence of the Needham family , although Henry Milbourne , an important 17th century magistrate of the county , is also reported to have lived here at one time . Sebastian Needham is said to have been buried at Skenfrith , on 26 March 1723 , having fathered nine children . The house remained in the family , who were Catholic , for four generations . Following this stable period of ownership , accounting for about a century , the estate then changed hands a considerable number of times within the next 70 years . It was eventually sold by John Needham , a barrister of Grays Inn , to Sir William Pilkington when Needham moved to Somerset . Pilkington sold it to James Jones of the Graig , who sold it to Sir Robert Brownrigg , G.C.B. a distinguished officer in the Peninsula War . He died on 27 May 1833 , aged 76 years and his monument may be seen on the south wall of St. Maughan 's Church . After his death the house was sold to Thomas Coates of Lancashire . Shortly afterwards , on 12 September 1838 , the house was destroyed by fire .
It was then sold to George Cave , a banker of Bristol , who was responsible for building a new Palladian mansion which remains today . He sold it to Alfred Crawshay , who sold it to John Hamilton who finally completed the building . His son , Captain Pryce Hamilton , brother to Alice Mary Sinclair , seems to have added considerably to the Hilston Estate and it appears that he also purchased Norton Court from Henry Somerset , 8th Duke of Beaufort , and bought Skenfrith Mill and Lower Duffryn around 1870 .
Pryce Hamilton sold Hilston House in about 1873 to James Graham , High Sheriff of Monmouthshire in 1881 , who passed the house on to Douglas William Graham , who was living at Hilston in 1902 , when the hall was panelled with the oak from the hall of the Lower Duffryn . Graham was also responsible for other improvements , the stone and brick buildings at Home Farm , the Lodges , New Cottages and the reservoir . It was then owned for some time by the Lawley family , who had made their fortune in shipping and cotton in Manchester . In the 1930s , Hilston Park was the residence of Edmund Henry Bevan ( High Sheriff of Northamptonshire in 1912 ) , whose riches were by inheritance from the Portland cement made at Bevan Works in Northfleet , Kent . He married Joan Mary Conyers Norton , the eldest daughter of the 5th Baron Grantley , in the 1930s .
It was purchased by T. E. Davies in the 1940s , who sold the house and estate on 17 October 1947 . In the 1950s , the house was converted to a school . It became an outdoor education centre in 1971 . It continues today as a residential centre , operated since 1996 by Gwent Outdoor Education Service , a joint service supported by the four local authorities of Blaenau Gwent , Monmouthshire , Newport and Torfaen . It caters mainly for school and college students on organised visits , and hosts activities such as orienteering and archery , with other activities such as canoeing and caving at nearby sites .
= = Architecture and layout = =
= = = Grounds = = =
= = = = Gardens and lodges = = = =
Hilston House , which is situated in the western half of the park , has two entrances . The south drive " skirts the forecourt to the N and sweeps round southwards past the lake and straight to the B4347 " , and the main drive in tarmac , from the northwest , " drive winds through a wooded area to a level forecourt of grass with a rectangular tarmac area in front of the main entrance to the house . " Two early 20th century lodges are contained on the estate , one at the northern end of the front drive and the other to the south , on the B4347 . One of these , Lower Dyffryn , is an E @-@ shaped building of Early Tudor style , with a slate roof , three gables , and a projecting chimney @-@ breast . The coach @-@ house on the northeastern side of the drive was largely demolished in 1972 ; all that remains is its rear and side walls .
In the early 1920s , the estate was described as being 1 @,@ 050 acres ( 420 ha ) , and that there were 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) of fishing along the River Monnow . The park 's flower meadow is a Site of Special Scientific Interest . Cadw cites the reason for it being listed as an SSSI in 1990 as " 19th @-@ century park and garden , with some well preserved features , including ornamental lake and folly tower " . Much of the park is under agricultural cultivation , and several streams arising from springs , mainly in the western side of the park flow through and enter the River Monnow . To the southeast of the house is an Italian rose garden which contains a circular stone pool and fountain . To the northeast of the house is a large walled kitchen garden , rectangular in shape , and framed by red brick walls , mostly 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) in height , but 2 @.@ 2 metres ( 7 ft 3 in ) on the eastern side and 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) to the east of the door on the southern side . The kitchen garden is orientated in a southwest @-@ northeast direction , with a buttressed northern wall , two entrances on the western side , and one on each of the northern , eastern and southern walls . In the summer months it is used as a caravan park . The area to the north of the kitchen garden contains mainly ruined sheds and glasshouses and was wildly overgrown at the time of its surveying in December 1990 .
= = = = Lake = = = =
A lake and silted artificial pond is situated to the southwest of the house , separated by a belt of woodland consisting of mainly deciduous , coniferous trees and shrubs , and also pines , cypresses , monkey puzzle trees , copper beeches , yews and laurel trees . The lake , roughly 100 metres ( 330 ft ) at longest from north to south and roughly 60 metres ( 200 ft ) at its widest point , is cited by Cadw to be " fed by a spring at its [ north ] end , and dammed at its [ south ] end by a massive earthen dam across the valley floor . " The lake contains a " kidney @-@ shaped island " , framed by a sloping stone revetment wall , and a similar smaller island nearer the eastern shore . On the eastern side of the lake is a boathouse and grotto . The grotto is situated in the middle of a revetment wall of about 2 metres high built of large irregularly placed stones , and is characterised as a semi @-@ circular alcove , 1 @.@ 8 metres ( 5 ft 11 in ) in height , 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 ft 2 in ) in depth and 1 @.@ 2 metres ( 3 ft 11 in ) in width .
= = = = Hilston Tower = = = =
There is also a woodland , a former Forestry Commission plantation , planted around 1960 in the north @-@ eastern corner of the park on a small hill , which contains a circular folly tower , of three storeys , in the centre . The tower , built from red sandstone , is believed to date to the late 18th century . The northern side is considerably more eroded by the weather than the southern side . The tower is marginally wider at the base and has no internal floor structure , but contains holes for floor joists and stair treads . There are four windows on the ground floors and narrower windows higher up .
= = = House = = =
Much work was done on the house in the expectation of a visit by George IV , which never happened . The main building has been described as " a major early Victorian stuccoed classical mansion , about which little is known " . The two @-@ storeyed north front features nine bays , the outermost ones slightly recessed , with a central pedimented porte @-@ cochère of four massive Ionic columns . The southeast front has a single @-@ storey portico running the length of the front , which leads to a conservatory at the northeast end of the house . The architect is not known . The building was extended on its eastern side and its interior remodelled , around 1912 , when a large ballroom in the Arts and Crafts style , designed by Arthur Grove was added . This features elaborate plasterwork and decoration in the form of signs of the zodiac . It became a Grade II * listed building on 5 January 1952 .
= Gol Transportes Aéreos Flight 1907 =
Gol Transportes Aéreos Flight 1907 ( ICAO : GLO 1907 ) was a Boeing 737 @-@ 8EH , registration PR @-@ GTD , on a scheduled domestic passenger flight from Manaus , Brazil , to Rio de Janeiro . On 29 September 2006 , Local time 16 : 48 BRT , it collided in midair with an Embraer Legacy 600 business jet over the Brazilian state of Mato Grosso . All 154 passengers and crew aboard the Boeing 737 died when the aircraft broke up in midair and crashed into an area of dense jungle , while the Embraer Legacy , despite sustaining serious damage to its left wing and tail , landed safely with its seven occupants uninjured .
The accident , which triggered a crisis in Brazilian civil aviation , was the deadliest in that country 's aviation history at the time , surpassing VASP Flight 168 , which crashed in 1982 with 137 fatalities near Fortaleza . It was subsequently surpassed by TAM Airlines Flight 3054 , which crashed on 17 July 2007 with 199 fatalities . It was also the first crash of a Boeing 737 @-@ 800 , and the deadliest aviation accident involving a Boeing 737 ( all series ) aircraft at that time , eventually surpassed by Air India Express Flight 812 , which crashed at Mangalore , India , on 22 May 2010 with 158 fatalities .
The accident was investigated by both the Brazilian Air Force 's Aeronautical Accidents Investigation and Prevention Center ( Portuguese : Centro de Investigação e Prevenção de Acidentes Aeronáuticos ( CENIPA ) ) and the U.S. National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) , with a final report issued on 10 December 2008 . CENIPA concluded that the accident was caused by errors committed both by air traffic controllers and by the American pilots on the delivery flight of the Embraer Legacy , while the NTSB determined that all pilots acted properly and were placed on a collision course by a variety of " individual and institutional " air traffic control errors .
= = Boeing aircraft and crew = =
The Gol Transportes Aéreos twin turbofan Boeing 737 @-@ 8EH aircraft , was a new Short Field Performance variant . It had made its first flight on August 22 , 2006 and been delivered to Gol on 12 September 2006 , less than 3 weeks before the accident , with 186 seats ( 36 Economy Plus and 150 Economy seats ) . Gol Flight 1907 ( ICAO code " GLO 1907 " ) departed Eduardo Gomes International Airport in Manaus on 29 September 2006 , at 15 : 35 Brazil Standard Time ( BST ) ( 18 : 35 UTC ) , en route to Rio de Janeiro @-@ Galeão International Airport , with a planned intermediate stop at Brasília International Airport .
There were 148 passengers and six crew members on board the Boeing airliner . The crew consisted of Captain Decio Chaves Jr . , 44 , First Officer Thiago Jordão Cruso , 29 , and four flight attendants . The captain , who had also been serving as a Boeing 737 flight instructor for Gol , had 15 @,@ 498 total flight hours , with 13 @,@ 521 in Boeing 737 aircraft . The first officer had 3 @,@ 981 total flight hours , with 3 @,@ 081 in Boeing 737 aircraft .
There were 6 American , 3 Colombian , 4 French , 10 Argentine , 3 Australian , 2 South African , 5 Mexican , 4 Venezuelan , 1 Japanese , 2 Portuguese and 3 Canadian passengers on board . The remaining 111 occupants , including the 6 crew members , were Brazilian .
= = Embraer aircraft and crew = =
The twin turbofan Embraer Legacy 600 business jet , serial number 965 and registration N600XL , newly built by Embraer and purchased by ExcelAire Service Inc. of Ronkonkoma , New York , was on a delivery flight by ExcelAire from the Embraer factory to the U.S. It departed from São José dos Campos @-@ Professor Urbano Ernesto Stumpf Airport ( SJK ) , near São Paulo , at 14 : 51 BST , and was on its way to Eduardo Gomes International Airport ( MAO ) in Manaus as a planned en route stop .
The ExcelAire flight crew consisted of Captain Joseph Lepore , 42 , and First Officer Jan Paul Paladino , 34 , both U.S. citizens . Lepore had been a commercial pilot for more than 20 years and had logged 9 @,@ 388 total flight hours , with 5 @.@ 5 hours in the Legacy 600 . Paladino had been a commercial pilot for a decade and had accumulated more than 6 @,@ 400 flight hours , including 317 hours flying as captain of Embraer ERJ @-@ 145 and ERJ @-@ 135 jet aircraft for American Eagle Airlines . ( The ERJ @-@ 145 and ERJ @-@ 135 aircraft are regional jets of the same family as the Legacy . ) Paladino had also served as first officer for American Airlines , flying MD @-@ 82 , MD @-@ 83 and Boeing 737 @-@ 800 aircraft between the U.S. and Canada . Both pilots were legally qualified to fly the Embraer Legacy as captain .
The five passengers consisted of two Embraer employees , two ExcelAire executives , and The New York Times business travel columnist Joe Sharkey , who was writing a special report for Business Jet Traveler .
= = Collision = =
Just before 17 : 00 BST , the Boeing airliner and the Embraer business jet collided almost head @-@ on at 37 @,@ 000 feet ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) , approximately midway between Brasilia and Manaus , near the town of Matupá , 750 kilometers ( 470 mi ) southeast of Manaus . The left winglet of the Embraer cut off about half of the Gol plane 's left wing . This caused the Boeing to nosedive and enter an uncontrollable spin , which quickly led to an in @-@ flight breakup and crash into an area of dense rainforest , 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) east of the municipality of Peixoto de Azevedo . All 154 passengers and crew on board died and the aircraft was destroyed , with the wreckage scattered in pieces around the crash site .
The Embraer jet , despite serious damage to the left horizontal stabilizer and left winglet , was able to continue flying , though its autopilot disengaged and it required an unusual amount of force on the yoke to keep the wings level .
With radio relay assistance from Polar Air Cargo Flight 71 , a Boeing 747 cargo aircraft flying in the area at the time , the Embraer 's crew successfully landed the crippled jet at Cachimbo Airport , part of Campo de Provas Brigadeiro Velloso , a large military complex of the Brazilian Air Force at about 160 kilometers ( 100 mi ) from the collision point .
Passenger and journalist Joe Sharkey described his experience aboard the Embraer in an article for The New York Times , titled " Colliding With Death at 37 @,@ 000 Feet , and Living " , filed on 1 October 2006 :
And it had been a nice ride . Minutes before we were hit , I had wandered up to the cockpit to chat with the pilots , who said the plane was flying beautifully . I saw the readout that showed our altitude : 37 @,@ 000 feet . I returned to my seat . Minutes later came the strike ( it sheared off part of the plane 's tail , too , we later learned ) .
= = Detention and charging of Embraer crew = =
Immediately after the Embraer 's emergency landing at the Cachimbo Airport , BAF and Agência Nacional de Aviação Civil ( ANAC ) officials detained and interviewed its flight crew . The officials also removed the two " black boxes " — Cockpit Voice Recorder ( CVR ) and Flight Data Recorder ( FDR ) — from the Embraer , and sent them to São José dos Campos , São Paulo , and from there to Ottawa , Canada , for analysis .
In an initial deposition , the Embraer flight crew testified that they were cleared to flight level 370 , approximately 37 @,@ 000 feet ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) above mean sea level , by Brasilia ATC , and were level at that assigned altitude when the collision occurred . They also asserted that at the time of the collision they had lost contact with Brasilia ATC , and their anti @-@ collision system did not alert them to any oncoming traffic .
On 2 October 2006 , the Embraer 's captain and first officer were ordered by the Mato Grosso Justice Tribunal to surrender their passports pending further investigation . The request , made by the Peixoto de Azevedo prosecutor , was granted by judge Tiago Sousa Nogueira e Abreu , who stated that the possibility of pilot error on the part of the Embraer crew could not be ruled out . The Embraer crew were forced to remain in Brazil until their passports were released to them on 5 December 2006 , more than two months after the accident , after federal judge Candido Ribeiro ruled there were no legal grounds for " restricting the freedom of motion of the foreigners . "
Prior to their scheduled departure to the United States , the crew were formally charged by Brazilian Federal Police with " endangering an aircraft " , which carries a penalty of up to twelve years in prison . The pilots had to explain why they did not turn on the transponder . The two pilots were allowed to leave the country after signing a document promising to return to Brazil for their trial or when required by Brazilian authorities . They picked up their passports and flew back to the United States .
= = Search and recovery operation = =
The Brazilian Air Force sent five fixed @-@ wing aircraft and three helicopters to the region for an extensive search and rescue ( SAR ) operation . As many as 200 personnel were reported to be involved in the operation , among them a group of Kayapo people familiar with the forest . The crash site of Gol Flight 1907 was spotted on 30 September by the BAF , at coordinates 10 ° 29 ′ S 53 ° 15 ′ W , 200 km ( 120 mi ) east of Peixoto de Azevedo , near Fazenda Jarinã , a cattle ranch . It was reported that rescue personnel had difficulty reaching the crash site due to the dense forest . The Brazilian airport administrator Infraero at first indicated the possibility of five survivors , but a later statement from the Brazilian Air Force , based on data collected by BAF personnel who rappelled ( abseiled ) to the crash site and local police who assisted in the SAR effort , confirmed that there were no survivors . Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva declared three days of national mourning .
The Flight Data Recorder and a non @-@ data part of the Cockpit Voice Recorder from the Boeing 737 were found on 2 October 2006 and handed over to the investigators , who sent them to the Transportation Safety Board of Canada ( TSB ) in Gatineau , Quebec , Canada , for analysis . On 25 October 2006 , after nearly four weeks of intensive searching in the jungle by about 200 Brazilian Army troops equipped with metal detectors , the memory module of the Boeing 's Cockpit Voice Recorder was finally found . The module was discovered intact , separated from other wreckage pieces , embedded in about 20 centimetres ( 8 in ) of soil , and was also sent for analysis by the TSB in Canada .
On 4 October , the recovery crews began moving the bodies to the temporary base established at the nearby Jarinã ranch . The BAF deployed a C @-@ 115 Buffalo aircraft to transport the bodies to Brasília for identification .
The recovery teams worked intensively for nearly seven weeks in a dense jungle environment , searching for and identifying the victims ' remains . The final victim was recovered and identified by DNA testing by 22 November 2006 .
= = Investigation = =
The accident was investigated by the Brazilian Air Force Aeronautical Accidents Investigation and Prevention Center ( CENIPA ) and the U.S. National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) . The NTSB , in accordance with the provisions of ICAO Annex 13 , participated in the investigation representing the state of manufacture of the Boeing , state of registry and operator of the Embraer , and state of manufacture of the Honeywell avionics equipment installed in both planes .
Once the black boxes and communication transcripts were obtained , the investigators interviewed the ExcelAire 's flight crew and the air traffic controllers , trying to piece together the scenario which allowed two modern jet aircraft , equipped with the latest anti @-@ collision gear , to collide with each other while on instrument flights in positive control airspace .
The Embraer 's flight plan consisted of flying at FL370 up to Brasilia , on airway UW2 , followed by a planned descent at Brasilia to FL360 , proceeding outbound from Brasilia northwest @-@ bound along airway UZ6 to the Teres fix , an aeronautical waypoint located 282 nmi ( 324 mi , 522 km ) northwest of Brasilia , where a climb to FL380 was planned . According to the filed flight plan , the Embraer was scheduled to have been level at FL380 , proceeding towards Manaus , while passing the eventual collision point , which was about 307 kilometres ( 191 mi ) northwest of Teres .
The ExcelAire 's crew asserted in their depositions and subsequent interviews that they were cleared by air traffic control ( ATC ) to FL370 for the entire trip , all the way to Manaus . The actual transcript of the clearance given to the Embraer 's crew prior to takeoff at São José dos Campos at 14 : 41 : 57 BST , as later released by CENIPA , was :
November Six Zero Zero X @-@ ray Lima , ATC clearance to Eduardo Gomes , flight level three seven zero direct Poços de Caldas , squawk transponder code four five seven four , after take @-@ off perform Oren departure .
The Embraer 's crew 's altitude clearance to FL370 was further confirmed after their handoff to Brasilia , during which they had the following radio exchange with ATC at 15 : 51 BST :
This was the last two @-@ way radio communication between the Embraer 's crew and ATC prior to the collision .
= = = Embraer flight and communication sequence = = =
The Embraer took off from São José dos Campos at 14 : 51 , reaching FL370 at 15 : 33 , 42 minutes later , where it remained until the collision .
ATC maintained normal two @-@ way radio contact with the Embraer up until 15 : 51 , when the last successful radio exchange with the Embraer was made on VHF frequency 125 @.@ 05 MHz with Brasilia Center . At that point the Embraer was just approaching the Brasilia VOR . The Embraer overflew the Brasilia VOR at 15 : 55 , four minutes later , and proceeded northwest @-@ bound along UZ6 . At 16 : 02 , seven minutes after crossing the Brasilia VOR , secondary radar contact was lost with the Embraer , thus stopping the display of the Embraer 's reported altitude ( Mode C ) on the controller 's radar screen .
No attempt was made by either the Embraer or Brasilia Center to contact each other from 15 : 51 until 16 : 26 when , 24 minutes after the loss of secondary radar contact , Brasilia Center called the Embraer and received no reply .
Brasilia Center then unsuccessfully attempted to contact the Embraer six more times , between 16 : 30 and 16 : 34 . At 16 : 30 the Embraer 's primary radar target became intermittent , and disappeared completely from the radar screen by 16 : 38 , eight minutes later . Brasilia Center unsuccessfully attempted to effect a handoff of the Embraer to Amazonic Center at 16 : 53 , by calling the Embraer in the blind .
The Embraer , on the other hand , started calling Brasilia Center , also unsuccessfully , from 16 : 48 and continued with twelve more unsuccessful attempts until 16 : 53 . Some limited contact was made at that point , but the Embraer was unable to copy the Amazonic Center frequencies . The Embraer then continued its attempts to reach Brasilia Center , seven more times until the collision .
The collision occurred at 16 : 56 : 54 BST at FL370 , and it was confirmed that neither Traffic Collision Avoidance System ( TCAS ) system had activated or alerted its respective crew , nor did any crew see the oncoming traffic visually or initiate any evasive action prior to the collision . While both planes were equipped with TCAS , it was later determined that the Embraer 's transponder had ceased operating almost an hour earlier , at 16 : 02 , rendering both planes unable to automatically detect each other .
At 16 : 59 : 50 , about three minutes after the collision , Amazonic Center started to receive the Embraer 's secondary radar reply , with its correct altitude and last assigned code . At 17 : 00 : 30 Amazonic Center unsuccessfully attempted to contact the Embraer by radio .
The Embraer started calling on the emergency frequency , 121 @.@ 5 MHz , immediately after the collision , but as it was later determined in the CENIPA report , the emergency transceivers in the area were not operational and thus the crew was unable to reach ATC on that frequency .
At 17 : 01 : 06 the Embraer established contact on the emergency frequency with a Boeing 747 cargo aircraft , Polar 71 , which attempted to relay to ATC their request for an emergency landing , and continued to provide relay and translation assistance to the Embraer until its eventual landing .
At 17 : 18 : 03 the Embraer contacted the Cachimbo Airport ( SBCC ) tower directly to coordinate its emergency landing there , and landed safely at Cachimbo at 17 : 23 : 00 .
= = = Gol 1907 flight and communication sequence = = =
Gol 1907 took off from Manaus at 15 : 35 , flying southeast @-@ bound along UZ6 and reaching FL370 at 15 : 58 , 23 minutes later , where it remained until the collision . There were no radio or radar contact problems with the flight until its handoff to Brasilia Center . There were no known attempts by ATC to warn Flight 1907 of the conflicting traffic .
= = = NTSB Safety Recommendation = = =
On 2 May 2007 , the National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) issued a Safety Recommendation document that included an interim summary of the investigation to date , as well as some immediate safety recommendations that the NTSB believes should be implemented by the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) to enhance flight safety . The NTSB reported that the Embraer apparently experienced a Traffic Collision Avoidance System ( TCAS ) outage , unknown to its flight crew prior to the collision , according to the Cockpit Voice Recorder ( CVR ) :
Preliminary findings in the ongoing investigation indicate that , for reasons yet to be determined , the collision avoidance system in the Legacy airplane was not functioning at the time of the accident , thereby disabling the system 's ability to detect and be detected by conflicting traffic . In addition , CVR data indicate that the flight crew was unaware that the collision avoidance system was not functioning until after the accident .
The NTSB added that the design of the Embraer 's avionics is such that the non @-@ functioning of the TCAS that apparently occurred is shown by a small static white text message , which may not be noticeable by the flight crew . The NTSB noted :
Using only static text messages to indicate a loss of collision avoidance system functionality is not a reliable means to capture pilots ' attention because these visual warnings can be easily overlooked if their attention is directed elsewhere in the flight environment .
Based on its observations , the NTSB recommended to the FAA that design changes be implemented to improve the noticeability of TCAS annunciation , and that the FAA advise pilots of all aircraft to become more familiar with the details of this accident , potential loss of transponder and / or TCAS function , and how to recognize them .
= = Final reports = =
= = = CENIPA = = =
On 10 December 2008 , more than two years after the accident , the Aeronautical Accidents Investigation and Prevention Center ( CENIPA ) issued its final report , describing its investigation , findings , conclusions and recommendations . The CENIPA report includes a " Conclusions " section that summarizes the known facts and lists a variety of contributing factors relating to both air traffic controllers and the ExcelAire 's flight crew . According to CENIPA , the air traffic controllers contributed to the accident by originally issuing an improper clearance to the Embraer , and not catching or correcting the mistake during the subsequent handoff to Brasilia Center or later on . CENIPA also found errors in the way the controllers handled the loss of radar and radio contact with the Embraer .
CENIPA concluded that the ExcelAire pilots also contributed to the accident with , among others , their failure to recognize that their transponder was inadvertently switched off , thereby disabling the collision avoidance system on both aircraft , as well as their overall insufficient training and preparation .
= = = NTSB = = =
The U.S. NTSB issued its own report on the accident , which was also appended to the CENIPA report with the following Probable Cause statement :
The evidence collected during this investigation strongly supports the conclusion that this accident was caused by N600XL and GOL1907 following ATC clearances which directed them to operate in opposite directions on the same airway at the same altitude resulting in a midair collision . The loss of effective air traffic control was not the result of a single error , but of a combination of numerous individual and institutional ATC factors , which reflected systemic shortcomings in emphasis on positive air traffic control concepts .
The NTSB further added the following contributing factors :
Contributing to this accident was the undetected loss of functionality of the airborne collision avoidance system technology as a result of the inadvertent inactivation of the transponder on board N600XL . Further contributing to the accident was inadequate communication between ATC and the N600XL flight crew .
= = = Conflicting CENIPA and NTSB conclusions = = =
While agreeing on most basic facts and findings , CENIPA and NTSB , which collaborated in the accident investigation , arrived at disagreeing interpretations and conclusions . The CENIPA report concludes the accident was caused by mistakes made both by air traffic controllers and by the ExcelAire pilots , whereas the NTSB focuses on the controllers and the ATC system , concluding that both flight crews acted properly but were placed on a collision course by the air traffic controllers .
According to Aviation Week , " the U.S. National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) strongly disagreed with the Brazilian conclusions regarding the Legacy pilots ' actions as a causal factor , noting , ' The crew flew the route precisely as cleared and complied with all ATC instructions , ' as did the GOL airlines crew . " Aviation Week adds that " the Brazilian military operates that country 's air traffic control system , conducted the investigation and authored the report . "
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Aviation crisis = = =
The crash of Flight 1907 precipitated a major crisis in Brazil 's civil aviation system , which included massive flight delays and cancellations , air traffic controller work @-@ to @-@ rule slowdowns and strikes , and public safety concerns about Brazil 's airport and air traffic infrastructure .
Historically , Brazil was ruled by its armed forces from 1964 until 1985 . Since then , a civilian government has taken over , but the country 's airways ( as of 2009 ) continued to be controlled and operated by the Brazilian Air Force ( BAF ) and run by generals , overseen by a civilian defense minister . Most of Brazil 's air traffic controllers are military non @-@ commissioned officers , and all Area Control Centers are run by the BAF .
In October 2006 , as details surrounding the crash of Flight 1907 began to emerge , the investigation seemed to be at least partly focused on possible air traffic control errors . This led to increasing resentment by the controllers and exacerbated their already poor labor relations with their military superiors . The controllers complained about being overworked , underpaid , overstressed , and forced to work with outdated equipment . Many have poor English skills , limiting their ability to communicate with foreign pilots , which played a role in crash of Flight 1907 . In addition , the military 's complete control of the country 's aviation was criticized for its lack of public accountability .
Amid rising tensions , the air traffic controllers began staging a series of work actions , including slowdowns , walkouts , and even a hunger strike . This led to chaos in Brazil 's aviation industry : major delays and disruptions in domestic and international air service , stranded passengers , canceled flights , and public demonstrations . Those who blamed various civilian and military officials for the growing crisis called for their resignation .
On 26 July 2007 , after an even deadlier crash in Brazil ( TAM Airlines Flight 3054 on 17 July 2007 ) claimed the lives of 199 people , President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva fired his defense minister , Waldir Pires , who had been in charge of the country 's aviation infrastructure and safety since March 2006 , and was widely criticized for their failures . On the same day , Lula appointed former Supreme Court president Nelson Jobim to replace Pires , and vowed to improve Brazil 's air traffic control system .
= = = Legal action = = =
= = = = Civil litigation = = = =
On 6 November 2006 , the families of ten of the deceased filed a lawsuit for negligence against ExcelAire and Honeywell , alleging that the ExcelAire pilots were flying at an " incorrect altitude " and that the Honeywell transponder was not functioning at the time of the collision . Other suits were subsequently filed on behalf of other victims , with similar allegations against ExcelAire and Honeywell . The victims ' families also filed suits against other U.S. based defendants , including the two Embraer pilots , as well as Raytheon , Lockheed Martin and Amazon Tech ( manufacturers of Brazil 's air traffic control equipment ) , and ACSS ( manufacturer of the Embraer 's TCAS ) .
The attorney representing the Embraer crew , Miami @-@ based Robert Torricella , responded to the allegation that the crew was flying at an " incorrect altitude " by stating that according to international regulations , clearances and directives issued by ATC supersede a previously filed flight plan , and in this case :
... the flight plan cleared by air traffic control at the time of departure required the Embraer to fly all the way to Manaus at 37 @,@ 000 feet and , absent contrary directives from air traffic control , the Embraer was obligated to follow its cleared flight plan . As the findings of the investigation are made public , we are confident that ExcelAire 's pilots will be exonerated .
A Honeywell spokesperson stated that " Honeywell is not aware of any evidence that indicates that its transponder on the Embraer Legacy was not functioning as designed or that Honeywell was responsible for the accident . "
On 2 July 2008 , U.S. District Court judge Brian Cogan of the Eastern District of New York dismissed the families ' suits against all the U.S. based defendants under the premise of forum non @-@ conveniens . Without ruling on the merits of the cases , and while allowing discovery to continue , Cogan recommended the Brazilian court system as a more appropriate jurisdiction for the dispute .
= = = = Criminal proceedings = = = =
On 1 June 2007 , Murilo Mendes , a Brazilian federal judge in the small city of Sinop , Mato Grosso , near the crash site of the Boeing , indicted the two Embraer pilots and four Brasilia @-@ based air traffic controllers for " exposing an aircraft to danger . " On 8 December 2008 , he dismissed charges of negligence against the pilots , but left in place a charge of " imprudence " . He also dismissed all charges against two of the four Brasilia @-@ based controllers and reduced the charges against the other two , but supported bringing new charges against a fifth controller , based in São José dos Campos , the Embraer 's departure point . On 12 January 2010 , his ruling was overturned by Judge Candido Ribeiro in a federal court in Brasilia , reinstating the negligence charges against the pilots .
On 26 October 2010 , a military court convicted air traffic controller Sgt. Jomarcelo Fernandes dos Santos , sentencing him to 14 months in jail for failing to take action when he saw that the Embraer 's anti @-@ collision system had been turned off . Santos will remain free pending the outcome of the appeal process . Four other controllers were acquitted for lack of proof . On 17 May 2011 , Judge Mendes sentenced air traffic controller Lucivando Tiburcio de Alencar to a term of up to three years and four months but ruled he is eligible to do community service in Brazil instead and acquitted Santos on charges of harming Brazil 's air transport safety .
On 16 May 2011 , Judge Mendes sentenced the two pilots to four years and four months of prison in a " semi @-@ open " facility for their role in the collision , but he commuted the sentences to community service to be served in the United States . Brazilian authorities accused the pilots of turning off the Legacy 's transponder moments before the accident and turning it on again only after the crash , but it was denied by the crew in a deposition via videoconference . Mendes said in his sentence that pilots had failed to verify the functioning of equipment for more than an hour , a length of time he called " an eternity " in aviation . On 9 October 2012 , Brazilian federal prosecutors announced that they had successfully appealed the sentence of the pilots , asking to increase their sentences by 17 months ( a total of 5 years and 9 months ) . The new trial was scheduled for 15 October , with the pilots again facing trial in absentia . On that date , the court upheld the prior convictions , but modified the sentences to 37 months for each , requiring that the pilots " report regularly to authorities and stay home at night . "
= = = Survivor aircraft = = =
N600XL remained impounded at Cachimbo for almost three years , but in mid @-@ 2009 American company General Aviation Services agreed to buy the aircraft . The company partnered with Gantt Aviation and Constant Aviation to check and prepare it for its ferry to the US . Constant completed the work and finally on 19 November 2010 ( more than 4 years after the accident ) the aircraft , now with the new registration of N965LL , arrived at Cleveland International Airport to be refurbished and put up for sale .
The plane was reported to be on sale in March 2011 , even though repairs to the left wingtip and stabilizer were still being completed in August 2011 . The plane was then sold to a private owner in 2013 registered XA @-@ MHA .
= = = Dramatization = = =
In 2007 Discovery Channel Brazil aired A Tragédia do Vôo 1907 ( " The Tragedy of Flight 1907 " ) , a documentary about the disaster . The Association Family and Friends of Victims in Flight 1907 stated that the documentary exhibited bias on behalf of the Legacy pilots .
The crash was the subject of a Season 5 episode of Mayday ( also known as Air Crash Investigation ) entitled Phantom Strike ( also titled Death Over the Amazon and Radio Silence ) .
The Smithsonian Channel 's " Air Disasters " documentary series , featured this accident in the second season 's third episode titled " System Breakdown " , released in 2011 . Available on Netflix as of Oct. 2015 .
= Love Ballad ( Tove Lo song ) =
" Love Ballad " is a song by Swedish recording artist and songwriter Tove Lo . It was co @-@ written by Lo , Ludvig Söderberg and Jakob Jerlström , and was produced by her co @-@ writers under their production name The Struts . In 2012 , after signing a publishing deal with Warner / Chappell Music and co @-@ writing songs for artists including Girls Aloud and Icona Pop , Lo decided to become an independent singer to keep her most personal songs for herself . She eventually released her debut single " Love Ballad " to Swedish radio stations on 15 October 2012 . It was digitally released on 5 November 2012 . The track was later included on Lo 's debut extended play Truth Serum and her debut studio album Queen of the Clouds , both of which were released in 2014 .
" Love Ballad " is a pop song with drum instrumentation ; its lyrics detail the protagonist 's exaggerated ways to show affection to a romantic partner . Critics described it as an " ode to falling dangerously in love with someone " and a parody of love songs . The song drew the attention of music blogs and received positive reviews from some critics but failed to chart anywhere . A music video for the song , which was directed by Motellet Film and Lo , was released on 5 October 2012 . It shows the singer covered in black paint and performing acrobatics in the middle of a road and on a football field . Lo performed the track several times , including on the Swedish campaign Musikhjälpen and at Notting Hill Arts Club in London , United Kingdom .
= = Background and release = =
After the dissolution of her band Tremblebee , Tove Lo focused on writing songs and she signed a publishing deal with Warner / Chappell Music in 2011 . In the following year , she co @-@ wrote " Something New " for Girls Aloud , and " We Got the World " and " Ready for the Weekend " for Icona Pop . After she signed the publishing deal , she felt " lost " and unsure of her identity . She was also going through a difficult time during a relationship , which led her to write songs that were not related to her life . However , at one point , she " couldn 't handle it anymore " and needed to write a personal song . Lo then co @-@ wrote " Love Ballad " with Ludvig Söderberg and Jakob Jerlström ; it was their first collaboration . Söderberg and Jerlström also produced the track under their production name The Struts . According to Lo , an artist became interested in recording the song but considered it " too brutal " and wanted to change some of the lyrics . Because of this , Lo kept the song for herself . She said that after co @-@ writing " Love Ballad " , she started to write songs " that I felt I needed to get out of me " .
Lo eventually self @-@ released " Love Ballad " as her first single . It was sent to Swedish radio station P3 on 15 October 2012 . It was digitally released on 5 November 2012 . The song drew the attention of music blogs , which led Lo to start a career as a independent singer so she could record her most personal songs . " Love Ballad " was later featured on the Nordic edition of Lo 's debut extended play Truth Serum ( 2014 ) and as a bonus track on the Noth American version of her debut studio album Queen of the Clouds ( 2014 ) .
= = Inspiration and composition = =
" Love Ballad " is an uptempo pop song featuring drum instrumentation . According to Lo , the songs on her extended play Truth Serum are about her " most intense " failed relationship . She stated , " In its entirety , [ Truth Serum tells ] a love story from beginning to end . The song ' Love Ballad ' is about the moment you decide to give everything to another person , while ' Habits ' shows what happens when everything is screwed up and you just want to freak out . ' Out of Mind ' deals with the stage after that , when your broken heart has mended , but the scars are still there " . In an interview with Klap Magazine , Lo said , " ' Love Ballad ' is actually supposed to be a way of telling the one I love I 'd do anything for him . He 's worth the pain . A bit exaggerated but that 's what it feels like when you 're so into someone " . According to Rich Thane of The Line of Best Fit , the track details the " carefree beginnings of a new romance " . Michael Cragg of The Guardian described the song as an " ode to falling dangerously in love with someone " . Cragg also said the singer is " willing to share her drugs " with her lover in the verse " Jump off a cliff / I 'd give you my last spliff / I 'd do it for you / Ain 't love sweet ? " . According to Mark Savage of BBC News , the track " parodies the preposterous promises " made by musicians in love songs ; he cited the line " Chop off my hands / Chop off my feet / I 'd do it for you / Ain 't love sweet ? " as an example .
= = Reception = =
" Love Ballad " received positive reviews by some critics . Doron Davidson @-@ Vidavski of The Line of Best Fit called it an " infectious debut single " , while a reviewer from Scandipop wrote that the song is " rousingly melodic in both its production and its topline " . Michael Cragg of The Guardian said Lo had started her career " in fine style " with the song . A reviewer for Nu Wave Pony described it as a " lyrically obsessive and heart @-@ wrenching pop song " and said that " it plays like a catchy summer song " . Richard S. Chang of Redbull.com ranked it at number four on his top 5 of the Best Tove Lo songs . Writing for Discopop , Mark Savage said that " Love Ballad " is superior to " Stay High " , the remixed version of " Habits ( Stay High ) " .
Despite the positive reviews and its popularity among music blogs , " Love Ballad " failed to chart anywhere . In an interview with Gulf Times , Lo said she thought the song 's poor commercial reception was due to her change of stage name . She stated , " [ ' Love Ballad ' ] didn 't sell particularly well . I 'd used my real name , Tove Nilsson , when I was in Tremblebee so perhaps no @-@ one knew who I was " .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Love Ballad " was co @-@ directed by Tove Lo and Motellet Film . Lo also wrote the video 's script ; she said : " Imagine sitting on a football field in the dark , freezing , after seven hours , covered only in black house paint , trying to put on fake eyelashes ! " . MTV Sweden premiered the video on 5 October 2012 , and Lo released it on her YouTube channel on 8 October 2012 . The video begins with Lo covered in black paint and walking in the middle of a road . In the next scene , she covers four men , who go to play rugby on a football field , in paint . Later , Lo is shown walking upside @-@ down and performing other acrobatics on the road and the football field . Then , she appears wearing a hibiscus dress while singing the song in a rubbish dump . In the next scenes , Lo is walking topless through a field of flowers . Near the end , she is standing on the football field while the four men run up to her and cover her in paint . The video is interspersed with scenes of Lo performing the song with images of cities and explosions projected onto her .
= = Live performances = =
On 10 December 2012 , Lo performed " Love Ballad " and " Paradise " on the Swedish campaign Musikhjälpen . On 10 April 2013 , she performed " Love Ballad " , " Habits ( Stay High ) " , " Out of Mind " and " Not Made For This World " at Swedish radio station P3 . Lo performed " Love Ballad " alongside other songs from Truth Serum and " Run On Love " during her first UK show at Notting Hill Arts Club , London , on 2 April 2014 . For the performance , she was accompanied by two drummers . A reviewer from Discopop said he was " blown away " and that it was " so refreshing to be at a pop show that engages the heart as well as the senses " . Michael Cragg of The Guardian rated the show with four stars out of five and deemed it as " a punchy UK debut " . Lo performed the same set list at her Hoxton Square Bar & Kitchen show on 6 May 2014 .
On 1 October 2014 , Lo performed " Love Ballad " and other songs at Webster Hall in Manhattan , New York City . On 30 March 2015 , she held a concert at KOKO in London , UK , and performed the track among others from Truth Serum and Queen of the Clouds . Amelia Maher of London In Stereo wrote , " With the opening bars to ' Over ' and ' Love Ballad ' there is something different in [ Lo 's ] tone as she carelessly lays her soul bare for all to see and reveals that she isn 't just a raunchy one trick pony " . On 14 August 2015 , Lo performed the song at the Way Out West festival in Gothenburg , Sweden . On 11 September 2015 , she held a concert at the Deutsches Theater in Berlin , Germany , and performed " Love Ballad " and tracks from Truth Serum and Queen of the Clouds .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Truth Serum .
Locations
Recorded at Warner / Chappell Studios , Stockholm
Mastered at Cutting Room , Stockholm
Personnel
Songwriting – Tove Lo , Jakob Jerlström , Ludvig Söderberg
Production – The Struts
Lead vocals – Tove Lo
Mixing – Lars Norgren
Programming – The Struts
Mastering – Björn Engelmann
Instrumentation – The Struts
= = Release history = =
= Everything That Happens Will Happen Today =
Everything That Happens Will Happen Today is the second album made in collaboration between David Byrne and Brian Eno , released on August 18 , 2008 , by Todo Mundo . The album explores themes of humanity versus technology and optimism in spite of bleak circumstance through the blending of electronic and gospel music . Critical reception was largely positive and the album received awards for both the musical content as well as the packaging and technical production .
This album is the first joint effort between the two musicians since 1981 's My Life in the Bush of Ghosts and Eno 's work producing and co @-@ writing with Talking Heads . Byrne and Eno worked on the tracks in their home studios throughout 2007 and early 2008 and sent digital copies of the recordings to one another over e @-@ mail . The single " Strange Overtones " was released for free to promote the album and Byrne toured through 2008 and 2009 , performing songs from this release as well as the duo 's previous collaborations . This tour was later documented with the live extended play Everything That Happens Will Happen on This Tour – David Byrne on Tour : Songs of David Byrne and Brian Eno and the concert film Ride , Rise , Roar .
Everything That Happens Will Happen Today was released with a marketing strategy that involved Byrne creating the vanity label Todo Mundo and hiring Internet startup company Topspin Media to promote the album online using word @-@ of @-@ mouth and Internet sales to market the music . Several formats were created to allow users to have options on how to listen to the music — from free streaming audio to a deluxe package housed in a tin .
= = Background = =
In December 2007 , David Byrne announced on the BBC Radio music show The Weekender that he was working with former collaborator Brian Eno on a brand new album of " proper songs , " describing it as a " completely different thing " from the experimental My Life in the Bush of Ghosts . While the two were discussing the 2006 re @-@ release of that album at a dinner party , Eno suggested adding lyrics and vocals to some of his unfinished songs , some of which were eight years old . The duo did not initially plan on making an entire album , but eventually felt confident enough to finish a full collection of songs . Although the two had discussed making an album together for several years , this was their first sincere effort since the early 1980s .
Byrne visited Eno 's London studio to listen to the demos and the two decided to collaborate to finish writing the songs , leaving Eno and Peter Chilvers to convert a variety of digital music formats into MIDI , thereby stripping out extraneous information and making them suitable for Byrne to embellish . ( Chilvers would be thanked in the liner notes for " Digital Archaeology " . ) The two continued to work on this and other musical projects for several months and agreed that if the project was not enjoyable , they would abandon it . The duo decided to not announce their new collaboration for fear that they may not complete an album 's worth of new material , or that they would end up re @-@ treading their previous collaborations and decide against releasing the new songs .
= = = Composition = = =
Eno had several musical compositions , but could not write lyrics to accompany them , whereas Byrne had several lyrics with no accompaniment . Eno wanted to make the vocals the " central event " of the music by pairing gospel singing with unexpected electronic music that also included elements of West African music . The songwriting 's emphasis on vocals was partially inspired by Phillip Bimstein . In late 2007 , Byrne took a Compact Disc of stereo mixes of the demos from Eno and spent a year trying to write lyrics to finish the songs , attempting to balance the simple chords that Eno had written with the more complex ones Byrne prefers . Although it was uncharacteristic for Eno , many of the songs were written on acoustic guitar , with the help of Steinberg Cubase . The musicians exchanged Eno 's demos with the lyrics and vocal melodies completed by Byrne over e @-@ mail and by June 2008 , 14 songs had been recorded . Eno initially gave positive feedback , which encouraged Byrne to continue writing and only became critical as the project was finishing . Toward the end of the recording , Eno sent increasingly challenging tracks to see if Byrne could complete them — the final two ended up on the album as " I Feel My Stuff " and " Poor Boy " .
At the outset , Byrne was hesitant to add lyrics to the tracks because they sounded too much like folk music . He characterized the process as very slow and full of trepidation , in part because of expectations from their previous collaboration and also due to the strict division of labor they had between writing instrumentation and vocalization . Eno only provided a few vocal demos and suggested simple changes like adding an extra verse . Byrne made minimal changes to the instrumentation on several tracks and avoided changing chords in the melody to suit his singing style . The duo only worked in the studio together on two occasions , including one full week and a weekend on another occasion and neither partner got a veto in the process of track selection or production . According to Byrne , the main challenge in this writing technique " was more emotional than technical : to write simple heartfelt tunes without drawing on cliché . "
He later explained , " In a nutshell , Brian wrote most of the music , and I composed most of the vocal melodies and lyrics , and then sang them . " If Byrne 's vocal harmonies were radical enough , Eno would revise the instrumentation to accompany it , but Byrne avoided writing instrumentation and chose to adapt to the instrumentals as written . Using a style similar to the Talking Heads album Speaking in Tongues , Byrne scatted and murmured some lyrics before they were completed , due to Byrne 's preference for the sonic quality of lyrics rather than their literal meaning and his method of writing lyrics using free association . In composing lyrics for the album , Byrne attempted to write keeping in mind what would please Eno as his collaborator . He also attempted to write harmonies for Eno , who decided against singing any lead vocals on the album . Eno does perform backing vocals throughout the album , which he credits on one track as " inhuman piano "
Both musicians continued to work on their own projects during the composition of Everything That Happens Will Happen Today . Byrne conducted the second season of Big Love and completed his collaborations with Fatboy Slim on the album and musical Here Lies Love and the single " Toe Jam " . Eno produced Coldplay 's Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends and U2 's No Line on the Horizon . Byrne and Eno discussed the former 's collaboration with Fatboy Slim and Chris Martin of Coldplay wrote lyrics to the instrumental track for " One Fine Day " , but acquiesced when he heard Byrne 's version ( the band would also adapt another one of Eno 's instrumental compositions that Byrne did not finish into a track on Viva la Vida ) . Once Byrne 's version of " One Fine Day " was finished , the two began in earnest writing the rest of the tracks . Byrne initially had a long delay in writing material , but as the project progressed , he got to working several hours a day on the album and put his collaboration with Fatboy Slim on hold to finish the songs in the early part of 2008 . Since the two did not work together face @-@ to @-@ face as they had in the past , it was harder for them to complete material quickly , and they had to rush to complete two of the tracks were finished at the end of the sessions . He later described the process as easy once details were sort out and summed up this method as " pure joy " and declared writing collaboratively to be easier than writing solo . He even credited the time between their last collaboration and the transatlantic distance as a strength , since it allowed the two to keep their own schedules . Eno agreed , as it gave him time to focus on a small piece of music without holding up Byrne 's progress . Byrne later used a similar approach through 2010 and 2011 in collaborations with St. Vincent ( Love This Giant ) and Will Oldham ( the soundtrack to This Must Be the Place ) .
= = = Themes = = =
The two were inspired by gospel music and both have described their music as " electronic gospel " — in particular the tracks " Life Is Long " and " One Fine Day " . In addition to subtle Biblical themes in the lyrics , Eno was influenced by gospel musicality , which he initially discovered through Talking Heads while working on More Songs About Buildings and Food by listening to " Surrender to His Will " by Reverend Maceo Woods and The Christian Tabernacle Choir . For several years leading up to this project , Eno had primarily listened to gospel music — even joining a gospel choir — and was attracted to the music 's unrestrained vocals and lack of pessimism as well as its inclusive nature . Eno had been thinking about gospel for several years , but could not write lyrics to hopeful songs .
While Byrne considers the music " [ un ] like any contemporary gospel record that you would hear out there , " it is " informed by that feeling and those kind of lyrics , which allude to hope in the face of despair . " Eno also considers the album " something that combines something very human and fallible and personal , with something very electronic and mathematical sometimes . " The music combines electronic and gospel influences to " make that picture of the human still trying to survive in an increasingly complicated digital world ... It 's quite easy to make just digital music and it 's quite easy to make just human music , but to try and make a combination is sort of , exciting , I think . " Tracks such as " My Big Nurse " combine apocalypticism and comfort , blending hopefulness and despair .
The instrumental demos were primarily written in major chords , which Byrne considered slightly " ominous " and surprising from Eno . In spite of this , Byrne 's lyrics ended up being hopeful and spiritual , with themes of redemption — what he considers " optimism in spite of the dread . " The tension between optimism and pessimism and the spiritual themes quickly emerged over the course of a year in which Byrne was writing lyrics , which he has speculated might be an antidote to being " completely pessimistic and cynical about politics and the state of the world ; " for instance , " The River " is about the effects of Hurricane Katrina . He has also cited the political climate of the Iraq War , the beginning of the late @-@ 2000s recession , the policies of the George W. Bush administration , and his 2004 divorce from Adelle Lutz as factors that inspired him to create uplifting music . As he explained , " I was surprised that 's what came out ... The tracks are very different from what I would have done myself . I lean toward things that are more complicated . " Eno also thinks the album is much better than the songs he imagined when composing them solo .
Eno has also said the album is about " paint [ ing ] a picture of the human trying to survive in an increasingly digital world " and Byrne considered his job as lyricist to " bring more humanity " to Eno 's instrumentals , which can be " cold and academic . " Themes of humanity struggling with technology are apparent on several tracks and Byrne has characterized the " overall vibe " of the album as " We 're going to get through this . Humanity will prevail . " The lyrical content includes " a sinister inflection " but " many songs feel fairly uplifting and the overall tone is hopeful . " Byrne focused on mundane events and attempted to write in a style that was " simple but not corny , basic but heartfelt . " His inspiration in writing lyrics for " One Fine Day " was the story of Valentino Achak Deng as told in Dave Eggers ' What Is the What — the two are thanked in the liner notes and Byrne had previously performed at a fundraiser for Eggers ' 826 Valencia . The story of the Lost Boys of Sudan is emblematic of the spiritual themes of the album as they go through " all kinds of unrelenting horrors , but [ are ] eternally hopeful and even cheerful , in a way that defies all logic . " The music on this album also expresses homesickness — a lyrical trend that is apparent in Byrne 's work with Talking Heads .
= = = Production = = =
By March 2008 , the duo had recruited Seb Rochford to play drums with Byrne in New York City . Later that month , multi @-@ instrumentalist and previous Eno collaborator Leo Abrahams was enlisted to perform guitar , percussion instruments , and piano in his London home studio . Abrahams and Rochford would continue working on the tracks in Abrahams ' studio through May and their work was e @-@ mailed to other collaborators — Byrne attended one session to play guitar . Other musicians worked with Byrne in New York City and Eno in London , such as frequent Byrne collaborator Mauro Refosco , Eno 's daughters Darla and Irial , and Jarvis Cocker of Pulp , who added uncredited guitar in London . The duo attempted to record as much of the music from home studios as possible and played almost all instrumentation themselves , saving the drums and percussion for the studio . In addition to the tracks that were released , the musicians had some other instrumentals that Byrne did not complete .
Speaking at an April 2008 event in New York , Byrne confirmed the release of a new album , calling it a " record of sung songs " in contrast to the experimental music from My Life in the Bush of Ghosts and later told the New York Daily News that " Brian had written a lot of music , but needed some words , which I know how to do . What 's it sound like ? Electronic gospel . That 's all I 'm saying . " Eno also explained the differences between this album and their previous one saying , " [ T ] his is quite different from My Life in that the intention of that album was to not use our voices at all , but instead to find voices and stick them on to the music . This new one is different — these are songs written and sung by David ... They go from electronic folk gospel to quite indefinable areas of music . "
Throughout the middle of the year , Abrahams recorded drums at his home studio and Cherif Hashizume recorded more at Cafe Music Studios , while Robert Harder at Harder Sound recorded the drums on " My Big Nurse " , " Never Thought " , " The Painting " , and " Life Is Long " . Abrahams collected all of the recordings to have them mixed and Byrne booked tour dates in anticipation of completing the album . Mixing continued through June 2008 in New York by previous Byrne collaborator Patrick Dillett at Kampo Studios , who recorded brass and percussion . They e @-@ mailed the mixes to Eno for final approval and sent the finalized audio to Greg Calbi at Sterling Sound for mastering . On July 28 , 2008 , details of the album became public knowledge when Byrne posted on his blog that he and Eno had finished the new album and it would be released on August 18 . The album website was launched on the same day , with a promotional video of Byrne introducing the new album .
= = = Design = = =
The physical releases of the album came with graphics and packaging designed by Stefan Sagmeister with Richard The , Joe Shouldice , and Jared Stone ; illustration by Stephan Walter ; and production by Gamil Design . Sagmeister had earlier received a Best Boxed or Special Limited Edition Package Grammy in 2005 for art direction on the Talking Heads ' Once in a Lifetime box set and also designed the cover to Byrne 's Feelings . This album would also win a Grammy in 2010 for Best Record Packaging and was additionally recognized by Creative Review .
His inspiration for the packaging was based on the song " Home " and the artwork reflects an urban scene of a house by a roadside ; the liner notes provide closeups on the home and the artwork on the Compact Disc is the grass from the lawn . Sagmeister proceeded to create not only an image for the cover , but an entire three @-@ dimensional model for the house , which was later released as the deluxe edition packaging . Upon repeated listenings to the album , he became convinced that there was a sinister element to the setting and provided clues to the " dark edge " of the scene , such as a discarded condom wrapper in the gutter , a man looking out the window with binoculars , and a gasoline canteen in the kitchen .
The deluxe package comes in a tin with a microchip that plays a sound of someone walking down a hallway in the house and slamming a door when the package is opened . The urban themes of the packaging are expanded in this edition , with the album entitled " Stick " and the bonus content " Rock " ; discs are designed to look like they are covered in grass . This design of a pixelated , dimetric projection domestic scene has been compared to The Sims .
= = Release = =
The album was self @-@ released on August 18 , 2008 , exclusively through the album 's website . It was made available there free for streaming and for purchase as a download of DRM @-@ free MP3s . The duo released the album from other online digital music services starting the following month , including 7digital , Amazon MP3 , eMusic , the iTunes Store , Napster , and the Zune Marketplace . No record label was involved in releasing the digital format and independent distributors were allowed to handle the physical product , which was released on November 25 as an enhanced CD and a deluxe @-@ packaged CD in a tin .
= = = Formats and release history = = =
Initially , three distinct versions of the album were released :
Digital only – as 320 kbit / s MP3s , with a 17 @-@ page PDF digital booklet designed by Stefan Sagmeister .
Digital album with CD – everything included above as well as an Enhanced CD ; initial orders were mailed to customers by November 30 , 2008 .
Deluxe CD – everything from both packages above as well as a bonus disc with four exclusive songs , a short film about the album directed by Hillman Curtis , and a screensaver . The discs were housed in a three @-@ dimensional version of the packaging that also contained expanded liner notes , a die with obscure phrases such as " A Dirty Bird " and " The Human Brain " printed on it , and a red and white capsule fit for human consumption . Delays caused this version to be shipped in December 2008 .
In addition , customers are entitled to lossless FLAC versions of the album at no extra cost . By mid @-@ December 2008 , 12 percent of customers chose to download the FLAC option .
This album is catalogued as the second release from Byrne 's vanity label Todo Mundo after Big Love : Hymnal ; copies of the CD were marked CD @-@ TODO @-@ 002 . The CD was released in Japan with a bonus track — " Poor Boy " ( Eno & Leo Abrahams Remix ) — and obi strip in November 2008 through Beat Records with catalogue number BRC @-@ 218 . On February 17 , 2009 , the album was released on 180 @-@ gram vinyl LP as LP @-@ TODO @-@ 002 .
= = = Singles = = =
The first single off the album — " Strange Overtones " — was released on August 4 , 2008 , as a free digital download available only through the album 's website . The track has been described as " a song about writing a song " and features thematic elements of humanity versus technology that are explored throughout the album . It was downloaded over 40 @,@ 000 times within the first three days it was available . In September 2008 , Jon Yeo created a music video for the track featuring the paintings of Brian Eno . In May 2009 , the song was replaced by " One Fine Day " as a free download to promote the EP Everything That Happens Will Happen on This Tour – David Byrne on Tour : Songs of David Byrne and Brian Eno .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critical reception was mostly positive ; the album has an average score of 75 percent based on 24 reviews aggregated by Metacritic . Positive reviews have emphasized the pop songcraft on the album , calling it " exceedingly pleasant " ( Billboard ) and " vibrant " ( Tucson Weekly ) . Writing for the BBC , Chris Jones summed up the album by saying that it would not break any musical boundaries , but listeners will find music that was " intriguingly and , sometimes , maddeningly infectious . "
The music has been compared to the tone of alternative rock bands Radiohead , The Flaming Lips , and R.E.M. ' s 1998 album Up . Furthermore , Barry Walters of Spin has compared the music to former Eno collaborators U2 and several reviewers have compared the musicality to Paul Simon — especially his 2006 Eno collaboration Surprise . The vocals have been declared similar to Neil Young ; and the arrangement has been compared to The Beach Boys . Although the music was informed by gospel and digital music , comparisons have been made with genres as diverse as country due to the vocal delivery and old school hip hop . One weakness addressed by several reviewers is the unoriginality of the music , especially in comparison to the duo 's previous collaborations .
Contrasting Everything That Happens Will Happen Today with My Life in the Bush of Ghosts , some have found a connection between the two . Reviewers have found similarities in Eno 's solo album Another Green World and the Eno @-@ produced Talking Heads albums Fear of Music and Remain in Light , as well as Little Creatures , which was produced by the band . This is partly due to the unique use of technology in the creation of all of the albums associated with Eno . Other commentators have emphasized the differences between the two projects . For instance , The Age 's Bernard Zuel considers these expectations built by the earlier work to be " unfair ... and inaccurate . " The Observer review by Kitty Empire labels this album " conservative " and John Doran of The Quietus calls it " less exciting " — Erie Times @-@ News reviewer Dr. Rock goes as far as to call it an " antithesis " to Bush of Ghosts . In particular , the experimental nature of the former has been contrasted with the pop music style of this album and the lack of African beats and world music . Audra Schroeder of The Austin Chronicle noted " Thirty years after first collaborating on the Talking Heads , these two don 't have to mine the past since there 's nothing that remarkable about Everything . " Francis Jones summed up his review for Hot Press by concluding " No boundaries were harmed in its making but ETHWHT is an album of unquestionably great songs " and Louise Gray of New Internationalist declared that , " it 's not got the edgy , funky bricolage that characterized the earlier album and nor does it seek that . " At the same time , other reviewers have found the break with the experimental nature of My Life in the Bush of Ghosts to be positive . Jim DeRogatis from the Chicago Sun @-@ Times observed :
" [ E ] ven 27 years ago , there was nothing all that original or appealing about an ethnologically @-@ minded mix of various world rhythms and random vocal snippets captured via shortwave radio . Anyone who claims these boys invented sampling clearly never heard Can or musique concrete . Right off the bat , Everything That Happens Will Happen Today is a much more accessible , enjoyable and arguably better album than My Life in the Bush of Ghosts--at least if you care about conventional pop / rock songcraft . "
Reviews have emphasized the contrast between optimism and foreboding on the album , as well as the struggle of humanity against technology . In addition , several reviewers have noted parallels between this album and Byrne 's Big Love : Hymnal , particularly their common spiritual themes and atmospheric moods . Resident Advisor 's review also notes the shift in Eno 's recordings toward more gospel vocals . Steve Matteo of Crawdaddy ! wrote that Eno 's production dominates the album , whereas Filter 's Ken Scrudato considers the album primarily a David Byrne venture . Consequence of Sound 's review notes continuity between this album and Byrne 's 2004 release Grown Backwards , while The Village Voice has declared this album " more expansive and adventurous " than anything else Byrne has released in decades and Greg Kot of The Chicago Tribune wrote that the album features " one of the strongest vocal performances of Byrne 's career . "
= = = Awards = = =
The album was nominated for three Grammy Awards — Best Alternative Music Album , Best Recording Package , and Best Boxed or Special Limited Edition Package — on December 2 , 2008 . On February 8 , 2009 , designer Stefan Sagmeister won the award for Best Recording Package at the 51st Annual Grammy Awards . The deluxe edition packaging was given a bronze medal by the Art Directors Club of New York . The album was nominated for a Technical Excellence & Creativity Award in the Record Production / Album category .
Several year @-@ end lists included the album amongst the best releases of 2008 :
DeRogatis ' and Kot 's reviews were featured on Sound Opinions and the album was also placed on two individual writers ' lists for No Ripcord 's best of the year . Two contributors to No Depression included the album on their best @-@ of lists for 2008 . The A.V. Club commissioned celebrities to give their picks for album of the year and Tim Heidecker chose this album , describing it as " the most interesting and listenable pop record of the year , in my book . " The Fader 's 2008 year in review named this one of the " Top Twelve Albums That We Thought Would Have a Bigger Impact On Our Lives " , but later declared the album " career @-@ defining . " The publication dedicated their annual icon issue to Byrne in 2009 in part due to the success of this album .
Several songs from this album appeared on The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop singles poll for 2008 — " Strange Overtones " came in at 60 , " Life Is Long " placed 337 , " My Big Nurse " was 350 , " Everything That Happens " ended up at 748 , and " I Feel My Stuff " reached 942 . In addition , a vote was cast for " Strange Undertones " .
= = = Sales figures and chart performance = = =
Although the artists have not released sales figures , they have indicated that the album was purchased across the globe during the first 24 hours it was available and that the servers hosting the album delivered " several terabytes " by September 6 . A report in late December asserted that they had sold " nearly 20 @,@ 000 downloads . " In March 2009 , Ian C. Rogers of Topspin Media explained that 20 percent of those who listened to the album streaming chose to purchase it and 30 percent of them included a physical copy of the CD ; trends that would hold through September of that year . By October 2008 , Byrne explained that they had recouped their losses on the album and that sales had " paid back the recording costs and costs for building the Web site . " He would later explain that this business model worked well for established acts as well as smaller bands , due to minimal production and distribution costs . Their business model also allowed them to self @-@ release and plan a tour immediately after finishing the music production , rather than wait months for record label advancement .
The album did not chart until it was physically released — a development which surprised Byrne . In the first week of December , Everything That Happens Will Happen Today reached the top spot on the College Music Journal AAA charts and third on the CMJ Radio 200 . The album entered the Billboard 200 for the week of January 17 , 2009 , debuting at 182 with 4 @,@ 008 copies sold . It peaked the following week at 174 before dropping off the charts . It was on the Independent Albums chart for 10 weeks , reaching 18 .
= = Promotion = =
While Byrne and Eno did a few interviews for the album and subsequent tour , the two attempted to market the album via word @-@ of @-@ mouth and Internet hype rather than a traditional marketing scheme . Eno was convinced in part because of his own preferences for digital music from the iTunes Store rather than CDs as well as the success of Radiohead 's 2007 album In Rainbows and the self @-@ promotional strategies of Nine Inch Nails for the albums Year Zero , Ghosts I – IV , and The Slip . Byrne was also impressed by Radiohead 's release strategy as a means of valuing music . The duo carefully avoided Internet leaks by not giving out promotional copies of the album to journalists , but Byrne did preview the song " One Fine Day " prior to the release by performing it with a choir of senior citizens and Eno invited Mark Coles for the BBC World Service program The Beat to his home to listen to the songs on Eno 's laptop .
In 2010 , several of the songs from this album — " Home " , " I Feel My Stuff " , " Life Is Long " , " My Big Nurse " , and " Strange Overtones " — were included in the Todo Mundo soundtrack album to the film Wall Street : Money Never Sleeps along with other David Byrne songs .
= = = Marketing = = =
Byrne and Eno have both expressed their displeasure with the music industry and traditional models of marketing music , with Eno calling the music business an " exciting mess " and saying :
" The music industry ... were selling [ physical products , such as CDs ] quite expensively actually , that fostered a generally quite lazy attitude within
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to his love for Dungeons & Dragons .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In Persona 3 = = =
Makoto Yuki is the Protagonist ( 主人公 , Shujinkō , lit . " protagonist " or " hero " ) of Persona 3 . He moves into the Iwatodai dorm , learning of his ability to summon the Personas Orpheus ( オルフェウス , Orufeusu ) and Thanatos ( タナトス , Tanatosu ) of The Death Arcana when the dorm is attacked by Shadows during the Dark Hour . Mitsuru asks him to join SEES and he is later elected the team 's leader in combat . The Protagonist is unique among his cohorts in that he has the Wild Card ability which enables him to wield multiple Personas and switch between them during battle . Over the course of the game , he also gains Messiah ( メサイア , Mesaia ) of The Judgement Arcana and Orpheus Telos ( オルフェウス ･ 改 , Orufeusu Kai ) of The Fool Arcana in Persona 3 FES . With the power of the Wild Card he has access to over 150 different Personas . He is also the only character with access to the Velvet Room , in which the player is able to fuse together multiple Personas together to create a new and more powerful one . Over the course of the game , the player is challenged to manage the Protagonist 's day @-@ to @-@ day schedule as he attends school , takes part in extracurricular activities , and spends time with classmates and other characters . Igor , the proprietor of the Velvet Room , encourages the Protagonist to form Social Links with people , as they will determine his potential in combat . Social Links with characters in @-@ game are represented by one of the Major Arcana and grants various bonuses during Persona fusion , increasing the player 's proficiency in battle .
As he works with SEES , the Protagonist builds up the Social Link for the Fool Arcana ( 愚者 , Gusha ) , which symbolizes beginning and infinite possibilities of the journey ahead . When the Protagonist decides to spare Ryoji Mochizuki , the Social Link of the Fool Arcana changes into the Judgement Arcana ( 審判 , Shinpan ) , which symbolizes the end of his journey and looking back at what has transpired this far . The final Social Link the Protagonist attains is the Universe Arcana ( 宇宙 , Uchū ) , a card from the Thoth tarot that replaces World Arcana ( 世界 , Sekai ) , symbolizing the full awareness of the protagonist 's place in the world .
The Protagonist is an orphan ; his parents died ten years prior to the events of Persona 3 , which sees him returning to the city he grew up in . In December , the player learns that a Shadow known as " Death " ( デス ) was sealed in the Protagonist as a child by Aigis , who was unable to defeat it herself . The Death Shadow was able to lead the Protagonist to twelve other greater Shadows ; by defeating them , The Appriser was created , a being which summons Nyx to the world to bring about its destruction . SEES battles The Appriser on the roof of Tartarus , but are not able to stop Nyx 's descent to Earth . The Protagonist enters Nyx and using the power of his accumulated Social Links , seals it away with the " Great Seal " — at the cost of his own self .
= = = Other appearances = = =
Persona 3 FES extends upon the original game with the introduction of an epilogue called The Answer . These events reveal that the protagonist died after becoming the Great Seal used to seal Nyx away . After being led to the Great Seal , SEES discovers it to be under attack by a creature called Erebus . Although Makoto does not appear in Shin Megami Tensei : Persona 4 and the sequel Persona 4 Arena , it is revealed in those games Igor 's assistant Elizabeth left her position to find a way to rescue the Protagonist from his fate as the Great Seal .
In the PlayStation Portable port Persona 3 Portable , an option was added to control a female protagonist , voiced by Marina Inoue in the Japanese adaptation , and Laura Bailey in the English adaptation . He is also featured in several radio dramas that tell new stories related to games . In the manga , the Protagonist is named Minato Arisato ( 有里 湊 , Arisato Minato ) . There , he is portrayed as a quiet teenager who often tired or drowsy , who likes to eat and cook food . The character also appears in Persona Q : Shadow of the Labyrinth , where he joins forces with the Persona 4 cast to defeat the Shadows . In the stage adaption , Persona 3 : The Weird Masquerade , the male Protagonist is named Sakuya Shiomi ( 汐見 朔也 , Shiomi Sakuya ) while the female version is named Kotone Shiomi ( 汐見 琴音 , Shiomi Kotone ) .
In the anime film series , Persona 3 The Movie , he takes the name of Makoto Yuki . Makoto is portrayed as an ambivalent individual with an initial neutral viewpoint on the film 's theme of life and death , making his growth via new found experiences the focus of the movie .
= = Reception = =
Critical reception to Makoto Yuki 's character has been positive . GameSpy 's Patrick Joynt praised the character 's social life in Persona 3 as it allowed the player to interact with several other characters and learn about their interesting stories . GamesRadar commented that while Makoto is a " Japanese RPG stereotype " it was refreshing to see him dealing with his social life . Damian Thomas from RPGFan saw the interactions between the main character and his dorm mates as one of the game 's best parts due to the character growth in each social link .
Reaction to the character 's portrayal in the animated film Persona 3 The Movie : No. 1 , Spring of Birth was also met with praise . Richard Eisenbeis of Kotaku described Makoto Yuki as being an initially " ambivalent , broken character .. " whose growth takes center stage and gave the film " a suitable sense of completion . " Elliot Gay from Japanator saw Makoto 's growth from a " empty , aloof , and distant young man " who " lacks any kind of real determination to do anything " to his growth as a person as one of the film 's main focus . His relationship with Aigis and his comical actions have also been prasied by Gay during a review for the second film .
= 18 Miles Out =
" 18 Miles Out " is the tenth episode of the second season of the post @-@ apocalyptic horror television series The Walking Dead . It originally aired on AMC in the United States on February 26 , 2012 . The episode was written by Scott M. Gimple and series showrunner Glen Mazzara and directed by Ernest Dickerson . In the episode , Rick Grimes ( Andrew Lincoln ) and Shane Walsh ( Jon Bernthal ) debate Randall ( Michael Zegen ) ' s fate , leading to a physical battle between the two . Meanwhile , the survivors at the Greene farm deal with Beth Greene ( Emily Kinney ) ' s suicidal behavior .
Gimple added Rick and Shane 's climactic fight scene into the episode 's script , while Dickerson collaborated with stunt coordinator Lonnie Smith , Jr. on the choreography . An 800 @-@ pound motorcycle was used in the sequence , which was lightened by emptying the gas tank . " 18 Miles Out " features recurring appearances from several actors and actresses including Lauren Cohan ( Maggie ) , Emily Kinney ( Beth Greene ) , and Michael Zegen .
" 18 Miles Out " was well received by a number of television commentators , who praised the storyline and character development . Upon airing , it attained 7 @.@ 04 million viewers and a 3 @.@ 8 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode became the second most @-@ viewed cable telecast of the day , as well as the second most @-@ watched cable television program of the week .
= = Plot = =
Randall ( Michael Zegen ) , the teenager who Rick Grimes ( Andrew Lincoln ) rescued , has fully recovered from his leg injury . Rick and Shane Walsh ( Jon Bernthal ) tie him up , blindfold , gag him with duct tape , and put him in the back of their SUV , with plans to drop him at a school 18 miles out from Hershel 's farm . During their journey , Rick confronts Shane about what happened with Otis at the high school and his attraction to his wife Lori ( Sarah Wayne Callies ) , all which Shane admits and eventually apologizes for . At the same time , Shane suggests that Rick would not have made the same decision he did with Otis in order to protect his family . Rick angrily responds that he would do anything to protect his wife , son , and unborn child .
After Rick explains his suggestions about the upcoming winter and using knives more to save ammunition , the three eventually find a seemingly secure building and leave Randall there , armed with a knife . Randall pleads for his life , until he blurts out that he went to school with Maggie Greene ( Lauren Cohan ) and knows her father ( Scott Wilson ) , leading them to suspect that he knows the farm 's location . Shane eventually attempts to kill him but is stopped when Rick tackles him . They eventually argue about what they will do with Randall , escalating into a physical battle . The fight ends when Shane throws a wrench at Rick , which misses and smashes open a window , which releases a large group of walkers trapped inside a building . The three men fend off the walkers ; Rick rescues Randall and leaves Shane trapped in a school bus . Rick then changes his mind and rescues Shane from the school bus . Since he is too dangerous to let go free , Randall is once again bound , gagged , and blindfolded in the back of the SUV as Rick contemplates killing him , although he needs time to think . Rick returns Shane 's pistol and tells Shane he needs to follow Rick 's command from then on if he wants to remain part of the group . Shane reluctantly agrees .
At the farmhouse , Lori , Maggie , and Andrea ( Laurie Holden ) are taking care of Maggie 's younger sister Beth ( Emily Kinney ) , who is now conscious . Maggie confides that Glenn ( Steven Yeun ) has lost confidence because he feels their relationship made him lose focus at the shootout in the bar , hence Lori advises her to make Glenn " man up " . The women eventually realize Beth has become suicidal and place her under suicide watch . Lori and Andrea argue ; Andrea believes the decision to stay alive should be Beth 's alone , while Lori strongly disagrees ; Andrea and Lori criticize each other in the process .
Andrea then proceeds to take over responsibility for Beth , after convincing Maggie to take a break . She locks Beth inside the room , opens the bathroom door , and leaves Beth alone to make her own choice . She advises the pain will never subside , " but you make room for it " . Beth attempts suicide by using a shard of broken mirror to cut her wrist , but Maggie and Lori manage to pry the bathroom door open in time to save Beth , who is bleeding profusely but relatively okay . Andrea returns to the house to check on Beth and is confronted by a furious Maggie . Andrea reasons that she allowed Beth to explore her choices , and Beth is now more convinced than ever that suicide is not an option . Maggie condemns Andrea 's actions and forbids her from ever again setting foot inside the house .
= = Production = =
" 18 Miles Out " was directed by Ernest Dickerson and co @-@ written by Scott M. Gimple and showrunner Glen Mazzara . The storyline between Rick Grimes and Shane Walsh reaches a climax in " 18 Miles Out " , in which the two men get into a heated argument , ultimately engaging in a physical confrontation . Gimple conceived and wrote the scene into the episode 's script . In the fight scene , the moves were choreographed . Dickerson collaborated with Lonnie Smith , Jr. who served as the stunt coordinator . Smith cast two stuntmen to demonstrate and act out the scene for Lincoln and Bernthal so they could duplicate the choreography . Jeremy Connors portrayed Rick , while Trent Bry played the role of Shane . In the fight sequence , Shane topples a motorcycle onto Rick 's legs , temporarily immobilizing him . The motorcycle weighed an estimated 800 pounds ; in order to decrease the weight of the vehicle , Dickerson and his team emptied the gas tank . This was rehearsed at the series ' production studios . Scalan Backus , The Walking Dead 's special effects technician , rigged the vehicle 's footpeg to prevent it from sliding and making contact with the actors ' legs . Backus also added a rod with a secure stable so it would give further clearance to the actors and increase the motorcycle 's height from the ground . The cameramen filmed the shots at an angle , creating the illusion that the vehicle did hit the actors ' legs . Writer Robert Kirkman summated on the aftermath of the confrontation :
At the end of this week 's episode , Rick is of the mind that they 're square ; they 've got everything out in the open , they 've each said their piece and they both know where each other stands , they 've had their big blowout and they 're riding back in that car and Rick thinks he 's handled it . He doesn 't necessarily think he 's got his friend back , but he thinks the matters are settled . From the look of Shane in that car , I don 't know that he 's necessarily thinking that . For the most part , this conflict may be put on the back burner for the time being . It definitely seems like Shane still has a bone to pick .
While returning to Hershel 's farm , Shane stares at a walker in an abandoned field . Kirkman stated the walker symbolizes the growing scope of the zombie virus . " We 're really just trying to show that that kind of thing is inescapable , " he said . " You 're just driving down the street , you look over and , ' Oh , there you go , there ’ s a zombie . ' We 're trying to show that this world is becoming more and more populated by zombies . Our thinking is that large population centers like Atlanta are really where the heart of this began and as [ Rick and crew ] moved out to Hershel ’ s farm they didn ’ t really encounter very many walkers because they are moving out of the city center at a faster rate than the zombie population . And that zombie population is starting to catch up with them . The area is starting to become more and more dense with walkers . "
Lori Grimes accuses Andrea of participating very little in household tasks . Kirkman avouched that since the initiation of the zombie apocalypse , many of the characters have reverted to traditional gender roles ; " Lori is really just aggravated over a lot of things and she 's lashing out . She was serious and she wants Andrea to pull her weight ; certain people are stuck with certain tasks and to a certain extent people are retreating back into traditional gender roles because of how this survival @-@ crazy world seems to work . Lori has a lot of things going on so she 's definitely going to be behaving somewhat irrationally at times as she tries to cope with the pregnancy and the conflict between Rick and Shane as well as dealing with the fact that Rick was out on the road again . She 's going through a lot of stuff . "
= = Cultural references = =
" 18 Miles Out " features several references to music , film , media , and other pop culture phenomena . The episode is structured similarly to the Breaking Bad episode " 4 Days Out " . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix wrote : " ' 18 Miles Out ' has a title that 's very similar to ' 4 Days Out ' , one of the most memorable episodes of Breaking Bad , and a structure that 's relatively similar : our two leads go on a long drive together for what should be a routine bit of business , have a lot of conversations about where they are at this point , and then hit a major obstacle that might keep them from driving home alive . " While driving in his car , Rick tells Shane of an incident with a close relative , who was sitting in blizzard @-@ like conditions while listening to a narrative of Lord of the Rings . A scene towards the end of the episode contains the song Driver 's Seat by rock band Sniff ' n ' the Tears . In the concluding scene of " 18 Miles Out " , the song " Civilian " by indie folk band Wye Oak can be heard playing in the background .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" 18 Miles Out " was originally broadcast on February 26 , 2012 in the United States on AMC . Upon airing , the episode attained 7 @.@ 04 million viewers and a 3 @.@ 8 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . Although it obtained the highest @-@ rating in the 18 – 49 demographic out of any cable telecast of the day , " 18 Miles Out " was the second most @-@ viewed cable television program of the week . Its total viewership was slightly below that of the 2012 NBA All @-@ Star Game , which garnered 7 @.@ 07 million viewers . The episode became the second highest @-@ rated cable program of the week dated February 26 . Ratings and total viewership increased moderately from the previous episode , " Triggerfinger " , which received 6 @.@ 89 million viewers and a 3 @.@ 6 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = = Critical response = = =
" 18 Miles Out " was critically acclaimed by television commentators . Bex Schwartz of Rolling Stone opined that the installment was an excellent and well @-@ written episode , proclaiming that it " balanced zombie action with human drama " . In his B grade review for the episode , Zack Halden of The A.V. Club felt that " 18 Miles Out " was one of the second season 's more solid attempts ; " While there 's no question this is still serialized , the story here had a clear beginning , middle , and end , and we stay focused the whole time on two plot arcs : Rick and Shane deciding what to do with Randall [ ... ] while Lori , Maggie , and Andrea deal in their own individual ways with Beth ’ s desire to kill herself . " Halden resumed that it made him hopeful of future installments of The Walking Dead . Matt Barone of Complex , Andrew Conrad of The Baltimore Sun , and IGN 's Eric Goldman asserted that " 18 Miles Out " was one of the series ' best episodes , while The Star @-@ Ledger 's Mark Mauer thought that it was redundant , ultimately concluding that " it indulged in another subplot centered on a petty argument " . Goldman professed that the episodic direction was more focused than previous installments . Concluding his review , he gave the episode a 9 @.@ 5 out of 10 , signifying an " amazing " rating . SFX journalist Ian Berriman echoed analogous sentiments , inevitably issuing " 18 Miles Out " a four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half star rating . He called it the season 's best episode , and wrote that it was filled with " action , explosive arguments , [ and ] difficult decisions " .
Aaron Rutkoff of Wall Street Journal touted the installment ; " The writers ' oratorical impulses were mostly kept in check , giving us instead an action @-@ filled A plot in the field and a suspenseful B plot on the farm , and both have serious stakes . The motif connecting the two plots : knives . This episode was all about knives . " Gary Roszko of The Huffington Post stated that " 18 Miles Out " was a nice transition from what he thought was the typical development of the show . Sepinwall asserted that the episode was the strongest telecast since the second season premiere , " What Lies Ahead " . While CraveOnline writer Blair Marnell felt that it was a good telecast , he declared that " 18 Miles Out " was slightly inferior to its predecessor . New York 's Starlee Kine was critical of the flashbacks in the episode , who described the process as baffling . She wrote , " It was done in the oddest way , though , where the flashbacks didn ’ t add any additional information than that which we already knew . It was as though the writers thought a flashback could be used in place of their characters having backstories , instead of as a vehicle to convey them . "
Critics lauded the development of the storyline between Shane and Rick . Writing for Best Week Ever , Dan Hopper stated that it presented a cold and eerie outlook on the future of the two men . Nate Rawlings of Time evaluated their physical confrontation as " darn good " , and Alex Crumb of The Faster Times called it " wholly satisfying " . Entertainment Weekly writer Darren Franich commended the fight scene ; " The Shane / Rick fight was great , a brilliantly extended scuffle that started out with an air of boys @-@ will @-@ be @-@ boys pettiness but quickly escalated into something genuinely homicidal . " Goldman summated on the scene : " Of course , it was also gratifying to finally see that conflict turn physical , with a fight we 've been waiting to see for a long time . Rick vs. Shane was appropriately brutal and did a very good job of representing the two men 's different tactics — Rick was no doubt a formidable and dangerous guy in a fight , wailing on Shane with a series of punches . But Shane was going for the kill , using anything he could grab as a weapon , as he shoved a motorcycle onto Rick at one point and then threw a massive wrench at him in an effective , ' Holy S * * t ! ' moment . "
= 2008 Monaco Grand Prix =
The 2008 Monaco Grand Prix ( formally the LXVI Grand Prix de Monaco ) was a Formula One motor race held on 25 May 2008 at the Circuit de Monaco ; contested over 76 laps , it was the sixth race of the 2008 Formula One season . The race was won by the season 's eventual Drivers ' Champion , Lewis Hamilton , for the McLaren team . BMW Sauber driver Robert Kubica finished second , and Felipe Massa , who started from pole position , was third in a Ferrari .
Conditions were wet at the start of the race . Massa maintained his lead into the first corner , but his teammate Kimi Räikkönen was passed for second by Hamilton , who had started in third position on the grid . Hamilton suffered a punctured tyre on lap six , forcing him to make a pit stop from which he re @-@ entered the race in fifth place . As the track dried and his rivals made their own pit stops Hamilton became the race leader , a position he held until the end of the race . Kubica 's strategy allowed him to pass Massa during their second pit stops , after the latter 's Ferrari was forced to change from wet to dry tyres . Räikkönen dropped back from fifth position to ninth after colliding with Adrian Sutil 's Force India late in the race . Sutil had started from 18th on the grid and was in fourth position before the incident , which allowed Red Bull driver Mark Webber to finish fourth , ahead of Toro Rosso driver Sebastian Vettel in fifth .
The race was Hamilton 's second win of the season , his first in Monaco , and the result meant that he led the Drivers ' Championship , three points ahead of Räikkönen and four ahead of Massa . Ferrari maintained their lead in the Constructors ' Championship , 16 points ahead of McLaren and 17 ahead of BMW Sauber , with 12 races of the season remaining .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
The Grand Prix was contested by 20 drivers , in ten teams of two . The teams , also known as " constructors " , were Ferrari , McLaren @-@ Mercedes , Renault , Honda , Force India @-@ Ferrari , BMW Sauber , Toyota , Red Bull @-@ Renault , Williams @-@ Toyota and Toro Rosso @-@ Ferrari . Tyre supplier Bridgestone brought four different tyre types to the race : two dry @-@ weather tyre compounds , the softer marked by a single white stripe down one of the grooves , and two wet @-@ weather compounds , the extreme wet also marked by a single white stripe .
Before the race , Ferrari driver Kimi Räikkönen led the Drivers ' Championship with 35 points , and his teammate Felipe Massa was second with 28 points . McLaren driver Lewis Hamilton was third , also on 28 points , with one win fewer than Massa ; BMW driver Robert Kubica was fourth on 24 points , ahead of his teammate Nick Heidfeld on 20 points . In the Constructors ' Championship , Ferrari were leading with 63 points , 19 points ahead of BMW Sauber , and 21 points ahead of McLaren @-@ Mercedes .
Ferrari had responded to Hamilton 's win in the opening round of the season in Australia by winning each of the subsequent four races , giving them a commanding lead in the Constructors ' Championship . Ferrari 's dominance had been highlighted by two one @-@ two finishes : Massa ahead of Räikkönen in Bahrain and Räikkönen 's win over Massa at the following round in Spain . A strong drive despite an unfavourable strategy had helped Hamilton to split the Ferrari drivers on the podium in Turkey , coming second , behind Massa but ahead of Räikkönen . Ferrari had not won in Monaco since 2001 , and had been unable to match McLaren 's pace in 2007 . After tests at the Circuit Paul Ricard in mid @-@ May , Räikkönen said his team had developed a strong car for the tight , low @-@ speed Monaco circuit , but they still expected a challenge from McLaren and BMW Sauber . Hamilton claimed that McLaren would be competitive at Monaco , but Kubica played down his team 's chances , saying " I think a win will be very difficult . "
Toro Rosso 's main 2008 car , the STR3 , was also introduced that weekend ; the team had used a modified version of their 2007 car , the STR2 , for the opening five races . Originally due to be introduced at the previous race in Turkey , a crash in testing had left the team short of spare parts , delaying the car 's race debut . As the STR3 used a different transmission than that used in the STR2 , Toro Rosso driver Sebastian Vettel was forced to take a five @-@ place penalty on the grid for an unscheduled change of gearbox . His teammate Sébastien Bourdais escaped a similar penalty because he had failed to finish the race in Turkey , allowing him a free gearbox change .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Three practice sessions were held before the Sunday race – two on Thursday , and one on Saturday . The Thursday morning and afternoon sessions each lasted 90 minutes ; the third session , on Saturday morning , lasted for an hour . One hour into the first session , officials noticed a loose drain cover in the run through Beau Rivage , and suspended practice . Ferrari and McLaren took the top four spots after the resumption – Räikkönen ahead of Hamilton , McLaren driver Heikki Kovalainen , and Massa . Behind Williams driver Nico Rosberg , Kubica was the best of the BMW Saubers in sixth ; his teammate Heidfeld was forced to retire because of an engine failure , and stopped his car in Casino Square after just 13 laps . Despite further delays during the second session – both Renaults crashed in separate incidents at Sainte Devote , requiring the marshals to sweep the track of debris – Hamilton again proved strong , fastest ahead of Rosberg , Räikkönen , Massa , Kovalainen and Kubica . Apart from the Renaults , two more cars struck the barriers : Toyota driver Jarno Trulli scraped the wall out of Piscine ; Adrian Sutil 's Force India lost its front wing after tagging the barrier at Rascasse . While light rain fell on Saturday morning , Kovalainen set the fastest time in the final session , before losing control at Piscine and damaging the rear of his car . The rain increased as the marshals cleared the debris , and in the ensuing poor track conditions Kovalainen 's time remained unbeaten . Hamilton managed second fastest , ahead of Räikkönen , Rosberg , Kubica and Massa .
Saturday afternoon 's qualifying session was divided into three parts . In the first 20 @-@ minute period , cars finishing 16th or lower were eliminated . The second qualifying period lasted for 15 minutes , at the end of which the fastest ten cars went into the final period , to determine their grid positions for the race . Cars failing to make the final period were allowed to be refuelled before the race but those competing in it were not , and so carried more fuel than they had done in the earlier qualifying sessions .
Massa clinched his third pole position of the season with a time of 1 : 15 @.@ 787 , and was joined on the front row by teammate Räikkönen . Hamilton took third place on the grid , with a qualifying time just 0 @.@ 052 seconds slower than Massa 's . Kovalainen edged out Kubica to take fourth , the latter struggling to get heat into his tyres for his final run . Rosberg 's attacking style took him to sixth ; Renault driver Fernando Alonso , Trulli and Red Bull driver Mark Webber occupied the next three places . Webber 's teammate David Coulthard ended his second session in the barriers after the tunnel , after his car jerked sideways at the crest under braking . Although Coulthard was unhurt , the position of his stricken car and the subsequent caution flags surrounding it denied many drivers the opportunity to make their final flying laps in the session . Honda driver Jenson Button , who took 12th behind Timo Glock of Toyota , blamed the disruption for his performance , having prepared his car specifically for the final run . Heidfeld suffered from similar tyre problems to his teammate and managed 13th ; Williams driver Kazuki Nakajima and Honda driver Rubens Barrichello took the next two places ahead of Bourdais in the new STR3 . Renault driver Nelson Piquet lined up from 17th and Vettel managed 18th before his gearbox penalty demoted him to 19th . The Force Indias of Sutil and Giancarlo Fisichella qualified slowest ; Fisichella 's penalty for a change of gearbox after morning practice meant he started from 20th on the grid .
= = = Race = = =
On Sunday morning Coulthard became the third driver to incur a gearbox penalty , after changing his transmission following his crash during qualifying . The penalty moved him from 10th to 15th on the grid . In contrast to Saturday 's dry qualifying session , frequent showers soaked the track on Sunday morning , making racing slippery and potentially hazardous . Although the showers subsided by early afternoon , they resumed 20 minutes before the start , the changeable conditions forcing teams to delay tyre choices for as long as possible . By the time of the three @-@ minute warning most drivers had opted for the standard wet tyre ; only Piquet started the race on the extreme wet . Kovalainen 's engine stalled as the cars set off on their formation lap ; his car was pushed back to the pit lane by his mechanics , where it was restarted and a new steering wheel fitted to solve the problem .
Massa held his lead into the first corner at Sainte Devote , while behind him Hamilton used the pit lane exit to pass Räikkönen down the inside . Kovalainen 's vacated fourth position was filled by Kubica , as Alonso moved into fifth , passing Rosberg . The latter pitted soon after for a new front wing after making contact with Alonso at the hairpin , promoting Trulli to sixth . These positions were maintained for several laps , but the distances between the cars increased , in part because the spray thrown up by their wheels made close racing difficult . The conditions proved to be crucial when Hamilton made contact with barriers on the outside of Tabac on lap six , necessitating his return to the pits for a new set of tyres . The McLaren mechanics fuelled the car for a longer second stint and Hamilton emerged in fifth , the distances between his competitors ' cars resulting in him losing only three places during the pit stop . Alonso had a similar accident to Hamilton 's at Massenet two laps later , and emerged in seventh after pitting and taking on extreme wets .
Massa 's lead – 12 seconds over the second @-@ placed Räikkönen by lap six – was reduced to nothing when the safety car was deployed on the eighth lap . Coulthard and Bourdais had crashed into the barriers at Massenet just seconds apart , requiring the marshals to separate the cars and lift them off the track . When the safety car pulled off after three laps , Massa consolidated his lead over his teammate . Räikkönen , however , was called into the pit lane for a drive @-@ through penalty after to failing to have his tyres attached by the three @-@ minute warning before the race , dropping him back to fourth . Kubica , now second , took the lead when Massa slid off down the escape road at Sainte Devote , the undamaged Ferrari rejoining in second as the rain eased . The two swapped positions again after their pit stops – Kubica on lap 26 and Massa on lap 33 – but Hamilton , carrying more fuel than his rivals , took the lead .
As a dry line appeared on the track , Hamilton extended his lead over Massa , from 13 to 37 seconds , by the time he pitted for the second time on lap 54 . His timing proved fortunate , as he changed to dry tyres just as such a strategy emerged as the strongest , and he emerged 13 seconds ahead of Massa . The Ferrari 's own pit stop two laps later dropped Massa behind Kubica . Hamilton 's lead was reduced when the safety car once again deployed on lap 62 after Rosberg crashed at Piscine , hitting both sides of the track and scattering debris . Rosberg was unhurt .
Of the 20 cars which started the race , Sutil had gained the most places by the second safety car period . The Force India started from 18th , rose one place after Kovalainen was pushed back to the pits , passed Piquet on the second lap and Bourdais a lap later . Sutil benefited as Button , Rosberg , Glock and Trulli pitted for repairs over the following laps , to sit in 11th by lap 14 . Alonso , on extreme wet tyres behind Heidfeld , attempted to pass the BMW at the hairpin , but succeeded only in damaging his front wing and forming a stationary queue behind him . He also benefitted by overtaking three cars under yellow flags and would have been penalised if he had finished the race . Sutil took advantage of the situation and passed four cars to take seventh , behind Heidfeld and Webber . Running a long first stint until lap 53 , he moved to fourth as the cars ahead of him pitted . Vettel gained 12 places from the start , battling with Barrichello and Nakajima early on before jumping several places on his first stint as his rivals pitted , eventually switching to dry tyres when he stopped on lap 52 . Webber improved three places from the start to sit in sixth , ahead of Vettel , Barrichello and Nakajima .
The safety car was withdrawn on lap 68 . Later on the same lap , Räikkönen lost control of his car under braking out of the tunnel , and by the time he regained control his speed was too great to avoid a collision with Sutil . The Ferrari damaged its front wing and pitted for a replacement before resuming , but the damage to Sutil 's rear suspension led to his retirement . Webber benefited from the incident and moved to fourth place , while Räikkönen dropped back to ninth .
The slow pace during the opening laps meant the race ended after two hours , or 76 laps , rather than the 78 laps originally scheduled . Hamilton , despite suffering a slow puncture on the final lap , crossed the finish line to take his first win in Monaco . Kubica followed in second , ahead of Massa and Webber . Vettel took the STR3 to its first points in its maiden race , coming fifth , ahead of Barrichello and Nakajima . Kovalainen recovered from his stall to finish eighth , one place ahead of Räikkönen , who set the fastest lap of the race on lap 74 , a 1 : 16 @.@ 689 . He was followed by Alonso , Button , Glock and Trulli . Heidfeld was the last of the classified finishers , in 14th position , four laps behind Hamilton . Fisichella retired with a gearbox failure after 36 laps ; Piquet – two laps after he switched to dry tyres on lap 46 – finished his race in the barriers at Sainte Devote . Sutil , Rosberg , Coulthard and Bourdais were the four other retirements .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
The top three finishers appeared in Prince Albert II of Monaco 's Royal box to collect their trophies . In the subsequent press conference Hamilton said that conditions early in the race made driving difficult : " When the weather is like this , when it starts to rain and we had an idea it was going to start to dry , the important thing is to keep it on the track but I can 't explain how difficult it was for all of us . You were aquaplaning all the time and you were tip @-@ toeing almost . " Hamilton also said that his crash at Tabac had been the result of a stream of water running over the track , causing his car to oversteer and resulting in a puncture to his right rear tyre . Nevertheless , he praised his team and strategy for helping him take the victory . Kubica said that tyre problems in his middle stint meant he was unable to overtake Massa , who was driving a heavier car . Noticing Glock 's success on dry tyres , Kubica asked his team to make a similar change , resulting in his pass on Massa . During the post @-@ race interview Massa said that although he was fuelled to the end of the race after his first pit stop , the drying track forced him to pit again for new tyres : " It was a shame that we made a little mistake on the strategy but it is good to be on the podium . "
Sutil expressed his disappointment after being knocked out of the race when he was on course to record his team 's first points :
I can 't believe it , it was so close . It feels like a pain in my heart . It is like a dream gone to a nightmare – suddenly you are in the car and it looks all fantastic , then you have to accept it is not going to happen ... It was after the restart after the final safety car that Kimi had a problem under braking and crashed into the back of my car . The race was over and it was a real shock . A few tears came out as the adrenaline was high – I just can 't explain it .
Räikkönen apologised to Sutil for their collision , blaming cold brakes for his loss of control . Mike Gascoyne , Force India 's technical chief , called for the stewards to investigate the incident , but after deliberation no action was taken . " The frustration is that if that was a Force India driver hitting a world champion we 'd expect to get a one or two @-@ race ban , but the other way round nothing ever seems to happen " said Gascoyne . Sutil was called to the stewards ' room and reprimanded for passing three cars under yellow flags on lap 13 . Because he had retired , he was issued with merely a warning , but had he finished the race he would have been given a 25 @-@ second time penalty , which would have dropped him out of the point @-@ scoring positions .
Hamilton 's win was praised by Jackie Stewart , a three @-@ time winner of the Monaco Grand Prix . " At his age , Lewis can win this race many times , " he said . " This is the first , I hope , of many victories for him in Monaco so that he can join the greats of Formula One . " Damon Hill , the 1996 World Champion , said Hamilton " did very well indeed . I was most impressed , and the race as a whole was also a great advertisement for what F1 should be about . " The race result left Hamilton leading the Drivers ' Championship with 38 points . Räikkönen , who failed to score in Monaco , was second on 35 points , one point ahead of Massa and three ahead of Kubica . Heidfeld was sixth on 20 points . In the Constructors ' Championship , Ferrari maintained their lead with 69 points , McLaren jumped to second on 53 points , and BMW Sauber dropped to third on 52 points , with 12 races of the season remaining .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
= = Championship standings after the race = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
= Row hammer =
Row hammer ( also written as rowhammer ) is an unintended side effect in dynamic random @-@ access memory ( DRAM ) that causes memory cells to leak their charges and interact electrically between themselves , possibly altering the contents of nearby memory rows that were not addressed in the original memory access . This circumvention of the isolation between DRAM memory cells results from the high cell density in modern DRAM , and can be triggered by specially crafted memory access patterns that rapidly activate the same memory rows numerous times .
The row hammer effect has been used in some privilege escalation computer security exploits . Different hardware @-@ based techniques exist to prevent the row hammer effect from occurring , including required support in some processors and types of DRAM memory modules .
= = Background = =
In dynamic RAM ( DRAM ) , each bit of stored data occupies a separate memory cell that is electrically implemented with one capacitor and one transistor . The charge state of a capacitor ( charged or discharged ) is what determines whether a DRAM cell stores " 1 " or " 0 " as a binary value . Huge numbers of DRAM memory cells are packed into integrated circuits , together with some additional logic that organizes the cells for the purposes of reading , writing and refreshing the data .
Memory cells ( blue squares in the illustration provided in this section ) are further organized into matrices and addressed through rows and columns . A memory address applied to a matrix is broken into the row address and column address , which are processed by the row and column address decoders ( in the illustration , vertical and horizontal green rectangles , respectively ) . After a row address selects the row for a read operation ( the selection is also known as row activation ) , bits from all cells in the row are transferred into the sense amplifiers that form the row buffer ( red squares in the illustration ) , from which the exact bit is selected using the column address . Consequently , read operations are of a destructive nature because the design of DRAM requires memory cells to be rewritten after their values have been read by transferring the cell charges into the row buffer . Write operations decode the addresses in a similar way , but as a result of the design entire rows must be rewritten for the value of a single bit to be changed .
As a result of storing data bits using capacitors that have a natural discharge rate , DRAM memory cells lose their state over time and require periodic rewriting of all memory cells , which is a process known as refreshing . As another result of the design , DRAM memory is susceptible to random changes in stored data , which are known as soft memory errors and attributed to cosmic rays and other causes . There are different techniques that counteract soft memory errors and improve the reliability of DRAM , of which error @-@ correcting code ( ECC ) memory and its advanced variants ( such as lockstep memory ) are most commonly used .
= = Overview = =
Increased densities of DRAM integrated circuits ( ICs ) have led to physically smaller memory cells capable of storing smaller charges , resulting in lower operational noise margins , increased rates of electromagnetic interactions between memory cells , and greater possibility of data loss . As a result , disturbance errors have been observed , being caused by cells interfering with each other 's operation and manifesting as random changes in the values of bits stored in affected memory cells . The awareness of disturbance errors dates back to the early 1970s and Intel 1103 as the first commercially available DRAM IC ; since then , DRAM manufacturers have employed various mitigation techniques to counteract disturbance errors , such as improving the isolation between cells and performing production testing . However , researchers proved in a 2014 analysis that commercially available DDR3 DRAM chips manufactured in 2012 and 2013 are susceptible to disturbance errors , while using the term row hammer to name the associated side effect that led to observed bit flips .
The opportunity for the row hammer effect to occur in DDR3 memory is primarily attributed to DDR3 's high density of memory cells and the results of associated interactions between the cells , while rapid DRAM row activations have been determined as the primary cause . Frequent row activations cause voltage fluctuations on the associated row selection lines , which have been observed to induce higher @-@ than @-@ natural discharge rates in capacitors belonging to nearby ( adjacent , in most cases ) memory rows , which are called victim rows ; if the affected memory cells are not refreshed before they lose too much charge , disturbance errors occur . Tests show that a disturbance error may be observed after performing around 139 @,@ 000 subsequent memory row accesses ( with cache flushes ) , and that up to one memory cell in every 1 @,@ 700 cells may be susceptible . Those tests also show that the rate of disturbance errors is not substantially affected by increased environment temperature , while it depends on the actual contents of DRAM because certain bit patterns result in significantly higher disturbance error rates .
A variant called double @-@ sided hammering involves targeted activations of two DRAM rows surrounding a victim row : in the illustration provided in this section , this variant would be activating both yellow rows with the aim of inducing bit flips in the purple row , which in this case would be the victim row . Tests show that this approach may result in a significantly higher rate of disturbance errors , compared to the variant that activates only one of the victim row 's neighbouring DRAM rows .
= = = Mitigation = = =
Different methods exist for more or less successful detection , prevention , correction or mitigation of the row hammer effect . Tests show that simple ECC solutions , providing single @-@ error correction and double @-@ error detection ( SECDED ) capabilities , are not able to correct or detect all observed disturbance errors because some of them include more than two flipped bits per memory word . A less effective solution is to introduce more frequent memory refreshing , with the refresh intervals shorter than the usual 64 ms , but this technique results in higher power consumption and increased processing overhead ; some vendors provide firmware updates that implement this type of mitigation . One of the more complex prevention measures performs counter @-@ based identification of frequently accessed memory rows and proactively refreshes their neighboring rows ; another method issues additional infrequent random refreshes of memory rows neighboring the accessed rows regardless of their access frequency . Research shows that these two prevention measures cause negligible performance impacts .
Since the release of Ivy Bridge microarchitecture , Intel Xeon processors support the so @-@ called pseudo target row refresh ( pTRR ) that can be used in combination with pTRR @-@ compliant DDR3 dual in @-@ line memory modules ( DIMMs ) to mitigate the row hammer effect by automatically refreshing possible victim rows , with no negative impacts on performance or power consumption . When used with DIMMs that are not pTRR @-@ compliant , these Xeon processors by default fall back on performing DRAM refreshes at twice the usual frequency , which results in slightly higher memory access latency and may reduce the memory bandwidth by up to 2 – 4 % .
The LPDDR4 memory standard published by JEDEC includes optional hardware support for the so @-@ called target row refresh ( TRR ) that prevents the row hammer effect without negatively impacting performance or power consumption . Additionally , some manufacturers implement TRR in their DDR4 products , although it is not part of the DDR4 memory standard published by JEDEC . Internally , TRR identifies possible victim rows , by counting the number of row activations and comparing it against predefined chip @-@ specific maximum activate count ( MAC ) and maximum activate window ( tMAW ) values , and refreshes these rows to prevent bit flips . The MAC value is the maximum total number of row activations that may be encountered on a particular DRAM row within a time interval that is equal or shorter than the tMAW amount of time before its neighbouring rows are identified as victim rows ; TRR may also flag a row as a victim row if the sum of row activations for its two neighboring rows reaches the MAC limit within the tMAW time window .
Due to their necessity of huge numbers of rapidly performed DRAM row activations , row hammer exploits issue large numbers of uncached memory accesses that cause cache misses , which can be detected by monitoring the rate of cache misses for unusual peaks using hardware performance counters . Version 6 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 of the memtest86 memory diagnostic software , released on February 13 , 2015 , includes a so @-@ called hammer test that checks whether computer hardware is susceptible to disturbance errors .
= = Implications = =
Memory protection , as a way of preventing processes from accessing memory that has not been assigned to each of them , is one of the concepts behind most modern operating systems . By using memory protection in combination with other security @-@ related mechanisms such as protection rings , it is possible to achieve privilege separation between processes , in which programs and computer systems in general are divided into parts limited to the specific privileges they require to perform a particular task . Using privilege separation can also reduce the extent of potential damage caused by computer security attacks by restricting their effects to specific parts of the system .
Disturbance errors ( explained in the section above ) effectively defeat various layers of memory protection by " short circuiting " them at a very low hardware level , practically creating a unique attack vector type that allows processes to alter the contents of arbitrary parts of the main memory by directly manipulating the underlying memory hardware . In comparison , " conventional " attack vectors such as buffer overflows aim at circumventing the protection mechanisms at the software level , by exploiting various programming mistakes to achieve alterations of otherwise inaccessible main memory contents .
= = = Exploits = = =
The initial research into the row hammer effect , publicized by a group of authors in June 2014 , described the nature of disturbance errors and indicated the potential for constructing an attack , but did not provide any examples of a working security exploit . Another research paper , created by a group of authors and published in October 2014 , did not imply the existence of any security @-@ related issues arising from the row hammer effect .
On March 9 , 2015 , Google 's Project Zero revealed two working privilege escalation exploits based on the row hammer effect , establishing its exploitable nature on the x86 @-@ 64 architecture . One of the revealed exploits targets the Google Native Client ( NaCl ) mechanism for running a limited subset of x86 @-@ 64 machine instructions within a sandbox , exploiting the row hammer effect to escape from the sandbox and gain the ability to issue system calls directly . This NaCl vulnerability , tracked as CVE @-@ 2015 @-@ 0565 , has been mitigated by modifying the NaCl so it does not allow execution of the clflush ( cache line flush ) machine instruction , which has been found to be required for constructing an effective row hammer attack .
The second exploit revealed by Project Zero runs as an unprivileged Linux process on the x86 @-@ 64 architecture , exploiting the row hammer effect to gain unrestricted access to all physical memory installed in a computer . By combining the disturbance errors with memory spraying , this exploit is capable of altering page table entries ( PTEs ) used by the virtual memory system for mapping virtual addresses to physical addresses , which results in the exploit gaining unrestricted memory access . Due to its nature and the inability of the x86 @-@ 64 architecture to make clflush a privileged machine instruction , this exploit can hardly be mitigated on computers that do not use hardware with built @-@ in row hammer prevention mechanisms . While testing the viability of exploits , Project Zero found that about half of the 29 tested laptops experienced disturbance errors , with some of them occurring on vulnerable laptops in less than five minutes of running row @-@ hammer @-@ inducing code ; the tested laptops were manufactured between 2010 and 2014 and used non @-@ ECC DDR3 memory .
In July 2015 , a group of security researchers published a paper that describes an architecture- and instruction @-@ set @-@ independent way for exploiting the row hammer effect . Instead of relying on the clflush instruction to perform cache flushes , this approach achieves uncached memory accesses by causing a very high rate of cache eviction using carefully selected memory access patterns . Although the cache replacement policies differ between processors , this approach overcomes the architectural differences by employing an adaptive cache eviction strategy algorithm . The proof of concept for this approach is provided both as a native code implementation , and as a pure JavaScript implementation that runs on Firefox 39 . The JavaScript implementation , called Rowhammer.js , uses large typed arrays and relies on their internal allocation using large pages ; as a result , it demonstrates a very high @-@ level exploit of a very low @-@ level vulnerability .
= Raid on Haverhill ( 1708 ) =
The Raid on Haverhill was a military engagement that took place on August 29 , 1708 during Queen Anne 's War . French , Algonquin , and Abenaki warriors under the command of Jean @-@ Baptiste Hertel de Rouville descended on Haverhill , then a small frontier community in the Province of Massachusetts Bay . In the surprise attack , 16 people were killed and another 14 to 24 were taken captive . A rapid militia muster gave chase , and in a skirmish later in the day , nine of the French and Indian party were killed and some of their prisoners escaped .
Haverhill was not the original target of the raiders . Expecting a larger Indian contingent , French authorities planned to engage in a series of raids on the communities of the Piscataqua River . However , the unwillingness of some Indian tribes to participate in the expedition forced the French to reduce the scope of the operation and choose an easier target . The raid was more costly to the French than previous frontier raids like that in 1704 on Deerfield , Massachusetts because the province had been warned of the raiders ' advance .
= = Background = =
When Queen Anne 's War ( as the War of the Spanish Succession was called in the colonies of British America ) broke out in 1702 , it sparked war on the already tense frontier between the English colonies of New England and the colonies of New France , including Acadia and Canada . French military officers from the troupes de la marine , the defense force of New France , often led parties of Indians from their settlements along the Saint Lawrence River south to the northern frontiers of New England , which then included small communities in what is now northern Massachusetts and southern New Hampshire and Maine .
The largest and most successful raid of the war occurred in February 1704 , when Jean @-@ Baptiste Hertel de Rouville led about 250 men , principally Indians on a raid against the frontier town of Deerfield in the Province of Massachusetts Bay . Hertel de Rouville 's band killed or took prisoner many of the townsfolk , returning to Canada on a difficult trek in which a number of the prisoners died ; many of the surviving captives were adopted into Indian communities afterward . Massachusetts fortified its frontier with militia in response to this raid , and launched a raid against Acadia in retaliation .
The Massachusetts village of Haverhill was also subjected to smaller @-@ scale raids in 1704 , but it was not originally the target of the ambitious expedition planned by New France 's Governor @-@ General Philippe de Rigaud Vaudreuil in 1708 . In the aftermath of the failed English siege of Port Royal , Acadia in 1707 , Vaudreuil was criticized by French Marine Minister the Comte de Pontchartrain for failing to apply sufficient pressure on the New England colonies . Vaudreuil was also concerned over the increasing tendency of Indians that were under French influence to engage in illicit trade with the Province of New York , cutting into New France 's economic activity . Vaudreuil decided to address these issues by organizing a major raid into New England that was intended to be even larger in scope than the Deerfield raid .
Vaudreuil 's plan was to amass a force of as many as 400 men for attacks on the towns of New Hampshire on the Piscataqua River . In order to maintain some secrecy over the size and target of the expedition , forces from several points along the Saint Lawrence River would descend to Lake Winnipesaukee , where they would rendezvous with Abenaki and Pennacook tribal parties . The main French party departed from Trois @-@ Rivières , and consisted of about 100 men , drawn from Canadian militia and the troupes de la marine , under the command of Hertel de Rouville . This party included a number of veterans from the Deerfield raid , and they were accompanied by bands of Abenaki and Nipissing . A band of 220 Iroquois from the Kanehsatake and Kahnawake tribes was to depart Montreal under the command of René Boucher de La Perrière , and additional Huron and Abenakis were to come from near Quebec .
Reports that a major expedition was being planned made their way via Indian traders to Albany , New York , and from there to Boston . Because the expedition 's targets were not known , little could be done to prepare specific defenses . A party of about 40 provincial militia were sent to Haverhill in response to these reports .
= = Expedition difficulties = =
Elements of the expedition departed in mid @-@ July from the Saint Lawrence River . As the Quebec party ascended the Saint @-@ François River , a Huron died in an accident . This was viewed as a bad portent by many of the Indians , and the Hurons turned back . Among the Iroquois from Montreal , who traveled via Lake Champlain , some men fell sick and the rest refused to continue , in what some contemporaries thought was a ruse by the Iroquois to avoid conflict . Vaudreuil believed this was the case , and reports reached the English at Albany that the Iroquois had deliberately chosen to abandon the expedition " not to join war against New England . " Despite these setbacks , Vaudreuil ordered Hertel de Rouville to press on , even if he received no further reinforcements . When his company reached Lake Winnipesaukee , he found that no eastern Indians willing to participate in the expedition had been found . Hertel de Rouville was consequently left with a band of about 160 men , which limited his options for raiding targets to places that were less fortified .
Haverhill was chosen as the target for several reasons . The village layout was already well @-@ known from the 1704 raids and from an earlier raid in the Nine Years ' War . It was not particularly large ( 25 to 30 houses ) , its location lent itself poorly to defense , and only some of the houses were fortified . A fast @-@ moving raiding party could be in and out of the village before the alarm could be raised . The party arrived outside Haverhill and prepared to begin the raid on Sunday , August 29 . It was joined at some point on its travels by the exiled Abenaki war chief Escumbuit , who lived not far from Haverhill , and had received word of the expedition 's advance .
At the time , responsibility for Haverhill 's defense was divided . The local militia was under the command of Simon Wainwright , whose house had a view of the entire village . The town 's defenses had been supplemented by three small ( three to four man ) garrisons of colonial troops under the overall command of Major Turner .
= = Raid = =
The raiders successfully sneaked past the outer garrisons of provincial militia , and were first spotted in the pre @-@ dawn light by a villager . Firing his gun to raise the alarm , he ran for the village , with the French and Indians in noisy pursuit . The action quickly became general as the raiders descended on the houses in the village . One of the colonial garrisons was stationed in the home of the minister , Benjamin Rolfe , who had barred the door in an attempt to keep the raiders out . Raiders fired through the door , wounding Rolfe , and then broke the door down . They then slaughtered Rolfe , his wife , infant child , and the colonial militiamen , who , " paralyzed by fear " , were begging for mercy . In another house , one baby was thrown through an open window by a raider but suffered no injury . A number of villagers escaped by hiding in cellars whose trapdoors were not discovered by the raiders . Captain Wainwright was preparing to organize a defense when gunfire from the raiders passed through the door to his house , killing him instantly .
The raiding and pillaging continued until the sounds of approaching militia companies reached the raiders , who quickly lit the town meetinghouse on fire and left with their accumulated prisoners and loot . The reinforcements came from neighboring communities ( some from as far away as Salem ) and mustered under Major Turner 's command when they arrived . One party of Haverhill militiamen discovered the raiders ' baggage camp several miles from the village , and took their packs . Captain Samuel Ayer 's company , numbering about 20 , pursued the retreating raiders . Eventually strengthened by further militia , he engaged the encumbered raiders . In a furious rear @-@ guard action the raiders fought off the militia ( killing Ayer in the action ) , but lost nine killed , including Hertel de Rouville 's brother , and 18 wounded . Because of the skirmish , the raiders abandoned some of their loot , and some of their prisoners got away . The village recorded that 30 to 40 people were killed or captured , which included those who escaped in the later skirmish .
= = Aftermath = =
The raiders ' return to Canada was difficult . Joseph Bartlett , one of their captives , described the privations suffered due the loss of the force 's baggage . One day they caught a hawk , which was divided among 15 men ; his share , the head , was " the largest meal I had these four days . " Bartlett remained in captivity with the Indians for four years . Some of the Frenchmen , rather than attempt the journey without their supplies , surrendered themselves to Massachusetts authorities .
French accounts of the raid greatly exaggerated the numbers involved , claiming that several hundred had been killed , and that the post @-@ raid skirmish had involved as many as 200 English colonists . The raid was more costly to the French than previous raids had been : because of better preparedness on the part of the Massachusetts militia , the French suffered a higher proportion of casualties than they had in the Deerfield raid .
The raid was the last large @-@ scale attack the French launched against Massachusetts in the war . Minor attacks occurred along its frontier , and Wells , then part of Massachusetts but now in Maine , was attacked by a substantial force in 1712 . Port Royal fell in 1710 to an expedition that included British marines , and the British abandoned a 1711 naval expedition against Quebec after some of its troop transports ran aground at the mouth of the St. Lawrence with significant loss of life .
= The Story of a Fierce Bad Rabbit =
The Story of A Fierce Bad Rabbit is a children ’ s book written and illustrated by Beatrix Potter , and first published by Frederick Warne & Co. in December 1906 . The book tells of a bad little rabbit who is fired upon by a hunter and loses his tail and whiskers . The book was intended for babies and very young children , and was originally published on a strip of paper that folded into a wallet and was tied with a ribbon . The format was unpopular with booksellers , and eventually reprinted in the standard small book format of the Peter Rabbit library . Although the book sold well , there are not many left in existence . It provides the young child with an introduction to books and the Peter Rabbit universe .
= = Plot = =
A bad rabbit finds a good rabbit sitting on a bench eating a carrot his mother gave him . Wanting the carrot , he takes it from the good rabbit and scratches him . The good rabbit escapes and hides in a nearby hole . Meanwhile , a hunter notices the bad rabbit sitting on the bench and mistakes him for a bird . He fires at the bad rabbit , but finds nothing but a carrot and a rabbit tail on the bench . The good rabbit then sees the bad rabbit running away without his whiskers and tail .
= = Composition and publication = =
The Tale of A Fierce Bad Rabbit was written for Louie Warne , the daughter of Potter 's publisher , Harold Warne . The child thought Peter Rabbit much too well @-@ behaved and wanted a story about a truly bad rabbit . Potter was experimenting with toy books at the time and A Fierce Bad Rabbit was published for Christmas 1906 in a panorama format of fourteen pictures and text printed from left to right on a long strip of paper that folded accordion @-@ fashion into a wallet tied with a ribbon . The format was popular with readers but unpopular with booksellers who found the item too difficult to keep folded , tied , and in its place once curious customers opened and examined it .
In 1916 , Potter completed a new frontispiece for the tale , and A Fierce Bad Rabbit was reprinted in a slightly smaller format than the other books in the Peter Rabbit library . Today , the book is printed in the standard small format of the series .
= = Critical commentaries = =
Potter 's three panorama books of 1906 – The Story of A Fierce Bad Rabbit , The Story of Miss Moppet , and The Sly Old Cat – are vignettes rather than the typical tales she produced of causality , extended plot , and variety of character . Each story has a very limited cast of characters with one dominant character ( the title character ) , and each is dependent upon an archetypal animosity : rabbit versus hunter and cat versus rodent . In their simplicity and unusual format , these stories were intended for babies and very young children , but Potter was never at her best when writing for a clearly defined audience . A Fierce Bad Rabbit fails for this reason , and for its overt moralizing and stiff illustrations . Most damaging to the book 's success are the two rabbits . Both lack the adorable cuteness of Peter Rabbit and his kin .
A Fierce Bad Rabbit focuses on a traditional rather than a creative approach to storytelling and reflects Potter 's inexperience with babies and very young children . She appears to be more interested in naming and designating this or that rather than developing plot and exploring character . She names and directs the child 's attention to the rabbit 's tail , whiskers , and claws , for example , rather than to the animal 's facial expression . When the hunter appears , he is blandy introduced with , " This is a man with a gun . " The gun goes off as expected with the stereotypical " BANG ! " instead of a more creative onomatopoeia term Potter would have surely devised had she been writing this book for older children .
The panorama books are not Potter 's best efforts , but do demonstrate her ability to pare text and illustrations to essentials . She worked best though with more complicated plots and characters , and with specific settings rather than generalized backgrounds . Her inexperience with babies and very young children is evident in the original panorama format itself for a long strip of paper and a wallet are likely to be mutilated by the very young . The story in its current standard small book format of the Peter Rabbit series is considered to provide very young children with an introduction to books in general and to the world of Peter Rabbit .
Pop culture references : The book is referenced in the final episode of To Play the King . The Prime Minister states that Britain is " a nation of fierce , bad rabbits , " and that Potter , more than any other writer , influenced his personal prose style .
= Orange Line ( MBTA ) =
The Orange Line is one of the four subway lines of the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority . It extends from Forest Hills in Jamaica Plain , Boston in the south to Oak Grove in Malden in the north . It meets the Red Line at Downtown Crossing , the Blue Line at State , and the Green Line at Haymarket and North Station . It connects with Amtrak service at Back Bay and North Station , and MBTA Commuter Rail service at Back Bay , North Station , Ruggles station in Roxbury , and Forest Hills . From 1901 to 1987 , it provided the first elevated rapid transit in Boston ; the last elevated section was torn down in 1987 when the southern portion of the line was moved to the Southwest Corridor .
All stations on the Orange Line are handicapped accessible . These stations are equipped with high @-@ level platforms for easy boarding , as well as elevators for easy platform access .
= = History = =
= = = Construction = = =
The Main Line of the electric Boston Elevated Railway opened in segments , starting in 1901 . It proceeded from Sullivan Square along the Charlestown Elevated to the Canal Street Incline near North Station . It was carried underground by the Tremont Street Subway ( now part of the Green Line ) , returning above ground at the Pleasant Street Incline ( now closed , located just south of Boylston station ) . A temporary link connected from there to the Washington Street Elevated , which in 1901 ran from this point via Washington Street to Dudley Square ( which is most of what is now Phase 1 of the Silver Line ) .
Also in 1901 , the Atlantic Avenue Elevated opened , branching at Causeway Street to provide an alternate route through downtown Boston ( along the shoreline , where today there is no rail transit ) to the Washington Street Elevated .
In 1908 , a new Washington Street Tunnel opened , allowing Main Line service to travel from the Charlestown Elevated , underground via an additional new portal at the Canal Street Incline , under downtown Boston and back up again to meet the Washington Street Elevated and Atlantic Avenue Elevated near Chinatown . Use of the parallel Tremont Street Subway was returned exclusively to streetcars .
By 1909 , the Washington Street Elevated had been extended south to Forest Hills . Trains from Washington Street were routed through the new subway , either all the way to Sullivan Square , or back around in a loop via the subway and then the Atlantic Avenue Elevated .
In 1919 , the Charlestown Elevated was extended north from Sullivan Square to Everett , over surface right @-@ of @-@ way parallel to Alford Street / Broadway , with a drawbridge over the Mystic River . The Boston Elevated had long @-@ term plans to continue this extension further north to Malden , a goal which would only be achieved decades later , under public ownership and not via the Everett route .
= = = Closure of Atlantic Avenue Elevated and ownership changes = = =
Following a 1928 accident at a tight curve on Beach Street , the southern portion of the Atlantic Avenue Elevated , between South Station and Tower D on Washington Street , was closed ( except for rush @-@ hour trips from Dudley to North Station via the Elevated ) , breaking the loop ; non @-@ rush @-@ hour Atlantic Avenue service was reduced to a shuttle between North and South Stations . In 1938 , the remainder of the Atlantic Avenue Elevated was closed , leaving the subway as the only route through downtown - what is now the Orange Line between Haymarket and Chinatown stations .
Ownership of the railway was transferred from the private Boston Elevated Railway to the public Metropolitan Transit Authority ( MTA ) in 1947 ; the MTA was itself reconstituted as the modern Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority ( MBTA ) in 1964 .
= = = Orange Line naming = = =
The line was known as the Main Line Elevated under the Boston Elevated Railway , and the Forest Hills – Everett Elevated ( Route 2 on maps ) under the Metropolitan Transportation Authority .
After taking over operations in August 1964 , the MBTA began rebranding many elements of Boston 's public transportation network . On August 26 , 1965 , the four rapid transit lines were assigned colored names related to their history and geography . The Elevated became the Orange Line after Orange Street , an old name for the section of Washington Street immediately south of downtown , under which the Washington Street Tunnel runs . When designing the rebranding , Cambridge Seven Associates originally planned for yellow instead of orange , but yellow was rejected after testing .
In January and February 1967 , the four original Washington Street Tunnel stations were renamed . Transfer stations were given the same name for all lines : Winter and Summer stations plus Washington on the Red Line became Washington , Milk and State plus Devonshire on the Blue Line became State Street after the cross street , and Union and Friend plus Haymarket Square on the Green Line became Haymarket after Haymarket Square . Boylston Street was renamed Essex to avoid confusion with nearby Boylston station on the Green Line .
In May 1987 , Essex was renamed Chinatown after the adjacent Chinatown neighborhood , and Washington renamed Downtown Crossing after the adjacent shopping district . In March 2010 , New England Medical Center station was renamed as Tufts Medical Center two years after the eponymous hospital changed its name .
= = = Rerouting of Charlestown and Everett service = = =
The Boston Transportation Planning Review looked at the line in the 1970s , considering extensions to reach the beltway Route 128 , with termini at Reading in the north and Dedham in the south . As a result of this review , the Charlestown Elevated - which served the Charlestown neighborhood north of downtown Boston and the inner suburb Everett - was demolished and replaced in 1975 .
The Haymarket North Extension rerouted the Orange Line through an underwater crossing of the Charles River . Service in Charlestown was replaced with service along Boston and Maine tracks routed partially beneath an elevated section of Interstate 93 , ultimately to Wellington and then to Oak Grove in Malden , Massachusetts instead of Everett . Rail service to Everett was replaced with buses .
= = = Closure of Washington Street Elevated = = =
Construction of Interstate 95 into downtown Boston was cancelled in 1972 after local protest over the necessary demolition . However , land for I @-@ 95 's Southwest Corridor through Roxbury had already been cleared of buildings ; moreover , the state had already committed to using this vacant land for transportation purposes . As a result , instead of an 8 @-@ lane Interstate highway with a relocated Orange Line running in its median ( in a manner similar to the Chicago Transit Authority 's Dan Ryan and Congress and Jefferson Park lines ) , the space would be occupied by the realigned Orange Line , a reconstructed three @-@ track mainline for Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor and MBTA Commuter Rail trains , and a linear park . After this re @-@ routing was accomplished in 1987 , the Washington Street Elevated was torn down , the last major segment of the original elevated line to be demolished .
Between April 30 and May 3 , 1987 , the Washington Street Elevated south of the Chinatown station was closed to allow the Orange Line to be tied into the new Southwest Corridor . On May 4 , 1987 , the Orange Line was rerouted from the southern end of the Washington Street Tunnel onto the new Southwest Corridor . Instead of rising up to elevated tracks , it now veered west at the Massachusetts Turnpike and followed the Pike and the old Boston and Albany Railroad right @-@ of @-@ way to the existing MBTA Commuter Rail stop at Back Bay . It then continued along new tracks , partially covered and partially open but depressed , to Forest Hills . This MBTA right @-@ of @-@ way is also shared by Amtrak as part of the national Northeast Corridor intercity passenger rail service .
While ending more or less at the same terminus ( Forest Hills ) , the new routing bypassed significantly to the west of its previous route on Washington Street ; local residents were promised replacement service . Originally , plans provided for light rail vehicles street running in mixed traffic , from Washington Street to Dudley Square , then diverting southeastward on Warren Street towards Dorchester . In 2002 , Phase 1 of the Silver Line bus rapid transit was added to connect Washington Street to the downtown subways , attempting to address this service need . This replacement service was controversial , as many residents preferred the return of rail transportation .
= = = Renovations during the Big Dig = = =
Haymarket and North Station received major renovations during the Big Dig in the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century , as the Causeway Street Elevated portion of the Green Line was buried , its physical connection to the Orange Line was improved to make transfers easier , the Canal Street Incline was finally closed , and the Green Line was re @-@ rerouted through a new portal closer to the river , near the Zakim Bunker Hill Bridge .
= = = Assembly = = =
In the early 2000s , Somerville began planning an infill station between Sullivan and Wellington to serve the new Assembly Square development . The $ 57 million station was funded by the state 's Executive Office of Housing and Economic Development , FTA Section 5309 New Starts program , and Federal Realty Investment Trust ( the developer of Assembly Square ) . Construction began in late 2011 and finished in mid 2014 . The new station , Assembly , opened on September 2 , 2014 . It was the first new station on the MBTA subway system since 1987 .
= = = Winter issues and resiliency work = = =
During the unusually brutal winter of 2014 @-@ 2015 , the entire MBTA system was shut down on several occasions by heavy snowfalls . The aboveground sections of the Orange and Red lines were particularly vulnerable due to their exposed third rail , which iced over during storms . When a single train stopped due to power loss , other trains soon stopped as well ; without continually running trains pushing snow off the rails , the lines were quickly covered in snow . ( Because the Blue Line was built with overhead lines on its surface section due to its proximity to corrosive salt air , it was not subject to icing issues . )
During 2015 , the MBTA is implementing its $ 83 @.@ 7 million Winter Resiliency Program , much of which focused on preventing similar issues with the Orange and Red lines . The Southwest Corridor section of the Orange Line is located in a trench and is protected from the worst weather , but the 1970s @-@ built Haymarket North Extension had older infrastructure and was in worse shape . From Sullivan Square north , it is exposed to the weather and largely built on an embankment , rendering it more vulnerable . That section is receiving new heated third rail , switch heaters , and snow fences to reduce the impacts of inclement weather . The work requires bustitution of the line from Sullivan Square to Oak Grove on many weeknights .
= = = Historical routes = = =
= = Station listing = =
= = Rolling stock = =
The " T " previously had a fleet of Pullman @-@ Standard heavy rail cars for the Orange Line . These cars , known as 01100s , had been in service since the 1950s , and saw service on both the elevated and the northern extension before they were retired in 1981 . Several remained on the property for some time before being scrapped . The 01100 cars were a favorite for fans , as the small motorman 's cab enabled passengers to stand at the front for an operator 's @-@ eye view .
The Orange Line is standard gauge heavy rail and uses a third rail for power . The current fleet is the 01200 series , built between 1979 and 1981 by Hawker Siddeley Canada Car and Foundry ( now Bombardier Transportation ) of Thunder Bay , Ontario , Canada . They are 65 feet ( 20 m ) long and 9 ft 3 in ( 2 @.@ 8 m ) wide , with three pairs of doors on each side . They are based on the PA3 model used by PATH in New Jersey . There are 120 cars , numbered 01200 @-@ 01319 . All in @-@ service Orange Line trains run in six @-@ car configurations .
= = = New trains = = =
In late 2008 , the MBTA began the planning process for new Orange and Red Line vehicles . The agency planned for a simultaneous order for 146 Orange Line cars ( to replace the whole fleet ) and 74 Red Line cars ( to replace the older 1500 and 1600 series cars ) . A similar order was used in the late 1970s for the current Orange Line cars and the old Blue Line cars , ordered at the same time and largely identical except for size . In October 2013 , MassDOT announced plans for a $ 1 @.@ 3 billion subway car order for the Orange and Red Lines , which would provide 152 new cars to replace the current 120 @-@ car fleet and add more frequent service .
On October 22 , 2014 , the MassDOT Board awarded Chinese manufacturer CNR a $ 566 @.@ 6 million contract to build 152 replacement railcars for the Orange Line , as well as additional cars for the Red Line . CNR will build the Type B cars at a new manufacturing plant in Springfield , Massachusetts , with initial deliveries expected in 2018 and all cars in service by 2023 . In conjunction with the new rolling stock , the remainder of the $ 1 @.@ 3 billion allocated for the project will pay for testing , signal improvements and expanded maintenance facilities , as well as other related expenses .
While waiting for new cars , service has deteriorated due to maintenance problems with the old cars . The number of trains at rush hour was reduced from 17 ( 102 cars ) to 16 ( 96 cars ) in 2011 ; in the same year , daily ridership surpassed 200 @,@ 000 . Increased running times - largely due to longer dwell times from increased ridership - resulted in headways being lengthened from 5 minutes before 2011 to 6 minutes in 2016 . The increased fleet size with the new trains will allow headways to be reduced to 4 to 5 minutes at peak . In the interim , a 2016 test of platform markings at North Station which show boarding passengers where to stand to avoid blocking alighting passengers , resulted in a one @-@ third decrease in dwell times .
= = = Facilities = = =
The Orange Line has two tracks ( one in each direction ) and a third track between Wellington and the Charles River portal . This track is used to bypass construction on the other two , and for testing newly delivered cars for the Orange and Blue lines . The primary maintenance and storage facility is at Wellington Station . Had the Orange Line been extended to Reading , the third track would have been the northbound local track and the present @-@ day northbound track would have become the express track .
= Delaware Route 11 =
Delaware Route 11 ( DE 11 ) is a state highway in Kent County , Delaware . It runs from Maryland Route 302 ( MD 302 ) at the Maryland border near Templeville , Maryland northeast to DE 300 near Kenton . The road , known as Arthursville Road for its entire length , passes through the farmland of western Kent County and then through the town of Hartly , where it intersects DE 44 . The route was built as a state highway in the 1920s and 1930s and received the DE 11 designation by 1936 .
= = Route description = =
DE 11 begins at the Maryland border in western Kent County , where the road continues west into Maryland as MD 302 towards Templeville . From the state line , DE 11 heads northeast on two @-@ lane , undivided Arthursville Road through a mix of woods and farms , with occasional residences . The road enters the town of Hartly , where it passes several homes . In the center of town , the route crosses DE 44 and heads north before it curves northeast out of Hartly . DE 11 continues into rural areas , making another turn north . The road runs northeast and comes to an end at DE 300 to the southwest of Kenton .
DE 11 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 2 @,@ 413 vehicles at the eastern terminus at DE 300 to a low of 1 @,@ 443 vehicles at the south end of Hartly . None of DE 11 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
By 1920 what is now DE 11 existed as an unimproved county road . The portion of the route north of Hartly was built as a paved state highway in 1927 . The road south of Hartly was taken over by the state and paved by 1931 . DE 11 was assigned to its current alignment by 1936 . The route has not changed since its inception .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Kent County .
= Typhoon Olive ( 1952 ) =
Typhoon Olive was the strongest Pacific typhoon in 1952 . The thirteenth tropical storm and the ninth typhoon of the season , it developed about 1 @,@ 600 mi ( 2 @,@ 600 km ) southwest of Honolulu , Hawaii on September 13 . The next day , the system attained tropical storm intensity . Beginning to rapidly intensify , Olive attained typhoon intensity on September 15 . Olive reached Category 5 intensity on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale on September 16 .
Olive produced significant damage on Wake Island , where wind gusts reached 142 mph ( 229 km / h ) . Significant flooding was reported , and the majority of the structures were destroyed . However , few injuries were reported , and the island 's facilities were restored in 1953 . Typhoon Olive remains one of the most intense tropical cyclones to affect the island .
= = Meteorological history = =
On September 8 , an area of disturbed weather , located near 12 @.@ 0 ° N 169 @.@ 0 ° W , was plotted as a tropical wave on surface weather maps . Operationally , however , the system was not classified as a tropical storm until September 15 ; however , postseason analysis determined that the system acquired tropical storm intensity on 0000 UTC on September 15 . Tropical Storm Olive , moving west @-@ northwest near 10 mph ( 16 km / h ) , turned toward Wake Island on September 15 . Around 1800 UTC Olive was upgraded into typhoon , with winds of 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) . Continuing to intensify , Olive passed near Wake Island , where maximum sustained winds of 127 mph ( 204 km / h ) were recorded . Around this time , reconnaissance aircraft reported a minimum central pressure of 945 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 91 inHg ) . On September 16 , Olive intensified from a Category 2 to a Category 4 typhoon , attained the equivalence of super typhoon intensity , and strengthened to a peak intensity of 185 mph ( 298 km / h ) the following day far from land . On September 18 , Olive weakened from a Category 5 to a Category 2 typhoon and recurved northeast . On September 19 , the cyclone lost typhoon intensity . Tropical Storm Olive transitioned into an extratropical cyclone and was last monitored on September 21 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
On Wake Island , 750 people sheltered in World War II bunkers . Olive , the second typhoon to affect the island since 1935 , produced sustained wind speeds of 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) and peak gusts of 142 mph ( 229 km / h ) on the island . Significant flooding was also recorded . Damage was severe ; it is estimated that 85 % of the island 's structures were demolished due to the storm . All of the homes and the island 's hotel were destroyed . Additionally , the island 's chapel and quonset huts were destroyed . The island 's LORAN station , operated by the United States Coast Guard , was also destroyed . On September 18 , water and power services were restored . The facilities on the island were fully restored in 1953 . The total cost to repair damages caused by Olive amounted to $ 1 @.@ 6 million ( 1952 USD ; $ 13 million 2009 USD ) . No fatalities occurred on the island , and four injuries were reported . None of the 230 Pan American World Airways employees received injuries .
= Mario Party 4 =
Mario Party 4 ( Japanese : マリオパーティ4 , Hepburn : Mario Pātī Fō ) is a party video game for the GameCube , developed by Hudson Soft and published by Nintendo . Mario Party 4 is the fourth installment in a series of board game style , and was the first game in the series to be released for GameCube . It was released in North America on October 21 , 2002 , in Japan on November 8 , 2002 , and in Europe and Australia on November 29 , 2002 . It is the fourth game in the Mario Party series . Mario Party 4 is followed by Mario Party 5 .
Mario Party 4 features eight playable characters : Mario , Luigi , Princess Peach , Yoshi , Wario , Donkey Kong , Princess Daisy and Waluigi from the Mario series , who can be directed as characters on six themed game boards in the game . The objective of the game is to earn as many stars as possible , which are obtained by purchase from a single predefined space on the game board . Each character 's movement is determined by a roll of a die , with a roll from each player forming a single turn . Each turn in Mario Party 4 is followed by a minigame in which characters compete for coins they can use to purchase items and stars . It is the final game in the Mario Party series to include Donkey Kong as a playable character until Mario Party 10 for the Wii U.
Mario Party 4 received above @-@ average reviews from the media , although there were several complaints regarding a lack of originality and slow pacing during games . The game won the Family Game of The Year award at the Interactive Achievement Awards of 2003 .
= = Gameplay = =
Mario Party 4 is based on an interactive board game played by four characters from the Mario series , which are controlled either by the player or the game 's Artificial Intelligence ( AI ) . The game features eight playable characters , although they do not have any different gameplay attributes from each other ( save for favouring certain items when controlled by the AI ) . Players can arrange their characters into opposing pairs , or play independently in a battle royale . As with most board games , each participant takes turns in rolling a dice block ( 1 to 10 ) to determine the number of spaces moved on the board . A minigame follows each round of four turns , which yields a coin prize for the winner . A set number of these are required to purchase a star , with the victor being the character with the most stars at the end of the game . The length of a game can vary as the predetermined number of minigames is adjustable in multiples of five . Stars are usually attained by purchase at the specific space on the board where it is set , with the star location changing to another space after every acquisition . Three extra stars can be obtained if " Bonus mode " is switched on , with a star each awarded to the player with the most minigames won , most coins collected , and most happening spaces visited . This mode also contains hidden blocks , which will grant either coins or a star when located and hit .
Mario Party 4 features six boards , five of which take their name from a secondary Mario character , such as Goomba . The boards are themed to correspond with their titular character , and contain specialised features to reflect this such as the roulette wheel in the casino @-@ based " Goomba 's Greedy Gala " . The on @-@ board characters follow a set route , although this becomes optional when arriving at a junction . The boards also contain multiple " Events " , which are generic stations placed on every board . These include " Lottery Shops " , where money is gambled on item prizes , and " Boo Houses " , where Boo is paid to steal either coins or a star from an opponent . The majority of spaces on the boards are denoted by either blue or red circles , with blue granting coins and red deducting them . Alternative spaces are also available , such as " happening spaces " , which trigger an event exclusive to the current board . " Mushroom Spaces " grant the user either a " Mega " or " Mini " Mushroom — " Mega Mushrooms " extend the movement range while " Mini Mushrooms " curtail it . Additionally , giant characters will bypass " Events " and stars while reduced characters can access special areas on the board via pipes . Multiple other items can be bought from on @-@ board shops , such as " Swap Cards " , which exchanges items between two players .
The minigames in Mario Party 4 are short , unrelated events with a specified objective that the players must attempt to meet to earn coins as a reward . Minigames are unlocked during the main " Party Mode " , although they can be played outside of the game board context in " Minigame Mode " . This allows the player to either freely play minigames ; select which minigames they want , and control conditions for victory in a match , such as the " 3 @-@ win @-@ match " ; or play 2 vs. 2 minigames to claim a space on a tic @-@ tac @-@ toe board . Minigames are split into seven categories : " 4 @-@ player " , " 1 vs 3 " , " 2 vs 2 " , " Battle " , " Bowser " , " Story " , and " etc . " . The first three occur randomly after each set of turns during a party , while " Battle " can only be triggered by landing on the corresponding space on the board . Unlike regular minigames , the players must contribute their money and then compete to reclaim it or earn more by winning the minigame . There are also rarer groups of minigames , such as the Bowser minigames requiring the loser to forfeit items or coins and the minimini games , which can only be accessed by characters reduced by the " Mini Mushroom " . A set of minigames that cannot be played during normal conditions are located in the " Extra room " , featuring Thwomp and Whomp .
The game features a loose plot in that the player must progress through " Story mode " to earn presents from the eponymous characters of the pertaining boards . These are presents that had been brought to the player 's birthday party in the game , which must be completed by earning the most stars in a board game and subsequently defeating the present giver in a special one @-@ on @-@ one Story minigame . This is all contained within the " Party Cube " , which grants the wishes of its users ; the story 's climax comes in the form of Bowser , who wishes to disrupt the party with his own board , hosted by Koopa Kid .
= = Development = =
Mario Party 4 , like all games in the Mario Party series , except for Mario Party 9 and Mario Party : Island Tour , was developed by Hudson Soft and published by Nintendo . It is the last Mario Party game to have Donkey Kong as a playable character ( until Mario Party 10 ) and to have Wario wearing his classic long @-@ sleeve shirt . It is also the first Mario Party game to have Yoshi 's main voice replacing his classic " record @-@ scratching " voice from the first three Mario Party games , and the first to have default teams . It is also the first Mario game to feature Princess Peach and Princess Daisy 's current main dresses , including Daisy 's short orange hair , with her current gold crown , and Caucasian skin color . It is also the only Mario Party game to have Bowser as a playable character , though only in a hidden minigame .
The game was first announced in a 2002 Nintendo press conference in Tokyo , with the announcements made by Shigeru Miyamoto and Satoru Iwata . It was targeted as part of the 2002 roster of Nintendo games , which they rated as their " biggest year " for software at the time . Nintendo presented a playable demonstration of the game at E3 2002 , featuring a limited set of minigames . The game featured voice acting from Charles Martinet ( Mario , Luigi , Wario , Waluigi and Donkey Kong ) , Jen Taylor ( Peach , Daisy and Toad ) , and Kazumi Totaka ( Yoshi ) , all three of whom worked on previous games in the Mario franchise .
= = Reception = =
Mario Party 4 received " average " reviews according to the review aggregation website Metacritic . In Japan , Famitsu gave it a score of 30 out of 40 .
GameSpot 's Ryan Davis praised the game 's minigame format , although he noted that " players who have already exhausted themselves on previous Mario Party titles may not find enough here to draw them back again " . Eurogamer 's Tom Bramwell acknowledged the variety and thematic features of the boards , but thought they were too large , resulting in a " glacial pace " when coupled with the on @-@ board animations . Despite this , IGN praised the boards for the thematic features on each one , which helped to " ease the tediousness " . The game 's controls were lauded for their compatibility with the minigames and simplicity , with most minigames requiring simple actions and button presses .
The game 's multiplayer was praised by reviewers , especially in comparison to the single @-@ player " Story Mode " . The multiplayer element was noted for appealing to a diverse demographic for its party game qualities and being an " ' everybody ' title " . Conversely , " Story mode " was criticised for exacerbating issues relating to pace , which was already remarked as having " snail 's pace " . Additionally , the Artificial Intelligence involved was bemoaned for contributing an imbalance in the game , with the random availability of quality items giving players an unfair advantage . The " reversal of fortune " space , which initiates a minigame by which the victor would receive another player 's stars or coins , was criticised for similar reasons , as it potentially penalises players who do well in the game . The minigames were mainly met with a positive reaction , with critics praising their simplicity . The grouping feature in the minigames were also welcomed for contributing a new dynamic of gameplay , although Bramwell commented that " It might seem a little odd to gang up with your competitors in some cases " .
Most reviewers noted the game 's graphical improvement from its predecessors , with the minigames ' visual style in particular receiving praise . Although IGN remarked that the game was graphically a " huge improvement since we last saw the franchise " , they proceeded to comment that " It 's a mixed bag of good and bad " . GameSpot complained that the character animations appear " a bit lifeless " and that the boards were not aesthetically pleasing . The game 's audio was met with an ambivalent reaction , with critics enjoying the music but complaining about the " annoying " character catchphrases . While not memorable , the music was lauded for fitting the game 's whimsical nature . Mario Party 4 won the " Family Game of The Year " award at the 2003 Interactive Achievement Awards . The game sold 1 @.@ 1 million units from its release to December 27 , 2007 in North America .
= Wim Umboh =
Ahmad Salim ( 26 March 1933 – 24 January 1996 ) , better known by his birth name Wim Umboh but also known by the Chinese name Liem Yan Yung , was an Indonesian director who is best known for his melodramatic romances .
Born in North Sulawesi , Umboh was orphaned at the age of eight and later adopted by a Chinese @-@ Indonesian doctor . After high school , he moved to Jakarta and found work at Golden Arrow Studios as a janitor and , later , translator . In 1955 he made his screen debut as a director with Dibalik Dinding ( Behind the Walls ) . During his career , which spanned more than forty years , Umboh directed close to fifty movies , which garnered 29 Citra Awards from the Indonesian Film Festival . He was diagnosed with liver cancer in 1978 but , after recovering , he continued to work until his death from complications of diabetes and a stroke . Umboh was married three times and had two children .
An authoritarian director who strove for perfection , Umboh was known for experimenting with different technologies and , according to fellow director Teguh Karya , memorised the entire dialogue of his films during shooting . He preferred medium and close @-@ up shots . Umboh influenced numerous Indonesian directors , including Karya , Slamet Rahardjo , Garin Nugroho , and Arifin C. Noer , and his work launched the careers of several Indonesian stars , including Sophan Sophiaan and Roy Marten . Among his most famous works are Pengantin Remadja ( Teenage Bride ; 1971 ) , Mama ( 1972 ) , and Pengemis dan Tukang Becak ( The Beggar and the Pedicab Driver ; 1978 ) , the last of which was Umboh 's personal favourite .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Umboh was born in Wauilinei , Manado , North Sulawesi , Dutch East Indies , on 26 March 1933 to a Chinese @-@ Indonesian family . He had 11 siblings . When Umboh was seven , their mother died , and when his father died the following year Umboh was adopted by a Chinese @-@ Indonesian doctor named Liem . After being adopted , he received the Chinese name Liem Yan Yung and began learning Mandarin . While working part @-@ time as a shoemaker , he finished high school ; in high school he began writing scripts for stageplays . In 1952 Umboh decided to go to Jakarta .
Umboh was introduced to the film industry in 1953 by Boes Boestami , who secured him a job as a janitor at Golden Arrow Studios , owned by Chok Chin Hsin ( also known as CC Hardy ) . He later became a Mandarin @-@ Indonesian translator for imported films and studied filmmaking from Chok . In the 1950s , he was a member of the Senen Artists ' Group , a group which met at Senen in Jakarta .
= = = Career = = =
Umboh made his directorial debut with Dibalik Dinding ( Behind the Walls ) in 1955 . This was followed in 1956 by Terang Bulan Terang di Tengah Kali ( Moonlight Shining in the Middle of the Stream ) , which also marked the first acting role of future director Sjumandjaja . That same year , he married R.O. Unarsih , with whom he had had a daughter named Maria the following year ; the couple divorced in 1957 . Umboh founded Aries Film together with Any Mambo in 1960 , and the studio released its first film , Istana Jang Hilang ( The Missing Palace ) . Three years later , he directed his daughter in Bintang Ketjil ( Small Star ) .
Umboh 's film Sembilan ( Nine ; 1967 ) was the first fully Indonesian film to be both in colour and CinemaScope ; it was released at a time when the Indonesian film industry was incredulous of the profitability of colour films . Umboh released Pengantin Remadja ( Teenage Bride ) in 1971 , which went on to win the Asian Film Festival ; the film cast Sophan Sophiaan and Widyawati in its starring roles and led to the pair taking romantic roles together several more times . Umboh 's 1972 film Mama was the first local production shot in 70 mm film and stereo sound . The film was also shot without a screenplay ; instead , Sjumandjaja wrote the script while shooting was in progress . In 1973 Umboh cast Sophan Sophiaan and Widyawati together again for his film Pernikahan ( Wedding ) , which went on to win eight Citra Awards at the Indonesian Film Festival ; the win was a record which held for 13 years , until Teguh Karya 's Ibunda ( Mother ) took away nine Citras in 1986 . On 23 May 1974 , he married actress Paula Roemokoy , a divorcée 17 years his junior , in a civil ceremony in Jakarta .
Umboh fell ill around the time he was filming Pengemis dan Tukang Becak ( The Beggar and the Pedicab Driver ; 1978 ) , which starred Christine Hakim and Alan Nuary . According to Sophan Sophian , Umboh fell in the bathroom when the film was being shot in Surakarta , Central Java , leaving Umboh was unconscious for eleven days . The film was finished by Lukman Hakim Nain , and Umboh was sent back to Jakarta after several blood infusions in Surakarta . He was treated at Husuda Hospital in Mangga Besar and diagnosed with aggressive liver cancer . At Husuda , he spent a week in the intensive care unit , during which time he lost 9 kilograms ( 20 lb ) , before being put in a regular room . The hospital stay devastated him financially , which led to a 2 @-@ year struggle with the tax office over back taxes . A heavy smoker , after his struggle with cancer he cut back on the habit .
By August 1980 Umboh had recovered enough strength to direct his next film , Disini Cinta Pertama Kali Bersemi ( Here Love Bloomed for the First Time ) , based on the novel by Mira W. Shortly before directing Putri Seorang Jenderal ( A General 's Daughter ; an adaptation of Motinggo Busye 's novel of the same name ) in 1981 , Umboh divorced Roemokoy . Umboh converted to Islam in 1983 and changed his name to Ahmad Salim . On 24 August of the following year Umboh married Inne Ermina Chomid , a police officer 's daughter of Sundanese descent 28 years his junior . As his health was improving , Umboh continued to make films , including Kabut Perkawinan ( The Fog of Wedlock ; 1984 ) . Umboh and Chomid had a son , William Umboh Ikhsan Salim , in 1986 .
= = = Later years and death = = =
After the Indonesian film industry crashed in 1992 Umboh directed two television serials : Pahlawan Tak Dikenal ( Unknown Hero ; 1994 ) and Apsari . The crash , along with his long illness , led his finances to destabilise , to the point where he lived in government housing . In 1994 Suara Pembaharuan ( now Suara Pembaruan ) , inaccurately reported him having died , a claim which Umboh publicly refuted . Umboh died at 4 : 45 am WIB ( UTC + 7 ) on 24 January 1996 in Jakarta of complications from diabetes and a stroke . He was buried in Jeruk Purut Cemetery , South Jakarta . Three weeks before his death , he was reportedly in good health and preparing to film a new serial entitled Gejolak Kampus Muda ( Symptoms of a Youth Campus ) .
= = Style = =
Umboh was an authoritarian perfectionist , who often reshot scenes he felt flawed and refused input from the actors . He sometimes worked together with other directors , including Sjumandjaja , Misbach Yusa Biran , and Arifin C. Noer , to improve the film 's flow . These collaborations influenced the atmosphere of the films ; for example , films shot with Noer like Sesuatu yang Indah ( Something Beautiful ; 1976 ) came across as surrealistic , while collaborations with Sjumandjaja were more realistic . Shooting scripts were often prepared minutes before shooting , but , according to Karya , Umboh memorised each line of dialogue and used his recollection during dubbing .
Most of the films directed by Umboh were romantic melodramas , a genre which had existed in Indonesia since the 1950s but was refined by Umboh . However , he preferred shooting films with a social message ; he considered Pengemis dan Tukang Becak his favourite film . When shooting , Umboh minimised his use of master shots , instead preferring to use medium and close @-@ up shots ; his obituary in Kompas notes that around 80 per cent of any given Umboh film used these latter two shots .
= = Legacy = =
Kompas notes that several Indonesian directors have been directly influenced by Umboh . Slamet Rahardjo and Garin Nugroho have continued his exploratory shooting techniques , while his editing and framing methods were further developed by Teguh Karya , Sophian , and Noer . The careers of numerous actors were launched by Umboh 's films , including Sophiaan , Roy Marten , Tanti Yosepha , and Yenny Rachman . In a 1996 interview with Republika , Widyawati credited Umboh for her marriage to Sophiaan as he had introduced them for Pengantin Remadja . In a eulogy at Umboh 's funeral , Rahardjo – then head of the Television Actors Guild – said that the Indonesian film industry would be " nothing " if it were not for Umboh 's contributions .
= = Awards = =
During his career , Umboh 's films received 29 Citra Awards , nine of which were specifically for Umboh as director or editor . Award @-@ winning films he directed include Pengantin Remadja , Mama , and Pengemis dan Tukang Becak .
= = Filmography = =
= Lisa Gets an " A " =
" Lisa Gets an " A " " is the seventh episode of The Simpsons ' tenth season . It first aired on Fox in the United States on November 22 , 1998 . In the episode , Lisa cheats on a test for which she fails to study and receives an A + + + grade , but becomes guilt @-@ ridden . Meanwhile , Homer buys a lobster with the intention of fattening him up to eat . However , he becomes attached to it and decides to keep it as a pet named Pinchy .
" Lisa Gets an " A " " was directed by Bob Anderson , and although it was written by Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , neither the main storyline nor the subplot was conceived by him . The main storyline was instead pitched by former staff writer Ron Hauge , while Richard Appel , who also was a staff writer , had pitched the episode 's subplot for a long time . The episode satirizes educational establishments , and features a parody of the video game Crash Bandicoot .
In its original American broadcast , " Lisa Gets an " A " " was seen by approximately 8 million viewers , and finished in 51st place in ratings the week it aired . Following its broadcast , a scene in the episode garnered criticism from the The Catholic League , but the controversy went largely ignored by The Simpsons ' staff . The episode received generally positive reviews from critics , and is considered one of the best episodes of the season .
= = Plot = =
After a long morning at church , the Simpsons go to the grocery store Eatie Gourmet 's to take advantage of free samples in lieu of a Sunday brunch and Bart 's suggestion that the family go Catholic so they can have " communion wafers and booze " . At the store , Homer wants to buy a lobster , but since the larger ones are too expensive , he decides to buy a small one and fatten him up before he " eats the profits " . Homer also tries to look for normal flavors of ice cream among the unusually named flavors at the " Ken & Harry 's " factory plant , so he puts Lisa into the freezer to look for some in the back , which ultimately causes her to catch a cold .
Although Lisa hates the idea , Marge wants Lisa to stay home from school for the next few days to recover from her cold . Lisa is derisive about playing one of Bart 's video games in order to pass the time , but soon becomes addicted to it , and consequently ignores the homework on The Wind in the Willows that she is given by Ralph . She even fakes the perpetuation of her illness so that she can continue playing the game . When Marge finally compels her to return to school , Lisa realizes she is unprepared for a test on the book , having not read it . In a panic she visits Bart , who brings her to Nelson , from whom she gets the test answers . Miss Hoover grades the tests over lunch , and Lisa is awarded the rare grade of A + + + . Meanwhile , Homer has become attached to his lobster and names him Pinchy . When the time comes to cook Pinchy , Homer cannot bring himself to do it , and instead declares him a part of the family .
The family is extremely proud of Lisa 's " achievement " , although she is guilt @-@ ridden at having cheated . The next day at school , Principal Skinner informs Lisa that her test grade has brought Springfield Elementary 's GPA up to the state 's minimum standard , and they now qualify for a basic assistance grant . Lisa admits that she cheated on the test , but Skinner and Superintendent Chalmers persuade her to keep it a secret so the school can keep the money . During the presentation , Lisa says that she understands about how desperate the school needs the basic assistance grant money , but also says that the truth is more important , confessing that she cheated . However , this was anticipated by Skinner , who fooled Lisa by staging a fake presentation before the real one , with the comptroller being revealed as Otto wearing a latex mask , allowing the school to keep the money anyway . Meanwhile , Homer discovers that he has accidentally cooked Pinchy while giving him a hot bath . Later that night , a distraught Homer eats his late friend , and finds him delicious .
= = Production = =
" Lisa Gets an " A " " was written by Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham and directed by Bob Anderson . Although the episode was written by Maxtone @-@ Graham , neither of the plots were conceived by him . The main plot involving Lisa was pitched by fellow Simpsons writer Ron Hauge , and the sub @-@ plot involving Homer adopting a lobster was conceived by former staff writer Richard Appel . The writers found it difficult to " get the subplot go [ ing ] , " and it took a long time to come up with the third act , according to Maxtone @-@ Graham . The writers debated what name Homer would give his lobster . Hauge pitched that his name would be " Shelly " , however they eventually settled on naming him " Pinchy " . Hauge also pitched the name of the grocery store Eatie Gourmet 's . At the end of the episode , when Homer is eating Pinchy , a lot of the dialogue was ad @-@ libbed by Dan Castellaneta , who portrays Homer among other characters in the series . It took a long time for the writers to come up with an ending to the episode 's main storyline . Eventually , they settled on an ending that parodied the 1973 caper film The Sting .
In real life , lobsters are black in color , turning red after being cooked . However , in " Lisa Gets an " A " " , Pinchy is red throughout the whole episode . The Dash Dingo video game was difficult to animate , according to Hauge , as the animators had to " make it look less than The Simpsons style " . In order to achieve the desired effect , the animators decided to pixelate the video game . The episode features the second appearance of Gavin , who first appeared in the season seven episode " Marge Be Not Proud " , and " Range Rover Mom " , Gavin 's mother . They were both voiced by Tress MacNeille . The false Comptroller Atkins was portrayed by series regular cast member Harry Shearer , while the real Atkins was voiced by Hank Azaria , who is also a regular cast member for the series . The name of the character was based on the name of Jacqueline Atkins , a writer 's assistant on The Simpsons . The episode also features Marcia Wallace , Pamela Hayden , Maggie Roswell , Russi Taylor and Karl Wiedergott .
The episode satirizes the " skewed priorities " sometimes associated with educational establishments . Even though Principal Skinner knows that Lisa cheated on her test , he " looks the other way " so that the school meets the requirements for government @-@ funding . In the DVD commentary for the episode , the episodes showrunner Mike Scully opined that " there is a lot of truth in this story [ ... ] There are certain requirements that the school has to meet in order to get state funding , and there are things that they 'd rather look the other way on if it 's gonna cost them money . This does really happen . "
While staying home from school , Lisa plays a video game called Dash Dingo . The video game is a spoof of the 1996 platform video game Crash Bandicoot . In a scene in the episode , Lisa imagines that she will fail the test . She imagines that the president of Harvard University , voiced by Dan Castellaneta , will be disappointed in her and recommend her to Brown University , where Otto was apparently on faculty . The scene was conceived by Maxtone @-@ Graham , whose alma mater was Brown University . He stated that all his friends from Brown and Harvard " loved " the joke . The liqueur Drambuie is also mentioned in the episode . With the government @-@ funded grant money , Springfield Elementary are able to afford a Coleco , a 1980s home computer .
= = Release and reception = =
= = = Broadcast and controversy = = =
In its original American broadcast on November 22 , 1998 , " Lisa Gets an " A " " received an 8 @.@ 0 rating , according to Nielsen Media Research , translating to approximately 8 million viewers . The episode finished in 51st place in the ratings for the week of November 16 – 22 , 1998 , tied with the ABC program Sabrina the Teenage Witch .
After its original broadcast , the episode garnered scrutiny from The Catholic League . In a scene in the episode , the Simpsons are on their way home from a church service , and Bart says " I ’ m starving . Mom , can we go Catholic so we can get Communion wafers and booze ? " To which Marge replies " No , no one is going Catholic . Three children is enough , thank you . " In an issue of the Catholic League 's monthly newspaper Catalyst , the organization wrote " The Fox animated TV show , " The Simpsons , " is loved by millions for its engaging characters . It was with regret , therefore , that we were forced to take issue with its November 22 episode [ " Lisa Gets an " A " " ] . " They added that William Anthony Donohue , the current president of the organization , had sent a letter to Fox , reading " Can you possibly explain why this dialogue was included in the show ? " In response , Thomas Chavez , Fox 's manager for broadcast standards and practices , wrote a " lengthy " letter , in part re @-@ printed on the same issue of Catalyst . It read :
According to Mark I. Pinsky of The gospel according to the Simpsons : bigger and possibly even better ! edition with a new afterword exploring South park , Family guy , and other animated TV shows , the Catholic League was " not persuaded " by Chavez ' letter , and stated that they " sarcastically " responded in Catalyst : " Now why didn ’ t we think of that ? Just goes to show how thoughtful the Hollywood gang really is . " According to Pinsky , the controversy did not have any impact on the show and was " simply ignored " by The Simpsons ' staff .
= = = Home release and critical reception = = =
On August 7 , 2007 , the episode was released as part of The Simpsons : The Complete Tenth Season DVD box set . Matt Groening , Mike Scully , George Meyer , Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , Ron Hauge , Yeardley Smith and Mike B. Anderson participated in the DVD 's audio commentary of the episode .
Following its home video release , " Lisa Gets an " A " " received generally positive reviews from critics . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood of I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide described it as " A fabulously defining moment in Lisa 's life , showing what happens if you let your guard slip . " They continued by writing " What makes this work even more is the false ending which shows that everyone in Springfield is as adept at predicting Lisa 's morality as the viewers are . " They concluded their review by calling it " An absolutely inspired piece of comedy . " Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide wrote that he " [ took ] great delight in the way this episode skewers the skewed priorities of the educational establishment . " He added that " Lisa acts like her usual prissy self , but that factor acts to allow the show to succeed . " He concluded by writing that the episode " connects to real emotions pretty well and offers some funny moments . " Digital Entertainment New 's Jake McNeill described it as one of the season 's best episodes , giving particular praise to its subplot , which he called " great " . James Plath of DVD Town wrote that " the real fun in this episode comes from Homer 's attachment to a lobster he brings home . " Giving the episode a more mixed review , the Currentfilm.com staff called it " memorable " , although " the majority of the episode remains uneven " . They wrote that " The episode remains entertaining simply because of Homer 's subplot , " and compared Pinchy to Mojo the Helper Monkey from the season nine episode " Girly Edition " and Stampy the Elephant from the season five episode " Bart Gets an Elephant " , which they considered to be " great ( and brief ) Simpsons pets " .
= Max Havoc : Curse of the Dragon =
Max Havoc : Curse of The Dragon is a straight @-@ to @-@ DVD action film directed by Albert Pyun and Isaac Florentine on the island of Guam in 2004 . Swiss actor Mickey Hardt plays Max Havoc , an ex @-@ kickboxer turned sports photographer . Max has to help an art dealer and her sister , played by Joanna Krupa and Tawney Sabley , flee from a yakuza clan trying to retrieve a valuable jade dragon statue . Aimed at the European market , the film was planned to kickstart a franchise , which would have included a sequel and a syndicated television series in the United States , but these plans did not materialize . A sequel , Max Havoc : Ring of Fire , was eventually shot in Canada .
The film was originally slated to be directed in Hawaii , but a series of mishaps led to filming on Guam . Most of the film was shot there by Pyun , including a cameo by Carmen Electra . A smaller part was added by Florentine to improve the film 's marketability , including added cameos by David Carradine and Richard Roundtree . It premiered on Guam in 2005 and on DVD in 2007 , earning around US $ 250 @,@ 000 . Most critics reviews were negative , chiding the plot , casting and the cliché portrayal of Guam , but some praised fight choreography and the " so bad it 's good " value .
Max Havoc : Curse of the Dragon has garnered press through lawsuits regarding its financing . Guam Economic Development and Commerce Authority ( GEDCA ) gave a $ 800 @,@ 000 loan guarantee to producer John F. S. Laing , which was forfeited as the film failed to recoup the investment . GEDCA alleged Laing defrauded them , while he claimed Guam authorities promised him funding he did not receive . This kicked off a lengthy legal battle , ending with a settlement between Laing and GEDCA .
= = Plot = =
The story centers around Max Havoc ( Mickey Hardt ) , an ex @-@ kickboxing champion known as " Mad Max " , turned globetrotting sports photographer . Max quit kickboxing after accidentally killing a fellow boxer during an unlikely comeback in the ring , but still suffers from flashbacks to the fight . After a bar scuffle over a biker girl ( Nikki Ziering ) , his agent ( Diego Walraff ) sends him to Guam for a publicity photo shoot . There , Max encounters Tahsi ( Richard Roundtree ) , his former kickboxing coach , now an antiques dealer , and promises to catch up with him later . While photographing an outrigger canoe race from a jet ski , Max rescues Christy Goody ( Tawney Sablan ) , a vacationer who was about to be unwittingly run over by the canoes . In the process , he knocks over one of the canoes , earning the wrath its head rower , Moko ( Pyun veteran Vincent Klyn ) . He is also admonished by Jane ( Joanna Krupa ) , Christy 's sister , for his brazen driving . However , she later apologizes and agrees to a dinner date .
In the meantime , Tahsi is approached by a thief ( Danielle Burgio ) , who has fled to Guam with a stolen rare jade dragon and wants to pawn it , promising to return in 24 hours . Tahsi agrees , but does not promise not to sell it . Indeed , Jane Goody , who turns out to be a friend of his , visits his shop and buys the dragon , despite Tahsi 's reluctance . She later has it appraised , learning it is worth many times more than she paid for it , heightening her hopes of paying the tuition for her sister 's medical degree . Later , an enforcer ( Arnold Chon ) for the yakuza group Black Dragons , the original owners of the jade dragon , appears in Tahsi 's shop with the thief in a headlock , demanding the figurine 's return . Tahsi refuses to reveal Jane 's identity and is killed along with the thief .
Max and the Goody sisters are soon involved in a streetfight with henchwoman Eiko ( Ji Ling ) . After Max saves the sisters , and is involved in a further fight with Quicksilver ( Johnny Trí Nguyễn ) , he is contacted by the leader of the criminals , Aya ( Marie Matiko ) , who is also Eiko 's lesbian lover . The Black Dragons explain that the jade dragon is actually an urn containing the ashes of their former leader , Yoshida , and that they believe it holds mystical value and will stop at nothing to get it back . Max and the sisters agree to return the dragon at noon the following day in return for their own personal safety . They are helped by locals , including beach vendor Debbie ( Carmen Electra ) and Moko , with whom Max reconciled at the scene of Tahsi 's killing . Nevertheless , Jane is torn between returning the figurine and protecting their lives , and ensuring that her sister finishes her M.D. The deal falls through as Jane 's cell phone battery dies , and she does not arrive at the meet in time . Max escapes the angry henchmen on a jet ski .
The head of the Black Dragons ( David Carradine , credited as Grand Master ) , pays a visit to Guam to take the matter into his own hands . It turns out that he is a man prominently seen ringside in Max 's flashbacks . The Black Dragons kidnap Christy , enticing Max and Jane to come to their hideout . Max and Grand Master reach an agreement that Max will fight Arnold Chon 's character to death . If Max wins , Max and the Goody sisters can go free . Max almost deals a deadly blow to the enforcer 's head , but stops himself at the last moment , sparing his life , yet winning the fight . He turns over the urn to the yakuza , and receives a priceless katana as a gift . Max and his allies celebrate the end of the adventure in a party . The film ends with Max embracing Jane Goody on a beach during sunset .
= = Cast = =
Director Albert Pyun cast Mickey Hardt as Max Havoc , as he was planning " toward European TV appeal , " based on Hardt 's role in the Donnie Yen film The Twins Effect and German TV series Puma : Fighter With a Heart ( German : Der Puma – Kämpfer mit Herz ) , where Yen did fight choreography . He originally planned to cast Joanna Krupa as the younger sister , Christy Goody , with Jane 's part going to an established actress , but Krupa ended up playing the older sister , and local actress Tawney Sablan was cast in her stead in her first film role . Rapper Fat Joe and Taiwanese actress Shu Qi did not make the cast , according to Pyun , due to film 's financial problems . Billed as a top star , Carmen Electra appears in two brief scenes as a beach vendor , who flirts with Max Havoc when he returns a life jacket .
= = Production = =
According to Pyun , the idea of Max Havoc has existed since at least 2001 . At the time , he was asked to direct the film in Hawaii . After the September 11 attacks , it was decided that filming in Miami was more economically viable . Pyun said that Hawaiian film star Mark Dacascos was interested in playing the character of Max Havoc , but that he backed out after anthrax appeared in Florida . Bali was considered next for filming but the idea was abandoned after the terrorist bombing there in 2002 . The director and producer settled on filming on Guam , voicing their interest to Guam officials in late 2003 . Max Havoc : Curse of the Dragon was supposed to be the first of two films to act as a backdoor pilot into a Max Havoc television series .
Filming began in March and finished in May 2004 . Some of the scenes were done in East Hagåtña Bay . Pyun had planned to shoot the film with a Vancouver @-@ based film crew , but after they were denied visas , he eventually had to resort to hiring a Los Angeles crew , which , he said , he later regretted . He complained about a lack of infrastructure for filming on Guam , as well as hostility from government officials once the film crew arrived on the island , and claimed that he was denied shooting on Waikiki Beach , which cost the film time and sponsorships . He also claimed he was not paid his director 's fee , calling the film " the worst financial decision [ he ] ever made . " Guam businesses and Max Havoc : Curse of the Dragon crew members also reported not being paid for work on the film .
The producer , John F. S. Laing , blamed Pyun for the failure of the film . After the filming was completed on Guam , director Isaac Florentine was hired to touch up the film in Los Angeles in order to improve its marketability , adding around ten minutes of screen time in the process . Florentine declined screen credit , stating in a later interview that he " [ did ] n 't feel it [ was ] fair " to Pyun . The L.A. shoot took ten days , and featured David Carradine and Richard Roundtree , who were not part of the original cut .
= = Release = =
Max Havoc : Curse of the Dragon premiered on Guam television on December 10 , 2005 . Because the film was poorly received and never played in theaters as promised , it was described as a " box office flop " by Guam 's press . In February 2005 , producer John F.S. Laing stated he had trouble finding a theatrical distributor for the film . As of 2010 , the film was reported to have grossed $ 15 @,@ 000 on Guam and $ 242 @,@ 229 internationally . On January 23 , 2007 , Max Havoc : Curse of the Dragon was released on DVD in Region 1 . The DVD extras contained interviews and several text pages about the cast , a three @-@ minute trailer , a poster , a collection of still images from the film , and a calendar for 2007 featuring actresses from the film . The film was not rated by the Motion Picture Association of America .
A sequel , titled Max Havoc : Ring of Fire , premiered on September 12 , 2006 and on DVD
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claimed " the multi @-@ talented artist 's intent to join the rarefied ranks of ultimate entertainer " . Nick Hasted of The Independent wrote that the tour followed the stadium trends containing " big @-@ budget movie clips and Broadway musical dance moves , with platoons of backing singers and dancers acting as extras " further hailing it as a " Cecil B. DeMille spectacle " . He finished his reviews by concluding , " what makes this show 's largely enervating juggernaut breathe is Beyoncé 's tireless physical effort . She has created a literal body of work " . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian who compared the singer 's performance with Tina Turner praised the show 's " bombastic " opening and wrote that " there 's something powerful and relentless " about it . He concluded " while onstage Beyoncé feels weirdly unassailable " . Mikael Wood of Los Angeles Times noted , " What left the deepest impression was something far more elemental : Beyoncé 's ability to make self @-@ aggrandizement seem like an expression of humility ... [ Her ] ambition seemed in proportion with her fans ' expectations ; she came by the sense of scale honestly . " The Observer 's Kitty Empire highlighted the art direction of the show as " nothing short of breathtaking , making awesome and repeated use of silhouette , of great white blocks of video screens , of live dancers interacting with video " . She praised the singer 's " fierce " tireless dancing and concluded , " But for all the hauteur here , in couture and bearing , Beyoncé delivers genuine warmth at close range . " Bernadette McNulty from The Daily Telegraph found " air of an ancient goddess worship ceremony ... [ and ] of an expensive revue show " in the concert . Although she felt that the choreographies often outshined the music , McNulty concluded : " Yet Beyonce was never less than compelling to watch , and often blistering in her vocal attack " .
Philip Matusavage of musicOMH praised Beyoncé 's abilities to perform live , calling her " insanely talented " and considered the performance at the B @-@ stage a show highlight ; however he commented that the production values of the show , consisting solely of a video screen were " relatively low @-@ key " compared to other pop arena concerts . Matusavage further criticized the repetition of the songs and dance routines which had been previously performed during the singer 's other concerts as the tour 's " most notable problem " . Shirley Halperin of The Hollywood Reporter felt that the singer " tore through her ... set with the ferocity of a grown woman who has something to prove " and felt that she tried " her damnedest to win the crowd over with an equal dose of sex appeal and good old @-@ fashioned hyping " further showcasing " unequaled showmanship and those killer vocals " which placed her at the top of R & B music . However Halperin criticized the show 's set list mainly due to the majority of the songs from the album 4 , writing , " Bey sounded terrific on all , of course , but with a ... ready @-@ to @-@ party audience angling to groove in the aisles , rather than sway with their hands to the heavens , overall it missed the mark . " Digital Spy 's Robert Copsey praised the high @-@ energy nature of the show with vigorous dancing and " blistering " pace but felt that there was a lack of hits performed in the show 's first half . NME editor Emily Mackay echoed his statements giving a mixed review for the tour , further criticizing the lack of hits in the set list and adding that only a " paucity of material " was incorporated in the set . She further dismissed the placement of interlude films in the show . A negative review came from San Jose Mercury News ' Jim Harrington who called the tour " flawed " , criticized its set list consisting of " plenty of filler [ s ] " and the many dissipating costume changes she went through for the show . He further noted that the singer looked and sounded well but blamed the way the show and the production were choreographed .
The revamped show in 2014 received acclaim by critics . Isabel Mohan from The Daily Telegraph acclaimed the revamped show praising the singer 's sex appeal and noted that although the set included many new songs , the singer " remained strikingly composed and confident throughout a show which proved her talent , charisma and awe @-@ inspiring thighs " . Sidney Madden who praised the upgraded set list further commended the show 's fashion . Digital Spy 's Robert Copsey felt that the show 's set list was better than the original one describing the tour as " wall @-@ to @-@ wall amazing Beyoncé " . He concluded in his review , " The relentless pace , ever @-@ changing visuals and sheer amount of songs crammed into the set is a lot to take in , let alone the fact that Beyoncé delivers the entire thing with power yet impeccable ease . When it comes to putting on a show of this calibre , these days she 's really only competing with herself . " The Observer 's Kitty Empire praised the singer 's ranuchiness during the tour different from the other performers and concluded by writing , " There is no question as to Beyoncé 's own powers . She can stop and start her all @-@ female band ... with a click of her fingers , and keep climbing octaves until you think her lungs are about to jump out of her chest . She sings ( with a range that only gets wider and deeper with every tour ) and dances ( flawlessly ) for more than one and a half hours . " David Pollock of The Independent felt that , " this near two @-@ hour epic is a ferocious distillation of musical styles old and new and a stunning declaration of intent that Knowles intends to be recognised as the defining pop artist of her era . It was , at the very least , one of the hardest working shows likely to be witnessed on a stage this year , and with barely a drop of minutely @-@ choreographed sweat to be seen . "
The tour received a nomination in the category for Choice Summer Tour at the 2013 Teen Choice Summer Tour losing to One Direction 's Take Me Home Tour . It was also nominated for Concert Marketing & Promotion Award and Eventful Fans ' Choice Award at the 2013 Billboard Music Awards . The tour is nominated in the category for Best Tour at the 2014 Billboard Mid @-@ Year Music Awards .
= = Commercial performance = =
Following the general on @-@ sale of tickets , tour stops in several cities across America sold out in minutes after being announced . Due to the high demand , one extra show was added in Amsterdam , one extra show in Antwerp , two extra shows in London and a third date in Manchester . In North America , extra dates were added in Washington , D.C. Los Angeles and New York City . Phone firm O2 , which was behind the pre @-@ sale of the UK shows , said it could have sold out London 's O2 Arena 150 times with the number of website hits with a spokesman noting the " unprecedented level of demand from O2 customers looking to buy tickets " . Following the frenzied rush for tickets during the general sale , the UK tour had completely sold out within three minutes . Tickets for Rock in Rio became available for general sale on April 4 , 2013 and within two hours , the first day of the festival , in which Beyoncé was headlining , had sold out all 65 @,@ 000 tickets . 20 @,@ 000 tickets had already sold out from the pre @-@ sale a few months before . On July 7 , 2013 , Beyoncé 's performance at the Essence Music Festival broke the attendance record with over 70 @,@ 000 people in attendance . On June 24 , 2013 , a second wave of tour dates were announced via Beyoncé 's official website . Included in this was a second US leg as well as a Latin American leg , containing multiple stadium dates in Brazil . It was revealed that Beyoncé set the record for the highest number of concert attendees in Brazil for the year 2013 , with more than 230 @,@ 000 fans attending her 5 shows in the country .
On July 7 , 2013 , the Australasia leg of the tour was announced , with dates set for shows in Australia and New Zealand , where Beyoncé held a concert for the first time in her career . Fan club tickets for the October 18 , 2013 show in Auckland , New Zealand sold out in 3 minutes . The general sale for the New Zealand shows became available to the public on July 19 , 2013 and within 15 minutes all allocations of tickets were sold out for the three shows . A fourth and final Auckland show was then added . Promoter Live Nation confirmed The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour was officially the fastest selling tour of all time at Vector Arena . It also became the concert with the highest attendance at Vector Arena by a solo artist , with 44 @,@ 596 tickets sold . Beyoncé 's two shows at the Perth Arena went on to hold the number one and two spots for highest attendance in a single show , dethroning previous record holder Pink . It was then announced that Beyoncé 's Australasian leg of the tour was one of the most successful tours in the continent from any artist , playing for more than 220 @,@ 000 fans and earning 40 million Australian dollars .
On December 11 , 2013 , a second European leg through 2014 was announced bringing the total number of shows to 132 , thus becoming Beyoncé 's longest running tour to date . Similar to the first European leg , a frenzied rush for tickets , further enhanced by the release of the singer 's self @-@ titled fifth studio album three days before ticket sales began , resulted in extra dates being added for all United Kingdom shows , Dublin , Cologne , Amsterdam and Antwerp . For the second European leg , Beyoncé had beaten the record she herself had set earlier in the year , by selling 40 @,@ 000 tickets in under one hour for the two 2014 concerts at Antwerp . Pollstar ranked The Mrs. Carter Show at number 2 on its year @-@ end chart of the top twenty grossing worldwide tours with a gross of $ 188 @.@ 6 million from the 2013 shows . Tickets were sold with an average gross of $ 2 @,@ 449 @,@ 248 per city . In April 2014 , Billboard reported that Beyoncé 's 2014 European shows grossed $ 41 @.@ 1 million and played for an audience of 384 @,@ 730 . This brought The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour 's total gross to $ 229 @.@ 7 million when combined with the 107 shows performed in 2013 , and the total attendance to 2 @,@ 082 @,@ 848 , averaging 15 @,@ 779 attendance and $ 1 @.@ 74 million gross per night . The tour is Beyoncé 's highest grossing to date , and one of the highest grossing tours of the decade .
= = Broadcasts and recordings = =
Professional footage from the tour was officially released on April 22 , 2013 through Beyoncé 's YouTube channel and website . It showed the opening moments of the show and performances of " Run the World ( Girls ) " , " Love on Top " and " Halo " during the first concerts . A series of eight behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage of the rehearsals and preparations for the tour were released on Beyoncé 's website on May 21 , 2013 . During " The Sound of Change Live " charity concert held at Twickenham Stadium in London on June 1 , 2013 , various clips and performances were broadcast worldwide to over 150 countries which were believed to have reached over 1 billion people .
A thirty @-@ second trailer for the tour was released on June 24 , 2013 containing live vocals of Beyoncé 's " Get Me Bodied " and a dubstep audio mix . It showed footage from the tour 's commercial and multiple snippets of live performances from the show . On August 29 , 2013 , Beyoncé posted a video titled " Bey Good " on her official website showing scenes of her with fans backstage and during the concerts . During Beyoncé 's performance at the Made in America Festival , the two opening songs — " Run the World ( Girls ) " and " End of Time " — were streamed live via YouTube . Beyoncé 's performance at Rock in Rio was broadcast in its entirety , and also streamed via YouTube . On August 22 , 2013 , Beyoncé released a black @-@ and @-@ white promotional retro video for the tour dates in Brazil . It was set to Frank Sinatra 's version of the song " The Girl from Ipanema " . The video featured the singer in a bikini swimming in the water , writing Brazil in the sand and relaxing on a hammock as well as various shots of the city .
In March 2014 , a new promotional video was released midway through the second European leg and first leg of the 2014 tour . This was the first venture of the tour to include new performances and songs from Beyoncé 's recently released self @-@ titled fifth studio album . The video showed professional clips from some new performances and also featured a variety of backstage activity from the revamped tour . A video titled " Goodbye to The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour " was uploaded by the singer on her official YouTube channel on March 27 , 2014 showing portions of live performances from the final leg of the tour , behind the scenes moments and visits to cities as " XO " was played in the background . In June 2014 it was announced that HBO would air Beyonce : X10 , a 10 @-@ episode series of four @-@ minute segments of concert performances debuting weekly before new episodes of True Blood starting June 29 . The performances were captured in various cities during the tour . They are included on a bonus disc in the platinum edition release of Beyoncé 's 2013 self @-@ titled album , which was released on November 24 , 2014 .
= = Set list = =
= = Shows = =
Cancellations and rescheduled shows
= = Personnel = =
Credits and personnel are taken from the Official The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour Program .
= Finn Hudson =
Finn Hudson is a fictional character from the Fox musical comedy @-@ drama series Glee . The character was portrayed by Cory Monteith and appears in Glee starting with its pilot episode , first broadcast on May 19 , 2009 . Finn was developed by Glee creators Ryan Murphy , Brad Falchuk and Ian Brennan . Glee follows the trials of the New Directions glee club at the fictional William McKinley High School in the town of Lima , Ohio . Finn is initially the quarterback of his high school football team . A popular jock at the top of the school ’ s social hierarchy , when he finds himself forced to join the school 's glee club , he discovers that he loves it , although he risks alienation from his friends by remaining a member . His storylines see him struggle with his decision to stay in the club , which is at the bottom of the social ladder , while he maintains his popular reputation and the respect of the other jocks . The character has dealt with his attraction to both head cheerleader Quinn Fabray ( Dianna Agron ) and glee club star singer Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) , the series ' female lead . Following Monteith 's death on July 13 , 2013 , it was announced that Finn 's own death would occur in the third episode of the fifth season , titled " The Quarterback " .
Monteith felt that Finn has had to grow up a lot during his time on the show . The actor said , " Finn started off as the stereotypical dumb jock but as the show has gone on , Finn ’ s not dumb anymore , really , he ’ s just a little naïve . " Early reviews of Finn from television critics were mixed ; Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club said that he and Michele were " both agreeable and a little desperate for an outlet " in the pilot episode . Commenting on the fifth episode of the first season , Eric Goldman of IGN wrote , " We got to see a bit of a darker side to Finn [ ... ] it 's good to see this , because up until now , Finn 's been a bit too straight @-@ laced to totally invest in . " In the second season 's eighth episode , " Furt " , Entertainment Weekly 's Tim Stack said , " It 's been a while since we ’ ve gotten some Finn focus , and I think I just missed Cory Monteith . But I also forgot what a good , natural actor he can be . " Monteith as Finn won the 2011 Teen Choice Award for Choice TV : Actor Comedy , and was nominated in the same category in 2010 .
Although he was not a singer before being cast as Finn , Monteith sang lead or joint lead on a large number of songs on the show , most of which have charted in the US and abroad . " Jessie 's Girl " , which Finn performed as a solo , was certified gold in Australia , one of only three singles to do so from the show 's releases in that country ; he was joint lead on " Don 't Stop Believin ' " in the pilot episode , the show 's first single sung by the glee club , which was certified gold and platinum in Australia and the US .
= = Development = =
= = = Casting and creation = = =
Finn Hudson is portrayed by Cory Monteith . He has also been portrayed as a child by Jerry Phillips in " Pilot " and as a preschooler by Jake Vaughn in the episode " The Substitute " . When Glee was being cast , Monteith 's Vancouver agent , Elena Kirschner , submitted a video of him drumming with some pencils and Tupperware containers . Series creator ( Ryan Murphy ) took notice of the video , but pointed out that he had to be singing , as auditioning actors for Glee with no theatrical experience were required to prove they could sing and dance as well as act . Monteith submitted a second , musical tape , in which he sang " a cheesy , ' 80s music @-@ video @-@ style version " of REO Speedwagon 's " Can 't Fight This Feeling " . He then attended a mass audition in Los Angeles ; his vocal skills were considered weak , but he later performed very well with one of Glee 's casting directors , who said that his audition captured the most elusive quality of Finn 's , his " naive , but not stupid sweetness " . Monteith said of his casting process , " I was like a lot of kids , looking for something to be interested in . Something to be passionate about . All you need is permission . Not only for Glee , but for anything in life . "
In December 2010 , Murphy announced that some members of the cast of Glee would be replaced after the end of the third season in spring 2012 , to coincide with their graduation . Murphy said : " Every year we 're going to populate a new group . There 's nothing more depressing than a high schooler with a bald spot . " He added , " I think you have to be true to the fact that here is a group of people who come and go in these teachers ' lives . " Although Murphy said in July 2011 that Monteith would be one of the actors leaving at the end of the third season , Falchuk later stated that while Monteith , along with Lea Michele and Chris Colfer , will graduate at the end of the third season , " because they 're graduating doesn 't mean they 're leaving the show . " Falchuk insisted that " it was never our plan or our intention to let them go … . They are not done with the show after this season . "
= = = Characterization = = =
Finn originated as a character who " walks a fine line between following his dreams and balancing what other people expect of him . " Monteith 's former acting coach said : " You 've got to be incredibly smart to understand how dim Finn can be " , though Monteith appreciated the fact that Finn is more than " just a dumb jock " . He has admitted that he is sometimes frustrated by Finn 's " convenient dumb @-@ guy writing " , and commented , " I think every actor wants to be stretched . But it 's also important to realize that whatever we 're doing works . I realize that this happens to an actor about once every ten lifetimes . To be on a show that 's this good , it 's rarified air . " Finn has matured during his run on the series — in January 2011 , Monteith noted that he had " grown up a little bit " and become " a little wiser " . He later expanded , " Finn 's not dumb anymore , really , he ’ s just naive . The opposite of me . I love Finn ’ s optimism . He ’ s very idealistic ; he wants a good girl to love him , and he chases after what he wants in life — that I can relate to . " The actor hopes that in time his character will be able to grow and mature more . He said in an interview with MTV , " I think the harder it is for him , the better , you know ? I think Finn has a lot of growing up to do and I think that Finn has a lot of struggle left for him . I think dealing with a lot of his dad stuff , the passing of his father and dealing with the unrequited love all of a sudden from Rachel , I think the more trouble he goes through , the more interesting it is for me as an actor . "
Over the course of his run on the series , Finn 's primary relationship has been with the glee club 's main singer , Rachel . In a meeting with the press at PaleyFest2011 , which occurred when the characters were in the middle of a months @-@ long breakup , Monteith commented : " That 's a very important central relationship to the show . I think it 's important , and I think they 're endgame , but I can 't be sure of when . I try not to get too attached to the pairing , so I can focus on storyline that does come my way . " Falchuk said of the Finn – Rachel relationship ahead of the third season , " We 're not interested in breaking them up this year but at the same time the challenge is they are graduating , they are different kinds of people and where does that take you ? " During the PaleyFest2011 Glee cast interview , Monteith said , " There are a lot of people who really , really want Finn and Rachel to be together . But at the same time , I think that it 's really interesting when they 're clearly in love with each other but they 're apart . I think it makes for good television . " He added , " I think there 's a different dynamic to Finn with Quinn and with Rachel , and single . "
= = Storylines = =
= = = Season 1 = = =
Finn is introduced as quarterback of the William McKinley High School football team . He is blackmailed into joining the school glee club , New Directions , by its faculty director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) . Despite being ostracized by the other football players , including his best friend Puck ( Mark Salling ) , Finn comes to enjoy being in the club . This worries his girlfriend , head cheerleader Quinn Fabray ( Dianna Agron ) , so she joins New Directions to keep an eye on him , afraid that lead singer Rachel Berry 's ( Lea Michele ) interest in Finn may be reciprocated . Quinn discovers that she is pregnant , as she had cheated on Finn with Puck , but tells Finn that the baby is his , though they never actually had intercourse . She subsequently moves in with Finn and his mother Carole ( Romy Rosemont ) after her parents find out about her pregnancy and evict her . When Rachel figures out that Puck is the father and informs Finn , he attacks Puck , breaks up with Quinn , and quits the glee club in a fury ; but after cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) sabotages the glee club 's first show choir competition , he is able to set aside his anger and return to lead the club to victory . He and Rachel briefly date , but he ends the relationship to concentrate on his own well @-@ being . By the time Finn realizes that he truly does want to be with Rachel , he is chagrined to discover that she has started dating Jesse St. James ( Jonathan Groff ) , the lead singer of rival glee club Vocal Adrenaline . Cheerleader Santana Lopez ( Naya Rivera ) offers to take Finn 's virginity to improve her social status and his , and he accepts , but afterward he regrets having done so and claims to Rachel that he did not go through with it ; she , in turn , falsely claims to have had sex with Jesse . By the time the club reach the next stage of show choir competitions , Jesse has betrayed Rachel and broken up with her . As Finn and Rachel are about to go onstage , Finn tells her that he loves her ; although they lose the competition , they become a couple and continue dating well into the next school year .
Glee club member Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) , who is gay , has a longstanding crush on Finn , and sets up his father Burt ( Mike O 'Malley ) with Finn 's mother Carole in the hopes of spending more time with him . Finn initially opposes the relationship , worried that his mother will forget about his late father , but relents when Burt tells Finn that he loves Carole , though Kurt is dismayed by the deepening rapport between Finn and Burt . Finn and his mother eventually move in with the Hummels , but when Finn , uncomfortable about rooming with Kurt who he knows has a crush on him but will not admit it , uses a homophobic slur against Kurt during an argument , Burt throws him out . Finn is ashamed , and makes amends by standing up for Kurt when he is victimized by bullies . The following fall , the bullying against Kurt has intensified , but Finn refuses to stand up for him this time , concerned that it may jeopardize his position as quarterback . When their parents marry , Finn uses his best man speech as an opportunity to apologize to Kurt , which begins a brotherly bond between the two . In the spring , the two of them team up to arrange the funeral of Sue Sylvester 's sister , Jean ( Robin Trocki ) , when Sue is too upset to do so , after which Sue ends her long @-@ running campaign to destroy the glee club .
= = = Season 2 = = =
At the beginning of the second season , Finn runs afoul of the new football coach , Shannon Beiste ( Dot @-@ Marie Jones ) , who briefly kicks him off the team , but he is eventually reinstated , and soon becomes quarterback again . Rachel learns the truth about Finn sleeping with Santana . Hurt , she makes out with Puck to get even with Finn ; this betrayal causes Finn to break up with her . The football team clinches a spot in the championship game , but animosity is running high between glee and non @-@ glee members and harming the team 's performance . In " The Sue Sylvester Shuffle " , Coach Beiste and Will Schuester force the entire football team to join the glee club for a week to settle their differences and dispel their prejudices . After a promising start , the non @-@ glee members quit the club and are kicked off the team ; at the same time , Sue arranges to have the cheerleading Regionals rescheduled to conflict with the football championship to sabotage both Beiste and Will , whose glee club now has to do the halftime show . With the football team down to half strength and the glee club without its cheerleader members , football players Finn and Puck settle their differences ; Puck convinces the non @-@ glee football players to perform in the halftime show , which will also get them back on the team , while Finn convinces Quinn , Santana , and Brittany ( Heather Morris ) to quit the Cheerios and perform in the halftime show instead . The show is a great success , and the football team wins the championship game .
Emboldened by leading the team to the championship , Finn sets his eyes on a new prize : Quinn , who is in a serious relationship with football player and glee club member Sam Evans ( Chord Overstreet ) . After setting up a kissing booth ostensibly to raise money for the glee club , Finn succeeds in kissing Quinn , and they make an assignation . Although Quinn ultimately decides to stay with Sam , he finds out about her cheating on him with Finn , and breaks up with her . Finn and Quinn reunite , campaign together for prom king and queen and go to junior prom together , but Finn is kicked out for fighting with a newly returned Jesse over Rachel , and prom king and queen are won by other students . Finn ultimately breaks up with Quinn again because he realizes how deep his feelings are for Rachel . At Nationals , as the New Directions are about to go on stage , Finn begs Rachel to come back to him , but though she professes her love , she refuses , still torn between her lifelong dream of Broadway stardom and her love for him . At the end of their duet — " Pretending " , written by Finn — the audience responds with awkward silence as Rachel and Finn actually kiss ; the club consequently fails to place at Nationals . Back in Ohio , Rachel tells Finn she is moving to New York for college and will not be coming back ; he reminds her that they have a whole year until graduation and they kiss , renewing their relationship .
= = = Season 3 = = =
As the new school year begins , Finn , a senior , has trouble figuring out what he wants to do with his life after graduation . In the fifth episode , " The First Time " , Finn is not recruited to play football in college , as he had hoped . He and Rachel decide to have sex together for the first time . In the episode " Mash Off " , Santana , who has joined the rival Troubletones , is relentlessly bullying Finn . After a fake apology pushes him to the edge , Finn tells her to just " come out of the closet " and accuses her of being a coward for tearing other people down only because she can 't admit to everyone that she 's in love with Brittany . They are overheard by a girl whose uncle is running against Sue in a congressional campaign , and he uses Santana 's lesbianism — because she 's Sue 's cheerleading co @-@ captain — against Sue in a campaign commercial , effectively " outing " her . Santana , devastated by this , slaps Finn , but he later claims it was a " stage slap " to prevent her from being suspended . In the episode " Yes / No " , Finn asks Rachel to marry him . In the episode " On My Way " , the wedding is set for after the Regionals competition , which New Directions wins , but it is canceled after Quinn is badly injured in a car crash on her way to the ceremony . They change the wedding date to after graduation , but after Finn fails to get into his New York acting school while she has been accepted by hers and she decides to wait a year , he instead sends her off to New York without him , and tells her that he has enlisted in the army and is " setting her free " .
= = = Season 4 = = =
Finn has not been in touch with Rachel or Kurt all summer and into the fall — the two friends are now rooming together in Brooklyn while Rachel is attending NYADA — but he reappears unexpectedly at the end of the third episode . He has been given an early discharge from the army after injuring himself . He finds out she kissed Brody ( Dean Geyer ) , a NYADA junior , and feels that he doesn 't belong in her world in New York , so he returns to Lima without telling her . She then breaks up with him . In Lima , Finn is working at Burt 's tire shop again , and Artie enlists his help to co @-@ direct the school musical , Grease , which had been Finn 's suggestion . When Rachel comes to see the musical in the " Glease " episode , their reunion does not go well , and they agree to refrain from contact when Rachel visits Lima in the future . Will takes a leave of absence from McKinley to be a member of a blue @-@ ribbon panel in Washington , DC , so starting in " Dynamic Duets " , Finn becomes the interim director of New Directions . While he has a rocky start in the position , they come to accept him as their leader . At Sectionals , the glee club loses to the Warblers after Marley ( Melissa Benoist ) passes out on stage , interrupting the performance . Afterward , Finn does what he can to keep the club together and finally succeeds despite Sue 's opposition — she has deprived New Directions of rehearsal space at school . The Warblers are disqualified , and New Directions is again eligible to compete in Regionals ; the choir room is returned to them . Finn enlists Emma , who is deep in wedding preparations in advance of Will 's return , to help him judge a glee club competition for which member is the best diva . When he finds her panicking over the reception arrangements , he kisses her . In " I Do " , when Emma flees the church the day of the wedding , Finn blames himself , but Rachel sets him straight , and he and Rachel sleep with each other post @-@ reception . In " Girls ( and Boys ) On Film " , Finn teams up with Artie to help find Emma for Will ; he later confesses to Will that he kissed Emma , and Will is unable to forgive him . Since working with Will is untenable , Finn leaves New Directions though he enjoyed directing them ; Marley tells him he 's a good teacher , and he should get a teaching degree . He goes to college , where he shares a dorm room with Puck — who isn 't actually attending the school . Will later asks Finn to return to co @-@ lead New Directions , and he agrees . Meanwhile , Santana has discovered that Brody , who is now living with Rachel , is a gigolo , and tells Finn , who flies to New York and warns Brody away , ultimately beating him up and saying , " Stay away from my future wife . " When Rachel finds out and breaks up with Brody , she admits that the relationship never would have worked because she was using it to try to get over her heartache about Finn . Rachel later thanks him for his intervention in " Sweet Dreams " when she calls him to get advice for choosing an audition song for the upcoming Broadway revival of Funny Girl .
= = = Season 5 = = =
" The Quarterback " , the third episode of the fifth season , opens three weeks after Finn 's funeral . No cause of death is given . Kurt , in a voiceover , explains that it is not the circumstances of Finn 's death that matters , but how he lived his life .
= = = Season 6 = = =
In the flash back episode " 2009 " , the original Glee club members have second thoughts about Finn being the leader of the new club . After talking about how different Finn is from the other school jocks , they decide to let him stay in the club . The scene moves to the New Directions , with Finn , singing Don 't Stop Believing from the " Pilot " episode .
In " A Wedding " , Burt and Carole tell the reunited Kurt and Blaine that Finn taught them to live the most out of every day .
In the series finale " Dreams Come True " , U.S. Vice President Sue Sylvester rededicates the McKinley High auditorium to be named in honor of Finn .
= = Musical performances = =
As Finn is the most frequent male lead in New Directions numbers , Monteith features in a great many musical performances which have been released as singles available for digital download and are also featured in the show 's soundtrack albums . He frequently shares vocal leads with the main female singer , Rachel , as in the pilot episode 's closing song , Journey 's " Don 't Stop Believin ' " , the single of which has sold over a million copies and been certified platinum in the US and Australia .
Like Finn , Monteith was a novice singer when the show started . In an interview with GQ 's Alex Pappademus , he noted that , early on , " you could hear the Auto @-@ Tune . " He was not called on to sing much on the first few episodes , as he rapped in " Push It " for " Showmance " , had a short solo phrase in the song " I Wanna Sex You Up " in " Acafellas " , and was not featured as a vocal lead in " Preggers " . Over the next three episodes , he shares the lead on four group numbers . Three are with Rachel : Queen 's " Somebody to Love " , " No Air " and " Keep Holding On " . The fourth is a boys @-@ only mash @-@ up of Bon Jovi 's " It 's My Life " with Usher 's " Confessions Part II " , where Finn sings lead on the " It 's My Life " sections and Artie on the rest .
Excluding a scene from the pilot of him singing a portion of " Can 't Fight This Feeling " in the shower , Finn 's first solo songs are not until the show 's tenth episode , " Ballad " . Finn sings " I 'll Stand By You " to the unborn child he thinks is his , and later sings " ( You 're ) Having My Baby " to Quinn , the mother of the child , in front of her parents , who respond with her mother being forced to watch as her father evicts her from the family home . He has two solo numbers later in the season : " Hello , I Love You " by The Doors , characterized by Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle as " one of Finn 's best vocal performances to date " , and " Jessie 's Girl " by Rick Springfield ; the latter song charted in the top ten in Australia , Canada and Ireland , and was certified gold in Australia , one of only three singles from Glee to have received gold certification in that country .
Finn sings lead more frequently in the second half of the first season , as he is featured in over a dozen songs , including several with Rachel . However , in Glee 's second season , he sings lead in fewer songs than in the first , though he again sings a significant proportion with Rachel , including the duets " Don 't Go Breaking My Heart " , " With You I 'm Born Again " , " Last Christmas " , and the one ostensibly written by Finn at the end of the season , " Pretending " . His first solo performance of the second season , in the episode " Grilled Cheesus " , is R.E.M. ' s " Losing My Religion " . Monteith said he and series music producer Adam Anders " had a bit of a different idea " about how the song should be performed . While Anders " always brings the songs in very positive , very upbeat " , he felt the song " was expressing a betrayal " , and with Finn feeling both betrayal and anger , Monteith wanted his performance to reflect that . Anthony Benigno of the Daily News commented positively on the arrangement of Monteith 's song , and graded the performance an " A " , but Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone was critical of the arrangement , and said Monteith 's performance was " more awkward than inspired . " Finn 's other solo is " I 've Gotta Be Me " in the episode " Born This Way " .
In the episode " Furt " , when Finn 's mother marries Kurt 's father and the glee club provides music for the wedding , two of the songs are by Bruno Mars : " Marry You " , which is sung by the entire club as a big processional production number , and " Just the Way You Are " , which is sung by Finn to Kurt at the reception . Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal characterized the " two Bruno Mars songs " as " brilliant in execution and touching in sentiment " , and Futterman agreed : " the Bruno Mars songs gave the show two of its best performances this season " . While Benigno and Stack also praised " Just the Way You Are " , and both gave the song an " A " , Jen Harper of BuddyTV thought Monteith 's vocals as Finn " aren 't the strongest " and AOL TV 's Jean Bentley also wished Finn had not been the soloist . In " The Sue Sylvester Shuffle " , Finn led his football teammates , some of whom were performing with the glee club under duress , in The Zombies ' " She 's Not There " . VanDerWerff called it " one of the better numbers of the season " , and Futterman felt that Monteith 's vocals were a " perfect fit " for the song . Finn 's sole duet with Quinn , Fleetwood Mac 's " I Don 't Want to Know " from the episode " Rumours " , was given an " A − " by Entertainment Weekly 's Sandra Gonzalez , and Futterman said it was " better than Quinn and Sam 's ' Lucky ' " , which she had called " charming " when it was performed in " Duets " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The character of Finn has gotten mixed to positive reviews from television critics . VanDerWerff praised the " terrific " cast in the pilot episode , and wrote that Monteith and Michele " are both agreeable and a little desperate for an outlet as the show choir 's central two singers " . The Chicago Tribune 's Maureen Ryan opined that " Cory Monteith gives quarterback Finn Hudson a jock @-@ ish authority mixed with an appealingly square naivete . " Korbi Ghosh of Zap2it enjoyed Finn 's " sweet nature " and observed , " it 's clear that at Finn 's core , he 's a good person . " Shawna Malcom of the Los Angeles Times noted a contradiction in his characterization in the episode " Preggers " — she questioned whether the intelligence he demonstrated in striving for a football scholarship was incongruent in a character who believed he had impregnated Quinn by sharing a hot tub with her .
Goldman welcomed the emergence of Finn 's " darker side " as he manipulated Rachel in " The Rhodes Not Taken " , as " up until now , Finn 's been a bit too straight @-@ laced to totally invest in " . Denise Martin of the Los Angeles Times added , " Did anyone not want to kill Finn for coming on to Rachel to get her to come back to the club ? ( Yes , the logic was there . He wants to win a scholarship so he can provide for the baby he thinks is his . But a girl 's heart is a fragile thing , and like Rachel tells him , he could have just tried being honest . ) " In his review of " Ballad " , Goldman commented : " Finn singing ' I 'll Stand By You ' to the unborn baby he thinks is his was very sweet " . He found the scene that followed Finn 's revelation of Quinn 's pregnancy to her parents the grimmest on Glee to that point . The intense sequence featuring Finn , Kurt and Burt in " Theatricality " garnered praise for Monteith from James Poniewozik of Time , who wrote : " One thing I love about his performance , here and throughout Glee , is that he plays Finn as a kid , which of course he still is . He 's basically a good kid , but as his ' faggy ' outburst shows , he 's flawed and often overwhelmed . And while he has little to do during Burt 's lecture but react , his reactions are great : he 's scared and defensive , but shows Finn 's guilt at the same time . "
When Finn 's mother marries Kurt 's father in the second season 's eighth episode , " Furt " , Stack was pleased to see Finn being featured : " It ’ s been a while since we ’ ve gotten some Finn focus , and I think I just missed Cory Monteith . But I also forgot what a good , natural actor he can be . " While giving " The Sue Sylvester Shuffle " episode a " C " grade , VanDerWerff wrote as an aside , " Let ’ s pause for a moment to give Cory Monteith some praise , though , since he was asked to do a lot of difficult things in this episode , in regards to selling the idea of Finn as a leader , bringing disparate groups together , and he mostly managed that task , much better than he has in past episodes . " While reviewing " Funeral " , the season 's penultimate episode , Gonzalez said , " I was glad that the writers chose [ … ] Finn and Kurt to be the ones to connect with Sue because I think they 're two of the most genuine characters on the show . [ … ] I think they pulled it off well . " In his review of " Funeral " , VanDerVerff noted that Finn was not the best vocalist among the male students : " the show hits on something very odd in its DNA : Finn continues to be the male lead of the group because he ’ s the male lead of the show , less because he ’ s the best singer New Directions has . [ ... ] But because he ’ s trying to get better , that ’ s OK " .
At the conclusion of the second season , Poniewozik wrote that he had not found the relationship between Finn and Rachel " the most compelling story " of the season , and as such " didn 't enjoy ' New York ' as much as [ he ] might have " , and VanDerWerff commented that their storyline had " ceased being too interesting long ago . " However , the former conceded " I may not be that invested in Finn / Rachel , but the startling moment where the audience disappeared in the middle of their kiss made me feel like I was " , and the latter opined that their kiss resonated , despite being unoriginal and " too neat way of suggesting that Rachel can 't have both Finn and her Broadway dreams " .
= = = Accolades = = =
Monteith won the 2011 Teen Choice Award in the Choice TV : Actor Comedy category for his portrayal of Finn , and was a member of the Glee cast ensemble given the Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series award at the 16th Screen Actors Guild Awards . He received several other nominations for the role , including Teen Choice Awards in 2009 for Choice TV : Breakout Star Male and in 2010 for Choice TV : Comedy Actor , and the 17th Screen Actors Guild Awards ensemble nomination for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series .
= Imbrex and tegula =
The imbrex and tegula ( plurals imbrices and tegulae ) were overlapping roof tiles used in ancient Greek and Roman architecture as a waterproof and durable roof covering . They were made predominantly of fired clay , but also sometimes of marble , bronze or gilt . In Rome , they replaced wooden shingles , and were used on almost every type of structure , from humble outbuildings to grand temples and public facilities .
The tegula ( Greek solenes ) was a plain flat tile , or a flat tile with raised edges , which was laid flat upon the roof , while the imbrex ( Greek kalupter ) was a semi @-@ cylindrical roofing tile , like a half @-@ pipe , laid over the joints between the tegulae . When well @-@ made and properly imbricated ( overlapped ) , there was little need for further waterproofing or sealant .
The roofing area was generally surrounded by antefixae which were often decorated , and had several decorative anthemia to cover each end row imbrex .
The concept of imbrex and tegula roofing in pitched roof construction is still in use today as an international feature of style and design , and is the origin of the term imbrication for the condition of things arranged in overlapping layers .
= = History and development = =
Imbrices and tegulae were first made by the Greeks . Like bricks , they were formed of wet clay in a four @-@ sided mould , often shaped with a piece of wire , and then baked in an oven or kiln . More sophisticated moulds were developed over time .
Tegulae were originally made perfectly flat , or with nothing more than a ridge underneath the upper border , which allowed the tile to be " hung " upon a sloping roof so that it would not slide to the ground . Later , tegulae were formed with a raised border on the two vertical sides , which would channel rainwater to the bottom of the tile , rather than allowing it to seep between tiles to dampen the roofing materials . Another improvement occurred when these two raised borders were made to converge , forming a broad v @-@ shaped trapezoid with the narrowest edge downwards , nestling into the widest part of the tile below it to form a continuous channel .
The imbrices completed the waterproofing of the roof by arching over the joints between the vertical edges of the tegulae , dividing the roof into channels . Rain water flowed off the curved imbrices into the channels and down over the surfaces of the tegulae , and descended into the gutter ( canalis ) . In formal architecture the canalis had a plain or ornamented frontal piece set atop the entablature , immediately above the cornice . The semicircular opening at the front of the lowermost imbrex was often capped with an ornamental fronton , and the spouts which drained the gutters were frequently decorated with lions ' heads ( capita leonina ) or other fantastic or grotesque faces .
By Roman times many tiles were being made under the auspices of various Roman legions , and were imprinted with a stamp of the legion 's insignia . Imbrices and tegulae are common finds in archaeological sites , and their design and markings can be of use in dating the sites and identifying the inhabitants . For instance , a 1993 archaeological dig in Merseyside in England uncovered over 300 kg ( 660 lb ) of tile and kiln remains . Some of the tegulae were stamped with the " LXXVV " insigniae of the Legio XX Valeria Victrix . Romans also often recycled broken tiles by incorporating them into mortar .
Tiles of marble were first used around the year 620 BC . Besides the superior beauty and durability of the material , these tiles could be made of a much larger size than those of clay . Consequently , they were used in the construction of the greatest temples , such as the Temple of Zeus at Olympia , the Parthenon at Athens , and the Serapeum at Puteoli ( modern Pozzuoli ) . Still more expensive and magnificent tiles were made of bronze and gilt .
= = Gallery = =
= Lance Bass =
James Lance Bass born May 4 , 1979 ) is an American pop singer , dancer , actor , film and television producer , and author . He grew up in Mississippi and rose to fame as the bass singer for the American pop boy band NSYNC . NSYNC 's success led Bass to work in film and television . He starred in the 2001 film On the Line , which his company , Bacon & Eggs , also produced . Bass later formed a second production company , Lance Bass Productions , as well as a now @-@ defunct music management company , Free Lance Entertainment , a joint venture with Mercury Records .
After completion of NSYNC 's Pop Odyssey Tour , Bass moved to Star City , Russia , in much publicized pursuit of a seat on a Soyuz space capsule . Bass was certified by both NASA and the Russian Space Program after several months of cosmonaut training , and planned to join the TMA @-@ 1 mission to the International Space Station . However , after his financial sponsors backed out , Bass was denied a seat on the mission .
In July 2006 , Bass revealed that he is gay in a cover story for People magazine . He was awarded the Human Rights Campaign Visibility Award in October 2006 , and released an autobiography , Out of Sync , in October 2007 , which debuted on the New York Times Best Seller list .
= = Early life and education = =
James Lance Bass was born in Laurel , Mississippi , to James Irvin Bass , Jr . , a medical technologist , and Diane ( née Pulliam ) , a middle school mathematics , English , and career discovery teacher . Along with his older sister , Stacy , Bass grew up in nearby Clinton Mississippi , and was raised as a Southern Baptist . Bass has described his family as devoutly Christian and conservative and has said that his childhood was " extremely happy " . As a young boy , Bass developed an interest in space , and at age 9 traveled to Cape Canaveral , Florida , with his father to watch his first live space shuttle launch . Of this experience Bass said , " I was certain from then on that my future was to be involved with space . " Shortly after , Bass attended space camp in Titusville , Florida , and aspired to attend college and study engineering , with the hope that he would one day work for NASA .
When Bass was 11 years old , his father was transferred to a different hospital , and the family moved to Clinton , Mississippi ( Nsync Driven , 2002 ) Bass began singing in his Baptist church choir , and was encouraged to audition for local performance groups by his childhood best friend , Darren Dale , the youngest child of former longtime Mississippi Insurance Commissioner George Dale . Bass joined the Mississippi Show Stoppers , a statewide music group sponsored by the Mississippi Agriculture and Forestry Museum , and the Attaché Show Choir , a national @-@ award @-@ winning competitive show choir group at Clinton High School . He was also a member of a seven @-@ man vocal group named Seven Card Stud , which competed at state fairs and performed at several social and political events for Senator Trent Lott .
At Clinton High School , Bass was elected vice president of his junior class and has said that he performed well in math and science . However , Bass later stated that his primary focus during high school was singing , and when looking back , he remembers " hardly anything " about academia .
= = Career = =
= = = Music = = =
Bass ' music career has consisted primarily of his singing with NSYNC and running a small management company .
= = = = NSYNC = = = =
In 1995 , during his junior year of high school , Bass received a call from Justin Timberlake and his mother , Lynn Harless , who asked Bass if he would be interested in auditioning for the pop group NSYNC after the group 's original bass singer , Jason Galasso , had quit . Timberlake 's vocal coach ( who had worked with Bass during his time as a Mississippi Show Stopper ) recommended Bass as a replacement . Bass was accepted into the group after auditioning in front of the other bandmembers and Lou Pearlman , and soon left school to move to Orlando , Florida , and rehearse full @-@ time . Bass has said that he did not know how to dance before he joined NSYNC , and therefore found much of the group 's choreography difficult to learn . According to an episode of VH1 's Driven , Jan Boltz , president of BMG 's German division , offered NSYNC a recording contract under the condition that they replace Bass , whose dancing , he felt , " wasn 't at the same level as all the others . " However , the other members of the group refused to accept the contract without Bass , and the group 's manager , Johnny Wright , convinced Bolz that Bass 's dancing would quickly improve . Bolz conceded , and the group soon moved to Munich , Germany to record their first album with BMG . ' N Sync began extensive touring in Europe , and Bass 's mother quit her job to tour with the group as a chaperone , as Bass was still a minor .
After gaining significant notability in Europe , NSYNC was signed to American record label RCA in 1997 . The group 's first single , " I Want You Back " began receiving major radio play in the United States , and NSYNC soon found themselves becoming an " overnight sensation " , a period which Bass describes in his autobiography as " the death of my own innocence " . Along with increasing fame and recognition in the United States the band also experienced a highly publicized legal battle with Pearlman , due to what the group believed were illicit business practices on his part . NSYNC sued Pearlman and his record company , Trans Continental , for defrauding the group of more than 50 % of their earnings , rather than his original promise of only receiving one @-@ sixth of the profits . The group threatened to leave and sign with Jive Records , which prompted Pearlman and RCA to countersue NSYNC for $ 150 million US , citing breach of contract . The injunction was thrown out of court and , after winning back their earnings , NSYNC signed with Jive . Bass has been estranged from Pearlman ever since .
In March 2000 , NSYNC released No Strings Attached , which became the fastest @-@ selling record of all time , selling 1 @.@ 1 million copies in its first day of release . In 2001 , the group followed up with their Celebrity album , which scored the second highest first @-@ week album sales ever , trumped only by the group 's previous album . NSYNC went on to sell over 56 million records worldwide . In 2002 , the group announced that they would be taking a " hiatus " , during which Timberlake began to record solo material . ' N Sync has not recorded new material since , and Bass has stated that he feels the group has officially disbanded .
In 2007 , Bass stated that he had faith Timberlake would return after six months off to record another album with NSYNC , and that he felt betrayed by Timberlake 's 2004 decision to pursue his solo career instead . Bass has also said that he has little hope for a reunion , since Timberlake has " made it clear that he wouldn 't be interested in discussing another album any time soon . " Despite these statements , Bass has denied that he harbors any ill feelings towards Timberlake , saying : " At that time ... it did feel like betrayal . I felt heartbroken . All these emotions went through me . Today , I ’ m really happy , and Justin and I are really great friends . I don ’ t hate him at all . And I understand what he was going through , and it was as hard for him as it was for any of us . "
= = = = Free Lance Entertainment = = = =
In 2000 , Bass formed a music management company named Free Lance Entertainment , which was a joint venture with Mercury Nashville , a division of Mercury Records . Vowing to keep the company " a strictly family @-@ run operation , " Bass employed his parents and sister as talent scouts , and recruited childhood friend and aspiring country singer Meredith Edwards for the company 's first release . Edwards began touring with NSYNC as an opening act in the fall of 2000 , and Bass teamed up with MTV to hold a nationwide talent search for more artists later that year . However , Free Lance soon folded after disappointing sales of Edwards 's debut album , Reach .
= = = Acting = = =
= = = = Film , television and theater = = = =
Bass guest @-@ starred on the WB drama series 7th Heaven , playing Rick Palmer , a love interest for Beverley Mitchell 's character , Lucy . The following year , while NSYNC was in the midst of recording Celebrity , Bass received his first starring role in the 2001 motion picture On The Line . Bass played Kevin , a man who falls in love with a woman on a Chicago train and begins a search to find her again . The film was produced by Bass 's production company , A Happy Place ( later renamed Bacon & Eggs ) , and featured appearances by Jerry Stiller , Al Green , Bon Jovi guitarist Richie Sambora , former WWE wrestler Chyna , and Bass 's bandmates Timberlake , Kirkpatrick and Fatone , the latter in a major role . The film also featured a soundtrack which included previously unreleased songs by NSYNC and Britney Spears . Bass collaborated with Joey Fatone , Mandy Moore , Christian Burns and True Vibe ( as the " On The Line Allstars " ) for the film 's theme song , " On The Line " .
Despite heavy marketing towards NSYNC teen fans , the film was a commercial failure , grossing only $ 4 @.@ 2 million US domestically despite its $ 10 million US budget . The film , along with Bass 's acting , was also poorly received by critics . Bass later said that he felt the film 's success was greatly hindered by its release date , which came one week after the World Trade Center attacks of September 11 , 2001 . In his 2007 autobiography , Bass wrote , " That was it – our film was finished ... once the country went to war , there was no way our film was going to be on anyone 's top @-@ priority list . "
After On The Line , Bass appeared in Zoolander and Wes Craven 's Cursed as himself , and played a wedding singer in I Now Pronounce You Chuck and Larry . Bass has also lent his voice to several animated television programs , such as Robot Chicken and Disney 's Kim Possible , Handy Manny and Higglytown Heroes . In the video game realm , Bass voiced the Final Fantasy VII character Sephiroth in Kingdom Hearts . On August 14 , 2007 , Bass began a six @-@ month stint playing Corny Collins in the Broadway musical Hairspray , coinciding with the play 's five @-@ year stage anniversary . Bass ended his run in Hairspray on January 6 , 2008 . Lance has also made an appearance in the movie Tropic Thunder . As a guest star on Gravity Falls episode " Boyz Crazy " , Bass plays in the boy band , Sev 'ral Timez ( which is a parody of NSYNC ) . In 2014 , Bass guest starred on an episode of the Comedy Central series , Review , in which he visited space along with the show 's lead character .
In 2015 , Bass joined season two of The Meredith Vieira Show as a full @-@ time contributing panelist .
Bass and his mother will compete with other related duos in the upcoming FOX reality cooking series My Kitchen Rules .
= = = Dancing with the Stars = = =
Bass was a contestant on Season 7 of Dancing with the Stars , and was paired with swing dance champ Lacey Schwimmer . Bass and Schwimmer reached the grand finale in competition with Brooke Burke partnering with Derek Hough and Warren Sapp partnering with Kym Johnson . Lance Bass finished in third place with the title going to Burke .
= = = Production = = =
In January 2001 , Bass formed his first film production company , A Happy Place , with film producers Rich Hull , Wendy Thorlakson and Joe Anderson . The company was geared towards family @-@ friendly films , and received the Movieguide award for " Excellence in Family @-@ Oriented Programming " for its first feature film , On The Line . After On The Line , A Happy Place changed its name to Bacon & Eggs and produced its second feature film , Lovewrecked , in 2005 . The film debuted on the ABC Family Channel in January 2007 , and starred Amanda Bynes , Chris Carmack and Jamie @-@ Lynn Sigler , with Bass in a minor role . This too received mostly negative reviews .
Bass later formed a separate production company named Lance Bass Productions . On May 14 , 2007 , Brian Graden announced that Lance Bass Productions would be working with the Logo network in executive producing a reality television show about the music business . It was reported that the show will focus on the creation and development of an all @-@ gay boy band . To date no such project has been developed or aired .
In 2008 , Bass co @-@ produced The Grand , and Bass 's company is reported to be developing a music docudrama about the life of rock bands on tour .
In October 2011 , Bass debuted his own boy band called Heart2Heart . In August 2013 , Bass became an executive producer of the documentary film Kidnapped for Christ along with Mike C. Manning . The film sheds light on controversial behavior modification methods used on children , sent there by their parents , at an Evangelical Christian reform school in the Dominican Republic . The film was sold to Showtime , to be released on television July 10 , 2014 .
= = = Radio = = =
Bass is the host of Dirty Pop with Lance Bass , a daily evening drive time radio show focusing on pop culture and entertainment news on OutQ , a LGBT @-@ geared station on Sirius XM . Bass is also the host of the weekly " Pop2Kountdown " on Pop2K , which counts down the 30 biggest hits from that week from a different year in the 2000s .
= = Personal life = =
Bass dated actress Danielle Fishel of TV 's Boy Meets World throughout 1999 and 2000 . Fishel stated that she was heavily invested in the relationship , commenting that she was " like , so in love " with Bass . Bass ended the relationship after one year , and continued to exclusively date women until he was 22 .
In his autobiography , Bass documents two gay relationships that predated media speculation ; one with a Miami , Florida , native named Jesse , with whom Bass lived for two years , and another with an Idaho native named Joe . Bass began dating Amazing Race winner Reichen Lehmkuhl in early 2006 , a courtship that garnered tabloid coverage and led to Bass 's decision to come out . Bass described his relationship with Lehmkuhl as " very stable " ; however , the couple split several months later . Shortly after his split with Lehmkuhl , Bass briefly dated Brazilian model and LXTV host Pedro Andrade . From August 2007 to March 2008 , Bass dated New York @-@ based hairdresser Ben Thigpen . After a year and a half of dating , Bass became engaged to Michael Turchin in September 2013 . Bass and Turchin married on December 20 , 2014 in Los Angeles .
In a 2006 interview , Bass stated that he has Attention @-@ Deficit Disorder . Bass 's favorite music bands are Aerosmith , The Goo Goo Dolls , and Journey , and his favorite actress is Lucille Ball , whom he grew up watching on I Love Lucy re @-@ runs . He is a self @-@ described " huge Dr. Seuss fan " , devoting an entire room in his Jackson , Mississippi estate to Seuss memorabilia . Bass has said that he is a Christian and that he regularly attends church , though he considers himself to be non @-@ denominational . He is the godfather of former bandmate Joey Fatone 's daughters , Briahna and Kloey . Bass and Fatone are best friends .
= = = Sexual orientation = = =
Bass came out as gay in a cover story for People magazine on July 26 , 2006 . There had been considerable media speculation about his orientation due to numerous paparazzi snapshots of him at gay bars and nightclubs , most notably during the preceding Independence Day weekend in Provincetown , Massachusetts . Celebrity gossip blogger Perez Hilton had also been posting items on his website about Bass 's orientation since September 2005 , and New York gossip column Page Six ran a blurb on July 12 , 2006 , that reported a sighting of Bass at a gay bar with his then @-@ boyfriend , Reichen Lehmkuhl . Bass 's publicist , Ken Sunshine , chose to release the story exclusively to People magazine , who bumped actor Johnny Depp off of that week 's cover in favor of Bass . In his coming out interview , Bass stated ,
Bass 's announcement received a large amount of media attention . The American public 's reaction was generally positive , with Bass receiving " overwhelming support " from many teenagers and young adults who grew up listening to ' N Sync . However , Bass received criticism from the LGBT community when he referred to himself and his friends as " straight acting " in his People interview , stating , " I call them the SAGs — the straight @-@ acting gays . We 're just normal , typical guys . I love to watch football and drink beer . " This comment angered some members of the LGBT community , who believed that Bass not only implied that effeminate gay men were not ' normal ' , but further enforced unneeded stereotypes . In a 2007 interview with The Advocate , Bass called his comment a " mistake " and noted that he was unaware of the negative implications surrounding the term . Bass stated , " Every community is hard to please . Our community is very fickle . It 's a touchy community because it 's the last civil rights movement we have left here in America . So when someone new like myself comes along and says off @-@ the @-@ mark things , yeah , I can see how people would get pissed . "
Bass found himself in the midst of further controversy later that year when he , along with then @-@ boyfriend Reichen Lehmkuhl , was awarded the 2006 Human Rights Campaign Visibility Award on October 7 , 2006 . The Washington Blade printed a guest editorial from a long @-@ time HRC supporter who claimed that neither recipient had done enough to deserve the award and that The Human Rights Campaign was simply capitalizing on Bass 's fame to sell tickets . The Human Rights Campaign stood by Bass and defended his award , responding to critics by saying , " Bass is the biggest music star since Melissa Etheridge to come out , and maybe some people think HRC should just ignore these moments of cultural significance , but his declaration did initiate a positive , national conversation that continues today . "
= = = Relationship and marriage = = =
Bass began dating painter Michael Turchin in January 2011 and they became engaged in September 2013 . They married on December 20 , 2014 at the Park Plaza Hotel in Los Angeles . Former NSYNC bandmates Joey Fatone , Chris Kirkpatrick and JC Chasez were in attendance ; Justin Timberlake , who was then headlining his The 20 / 20 Experience World Tour , was not present . The ceremonial event was filmed and televised in a special E ! presentation : Lance Loves Michael : The Lance Bass Wedding that aired on February 5 , 2015 . Bass and Turchin were the first same @-@ sex couple to exchange vows on cable television .
= = = Spaceflight plans = = =
In February 2002 , Lena Banks , a space advocate and founder / producer of Think Tank Ink Productions , contacted Lance Bass to propose his involvement in her Youngest Person in Space project . Ms. Banks brought her longtime associate David Krieff of Destiny Productions on board and through a series of events in August 2002 , Bass entered cosmonaut training in Star City , Russia . Bass was considered as the US host of a space competition show to be entitled The Big Mission , which had been successful in Denmark , in which several contestants would go through rigorous training in order to win a seat on a Russian Soyuz space capsule . However , the game show concept was reconsidered , as the producers of the show decided it would be a much better idea to shoot a documentary of a celebrity actually training and going into space , and airing it on a major network . Lena Banks came up with the idea of the Youngest Person in Space many years before Dennis Tito had his historical flight . Through a series of events in early 2002 the chance of using Bass was presented when a colleague mentioned her space project to a friend and the friend 's daughter shouted out , " Lance Bass wants to go into space ! " The girl , who was an NSYNC fan , learned of Bass ' lifelong dream of space travel when she read it online via a MTV forum . Lena Banks spoke to Lance Bass 's management who then went to him with the proposal . " At first he thought we were joking , " Lena Banks remarks . " I assured him it was for real ; he accepted and we moved forward with the project . "
In order to be admitted into training , Bass had to go through strenuous physicals that saved his life . It was discovered he had cardiac arrhythmia , and he agreed to undergo heart surgery to correct it . Prior to this , in 1999 , he collapsed after a concert because of his condition . After several months of training , Bass received cosmonaut certification and went on to Houston 's Johnson Space Center ( JSC ) to take part in astronaut training . He was scheduled to fly into space on the Soyuz TMA @-@ 1 mission that was to be launched on October 30 , 2002 . The capsule was scheduled to fly to the International Space Station and land in a desert in Kazakhstan .
Several months before Bass was scheduled to fly , the original deal to air the documentary about Bass fell through . Bass 's camp turned to MTV , who initially agreed to sponsor the trip but then backed out over " payment , insurance , and indemnification issues . " Shortly after , all of Bass 's other sponsorships fell through , including one sponsor that pulled out because they worried about the image of their brand possibly being tarnished if Bass were to die on the mission . Bass was eventually rejected from the program , and was replaced on the flight by Russian cosmonauts Yuri Lonchakov , Sergei Zalyotin and Belgium 's Frank De Winne .
= = = = Space advocacy = = = =
In 2003 , Bass began serving as World Space Week 's Youth Spokesman . Bass has stated that he believes young people becoming more interested in space exploration " will help the future of our planet " . From 2003 to 2005 , Bass spent World Space Week traveling to American high schools speaking with students about space exploration and encouraging them to explore careers in the fields of science and mathematics . Bass is a member of the National Space Society , a non @-@ profit educational space advocacy organization founded by Dr. Wernher Von Braun . Bass has served on the National Space Society 's Board of Governors since October 2004 , alongside other space advocates such as actor Tom Hanks and author and futurist Sir Arthur C. Clarke . In a 2007 interview with GQ magazine , Bass stated that he " absolutely " still intends on going to space , and that he hopes to work on a space documentary . Bass has also retained fluency in Russian , which he was required to learn during his training .
= = = Autobiography = = =
Following public response surrounding his coming out , Bass announced that he was releasing an autobiography . The book , entitled Out of Sync , was published on October 23 , 2007 . It was co @-@ written by The New York Times best @-@ selling biographer Marc Eliot , who also wrote the book 's introduction , and was published by Simon Spotlight Entertainment , a division of Simon & Schuster . The 208 @-@ page book covers what Bass describes as " the first chapter " in his life , from his childhood growing up in rural Mississippi , to his efforts to obtain a seat on a Russian space capsule and the proceeding financial issues he had with his sponsors , and culminating with Bass 's decision to go public with his sexuality . The book includes details about boyfriends that he kept from family and friends , and recounts NSYNC 's 2002 decision to go on an " extended hiatus " . Bass stated that Justin Timberlake was the sole reason NSYNC did not get back together . Out of Sync debuted on the New York Times Best Seller list for the week of November 11 , 2007 .
= = = Philanthropy and causes = = =
Bass has been involved with a number of charities during his career . In 2001 , Bass founded The Lance Bass Foundation , a non @-@ profit organization that was designed to meet the health needs of low @-@ income children . In 2003 , Bass donated $ 30 @,@ 000 US to establish the Amber Pulliam Special Education Endowment at The University of Southern Mississippi . The endowment is in honor of his younger cousin , Amber Pulliam , who has Down syndrome , and was established to financially aid students from Mississippi 's Pine Belt who plan a career in special education .
After 2005 's Hurricane Katrina , Bass launched " uBid For Hurricane Relief " , a celebrity auction to benefit victims of the hurricane , with uBid.com. Proceeds from the auction were split between the Child Welfare League of America , The Brett Favre Fourward Mississippi Foundation , and Ashton Kutcher 's RockWorks Foundation . Many of Bass 's family members in Mississippi were directly affected by the hurricane . That same year , Bass appeared on an episode of Extreme Makeover : Home Edition with a donation to a Russian woman to save a camp for disabled children in Russia .
Bass is a member of the Environmental Media Association 's board of directors . He has also been involved with Animal Avengers , Shannon Elizabeth 's animal rescue organization . He has two dogs which he adopted from a rescue shelter , both of whom he posed with in a PETA ad urging people to adopt rather than buy animals . In August 2007 , Bass wrote a guest commentary for LOGO 's " Visible Vote ' 08 " blog , in which he expressed support for gay marriage . In September 2007 , Bass participated in a series of GLAAD television advertisements promoting tolerance for the LGBT community . Bass has also been involved in fundraising for the Gay , Lesbian and Straight Education Network .
= = Filmography = =
= Burning of Falmouth =
The Burning of Falmouth ( October 18 , 1775 ) was an attack by a fleet of Royal Navy vessels on the town of Falmouth , Massachusetts ( site of the modern city of Portland , Maine , and not to be confused with the modern towns of Falmouth , Massachusetts or Falmouth , Maine ) . The fleet was commanded by Captain Henry Mowat . The attack began with a naval bombardment which included incendiary shot , followed by a landing party meant to complete the town 's destruction . The attack was the only major event in what was supposed to be a campaign of retaliation against ports that supported Patriot activities in the early stages of the American Revolutionary War .
Among the colonies , news of the attack led to rejection of British authority and the establishment of independent governments . It also led the Second Continental Congress to contest British Naval dominance by forming a Continental Navy . Both Mowat and his superior , Vice @-@ Admiral Samuel Graves , who had ordered Mowat 's expedition , suffered professionally as a consequence of the act .
= = Background = =
Following the battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19 , 1775 , the British army was besieged in the City of Boston . The British were supported and supplied by the Royal Navy under the command of Vice @-@ Admiral Samuel Graves , who was under Admiralty instruction to suppress the burgeoning rebellion . Under his orders , vessels were searched for military stores and potential military communications . Laid @-@ up vessels were stripped of their masts and rudders to prevent their use by privateers and military equipment was salvaged from readily @-@ accessible recent wrecks .
Captain Henry Mowat had been in the port of Falmouth ( present @-@ day Portland , Maine ) in May 1775 , during Thompson 's War when local Patriots captured several ships carrying supplies for Boston and weaponry from Fort Pownall at the mouth of the Penobscot River . Graves ' Admiralty orders ( issued in July 1775 and received by him on October 4 ) required that he " carry on such Operations upon the Sea Coasts ... as you shall judge most effective for suppressing ... the Rebellion " . Graves ordered Mowat to " lay waste burn and destroy such Sea Port towns as are accessible to His Majesty 's ships ... and particularly Machias where Margueritta was taken " .
= = Sailing to Falmouth = =
Mowat left Boston harbor on October 6 , 1775 aboard his 16 @-@ gun hydrographic survey sloop HMS Canceaux , in company with the 20 @-@ gun ship Cat , the 12 @-@ gun schooner HMS Halifax , the bomb sloop HMS Spitfire , and the supply ship HMS Symmetry . While his instructions were broad in the number of possible targets , he opted against attacks on harbors on Cape Ann , where the buildings were too widely spaced for naval cannon fire to be effective . On October 16 he reached the outer parts of Falmouth harbor and anchored there .
The people of Falmouth had mixed reactions to the presence of the British fleet . Some recognized the Canceaux and believed there was no danger ; but militia members remembering Thompson 's War were more suspicious . The next day was windless : Mowat kedged the ships into the inner harbor and anchored them near the town . He sent one of his lieutenants ashore with a proclamation stating that he was there to " execute a just punishment " for the town 's state of rebellion . He gave the townspeople two hours to evacuate .
As soon as they received this ultimatum , the townspeople sent a deputation to plead with Mowat for mercy . He promised to withhold fire if the town swore an oath of allegiance to King George . They must also surrender all their small arms and powder , along with their gun carriages . In response , the people of Falmouth began to move out of the town . No oaths were sworn . A small number of muskets were surrendered , but no gun carriages .
= = Attack = =
Mowat had set a deadline of 9 : 00 am on October 18 for the town 's response . By 9 : 40 the town appeared to be deserted , so he ran a red flag up the Canceaux 's masthead , and ordered the fleet to begin firing . Incendiary cannonballs set fire to the harbor installations and most of the town 's houses and public buildings . One witness reported :
The firing began from all the vessels with all possible briskness , discharging on all parts of the town ... a horrible shower of balls from three to nine pounds weight , bombs , carcasses , live shells , grapeshot and musketballs . ... The firing lasted , with little cessation , until six o 'clock .
When the bombardment appeared inadequate to Mowat , he sent a landing party to set fire to any buildings that had survived . The town militia offered little significant resistance , as most were helping their families to safety . In spite of this , some of the landed British marines were killed or wounded . By evening , according to Mowat , " the body of the town was in one flame " .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the bombardment , Mowat went on to Boothbay , where he set fire to a few houses and raided for livestock , but his expedition was faltering to an end . The decks of some of his ships had been inadequately braced for prolonged gunnery , and many of his guns had jumped their mounts . He returned to Boston , and remained there as winter was setting in . When Admiral Graves was relieved in December 1775 , these punitive raids were gradually abandoned . One of the last , undertaken to avenge British military losses to revolutionary Patriots , was the burning of Norfolk , Virginia , on January 1 , 1776 , instigated by Lord Dunmore , the Royal Governor of the Colony of Virginia .
= = = Damage assessment = = =
More than 400 buildings and houses were recorded as damaged or destroyed by fire . In his report to Graves , Mowat stated that eleven small vessels were destroyed in the harbor itself , and four captured , at the cost of one man killed and one wounded . The people were left to fend for themselves for the winter . A visitor to the town reported that , a month later , there was " no lodging , eating or housekeeping in Falmouth " .
On October 26 , the town formed a committee to raise funds for the distressed families . More than 1 @,@ 000 people ( out an estimated population of 2 @,@ 500 ) , including at least 160 families , had been left homeless by the raid . The Massachusetts Provincial Congress authorized £ 250 to be paid to the distressed families , and arranged for the distribution of up to 15 bushels of corn to those left destitute . As late as 1779 , additional grants were made to needy families in Falmouth . Despite numerous earlier entreaties to a wide variety of parties , significant recompense was not made until 1791 , when Congress granted two tracts of land as compensation . These tracts became the towns of New Portland and Freeman . The town of Falmouth accounted losses in the raid at over £ 50 @,@ 000 .
The citizens of Falmouth began rebuilding their town . In 1784 they built over 40 homes and 10 shops . By 1797 over 400 homes had been built , or rebuilt , along with factories , offices , and municipal buildings . Part of the Falmouth Neck was politically separated in 1786 to form the city of Portland .
= = = Political reaction = = =
News of the raid caused uproar in the colonies . Propagandists emphasised its cruelty . The Massachusetts Provincial Congress authorized the issue of letters of marque , licensing privateer actions against the British navy . The Second Continental Congress heard of the event just as word arrived of King George 's Proclamation of Rebellion . Outraged by the news , Congress recommended that some provinces adopt self @-@ rule and that Royal Navy ships in South Carolina be seized . The attack on Falmouth stimulated Congress to advance its plans for establishment of a Continental Navy . It authorized the commissioning of two ships on October 30 " for the protection and defense of the united Colonies " . The Falmouth incident was again mentioned on November 25 , when Congress passed legislation described by John Adams as " the true origin of the American Navy " .
When news of the event first reached England , it was dismissed as rebel propaganda . When the reports were confirmed , Graves ' superior , Lord George Germain expressed surprise rather than offence , noting that " I am to suppose that Admiral Graves had good reason for the step he took " , in spite of orders ( not received by Graves until after Mowat had sailed for Falmouth ) to not take such acts unless the town clearly refused to do business with the British . Graves was relieved of his command in December 1775 , in part due to his failure to suppress the rebel naval forces . Germain issued the orders before Falmouth burned .
News of the event also reached France , which was carefully monitoring political developments in North America . The French foreign secretary wrote : " I can hardly believe this absurd as well as barbaric procedure on the part of an enlightened and civilized nation . "
Mowat 's career suffered as a result of his actions . He was repeatedly passed over for promotion , and achieved it only when he downplayed his role in the event , or omitted it entirely from his record .
= = Similar acts of reprisal = =
On August 30 , 1775 , Royal Naval Captain James Wallace , commanding HMS Rose , fired into the town of Stonington , Connecticut , after the townspeople there prevented Rose 's tender from capturing a vessel it had chased into the harbor . Apparently not seeking to burn the town , he did not fire any heated rounds or incendiaries . Wallace also fired on the town of Bristol , Rhode Island , in October 1775 , after its townspeople refused to deliver livestock to him .
= 2010 Kobalt Tools 500 ( Phoenix ) =
The 2010 Kobalt Tools 500 was a NASCAR Sprint Cup Series stock car race that was held on November 14 , 2010 at Phoenix International Raceway in Avondale , Arizona . Contested over 312 laps , it was the thirty @-@ fifth , and the ninth race in the Chase for the Sprint Cup during the 2010 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series season . The race was won by Carl Edwards , for the Roush Fenway Racing team . Ryan Newman finished second , and Joey Logano clinched third .
Pole position driver Edwards maintained his lead on the first lap to begin the race , as Newman , who started in the second position on the grid , remained behind him . On the seventh lap , Kurt Busch became the leader of the race . Hamlin , the points leader before the race , led the most laps with a total of 190 . On lap 298 , Hamlin made a pit stop and became a lap behind . He didn 't return to the first ten positions afterward . Edwards maintained the lead to win the race .
There were five cautions and 14 lead changes among six different drivers throughout the course of the race . It was Edwards ' first win in the 2010 season , and the 18th of his career . The result kept Edwards in fourth in the Drivers ' Championship , 264 points behind Denny Hamlin and 47 ahead of Matt Kenseth . Chevrolet maintained its lead in the Manufacturers ' Championship , 42 points ahead of Toyota and 88 ahead of Ford , with one race remaining in the season . A total of 75 @,@ 000 people attended the race , while 4 @.@ 201 million watched it on television .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Phoenix International Raceway is one of five short tracks to hold NASCAR races ; the others are Richmond International Raceway , Dover International Speedway , Bristol Motor Speedway , and Martinsville Speedway . The standard track at Phoenix International Raceway is a four @-@ turn short track oval that is 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) long . The track 's turns were banked at 11 degrees , while the front stretch , the location of the finish line , was banked at three degrees . The back stretch , which has a dogleg shape instead of a straight , has 9 degrees of banking . The racetrack has seats for 76 @,@ 800 spectators .
Before the race , Denny Hamlin led the Drivers ' Championship with 6 @,@ 325 points , and Jimmie Johnson stood in second with 6 @,@ 292 points . Kevin Harvick followed in third with 6 @,@ 266 points , 258 ahead of Carl Edwards and 266 ahead of Matt Kenseth in fourth and fifth . Jeff Gordon with 5 @,@ 994 was eight points ahead of Kyle Busch , as Tony Stewart with 5 @,@ 962 points , was nine ahead of Greg Biffle , and thirty @-@ four in front of Clint Bowyer . Kurt Busch and Jeff Burton were eleventh and twelfth with 5 @,@ 890 and 5 @,@ 852 points . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet was leading with 249 points , forty points ahead of their rival Toyota . Ford , with 158 points , was twenty @-@ six points ahead of Dodge in the battle for third . Johnson was the race 's defending champion .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Three practice sessions were held before the Sunday race — one on Friday , and two on Saturday . The first session lasted 90 minutes , while the second session lasted 45 minutes . The third and final practice session lasted 60 minutes . During the first practice session , Edwards , for the Roush Fenway Racing team , was quickest ahead of Regan Smith in second and Stewart in the third position . Kyle Busch was scored fourth , and Brad Keselowski managed fifth . Juan Pablo Montoya , Kurt Busch , A. J. Allmendinger , Ryan Newman , and Harvick rounded out the top ten quickest drivers in the session .
Afterward , during qualifying , forty @-@ six cars were entered , but only forty @-@ three were able to race because of NASCAR 's qualifying procedure . Edwards clinched his seventh pole position during his career , with a time of 26 @.@ 395 , which made a new track record . He was joined on the front row of the grid by Allmendinger . Kurt Busch qualified third , Biffle took fourth , and Jamie McMurray started fifth . Hamlin , one of the drivers in the Chase for the Sprint Cup , qualified seventeenth , while Johnson was scored twenty @-@ first . The three drivers that failed to qualify for the race were Joe Nemechek , Michael McDowell , and Jason Leffler . Once the qualifying session completed , Edwards commented , " The first thing that we ’ re going to have an advantage Sunday is with our pit stall , that ’ s going to help us a lot . I think we have an advantage because [ the title rivals ] have to be a little bit conservative . Guys like myself we ’ re really battling for fourth in points and battling for wins . We can go out and be a little more aggressive and maybe take advantage of that . "
On the next evening , Edwards remained quickest , ahead of Kurt Busch and Gordon in second and third . Kenseth was fourth quickest , and Burton took fifth . Montoya , Dale Earnhardt , Jr . , Joey Logano , Biffle , and Harvick followed in the top @-@ ten . Other drivers in the chase , such as Hamlin , was fifteenth , and Johnson , who was seventeenth . During the third , and final practice session , Edwards , with a fastest time of 27 @.@ 202 , was quickest . Earnhardt , Jr. and Gordon followed in second and third with times of 27 @.@ 328 and 27 @.@ 337 seconds . Hamlin managed to be fourth fastest , ahead of Harvick and Logano . Johnson was scored seventh , Mark Martin took eighth , David Reutimann was ninth , and Biffle took tenth .
= = = Race = = =
The race , the thirty @-@ fifth out of a total of thirty @-@ six in the season , began at 3 : 00 p.m. EST and was televised live in the United States on ESPN . Prior to the race , weather conditions were dry with the air temperature around 63 ° F ( 17 ° C ) . Ken Bowers , chaplain of the race track , began pre @-@ race ceremonies with the invocation . Dr. Jesse McGuire performed the national anthem on his trumpet , and Steve Schultz , regional vice @-@ president of Lowe 's , gave the command for drivers to start their engines .
Edwards retained the lead from the pole position throughout the beginning lap . On the second lap , Brendan Gaughan collided into the wall , prompting the first caution to be given . On the lap six restart , Edwards remained the leader . On the following lap , Kurt Busch passed Edwards to become the leader . On lap 7 , Biffle had fallen two positions as David Reutimann overtook him . Three laps later , Johnson moved up to the 13th position . By the fourteenth lap , Harvick had moved up eight positions since the beginning of the race . Harvick continued to move forward while Busch maintained the lead . On lap 28 , Edwards claimed the first position from Busch . By the 30th lap , Hamlin moved up to fifth on the grid after passing Reutimann . The next lap , Kyle Busch , Kurt 's younger brother , hit the wall , but sustained minor damages . On lap 41 , Hamlin moved up to third as Edwards maintained a 1 @.@ 5 @-@ second lead . Three laps later , Hamlin passed Kurt Busch to claim second .
Kyle Busch moved up to fourth after passing Allmendinger on lap 54 . After 55 laps , Stewart had moved up to eighth while Johnson had moved up to 12th . Three laps later , the second caution was given , after Keselowski developed a flat tire and crashed into the wall . All the front @-@ runners made pit stops during the caution , with most asking for tires and adjustments . At the lap 65 restart , Edwards remained the leader before Hamlin moved past him on the following lap . On the 67th lap , Kurt Busch passed Edwards , moving him down to third . During lap 69 , Kenseth passed Busch to move to fifth . Two laps later , Johnson was scored ninth , while Harvick was 12th . Afterward , Kyle Busch fell to the eighth position by the 73rd lap . Stewart moved up to the eighth position three laps later while Hamlin had a lead of 1 @.@ 3 seconds .
On lap 80 , McMurray scraped the wall , sustaining damage to the rear spoiler , which came loose from the rest of the car . Two laps later , McMurray 's team mate Montoya moved up to the 14th position after starting 35th . On the 86th lap , Johnson passed Kenseth to move up to the eighth position . Kenseth fell two positions after being passed by Allmendinger and Harvick . By lap 90 , Hamlin extended his lead to 2 @.@ 3 seconds ahead of Kurt Busch . One lap later , Gordon passed Kenseth to move to the 12th position . During the 96th lap , Stewart moved up to fourth after passing Martin Truex , Jr . Montoya moved up to 13th on the following lap after passing Biffle . On lap 101 , the third caution was given for debris . One lap later , the front runners made pit stops , giving the lead to Bobby Labonte , who didn 't come in until the next lap . At the lap 105 restart , Edwards was the leader before Hamlin reclaimed the first position a lap later .
During the 117th lap , Biffle moved up to the eighth position , two laps before Johnson moved up to fifth after overtaking Newman . By lap 123 , Hamlin 's lead was around eight @-@ tenths of a second ahead of Edwards . Six laps later , Stewart passed his team mate Newman for the sixth position . On the following lap , Hamlin had over a one @-@ second lead over second @-@ placed Edwards . On the 131st lap , Kyle Busch passed his brother Kurt for the second position . Harvick passed Biffle to take over the eighth position six laps later . On lap 140 , Kurt Busch fell down to fifth after Johnson passed him . Three laps later , Kurt fell one more position to sixth once Newman overtook him . During lap 147 , Truex. passed Biffle for the ninth position . Kenseth passed Biffle four laps later to claim the tenth position .
On lap 156 , Truex moved into eighth , after overtaking Kurt Busch . By lap 159 , Hamlin had a 2 @.@ 5 @-@ second lead over Edwards in the second position . Three laps later , Kenseth moved up to ninth while Kyle Busch moved to second after passing Edwards . On lap 166 , green flag pit stops began as Paul Menard made a pit stop . On the following lap , Elliott Sadler made a pit stop , four laps earlier than Hamlin . During the pit stops , three drivers were able to lead the race , Hamlin , Kyle Busch , and Kenseth . Once the pit stops concluded , Hamlin was scored the leader . On lap 180 , Kyle Busch moved up to the second position after passing Edwards . Six laps later , Mark Martin passed Kurt Busch to move into 13th . By lap 192 , Hamlin had a 1 @.@ 5 second lead over his team mate Kyle Busch . Six laps later , Harvick overtook Johnson to claim the fourth position . At lap 210 , Stewart passed Johnson for the fifth position as Jeff Burton moved up to the seventh .
Afterward , Stewart passed Harvick for the fourth position on the 219th lap . Three laps later , Robby Gordon spun sideways , prompting the fourth caution to be given . All the front runners made pit stops during the caution , and Kyle Busch became the leader . At the lap 228 restart , Kyle Busch was first ahead of Hamlin , Edwards , Johnson , and Burton . On the following lap , Hamlin passed Busch for the first position . During the 231st lap , Edwards passed Busch to take over the second position , making Busch fall to third after two laps . Two laps later , the fifth caution was given because Travis Kvapil spun sideways . During the caution , the first eight cars did not pit , while the others did . Hamlin led on the restart ahead of Carl Edwards in second . At lap 242 , Kurt Busch moved up to ninth , after passing Stewart . Three laps later , Stewart fell to 12th , after being passed by Martin and Logano . By lap 249 , Hamlin had a 0 @.@ 75 second lead over second . On lap 252 , Jeff Burton moved up to the seventh position .
Fourteen laps later , Edwards reclaimed the lead from Hamlin . On lap 268 , Montoya moved up to fourth after passing Johnson . By lap 274 , Edwards had a one @-@ second lead over Hamlin in second . On the following lap , Newman passed Johnson for fifth as Harvick moved to twelfth . Edwards continued to expand his lead to two seconds on lap 287 . At the 292nd lap , Johnson fell to sixth after being passed by Burton . Six laps later , Hamlin made a pit stop for fuel and two new tires , which caused him to fall to nineteenth . On lap 301 , Hamlin moved back on the lead lap , after passing Edwards . Logano passed Johnson for fourth as Burton made a pit stop on lap 303 . With six laps remaining , Johnson fell to sixth as Harvick moved to seventh . Edwards maintained the lead to win his first race of the 2010 season . Newman finished second , ahead of Logano in third and Biffle in fourth . Johnson clinched the fifth position , after starting twenty @-@ first .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
Race winner Carl Edwards appeared in victory lane after his victory lap to start celebrating his first win of the season , in front of a crowd of 75 @,@ 000 people . After winning the race , he described his happiness saying , " A win is very important to us . It 's a very big accomplishment for us . " He continued , " I think it 's something that we needed for our confidence . We needed it as a payoff for all the hard work the guys have put in at the shop , the engine department . "
Hamlin , who led the most laps , described his frustration : " The strategy and what @-@ not at the end just didn 't work our way . That 's all I can ask for , is to have the better car than those two guys – and we did . But , unfortunately , the strategy bit us . We 're just going to have to go there and do it the old @-@ fashioned way next week and try to beat them on the race track . " Afterward , Newman , who finished second , commented , " We were saving fuel the whole time . Made more sense to save fuel . We were two laps short . We just did what I thought we needed to do . If Carl made it , Carl made it . " Fifth place finisher Johnson described his happiness by saying : " We 're going to go home and we 're going to make sure we have the best engines , go through our simulation stuff , make sure our car is as fast as it can be and then race . We were in a good situation and could take the risk , take the chance . It worked out for us .
In the Drivers ' Championship , Hamlin remained first with 6 @,@ 462 points , 15 ahead of Johnson in second . Harvick followed in third with 6 @,@ 416 points . Edwards and Kenseth rounded out the first five positions with 6 @,@ 198 and 6 @,@ 151 . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet maintained first place with 255 points , 42 ahead of Toyota and 88 ahead of Ford . Dodge remained fourth with 135 points . 4 @.@ 201 million people watched the race on television . The race took two hours , forty @-@ nine minutes and one second to complete , and the margin of victory was 4 @.@ 770 seconds .
= = Results = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race results = = =
= = Standings after the race = =
= Bring Us Together =
" Bring Us Together " was a political slogan popularized after the election of Republican candidate Richard Nixon as United States President in 1968 . The text was derived from a sign which 13 @-@ year @-@ old Vicki Lynne Cole stated that she carried at Nixon 's rally in her home town of Deshler , Ohio during the campaign .
Richard Moore , a friend of Nixon , told the candidate 's speechwriters he had seen a child carrying a sign reading " Bring Us Together " at the Deshler rally . The speechwriters , including William Safire , began inserting the phrase into the candidate 's speeches . Nixon mentioned the Deshler rally and the sign in his victory speech on November 6 , 1968 , adopting the phrase as representing his administration 's initial goal — to reunify the bitterly divided country . Cole came forward as the person who carried the sign , and was the subject of intense media attention .
Nixon invited Cole and her family to the inauguration , and she appeared on a float in the inaugural parade . The phrase " Bring Us Together " was used ironically by Democrats when Nixon proposed policies they disagreed with or refused to support . Cole declined to comment on Nixon 's 1974 resignation , but subsequently expressed her sympathy for him . In newspaper columns written in his final years before his 2009 death , Safire expressed doubts that Cole 's sign ever existed .
= = Background = =
The 1968 presidential campaign was one of the most bitterly fought in the nation 's history . Set among national divisions over the Vietnam War , social policy , and against the backdrop of riot and assassination , none of the campaigns made healing divisions a major theme — an early slogan by Democratic candidate Hubert Humphrey , " United With Humphrey " had been scrapped . The incumbent President , Democrat Lyndon Baines Johnson ( often called L.B.J. ) could give Humphrey little support because of his own unpopularity .
By 1968 , candidates were appealing to the electorate through television , rather than through whistle @-@ stop train tours . Nixon had included them in his past national campaigns — he had broken off one such tour in 1952 to make the Checkers speech , and in 1960 , had stopped at Deshler . The rural Ohio village , about 45 miles ( 72 km ) southwest of Toledo , was popular among whistle @-@ stopping presidential candidates as two main lines of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad crossed there — other visitors in search of votes had included Al Smith , Harry Truman , and Barry Goldwater . Deshler voters would respond in 1968 by giving Nixon an overwhelming majority of their votes .
= = Rally and sign = =
Cole was an eighth grader in Deshler ; her father was the local Methodist minister while her mother taught third grade . On October 22 , 1968 , the day of Nixon 's stop in Deshler , Cole attended class as usual . During the morning session , one of her teachers announced that any girls interested in being " Nixonettes " ( girls asked to cheer and provide atmosphere at the rally ) should report to the fire station after school . Cole did so , along with her friend , Rita Bowman , and the girls were provided with paper red , white , and blue dresses ( to be worn over other clothing ) and signs . Cole 's said , " L.B.J. Convinced Us — Vote Republican " .
That afternoon , Cole attended the rally , wearing her dress and holding her sign . The Nixon train pulled in , and the police lowered the rope which kept the crowd clear of the tracks . In interviews , Cole related that as the crowd surged forward , she dropped her sign amidst the pushing and shoving . Cole stated , " I wanted a sign to wave . I had lost my own placard and as the crowd moved forward as the train approached I saw this sign lying in the street and I just picked it up and held it high , hoping Mr. Nixon would see it . "
Nixon gave a speech from the rear platform of the train . He praised the size of the crowd , stating , " There are four times as many people here than live in the town and more than the number that were here in 1960 . " The candidate asserted that though his opponent , Vice President Humphrey , claimed that Americans had never had it so good , he should tell that to the farmer . Nixon pledged that he would give special attention to agricultural issues and would make the Secretary of Agriculture a farmer 's advocate to the White House . He promised to restore order : " The most important civil right is the right to be free from [ local ] violence . " He noted the many youths in the crowd , stating , " Young Americans know their future is at stake . They don 't want four more years of the same . " He recalled that his father had hailed from Ohio : " his roots are here and mine are too ! " As Nixon spoke , Cole observed him , and thought he was a good family man , looking warm and friendly and appearing much as she expected him to . She later stated that she did not even look at the sign until she was teased about it by a classmate , who suggested the sign , " Bring Us Together Again " was about boys , not politics . She kept the dress , but told the media she threw away the sign .
= = Nixon speeches and inauguration = =
Nixon speechwriter William Safire had been told of the sign by a friend of Nixon , Richard Moore , who left the train at campaign stops to mingle with the crowd and seek items of local color for the speechwriters to use . Safire stated in his book on the early days of the Nixon administration ( originally published in 1975 ) that at Deshler , " Moore boarded the train with that mystic look that a writer gets when he has something delicious to work with , some piece of color that could be more than a gimmick . " According to Safire in a 2007 column , Moore stuck his head into the compartment occupied by Nixon 's speechwriters and stated , " There 's a little kid out there with a hand @-@ lettered sign that I think says ' Bring Us Together ' . " Safire wrote in that column that he inserted the phrase into Nixon 's remarks for the speech to be given at the next stop .
Nixon used the phrase in concluding a rally at New York 's Madison Square Garden on October 31 , 1968 . Recalling the visit to Deshler , the Republican candidate stated , " There were many signs like those I see here . But one sign held by a teenager said , ' Bring Us Together Again ' . My friends , America needs to be brought together . " However , Nixon 's use of the phrase received little coverage until after the election . Deshler school officials heard of the speech , and asked students about the sign , but no one came forward .
Safire included the incident in a draft victory statement , which Nixon looked at before addressing the nation as President @-@ elect . In his victory speech on November 6 , Nixon recalled the sign :
I saw many signs in this campaign , some of them were not friendly ; some were very friendly . But the one that touched me the most was one that I saw in Deshler , Ohio , at the end of a long day of whistle @-@ stopping . A little town . I suppose five times the population was there in the dusk . It was almost impossible to see , but a teenager held up a sign , " Bring Us Together . " And that will be the great objective of this administration at the outset , to bring the American people together .
Reconciliation among the American people was also a theme of Humphrey 's concession statement . " I have done my best . I have lost , Mr. Nixon has won . The democratic process has worked its will , so now let 's get on with the urgent task of uniting our country . "
School officials again asked students about the sign after Nixon mentioned his visit to Deshler in the victory speech , and this time Cole came forward . She stated that she had not done so before as she had not written the sign . Reporters interviewed the girl in the principal 's office . Cole stated she felt Nixon was the one who could bring the country together again . Being interviewed by reporters from Washington , New York , and Chicago , she indicated , was more fun than sitting in history class . The Toledo Blade investigated the matter , but could not ascertain who made the sign , or what happened to it after Cole discarded it . John Baer , village chief of police , stated , " I think this has to be the most important thing that has ever happened around here . " Paul Scharf , editor of the Deshler Flag , stated he did not believe the mystery of the sign 's origin or fate would ever be cleared up . Safire stated he was told by Moore that the sign stood out as obviously handmade and not produced by the local Nixon campaign .
As early as November 7 , the Northwest Signal , local paper for nearby Napoleon , Ohio , reported that Deshler merchants were considering taking up a collection to send Cole to Washington ; the following day the paper editorialized that she , along with whoever actually made the sign , be sent to Washington to see the inauguration . On November 19 , 1968 , campaign special assistant and longtime Nixon advisor Murray Chotiner proposed inviting the Cole family to the inauguration and having Vicki Cole ride the theme float . The President @-@ elect subsequently invited Reverend and Mrs. Cole and their family to attend the inauguration ; the family was brought to Washington by the Inaugural Committee . Vicki Cole carried a recreation of her sign on the theme float in the inaugural parade .
Carla Garrity , a fourteen @-@ year @-@ old girl from Burbank , California , objected to Cole 's invitation to the inauguration on the ground that Cole had done nothing to deserve it . In a letter to her congressman , Ed Reinecke , Garrity stated she had worked very hard for Nixon and other Republican candidates , " Therefore , I am very much against that 13 @-@ year old girl in Ohio who held up the sign ' Bring us Together ' being invited to the inaugural . She didn 't even read or write it ! " Reinecke forwarded the letter to Nixon aide John Ehrlichman with the comment , " I suspect that Carla 's reaction may be shared by other young people who worked in the Nixon campaign " . Nixon assistant Charles E. Stuart replied to Reinecke , stating , " Vicki Lynne has been invited to the inauguration not because she carried the sign , or even because she made the sign , but rather because the sign which she did carry proved to be an inspiration to Mr. Nixon " and expressed his confidence the invitation would be well received by other young Nixon partisans .
= = Political usage and aftermath = =
The Inaugural Committee wanted to adopt " Bring Us Together " as the inaugural theme , appalling Safire , who said , " That wasn 't the theme of the campaign . " Safire and other aides felt the administration should seek to advance its agenda , rather than seeking consensus on policy , and White House Chief of Staff @-@ designate H. R. Haldeman was able to change the theme to " Forward Together . " Nevertheless , the phrase " Bring Us Together " was thrown in the face of the Nixon administration by Democrats each time something divisive was proposed , and was used as the title of a tell @-@ all expose by Leon Panetta after he was fired from the Nixon administration for dissenting from the White House 's " Southern strategy " on civil rights policy . According to Safire , the use of the phrase against Nixon shows a slogan which evokes emotion can cut both ways .
Nixon 's advisors denied he had abandoned a desire to bring the American people together . However , they were divided between those who sought national unity , and those , such as campaign manager and Attorney General John N. Mitchell , who felt Nixon should concentrate on keeping the voters who had cast their ballots for him , and should seek to win over the voters who had favored third @-@ party candidate Alabama Governor George Wallace , as the key to reelection in 1972 . According to Safire , after taking office , Nixon and his advisors decided he need not bring the country together , but need only work to secure his reelection by appealing to voters who were not hostile to Nixon and his policies — they became known as the Silent Majority . Historian Stanley Kutler suggested in his book on the Nixon administration that Nixon 's policies widened divisions in America , but that the nation finally came together late in his presidency — to reject Nixon and demand his removal .
In late 1970 , Vicki Cole indicated in an interview Nixon was doing the best he could . During the 1972 campaign , Cole served as Ohio chair of a future voters organization for the Nixon campaign . She then left politics , devoting her spare time to training and showing horses . In 1974 , Cole declined to comment on the resignation of President Nixon in the wake of the Watergate scandal , but stated in 1977 that she felt sympathy for him , though she believed his resignation was necessary .
Safire , in his political dictionary published in 2008 , recollected that when he asked Moore , some years after the inauguration , whether he had really seen the girl holding the sign , or whether he had imagined it , " his eyes took on a faraway look " . In columns written in the final years before his 2009 death , Safire commented that the sign was " almost too good to be true " , and said of Moore , " [ h ] e may have made that up " .
= Second Persian invasion of Greece =
The second Persian invasion of Greece ( 480 – 479 BC ) occurred during the Greco @-@ Persian Wars , as King Xerxes I of Persia sought to conquer all of Greece . The invasion was a direct , if delayed , response to the defeat of the first Persian invasion of Greece ( 492 – 490 BC ) at the Battle of Marathon , which ended Darius I 's attempts to subjugate Greece . After Darius 's death , his son Xerxes spent several years planning for the second invasion , mustering an enormous army and navy . The Athenians and Spartans led the Greek resistance . About a tenth of the Greek city @-@ states joined the ' Allied ' effort ; most remained neutral or submitted to Xerxes .
The invasion began in spring 480 BC , when the Persian army crossed the Hellespont and marched through Thrace and Macedon to Thessaly . The Persian advance was blocked at the pass of Thermopylae by a small Allied force under King Leonidas I of Sparta ; simultaneously , the Persian fleet was blocked by an Allied fleet at the straits of Artemisium . At the famous Battle of Thermopylae , the Allied army held back the Persian army for seven days , before they were outflanked by a mountain path and the Allied rearguard was trapped and annihilated . The Allied fleet had also withstood two days of Persian attacks at the Battle of Artemisium , but when news reached them of the disaster at Thermopylae , they withdrew to Salamis .
After Thermopylae , all of Boeotia and Attica fell to the Persian army , which captured and burnt Athens . However , a larger Allied army fortified the narrow Isthmus of Corinth , protecting the Peloponnesus from Persian conquest . Both sides thus sought a naval victory that might decisively alter the course of the war . The Athenian general Themistocles succeeded in luring the Persian navy into the narrow Straits of Salamis , where the huge number of Persian ships became disorganised , and were soundly beaten by the Allied fleet . The Allied victory at Salamis prevented a quick conclusion to the invasion , and fearing becoming trapped in Europe , Xerxes retreated to Asia leaving his general Mardonius to finish the conquest with the elite of the army .
The following spring , the Allies assembled the largest ever hoplite army , and marched north from the isthmus to confront Mardonius . At the ensuing Battle of Plataea , the Greek infantry again proved its superiority , inflicting a severe defeat on the Persians and killing Mardonius in the process . On the same day , across the Aegean Sea an Allied navy destroyed the remnants of the Persian navy at the Battle of Mycale . With this double defeat , the invasion was ended , and Persian power in the Aegean severely dented . The Greeks would now move to the offensive , eventually expelling the Persians from Europe , the Aegean islands and Ionia before the war finally came to an end in 479 BC
= = Background = =
The Greek city @-@ states of Athens and Eretria had supported the unsuccessful Ionian Revolt against the Persian Empire of Darius I in 499 – 494 BC . The Persian Empire was still relatively young , and prone to revolts among its subject peoples . Moreover , Darius was a usurper , and had spent considerable time extinguishing revolts against his rule . The Ionian revolt threatened the integrity of his empire , and Darius thus vowed to punish those involved ( especially those not already part of the empire ) . Darius also saw the opportunity to expand his empire into the fractious world of Ancient Greece . A preliminary expedition under Mardonius , in 492 BC , to secure the land approaches to Greece ended with the re @-@ conquest of Thrace and forced Macedon to become a fully subordinate kingdom part of Persia . It had previously been a vassal as early as the late 6th century BC , but remained having autonomy and not fully subordinate yet .
In 491 BC , Darius sent emissaries to all the Greek city @-@ states , asking for a gift of ' earth and water ' in token of their submission to him . Having had a demonstration of his power the previous year , the majority of Greek cities duly obliged . In Athens , however , the ambassadors were put on trial and then executed ; in Sparta , they were simply thrown down a well . This meant that Sparta was also now effectively at war with Persia .
Darius thus put together an ambitious task force under Datis and Artaphernes in 490 BC , which attacked Naxos , before receiving the submission of the other Cycladic Islands . The task force then moved on Eretria , which it besieged and destroyed . Finally , it moved to attack Athens , landing at the bay of Marathon , where it was met by a heavily outnumbered Athenian army . At the ensuing Battle of Marathon , the Athenians won a remarkable victory , which resulted in the withdrawal of the Persian army to Asia .
Darius therefore began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece ; however , in 486 BC , his Egyptian subjects revolted , indefinitely postponing any Greek expedition . Darius then died while preparing to march on Egypt , and the throne of Persia passed to his son Xerxes I. Xerxes crushed the Egyptian revolt , and very quickly restarted the preparations for the invasion of Greece .
= = Persian preparations = =
Since this was to be a full @-@ scale invasion , it required long @-@ term planning , stock @-@ piling and conscription . It was decided that Xerxes ' Pontoon Bridges were to be set up to allow his army to cross the Hellespont to Europe , and that a canal should be dug across the isthmus of Mount Athos ( rounding which headland , a Persian fleet had been destroyed in 492 BC ) . These were both feats of exceptional ambition , which would have been beyond any contemporary state . However , the campaign was delayed one year because of another revolt in Egypt and Babylonia .
In 481 BC , after roughly four years of preparation , Xerxes began to muster the troops for the invasion of Europe . Herodotus gives the names of 46 nations from which troops were drafted . The Persian army was gathered in Asia Minor in the summer and autumn of 481 BC . The armies from the Eastern satrapies was gathered in Kritala , Cappadocia and were led by Xerxes to Sardis where they passed the winter . Early in spring it moved to Abydos where it was joined with the armies of the western satrapies . Then the army that Xerxes had mustered marched towards Europe , crossing the Hellespont on two pontoon bridges .
= = = Size of the Persian forces = = =
= = = = Army = = = =
The numbers of troops that Xerxes mustered for the second invasion of Greece have been the subject of endless dispute , because the numbers given in ancient sources are very large indeed . Herodotus claimed that there were , in total , 2 @.@ 5 million military personnel , accompanied by an equivalent number of support personnel . The poet Simonides , who was a contemporary , talks of four million ; Ctesias , based on Persian records , gave 800 @,@ 000 as the total number of the army ( without the support personnel ) that was assembled by Xerxes . While it has been suggested that Herodotus or his sources had access to official Persian Empire records of the forces involved in the expedition , modern scholars tend to reject these figures based on knowledge of the Persian military systems , their logistical capabilities , the Greek countryside , and supplies available along the army 's route .
Modern scholars thus generally attribute the numbers given in the ancient sources to the result of miscalculations or exaggerations on the part of the victors , or
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disinformation by the Persians in the run up to the war . The topic has been hotly debated but the modern consensus revolves around the figure of 300 @,@ 000 – 500 @,@ 000 . Nevertheless , whatever the real numbers were , it is clear that Xerxes was anxious to ensure a successful expedition by mustering overwhelming numerical superiority by land and by sea , and also that much of the army died of starvation and disease , never returning to Asia .
Herodotus tells us that the army and navy , while moving through Thrace , was halted at Doriskos for an inspection by Xerxes , and he recounts the numbers of troops found to be present :
Herodotus doubles this number to account for support personnel and thus he reports that the whole army numbered 5 @,@ 283 @,@ 220 men . Other ancient sources give similarly large numbers . The poet Simonides , who was a near @-@ contemporary , talks of four million ; Ctesias gave 800 @,@ 000 as the total number of the army that assembled in Doriskos .
An early and very influential modern historian , George Grote , set the tone by expressing incredulity at the numbers given by Herodotus : " To admit this overwhelming total , or anything near to it , is obviously impossible . " Grote 's main objection is the supply problem , though he does not analyse the problem in detail . He did not reject Herodotus 's account altogether , citing the latter 's reporting of the Persians ' careful methods of accounting and their stockpiling of supply caches for three years , but drew attention to the contradictions in the ancient sources . A major limiting factor for the size of the Persian army , first suggested by Sir Frederick Maurice ( a British transport officer ) is the supply of water . Maurice suggested in the region of 200 @,@ 000 men and 70 @,@ 000 animals could have been supported by the rivers in that region of Greece . He further suggested that Herodotus may have confused the Persian terms for chiliarchy ( 1 @,@ 000 ) and myriarchy ( 10 @,@ 000 ) , leading to an exaggeration by a factor of ten . Other early modern scholars estimated that the land forces participating in the invasion at 100 @,@ 000 soldiers or less , based on the logistical systems available to the Ancients .
Munro and Macan note Herodotus giving the names of six major commanders and 29 myriarchs ( leaders of a baivabaram , the basic unit of the Persian infantry , which numbered about 10 @,@ 000 @-@ strong ) ; this would give a land force of roughly 300 @,@ 000 men . Other proponents of larger numbers suggest figures from 250 @,@ 000 to 700 @,@ 000 . One historian , Kampouris , even accepts as realistic Herodotus ' 1 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 for the infantry plus 80 @,@ 000 cavalry ( including support ) for various reasons including the size of the area from which the army was drafted ( from modern @-@ day Libya to Pakistan ) , the ratios of land troops to fleet troops , of infantry to cavalry and Persian troops to Greek troops .
= = = = Fleet = = = =
The size of the Persian fleet is also disputed , though perhaps less so . According to Herodotus the Persian fleet numbered 1 @,@ 207 triremes and 3 @,@ 000 transport and supply ships , including 50 @-@ oared galleys ( Penteconters ) ( πεντηκοντήρ ) . Herodotus gives a detailed breakdown of the Persian triremes :
Herodotus also records that this was the number at the Battle of Salamis , despite the losses earlier in storms off Sepia and Euboea , and at the battle of Artemisium . He claims that the losses were replenished with reinforcements , though he only records 120 triremes from the Greeks of Thrace and an unspecified number of ships from the Greek islands . Aeschylus , who fought at Salamis , also claims that he faced 1 @,@ 207 warships there , of which 1 @,@ 000 were triremes and 207 fast ships . Diodorus and Lysias independently claim there were 1 @,@ 200 at Doriskos . The number of 1 @,@ 207 ( for the outset only ) is also given by Ephorus , while his teacher Isocrates claims there were 1 @,@ 300 at Doriskos and 1 @,@ 200 at Salamis . Ctesias gives another number , 1 @,@ 000 ships , while Plato , speaking in general terms refers to 1 @,@ 000 ships and more .
These numbers are ( by ancient standards ) consistent , and this could be interpreted that a number around 1 @,@ 200 is correct . Among modern scholars some have accepted this number , although suggesting that the number must have been lower by the Battle of Salamis . Other recent works on the Persian Wars reject this number , 1 @,@ 207 being seen as more of a reference to the combined Greek fleet in the Iliad generally claim that the Persians could have launched no more than around 600 warships into the Aegean .
= = Greek preparations = =
The Athenians had been preparing for war with the Persians since the mid @-@ 480s BC , and in 482 BC the decision was taken , under the guidance of the politician Themistocles , to build a massive fleet of triremes that would be necessary for the Greeks to fight the Persians . The Athenians did not have the man @-@ power to fight on land and sea ; therefore combatting the Persians would require an alliance of several Greek city states . In 481 BC Xerxes sent ambassadors around Greece asking for earth and water , but making the very deliberate omission of Athens and Sparta . Support thus began to coalesce around these two states .
= = = Hellenic alliance = = =
A congress of states met at Corinth in late autumn of 481 BC , and a confederate alliance of Greek city @-@ states was formed . This confederation had the power to send envoys asking for assistance and to dispatch troops from the member states to defensive points after joint consultation . Herodotus does not formulate an abstract name for the union but simply calls them " οἱ Ἕλληνες " ( the Greeks ) and " the Greeks who had sworn alliance " ( Godley translation ) or " the Greeks who had banded themselves together " ( Rawlinson translation ) . Hereafter , they will be referred to as the ' Allies ' . Sparta and Athens had a leading role in the congress but interests of all the states played a part in determining defensive strategy . Little is known about the internal workings of the congress or the discussions during its meetings . Only 70 of the approximately 700 Greek cities sent representatives . Nevertheless , this was remarkable for the disjointed Greek world , especially since many of the city @-@ states in attendance were still technically at war with each other .
The majority of other city @-@ states remained more @-@ or @-@ less neutral , awaiting the outcome of the confrontation . Thebes was a major absentee , and was suspected of being willing to aid the Persians once the invasion force arrived . Not all Thebans agreed with this policy , and 400 " loyalist " hoplites joined the Allied force at Thermopylae ( at least according to one possible interpretation ) . The most notable city actively siding with the Persians ( " Medised " ) was Argos , in the otherwise Spartan @-@ dominated Peloponnese . However , the Argives had been severely weakened in 494 BC , when a Spartan @-@ force led by Cleomenes I had annihilated the Argive army in Battle of Sepeia and then massacred the fugitives .
= = = Size of allied forces = = =
The allies had no ' standing army ' , nor was there any requirement to form one ; since they were fighting on home territory , they could muster armies as and when required . Different @-@ sized allied forces thus appeared throughout the campaign . These numbers are discussed fully in the article for each battle .
= = Spring 480 BC : Thrace , Macedonia and Thessaly = =
Having crossed into Europe in April 480 BC , the Persian army began its march to Greece . Five major food depots had been set up along the path : at White Headland on the Thracian side of the Hellespont , at Tyrodiza in Perinthian territory , at Doriskos at the Evros river estuary where the Asian army was linked up with the Balkan allies , at Eion on the Strymon river , and at Therme , modern @-@ day Thessaloniki . There , food had been sent from Asia for several years in preparation for the campaign . Animals had been bought and fattened , while the local populations had , for several months , been ordered to grind the grains into flour . The Persian army took roughly three months to travel unopposed from the Hellespont to Therme , a journey of about 360 miles ( 600 km ) . It paused at Doriskos where it was joined by the fleet . Xerxes reorganized the troops into tactical units replacing the national formations used earlier for the march .
The Allied ' congress ' met again in the spring of 480 BC . A Thessalian delegation suggested that the allies could muster in the narrow Vale of Tempe , on the borders of Thessaly , and thereby block Xerxes 's advance . A force of 10 @,@ 000 Allies led by the Spartan polemarch Euenetus and Themistocles was thus despatched to the pass . However , once there , they were warned by Alexander I of Macedon that the vale could be bypassed by at least two other passes , and that the army of Xerxes was overwhelming ; the Allies therefore retreated . Shortly afterwards , they received the news that Xerxes had crossed the Hellespont . The abandonment of Tempe meant that all of Thessaly submitted to the Persians , as did many cities to the north of the pass of Thermopylae when it seemed help was not forthcoming .
A second strategy was therefore suggested to the Allies by Themistocles . The route to southern Greece ( Boeotia , Attica and the Peloponnesus ) would require the army of Xerxes to travel through the very narrow pass of Thermopylae . This could easily be blocked by the Allies , despite the overwhelming number of Persians . Furthermore , to prevent the Persians bypassing Thermopylae by sea , the allied navy could block the straits of Artemisium . This dual strategy was adopted by the congress . However , the Peloponnesian cities made fall @-@ back plans to defend the Isthmus of Corinth should it come to it , while the women and children of Athens were evacuated en masse to the Peloponnesian city of Troezen .
= = August 480 BC : Thermopylae and Artemisium = =
When the Allies received the news that Xerxes was clearing paths around Mount Olympus , and thus intending to march towards Thermopylae , it was both the period of truce that accompanied the Olympic games , and the Spartan festival of Carneia , during both of which warfare was considered sacrilegious . Nevertheless , the Spartans considered the threat so grave that they despatched their king Leonidas I with his personal bodyguard ( the Hippeis ) of 300 men ( in this case , the elite young soldiers in the Hippeis were replaced by veterans who already had sons ) . Leonidas was supported by contingents from the Peloponnesian cities allied to Sparta , and other forces that were picked up en route to Thermopylae . The Allies proceeded to occupy the pass , rebuilt the wall the Phocians had built at the narrowest point of the pass , and waited for Xerxes 's arrival .
When the Persians arrived at Thermopylae in mid @-@ August , they initially waited for three days for the Allies to disperse . When Xerxes was eventually persuaded that the Allies intended to contest the pass , he sent his troops to attack . However , the Greek position was ideally suited to hoplite warfare , the Persian contingents being forced to attack the phalanx head on . The Allies thus withstood two full days of battle and everything Xerxes could throw at them . However , at the end of the second day , they were betrayed by a local resident named Ephialtes who revealed a mountain path that led behind the Allied lines to Xerxes . Xerxes then sent his elite guards , the Immortals on a night march to outflank the Allied . When he was made aware of this maneuver ( while the Immortals were still en route ) , Leonidas dismissed the bulk of the Allied army , remaining to guard the rear with 300 Spartans , 700 Thespians , 400 Thebians and perhaps a few hundred others . On the third day of the battle , the remaining Allies sallied forth from the wall to meet the Persians and slaughter as many as they could . Ultimately , however , the Allied rearguard was annihilated , and the pass of Thermopylae opened to the Persians .
Simultaneous with the battle at Thermopylae , an Allied naval force of 271 triremes defended the Straits of Artemisium against the Persians . Directly before Artemisium , the Persian fleet had been caught in a gale off the coast of Magnesia , losing many ships , but could still probably muster over 800 ships at the start of the battle . On the first day ( also the first of the Battle of Thermopylae ) , the Persians detached 200 seaworthy ships , which were sent to sail around the eastern coast of Euboea . These ships were to round Euboea and block the line of retreat for the Allied fleet . Meanwhile , the Allies and the remaining Persians engaged in the late afternoon , the Allies having the better of the engagement and capturing 30 vessels . That evening , another storm occurred , wrecking the majority of the Persian detachment which had been sent around Euboea .
On the second day of the battle , news reached the Allies that their lines of retreat were no longer threatened ; they therefore resolved to maintain their position . They staged a hit @-@ and @-@ run attack on some Cilician ships , capturing and destroying them . On the third day , however , the Persian fleet attacked the Allies lines in full force . In a day of savage fighting , the Allies held on to their position , but suffered severe losses ( half the Athenian fleet was damaged ) ; nevertheless , the Allies inflicted equal losses on the Persian fleet . That evening , the Allies received news of the fate of Leonidas and the Allies at Thermopylae . Since the Allied fleet was badly damaged , and since it no longer needed to defend the flank of Thermopylae , they retreated from Artemisium to the island of Salamis .
= = September 480 BC : Salamis = =
Victory at Thermopylae meant that all Boeotia fell to Xerxes ; the two cities that had resisted him , Thespiae and Plataea , were captured and razed . Attica was also left open to invasion , and the remaining population of Athens was thus evacuated , with the aid of the Allied fleet , to Salamis . The Peloponnesian Allies began to prepare a defensive line across the Isthmus of Corinth , building a wall , and demolishing the road from Megara , thereby abandoning Athens to the Persians . Athens thus fell ; the small number of Athenians who had barricaded themselves on the Acropolis were eventually defeated , and Xerxes then ordered Athens to be torched .
The Persians had now captured most of Greece , but Xerxes had perhaps not expected such defiance from the Greeks ; his priority was now to complete the war as quickly as possible ; the huge invasion force could not be supplied indefinitely , and probably Xerxes did not wish to be at the fringe of his empire for so long . Thermopylae had shown that a frontal assault against a well defended Greek position had little chance of success ; with the Allies now dug in across the isthmus , there was therefore little chance of the Persians conquering the rest of Greece by land . However , if the isthmus 's defensive line could be outflanked , the Allies could be defeated . Such an outflanking of the isthmus required the use of the Persian navy , and thus the neutralisation of the Allied navy . In summary , if Xerxes could destroy the Allied navy , he would be in a strong position to force a Greek surrender ; this seemed the only hope of concluding the campaign in that season . Conversely by avoiding destruction , or as Themistocles hoped , by destroying the Persian fleet , the Greeks could avoid conquest . In the final reckoning , both sides were prepared to stake everything on a naval battle , in the hope of decisively altering the course of the war .
Thus it was that the Allied fleet remained off the coast of Salamis into September , despite the imminent arrival of the Persians . Even after Athens fell to the advancing Persian army , the Allied fleet still remained off the coast of Salamis , trying to lure the Persian fleet to battle . Partly as a result of subterfuge on the part of Themistocles , the navies finally engaged in the cramped Straits of Salamis . There , the large Persian numbers were an active hindrance , as ships struggled to manoeuvre and became disorganised . Seizing the opportunity , the Greek fleet attacked , and scored a decisive victory , sinking or capturing at least 200 Persian ships , and thus ensuring the Peloponnesus would not be outflanked .
According to Herodotus , after this loss Xerxes attempted to build a causeway across the straits to attack Salamis ( although Strabo and Ctesias place this attempt before the battle ) . In any case this project was soon abandoned . With the Persians ' naval superiority removed , Xerxes feared that the Greeks might sail to the Hellespont and destroy the pontoon bridges . According to Herodotus , Mardonius volunteered to remain in Greece and complete the conquest with a hand @-@ picked group of troops , while advising Xerxes to retreat to Asia with the bulk of the army . All of the Persian forces abandoned Attica , with Mardonius over @-@ wintering in Boeotia and Thessaly . The Athenians were thus able to return to their burnt @-@ out city for the winter .
= = Autumn / winter 480 / 479 BC = =
= = = Siege of Potidaea = = =
Herodotus tells us that a Persian general , Artabazus , having escorted Xerxes to the Hellespont with 60 @,@ 000 men , began the return journey to Mardonius in Thessaly . However , as he neared Pallene ,
" he thought it right that he should enslave the people of Potidaea , whom he found in revolt . "
Despite attempts to capture the city by treachery , the Persians were forced to keep up the siege for three months . Then , attempting to use an unusually low tide to attack the town from sea , the Persian army was caught by the returning tide , many drowning and the survivors being attacked by the Potideans in boats . Artabazus was thus forced to lift the siege , and return to Mardonius with the remnants of his men .
= = = Siege of Olynthus = = =
While besieging Potidea , Artabazus also decided to besiege Olynthus , which was also in revolt . The town was held by the Bottiaean tribe , who had been driven out of Macedon . Having taken the town , he massacred the defenders , and handed over the town to the Chalcidian people .
= = June 479 BC : Plataea and Mycale = =
Over the winter , there seems to have been some tension between the Allies . In particular , the Athenians , who were not protected by the isthmus , but whose fleet were the key to the security of the Peloponnesus , felt hard done by . They demanded an Allied army march north the following year . When the other Allies failed to commit to this , the Athenian fleet probably refused to join the Allied navy in the spring . The navy , now under the command of the Spartan king Leotychides , thus skulked off Delos , while the remnants of the Persian fleet skulked off Samos , both sides unwilling to risk battle . Similarly , Mardonius remained in Thessaly , knowing an attack on the isthmus was pointless , while the Allies refused to send an army outside the Peloponessus .
Mardonius moved to break the stalemate , by offering peace , self @-@ government and territorial expansion to the Athenians ( with the aim of thereby removing their fleet from the Allied forces ) , using Alexander I of Macedon as an intermediary . The Athenians made sure that a Spartan delegation was on hand to hear the offer , but rejected it . Athens was thus evacuated again , and the Persians marched south and re @-@ took possession of it . Mardonius now repeated his offer of peace to the Athenian refugees on Salamis . Athens , along with Megara and Plataea , sent emissaries to Sparta demanding assistance , and threatening to accept the Persian terms if not . The Spartans , who were at that time celebrating the festival of Hyacinthus , delayed making a decision for 10 days . However , when the Athenian emissaries then delivered an ultimatum to the Spartans , they were amazed to hear that a task force was in fact already marching to meet the Persians .
When Mardonius heard that the Allied army was on the march , he retreated into Boeotia , near Plataea , trying to draw the Allies into open terrain where he could use his cavalry . The Allied army however , under the command of the Spartan regent Pausanias , stayed on high ground above Plataea to protect themselves against such tactics . Mardonius ordered a hit @-@ and @-@ run cavalry attack on the Greek lines , but the attack was unsuccessful and the cavalry commander killed . The outcome prompted the Allies to move to a position nearer the Persian camp , still on high ground . As a result , the Allied lines of communication were exposed . The Persian cavalry began to intercept food deliveries and finally managed to destroy the only spring of water available to the Allies . The Allied position now undermined , Pausanias ordered a night @-@ time retreat towards their original positions . This went awry , leaving the Athenians , and Spartans and Tegeans isolated on separate hills , with the other contingents scattered further away , near Plataea itself . Seeing that he might never have a better opportunity to attack , Mardonius ordered his whole army forward . However , as at Thermopylae , the Persian infantry proved no match for the heavily armoured Greek hoplites , and the Spartans broke through to Mardonius 's bodyguard and killed him . The Persian force thus dissolved in rout ; 40 @,@ 000 troops managed to escape via the road to Thessaly , but the rest fled to the Persian camp where they were trapped and slaughtered by the Allies , thus finalising their victory .
On the afternoon of the Battle of Plataea , Herodotus tells us that rumour of the Allied victory reached the Allied navy , at that time off the coast of Mount Mycale in Ionia . Their morale boosted , the Allied marines fought and won a decisive victory at the Battle of Mycale that same day , destroying the remnants of the Persian fleet . As soon as the Peloponnesians had marched north of the isthmus , the Athenian fleet under Xanthippus had joined up with the rest of the Allied fleet . The fleet , now able to match the Persians , had first sailed to Samos , where the Persian fleet was based . The Persians , whose ships were in a poor state of repair , had decided not to risk fighting , and instead drew their ships up on the beach under Mycale . An army of 60 @,@ 000 men had been left there by Xerxes , and the fleet joined with them , building a palisade around the camp to protect the ships . However , Leotychides decided to attack the camp with the Allied fleet 's marines . Seeing the small size of the Allied force , the Persians emerged from the camp , but the hoplites again proved superior , and destroyed much of the Persian force . The ships were abandoned to the Allies , who burnt them , crippling Xerxes ' sea power , and marking the ascendancy of the Allied fleet .
= = Aftermath = =
With the twin victories of Plataea and Mycale , the second Persian invasion of Greece was over . Moreover , the threat of future invasion was abated ; although the Greeks remained worried that Xerxes would try again , over time it became apparent that the Persian desire to conquer Greece was much diminished .
In many ways Mycale represents the start of a new phase of the conflict , the Greek counterattack . After the victory at Mycale , the Allied fleet sailed to the Hellespont to break down the pontoon bridges , but found that this was already done . The Peloponnesians sailed home , but the Athenians remained to attack the Chersonesos , still held by the Persians . The Persians in the region , and their allies made for Sestos , the strongest town in the region , which the Athenians then laid siege to ; after a protracted siege , it fell to the Athenians . Herodotus ended his Historia after the Siege of Sestos . Over the next 30 years , the Greeks , primarily the Athenian @-@ dominated Delian League , would expel the Persians from Macedon , Thrace , the Aegean islands and Ionia . Peace with Persia came in 449 BC with the Peace of Callias , finally ending the half @-@ century of warfare .
= = Tactical analysis = =
The Greek style of warfare had been honed over the preceding centuries . It revolved around the hoplite , members of the middle @-@ classes ( the zeugites ) who could afford the armour necessary to fight in this manner . The hoplite was , by the standards of the time , heavily armoured , with a breastplate ( originally bronze , but probably by this stage a more flexible leather version ) , greaves , a full helmet , and a large round shield ( the aspis ) . Hoplites were armed with a long spear ( the doru ) , which was evidently significantly longer than Persian spears , and a sword ( the xiphos ) . Hoplites fought in the phalanx formation ; the exact details are not completely clear , but it was a close @-@ knit formation , presenting a uniform front of overlapping shields , and spears , to the enemy . Properly assembled , the phalanx was a formidable offensive and defensive weapon ; on occasions when it is recorded to have happened , it took a huge number of light infantry to defeat a relatively small phalanx . The phalanx was vulnerable to being outflanked by cavalry , if caught on the wrong terrain , however . The hoplite 's heavy armour and long spears made them excellent troops in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat and gave them significant protection against ranged attacks by light troops and skirmishers . Even if the shield did not stop a missile , there was a reasonable chance the armour would .
The Persian infantry used in the invasion were a heterogeneous group drawn from across the empire . However , according to Herodotus , there was at least a general conformity in the type of armour and style of fighting . The troops were , generally speaking , armed with a bow , ' short spear ' and sword , carried a wicker shield , and wore at most a leather jerkin . The one exception to this may have been the ethnic Persian troops , who may have worn a corslet of scaled armour . Some of the contingents may have been armed somewhat differently ; for instance , the Saka were renowned axemen . The ' elite ' contingents of the Persian infantry seem to have been the ethnic Persians , Medians , Cissians and the Saka . The foremost of the infantry were the royal guards , the Immortals , although they were still armed in the aforementioned style . Cavalry was provided by the Persians , Bactrians , Medes , Cissians and Saka ; most of these probably fought as lightly armed missile cavalry . The style of fighting used by the Persians was probably to stand off from an enemy , using their bows ( or equivalent ) to wear down the enemy before closing in to deliver the coup de grace with spear and sword .
The Persians had encountered hoplites in battle before at Ephesus , where their cavalry had easily routed the ( probably exhausted ) Greeks . However , at the battle of Marathon , the Athenian hoplites had shown their superiority over the Persian infantry , albeit in the absence of any cavalry . It is therefore slightly surprising that the Persians did not bring any hoplites from the Greek regions , especially Ionia , under their control in Asia . Equally , Herodotus tells us that the Egyptian marines serving in the navy were well armed , and performed well against the Greek marines ; yet no Egyptian contingent served in the army . The Persians may not have completely trusted the Ionians and Egyptians , since both had recently revolted against Persian rule . However , if this is the case , then it must be questioned why there were Greek and Egyptian contingents in the navy . The Allies evidently tried to play on the Persian fears about the reliability of the Ionians in Persian service ; but , as far as we can tell , both the Ionians and Egyptians performed particularly well for the Persian navy . It may therefore simply be that neither the Ionians nor Egyptians were included in the army because they were serving in the fleet — none of the coastal regions of the Persian empire appear to have sent contingents with the army .
In the two major land battles of the invasion , the Allies clearly adjusted their tactics to nullify the Persian advantage in numbers and cavalry , by occupying the pass at Thermopylae , and by staying on high ground at Plataea . At Thermopylae , until the path outflanking the Allied position was revealed , the Persians signally failed to adjust their tactics to the situation , although the position was well chosen to limit the Persian options . At Plataea , the harassing of the Allied positions by cavalry was a successful tactic , forcing the precipitous ( and nearly disastrous ) retreat ; however , Mardonius then brought about a general melee between the infantry , which resulted in the Persian defeat . The events at Mycale reveal a similar story ; Persian infantry committing themselves to a melee with hoplites , with disastrous results . It has been suggested that there is little evidence of complex tactics in the Greco @-@ Persian wars . However , as simple as the Greek tactics were , they played to their strengths ; the Persians however , may have seriously underestimated the strength of the hoplite , and their failure to adapt to facing the Allied infantry contributed to the eventual Persian defeat .
= = Strategic analysis = =
At the beginning of the invasion , it is clear that the Persians held most advantages . Regardless of its actual size , it is clear that the Persians had brought an overwhelming number of troops and ships to Greece . The Persians had a unified command system , and everyone was answerable to the king . They had a hugely efficient bureaucracy , which allowed them to undertake remarkable feats of planning . The Persian generals had significant experience of warfare over the 80 years in which the Persian empire had been established . Furthermore , the Persians excelled in the use of intelligence and diplomacy in warfare , as shown by their ( nearly successful ) attempts to divide @-@ and @-@ conquer the Greeks . The Greeks , by comparison , were fragmented , with only 30 or so city @-@ states actively opposing the Persian invasion ; even those were prone to quarrel with each other . They had little experience of large @-@ scale warfare , being largely restricted to small @-@ scale local warfare , and their commanders were chosen primarily on the basis of the political and social standing , rather than because of any experience or expertise . As Lazenby therefore asks : " So why did the Persians fail ? "
The Persian strategy for 480 BC was probably to simply progress through Greece in overwhelming force . The cities in any territory that the army passed through would be forced to submit or risk destruction ; and indeed this happened with the Thessalian , Locrian and Phocian cities who initially resisted the Persians but then were forced to submit as the Persians advanced . Conversely , the Allied strategy was probably to try and stop the Persian advance as far north as possible , and thus prevent the submission of as many potential Allies as possible . Beyond this , the Allies seem to have realised that given the Persians ' overwhelming numbers , they had little chance in open battle , and thus they opted to try to defend geographical bottle @-@ necks , where the Persian numbers would count for less . The whole Allied campaign for 480 BC can be seen in this context . Initially they attempted to defend the Tempe pass to prevent the loss of Thessaly . After they realised that they could not defend this position , they chose the next @-@ most northerly position , the Thermopylae / Artemisium axis . The Allied performance at Thermopylae was initially effective ; however , the failure to properly guard the path that outflanked Thermopylae undermined their strategy , and led to defeat . At Artemisium the fleet also scored some successes , but withdrew due to the losses they had sustained , and since the defeat of Thermopylae made the position irrelevant . Thus far , the Persian strategy had succeeded , while the Allied strategy , though not a disaster , had failed .
The defence of the Isthmus of Corinth by the Allies changed the nature of the war . The Persians did not attempt to attack the isthmus by land , realising they probably could not breach it . This essentially reduced the conflict to a naval one . Themistocles now proposed what was in hindsight the strategic masterstroke in the Allied campaign ; to lure the Persian fleet to battle in the straits of Salamis . However , as successful as this was , there was no need for the Persians to fight at Salamis to win the war ; it has been suggested that the Persians were either overconfident , or overeager to finish the campaign . Thus , the Allied victory at Salamis must at least partially be ascribed to a Persian strategic blunder . After Salamis , the Persian strategy changed . Mardonius sought to exploit dissensions between the Allies in order to fracture the alliance . In particular , he sought to win over the Athenians , which would leave the Allied fleet unable to oppose Persian landings on the Peloponnesus . Although Herodotus tells us that Mardonius was keen to fight a decisive battle , his actions in the run @-@ up to Plataea are not particularly consistent with this . He seems to have been willing to accept battle on his terms , but he waited either for the Allies to attack , or for the alliance to collapse ignominiously . The Allied strategy for 479 BC was something of a mess ; the Peloponnesians only agreed to march north in order to save the alliance , and it appears that the Allied leadership had little idea how to force a battle that they could win . It was the botched attempt to retreat from Plataea that finally delivered the Allies battle on their terms . Mardonius may have been overeager for victory ; there was no need to attack the Allies , and by doing so he played to the main Allied tactical strength , combat in the melee . The Allied victory at Plataea can also therefore be seen as partially the result of a Persian mistake .
Thus , the Persian failure may be seen partly as a result of two strategic mistakes that handed the Allies tactical advantages , and resulted in decisive defeats for the Persians . The Allied success is often seen as the result of " free men fighting for their freedom " . This may have played a part , and certainly the Greeks seem to have interpreted their victory in those terms . One crucial factor in the Allied success was that , having formed an alliance , however fractious , they remained true to it , despite the odds . There appear to have been many occasions when the alliance seemed in doubt , but ultimately it withstood ; and while this alone did not defeat the Persians , it meant that even after the occupation of most of Greece , the Allies were not themselves defeated . This is exemplified by the remarkable fact that the citizens of Athens , Thespiae and Plataea chose to carry on fighting from exile rather than submit to the Persians . Ultimately , the Allies succeeded because they avoided catastrophic defeats , stuck to their alliance , took advantage of Persian mistakes , and because in the hoplite they possessed an advantage ( perhaps their only real advantage at the start of the conflict ) , which , at Plataea , allowed them to destroy the Persian invasion force .
= = Significance = =
The second Persian invasion of Greece was an event of major significance in European history . A large number of historians hold that , had Greece been conquered , the Ancient Greek culture that lies at the basis of Western civilization would have never developed ( and by extension Western civilization itself ) . While this may be an exaggeration ( it is obviously impossible to know ) , it is clear that even at the time the Greeks understood that something very significant had happened .
Militarily , there was not much in the way of tactical or strategic innovation during the Persian invasion , one commentator suggesting it was something of " a soldier 's war " ( i.e. , it was the soldiers rather than generals that won the war ) . Thermopylae is often used as a good example of the use of terrain as a force multiplier , while Themistocles 's ruse before Salamis is a good example of the use of deception in warfare . The major lesson of the invasion , reaffirming the events at the Battle of Marathon , was the superiority of the hoplite in close @-@ quarters fighting over the more @-@ lightly armed Persian infantry . Taking on this lesson , the Persian empire would later , after the Peloponnesian War , start recruiting and relying on Greek mercenaries .
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Herodotus , The Histories
Macan translation of books 7 – 9 of The Histories ( The Perseus Digital Library ) ( 1908 )
Macauley translation of The Histories
Diodorus Siculus , Biblioteca Historica
Ctesias , Persica ( from Photius 's Epitome )
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de Souza , Philip ( 2003 ) . The Greek and Persian Wars , 499 – 386 BC . Osprey Publishing , ( ISBN 1 @-@ 84176 @-@ 358 @-@ 6 )
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Burn , A.R. , " Persia and the Greeks " in The Cambridge History of Iran , Volume 2 : The Median and Achaemenid Periods , Ilya Gershevitch , ed . ( 1985 ) . Cambridge University Press .
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Strauss , Barry . The Battle of Salamis : The Naval Encounter That Saved Greece — and Western Civilization . New York : Simon and Schuster , 2004 ( hardcover , ISBN 0 @-@ 7432 @-@ 4450 @-@ 8 ; paperback , ISBN 0 @-@ 7432 @-@ 4451 @-@ 6 ) .
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= Another Green World =
Another Green World is the third studio album by English musician Brian Eno , released by Island Records in September 1975 . Produced by Eno and Rhett Davies , it featured contributions from several guest musicians including Robert Fripp , Phil Collins , and John Cale . The album marked a transition from the rock @-@ based music of Eno 's previous releases toward the minimalist sensibility of his late ' 70s ambient work . Employing tactics derived from his Oblique Strategies cards for guidance , the album utilized a variety of unconventional recording techniques and instrumental approaches , and made use of fewer lyrics .
Though the album failed to chart in the United States or the United Kingdom , Another Green World was initially met with high praise from critics . Contemporary reception of Another Green World has been very positive ; several critics and publications have placed the album on lists of the top albums of all time .
= = Production = =
Another Green World was recorded at Island Studios in London during the months of July and August 1975 . Brian Eno originally viewed his new album as an experiment and entered the recording studio with nothing written or prepared beforehand . For the first four days in the studio , Eno failed to be productive . To look for new ideas , Eno turned to his instructional cards , the Oblique Strategies , and began coming up with new ideas as he did with his previous album Taking Tiger Mountain ( By Strategy ) .
Some of the album credits for the instruments have fanciful names that describe the sound they make . The " Castanet Guitars " are electric guitars played with mallets and are electronically treated to sound something like castanets . The " Leslie piano " is an acoustic piano miked and fed through a Leslie speaker with a built @-@ in revolving horn speaker . Eno described the " snake guitar " and " digital guitar " by stating " the kind of lines I was playing reminded me of the way a snake moves through the brush , a sort of speedy , forceful , liquid quality . Digital guitar is a guitar threaded through a digital delay but fed back on itself a lot so it makes this cardboard tube type of sound . "
Like his previous two solo efforts , Eno had several guest musicians contributing to Another Green World . Unlike his previous albums , Eno worked on more solo material . Seven songs on the album have Eno playing all the instruments himself , including electronic and nonelectronic keyboards , guitars , and percussion . Among the guest musicians was Phil Collins , who played drums on Tiger Mountain and got along with Eno , which led to calling him and fellow Brand X bandmate Percy Jones to play on Another Green World . On recording the album , Collins recalled :
[ Eno ] gave us all a bit of paper , and we made lists from one to 15 . Eno said ' No. 2 , we all play a G ; No. 7 we all play a C sharp ' ; an so on . So it was like painting by numbers ... [ Eno ] used to love me and Percy ; we 'd go in and run through our dictionary licks and he 'd record them and make a loop of them .
Robert Fripp , who worked with Eno on ( No Pussyfooting ) and Here Come the Warm Jets , performed the solo on " St. Elmo 's Fire " . Eno asked Fripp to improvise a lightning @-@ fast guitar solo that would imitate an electrical charge between two poles on a Wimshurst high voltage generator . This was the basis for Eno crediting Fripp 's solo on this track as " Wimshurst Guitar " .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Another Green World represents a turning point in Eno 's musical career . While his previous albums contained quirky rock songs , only five of the fourteen tracks on the album have lyrics . Music critic Jim DeRogatis called it an " ambient / art @-@ pop " album . According to eMusic 's Richard Gehr , the album 's music veers from the guitar @-@ oriented experimental rock of Eno 's 1974 albums Here Come the Warm Jets and Taking Tiger Mountain ( By Strategy ) to the synth @-@ oriented ambient minimalism of his subsequent work . Its minimalist instrumentals are scattered among more structured art @-@ rock songs . According to AllMusic 's Steve Huey , most of the album has " paced instrumentals that , while often closer to ambient music than pop , are both melodic and rhythmic " , and are accompanied by few pop songs , including " St. Elmo 's Fire " , " I 'll Come Running " , and " Golden Hours " . The instrumental tracks explore a new kind of sound that is more quiet and restful , marking the change between Eno 's earlier rock songs and his later instrumental works in which texture and timbre are the most important musical elements .
" Sky Saw " opens the album with the instruments constantly changing structure , except for one of the two bass parts which plays the same pattern throughout . Eno has re @-@ used differently mixed instrumentations of " Sky Saw " for a track for Music for Films and a song for Ultravox 's debut album which he would later produce . " Over Fire Island " has a jazz influence on the bass and drumming style . " In Dark Trees " and " The Big Ship " are two songs on which Eno plays all the instruments , namely the synthesiser , synthetic percussion and treated rhythm generator . The pulse of these songs is provided by the repeated rhythm coming from the rhythm box . These instrumental pieces and others like " Little Fishes " have been described as " highly imagistic , like paintings done in sound that actually resemble their titles " .
To create the lyrics , Eno would later play the backing tracks singing nonsense syllables to himself , then taking them and forming them into actual words , phrases and meaning . This lyric @-@ writing method was used for all his vocal @-@ based recordings of the 1970s . The tracks that do feature lyrics are in the same free @-@ associative style as Eno 's previous albums . The humour in the lyrics has been described as " less bizarre than gently whimsical and addled " .
= = Release and reception = =
Another Green World was released in September 1975 and did not chart in either the United Kingdom or the United States . The album 's reception was for the most part very favourable . Henry Edwards of High Fidelity wrote positively of the album , claiming it to be Eno 's " most accessible to date " . Tom Hull of The Village Voice felt that , although it " wouldn 't be fair to say that Another Green World is Eno 's best album , " the album is definitely " his easiest to love . " Charley Walters of Rolling Stone found it a " major triumph " that Eno 's creative risks " so consistently pan out " , and said that it is " indeed an important record — and also a brilliant one " . Negative reviews of the album focused on the lack of the rock songs from Eno 's previous albums . Jon Pareles , writing in Crawdaddy ! , found its electronic excursions less challenging than Eno 's previous progressive rock songs and remarked , " This ain 't no Eno record . I don 't care what the credits say . It doesn 't even get on my nerves . " Lester Bangs of The Village Voice was lulled by much of the music and said that " those little pools of sound on the outskirts of silence seemed to me the logical consequence of letting the processes and technology share your conceptual burden " . Robert Christgau , who originally gave the album an " A – " in his review for The Village Voice , admitted that he resisted the album at first , but ultimately grew to " love every minute of this arty little collection of static ( i.e. , non @-@ swinging ) synthesizer pieces ( with vocals , percussion , and guitar ) . " He felt that its 13 pieces can be appreciated both individually and as a whole , and called the album " the aural equivalent of a park on the moon — oneness with nature under conditions of artificial gravity . " In 1977 , Another Green World was voted the 11th best album of 1976 in the Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop critics ' poll . Christgau , the poll 's creator , ranked it second on his own list for the poll .
In 2004 , Virgin Records began reissuing Eno 's albums in remastered digipaks . Modern reception of Another Green World has been more unanimously positive . Steve Huey of AllMusic called the album " a universally acknowledged masterpiece " and " the perfect introduction to his achievements even for those who find ambient music difficult to enjoy . " Chris Ott of Pitchfork Media hailed it as one of Eno 's most important albums , and Q magazine wrote that it was " breathtakingly ahead of its time " . J. D. Considine , writing in The Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 2004 ) , said that Eno used the recording studio for the album " as an instrument , molding directed improvisations , electronic effects , and old @-@ fashioned songcraft into perfectly balanced aural ecosystems " . In his review for Blender , Douglas Wolk said that the audio clarity of the remastered edition " makes it easier to pay attention to every [ song 's ] subtle complexities . " The album has made several top albums lists . Pitchfork placed the album at number ten on its list of greatest albums of the 1970s . In 2012 , Rolling Stone ranked the album number 429 on its list of the 500 greatest albums of all time . In 2003 , Blender placed the album on its list of " 500 CDs You Must Own : Alternative Rock " , stating that the album is " Experimental yet accessible , it ’ s exactly the kind of album that Eno devotees long for from him today " . The album also ranked at number 36 in NME 's list of the greatest albums of the seventies . The title track was used as the theme music for BBC Two television 's arts series Arena .
The album was included in Robert Dimery 's 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Brian Eno .
Side A
" Sky Saw " – 3 : 25
" Over Fire Island " – 1 : 49
" St. Elmo 's Fire " – 3 : 02
" In Dark Trees " – 2 : 29
" The Big Ship " – 3 : 01
" I 'll Come Running " – 3 : 48
" Another Green World " – 1 : 38
Side B
" Sombre Reptiles " – 2 : 26
" Little Fishes " – 1 : 30
" Golden Hours " – 4 : 01
" Becalmed " – 3 : 56
" Zawinul / Lava " – 3 : 00
" Everything Merges with the Night " – 3 : 59
" Spirits Drifting " – 2 : 36
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from Another Green World back cover .
= = Charts = =
= HMS Dreadnought ( 1875 ) =
HMS Dreadnought was an ironclad turret ship built for the Royal Navy during the 1870s . Construction was halted less than a year after it began and she was redesigned to improve her stability and buoyancy . Upon completion in 1879 , the ship was placed in reserve until she was commissioned in 1884 for service with the Mediterranean Fleet . Upon her return 10 years later , she became a coast guard ship in Ireland for two years . The ship then became a depot ship in 1897 before she was reclassified as a second @-@ class battleship in 1900 . Dreadnought participated in the annual fleet manoeuvres for the next two years before she became a training ship in 1902 . The ship was taken out of service three years later and sold for scrap in 1908 .
= = Background and design = =
Dreadnought was originally named Fury and was designed by the Director of Naval Construction ( DNC ) , Sir Edward Reed , as an improved and enlarged version of the preceding Devastation @-@ class ironclad turret ships . The ship was laid down , fully framed and partially plated up to the bottom of the waterline belt armour when work was ordered stopped in 1871 in light of the loss of the ironclad turret ship Captain in a heavy storm the previous year . A Committee on Designs was formed in January 1871 to evaluate existing ship designs with special consideration as to their stability and buoyancy and found that the designs of Devastation and Fury were lacking in both qualities and needed to be modified . Reed had resigned before Captain was lost and he vehemently opposed the changes made by the new DNC , Nathaniel Barnaby and his assistant , William White , himself a future DNC .
The main changes were to increase the beam by 18 inches ( 457 mm ) and widen Reed 's armoured breastwork to cover the full width of the hull ; this increased the ship 's freeboard amidships which improved buoyancy and stability and provided additional , badly needed accommodation for the crew . In addition , the maximum thickness of the armour was increased from 12 to 14 inches ( 305 to 356 mm ) , it was extended all the way to the bow and reinforced the ram . Barnaby and White 's initial plan was to extend the breastwork fore and aft , almost to the ends of the ship , but this was changed to run all the way to the ends after the results of Devastation 's sea trials in 1873 – 74 revealed that her low bow caused major problems in head seas . Other changes was the substitution of more economical inverted vertical compound @-@ expansion steam engines for Reed 's original horizontal , low @-@ pressure engines , more powerful 12 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 320 mm ) guns for the 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) ones first chosen , and the fitting of hydraulic pumps to work the gun turrets .
= = Description = =
Dreadnought had a length between perpendiculars of 320 feet ( 97 @.@ 5 m ) and was 343 feet ( 104 @.@ 5 m ) long overall , some 35 feet ( 10 @.@ 7 m ) longer than the Devastation class . She had a beam of 63 feet 10 inches ( 19 @.@ 5 m ) , and a draught of 26 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 1 m ) . The ship displaced 10 @,@ 886 long tons ( 11 @,@ 061 t ) . Dreadnought was the first ship to have a longitudinal watertight bulkhead that divided the engine and boiler rooms down the centreline . Her crew consisted of 369 officers and ratings . She proved to be a very steady ship with minimal rolling , although she was very wet as high seas usually swept her deck from end to end .
The ship was the first large ironclad to have two 3 @-@ cylinder inverted vertical compound @-@ expansion steam engines . These were built by Humphry & Tennant and each drove a single four @-@ bladed , 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) propeller . Dreadnought 's engines were powered by a dozen cylindrical boilers with a working pressure of 60 psi ( 414 kPa ; 4 kgf / cm2 ) . The engines were designed to produce a total of 8 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 6 @,@ 000 kW ) for a speed of 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) , this was 2 @,@ 400 ihp ( 1 @,@ 800 kW ) more and 1 @.@ 5 knots ( 2 @.@ 8 km / h ; 1 @.@ 7 mph ) faster than the Devastation class . Dreadnought reached a maximum speed of 14 @.@ 5 knots ( 26 @.@ 9 km / h ; 16 @.@ 7 mph ) from 8 @,@ 216 ihp ( 6 @,@ 127 kW ) during her sea trials . The ship carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 800 long tons ( 1 @,@ 829 t ) of coal , enough to steam 5 @,@ 650 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 460 km ; 6 @,@ 500 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Dreadnought was originally intended to be equipped with a pair of RML 12 @-@ inch rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns in each turret , but these were replaced by RML 12 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns while the ship was being redesigned . The shell of the 12 @.@ 5 @-@ inch gun weighed 809 pounds ( 367 @.@ 0 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 38 long tons ( 39 t ) . The shell had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 575 ft / s ( 480 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 18 @.@ 4 inches ( 470 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The gun turrets were rotated by steam power and loaded by hydraulic power .
The ship had a complete wrought iron , waterline armour belt that was 14 inches ( 356 mm ) thick amidships and tapered to 8 inches ( 203 mm ) outside the armoured citadel towards the ends of the ship . The armour plates were tapered to a thickness of 8 inches at their bottom edge and they extended 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) above the waterline and 5 feet 3 inches ( 1 @.@ 6 m ) below it . The 184 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 56 @.@ 1 m ) armoured citadel protected the bases of the gun turrets , the funnel uptakes and the crew 's quarters . The sides of the citadel were 11 to 14 inches ( 279 to 356 mm ) thick and it had 13 @-@ inch ( 330 mm ) thick curved ends . The turrets were protected by two 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) plates , each backed by wood . The aft 13 @-@ inch bulkhead of the original design was retained , but the forward one was made redundant by the forward extension of the belt . The conning tower ranged in thickness from 14 to 6 inches ( 356 to 152 mm ) and the upper deck was 3 inches ( 76 mm ) thick inside the citadel and 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) outside .
= = Construction and career = =
Dreadnought , the fifth ship of her name to serve in the Royal Navy , was laid down on 10 September 1870 at No. 2 Slip , Pembroke Dockyard , Wales with the name of Fury . Construction was subsequently halted for a time in 1871 to redesign the ship and she was renamed Dreadnought on 1 February 1875 . The renamed ship was launched on 8 March by Mrs. Agnes Wood , daughter of William Courtenay , 11th Earl of Devon . She was completed on 15 February 1879 at a cost of £ 619 @,@ 739 .
The ship was then immediately placed in reserve until 1884 when she was commissioned for service with the Mediterranean Fleet . Dreadnought was fitted with ten 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) Nordenfelt guns on the hurricane deck when she was commissioned . The ship sailed for the Mediterranean Sea on 14 October and remained there for the next decade . The future King George V served aboard in 1886 – 88 . She returned to British waters in September 1894 and began a refit at Chatham Dockyard that included the replacement of her Nordenfelt guns with six quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 6 @-@ pounder ( 2 @.@ 2 in ( 57 mm ) ) and ten QF 3 @-@ pounder ( 1 @.@ 5 in ( 37 mm ) ) Hotchkiss guns . Dreadnought became a coast guard ship at Bantry Bay , Ireland in March 1895 .
Two years later , in March 1897 , she was relieved of that duty and became a depot ship in July at Devonport . The ship was reboilered and had more QF guns installed in 1898 . Dreadnought was reclassified as a second @-@ class battleship in 1900 and took part in British fleet manoeuvres in that year and the following one . In June 1902 , she was refitted at Chatham to serve as a tender to HMS Defiance , torpedo school ship at Devonport , and later as a depot ship . She was taken out of service and transferred to the Kyles of Bute in 1905 . The ship was sold to T. Wards for scrap for £ 23 @,@ 000 on 14 July 1908 and was broken up by February 1909 .
= Billy Geen =
William " Billy " Purdon Geen ( 14 March 1891 – 31 July 1915 ) was a rugby union wing and centre , who represented Wales , and played club rugby for Oxford University and Newport and county rugby for Monmouthshire . He was also invited to play for the Barbarians on several occasions . Geen unsuccessfully trialled for England in 1910 , but was selected and played for Wales on three occasions in the 1912 – 1913 season . Injury prevented him from playing more internationals , and his service in the First World War put an end to his career .
Geen excelled athletically at Oxford , earning four Blues between 1910 and 1913 . However , in three successive Varsity Matches , he failed to score after dropping the ball over the tryline . In the holidays , he played club rugby for Newport , and he was part of the team that defeated the touring South African side of 1912 – 1913 . He was also a decent cricketer keeping wicket for Oxford University Authentics and Monmouthshire .
Geen was commissioned second lieutenant into the 9th King 's Royal Rifle Corps in August 1914 and sent to the Western Front in May 1915 . He was killed in action in Hooge , Belgium . He is remembered on the Menin Gate memorial .
= = Early life = =
Geen was born in Newport , Wales . He went to school in England at Northam Place , Potter 's Bar , and then Haileybury College before being accepted into Oxford University . At Haileybury he was wicketkeeper for the cricket team ; he also captained the rugby team , playing at centre .
= = Rugby career = =
Although Geen was a decent cricketer , keeping wicket for Oxford University Authentics and Monmouthshire in the Minor Counties Championship between 1909 and 1912 , his rugby playing was more notable . He played wing for Oxford and Wales , and centre for Newport . He was " in the thick of everything " , a " class centre " with a " dodging style " , according to the rugby journalist E. H. D. Sewell . He also appeared for Blackheath and the Barbarians . He was , however , repeatedly injured and his form was at times inconsistent . The First World War prevented him from playing more for Wales .
= = = Oxford University and England trial = = =
Geen was selected to play for Oxford against Cambridge in four consecutive years from 1910 to 1913 . In the first of these , on 13 December 1910 , a 9 @,@ 000 @-@ strong crowd turned up at Queen 's , mostly to watch Ronnie Poulton , playing for Oxford . Cambridge started strong but a try by Bryn Lewis was disallowed in the opening minutes after a touch judge signalled that Geen had put his foot into touch in the preceding Oxford move . Moments later , Poulton ran through the Cambridge defence , drew the fullback and passed to Geen to dive in at the corner for a try . With Turner 's conversion , Oxford led 5 – 0 . A similar passage of play again saw Poulton put Geen through for a try , but he dropped the ball after crossing the line while trying to get closer to the posts .
Geen got his second try after another break from Poulton . Cambridge meanwhile scored two tries and at half @-@ time were leading 15 – 13 . Fifteen minutes into the second half , a second try for Cambridge put them five points ahead . An injury to one of Cambridge 's scoring wings reduced the team to fourteen players ; a forward moved to cover the wing , giving Oxford an advantage in the forwards . Poulton capitalised on it : he scored from a dummy pass to Geen ; and ran in a solo try after receiving a pass from flyhalf Freddie Knott . The end score was 23 – 18 to Oxford .
A couple of days before the Varsity Match , talk in the press had been of Geen 's likely selection for England for the forthcoming Home Nations Championship . Geen and Poulton , who together were considered the scoring force of the Oxford team , were both selected to play for England in the second trial match against The North in Leeds . Although Geen scored a try in the game , his form was lacking and he was outshone by Poulton . So for the third and final trial , England versus The Rest on 7 January 1911 , Geen was not selected .
In the run up to the 1911 Varsity Match , the Poulton – Geen partnership was a constant threat to opposition teams . Ten days before the Varsity Match , Oxford beat London Scottish 39 – 3 . Twice Poulton put Geen in the clear , with the latter ending the day with four tries in total . On 12 December , Cambridge were favourites to win but Poulton captained Oxford to victory , in front of a crowd of 10 @,@ 000 . Geen 's form coming in to the game was suspect but he proved his worth . However , Poulton suffered a hamstring injury early on and his replacement Eric Thomas , a forward , lacked the speed and skills to combine effectively with Geen . Nevertheless , he came close to scoring , but , as he had done in the previous year 's match , he dropped the ball over the tryline . He was to repeat the error the following year .
= = = Newport Rugby Club and Wales = = =
Geen played for Newport Rugby Club before going to Oxford and returned to Newport during the holiday periods , providing " dazzling entertainment " . He was described by Tommy Vile 's biographer Philip J Grant as looking " the promising player in Wales " ; and scored 10 tries and a dropped goal in 14 games for the Monmouthshire club . On 24 October 1912 , he was part of the team that played and beat the touring South Africans 9 – 3 . He was not first choice for the game , but when George Hirst failed to recover from an injury sustained at Leicester the week before , Geen was his replacement .
South Africa was as yet undefeated on the tour , with wins over Somerset , Devon , Cornwall , Monmouthshire , Glamorgan and Llanelli . Whereas Newport , according to " Dromio " ( W J Townsend Collins ) writing in the Argus , had been poor in attack in their previous three encounters and weak in defence in the last two . Townsend Collins later recollected that the South Africans were taller , heavier , stronger and faster . The Newport victory was the result of " superior tactics and superlative captaincy " .
Just before half time , a try by Newport 's Jack Wetter was disallowed for a forward pass . The ball was then worked back to Fred Birt , standing within range in front of the posts , and he kicked a drop @-@ goal , putting the home side 4 – 0 ahead at the break . In the second half , the Springboks repeatedly attacked but the Newport defence kept them from crossing the line , although a break from Dick Luyt , the South African centre , left Douglas Morkel to score under the posts . Luyt failed to convert and Newport remained a point ahead . Newport scored again through a cross @-@ kick from Wetter , which Birt jumped on over the line for a try , which he then converted .
Newport was one of only three teams to beat the Springboks on the tour and Geen played his part , bringing down Johan Stegmann when he was within sight of the try line . He was praised after the match for his play . The Times the following day reported : " Newport deserved the victory , if only for their remarkably sound and highly intelligent defence ... In spite , however , of the good play of the Newport forwards ... the South African backs would have scored at least three tries but for the fine tackling of Geen and Reg Plummer , the Newport wings , who saved one certain try by just stopping Otto Van Der Hoff on the line . "
Geen was then selected and played three times for Wales in the 1912 – 1913 season . He earned his first cap against the same touring South Africans on 14 December . His next international appearance , under the captaincy of his Newport team mate Tommy Vile , was on 18 January 1913 against England . Wales were beaten in Cardiff 0 – 12 . After the game , and disappointed by the performance of most of the team , the selectors made nine changes for the upcoming match against Scotland . Only two backs were to be retained , Bobby Williams , the fullback , and Billy Geen , deemed the outstanding threequarter against England , moving from wing to centre . However , on the Wednesday preceding the encounter in Edinburgh , Geen withdrew after a training session due to an ongoing shoulder injury , and his place on the team was taken by Willie Watts .
His final game for Wales was on 8 March 1913 against Ireland , when he showed " brilliance and judgment " ( according to Townsend Collins ) helping to create two tries towards a Welsh 16 – 13 victory . Geen was selected to play centre for the first match of the 1914 Home Nations against England at Twickenham but was forced to withdraw due to injury . He was replaced , once again , by Willie Watts , and probably missed out on four more caps for Wales .
= = = Barbarian F.C. = = =
In 1911 , Geen was approached by Barbarian F.C. , an invitational touring rugby team based in England , to join them on their 1911 Easter tour . Geen played in two matches of the tour , the first a 15 – 8 loss against Cardiff RFC where he was captained by Ireland 's Tommy Smyth . Despite missing the Swansea game two days later , Geen returned to the Barbarians squad to face Cheltenham , which ended in a 8 – 3 victory for the tourists . Later that year Geen was again invited to play for the Barbarians , another contest against Cardiff in their traditional Boxing Day encounter . In 1912 Geen played in his first Barbarians match outside Wales , facing the Leicester Tigers . His captain on that day was England international Edgar Mobbs , and although finishing on the losing side , Geen scored his first and only try for the Barbarians .
With the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 , competitive rugby union matches were suspended . Despite this , Edgar Mobbs organized two Barbarians matches against Leicester in early 1915 to aid recruiting and to raise charity funds . Mobbs then arranged one final Barbarians match against the Royal Army Medical Corps ( RAMC ) , leading a team made up of military personnel , including Geen in his last Barbarians appearance , to a 10 – 3 victory . Of Geen 's team @-@ mates on that day , Mobbs and another England international Arthur James Dingle , would also die in action during the war .
= = = International appearances for Wales = = =
= = Military service and death = =
Geen was commissioned second lieutenant in the 9th Battalion , King 's Royal Rifle Corps on 21 August 1914 . He trained in Petworth and was sent to the Western Front in May 1915 . The 9th was assigned to the 14th ( Light ) Division and served with it during the Second Battle of Ypres . After six weeks ' combat , the battalion was withdrawn for rest but two days later was sent back to the front to reinforce the 41st Brigade . Geen was killed in action on 31 July 1915 at Hooge , Belgium . He was last seen leading his men in hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting as they advanced towards ruined village buildings . Major John Hope wrote : " Geen fought gloriously , and was last seen alive leading his platoon in a charge after being for hours subjected to liquid fire and every device the Germans could bring to bear to break through . Seventeen officers and 333 other ranks of this battalion were killed in this engagement , in which officers and men showed themselves worthy of the best traditions of their Regiment . "
Billy Geen is commemorated on panels 51 and 53 of the Menin Gate in Ypres , the memorial to missing soldiers from the battles of the Ypres Salient .
= Ibuki ( Street Fighter ) =
Ibuki ( いぶき , Ibuki , also written as 息吹 ) is a fictional character from Capcom 's fighting game franchise Street Fighter , introduced in the original version of Street Fighter III in 1997 . After a few appearances in other games and her own comic book miniseries , she has returned to the main series since Super Street Fighter IV . Ibuki is a young prodigy ninja @-@ in @-@ training from an ancient clan , but who nevertheless would rather like to live normal life of a modern Japanese teenager . She has pet named Don , a close friend in Sakura , and her friendly rivals include R. Mika . Ibuki 's unique , technical and tricky moveset relies on mobility , aggressiveness and deception to be most effective . She has become one of the most popular females in the Street Fighter series , being also regarded by some as one of top ninja characters in all video games .
= = Background = =
Ibuki is a teenage girl from the Glade of Ninjas ( 忍びの里 , Shinobi no Sato , " Shinobi Village " ) , a secret village hidden in the mountains of Japan that is home to an ancient ninja clan . Although trained in ninjutsu since infancy , with continuous rigorous training and special missions , Ibuki is otherwise an ordinary high school girl with an attraction to pop idols . She yearns to be more carefree , and prefers ordinary schoolgirl attire over her traditional ninja outfit , which she considers ugly . In battle , she uses taijutsu , a fighting style that combines several Japanese martial arts . Ibuki is 162 cm tall and weighs 46 kg , her measurements are B95 / W57 / H90 , and her birthday is on December 6 .
Ibuki has a pet tanuki ( raccoon dog ) named Don ( どん ) / Don @-@ chan ( どんちゃん ) , who has been with her since her childhood . Other members of Ibuki 's ninja clan that appear in her stage in the first two Street Fighter III games include Sanjō ( 三条 ) , Enjō ( 円城 ) , Genda ( 玄田 ) and Raion ( 雷音 ) . Ibuki 's friend , appearing in her endings in the original Street Fighter III : New Generation and in Street Fighter III : 2nd Impact , as well in some other games , is a ninja girl named Sarai Kurosawa ( 黒澤早雷 , Kurosawa Sarai ) , who hails in the same village and attends the same high school . The young boy who spars with Ibuki before a match in 3rd Strike is named Yūta Homura ( 焔悠蛇 , Homura Yūta ) . It was rumored that original Street Fighter character Geki was her father , but this was never confirmed as canon .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In video games = = =
= = = = Street Fighter = = = =
Ibuki and Elena have been the only female fighters in the Street Fighter III sub @-@ series until they were joined by Makoto and Chun @-@ Li in Street Fighter III : 3rd Strike ( 1999 ) . In the plots of the original Street Fighter III and 2nd Impact , Ibuki is sent by her clan to retrieve a mysterious " G file " from Gill 's organization , the Illuminati . In Ibuki 's game end sequence , Gill hands her the file after their battle . In 3rd Strike , Ibuki shares a special pre @-@ fight introductory sequence with her rival Makoto . She is shown preparing to graduate from high school and is studying for her college application exams , hoping to move away from home to enjoy a normal campus life and find a boyfriend . As part of her final exam , Ibuki is sent to find and defeat the elderly martial arts legend named Oro . In her 3rd Strike ending she is accepted into the fictional Sarusuberi University ( 私立百日紅大学 , Shiritsu Sausuberi Daigaku ) , at first without knowledge of its cover for an elite ninja training camp .
A kunai resembling her is seen in Fei Long 's ending in Street Fighter IV ( 2008 ) . She was later revealed to be playable in Super Street Fighter IV ( 2010 ) , where her introductory sequence shows her interacting with a fellow Capcom ninja Guy for the first time . Her story for the game depicts her looking for fun and boys to date . Ibuki also meets Sakura Kasugano , as she tries to get Sakura to introduce her to a boy .
Ibuki reappears as a playable character in Street Fighter V as one of the DLC characters released after the game 's launch . She was supposed to arrive in May 2016 but was delayed to July . In her prologue story , Ibuki finally finishes her ninja assignment and is informed by her friend Sakura about the party invitation sent from her rival Karin Kanzuki . Arriving at the Kanzuki Estate , Ibuki fights and defeat Birdie and Karin . After the fight , Karin lest her stay at the party with handsome boys and gives her the contract which has been approved by the Ibuki village to work with her . Ibuki also appears in the end of R. Mika 's prologue story , rejecting her offer in muscle training which angers R. Mika who beats her in a fight . Ibuki and R. Mika continue to argue through the course of the game 's main story , " A Shadow Falls " , which begins when they and Karin travel to the New York City to find out who is behind the activation of the seven Black Moons , eventually finding out it is a Shadaloo plot . During the first infiltration of the Shadaloo base , Ibuki fights Balrog but fails to beat him . She then uses her smoke bomb to distract the enemies and the two sucessfully escape with it until they reunited with Karin . They witness Zangief beat Abel , Ibuki watching in disgust while R. Mika idolizes him . In the final assault against Shadaloo , Ibuki and R. Mika fight off Shadaloo soldiers . Ibuki is last seen watching Shadaloo 's destruction with the other fighters .
= = = = Other games = = = =
Ibuki is one of the characters representing the Street Fighter series in Namco 's crossover fighting game , Street Fighter X Tekken ( 2012 ) , with Rolento as her tag team partner . In it , she is persuaded by her village leaders to accept Rolento 's request for a joint mission to the South Pole , serving as his advisor on infiltration . In the story mode , Rolento initially addresses the very annoyed Ibuki as private but " promotes " her to the rank of sergeant by the end of the game . According to a backstory for the Street Fighter X Tekken DLC ninja costume @-@ swap for the Tekken series ' Asuka Kazama , Asuka was sent Ibuki 's village to learn the ninja arts from her . Ibuki 's own Tekken swap costume is in the style of Yoshimitsu , with her latest assignment having her join his Manji Clan .
A super deformed version of Ibuki is a playable character in the fighting game Super Gem Fighter Mini Mix / Pocket Fighter ( 1997 ) , in which she sneaks off from her ninja training for an ice cream in Tokyo . Ibuki is also playable in the mobile puzzle game Street Fighter : Puzzle Spirits ( 2014 ) , and appears as a card in the browser @-@ based social game Onimusha Soul ( 2012 ) and in person in Street Fighter Battle Combination ( 2015 ) . Her cards also appear in SNK vs. Capcom : Card Fighters Clash ( 1999 ) and SNK vs. Capcom : Card Fighters DS ( 2007 ) . She has a cameo in Capcom Fighting Evolution / Capcom Fighting Jam ( 2004 ) .
Producer / director Ryota Niitsuma originally considered her for inclusion as a playable character in Tatsunoko vs. Capcom : Ultimate All @-@ Stars ( 2008 ) , but she was ultimately cut due to time constraints . The " head student at Ibuki 's ninja village " was supposed to be a new player character in the rejected concept of Street Fighter IV Flashback by Backbone Entertainment , which would also have feature a cameo of a much younger version of Ibuki .
= = = = Design = = = =
The character that became Ibuki has been originally conceived as a ninja boy before the gender was swapped , and the male version 's design might have been re @-@ used for Ibuki 's sparring partner Yūta Homura . Super Street Fighter IV main battle planner said Ibuki is an " orthodox ninja at first glance , but her character is one of a normal girl , so we are trying to bring out her feminine side in her lines and dialogue as well as in her proportions . " The game 's director said she was probably the most difficult character to make while trying to best show " her charm , even behind the mask , " as " Ibuki is cute even at a first glance , so that might be what you focus on , but we 've also put a lot of effort into her motions and her design . " Ibuki 's English voice actress Kat Steel , hired for her knowledge of the character displayed during the audition , wrote it " was a treat because her character is sassy , mischievous , and oh so girlish ! " For Street Fighter X Tekken , Capcom abortively planned to give Ibuki some attacks featuring Don .
Ibuki 's build is depicted as slim and athletic , with black hair held tightly back in a topknot ponytail that drops well beneath her waist . Her usual fighting outfit , in which she has appeared in most of the games , is a type of ninja dogi , consisting of a sleeveless upper garment , baggy pants ( slit at the sides ) , arm guards , and a mask that conceals the lower half of her face . Her footwear consists only of cloth bandages wrapped around her shins , ankles and instep . Ibuki 's alternative , everyday costume is a blue @-@ and @-@ white Japanese schoolgirl uniform , or casual clothes — in the same color scheme — with a chain of miniature kunai knives and a fake tanuki tail , introduced in Super Street Fighter IV Arcade Edition . One of her scrapped costume concepts for Super Street Fighter IV was a very distinct , partially armored ninja outfit , which was more skimpy and featured two Japanese swords on her back .
After nearly two decades , Ibuki was radically redesigned for Street Fighter V , where her main costume changes to a modified version of her schoolgirl outfit with above @-@ knee @-@ high socks mixed with a black mask and purple elements of tradtional Japanese armour on her hands and legs . Before deciding on it , the designers tried many different costume ideas by adjusting the ratio of her two personalities ; the rejected concept art sketches ( including one with full tanuki suit ) were posted on Capcom 's blog . Ibuki 's premium summer costume is a similarily armored swimsuit , with partial leggings and a cape @-@ like face scarf resembling this of Capcom 's own Strider Hiryu , which comes in a variety of colors . Her premium battle costume is an altogether different and more fashionable blue ninja outfit with a floral theme with a sword on her back , where for the first time she has loose hair .
= = = = Gameplay = = = =
According to Computer and Video Games , " Ibuki appears to be one of the most powerful and most popular character " in Street Fighter III . VentureBeat 's Chris Hoadley opined Ibuki was the strongest character in Street Fighter III : 2nd Impact and GameSpot felt her to be , in terms of gameplay , most similar to Cammy and Geki . According to UGO , Ibuki in Street Fighter III " has the strength and speed to face off against any top @-@ tier character " , as she is " quick , somewhat unpredictable and easy to pick up " , and " she 's just as likely to attack an opponent from the front as she is to dash into the air and rain down several kunai . It 's this type of diversity in fighting that makes her attractive to players . " Retro Gamer opined " this female ninja is fast , mobile and can stun opponents quickly . While she loses in a toe @-@ to @-@ toe brawl against most characters , she has plenty of trickery to get around a tight defence and dictate the match . " AskMen wrote that " while her specials lack the dazzle and spark of most of Street Fighter 's cast Ibuki 's still lethal in the right hands , juggling her opponents with some seemingly endless combos . "
In Super Street Fighter IV , the developers attempted to retain Ibuki 's playstyle and feel from Street Fighter III . She was also given a super jump ( the only character , other than C. Viper , to have one in this game ) and made adjustments to have combos that utilize it . Capcom 's Taketoshi Sano said that " Ibuki is suited to those who want to get the most out of a single character " and " beginners can use her too , but if I had to pick I 'd say she 's suited for intermediate . " Capcom Europe described Ibuki ’ s " Raida " ( " Thunder Strike " ) command grab as having some unique properties and being one of the most powerful moves in the game . According to an MTV guide , Ibuki is " one of the hardest characters to master in this latest iteration " and players need to gain " a strong understanding of each character 's moves and abilities before truly coming to grips with what the weak , yet versatile Ibuki has to offer . "
In a guide to Super Street Fighter IV : 3D Edition , GameSpy stated that Ibuki has " got some unique strengths and enough versatility that we think she can cope with most opponents . Her damage is a bit lacking , but with enough craftiness in your execution you can make up for it . " Listing the biggest mistakes to avoid in the game , GamesRadar advised Ibuki 's players to not oversuse her " kunai air @-@ knives " , but to rather use them sparingly in not predictably as a tool to help get close to the opponent . According to GamesRadar , " Ibuki makes up for her relatively weak damage by having some of the trickiest mobility in the game , letting a skilled player dash circles around their confused opponent . " According to Edge , Ultra Street Fighter IV 's addition of delayed wakeup , which lets one stay on the floor longer after being knocked down to put an opponent off their rhythm , was " primarily designed to nerf characters like Cammy , Akuma and Ibuki who are at their most effective when an opponent is getting up off the ground . " Professional player Sakonoko , whose preferred character in Super Street Fighter IV was Ibuki , said in interview for Famitsu that Ibuki in Street Fighter X Tekken " is ultimately based on her SSFIV Arcade Edition version " and so it is easy for people familiar with this game " to jump right in . " He also noted a few character @-@ specific changes between these games , such as Ibuki 's kunai attacks gaining the knock @-@ down ability .
In Street Fighter V , she gains new special moves such as to dodge @-@ teleport , glide , and throw bombs with different fuses , making her even more distracting and unpredicatble . According to Capcom , " Ibuki has always been a very mobile character with various target combos , but she now has even more ways to mix @-@ up the opponent with the ability to glide through the air and toss out ninja bombs , making it very difficult to predict where she will land and where her next attack will come from . Kunais have also been a cornerstone of her playstyle , but now players will have to be much more strategic in their use as she can only stock five at a time before she has to quickly obtain another set . That said , their utility is just as powerful as ever as she can send her entire stock flying at the opponent for serious damage . Ibuki digs into her bag of ninja tools and throws a bomb at the opponent . Depending on which direction is held upon activation , the bomb can either go off quickly , after a slight delay or after a longer delay . " Ibuki is also able to detonate her bombs manually by hitting them with kunai and their explosions can not harm her .
= = = Other appearances = = =
= = = = Comics = = = =
Ibuki appears in Street Fighter comic books , including in Street Fighter : Unlimited . Notably she received her own four @-@ issue miniseries Street Fighter Legends : Ibuki , written by Jim Zubkavich and drawn by Omar Dogan . It was was published by UDON Entertainment in 2010 to coincide with the release of Super Street Fighter IV . One alternative cover was drawn by Adam Warren and the entire miniseries was later included in the compilation Street Fighter Legends : The Ultimate Edition . In Ibuki , the character 's fictional background was revealed : she had been destined to become a perfect assassin for the Geki clan ( in to the comic , Geki is not an individual person but a clan that is rival to Ibuki 's ) , but one of them , Enjō , fled with the baby . She also interacts with Elena , in addition to Makoto and Sarai .
For writing Ibuki , Zubkavich was nominated for a Joe Shuster Award . He said that , compared to Sakura , " Ibuki 's a more complex character , more flawed . She 's a great ninja but she isn 't even sure this is what she wants out of life . ( ... ) Sakura 's never @-@ give @-@ up attitude may be more of a classic anime archetype , but I feel Ibuki 's a character more people can empathize with . " He added , " Ibuki ’ s personality has been limited to game endings and oh @-@ so brief lines of dialogue from her victory quotes , so expanding upon those with this focused story is an honour and a challenge . " In a poll by Omar Dogan on his DeviantArt website , most of voters wanted to see Ibuki " wearing something cute " , and precisely something in the Harajuku @-@ style Lolita fashion . Dogan 's own favourite part of the story was " the part where Ibuki and Oro battle . "
= = = = Other = = = =
Ibuki is a favored character for use in promotional artwork , and has several figurines and action figures made in her image . These include figures from Kotobukiya , Mega Hobby , MegaHouse , SOTA Toys , Square Enix 's Play Arts Kai , and Capcom itself , including one designed by Street Fighter III character concept artist Kinu Nishimura .
Ibuki 's Xbox Live Avatar costume was released in 2010 . Sakura is shown controlling Ibuki in a handheld Street Fighter III game she plays in the anime film Street Fighter Alpha : The Animation . Her cards are featured in the card game Universal Fighting System .
= = Reception = =
Ibuki was met with a positive critical and fan reception regarding her character design , attractiveness and personality , and with a mixed reception regarding her gameplay issues . Despite her debut in a relatively obscure entry in the series , Ibuki has become one of the most popular Street Fighter female characters . Capcom producer Yoshinori Ono said Ibuki is so " popular because she is insanely fun to play . " Professional Street Fighter commentator and player Femi Adeboye ( F @-@ Word ) recalled Ibuki in Third Strike has changed his life when he was a young teenager : " I saw this ninja girl and I picked her up , that became my destiny . " In 2002 , she was voted the 12th most popular Street Fighter character in Capcom 's own poll for the 15th anniversary of Street Fighter . Street Fighter IV director Takashi Tsukamoto described her as " a character that many people were waiting for ; " a teaser trailer suggesting her inclusion in the game , revealed by Yoshinori Ono at the Evolution Championship Series 2011 tournament event , excited the crowd . Ibuki was voted the 16th most requested Street Fighter side character to be added to the roster of Tekken X Street Fighter in an official poll by Namco in 2013 .
Previewing Street Fighter III , Computer and Video Games highlighted Ibuki and Necro as " two of the finest " fighters in the game . In 2008 , GameDaily placed Ibuki 15th on its list of top Street Fighter characters of all time , expressing surprise that " all she wants to do is live a normal life . " That same year , IGN 's D. F. Smith ranked her as the 22nd top Street Fighter character and the only ninja on their list . In 2015 , Ben Lee from Digital Spy ranked the " fast , relentless , kick @-@ ass , and often unpredictable " Ibuki as the 12th best Street Fighter character . IGN 's Jesse Schedeen featured her among the characters he wanted to appear in Street Fighter IV . GamesRadar 's Mikel Reparaz similarly listed Ibuki among the 12 characters he would like to see in Super Street Fighter IV despite her being " one of the weaker characters " in Street Fighter III , citing her " enduring popularity " , " rapid , skill @-@ centric combos and high @-@ flying special moves " and her costume " which leaves her hips conspicuously bare and devoid of any sign of underpants . " Martin Robinson of AskMen too named Ibuki as of the five characters it wished to be included in Super Street Fighter IV , writing that " ninjas might be ten @-@ a @-@ penny in videogames , but none are as effortlessly cool as Ibuki " and adding that she " makes this list primarily for her style " but is " no slouch in combat either . " According to the GameZone review of the game , " it ’ s unfathomable to think that anyone could not fall in love with Ibuki and Makoto , introduced in Street Fighter III , all over again . " In his review of Super Street Fighter IV , Tim Higgins from The Telegraph wrote Ibuki was his personal favourite new fighter in the game for " all slippery evasive manoeuvres and devastating bread and butter combos . " GamesRadar 's Lucas Sullivan called her inclusion in Street Fighter IV " a stroke of genius " and requested her return in Street Fighter V.
Capcom 's Taisaku Okada said Ibuki was the most popular of the Street Fighter III female characters , probably because of her appearance contrasting a young girl " of the current times " with " this old @-@ time ninja look " . Nevertheless , MTV 's Brad Nicholson blamed Ibuki 's " bland , tan , and masked getup that hasn ’ t changed much since her days in Street Fighter III , " for her not appearing on the cover of Super Street Fighter IV despite all her " ravenous fans . " Giovanni Simotti , designer of Akane the Kunoichi , intended look of the titular character on the game 's cover as " a small tribute to two of the most famous kunoichi from the history of the videogames – a mix of Mai Shiranui with a bit of Ibuki . " In 2012 , Gelo Gonzales of FHM included Ibuki among the nine " sexiest ninja babes in games " and compared her to Sam Pinto . GamesRadar 's Sullivan also compared the Killer Instinct 3 character Sadira to Ibuki , as similarly being " an agile fighter who can orchestrate a lot of very tricky setups from the air . "
In 2004 , Nich Maragos and David Smith of 1UP.com ranked Ibuki as the sixth overall best ninja character in video games , calling her " one of the coolest @-@ looking characters " in Street Fighter III but " also one of the least capable in competition . " That same year , Aubrey Sitterson of UGO featured her on a list of the 25 " foxiest fighting females to ever be pixelated " and commented that Ibuki is " not only super @-@ hot , but she 's also a ninja , which is like a ' chocolate in my peanut butter ' situation . " UGO 's Paul Furfari further stated that she " set the new standard in female fighters , " adding , " forget Chun @-@ Li " . GameZone included the " amazing " Ibuki in their 2011 list of " best video game ninjas " and stated : " We ’ re glad she ’ s still a staple in this series to this very day – but when is she going to come over to Marvel vs. Capcom territory ? " Márcio Pacheco Alexsandro of Brazil 's Game Hall placed her at tenth spot of his 2014 list of top kunoichi characters in games , opining that that she is " far from having such status as Chun @-@ Li , but has her charm , especially if you like Japanese schoolgirls . " Joe Pring from WhatCulture.com placed Ibuki at 19th spot on his 2015 list of the greatest female fighting game characters of all time : " Ninja 's are always cool , but Ibuki takes that awesome factor to a whole new level . " In 2016 , Steven Hanson from Destructoid described her as " everybody 's favorite schoolgirl ninja . "
= Bazy Tankersley =
Ruth " Bazy " Tankersley ( March 7 , 1921 – February 5 , 2013 ) was an American breeder of Arabian horses and a newspaper publisher . She was a daughter of Senator Joseph Medill McCormick . Her mother was progressive Republican Congresswoman Ruth Hanna McCormick , making Tankersley a granddaughter of the late Senator Mark Hanna of Ohio . Although Tankersley was involved with conservative Republican causes as a young woman , including a friendship with Senator Joseph McCarthy , her progressive roots reemerged in later years ; by the 21st century , she had become a strong supporter of environmental causes and backed Barack Obama for president in 2008 .
Tankersley 's father died when she was a child . When her mother remarried , the family moved to the southwestern United States where Tankersley spent considerable time riding horses . She became particularly enamored of the Arabian breed after she was given a part @-@ Arabian to ride . At 18 she began working as a reporter for a newspaper published by her mother . She later ran a newspaper in Illinois with her first husband , Peter Miller , and then in 1949 she became the publisher of the conservative Washington Times @-@ Herald . That paper was owned by her uncle , the childless Robert McCormick , who viewed Tankersley as his heir until the two had a falling out over editorial control of the newspaper and her relationship with Garvin Tankersley , who became her second husband . After The Washington Post absorbed the Times @-@ Herald , she shifted to full @-@ time horse breeding .
Tankersley purchased her first purebred Arabian when she was 19 , and began her horse breeding operation , Al @-@ Marah Arabians , in Tucson , Arizona , in 1941 . As she moved across the US for her newspaper career , her horses and farm name went with her . She purchased her foundation sire Indraff in 1947 , while living in Illinois . Upon her move to Washington , DC , her Al @-@ Marah operation relocated to Montgomery County , Maryland , where it became the largest Arabian farm in the United States by 1957 . Tankersley returned to Tucson in the 1970s , where in addition to horse breeding , she created an apprenticeship program at Al @-@ Marah to train young people for jobs in the horse industry . She set up a second horse operation , the Hat Ranch , near Flagstaff , Arizona . Over her career she bred over 2 @,@ 800 registered Arabians and was one of the largest importers of horses from the Crabbet Arabian Stud in England .
Tankersley was a patron of many charities . Upon her death from Parkinson 's disease in 2013 she bequeathed the Tucson ranch to the University of Arizona and placed the Hat Ranch in a conservation trust . In her final years , she downsized her breeding operation to about 150 horses , and most remaining stock went to her son , Mark Miller , who moved the Al @-@ Marah Arabian farm name and horse operation to his home base near Clermont , Florida .
= = Background and personal life = =
Tankersley was described as having " inherited a love of politics and horses , not necessarily in that order . " She was born in Chicago , Illinois , on March 7 , 1921 . Her nickname " Bazy " came from how she pronounced the word " baby " when she was a toddler . Her father was Joseph Medill McCormick , part @-@ owner of the Chicago Tribune and a Senator for Illinois . Her mother , Ruth Hanna McCormick , was a daughter of Senator Mark Hanna of Ohio , and Ruth was a member of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois , serving in the 71st Congress from 1929 to 1931 as a progressive Republican . Bazy was the youngest of three children ; her siblings were Katherine ( " Katrina " ) , ( 1913 – 2011 ) and John ( 1916 – 1938 ) .
When Tankersley was four , her father died by suicide , believed to be partly attributed to his defeat for renomination in 1924 . Her mother remarried in 1932 to Albert Gallatin Simms , a congressman from New Mexico , lawyer , and banker . Tankersley spent part of her childhood on her mother 's Rock River dairy farm in Byron , Illinois , and later moved to the Southwest with her mother and stepfather , living at a ranch owned by Simms in Albuquerque , New Mexico , at first , and then moving in 1937 to the Trinchera Ranch , a 250 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 100 @,@ 000 ha ) property in Colorado that her mother had purchased . Tankersley attended a boarding school in Virginia and spent summers in the West . Her love of horses in general and the Arabian horse in particular came from those years : " Right away , my stepfather bought me a cow pony , and I wore it out ... So my mother got me a 3 ⁄ 4 Arabian that I couldn 't wear out . " She also showed horses on the East Coast in the 1930s . Her interest in Arabian horses led her to meet several major breeders of the time , including Jimmie Dean of Traveler 's Rest , Roger Selby , W. R. Brown and Carl Raswan .
Tankersley did not complete high school , and later said , " I virtually had no education . " Nonetheless , she studied genetics at Vermont 's Bennington College between 1939 and 1941 without completing a degree . While there , she gained some notoriety for genetic studies she conducted by raising fruit flies in her dorm room . In 2004 , she was awarded an honorary doctorate in Humane Letters from the University of Arizona .
Tankersley married Maxwell Peter Miller , Jr. in 1941 . She and Miller lived in Tucson for two years , where she developed a deep love for Arizona . They then moved to Chicago for a time , and subsequently to her mother 's Trinchera Ranch , which Bazy ran . Her mother died of pancreatitis on December 31 , 1944 , two months after a serious riding accident . The couple moved back to Illinois prior to relocating to Washington , DC .
Tankersley divorced Miller in 1951 to marry Garvin E. " Tank " Tankersley , an editor at the Washington Times @-@ Herald ten years older than she was . Garvin Tankersley had started his news career as a photographer . He was the managing editor when he left the paper in 1952 . The couple met while Bazy was running the Times @-@ Herald , but Robert McCormick , Bazy 's uncle and owner of the newspaper , considered Garvin Tankersley to be of unsuitable social status for Bazy because " Tank " was from a poor Lynchburg , Virginia , family . McCormick also disapproved of her divorce . Bazy saw the latter stance as hypocritical , given McCormick 's own complicated personal life . McCormick 's attempts to end the relationship ultimately prompted the couple to elope , and the Tankersleys were married for 45 years until Garvin 's death in 1997 .
Tankersley also dabbled in campaign politics . In 1948 she organized " Twenties for Taft " clubs to support the 1948 Presidential campaign of Robert A. Taft . She followed in the footsteps of her mother Ruth , who was the first woman to manage a presidential campaign , the 1940 and 1944 efforts of Thomas E. Dewey . Tankersley later described herself as a friend of Senator Joseph McCarthy , and in 1952 she advocated for the removal of Guy Gabrielson as chair of the Republican National Committee . Tankersley 's politics shifted dramatically during her life . Noting her earlier strong affiliation with the Republican party and conservative politics , The Washington Post reported that in 2008 she voted for Barack Obama . She also supported Democratic Arizona Representative Gabrielle Giffords .
From her two marriages , Tankersley had three biological children : a son , Mark Miller , born in 1947 , and two daughters , Kristie Miller ( born 1944 ) and Tiffany Tankersley ( 1970 – 2012 ) . She also had two stepchildren , Anne Tankersley Sturm and Garvin Tankersley , Jr . At the time of her death , she had six grandchildren and two great @-@ grandchildren .
= = Newspaper career = =
At 18 , Tankersley began working as a reporter for the Rockford Star , published by her mother . She gained experience running a newspaper in 1946 when she and Peter Miller purchased the LaSalle Post @-@ Tribune in LaSalle , Illinois , and the Peru News @-@ Herald , in Peru , Illinois , merging the papers to create the Daily News @-@ Tribune . In 1949 , her uncle , " Colonel " Robert R. McCormick , appointed her as the publisher of the family @-@ owned Washington Times @-@ Herald , an " isolationist and archconservative " paper known for sensationalism . McCormick had purchased it following the 1948 death of Eleanor Medill " Cissy " Patterson , his first cousin , and wanted Bazy to use the paper to create " an outpost of American principles " . Robert McCormick had no children of his own , " doted " on Bazy , and considered her the heir to his newspaper company . Tankersley was 28 at the time and was given the title of Vice @-@ President .
During Tankersley 's tenure as publisher of the Times @-@ Herald , the paper was embroiled in two controversies related to McCarthy , one involving attacks intended to help unseat Democratic Senator Millard E. Tydings in 1950 , and the other a lawsuit brought by Drew Pearson in 1951 over what Pearson viewed as a " conspiracy to smear his reputation " . In the Tydings case , a composite photograph created by Garvin made Tydings appear to be meeting with a communist party leader and was a factor in Tydings losing his race . It also brought Tankersley and her paper to the attention of the United States Senate , where the paper 's treatment of Tydings was viewed by a bipartisan Senate panel as a violation of " simple decency and honesty " and " a shocking abuse of the spirit and intent of the First Amendment of the Constitution " . The lawsuit was a $ 5 @.@ 1 million cause filed by Pearson against multiple defendants , including McCarthy and the Times @-@ Herald , Westbrook Pegler and Fulton Lewis , alleging they had " contrived ... to hold plaintiff up to public scorn and ridicule " . Pearson frequently criticized McCarthy , McCarthy criticized Pearson in a speech on the floor of the Senate , and the two men had even been in a physical altercation in December 1950 . The Times @-@ Herald ran articles critical of Pearson and in one case described Pearson as a " New Deal communist " , though it was asserted to have been a typographical error that should have read " columnist " .
Tankersley was publisher of the newspaper for only 19 months . By April 1951 , McCormick and Tankersley developed differences of opinions over both the newspaper and her relationship with Garvin Tankersley . " I understood when I went to the Times @-@ Herald I was to have full control . That control was not given me ... There is some difference in our political beliefs . I have broader Republican views than [ McCormick ] has . I am for the same people as the colonel , but I am for some more people . " McCormick also told her to decide between Garvin Tankersley and the Tribune Company . As a result , she resigned from the Times @-@ Herald . McCormick tried to run the paper himself , but lost money on the venture , and sold the Times @-@ Herald to The Washington Post in 1954 . When he announced the sale , one of the paper 's board members insisted that Tankersley be given a chance to purchase it , so McCormick gave her 48 hours to match the $ 10 million asking price . She could not raise the money do so . Upon the purchase of the Times @-@ Herald , the Post consolidated its market position by discontinuing the rival paper . Though estranged for many years , Bazy and McCormick reconciled prior to his death .
After the sale , Tankersley continued to write a newspaper column for the Post , but also began to raise Arabian horses as a full @-@ time occupation .
= = Horse breeding career = =
In her 70 @-@ year career as a horse breeder , Tankersley emphasized athleticism and disposition in her Arabians . She is recorded as the breeder of over 2 @,@ 800 registered Arabian foals in her lifetime , making her possibly the largest Arabian horse breeder in the world . At 19 , she purchased her first Arabian horse , a mare named Curfa , using money from the sale of another horse she had ridden while at boarding school in Virginia . She founded the Al @-@ Marah Arabian Horse Farm in 1941 on a 40 acres ( 16 ha ) property when she first lived in Tucson . Mark Miller stated that the name Al @-@ Marah was selected by Carl Raswan , who said it was Arabic for " a verdant garden oasis " .
Throughout her newspaper career , she moved the Al @-@ Marah farm name with her , to Illinois from 1944 to 1949 , and outside of Washington , DC , in Maryland , where she lived from 1949 to 1975 . Thereafter , she returned to Tucson permanently . She consistently used bloodlines from the Crabbet Arabian Stud , both via horses descended from early American importations as well as her own purchases from the estate of Lady Wentworth in the late 1950s . This unbroken line gives rise to Miller 's assertion that the Al @-@ Marah herd is the " oldest continuously @-@ bred , privately @-@ owned band of Arabians in the world " .
= = = Illinois = = =
While she lived in Illinois , in 1947 Tankersley purchased a stallion named Indraff for $ 10 @,@ 000 . Indraff was bred by Roger Selby of Ohio , and was a son of the Crabbet @-@ bred stallion * Raffles . He became her foundation herd sire , and sired 254 purebred Arabians over his lifetime . Tankersley 's first foundation mare , Selfra , was also of Crabbet bloodlines . By the time she left Illinois in 1949 , Tankersley owned 45 Arabians .
= = = Maryland = = =
Upon arrival in the Washington , DC , area , Tankersley recreated Al @-@ Marah Arabians in Montgomery County , near Washington . The Al @-@ Marah property in Potomac , Maryland , consisted of 1 @,@ 500 acres ( 610 ha ) , and for a time the Tankersleys also raised cattle there . The farm later moved to Barnesville , Maryland . Al @-@ Marah was not only a horse breeding facility ; the Tankersleys also hosted a number of political and social events . By 1957 , Al @-@ Marah was the largest Arabian horse farm in the United States . In that year , Lady Wentworth , owner of the Crabbet Arabian Stud , died and a number of horses were made available for sale . Tankersley bought 32 horses , the largest importation of Crabbet bloodstock to the United States in history . Lady Gladys Yule of the Hanstead Stud died within a few weeks of Lady Wentworth , and more top @-@ quality Arabians bred in the UK were put on the market . Tankersley purchased 14 Hanstead horses , the largest group from that estate sold to a single buyer . The arrival of the English horses was , in Tankersley 's view , an opportunity to preserve the core bloodlines tracing back to the horses originally gathered by Abbas Pasha .
Following these importations , Tankersley began to build her breeding program around two Crabbet sire lines , which she called the Double R cross . The first " R " stallion bloodline was that of * Raffles via his son Indraff , and the other " R " bloodline was that of Rissalix , a Crabbet @-@ bred stallion owned by Hanstead , and sire of three Crabbet mares Tankersley imported . The two stallion lines shared a common female line to Rissla ; she was the maternal granddam of Raffles and dam of Rissalix . In 1958 , Tankersley added to her Double R program when she leased and imported the Rissalix son * Count Dorsaz , a Hanstead @-@ bred horse . She owned him outright by 1959 . She later added another Rissalix son from Hanstead , * Ranix . In 1962 , she imported another Crabbet @-@ bred stallion , * Silver Vanity . She used her knowledge of genetics to institute a program of selectively inbreeding horses of bloodlines she considered of excellent quality . In her early years , she also looked for " golden crosses " , such as breeding offspring of Indraff to progeny of the Maynesboro @-@ bred stallion Gulastra .
= = = Arizona = = =
Tankersley missed Arizona and wanted to return . " I would read Arizona Highways and cry , " she said . The Tankersleys moved back to Tucson and settled there permanently in 1975 . She designed many of the buildings on her Tucson property herself . She added new stallions to her herd with Dreamazon in the 1980s , and a * Silver Vanity descendant , SDA Silver Legend , in 2001 . Later in the 2000s , continuing her pattern of seeking " golden crosses " , she imported the stallion * Bremervale Andronicus from Australia , an outcross for her intensely Crabbet @-@ based bloodlines . He became the 2006 National Champion Arabian Sport Horse , with the reserve champion AM Power Raid , a stallion from within her program .
Ultimately Tankersley operated two facilities in Arizona , her Al @-@ Marah Arabian Farm , a 110 @-@ acre ( 45 ha ) facility , and the Hat Ranch in Williams , near Flagstaff . The ranch property she purchased was the former Quarter Circle Double X Ranch and had been owned by Isabella Greenway , who had hosted Eleanor and Franklin Delano Roosevelt there . Tankersley , though identified as a Republican , displayed a photo of FDR at the ranch . The Hat Ranch was home to her young stock , allowing them to live free in an open range setting for two years before beginning training . It also served as the location for an annual think tank meeting for leaders of the Arabian Horse Association . The ranch also hosted the Straw Bale Forums where politicians , conservation leaders and academics could meet and discuss major issues . In 2003 , Tankersley was given the Arabian Breeder 's Association Lifetime Breeder 's Award .
= = = Apprenticeship program = = =
In 1973 , Tankersley created an apprenticeship program to train people both for work as employees at her ranch and for positions elsewhere in the horse industry . It grew into an intensive two @-@ year course that covered all aspects of the horse industry , provided participants college credit through Pima Community College , and was licensed by the US Department of Labor . She also donated horses to an Arabian breeding program at Michigan State University . Tankersley was noted throughout her career for her support of youth involvement with Arabian horses .
= = = Death and bequests = = =
Tankersley died on February 5 , 2013 . She had Parkinson 's disease . As she aged , Tankersley downsized her horse breeding operation from 350 horses to under 150 just prior to her death . Her son , Mark Miller , inherited many of her remaining horses and moved the Al @-@ Marah Arabian farm name and the horse operation to his home base near Clermont , Florida . Miller had run an entertainment venue called Arabian Nights , in Kissimmee , Florida , near Disney World , from 1988 until 2013 . He used Al @-@ Marah @-@ bred horses to present a 90 @-@ minute dinner show performance every night of the year that featured 50 Arabian horses . He closed the program in December 2013 to focus on the transplanted Al @-@ Marah herd on his Florida property .
The Tucson Al @-@ Marah Ranch , consisting of 85 acres ( 34 ha ) with an estimated worth of $ 30 million , was donated to the University of Arizona 's College of Agriculture as a working ranch . The Hat Ranch had a conservation easement with rights to more than 1 @,@ 500 acres ( 610 ha ) given to the Grand Canyon Trust to prevent further development . Tankersley 's longtime employee , Jerry Hamilton , will continue to manage the Hat Ranch for Miller as a home for young horses bred by Al @-@ Marah .
= = Legacy = =
Tankersley once stated , " I come from that old @-@ fashioned background of noblesse oblige : If you 're born with money , you have an obligation to do good works for others . " She was also noted for a strong personality , as her friend , Hermann Bleibtreu of the University of Arizona explained : " If she was in any position of leadership or power , she was dominant . " She became a strong environmentalist , donating to conservation , environmental , and aquaculture research . She supported renewable energy , smart growth , and water conservation , and promoted reform of state land management . She also helped Defenders of Wildlife preserve the Aravaipa Canyon . Carl Hodges , of the University of Arizona 's Environmental Research Lab , stated , " she was as fine and intellectually competent an environmentalist as anybody I 'd ever known . "
Her financial support also went to charities for disabled children and assorted cultural activities . While in Maryland , she was involved in the creation of two private schools , the Primary Day School in Bethesda and the Barnesville School . In Tucson in 1980 she founded the St. Gregory College Preparatory School , now called The Gregory School .
Tankersley was a consistent advocate of the Arabian breed as a performance horse . In addition to the show ring and endurance riding , where she sometimes rode her own horses , she also tested her horses on the race track . In endurance , one of her horses won the Tevis Cup , and many others earned national championships over the course of her career . She was a major promoter of the Arabian Horse Association Sport Horse Nationals , and her horses acquired many championships at that competition . Further supporting Tankersley 's interest in sport horse disciplines , two of her horses , Al Marah Xanthium and Al @-@ Marah Quebec , were the first Arabians accepted into the American Trakehner Registry .
Tankersley founded the Arabian Horse Owners Foundation ( AHOF ) in 1963 as a charity to fund the needs of the Arabian horse community . As of 2013 the most recent project of the foundation was to develop the Arabian section of the International Museum of the Horse at the Kentucky Horse Park in Lexington , Kentucky : the Al @-@ Marah Arabian Horse Galleries . Housed there are the collections of the AHOF and the Arabian Horse Trust . During the 2010 World Equestrian Games , which were held at the Kentucky Horse Park , the foundation sponsored and funded the exhibit " Gift of the Desert : The Art , History and Culture of the Arabian Horse " , bringing publicity to the Arabian breed during a major international equestrian competition .
= Mole Hunt =
" Mole Hunt " is the pilot episode of the animated comedy Archer . It was the first episode produced for the show and originally aired as a special sneak preview on September 17 , 2009 , but officially aired billed as the second episode on January 14 , 2010 , after the episode " Training Day " , which aired the same day .
In the episode , suave yet rude and belligerent spy Sterling Archer , prompted by questions regarding his expense account , breaks into the mainframe computer of his organization ISIS and inadvertently discovers a mole in the organization . The episode was written by Archer creator and co @-@ executive producer , Adam Reed , and directed by Mack Williams . It was produced at Floyd County Productions and animated at Radical Axis Studio in Atlanta , over the course of approximately one month .
The FX Network officially greenlit the series in August 2009 for six episodes — along with an additional four scripts — and planned on airing it alongside the fifth season of It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia . However , because of production time constraints , the network was forced to push the official series run to January 2010 and changed Philadelphia 's paired series to The League , but aired the special sneak preview of this episode following the season premiere of Philadelphia on September 17 , 2009 , without promoting it or listing it on channel listings .
" Mole Hunt " attracted 1 @.@ 4 million viewers , with 950 @,@ 000 between the ages of 18 and 49 . The episode received generally favorable reviews from television critics , who noted that despite its raunchiness , it contained sharp dialogue and quick wit . H. Jon Benjamin received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance for his performance as Archer in the episode .
= = Plot = =
Sterling Archer , a suave agent from the spy organization ISIS , partakes in a torture training exercise , but causes it to be terminated after complaining about fellow agent Krenshaw 's fake @-@ torture tactics . The following day , while trying to get members of the organization to smell his dry cleaning due to its strangely curry @-@ like odor , he is called into the office of Malory , his mother and boss , where he is chastised for misusing his ISIS @-@ run expense account . He seeks assistance from Cyril , a member of the organization and his ex @-@ girlfriend 's current boyfriend , to clear his account , but he refuses . Attempts to get access to accounts with a made @-@ up " Mole Hunt " also meet with failure . Archer tries getting secretary Cheryl to leave the mainframe open that night , allowing Archer to easily slip in and clear his account , but she too denies his request .
Without any outside options , Archer is forced to manually break into ISIS 's mainframe . Though he initially thinks that this will be an extremely difficult task , he discovers that actual security is appallingly terrible and he easily figures out the password to hack his account after the first try . While trying to transfer all of his excess expenses from his account to Krenshaw , the agent enters the room and holds a gun up to Archer 's head . He reveals that he is actually a Russian spy named Kremenski and fears the agency has started to realize that he is a mole , so he plans on stealing $ 50 @,@ 000 from Archer 's account and fleeing from the country . Just then , however , Archer 's ex @-@ girlfriend — Agent Lana Kane — arrives and pulls a gun on Kremenski . She and Archer begin to argue and the mole is able to escape .
They pursue him outside , where Cyril and Malory have already arrived . Kremenski grabs Malory and threatens to kill her if they do not let him leave ; Archer tries to turn the tables on him by grabbing Lana and threatening to do the same , but Kremenski does not care about her well being . When Lana proclaims that Archer is getting an erection ( caused by picturing Malory being dead ) , Kremenski lets go of Malory in disgust , allowing Archer room to shoot him several times in his chest and once in the head , killing him .
Despite his previous actions of breaking into ISIS and hacking the mainframe , Archer is excused from his expenses after Cyril comes to the assumption that Kremenski had been stealing from Archer 's account the whole time . Malory notes that she would have known if there was a mole at ISIS , her earlier phone call shown to have been with Nikolai Jakov , head of the KGB . She changes the subject when questioned , and rather complains that someone left donuts on the floor attracting ants .
= = Production = =
" Mole Hunt " was written by Archer creator and executive producer Adam Reed , while the series ' animation director Mack Williams directed it . Reed had been known for his creation of several Adult Swim animated television programs that he worked on with Archer co @-@ executive producer Matt Thompson , such as Sealab 2021 and Frisky Dingo . In 2008 , while walking along the Via de la Plata in Spain , Reed conceived the concept of Archer . Being a longtime " rabid fan " of FX Network and its original programming , he pitched the concept to the network and they accepted it , ordering six episodes of the series to be produced , along with an additional four scripts .
The pilot episode was produced at Reed 's Floyd County Productions studio in Atlanta , Georgia , over the course of approximately one month . Animation took place at Radical Axis Studio , also located in Atlanta . The artistic style of the series was designed to be as realistic as possible , so the character designers used as much reference material as they could . In order to create consistency between the separate animators , the artists take photographs of each actor and utilize Adobe Illustrator to trace over them as a base for each actor 's character . As Chad Hurd , the lead character designer for the series , noted , the end result resembles " a 1960 ’ s comic book come to life . "
FX originally planned on pairing the premiere of Archer with the fifth season of the network 's situation comedy It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia on Thursday nights in the fall . However , the network learned of the long , month @-@ long production length it would take to create the needed six episodes and realized that there was not enough time to have all of the episodes ready before Philadelphia began its new season . FX then decided to reschedule the series and start airing it in January 2010 , and replaced Archer with The League as Philadelphia 's companion show . Despite this , FX also decided to air a sneak airing of " Mole Hunt " following the season five premiere of Philadelphia on September 17 , 2009 . The network did not promote the sneak peek , nor did they feature it on any program listings , and merely informed select television critics .
= = Reception = =
In its official broadcast on FX on January 14 , 2010 , " Mole Hunt " , which aired as the second episode , attracted 1 @.@ 4 million viewers , with 950 @,@ 000 of them being within the key 18 – 49 demographics . This was a slight drop from the airing of the second episode " Training Day " , which aired the same day and attracted 1 @.@ 2 million viewers in between the ages of 18 and 49 , and 1 @.@ 8 million viewers in total . In 2010 , H. Jon Benjamin received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance for voicing Archer in the episode ; he lost , however , to Anne Hathaway for her performance in The Simpsons .
" Mole Hunt " received generally favorable reviews from television critics and media outlets . David Hinckley of the New York Daily News wrote that it " has a little ' Arrested Development ' and a little of ' The Office ' and maybe some ' Mad Men , ' " and recommended it to readers as one of the " new and good on TV this fall . " Hinkely also commented favorably on the scene where Archer tries firing bullets at the door to the mainframe , only to a bullet ricochet and hit another agent , likening it to " Leslie Nielsen classics . " Matt Roush of TV Guide said that he " got many more sustained belly laughs " out of the episode than he did with the aforementioned Philadelphia premiere .
Writing for Variety , Brian Lowry opined that with " Mole Hunt , " Archer " gives FX something that the drama @-@ heavy channel hasn 't enjoyed for awhile — namely , a sharp comedic arrow in its quiver . " Jonathan Toomey of TV Squad applauded the character development in the " Mole Hunt , " as it " was fairly impressive . " Moreover , though , Toomey praised the dialogue , saying " The back and forth between Archer and Figgis and Archer and Lana were laugh out loud funny , " and noted that he wished he could incorporate the phrase " baby town frolics " from the episode into a conversation . Toomey did , however , say that he felt that the plotting was " a bit of a stretch , " and noted that the realization that Krenshaw was actually a Russian spy named Kremenski was " out of nowhere " and " a bit confusing . "
Whitney Matheson wrote for USA Today that " Mole Hunt " was " crude and offbeat " but " also very funny and a welcome addition to [ her ] DVR queue . " Maureen Ryan , writing for the Chicago Tribune , applauded both the voice cast and the " deadpan wit and surreal goofiness . " Mark A. Perigard of the Boston Herald , awarded the episode a " B + " calling it a " spy spoof [ that ] hits a bull ’ s @-@ eye with risque snark and one of the best vocal casts assembled for any animated series . " In an article for the San Francisco Chronicle , Tim Goodman called " Mole Hunt " a " brilliant pilot . " Rob Owen in his review for the series in the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette said that though it was crude , the episode is " far more clever than last fall 's disappointing ' Testees , ' " and that it " wins points with its observational humor about modern life and in its mocking of mundane workplace minutiae . " Aaron Barnhart wrote in his article for McClatchy News Service that it was " very funny . "
Other reviewers , however , have commented negatively towards " Mole Hunt . " Barry Garron of The Hollywood Reporter did not enjoy the episode , saying it " looks great but could be much funnier " and " rife with words that would be bleeped on broadcast channels and even most other basic @-@ cable outlets . " Rick Bentley of McClatchy Newspapers wrote , " Most of the comedy is milked from the personal relationships in the office , which start off tedious and only grow more annoying . The adult material – from nudity to words you haven 't heard on basic cable – comes across as merely an attempt to be shocking . It 's hard to be shocked when you are bored . "
On the season one DVD boxset , there is a bonus where this episode played out as normal with the character of Sterling Archer being replaced by a velociraptor replacing Archer 's dialogue with appropriate dinosaur noises .
= Zodiac ( film ) =
Zodiac is a 2007 American mystery @-@ thriller film directed by David Fincher . The screenplay by James Vanderbilt is based on the 1986 non @-@ fiction book of the same name by Robert Graysmith . The film stars Jake Gyllenhaal , Mark Ruffalo , and Robert Downey , Jr . , with Anthony Edwards , Brian Cox , Elias Koteas , Donal Logue , John Carroll Lynch , Dermot Mulroney and Chloë Sevigny in supporting roles .
Zodiac tells the story of the manhunt for a notorious serial killer who called himself the " Zodiac " and killed in and around the San Francisco Bay Area during the late 1960s and early 1970s , leaving several victims in his wake and taunting police with letters , blood stained clothing , and ciphers mailed to newspapers . The cases remain one of Northern California 's most infamous unsolved crimes .
Fincher , Vanderbilt and producer Bradley J. Fischer spent 18 months conducting their own investigation and research into the Zodiac murders . Fincher employed the digital Thomson Viper Filmstream camera to photograph the film . However , Zodiac was not shot entirely digitally ; traditional high @-@ speed film cameras were used for slow @-@ motion murder sequences .
Reviews for Zodiac were very positive , lauding the film 's writing , directing , acting and historical authenticity . The film grossed over $ 84 million worldwide against a production budget of $ 65 million .
= = Plot = =
On July 4 , 1969 , an unknown man attacks Darlene Ferrin and Mike Mageau with a handgun , at a lovers ' lane in Vallejo , California . Mageau survives ; Ferrin dies .
One month later , the San Francisco Chronicle receives encrypted letters written by the killer calling himself the " Zodiac " and taunting the police . Political cartoonist Robert Graysmith is not taken seriously by crime reporter Paul Avery or the editors and is excluded from the initial details about the killings despite his interest in the case . When the newspaper publishes the letters , a married couple is able to decipher one . At a local bar , Avery initially makes fun of Graysmith before they discuss the coded letters . Graysmith interprets the letter , which Avery finds helpful , and Avery begins sharing information . The Zodiac killer attacks law student Bryan Hartnell and Cecelia Shepard at Lake Berryessa in Napa County on September 27 , 1969 . Shepard dies two days later , and Hartnell survives . One of Graysmith 's insights about the letters is that the Zodiac 's reference to man as " the most dangerous animal of them all " is a reference to the story and film The Most Dangerous Game ( which features Count Zaroff as a man who hunts live human prey ) . The fact that both Zaroff 's surname and the name " Zodiac " start with a " Z " also seems significant .
Two weeks later , San Francisco taxicab driver Paul Stine is shot and killed in the city 's Presidio Heights district immediately after dropping the killer off . The Zodiac killer mails pieces of Stine 's blood stained shirt to the Chronicle , along with a taunting letter . San Francisco police detectives Dave Toschi and his partner Bill Armstrong are assigned to the Stine case , and work closely with Vallejo 's Jack Mulanax and Detective Ken Narlow in Napa . The killer , or someone posing as him , continues to toy with authorities by sending more letters and speaks on the phone with lawyer Melvin Belli when he makes an appearance on a television talk show . Avery and Graysmith form an alliance , delving deeper into the case as time permits .
In 1971 , Detectives Toschi , Armstrong , and Mulanax question Arthur Leigh Allen , a suspect in the Vallejo case . Allen behaves suspiciously during the interview . They ask to see his watch and notice that he wears a Zodiac brand wristwatch which has the same logo used by the killer . However , a handwriting expert insists that Allen did not write the Zodiac letters , even though Allen is said to be ambidextrous . Avery receives a letter threatening his life ; becoming increasingly paranoid , he turns to drugs and alcohol . At one point , he shares information with the Riverside Police Department , angering both Toschi and Armstrong . The case 's notoriety weighs on Toschi , who is bothered when Graysmith shows up at the theater where Toschi is watching a Hollywood film , Dirty Harry , loosely based on the Zodiac case , with his wife .
In 1978 , Avery leaves the Chronicle , and moves to the Sacramento Bee . Graysmith persistently contacts Toschi about the Zodiac murders , and eventually impresses the veteran detective with his knowledge of the case . While Toschi cannot directly give Graysmith access to the evidence , he provides contact names of other police departments in other counties where Zodiac murders occurred . Armstrong transfers from the San Francisco Police homicide division , and Toschi is demoted for supposedly forging a Zodiac letter . Graysmith continues his own investigation , which is profiled in the Chronicle , and he allows himself to be interviewed on television about his book @-@ in @-@ progress concerning the case . He begins receiving anonymous phone calls with heavy breathing . Because of his immersion in the case , Graysmith loses his job and his wife Melanie leaves him , taking their children with her . Graysmith acquires more information that points to Allen as the Zodiac , and although circumstantial evidence seems to indicate his guilt , the physical evidence , such as fingerprints and handwriting samples , do not implicate him .
In December 1983 , Graysmith tracks Allen down to a Vallejo Ace Hardware store , where he is employed as a sales clerk . The men have a brief encounter before Graysmith leaves . Eight years later , victim Mike Mageau meets with authorities and identifies Allen from a police mugshot . As the authorities walk by an airport book store , copies of Graysmith 's book Zodiac are shown . Final title cards inform the audience that Allen died in 1992 before he could be questioned further . A DNA test performed in 2002 on an archived autopsy sample did not match a partial DNA sample gathered from the postage stamp on one of the Zodiac letters , but this does not rule him out as a suspect .
= = Cast = =
Jake Gyllenhaal as Robert Graysmith , a cartoonist for the San Francisco Chronicle . While researching the film , Fincher considered Gyllenhaal to play Graysmith . According to the director , " I really liked him in Donnie Darko and I thought , He ’ s an interesting double @-@ sided coin . He can do that naive thing but he can also do possessed . " To prepare for his role , Gyllenhaal met Graysmith and videotaped him in order to study his mannerisms and behavior .
Mark Ruffalo as SFPD Inspector David Toschi . Initially , Ruffalo was not interested in the project but Fincher wanted him to play Toschi . He met with the actor and told him that he was rewriting the screenplay . " I loved what he was saying and loved where he was going with it , " the actor remembers . For research , he read every report on
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58 @.@ 35 in his first 18 Tests .
= = Wisden Cricketer of the Year = =
O 'Neill was selected for the tour of England in 1961 , and he warmed up by scoring centuries in consecutive matches against Tasmania for the Australian squad . During the English summer , O 'Neill scored 1981 runs at 60 @.@ 03 , narrowly missing becoming only the fourth post @-@ war player after Don Bradman , Neil Harvey and Bill Lawry to make 2 @,@ 000 runs in an Ashes tour .
In the third match against Yorkshire , which was O 'Neill 's second for the tour , he scored an unbeaten 100 marked by his cover driving . He followed this with a 74 against Lancashire before a 124 two matches later against Glamorgan , which was described by Wisden as the best of the season . He scored 73 against Gloucestershire and made 122 on his first appearance at Lord 's , against the Marylebone Cricket Club , in what was effectively a dress rehearsal for the Tests . Australia went on to win by 63 runs . In the next match against Sussex , O 'Neill was carried from the ground after suffering a knee injury , and after failing to bat in either innings , it appeared he would be sidelined for a substantial period .
However he recovered to be selected for the First Test at Edgbaston , just five days later . He made 82 as Australia scored 9 / 516 declared and took a 321 @-@ run first innings lead , but England could not be dismissed in the second innings and salvaged a draw . He continued his form with an unbeaten 104 against Kent between the Tests .
The " Battle of the Ridge " in the Second Test at Lord 's — the home of cricket — was an unhappy one for O 'Neill . On an erratic pitch with a visible ridge that caused uneven bounce , O 'Neill made one and a duck as an Australia scraped home by five wickets in a low @-@ scoring match .
He returned to the county matches and scored 162 against Lancashire , before scoring 27 and 19 as England squared the series in the Third Test at Headingley . O 'Neill then scored 142 against Northamptonshire , but the hosts were able to tie the scores when stumps were drawn with four wickets in hand .
After rectifying a technical fault , O 'Neill made 67 in the second innings of the Fourth Test at Old Trafford with the series tied at 1 – 1 , helping Australia take a narrow victory to retain the Ashes . Heading into the final Test , O 'Neill had a consistent run , scoring three fifties in four innings . He made his first century against England in the Fifth Test at The Oval with 117 as Australia drew the match to take the series . He did so after being given a " lucky coin " by a spectator and being dropped at second slip when he was on 19 . He scored 324 runs at 40 @.@ 50 in the Tests and was subsequently named as one of the five Wisden Cricketers of the Year for 1962 . Following the Tests , O 'Neill added four half @-@ centuries in five innings in a consistent run towards the close of the tour . He left English soil with 138 against Minor Counties , in a non @-@ first @-@ class match . In all first @-@ class matches , he made seven centuries , and his run aggregate was second only to Lawry , who made 2 @,@ 019 runs .
= = International decline = =
After this tour , his form began to decline , as he became prone to uncertain and fidgety starts to his innings , which earned him the nickname " Nervous Norm " . A persistent knee injury increasingly troubled him and was to end his career . The 1961 – 62 Australian team was purely domestic with no touring Test team , and New South Wales completed their ninth Sheffield Shield title in a row , O 'Neill had a poor season , scoring only 377 runs at 25 @.@ 13 , passing fifty only twice .
The 1962 – 63 home Ashes series was Australia 's first Test matches in 18 months . After an unproductive season last year , O 'Neill started the new summer with 15 and 2 / 30 for a Western Australia Combined XI against Ted Dexter 's Englishmen . His victims with the ball were Dexter and batsman Tom Graveney . He then made his first century in over a year , scoring 131 against Western Australia for his state . O 'Neill completed his preparation for the Tests by helping New South Wales to defeat Dexter 's men by an innings . He scored 143 and took 2 / 36 , removing Graveney and leading batsman Colin Cowdrey .
O 'Neill made 56 in the First Test drawn at Brisbane but failed to pass 20 in the next two matches , which were shared by the two teams . After his wife made him a pair of " lucky lemon socks " , he scored 100 in the first innings of the drawn Fourth Test in Adelaide , which turned out to be his last Test century with fifteen Tests before the end of his career . With Alan Davidson injured during the match , O 'Neill was required to bowl substantially , conceding 49 runs in what was his most expensive performance to date . He scored 73 in the Fifth Test in Sydney to finish the series with 310 runs at 34 @.@ 44 , substantially below his career average of 53 @.@ 8 prior to the series . He also took two wickets , one in each of the Third and Fifth Tests , removing Fred Titmus and Dexter respectively . Outside the Tests , O 'Neill struggled and passed 25 once in eight other non @-@ Test innings . This was a 93 against arch @-@ rivals Victoria , which was not enough to prevent defeat . Victoria went on to win the Sheffield Shield and end New South Wales ' nine @-@ year winning streak .
At the end of the season , he embarked on a tour with the International Cavaliers , which toured Africa , mostly playing against provincial teams . He played in seven matches and had a productive series , scoring 541 runs at 41 @.@ 54 including a century and four fifties . He also bowled more frequently than usual taking seven wickets at 53 @.@ 29 .
The following season in 1963 – 64 , O 'Neill started poorly , passing 12 only once in his first six innings . However , he was retained for the team for the First Test against South Africa in Brisbane , where he scored 82 and 19 not out in a drawn match . He continued his resurgence with 36 and 61 not out the following fixture against Victoria , but was injured during the second innings and forced to retire hurt . This meant that he missed the Second Test , which Australia won by eight wickets . O 'Neill returned and scored half centuries in each of the next two Tests . He also took two wickets to end the series with 285 runs at 40 @.@ 71 and three wickets at 32 @.@ 33 . He added a further two half @-@ centuries in the remaining Shield matches .
O 'Neill retained his place for the 1964 tour to England , and scored a century against Western Australia for the touring squad before departing for the northern hemisphere . After failing to pass 16 in his first two outings , he struck form against Glamorgan , scoring 65 and an unbeaten 109 . He then added 151 and 17 not out , leading the way as the Australians defeated the MCC by nine wickets in a dress rehearsal for the Tests . However , O 'Neill scored 98 in the first four innings of the opening two Tests and was forced out of the Third Test with a knee injury , the only non @-@ draw of the series , which Australia won . Nevertheless , he passed 50 in each of the four tour matches during this period , including a 134 against Yorkshire and 90 against Northamptonshire .
O 'Neill returned for the final two Tests and ended the series with only 156 runs at 31 @.@ 20 in five Tests without passing fifty and going wicketless . He added another century against Kent and two further fifties in the closing stages of the English summer .
His 1964 – 65 tour of the subcontinent on the way back to Australia was even worse , a far cry from his leading role in the previous tour to the subcontinent . After making 40 and 0 in the First Test win in Madras , he was unable to bat either innings in the Second Test in Bombay after being hospitalised due to persistent vomiting , injury as Australia ceded their series lead . He missed the remainder of the series , the Third Test in Calcutta and a one @-@ off Test in Pakistan . Upon his return home , he has a shortened domestic season before Australia left for the West Indies . In five domestic matches , he scored 357 runs at 59 @.@ 50 , including a 133 not against South Australia .
O 'Neill started the 1964 – 65 tour of the West Indies strongly , scoring a century in the first match against Jamaica . He was often injured during the tour , but was at his most productive with the bat since the last series against the Caribbean team four years earlier . He made many starts , passing 20 in six of his seven Test innings , but was unable to convert them into big scores . In the First Test , O 'Neill was struck on the hand by Wes Hall and was sent to hospital for X @-@ rays after a break was suspected . During the Second Test , it was the turn of Charlie Griffith to send O 'Neill to hospital , after hitting him on the forearm and causing a large bruise . His 51 and 74 * in the Fourth Test at Bridgetown , Barbados , the last Test of his career , was the only time he passed 50 for the series . He ended with 266 runs at 44 @.@ 33 , missing the Fifth Test due to a broken hand . He managed a healthy return with the ball , taking nine of his 17 Test wickets in the series with an average of 25 @.@ 55 . This included his Test best of 4 / 41 with his leg @-@ spinin the Second Test in Port of Spain , Trinidad . In this match , he cleaned up the hosts ' tail in the first innings , removing Jackie Hendriks , Wes Hall , Charlie Griffith and Lance Gibbs .
At the end of the tour , O 'Neill garnered controversy by writing outspoken newspaper columns accusing opposition pace spearhead Charlie Griffith of chucking . He was one of several Australians who took exception to Griffith 's bowling action , and he put his name to a series of feature articles in Sydney 's Daily Mirror . These labelled Griffith as " an obvious chucker " , saying the hosts had been " wrong to play " him . O 'Neill stated that " If he is allowed to continue throwing , he could kill someone " . O 'Neill also expressed his desire to not have to face bowling that he deemed to be illegal . When the Daily Mirror syndicated the columns , London 's Daily Mail ignored an embargo and printed the pieces while the Australians were on their homeward flight , putting O 'Neill in breach of his tour contract , which forbade players from commenting in the media during tours .
The West Indies lodged an official complaint with Australia , and the Australian Cricket Board replied that it deplored the published comments , although noting that as O 'Neill 's touring contract had expired at the end of the tour , the point was moot . Nevertheless , the ACB changed its stance on players ' writing , so that they could no longer comment on a tour until three months after its conclusion . The event is often perceived to have been a factor in O 'Neill 's eventual departure from the national scene .
Outside the Tests , O 'Neill performed strongly in three matches against regional teams , scoring centuries in each of them . He scored 125 , 125 , and 101 in his only three innings , against Jamaica , Trinidad and Tobago and Barbados .
= = Retirement = =
The following season , O 'Neill was overlooked for selection in all five Tests against the touring England team . Returning to New South Wales , he scored 473 runs at 39 @.@ 42 , including two centuries .
O 'Neill was omitted from the squad that toured South Africa in 1966 – 67 , ending his Test career . He continued his Shield career while his former teammates were on the other side of the Indian Ocean , compiling 741 runs at 74 @.@ 10 in a strong season . He started the season with 117 against Western Australia , before scoring a pair of 78s in the return match , helping his team to a tense 13 @-@ run win . He then scored 128 and 22 not out against Victoria and finished his season with 160 and 80 against South Australia , scoring a majority of his team 's first innings score .
As a result , he was selected for an Australian Second XI to tour New Zealand . He scored 69 runs at 17 @.@ 25 in two international matches and made his last first @-@ class century , scoring 101 and 58 not out against Auckland .
O 'Neill retired upon his return to Australia due to a knee injury . He left a reputation as a highly entertaining batsman who did not manage to fulfil his early promise . " A disappointment he was , perhaps , but his cricket will be recalled when those of lesser gifts are forgotten " , opined the writer EW Swanton .
In 61 matches for New South Wales , he scored 5419 runs at 52 @.@ 61 . He compiled 3879 runs at 61 @.@ 57 for St George in grade competition before transferring to Sutherland in the 1965 – 66 club . He scored 168 on his new club 's first day in the competition .
A cigarette salesman by trade , he became a commentator in retirement . He married Gwen Wallace , a track and field athlete who won relay gold for Australia at the 1954 British Empire and Commonwealth Games . They had two sons and a daughter . Their eldest child Mark O 'Neill represented New South Wales and Western Australia in the 1980s . O 'Neill also co @-@ owned a racehorse with Richie Benaud , Barry Jarman and Ray Steele , named Pall Mallan , and it won a race in 1961 .
O 'Neill died at the age of 71 after a long battle with throat cancer .
= = Style = =
Standing six feet tall , O 'Neill was compared to Don Bradman upon his entry into Test cricket . At his best , he was a dynamic stroke maker who was a crowd favourite because of his ability to score at a high pace , in particular with his power off the back foot . He was noted for his nimble footwork , which he used to negate spin bowling ; however this slowed in his later career as he put on weight . O 'Neill particularly liked to sweep the slower bowlers . He often put too much emphasis on his right hand , allowing a large space between his hands on the bat handle , and then turning his right shoulder too square towards the bowler . The renowned English batsman and captain Wally Hammond said that O 'Neill was the best all @-@ round batsman he had seen since World War II . O 'Neill 's tall build , strength and good looks also drew comparison to his boyhood idol Keith Miller . Despite the comparisons to Bradman , O 'Neill was much taller and broader , and was often impetuous whereas Bradman was known for his patience and lack of rashness . O 'Neill was also criticised for hitting across the line early in his innings .
O 'Neill was highly regarded for his style and entertainment values . Teammate Alan Davidson said " once set he was the most exhilarating player you 'd ever want to see — he was dynamite . He 'd play attacking shots off balls other people would only think of defending . He had wonderful skill and technique . His shots off the back foot down the ground off fast bowlers — you can 't really describe how good they were . " His captain for Australia and New South Wales , Richie Benaud said that he was " one of the greatest entertainers we 've had in Australian cricket " . O 'Neill 's style led the British writer EW Swanton to say " the art of batting , he reminded us , was not dead , merely inexplicably dormant " Wisden opined that " A high innings by O 'Neill is a thing of masterful beauty . His stroking is delectable , immense in its power . "
Later in his career , O 'Neill became a nervous and superstitious batsman , particular at the start of an innings . He wrote " batting is a lonely business " in his 1964 autobiography Ins and Outs , opining that he sometimes found first @-@ class cricket to be " depressing and lonely " .
He was regarded as an excellent fieldsman at cover , with a powerful and accurate throw , described by Wisden as a " dream throw " honed from a junior career as a baseballer . He was named as utility player in the 1957 All Australian baseball team , and his ability was such that he was approached by Major League Baseball scouts . Before the retirement of Neil Harvey , he and O 'Neill fielded in tandem in the covers and the pair were regarded as the finest fielding combination of the time .
= = Test match performance = =
= Try Some , Buy Some =
" Try Some , Buy Some " is a song written by English musician George Harrison , first released in 1971 as a single by former Ronettes lead singer Ronnie Spector . The latter recorded this and other Harrison compositions , such as " You " and " When Every Song Is Sung " , in London for a planned comeback album on the Beatles ' Apple Records . The project was co @-@ produced by her husband at the time , Phil Spector , whose temporary withdrawal from music @-@ making in 1966 had forced Ronnie to reluctantly abandon her own career . After the single became only a minor hit , and following recording sessions that had been hampered by the producer 's erratic behaviour , the proposed album was cancelled . In 1973 , Harrison added his own vocal onto a new mix of the instrumental track and included the result on his album Living in the Material World .
Harrison wrote " Try Some , Buy Some " during sessions for All Things Must Pass , his successful 1970 triple album , also co @-@ produced by Spector . The song 's austere melody was influenced by Harrison composing on a keyboard instrument rather than guitar . The lyrics reflect his perception of God amid temptations associated with the material world and take the form of a recollection of his first spiritual awakening . Ronnie Spector later admitted to being unable to understand the concept and disliking the song , and commentators have duly noted its unsuitability as a vehicle for her comeback . " Try Some , Buy Some " is notable for the extent to which Phil Spector employed his Wall of Sound production , as well as for being a significant commercial failure for Spector , in the manner of his ambitious 1966 production " River Deep – Mountain High " , by Ike & Tina Turner . The recording features a choir and long , lavishly orchestrated instrumental passages , the musical arrangement for which was supplied by John Barham . Besides Harrison , the backing musicians include Leon Russell , Pete Ham , Klaus Voormann and Jim Gordon . The single 's B @-@ side was " Tandoori Chicken " , an upbeat song in the rockabilly style .
Some commentators question the inclusion of Harrison 's reading of " Try Some , Buy Some " on Living in the Material World and view it in an unfavourable light , citing his struggle to sing in a key suited to the former Ronette . Having long been unavailable following its 1971 release – during which time she divorced Spector and attempted to relaunch her career without him – Ronnie Spector 's version was reissued in 2010 on the compilation Come and Get It : The Best of Apple Records . A longtime admirer of the song , David Bowie covered " Try Some , Buy Some " on his 2003 album Reality and performed it on his tours in support of the album .
= = Background and composition = =
George Harrison 's song " Try Some , Buy Some " dates back to the recording sessions for his 1970 triple album All Things Must Pass , and was one of a number of tracks left over from that project . In his autobiography , I , Me , Mine ( 1980 ) , Harrison recalls writing the tune on an organ and , not being an accomplished keyboard player , having difficulties doing the correct fingering in both hands . It was only when his friend Klaus Voormann took over the left @-@ hand part , to play the bass line , that he was able to hear the piece as he had imagined it .
Harrison musical biographer Simon Leng describes the tune as " the most extreme example " of its composer 's " circular melodic " style , " seeming to snake through an unending series of harmonic steps " . As reproduced in I , Me , Mine , Harrison 's handwritten lyrics show the opening chord as E minor and the bass line descending through every semitone from E down to B , followed by a change to a B7 chord ; the second part of the verse , beginning on an A minor chord , then follows a descending sequence that he writes as " A – A flat – G – F ♯ – E – A " , before arriving at D major . Harrison acknowledges in his autobiography that the melody and " weird chords " came about through experimentation on a keyboard instrument , which allowed him more harmonic possibilities than are available on a guitar . The song 's time signature is a waltz @-@ like 3 / 4 , similar to the verses of his composition " I Me Mine " , the last track recorded by the Beatles , in January 1970 .
Lyrically , former Melody Maker editor Richard Williams describes " Try Some , Buy Some " as " a typically Harrisonian hymn to his Lord " , in keeping with the religiosity of All Things Must Pass tracks such as " My Sweet Lord " , " Awaiting on You All " and " Hear Me Lord " . Harrison biographer Elliot Huntley writes of " Try Some , Buy Some " delivering Harrison 's Hindu @-@ aligned devotional message " in television evangelist terms " .
The song begins with the lines " Way back in time / Someone said try some , I tried some / Now buy some , I bought some ... " before Harrison states that he opened his eyes " and I saw you " . According to Christian theologian Dale Allison , the lyrics are a " reflection on some sort of conversion experience " , in which Harrison provides " before and after " comparisons . Before his spiritual awakening , Harrison sings of variously possessing , seeing , feeling and knowing " [ n ] ot a thing " until , Allison writes , " he called upon God 's love , which then came into him . "
As in his later compositions " Simply Shady " and " Tired of Midnight Blue " , Harrison refers to the drug culture prevalent in the music industry , in the verse @-@ two lines " I 've seen grey sky , met big fry / Seen them die to get high ... " Author Joshua Greene writes of Harrison 's concern during the 1970s for friends who " wasted their time chasing sex and drugs and money " , while Allison suggests John Lennon and Eric Clapton as being among the people on whom Harrison " personally witnessed the toll [ that ] drugs and drink took " .
In addition to the song echoing the " lost and then found " message of many Christian conversions , Allison writes that " Try Some , Buy Some " demonstrates Harrison 's incarnation among the " twice @-@ born " in Bhagavad Gita terminology . The same theme of salvation through reconciliation with his deity is present in Harrison 's 1968 song " Long , Long , Long " and would continue to feature throughout his solo career , in compositions such as " That Which I Have Lost " and " Heading for the Light " .
= = Planned Ronnie Spector solo album = =
Following their successful partnership on All Things Must Pass in 1970 , Harrison and co @-@ producer Phil Spector turned their attention to resurrecting the career of Spector 's wife Ronnie , formerly lead singer of the Ronettes . Since the break @-@ up of the Ronettes in 1967 , Ronnie Spector 's only musical release had been " You Came , You Saw , You Conquered " , a 1969 single on A & M Records . Her signing to the Beatles ' Apple record label was a condition of Phil Spector 's deal with the company , one that Harrison and Lennon , as avowed fans of the Ronettes , were happy to honour . The plan was to produce a comeback album , with Harrison providing many of the songs , and issue it on Apple Records . In his book Phil Spector : Out of His Head , Williams quotes music publisher Paul Case as having said during this period : " Phil wants a hit record with Ronnie again more than anything in the world . I think he 'd give up all his worldly possessions for that . "
Speaking to Phil Symes of Disc and Music Echo in May 1971 , Ronnie Spector admitted that she had hated being away from the music industry . The situation had been forced on her by her husband 's semi @-@ retirement in 1966 , following the failure in America of Ike & Tina Turner 's single " River Deep – Mountain High " , a production that Phil Spector had considered his masterpiece . Ronnie Spector told Symes : " For four years Phil and I completely detached ourselves from everyone in the business and settled down in California . I was so bored and missed the stage so much I nearly had a nervous breakdown . If I hadn 't had a kid I don 't know what I would have done . "
= = = Recording = = =
Sessions for the proposed album took place at London 's Abbey Road Studios , beginning on 2 February 1971 . In addition to his own contribution as guitarist , Harrison enlisted some of the musicians with whom he had recorded All Things Must Pass : Gary Wright , on keyboards ; Derek and the Dominos drummer Jim Gordon ; Voormann and Carl Radle ( the latter another member of the Dominos ) , alternating on bass ; and Badfinger 's Pete Ham on second guitar and percussion . Another participant was Leon Russell , familiar to Phil Spector as a regular member of the Wrecking Crew during the mid 1960s . Recording continued at Abbey Road on 3 February , during which Lennon joined the proceedings , allegedly on piano .
Aside from " Try Some , Buy Some " , the first songs selected were ones that Harrison had routined for All Things Must Pass but not used : " You " and " When Every Song Is Sung " . The latter was originally titled " Whenever " and was intended for Shirley Bassey , and Harrison had written " You " as what he called " a Ronettes sort of song " . The other tracks recorded were " Loverly Laddy Day " ; a Harrison – Spector collaboration titled " Tandoori Chicken " ; and , according to authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter , " I Love Him Like I Love My Very Life " , which they suggest was another Harrison composition . In a 1987 interview with Musician magazine , Harrison spoke of Spector having written some songs for the project , one of which was " very good , in his pop vein " .
The planned comeback album ended there , due to the same erratic behaviour from Spector – or " health issues " , as Madinger and Easter have described it – that had hindered work on All Things Must Pass . According to Harrison 's recollection in I , Me , Mine : " we only did four or five tracks before Phil fell over ... " Of those songs , rather than the more obviously commercial " You " , Spector chose " Try Some , Buy Some " to complete for release as a single by his wife . Williams highlights Spector 's role in taking " a pleasant but essentially ordinary tune " and turning it into a " wholly magnificent " example of his Wall of Sound production style , on which " the essence is in the sound of the voice against the orchestra " . The heavy orchestration – including string , brass and woodwind sections , mandolins and cymbals – together with the choral parts , were arranged by John Barham , Harrison 's regular musical arranger during this period .
For the single 's B @-@ side , the two producers chose " Tandoori Chicken " , " a friendly impromptu rocker " , Williams writes , which came about after Spector despatched Beatles aide Mal Evans to get food during the session . Just over two minutes in length , " Tandoori Chicken " is in the rockabilly style of Carl Perkins , with Spector playing blues piano and Harrison on overdubbed dobro . Harrison recalled that the performance was recorded in a single take , with " a lot of improvised scat singing in the middle " .
= = = Single release = = =
Apple Records issued " Try Some , Buy Some " on 16 April 1971 in Britain ( as Apple 33 ) , and three days later in America ( as Apple 1832 ) . Apple 's print advertisement for the release carried the simple tagline : " A New Single " . Among the interviews she gave to the UK music press , Ronnie Spector admitted to Symes that it took a long time to learn the song " as it was hard for me to understand " , but she added : " I love the record . It 's completely different for me ; it 's more of a music thing than vocal . " In America , Billboard magazine 's reviewer described " Try Some , Buy Some " as a " powerful production ballad " that had " all the ingredients to break through big " , while suggesting that Ringo Starr and Eric Clapton had contributed to the recording .
Despite Disc and Music Echo endorsing it as a " terrific first solo single " , " Try Some , Buy Some " failed to place on the UK Top 50 . The song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 on 8 May and reached number 77 , remaining on the chart for just four weeks . In Canada , it peaked at number 63 on the RPM Top 100 . Williams writes of the reaction to " Try Some , Buy Some " : " although people were awed by it , the radio would hardly touch it ... " In the UK , radio stations opted instead for " Tandoori Chicken " , which author Bruce Spizer praises for its " infectious party @-@ style " quality .
As with " River Deep – Mountain High " , the single 's lack of success was one of the " crushing disappointments " of Phil Spector 's career , author Nicholas Schaffner wrote in 1977 , the producer having " [ outdone ] himself to transform it into a masterpiece of his patented ' wall of sound ' production " . Spector had been sure that the song would become " a giant smash " , according to Williams , who describes the outcome as a challenge to " Phil 's eternal trust in his own judgment of excellence " .
Spector biographer Mark Ribowsky comments on the single 's commercial failure : " [ The song ] was completely wrong for her – another of George 's mystic chants , it forced Ronnie to try to appeal to the spirit instead of the flesh ... " In his book Tearing Down the Wall of Sound , Mick Brown also notes the unsuitability of Harrison 's " hymn about rejecting materialism and embracing Krishna " and describes the former Ronette 's comeback as being " over before it had begun " .
= = = Reissue = = =
Ronnie Spector 's " Try Some , Buy Some " remained out of print for almost 40 years , until its reissue on the 2010 Apple compilation Come and Get It : The Best of Apple Records . In the ensuing years , she filed for divorce in 1973 and resumed her career that year by playing live dates with a new line @-@ up of the Ronettes and recording for Buddah Records . In 1990 , she wrote an autobiography , titled Be My Baby : How I Survived Mascara , Miniskirts , and Madness , in which she offers a damning verdict of her only Apple single . The song " stunk " , she admits in the book , and its meaning was lost on her . " Religion ? Drugs ? Sex ? I was mystified , " Spector writes . " And the more George sang , the more mystified I got . " In light of this statement , Dale Allison opines of her performance on the 1971 recording : " she didn 't understand the song at all and sang it accordingly . " Reviewing the Come and Get It compilation for BBC Music , Mike Diver commented on the overindulgence behind many of the Beatles ' Apple projects but viewed Spector 's " Try Some , Buy Some " as being " worthy of praise " .
Of the other tracks recorded during the Abbey Road sessions , " Tandoori Chicken " remains a rarity , while Spector 's versions of " When Every Song Is Sung " and " You " have never received a release . A bootleg compilation known as The Harri @-@ Spector Show includes " Loverly Laddy Day " , as well as two instrumental versions of " You " . One of these recordings of " You " is the basic track that Harrison later used for his 1975 album Extra Texture , while the other is a slower , alternate take .
= = George Harrison 's version = =
Following the abandoned Ronnie Spector sessions in 1971 , Harrison 's relief effort for the refugees of the Bangladesh Liberation War kept his musical activities to a minimum for over a year . After starting recording for his second post @-@ Beatles solo album , Living in the Material World , in the autumn of 1972 , he revisited " Try Some , Buy Some " , replacing her vocal with his own , on top of the original instrumental track . He later admitted that the key was higher than he would have preferred , as with " You " .
Whereas the mix on the 1971 single had favoured instrumentation such as the mandolins , which Williams views as " the record 's trademark " , Harrison 's treated the balance of backing instruments differently ; Madinger and Easter describe the original version as having a " clearer " sound . John Lennon later said that the descending melody played by the string section was an inspiration behind his 1974 song " # 9 Dream " . Before then , he based the musical backing of his 1971 single " Happy Xmas ( War Is Over ) " ( also co @-@ produced by Spector ) on that of " Try Some Buy Some " , in particular , asking that his acoustic guitarists replicate the mandolin parts of the earlier song . Neither Russell nor Ham were listed in the musician credits for Harrison 's version of " Try Some , Buy Some " – Badfinger having recently signed with Warner Bros. Records , which the band would join in September 1973 upon the expiry of their Apple contract .
= = = Release and reception = = =
Apple released Living in the Material World in May 1973 , with " Try Some , Buy Some " sequenced on side two of the original LP format . Reflecting the album content , Tom Wilkes 's design for the record 's face labels contrasted a devout spiritual existence with life in the material world , by featuring a painting of Krishna and his warrior prince Arjuna on side one and a picture of a Mercedes stretch limousine on the reverse .
The inclusion of " Try Some , Buy Some " on Harrison 's otherwise self @-@ produced 1973 album has confused some critics and reviewers . Writing in 1981 , NME critic Bob Woffinden noted : " This was considered an underhand trick in some quarters . However , since the single had clearly not received the attention it merited , it could be argued that George was simply husbanding his resources carefully . " On release , in an otherwise highly favourable review for Material World , Stephen Holden of Rolling Stone called the song " an overblown attempt to restate the [ album 's ] spiritual message in material terms : ' Won 't you try some / Baby won 't you buy some . ' " In Melody Maker , Michael Watts wrote that the song fitted the album @-@ wide description of Harrison 's personal journey to " musical iconographer " status from his Beatle past . Watts considered the arrangement the " most imaginative " on Material World and described the recording as " a fairground sound , using harpsichord and couched in waltz @-@ time " .
Simon Leng dismisses the Ronnie Spector album project as " self @-@ indulgence " on the part of the two producers and views the inclusion of " Try Some , Buy Some " on Material World as having " achieved nothing , except to prove that Spector 's Wall of Sound was an anachronism " by 1973 . Leng writes of Harrison 's " straining " vocal on the track and " banks of trilling ' Long and Winding Road ' mandolins " that are at odds with the more subtle mood found elsewhere on the album . Ian Inglis describes Harrison 's singing as one of his " least impressive performances " and writes of the composition generally : " It may be a love song or a hymn of salvation but , unlike songs where this duality strengthens their impact ( such as ' Isn 't It a Pity ' ) , here it sits uneasily between the two . " With a different musical arrangement and the " melodramatic delivery " of a singer like Shirley Bassey , Inglis suggests , " Try Some , Buy Some " might have found some success .
In a 2006 review for Mojo magazine , Mat Snow described the track as " [ a ] n anti @-@ heroin song so seductively melodic it might induce the opposite effect " . Elliot Huntley praises Harrison 's " yearning " vocal as " one of the many highlights " of Living in the Material World . Huntley considers the " hymn @-@ like song cycle " represented by this " superb " track and the album 's final two songs , " The Day the World Gets ' Round " and " That Is All " , the equal of anything on All Things Must Pass . Beatles biographer Chris Ingham pairs " Try Some , Buy Some " with " Sue Me , Sue You Blues " , as two " wry , reasonable digs at symptoms of what Harrison sees as symptoms of a diseased world " . Reviewing the 2014 Apple Years Harrison reissues , for the Lexington Herald @-@ Leader , Walter Tunis includes " Try Some , Buy Some " among the " stunners " on Material World and describes the song as an " achingly beautiful awakening anthem " .
= = Cover versions = =
According to Huntley , " Try Some , Buy Some " is " an all @-@ time favourite " of English singer David Bowie . The latter covered the song on his 2003 album Reality , co @-@ produced by his longtime collaborator Tony Visconti . Bowie had originally intended to record it for a planned follow @-@ up to Pin Ups , his 1973 collection of cover versions . Talking to Rolling Stone shortly before the release of Reality , he said of his recording : " We were pretty true to the original arrangement , but the overall atmosphere is somewhat different . It 's a dense piece . "
Bowie occasionally performed " Try Some , Buy Some " live on his 2003 – 04 Reality Tour . In a review for the limited @-@ edition box set David Bowie Box ( 2007 ) , critic Thom Jurek described Reality as a " schizophrenic recording " , on which the covers of " Try Some , Buy Some " and the Modern Lovers song " Pablo Picasso " " [ distinguish ] this set more than anything else " .
= = Personnel = =
Ronnie Spector – vocals ( 1971 single )
George Harrison – acoustic guitar ; vocals ( 1973 release )
Leon Russell – piano
Gary Wright – electric piano
Pete Ham – acoustic guitar
Klaus Voormann – bass
Jim Gordon – drums , tambourine
John Barham – orchestral and choral arrangements
= Sunil Kumar Verma =
Sunil Kumar Verma ( born 28 September 1974 ) , is an Indian biologist and as of January 2015 the principal scientist at the Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology , Hyderabad , India . Verma is primarily known for his contributions to the development of " universal primer technology " , a DNA barcoding method , that can identify any bird , fish , reptile or mammal from a small biological sample , and satisfy legal evidence requirements in a court of law . This technology has revitalised the field of wildlife forensics and is now routinely used across India to provide a species identification service in cases of wildlife crime .
Verma received his D.Phil. in medical oncology from the University of Oxford , and has worked in the areas of signal transduction in cancer and on molecular biology applications in wildlife conservation . He is the recipient of several national awards , including the 2008 CSIR Technology Award , the 2009 NRDC Meritorious Invention Award and the 2009 BioAsia Innovation Award in recognition of his contribution to Indian science and technology .
= = Education and research career = =
= = = Early life and education = = =
Verma was born in a small village in the northern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh . Verma grew up primarily in Tikri and up to the twelfth standard studied at the government school in Tikri . After completing his twelfth standard in the science group from this school in 1991 , he attended the G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology , Pantnagar to complete his Bachelor of Science in agriculture and animal husbandry .
= = = Research career = = =
Verma started his research career at G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology , Pantnagar , where he worked on the DNA fingerprinting of Indian scented basmati rice for identification of duplicate accessions . In 1998 , Verma was appointed as a scientist at the Centre for DNA Fingerprinting and Diagnostics ( CDFD ) where he continued his research on the DNA @-@ based identification system , and in 1999 , he received the Emerging Forensic Scientist Continental Award from the International Association of Forensic Sciences at the University of California , USA for his work on DNA microsatellite based identification of wild animals .
In 2000 , Verma was appointed as a scientist at the Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology , where in 2001 , he and Lalji Singh invented universal primer technology for wildlife identification , for which he later received a number of international patents , and several national awards including the CSIR Technology Award in 2008 ( jointly conferred to Verma and Lalji Singh ) , the 2009 NRDC Award ( jointly conferred on Verma and Singh ) and the BioAsia Innovation Award in 2009 .
In 2003 , Verma received a Lindau Fellowship to represent Indian scholars at the Lindau Nobel Laureate Meetings in physiology and medicine . During the same year , he also received a Commonwealth Scholarship to carry out his doctoral studies at the University of Oxford . Verma completed his D.Phil. in medical oncology at the University of Oxford in 2007 , and in January 2008 returned to India to continue his work at the CCMB . In 2010 , he subsequently became principal scientist at the CCMB and as of January 2015 , he remains in that position .
Verma was a visiting fellow at the Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology during 2010 – 2013 . Starting in 2010 , as of January 2015 he is a research ambassador for the DAAD to promote bidirectional research collaboration between India and Germany .
Along with his team , Verma 's research in the area of wildlife conservation led to the reclassification of the pygmy hog , an endangered endemic species , from Sus salvanius to Porcula salvania
= = Universal primer technology = =
In March 2001 , Verma and Lalji Singh claimed to have invented a method that they called " universal primer technology " , which allowed the identification of any unknown biological sample and its assignment to a known species source .
Through its ability to work across a large range of animal species , universal primer technology can identify any bird , fish , reptile or mammal and satisfy legal evidence requirements in a court of law . Patents relating to this invention have been filed in several countries and the research papers published in various journals . This technique of CSIR @-@ CCMB revitalised the field of wildlife forensics . It is currently being used routinely in LaCONES at the CSIR @-@ CCMB to provide a wildlife forensics service across India in cases pertaining to wildlife crime .
Verma 's and Singh 's contribution to the development of universal primer technology has been recognised by the Indian minister of Science and Technology and the Ministry of Earth Sciences in a written report to the Lok Sabha .
Universal primer technology was also used by Therion International , an independent animal testing lab in New York , to uncover the noted seafood scandal in Florida and other parts of America . Several undercover investigations carried out by the ABC7 Whistleblower and WKRG News5 investigators , revealed that almost half of the seafood was inaccurately labelled as a more expensive variety . This method of species identification used by the Therion International to uncover the seafood scam , was cited as " gold standard " by various labs worldwide .
= = = Universal primer technology and DNA barcoding = = =
In February 2015 , a credit dispute between universal primer technology and DNA barcoding came to light . Verma has argued that DNA barcoding , a technique independently described by zoologist Paul D N Hebert in 2003 , is essentially the same as universal primer technology ( UPT ) and that both utilize standardized , short stretch of DNA from mitochondrial genome , amplified using the specific universal primers , to assign the identity of an unknown biological sample to a particular species . Verma claimed that UPT was described earlier than DNA barcoding in his patents , and publication ; therefore , it should be fairly credited . However , Hebert argued that he was not aware of UPT because its patents were not visible to the broader scientific community due to a substantial interval from its filing in 2001 to grant in 2006 .
= = Literature = =
Verma has written several collections of Hindi poetry on social issues such as the 2012 Delhi gang rape . In 2014 , his work was showcased in Hyderabad by the Association of British Scholars .
= = Awards and honors = =
Some notable fellowships and awards conferred to Verma are as follows :
ICAR merit Scholarship ( 1991 @-@ 1995 )
DBT national merit scholarship ( 1995 @-@ 1997 )
Emerging Forensic Scientist Continental Award ( 1999 ) from the International Association of Forensics Sciences
Lindau Fellowship ( 2003 ) to represent Indian scholars at the Lindau Nobel Laureate Meetings in Physiology and Medicine in 2003
Commonwealth Scholarship ( 2003 )
CSIR Technology Award for Life Sciences " ( 2008 ) , Jointly conferred to Sunil Kumar Verma and Lalji Singh
NRDC Societal Invention Award ( 2009 ) , Jointly conferred to Sunil Kumar Verma and Lalji Singh
The BioAsia Innovation Award ( 2009 )
Fellowship of Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology Berlin ( 2010 – 2013 )
Research ambassador of DAAD ( 2010 @-@ till date )
= = Selected publications = =
Verma , Sunil Kumar ; Goswami , Gajendra ( 2014 ) . " DNA evidence : Current perspective and future challenges in India " . Forensic Science International 241 : 183 – 189 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1016 / j.forsciint.2014.05.016. PMID 24967868 .
Verma , Sunil Kumar ; Ganesan , Trivadi S. ; Parker , Peter J. ( 2008 ) . " The tumour suppressor RASSF1A is a novel substrate of PKC " ( PDF ) . FEBS Letters 582 : 2270 – 2276 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1016 / j.febslet.2008.05.028.
Funk , Stephan M. ; Verma , Sunil Kumar ; Larson , Greger ; Prasad , Kasturi ; Singh , Lalji ; Narayan , Gouam ; Fa , John E. ( 2007 ) . " The pygmy hog is a unique genus : 19th century taxonomists got it right first time round " . Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 45 ( 2 ) : 427 – 436 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1016 / j.ympev.2007.08.007. PMID 17905601 .
Verma , Sunil Kumar ; Prasad , Kasturi ; Nagesh , Narayan ; Sultana , Mehar ; Singh , Lalji ( 2003 ) . " Was elusive carnivore a panther ? DNA typing of faeces reveals the mystery " . Forensic Science International 137 ( 1 ) : 16 – 20 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1016 / S0379 @-@ 0738 ( 03 ) 00277 @-@ 9 . PMID 14550608 .
Verma , Sunil Kumar ; Singh , Lalji ( 2003 ) . " Novel universal primers establish identity of enormous number of animal species for forensic application " . Molecular Ecology Notes 3 : 28 – 31 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1046 / j.1471 @-@ 8286.2003.00340.x.
Verma , Sunil Kumar ; Khanna , Vijay ; Singh , Nagendra ( 1999 ) . " Random amplified polymorphic DNA analysis of Indian scented basmati rice ( Oryza sativa L. ) germplasm for identification of variability and duplicate accessions , if any " . Electrophoresis 20 : 1786 – 1789 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1002 / ( sici ) 1522 @-@ 2683 ( 19990101 ) 20 : 8 < 1786 : : aid @-@ elps1786 > 3.0.co ; 2 @-@ 5 . PMID 10435450 .
= Letter to My Daughter =
Letter to My Daughter ( 2009 ) is the third book of essays by African @-@ American writer and poet Maya Angelou . By the time it was published , Angelou had written two other books of essays , several volumes of poetry , and six autobiographies . She was recognized and highly respected as a spokesperson for Blacks and women , and had become " a major autobiographical voice of the time " . Angelou had no daughters herself , but was inspired to write Letter as she was going through 20 years of notes and essay ideas , some of which were written for her friend Oprah Winfrey . Angelou wrote the book for the thousands of women who saw her as a mother figure , and to share the wisdom gained throughout her long life .
Letter consists of 28 short essays , which includes a few poems and a commencement address , and is dedicated to " the daughter she never had " . Reviews of the book were generally positive ; most reviewers recognized that the book was full of Angelou 's wisdom and that it read like words of advice from a beloved grandmother or aunt . One reviewer found the book 's essays both homespun and " hokey " .
= = Background = =
Letter to My Daughter is Maya Angelou 's third book of essays . She had published several volumes of poetry , including Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ' fore I Diiie ( 1971 ) , which was nominated for the Pulitzer Prize . She had recited her poem , " On the Pulse of Morning " , at the inauguration of President Bill Clinton in 1993 , making her the first poet to make an inaugural recitation since Robert Frost at John F. Kennedy 's inauguration in 1961 . In 2009 , when Letter was published , Angelou had published six out of her seven installments of her series of autobiographies . Her sixth autobiography , A Song Flung Up to Heaven ( 2002 ) , was considered her final autobiography until she published her seventh autobiography , Mom & Me & Mom , in 2013 , at the age of 85 .
By the time Letter was published , Angelou had become recognized and highly respected as a spokesperson for Blacks and women . She was , as scholar Joanne Braxton has stated , " without a doubt ... America 's most visible black woman autobiographer " . She had also become , as reviewer Richard Long stated , " a major autobiographical voice of the time " . Angelou was one of the first African @-@ American female writers to publicly discuss her personal life , and one of the first to use herself as a central character in her books . Writer Julian Mayfield , who called her first autobiography , I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings , " a work of art that eludes description " , stated that Angelou 's series set a precedent not only for other Black women writers , but for the genre of autobiography as a whole .
= = Overview = =
Angelou came up with Letter to My Daughter , which became a New York Times bestseller , while going through old boxes of notes and papers full of concepts for future books and poems , which she called " WIP " ( " Works in Progress " ) . She found twenty years worth of notes written to her friend Oprah Winfrey , and realized that she should put the essays they inspired into a book so that others could read them . Although she had no daughters , and gave birth to a son ( Guy Johnson ) , which she called " the best thing that ever happened to me in my life " , many women in Angelou 's career looked to her as a mother figure . She wrote Letters to speak to those women and to share with them the wisdom she has gained throughout her long life . According to writer Gary Younge of The Guardian , most of the essays " end with the kind of wisdom that , depending on your taste , qualifies as either homespun or hokey " . For example , she uses what has been called her most famous statement , when speaking of Cuban artist Celia Cruz : " We are more alike than unalike " . Although Angelou discounts the idea when he brings it up to her , Younge thinks Letter reads like an extended farewell ; in her 500 @-@ word introduction she mentions death twice .
Letter consists of 28 " short epistles " , which includes a few poems and a commencement address , and is dedicated to " the daughter she never had " . Angelou thanks several women on her dedication page , which is divided into three groups . The first group of five women , which includes her grandmother Annie Henderson and her mother Vivian Baxter , she calls " ... some women who mothered me through dark and bright days " . The second group has only one name , Dr. Dorothy Height , " ... one woman who allows me to be a daughter to her , even today " . The final group is the largest , made up of 12 women , whom she calls " women not born to me but who allow me to mother them " . The group includes Winfrey , Gayle King , her niece Rosa Johnson Butler , her assistant Lydia Stuckey , and gospel singer Valerie Simpson .
= = Reviews = =
In his review of Letter to My Daughter , Younge states , " At moments in the book she sounds like an elderly relative , distraught at the wayward manners of the young , " but also says that Angelou seems to have " outlived the need for social convention " . Kirkus Reviews finds " old fashioned wisdom " in the book , and calls it " a slim volume packed with nourishing nuggets of wisdom " . Reviewer Karen Algeo Krizman says that " Angelou delivers with her signature passion and fire " and that although the essays are " easy to take in during brief moments of quiet " , they have a powerful message . Laura L. Hutchison of The Fredicksburg Free Lance @-@ Star states that Letter is " written in Angelou 's beautiful , poetic style " and called the essays " advice from a beloved aunt or grandmother , whose wisdom you know was earned " . Hutchinson also stated that the book would gain Angelou new readers , and that her current audience would read and reread it . Psychologists Eranda Jayawickreme and Marie J. C. Forgearda called the essays in Letter to My Daughter " illuminating " and used it as a non @-@ scientific , interdisciplinary text to teach positive psychology .
Victoria Brownworth of The Baltimore Sun , who compares Angelou to populist poets such as Walt Whitman , notes that while reading Letter , " one cannot help but be struck by how much Angelou has overcome and how far she has come " . Brownworth states that despite Angelou 's harrowing and complex experiences , and the barriers she had to overcome , Angelou was " filled with life and generosity and a deep yearning to pass her story on to other young women " . Brownworth calls Angelou 's prose " colloquial and from the heart " . She also compares Angelou 's " fluid narrative " to oral history , and states , " The kernels of insight and , yes , wisdom in this small volume will stay with the reader for a long time " .
= = = Explanatory notes = = =
= American kestrel =
The American kestrel ( Falco sparverius ) is the smallest and most common falcon in North America . It has about a two to one range in size over subspecies and sex , varying in size from about the weight of a blue jay to a mourning dove . It also ranges to South America , and is a well established species that has evolved seventeen subspecies adapted to different environments and habitats throughout the Americas . It exhibits sexual dimorphism in size ( females being moderately larger ) and plumage , although both sexes have a rufous back with noticeable barring . Its plumage is colorful and attractive , and juveniles are similar in plumage to adults .
The American kestrel usually hunts in energy conserving fashion by perching and scanning the ground for prey to ambush , though it also hunts from the air . It sometimes hovers in the air with rapid wing beats while homing in on prey . Its diet typically consists of grasshoppers and other insects , lizards , mice , and small birds ( e.g. sparrows ) . This broad diet has contributed to its wide success as a species . It nests in cavities in trees , cliffs , buildings , and other structures . The female lays three to seven eggs , which both sexes help to incubate .
Its breeding range extends from central and western Alaska across northern Canada to Nova Scotia , and south throughout North America , into central Mexico and the Caribbean . It is a local breeder in Central America and is widely distributed throughout South America . Most birds breeding in Canada and the northern United States migrate south in the winter . It is an occasional vagrant to western Europe .
Based on appearance and behavior it was for many years considered a member of the primarily European and African kestrel clade within the genus falco , but recent DNA analysis shows the American kestrel to actually be genetically more closely related to the larger American falcons such as the Aplomado falcon , the Peregrine falcon , and Prairie falcon . Though the species has not been renamed as a result of these genetic analyses , it is not actually a kestrel in the phylogenetic sense . Instead , a process of convergent evolution to fit a similar small prey niche in the ecosystem as the true kestrels has left it with similar physical characteristics and hunting methods .
The American kestrel is a common bird used in falconry , especially by beginners . Though not as strong a flyer as many other larger falcons , proper training and weight control by the falconer allows many American kestrels to become effective hunters of birds in the size range of sparrows and starlings , with occasional success against birds up to approximately twice their own weight .
= = Description = =
Under traditional classification , the American kestrel is the smallest raptor in America . The American kestrel is sexually dimorphic , although there is some overlap in plumage coloration between the sexes . The bird ranges from 22 to 31 cm ( 8 @.@ 7 to 12 @.@ 2 in ) in length with a wingspan of 51 – 61 cm ( 20 – 24 in ) . The female kestrel is larger than the male , though less so than larger falcons , being typically about 10 % to 15 % larger within a subspecies . The more northern subspecies tend to larger sizes , with a large northern female being about twice the size of a small southern male . The male typically weighs 80 – 143 g ( 2 @.@ 8 – 5 @.@ 0 oz ) , and the female 86 – 165 g ( 3 @.@ 0 – 5 @.@ 8 oz ) . In standard measurements , the wing bone is 16 – 21 cm ( 6 @.@ 3 – 8 @.@ 3 in ) long , the tail is 11 – 15 cm ( 4 @.@ 3 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) and the tarsus is 3 @.@ 2 – 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) .
Physically , American kestrels are leaner and less muscular than larger falcons . The pectoral flight muscles of the American kestrel make up only about 12 % of its body weight , as compared to about 20 % for the strongest flying falcons such as the peregrine . The wings are moderately long , fairly narrow , and taper to a point . Their less muscular body type is adapted to energy conserving ambush hunting , rather than spending large amounts of energy consuming time on the wing and getting into long tail @-@ chases of bird prey . For their size , they have strong talons and beaks , and can swiftly dispatch prey . Their lean build and energy conserving strategy allows a lower daily food intake than if they were more strongly muscled , yet with enough strength to commonly take bird prey as large as themselves , and occasionally larger . The success of this body style and hunting strategy is reflected in the high success of the species in densely populating a large range throughout the Americas . The flight of the American kestrel is not so dramatic and swift as more muscular falcons such as Merlins and peregrines , but their efficient adaptation to a broader diet of more available smaller prey , and need for less food per day , has resulted in there being many more of them .
In contrast to many other raptor species , the sexes differ more in plumage than in size . Males have blue @-@ grey wings with black spots and white undersides with black barring . The back is rufous , with barring on the lower half . The belly and flanks are white with black spotting . The tail is also rufous , with a white or rufous tip and a black subterminal band . The back and wings of the female American kestrel are rufous with dark brown barring . The undersides of the females are creamy to buff with heavy brown streaking . The tail is noticeably different from the male 's , being rufous in color with numerous narrow dark black bars . Juveniles exhibit coloration patterns similar to the adults ' . In both sexes , the head is white with a bluish @-@ grey top . There are also two narrow , vertical black facial markings on each side of the head , while other falcons have one . Two black spots ( ocelli ) can be found on each side of the white or orangish nape . The function of these spots is debated , but the most commonly accepted theory is that they act as " false eyes " , and help to protect the bird from potential attackers .
= = = Vocalizations = = =
The American kestrel has three basic vocalizations – the " klee " or " killy " , the " whine " , and the " chitter . " The " klee " is usually delivered as a rapid series – klee , klee , klee , klee when the kestrel is upset or excited . This call is used in a wide variety of situations and is heard from both sexes , but the larger females typically have lower @-@ pitched voices than the males . The " whine " call is primarily associated with feeding , but is also uttered during copulation . The " chitter " is used in activities that involve interaction between male and female birds , including courtship feeding , copulation , and the feeding of nestlings . Nestlings can produce calls similar to those of adults at 16 days old .
= = Taxonomy = =
Until the sixth edition of the AOU Checklist of North American Birds was published by the American Ornithologists ' Union in 1983 , the most commonly used name for the American kestrel was the sparrow hawk or sparrowhawk . This was due to a mistaken connection with the Eurasian sparrowhawk in the genus Accipiter . The sixth edition of the AOU Checklist corrected this , officially renaming the bird American kestrel . Several other colloquial names for the kestrel are also in use , including grasshopper hawk , due to its diet , and killy hawk , due to its distinct call .
As noted in the introduction , DNA analysis shows the American kestrel to actually be genetically more closely related to the larger American falcons than to the true kestrels . However , based on its physical similarity to the kestrels and the established nature of the name American kestrel , there has been little impetus to change its name . This could change in the future if continued genetic research more precisely determines the evolutionary history of the American kestrel within the genus falco . The entire genus is actually a set of species so closely related that most or all can be hybridized by artificial insemination . Significant natural hybridization of species has occurred in the past during the evolution of this closely related set of species , such that precise evolutionary genetic analysis as to which species are more basal to other species or to the genus as a whole is difficult to render .
The American kestrel 's scientific name , Falco sparverius , was given by Carl Linnaeus in his 18th century work Systema Naturae . The genus refers to the falcate , or hooked , shape of the beak , and the specific name means " pertaining to a sparrow " , referring to the bird 's small size and hunting of sparrows as a typical prey .
Seventeen subspecies of the American kestrel are recognized , generally based upon plumage , size , and vocalizations :
F. s. sparverius , described by Linnaeus in 1758 , is the nominate subspecies . It is found in most of the United States , Canada , and Mexico .
F. s. paulus , described by Howe and King in 1902 , is found in the Southeast United States , from Louisiana to Florida .
F. s. peninsularis , described by Mearns in 1892 , is found in southern Baja California .
F. s. tropicalis , described by Griscom in 1930 , is found from southern Mexico to northern Honduras .
F. s. nicaraguensis , described by Howell in 1965 , is found in Honduras and Nicaragua .
F. s. sparveroides , described by Vigors in 1827 , is found in Cuba and the Isle of Youth , and southern to central Bahamas .
F. s. dominicensis , described by Gmelin in 1788 , is found in Hispaniola and Jamaica .
F. s. caribaearum , described by Gmelin in 1788 , is found in Puerto Rico through the Lesser Antilles to Grenada .
F. s. brevipennis , described by Berlepsch in 1892 , is found in the Netherlands Antilles .
F. s. isabellinus , described by Swainson in 1837 , is found from Venezuela to northern Brazil .
F. s. ochraceus , described by Cory in 1915 , is found in eastern Colombia and northwest Venezuela .
F. s. caucae , described by Chapman in 1915 , is found in western Colombia .
F. s. aequatorialis , described by Mearns in 1892 , is found in northern Ecuador .
F. s. peruvianus , described by Cory in 1915 , is found in southwest Ecuador , Peru , and northern Chile .
F. s. fernandensis , described by Chapman in 1915 , is found on the Juan Fernández Islands off Chile .
F. s. cinnamominu , described by Swainson in 1837 , is found in Peru , Chile , and Argentina .
F. s. cearae , described by Cory in 1915 , is found from northeast Brazil south to eastern Bolivia .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
American kestrels are found in a wide variety of habitats , including grasslands , meadows , deserts , and other open to semiopen regions . They can also be found in both urban and suburban areas . A kestrel 's habitat must include perches , open space for hunting , and cavities for nesting ( whether natural or man @-@ made ) . The American kestrel is able to live in very diverse conditions , ranging from above the Arctic Circle , to the tropics of Central America , to elevations of over 4 @,@ 500 m ( 14 @,@ 800 ft ) in the Andes Mountains . The bird is distributed from northern Canada and Alaska to the southernmost tip of South America , Tierra del Fuego . It is the only kestrel found in the Americas , though as mentioned above this classification is genetically inaccurate . It has occurred as a vagrant in the UK , Denmark , Malta and the Azores .
American kestrels in Canada and the northern United States typically migrate south in the winter , sometimes going as far as Central America and the Caribbean . Birds that breed south of about 35 ° north latitude are usually year @-@ round residents . Migration also depends on local weather conditions . Wintering kestrels ' choice of habitat varies by sex . Females are found in open areas more often than males during the non @-@ breeding season . A common explanation for this behavior is that the larger females arrive at the preferred habitat first and exclude males from their territory .
The American kestrel is not long @-@ lived , with a lifespan of < 5 years for wild birds . The oldest banded wild bird was 11 years and 7 months , while captive kestrels can live up to 14 – 17 years . In a study , humans accounted for 43 @.@ 2 % of 1 @,@ 355 reported deaths , which included direct killing and roadkills , while predation ( including by larger birds of prey ) accounted for 2 @.@ 8 % . This statistic is likely biased , however , as reported deaths are usually found near or in areas populated by humans .
= = = Feeding = = =
American kestrels feed largely on small animals such as grasshoppers , dragonflies , lizards , mice , voles , and small birds . The kestrel has also been reported to have killed snakes , bats , and squirrels . The kestrel is able to maintain high population densities , at least in part because of the broad scope of its diet . The American kestrel 's primary mode of hunting is by perching and waiting for prey to come near . The bird is characteristically seen along roadsides or fields perched on objects such as trees , overhead power lines , or fence posts . It also hunts by kiting , hovering in the air with rapid wing beats and scanning the ground for prey . Other hunting techniques include low flight over fields , or chasing insects and birds in the air .
Prey is most often caught on the ground , though occasionally they take birds in flight . Before striking , the kestrel characteristically bobs its head and tail , then makes a direct flight toward the prey to grab it in its talons . Much like the red @-@ tailed hawk , American kestrels conserve energy in a hunt and pick their attacks with care as to position and odds of success . During the breeding season , the bird will carry large prey back to its mate or young . One study found that an American kestrel pair " foraged in ways that minimized the costs of energy acquisition in its particular situation " . For example , if the success rate for catching prey decreases significantly in a particular area , the bird will move to a different area .
= = = Reproduction = = =
American kestrels are sexually mature by their first spring . In migratory populations , the males arrive at the breeding ground before females , then the female selects a mate . Pair bonds are strong , often permanent . Pairs usually use previous nesting sites in consecutive years . This gives birds an advantage over younger or invading individuals , as they would already be familiar with the hunting grounds , neighbors , predators , and other features of the site . Males perform elaborate dive displays to advertise their territory and attract a mate . These displays consist of several climbs and dives , with three or four " klee " calls at their peaks . Females are promiscuous for about one to two weeks after their arrival at the nesting site . This is thought to stimulate ovulation . Food transfers from the male to the female occur from about four to five weeks prior to egg laying to one to two weeks after .
American kestrels are cavity nesters , but they are able to adapt to a wide variety of nesting situations . They generally prefer natural cavities ( such as in trees ) with closed tops and tight fitting entrances , as to provide for maximum protection of the eggs and young . Kestrels occasionally nest in holes created by large woodpeckers , or use the abandoned nests of other birds , such as red @-@ tailed hawks , merlins , and crows . They have been recorded nesting on cliff ledges and building tops , as well as in abandoned cavities in cactuses . American kestrels also commonly utilize nesting boxes .
Three to seven eggs ( typically four or five ) are laid approximately 24 – 72 hours apart . The average egg size is 32 mm × 29 mm ( 1 @.@ 3 in × 1 @.@ 1 in ) , 10 % larger than average for birds of its body size . The eggs are white to cream in color with brown or grey splotching . Incubation usually lasts 30 days and is mainly the responsibility of the female , although the male incubates 15 – 20 % of the time . Eggs that are lost are typically replaced in 11 – 12 days . Hatching takes place over three to four days . Hatchlings are altricial , and are only able to sit up after five days . They grow very quickly , reaching an adult weight after 16 – 17 days . After 28 – 31 days , their wings develop and they are able to leave the nest . The young adult kestrels may breed from a year old , and the species has approximately a three to five year life expectancy in the wild .
In ecological terms the reproductive pattern of the American kestrel leans towards a small bird " r @-@ selection " strategy . In r / K selection theory , selective pressures are hypothesised to drive evolution in one of two generalized directions : r- or K @-@ selection . R @-@ selected species are those that place an emphasis on a high growth rate , typically exploiting less @-@ crowded ecological niches , and produce many offspring , each of which has a relatively low probability of surviving to adulthood ( i.e. , high r , low K ) . By contrast , K @-@ selected species display traits associated with living at densities close to carrying capacity , and typically are strong competitors in such crowded niches that invest more heavily in fewer offspring , each of which has a relatively high probability of surviving to adulthood ( i.e. , low r , high K ) . Between these two extremes the American kestrel is one of the few raptor species that lean towards being r @-@ selected . They are able to breed at one year old , have few non @-@ breeding adults in the population , and have larger broods . Their population growth rate is high relative to larger raptors , which typically lean towards being K @-@ selected .
= = Stress physiology = =
= = = Weather = = =
American kestrels are often useful in scientific studies on animal physiology , and are typically captured using the bal @-@ chatri method or raised in nest boxes for experiments . Kestrel metabolic rate has been found to increase in response to rainfall , and at ambient temperatures below about 25 ⁰ C. Kestrel metabolic responses to weather and temperature do not vary , however , with sex . Kestrels will increase their oxygen consumption , and therefore their metabolic rate in cold and wet conditions to counteract heat loss .
= = = Environmental disturbance = = =
American kestrels ' response to environmental stress is measured as blood concentration of corticosterone ( CORT , ) a hormone produced by the hypothalamic @-@ pituitary @-@ adrenal ( HPA ) axis that releases stored energy for essential body functions . Extended periods of elevated blood CORT levels may direct metabolic energy away from growth and reproduction . Thus , high levels of traffic disturbance and human development surrounding American kestrel nests are found to increase stress hormones leading to reproductive failure . Among successful nests , however , nestlings do not typically experience a higher stress response to environmental human disturbance , suggesting that they can tolerate a considerable degree of human activity near the nest .
= = = Environmental contaminants = = =
Since American kestrels are carnivores , toxic chemical runoff ingested by their prey can concentrate at high levels in their blood . Wild kestrels are subject to immunomodulation , or an altered immune response , to polybrominated diphenyl ethers ( PBDEs ) , a group of industrial flame retardants that may leach from factories into the environment . When PBDEs accumulate in body tissues of kestrels , the T @-@ cell mediated immune response decreases in efficiency . As a result , kestrels that ingest PBDEs may not respond sufficiently to viruses or other invading microorganisms . In addition , certain PBDEs may suppress growth and development of the spleen and bursa in American kestrels .
= = Status and conservation = =
The American kestrel is likely the most abundant falcon in North America , although its total population is difficult to quantify , as local populations can change quickly due to resource availability . Count data from the USGS Breeding Bird Survey ( BBS ) indicate that the North American breeding population is experiencing long @-@ term and gradual but sustained declines , with some regions , such as New England and coastal California , exhibiting more rapid declines . Count data from raptor migration corridors also indicate regional population declines and largely corroborate BBS data . The North American population has been estimated at 1 @.@ 2 million pairs , with the Central and South American populations being as large . A smaller estimate is 236 @,@ 000 birds wintering in North America . A population increase occurred in the 18th and 19th centuries , probably due to deforestation for agriculture . The resulting pastures provided an ideal habitat for kestrels .
The southeastern U.S. subspecies ( Falco sparverius paulus ) has declined 82 % since 1940 due to a decrease in nest site availability . This decline is a result of longleaf pines being cleared from agricultural fields . Despite this , the American kestrel is classed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List .
The Peregrine Fund , a leading non @-@ profit organization advancing research and conservation of birds of prey worldwide , launched the American Kestrel Partnership in 2012 . The American Kestrel Partnership developed and maintains a web @-@ based network for citizen and professional scientists to enter , manage , and consolidate data from kestrel nest box monitoring programs in the Western Hemisphere . The database is being used by researchers to model and understand relationships between kestrel nesting parameters ( e.g. , phenology , occupancy , survival , productivity , and nestling weight and exposure to environmental toxins ) and environmental factors , such as land use , landscape composition and configuration , climate conditions ( e.g. , drought ) , and point sources of environmental toxins . Each breeding season , the American Kestrel Partnership features a live @-@ streaming video feed from the nest box located at The Peregrine Fund 's campus in Boise , Idaho .
= = Use in falconry = =
One important use of American kestrels is in falconry . It is often considered a beginner 's bird , though the careful weight control needed to maintain the kestrel 's desire to aggressively hunt takes skill . Falconers experienced in extracting the best performance the species is capable of report they are highly reliable on the normal game of sparrows and starlings . More aggressive individuals are sometimes capable of capturing prey up to approximately twice their own body weight , allowing the occasional capture of true game birds such as quail and dove . However , most falconers interested in the reliable taking of such game do prefer larger falcons or hawks . The advantage the American kestrel offers the experienced falconer is its suitability to simple and urban falconry not requiring large tracts of land or the use of hunting dogs . This form of falconry is sometimes referred to as " micro @-@ falconry " or " micro @-@ hawking . " The other small raptor species commonly used in micro @-@ falconry are the Merlin , the Sharp @-@ shinned hawk ( the smallest accipiter ) , and the European kestrel ( a true kestrel ) .
Hawking with the American kestrel requires adapting to the strengths and weaknesses of the bird . It is a very small falcon , and even for its size it is less muscular than than other small falcons such as the athletic and swift Merlin . It is more adapted to ambush hunting and short chases than to the longer aerial chases larger falcons often adopt . Used within it limits , it is effective . Experienced falconer Matthew Mullenix , author of the book " American Kestrels in Modern Falconry " , in an article comparing kestrels to merlins , summed their abilities up as follows :
1 . " Kestrels are thin @-@ winged , flat @-@ chested , under @-@ powered and lack acceleration compared to merlins . I say that with much affection for them and with thousands of kestrel kills to prove these are not necessarily damning differences . Comparing a red @-@ tailed hawk to a Harris ’ or goshawk will conjure equally negative points of fact , yet we all know how good trained red @-@ tails can be ! "
2 . " The chief variable to choosing between a kestrel and a merlin may be your hawking land . If you live in open country , or have access at least to good pasture for cattle , a merlin can excel there . If you plan to hunt mostly in town or suburb , and especially if you plan to hawk from a car , I ’ d recommend the kestrel . The consideration coming in at close second is your intended quarry . To snipe , dove , quail and open @-@ country sparrows , merlins are best suited . For most blackbirds ( Icteridea ) , either falcon can prove effective . Starlings in close are extremely vulnerable to kestrels ; but in the open are best prey for merlins . The same holds true for house sparrows , with this exception : sparrows in thick cover are better quarry for kestrels . This is the slip for which I feel the American kestrel is perfect . "
3 . " Once committed to an attack , trained kestrels tend to follow through to the end . They will stoop into cover , chase birds on foot , bind to quarry twice their size and never let go voluntarily . They have small feet , but as written elsewhere , also have the strongest feet for their size . It is a simple fact that American kestrels hold starlings better than merlins , on average , and will gladly tackle larger quarry than will any jack ( male merlin ) . "
American kestrels do not train so easily as some larger falcons ( particularly the Peregrine falcon ) in the art of " waiting on " to perform a diving stoop on flushed prey . However , some individual kestrels do master this skill . Falconers sometimes train them to climb to a stooping position with tidbids on kites or balloons that the kestrels learn to climb after . More common hunting techniques are to " slip " them after spotted game from the fist , or to release them from a vehicle window close to spotted quarry . These techniques are more of a natural fit to the kestrel 's ambushing methods in the wild .
Falconers using the American kestrel should be alert to protect the falcon from larger predators that may attack the kestrel , particularly if it is distracted on the ground with captured prey . Domestic cats and dogs are the greatest threat to attack the falcon on the ground , but the Cooper 's hawk is well known to boldly attack kestrels . This mid @-@ sized American accipiter has sufficient size and strength to carry the kestrel away , though falconers have reported often being successful in recovering the kestrel unharmed by acting quickly to intimidate the larger hawk into releasing the kestrel .
American kestrels are bred in captivity for use in falconry , and are among the easier falcons to breed . They are also sufficiently common that " passage " birds in their first year are relatively easy to trap . Wild caught kestrels " tame down " fairly quickly . They will usually be eating from a falconer 's hand the day after capture , be training within a week , and be ready to hunt in three to five weeks . A very tame American kestrel will allow itself to be picked up around the body with one hand , while accepting tidbits from the other hand . Such tameness is very useful when checking or treating the bird for injury or illness .
Migratory raptors native to the United States are protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 , so American kestrels are illegal to possess without a permit ( such as a falconry permit ) in the United States , Canada , and Mexico .
= = Cited books = =
Clark , William S. ; Wheeler , Brian K. ( 2001 ) . A field guide to hawks of North America . New York , NY : Houghton Mifflin Harcourt . ISBN 0 @-@ 395 @-@ 67067 @-@ 5 .
Fjeldså , Jon ; Krabbe , Niels ( 1990 ) . Birds of the High Andes : A Manual to the Birds of the Temperate Zone of the Andes and Patagonia , South America . Svendborg , Denmark : Apollo Books . ISBN 87 @-@ 88757 @-@ 16 @-@ 1 .
Tveten , John L. ; Tveten , Gloria A. ( 2004 ) . " Our Smallest Falcon — American Kestrel : 198 / 1996 " . Our life with birds : a nature trails book . College Station , TX : Texas A & M University Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 58544 @-@ 380 @-@ 8 .
Wauer , Roland H. ( 2005 ) . The American kestrel : falcon of many names . Boulder , CO : Johnson Books . ISBN 1 @-@ 55566 @-@ 353 @-@ 2 .
= Cool ( Gwen Stefani song ) =
" Cool " is a song by American singer and songwriter Gwen Stefani from her debut solo studio album , Love . Angel . Music . Baby . ( 2004 ) . Written by Stefani and Dallas Austin , the song was released on July 5 , 2005 as the album 's fourth single . It was written by Austin basing the song on No Doubt 's " Simple Kind of Life " , but he did not finish it . He then asked for help from Stefani , and they finished the song in 15 minutes . The single 's musical style and production were inspired by synthpop and new wave arrangements from the 1980s , and its lyrics chronicle a relationship in which two lovers have separated , but remain " cool " with each other as good friends .
The song received generally positive reviews from music critics , being compared to Cyndi Lauper and Madonna songs from the 1980s . The media have drawn parallels between the song 's lyrical content and the romantic relationship that Stefani had with Tony Kanal , a fellow group member of No Doubt . The song was moderately successful on the charts , reaching the top 10 in Australia , the Czech Republic , and New Zealand , as well as the top 20 in Denmark , Ireland , Norway , the United Kingdom , and the United States .
The accompanying music video was filmed by British director Sophie Muller in Lake Como , Italy . It features many flashbacks to when Stefani and her former boyfriend were dating , and currently , both are fine with their friendship . The song was included on the setlist for Stefani 's debut tour Harajuku Lovers Tour and the tour 's video album , as well as in the 2010 drama film Somewhere .
= = Writing and composition = =
" Cool " was originally written by Dallas Austin after listening to Stefani 's group No Doubt 's song " Underneath It All " ( 2002 ) . Austin commented that he was trying to write his version of No Doubt 's " Simple Kind of Life " , but he was unable to finish the song . He later asked Stefani if she wanted to co @-@ write lyrics . During a studio session together , they finished " Cool " in 15 minutes . Stefani commented , " When he told me about the track and where it came from for him , it just triggered something in me . " The lyrics of " Cool " reflect Stefani 's former relationship with No Doubt bassist Tony Kanal . Although their romantic relationship ended , the lyrics portray Stefani 's attitude that it is " cool " that they still remain very good friends . Stefani and Kanal 's relationship had provided the inspiration for No Doubt 's " Don 't Speak " ( 1996 ) , and while " Cool " presents an amicable friendship between former lovers , " Don 't Speak " is about a failing relationship and never arrives at a solution for the couple . Stefani said that she had never intended to include " personal " material on Love . Angel . Music . Baby . , and commented , " but no matter what you do , things just come out . It just ended this whole thing for me in my head , and it puts an end to a chapter in a really nice way . " The lyrics of " Cool " sum up the evolution of their relationship with the line " After all that we 've been through , I know we 're cool " .
" Cool " is a mid @-@ tempo love song featuring a synthpop and new wave production . The song is composed in D major . It is written in common time , it moves at a moderate tempo of 112 beats per minute , and it has a vocal range from the tone of F ♯ 3 to the note of C ♯ 5 . The song is written in the common verse @-@ chorus form , featuring five instruments : bass guitar , drums , guitar , keyboards , and synthesizer . " Cool " opens with all five instruments , and as Stefani begins singing , the synthesizer is lowered , and the hard @-@ hitting drum beat steadily increases in volume . She performs her highest pitch ( C ♯ 5 ) during the chorus , after which she sings in a softer , almost sotto voce , and her lowest pitch ( E3 ) at the beginning of the verses . The synthesizer emulates brass and woodwind instruments , while the bass and guitar retain a prominent and regular eighth note pulse , using a I – IV – V chord progression for the verses . In the percussion section a drum kit is used , and the snare is introduced at the beginning of the first chorus , which maintains its beat . During the song 's fade @-@ out , Stefani repeats " I know we 're cool " and " yeah " , and she occasionally emphasizes " cool " . Her vocal range covers close to two octaves .
= = Critical reception = =
" Cool " received acclaim from music critics . Yahoo ! Music 's Jennifer Nine referred to the song as " a liltingly sweet paean to post @-@ break @-@ up friendships " , while Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic called it a " high school anthem @-@ in @-@ waiting " theme ; it also was selected as one of the album 's highlights . Richard Smirke of Playlouder commented that the song successfully used the same production formula as fellow album tracks " Serious " and " What You Waiting For ? " , and described it as a " crisp blend of edgy 21C production and early 80s Madonna @-@ esque pop " . Jason Damas , in a review for PopMatters , characterized it as " a slippery slice of keyboard " New Wave song referring to it as a " pitched halfway between The Go @-@ Go 's and Cyndi Lauper " .
Eric Greenwood for Drawer B called " Cool " " a retrofitted [ song ] with stale synths and chugging guitars " with " dorkier lyrics than even Cyndi Lauper would dare " . Sandy Cohen from the Toronto Star called it " the year 's love anthem " . Entertainment Weekly reviewer David Browne described Stefani , in " Cool " and in another song ( " The Real Thing " ) , as " a glacial ' 80s synthpop zombie " . Krissi Murison from NME found Stefani 's performance reminiscent of " Madonna 's breathless purr " . John Murphy wrote for musicOMH that " Cool " would remind No Doubt fans of " Don 't Speak " . Blender magazine editors ranked " Cool " at number 45 on its list of " The 100 Greatest Songs of 2005 " .
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , the song debuted at number 86 on the Billboard Hot 100 on the issue dated July 16 , 2005 . The next week it rose to number 64 , and it reached its peak position of number 13 on September 3 , 2005 . On other Billboard charts , the single topped the Hot Dance Club Play , reached number four on the Adult Top 40 and number nine on the Pop 100 . In Australia it debuted and peaked at number 10 on September 11 , 2005 , dropping off the chart on November 13 , 2005 at number 49 . In New Zealand " Cool " became the second highest debut of the week ending September 5 , 2005 , at number 11 . It rose to its peak position of number nine the following week , becoming her fifth consecutive top 10 in the country .
In European countries the song performed moderately , reaching the top 40 in most of them . It reached number 26 on the European Hot 100 Singles on October 8 , 2005 . On the Czech Airplay Chart , " Cool " entered the chart number 12 , achieving its peak position of number 10 in its 10th week . In Italy , it debuted at number 16 on September 22 , 2005 , peaking at number 15 the week after . The single debuted at number 18 on the Norwegian chart , climbing to number 16 the following week . " Cool " debuted and peaked at number 12 on the Irish Singles Chart during the week ending September 1 , 2005 . In the United Kingdom the single debuted and peaked at number 11 on the UK Singles Chart for the week of September 4 , 2005 , spending 10 weeks on the chart . In Austria " Cool " debuted at number 31 on September 11 , 2005 . Four weeks later , the song reached its peak position of number 15 , and was last seen on December 16 , 2005 , after 15 weeks .
= = Music video = =
The song 's music video was directed by Sophie Muller and filmed in Lake Como , Italy . " It was obvious I was gonna ask her to do it " , Stefani stated in an interview with VH1 's Box Set . The video follows the song 's theme and depicts the relationship that Stefani has with a former boyfriend , who is played by Spanish actor Daniel González . González and his new girlfriend — played by Tony Kanal 's girlfriend , Erin Lokitz — are shown walking up to a villa where Stefani answers the door . The villa featured in the video is the Villa Erba , in the town of Cernobbio , which Stefani said was " so beautiful " . The three of them are seen in each other 's company , with intercut scenes of Stefani singing on a bed . There are flashbacks to the time when Stefani and her former boyfriend were dating , where she has brunette hair . Flashbacks and present day images are linked with match cut cinematography . The lyrical theme of " Cool " is maintained in the video ; frames are incorporated to portray Stefani feeling " cool " . She is depicted as cool with her former boyfriend and his girlfriend throughout most of the video .
The music video for " Cool " premiered on MTV 's top @-@ 10 chart program Total Request Live on June 30 , 2005 , where it reached number three . After its July 8 , 2005 debut on MuchMusic 's Countdown , it reached number one for the week of October 8 , 2005 .
= = Promotion = =
In mid @-@ October 2005 , " Cool " was included in the setlist for Stefani 's first concert tour , Harajuku Lovers Tour , performed as the 11th song of the show . The song was added to the tour 's video album Harajuku Lovers Live , released on December 5 , 2005 . It was also used in Sofia Coppola 's 2010 drama film Somewhere , in which Elle Fanning 's character Cleo performs an ice dancing routine to the song .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Love . Angel . Music . Baby .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= 5th Parachute Brigade ( United Kingdom ) =
The 5th Parachute Brigade was an airborne forces formation of brigade strength , raised by the British Army during the Second World War . Created during 1943 , the brigade was assigned to the 6th Airborne Division , serving alongside the 3rd Parachute Brigade and the 6th Airlanding Brigade .
The brigade first saw action in the British airborne landings on D @-@ Day Operation Tonga , where it was responsible for capturing bridges over the Caen Canal and the River Orne in Operation Deadstick . The brigade remained in Normandy until September 1944 , by which time it had advanced to the mouth of the River Seine . Its next engagement was in reaction to the surprise German offensive in the Ardennes , the Battle of the Bulge . This was followed by Operation Varsity , the last Allied airborne mission of the war . After this , the brigade advanced across Germany , reaching the Baltic Sea by the end of fighting in the European theatre .
The brigade was then sent to India as the division 's advance party , but the war ended before it could begin operations . Instead the brigade became involved in disarming the Japanese forces in Malaya and Singapore , to restore British sovereignty . Its last operation was in Java , where it remained until a Dutch force arrived to take over . The brigade then rejoined the 6th Airborne Division , which was serving in Palestine , but was disbanded almost immediately afterwards .
= = Background = =
Impressed by the success of German airborne operations during the Battle of France in May – June 1940 , the British Prime Minister , Winston Churchill , directed the War Office to investigate the possibility of creating a force of 5 @,@ 000 parachute troops . As a result , on 22 June 1940 , No. 2 Commando assumed parachute duties , and on 21 November was re @-@ designated the 11th Special Air Service Battalion , with a parachute and glider wing . This later became the 1st Parachute Battalion .
On 21 June 1940 the Central Landing Establishment was formed at Ringway airfield near Manchester . Although tasked primarily with training parachute troops , it was also directed to investigate the use of gliders to transport troops into battle . At the same time , the Ministry of Aircraft Production contracted General Aircraft Ltd to design and produce a glider for this purpose . The result was the General Aircraft Hotspur , an aircraft capable of transporting eight soldiers , that was used for both assault and training purposes .
The success of the first British airborne raid , Operation Colossus , prompted the War Office to expand the airborne force through the creation of the Parachute Regiment , and to develop plans to convert several infantry battalions into parachute and glider battalions . On 31 May 1941 , a joint Army and RAF memorandum was approved by the Chiefs @-@ of @-@ Staff and Winston Churchill ; it recommended that the British airborne forces should consist of two parachute brigades , one based in England and the other in the Middle East , and that a glider force of 10 @,@ 000 men should be created .
= = Formation = =
On 23 April 1943 the War Office authorised the formation of a second airborne division , which would be numbered the 6th Airborne Division . Under its command the division would have the existing 3rd Parachute Brigade , along with two airlanding battalions transferred from the 1st Airborne Division to form the nucleus of the new 6th Airlanding Brigade . To fill out the division , a new parachute brigade was raised on 1 July by the redesignation of the 72nd Independent Infantry Brigade . Numbered the 5th Parachute Brigade , it was initially commanded by Brigadier Edwin Flavell , but on 5 July he was given command of the Airborne Forces Depot , and Brigadier Nigel Poett took over the brigade . In 1945 , while the brigade was serving in the Far East , the brigade 's last commander , Brigadier Kenneth Darling , took over from Poett .
The parachute battalions in the brigade were the experienced 7th ( Light Infantry ) , which was transferred from the 3rd Parachute Brigade , and two new parachute battalions , the 12th ( Yorkshire ) Parachute Battalion and the 13th ( Lancashire ) . These were standard line infantry converted to parachute duties , and had to undergo airborne forces selection and training at the Airborne Forces Deport . On formation , each battalion had an establishment of 556 men in three rifle companies ; the companies were divided into a small headquarters and three platoons . Each platoon had three Bren machine guns and three 2 @-@ inch mortars , one of each per section . The only heavy weapons in the battalions were a 3 inch mortar platoon and a Vickers machine gun platoon . By 1944 a headquarters or support company was added to the battalion , comprising five platoons : motor transport , signals , mortar , machine @-@ gun and anti @-@ tank . This company had eight 3 inch mortars , four Vickers machine guns , and ten PIAT anti @-@ tank projectors .
The brigade was supported by the 4th Airlanding Anti @-@ Tank Battery from the Royal Artillery . This battery had three troops , equipped with four Ordnance QF 6 pounders each , and provided the brigade 's only anti @-@ tank guns . Later in the war , the battery was increased to five troops , three of them retaining the 6 pounder , while the other two had four Ordnance QF 17 pounders each . While the 6 pounder could fit inside the Horsa glider , the size and weight of the 17 pounder and its Morris C8 tractor unit required the larger Hamilcar glider . The 591st ( Antrim ) Parachute Squadron from the Royal Engineers and the 225th ( Parachute ) Field Ambulance of the Royal Army Medical Corps completed the brigade formation .
'D ' Company , commanded by Major John Howard , from the 2nd Battalion of the Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry ( OBLI ) , of 6th Airlanding Brigade , also served with the brigade for a one off mission in Normandy . At the end of the war , while serving in the Far East , the pathfinders of the 22nd Independent Parachute Company , and the Parachute Platoon from the Light Composite Company , Royal Army Service Corps , were attached to the brigade .
= = Operational history = =
From June to December 1943 , the brigade prepared for operations as part of the 6th Airborne Division , training at every level from section up to division by day and night . Airborne soldiers were expected to fight against superior numbers of the enemy , who would be equipped with artillery and tanks . Training was therefore designed to encourage a spirit of self @-@ discipline , self @-@ reliance and aggressiveness , with emphasis given to physical fitness , marksmanship and fieldcraft . A large part of the training consisted of assault courses and route marching . Military exercises included capturing and holding airborne bridgeheads , road or rail bridges and coastal fortifications . At the end of most exercises , the troops would march back to their barracks , usually a distance of around 20 miles ( 32 km ) . An ability to cover long distances at speed was expected ; airborne platoons were required to cover a distance of 50 miles ( 80 km ) in 24 hours , and battalions 32 miles ( 51 km ) .
In April 1944 , under the command of 1st Airborne Corps , the brigade took part in Exercise Mush , in the counties of Gloucestershire , Oxfordshire and Wiltshire . This was an airborne military exercise spread over three days involving the 1st and 6th Airborne Divisions . Unknown to the men of the 6th Airborne , it was a full @-@ scale rehearsal for the division 's involvement in the imminent Normandy invasion . During the invasion , the division 's two parachute brigades would land just after midnight on 6 June , while the 6th Airlanding Brigade arrived later in the day just before dark . The division 's objective was to secure the left flank of the invasion area , by dominating the high ground in the area between the rivers Orne and Dives . For their part in the operation , the 5th Parachute Brigade had to capture intact the Caen Canal and the River Orne bridges . To assist the brigade in its mission , ' D ' Company from the 2nd Battalion , Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry was taken under its command to carry out a coup de main operation on the bridges .
= = = D @-@ Day = = =
Just after midnight on 6 June 1944 , six Halifax bombers towing Horsa gliders , with the reinforced ' D ' Company from the 2nd Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry on board , crossed the French coast . Shortly afterwards , the tow ropes were released and five of the gliders landed in the strip of land between the Caen Canal and the River Orne . Major John Howard commanded the company for the assault , which in short order captured the Benouville and Ranville bridges intact , for the loss of two dead and several wounded . The intention was for this force to hold the bridges until relieved by the 7th Parachute Battalion . Next , Albermarle bombers carrying the 5th Parachute Brigade 's pathfinders , a group from each battalion , and the brigade headquarters started to arrive over the drop zone ( DZ ) . Some planes got lost and failed to reach the DZ or arrived late . Others were damaged before dropping all their paratroops and turned back , and one returned to base after failing to find the drop zone at all .
At 00 : 50 the brigade started landing at DZ @-@ N , just north of Ranville . Equipment and navigational failures by the RAF pilots and the division 's pathfinders resulted in the brigade being scattered all over the countryside . By 02 : 40 only around 40 per cent of the 7th Parachute Battalion had reached their assembly point . Unable to wait any longer , the battalion headed for the captured bridges , and established a defensive position in Benouville , the division 's only position west of the Caen Canal . Most of the 12th Parachute Battalion landed on the eastern edge of the DZ , and only around 60 per cent of the battalion arrived at their assembly point . Their objective was to secure the village of Le Bas de Ranville , which was achieved by 04 : 00 . The 13th Parachute Battalion could also only muster around 60 per cent of its strength on the DZ . This battalion had two objectives ; to secure Ranville and to clear the DZ of obstacles for the division 's gliders which were to land next .
By daybreak all the brigade 's objectives had been secured . To the west of the Caen Canal , the 7th Parachute Battalion was attacked by tanks and armoured vehicles from the 21st Panzer Division . With no heavy weapons available , one Panzer IV that reached the centre of Benouville had to be destroyed using Gammon bombs . The battalion held out all morning against attacks by German tanks and infantry , and around noon the commandos from the 1st Commando Brigade started arriving from Sword beach . The battalion was still being attacked from the south , but the commandos ' arrival meant their northern flank was now relatively secure . On the eastern side of the bridges , the 12th Parachute Battalion had been under mortar and artillery fire and was then attacked by the 21st Panzer Division 's 125th Panzer Grenadier Regiment , which withdrew after losing a tank ; several German infantry were taken prisoner . A second German attack was also stopped , this time assisted by the 4th Airlanding Anti @-@ Tank Battery , which destroyed three self propelled guns and a tank . The 13th Parachute Battalion secured Ranville , which had been held by a company from the German 711th Infantry Division , and was the first French village to be liberated during the landings . This battalion was also attacked by infantry and tanks , three of which were destroyed during the day . At 21 : 00 the 6th Airlanding Brigade arrived at two landing zones , one on each side of the Orne river . By the end of the day the 12th and 13th Parachute Battalions were still holding Le Bas de Ranville and Ranville . The 7th Parachute Battalion , after being relieved by the 3rd Infantry Division , was now in reserve , dug in along the western side of DZ @-@ N. The 3rd Parachute Brigade was holding a ridge of high ground to the east of the 5th Parachute Brigade , and the 6th Airlanding Brigade were moving into position to their south . The north was covered by the 1st Commando Brigade which was now under the 6th Airborne Division 's command .
= = = Orne bridgehead = = =
Because of their positioning , the 5th Parachute Brigade was largely protected by the 6th Airborne Division 's other units , and did not suffer from the almost constant German attempts to dislodge the division . However , the 12th Parachute Battalion was attacked on 7 June by seven tanks and an infantry company . The attack was beaten off for the loss of three tanks , but caused several casualties amongst ' A ' Company , including the crew of their only supporting 6 pounder anti @-@ tank gun . Later the same day during an attack on the 13th Parachute Battalion , three German self @-@ propelled guns were destroyed , and the next day the battalion destroyed another six attacking tanks . The 12th Battalion , Devonshire Regiment arrived by sea later in the day , and took over the 12th Parachute Battalion 's position . The 7th and 12th Parachute Battalions and the 2nd Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry now formed the divisional reserve . Elements from three German formations were responsible for the attacks on the division ; the 21st Panzer Division and the 346th and 711th Infantry Divisions .
.
On 10 June a large German force assembled to the south west of Breville and at 09 : 00 attacked across DZ @-@ N towards the bridges and the 13th Parachute Battalion . Waiting until the enemy were only 50 yards ( 46 m ) away , the battalion opened fire . Supported by the mortars and Vickers machine guns of the 7th Parachute Battalion , ' C ' Company from the 13th Parachute Battalion started a counterattack which drove the Germans away . The attack had cost the Germans 400 dead and 100 captured . Major @-@ General Richard Nelson Gale , commander of the 6th Airborne Division , decided to try to drive the Germans out of the large woods at Le Mariquet , which were occupied by the 857th Grenadier Regiment , part of the 346th Infantry Division . The operation would be carried out by the 7th Parachute Battalion , supported by Sherman tanks from ' B ' Squadron 13th / 18th Royal Hussars . Two companies from the battalion entered the woods , while the tanks remained outside giving covering fire . By that evening the woods had been cleared . The cost to the 7th Parachute Battalion was only 10 men wounded , but the Hussars lost seven tanks , with 10 dead and five wounded . The German defenders had 20 men killed , and 100 prisoners were taken .
At the same time , the 3rd Parachute Brigade , supported by the 5th Battalion , Black Watch from the 51st ( Highland ) Division , were attempting to capture Breville , the only German held village on the high ground overlooking the British positions . By 12 June Breville was still in German hands , and Gale decided on one more attack , this time at night . This would be carried out by his only reserves ; the 12th Parachute Battalion , now only 350 men strong , supported by the pathfinder company , a company from the 12th Devonshire Regiment , and a squadron of tanks from the 13th / 18th Hussars . The attack would be supported by artillery fire from five regiments of artillery . The assault started at 22 : 00 , and after fighting throughout the night the village was eventually captured . British casualties were heavy ; the 12th Parachute Battalion lost 141 men , the Devons another 35 . The 12th Parachute Battalion was now reduced to only 55 men in its three rifle companies , plus the Headquarters Company . Some casualties were victims of the British artillery falling short . These included the 12th Parachute Battalion 's commanding officer , Lieutenant Colonel Johnny Johnson , who was killed . The same shell wounded Brigadiers Hugh Kindersley of the airlanding brigade and Lord Lovat of the commandos . The next day , 13 June , the 51st ( Highland ) Infantry Division crossed the waterways and took over the defence of the southern sector from the airlanding brigade . This , and the assignment of the 4th Special Service Brigade to the division , allowed one brigade at a time to go into reserve to rest . The first brigade withdrawn was the 3rd , and the 5th Parachute Brigade took over their positions on the ridge of high ground , between the 1st Special Service Brigade in the north and the Highland Division in the south .
= = = Advance to the Seine = = =
After the capture of Breville the division was not attacked in force again , apart from an almost continuous artillery bombardment between 18 and 20 June . Further reinforcements arrived east of the River Orne on 20 July , when the 49th ( West Riding ) Infantry Division moved into the line between the 6th Airborne and the 51st ( Highland ) Division . On 7 August Gale was ordered to prepare the division to move over to the offensive , with its objective being the mouth of the River Seine . The three divisions east of the Orne together became I Corps ; its commander , Lieutenant General John Crocker , knowing that the 6th Airborne had almost no artillery , vehicles or engineer equipment , did not expect it to advance very quickly . To reach the Seine , the division would have to cross three major rivers . There were two main lines of advance , the road running along the coast and another road further inland from Troarn to Pont Audemer . The commando brigade and the two parachute brigades would use the inland route , with the 3rd Parachute Brigade being responsible for the breakout when the time was right .
On 17 August the Germans began to withdraw , and the 3rd Parachute Brigade started their attack at 03 : 00 . By 18 August the brigade had crossed the River Dives and reached the outskirts of Goustranville . Here they halted , and the 5th Parachute Brigade took over the attack , their first objective being the village of Putot en Auge .
The 7th Parachute Battalion were to secure the ground to the east of the village . Delayed on the way , they ambushed a column of Germans advancing on them , before securing their objective . The 13th Parachute Battalion , which had been under fire for three hours , dashed across 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) of open land into cover at the base of Hill 13 . Then ' A ' and ' B ' Companies fixed bayonets and charged up the hill . Simultaneously , a German battalion , which had just arrived to reinforce the defenders , counterattacked causing several casualties . The two companies were forced to withdraw , closely followed by the enemy . The German counter @-@ attack was halted by an artillery barrage , and Putot en Auge was captured by the combined forces of the 7th and 12th Parachute Battalions . They also took 120 German prisoners . The 3rd Parachute Brigade then resumed the advance towards Pont @-@ l 'Évêque on the River Touques . They were held up capturing Annebault , and the 5th Parachute Brigade moved to the front again , reaching Pont @-@ l 'Évêque at 12 : 00 on 22 August .
The River Touques has two branches running through the town , and the 13th Parachute Battalion were given the objective of establishing a bridgehead across the river . The battalion reached and safely crossed the westernmost branch , but heavy German resistance prevented them from securing the main part of the town . Overnight a patrol managed to cross the eastern branch , using a girder that had been left spanning the river when the bridge had been blown up . The patrol was then reinforced by ' A ' and ' B ' Companies , and fought a three @-@ hour battle trying to form a bridgehead . They were then withdrawn back across the river , where the 7th Parachute Battalion had dug in to form a defensive position . At the same time , the 12th Parachute Battalion had tried to cross the river using fords to secure Saint Julien and the nearby railway embankment . They , too , were stopped by heavy German fire , which pinned them down on the embankment , inflicting significant casualties ; 16 dead and 50 wounded . As they were unable to proceed , brigade headquarters called off their attack , but the battalion had to wait until dark to pull back . The next day , 24 August , a patrol from the 7th Parachute Battalion discovered that the Germans had withdrawn during the night . The whole brigade crossed the river and advanced unopposed to Bourg , which was secured after a brief fight . The brigade was halted again and the commandos of 1st Special Service Brigade took over the lead . On 26 August , to provide some mobility , the Royal Netherlands Motorized Infantry Brigade was placed under the brigade 's command . Together with the 6th Airborne Armoured Reconnaissance Regiment , they headed for Pont Audmer , which was the brigade 's final objective . The Dutch were ordered to move with all speed , but arrived 20 minutes after the retreating Germans had blown up the bridge across the River Seine , and just before the 7th Parachute Battalion arrived by foot .
In nine days of fighting the 6th Airborne Division had advanced 45 miles ( 72 km ) , despite , as the divisional commander Major @-@ General Gale put it , his infantry units being " quite inadequately equipped for a rapid pursuit , " . They had captured 400 square miles ( 1 @,@ 000 km2 ) of enemy held territory , and taken over 1 @,@ 000 prisoners . Since landing on 6 June the division 's casualties were 4 @,@ 457 , of which 821 were killed , 2 @,@ 709 wounded and 927 missing . The 5th Parachute Brigade had 268 killed during the campaign . The division was withdrawn from France , and embarked for England at the beginning of September .
= = = Ardennes = = =
In England the division went into a period of recruitment and training , concentrating on house @-@ to @-@ house street fighting in the bombed areas of Southampton and Birmingham . The training programme culminated in Exercise Eve , an assault on the River Thames , which was intended to simulate the River Rhine in Germany .
By December 1944 the brigade was preparing for Christmas leave , when news of the German offensive in the Ardennes broke . As part of the First Allied Airborne Army , 6th Airborne Division was available as a component of the strategic reserve for the Allied forces in northwest Europe . The other two divisions available in reserve , the American 82nd and 101st Airborne , were already at Rheims in northern France , and the 6th Airborne was sent by sea to Belgium to assist the defence . With 29 German and 33 Allied divisions involved , the Battle of the Bulge was the largest single battle on the Western Front during the war . On Christmas Day the division moved up to take position in front of the spearhead of the German advance ; by Boxing Day they had reached their allocated places in the defensive line between Dinant and Namur . The 3rd Parachute Brigade were on the left , 5th Parachute Brigade on the right , and the 6th Airlanding Brigade in reserve . By the time they arrived in position the German advance had faltered .
The 5th Parachute Brigade was ordered towards Grupont , 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) south of Rochefort , and on 3 January became involved in the division 's only fighting in the Ardennes . By 13 : 30 the 13th Parachute Battalion had covered 8 miles ( 13 km ) and was in position to assault the village of Bure . The battalion had been observed by the Germans , and was met with heavy fire as their attack started . The battalion 's ' A ' Company made for the village , while ' B ' Company attempted to secure the heights overlooking it . ' B ' Company , faced with infantry supported by tanks and artillery , suffered heavy casualties , and was reduced to 21 men by nightfall . By 17 : 00 ' A ' Company had secured around half the village , and were joined by ' C ' Company . Over the following day the Germans launched fifteen separate assaults to try to retake the village , but the battalion held out . With reinforcements from ' C ' Company of the 2nd Ox and Bucks , the remainder of the village was captured . The battalion was then ordered to withdraw ; the battle had cost them 68 dead and 121 wounded . At the same time , the 7th Parachute Battalion was attacking the village of Wavreille , which was defended by around a hundred infantry with tank and artillery support . The village was captured with minimal casualties .
Over the next days the German advance was halted and forced back , until at the end of January 1945 , the brigade moved into the Netherlands . Here the division was made responsible for the area along the River Maas , between Venlo and Roermond . The brigade carried out patrols , on both sides of the river , against their opponents from the 7th Parachute Division . Near the end of February the division returned to England to prepare for another airborne mission , to cross the River Rhine into Germany .
= = = Germany = = =
Whereas all other Allied airborne landings had been a surprise for the Germans , the Rhine crossing was expected and their defences were reinforced in anticipation . The airborne operation was preceded by a two @-@ day round @-@ the @-@ clock bombing mission by the Allied air forces . Then on 23 March 3 @,@ 500 artillery guns targeted the German positions . At dusk Operation Plunder , an assault river crossing of the Rhine by the 21st Army Group , began . For their part in Operation Varsity , the 6th Airborne Division was assigned to the American XVIII Airborne Corps alongside the US 17th Airborne Division .
Both airborne divisions began landing at the same time , 10 : 00 on 24 March 1945 . The 6th Airborne were to protect the northern part of the landing area ; they had six drop zones around the town of Hamminkeln . The plan was for them to secure the town , the high ground east of the village of Bergen , and bridges across the river IJssel . The 5th Parachute Brigade would land on the northernmost DZ , DZ @-@ B , and hold the area east of the Wesel railway line .
The brigade arrived in the second wave of aircraft , after the 3rd Parachute Brigade , and the German anti @-@ aircraft gunners were waiting for them . The parachute descent was made under fire , and the DZ itself was also subjected to artillery and mortar fire . The 7th Parachute Battalion suffered casualties from air burst artillery shells . Their section of the DZ was only 700 yards ( 640 m ) from a battery of German 88 mm guns , which also targeted the brigade headquarters and the assembly areas of the 12th Parachute Battalion . The 7th Parachute Battalion secured the DZ , while the 12th and 13th Parachute Battalions headed for the brigade objective , the road from the DZ to Hamminkeln . By 15 : 00 , despite fierce opposition , the brigade had secured its objectives , with a large number of prisoners taken , but had suffered around 700 casualties . Casualties for the division as a whole were 347 dead and 731 wounded . That night , the division was ordered to prepare to advance east into Germany from 26 March , when they were to be relieved by troops from the 52nd ( Lowland ) Infantry Division .
On 27 March the brigade led the division 's advance . Their first objective , the village of Brünen , was unoccupied , so they pressed on to the next village , Erle , by that evening . The 7th Parachute Battalion was ordered to attack what was believed to be three self @-@ propelled guns on the village outskirts , while the 13th Parachute Battalion captured the nearby high ground . As the 7th Parachute Battalion 's leading platoon approached the guns , they were met with heavy fire from anti @-@ aircraft and anti @-@ tank guns . The battalion was forced to take cover and was unable to move forward ; but when darkness came , they advanced and seized the position , capturing 60 prisoners , one anti @-@ tank gun , 11 anti @-@ aircraft guns and several light machine guns . Elsewhere , the 13th Parachute Battalion had captured the high ground and the 12th Parachute Battalion had moved 20 miles ( 32 km ) across country , and were ready to assault Erle once daylight came . They attacked at dawn , and captured the village after a 15 minute fight . The brigade held these positions while the rest of the division passed through them to continue the advance . They then resumed the lead after the division crossed the Dortmund – Ems Canal towards Osnabruck , fighting several small engagements on the way . After the River Weser , the brigade again assumed the lead towards Leine . Supported by tanks from the 4th Armoured Battalion , Grenadier Guards , they captured two bridges at Bordenau and Neustadt , and fought a small battle at Wunstorf airfield . On 7 April the brigade was informed that they were the lead formation of 21st Army Group , having advanced further into Germany than any of its other units .
The 15th ( Scottish ) Infantry Division then took over from the 6th Airborne Division as the lead formation until 30 April when the airborne division once more resumed the advance , crossing the River Elbe over a bridge captured by the Scottish . The division 's objective was Wismar on the Baltic Sea ; the two parachute brigades advanced on separate routes to Gadebusch , aware that the brigade to arrive first would continue as the division 's lead formation . By this stage of the war the advance was hampered more by refugees fleeing westwards than by any organised opposition . The 3rd Parachute Brigade won the race and led the division to Wismar , arriving on 1 May only 30 minutes before the lead troops of the Soviet Red Army advancing from the east . While the rest of the brigade remained at Wismar , ' B ' Company of the 13th Parachute Battalion were sent to Denmark to liberate Copenhagen , arriving on 5 May . They remained in Copenhagen until the 1st Parachute Brigade arrived from England to relieve them .
= = = Far East = = =
Now that the war in Europe was over , plans were made to form an airborne corps comprising the 6th Airborne Division and 44th Indian Airborne Division for service against Japanese forces in the Far East . The corps would be used in operations to recapture Malaya and Singapore . The division 's advance party , based partly on the 5th Parachute Brigade , arrived in India in July 1945 . The brigade travelled ahead of the rest of the division as it had been intended to use them for Operation Zipper , an independent mission in Burma . They would have landed in Malaya , between Singapore and the Japanese forces in Burma . Reinforcements would then arrive by sea and attack northwards and southwards , while the brigade carried out another airborne landing on Singapore itself . However , following the Japanese surrender , all these plans changed , and the remainder of the 6th Airborne Division were sent to Palestine . Instead of carrying out an airborne landing , the 5th Parachute Brigade travelled by sea , leaving Bombay on 9 September and arriving at Morib in Malaya on 17 September . Only the 7th and 12th Parachute battalions landed , and they re @-@ embarked the next day to sail for Singapore as part of Operation Tiderace ; they arrived
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discharged on health grounds after nine months . That year he appeared in the D W Griffith film Hearts of the World in an uncredited role . He sold short stories to several magazines to help his family financially . He also began writing plays , collaborating on the first two ( Ida Collaborates ( 1917 ) and Women and Whisky ( 1918 ) ) with his friend Esmé Wynne . His first solo effort as a playwright was The Rat Trap ( 1918 ) which was eventually produced at the Everyman Theatre , Hampstead , in October 1926 . During these years , he met Lorn McNaughtan , who became his private secretary and served in that capacity for more than forty years , until her death .
= = = Inter @-@ war successes = = =
In 1920 , at the age of 20 , Coward starred in his own play , the light comedy I 'll Leave It to You . After a tryout in Manchester , it opened in London at the New Theatre ( renamed the Noël Coward Theatre in 2006 ) , his first full @-@ length play in the West End . Neville Cardus 's praise in The Manchester Guardian was grudging . Notices for the London production were mixed , but encouraging . The Observer commented , " Mr Coward ... has a sense of comedy , and if he can overcome a tendency to smartness , he will probably produce a good play one of these days . " The Times , on the other hand , was enthusiastic : " It is a remarkable piece of work from so young a head – spontaneous , light , and always ' brainy ' . "
The play ran for a month ( and was Coward 's first play seen in America ) , after which Coward returned to acting in works by other writers , starring as Ralph in The Knight of the Burning Pestle in Birmingham and then London . He did not enjoy the role , finding Francis Beaumont and his sometime collaborator John Fletcher " two of the dullest Elizabethan writers ever known ... I had a very , very long part , but I was very , very bad at it " . Nevertheless , The Manchester Guardian thought that Coward got the best out of the role , and The Times called the play " the jolliest thing in London " .
Coward completed a one @-@ act satire , The Better Half , about a man 's relationship with two women . It had a short run at The Little Theatre , London , in 1922 . The critic St John Ervine wrote of the piece , " When Mr Coward has learned that tea @-@ table chitter @-@ chatter had better remain the prerogative of women he will write more interesting plays than he now seems likely to write . " The play was thought to be lost until a typescript was found in 2007 in the archive of the Lord Chamberlain 's Office , the official censor of stage plays in the UK until 1968 .
In 1921 , Coward made his first trip to America , hoping to interest producers there in his plays . Although he had little luck , he found the Broadway theatre stimulating . He absorbed its smartness and pace into his own work , which brought him his first real success as a playwright with The Young Idea . The play opened in London in 1923 , after a provincial tour , with Coward in one of the leading roles . The reviews were good : " Mr Noël Coward calls his brilliant little farce a ' comedy of youth ' , and so it is . And youth pervaded the Savoy last night , applauding everything so boisterously that you felt , not without exhilaration , that you were in the midst of a ' rag ' . " One critic , who noted the influence of Bernard Shaw on Coward 's writing , thought more highly of the play than of Coward 's newly found fans : " I was unfortunately wedged in the centre of a group of his more exuberant friends who greeted each of his sallies with ' That 's a Noëlism ! ' " The play ran in London from 1 February to 24 March 1923 , after which Coward turned to revue , co @-@ writing and performing in André Charlot 's London Calling !
In 1924 , Coward achieved his first great critical and financial success as a playwright with The Vortex . The story is about a nymphomaniac socialite and her cocaine @-@ addicted son ( played by Coward ) . Some saw the drugs as a mask for homosexuality ; Kenneth Tynan later described it as " a jeremiad against narcotics with dialogue that sounds today not so much stilted as high @-@ heeled " . The Vortex was considered shocking in its day for its depiction of sexual vanity and drug abuse among the upper classes . Its notoriety and fiery performances attracted large audiences , justifying a move from a small suburban theatre to a larger one in the West End . Coward , still having trouble finding producers , raised the money to produce the play himself . During the run of The Vortex , Coward met Jack Wilson , an American stockbroker ( later a director and producer ) , who became his business manager and lover . Wilson used his position to steal from Coward , but the playwright was in love and accepted both the larceny and Wilson 's heavy drinking .
The success of The Vortex in both London and America caused a great demand for new Coward plays . In 1925 he premiered Fallen Angels , a three @-@ act comedy that amused and shocked audiences with the spectacle of two middle @-@ aged women slowly getting drunk while awaiting the arrival of their mutual lover . Hay Fever , the first of Coward 's plays to gain an enduring place in the mainstream theatrical repertoire , also appeared in 1925 . It is a comedy about four egocentric members of an artistic family who casually invite acquaintances to their country house for the weekend and bemuse and enrage each other 's guests . Some writers have seen elements of Coward 's old mentor , Mrs Astley Cooper , and her set in the characters of the family . By the 1970s the play was recognised as a classic , described in The Times as a " dazzling achievement ; like The Importance of Being Earnest , it is pure comedy with no mission but to delight , and it depends purely on the interplay of characters , not on elaborate comic machinery . " By June 1925 Coward had four shows running in the West End : The Vortex , Fallen Angels , Hay Fever and On With the Dance . Coward was turning out numerous plays and acting in his own works and others ' . Soon , his frantic pace caught up with him , and he collapsed on stage in 1926 while starring in a stage adaptation of The Constant Nymph and had to take an extended rest , recuperating in Hawaii .
Other Coward works produced in the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1920s included the plays Easy Virtue ( 1926 ) , a drama about a divorcée 's clash with her snobbish in @-@ laws ; The Queen Was in the Parlour , a Ruritanian romance ; This Was a Man ( 1926 ) , a comedy about adulterous aristocrats ; The Marquise ( 1927 ) , an eighteenth @-@ century costume drama ; Home Chat ( 1927 ) , a comedy about a married woman 's fidelity ; and the revues On With the Dance ( 1925 ) and This Year of Grace ( 1928 ) . None of these shows has entered the regular repertoire , but the last introduced one of Coward 's best @-@ known songs , " A Room with a View " . His biggest failure in this period was the play Sirocco ( 1927 ) , which concerns free love among the wealthy . It starred Ivor Novello , of whom Coward said , " the two most beautiful things in the world are Ivor 's profile and my mind " . Theatregoers hated the play , showing violent disapproval at the curtain calls and spitting at Coward as he left the theatre . Coward later said of this flop , " My first instinct was to leave England immediately , but this seemed too craven a move , and also too gratifying to my enemies , whose numbers had by then swollen in our minds to practically the entire population of the British Isles . "
By 1929 Coward was one of the world 's highest @-@ earning writers , with an annual income of £ 50 @,@ 000 , more than £ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in terms of 2007 values . Coward thrived during the Great Depression , writing a succession of popular hits . They ranged from large @-@ scale spectaculars to intimate comedies . Examples of the former were the operetta Bitter Sweet ( 1929 ) , about a woman who elopes with her music teacher , and the historical extravaganza Cavalcade ( 1931 ) at Drury Lane , about thirty years in the lives of two families , which required a huge cast , gargantuan sets and a complex hydraulic stage . Its 1933 film adaptation won the Academy Award for best picture . Coward 's intimate @-@ scale hits of the period included Private Lives ( 1930 ) and Design for Living ( 1932 ) . In Private Lives , Coward starred alongside his most famous stage partner , Gertrude Lawrence , together with the young Laurence Olivier . It was a highlight of both Coward 's and Lawrence 's career , selling out in both London and New York . Coward disliked long runs , and after this he made a rule of starring in a play for no more than three months at any venue . Design for Living , written for Alfred Lunt and Lynn Fontanne , was so risqué , with its theme of bisexuality and a ménage à trois , that Coward premiered it in New York , knowing that it would not survive the censor in London .
In 1933 Coward wrote , directed and co @-@ starred with the French singer Yvonne Printemps in both London and New York productions of an operetta , Conversation Piece ( 1933 ) . He next wrote , directed and co @-@ starred with Lawrence in Tonight at 8 : 30 ( 1936 ) , a cycle of ten short plays , presented in various permutations across three evenings . One of these plays , Still Life , was expanded into the 1945 David Lean film Brief Encounter . Tonight at 8 : 30 was followed by a musical , Operette ( 1938 ) , from which the most famous number is " The Stately Homes of England " , and a revue entitled Set to Music ( 1938 , a Broadway version of his 1932 London revue , Words and Music ) . Coward 's last pre @-@ war plays were This Happy Breed , a drama about a working @-@ class family , and Present Laughter , a comic self @-@ caricature with an egomaniac actor as the central character . These were first performed in 1942 , although they were both written in 1939 .
Between 1929 and 1936 Coward recorded many of his best @-@ known songs for His Master 's Voice ( HMV ) , now reissued on CD , including the romantic " I 'll See You Again " from Bitter Sweet , the comic " Mad Dogs and Englishmen " from Words and Music , and " Mrs Worthington " .
= = = Second World War = = =
With the outbreak of the Second World War Coward abandoned the theatre and sought official war work . After running the British propaganda office in Paris , where he concluded that " if the policy of His Majesty 's Government is to bore the Germans to death I don 't think we have time " , he worked on behalf of British intelligence . His task was to use his celebrity to influence American public and political opinion in favour of helping Britain . He was frustrated by British press criticism of his foreign travel while his countrymen suffered at home , but he was unable to reveal that he was acting on behalf of the Secret Service . In 1942 George VI wished to award Coward a knighthood for his efforts , but was dissuaded by Winston Churchill . Mindful of the public view of Coward 's flamboyant lifestyle , Churchill used , as his reason for withholding the honour , Coward 's £ 200 fine for contravening currency regulations in 1941 .
Had the Germans invaded Britain , Coward was scheduled to be arrested and killed , as he was in The Black Book along with other figures such as Virginia Woolf , Paul Robeson , Bertrand Russell , C. P. Snow and H. G. Wells . When this came to light after the war , Coward wrote : " If anyone had told me at that time I was high up on the Nazi blacklist , I should have laughed ... I remember Rebecca West , who was one of the many who shared the honour with me , sent me a telegram which read : ' My dear – the people we should have been seen dead with ' . "
Churchill 's view was that Coward would do more for the war effort by entertaining the troops and the home front than by intelligence work : " Go and sing to them when the guns are firing – that 's your job ! " Coward , though disappointed , followed this advice . He toured , acted and sang indefatigably in Europe , Africa , Asia and America . He wrote and recorded war @-@ themed popular songs , including " London Pride " and " Don 't Let 's Be Beastly to the Germans " . His London home was wrecked by German bombs in 1941 , and he took up temporary residence at the Savoy Hotel . During one air raid on the area around the Savoy he joined Carroll Gibbons and Judy Campbell in impromptu cabaret to distract the captive guests from their fears . Another of Coward 's wartime projects , as writer , star , composer and co @-@ director ( alongside David Lean ) , was the naval film drama In Which We Serve . The film was popular on both sides of the Atlantic , and he was awarded an honorary certificate of merit at the 1943 Academy Awards ceremony . Coward played a naval captain , basing the character on his friend Lord Louis Mountbatten . Lean went on to direct and adapt film versions of several Coward plays .
Coward 's most enduring work from the war years was the hugely successful black comedy Blithe Spirit ( 1941 ) , about a novelist who researches the occult and hires a medium . A séance brings back the ghost of his first wife , causing havoc for the novelist and his second wife . With 1 @,@ 997 consecutive performances , it broke box @-@ office records for the run of a West End comedy , and was also produced on Broadway , where its original run was 650 performances . The play was adapted into a 1945 film , directed by Lean . Coward toured during 1942 in Blithe Spirit , alternating the piece with his comedy Present Laughter and his working @-@ class drama This Happy Breed .
In his Middle East Diary Coward made several statements that offended many Americans . In particular , he commented that he was " less impressed by some of the mournful little Brooklyn boys lying there in tears amid the alien corn with nothing worse than a bullet wound in the leg or a fractured arm " . After protests from both The New York Times and The Washington Post , the Foreign Office urged Coward not to visit the United States in January 1945 . He did not return to America again during the war . In the aftermath of the war , Coward wrote an alternative reality play , Peace In Our Time , depicting an England occupied by Nazi Germany .
= = = Post @-@ war career = = =
Coward 's new plays after the war were moderately successful but failed to match the popularity of his pre @-@ war hits . Relative Values ( 1951 ) addresses the culture clash between an aristocratic English family and a Hollywood actress with matrimonial ambitions ; South Sea Bubble ( 1951 ) is a political comedy set in a British colony ; Quadrille ( 1952 ) is a drama about Victorian love and elopement ; and Nude with Violin ( 1956 , starring John Gielgud in London and Coward in New York ) is a satire on modern art and critical pretension . A revue , Sigh No More ( 1945 ) , was a moderate success , but two musicals , Pacific 1860 ( 1946 ) , a lavish South Seas romance , and Ace of Clubs ( 1949 ) , set in a night club , were financial failures . Further blows in this period were the deaths of Coward 's friends Charles Cochran and Gertrude Lawrence , in 1951 and 1952 respectively . Despite his disappointments , Coward maintained a high public profile ; his performance as King Magnus in Shaw 's The Apple Cart for the Coronation season of 1953 , co @-@ starring Margaret Leighton , received much coverage in the press , and his cabaret act , honed during his wartime tours entertaining the troops , was a supreme success , first in London at the Café de Paris , and later in Las Vegas . The theatre critic Kenneth Tynan wrote :
To see him whole , public and private personalities conjoined , you must see him in cabaret ... he padded down the celebrated stairs ... halted before the microphone on black @-@ suede @-@ clad feet , and , upraising both hands in a gesture of benediction , set about demonstrating how these things should be done . Baring his teeth as if unveiling some grotesque monument , and cooing like a baritone dove , he gave us " I 'll See You Again " and the other bat 's @-@ wing melodies of his youth . Nothing he does on these occasions sounds strained or arid ; his tanned , leathery face is still an enthusiast 's .... If it is possible to romp fastidiously , that is what Coward does . He owes little to earlier wits , such as Wilde or Labouchere . Their best things need to be delivered slowly , even lazily . Coward 's emerge with the staccato , blind impulsiveness of a machine @-@ gun .
In 1955 Coward 's cabaret act at Las Vegas , recorded live for the gramophone , and released as Noël Coward at Las Vegas was so successful that CBS engaged him to write and direct a series of three 90 @-@ minute television specials for the 1955 – 56 season . The first of these , Together With Music , paired Coward with Mary Martin , featuring him in many of the numbers from his Las Vegas act . It was followed by productions of Blithe Spirit in which he starred with Claudette Colbert , Lauren Bacall and Mildred Natwick and This Happy Breed with Edna Best and Roger Moore . Despite excellent reviews , the audience viewing figures were moderate .
During the 1950s and 1960s Coward continued to write musicals and plays . After the Ball , his 1953 adaptation of Lady Windermere 's Fan , was the last musical he premiered in the West End ; his last two musicals were first produced on Broadway . Sail Away ( 1961 ) , set on a luxury cruise liner , was Coward 's most successful post @-@ war musical , with productions in America , Britain and Australia . The Girl Who Came to Supper , a musical adaptation of The Sleeping Prince ( 1963 ) , ran for only three months . He directed the successful 1964 Broadway musical adaptation of Blithe Spirit , called High Spirits . Coward 's late plays include a farce , Look After Lulu ! ( 1959 ) , and a tragi @-@ comic study of old age , Waiting in the Wings ( 1960 ) , both of which were successful despite " critical disdain " . Coward argued that the primary purpose of a play was to entertain , and he made no attempt at modernism , which he felt was boring to the audience although fascinating to the critics . His comic novel , Pomp and Circumstance ( 1960 ) , about life in a tropical British colony , met with more critical success .
Coward 's final stage success came with Suite in Three Keys ( 1966 ) , a trilogy set in a hotel penthouse suite . He wrote it as his swan song as a stage actor : " I would like to act once more before I fold my bedraggled wings . " The trilogy gained glowing reviews and did good box office business in the UK . In one of the three plays , A Song at Twilight , Coward abandoned his customary reticence on the subject and played an explicitly homosexual character . The daring piece earned Coward new critical praise . He intended to star in the trilogy on Broadway but was too ill to travel . Only two of the Suite in Three Keys plays were performed in New York , with the title changed to Noël Coward in Two Keys , starring Hume Cronyn .
Coward won new popularity in several notable films later in his career , such as Around the World in 80 Days ( 1956 ) , Our Man in Havana ( 1959 ) , Bunny Lake is Missing ( 1965 ) , Boom ! ( 1968 ) and The Italian Job ( 1969 ) . Stage and film opportunities he turned down in the 1950s included an invitation to compose a musical version of Pygmalion ( two years before My Fair Lady was written ) , and offers of the roles of the king in the original stage production of The King and I , and Colonel Nicholson in the film The Bridge on the River Kwai . Invited to play the title role in the 1962 film Dr. No , he replied , " No , no , no , a thousand times , no . " In the same year , he turned down the role of Humbert Humbert in Lolita , saying , " At my time of life the film story would be logical if the 12 @-@ year @-@ old heroine was a sweet little old lady . "
In the mid @-@ 1960s and early 1970s successful productions of his 1920s and 1930s plays , and new revues celebrating his music , including Oh , Coward ! on Broadway and Cowardy Custard in London , revived Coward 's popularity and critical reputation . He dubbed this comeback " Dad 's Renaissance " . It began with a hit 1963 revival of Private Lives in London and then New York . Invited to direct Hay Fever with Edith Evans at the National Theatre , he wrote in 1964 , " I am thrilled and flattered and frankly a little flabbergasted that the National Theatre should have had the curious perceptiveness to choose a very early play of mine and to give it a cast that could play the Albanian telephone directory . "
Other examples of " Dad 's Renaissance " included a 1968 Off Broadway production of Private Lives at the Theatre de Lys starring Elaine Stritch , Lee Bowman and Betsy von Furstenberg , and directed by Charles Nelson Reilly . Despite this impressive cast , Coward 's popularity had risen so high that the theatre poster for the production used an Al Hirschfeld caricature of Coward ( pictured ) instead of an image of the production or its stars . The illustration captures how Coward 's image had changed by the 1960s : he was no longer seen as the smooth 1930s sophisticate , but as the doyen of the theatre . As The New Statesman wrote in 1964 , " Who would have thought the landmarks of the Sixties would include the emergence of Noël Coward as the grand old man of British drama ? There he was one morning , flipping verbal tiddlywinks with reporters about " Dad 's Renaissance " ; the next he was ... beside Forster , T. S. Eliot and the OMs , demonstrably the greatest living English playwright . " Time wrote that " in the 60s ... his best work , with its inspired inconsequentiality , seemed to exert not only a period charm but charm , period . "
= = = Death and honours = = =
By the end of the 1960s , Coward suffered from arteriosclerosis and , during the run of Suite in Three Keys , he struggled with bouts of memory loss . This also affected his work in The Italian Job , and he retired from acting immediately afterwards . Coward was knighted in 1969 and was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of Literature . He received a Tony Award for lifetime achievement . In 1972 , he was awarded an honorary Doctor of Letters degree by the University of Sussex .
Coward died at his home , Firefly Estate , in Jamaica on 26 March 1973 of heart failure and was buried three days later on the brow of Firefly Hill , overlooking the north coast of the island . A memorial service was held in St Martin @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Fields in London on 29 May 1973 , for which the Poet Laureate , John Betjeman , wrote and delivered a poem in Coward 's honour , John Gielgud and Laurence Olivier read verse and Yehudi Menuhin played Bach . On 28 March 1984 a memorial stone was unveiled by the Queen Mother in Poets ' Corner , Westminster Abbey . Thanked by Coward 's partner , Graham Payn , for attending , the Queen Mother replied , " I came because he was my friend . "
The Noël Coward Theatre in St Martin 's Lane , originally opened in 1903 as the New Theatre and later called the Albery , was renamed in his honour after extensive refurbishment , re @-@ opening on 1 June 2006 . A statue of Coward by Angela Conner was unveiled by the Queen Mother in the foyer of the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane in 1998 . There are also sculptures of Coward displayed in New York and Jamaica , and a bust of him in the library in Teddington , near where he was born . In 2008 an exhibition devoted to Coward was mounted at the National Theatre in London . The exhibition was later hosted by the Museum of Performance & Design in San Francisco and the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in Beverly Hills , California .
= = = Personal life = = =
Coward was homosexual , but , following the convention of his times , this was never publicly mentioned . The critic Kenneth Tynan 's description in 1953 was close to an acknowledgment of Coward 's sexuality : " Forty years ago he was Slightly in Peter Pan , and you might say that he has been wholly in Peter Pan ever since . No private considerations have been allowed to deflect the drive of his career ; like Gielgud and Rattigan , like the late Ivor Novello , he is a congenital bachelor . "
Coward firmly believed his private business was not for public discussion , considering " any sexual activities when over @-@ advertised " to be tasteless . Even in the 1960s , Coward refused to acknowledge his sexual orientation publicly , wryly observing , " There are still a few old ladies in Worthing who don 't know . " Despite this reticence , he encouraged his secretary Cole Lesley to write a frank biography once Coward was safely dead .
Coward 's most important relationship , which began in the mid @-@ 1940s and lasted until his death , was with the South African stage and film actor Graham Payn . Coward featured Payn in several of his London productions . Payn later co @-@ edited with Sheridan Morley a collection of Coward 's diaries , published in 1982 . Coward 's other relationships included the playwright Keith Winter , actors Louis Hayward and Alan Webb , his manager Jack Wilson and the composer Ned Rorem , who published details of their relationship in his diaries . Coward had a 19 @-@ year friendship with Prince George , Duke of Kent , but biographers differ on whether it was platonic . Payn believed that it was , though Coward reportedly admitted to the historian Michael Thornton that there had been " a little dalliance " . Coward said , on the duke 's death , " I suddenly find that I loved him more than I knew . "
Coward maintained close friendships with many women , including the actress and author Esmé Wynne @-@ Tyson , his first collaborator and constant correspondent ; Gladys Calthrop , who designed sets and costumes for many of his works ; his secretary and close confidante Lorn Loraine ; the actresses Gertrude Lawrence , Joyce Carey and Judy Campbell ; and " his loyal and lifelong amitié amoureuse " , Marlene Dietrich .
In his profession , Coward was widely admired and loved for his generosity and kindness to those who fell on hard times . Stories are told of the unobtrusive way in which he relieved the needs or paid the debts of old theatrical acquaintances who had no claim on him . From 1934 until 1956 , Coward was the president of The Actors ' Orphanage , which was supported by the theatrical industry . In that capacity , he befriended the young Peter Collinson , who was in the care of the orphanage . He became Collinson 's godfather and helped him to get started in show business . When Collinson was a successful director , he invited Coward to play a role in The Italian Job . Graham Payn also played a small role in the film .
In the 1950s , Coward left the UK for tax reasons , receiving harsh criticism in the press . He first settled in Bermuda but later bought houses in Jamaica and Switzerland ( in the village of Les Avants , near Montreux ) , which remained his homes for the rest of his life . His expatriate neighbours and friends included Joan Sutherland , David Niven , Richard Burton and Elizabeth Taylor , and Julie Andrews and Blake Edwards in Switzerland and Ian Fleming and his wife Ann in Jamaica . Coward was a witness at the Flemings ' wedding , but his diaries record his exasperation with their constant bickering .
Coward 's political views were conservative , but not unswervingly so : he despised the government of Neville Chamberlain for its policy of appeasing Nazi Germany , and he differed sharply with Winston Churchill over the abdication crisis of 1936 . Whereas Churchill supported Edward VIII 's wish to marry " his cutie " , Wallis Simpson , Coward thought the king irresponsible , telling Churchill , " England doesn 't wish for a Queen Cutie . " Coward disliked propaganda in plays : " The theatre is a wonderful place , a house of strange enchantment , a temple of illusion . What it most emphatically is not and never will be is a scruffy , ill @-@ lit , fumed @-@ oak drill hall serving as a temporary soap box for political propaganda . " Nevertheless , his own views sometimes surfaced in his plays : both Cavalcade and This Happy Breed are , in the words of the playwright David Edgar , " overtly Conservative political plays written in the Brechtian epic manner . " In religion , Coward was agnostic . He wrote of his views , " Do I believe in God ? I can 't say No and I can 't say Yes , To me it 's anybody 's guess . "
Coward spelled his first name with the diæresis ( " I didn 't put the dots over the ' e ' in Noël . The language did . Otherwise it 's not Noël but Nool ! " ) . The press and many book publishers failed to follow suit , and his name was printed as ' Noel ' in The Times , The Observer and other contemporary newspapers and books .
The papers of Noël Coward are held in the University of Birmingham Special Collections .
= = = The Coward image = = =
" Why " , asked Coward , " am I always expected to wear a dressing @-@ gown , smoke cigarettes in a long holder and say ' Darling , how wonderful ' ? " The answer lay in Coward 's assiduous cultivation of a carefully crafted image . As a suburban boy who had been taken up by the upper classes he rapidly acquired the taste for high life : " I am determined to travel through life first class . " He first wore a dressing gown onstage in The Vortex and used the fashion in several of his other famous plays , including Private Lives and Present Laughter . George Walden identifies him as a modern dandy . In connection with the National Theatre 's 2008 exhibition , The Independent commented , " His famous silk , polka @-@ dot dressing gown and elegant cigarette holder both seem to belong to another era . But 2008 is proving to be the year that Britain falls in love with Noël Coward all over again . "
As soon as he achieved success he began polishing the Coward image : an early press photograph showed him sitting up in bed holding a cigarette holder : " I looked like an advanced Chinese decadent in the last phases of dope . " Soon after that , Coward wrote , " I took to wearing coloured turtle @-@ necked jerseys , actually more for comfort than for effect , and soon I was informed by my evening paper that I had started a fashion . I believe that to a certain extent this was true ; at any rate , during the ensuing months I noticed more and more of our seedier West @-@ End chorus boys parading about London in them . " He soon became more cautious about overdoing the flamboyance , advising Cecil Beaton to tone down his outfits : " It is important not to let the public have a loophole to lampoon you . " However , Coward was happy to generate publicity from his lifestyle . In 1969 he told Time magazine , " I acted up like crazy . I did everything that was expected of me . Part of the job . " Time concluded , " Coward 's greatest single gift has not been writing or composing , not acting or directing , but projecting a sense of personal style , a combination of cheek and chic , pose and poise . "
Coward 's distinctive clipped diction arose from his childhood : his mother was deaf and Coward developed his staccato style of speaking to make it easier for her to hear what he was saying ; it also helped him eradicate a slight lisp . His nickname , " The Master " , " started as a joke and became true " , according to Coward . It was used of him from the 1920s onwards . Coward himself made light of it : when asked by a journalist why he was known as " The Master " , he replied , " Oh , you know – Jack of all trades , master of none . " He could , however , joke about his own immodesty : " My sense of my importance to the world is relatively small . On the other hand , my sense of my own importance to myself is tremendous . " When a Time interviewer apologised , " I hope you haven 't been bored having to go through all these interviews for your [ 70th ] birthday , having to answer the same old questions about yourself " , Coward rejoined , " Not at all . I 'm fascinated by the subject . "
= = Critical reputation and legacy = =
The playwright John Osborne said , " Mr Coward is his own invention and contribution to this century . Anyone who cannot see that should keep well away from the theatre . " Tynan wrote in 1964 , " Even the youngest of us will know , in fifty years ' time , exactly what we mean by ' a very Noel Coward sort of person ' . " In praise of Coward 's versatility , Lord Mountbatten said , in a tribute on Coward 's seventieth birthday , " There are probably greater painters than Noël , greater novelists than Noël , greater librettists , greater composers of music , greater singers , greater dancers , greater comedians , greater tragedians , greater stage producers , greater film directors , greater cabaret artists , greater TV stars . If there are , they are fourteen different people . Only one man combined all fourteen different labels – The Master . "
Tynan 's was the first generation of critics to realise that Coward 's plays might enjoy more than ephemeral success . In the 1930s , Cyril Connolly wrote that they were " written in the most topical and perishable way imaginable , the cream in them turns sour overnight " . What seemed daring in the 1920s and 1930s came to seem old @-@ fashioned in the 1950s , and Coward never repeated the success of his pre @-@ war plays . By the 1960s , critics began to note that underneath the witty dialogue and the Art Deco glamour of the inter @-@ war years , Coward 's best plays also dealt with recognisable people and familiar relationships , with an emotional depth and pathos that had been often overlooked . By the time of his death , The Times was writing of him , " None of the great figures of the English theatre has been more versatile than he " , and the paper ranked his plays in " the classical tradition of Congreve , Sheridan , Wilde and Shaw " .
A symposium published in 1999 to mark the centenary of Coward 's birth listed some of his major productions scheduled for the year in Britain and North America , including Ace of Clubs , After the Ball , Blithe Spirit , Cavalcade , Easy Virtue , Hay Fever , Present Laughter , Private Lives , Sail Away , A Song at Twilight , The Young Idea and Waiting in the Wings , with stars including Lauren Bacall , Rosemary Harris , Ian McKellen , Corin Redgrave , Vanessa Redgrave and Elaine Stritch . In another tribute , Tim Rice said of Coward 's songs : " The wit and wisdom of Noël Coward 's lyrics will be as lively and contemporary in 100 years ' time as they are today " , and many have been recorded by Damon Albarn , Ian Bostridge , The Divine Comedy , Elton John , Valerie Masterson , Paul McCartney , Michael Nyman , Pet Shop Boys , Vic Reeves , Sting , Joan Sutherland , Robbie Williams and others .
Coward 's music , writings , characteristic voice and style have been widely parodied and imitated , for instance in Monty Python , Round the Horne and Privates on Parade . Coward has frequently been depicted as a character in plays , films , television and radio shows , for example , in the 1969 Julie Andrews film Star ! ( in which Coward was portrayed by his godson , Daniel Massey ) , the BBC sitcom Goodnight Sweetheart and a BBC Radio 4 series written by Marcy Kahan in which Coward was dramatised as a detective in Design For Murder ( 2000 ) , A Bullet at Balmain 's ( 2003 ) and Death at the Desert Inn ( 2005 ) , and as a spy in Blithe Spy ( 2002 ) and Our Man In Jamaica ( 2007 ) , with Malcolm Sinclair playing Coward in each . On stage , characters based on Coward have included Beverly Carlton in the 1939 Broadway play The Man Who Came to Dinner . A play about the friendship between Coward and Dietrich , called Lunch with Marlene , by Chris Burgess , ran at the New End Theatre in 2008 . The second act presents a musical revue , including Coward songs such as " Don 't Let 's Be Beastly to the Germans " .
Coward was an early admirer of the plays of Harold Pinter and backed Pinter 's film version of The Caretaker with a £ 1 @,@ 000 investment . Some critics have detected Coward 's influence in Pinter 's plays . Tynan compared Pinter 's " elliptical patter " to Coward 's " stylised dialogue " . Pinter returned the compliment by directing the National Theatre 's revival of Blithe Spirit in 1976 .
= = Plays = =
For plays that were written more than two years before the original production , a date of composition is given and the second date given is the year when first produced ( fp ) .
= = Revues , musicals , operetta and songs = =
= = = Songs = = =
Coward wrote more than three hundred songs . The Noël Coward Society 's website , drawing on performing statistics from the publishers and the Performing Rights Society , names " Mad About the Boy " ( from Words and Music ) as Coward 's most popular song , followed , in order , by :
In the society 's second tier of favourites are :
Coward was no fan of the works of Gilbert and Sullivan , but as a songwriter was nevertheless strongly influenced by them . He recalled : " I was born into a generation that still took light music seriously . The lyrics and melodies of Gilbert and Sullivan were hummed and strummed into my consciousness at an early age . My father sang them , my mother played them ... my aunts and uncles , who were legion , sang them singly and in unison at the slightest provocation . " His colleague Terence Rattigan wrote that as a lyricist Coward was " the best of his kind since W. S. Gilbert . "
= = Films = =
Coward 's plays adapted for film include :
Films in which he participated as actor , screenwriter , director or producer are as follows :
= Cyclone Bejisa =
Cyclone Bejisa was a tropical cyclone that affected the islands of Réunion and Mauritius in early January 2014 . In late December 2013 , a tropical disturbance developed to the north of Madagascar . With favorable conditions , the low developed into a disturbance and soon into a depression on December 28 . The system continued to develop and intensified into Moderate Tropical Storm Bejisa on December 29 , with rapid intensification occurring . It developed into an Intense Tropical Cyclone on December 30 , reaching peak maximum sustained winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) . Due to an eyewall replacement cycle , Bejisa weakened , but re @-@ intensified to a secondary peak of 160 km / h ( 100 mph ) on January 1 . Increased wind shear weakened the eyewall , which passed within 15 km ( 9 mi ) of Réunion . After having moved generally south @-@ southeastward for much of its duration , Bejisa turned to the southwest on January 3 , by which time it had weakened to tropical storm status . It became a post @-@ tropical cyclone on January 5 after the convection weakened over the center , and Bejisa became extratropical the next day as it meandered southwest of Madagascar .
In its formative stages , Bejisa brought heavy rainfall to Seychelles , and it also dropped rainfall in Mauritius and Madagascar . Effects were worst on Réunion , where wind gusts were around 130 – 150 km / h ( 80 – 90 mph ) along the coast . The storm also dropped torrential rainfall , peaking at 800 mm ( 31 in ) at a volcano in Cilaos . The winds and rains downed many trees and power lines , which blocked roads and left 181 @,@ 000 people without power . About 49 % of the island also lost water supply . Bejisa left heavy damage to the agriculture industry , mainly to vanilla and sugar cane , totaling € 63 million ( US $ 85 @.@ 2 million ) in losses . The commune of Saint @-@ Paul sustained moderate damage , with losses estimated at € 3 million ( US $ 4 million ) . Bejisa killed one person on the island due to head trauma , and there were 16 injuries . Later , the cyclone produced high waves in South Africa .
= = Meteorological history = =
In late December 2013 , computer forecast models began to predict the development and cyclogenesis of a disturbance within the monsoon trough north of Madagascar . At 1800 UTC on December 27 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) noted a discrete area of disturbed weather approximately 1 @,@ 350 km ( 840 mi ) north @-@ northwest of Réunion that corresponded with model forecasts and had the potential to develop . Accompanied by a low @-@ level circulation center , the monitored storm complex developed rainbands about its southern periphery the following day . At 1200 UTC on December 28 , Météo @-@ France deemed the system sufficiently organized to be considered a tropical disturbance , the fourth system to be given such a classification by the agency that season . Upon its designation , the disturbance was analyzed to have an unusually high barometric pressure , based on nearby weather station observations . Météo @-@ France projected for the system to peak as a tropical cyclone before slightly weakening and impacting the Mascarene Islands .
Tracking southward , the disturbance steadily organized following December 28 . As a result of wind shear , the system 's low @-@ level circulation center remained partially exposed , though the shearing conditions were expected to lessen At 0000 UTC on December 29 , the disturbance was upgraded to a tropical depression . At 1800 UTC that day , the depression intensified to moderate tropical storm intensity , thus receiving the name Bejisa by the Mauritius Meteorological Services . This coincided with the improving satellite appearance of the storm 's central dense overcast . Intensification subsequently quickened , and at 0600 UTC the next day Bejisa was considered to be a severe tropical storm . Concurrently a strengthening ridge in the mid @-@ levels of the troposphere began to steer the storm towards the south @-@ southeast . Following the development of a small pinhole eye , Bejisa was upgraded to tropical cyclone status at 1200 UTC on December 30 , followed by intense tropical cyclone status six hours thereafter , with peak winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) . In addition , the JTWC estimated 1 – minute winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) , utilizing the Dvorak technique to estimate the intensity . The agency noted that decreasing wind shear , favorable outflow , and warm sea surface temperatures allowed for the intensification . At that time of the peak winds , Bejisa was located about 825 km ( 515 mi ) north @-@ northwest of Réunion .
The intensification phase of Bejisa was short @-@ lived , as an eyewall replacement cycle resulted in a slight deterioration and fluctuation of the storm 's organization and structure . On December 31 , the system weakened below intense tropical cyclone status as the eye became less organized . When the eyewall replacement cycle completed , the eye became larger and the winds increased . Late on December 31 , Bejisa passed about 125 km ( 75 mi ) west of Tromelin Island . On the next day , the cyclone attained a secondary peak intensity of 160 km / h ( 100 mph ) . However , increasing wind shear eroded the eyewall , which opened the eyewall in the northern periphery . Despite Météo @-@ France assessing that Bejisa had weakened , at the same time the JTWC estimated that the cyclone had intensified further to reach peak 1 – minute winds of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) on January 2 . That day , the storm 's center passed within 155 km ( 95 mi ) of Réunion while continuing to the southeast , and the eyewall passed within 15 km ( 9 mi ) of the island . Continued wind shear stripped the convection , coupled with cooler water temperatures , and early on January 3 , Bejisa weakened below tropical cyclone status . By that time , the ridge to the southeast turned the storm to the southwest . A slight decrease in wind shear was expected to allow the convection to rebuild on January 4 , and the storm strengthened slightly . By January 5 , Bejisa began evolving into a post @-@ tropical cyclone , with weaker convection over the center . That day , Météo @-@ France reclassified Bejisa as a post @-@ tropical depression , noting that the radius of maximum winds had expanded . On the same day , the JTWC discontinued warnings after assessing that the storm had become a subtropical cyclone . Increasing wind shear displaced the remaining convection west of the center , and Météo @-@ France discontinued advisories on Bejisa on January 6 after the exposed turned more to the south . The storm became extratropical and turned to the northeast , and was last noted on January 7 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Upon designation as a tropical disturbance , the predecessor to Cyclone Bejisa dropped heavy rainfall across the Seychelles . A weather station on Mahé observed 164 mm ( 6 @.@ 46 in ) of rain over a 24 @-@ hour period beginning on December 27 . The Farquhar Group were particularly affected , as the storm 's incipient central region of convection remained over the area for an extended period of time .
Before the storm affected Réunion , Bejisa passed west of Tromelin Island , producing winds of 80 km / h ( 49 mph ) . The storm also produced heavy rainfall on Mauritius . Rainfall and gusty winds also affected portions of Madagascar . Later , Bejisa produced high waves along the coast of KwaZulu @-@ Natal in South Africa .
= = = Réunion = = =
In advance of the storm striking Réunion , officials advised residents to remain inside . Officials ordered residents in Saint @-@ Leu along the coast to evacuate inland , and at least 300 people evacuated island @-@ wide . The airport at Saint @-@ Denis was closed , but reopened after the storm passed the island ; several flights were canceled as a result . The main port was also closed , as were most childcare facilities , and mail service was suspended . Officials issued a red alert for the island , the first since Cyclone Dumile a year prior .
On Réunion , Bejisa produced strong wind gusts , averaging 130 – 150 km / h ( 80 – 90 mph ) along the coast , and peaking in Saint @-@ Louis . The winds downed numerous trees and power lines , leaving an estimated 181 @,@ 000 people without electricity , and closing roads due to debris . All eight of the island 's high tension lines were affected . Thirty percent of cell phone service was temporarily lost due to the outages . Torrential rains impacted much of the island , with a 24 hour total of 800 mm ( 31 in ) measured at a volcano in Cilaos and 600 mm ( 24 in ) measured in a nearby town . The rains caused rivers to rise , resulting in flooding . About 49 percent of homes lost their water supply . Tremendous agricultural damage occurred across Réunion , with some areas reporting 80 – 100 percent losses . Damage in the sector reached € 63 million ( US $ 85 @.@ 2 million ) alone , mostly to sugar cane and vanilla . The communne of Saint @-@ Paul sustained moderate damage , with losses estimated at € 3 million ( US $ 4 million ) . Approximately € 1 million of this stemmed from wind and water damage to homes ; 121 residences qualified for relief aid . Along the coast , a pier was destroyed , several boats were damaged , and roads were impacted . One person died from head trauma while 16 people were injured in various incidents . Two of the injuries were severe due to falling off ladders while attempting to secure their homes during the high winds .
In the wake of Bejisa , Électricité de France ( EDF ) deployed 500 personnel and 6 helicopters to restore power on the island . Within three days , roughly 160 @,@ 000 residences were restored , considerably faster than previous restoration efforts in previous cyclones . By January 9 , all but a few dozen homes had power . In addition , water supply was largely restored within four days . A state of national disaster was declared for Réunion on January 17 , by Overseas Minister of France , Victorin Lurel . This declaration covered 16 towns on the island : Les Avirons , Cilaos , L 'Entre @-@ Deux , L 'Étang @-@ Salé , Petite @-@ Île , La Plaine @-@ des @-@ Palmistes , Le Port , La Possession , Saint @-@ Joseph , Saint @-@ Leu , Saint @-@ Louis , Saint @-@ Paul , Saint @-@ Pierre , Salazie , Le Tampon , and Trois @-@ Bassins . Insurance estimates indicated that € 25 million ( US $ 33 @.@ 8 million ) was needed for relief funding . Farmers were eligible for compensation under the disaster declaration ; however , many voiced their skepticism following a lack of follow @-@ through by the government to supply funds after Tropical Cyclone Dumile in January 2013 . Ultimately , the affected farmers had to indicate their taxed losses by February 26 to receive the assistance . By April 2014 , all farmers affected by the declaration were compensated .
= Virtual camera system =
In 3D video games , a virtual camera system aims at controlling a camera or a set of cameras to display a view of a 3D virtual world . Camera systems are used in videogames where their purpose is to show the action at the best possible angle ; more generally , they are used in 3D virtual worlds when a third person view is required .
As opposed to film makers , virtual camera system creators have to deal with a world that is interactive and unpredictable . It is not possible to know where the player 's character is going to be in the next few seconds ; therefore , it is not possible to plan the shots as a film maker would do . To solve this issue , the system relies on certain rules or artificial intelligence to select the most appropriate shots .
There are mainly three types of camera systems . In fixed camera systems , the camera does not move at all and the system displays the player 's character in a succession of still shots . Tracking cameras , on the other hand , follow the character 's movements . Finally , interactive camera systems are partially automated and allow the player to directly change the view . To implement camera systems , video game developers use techniques such as constraint solvers , artificial intelligence scripts , or autonomous agents .
= = Third @-@ person view = =
In video games , " third @-@ person " refers to a graphical perspective rendered from a fixed distance behind and slightly above the player character . This viewpoint allows players to see a more strongly characterized avatar , and is most common in action games and action adventure games . Games with this perspective often make use of positional audio , where the volume of ambient sounds varies depending on the position of the avatar .
There are primarily three types of third @-@ person camera systems : the " fixed camera systems " in which the camera positions are set during the game creation ; the " tracking camera systems " in which the camera simply follows the player 's character ; and the " interactive camera systems " that are under the player 's control .
= = = Fixed = = =
In this kind of system , the developers set the properties of the camera , such as its position , orientation or field of view , during the game creation . The camera views will not change dynamically , so the same place will always be shown under the same set of views . An early example of this kind of camera system can be seen in Alone in the Dark . While the characters are in 3D , the background on which they evolve has been pre @-@ rendered . The early Resident Evil games are notable examples of games that use fixed cameras . The God of War series of video games is also known for this technique . One advantage of this camera system is that it allows the game designers to use the language of film . Indeed , like filmmakers , they have the possibility to create a mood through camerawork and careful selection of shots . Games that use this kind of technique are often praised for their cinematic qualities .
= = = Tracking = = =
As the name says , a tracking camera follows the characters from behind . The player does not control the camera in any way - he / she cannot for example rotate it or move it to a different position . This type of camera system was very common in early 3D games such as Crash Bandicoot or Tomb Raider since it is very simple to implement . However , there are a number of issues with it . In particular , if the current view is not suitable ( either because it is occluded by an object , or because it is not showing what the player is interested in ) , it cannot be changed since the player does not control the camera . Sometimes this viewpoint causes difficulty when a character turns or stands face out against a wall . The camera may jerk or end up in awkward positions .
= = = Interactive = = =
This type of camera system is an improvement over the tracking camera system . While the camera is still tracking the character , some of its parameters , such as its orientation or distance to the character , can be changed . On videogame consoles , the camera is often controlled by an analog stick to provide a good accuracy ; whereas on PC games it is usually controlled by the mouse . This is the case in games such as Super Mario Sunshine or The Legend of Zelda : The Wind Waker . Fully interactive camera systems are often difficult to implement in the right way . Thus Gamespot argues that much of the Super Mario Sunshine ' difficulty comes from having to control the camera . The Legend of Zelda : The Wind Waker was more successful at it - IGN called the camera system " so smart that it rarely needs manual correction " .
One of the first games to offer an interactive camera system was Super Mario 64 . The game had two types of camera systems between which the player could switch at any time . The first one was a standard tracking camera system except that it was partly driven by artificial intelligence . Indeed , the system was " aware " of the structure of the level and therefore could anticipate certain shots . For example , in the first level , when the path to the hill is about to turn left , the camera automatically starts looking towards the left too , thus anticipating the player 's movements . The second type allows the player to control the camera relatively to Mario 's position . By pressing on the left or right buttons , the camera rotates around Mario , while pressing up or down moves the camera closer or away from Mario .
= = Implementation = =
There is a large body of research on how to implement a camera system . The role of a constraint solver software is to generate the best possible shot given a set of visual constraints . In other words , the constraint solver is given a requested shot composition such as " show this character and ensure that he covers at least 30 percent of the screen space " . The solver will then use various methods to try creating a shot that would satisfy this request . Once a suitable shot is found , the solver outputs the coordinates and rotation of the camera , which can then be used by the graphic engine renderer to display the view .
In some camera systems , if no solution can be found , constraints are relaxed . For example , if the solver cannot generate a shot where the character occupies 30 percent of the screen space , it might ignore the screen space constraint and simply ensure that the character is visible at all . Such methods include zooming out .
Some camera systems use predefined scripts to decide how to select the current shot for commonly seen shot scenarios called film idioms . Typically , the script is going to be triggered as a result of an action . For instance , when the player 's character initiates a conversation with another character , the " conversation " script is going to be triggered . This script will contain instructions on how to " shoot " a two @-@ character conversation . Thus the shots will be a combination of , for instance , over the shoulder shots and close @-@ up shots . Such script @-@ based approaches may switch the camera between a set of predefined cameras or rely on a constraint solver to generate the camera coordinates to account for variability in scene layout . This scripted approach and the use of a constraint solver to compute virtual cameras was first proposed by Drucker . Subsequent research demonstrated how a script @-@ based system could automatically switch cameras to view conversations between avatars in a realtime chat application .
Bill Tomlinson used a more original approach to the problem . He devised a system in which the camera is an autonomous agent with its own personality . The style of the shots and their rhythm will be affected by its mood . Thus a happy camera will " cut more frequently , spend more time in close @-@ up shots , move with a bouncy , swooping motion , and brightly illuminate the scene " .
While much of the prior work in automated virtual camera control systems has been directed towards reducing the need for a human to manually control the camera , the Director 's Lens solution computes and proposes a palette of suggested virtual camera shots leaving the human operator to make the creative shot selection . In computing subsequent suggested virtual camera shots , the system analyzes the visual compositions and editing patterns of prior recorded shots to compute suggested camera shots that conform to continuity conventions such as not crossing the line of action , match placement of virtual characters so they appear to look at one another across cuts , and favors those shots which the human operator had previously used in sequence .
= = In mixed @-@ reality applications = =
In 2010 , the Kinect was released by Microsoft as a 3D scanner / webcam hybrid peripheral device which provides full @-@ body detection of Xbox 360 players and hands @-@ free control of the user interfaces of video games and other software on the console . This was later modified by Oliver Kreylos of University of California , Davis in a series of YouTube videos which showed him combining the Kinect with a PC @-@ based virtual camera . Because the Kinect is capable of detecting a full range of depth ( through computer stereo vision and Structured light ) within a captured scene , Kreylos demonstrated the capacity of the Kinect and the virtual camera to allow free @-@ viewpoint navigation of the range of depth , although the camera could only allow a video capture of the scene as shown to the front of the Kinect , resulting in fields of black , empty space where the camera was unable to capture video within the field of depth . Later , Kreylos demonstrated a further elaboration on the modification by combining the video streams of two Kinects in order to further enhance the video capture within the view of the virtual camera . Kreylos ' developments using the Kinect were covered among the works of others in the Kinect hacking and homebrew community in a New York Times article .
= = Real @-@ time recording and motion tracking = =
Virtual cameras have been developed which allow a director to film motion capture and view the digital characters movements in real time in a pre @-@ constructed digital environment , such as a house or spaceship . Resident Evil 5 was the first video game to use the technology , which was developed for the 2009 film Avatar . The use of motion capture to control the position and orientation of a virtual camera enables the operator to intuitively move and aim the virtual camera by simply walking about and turning the virtual camera rig . A virtual camera rig consists of a portable monitor or tablet device , motion sensors , optional support framework , and optional joystick or button controls that are commonly used to start or stop recording and adjust lens properties . In 1992 , Michael McKenna of MIT 's Media Lab demonstrated the earliest documented virtual camera rig when he fixed a Polhemus magnetic motion sensor and a 3 @.@ 2 inch portable LCD TV to a wooden ruler . The Walkthrough Project at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill produced a number of physical input devices for virtual camera view control including dual three @-@ axis joysticks and a billiard @-@ ball shaped prop known as the UNC Eyeball that featured an embedded six @-@ degree of freedom motion tracker and a digital button .
= Manchester City F.C. in European football =
Manchester City , an English professional association football club , has gained entry to Union of European Football Associations ( UEFA ) competitions on several occasions . They have represented England in the European Cup ( now the Champions League ) on five occasions , the UEFA Cup ( now the Europa League ) on seven separate occasions , and the now @-@ defunct Cup Winners ' Cup twice . Manchester City are one of twelve English football clubs to have won a European title , in City 's case the 1969 – 70 Cup Winners Cup .
The club 's first entry into European competition occurred in 1968 , as a result of winning the 1967 – 68 Football League Championship . However , the participation was short @-@ lived , as the club suffered a surprise defeat at the hands of Fenerbahçe in the first round . Entry into the Cup Winners ' Cup the following season was more successful ; Manchester City won the competition , defeating Górnik Zabrze 2 – 1 at the Prater Stadium in Vienna . The club reached the semi @-@ final of the same competition the following year , and continued to play European football regularly during the 1970s . The club then endured a period of decline , and did not play in Europe again until 2003 , a gap of 24 years . Since then the club has qualified for European competition on a regular basis .
In the 1970s Manchester City also had a track record of repeated entry into several of the non @-@ UEFA sanctioned European competitions which were run in the era , including the Anglo @-@ Italian League Cup and the Texaco Cup .
= = History = =
= = = First entries into European competition = = =
European club football competitions began in the mid @-@ 1950s . Though Manchester City were moderately successful domestically in this period , the club did not play in Europe . City were not invited to play in the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup , and the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup did not begin until 1960 . When eight players from neighbours Manchester United lost their lives in the Munich air disaster when returning from a European Cup match in February 1958 , UEFA wished for City to take United 's place in the competition . City rejected the idea out of hand .
Manchester City 's first appearance in European competition occurred in the 1968 – 69 season . City played in the European Cup , by virtue of having won the 1967 – 68 league championship . Extroverted Manchester City coach Malcolm Allison made a number of grandiose statements predicting how the team would fare , saying that City would " terrify Europe " , and that " City will attack these people as they have not been attacked since the days of the old Real Madrid " . The opposition in the first round was Turkish club Fenerbahçe . The City management did not scout Fenerbahçe in advance of the game , opting to rely on a report from Oscar Hold , an Englishman who had managed Fenerbahçe between 1965 and 1967 . In the first leg at Maine Road , City had what the Guardian 's Albert Barham called " overwhelming territorial advantage " . However , to the frustration of the home crowd City were denied by a strong defensive performance by Fenerbahçe , most notably by goalkeeper Yavuz Şimşek , and the match finished 0 – 0 . The return leg in Istanbul was played in front of a Turkish record crowd . City took an early lead through Tony Coleman , but conceded two goals in the second half and were eliminated .
Manchester City won the 1969 FA Cup Final to earn a place in the 1969 – 70 UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup . Their first tie was against Atletico of Bilbao , in Spain 's Basque Country . Atletico were themselves managed by an Englishman , Ronnie Allen . In the first leg , City recovered from a two @-@ goal deficit to secure a 3 – 3 draw . The home leg was a routine 3 – 0 win . Post @-@ match reports alleged that a scuffle had taken place at half @-@ time between Mike Doyle and José Ramón Betzuen , The referee spoke to both managers , but did not take any further action .
In the second round City travelled to Belgians Lierse S.K. , and won the first leg 3 – 0 , with two goals from Francis Lee and one from Colin Bell . The home leg produced a 5 – 0 win , a club record for European competition that as of 2012 has still not been exceeded . The first leg of the quarter @-@ final , at Académica de Coimbra , took place three days before Manchester City were due to play in the League Cup final . Malcolm Allison rejected the prevailing British football orthodoxy , in which domestic competitions took priority , by saying he would rather win in Portugal than in the League Cup final . The match finished goalless . At Maine Road , extra @-@ time was required for Manchester City to break down the stubbornly defensive Coimbra . Tony Towers scored the only goal of the tie with a minute of extra @-@ time remaining .
The draw for the semi @-@ finals meant Manchester City played the away leg first in every round , this time in Germany , where Schalke 04 were the opposition . Manchester City lost the first leg by a single goal . Needing to win at Maine Road by at least two goals , Manchester City used a very attacking approach . It worked ; City led 3 – 0 at half @-@ time , and won the match 5 – 1 . In the final , City faced Górnik Zabrze of Poland , who had progressed via a coin toss after three matches with AS Roma could not produce a winner in the other semi @-@ final .
= = = 1970 Cup Winners ' Cup final = = =
The final was held at a neutral venue , Prater Stadium in Vienna . The match took place in torrential rain , adversely affecting the attendance . The official figure was 7 @,@ 968 , though sources vary , with a number of figures between 7 @,@ 968 and 15 @,@ 000 reported . Of those , approximately 5 @,@ 000 were Manchester City supporters . Due to Eastern bloc travel restrictions , only 300 supporters , relatives and officials were permitted to travel from Poland .
Manchester City started the match strongly , particularly Francis Lee ; The Guardian correspondent wrote " Lee , indefatigable and nigh irresistible continually embarrassed the Górnik defence in the early stages " . Lee had the first chance of the match , a close range shot which was saved by Kostka . Manchester City took the lead in the 12th minute . Lee cut in from the left wing , escaping a tackle from Alfred Olek , and struck a fierce shot . Goalkeeper Hubert Kostka parried the ball , only for it to land at the feet of Neil Young for a simple finish . Shortly after City defender Mike Doyle sustained an ankle injury after colliding with Stefan Florenski . Manchester City played on with ten men for a period as Doyle received treatment from trainer Dave Ewing , but the defender was unable to continue . Substitute Ian Bowyer replaced him . The change prompted an alteration in formation , in which Colin Bell switched to a deeper position . Shortly before half @-@ time , Young won the ball after loose play from Florenski , which put him clear on goal . As Young moved into the penalty area Kostka rushed out of his goal and upended him , leaving the referee no option but to give a penalty . Lee struck the spot @-@ kick with power into the centre of the goal . Kostka 's legs made contact with the ball , but the force of the shot carried it into the net to make it 2 – 0 . Górnik got a goal back midway through the second half , but there were no more goals and the match finished 2 – 1 .
After the match City manager Joe Mercer said " the heavy rain in the second half ruined the game " and that he was " quite happy with the performance of our team , although the technical level was rather low in the second half " . Górnik manager Michał Matyas blamed his side 's poor start , saying the " first goal came too early for us and we never recovered from this shock . " The trophy was Manchester City 's fourth major honour in three seasons . It made them the third English club to win the Cup Winners ' Cup , after Tottenham Hotspur and West Ham United .
= = = Regular participation in the 1970s = = =
As title holders , Manchester City were entitled to defend the Cup Winners ' Cup in the 1970 – 71 season . Had they not won the trophy , they would still have been qualified for European competition , as City 's victory in the 1970 League Cup granted a place in the Fairs Cup . As a UEFA @-@ organised competition , the Cup Winners ' Cup took precedence over the Fairs Cup , and so the club took a place in the former . In the first round Manchester City almost suffered an upset at the hands of Linfield , from Belfast . City held a one @-@ goal lead after the first leg , but Linfield twice took the lead in the second leg . The match finished 2 – 1 to Linfield , and Manchester City progressed on the away goals rule . Honvéd were the opposition in the second round . Manchester City won both legs , the score 3 – 0 on aggregate .
The quarter @-@ final saw a rematch with Górnik Zabrze , who City had beaten in the previous year 's final . Both legs finished 2 – 0 to the home team , so to separate the sides a third match was played on neutral ground , in Copenhagen . Despite having several players unavailable through injury , City won this match 3 – 1 , and were drawn to play fellow English club Chelsea in the semi @-@ final , to date the only time Manchester City have drawn another English club in European competition . Further injuries occurred in domestic fixtures in the run @-@ up to the game , to the extent that goalkeeper Joe Corrigan played the first leg of the Chelsea tie unable to fully open his left eye because of a facial injury . City lost the first leg at Stamford Bridge 1 – 0 . Corrigan was unable to play in the second leg , in which stand @-@ in goalkeeper Ron Healey conceded an own goal , resulting in another 1 – 0 defeat .
A mid @-@ table finish in 1970 – 71 meant that for the first time in four years Manchester City did not qualify for Europe . The following year , a fourth @-@ placed league finish gave the club a berth in the UEFA Cup for the first time . The UEFA Cup had replaced the Fairs Cup in 1971 , when control of the competition transferred to UEFA . City 's debut in the competition was a short one . Drawn against a Valencia side managed by Alfredo Di Stéfano , City were bounced out in the 2nd leg at the Mestalla 3 @-@ 2 , despite producing a pulsating 2 – 2 draw at Maine Road in the 1st leg .
Triumph in the 1976 League Cup final gave Manchester City a place in the UEFA Cup after a four @-@ year absence . City drew Juventus in the first round . Drawn at home first , City won the first leg 1 – 0 , Brian Kidd scoring his first goal for the club . The second leg in Turin resulted in a 2 – 0 defeat and elimination . Juventus went on to win the competition . As league runners @-@ up in 1976 – 77 , Manchester City again qualified for the UEFA Cup . Drawn against Widzew Łódź , City drew the first leg at Maine Road 2 – 2 . In the late 1970s , hooliganism was becoming a more prominent part of English football . Following an incident where a fan invaded the pitch and attacked Widzew 's Zbigniew Boniek , City were fined by UEFA , and fencing was erected between the pitch and the stands . A 0 – 0 draw in Łódź resulted in City 's elimination on the away goals rule .
A league finish of fifth in 1977 – 78 proved sufficient to qualify for Europe . Dutchmen FC Twente were the first opposition . In Enschede , Dave Watson gave City the lead . Twente equalised in the second half from a free kick . In the second leg City ran up a 3 – 1 lead , but a second Twente goal meant a nervy finish . City held on , preserving their 3 – 2 lead to win the tie . This was the first time the club had progressed past the first round of the UEFA Cup in four attempts . Further opposition from the Low Countries awaited in the second round , in the form of Standard Liège . A flurry of late goals gave Manchester City a 4 – 0 lead after the first leg . The large lead meant that despite a 2 – 0 defeat in Liège , in which Gary Owen received a red card , City progressed with ease . Owen 's sending off resulted in a five match ban .
In the third round City faced four @-@ time European trophy winners A.C. Milan . The first leg , held at the San Siro , was initially postponed due to fog , and was instead played the following day . City took a 2 – 0 lead and came close to becoming the first English team to beat Milan at the San Siro , but conceded twice ; the equaliser scored eight minutes from time . City won the home leg 3 – 0 , with goals from Booth , Hartford and Kidd . City 's first European quarter @-@ final since 1971 was against Borussia Mönchengladbach . The club received advice from Bob Paisley , whose Liverpool had met Mönchengladbach several times . City opened the scoring in the first leg , but while attempting to extend their lead were caught on the counter @-@ attack and conceded an equaliser . After failing to win the home leg , having conceded an away goal in the process , City travelled to Germany with few expecting them to progress . So it proved , as City lost 3 – 1 at the Bökelbergstadion .
= = = Return to Europe in the 2000s = = =
Manchester City 's fortunes declined during the 1980s and 1990s . For a single season , 1998 – 99 , the club fell as far as English football 's third tier . The club did not qualify for European competition in this period . In ordinary circumstances , the club 's fifth @-@ placed finish in 1991 and 1992 would have granted a UEFA Cup place . However , English clubs had recently returned from a ban issued after the Heysel Stadium disaster . As the UEFA coefficient that determines the number of places per country is based upon performances in European competition over the previous five years , England had a reduced allocation until 1995 .
By the 2002 – 03 season , Manchester City were back in the Premier League . An unusual route into European competition for the 2003 – 04 season was provided by the UEFA Respect Fair Play ranking , which provided extra UEFA Cup qualifying round places for the leagues with the best records for discipline and positive play . This marked Manchester City 's first European participation for 24 years . In the qualifying round City played Welsh club Total Network Solutions . The first leg was the first @-@ ever competitive match at Manchester City 's new ground , the City of Manchester Stadium . Trevor Sinclair became the first ever goalscorer at the stadium in a 5 – 0 win . In the hope of attracting a large crowd , TNS switched the second leg to Millennium Stadium , the national stadium of Wales . With the tie effectively won , City made 10 changes to their team . The match finished 2 – 0 to City . Against Sporting Lokeren in the first round proper , City won the home leg 3 – 2 , and the away leg 1 – 0 . A tie against Groclin Dyskobolia followed . Both legs were drawn , and just as in 1976 , City were eliminated on away goals after a 0 – 0 draw in Poland .
In 2008 Manchester City once again qualified for the UEFA Cup through the Fair Play rankings . As City had to play the qualifying rounds , it meant a very early start to the season , in mid @-@ July . Their first match was a trip to the remote Faroe Islands to play EB / Streymur . As Streymur 's ground had a capacity of only 1 @,@ 000 , the match was moved to Tórsvøllur , the Faroese national stadium . Two early goals gave City a 2 – 0 win . The home leg was unusual in that it was played outside Manchester . The pitch at the City of Manchester Stadium had been relaid following a Bon Jovi concert , and was not ready in time . Instead , the match was played at Barnsley 's Oakwell ground . Another 2 – 0 win resulted in a 4 – 0 aggregate scoreline . In the second qualifying round City played FC Midtjylland . The first leg ended in a 1 – 0 defeat , only City 's second ever home defeat in European competition . In the second leg City looked to be heading out of the competition until an 89th minute cross was diverted into his own net by Midtjylland 's Danny Califf . The tie then went to extra time , and City progressed on penalties . In the first round proper Cypriots AC Omonia took the lead , but City overcame the deficit and won 2 – 1 , and also won the second leg by the same scoreline .
A five team group stage then followed , in which each team played the others once . Manchester City were drawn with Twente , Schalke 04 , Racing de Santander and Paris Saint @-@ Germain . City topped the group , after wins against Twente and Schalke , a draw with Paris Saint @-@ Germain and a defeat in a dead rubber in Santander . The knockout stages then resumed , with a visit to F.C. Copenhagen in freezing conditions . City took the lead twice but could only draw 2 – 2 . The home leg was more comfortable , and ended in a 2 – 1 victory . Another Danish club , Aalborg , awaited in the next round . Both matches finished 2 – 0 to the home side , and the tie was decided by a penalty shootout , which Manchester City won . City then faced Hamburger SV , in their first European quarter @-@ final since 1979 . The away leg was played first , and started exceptionally well for Manchester City , as Stephen Ireland scored after just 35 seconds . However , Hamburg soon equalised , and won the match 3 – 1 . A difficult task in the home leg soon became even harder , when Hamburg scored an away goal early in the match . City scored twice , the first by Elano , who also hit the woodwork on two occasions with free @-@ kicks . However , City could not produce the third goal that would have taken the tie into extra time .
UEFA rebranded and restructured the UEFA Cup in 2009 , resulting in it becoming the UEFA Europa League . By finishing fifth in the 2009 – 10 Premier League , Manchester City qualified for this competition . A play @-@ off round took place before the four team group stage , in which Manchester City beat Timișoara of Romania home and away . City 's group stage opponents were Juventus , Red Bull Salzburg and Lech Poznań . Each team played the others twice . City 's opener was in Salzburg , and resulted in a 2 – 0 win . A 1 – 1 draw at home to Juventus then followed . A 3 – 1 win at home to Lech Poznań is remembered primarily not for the action on the pitch , in which Emmanuel Adebayor scored a hat @-@ trick , but for the actions of the Polish supporters , whose backs to the pitch dance was later adopted by Manchester City fans , for whom it became known as The Poznań . The return match with Lech Poznań resulted in a 3 – 1 defeat , but a 3 – 0 home victory over Red Bull Salzburg ensured qualification with a match to spare . The dead rubber against Juventus ended 1 – 1 , and Manchester City won the group . In the knockout stages City then beat Aris Thessaloniki 3 – 0 on aggregate , and met Dynamo Kyiv in the last 16 . City lost 2 – 0 in Kyiv , and had to play most of the second leg with ten men after Mario Balotelli was sent off . A 1 – 0 win was insufficient to overcome the deficit , as City lost 2 – 1 on aggregate .
Manchester City finished third in the 2010 – 11 Premier League , to qualify for the rebranded version of the European Cup , the UEFA Champions League , for the first time . The club 's league finish granted direct entry into the group stages without qualification . Their group stage opponents were Bayern Munich , Villarreal and Napoli . City 's first group match was at home to Napoli . The Italians took the lead in the second half following a counter @-@ attacking move , but five minutes later Aleksandar Kolarov scored from a free @-@ kick to equalise , and the match finished 1 – 1 . City then lost 2 – 0 at Bayern Munich , a match most notable for the refusal of Carlos Tevez to come on as substitute , which resulted in an exile from the first team lasting nearly six months . A double @-@ header with Villarreal resulted in two Manchester City wins . Sergio Agüero scored a last @-@ minute winner in the first , which finished 2 – 1 ;
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and he was the only cartoonist named on Nixon 's Enemies List . From 1977 – 1978 , Conrad held the Richard M. Nixon Chair at Whittier College , Nixon 's alma mater .
Conrad 's editorial cartoons later appeared in exhibitions at the USC Annenberg School for Communication and Journalism . He authored several books about his work and donated many of his original editorial cartoons to the Prints and Photographs Division of the United States Library of Congress .
His influence and legacy as an editorial cartoonist are explored in the documentary film Paul Conrad : Drawing Fire ( 2007 ) . In honor of this legacy , the " Paul Conrad Scholarship " is annually awarded to journalism and mass communication students by the University of Iowa . The Huntington Library , which hosts the Conrad Collection papers , calls his body of work " a powerful record of key issues that have confronted [ the United States ] in the second half of the twentieth century " .
= = Public sculptures = =
Trinity ( Statue , Marymount California University )
Risen Christ ( Altar piece , St. John Fisher Church , Rancho Palos Verdes , CA )
Otis Chandler ( Bust , Los Angeles Times building )
Chain Reaction , ( Monument , Santa Monica Civic Center )
= = Publications = =
When in the Course of Human Events ( 1973 )
The King and Us ( 1974 )
Pro and Conrad ( 1979 )
Drawn and Quartered ( 1985 )
CONartist ( 1993 )
Drawing The Line ( 1999 )
= History of Burnside =
The history of Burnside , a local government area in the metropolitan area of Adelaide , South Australia , spans three centuries . Burnside was inhabited by the Kaurna Indigenous people prior to European settlement , living around the creeks of the River Torrens during the winter and in the Adelaide Hills during the summer . The area was first settled in 1839 by Peter Anderson , a Scots migrant , who named it Burnside after his property 's location adjacent to Second Creek ( in Scots , ' Burn ' means creek or stream ) . The village of Burnside was established shortly after , and the District Council of Burnside was gazetted in 1856 , separating itself from the larger East Torrens Council .
The mainstays of the early Burnside economy were viticulture , mining and olive groves ; Glen Osmond boasted substantial mineral deposits , and vineyards were established at Magill . The present council chambers were built in 1926 in Tusmore ; the council became a municipality in 1935 . With strong growth and development throughout the region , Burnside was then proclaimed a city in 1943 . The 1960s brought to Burnside a community library and a swimming centre ; both were further expanded and upgraded between 1997 and 2001 . Today , Burnside is one of Adelaide 's most upper @-@ class and sought @-@ after regions in which to live .
= = Early villages = =
The village of Kensington was established in May 1839 , only 29 months after the foundation of the colony . The village was primarily agricultural and had a close relationship with the nearby village of Norwood . The two villages formed one of Adelaide 's first municipalities in 1853 as Norwood and Kensington , evolving into today 's City of Norwood Payneham St Peters . Parts of Kensington that are now included in Burnside are the suburbs of Kensington Gardens and Kensington Park . The village of Makgill ( later Magill ) was first established as the 524 @-@ acre ( 2 @.@ 1 km2 ) Makgill Estate , owned by two Scots — Robert Cock and William Ferguson — who met on board the Buffalo en route to the newly founded colony . It was named after Mrs Cock 's trustee , David M Makgill . Ferguson , who was charged with farming the estate , built the estate 's homestead in 1838 . Soon after farming started , the two were short of funds , and thus Magill became the first foothills village to be subdivided . The village of Glen Osmond was closely associated with the discovery of silver and lead on the slopes of Mount Osmond by two Cornish immigrants . Their discovery of minerals provided the colony with valuable export income , at a time when the early South Australian economy was not yet established and facing bankruptcy . Governor Gawler visited the early discovery and the first mine , Wheal Gawler , was named in his honour . South Australia 's first mine exported overseas throughout the 1840s , providing employment to early Cornish and then German immigrants after several mines were bought by a German businessman . The early village assumed a strong Cornish , and later a German character . Mining declined after an exodus of workers when a gold rush began in 1851 in the neighbouring colony of Victoria .
The Anderson family was the first to settle the land that was to become the village of Burnside . They brought with them good character testimonials from Scotland , valuable farming experience and 3000 pounds ; however , the farming patterns in Scotland differed greatly from those in the antipodes , and the family failed to adapt . The Andersons moved on to Morphett Vale in 1847 , selling their land and abandoning their homestead . The buyer of the Anderson land , William Randell , soon decided to build a village in his new property in 1849 . He hired surveyor and planner Nathan Hailes to lay out the new village . Hailes was both surprised and disappointed when he found that it had already been settled and left — especially since the growth and adaptation of European foliage to the area . The first villages to be established in the region , those of Glen Osmond , Magill and Kensington had existed for some time when the new village of Burnside was proclaimed . The new village was in a good position to grow ; it was bounded by two major thoroughfares , Burnside ( now Glynburn ) and Greenhill Roads , and had the advantage of lying on Second Creek . The village was soon attracting residents ; some of whom were wealthy Adelaide folk building an estate in the foothills , and others who were more concerned with working the land . The village was described in advertisements by Hailes in 1850 as " Burnside the Beautiful " with advantages of " perpetual running water , extensive and diversified view , rich garden soil and good building stone ... " with a " ... direct , newly @-@ opened and unblemished route to Adelaide " .
= = District councils = =
Originally , all the villages in what was to become the Burnside District Council were in the then District Council of East Torrens of 159 km2 ( 61 sq mi ) . East Torrens bordered the River Torrens in the north , the Adelaide Hills to the east , Mount Barker Road to the south , and the Adelaide Parklands to the west . East Torrens was gazetted in 1853 by the District Councils Act 1852 ; the Act stipulated that there be five elected members to the council , each representing a ward . Dr David Wark ( St Bernards ) , James Cobbledick ( Uraidla ) , Charles Bonney ( Norwood ) , Daniel Ferguson ( Glenunga ) and George Müller ( Stepney ) were the council 's first representatives . Bonney , in addition to being a councillor , was the Commissioner of Crown Lands . The councillors met for the first time at World 's End Hotel in Magill on 12 June 1853 . Initial plans were put in place to first survey and evaluate the council area and to collect licence fees and taxes as provided for by the Councils Act .
TB Penfold of Magill , a former captain , was to become the first District Clerk and Collector on 1 January 1854 . On 4 January 1854 there was a vote in which ratepayers decided on how much they would pay to the council ( one shilling to a pound ) ; it was also decided at this point to exempt charitable organisations , schools and churches from rates . In 1855 the population of the council area was 3 @,@ 705 , higher by a thousand than the adjacent Corporate Town of Kensington and Norwood . The huge East Torrens was not to prove as stable as Kensington and Norwood . Ratepayers were frustrated as to where their money was going ; councillors did not have the administration or funds to operate effectively and the interests of the area were hugely varied . The area was split into three on 14 August 1856 . The District Council of Payneham separated and formed to the north @-@ west and the District Council of Burnside was formed in the south @-@ eastern corner in an area of 15 @.@ 9 km2 ( 6 @.@ 1 sq mi ) . East Torrens council was further divided in 1858 with the secession of the District Council of Crafers .
= = Lone Burnside = =
After shedding the burden of less profitable and unwieldy land with its angry residents , Burnside was on its own . The new Burnside District Council held its first meeting at the Greengate Inn , Tusmore on 19 August 1856 . Due to the time it took to elect new councillors , it was not until 29 December that the council met again . Dr Christopher Penfold , chairman , met the rest of the representatives there : Daniel Ferguson of Glenunga , Alexander Ferguson of Monreith , John Townsend of Magill and James Grylls of Belle Vue . It was during this time that Kent Town decided against becoming a part of Burnside and instead applied to enter the Corporate Town of Kensington and Norwood . The council was to meet at the Inn or at Ferguson 's home right up until December 1869 , when the first council chambers were built . However , it was still able to operate and fulfill its obligations under the Local Government Act 1852 . These included the management of minor roads , the administration of abattoir licences and public houses , and the prevention of the spread of the noxious Scotch thistle . The council was also obliged , under a different act of 1851 , to encourage education . Much road and bridgework activity happened after the council had been formed — early residents were amazed at the influx of development and construction that occurred . At the same time , the council was almost overwhelmed by the amount of work requested , and was forced to ask individual ratepayers for monetary assistance when building bridges in their area .
Much of Burnside 's history has been observed and documented by institutions that have remained an important part of the lives of its residents : the school and the church . The first school to open in the area was in Magill during 1846 , preceding a proper statewide education system . Magill Primary School was enlarged in November 1855 , when 38 boys and 29 girls enrolled ; they were taught reading , writing , arithmetic , grammar , geography , history , drawing and singing by a sole teacher . By 1865 there were two teachers . Glen Osmond Primary School was established in October 1858 , preceding the Glen Osmond Institute , a centre for community debate and learning . Burnside Primary School was built in 1872 , taking over from a small private institution . These primary schools , in the absence of proper libraries and similar institutions , received large collections of books and writings from the town 's residents . Residents also took advantage of schools for frequent and heated debates on the future of the state and region , and these discussions often drew large crowds . However , even with this intellectual spirit , the adult population was still relatively disadvantaged in the sphere of education . The drive for learning continued until the Boer War placed more emphasis on physical activity and merit within society . Somewhat strangely , this development of learned activity was not replicated in Burnside 's traditional centre near Tusmore , where the present Council Chambers , Community Centre and Library are located .
By 1871 Burnside had grown significantly ; it was now a mix of villages supporting a modest population of 1 @,@ 557 . By comparison , Kensington @-@ Norwood , though smaller in area , had grown to 5 @,@ 132 persons . Glen Osmond , still affected by its immense growth following the expansion of mining , was the largest single population centre with 343 residents . The District Council had also constructed its first council chambers in December 1869 , finally concluding the haphazard meeting agreement . Two villages , Beulah Park ( North Kensington ) and Eastwood experienced booms in population growth and development between 1870 and 1880 , providing both housing to new immigrants and investments for the wealthy Adelaide Establishment . Parkside Hospital ( now Glenside ) , a mental health asylum was constructed in 1866 to replace a crowded building in the Parklands . Built on beautifully tended grounds and with an elaborate façade , it was an early Burnside architectural monument . In 1881 Thomas Cooper started brewing South Australia 's first branded beer , ' Coopers ' , at Leabrook . During this era , Stonyfell saw economic expansion as well ; its large quarry changed hands in 1867 and the Stonyfell Olive Co was founded in 1873 . The late 19th century was a significant time of development in Burnside . This development , however , was brought to an abrupt end in the last decade , the 1890s , when depression stuck the economies of Australasia after decades of reckless expansion , hitting Burnside hard .
= = New era = =
By the turn of the 20th century , Burnside was becoming more urbanised . Paddocks were still scattered throughout the area but the villages were steadily growing . Toorak Gardens , Dulwich and other near @-@ city villages were gazetted and made open to settlements and advertised now as suburbs , moving on from earlier times . By 1920 , the District Council had a population of 17 @,@ 000 , living in 4 @,@ 000 houses . Ten per cent of the £ 60 @,@ 000 budget consisted of commercial enterprise payments , while the rest was made up of ratepayer fees . The South Australian Government had enacted more laws in relation to local government , in particular , the Town Planning Act 1920 and the Building Act 1923 . These assigned more responsibility to councils , but at a time of necessity ; Adelaide was gradually expanding . Burnside councillors advised the State Government to acquire and manage pleasure resorts ; a kiosk was opened at Waterfall Gully and the Morialta Conservation Park established on this advice . Burnside was treated with high regard by Adelaide newspapers in response to its elaborate greening and tree planting schemes . " Beautiful Burnside : Picturesque Streets " was the headline of The Chronicle on 24 March 1928 . The council was preserving old trees and planting approximately 500 a year . A Burnside councillor , HES Melbourne , was adored in this period ; he spent his own money acquiring reserves and land for residents due to a lack of funds during the Great Depression . He presided over lean but reasonable budgets and oversaw the planting of trees and foliage to beautify the city . Gordon Allen , a local resident who succeeded Melbourne as a councillor , described Melbourne : " No Council ever had a better man . " Melbourne also oversaw the building of the Mount Osmond golf course , but his vision of constructing a Country Club was never realised .
Development restrictions preceding the Hills Face Zone were established in the 1920s ; the council was obligated to adhere to strict guidelines . 1928 saw the building of grand new Council Chambers at the corner of Greenhill and Portrush Roads ; they are still in use today . Floods devastated Waterfall Gully in 1931 . Burnside continued to grow ; in 1935 the District Council of Burnside became the Municipality of Burnside . By 1941 , only 401 acres ( 1 @.@ 6 km2 ) remained under cultivation . In 1945 , much of the area that forms today 's Cleland Conservation Park was purchased by the State Government , in large part because of the lobbying efforts of Professor Sir John Cleland . Most of this land , including the Waterfall Gully area , was later combined in 1963 to create the park that extends eastwards up into the hills to the summit of Mount Lofty and northwards to Greenhill Road . During 1943 , the Municipality of Burnside was proclaimed the City of Burnside .
Many of Burnside 's sons fought in World Wars I and II ; on their return they were honoured with memorials , and in particular , the name of Burnside 's first community hospital . The Burnside War Memorial Hospital was opened in April 1949 in Toorak Gardens , built in a house donated by a local resident , Otto van Reiben . The present name was adopted in 1956 . Memorials to the fallen can be found all over Burnside ; in Hazelwood Park opposite the swimming centre , at schools and churches , in reserves . Like much of Australia , Burnside held true to the phrase " Lest We Forget " , which is emblazoned on many of the community @-@ erected memorials . In Rose Park on Alexandra Avenue , there is a large monument and statue of an Australian Imperial Force soldier with its plaque stating : " In Memory of the Fallen : World War II , Korea , Vietnam " . Upon their arrival home the servicemen formed several Returned Services League clubs in the City of Burnside .
= = Centennial = =
When Australia celebrated the Golden Jubilee of the Federation of Australia in 1951 , Burnside residents joined in the celebrations , and in 1956 commemorated the centennial of their own town . A post @-@ war economic and baby boom under the Playford Government saw Burnside grow at a spectacular rate ; from a population of 27 @,@ 942 in 1947 , it grew to 38 @,@ 768 in 1961 . As suburbs devoured the remaining paddocks , 1953 saw the building of a public ballroom , 1965 saw an Olympic Grandstand ; both in Kensington Park . In 1963 the Cleland Conservation Park was founded on Burnside 's eastern borders .
Burnside 's road system was completely bitumenised during the 1960s and 1970s through government @-@ sponsored roadworks programmes . Plans were also laid out to replace the winding and dangerous Mount Barker Road . One of these proposals was the Burnside @-@ Crafers Highway , which was strongly supported by council ; it envisaged leaving Greenhill Road once reaching Hazelwood Park . It was then to pass through Hazelwood Park and Beaumont , wind around the hills of Waterfall Gully and then go over Eagle on the Hill to meet Crafers . The Burnside Council put much effort into this proposal , widening Linden Avenue ( which runs north @-@ west to south @-@ east ) in preparation for the highway . The proposal was eventually rejected in favour of upgrading Mount Barker Road and Linden Avenue remained a huge out @-@ of @-@ place road running through an otherwise peaceful suburb .
Burnside gained a public library with a collection of 7 @,@ 800 books in 1961 after it was first suggested in February 1959 ; the cost of establishing a library for the residents was more affordable since the Libraries Act 1955 had been passed . The Burnside Swimming Centre opened in 1966 ; the swimming centre was a pet project of then @-@ Mayor George Bolton , who had a grand vision of what he wanted Hazelwood Park , where the centre was to be located , to become . Bolton met unprecedented public opposition in 1964 when the idea was first unveiled . The substantial elderly population of Burnside ( 15 % ) was wholly opposed to the idea , suggesting the influx of troublemakers and noise was hardly worth the effort . The cost was estimated at £ 75 @,@ 000 ( £ 1 @,@ 370 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) . While architects were resigning over the scale of the proposed development and a number of residents were up in arms , the Adelaide newspapers had a ball ; cartoonists throughout 1964 spent many of their daily cartoons covering the debacle . With the failure of a poll to decide the fate of the idea on 24 March the Sunday Mail published the headline " Burnside Says NO to Swim Pool " . Mayor Bolton was not dismayed by the result ; he pushed ahead with his idea and announced new plans in December . After a strong public campaign and minor changes to the project a poll in February 1965 voted strongly in favour of the idea . The Mayor had won his battle and it was named the George Bolton Swimming Centre in his honour upon opening .
The Burnside Council decided on an ambitious goal in 1967 : for every 1 @,@ 000 in population , five hectares of reserves were to be set aside . Setting out to achieve this the council purchased Hazelwood Park from the State Government , the control of Beaumont Common was obtained by a 1973 amendment to the Local Government Act and parts of Mount Osmond were attained from the Highways Department . Before coming into the ownership of the council , Hazelwood Park was destined to be subdivided under a government initiative . When council heard of this , motions were put into place to take ownership and the deed was transferred in 1964 . The council only managed this after discussions were held with Premier Playford himself .
= = Modernity = =
A community centre was built alongside the council chambers in 1982 , adjoining the library . The entire council complex was upgraded first in 1996 , together with an upgrade of the Burnside Swimming Centre . There is also a modern shopping centre called Burnside Village that attracts people from other areas to visit Burnside . Further upgrades took place in 2001 , resulting in a modern library and community centre for residents . Burnside developed a new council logo in 1993 , utilising the colours of green and purple . Green represents the lush parks and reserves in Burnside , and purple represents the prominent Jacaranda trees . The adjacent suburbs of Skye and Auldana were merged into Burnside in 1999 . Formerly part of the Adelaide Hills Council they had a lengthy association with Burnside dating back to the days of East Torrens . Coopers Brewery moved out of Leabrook in 2001 , relocating to Regency Park . The former premises of Coopers was converted into a retirement village .
Burnside will have to adapt to deal with an ageing population ; the largest age group in the area is that of the 35 – 49 group , who will soon retire . Already 23 @.@ 7 % of the population is over 60 and more people die every year than are born . Almost all population growth is from inter @-@ Adelaide as well as overseas migration . A portion of the population emigrates to other Australian states and cities . Consistent since the 1960s , there is a huge gap in the 18- to 25 @-@ year @-@ old group which is unlikely to change .
= Hollywood Undercover =
Hollywood Undercover : Revealing the Sordid Secrets of Tinseltown is a non @-@ fiction book about the culture of Hollywood society , written by investigative journalist and author Ian Halperin . Halperin poses as a gay man trying to become a successful actor in Hollywood , and informs individuals he is from the non @-@ existent " Israeli royal family " . He investigates rumors that the Church of Scientology reportedly claims to have a " cure " for homosexuality through " auditing " , and speaks with a former Scientologist about his experiences . He also explores the casting couch phenomenon , the pornography industry , and the Oscars . Halperin meets with famous actors and celebrities , successfully obtains a talent agent , and a role in the film The Aviator .
The book was published in 2007 in the United Kingdom by Mainstream Publishing , and on January 15 , 2008 in the United States . Hollywood Undercover received generally positive reviews in The Herald , New York Daily News , The Saturday Star , and Contactmusic.com ; and a critical review in The Independent . Halperin later released a documentary film on the same topic , His Highness Hollywood , which premiered in New York City in April 2008 . His Highness Hollywood is a companion documentary to the book .
= = Contents = =
Halperin pretends to be an individual trying to become a successful actor in Los Angeles , and gains access to exclusive celebrity parties . He informs individuals in the entertainment industry that he is a " member of the Israeli royal family " ( which does not exist ) .
The book takes a critical look at the Church of Scientology and its influence in Hollywood . Halperin posed as a gay man looking for a " cure " for homosexuality from Scientology in order to expose what he felt were inherent prejudices in the organization . He investigates rumors that Scientology claims to have a cure for homosexuality through a special " auditing " process . Halperin interviews former Scientologist Michael Pattinson , who sued the Church of Scientology claiming fraudulent activities after spending US $ 500 @,@ 000 over 18 years in attempts to cure his homosexuality .
Halperin states that he told a Scientology official he wanted to have a successful career in Hollywood but was afraid that if his homosexuality was revealed it would stymie his career . He states that the Scientology official said the organization would " cure him of his sexuality through auditing " . According to Halperin the Scientology organization has arranged " cover " marriages as part of a " cure " for homosexuality , and notes that actor and Scientologist John Travolta married Kelly Preston two days after a male porn star told the National Enquirer of an alleged relationship he had with Travolta . According to Halperin , Anna Nicole Smith had wanted to become a Scientologist , but decided against it after she was informed by a friend of the organization 's stance on homosexuality .
Halperin concludes that the Scientology organization is more focused on money than on other issues : " I pretty much found that everything about the church is about making as much money as possible , which doesn 't really make them much different from most other religions . I have to be honest and admit I also met some nice people in the church . It 's just that I have a huge problem with their discriminatory attitude toward gays . " Halperin disputes Andrew Morton 's claim in his book Tom Cruise : An Unauthorized Biography that actor Tom Cruise is second in command of the organization , instead asserting Cruise is actually in the top position of leadership .
Halperin also explores the pornography industry , the Oscars , and the travails of the casting couch phenomenon . Links to YouTube videos by Halperin are given throughout the book , to illustrate encounters he had with various entertainment personalities . Halperin meets with famous actors and celebrities including Barbra Streisand , George Clooney and Leonardo DiCaprio , and asks them to share their advice with him about the workings of the entertainment industry . Halperin eventually lands a talent agent , and a role in the film The Aviator .
= = Reception = =
Cheryl Caira , Rosemary Goring and Anne Johnstone reviewed the book for The Herald , and describe Halperin 's experiences in the book as " certainly entertaining , and at times scandalous " . Ben Widdicombe of New York Daily News notes Halperin " received the most offensive response imaginable " when he asked a Scientology official who Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard would have voted for in the 2008 United States presidential election ; according to Halperin , he asserted he spoke with a recruiter for Scientology , " He said , ' I can tell you who shouldn 't be President - Barack Obama , Condoleezza Rice and the Rev. Al Sharpton . They should not be allowed to run for office , they should be sweeping the office . ' " A review of the book in The Independent comments that the YouTube links provided throughout the book " have the effect of making virtually everyone who tries to help him seem nice while presenting Halperin as an unscrupulous creep " .
In a review in The Saturday Star , Angelique Serrao writes that Halperin " interviews insiders who spill scandalous information that will leave you gasping at the audacity of the movie world " . Adam Adshead of Contactmusic.com writes : " Hollywood undercover is a candid and intelligent look at the fame game from an insider 's point of view . " Marc Weisblott reviewed the book for Eye Weekly , and comments : " Cynical reporting about the Hollywood system isn ’ t hard to come by , but Halperin has the audacity to get involved with his subjects , attracting empathy even while claiming that he ’ s a royal scion craving fame that his homeland cannot facilitate . "
= Search Committee =
" Search Committee " is the hour @-@ long finale of the seventh season of the American television comedy series The Office . It comprises the 151st and 152nd episodes of the series overall and the 25th and 26th episodes of the seventh season . It originally aired on NBC on May 19 , 2011 in the United States . In the episode , Deangelo 's new replacement is sought out through a search committee process led by Jim ( John Krasinski ) . Meanwhile , Angela becomes engaged to her state senator boyfriend , Robert ( Jack Coleman ) , while the rest of the office believes he is gay .
The episode was written by show runner and executive producer Paul Lieberstein and was directed by Jeffrey Blitz . The episode featured several guest appearances including one from The Office co @-@ creator Ricky Gervais , his second appearance on the series . The episode also marks the first appearance of James Spader and Catherine Tate , the former of whom was a series regular in the eighth season while the latter had a recurring appearance in the eighth season and was a series regular in the ninth and final season .
" Search Committee " received mixed reviews from critics with multiple critics commenting on the multiple guest stars . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Search Committee " was viewed by an estimated 7 @.@ 29 million viewers and earned a 3 @.@ 9 rating / 10 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic , marking a rise in the ratings from the previous episode and the previous season finale .
= = Synopsis = =
With Deangelo Vickers still in a coma , Dunder Mifflin – Sabre Scranton is left with Creed ( Creed Bratton ) as interim regional manager . Jo Bennett ( Kathy Bates ) puts Jim ( John Krasinski ) , Toby ( Paul Lieberstein ) and Gabe ( Zach Woods ) into a committee to interview candidates for the manager position , including Andy ( Ed Helms ) , Darryl ( Craig Robinson ) and a number of outsiders , including a personal friend of hers , Nellie Bertram ( Catherine Tate ) , who suggests various strange methods for running an office , including a " zen garden " theme and removal of all official titles for Dunder Mifflin Scranton . Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) takes it upon herself to protect the office and their clients from Creed 's haphazard and potentially catastrophic managerial style ( he keeps trying to call major clients and tell them the office is about to go out of business ) by distracting him with activities and posing as various clients when Creed has Jordan ( Cody Horn ) contact them .
Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) , still upset over being demoted by Jo , stops taking care of himself and openly looks through want ads in the office . His attitude changes when he speaks with applicant Robert California ( James Spader ) , who disparages the position and the office . Merv ruins his interview , and Dwight becomes incensed that the position might go to someone who doesn 't take it seriously . He demands to be interviewed , and while Jim balks , after Dwight 's persistent efforts to acquire an interview , Jo instructs Jim to grant him one , as she likes " a little bit of crazy . " Jim had earlier firmly shot down Dwight 's extensive bribe list for Jim 's support , and quickly ends his formal interview .
Darryl thinks his popularity with the staff will make him a shoo @-@ in , so he thinks he doesn 't have to do an interview like everyone else . He is caught off @-@ guard when he actually must do an interview and they ask for his resume . Darryl writes up an overly extensive four @-@ page resume , which Jo quickly derides , though Jim encourages Darryl by saying that the interview and resume are mere formalities for him . When Andy interviews for the manager position , Gabe hijacks the meeting in an attempt to sabotage him by asking random trivia questions , which Andy successfully parries , but Gabe ends up screaming at him and acting like a lunatic . Gabe is also dismissive of Kelly ( Mindy Kaling ) during her interview , saying she 's not a " real candidate " . Kelly exacts revenge by telling Jo about Gabe 's relationship with Erin ( Ellie Kemper ) and his harassing behavior after their breakup . In response , Jo sends Gabe back to Sabre 's Florida headquarters , and installs Kelly in Gabe 's position on the search committee . Kelly then says she has accepted Dwight 's bribery and looks forward to the benefits of his return to the manager 's chair , as Toby haltingly says they could give Dwight another trial run and Jim looks on in horror . After Phyllis tells Jim that Kelly and Dwight have pre @-@ fired her , Jim tells Dwight he is not and will not be the manager , and the office begins arguing about who will be selected . When the discussion gets out of control , with Ryan ( B.J. Novak ) preferring a homeless man , Andy declaring he wants the job , and Darryl 's daughter Jada asking out loud if Jim is the guy making him manager , Jim cuts it short and brings the committee back to the conference room to make up their minds .
Phyllis ( Phyllis Smith ) and Erin await the results of a DNA test to see if Erin is the daughter previously given up by Phyllis in high school . The results are negative , but Phyllis holds off on telling Erin after Andy rejects Erin 's proposal to start dating again , and continues to show maternal affection toward her .
Meanwhile , Angela ( Angela Kinsey ) becomes engaged to her state senator boyfriend , Robert . Oscar ( Oscar Nunez ) , who strongly believes that Robert is gay , shares his feelings with Pam . Ryan overhears them and confirms that Robert is gay , in his opinion . When the rest of the office thinks so as well , they must decide whether or not to tell Angela . They eventually decide not to tell Angela for a wide range of reasons — not everyone is sure Robert is gay , Oscar is looking forward to the elegant wedding , and Pam doesn 't think it 's anyone 's right to blurt out that information . Angela is then typically rude about her nuptial plans — first sing @-@ songing to an indifferent Stanley that they might not have room to invite him to the wedding , and then asking Pam if she can borrow the plans for the dream wedding Pam never got to have , before mocking the ceremony where Pam and Jim got married at Niagara Falls . Pam is sorely tempted to spill the beans about Robert 's sexuality , but ends up smiling sweetly and wishing Angela " a very happy wedding " .
= = Production = =
" Search Committee " was written by show runner and executive producer Paul Lieberstein , who also plays Toby Flenderson on the show , his 14th writing credit of the series . The episode was directed by Jeffrey Blitz , the ninth episode he has directed for the series . The episode features special guest appearances from Ricky Gervais ( as his character David Brent from the original British version of The Office ) , Catherine Tate , Will Arnett , Ray Romano , James Spader , Jim Carrey , Cody Horn and Warren Buffett . Gervais previously appeared in the episode " The Seminar " , and co @-@ wrote the episodes " Pilot " and " The Convict " ; he also serves as an executive producer for the series . In addition to appearing in " Search Committee " , Gervais contributed to the episode script . Initially the guest stars were planned to be a secret , before all were revealed to the media . Lieberstein described the moments with the guest stars in the episode as " more than a montage . It 's a number of scenes . We fit it in . We stuff it in " .
The episode script was initially 75 pages long , 10 pages too long to stay within the episode 's time slot ; this led to several cuts , a common problem for episodes of the series according to writer , B.J. Novak . The script received several laughs from the cast and producers specifically for lines read by Creed Bratton and Kathy Bates . " Search Committee " was one of the first episodes not to feature former Office lead actor Steve Carell ; the feeling during filming was " weird " according to Lieberstein . Carell 's departure made it possible for more scenes with secondary characters , and also allowed for the " very long group scene " , described as " observational and conversational " by Novak . The episode features a storyline hinted in " Goodbye , Michael " in which it is hinted that Phyllis is Erin 's birth mother . The rumor was started during an interview with executive producer Greg Daniels with Entertainment Weekly in which he stated " A tiny mystery story – which I 'm not sure anyone ’ s going to catch and will come out a few episodes from now – is being set up here " .
The episode also marks the third and final appearance of Cody Horn as Jordan Garfield , Deangelo 's executive assistant , and the first of three new roles since Carell 's departure . The role was originally said to be recurring at first with a chance of her becoming a series regular in the eighth season . She eventually did not return for the eighth season . Immediately after " Search Committee " first aired , NBC posted Andy , Dwight and Darryl 's resume on their official website and allowed fans to vote for who they believed should be the manager . Spader would later join the cast as CEO of Sabre in the eighth season while Tate is currently set to return in the second half of the eighth season as romantic interest for Robert California . In the eighth season premiere , " The List " , Andy was revealed to be the new manager . Arnett was considered a high possibility to appear on the series , but could not due to his commitment to the NBC comedy series Up All Night . This also marks the eighth and final appearance of Kathy Bates as Jo Bennett , of whom later episodes in the eighth season would refer to Jo later stepping down from her position as Sabre CEO and hiring Robert California to replace her , and later dissolving the company entirely as chairman .
= = Cultural references = =
Darryl calls Microsoft and asks whether they still have Clippy , an unpopular feature from Microsoft Office . Phyllis mentions that many babies were born in 1982 due to the release of the comedy film Porky 's . Ryan insults Pam , saying that she would prefer Rachael Ray or the hosts of The View as the new manager . At one point in the episode , Angela says " It 's a little flashy . I mean , what am I , Naomi Judd ? " , a reference to the country music singer .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast on May 19 , 2011 , " Search Committee " was viewed by an estimated 7 @.@ 29 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 9 rating / 10 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 9 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 10 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a rise in the ratings from the previous episode , " Dwight K. Schrute , ( Acting ) Manager , and a rise from the sixth season finale , " Whistleblower " . The episode became the highest rated scripted program on Thursday and ranked first in its timeslot , beating the season finales for Grey 's Anatomy , Bones and The Mentalist . " Search Committee " was the seventh most @-@ watched scripted show for the week of broadcast among adults aged 18 – 49 .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received generally mixed reviews from critics . Myles McNutt from review website A.V. Club gave the episode a B- , saying that it was " a funny episode that managed to be only fitfully satisfying . " IGN reviewer Cindy White commented that " it 's more apparent than ever that ' Goodbye , Michael ' should have ended the season , if not the series , " and that " the show is just spinning its wheels now " . Despite this , she praised the scenes featuring Creed Bratton and James Spader , believing Bratton 's performance consisted of " the funniest scenes of the episode " , and that Spader " was given the meatiest part , gamely channeling his dominating boss role from Secretary " . White ultimately gave the episode a 6 @.@ 5 / 10 , calling it " Okay " . TV Squad writer Joel Keller criticized the episode for not featuring a true plot , writing that " this felt like a series of sketches in search of a plot . " The Office co @-@ creator Ricky Gervais also commented on the outlandishness , particularly Warren Buffett 's appearance , saying " If you 're going to jump a shark , jump a big one . " He also compared the episode to the Chris Martin episode of Gervais 's other series , Extras . The shark quote was repeated multiple times on other media outlets ; Gervais eventually commented that " I fucking didn 't [ diss The Office ] , that 's for sure . "
Alan Sepinwall of HitFix referred to the episode as a " bumpy , awkward , great big mess of a finale " and a " very poorly @-@ executed sweeps stunt " . He also wrote that the guest stars " did not fit comfortably into the world of the show " . Entertainment Weekly writer Hillary Busis called the episode a " major cop out " and criticized the writers for having a whole year to figure out how to end the season , but instead waiting to announce the new manager in the fall . She ultimately concluded that " I don 't love some of the choices the show has made recently " and that " the show has just been spinning its wheels for the past several weeks " . Many critics expressed relief that Erin and Phyllis were not mother and daughter . " Search Committee " was voted the fourth lowest @-@ rated episode out of 24 from the seventh season , according to an episode poll at the fansite OfficeTally ; the episode was rated 6 @.@ 93 out of 10 . In another poll , " Search Committee " was voted the thirteenth @-@ highest rated episode out of 24 from the seventh season , according to a " Survivor " poll by OfficeTally . Jim Carrey later received a nomination for " Favorite TV Guest Star " at the 38th People 's Choice Awards .
= Charles Domery =
Charles Domery ( c . 1778 – after 1800 ) , later also known as Charles Domerz , was a Polish soldier serving in the Prussian and French armies , noted for his unusually large appetite . Serving in the Prussian Army against France during the War of the First Coalition , he found that the rations of the Prussians were insufficient and deserted to the French Army in return for food . Although generally healthy , he was voraciously hungry during his time in the French service , and ate any available food . While stationed near Paris , he was recorded as having eaten 174 cats in a year , and although he disliked vegetables , he would eat 4 to 5 pounds ( 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 3 kg ) of grass each day if he could not find other food . During service on the French ship Hoche , he attempted to eat the severed leg of a crew member hit by cannon fire , before other members of the crew wrestled it from him .
In February 1799 , the Hoche was captured by British forces and the crew , including Domery , were interned in Liverpool . Domery shocked his captors with his voracious appetite , and despite being put on ten times the rations of other inmates remained ravenous , eating the prison cat , at least 20 rats which had come into his cell , and regularly eating the prison candles . Domery 's case was brought to the attention of The Commissioners for taking Care of Sick and Wounded Seamen and for the Care and Treatment of Prisoners of War , who performed an experiment to test his eating capacity . Over the course of a day , Domery was fed a total of 16 pounds ( 7 @.@ 3 kg ) of raw cow 's udder , raw beef and tallow candles and four bottles of porter , all of which he ate and drank without defecating , urinating , or vomiting at any point .
Almost everything known about Domery comes from a 1799 account in the Medical and Physical Journal , written by Dr. J. Johnston , based largely upon information provided by Dr. Thomas Cochrane .
= = Appearance and behaviour = =
Charles Domery ( later also known as Charles Domerz ) was born in Benche , Poland , in around 1778 . From the age of 13 , Domery had an unusually large appetite . He was one of nine brothers , all of whom Domery said suffered from the same condition . Domery recalled that his father was a hearty eater and generally ate his meat half @-@ boiled , but was too young to recall the quantity . The only illness Domery was aware of in the family was an outbreak of smallpox in his youth , which was survived by all the family .
Despite his unusual diet and behaviour in the presence of food , doctors described Domery as of a normal build , and tall for the period at 6 feet 3 inches ( 1 @.@ 91 m ) . He had long , brown hair and grey eyes , was smooth @-@ skinned , and was described as having a " pleasant countenance " . Doctors observing Domery saw no signs of mental illness and although illiterate , he was considered of normal intelligence by his crewmates and by the prison doctors who studied him . Despite eating vast amounts of food , it was noted by the doctors studying him that he never vomited , other than when fed large amounts of roasted or boiled meat . He showed no outward signs of ill health , and doctors observing him noted that his eyes were lively and his tongue clean . His pulse was regular at around 84 BPM , and his body temperature normal . His muscles were normally formed , but observed by doctors to be weaker than usual , although during his time in the army he had marched 14 French leagues ( approximately 25 mi / 42 km ) in a day with no ill effects .
It was observed that immediately after going to bed , generally at about 8 : 00 pm , Domery would begin to sweat profusely . After one to two hours lying awake and perspiring , he would fall asleep before waking at around 1 : 00 am extremely hungry , regardless of what he had eaten before going to bed . At this time , he would eat any available food , or if no food was available would smoke tobacco . At around 2 : 00 am he would go back to sleep , and wake again at between 5 : 00 and 6 : 00 am , sweating heavily ; as soon as he got out of bed , the sweating would cease , starting again whenever he ate .
= = Military service = =
By the age of 13 , Domery had enlisted in the Prussian Army , and became part of an army besieging Thionville during the War of the First Coalition . The Prussian Army was suffering from food shortages which Domery found intolerable ; he entered the town and surrendered to the French commander who rewarded him with a large melon , which Domery immediately ate , including the rind . He was then given a wide variety of other foodstuffs by the French general , all of which he ate straight away .
Domery then enlisted with the French Revolutionary Army , and shocked his new comrades with his unusual eating habits and voracious appetite . Granted double rations , and using his pay to buy additional food whenever possible , he nonetheless suffered from extreme hunger ; while based in an army camp near Paris , Domery ate 174 cats in a single year , leaving only the skins and bones , and ate 4 to 5 pounds ( 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 3 kg ) of grass each day if other food was unavailable .
He preferred raw meat to cooked ; while his favourite dish was a raw bullock 's liver , he would eat any available meat . While in service on board the French ship Hoche , a sailor 's leg was shot off by cannon fire , and Domery grabbed the severed limb and began to eat it until a crew member wrestled it from him and threw it into the sea .
= = Capture = =
In October 1798 a Royal Navy squadron under the command of Sir John Borlase Warren captured the Hoche off the coast of Ireland , and those on board , including Domery , were interned in a prison camp near Liverpool . The British guards were shocked by Domery 's appetite , and agreed to place him on double rations . These were insufficient , and his rations were increased until eventually he was granted the rations of ten men each day . Rations for prisoners of war in this period were paid for by the country in whose army the prisoners had served . The standard daily ration for a French prisoner of war was 26 ounces ( 740 g ) of bread , half a pound ( 230 g ) of vegetables and 2 ounces ( 57 g ) of butter or 6 ounces ( 170 g ) of cheese .
Domery remained hungry , and was recorded as having eaten the prison cat and at least 20 rats which had strayed into his cell . Domery also ate the medicines of those prisoners in the camp 's infirmary who refused to take them , suffering no apparent adverse effects as a result . It was also recorded that he would regularly eat the prison 's candles , and that if his ration of beer was exhausted , he would resort to drinking water to wash down his food . ( In this period , with poor sanitation standards and infrastructure damaged through war , the risk of water @-@ borne disease meant drinking water was strongly discouraged in European armed forces . Rations of mildly alcoholic beverages such as small beer and diluted rum were issued to troops , along with drinks such as tea and coffee which involved boiling water before drinking . )
= = Experimental subject = =
The prison commander brought his unusual captive to the attention of The Commissioners for taking Care of Sick and Wounded Seamen and for the Care and Treatment of Prisoners of War , the body then responsible for all medical services in the Royal Navy and for overseeing the welfare of prisoners of war . Dr J. Johnston , a member of the Commission , and Dr Cochrane , Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh , performed an experiment to test Domery 's eating capacity and tolerance for unusual foods . At 4 : 00 am , Domery was awakened and fed 4 lbs ( 1 @.@ 8 kg ) of raw cow 's udder , which was eaten without hesitation . At 9 : 30 am he was given a meal of 5 lbs ( 2 @.@ 3 kg ) of raw beef , twelve large tallow candles totalling one pound ( 453 g ) , and a bottle of porter , all of which were consumed . At 1 : 00 pm Domery was given another meal of a further 5 lbs of beef , a pound ( 453 g ) of candles , and three large bottles of porter , all of which were also eaten and drunk . During the course of the experiment he did not defecate , urinate or vomit at any point , his pulse remained regular and his skin did not change temperature . Upon Domery 's return to his quarters at 6 : 15 pm following the conclusion of the experiment , he was recorded as being of " particularly good cheer " , and danced , smoked his pipe and drank a further bottle of porter .
The cause of Domery 's appetite is not known . While there are other documented cases of similar behaviour from this period none of the subjects other than Domery 's contemporary Tarrare were autopsied , and there have been no modern documented cases of polyphagia ( excessive appetite ) as extreme as Domery . Hyperthyroidism can induce an extreme appetite and rapid weight loss , while Bondeson ( 2006 ) speculates that Domery possibly suffered from a damaged amygdala or ventromedial nucleus ; it is known that injuries to the amygdala or ventromedial nucleus in animals can induce polyphagia .
= = Later life and legacy = =
It is not recorded what became of Domery , or of the other Hoche captives , following their internment , and it is not known if he returned to France or Poland or remained in Liverpool . The case of Charles Domery briefly returned to public notice in 1852 when it came to the attention of Charles Dickens , who wrote of Domery that " Now , it is my opinion , that a man like this , dining in public on the stage of Drury Lane , would draw much better than a mere tragedian , who chews unsubstantial words instead of wholesome beef " .
= Darren Osborne =
Darren Osborne is a fictional character from the British Channel 4 soap opera Hollyoaks . He was introduced by executive producer Phil Redmond as part of the Osborne family , and played by Adam Booth , made his first on @-@ screen appearance on 18 November 1996 . Booth left the role in 1997 , but the character was recast in 1999 with current portrayer Ashley Taylor Dawson . Dawson decided to leave Hollyoaks in 2000 to concentrate on his band , allSTARS * , but returned in 2003 and has since remained in the role .
Darren was initially characterised as a " bad boy " who has matured throughout his tenure . One of Darren 's more notable storylines included his battle with a gambling addiction which led him to lose his share in The Dog in the Pond , be disowned by his father and have his family reject him . Darren later helped his father , Jack ( Jimmy McKenna ) , to fake his own death as part of a scam , which drew comparisons to the John Darwin disappearance case . Other storylines have included a relationship with Cindy Cunningham ( Stephanie Waring ) , a " shotgun " marriage to Hannah Ashworth ( Emma Rigby ) and a brief affair with his mother @-@ in @-@ law , Suzanne Ashworth ( Suzanne Hall ) . More recently Darren 's storylines have seen him form a relationship with Nancy Hayton ( Jessica Fox ) that " came out of nowhere " but was kept long term as the pairing was popular with the serial 's audience . Pressure was then put on Darren and Nancy 's relationship when Suzanne returned pregnant with Darren 's twins , leading to Darren and Nancy splitting up when he became a father . The pair soon after reunited and married in early 2012 after Darren planned a surprise wedding for Nancy , discover his real mother and half @-@ brothers is , and found out that Celia Osborne ( Carol Noakes ) was not his real mother , but Sandy Roscoe ( Gillian Taylforth ) .
Dawson has received numerous awards and nominations for his portrayal of Darren . Dawson has been praised by both the British press and his colleagues for his portrayal . The character has been both praised and criticised by the British press , for his " bad boy " status , his relationships , his storylines centring on his money troubles , his fashion sense and his growth as a long @-@ term character .
= = Storylines = =
= = = Backstory = = =
Darren Osborne was born as the result of an affair between Sandy Roscoe and Jack Osborne . Sandy , married to Alan Roscoe at the time , was forced into giving Darren up by her husband , so she could save her marriage .
= = = 1996 – 2000 = = =
Darren arrives in Hollyoaks with parents Celia ( Carol Noakes ) and Jack from America . Celia discovers that Jack has been having an affair with Dawn Cunningham ( Lisa Williamson ) and returns to America , taking Darren with her . Darren returns to live with his father two years later . Darren becomes friends with Luke ; together they stand up to bully Mark . When Mark 's bullying of Luke becomes more severe , Darren decides to befriend Mark in the hope he will go easy on Luke . His attempts do not succeed and Mark rapes Luke . After the attack , Luke 's relationship with Mandy begins to fail , so Darren takes advantage of the situation and begins a relationship with Mandy . Darren suggests that Luke might be gay and that he was responsible for his own rape . Mandy breaks up with Darren . Darren trashes his sister Ruth 's ( Terri Dwyer ) flat and is evicted ; he leaves the village soon afterwards .
= = = 2003 – = = =
Shortly after Darren returns to Hollyoaks village from America three years later , Darren begins a skimming scam which is found out by his boss Scott who refuses to give him time off work . In retaliation he plants incriminating evidence on Scott 's computer before calling the police . Scott sets fire to The Loft with Darren inside , but Scott becomes trapped and Darren leaves him for dead . Darren is told no trace of Scott has been found , but Scott is alive and sends threatening postcards to Darren . Scott attacks Darren , who pleads with Scott not to kill him , but the police arrive shortly after .
Debbie and Darren have a brief relationship , but it ends when her boyfriend Dan Hunter ( Andrew McNair ) returns from prison . He later begins a relationship with Steph , but ends it when she has an epileptic seizure , and he begins dating Zoe . Darren begins gambling , and becomes addicted . The relationship ends when Darren has sex with Zoe 's best friend Jessica after he and Zoe fight over his gambling addiction . Darren steals Frankie Osborne 's ( Helen Pearson ) jewellery to settle a debt with a loan shark , and blames Newt ( Nico Mirallegro ) , who is sent back to care . Jack , unaware of Darren 's addiction , gives him half The Dog in recognition of how much he has matured . Darren begins counselling for his gambling addiction , but later plays poker with Warren and loses his half of The Dog to him . Jack and Frankie discover that Darren has stolen Frankie 's jewellery and lost his half of The Dog . Jack then has a heart attack which Darren blames himself for .
Warren offers to sell his share of The Dog back if Darren came pay him ₤ 100 @,@ 000 within 48 hours . Darren and Jessica steal ₤ 3000 from Evissa which they take to they casino . Darren wins £ 200 @,@ 000 which Jessica steals before leaving . When Warren causes Jack trouble , Jack blames Darren and later disowns him . Jack , Frankie , Newt and Louise Summers ( Roxanne McKee ) are held hostage at The Dog . Darren tries to help them , but is shot in a confrontation with their captor . Darren is taken to hospital where he recovers . Warren later gives Jack his share of the Dog . Warren bribes Darren with £ 100 @,@ 000 to help frame Jake for the murder of Sean Kennedy ( Matthew Jay Lewis ) . Darren takes the money to the casino , where he loses all of it overnight . To solve the families ' financial problems Darren and Jack fake Jack 's death . Darren and Cindy begin a casual relationship . Upon learning the McQueens are in danger Darren and Jack leave to try to rescue them from Niall Rafferty ( Barry Sloane ) . The church is blown up and Darren helps rescue the McQueens from the rubble . Darren turns himself in to the police after Jack refuses to leave the scene and the insurance scam is discovered . He is released 4 months later .
Frankie and Jack discover that Darren took a £ 100 @,@ 000 bribe from Warren to get Jake to confess to Sean 's murder , and then gambled the money away despite the family being in debt . Jack banishes his son . Darren becomes depressed when his family ignore him and begins staying in his flat , refusing to leave . Cindy convinces Tony to give Darren a job at a charity event at Il Gnosh . Darren and Hannah drunkenly marry . Darren begins scheming with Cindy to scam The Dog . Darren and Hannah have sex , but Darren ends his relationship with Hannah and with Cindy begins planning to scam Hannah and Tony . Darren and Cindy have sex and are caught by Tony . During Hollyoaks Later , Darren attempts to convince Cindy not to marry Tony . They marry despite Darren 's attempts to stop the ceremony . Hannah moves into Darren 's flat after she and her parents argue . Darren is stabbed by Jamie ( Finn Jones ) while protecting Hannah . Darren recovers and offers to leave Hollyoaks with Hannah but she rejects his offer and leaves alone .
Darren and Cindy have sex after she is neglected by Tony , who uncovers the pair in a romantic clinch . Darren and Suzanne have sex and begin an affair . Rhys exposes their affair and Suzanne moves in with Darren . Suzanne later moves to Spain with Neville . Darren moves in with Jack after they reconcile . Darren fails to win back Cindy 's affections as she marries Alistair , but she gives him a brooch before leaving . Darren sells the brooch for ₤ 50 @,@ 000 and uses it as a deposit to help his dad buy his house . Darren begins having sex with Nancy and shortly after , Darren begins a relationship with Nancy . Darren proposes and she accepts before Suzanne returns , and announces that she 's pregnant with Darren 's twins . She gives birth on 21 January 2011 to Jack and Francine . Suzanne and the twins move into Nancy 's flat which leads Nancy to end her relationship with Darren . When Cindy returns , she pays Suzanne to leave the village , so she can have Darren to herself . Her plan fails , when Nancy and Darren reconcile .
Darren begins secretly planning his wedding to Nancy . Darren is tempted to gamble at a casino by Brendan Brady ( Emmett J. Scanlan ) but resists . Nancy 's mother , Margaret , makes Nancy doubt her relationship with Darren . Nancy believes Darren is having an affair with Cindy and decides to leave Hollyoaks village to live in Canada . Darren tells Nancy about the wedding he has been planning . She forgives him and the pair marry . Nancy later discovers she is pregnant with Darren 's child but she later suffers a miscarriage . Nancy later discovers she is again pregnant with Darren 's child . Nancy later suffers a miscarriage . Nancy and Darren later discover she is again pregnant . Nancy goes in to premature labour and gives birth to their son three months early by emergency caesarean . Darren and Nancy are told that their son may suffer brain damage . During her pregnancy Nancy helped her friend Mitzeee ( Rachel Shenton ) after she escaped from prison , making Nancy stressed . Darren blames Nancy for their son 's premature birth and tells her he will not forgive her if their son dies . Darren and Nancy name their son Oscar , who turns out to be deaf . This causes problems in Darren and Nancy 's relationship , with Darren wanting their son to go through an operation for his hearing but Nancy not wanting to . The stress results in Nancy becoming addicted to painkillers . Darren eventually finds out about Nancy 's painkiller addiction leaving him furious and Nancy moves away for a short time . Darren and Nancy become friends with Sienna Blake ( Anna Passey ) , and let her move in with them as a full @-@ time nanny .
Sienna grows feelings for Darren and they kiss , although Darren later reunites with Nancy after she recovers . Desperate to get rid of Nancy , Sienna frames Nancy for several dilemmas , including leaving Oscar trapped in a fire , in order to make it look like she is still addicted to painkillers . Tom catches Sienna trying to breast feed Oscar , although Sienna accuses Tom of trying to take topless pictures of her . Darren believes Sienna 's lies that Nancy is still a painkiller addict , resulting in Nancy moving out and Darren and Sienna beginning a relationship . Sienna begins faking a pregnancy although is devastated when she overhears Darren saying he doesn 't want the baby . In order to get Darren closer , Sienna attempts to officially get rid of Nancy and she frames Nancy for trying to kill Oscar , Charlie and herself . Nancy is taken to a mental institute because of this . Darren later finds out that Sandy Roscoe ( Gillian Taylforth ) is his mother and disowns Jack for lying to him for years . Darren , Sienna and Oscar move out because of this . Tom realizes what Sienna has done to Nancy and attempts to expose her by putting a video camera in her bedroom . Darren finds the video camera , however , and assumes that Tom had been trying to film Sienna topless again leaving Darren furious with Tom . Darren later makes up with Jack when he is nearly killed in an explosion .
When Tom goes missing , Darren is desperate to find him . Thinking that Tom has run away , he assumes that he will come home if Nancy is there and convinces Sienna to change her statement about Nancy . Nancy is released from the mental institute because of this . However , it is revealed that Sienna actually kidnapped Tom and kept him hostage in a basement . Tom is able to escape and along with Nancy , they expose Sienna for everything . Sienna attacks Nancy causing her to have temporary brain damage and attempts to kill Tom , Charlie and Oscar although they are saved and Nancy recovers . Following Darren 's treatment of Nancy , things are hard between them and get even worse when Nancy attempts to get revenge on Darren . However , they eventually reconcile and get engaged again . However , things only get worse when Sienna blackmails Darren to get Tom to change his statement or she 'll create even more problems for the Osbornes . Following a heart attack , Darren is given angina spray however Sienna takes this while Darren is on a camping trip and Nancy leaves him on his own on the trip following an argument . Darren starts to have a heart attack and Sienna , realizing what she 's done , saves him at the last minute .
Nancy then starts to think that Darren and Sienna are having an affair , and sleeps with Robbie Roscoe ( Charlie Wernham ) and his father Rick Spencer ( Victor Gardener ) . Things are eventually sorted between Darren and Nancy , however as their wedding gets closer , they start to argue again as Nancy believes that Darren is not taking the wedding seriously . Nancy sleeps with Rick again although the next morning she has regrets . On the night of her hen do , Nancy is attacked by Finn O 'Connor ( Keith Rice ) following an argument , and he attempts to rape her while wearing a mask . However , she is saved by Phoebe McQueen ( Mandip Gil ) , and Darren and Nancy get remarried anyway . Finn is arrested and Darren stands by Nancy in court , however due to the DNA tests , Nancy is forced to admit her affair and that she slept with Rick within 24 hours before the attack . This creates more strife between Darren and Nancy ; Darren sleeps with his ex @-@ fiancee Sienna Blake . Darren cannot forgive Nancy for her affair , they realise that married life has not been right for a long time and they agree to get divorced again . Darren offers to buy Nancy 's half of The Dog In The Pond Pub in order to give her enough money to restart her life . The deed of transfer for The Dog has been signed and Darren is now the sole owner of The Dog In The Pond .
On New Year 's Eve after bringing Esther and her girlfriend Kim Butterfield to a club he is mistaken for a taxi @-@ man giving him the idea to start up his own taxi company ' Daz Cabs ' . His company got off to a rocky start as he was unable to know where he was going and got Dr. S 'avage late for two important meetings . However Darren teamed up with Kim to force Dr. S 'avage to give him the hospital taxi contract and recruited Tony to work as his receptionist . However they came to blows over the name and design of the company , but resolved their differences with Darren moving into the boarding house , Tony working as a taxi driver and Maxine Minniver takes over as receptionist .
Darren and Maxine start to develop feeling for each as Darren supports her getting custody of daughter Minnie from her abusive ex @-@ partner Patrick Blake . They later start up a relationship which Patrick tries to wreck so Darren retaliates by trying to frame Patrick . On Freddie Roscoe and Lindsey Butterfield 's wedding day , Darren witnesses Joe Roscoe try to shoot Freddie with Grace Black gun . Trevor Royale orders Darren to get rid of the gun but Patrick records him burying it and blackmails him into saying Maxine is an alcoholic and she loses custody of Minnie . Darren later finds Maxine on top of a church roof and pleads with her not to jump as Minnie needs her . Later when they are alone he reveals that Patrick blackmailed him and he couldn 't go to prison as he needs to be there for Oscar and Charlie . Maxine forgives him and they remain together . Darren helps Maxine set up her own cab business ' Minnie Cabs ' so she stands a chance at getting Minnie back . When Darren finds out that Patrick is dying he tells Patrick that he is sticking by Maxine and that when he 's dead he 'll be dancing on his grave .
When Ben Bradley daughter Carly is found dead , Ben initially blames Darren as he was supposed to drive her up to Scotland to a rehab center that day but cancelled the job so he could support Maxine through a dinner party with Patrick . Patrick later manipulates Darren and Maxine 's relationship causing Maxine to break up with Darren as she doesn 't believe his claims that he 's still controlling her .
Some of his lastest storylines have included his becoming estranged from Nancy and then married to her again , beginning a relationship with Maxine , a feud with Patrick and helping Maxine to hide Patrick 's body in a wall after his death .
= = Character creation and casting = =
Darren was created by Hollyoaks producer Phil Redmond in 1996 . He was created along with his father Jack Osborne and step @-@ mother Celia ; they arrived from America to join Darren 's older sister Ruth , who was already living in the village . He moved back to America and later returned until the current time . Darren has been referred to as " one of the most popular and longest serving Hollyoaks characters " .
Auditions were held for the part of Darren with Adam Booth securing the part in 1996 ; his first appearance was on 18 November . Booth left Hollyoaks in 1997 , so the role was recast in 1999 with Ashley Taylor Dawson . Other actors that auditioned while in the stages of recasting included fellow castmember Alex Carter who went on to secure the part of Lee Hunter , two years after auditioning for the part of Darren . While at the National Youth Theatre aged 17 Dawson joined the cast of Hollyoaks . He went on to secure the part of Darren following an audition . Dawson has said that his first day at Hollyoaks was " daunting " . Dawson left in 2000 to pursue a pop career in the UK pop band AllSTARS * . AllSTARS * split up and Dawson later re @-@ joined Hollyoaks in August 2003 .
Dawson has said , regarding playing the role of Darren , " I love playing the bad lad . He 's my alter ego " . In 2010 speaking of his ten @-@ year tenure on the serial Dawson said he felt he like he was " turning a bit into Ken Barlow " and added that he enjoyed playing Darren more each year . Dawson added that he was " still learning " and did not take his role for granted . He stated , " I ’ m not ignorant enough to think I can just go off and be a Hollywood star ! I ’ d like to take on some more challenges for Darren " .
= = Character development = =
= = = Characterisation = = =
Darren 's personality has developed over the character 's duration . At first , according to Dawson , Darren was " very manipulative " and willing to " do anything to get his own way " . Dawson added that some of Darren 's actions were " blatantly horrible " although he felt that this made Darren " such a fun character to play " . Dawson also commented on Darren 's " luck with girls " ; Dawson felt that Darren " tends to take girls for granted " and is " out for all he can get " . Dawson also called Darren " an opportunist " and a " male chauvinist pig " .
On the character 's transformation Dawson told Digital Spy that when Darren was younger he was " just a horrible child and he had nothing nice to say about anyone " before Darren matured and softened . Dawson added that it was nice to see a different side to the character . Dawson later added that the character 's change was good as " everyone goes through changes in their life and Darren just hit that time . It was good timing for him " . He also explained that his character becoming a father led him to develop and mature further , stating that Darren accepted his responsibilities as a father and " tries hard to be the father that he wants to be " . He felt that Darren enjoyed being a father and that it made him feel " complete and like he has a purpose in life , whereas before he was always chasing his tail " . Dawson felt that as time went on , Darren became more helpful , sympathetic and more empathetic towards other characters , especially Jake Dean ( Kevin Sacre ) . Dawson stated , " It 's very uncharacteristic but Darren is softening up " . Dawson added that Darren 's difficult life has led him to mature and act like a " bit of a saint " , but that Darren was still greatly misunderstood .
E4 's official Website described Darren in this way : " For a long time Darren found it easier making enemies than he did friends , what with his constant scheming and dangerous gambling habit ... Darren 2 @.@ 0 is a reformed man though " . Hollyoaks international broadcaster BBC America described the character as a " relentless schemer and ne 'er @-@ do @-@ well " . Darren has been described as the " village hunk " , an " outcast " , a " bad boy " , a " twisted hunk " , " heartless " , " hapless " , " devious " and " sly " by various media sources .
Dawson stated that when he first auditioned he had " bumfluff " which he was asked to keep for the part . Darren 's dress sense has gone undergone changes in recent years . He often wore string vests and gold jewellery but he later changed his style which became more mature . On his character 's change in style and the reasons for it Dawson said the producers were right to make the changes and opined that Darren has " moved on now and grown up a bit " .
= = = Earlier storylines = = =
One of Darren 's earliest storylines saw him and friend Luke Morgan ( Gary Lucy ) stand up to bully Mark Gibbs ( Colin Parry ) . Darren becomes friends with Mark in an attempt to deter Mark 's bullying but Mark soon after rapes Luke . Darren takes advantage of the situation and begins a relationship with Luke 's girlfriend Mandy Richardson ( Sarah Jayne Dunn ) . Dawson commented on this saying , " Darren liked Mandy even before he went to America so he was gutted when he came back to discover she had started going out with Luke . And all along , Luke knew that Darren wanted to get together with Mandy ... Luke has other things on his mind and seems to be ignoring Mandy , so Darren thinks it is the perfect opportunity to make his move " . Before Darren asks Mandy out he confronts Luke who " gives him the green light " . Dawson opined that although viewers may think Mandy and Darren are being " heartless " they don 't know about Luke 's attack so are not to blame . Dawson felt that initially the relationship is a " flirty kind of friendship " although Mandy realises she likes Darren and plans to use Darren as a means of reuniting with Luke . As Darren and Mandy spend more time together their relationship " develops " . If Darren were to find out about Luke 's rape , Dawson felt Darren would help Luke get " revenge " on Mark . He said Mandy would either be " shocked and turn to Darren for support " or " feel guilty about what she 's done " and reunite with Luke . Dawson felt if this were to happen Darren would " try to shrug it off " although " deep down , he cares for Mandy " . Dawson felt that Darren should become a " hero " to Luke , fixing all his problems which would rectify him beginning a relationship with Mandy .
Darren becomes embroiled in a feud with Scott Anderson ( Daniel Hyde ) , and Scott sets fire to The Loft with Darren inside . Dawson said these scenes were some of his favourite because of the good scripts , and that he enjoyed working with Hyde . The scenes required a pyrotechnics specialist to come in and assist Dawson and Hyde through the scenes . While Darren is feuding with Scott he and Debbie Dean ( Jodi Albert ) have a brief relationship . Dawson said Darren 's relationship with Debbie and feud with Scott were his " favourite " storylines as they were " more in @-@ depth and show both sides of the character " . Darren has a brief relationship with Steph Dean ( Carley Stenson ) , with Stenson commenting that Steph " really loved him " even though he was a " dirty dog to her " .
= = = Gambling addiction = = =
Darren begins gambling in 2008 and later his addiction causes him a great deal of trouble , leading him to steal from his family and ultimately losing everything . On his character 's addiction , Dawson commented that Darren is initially on a " winning streak " but quickly begins to " lose everything , including Zoe Carpenter ( Zoë Lister ) " . He felt that Darren is torn about his addiction because although he is aware of his problem he believes " his next big win is just around the corner " . When talking to What 's on TV about Darren 's addiction , Dawson said it began slowly but spiralled out of control , thinking that gambling is easy after a few big wins . Eventually , Darren was willing to bet on everything , even " who 's going to have toast for breakfast " . Darren finally realises he has a problem when in spite of the fun , he loses everything as his debts increase . Darren begins counselling for his addiction but later plays a game of poker with Warren in which he loses his share of The Dog in the Pond . Dawson said this " devastated " Darren who can 't convince Warren the poker game was " just a joke " . Darren begins a " Bonnie and Clyde partnership " with Jessica Harris ( Jennifer Biddall ) which producer Bryan Kirkwood described as " very funny " . Jessica then leaves the village in a " dramatic twist " , leaving Darren in more debt in the process . Dawson said that Darren 's gambling addiction had been one of his highlights in the show and described the storyline as " fantastic " .
= = = Fake death scam = = =
This storyline , which was announced June 2008 , was initially billed as Darren 's father , Jack Osborne ( Jimmy McKenna ) , being " at an all @-@ time low " before finding a dead body which is " too good an opportunity for him and Darren to pass up " . They swap Eamon Fisher 's ( Derek Halligan ) identity with Jack 's , before Jack is forced to " slope off into the night " . The storyline was compared to John Darwin faking his own death with the Daily Record commenting , " Clearly , the news stories about John Darwin and his canoe haven 't reached Chester " while the Sunday Mercury commented that Darren 's guilt was deserved " in shades of the current John ' dead canoeist ' Darwin court case " .
After these comparisons Dawson confirmed that the storyline was planned ahead of the media coverage of the case , adding that he thought the storyline was " far fetched " , adding that due to the storyline being a " sensitive " issue it was likely to cause controversy . Dawson explained that Darren initially thought faking Jack 's death was a " brilliant idea " but put this down to lack of sleep and stress . Dawson commented that Darren and Jack are so desperate that " everything seemed easy " , but added that they realise their actions were making the situation worse . Dawson felt that if Darren gets through the events without becoming bitter , twisted and cynical , then he could learn from his mistakes but " it could go the other way and he might blame everyone other than himself " . Dawson commented that the fake death scam was his favourite time with the serial .
= = = Relationships = = =
= = = = Hannah and Suzanne Ashworth = = = =
Darren and Hannah ( Emma Rigby ) go on a weekend away to Denmark with a rock ' n ' roll band where they drunkenly marry in a " shotgun " fashion . What 's on TV announced the storyline in June 2009 . About the beginning of the storyline , " Hannah has gone off the rails of late , but even she manages to outdo herself when she and Darren tie the knot after a particularly boozy night in Denmark " . Holy Soap said the wedding will leave fans " stunned " and described the pair as " odd " . Dawson said , regarding the sudden marriage , that " Darren doesn ’ t suddenly fall in love with Hannah or vice @-@ versa . It ’ s just one of those mad , crazy things you do when you ’ ve had far too many drinks and your life is in a bit of a mess . They both regret it . They get home and their friends and families are horrified – especially Hannah ’ s family " .
Rigby said Hannah had married Darren to try to fit in and impress people . She added that Hannah would never have gone out with Darren willingly , " not even under the influence " . She felt Hannah stayed married to Darren to annoy her parents and to get attention . Darren begins scheming with Cindy to scam The Dog . Darren decides to stay married to try to get The Dog back , so proposes that they do not get their marriage annulled to Hannah . Dawson said , regarding his plan to scam Hannah , that " Hannah wants an annulment and so does Darren … at first . The cogs begin to turn in his twisted mind after Cindy points out that being married to Hannah could get him The Dog back . He plans to pretend he ’ s falling in love with her and , motivated by money , tries to make her fall in love with him " .
Darren is stabbed while trying to save Hannah , which the Daily Star said " proves to Hannah she is the love of his [ Darren 's ] life . We ’ ll have to see if she ’ ll make another go of it " . Darren offers to leave Hollyoaks with Hannah but she rejects his offer and leaves Hollyoaks alone . E4 wrote , in regards to how the relationship affects Darren , that he " turned a corner after marrying Hannah Ashworth . Darren became a true friend to her and helped her through her eating disorders " .
Darren begins an affair with Hannah 's mother , Suzanne ( Suzanne Hall ) , whose son Rhys ( Andrew Moss ) is Darren 's friend . The Daily Star announced this storyline on 23 May 2010 . Suzanne is upset and " Darren is more than happy to give her a shoulder to cry on . But he soon can ’ t believe the mess he gets himself into with his mate ’ s mum . He tries everything he can to put her off but Suzanne is not having any of it " . Dawson explained the romance , saying , " They 're both lonely and there 's a bit of a thrill for Darren as she 's an older woman . It 's just a bit of fun for both of them " . Darren supports Suzanne through her marital problems ; they grow close and begin an affair , until Rhys exposes them . Neville Ashworth ( Jim Millea ) , Suzanne 's husband , throws her out of her home , forcing Darren to allow her to move in with him . Suzanne decides to leave Darren and move to Spain with Neville . When asked who Darren would choose between Suzanne and Cindy , Dawson said , " Cindy any time " . In early 2011 , Suzanne returns , and announces that she 's pregnant with Darren 's twins . She gives birth to twins before she moves in with Darren and girlfriend Nancy Hayton ( Jessica Fox ) . Nancy ends her relationship with Darren . In March , Cindy Cunningham ( Stephanie Waring ) returns and pays Suzanne to leave the village so she can have Darren to herself , which Suzanne accepts .
= = = = Cindy Cunningham = = = =
When Cindy moves back to Hollyoaks Village she and Darren soon begin a casual relationship . Darren and Cindy later begin to show genuine affection for each other by helping each other through difficult times in their lives . Dawson has said that Cindy was the most suitable for Darren out of his previous relationships . In an interview with What 's on TV , when asked who Darren would choose out of Suzanne and Cindy , Dawson said , " Cindy any time . He 'd really like to make a go of things with her " . Dawson also commented on the relationship calling the relationship " interesting " because Cindy is Darren 's " first port of call " .
Waring has said she felt Darren and Cindy are " one and the same - they 're the same person with different body parts " . She felt the pair are " made for each other " but when together are " destructive " . Waring elaborated , saying that unlike Cindy and Tony , Darren and Cindy " bring out the worst in each other " . She felt that if Cindy was with Darren , Darren " could be the love of her life " , but felt Cindy would be sensible and choose the relationship best for her daughter 's welfare .
In a later storyline , Cindy announces her intentions to marry Tony Hutchinson ( Nick Pickard ) and scam him , a scam Darren later joins . Darren marries Hannah Ashworth and he and Cindy plan to scam The Dog . Their intentions to scam their respective partners , Dawson said , indicates that the pair are " two sides of the same coin " . He added that they are motivated by money which made Hannah and Tony " useful to them " , and commented that he wouldn 't be surprised if they worked together to get what they want from their partners .
Although Darren begs her not to marry Tony , she goes ahead with the wedding , and Darren and Cindy later plan to scam Tony , which Dawson called " cold @-@ hearted " . He added that Darren wouldn 't " have any problems with stabbing Tony in the back even now because Darren 's that kind of guy " . Pickard said , about the beginning of this storyline , " Cindy is with Darren and she ’ s realised I ’ ve got a bit of money . They ’ re scamming me ! " Darren and Cindy begin sleeping together and are caught by Tony but do not continue to see each other . Cindy and Tony divorce ; Cindy begins a relationship with Alistair Longford ( Terence Harvey ) and agrees to marry him . Darren proposes to Cindy on the day of her wedding but she declines stating she wants to give Holly a better life and more financial security which Alistair can give her .
Cindy returns in 2011 after Alistair dies and attempts to rekindle her romance with Darren but fails . Dawson later admitted that Darren may still be tempted by Cindy before adding that Cindy is " shocked " that Darren " would go for anyone but her " . Waring felt that the pair would always have a " spark between them " but any romance between them ends when Cindy discovers that Darren has become a father and is engaged to Nancy . She felt that Cindy " gets over it pretty quickly " but Cindy " has her moments with Darren " as Darren is " the only person who [ Cindy ] lets her guard down in front of . With everyone else , a big wall comes up and she doesn 't let anybody else see that vulnerable side " .
Cindy begins helping Darren plan his wedding to girlfriend Nancy . Waring felt Cindy 's feelings had been " reawakened " through this storyline , adding that they never " fully went away " . Waring opined that Darren asking Cindy to help plan his wedding made her feel " needed and wanted " . Waring felt that Cindy does not plan to split Darren and Nancy up but that there is " a little part of [ Cindy ] that thinks , ' Surely he 's going to choose me ? " Waring added that when Cindy is trying on wedding dresses for Nancy Cindy thinks " that it should be her " . Cindy attempts to kiss Darren which Waring said is " the worst possible thing she could have done , because she thinks it means something but Darren thinks otherwise " . Dawson said Darren is no longer interested in Cindy . Waring said Darren telling Cindy she will have to let him go leaves her " devastated " . Waring added that when Cindy realises how much Darren likes Nancy she says " that if Nancy is who Darren wants , then she 'll just have to accept it " . Dawson felt that Darren 's relationship with Cindy was " just sex " , adding that " it was more of a raw attraction rather than something that would work well in the long @-@ term " . Dawson added that it was good to revisit the relationship as the pair have been through a lot together . He added that since his relationship with Cindy " Darren has matured ... Their recent goodbye scene was a great one to bring a bit of closure to what they had " .
= = = = Nancy Hayton = = = =
Darren and Nancy begin a relationship when Darren , Nancy and Nancy 's housemates begin online dating in December 2010 . Darren is due to go on a date he has arranged and Nancy comes to watch him , Darren 's date does not arrive . As the evening continues , the pair realise there is an attraction between them and agree to go home together . Dawson said that the pair have " always sort of hated each other " as they are opposites , explaining that " She 's a feminist and he 's a male chauvinist pig ! " He felt for the pair to begin a relationship is a " case of opposites attracting - for some reason it works " . Dawson added that through the pair 's " pompous ways " they have both been through " hard times and been through them with each other because they 've known each other for so long " . He commented that the pair have " never seen eye @-@ to @-@ eye , but I think that when they sit down and chat they realise they have a lot more in common than they think . In the past they just didn 't want to accept that " . E4 described the relationship this way : " She ’ s chalk and he ’ s definitely more than a bit cheesy , but there you have it ; Darren and Nancy ( Dancy ) are now officially an item ! They ’ re the original odd @-@ couple ! "
Dawson added that Darren is " totally in love with Nancy . Nancy has really calmed Darren down " . Fox added , regarding the beginning of their relationship , " It was a relationship that came out of nowhere , but the writers and the audience were so charmed by Nancy and Darren together that it 's kept going " . When asked if they were surprised at being initially paired up Dawson said , " Yes , i was . The scene in which they got together was absolutely hilarious . Darren just looked up and there she was ! " before Fox added " I never thought they were going to last , but we just went for it full throttle " . Fox later explained that the pairing " was only ever intended to be quite a short @-@ term thing " .
The pair become engaged after Darren proposes , although the proposal is accidental rather than planned . Dawson felt that it was too soon for Darren to consider marrying Nancy . Shortly after their engagement , Suzanne returns and announces she is expecting Darren 's babies . Regarding Darren being the father of twin babies and if his relationship with Nancy would survive , Dawson felt the situation was too difficult for Nancy but for Darren it was fine . He felt that the story was " interesting " and hoped the pairing would survive as they have " something special " . Darren and Nancy split up when he moves Suzanne and the babies into Nancy 's flat . They resume their romance after Suzanne leaves and takes the children with her .
Fox commented that the pair would make good parents but have " a lot of growing up to do themselves " , before adding that she hoped " Nancy and Darren would stay together for a long time " as she enjoyed the pairing . Fox later added that she 'd " love a big soap wedding " . Dawson said , about the couple 's future : " Darren might stray if Nancy continues to push him away , but I think he 's more paranoid about her leaving him . He 's been a good boy far too long - I want him to man up and get his head together " .
On 19 December 2011 it was announced that a future storyline would see Darren plan his wedding as a surprise to Nancy . It was announced that Darren would be tempted back into his gambling addiction . Series producer Emma Smithwick commented on the storyline explaining that because Darren was organising the wedding it was " never going to be as smooth as if somebody else was organising it " . She added that the wedding was a " long time coming " for the couple but there going to be " a few obstacles in the way " , some self @-@ imposed and some caused by external forces . She added that the event would be in " true Darren style " . Dawson felt that at this point in the relationship Darren is " besotted " with Nancy . He explained that Darren feels Nancy is good for him but Darren almost feels undeserving of her . Dawson felt that Nancy was the love of Darren 's life . Dawson commented that Darren had " been through the mill " but " for once in his life , Darren is happy " . Dawson put this down to Darren getting the Dog in the Pond back and his relationship with Nancy . On why Darren plans the wedding Dawson said : " He wants to show Nancy how much he loves her and thinks a surprise wedding will do that " . He explained that due to lack of funds Darren will " have to call in a lot of favours but he hasn 't got many friends " . Dawson felt that Darren would have to see the idea through to the end , even if Darren would end up " upside @-@ down in mud " . On how he felt the wedding would turn out Dawson said that " it could be the tackiest thing ever " but that it would be " hilarious " . On the wedding and Darren 's feelings , Dawson said that his character is " incredibly excited about it , especially after all the hard work and planning that he 's been doing in secret for weeks and weeks " . Dawson said that Darren feels like the wedding is " going to be the most perfect day possible and he just can 't wait to see the look on Nancy 's face when she realises what he 's been up to " . Dawson went on to add that " things don 't go as he planned " . Dawson said that he wants the wedding to go ahead , saying " after all this it would be lovely to see them get married , but you never know with soaps . I think they can be happy together " . Dawson felt that the pair are the " perfect match and are incredibly sweet together . Darren brings out Nancy 's fun side and she gives his life a bit of order " . Dawson went on to say he feels the pair are " destined to be the Jack and Vera of Hollyoaks ! " Nancy 's mother , Margaret Hayton ( Darryl Fishwick ) , arrives in the village . Fox said that Margaret believes Darren is " not good enough for Nancy " so begins trying to split the pair up . Fox said that Margaret tries to " make Nancy doubt her relationship with Darren " . Nancy witnesses Darren and Cindy in an embrace which Fox said confirms to Nancy that " everything her mum is saying is true - that Darren doesn 't love her and he has been having an affair " . When questioned if the pair can get through their troubles Fox said : " I hope so ! Myself and Ash have had an awful lot of fun working together , so I 'd love to see a ' happily ever after ' . Well , as much as it can be happy in soapland ! " Fox felt that if Nancy were to discover Darren 's plans for their wedding she would be " horrified " although she would " see that he has good intentions " . Fox later said that Nancy " really wants to get married , have babies and be happy " with Darren , although Nancy may not ready to be a mother " just yet " .
Darren and Nancy marry . Dawson explained that Darren felt " relief " that the wedding went ahead as he " often worried that Nancy is too good for him " . Dawson commented that he thinks " the characters work well together and they challenge each other all the time . It 's quite comical , even when they 're arguing . In many ways , Darren is a typical man and Nancy is a typical woman " . On how married life will affect the couple Dawson said : " it will change them is by giving a bit of solidity to their relationship . It proves to both of them how much they mean to each other , so if anything , I think it will make them stronger " . Explaining why Darren went ahead with planning the surprise wedding Dawson said : " he 's got the pub back , he feels like he 's learned all his lessons , and he 's come full circle . This time around , Darren doesn 't want to mess anything up and wants to get everything right . Now that they 're married , having children is something that they 'll look at in the future " .
= = = Fatherhood = = =
Darren 's ex @-@ girlfriend , Suzanne , returns , pregnant by Darren with twins . Dawson said , " At first [ Darren ] doesn ’ t believe her and he thinks it ’ s a wind @-@ up . When she threatens to go back to Spain he realises it ’ s not what he wants and he stops her . He decides to man up and be a dad to his kids " . A few days later , Suzanne , with Darren 's help , gives birth to twins Jack and Francine . Dawson said that at first , Darren chooses to be in denial about it wants nothing to do with Suzanne because he does not want to lose Nancy . Dawson noted that the birth of Darren 's babies is messy and surprising . Darren finds himself in a situation he never expected when he has to deliver the babies and accept responsibility for them . Dawson stated , " I think it 's a moment where Darren changes a little bit " . Dawson added that Darren does " step up to the mark " and " matures very quickly " . Dawson felt that Darren enjoys being a father and it gives him a " purpose in life " which he has never had before . Dawson explained that Darren usually thinks of himself but is now thinking of the babies . E4 , regarding Darren becoming a father , commented that due to his previous antics , he would not be an ideal candidate for " Father of the year " . The storyline is resolved when Cindy pays Suzanne £ 200 @,@ 000 to return to Spain so that she can have Darren to herself . Suzanne accepts the money and leaves , taking Francine and Jack with her and leaving Darren heartbroken .
= = Reception = =
Dawson was nominated for " Sexiest Male " at the 2004 British Soap Awards , for " Sexiest Male " and " Best Villain " at the 2005 Inside Soap Awards. and for " Funniest Performance " in 2007 at the Inside Soap Awards . In 2009 , he was nominated for " Best Actor " at the British Soap Awards , " Best Actor " and " Funniest Performance " at the Inside Soap Awards . Dawson was nominated for " Best Actor " , " Funniest Performance " and " Sexiest Male " in 2010 for his role as Darren at the Inside Soap Awards . Also in 2010 , at the British Soap Awards , Dawson was nominated for the " Sexiest Male " award . In 2011 he received a nomination for " Sexiest Male " at the British Soap Awards . In 2012 Dawson was again nominated for " Best Actor " and for " Best On @-@ Screen Partnership " at the British Soap Awards . In 2012 Dawson was nominated for " Best Actor " at the 2012 TV Choice Awards . At the 2012 Inside Soap Awards Dawson was nominated for " Best Actor " and " Sexiest Male " .
Darren was listed in " The Top 100 Soap Hunks of All Time " by What 's on TV . Dawson was 8th in the " Sexiest Soap Stars " MSN poll . An Inside Soap critic commented that Darren was initially a " freckly auburn @-@ haired forgettable schoolboy " when played by Booth . They added that Booth 's Darren is a " very distant recollection " while Dawson has " made the part his own in such a big way that we 've decided to wipe the other one from history " .
His character was branded a " rat " and " dastardly " for splitting up Gina and Emily by the Daily Record . Upon Darren 's 2003 return to Hollyoaks , the Sunday Mercury said he had become " even more of a pain in the neck " . They later called the character " a really nasty piece of work " and when he stole from his father , they questioned if Jack would " see what he 's really like " . Inside Soap 's Peter Griffiths referred to Darren as one of the serial 's " reliable stalwarts " , saying it was a " relief " when he appeared and added that Darren was one of the characters who can " be relied upon to deliver " . He added that the " tried @-@ and @-@ tested " characters helped the show through its rough patches and that they should be given the storylines they deserved . Griffiths ' colleague Sarah maintained that Darren was the only part of the show that held her interest . The Press and Journal described Darren 's time on the soap , saying : " He languished in prison for helping his father fake his own death , has battled a crippling gambling addiction and has been known to steal people ’ s girlfriends and break up relationships " .
Kris Green of Digital Spy responded negatively to Darren 's marriage to Hannah , saying " I still have NO idea why the storyliners thought it was a good idea to marry them off " . Green later said that Rigby 's on @-@ screen partnership with Jamie in Hollyoaks Later worked well and was " better than Hannah and Darren " . Green later dubbed Darren and Suzanne " Suzarren " due to their dangerous liaison , while the affair was described as " sizzling " by the Daily Star .
Roz Laws of the Sunday Mercury said Darren and Cindy 's scheming make them a perfect match . Laws commented that Darren and Cindy 's relationship is more about " making money out of others ’ misery " rather than romance , and sarcastically commented that the pair were " nice " after they decide to con Hannah and Tony . On Darren and Cindy 's intention to scam Tony the Daily Star wrote : " Cindy and Darren are perfect for each other . They are both greedy money @-@ grabbers and it isn ’ t long before they are looking for a way to fleece Tony for all they can get " . MSN said the sexual chemistry between Darren and Cindy was undeniable after Cindy 's return . On Darren and Cindy , Jaci Stephen of the Daily Mail questioned if there was " anyone either of these two haven 't had now ? I 'm getting sex @-@ sickness " .
Inside Soap described Darren and Nancy as " one of soap 's most unlikely pairings " and added , " It 's clear they 're made for each other " . In a comedy storyline Darren buys Nancy a waterbed , which Stephen opined was " all the better to drown him in ... " , she added that Nancy isn 't impressed " when she learns that he expects her to move in with his family . Still , it ’ ll all be waterbeds under the bridge when Nancy becomes pregnant ( my theory ) " . Stephen 's colleague Caroline Fitton commented on Darren and Nancy spending less time together because of her new job , saying it proved " the girl had some sense " . Stephen later questioned if Nancy would forgive Darren after he planned a surprise wedding or if she would " notice that he has LOSER tattoed across his forehead ? "
Digital Spy 's Daniel Kilkelly questioned whether Darren could adjust to fatherhood , while What 's on TV labelled him a " doting father " . Once Nancy became pregnant again Claire Crick of All About Soap said " At last – some good news in Hollyoaks for once ! Our favourite soapy couple , Nancy and Darren , discover they ’ re going to be parents once again in tonight ’ s episode , and we ’ ve got our fingers ( and toes ! ) crossed that it works out for them this time " . She said that " with Darren ’ s cheeky escapades and Nancy ’ s no @-@ messing attitude , they ’ ll make the perfect parents and we can ’ t wait to see them with a little one " . Crick went on to say " while Darren might be dad to twins already ( remember them ? You could be forgiven for forgetting they even existed – it seems Darren already has ! ) , we think he ’ s got potential to be great daddy material " .
Stephen of the Daily Mail questioned whether Darren would " ever be able to hold on to a fiver for more than an hour ? " Stephen expressed disinterest in Darren 's subsequent money troubles , saying " There are more money problems for Darren and Jack . Oh , not again " . Stephen later called Darren 's money troubles an " old chestnut " and opined that his business was " Mobs ’ Grotto . There ’ s one vowel wrong in that last word " . Stephen later compared Darren to the Greek government debt crisis and quipped that he " is to money what Greece is to global financial security " . She added that viewers should never become optimistic about his finances improving because " for every ladder he climbs , there ’ s always a snake to bring him crawling back down to Earth " .
Virgin Media criticised the character 's original dress sense stating " he might be male , but that doesn 't mean Darren can escape the fashion police . He may have gone to prison once already , but with his chunky gold jewellery and sinister string vests , it won 't be long before he is carted away in cuffs for his crimes against style " . Fellow cast member Jessica Forrest who plays Leanne Holiday opined that the character 's style was the best style of any character from the show but " back in the day ... with the string vests and highlighted hair " . Caroline Fitton of the Daily Mail felt that Darren becoming a student was " just wrong " before questioning if he would " drop the faux @-@ bling @-@ chain T @-@ shirts ? "
Producer Bryan Kirkwood said that he thought Dawson was a " brilliant actor " , and added , " Ashley 's one of those people that can do comedy and pathos within the blink of an eye " . Kirkwood said that " Darren 's one of my favourite characters " . Fellow producer Paul Marquess spoke positively of Dawson 's performance in an interview with Digital Spy , stating , " I think Ashley Taylor Dawson , who plays Darren , is a really strong actor , and by the end of this year we 'll see a very different side to his character " . Co @-@ star Kieron Richardson commented on Dawson 's performance as Darren , calling Dawson one of the serial 's " strongest actors " , adding that Dawson compelled him to watch when he was on screen . Richardson added that Dawson " makes me laugh , he does comedy really well and he does vulnerability really well " .
= David B. Bleak =
David Bruce Bleak ( 27 February 1932 – 23 March 2006 ) was a soldier of the United States Army during the Korean War . Bleak rose to the rank of Staff Sergeant and was awarded the Medal of Honor , the highest military decoration of the United States , for his actions near Minari @-@ gol , South Korea , on 14 June 1952 .
Born in Idaho , Bleak dropped out of school to become a combat medic , and was deployed to Korea with the 40th Infantry Division . During a mission north into Chinese territory , Bleak 's patrol came under heavy attack by fortified Chinese positions . Despite being wounded himself , Bleak rushed the Chinese troops multiple times and killed five Chinese soldiers — four using only his hands — before assisting the wounded , and shielding another soldier from a grenade blast . Bleak is credited with saving the patrol 's wounded and ensuring that all of its members returned to allied lines . For these actions , he was awarded the Medal of Honor .
In the years preceding and following his military service , Bleak worked numerous jobs around Idaho and Wyoming , working as a rancher , dairy farmer , truck driver , and meat cutter before retiring as a radioactive waste technician at the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory . He died in 2006 from emphysema , Parkinson 's Disease , and complications from a hip fracture .
= = Biography = =
David Bruce Bleak was born on 27 February 1932 to William Bleak and Tamar Bleak ( née Young ) in Idaho Falls , Idaho , a remote farming community . The seventh of nine children , he dropped out of high school and worked for a time as a farmer and a rancher and also for railroads , but he grew dissatisfied with life in Idaho . He eventually decided to enlist in the US Army , hoping to see the world . Bleak grew to a height of 6 @.@ 5 feet ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) tall and weighed 250 pounds ( 110 kg ) . He was described as humble and quiet throughout his life . Bleak was a member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints though later in life he was not an active and practicing member .
= = = Military career = = =
Bleak entered the Army on 1 November 1950 , and attended basic combat training at Fort Riley , Kansas . Here , he was selected for medical duty . After the completion of his training , Bleak was assigned to a medical company attached to the 223rd Infantry Regiment , 40th Infantry Division of the California Army National Guard . Shortly after Bleak was assigned to the unit , it was selected for deployment to the Korean War . He was moved to Camp Cooke in Lompoc , California for advanced medical training in preparation for his deployment .
The 40th Infantry Division shipped out to Korea in January 1952 , and shortly thereafter , Bleak was promoted to Sergeant . His unit was assigned to a mountainous area near Minari @-@ gol , South Korea , along the 38th Parallel . By that point in the war , the fronts had largely stabilized , and the duty in the area was characterized by constant , low @-@ level trench warfare and continued battles over the same ground which produced high casualties . Bleak served as a field medic , assisting troops on the front lines instead of in Mobile Army Surgical Hospital units .
= = = Medal of Honor action = = =
On 14 June 1952 , Bleak was part of a patrol of the 2nd Battalion , 223rd Infantry , sent north to probe Chinese forward positions and attempt to obtain Chinese prisoners of war for interrogation . Bleak volunteered to accompany the 20 @-@ man patrol of an I & R Platoon on this mission , which was to send them to a sparsely vegetated feature called Hill 499 , where Chinese forces were known to be operating . The patrol left United Nations lines at 04 : 30 Korea Standard Time on 14 June , under cover of darkness . It was preceded by an attack by F Company , 223rd Infantry , to the west which was intended to distract Chinese forces . However , as the patrol ascended the hill , it came under heavy Chinese automatic weapons fire which struck the lead elements , injuring several soldiers . Bleak , at the rear of the formation , rushed forward and treated and stabilized several soldiers hit in the initial volley , then followed the remainder of the patrol as it continued its mission .
As they attempted to continue up the hill , several Chinese soldiers from a nearby trench opened fire , injuring another soldier . According to witness reports , Bleak rushed the trench and dove into it , tackling one Chinese soldier and , with only his hands , broke the soldier 's neck , killing him . Bleak was then confronted by a second soldier , whom he reportedly grabbed by the neck , fatally crushing his windpipe . A third Chinese soldier then approached , and in the ensuing scuffle , Bleak used his combat knife to stab and kill the soldier .
Bleak then returned to the patrol and attempted to treat more wounded members , but soon thereafter a Chinese hand grenade bounced off of the helmet of the soldier standing next to him and landed nearby . Bleak tackled the soldier over and covered him with his larger frame to protect him from the grenade , but neither was injured in the ensuing blast . The patrol then continued on its mission , and was successful in capturing several Chinese prisoners . However , as it descended Hill 499 to return to UN lines , they were ambushed by another group of Chinese hidden in a trench with an automatic weapon . Three of the other soldiers were wounded in the attack , and as Bleak attempted to run to them , he was hit in the leg . Bleak dressed all four wounds , but one of the men had been hit too critically to move . In spite of continued Chinese fire and his own injury , Bleak picked up the wounded soldier and began to carry him down the hill .
As he attempted to withdraw with the wounded soldier , Bleak was confronted by two more Chinese . Putting down the wounded soldier , Bleak reportedly surprised the Chinese soldiers by charging them and smashing their heads together with such force that he may have fractured the skulls of one or both of the assailants before pushing them out of his way . Eventually , all 20 men of the patrol returned to the UN lines , but a third of them were wounded . Bleak was credited with saving the patrol , both by promptly treating the wounded and by aggressively attacking and killing or neutralizing five Chinese soldiers .
= = = Subsequent life = = =
Bleak reportedly suffered nerve damage as a result of his leg wound . His wounds required hospitalization , but he returned to duty on 9 July 1952 . His tour in Korea ended shortly after the event . He finished his enlistment by serving in Japan , and on 27 October 1953 he was awarded the Medal of Honor in a ceremony at the White House with President Dwight D. Eisenhower . He retired from the Army as a Staff Sergeant .
After leaving the military at the end of the Korean War , Bleak returned to Idaho . He later moved to Wyoming , where he took various jobs as a truck driver , a grocery store meat cutter , and a rancher . He eventually married and had four children with his wife , Lois Pickett Bleak. in 1966 , he moved to Moore , Idaho , where he ran a dairy farm for 10 years . He eventually became a janitor at the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory , where he worked his way up until his retirement in the mid @-@ 1990s as chief hot cell technician , responsible for disposing of spent nuclear fuel rods .
He died on 23 March 2006 , at the Lost Rivers District Hospital in Arco , Idaho , from emphysema , Parkinson 's Disease , and complications from a hip fracture . He died the same day as another Medal of Honor recipient , Desmond Doss . At the time of his death , he had nine grandchildren and six great @-@ grandchildren . Following his death , Bleak was cremated and his remains were scattered in Idaho , at a site which was supposedly his favorite fishing location . His family later placed a cenotaph in his honor at the Lost River Cemetery in Butte County , Idaho .
In 1995 a medical clinic at Fort Sill , Oklahoma , was named for Bleak , and following his death , the Governor of Oklahoma declared 14 June 2007 " Sergeant David Bruce Bleak Day " for the 55th anniversary of Bleak 's accomplishments . On 14 June 2006 , Bleak 's family presented his Medal of Honor to the Idaho Military History Museum , where it is now displayed , alongside that of fellow Idaho recipient Gurdon H. Barter .
= = Awards and decorations = =
Bleak 's awards include :
= = = Medal of Honor citation = = =
Bleak was one of eight field medics and corpsmen to be awarded the Medal of Honor in Korea . However , he was one of only two @-@ the other being William R. Charette @-@ for whom the decoration was not posthumous . Those recognized after their deaths were Richard G. Wilson and Bryant E. Womack from the Army , and Edward C. Benfold , Richard Dewert , Francis C. Hammond , and John E. Kilmer from the US Navy .
Sgt. Bleak , a member of the medical company , distinguished himself by conspicuous gallantry and indomitable courage above and beyond the call of duty in action against the enemy . As a medical aidman , he volunteered to accompany a reconnaissance patrol committed to engage the enemy and capture a prisoner for interrogation . Forging up the rugged slope of the key terrain , the group was subjected to intense automatic weapons and small arms fire and suffered several casualties . After administering to the wounded , he continued to advance with the patrol . Nearing the military crest of the hill , while attempting to cross the fire @-@ swept area to attend the wounded , he came under hostile fire from a small group of the enemy concealed in a trench . Entering the trench he closed with the enemy , killed 2 with bare hands and a third with his trench knife . Moving from the emplacement , he saw a concussion grenade fall in front of a companion and , quickly shifting his position , shielded the man from the impact of the blast . Later , while ministering to the wounded , he was struck by a hostile bullet but , despite the wound , he undertook to evacuate a wounded comrade . As he moved down the hill with his heavy burden , he was attacked by 2 enemy soldiers with fixed bayonets . Closing with the aggressors , he grabbed them and smacked their heads together , then carried his helpless comrade down the hill to safety . Sgt. Bleak 's dauntless courage and intrepid actions reflect utmost credit upon himself and are in keeping with the honored traditions of the military service .
= University of Oxford =
The University of Oxford ( informally Oxford University or simply Oxford ) is a collegiate research university located in Oxford , England , United Kingdom . While having no known date of foundation , there is evidence of teaching as far back as 1096 , making it the oldest university in the English @-@ speaking world and the world 's second @-@ oldest surviving university . It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris . After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209 , some academics fled northeast to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge . The two " ancient universities " are frequently jointly referred to as " Oxbridge " .
The university is made up of a variety of institutions , including 38 constituent colleges and a full range of academic departments which are organised into four divisions . All the colleges are self @-@ governing institutions as part of the university , each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities . Being a city university , it does not have a main campus ; instead , all the buildings and facilities are scattered throughout the city centre . Most undergraduate teaching at Oxford is organised around weekly tutorials at the self @-@ governing colleges and halls , supported by classes , lectures and laboratory work provided by university faculties and departments .
Oxford is the home of the Rhodes Scholarship , one of the world 's oldest and most prestigious scholarships , which has brought graduate students to study at the university for more than a century . The university operates the world 's oldest university museum , as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system in Britain . Oxford has educated many notable alumni , including 27 Nobel laureates , 27 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom , and many foreign heads of state .
= = History = =
= = = Founding = = =
The University of Oxford has no known foundation date . Teaching at Oxford existed in some form as early as 1096 , but it is unclear when a university came into being . It grew quickly in 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris . The historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar , Emo of Friesland , arrived in 1190 . The head of the university was named a chancellor from at least 1201 and the masters were recognised as a universitas or corporation in 1231 . The university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III .
After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209 , some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge , later forming the University of Cambridge .
The students associated together on the basis of geographical origins , into two " nations " , representing the North ( Northern or Boreales , which included the English people north of the River Trent and the Scots ) and the South ( Southern or Australes , which included English people south of the Trent , the Irish and the Welsh ) . In later centuries , geographical origins continued to influence many students ' affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford . In addition to this , members of many religious orders , including Dominicans , Franciscans , Carmelites and Augustinians , settled in Oxford in the mid @-@ 13th century , gained influence and maintained houses or halls for students . At about the same time , private benefactors established colleges to serve as self @-@ contained scholarly communities . Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham , who in 1249 endowed University College , and John Balliol , father of a future King of Scots ; Balliol College bears his name . Another founder , Walter de Merton , a Lord Chancellor of England and afterwards Bishop of Rochester , devised a series of regulations for college life ; Merton College thereby became the model for such establishments at Oxford , as well as at the University of Cambridge . Thereafter , an increasing number of students forsook living in halls and religious houses in favour of living in colleges .
In 1333 – 34 , an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford , Lincolnshire was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III . Thereafter , until the 1820s , no new universities were allowed to be founded in England , even in London ; thus , Oxford and Cambridge had a duopoly , which was unusual in western European countries .
= = = Renaissance period = = =
The new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards . Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn , who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies , and John Colet , the noted biblical scholar .
With the Reformation and the breaking of ties with the Roman Catholic Church , recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe , settling especially at the University of Douai . The method of teaching at Oxford was transformed from the medieval scholastic method to Renaissance education , although institutions associated with the university suffered losses of land and revenues . As a centre of learning and scholarship , Oxford 's reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment ; enrolments fell and teaching was neglected .
In 1636 , Chancellor William Laud , Archbishop of Canterbury , codified the university 's statutes . These , to a large extent , remained its governing regulations until the mid @-@ 19th century . Laud was also responsible for the granting of a charter securing privileges for the University Press , and he made significant contributions to the Bodleian Library , the main library of the university . From the inception of the Church of England until 1866 , membership of the church was a requirement to receive the B.A. degree from Oxford , and " dissenters " were only permitted to receive the M.A. in 1871 .
The university was a centre of the Royalist party during the English Civil War ( 1642 – 1649 ) , while the town favoured the opposing Parliamentarian cause . From the mid @-@ 18th century onwards , however , the University of Oxford took little part in political conflicts .
Wadham College , founded in 1610 , was the undergraduate college of Sir Christopher Wren . Wren was part of a brilliant group of experimental scientists at Oxford in the 1650s , the Oxford Philosophical Club , which included Robert Boyle and Robert Hooke . This group held regular meetings at Wadham under the guidance of the College Warden , John Wilkins , and the group formed the nucleus which went on to found the Royal Society .
= = = Modern period = = =
The mid @-@ 19th century saw the impact of the Oxford Movement ( 1833 – 1845 ) , led among others by the future Cardinal Newman . The influence of the reformed model of German university reached Oxford via key scholars such as Edward Bouverie Pusey , Benjamin Jowett and Max Müller .
The system of separate honour schools for different subjects began in 1802 , with Mathematics and Literae Humaniores . Schools for Natural Sciences and Law , and Modern History were added in 1853 . By 1872 , the latter was split into Jurisprudence and Modern History . Theology became the sixth honour school . In addition to these B.A. Honours degrees , the postgraduate Bachelor of Civil Law ( B.C.L. ) was , and still is , offered .
Administrative reforms during the 19th century included the replacement of oral examinations with written entrance tests , greater tolerance for religious dissent , and the establishment of four women 's colleges . 20th @-@ century Privy Council decisions ( e.g. the abolition of compulsory daily worship , dissociation of the Regius Professorship of Hebrew from clerical status , diversion of colleges ' theological bequests to other purposes ) loosened the link with traditional belief and practice . Furthermore , although the university 's emphasis traditionally had been on classical knowledge , its curriculum expanded in the course of the 19th century to encompass scientific and medical studies . Knowledge of Ancient Greek was required for admission until 1920 , and Latin until 1960 .
The University of Oxford began to award doctorates in the first third of the 20th century . The first Oxford DPhil in mathematics was awarded in 1921 .
At the start of 1914 the university housed approximately three thousand undergraduates and about 100 postgraduate students . The First World War saw many undergraduates and fellows join the armed forces . By 1918 virtually all fellows were in uniform and the student population in residence was reduced to 12 per cent . The University Roll of Service records that , in total , 14 @,@ 792 members of the university served in the war , with 2 @,@ 716 ( 18 @.@ 36 per cent ) killed . During the war years the deserted university buildings became hospitals , cadet schools and military training camps .
The mid @-@ 20th century saw many distinguished continental scholars , displaced by Nazism and communism , relocating to Oxford .
The list of distinguished scholars at the University of Oxford is long and includes many who have made major contributions to British politics , the sciences , medicine , and literature . More than 50 Nobel laureates and more than 50 world leaders have been affiliated with the University of Oxford .
= = = Women 's education = = =
The university passed a statute in 1875 allowing its delegates to create examinations for women at roughly undergraduate level ; for a brief period after the turn of the twentieth century , this allowed the " steamboat ladies " to receive ad eundem degrees from the University of Dublin . The first four women 's colleges were established due to the activism of the Association for Promoting the Higher Education of Women ( AEW ) . Lady Margaret Hall ( 1878 ) was followed by Somerville College in 1879 ; the first 21 students from Somerville and Lady Margaret Hall attended lectures in rooms above an Oxford baker 's shop . The first two colleges for women were followed by St Hugh 's ( 1886 ) , St Hilda 's ( 1893 ) and St Anne 's College ( 1952 ) . In the early 20th century , Oxford and Cambridge were widely perceived to be bastions of male privilege , however the integration of women into Oxford moved forwards during the First World War . In 1916 women were admitted as medical students on a par with men , and in 1917 the university accepted financial responsibility for women 's examinations . On 7 October 1920 women became eligible for admission as full members of the university and were given the right to take degrees . In 1927 the university 's dons created a quota that limited the number of female students to a quarter that of men , a ruling which was not abolished until 1957 . However , before the 1970s all Oxford colleges were for men or women only , so that the number of women was limited by the capacity of the women 's colleges to admit students . It was not until 1959 that the women 's colleges were given full collegiate status .
In 1974 , Brasenose , Jesus , Wadham , Hertford and St Catherine 's became the first previously all @-@ male colleges to admit women .
In 2008 , the last single @-@ sex college , St Hilda 's , admitted its first men , so that all colleges are now co @-@ residential . By 1988 , 40 % of undergraduates at Oxford were female ; the ratio was about 46 % : 54 % in men 's favour for the 2012 undergraduate admission .
The detective novel Gaudy Night by Dorothy L. Sayers , herself one of the first women to gain an academic degree from Oxford , is largely set in a ( fictional ) women 's college at Oxford , and the issue of women 's education is central to its plot .
= = Buildings and sites = =
= = = Main sites = = =
The university is a " city university " in that it does not have a main campus ; instead , colleges , departments , accommodation , and other facilities are scattered throughout the city centre . The Science Area , in which most science departments are located , is the area that bears closest resemblance to a campus . The ten @-@ acre ( 4 hectare ) Radcliffe Observatory Quarter in the northwest of the city is currently under development . However , the larger colleges ' sites are of similar size to these areas .
Iconic university buildings include the Radcliffe Camera , the Sheldonian Theatre used for music concerts , lectures , and university ceremonies , and the Examination Schools , where examinations and some lectures take place . The University Church of St Mary the Virgin was used for university ceremonies before the construction of the Sheldonian . Christ Church Cathedral uniquely serves as both a college chapel and as a cathedral .
In 2012 – 13 , the university built the controversial one @-@ hectare ( 400m × 25m ) Castle Mill development of 4 – 5 @-@ storey blocks of student flats overlooking Cripley Meadow and the historic Port Meadow , blocking views of the spires in the city centre . The development has been likened to building a " skyscraper beside Stonehenge " .
= = = Parks = = =
The University Parks are a 70 @-@ acre ( 28 ha ) parkland area in the northeast of the city . It is open to the public during daylight hours . As well as providing gardens and exotic plants , the Parks contains numerous sports fields , used for official and unofficial fixtures , and also contains sites of special interest including the Genetic Garden , an experimental garden to elucidate and investigate evolutionary processes .
The Botanic Garden on the High Street is the oldest botanic garden in the UK . It contains over 8 @,@ 000 different plant species on 1 @.@ 8 ha ( 4 1 ⁄ 2 acres ) . It is one of the most diverse yet compact major collections of plants in the world and includes representatives of over 90 % of the higher plant families . The Harcourt Arboretum is a 130 @-@ acre ( 53 ha ) site six miles ( 10 km ) south of the city that includes native woodland and 67 acres ( 27 hectares ) of meadow . The 1 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 4 @.@ 0 km2 ) Wytham Woods are owned by the university and used for research in zoology and climate change .
There are also various collegiate @-@ owned open spaces open to the public , including Bagley Wood and most notably Christ Church Meadow .
= = Organisation = =
As a collegiate university , Oxford 's structure can be confusing to those unfamiliar with it . The university is a federation , comprising over forty self @-@ governing colleges and halls , along with a central administration headed by the Vice @-@ Chancellor .
Academic departments are located centrally within the structure of the federation ; they are not affiliated with any particular college . Departments provide facilities for teaching and research , determine the syllabi and guidelines for the teaching of students , perform research , and deliver lectures and seminars .
Colleges arrange the tutorial teaching for their undergraduates , and the members of an academic department are spread around many colleges . Though certain colleges do have subject alignments ( e.g. , Nuffield College as a centre for the social sciences ) , these are exceptions , and most colleges will have a broad mix of academics and students from a diverse range of subjects . Facilities such as libraries are provided on all these levels : by the central university ( the Bodleian ) , by the departments ( individual departmental libraries , such as the English Faculty Library ) , and by colleges ( each of which maintains a multi @-@ discipline library for the use of its members ) .
= = = Central governance = = =
The university 's formal head is the Chancellor , currently Lord Patten of Barnes , though as at most British universities , the Chancellor is a titular figure , and is not involved with the day @-@ to @-@ day running of the university . The Chancellor is elected by the members of Convocation , a body comprising all graduates of the university , and holds office until death .
The Vice @-@ Chancellor , currently Louise Richardson , is the de facto head of the university . Five pro @-@ vice @-@ chancellors have specific responsibilities for education ; research ; planning and resources ; development and external affairs ; and personnel and equal opportunities . The University Council is the executive policy @-@ forming body , which consists of the vice @-@ chancellor as well as heads of departments and other members elected by Congregation , in addition to observers from the students ' union . Congregation , the " parliament of the dons " , comprises over 3 @,@ 700 members of the university 's academic and administrative staff , and has ultimate responsibility for legislative matters : it discusses and pronounces on policies proposed by the University Council .
Two university proctors , elected annually on a rotating basis from two of the colleges , are the internal ombudsmen who make sure that the university and its members adhere to its statutes . This role incorporates student welfare and discipline , as well as oversight of the university 's proceedings . The university 's professors are collectively referred to as
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between three and five years of age . The youngest reported age for giving birth is a pygmy hippo in the Zoo Basel , Switzerland which bore a calf at three years and three months . The oestrus cycle of a female pygmy hippo lasts an average of 35 @.@ 5 days , with the oestrus itself lasting between 24 – 48 hours .
Pygmy hippos consort for mating , but the duration of the relationship is unknown . In zoos they breed as monogamous pairs . Copulation can take place on land or in the water , and a pair will mate one to four times during an oestrus period . In captivity , pygmy hippos have been conceived and born in all months of the year . The gestation period ranges from 190 – 210 days , and usually a single young is born , though twins are known to occur .
The common hippopotamus gives birth and mates only in the water , but pygmy hippos mate and give birth on both land and water . Young pygmy hippos can swim almost immediately . At birth , pygmy hippos weigh 4 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 2 kg ( 9 @.@ 9 – 13 @.@ 7 lb ) with males weighing about 0 @.@ 25 kg ( 0 @.@ 55 lb ) more than females . Pygmy hippos are fully weaned between six and eight months of age ; before weaning they do not accompany their mother when she leaves the water to forage , but instead hide in the water by themselves . The mother returns to the hiding spot about three times a day and calls out for the calf to suckle . Suckling occurs with the mother lying on her side .
= = Conservation = =
The greatest threat to the remaining pygmy hippopotamus population in the wild is loss of habitat . The forests in which pygmy hippos live have been subject to logging , settling and conversion to agriculture , with little efforts made to make logging sustainable . As forests shrink , the populations become more fragmented , leading to less genetic diversity in the potential mating pool .
Pygmy hippos are among the species illegally hunted for food in Liberia . Their meat is said to be of excellent quality , like that of a wild boar ; unlike those of the common hippo , the pygmy hippo 's teeth have no value . The effects of West Africa 's civil strife on the pygmy hippopotamus are unknown , but unlikely to be positive . The pygmy hippopotamus can be killed by leopards , pythons and crocodiles . How often this occurs is unknown .
C. liberiensis was identified as one of the top @-@ 10 " focal species " in 2007 by the Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered ( EDGE ) project . Some populations inhabit protected areas , such as the Gola Forest Reserve in Sierra Leone .
The Zoo Basel in Switzerland holds the international studbook and coordinates the entire captive pygmy hippo population that freely breeds in zoos around the world . Between 1970 and 1991 the population of pygmy hippos born in captivity more than doubled . The survival of the species in zoos is more certain than the survival of the species in the wild . In captivity , the pygmy hippo lives from 42 to 55 years , longer than in the wild . Since 1919 , only 41 percent of pygmy hippos born in zoos have been male .
= = History and folklore = =
While the common hippopotamus was known to Europeans since classical antiquity , the pygmy hippopotamus was unknown outside its range in West Africa until the 19th century . Due to their nocturnal , forested existence , they were poorly known within their range as well . In Liberia the animal was traditionally known as a water cow .
Early field reports of the animal misidentified it as a wild hog . Several skulls of the species were sent to the American natural scientist Samuel G. Morton , during his residency in Monrovia , Liberia . Morton first described the species in 1843 . The first complete specimens were collected as part of a comprehensive investigation of Liberian fauna in the 1870s and 1880s by Dr. Johann Büttikofer . The specimens were taken to the Natural History Museum in Leiden , The Netherlands .
The first pygmy hippo was brought to Europe in 1873 after being captured in Sierra Leone by a member of the British Colonial Service but died shortly after arrival . Pygmy hippos were successfully introduced to Europe in 1911 . They were first shipped to Germany and then to the Bronx Zoo in New York City where they also thrived .
In 1927 , Harvey Firestone of Firestone Tires presented Billy the pygmy hippo to U.S. President Calvin Coolidge . Coolidge donated Billy to the National Zoo in Washington , D.C. According to the zoo , Billy is a common ancestor to most pygmy hippos in U.S. zoos today .
Several folktales have been collected about the pygmy hippopotamus . One tale says that pygmy hippos carry a shining diamond in their mouths to help travel through thick forests at night ; by day the pygmy hippo has a secret hiding place for the diamond , but if a hunter catches a pygmy hippo at night the diamond can be taken . Villagers sometimes believed that baby pygmy hippos do not nurse but rather lick secretions off the skin of the mother .
= Rode Hall =
Rode Hall , a Georgian country house , is the seat of the Wilbraham family , members of the landed gentry in the parish of Odd Rode , Cheshire , England . The estate , with the original timber @-@ framed manor house , was purchased by the Wilbrahams from the ancient Rode family in 1669 . The medieval manor house was replaced between 1700 and 1708 by a brick @-@ built seven @-@ bay building ; a second building , with five bays , was built in 1752 ; the two buildings being joined together in 1800 to form the present Rode Hall .
Both the exterior and interior of Rode Hall have been altered multiples times , including work by Thomas Farnolls Pritchard and Lewis Wyatt , resulting in an irregular and complex layout . The house has large collections of period paintings , furniture , and porcelain by Chelsea , Bow and Royal Worcester .
The house is Grade II * listed , and is surrounded by parkland and formal gardens , which are included as Grade II on the National Register of Historic Parks and Gardens . On the site are a grotto , an ice house , and an ornamental obelisk , all Grade II listed structures . Rode Hall is still owned and occupied by the Wilbrahams , currently by the 8th Baronet , Sir Richard Baker Wilbraham , and his wife , Lady Anne Baker Wilbraham . The hall and gardens are open to the public from April to September .
= = History = =
The Rode Estate had been owned by the Rode family since at least the 14th century , when William de Rode bore arms for Edward II . The estate was purchased in 1669 by Roger Wilbraham for the sum of £ 2 @,@ 400 ( equivalent to £ 350 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) , from his cousin Randle Rode . The Wilbrahams were prominent local landowners and descended from Sir Richard de Wilburgham , the Sheriff of Cheshire in the mid 13th century . The estate passed through the male line until 1900 when General Sir Richard Wilbraham died , leaving it to his only daughter Katherine . Katherine 's husband , George Baker , assumed by royal licence the surname Wilbraham . In 1910 , George succeeded to the Baker baronetcy on the death of his elder brother .
Rode Hall consists of two houses , formerly separate , but later joined together . The older house was built for Randle Wilbraham in the early 18th century ; it was recorded as being " recently completed " in 1708 and replaced an earlier timber @-@ framed manor house , thought to have been similar to the nearby Little Moreton Hall . The second house was built for his grandson Randle Wilbraham III , a noted barrister , in 1752 . The hall has been updated by successive generations , most notably in the early 1800s , when a bay was constructed to join the two houses , and in 1927 , when the front portico was added . Rode Hall was opened to the public in 1980 , by Sir Randle John Baker Wilbraham , 7th Baronet . Since then an extensive restoration has been performed with the assistance of English Heritage , including tackling an outbreak of dry rot in the late 1980s . In 1985 , the house was designated Grade II * by English Heritage on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England ; Grade II * buildings are particularly important buildings of more than special interest . Only 5 @.@ 5 % of listed buildings are Grade II * .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Exterior = = =
The older part of the brick @-@ built hall consists of seven bays , over two floors . There are projecting bays at either end of the building , dressed with ashlar quoins . A central doorway is flanked with plain pilasters , also of ashlar . The roof is of a hipped design , with a central octagonal bellcote , topped by a small dome .
The newer building , constructed in 1752 under the guidance of architects William Hiorne and his brother David , consists of five bays , with a large bay at the side , constructed around 1800 to connect it to the older building . There is a central portico , with a flat roof supported by four ionic columns , added in 1926 . The tripartite windows of the ground floor contrast with the French windows of the first floor , which are fronted by cast iron balconies . The attic floor has small 4 x 2 pane windows . The rear of the house consists of four bays , with a large central window on the first floor and a central door , surrounded with ashlar cornicing . Both sections of the house are constructed in red Flemish bond brick , which , until 1926 , was covered with render .
The design has received mixed reviews . Architectural historian David Watkin described the house as ' large , irregular and rather featureless ' and of a ' dull design ' . On the other hand , historian , archivist and Maltravers Herald Extraordinary John Martin Robinson , in The architecture of Northern England , noted the ' complex building history ' of the hall , describing it as a ' substantial and elegant Georgian house ' . In his early 19th century work ' Views of the Seats , Mansions , Castles , Etc. of Noblemen and Gentlemen of England , Scotland and Ireland ' , John Preston Neale noted that the house is ' large and handsome ' .
= = = Interior = = =
The main family living quarters are located in the 1752 addition . The staircase hall is the only room in the 1752 house to have kept its original , Georgian interior . The rococo plaster ceiling is attributed to Shrewsbury @-@ born architect , Thomas Farnolls Pritchard , who also designed interiors at Tatton Hall , Powis Castle and Croft Castle . Facing the gardens , on the north side of the house , is the library . Remodelled in the early 1800s , this room was previously used by the family as a dining room . It features fitted 19th @-@ century mahogany bookcases , decorated with small acanthus friezes . The white marble fireplace is flanked on either side by family coats of arms . Connecting the library to the staircase hall and the drawing room is the ante @-@ room , which is furnished with pieces commissioned by the family in the late 18th century . Originally , an entrance into the hall was located in this octagonal room , until Randle Wilbraham III relocated it . The room features copies of works by Raphael , attributed to Michelangelo Maestri .
The dining room , originally the library , was designed by Lewis Wyatt in about 1808 . Wyatt extended the room and added a shallow , semi @-@ circular apse at one end . It features decorative plasterwork on both the ceiling and walls , but is largely unadorned . Wyatt implemented a design featuring gilded acanthus leaves and vines on the ceiling with large @-@ scale egg @-@ and @-@ dart molding around the upper sections of the wall , scagiola columns and a black marble fireplace with bronze ornamentation . Wyatt 's alteration works at Rode Hall are influenced by the style of Sir John Soane , and he described his designs for the interiors as an ' experiment in primitive simplicity ... At Rode the primitivist intent is emphasized by the total absence of an entablature . ' The room is furnished with original pieces of furniture designed and made by the English manufacturer Gillows of Lancaster and London ; of note is the mahogany dining @-@ table and the semi @-@ circular sideboard built into the apse . A Royal Crown Derby dinner service , purchased by Mary Wilbraham @-@ Bootle for her son Randle Wilbraham III in 1809 , is on display here .
= = Grounds = =
The park , including 10 acres ( 4 ha ) of gardens , are listed as Grade II on the National Register of Historic Parks and Gardens , and are promoted by the Campaign to Protect Rural England . While there is a description in a seventeenth @-@ century survey , describing the ' orchards , gardens and courts within the Greene before the hall ' , there are no other known records of the gardens until 1790 , when gardener Humphry Repton was commissioned to landscape the grounds . Repton 's proposal was not implemented until 1803 , when Richard Wilbraham III employed a John Webb to construct a new driveway , create two artificial lakes , the smaller one called Stew Pond and the one @-@ mile long Rode Pool , and lay out a " Wild Garden " .
The gardens are still maintained by the current owner and his wife and have been recognised as a member of Cheshire 's Gardens of Distinction . An Italian Garden was constructed in 2007 and contains olive and cypress trees . The garden 's design was inspired by the Garden of Ninfa , an English @-@ style garden outside of Rome which was planted under the guidance of Lady Constance Adela ( Ada ) Bootle @-@ Wilbraham , a distant relative of the owners .
= = = Kitchen garden = = =
The 2 @-@ acre ( 1 ha ) walled kitchen garden was built in the early 1700s to provide fruit and vegetables for the estate . The Victorian head gardener 's cottage is built into the southern wall . Alongside the west wall is a private path , known as the Colonel 's Walk , used by the family to bypass the kitchen garden on their way to church . There are traces of original chimneys built into the wall supporting espaliered fruit trees , located there in order to maintain an optimum temperature for year @-@ round growth . One of these chimneys has been restored . The garden is still in use today and includes traditional and exotic varieties [ of vegetables ] , and fruit bushes , some of which are used to make jams and chutneys for sale in the hall 's tearooms .
= = = Structures = = =
Four structures in the grounds around the house are recorded in the National Heritage List for England as designated Grade II listed buildings ; Grade II listing means that a building or structure is considered to be " nationally important and of special interest " . The red @-@ brick and rubble grotto was constructed in either the 18th or 19th century , and is built around a brick barrel vaulted tunnel , decorated internally with plasterwork and shells . The ice house is also in the garden and is built in brick and covered in earth . A tunnel @-@ vaulted passage leads into a circular chamber with a domed roof . The obelisk is located on the edge of the larger of the two estate lakes , and is in sandstone with chamfered edges . It stands on a square plinth and is constructed in two sections ; the upper section was added later . It was originally located at Kent Green , a nearby hamlet . The stable block was built in 1804 to the designs of one John Hope . As with the main house , the block is constructed in red Flemish @-@ bond brickwork , with ashlar quoins and banding and a slate roof . Originally there were a number of open archways , several of which have since been bricked @-@ up . The two central openings are topped with a stone pediment and the roof features an octagonal bellcote , with an ogee dome .
= = = Mow Cop Castle = = =
Mow Cop Castle is an elaborate , Gothic Revival folly , built two miles from Rode Hall , at Mow Cop , land previously belonging to the estate . Dating from 1754 , the castle was built by Randle Wilbraham III and designed by the Hiorne brothers , the architects who worked on the 1752 improvements to the hall . It was constructed to improve the view across the valley from the hall . The family often used it as a summer house and for picnics . The castle fell into disrepair a number of times in the 19th century and several programs of restoration were completed , including the replacement of the doors at a cost of £ 4 4s . The castle and surrounding land were sold by the Wilbrahams in 1923 . The castle is renowned as the birthplace of Primitive Methodism , following a camp meeting there in 1807 .
= = Present day = =
Rode Hall is still owned and occupied by the Wilbrahams , currently by the 8th Baronet , Sir Richard Baker Wilbraham , and his wife , Lady ( Anne ) Baker Wilbraham . The hall and gardens are open to the public from April to September , for an entrance fee . The tearooms , located in the 1752 section of the hall , use and sell the produce from the kitchen garden . Every month a farmers ' market is held next to the kitchen garden .
= Richard Hamming =
Richard Wesley Hamming ( February 11 , 1915 – January 7 , 1998 ) was an American mathematician whose work had many implications for computer engineering and telecommunications . His contributions include the Hamming code ( which makes use of a Hamming matrix ) , the Hamming window , Hamming numbers , sphere @-@ packing ( or Hamming bound ) , and the Hamming distance .
Born in Chicago , Hamming attended University of Chicago , University of Nebraska and the University of Illinois at Urbana @-@ Champaign , where he wrote his doctoral thesis in mathematics under the supervision of Waldemar Trjitzinsky ( 1901 @-@ 1973 ) . In April 1945 he joined the Manhattan Project at the Los Alamos Laboratory , where he programmed the IBM calculating machines that computed the solution to equations provided by the project 's physicists . He left to join the Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1946 . Over the next fifteen years he was involved in nearly all of the Laboratories ' most prominent achievements .
After retiring from the Bell Labs in 1976 , Hamming took a position at the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey , California , where he worked as an Adjunct Professor and senior lecturer in computer science , and devoted himself to teaching and writing books . He delivered his last lecture in December 1997 , just a few weeks before he died from a heart attack on January 7 , 1998 .
= = Early life = =
Richard Wesley Hamming was born in Chicago , Illinois , on February 11 , 1915 , the son of Richard J. Hamming , a credit manager , and Mabel G. Redfield . He grew up in Chicago , where he attended Crane Technical High School and Crane Junior College .
Hamming initially wanted to study engineering , but money was scarce during the Great Depression , and the only scholarship offer he received came from the University of Chicago , which had no engineering school . Instead , he became a science student , majoring in mathematics , and received his Bachelor of Science degree in 1937 . He later considered this a fortunate turn of events . " As an engineer , " he said , " I would have been the guy going down manholes instead of having the excitement of frontier research work . "
He went on to earn a Master of Arts degree from the University of Nebraska in 1939 , and then entered the University of Illinois at Urbana @-@ Champaign , where he wrote his doctoral thesis on Some Problems in the Boundary Value Theory of Linear Differential Equations under the supervision of Waldemar Trjitzinsky . His thesis was an extension of Trjitzinsky 's work in that area . He looked at Green 's function and further developed Jacob Tamarkin 's methods for obtaining characteristic solutions . While he was a graduate student , he discovered and read George Boole 's The Laws of Thought .
The University of Illinois at Urbana @-@ Champaign awarded Hamming his Doctor of Philosophy in 1942 , and he became an Instructor in Mathematics there . He married Wanda Little , a fellow student , on September 5 , 1942 , immediately after she was awarded her own Master of Arts in English literature . They would remain married until his death , but had no children . In 1944 , he became an Assistant Professor at the J.B. Speed Scientific School at the University of Louisville in Louisville , Kentucky .
= = Manhattan Project = =
With World War II still ongoing , Hamming left Louisville in April 1945 to work on the Manhattan Project at the Los Alamos Laboratory , in Hans Bethe 's division , programming the IBM calculating machines that computed the solution to equations provided by the project 's physicists . His wife Wanda soon followed , taking a job at Los Alamos as a human computer , working for Bethe and Edward Teller . Hamming later recalled that :
Shortly before the first field test ( you realize that no small scale experiment can be done — either you have a critical mass or you do not ) , a man asked me to check some arithmetic he had done , and I agreed , thinking to fob it off on some subordinate . When I asked what it was , he said , " It is the probability that the test bomb will ignite the whole atmosphere . " I decided I would check it myself ! The next day when he came for the answers I remarked to him , " The arithmetic was apparently correct but I do not know about the formulas for the capture cross sections for oxygen and nitrogen — after all , there could be no experiments at the needed energy levels . " He replied , like a physicist talking to a mathematician , that he wanted me to check the arithmetic not the physics , and left . I said to myself , " What have you done , Hamming , you are involved in risking all of life that is known in the Universe , and you do not know much of an essential part ? " I was pacing up and down the corridor when a friend asked me what was bothering me . I told him . His reply was , " Never mind , Hamming , no one will ever blame you . "
Hamming remained at Los Alamos until 1946 , when he accepted a post at the Bell Telephone Laboratories ( BTL ) . For the trip to New Jersey , he bought Klaus Fuchs 's old car . When he later sold it just weeks before Fuchs was unmasked as a spy , the FBI regarded the timing as suspicious enough to interrogate Hamming . Although Hamming described his role at Los Alamos as being that of a " computer janitor " , he saw computer simulations of experiments that would have been impossible to perform in a laboratory . " And when I had time to think about it , " he later recalled , " I realized that it meant that science was going to be changed " .
= = Bell Laboratories = =
At the Bell Labs Hamming shared an office for a time with Claude Shannon . The Mathematical Research Department also included John Tukey and Los Alamos veterans Donald Ling and Brockway McMillan . Shannon , Ling , McMillan and Hamming came to call themselves the Young Turks . " We were first @-@ class troublemakers , " Hamming later recalled . " We did unconventional things in unconventional ways and still got valuable results . Thus management had to tolerate us and let us alone a lot of the time . "
Although Hamming had been hired to work on elasticity theory , he still spent much of his time with the calculating machines . Before he went home on one Friday in 1947 , he set the machines to perform a long and complex series of calculations over the weekend , only to find when he arrived on Monday morning that an error had occurred early in the process and the calculation had errored off . Digital machines manipulated information as sequences of zeroes and ones , units of information that Tukey would christen " bits " . If a single bit in a sequence was wrong , then the whole sequence would be . To detect this , a parity bit was used to verify the correctness of each sequence . " If the computer can tell when an error has occurred , " Hamming reasoned , " surely there is a way of telling where the error is so that the computer can correct the error itself . "
Hamming set himself the task of solving this problem , which he realised would have an enormous range of applications . Each bit can only be a zero or a one , so if you know which bit is wrong , then it can be corrected . In a landmark paper published in 1950 , he introduced a concept of the number of positions in which two code words differ , and therefore how many changes are required to transform one code word into another , which is today known as the Hamming distance . Hamming thereby created a family of mathematical error @-@ correcting code , which are called Hamming codes . This not only solved an important problem in telecommunications and computer science , it opened up a whole new field of study .
The Hamming bound , also known as the sphere @-@ packing or volume bound is a limit on the parameters of an arbitrary block code . It is from an interpretation in terms of sphere packing in the Hamming distance into the space of all possible words . It gives an important limitation on the efficiency with which any error @-@ correcting code can utilize the space in which its code words are embedded . A code which attains the Hamming bound is said to be a perfect code . Hamming codes are perfect codes .
Returning to differential equations , Hamming studied means of numerically integrating them . A popular approach at the time was Milne 's Method , attributed to Arthur Milne . This had the drawback of being unstable , so that under certain conditions the result could be swamped by roundoff noise . Hamming developed an improved version , the Hamming predictor @-@ corrector . This was in use for many years , but has since been superseded by the Adams method . He did extensive research into digital filters , devising a new filter , the Hamming window , and eventually writing an entire book on the subject , Digital Filters ( 1977 ) .
During the 1950s , he programmed one of the earliest computers , the IBM 650 , and with Ruth A. Weiss developed the L2 programming language , one of the earliest computer languages , in 1956 . It was widely used within the Bell Labs , and also by external users , who knew it as Bell 2 . It was superseded by Fortran when the Bell Labs ' IBM 650 were replaced by the IBM 704 in 1957 .
In A Discipline of Programming ( 1967 ) , Edsger Dijkstra attributed to Hamming the problem of efficiently finding regular numbers . The problem became known as " Hamming 's problem " , and the regular numbers are often referred to as Hamming numbers in Computer Science , although he did not discover them .
Throughout his time at Bell Labs , Hamming avoided management responsibilities . He was promoted to management positions several times , but always managed to make these only temporary . " I knew in a sense that by avoiding management , " he later recalled , " I was not doing my duty by the organization . That is one of my biggest failures . "
= = Later life = =
Hamming served as president of the Association for Computing Machinery from 1958 to 1960 . In 1960 , he predicted that one day half of the Bell Lab 's budget would be spent on computing . None of his colleagues thought that it would ever be so high , but his forecast actually proved to be too low . His philosophy on scientific computing appeared as the motto of his Numerical Methods for Scientists and Engineers ( 1962 ) :
The purpose of computing is insight , not numbers .
In later life , Hamming became interested in teaching . Between 1960 and 1976 , when he left the Bell labs , he held visiting or adjunct professorships at Stanford University , the City College of New York , the University of California at Irvine and Princeton University . As a Young Turk , Hamming had resented older scientists who had used up space and resources that would have been put to much better use by the young Turks . Looking at a commemorative poster of the Bell Labs ' valued achievements , he noted that he had worked on or been associated with nearly all of those listed in the first half of his career at Bell Labs , but none in the second . He therefore resolved to retire in 1976 , after thirty years .
In 1976 he moved to the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey , California , where he worked as an Adjunct Professor and senior lecturer in computer science . He gave up research , and concentrated on teaching and writing books . He noted that :
The way mathematics is currently taught it is exceedingly dull . In the calculus book we are currently using on my campus , I found no single problem whose answer I felt the student would care about ! The problems in the text have the dignity of solving a crossword puzzle – hard to be sure , but the result is of no significance in life .
Hamming attempted to rectify the situation with a new text , Methods of Mathematics Applied to Calculus , Probability , and Statistics ( 1985 ) . In 1993 , he remarked that " when I left BTL , I knew that that was the end of my scientific career . When I retire from here , in another sense , it 's really the end . " And so it proved . He became Professor Emeritus in June 1997 , and delivered his last lecture in December 1997 , just a few weeks before his death from a heart attack on January 7 , 1998 . He was survived by his wife Wanda .
= = Awards and professional recognition = =
Turing Award , Association for Computing Machinery , 1968 .
IEEE Emanuel R. Piore Award , 1979 .
Member of the National Academy of Engineering , 1980 .
Harold Pender Award , University of Pennsylvania , 1981 .
IEEE Richard W. Hamming Medal , 1988 .
Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery , 1994 .
Basic Research Award , Eduard Rhein Foundation , 1996 .
The IEEE Richard W. Hamming Medal , named after him , is an award given annually by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ( IEEE ) , for " exceptional contributions to information sciences , systems and technology " , and he was the first recipient of this medal . The reverse side of the medal depicts a Hamming parity check matrix for a Hamming error @-@ correcting code .
= = Appearances = =
Hamming discusses the use and potential of computers in the 1965 film Logic By Machine .
= Happy Brothers =
Happy Brothers , Their Poor Mother ! ( often referred to simply as Happy Brothers ) is an 1887 oil painting by the Serbian artist Uroš Predić . It shows four intoxicated youths walking through their village whilst the mother of one shouts her disapproval from the distance . The painting is said to have been inspired by a frequent sight in Predić 's home village of Orlovat — that of drunken youths returning from the pub at dawn . Predić painted the composition hoping it would persuade the villagers to change their ways . He was disappointed that it not only failed to decrease the incidence of drunkenness in Orlovat , but was well received by the villagers themselves , who were happy merely to have been depicted .
One art historian suggests the painting was influenced by the works of Rosa Bonheur and Gustave Courbet , while another believes it was informed by those of the satirists William Hogarth and Honoré Daumier . The painting 's humorous content contributed to its popularity among critics , collectors and the public at large , which led to Predić painting two replicas in 1918 and 1922 . By 1890 , the original was owned by the National Museum of Serbia , in whose possession it remains .
= = Background = =
Uroš Predić ( 1857 – 1953 ) was one of the most successful 19th- and 20th @-@ century Serbian realists . A native of Orlovat , a village in the Banat region of Austria @-@ Hungary , Predić drew scenes of life in the village throughout his career . One of the more frequent sights during his stays there was of intoxicated young men returning from the pub at dawn and waking up the whole village . In painting the composition , Predić was not only attempting to realistically depict contemporary village life but also to convey a message . " I observed this every day " , he explained . " I said to myself there must be some way of telling these people to what an unhappy level they have descended and have a moral impact on them , capturing all the bad habits of my compatriots . " Predić had expressed disapproval of the villagers ' behavior in an earlier work , Clients in Front of a Lawyer 's Door ( 1886 ) .
= = Painting = =
= = = Description = = =
Happy Brothers , Their Poor Mother ! , often referred to simply as Happy Brothers , is an oil painting that measures 82 by 122 centimetres ( 32 by 48 in ) . " It is a glimpse into village life in early fall " , Predić explained . " The harvest has been gathered and the pigs slaughtered . The fires have been lit , the spits turned , the drinks dispensed and the celebrations fully under way . The air is filled with the aroma of ... cooking meat ... and the sounds of music and drunken song that disturb the village 's peace . "
According to Predić , the painting shows four intoxicated youths who have been drinking all night walking rowdily through their village around dawn and waking all their neighbours . They trudge down the middle of the dirt road and distance themselves from the surrounding houses so as to avoid crashing against a wall and hurting themselves . The gajda ( bagpipe ) player — the most sober of the four — walks ahead of his friends . The one to the left , the youngest of the group , walks barefoot through the mud and props one of his friends up against his shoulder . The man he is propping up , who is the most intoxicated , paid for the previous night 's drinks and bounces between shoulders for support . The man to his right has just realized that he is walking by his own dilapidated home . His mother , alerted by the young men 's laughter and song , emerges from the house and recognizes her son . She begins shouting at him and says she will spank him once he returns , but the young man simply laughs and sends her an acknowledging wave with his hat . A young girl peaks out the bottom pane of the left window of the house to the far right , wondering if her boyfriend is part of the group . A sign above her reads Szeszfőzde ( " distillery " in Hungarian ) . Predić 's initials in Cyrillic — У.П. — can be found in the bottom @-@ right corner .
In his notes , Predić identified the individuals depicted in the painting as " Maks " ( the gajda player ) , Nikola Bojić ( the man waving his hat ) and Nikola Madžarov ( the man bobbing between friends ) . Predić described the person to Madžarov 's right as simply " a young man from Orlovat " .
= = = Analysis = = =
The art historian Lilien Filipovitch @-@ Robinson posits that the painting is informed by the progressive style of French realists such as Rosa Bonheur and Gustave Courbet . She concedes that there is no documentary evidence to suggest Predić was influenced by Courbet 's depictions of peasant life , but notes that the latter 's work was in the public domain at the time Happy Brothers was created and was quite popular throughout Europe . Filipovitch @-@ Robinson believes that Predić rejected the precision and linearism of both Academic and Biedermeier art , and , as Courbet would have done , used heavily textured brushstrokes to define the roughness of the muddy road . She also draws parallels between the painting and Courbet 's Peasants of Flagey , which was shown at the Paris Salon of 1850 – 51 alongside The Stone Breakers and A Burial At Ornans .
The art historian Dejan Medaković once suggested that Predić was imitating the style of satirists William Hogarth and Honoré Daumier . Filipovitch @-@ Robinson writes that if this were so , Predić 's attempt at emulation was almost certainly unsuccessful . " Perhaps this was due to the inherent limitations of his subject " , she writes , " the fact that the figures are not caricatured and that the painting is devoid of biting or mocking humor " . According to Filipovitch @-@ Robinson , Predić ’ s treatment of Balkan rural life differs in a number of ways from that of his contemporary Paja Jovanović , who was known for painting similar subjects . Jovanović 's paintings were based on careful ethnographic studies of rural costumes and everyday objects , whereas Predić 's works lack Jovanović 's precision , owing to the artist 's tendency not to produce detailed studies of his subjects beforehand . " The images " , Filipovitch @-@ Robinson writes , " are more gestural because of the combination of generous brush strokes and minimal linear definition . This painting also brings Predić much closer to the more daring experimentations of the Munich School not only because of the textural play of the mud @-@ laden soil against rough peasant garb but in his convincing presentation of the atmosphere of the quiet predawn hours . "
= = Reception and legacy = =
Upon seeing reproductions of the painting , the villagers did not interpret it as a call to change their ways . Instead , they were flattered by Predić 's decision to depict them . " To local audiences in particular " , Filipovitch @-@ Robinson writes , " such lighthearted didacticism entwined with a familiar and beloved world was immensely satisfying " . It is said that on one of his visits home , Predić went to the local pub and encountered the patrons examining a calendar with a reproduction of his painting inside it . A number of patrons — some of whom were included in the composition — tapped him on the shoulder in drunken stupor and commended him on how accurately he had captured them . What Filipovitch @-@ Robinson calls Predić 's " well @-@ meaning and subtle moralizing " had thus been rendered ineffectual .
Writing for the Novi Sad @-@ based publication Javor in 1890 , the critic Milan Rešetar ranked the painting among Predić 's finest works up to that point . The Croatian magazine Vienac offered a positive review of the work , saying it offered a sad look at conditions in the Banat . The magazine praised Predić as " a true artist ... one who isn 't afraid to use his talent to educate people and nurture the nobler aspects of human nature " . Critics were satisfied with Happy Brothers because it not only offered an instructive narrative but also demonstrated the artist 's technical abilities . Such vignettes of village life contributed greatly to Predić 's popularity among collectors from the emerging Serbian middle class . Reproductions of the painting met with commercial success , further contributing to its popularity . This led Predić to paint two replicas , one in 1918 and the other in 1922 . By 1890 , the original was owned by the National Museum of Serbia , in whose possession it remains .
= = = Endnotes = = =
= Catching Fire =
Catching Fire is a 2009 science fiction young adult novel by the American novelist Suzanne Collins , the second book in The Hunger Games trilogy . As the sequel to the 2008 bestseller The Hunger Games , it continues the story of Katniss Everdeen and the post @-@ apocalyptic nation of Panem . Following the events of the previous novel , a rebellion against the oppressive Capitol has begun , and Katniss and fellow tribute Peeta Mellark are forced to return to the arena in a special edition of the Hunger Games .
The book was first published on September 1 , 2009 , by Scholastic , in hardcover , and was later released in ebook and audiobook format . Catching Fire received mostly positive reviews , with reviewers praising Collins ' prose , the book 's ending , and the development of Katniss 's character . According to critics , major themes of the novel include survival , authoritarianism , rebellion and interdependence versus independence . The book has sold more than 19 million copies in the U.S. alone .
A film adaptation , The Hunger Games : Catching Fire , was released on November 22 , 2013 .
= = Plot = =
After winning the 74th Hunger Games in the previous novel , Katniss Everdeen and Peeta Mellark return home to District 12 , the poorest sector in the country of Panem . But on the day that Katniss and Peeta are to start a " Victory Tour " of the country , President Snow visits unexpectedly and tells Katniss that he is angry with her for breaking the rules at the end of the last Hunger Games , which permitted both Peeta and Katniss to win . Snow tells Katniss that when she defied the Capitol , she inspired rebellion in the districts .
The first stop on the Victory Tour is District 11 , the home of Katniss ' deceased friend and ally in the Hunger Games , Rue . During the ceremony , Katniss delivers a speech thanking the people of District 11 for their participants in the Games . When she finishes , an old man whistles the tune that Rue used in the arena to tell Katniss that she was safe . The song acts as a signal and everyone salutes Katniss , using the same gesture that she used to say farewell to Rue . To the horror of Katniss , the old man and two others are executed .
Katniss and Peeta travel to the rest of the twelve Districts and the Capitol . Hoping to placate the growing rebellion and settle the dispute between Katniss and President Snow , Peeta proposes to Katniss during an interview . Despite this , Katniss learns that their attempt to avert revolt in the districts has failed .
Shortly after returning to District 12 , Katniss discovers on the mayor 's television that District 8 has had an uprising , and she fears that what she has done to placate the crowds is not enough , as there may be uprisings in other Districts as well . She then meets two runaways from District 8 , Bonnie and Twill . They explain their theory which contradicts what the other districts have been led to believe : District 13 was not completely wiped out by the Capitol , and its residents survive in underground shelters .
Later , it is announced that , for the 75th Hunger Games , twenty @-@ four victors from previous years will be forced to compete once again . This is the third occurrence of the " Quarter Quell " : an event that occurs every 25th year of the Games and allows the Capitol to introduce a twist . Knowing that she and Peeta will be competing in the Games a second time , Katniss decides that she will devote herself to ensuring that Peeta becomes the Quarter Quell 's victor and convinces their mentor , Haymitch , to help her . Likewise , Peeta is devoted to protecting her , but Katniss and her mentor are determined that only Peeta returns home safely .
During the Games , set in a jungle with a saltwater lake , Katniss and Peeta join up with two other previous victors : Finnick Odair , a 24 @-@ year @-@ old man who survived the Games at the age of 14 , and Mags , Finnick 's 80 @-@ year @-@ old mentor , both from District 4 . The party encounters poisonous fog in which Peeta comes into contact with the gas and cannot walk . Mags sacrifices herself to save Peeta and dies in the poisonous fog . After Mags 's death , Katniss , Peeta , and Finnick join forces with Johanna Mason , a sarcastic and often cruel victor from District 7 , and Beetee and Wiress , an older couple from District 3 who are said to be " exceptionally smart " . Wiress soon proves her genius by revealing to Katniss that the arena is arranged like a clock , with all of the arena 's disasters occurring on a timed chart . After Wiress is killed in a battle with the Careers ( tributes from the first three districts who train all their lives for the Games and are usually the winners ) , Katniss learns of Beetee 's plan to harness lightning in order to electrocute Brutus and Enobaria , the two remaining Careers Tributes from District 2 . In the final chapters , Katniss instead directs the lightning at the force field that contains the arena , thereby destroying the arena and resulting in her temporary paralysis .
When Katniss wakes up , she is being transported to District 13 , joined by Finnick , Beetee , and her mentor , Haymitch Abernathy . She learns that Peeta , Enobaria , and Johanna have been captured by the Capitol and is informed that there had been a plan among half of the contestants to break out of the arena — Beetee had been attempting to destroy the force field in the same way that she did . The book ends when Katniss ' best friend , Gale , comes to visit her and informs her that , though he got her family out in time , District 12 has been destroyed .
= = Themes = =
The main themes of Catching Fire include survival , sacrifice , and the conflict between interdependence and independence . As reviewer Margo Dill noted , " In [ Catching Fire ] , Katniss and Peeta are definitely interdependent . They are both helping each other to survive . As a matter of fact , they want the other one to survive more than they do themselves . " Dill goes on to explain how this likely increases the chances of each character dying .
Government control is another important theme , both within the book and throughout the entire trilogy . After suppressing the first rebellion , the Capitol establishes rules in order to restrict and control the citizens ' lives . Examples noted by Dill include that , " the 75th annual Hunger Games have ' new ' rules that cause Katniss and Peeta to be in danger once again . More ' Peacekeepers ' are placed in districts to diminish any hope that the citizens started to have after the last Hunger Games . " Another major theme throughout the trilogy is the media and the influence or power that popular culture has over the emotions , wishes and views of society . Other themes in the book include morality , obedience , sacrifice , redemption , love , and law .
= = Publication history = =
Catching Fire had a preliminary hardcover release date of September 8 , 2009 , which was moved up to September 1 in response to requests by retailers to move the release to before Labor Day and the start of school for many readers . It was also published as an audiobook on the same day . Advance reading copies were available at BookExpo America in New York City , and were sent out to some booksellers , and offered as prizes in Scholastic 's " How Would You Survive " writing contest in May 2009 . An eBook version was also published on June 3 , 2010 . Catching Fire had an initial print of 350 @,@ 000 copies , a number which had grown to over 750 @,@ 000 by February 2010 . The release of Mockingjay , the third novel of the series , followed on August 24 , 2010 . As of March 2012 , the book has sold over 10 million copies .
= = Critical reception = =
Catching Fire received mainly positive reviews from critics . Publishers Weekly wrote , " If this second installment spends too much time recapping events from book one , it doesn 't disappoint when it segues into the pulse @-@ pounding action readers have come to expect . " Booklist commented on how the " unadorned prose provides an open window to perfect pacing and electrifying world building " . The New York Times also gave a positive review , writing , " Collins has done that rare thing . She has written a sequel that improves upon the first book . As a reader , I felt excited and even hopeful : could it be that this series and its characters were actually going somewhere ? " The review also praised Collins ' development of the character of Katniss . The Plain Dealer wrote , " The very last sentence of Catching Fire will leave readers gasping . Not to mention primed for part three . "
However , not all reviews were positive . The same review from The Plain Dealer expressed displeasure at how , " after 150 pages of romantic dithering , I was tapping my foot to move on . " A review from Entertainment Weekly opined that the book was weaker than the first and wrote , " Katniss pretends to be in love with her sweet @-@ natured Games teammate Peeta Mellark , but she secretly pines for brooding Gale , a childhood friend . Except — why ? There 's little distinction between the two thinly imagined guys , other than the fact that Peeta has a dopier name . Collins conjures none of the erotic energy that makes Twilight , for instance , so creepily alluring . "
In addition , Time magazine placed Catching Fire at number four on its list of the top 100 fiction books of 2009 , while People magazine rated it the eighth Best Book of 2009 . It also won the Publishers Weekly 's 2009 award for Best Book of the Year .
= = Film adaptation = =
Lionsgate announced that The Hunger Games : Catching Fire was to be released on November 22 , 2013 , as a sequel to the film adaptation of The Hunger Games . In April 2012 , it was announced that Gary Ross , director of The Hunger Games , would not return due to a " tight " and " fitted " schedule . Francis Lawrence was officially announced as the director for Catching Fire on May 3 , 2012 . The film 's cast includes Jena Malone as Johanna Mason , Philip Seymour Hoffman as Plutarch Heavensbee , Lynn Cohen as Mags , Alan Ritchson as Gloss , Sam Claflin as Finnick , and Jeffrey Wright as Beetee . Production officially began on September 10 , 2012 and concluded on December 21 , 2012 . Shooting first took place in and around metropolitan Atlanta . Several District 11 scenes were also filmed in the rural areas of Macon County , Georgia , and the rest of production took place in Hawaii . Some of the wooded scenes were filmed in Oakland , New Jersey .
The film was successful , grossing more than $ 800 million to become the fifth highest @-@ grossing film at the box office in 2013 and receiving positive reviews from critics .
= 2010 São Paulo Indy 300 =
The 2010 São Paulo Indy 300 was the first race of the 2010 IZOD IndyCar Series season . The race took place on March 14 , on the 2 @.@ 536 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 081 km ) temporary street circuit in São Paulo , Brazil , and was telecast by Versus in the United States . Originally scheduled for 190 @.@ 2 miles ( 306 @.@ 1 km ) , the race was shortened to 154 @.@ 696 miles ( 248 @.@ 959 km ) due to a two @-@ hour time limit brought about by an extended red @-@ flag period due to heavy rain .
The race was won by Australian driver Will Power for Team Penske . Power was making his race return after an incident during a practice session at the 2009 Indy Grand Prix of Sonoma , which left him with two broken vertebrae in his back . Second place went to Ryan Hunter @-@ Reay , who was making his first start for Andretti Autosport , and third place went to another returnee , A. J. Foyt Enterprises ' Vitor Meira . Meira was making his first start since suffering similar injuries to Power , during the 2009 Indianapolis 500 .
Four drivers made their IndyCar Series débuts in the race . Former Formula One driver Takuma Sato , Firestone Indy Lights graduates Ana Beatriz and Mario Romancini , and Atlantic Championship title contender Simona de Silvestro were all classified outside the top ten at the conclusion of the race , with de Silvestro leading four laps during the race .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Plans for an IndyCar Series race in Brazil were confirmed on 25 November 2009 , with authorities in São Paulo and the Indy Racing League agreeing to a deal for the city to host the series . Race details for the São Paulo Indy 300 were announced on 25 January 2010 . It was the first American open @-@ wheel race in the country since the Rio 200 at Jacarepaguá in 2000 . Despite a lengthy distance to travel from most team bases , the event promoters offered each team a six @-@ figure sum of money , as well as paying for all expenses . A total of seven Brazilian drivers would compete in the race , including Ana Beatriz , Hélio Castroneves , Tony Kanaan , Raphael Matos , Vitor Meira , Mario Moraes and Mario Romancini . Of those seven , four drivers — Beatriz , Castroneves , Moraes and Romancini — are natives of São Paulo . The race weekend was scheduled to have two practice sessions on Saturday morning , qualifications on Saturday afternoon with the race on Sunday afternoon . In preparation for the race weekend , the public roads that made up areas of the track were closed off just before midnight on Friday evening .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
In the first practice session , Chip Ganassi Racing driver Scott Dixon recorded the fastest lap , ahead of Team Penske 's Ryan Briscoe , the Andretti Autosport car of Tony Kanaan and Briscoe 's teammate Will Power . Due to the slippery nature of the circuit , drivers were caught out and ended up inflicting damage to their cars . Defending series champion Dario Franchitti ventured down the escape road before damaging his suspension against the Turn 8 wall . He ended the session in seventeenth position . Other drivers to hit the wall included Romancini and Milka Duno . Incidents continued in the second practice session , with no less than five drivers spinning or making contact with the outside retaining walls . The session saw the same top four drivers as the first session .
Having observed the sessions and received feedback from the drivers and the teams about the circuit conditions , the series ' president of competition Brian Barnhart and course designer Tony Cotman opted to postpone the qualification session to race morning , with the running of a third practice session and a Sunday morning warm @-@ up instead of it . Power topped this extra session , ahead of Kanaan and Ryan Hunter @-@ Reay , with Justin Wilson — a new arrival at Dreyer & Reinbold Racing — in fourth position . After the session , track officials started grinding down the concrete in order to provide a track surface that was suitable for racing the following day . Hunter @-@ Reay topped the Sunday morning warmup before qualifying , setting the fastest lap time by over half a second ahead of second @-@ year driver Mike Conway in another Dreyer & Reinbold car .
Qualifying followed the usual road and street course system , with the field being split into two groups . In the first group of twelve runners , Wilson topped the session , 0 @.@ 46 seconds ahead of the HVM Racing machine of Switzerland 's Simona de Silvestro — one of four female drivers in the race — with Alex Tagliani in third position . Other drivers to make it into the second session of qualifying were Power , Takuma Sato and Raphael Matos . The remaining twelve drivers took part in the second group , with Hunter @-@ Reay topping his second session of the day . Hélio Castroneves , Briscoe , Franchitti , Dixon and Kanaan were the other competitors in the top six , and thus progressed to the second round of qualifying . In the Top 12 , Power recorded the fastest lap time , holding off the British pair Wilson and Franchitti . Hunter @-@ Reay , Kanaan and Tagliani finished between fourth and sixth , and would be the other half of the drivers that progressed to the Fast Six . Franchitti saved his best lap of qualifying to the last possible moment , taking his thirteenth career IndyCar Series pole position , and his 24th in American open @-@ wheel racing . Tagliani took second on the grid , on his début with the FAZZT Race Team . Wilson took third ahead of Hunter @-@ Reay , Power and Kanaan .
= = = Race = = =
Minutes before the race start , reports of rain falling on the track caused the start to be delayed by around ten minutes . Race control eventually deemed the race to be dry enough to be called a dry race , thus the rain tyres were not necessary , but would be required later in the race . Dario Franchitti and Alex Tagliani led the field to the line , with the circuit still being dusty from the previous night 's repair work . Dust clouds engulfed the start @-@ finish straight , blinding many of the midfield runners . The top five runners managed to negotiate the first chicane cleanly , while behind , half a dozen cars were involved in a first @-@ corner crash . Takuma Sato misjudged his braking into the first corner and clipped the rear of Will Power 's Penske machine , which spun him into Scott Dixon . Hélio Castroneves could not avoid running into Dixon 's stationary car at the first corner . After many drivers went down the escape road to avoid being involved in the crash , a separate accident took place between Marco Andretti and Mario Moraes . Moraes lost control of his KV Racing Technology car behind Ana Beatriz , hit Andretti and became airborne before coming to rest across the cockpit of Andretti 's car . It took several minutes to extricate Andretti from his damaged machinery , but was uninjured and very critical of Moraes ' driving . The crash resulted in a seven @-@ lap caution period , and eliminated Sato , Moraes and Andretti from the race . Dixon and Castroneves both recovered to the pit lane to repair damage .
Franchitti led the field to the restart on lap eight , ahead of Tagliani , Hunter @-@ Reay ( up from fourth ) , Kanaan ( up from sixth ) , and Matos , who advanced seven positions while avoiding the mêlée at turn one . Franchitti became only the third driver in series history to lead the final lap of one season and the first lap of the next , having won the championship by winning the 2009 Firestone Indy 300 at Homestead @-@ Miami Speedway . The top five remained the same until lap 15 when Dan Wheldon passed the De Ferran Luczo Dragon Racing car of Matos for fifth place . Hunter @-@ Reay took second place from Tagliani into the final hairpin on lap 19 , before Milka Duno brought out the second caution of the afternoon on lap 22 by nudging her Dale Coyne Racing car into the wall at turn four . The entire field except for Simona de Silvestro headed to pit road for the first of two scheduled pit stops . De Silvestro became the first rookie driver since Graham Rahal in 2008 to lead at least one lap on début .
When the race returned to green flag conditions on lap 26 , de Silvestro held the lead ahead of Franchitti , Hunter @-@ Reay and Kanaan with Tagliani in fifth position . De Silvestro kept the lead for a further two laps , with Hunter @-@ Reay 's Andretti Autosport car moving ahead of Franchitti on lap 27 , repeating his move on Tagliani on the defending series champion . Not long after , Hunter @-@ Reay moved ahead of de Silvestro as the pair were under braking for turn five . Hunter @-@ Reay nearly lost control of his car as his car bottomed out on the straight , with lifted the car slightly airborne . Franchitti further demoted the young Swiss driver to third , moving ahead on lap 29 . Behind them , Hideki Mutoh hit Vitor Meira which saw his retirement from the race , and Wheldon hit the back of Tagliani which sent him into Kanaan , resulting in the retirement of the Canadian driver . Rain started falling once again , more heavily than before and much of the field pitted to change from dry @-@ weather tyres to wet @-@ weather ones . Alex Lloyd aquaplaned into the wall in the second Dale Coyne car , bringing out the caution for the third time , and with rain falling relentlessly , series officials brought out the red flag to allow the weather conditions to pass . After a 36 @-@ minute red flag delay , cars returned to the circuit with slicks being the choice of tyre for the track , despite a few wet patches remaining on the circuit . Some cars gambled on wets thinking that the circuit would not dry quickly enough for their tyres to drop off compared to the slicks .
As the green flag flew on lap 38 , Chip Ganassi Racing held a one – two with Franchitti leading Dixon , with two of the Dreyer & Reinbold cars — Conway and Wilson — holding third and fourth places , with the only remaining KV car of E. J. Viso holding fifth , the Venezuelan disposing of Castroneves just after the restart . Realising that the gamble had backfired , the lead quintet pitted on laps 41 and 42 , which cycled Hunter @-@ Reay back through to the lead . Power made an error which allowed Matos and Briscoe to move ahead of him . Briscoe moved ahead of Matos on lap 45 and set off in chase of Hunter @-@ Reay . Four laps later , the Australian was on the American 's tail , and moved ahead after an outbraking move into the final hairpin . Hunter @-@ Reay immediately regained the position into the first chicane on Lap 51 , before Briscoe sealed the place with a similar final hairpin move at the end of the lap . Briscoe 's luck would run out , however , when he overcooked it into turn five on lap 54 , and nudged the barriers with his nose assembly , bringing out the fourth and final caution of the race . The time limit meant that only six laps remained at the restart , with Hunter @-@ Reay leading Power , Matos , Meira and Wheldon . Meira soon passed his fellow Brazilian for third on Lap 57 , and began to chase down the lead duo , who had changed positions after Power used the slipstream to overtake Hunter @-@ Reay into the final corner . Power moved away from Hunter @-@ Reay in the final laps , taking the chequered flag to cap his return from injury with a victory . Hunter @-@ Reay took his best result for a year in second , with another injury returnee , Meira , finishing third . Matos was fourth , holding off seven other cars , as fourth to eleventh were covered by 3 @.@ 49 seconds at the race 's conclusion . Wheldon led those seven in fifth , ahead of the Ganassis , Conway , Castroneves , Kanaan and Wilson . Viso finished twelfth ahead of top rookie Beatriz , a recovering Briscoe , Danica Patrick and de Silvestro , the final two off the lead lap .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
All cars were split into two groups of twelve , with the fastest six from each group going through to the " Top 12 " session . In this session , the fastest six runners progressed to the " Firestone Fast Six " . The fastest driver in the final session claimed pole , with the rest of the runners lining up in session order , regardless of qualifying times . ( Fast Six from 1 @-@ 6 , Top 12 from 7 @-@ 12 and Round 1 from 13 @-@ 24 , with Group 1 drivers occupying the odd @-@ numbered grid positions , and Group 2 drivers occupying the even @-@ numbered grid positions ) .
= = = Race = = =
= = Championship standings after the race = =
= William Henry Cushing =
William Henry Cushing ( August 21 , 1852 – January 25 , 1934 ) was a Canadian politician . Born in Ontario , he migrated west as a young adult where he started a successful lumber company and later became Alberta 's first Minister of Public Works and the 11th mayor of Calgary . As Minister of Public Works in the government of Alexander Cameron Rutherford , he oversaw the creation of Alberta Government Telephones .
Cushing 's resignation in 1910 precipitated the Alberta and Great Waterways Railway scandal , which forced Rutherford 's resignation . Though Cushing had hopes of being asked to replace Rutherford , that role fell instead to Arthur Sifton , the province 's chief judge . Left out of Sifton 's cabinet , Cushing did not seek re @-@ election in the 1913 election , and did not re @-@ enter politics thereafter . He was the chairman of Mount Royal College 's board of governors for sixteen years . He died in 1934 .
= = Early life = =
Cushing was born August 21 , 1852 in Kenilworth , Ontario to William Cusing and Sarah Thomson . His father was a farmer who had immigrated from Norwich , England in 1840 . In 1879 , Cushing indentured as a carpenter . He moved to Calgary in 1883 , where in partnership with Stephen Jarett , he engaged in carpentry , building houses and stores . In 1877 Cushing married Elizabeth Rinn , who died three years later . In 1883 he married Mary Jane Waters , with whom he had two children . In 1885 he opened a sash and door factory , which made him wealthy . His business flourished and expanded ; by 1900 , it occupied 42 city lots and employed more than one hundred workers ; by 1911 , this number had reached two hundred . He was also active in the local Methodist church and the Bowness golf club , and served eight years as a school trustee with the Calgary Board of Education . He was a supporter of the Temperance Movement .
= = Municipal politics = =
Cushing was elected Calgary town councillor for a term beginning on January 20 , 1890 . He remained in that capacity until January 16 , 1893 . Two years later he became an alderman on the council of Calgary , which was now a city . He served as alderman from January 7 , 1895 until January 4 , 1897 , and again from May 1899 until January 2 , 1900 . During his last term he was elected the thirteenth mayor of Calgary , a position he held from January 2 , 1900 until January 7 , 1901 . He subsequently served another term as alderman from January 6 , 1902 until January 2 , 1905 .
He also served as the president of Calgary 's Board of Trade in 1906 .
= = Provincial politics = =
After Alexander Cameron Rutherford was asked to form Alberta 's first government in 1905 , he appointed Cushing as his Minister of Public Works . Historian L. G. Thomas notes that this was an important portfolio , given the rapid development of infrastructure expected in the new province . In keeping with custom for cabinet ministers in Westminster parliamentary systems , Cushing ran for the first Legislative Assembly of Alberta in the district of Calgary in the 1905 election . Cushing , a Liberal , was opposed by Conservative leader R. B. Bennett . The campaign was acrimonious ; at one meeting , Bennett accused Cushing of giving his fellow Liberal candidates road @-@ building money with which they could bribe their districts . On election day , Cushing defeated Bennett , who attributed his defeat to " Roman Catholic influence " .
Once elected , he was Calgary 's primary supporter in the legislature 's debate over Alberta 's capital city , claiming that it was the new province 's economic centre , that Alberta 's status as a province was the result of a political movement that had begun in Calgary , and that it would be cheaper to build a legislature there than in Edmonton , site of the interim capital . His motion to name Calgary as the capital was defeated 16 votes to eight , and permanent capital was located at Edmonton . Though it was not to be at his preferred location , as Public Works Minister Cushing did choose the design for the new Alberta Legislature Building , which was based on the Minnesota State Capitol .
As Calgary 's representative , Cushing was further dismayed when Rutherford elected to locate the University of Alberta in his own hometown of Strathcona , immediately across the North Saskatchewan River from Edmonton . Calgarians felt that , having been denied the capital , they should be first in line for the university .
As Public Works Minister , Cushing was a primary advocate of government intervention in the labour disputes plaguing Alberta 's coal industry in 1907 ; Rutherford eventually appointed a commission to examine the problem . Cushing also presided over the government 's entry into the telephone business : in 1906 , most telephone lines in Alberta were privately owned , and the largest of these private owners was the Bell Telephone Company . Bell controlled all telephone service in Calgary , and refused to extend its operations into less densely populated , and therefore less profitable , regions of the province . In response , Cushing attacked Bell as " the most pernicious and iniquitous monopoly that had ever been foisted upon a people claiming to be free " and sponsored legislation creating Alberta Government Telephones to service areas that Bell would not . This new company later purchased Bell 's lines , financing the venture by issuing debentures , in contrast to the government 's usual policy of " pay as you go " . Cushing 's zeal for government involvement was such that member of the Canadian House of Commons Peter Talbot in 1908 warned Rutherford that his Public Works Minister was " going crazy " with public ownership and that Rutherford would " someday find a lot of trouble through him " . Thomas has argued that it was strange for a successful businessman like Cushing to be so aggressive rhetorically against a successful corporation , but Mount Royal College historian Patricia Roome has suggested that Cushing was soured by his own experience as a Calgarian living under the monopoly , hostile to what he saw as a symbol of " eastern capitalism " , and hopeful that bringing telephone service to rural areas would guarantee continued Liberal success .
= = = Railway scandal = = =
By the 1909 election , Calgary 's growth had earned it a second seat in the legislature . Cushing finished first in a five candidate field , and was elected to fill one of these seats ; Bennett , finishing second , was elected to the other .
Though Cushing , as Minister of Public Works , was initially responsible for railway policy , on November 1 , 1909 Rutherford created a new ministry of Railways , which he appointed himself to head . In February 1910 , Cushing resigned as Minister of Public Works , expressing disagreement with Rutherford 's policy of offering loan guarantees to private railway builders , including the Alberta and Great Waterways ( A & GW ) Railway . He stated in his letter of resignation that this policy had been adopted without his knowledge or consent . Rutherford accepted the resignation with regret , but publicly disagreed with Cushing 's claim that he had been kept unaware of government railway policy . On February 25 , Cushing gave his account of the events leading to his resignation In the legislature : after responsibility for railways was removed from his department , Rutherford had offered the A & GW guarantees of $ 20 @,@ 000 per mile of railway constructed . In making this guarantee , Rutherford had not consulted government engineers in the department of Public Works about construction costs , relying instead on the A & GW 's engineer . Cushing felt that guaranteeing $ 20 @,@ 000 per mile , regardless of actual construction costs , was unwise , and further believed that the government 's reliance on the A & GW 's engineer could let the company get away with building a sub @-@ standard railway .
There followed a dramatic series of legislative debates and votes , in which many Liberals , including Cushing , frequently voted against their own government , even on motions of non @-@ confidence . In March , Rutherford invited Cushing to rejoin the cabinet ; according to Cushing , he was assured that if he did so his rival , Attorney General Charles Wilson Cross , would resign . He declined Rutherford 's offer , both because he considered that he was no longer able to work with the premier and because his allies among the anti @-@ Rutherford Liberals urged him to fight on . Rumours began to circulate that Rutherford would resign , to be replaced by Cushing . Lieutenant Governor of Alberta George Bulyea was indeed convinced that Rutherford would have to resign in order to save the Liberals , but he and other powerful Liberals did not view Cushing as capable of leading the government . Bulyea instead invited provincial Chief Justice Arthur Sifton to form a government , though Cushing was reputed to have been " sitting in his hotel room , his ear glued to the telephone , waiting for the summons from the Lieutenant @-@ Governor to assume the robes of Rutherford " .
Sifton left Cushing , along with all other major figures of the A & GW dispute , out of his first cabinet ; Ezra Riley , a staunch Cushing ally , resigned his seat in protest . Cushing did not do the same , but did not seek re @-@ election in the 1913 election .
= = Later life and legacy = =
Cushing was the first chairman of the Mount Royal College Board of Governors , holding the post from 1910 until 1926 , when he was designated Honorary Chairman . He died in Calgary January 25 , 1934 of a heart attack . Calgary 's W. H. Cushing Workplace School is named in his honour .
Cushing is primarily remembered for his role in the Alberta and Great Waterways Railway Scandal . In assessing his role in that episode , Thomas has suggested that his actions were motivated by something other than " revulsion against what appeared to be an unwise contract with a railway company " . Instead , he believes that Cushing had concluded that he , rather than Rutherford , should be premier , and began to conduct himself publicly in such a way as to undermine Rutherford 's authority . Whatever his motivations , Cushing 's resignation precipitated a scandal that ended Alexander Rutherford 's political career , and in so doing had a profound effect on Alberta 's political history . In evaluating his legacy , Roome also considers his role in establishing the government telephone system , which in her opinion " produced serious financial difficulties " for the province in the years ahead .
= = Electoral record = =
= Somehow , Satan Got Behind Me =
" ' Somehow , Satan Got Behind Me " is the twenty @-@ first episode of the second season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on May 1 , 1998 . The episode was written and directed by Darin Morgan , and featured guest appearances by Bill Macy , Dick Bakalyan and Alex Diakun .
In this episode , a group of demons convene in a doughnut shop to share stories of tempting and damning humans . However , their stories all seem to include one mysterious figure who can see them for who they really are — Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) .
" Somehow , Satan Got Behind Me " marks Morgan 's second and last script for the series , and parodies his earlier difficulties writing for The X @-@ Files . The episode has received mixed to positive reviews , and earned Morgan a Bram Stoker Award for Best Screenplay nomination in 1999 .
= = Plot = =
Four elderly men meet for coffee late at night . The fourth to arrive is hostile to the waiter , who secretly urinates in the man 's coffee . The man , Abum ( Dick Bakalyan ) , realizes this , and the group share a laugh over it , during which they are revealed to actually be demons . One of them , Blurk ( Bill Macy ) , complains that there are no strong personalities in this century . He tells a story of Perry , a man he met hitch @-@ hiking , who he molded into a serial killer over encouraging conversations . Perry sought to emulate Johnny Mack Potter , the country 's most prolific killer , and to break his record number of murders . As Perry drew level with Potter 's figure , Blurk grew bored accompanying him on the " mundane " murders of prostitutes and vagrants . Blurk gave an anonymous tip to the police that leads to Perry 's arrest ; one of the men present at the arrest — offender profiler Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) — seems to see through Blurk 's human disguise . In prison , Perry is murdered by his cellmate Johnny Mack Potter , reclaiming his record .
Abum tells another story , which he believes shows that mankind no longer needs demonic temptation to be damned . Abum followed an everyman figure called Brock , watching his grindingly repetitive life . Brock visited a strip club often but without joy , which led Abum to believe he no longer took pleasure from sinning . One day , Abum added an additional irritation to Brock 's life , posing as a traffic warden and giving him a ticket . This was enough to drive Brock to suicide . However , during this time , Abum also encountered Black , who again saw his demonic nature .
Greb ( Alex Diakun ) shares his tale , of a television censor called Waylon Figgleif . Figgleif 's overzealous approach to censorship leads Greb to try pushing his limits . Greb assumed the form of a small demonic baby and reveals himself to Figgleif , who breaks down and starts attempting to censor everyday life . Greb repeats this trick , and encourages Figgleif to go on a killing spree — Figgleif takes a gun , bursts onto the taping of a science @-@ fiction show about alien abduction , and kills several actors . Greb 's methods and effectiveness are dismissed until he reveals the story 's epigram . Figgleif 's spree was caught on camera , and broadcast by another network as a found footage special . However , Greb also notes that he too was spotted by Black during this .
The fourth devil , Toby ( Wally Dalton ) , is convinced that Black really does know that they are demons . Toby also recounts his story , in which he begins to feel ennui at his failure to damn humans for some time . He meets and courts an aging stripper , Sally , who falls in love with him . Their relationship blossomed , despite her having seen his true demonic form . One day Toby leads her to believe he is about to propose to her , before instead curtly insulting and breaking up with her . He later visited her home to find police investigating her suicide — a successful damnation . However , he also encounters Black , who sees his true nature . Instead of recoiling or reacting , Black simply tells Toby that he sees how lonely he must be . Toby 's story affects all the gathered demons , who realize how lonely they really are . As they get up to leave , Abum praises the shop 's coffee and briefly reveals his true form to the waiter .
= = Production = =
" Somehow , Satan Got Behind Me " is the second , and last , episode of Millennium to have been written by Darin Morgan , who also directed the episode . Morgan had previously written and directed " Jose Chung 's Doomsday Defense " earlier in the season . Morgan also served as a consulting producer for the season , and is the younger brother of Glen Morgan , an executive producer for the series .
Morgan 's script contains several references to his time as a writer for Millennium 's sister show , The X @-@ Files . One of Morgan 's episodes for that series , " War of the Coprophages " , had come under heavy criticism by the standards and practices department at parent network Fox , who took exception to the initial script 's heavy use of words such as " crap " to refer to the excrement that episode 's cockroaches fed upon . Morgan attacked and parodied this approach with one of the tales in " Somehow , Satan Got Behind Me " , with a network censor again targeting the use of the word " crap " and storming onto the set of a show resembling The X @-@ Files being taped , featuring lookalikes of Fox Mulder and Dana Scully with theme music very similar to that series ' playing in the background . The episode also contains a version of the dancing baby animation that was popular at the time , parodying its use on the series Ally McBeal .
Guest star Alex Diakun had previously appeared in the first season episode " Lamentation " in an unrelated role ; while Dan Zukovic , who played network censor Waylon Figgleif , had also appeared in a small role in " Jose Chung 's Doomsday Defense " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Somehow , Satan Got Behind Me " was first broadcast on the Fox network on May 1 , 1998 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 5 @.@ 7 during its original broadcast , meaning that 5 @.@ 7 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode . This represented approximately 5 @.@ 59 million households , and left the episode the eightieth most @-@ viewed broadcast that week .
Morgan 's script for the episode earned him a Bram Stoker Award nomination in 1999 , for Best Screenplay ; the award was won jointly by Bill Condon for Gods and Monsters and Alex Proyas , David S. Goyer and Lem Dobbs for Dark City .
The episode received mixed to positive reviews from critics . The A.V. Club 's Zack Handlen rated the episode an A , calling it " maybe the best hour of television Millennium ever produced " . Handlen felt that the episode 's " disarmingly simple " premise belied its depth , and praised Morgan 's script as perhaps the writer 's best work . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 , calling it " a very fun , very irreverent respite for the series " . Gibron felt positively about the episode 's dialogue and humor , and praised it for its self @-@ parodying elements . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated " Somehow , Satan Got Behind Me " two stars out of five , finding that it fitted poorly with the tone of the series . Shearman felt that the episode was " self @-@ indulgent and irrelevant at worst , and at best only sporadically funny " .
= Washington State Route 702 =
State Route 702 ( SR 702 ) is a 9 @.@ 32 @-@ mile ( 15 @.@ 00 km ) long two @-@ lane state highway located entirely in Pierce County , Washington , United States . The highway travels through rural Pierce County , and has existed since at least 1931 as State Highway 10 , then as Secondary State Highway 5J until the 1964 state highway renumbering when it was renumbered to SR 702 . The roadway the highway is routed along , continues east to an interchange with SR 161 .
= = Route description = =
State Route 702 ( SR 702 ) starts at a t intersection with SR 507 , east of McKenna Elementary School , headed easterly along 352nd Street . The highway travels through sections of lightly populated rural Pierce County , with sections of alternating houses and small sections of heavily wooded land . The highway terminates at SR 7 , however the roadway continues east past the intersection . The entire route is a two lane undivided highway with a 55 miles per hour ( 89 km / h ) speed limit posted .
Every year the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2009 , WSDOT calculated that as few as 4 @,@ 400 cars traveled over the highway at the eastern terminus at SR 7 , and as many as 8 @,@ 600 cars at the western terminus at SR 507 .
= = History = =
The roadway linking McKenna to now SR 7 has existed since at least 1931 , then designated State Highway 10 , and by 1939 the highway designation had been changed to Secondary State Highway 5J ( SSH 5J ) . This number remained until the 1964 state highway renumbering , where the number was changed to the current SR 702 . The highways SR 702 have connected to also been renumbered over the years , the western highway being numbered SSH 5H , and the highway on the east was formerly designated Primary State Highway 5 .
In February 2010 , Representative Tom Campbell secured funding to install a traffic light at the eastern terminus , claiming it " will save lives and support jobs . " Updated Google Street View imagery of the highway has not yet been completed .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Pierce County .
= Blown for Good =
Blown for Good : Behind the Iron Curtain of Scientology is a memoir written by Marc Headley , a former Scientologist and Sea Org member , about his life and experiences in the Church of Scientology . It was self @-@ published in the United States on November 5 , 2009 .
= = Background = =
Marc Headley was raised in Los Angeles , California . Headley 's mother was a Scientologist , and she raised him within the church from an early age . He began work as an employee for the church at age 16 . Headley soon after joined the Sea Org and worked at the international headquarters of Scientology in Hemet , California , for 15 years . Headley claims he escaped from the international headquarters of the organization in 2006 . He received the help of police during his escape from the organization .
In Headley v. Church of Scientology International , the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals wrote , " The record overwhelmingly shows that the Headleys joined and voluntarily worked for the [ Sea Organization ] because they believed that it was the right thing to do , because they enjoyed it , and because they thought that by working they were honoring the commitment that they each made and to which they adhered . " The court also noted that the Headleys had private quarters outside the base , and had access to vehicles and multiple opportunities to leave .
After leaving the organization , Headley wrote about his experiences in Scientology . His writings were published in the media including news magazines , publications on the internet and other websites . In 2008 , Headley was invited to speak in Hamburg , Germany , at a conference discussing abuses within Scientology , alongside actor and former Scientologist Jason Beghe . In 2009 , Headley lived in Los Angeles , California , with his wife and two children , where he opened a business .
= = Contents = =
The book 's title is a reference to the Scientology terms " blow " or " blown , " which describe one who leaves Scientology without prior authorization from the organization .
Headley recounts episodes from his years as a member of the Church of Scientology , most of that time as part of the order called the Sea Organization , or Sea Org . He details his experiences while working hundred @-@ hour weeks at Scientology 's secluded international headquarters known as Gold Base ( or " Int Base " ) at Gilman Hot Springs , California , about eighty miles southeast of Los Angeles .
The book includes a forward written by former high @-@ ranking Scientology official Mark Rathbun .
= = = Golden Era Productions = = =
Headley worked out of the film @-@ production studio facilities of Scientology from 1989 through 2005 . He held multiple positions while employed by Scientology at Gold Base , mainly focused on the production of video and audio materials to disseminate the message of Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard . He helped originate scripts of videos to introduce new members to Scientology methodology . He also supervised large scale Scientology public events presided over by Scientology 's leader David Miscavige . Headley reproduced thousands of copies of audio recordings of speeches by Hubbard .
= = = 2004 Tom Cruise video = = =
The author describes a 2004 event where Tom Cruise was awarded the organization 's Medal of Valor from David Miscavige , the video of which was leaked to the Internet in January 2008 . Initially , the video intended for the event featured Cruise and other celebrities including Will Smith appearing on camera and praising the actor . Miscavige disapproved and instructed Scientology staff to create a video where Cruise would speak about himself and his views on being a Scientologist . " Dave Miscavige later said that his Tom Cruise video was one of the most important videos that had ever been produced , " writes Headley .
= = = Departure from Scientology = = =
Headley states he gained approval to sell old Scientology materials on eBay to recoup money for the organization – he was later accused of embezzlement for doing this . In 2005 , when he knew he would be faced with being sent to the organization 's prison @-@ like program the Rehabilitation Project Force , Headley decided to leave . Headley worried that leaving Scientology would mean becoming separated from his wife Claire , to whom he had been married for 13 years , and other family members in accordance with the Scientology practice of disconnection . Headley alleges that left Gold Base on his motorcycle but was followed by Scientology security guards , which resulted in Headley falling off his bike by the side of the road . Riverside County , California police arrived , and they helped Headley safely get further away from the Scientology compound . From there he traveled to his father in Kansas City . He was later reunited with his wife who had also been an employee at Gold Base . Prior to his wife 's departure from Gold Base , she was monitored closely day and night by the organization .
The author credits multiple sources for introducing doubts about his conditions while living at Gold Base . He writes that he listened to The John and Ken Show on KFI , and that their discussion of Scientology allowed him to think more critically during his time at the compound . He says that viewing Conan O 'Brien make fun of Scientology celebrities changed his views on individuals that the organization had only spoken of internally with reverence .
= = Scientology response = =
When Headley and a Danish film crew went to the Gold Base , Headley was confronted by Gold staff , Catherine Fraser , who said Headley 's account of his escape was untrue .
" Marc lived in another place , not even on the property , another place altogether , " Fraser said in one of the [ video clips of the incident ] . " And that day when I explained that to the sheriff -- the sheriff looked at me and said , ' Oh , you mean he could have left at any time ? ' I said , ' Yes , he could have left at any time and he did . ' "
After reviewing the evidence , the 9th Circuit agreed with the Scientologists that the Headleys lived outside the base , they had many opportunities to leave the Gold staff , and they had no problem leaving on their first try .
= = = Suppressive Person declare = = =
In an interview on The John and Ken Show on KFI , Headley was asked if he experienced retaliation from Scientology for speaking critically about the organization . He said that he had been issued a declaration that he was to be considered a " Suppressive Person " by members of the organization , and explained , " That 's basically the thing that goes out to anyone and everyone who is in Scientology , saying , ' This person is a Suppressive Person , and you can no longer speak to him ever again . ' If you are in Scientology , and you speak to somebody who is a Suppressive Person , you yourself can be declared a Suppressive Person . " Headley said when he left Scientology the organization gave him a " freeloader statement " , a bill for US $ 62 @,@ 000 , for courses he had received in Scientology . " It 's actually illegal , because they are basically charging me for on @-@ the @-@ job training – in California you can 't charge somebody for on @-@ the @-@ job training . It 's of no real value , but you don 't know that , when you 're in Scientology . You think , ' Are they going to garnish my wages , are they going to sue me ? ' You don 't know , " said Headley .
= = Reception = =
The book was self @-@ published November 5 , 2009 , and was made available through the author 's website at www.blownforgood.com and on Amazon.com. Blown for Good was selected as a finalist in the 2009 " Book of the Year Awards " , by ForeWord Magazine . The Editor in chief of The Village Voice , Tony Ortega , described the book as a " remarkable account " . Ortega noted , " Headley 's story provides a damning account of life working for Scientology ... " He concluded the review by commenting , " Perhaps the best service that Headley provides with Blown for Good is giving non @-@ Scientologists the sense of what it 's really like to work , day in and day out , in such a strange organization , from the lowliest laborer mucking out excrement in a Gold Base pond ( Headley says shit was coming out of his ears and pores for days ) to what kind of luxuries the celebrities and high @-@ ranking members enjoy . "
On the KFI talk radio program The John and Ken Show , commentators John Kobylt and Ken Chiampou talked about Blown for Good and discussed Scientology . Paul Beaumont , Toni O 'Loughlin and Paul Harris of The Observer commented that Headley 's book , " details – as others have – allegations of systematic abuse and bizarre episodes " of experiences in Scientology . They noted , " Headley 's book follows a year in which Scientology has been plagued by unwelcome revelations from high @-@ profile defectors and fresh media investigation into its practices . " Catholic Online associate editor and former Archbishop of the Charismatic Episcopal Church , Randy Sly , characterized Blown for Good as " a bold insider memoir " . Sly reported on criticism of Scientology in the Australian Senate by Senator Nick Xenophon , and commented , " Headley provides vivid accountings of activities within Scientology that confirm the Australian Senator ’ s concerns . " Sly noted , " A number of comments left on the Amazon.com website were from those who indicated they were ex @-@ Scientologists and confirmed the author ’ s accounts . " Ian Punnett of Coast to Coast AM commented that the song " We Gotta Get out of This Place " , " certainly would be a theme of several of the chapters of Blown for Good " .
Hamilton Nolan of Gawker described the book 's design as " featuring a dramatic , action @-@ scene @-@ type cover " , and called the work " a new tell @-@ all book " . Star described Blown for Good as an " explosive new book " . Pete Samson of The Sun called the book " a revealing account of goings @-@ on within the church " . The Flemish daily newspaper published in Belgium , De Standaard , noted the book discusses " remarkable experiences " the author underwent as a Scientology staff member . In a 2010 article in New Humanist , Paul Sims noted , " Since its release at the end of last year , Blown for Good has made the kind of impact its author hoped . Having built up an online buzz courtesy of Anonymous , and sold thousands of copies in the US , Headley says he has been receiving letters and emails from Scientologists , many of whom have said the revelations in his book have confirmed their suspicions about the inner workings of the Church . "
= Threni ( Stravinsky ) =
Threni : id est Lamentationes Jeremiae Prophetae , usually referred to simply as Threni , is a musical setting by Igor Stravinsky of verses from the Book of Lamentations in the Latin of the Vulgate , for solo singers , chorus and orchestra . It is important among Stravinsky 's compositions as his first and longest completely dodecaphonic work , but is not often performed . It has been described as " austere " but also as a " culminating point " in his career as an artist , " important both spiritually and stylistically " and " the most ambitious and structurally the most complex " of all his religious compositions , and even " among Stravinsky 's greatest works " .
Stravinsky composed Threni in 1957 – 1958 for the Venice Biennale , and it was first performed there in September 1958 . A performance in Paris two months later was a disaster , attributed to inadequate performers and insufficient rehearsals . It led to mutual recriminations between Stravinsky , Pierre Boulez and Robert Craft . The work was first published in 1958 and first recorded in 1959 , in a recording conducted by the composer .
As Threni was intended for concert rather than liturgical use , Stravinsky chose the text freely from the early chapters of the Book of Lamentations . It has three movements : the large central movement is surrounded by two much shorter ones . Ernst Krenek composed a setting of the Lamentations in 1942 , and Stravinsky acknowledged that it might have influenced him . He considered it less likely that works by Renaissance composers , including Tallis , Byrd and Palestrina , had influenced him , although he had studied such music .
= = History = =
Stravinsky composed Threni between the summer of 1957 and the spring of 1958 , beginning it on 29 August 1957 at the piano of the nightclub in the hotel where he was staying in Venice , and completing it before 27 March of the next year . It was first performed on 23 September 1958 in the hall of the Scuola Grande di San Rocco , Venice . Stravinsky dedicated the performance to Alessandro Piovesan , director of the Venice Biennale , who had recently died .
The first Paris performance , on 14 November 1958 , was disastrous . According to Stephen Walsh , Pierre Boulez failed to fulfil his undertaking to obtain adequate performers , and those that he could obtain broke down several times . The audience response was polite at first , but when Stravinsky refused to return and take a bow , it gradually descended into jeers . Stravinsky said he would never conduct in Paris again . Stravinsky felt humiliated by what he called a " scandalous concert " , writing in his diary immediately after the performance that it was the " unhappiest concert of my life " and blaming Boulez for the result . Robert Craft adds that Boulez had promised to rehearse Threni , but failed to do so . Stravinsky nevertheless had a share in the blame for not cancelling the concert despite the pleas of family and friends , including his wife and Nadia Boulanger . Conceding that the performance was a " catastrophe " , Boulez nevertheless insisted that he did in fact participate in the piano rehearsals , together with Stravinsky , whom he had tried in vain to persuade to be more firm with the singers . He concluded that Stravinsky " was not a good conductor ; he was a terribly lousy conductor " , and the problems with the singers were compounded because " the orchestra had been ill @-@ prepared by Craft " . While agreeing that the singers were " absolutely awful " , Boulez protested they had been chosen not by himself , but by an agent in charge of the Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence festival .
Stravinsky himself conducted the first recording in January 1959 with the Columbia Symphony Orchestra . This recording has been reissued several times since first being published on LP in 1959 , and forms part of the 2007 release of Stravinsky 's works by Sony .
Threni was first published by Boosey & Hawkes in 1958 . Conducting from this score is difficult because of a shortage of bar lines . Asked by Robert Craft about this , Stravinsky said , " The voices are not always in rhythmic unison . Therefore , any bar lines would cut at least one line arbitrarily " . He recommended the conductor to " merely count the music out as he counts out a motet by Josquin " . However , a revised edition , with several changes to the barring as well as some corrections , was issued in 1965 .
Stravinsky had already used twelve @-@ tone technique earlier in the 1950s , both in Canticum Sacrum ( 1955 ) and in Agon ( 1957 ) . But neither of these is exclusively dodecaphonic , whereas Threni is .
= = Orchestration = =
Threni is scored for one soprano , one contralto , two tenor and two bass soloists , chorus and an orchestra of 2 flutes , 2 oboes , cor anglais , 2 clarinets ( second doubling alto clarinet in F ) , bass clarinet , contrabass sarrusophone , flugelhorn , 4 horns , 3 trombones ( 1 alto , 1 tenor , 1 bass ) , tuba , timpani , tamtam , harp , celesta , piano and strings . ( The flugelhorn is actually listed as " bugle " by the publisher , though in the " orchestration " list at the head of the score the specification is for " Contralto Bugle in B ♭ ( Fluegelhorn ) " , and in the score itself , where all the other instruments are named in Italian , it is called in French and German , " Bugle C @-@ alto ( Flügelhorn ) " . However , the part is played on the flugelhorn . The French word for flugelhorn is bugle à pistons , and the Italian is flicorno . )
= = General attributes = =
= = = Text = = =
Stravinsky wrote Threni for the Venice Biennale , not for liturgical use , and he chose the words himself to suit his musical purposes . The complete text is included in Kuster 's analysis . The text includes the Hebrew letters that begin the verses in some chapters of the Lamentations of Jeremiah . These are always set for chorus and have been likened to " a series of illuminated initials embellishing a manuscript " .
= = = Musical style = = =
Stravinsky himself described his treatment of pitch in Threni as " a kind of ' triadic atonality ' " , contrasting this with the " tonality repetition " of his ballet scores . Threni makes extensive use of canons . It also uses pitchless chanting in the choir – the first time Stravinsky had done this .
The score calls for a large orchestra , but never uses it in tutti , preferring small groups of individually selected instruments at any one time .
The principal 12 @-@ tone row for Threni is D ♯ -G ♯ -G ♮ -A ♯ -C ♯ -A ♮ -D ♮ -B ♮ -E ♮ -C ♮ -F ♮ -F ♯ . Stravinsky makes considerable use of the tonal – even diatonic – possibilities of this row . However , Stravinsky does not really use twelve @-@ tone technique in depth in this work , relying on free transposition and combination , selection , and repetition , so that the character of the music is actually not very different from his earlier works : the beginning of " Sensus spei " , for example ( especially the many repeated notes in the alto solo , and the repeated response from the chorus ) , recalls Renard and Les noces , and the two short passages for strings and chorus near the beginning setting the Hebrew letters caph and res are reminiscent of places in Orpheus ( 1948 ) .
= = = Influences = = =
The work most likely to have influenced Stravinsky 's Threni is the Lamentatio Jeremiae prophetae , opus 93 , by Ernst Krenek , for 8 @-@ part unaccompanied choir , composed in 1942 but only published in 1957 ( the year before Threni ) . Stravinsky himself said that he liked this work , that he had read a treatise by Krenek on twelve @-@ tone counterpoint , and that " Perhaps my own Threni shows contact with [ Krenek 's ] Lamentations . " Stravinsky 's decision to rely on a tactus beat rather than on barlines in the " Querimonia " section is one instance .
Edgar Murray finds Threni less expressive than the Krenek , and more like the Lamentationes of Thomas Tallis . Stravinsky , however , while acknowledging that he had studied the Tallis settings and works by William Byrd and Palestrina , did not believe that they had influenced his music .
Other resemblances have been observed – for example , the male @-@ quartet episode in the " Querimonia " was probably suggested by Carlo Gesualdo 's Aestimus sum – though such things may be better characterized as " identifications " than " influences " .
The series used by Pierre Boulez in his Structures 1a is found in the sketches for Threni , but it differs so fundamentally from the row Stravinsky actually used that its relevance to Threni is unclear .
= = Movements = =
Threni has three movements , corresponding to the three chapters of the Lamentations of Jeremiah from which the texts used in the work are taken . The following is a summary . A detailed musical analysis and the complete Latin text , side by side with the English of the King James version of the Bible , are available in the thesis by Andrew Kuster .
= = = 1 . De Elegia Prima = = =
After a short orchestral introduction , the movement begins with the words " Incipit lamentatio Jeremiae Prophetae " ( here begins the lamentation of the prophet Jeremiah ) , after which the music sets Lamentations chapter 1 , verses 1 , 2 ( first part ) , 5 ( first part ) , 11 ( last part ) and 20 . A Hebrew letter precedes each verse used .
= = = 2 . De Elegia Tertia = = =
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to avoid public attention , Superman Returns carried the fake working title of Red Sun during filming . Starting in late March 2005 , principal photography lasted until November . Filming of Superman Returns in New South Wales constituted hiring thousands of local workers , generating over $ 100 million into the local economy . 80 % of filming took place at Fox Studios Australia , occupying all nine sound stages . Scenes set in Smallville were shot at Tamworth , while the Australian Museum doubled for the Metropolis Museum of Natural History .
= = = Design and effects = = =
Superman Returns was shot using Panavision 's Genesis digital camera . Production designer Guy Hendrix Dyas was influenced by Frank Lloyd Wright 's Johnson Wax Headquarters for the design of the Daily Planet . ESC Entertainment was originally set to design the visual effects sequences , but Warner Bros. replaced them with the hiring of Mark Stetson from Sony Pictures Imageworks as the visual effects supervisor . A total of 1 @,@ 400 visual effects shots were created . The script required a scene of Superman safely delivering a Boeing 777 in a baseball park where computer @-@ generated imagery was used as it would have been impossible to assemble the number of extras for the shots . A second unit crew traveled to Dodger Stadium to photograph elements that were composited into the final images . The scenes of Metropolis was actually a modified version of the skyline of Manhattan . Using footage from the original Superman ( 1978 ) film as a reference point , Marlon Brando was re @-@ created by Rhythm & Hues using CGI . The opening credits for Superman Returns are presented in an intended recreation of the style used for Superman , again to the accompaniment of John Williams 's theme music .
= = = Music = = =
Singer hired regular collaborator John Ottman as editor and film score composer months before the script was written . Ottman said in past interviews that John Williams , who composed the 1978 film , had influenced his decision to become a musician . He was both cautious and enthusiastic to work on Superman Returns . " Bryan [ Singer ] said he wouldn 't even greenlight the movie if he couldn 't use the John Williams music . " Ottman continued , " it was important for me to preserve the Williams theme right down to every single note for the opening titles . " Ottman referred to his work on Superman Returns as a homage to , not a ripoff of , Williams .
= = = Budget = = =
Originally budgeted at $ 184 @.@ 5 million , Warner Bros. placed the production cost at $ 204 million , after factoring in tax rebates and incentives . Taking into account the development costs since the early 1990s , total expenditure is estimated to be around $ 263 million , with up to a further $ 100 million spent on worldwide marketing .
= = Release = =
= = = Marketing = = =
Warner Bros. promoted Superman Returns at 2005 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International . Singer and screenwriters Michael Dougherty and Dan Harris came up with the idea of publishing a prequel limited series , spanning four comic book issues . The stories were written by Jimmy Palmiotti , Marc Andreyko and Justin Gray , with artwork by Karl Kerschl and Matt Haley . During production , a series of " video diaries " on the Internet were released at BlueTights.net , showing behind @-@ the @-@ scenes work being done . After 27 installments , the video diaries stopped for a while shortly before the teaser trailer debuted on November 17 , 2005 . The main theatrical trailer premiered online on May 2 , 2006 . The trailer appeared in theaters on May 5 , with prints of Mission : Impossible III , while the international trailer came with The Da Vinci Code and X @-@ Men : The Last Stand . DC Comics published a comics adaptation by artist Matt Haley and writer Martin Pasko , Marv Wolfman wrote a novelization , and Electronic Arts developed a video game based on both the movie and the comics .
The estimated budget for Superman Returns marketing campaign was $ 45 @.@ 5 million , the second highest of the year behind Disney 's $ 53 @.@ 5 million campaign for Cars . Warner Bros. made tie @-@ in deals with General Mills , Burger King , Duracell , Pepsi , Doritos , Papa John 's Pizza , 7 @-@ Eleven and Colgate . The film was also advertised with Red Bull Racing Formula One cars at the 2006 Monaco Grand Prix . David Coulthard managed to get the team 's first top three finish that day ; on the podium , he wore a Superman cape in celebration of his achievement . NASCAR Sprint Cup champion Jeff Gordon also sported the " Man of Steel " look by promoting the movie on his # 24 Chevrolet Monte Carlo in the 2006 Pepsi 400 at Daytona International Speedway . Troy Bayliss appeared in promotional " Superman " leathers and sported a cape on the podium following a win and a 2nd place at the 2006 Brands Hatch Superbike World Championship round on his way to winning that year 's championship . The National Geographic Channel released The Science of Superman on June 29 , 2006 : a television special that studied popular science analogies with the Superman mythos . Singer admitted at 2006 Comic @-@ Con International that he was dissatisfied with the marketing and promotion . " A lot of people did their job , and a lot didn 't " .
= = = Box office = = =
Bryan Singer convinced Warner Bros. not to experiment with test screenings . In addition , Singer removed 15 minutes of footage from Superman Returns after showing it to some of his " trusted associates " . The final theatrical time length ran at 154 minutes . Warner Bros. originally slated the movie for release on Friday , June 30 , but moved it up to Wednesday , June 28 . Superman Returns was released on June 28 , 2006 in the United States and Canada in 4 @,@ 065 theaters . The film ranked at the top in its opening weekend , accumulating $ 52 @,@ 535 @,@ 096 . Within five days , Superman Returns took in $ 84 @.@ 2 million , a new record for Warner Bros. , beating out The Matrix Revolutions ( 2003 ) , which has since been surpassed by The Dark Knight ( 2008 ) .
Superman Returns : An IMAX 3D Experience was released simultaneously in 111 IMAX format theatres worldwide , which included 20 minutes of converted 3 @-@ D film material . It was the first Hollywood full @-@ length live @-@ action film to be released in this combined format . One of the key scenes Singer took out was " the Return to Krypton sequence " . $ 10 million was spent on this sequence alone , but it was deleted . Singer noted that it could not be released as part of a DVD featurette because it was converted to IMAX 3D . He hoped it could have appeared in an IMAX reissue . The film 's second week gross rapidly declined from the first week , due to the presence of Pirates of the Caribbean : Dead Man 's Chest and The Devil Wears Prada . Superman Returns went on to gross $ 200 @,@ 081 @,@ 192 in North America and $ 191 million internationally , earning $ 391 @,@ 081 @,@ 192 worldwide . Domestically , the film was the sixth @-@ highest grossing film of 2006 . In worldwide totals , Superman Returns was ninth @-@ highest .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Superman Returns received mixed to positive reviews from film critics . Based on 258 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes , 76 % of the reviewers enjoyed the film . Metacritic gave the film a score of 72 / 100 , based on 40 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews . " Richard Corliss of Time praised Superman Returns , calling it one of the best superhero films . He was mostly impressed with Singer 's direction and the storyline . Joe Morgenstern from The Wall Street Journal also gave a positive review , but observed Routh 's and Bosworth 's acting was " somewhat dead or super average . Nothing special . " Morgenstern believed Lex Luthor 's characterization was " well written by the writers and well played by Kevin Spacey " . He also praised Newton Thomas Sigel 's cinematography and Guy Hendrix Dyas 's production design .
Peter Travers , writing in Rolling Stone , felt the film " perfectly updates Superman for the modern audience " . J. Hoberman of The Village Voice called it " surprisingly well made . It 's a summer blockbuster filled with mythology and sensitivity . " James Berardinelli reacted positively to the movie , comparing it favorably with Richard Donner 's 1978 film . He felt Spacey was better than Gene Hackman as Lex Luthor , describing him as " more cruel and less flippant " than Hackman . " There are no miscasts to be found in the supporting cast , either , " Berardinelli said . " Superman Returns is near the top , if not at the top of the superhero movie pile . It offers nearly everything : romance , action , humor , and plenty of goose bumps . "
However , Roger Ebert argued the film was a " glum , lackluster movie in which even the big effects sequences seem dutiful instead of exhilarating . " He also felt that " Brandon Routh lacks charisma as Superman " , surmising that he " may have been cast because he looks a little like Reeve " . Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle felt that Warner Bros. should have rebooted the series along the lines of Batman Begins . He also felt Bosworth , at 22 years old , was too young to portray Lois Lane , and the climax did not " match the potential of the tiring 154 minute long film " .
Superman Returns was nominated for both the Academy Award for Visual Effects and BAFTA Award for Best Special Visual Effects , but lost to Pirates of the Caribbean : Dead Man 's Chest . The film was successful at the 33rd Saturn Awards , winning Best Fantasy Film , and categories for Direction ( Bryan Singer ) , Best Actor ( Brandon Routh ) , Writing ( Michael Dougherty and Dan Harris ) and Music ( John Ottman ) . Kate Bosworth , Tristan Lake Leabu , James Marsden , Parker Posey , and the visual effects department were nominated for categories . However , Bosworth was also nominated a Razzie Award for Worst Supporting Actress .
On May 3 , 2009 , almost three years after the debut of Superman Returns , the Academy Award winning filmmaker and screenwriter Quentin Tarantino declared his appreciation for Bryan Singer 's directorial work on Superman Returns and that he would write a 20 @-@ page review about Superman Returns .
On January 9 , 2012 , more than five years after the movie was released , the independent film community daily news site indieWire released a two @-@ part video essay that probes the melancholic nature of Superman Returns . Produced by Matt Zoller Seitz and Ken Cancelosi , the critique was inspired by a review that Seitz wrote for the New York Press in 2006 , in which he stated that " From the moment its hero returns to the sky to rescue Lois Lane from a plummeting jet , Superman Returns flirts with greatness . "
A critical commentary of the film written in English around the time of its release by a Pakistani columnist , Dr Haider Mahdi , accused the film of being " American propaganda " and portraying opponents to the United States as evil , while defending American foreign policy . It claims previous adaptations of Superman advocate American aggression and coincided the films release with America 's war in the Middle East and South Asia . It alleges that American society has always needed an " external threat " to justify invasions and aggression and the portrayal of Superman in film glorifies him when he eliminates these " external threats " .
In 2013 , Singer stated that Superman Returns was made for " Perhaps more of a female audience . It wasn 't what it needed to be , I guess . " Singer stated that he would have cut about the first quarter off of the film and started it with " the jet disaster sequence or something . I could have grabbed the audience a little more quickly . I don 't know what would have helped . Probably nothing . If I could go again , I would do an origin . I would reboot it . "
Empire Magazine ranked the movie 496 on its " The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time " list . Stating that " It may have been a slighter return than some people had hoped for , but Singer 's vision of the Man Of Steel is an heroic effort . Plenty of spectacle and a lot of heart helps Kal @-@ El soar . "
= = = Awards = = =
The film received eleven nominations in the 33rd Saturn Awards including categories of Best Fantasy Film , Best Direction ( Bryan Singer ) , Best Actor ( Brandon Routh ) , and Best Actress ( Kate Bosworth ) . The results were the following : four nominations and five wins . These are the results :
= = = Home media = = =
Superman Returns debuted on DVD on November 28 , 2006 in two versions , one with a single disc , and a double @-@ disc edition which featured over three hours of behind @-@ the @-@ scenes features . That same day , a 14 @-@ disc DVD box set titled Superman Ultimate Collector 's Edition was released , containing special editions of all five Superman films , as well as the documentary Look , Up in the Sky : The Amazing Story of Superman . It debuted at the top spot of the DVD charts , and also generated $ 13 million in rentals during its first week . The film was also released in both high definition formats , HD DVD , which featured both standard and high definitions on the same disc , and Blu @-@ ray . It was the best @-@ selling title on both formats in 2006 , and was among the best @-@ sellers of both formats of 2007 .
= = Unproduced sequel = =
In February 2006 , four months before the release of Superman Returns , Warner Bros. announced a mid @-@ 2009 theatrical release date for a sequel , with Bryan Singer reprising his directing duties . Brandon Routh , Kate Bosworth , Kevin Spacey , Sam Huntington , Frank Langella , and Tristan Lake Leabu were to reprise their roles . Due to his commitment , Singer dropped out of directing a remake of Logan 's Run and an adaptation of The Mayor of Castro Street . Writer Michael Dougherty wanted the sequel to be " action packed " , featuring " other Kryptonians " with Brainiac and Bizarro also considered for primary villains . The " New Krypton " landmass floating in space at the end of Superman Returns would have served as a plot device . Although Superman Returns received mostly positive reviews , Warner Bros. and Legendary Pictures were disappointed by the film 's box office return . Warner Bros. President Alan F. Horn explained that Superman Returns was a very successful film , but that it " should have done $ 500 million worldwide . We should have had perhaps a little more action to satisfy the young male crowd . " Singer reacted incredulously to the studio complaints , saying , " That movie made $ 400 million ! I don ’ t know what constitutes under @-@ performing these days ... " $ 175 million was the maximum budget Warner Bros. was projecting for the sequel , as Superman Returns cost $ 204 million .
Filming for the Superman Returns sequel was to start in mid @-@ 2007 , before Singer halted development in favor of Valkyrie . Filming was then pushed to March 2008 , but writers Dougherty and Dan Harris left in favor of other career opportunities . The 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike pushed the release date to 2010 . Singer still listed the sequel as a priority in March 2008 , saying that the film was in early development . Routh expected filming to begin in early 2009 . Paul Levitz , president of DC Comics , expected Routh to reprise the title role from Superman Returns before his contract for a sequel expired in 2009 . However , with Warner Bros. deciding to reboot the film series , Singer dropped out in favor of directing Jack the Giant Slayer . In August 2008 , Warner Bros. President of Production Jeff Robinov reflected , " Superman Returns didn 't quite work as a film in the way that we wanted it to . It didn 't position the character the way he needed to be positioned . Had Superman worked in 2006 , we would have had a movie for Christmas of this year or 2009 . Now the plan is just to reintroduce Superman without regard to a Batman and Superman movie at all . "
= Sam Loxton =
Samuel John Everett " Sam " Loxton , OBE ( 29 March 1921 – 3 December 2011 ) was an Australian cricketer , footballer and politician . Among these three pursuits , his greatest achievements were attained on the cricket field ; he played in 12 Tests for Australia from 1948 to 1951 . A right @-@ handed all @-@ rounder , Loxton was part of Don Bradman 's Invincibles , who went through the 1948 tour of England undefeated , an unprecedented achievement that has never been matched . As well as being a hard @-@ hitting middle @-@ order batsman , Loxton was a right @-@ arm fast @-@ medium swing bowler who liked to aim at the upper bodies of the opposition , and an outfielder with an accurate and powerful throw . After being dropped from the national team , Loxton represented Victoria for seven more seasons before retiring from first @-@ class cricket . He served as an administrator after his playing days were over and spent 24 years as a Liberal Party member of the Victorian Legislative Assembly . Up until 1946 , Loxton also played in the Victorian Football League ( VFL ) for St Kilda as a forward . In all three arenas , he was known for his energetic approach .
Educated at Wesley College , Melbourne , Loxton first gained prominence as an Australian rules football player . After debuting in 1942 , he played 41 games in the VFL for St Kilda as a forward , kicking a total of 114 goals before retiring at the end of the 1946 season to concentrate on his cricket career . In 1944 , he headed St Kilda 's goal @-@ kicking aggregate with 52 goals and placed second in the club 's Best and Fairest . Loxton served in a tank division during World War II and made his first @-@ class cricket debut in 1946 – 47 . He scored 232 not out , which remains a record for any Australian player on his first @-@ class debut . After a strong first season , Loxton was selected to make his Test debut in the final match of the 1947 – 48 home series against India . Australia had already won the series and used the last match to trial their young talent . Loxton seized his opportunity , scoring 80 and taking three wickets , securing himself a position on the 1948 England tour .
After a slow start to the historic campaign , Loxton struck form midway through the English summer and forced his way into the team for the last three Tests . He played a prominent role in the Fourth Test , scoring an aggressive and counterattacking 93 that helped Australia pry the initiative from England ; the tourists eventually won the match . In 1949 – 50 , Loxton cemented his position in the national team , playing in all five Tests in South Africa and scoring his only century at international level . He remained a regular member of the Test team until a form slump during the 1950 – 51 home season ; he was dropped after three Tests against England and never played for Australia again . Loxton continued to play for Victoria in domestic competition until retiring at the end of the 1957 – 58 season .
A member of the Liberal Party , Loxton entered politics and was a member of Victorian Legislative Assembly , representing the electoral district of Prahran from 1955 to 1979 . During this time , Loxton was also active in cricket administration at club , state and international level . He was a state selector for over two decades , and served at national level for ten years , starting in 1970 – 71 . He was also the team manager for Australia 's tour of the subcontinent in 1959 – 60 , overseeing a successful campaign despite a spate of serious illnesses to personnel . Loxton had to deal with a variety of tumultuous events on and off the field during his tenure , often relating to player misconduct , and retired from cricket administration in 1981 following the underarm incident .
= = Early and war years = =
Loxton was born in March 1921 at Albert Park , Victoria , the son of Sam Sr. and Annie . The elder Sam Loxton was an electrician who played second grade cricket for Collingwood . The younger Sam started his education at Yarra Park State School , where he learned to bat , using a pine tree in the schoolyard as the stumps ; the same tree was used for the same purpose years earlier by Test players Vernon Ransford and Ernie McCormick , and long @-@ serving Victorian batsman Jack Ledward . The family moved to Armadale , and young Loxton attended Armadale Public School before completing his secondary education at Wesley College , Melbourne , an elite private boys ’ school . One of his colleagues at Wesley College was Ian Johnson , a future teammate for Victoria and Australia . The boys ’ school coach was P. L. Williams , a renowned mentor of teenagers who had earlier coached Ross Gregory and future Test captain Lindsay Hassett . Away from his sporting commitments at school , Loxton played district cricket for Prahran 's third grade team when he was just 12 . The young cricketer 's parents were stalwarts of the club ; Sam Sr. was the scorer and served as a transport man , driving the matting and equipment to matches , while Annie made cucumber sandwiches for 25 years — due to the economic difficulties caused by the Great Depression and World War II , meat catering for players was a luxury even at first @-@ class and international matches . The elder Sam was a member of the club committee from 1941 until his death in 1974 , and was a vice @-@ president for the last 17 years of his life . At the age of 16 , the younger Loxton was selected in the Victorian Cricket Association Colts team that played in the first grade competition in 1937 – 38 ; he played three seasons with the outfit , which was effectively a state youth team . The squad was coached by Bert Cohen and former Test batsman and captain Jack Ryder , and Loxton credited the latter as the biggest influence on his career , saying
He was an inspiration so far as I was concerned . He had so much to do with my early grounding . Old Jack never had a drink and never smoked a cigarette in his life and nobody walked so tall as that man . He was my cricket father , no doubt about that at all .
Loxton improved significantly in his third season with the Colts , scoring his first century and taking 21 wickets , having managed only seven scalps in the two previous summers . In 1940 – 41 , aged 19 , he moved back to Prahran to play in their first grade team after the Colts were disbanded , and he became more productive over the next few years , taking 46 wickets in one season .
Loxton also played Australian rules football , and in 1942 , he made his debut in the Victorian Football League ( VFL ) — the highest tier of competition at the time — playing for St Kilda . One of his teammates was Keith Miller , a future Invincibles colleague . Loxton played as both a forward and a defender , and the pair sometimes played together in attack . The recruit from Prahran played in only six matches in his first year , kicking 15 goals . Debuting in round six , he started his career brightly , kicking five and four goals in his first two matches against Melbourne and Collingwood respectively , helping his team to two victories . However , the goals and victories began to dry up and Loxton managed only six goals and one win in the remaining four matches . St Kilda came second to last and did not make the finals .
During World War II , Loxton served with the 2nd Armoured Division . He enlisted on 31 July 1942 at Oakleigh , Victoria and was discharged on 7 November 1945 with the rank of sergeant , having spent most of his time at the division headquarters . The war ended Loxton and Miller ’ s partnership at St Kilda . Miller was deployed to South Australia for training before becoming a fighter pilot in England , while his St Kilda colleague served in a reserve unit in Melbourne , enabling him to continue his football career when granted leave . In 1943 , Loxton played in only the last four matches of the season , all of which were lost , kicking seven goals , and St Kilda finished last with a solitary victory from ten games . He managed three goals each against Essendon and South Melbourne but was held goal @-@ less against Melbourne . The following year , Loxton played in all 18 matches and topped St Kilda ’ s goal @-@ kicking aggregates with 52 . After making a slow start to the season , aggregating only four goals in the first four matches , including two goal @-@ less outings , he began to score more heavily . The St Kilda forward registered a six @-@ goal haul against Geelong in round eight , helping to secure an away win , and scored 23 goals in the last six matches , including five in each of the last three matches . However , St Kilda won only one of these three matches . Loxton 's efforts helped his club to finish ninth out of 12 teams , and he came second in the club Best and Fairest . He played a solitary match in 1945 , which St Kilda lost , and went goal @-@ less .
= = First @-@ class and Test debut = =
An attacking right @-@ handed middle @-@ order batsman and a right @-@ arm fast @-@ medium bowler , Loxton spent much of his cricket career in the shadow of Miller , who played the same type of role . Upon Miller 's death in 2004 , he said " I was in Keith 's shadow all my career ... and it was a pretty big shadow . " First @-@ class cricket resumed in 1945 – 46 after the end of the war , but Loxton failed to gain state selection during the season . He played his final VFL season in 1946 and was chosen in 12 of St Kilda ’ s 19 games , kicking 40 goals . However , his team only won two of these 12 matches , and finished second last . Loxton had a strong start to his final season , kicking 34 goals in the first 8 rounds . This included a career best of eight goals in another away win over Geelong . He also added six goals apiece against Footscray and Collingwood , but it was not enough to prevent defeats . However , Loxton missed three matches after the eighth round and upon his return , struggled and managed only six goals in his last four matches for St Kilda .
Having retired from top @-@ tier football , Loxton soon broke into first @-@ class cricket . He was selected for Victoria to make his debut in the match against Queensland in December 1946 because five players , including Miller , were playing in a Test match for Australia against England during their Test tour . The debutant scored 232 not out , sharing a Victorian record sixth @-@ wicket partnership of 289 with Doug Ring , who made 145 . When he had scored 183 , Loxton hit himself on the head with his bat in attempting a hook shot , but continued batting until the end of Victoria ’ s innings and then opened the bowling in Queensland ’ s innings . He took the first wicket before going off to hospital with concussion . Recovering in time to bowl in the second innings , he took 2 wickets for 40 runs ( 2 / 40 ) in an innings win . Loxton 's 232 not out remains a record debut score in Australian first @-@ class cricket . His debut performance was enough for him to keep his place when the Test players returned , and he scored 73 and took a total of 3 / 17 in the next match against arch @-@ rivals New South Wales , which Victoria won by an innings . He compiled 87 in the next match against Queensland , and Victoria won all but one of the five Sheffield Shield matches in which he played — the only draw was washed out — to claim the title . The all @-@ rounder finished the season atop Victoria 's batting averages , with 429 runs at a batting average of 143 @.@ 00 . He also headed the bowling averages with 8 wickets at 14 @.@ 00 runs apiece .
The following season , Loxton 's record was less spectacular despite playing in all but one of Victoria ’ s matches . He hit 77 and 35 not out in the opening match of the summer against the Indian tourists , and was rewarded with selection in an Australian XI to play the visitors ahead of the Tests . In what was effectively a Test trial , the uncapped all @-@ rounder failed to impress with the bat , making a duck and six . He bowled extensively , sending down 47 overs and taking a total of 4 / 113 as the Australians fell to a defeat . Loxton was passed over for Test selection and returned to domestic competition , scoring 53 and taking a total of 4 / 56 in the next match against New South Wales , which the Victorians won by nine wickets . He then went into an unproductive sequence , failing to pass 31 and taking only three wickets in his next four matches over a two @-@ month period . His seven wickets in the Sheffield Shield games cost almost 49 runs each . Despite this , the Australian captain Don Bradman had been impressed by what he saw of Loxton at domestic level , and the Victorian all @-@ rounder was chosen for the Fifth and final Test against India . With the series already convincingly won 3 – 0 , Australia decided to rest several players in order to trial up and coming cricketers ahead of the 1948 tour of England . Len Johnson , Loxton and fellow Victorian Ring were thus given their Test debuts .
Australia batted first and Loxton came in to bat in front of a supportive home crowd at the Melbourne Cricket Ground . He made 80 , putting on 159 with fellow Victorian Neil Harvey , who made his first Test century in his second international match , as Australia amassed 8 / 575 . The debutant all @-@ rounder said that he was nervous but Harvey " was going along merrily and he soon settled me down " . Bradman fell ill and Bill Brown led the Australians in the field during the first innings . Understanding that one of the objectives was to give the new players an opportunity to show their talent , Brown threw the ball to his debutants . Johnson was given the ball first change , but failed to make an impact , so Loxton was handed his chance . He had a catch dropped early on but ended with 2 / 61 in the first innings , removing Hemu Adhikari and then Vinoo Mankad . In the words of Brown , the Victorian all @-@ rounder " looked twice the bowler Johnson did " . The Victorian debutant took the wicket of Adhikari in the second innings as Australia enforced the follow on and skittled India by 67 to win by an innings . The Test debut performance won Loxton a place on the Invincibles tour to England in 1948 . He reflected that " It 's not the fellow who gets the opportunity it 's the fellow who puts his hands around it and grabs it . I just happened to be in the right place at the right time . " After his position in the touring party was confirmed , he continued his late @-@ season resurgence , scoring two fifties for the Australians in two matches against Tasmania before they departed for England .
= = Invincibles tour = =
Loxton started his English campaign slowly . Australia typically selected their strongest team for the tour opener against Worcestershire , and the all @-@ rounder was omitted as the visitors won by an innings . As the Australians often played six days a week , they employed a rotation policy in the county matches , and in the second game against Leicestershire , Loxton made his debut on English soil . He made only four , before opening the bowling in both innings and taking a total of 1 / 23 in an innings victory . His attempts to break into the first @-@ choice team were hampered by a groin strain he suffered in the third match against Yorkshire when he was striving for extra pace in his only over in the first innings . As a result , he played no further part in the match . One man down , Australia came closest to losing for the whole tour . They fell to 6 / 31 in pursuit of 60 — effectively seven down with Loxton unable to bat — before scraping home without further loss after Yorkshire dropped both batsmen .
The injured all @-@ rounder missed two matches to recuperate before reappearing in mid @-@ May , hitting 120 as the Australians posted a total of 721 against Essex in a single day at Southend , still the highest single day 's total in first @-@ class cricket . He put on 166 in 65 minutes with Ron Saggers , who , with Bill Brown and Donald Bradman , also scored centuries . Loxton 's rapid innings was noted for its hooking and driving and took around 80 minutes . He followed up with an unbeaten 79 and two wickets in the match against Oxford University , but that failed to win him a place in the first set @-@ piece battle of the summer , against the Marylebone Cricket Club at Lord 's . The MCC fielded seven players who would represent England in the Tests , and were basically a full @-@ strength Test outfit , while Australia fielded their strongest XI , so the fixture was effectively a dress rehearsal for the Tests . Bradman opted to play Brown out of the position in the middle @-@ order , and Loxton missed out ; Australia went on to win by an innings .
Loxton then played in each of Australia ’ s four remaining tour games before the Tests , but was unable to do enough to force his way into the first @-@ choice team . He made 39 and 52 against Lancashire , and 16 against Nottinghamshire , squandering his starts in the latter two innings to run outs . In the match against Hampshire , he made one in his only innings after Australia were caught on a damp pitch and took a solitary wicket . The Australian team 's batting depth did not help Loxton ’ s cause ; in the final pre @-@ Test match against Sussex , a match won by an innings and 325 runs , he was slated to bat at No. 9 , but Australia ’ s earlier batsmen were largely untroubled so Bradman declared at 5 / 549 . The all @-@ rounder ’ s 3 / 13 in the first innings had the effect of removing him from the bowling line @-@ up for the rest of the match , as Doug Ring , Ernie Toshack , Ron Hamence and Ian Johnson helped Ray Lindwall to bowl the touring team to an easy victory . Loxton had limited opportunities as those ahead of him tended to finish off the opposition before his turn , and did not score heavily enough when he had a chance , so he was overlooked for the First Test at Trent Bridge . Bradman again opted to use Brown out of position in the middle @-@ order as Australia took an eight @-@ wicket win .
There were only two matches between the First and Second Tests . Loxton took a total of 2 / 29 and scored only 17 against Northamptonshire , and was rested against Yorkshire . Brown made a century in the latter match , and Australia fielded an unchanged team for the Second Test at Lord 's and completed another victory . As the tour reached its halfway point , the Victorian began to make an impression . In the next county game , his opening partnership with Neil Harvey scored the 122 runs needed to beat Surrey in only 58 minutes , Loxton making 47 . He also took a total 3 / 90 for the match , bowling 43 overs as Bradman allowed his main bowlers to recuperate after the previous Test . In the following match against Gloucestershire he contributed an unbeaten 159 including four sixes , as Australia made their highest score for the summer , 7 / 774 declared . The all @-@ rounder 's innings involved a series of powerful strokes and he was particularly noted for using his feet to charge and attack the off spin of Tom Goddard . The Gloucestershire bowler had been touted as a possible Test selection , because the other England bowlers had failed to contain Australia ’ s batsman in the first two matches , but his chances of selection were ended by the tourists ’ assault at Bristol .
These performances won Loxton selection for the Third Test , played at Old Trafford , where he replaced Brown , who had struggled in the middle @-@ order , averaging less than 25 in the unfamiliar environment . The match was the most evenly contested Test of the series , with England in control before four sessions were lost to rain on the last two days , resulting in a draw . Loxton bowled 15 overs in all without success , and made 36 runs batting at No. 7 in the first innings , helping Australia to avoid the follow on . In the first innings , he ran out Alec Bedser , ending a 121 @-@ run partnership between Bedser and Denis Compton .
The Victorian all @-@ rounder then top @-@ scored with 123 and took a total of 4 / 48 in a nine @-@ wicket win in the intervening county match against Middlesex at Lord ’ s , and he retained his place in the side for the Fourth Test at Leeds . Loxton was not involved in the second inning effort in which the Australians scored 3 / 404 on the final day , a world record for a successful Test run @-@ chase , but he had taken three of the last four wickets in England ’ s first innings of 496 and scored a hard @-@ hitting 93 in the first innings , putting on 105 in 95 minutes with Harvey . Their counterattacking partnership helped Australia to halt the English momentum after an early collapse ; the score was still 4 / 189 when Loxton came in to bat . He was particularly severe on Jim Laker , lifting his off breaks into the crowd for four of his five sixes , mostly from lofted drives . With a maiden Test century beckoning , the Victorian swung wildly at a Norman Yardley ball and was bowled . In the dressing room , Sir Robert Menzies , a Prime Minister of Australia well known as a cricket @-@ lover , upbraided him , saying " That was a pretty stupid thing to do . You could have made a century " , to which the fallen batsman retorted , " Haven ’ t you made a few mistakes in your time , too ? " Nevertheless , Australia eventually proceeded from 6 / 329 at the time of Loxton ’ s departure to end on 458 , almost nullifying the effect of England ’ s strong first innings total .
Immediately after the Fourth Test , Loxton scored 51 and took a total of 4 / 43 in an innings victory over Derbyshire , but was less productive in his remaining three matches before the Fifth Test , totaling only four wickets and 17 runs in three completed innings . He retained his position for the final Test of the series , but had little to do in an innings victory . He was only required to bowl two overs in the first innings as the frontline pacemen cut down the hosts for only 52 , and then scored 15 in Australia 's reply of 389 . In the second innings he bowled ten overs without taking a wicket . The Victorian all @-@ rounder was not prominent in his four matches after the Tests , totaling only 112 runs and five wickets . His most successful returns were four wickets for the match in an innings victory over Kent , and a quickfire 67 not out in 75 minutes against the South of England . In the final match of the England leg of the tour — there were two matches in Scotland afterwards — he hit a ball from Freddie Brown into his face , breaking his nose , thus forcing him to miss the final two matches in Scotland .
On the tour as a whole , Loxton scored 973 runs at an average of 57 @.@ 23 and took 32 wickets at 21 @.@ 71 . Such was the strength of the team he was only fifth in the batting averages and eighth among the bowlers . Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack summed up his contribution thus :
A fine driving batsman with a fierce square cut , Loxton achieved little as a bowler , but he played his part as an all @-@ rounder , one of many in the team ; in addition to his batting feats , he kept the game alive by his unlimited enthusiasm . Whether in stopping the ball or hurling down the wicket from almost any angle , he won the admiration of all who appreciated keenness in the field .
= = Heading for South Africa = =
There were no Tests during the 1948 – 49 season in Australia , with only domestic matches scheduled . Loxton played regularly for Victoria , scoring 500 runs in the Sheffield Shield , compiling 135 against South Australia and 84 against Queensland . He scored 60 and took a total of 5 / 77 in one match against New South Wales , but Victoria was unable to win either match against their arch @-@ rivals , who took the title .
Two big set @-@ piece matches , a testimonial match for Bradman and a joint benefit for Alan Kippax and Bert Oldfield , were used by the selectors as a trial for the 1949 – 50 South African tour . Loxton played in both testimonial matches ; he failed to pass 21 in the first match but took a total of 4 / 100 . In the latter match he scored 93 . The Victorian all @-@ rounder ended the season with 634 runs at 42 @.@ 26 and 16 wickets at 24 @.@ 31 and was selected for the South African tour under the leadership of the newly appointed captain Lindsay Hassett .
Like the Invincibles tour , the 1949 – 50 Test series in South Africa was another triumph for the Australians . They won four of the five Tests and were undefeated in 21 first @-@ class matches . Loxton started the tour strongly , making 117 in the opening match against Zululand , which was not first @-@ class . He continued his productivity in the succeeding games , never failing to pass 40 in any completed innings in the first five first @-@ class matches of the tour . This included an all @-@ round effort of 76 not out and a total of 4 / 10 in an innings victory over Orange Free State . However , the Victorian 's form slumped just before the Tests . He made single figure scores in his last three innings , including in the last match against a South African XI in what was effectively a dry run for the Tests . However , he did take 4 / 32 for the match .
Loxton played in all five Tests , and in the First Test at the Wanderers in Johannesburg , he scored his first Test century . He compiled 101 in 150 minutes , helping Australia to a total of 413 after both opening batsmen were out without scoring . Hassett ’ s men went on to win the match by an innings . The Second Test was an eight @-@ wicket victory for the Australians , this time dominated by Harvey 's 178 , with whom Loxton shared a 140 @-@ run stand for the fifth wicket , contributing 35 himself . He also took a wicket . The Third Test at Kingsmead in Durban was dramatic ; batting first , South Africa made 311 and Hugh Tayfield then took 7 / 23 as Australia collapsed to 75 all out after the rain and sun had baked the playing surface into a sticky wicket . During the first innings , Hassett changed his batting order so that his better batsmen were low down in the order so that they could bat in better conditions as the pitch stabilised . Loxton batted at No. 10 and Harvey at No. 9 , but the Australians collapsed before the pitch had changed measurably . Not enforcing the follow @-@ on , the South Africans batted again and were themselves bowled out for 99 , losing their last seven wickets for 14 runs . This left Australia to chase 336 runs for victory , highly unlikely as the last 28 wickets had fallen for only 245 . The tourists were still more than 200 runs in arrears when Loxton came in to join Harvey . On Loxton ’ s first ball , a delivery from Tayfield narrowly missed his edge . He survived to lunch after being caught from a no ball on the long on boundary from a lofted drive . With an unbeaten 151 , Harvey took Australia to an improbable five @-@ wicket victory , supported by his fellow Victorian , who scored 54 in a century partnership .
The Fourth Test of the series was a high @-@ scoring draw , Loxton making six in his only innings . His 43 in the final Test of the series was overshadowed by centuries for three of his team @-@ mates , in an innings win that sealed the series 4 – 0 . In the Test series as a whole , the Victorian all @-@ rounder made 255 runs at an average of 42 @.@ 50 , but bowled only 34 overs in taking two wickets . He made little impact on the tour matches after the start of the Tests , passing fifty twice and taking two wickets from 13 overs in five matches . For the entire tour , Loxton totaled 809 first @-@ class runs at 40 @.@ 45 and took 12 wickets .
= = Final Tests = =
Loxton had an unproductive time during the 1950 – 51 Australian season . He lost his Test place after three matches , and in Sheffield Shield games his highest score for the season was just 62 . In the first match of the season , he made four for Victoria against Freddie Brown 's touring team , a portent of the coming season . However , he did bounce back in the final match before the Tests , scoring 62 and 37 and taking 3 / 24 against New South Wales . The First Test of the Ashes series at Brisbane was decided largely by a tropical storm that completely changed the nature of the pitch after the first day . The Australian all @-@ rounder had by then been the victim of a spectacular catch by England wicket @-@ keeper Godfrey Evans , making 24 in Australia 's 228 . He picked up five catches — his first Test catches in his tenth match — as the Australians surrounded the English batsmen , who made 7 / 68 on the sticky wicket before Brown declared to force the Australian batsmen to suffer on the treacherous surface . Loxton was out for a duck in the second innings , unable to cope with the conditions , as did most of his compatriots . Australia collapsed to 3 / 0 before reaching 7 / 32 , at which point Hassett declared after 78 minutes of batting . England fell to 6 / 30 at stumps in pursuit of 193 . Twenty wickets had fallen in four hours , while only 102 runs had been scored . Australia eventually won the match by 71 runs .
In the Second Test at the Melbourne Cricket Ground , his last at his home ground , Loxton 's 32 formed part of a stand of 84 with Hassett , the highest partnership in a closely fought , low @-@ scoring game in which no team passed 200 . He again failed in the second innings , scoring two as Australia scraped home by 28 runs . After contributing 17 in a total of 426 in the Third Test at the Sydney Cricket Ground , which Australia won by an innings to take an unassailable 3 – 0 series lead , he was dropped in favour of Jim Burke , who scored a century on debut . The Victorian never played Test cricket again .
Loxton returned to play for Victoria , and although he struggled for runs , managing only three fifties for the season , wickets came regularly . He took match totals of 4 / 55 and 3 / 24 against Queensland , 4 / 55 against South Australia and 2 / 23 against Western Australia ; Victoria won all four matches , and claimed the Sheffield Shield . Playing in seven of the eight matches , he scored 309 runs at 30 @.@ 90 and taking 16 wickets at 12 @.@ 56 .
= = Later cricket = =
Although his Test career had finished , Loxton continued to play for his state . He had another disappointing season with the bat in 1951 – 52 , scoring only 322 runs at 24 @.@ 76 in nine matches . After winning the opening match of the season against Western Australia , he did not taste victory again until the final fixture of the summer against South Australia , in which he scored 71 — his only fifty of the season — and took a total of 4 / 37 in an innings victory . Victoria lost three times and would have suffered a fourth defeat but for Loxton ’ s unbeaten 41 against Queensland , which helped them to hold on for a draw with one wicket intact . He continued to take regular wickets , ending with 21 scalps at 31 @.@ 00 for the season , including an innings best of 4 / 56 , but he managed a total of only 4 / 249 against New South Wales , who went on to win the competition .
Loxton had a more productive campaign during the 1952 – 53 season , scoring 470 runs at 33 @.@ 57 and taking 23 wickets at 26 @.@ 26 in nine matches . He broke through for his first first @-@ class century in three years when he made 169 against New South Wales , but it was not enough to prevent an innings defeat . He scored 60 and took a match total of 5 / 102 in a match for Victoria against the touring South Africans early in the season , but this was not enough for him to regain his Test position . He bowled with steady results throughout the season , never taking more than three wickets in an innings and five in a match .
In 1953 – 54 , Loxton was part of a Commonwealth team that toured India during the Australian season , playing in 15 first @-@ class matches . He played in all five of the matches that were termed as " unofficial Tests " on this tour . The Victorian 's first month on tour was keynoted by his bowling . He took 12 wickets at 19 @.@ 75 but scored only 115 runs at 23 @.@ 00 without passing 25 in the first four matches .
Loxton had no success in the first representative match , scoring 2 and 6 and taking 0 / 72 in an innings defeat . However , his fortunes turned in the next match against Bombay , when he took 5 / 92 , the first five @-@ wicket innings haul in his first @-@ class career . He also scored 123 , but was unable to force a victory . He carried the form into the next representative match , scoring 55 and taking a total of 3 / 99 in a drawn encounter . The Victorian continued his all @-@ round form against Bengal , scoring 100 and taking 5 / 87 in an innings victory . His form tapered away thereafter and he failed to pass 40 and took only a total of only four wickets in the three remaining representative matches . The Commonwealth outfit won the third match but lost the fourth , ceding the series 2 – 1 . Loxton ended the tour with 647 runs at 35 @.@ 94 and 33 wickets at 31 @.@ 90 , but struggled in the matches against India , scoring 148 runs at 21 @.@ 14 and taking 7 wickets at 56 @.@ 14 .
After returning to Australia , Loxton had a torrid time with the bat in the 1954 – 55 season , scoring only 126 runs at 14 @.@ 00 and failing to pass 30 in his six matches . He took 12 wickets at 32 @.@ 41 for the season , the least number of wickets in any of his first @-@ class seasons . The all @-@ rounder ’ s best effort was a 4 / 31 against New South Wales in a match that Victoria lost by nine wickets . Loxton had a more productive summer in 1955 – 56 . In seven matches , he scored 286 runs at 40 @.@ 85 including an unbeaten century against South Australia , and took 14 wickets at 20 @.@ 07 ; his best was a 4 / 35 in the return match against South Australia . The Sheffield Shield was won by Victoria ’ s bitter rivals New South Wales in both seasons .
In 1956 – 57 , his penultimate season for Victoria , Loxton — aged nearly 36 — scored 134 and took 2 / 30 to orchestrate an innings victory over South Australia in the second match of the summer . In the penultimate match of the season , which effectively determined the fate of the Sheffield Shield , the Victorian all @-@ rounder took 4 / 44 to help dismiss New South Wales for 149 and take a 292 @-@ run first innings lead . However , the defending champions hung on for a draw to ensure the retention of their title . Loxton then surpassed his previous career best by taking 6 / 49 against Western Australia to set up a nine @-@ wicket win in the last match of the season .
Loxton retired after playing in the 1957 – 58 season . With the Test players in South Africa , he made 331 runs at 41 @.@ 37 including 2 centuries , and took 9 wickets at 26 @.@ 33 in 8 matches . He made 107 in an innings triumph over Queensland and 106 in a drawn match against South Australia . It was not enough for him to win a third Sheffield Shield title ; New South Wales won for the fifth successive time , defeating Victoria in both of their matches . Loxton made little impact in his final match ; although the Victorians defeated Queensland , his only participation was to score five runs in the first innings . His highest score remained the 232 not out he had made on his first @-@ class debut .
Loxton continued to play for Prahran until 1962 – 63 , and he topped the batting and bowling averages for the club on five and six occasions respectively . He topped both the batting and bowling averages in the same season on four occasions . The all @-@ rounder scored a total of 6 @,@ 032 runs and took 351 wickets during his first grade career , and was named the captain of the club 's honorary Team of the Century .
= = Style = =
An aggressive right @-@ handed all @-@ rounder , Loxton tended to bat in the middle @-@ order , and bowled after the new ball pacemen . As well as being a belligerent batsman , he was a right @-@ arm fast @-@ medium swing bowler known for his ability to move the ball , and a powerful outfielder . He had a strong arm and exploited his power frequently , to the extent that the Australian wicket @-@ keeper Don Tallon complained about the jarring impact of his unnecessarily strong throws when the batsmen were already home and no run out was possible . Loxton was known for his energetic and aggressive approach to cricket , and liked to attack and intimidate opposition batsmen . In one match in the late @-@ 1950s , he bowled an eight @-@ ball over at New South Welshman Norm O 'Neill consisting entirely of bouncers aimed at the upper body . Loxton was not afraid of opposition bowlers doing the same to him ; he had a penchant for trying to hook bouncers out of the ground . He was a predominantly back @-@ foot player whose initial foot @-@ movement tended to be back and towards and then across the stumps . When he committed to a back foot shot , Loxton often made such a decisive retreat that he almost stepped onto his stumps . One painter once captured the Victorian almost disturbing the woodwork with his right leg , leading Loxton to quip " That 's what I call using the crease " . Hassett said that his fellow Victorian " really used to give everything he had all the time ... Put him on to bowl and he 'd bowl his hardest , no matter how he felt . " Bradman said that Loxton " never shirked the issue " and that " he ’ d throw himself into it with everything he had . This is one of the reasons he was a great team man . You could call on him at any stage and he ’ d give you his very best . " Bradman said that the Victorian all @-@ rounder " was never a great cricketer in the sense that some others were great , but he was a very good player and what he lacked in ability he made up for in effort " . He further added that the Victorian was " the very essence of belligerence ... His whole attitude suggests defiance and when he hits the ball it is the music of a sledgehammer . " Former Test leg spinner Bill O 'Reilly , while agreeing that Loxton was always energetic , regarded his bowling as being too dull and predictable to have any major impact at the highest level , and thought that the Victorian all @-@ rounder ’ s career would have been best served by saving his energy purely for batting .
As a footballer , Loxton usually played as a forward , but was also used as a full @-@ back and alternated between the two positions . He was known for his physical strength ; another VFL player who had a reputation as an " enforcer " tried to bump him and later said that the collision made him feel as though he had run into a goalpost . According to Robert Coleman , Loxton was " competitive , pugnacious and outspoken , with a doglike loyalty to everyone and everything he served , whether it was his captain , his team , his party , his premier or his constituents . "
= = Manager in 1959 – 60 = =
Loxton was the manager of the 1959 – 60 Australian team that toured Pakistan and India . By this time , only two colleagues from the 1948 Invincibles tour — Harvey and Ray Lindwall — remained . The Victorian was the first manager since World War II to not also be a member of the Australian Board of Control . It was widely believed that the high @-@ ranking administrators saw the Indian subcontinent as an unenviable appointment ; on past tours , many players had fallen seriously ill , suffered food poisoning , and found the oppressive heat and third world living conditions hard to bear . Some players were reluctant to tour and wanted to opt out . Loxton felt that his experience with the Commonwealth XI six years earlier was a factor in his selection and suspected that he was the only applicant , quipping " what board member would be silly enough to go there ? "
Loxton was known for his blunt nature , and his appointment to a post that required him to liaise with cricket officials from opposing nations raised eyebrows . The cricket historian Gideon Haigh wrote " Thoughts of such a gruff , soldierly man acting the diplomat had caused great ribaldry " . In a speech at a cricket dinner , his former captain Hassett joked " I would advise Mr [ Prime Minister ] Menzies to have army and navy standing by . A week after Sam gets to India , war is bound to break out . "
On the field , the Australians — captained by Richie Benaud — were successful . They defeated Pakistan 2 – 0 in three Tests , and India 2 – 1 over five matches . Australia ’ s only other Test win on Pakistani soil came in 1998 and they have only won two series in India since the Benaud @-@ Loxton expedition . They also remained unbeaten outside the Test matches . Despite the success with bat and ball , the Australians were struck down by serious illness during the second part of their tour in India , despite taking Dr. Ian McDonald — a former Victorian first @-@ class cricketer — with the travelling party . Gordon Rorke , Lindsay Kline and Gavin Stevens all contracted hepatitis ; the former two were sent home , while the latter was too ill to fly back to Australia until the end of the tour . Harvey said that Stevens — who never played first @-@ class cricket again after his illness — " could 've been the first man to die on tour " . Due to the bevy of unfit players , Loxton was forced to line up in one game , against Indian Universities in Bangalore , two years after playing his last first @-@ class match . He scored 33 and bowled six overs without taking a wicket in a high @-@ scoring draw .
There were several administrative difficulties during the tour . Bill Dowling — the chairman of the Australian Board of Control — had informed Loxton that no Test match was to begin until a receipt for 6 @,@ 500 pounds had been handed over to Australian authorities . The Australian manager had also been told to rebuff any Pakistani overtures for a reciprocal tour , as it was feared that they lacked public appeal and would have caused financial losses due to a fall in ticket sales . Despite previous assurances to prepare turf pitches , the locals made a matting surface for the First Test . During the Second Test , when asked by General Ayub Khan — head of the ruling military junta — why Pakistan had not been invited to Australia , Loxton exploited the opportunity to complain about the wickets . When the tourists were greeted by another matting track in the Third Test , Ayub threatened to shoot the groundsmen if they prepared any more non @-@ turf surfaces . The financial issue reared its head before the Second Test against India in Kanpur , when Loxton belligerently refused to start the match after the payment had failed to arrive on time . An Indian official asked the Australian manager to not " spoil a beautiful friendship over money " , to which the Australian manager replied " Try me . I want it please ... You know the rules . " The match proceeded after the cheque was delivered , and India inflicted Australia 's only defeat for the tour and their first Test win over the visitors . Another mishap occurred during the Fifth Test at Eden Gardens in Calcutta ; the Australians left their hotel and took to the field with ten men , having failed to notice that Ian Meckiff had overslept and been left behind by the team bus . During the First Test against Pakistan in Dacca , one of the umpires took off his shoes and put them on the ground while play was in progress . Loxton took a photo of the scene and lodged it to cricket authorities , asking them to make a ruling on whether a batsman would be out if the ball struck the umpire ’ s loose shoes and bounced up into a fielder ’ s hands . However , he never received a reply .
= = Political career = =
Loxton joined the Armadale branch of the Liberal Party in 1950 . Henry Bolte , the Liberal leader in Victoria , was the state opposition leader at the time , and encouraged him to enter politics . The cricketer ’ s entry into electoral politics came after he was involved in a debate at a cricket club meeting . A person at the gathering reported his argumentative performance to senior Liberal Party figures , and soon after , Bolte began actively courting the cricketer . On 28 September 1954 , Loxton won pre @-@ selection and was endorsed as the Liberal candidate for the electorate of Prahran . At the time , the seat was comfortably held by the ruling Australian Labor Party ( ALP ) , who had captured 61 @.@ 59 % of the vote at the previous election . The Liberals were not optimistic about their chances , and Bolte told his candidate " You won 't win [ the seat ] , but we 'd like you to fly the flag " .
The cricketer refused to think that his candidacy was simply there to make up the numbers , and he told Bolte as much . The start of the election campaign coincided with the 1954 – 55 grade cricket finals . Loxton took 7 wickets and scored 129 runs to help Prahran claim the title for the first time in 32 years , and was hailed as a local hero . It capped off a season in which he topped the competition batting averages and took the most wickets . In a close @-@ run contest , the cricketer defeated the sitting ALP member Bob Pettiona by only 14 votes on the two party preferred count . He was aided by preferences from the Democratic Labor Party ( DLP ) , which had broken away from the ALP during the 1950s , claiming that it was too soft towards communism ; fears of left @-@ wing influence was causing great concern in Australian society at the time . Loxton polled 35 @.@ 70 % of the first preferences , well behind Pettiona 's 47 @.@ 25 % , but received almost all of the DLP 's 13 @.@ 66 % of the vote as preferences to end with 50 @.@ 04 % . The result helped bring Bolte 's Liberals to power , and they stayed in office until 1982 , by which time Loxton had retired .
Loxton entered the Victorian parliament in 1955 , and served as government whip from 1961 until his retirement in 1979 . At the time of his election , he was the youngest member of parliament , and was given the honour of making the Address @-@ in @-@ Reply , the first speech after opening of the new sitting by the governor , using it to advocate increased lending from the government @-@ owned banks to promote higher levels of home ownership . At the 1958 election , Loxton consolidated his hold on the seat , leading on first preferences ( 43 @.@ 67 % ) , and ending with 54 @.@ 85 % of the two party preferred vote to halt Pettiona 's attempted comeback . During the election campaign in 1961 , a campaign meeting in Prahran that was attended by Premier Bolte and Loxton drew several hundred people and descended into chaos ; heckling and some scuffles broke out . At this election , the Liberals ' primary vote fell to 41 @.@ 69 % behind the Labor Party 's candidate George Gahan 45 @.@ 29 % , and he had to rely on DLP preferences to retain the seat with a reduced two party preferred vote of 52 @.@ 71 % . The Liberals may have been hindered by a how @-@ to @-@ vote card circulated on election day by a third party that had a pro @-@ Liberal headline , but instructed the reader to mark the ALP candidate as their first preference . Loxton managed to secure a court injunction — believed to be the first of its kind in Victoria — prohibiting further distribution of the material , but not before hundreds of misleading instructions had been disseminated .
In 1964 , Loxton increased his primary vote to 45 @.@ 77 % and defeated Pettiona for the third time , ending with a fairly safe 57 @.@ 72 % after the distribution of preferences . In 1967 , the retired cricketer repelled a political challenge by Jack Dyer , an iconic former footballer of the Richmond Tigers famed as one of the toughest players in history , and retained his seat at further elections in 1970 , 1973 and 1976 before opting to retire at the 1979 poll . Without Loxton 's personal appeal , the Liberals lost the seat to the ALP upon his departure . As he continued to play first @-@ class cricket for three years after his election to parliament , he was a busy man , and team @-@ mates described him as a hard @-@ working representative , recalling that he often brought his political paperwork to the ground with him , going through the material while waiting in the dressing room for his turn to bat . Although he was a low @-@ key presence in the parliamentary chambers , Loxton served on the library committee from 1958 to 1961 , and he was known for his work ethic and thorough approach , as well as his " sporting charisma " .
= = Cricket administration = =
Loxton continued to involve himself in cricket administration after his retirement as a player . He was a Victorian selector from 1957 to 1980 – 81 and the Prahran delegate to the Victorian Cricket Association ( VCA ) from 1955 – 56 to 1979 – 80 . Loxton was Prahran 's vice president and was involved in coaching and selecting teams , and his service to the club was honoured with life membership . He served as a MCG trustee from 1962 to 1982 . The Victorian was appointed as the manager for Australia 's tour of India in 1969 – 70 but had to withdraw due to a clash of commitments . In his absence , the campaign hit rocky waters . Although Australia won 3 – 1 , the players became disgruntled with the arrangements made by the administrators , while rancorous incidents leading to crowd riots were frequent .
He was a Test selector for the Australian team from 1970 to 1981 , filling the vacancy left by the retirement of former Test captain Ryder . Loxton 's tenure on the selection panel coincided with a period of great upheaval in Australian cricket , on and off the field . Up until 1965 , Australia had never lost a Test series to any country other than England , and their bilateral contests were regarded as the de facto world championship . However , in the next five years , Australia lost away to the West Indies 2 – 1 , and to South Africa twice , 3 – 1 and 4 – 0 respectively . The former all @-@ rounder became a selector after the whitewash in South Africa , joining Bradman and Harvey on the panel . During the 1970 – 71 home series against England , which Australia lost 2 – 1 , the trio made a raft of changes , handing debuts to nine players , the largest number in a season since 1945 – 46 when competition resumed after World War II . One of the new players that Harvey and Loxton recommended to Bradman was Dennis Lillee , who went on to become one of Australia 's greatest fast bowlers and the world ’ s leading wicket @-@ taker . However , the season ended acrimoniously when captain Bill Lawry was sacked before the final Test without being informed of his fate ; he only learned of his omission second hand .
In 1977 , Loxton helped to select David Hookes to make his debut in the Centenary Test , after receiving a recommendation from Bradman , who had retired from the panel . Hookes famously struck five consecutive fours in one Tony Greig over in an Australian win . The later period of Loxton 's tenure was thrown into chaos when most of the leading players abandoned the existing establishment to sign contracts with the breakaway World Series Cricket — which offered substantially more remuneration — meaning that an almost @-@ entirely new team had to be cobbled together ; the 42 @-@ year @-@ old Bob Simpson was brought out of a decade of retirement to lead the outfit . During this time , Australia 's depleted team suffered many heavy defeats .
During the 1970s , Loxton also became more disillusioned with cricket , as player behaviour deteriorated and incidences of verbal hostility and altercations increased . The former all @-@ rounder was known for his vigorous advocacy of the more sedate and gentlemanly conduct that existed during his playing days and felt that he and his fellow administrators were losing control of the sport .
In February 1981 , matters came to a head . Loxton , who was watching a one @-@ day international between Australia and New Zealand at the MCG in his role as a selector , broke down and wept after Australian captain Greg Chappell infamously ordered his younger brother Trevor to exploit a loophole and bowl underarm to eliminate the chance of a defeat . Loxton saw the Australian skipper 's action as a " betrayal " of cricket . He turned to a fellow official and remarked " The game 's gone ! Money has become the god and winning is everything . "
At a VCA meeting in April 1981 , Loxton announced that he was severing all connections with organised cricket . He initially said that he was resigning for family reasons , as he would be moving to the Gold Coast in Queensland with his wife . However , he proceeded to give a blunt 15 @-@ minute speech , claiming that he had lost the art of communicating with the players and expressing his disenchantment with some aspects of the game , a reference to the declining player conduct . After relocating to the Gold Coast , he was unable to turn his back on cricket , and umpired matches at local level into his 70s . Although he became severely visually impaired , Loxton still attended matches and asked his companions to describe the proceedings for him ; ever opinionated and blunt , he still offered advice to local cricketers .
= = Other work and personal life = =
Prior to entering politics , Loxton worked as a bank teller . In 1956 , television began in Australia , and he participated in the nation 's first generation of sports telecasting . Loxton was a commentator on GTV @-@ 9 for the Melbourne Summer Olympics held in late 1956 , and his co @-@ commentators included American track and field icon Jesse Owens . After leaving parliament , the former politician joined the property developers Ellis , Sallmann and Seward .
Loxton served as an administrator with various local groups . He was vice @-@ president of the Victorian School for Deaf Children , president of the Prahran Technical School Council and a member of the Prahran College of Advanced Education Council . With regards to housing and social inclusion issues , he served as a committee member of the Glen Loch Home for the Aged and chairman of the Deakin Co @-@ operative Housing Society .
His opinions on contemporary cricket were frequently sought . " People get a bit worried about me , " he told Cricinfo in 2008 , " Shane Warne 's been a fine bowler — no doubt about it , he 's done some wonderful things — but Bill O 'Reilly and Clarrie Grimmett , who have better strike @-@ rates per match than Warne and never played against a 2nd XI [ a reference to the likes of Bangladesh and Zimbabwe ] — they only played against the best — had no rough to bowl at . I never had to bat to a leg @-@ spinner who bowled into the rough outside my leg stump , and I played for a long time . "
Loxton married three times . He divorced his first wife Hilda in February 1952 after a nine @-@ year union that produced no children . The cricketer then wed Caryl Bond , whom he had met during the 1949 – 50 tour of South Africa , and the pair had two sons . Loxton later divorced Bond and wed his third wife Joan Shiels . In 2000 , one of his sons and his third wife died on the same day , due to a shark attack in Fiji and drowning in the family swimming pool , respectively . In later life he lived alone and was still mobile despite being almost blind . Loxton died on 3 December 2011 .
= = Test match performance = =
= Fulfordgate =
Fulfordgate was an association football ground in Fulford , York , England , and was the home of York City Football Club from 1922 to 1932 . The ground was located next to Heslington Lane , and was purchased by York for £ 2 @,@ 000 following their formation in 1922 .
The club 's first two home matches were played at another venue as Fulfordgate was not ready , and the ground hosted its first match against Mansfield Town in September 1922 . The highest attendance at the ground was 12 @,@ 721 , which came against Sheffield United in an FA Cup match in 1931 . York decided to move to Bootham Crescent , which had been vacated by York Cricket Club in 1932 , as Fulfordgate was relatively inaccessible . The ground was sold and developed as a housing estate , and Eastward Avenue now lies at its former location .
= = History = =
Following York City F.C. ' s formation in 1922 , the club purchased 8 acres ( 3 @.@ 2 ha ) of land for £ 2 @,@ 000 in Heslington Lane , Fulford , York . This was in the south @-@ east of the city in a rural setting , which was surrounded by hawthorn hedges and was well drained . The land was known as Gate Fulford , which was reversed to become known as Fulfordgate . As the ground was not ready , York played their first two home matches at Mille Crux , Haxby Road , which was owned by Messrs Rowntree & Company Limited . The first match played at Fulfordgate was a 4 – 1 victory over Mansfield Town on 20 September 1922 , which only went ahead after director John Fisher paid the requisite deposit of £ 180 . When York applied for election into the Football League in 1927 , they stated that Fulfordgate was " splendidly drained , well equipped , spacious and capable of being extended to hold up to 40 @,@ 000 spectators " . By the time of the club 's admission into the Football League in 1929 , the ground was estimated hold a capacity of 17 @,@ 000 . When York set their then @-@ record attendance of 12 @,@ 583 against Newcastle United in an FA Cup third round replay on 15 January 1930 , approximately 4 @,@ 000 supporters had to be turned away as the gates were closed an hour before kick @-@ off . York finished the 1929 – 30 season with an average attendance of 5 @,@ 247 , higher than seventeen other Third Division North clubs .
Concern was expressed at York 's poor support towards the end of their third season in the Football League , and director G. W. Halliday believed the only solution was a change of ground . A major problem was the ground 's relatively inaccessible location , and in early 1932 , York held preliminary discussions about moving to Bootham Crescent , which had been vacated by York Cricket Club . A special meeting of the shareholders was held , in which chairman Arthur Brown drew attention to gate receipts figures in Fulfordgate 's three Football League seasons , which represented average crowds of 4 @,@ 000 and a deficit on the balance sheet . It was pointed out by Halliday that within one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of Bootham Crescent the population was 30 @,@ 000 , whereas it was only 3 @,@ 000 for a similar radius of Fulfordgate . The directors were satisfied that the new ground would fulfil all requirements , although there was some opposition to the move . Two former directors argued that attendances at many grounds had fallen during the Great Depression , and that the approaches and surrounds to Bootham Crescent were limited . Following much discussion , the decision to move to lease Bootham Crescent was approved by 115 votes to 37 , and Fulfordgate was sold and developed as a housing estate . Today , Eastward Avenue occupies the area where the ground once stood .
= = Structure and facilities = =
Fulfordgate did not initially have any covered stands , and the dressing rooms consisted of an old army hut , before open stands were bought from York Race Committee . The ground was gradually built up and improved , and covered accommodation was available after two years . In 1927 , new turnstiles were installed and stronger fencing was built around the pitch , which made it more difficult for spectators to surmount it and access the pitch . Nine @-@ tier terracing replaced the old banking behind one of the goals , the covered Popular Stand was extended to hold 1 @,@ 000 supporters and there a small seated stand was erected .
= = Transport = =
Fulfordgate was located in the south @-@ east of York , away from the city centre . It was a large distance from York railway station , while the tram service to Fulford only had one track , and the loop system for tramcars passing each other further restricted the service . During the ground 's existence , bus routes had not been fully developed and car ownership was not yet become common ; it was not easy for the majority of supporters to reach .
= = Other uses = =
The ground hosted the Yorkshire Flower Show and Gala in June 1924 , after the event had been held at Bootham Park for the previous sixty years . It annually hosted Faber Cup races for the York Harriers , which consisted of six @-@ mile courses over grass with hurdles , on a number of occasions . An amateur international was held at the ground when England played Ireland on 14 November 1931 .
= = Records = =
The highest attendance at Fulfordgate before York 's election into the Football League was 8 @,@ 318 for a match between York Boys and Brighton Boys in an English Schools ' Trophy semi @-@ final on 12 May 1928 . The record highest attendance at the ground was set on 14 January 1931 , when 12 @,@ 721 saw Sheffield United play York in an FA Cup third round replay . The highest attendance in the Football League was 10 @,@ 120 , for a Third Division North match against Port Vale on 21 April 1930 . The record lowest attendance for a Football League match was 1 @,@ 735 , when York played New Brighton on 25 April 1931 in the Third Division North . The lowest attendance at the ground for any first @-@ team fixture was 1 @,@ 500 for an FA Cup preliminary round match against Maltby Main on 23 September 1925 .
The highest seasonal average attendance at Fulfordgate whilst York were in the Football League was 5 @,@ 279 in 1929 – 30 . The lowest seasonal average attendance in the Football League was 3 @,@ 906 in 1930 – 31 . York 's biggest margin of victory at Fulfordgate was by seven goals , when they recorded a 7 – 0 win over Alfreton Town in the Midland League on 11 September 1926 . Their biggest margin of defeat at the ground was by three goals , when they were beaten 6 – 3 by Notts County reserves in the Midland League on 5 September 1928 . The most goals scored in a match was 10 on 23 February 1929 , when York defeated Worksop Town 8 – 2 in the Midland League .
= Fleet Street =
Fleet Street is a major street in the City of London . It runs west to east from Temple Bar at the boundary with the City of Westminster to Ludgate Circus at the site of the London Wall and the River Fleet from which the street was named .
Having been an important through route since Roman times , businesses were established along the road during the Middle Ages . Senior clergy lived in Fleet Street during this period where there are several churches including Temple Church and St Bride 's . Fleet Street became known for printing and publishing at the start of the 16th century and it became the dominant trade so that by the 20th century most British national newspapers operated from here . Much of the industry moved out in the 1980s after News International set up cheaper manufacturing premises in Wapping , but some former newspaper buildings are listed and have been preserved . The term Fleet Street remains a metonym for the British national press , and pubs on the street once frequented by journalists remain popular .
Fleet Street has a significant number of monuments and statues along its length , including the dragon at Temple Bar and memorials to a number of figures from the British press , such as Samuel Pepys and Lord Northcliffe . The street is mentioned in several works by Charles Dickens and is where the legendary fictitious murderous barber Sweeney Todd lived .
= = Geography = =
Fleet Street is named after the River Fleet , which runs from Hampstead to the River Thames at the western edge of the City of London . It is one of the oldest roads outside the original city and was established by the Middle Ages . In the 13th century , it was known as Fleet Bridge Street , and in the early 14th century it became known as Fleet Street .
The street runs east from Temple Bar , the boundary between the Cities of London and Westminster , as a continuation of the Strand from Trafalgar Square . It crosses Chancery Lane and Fetter Lane to reach Ludgate Circus by the London Wall . The road ahead is Ludgate Hill . The street numbering runs consecutively from west to east south @-@ side and then east to west north @-@ side . It links the Roman and medieval boundaries of the City after the latter was extended . The section of Fleet Street between Temple Bar and Fetter Lane is part of the A4 , a major road running west through London , although it once ran along the entire street and eastwards past St Paul 's Churchyard towards Cannon Street .
The nearest London Underground stations are Temple , Chancery Lane , and Blackfriars tube / mainline station and the City Thameslink railway station . London Bus routes 4 , 11 , 15 , 23 , 26 , 76 and 172 run along the full length of Fleet Street , while route 341 runs between Temple Bar and Fetter Lane .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Fleet Street was established as a thoroughfare in Roman London and there is evidence that a route led west from Ludgate by 200 AD . Local excavations revealed remains of a Roman amphitheatre near Ludgate on what was Fleet Prison , but other accounts suggest the area was too marshy for regular inhabitation by the Romans . The Saxons did not occupy the Roman city but established Lundenwic further west around what is now Aldwych and the Strand .
Many prelates lived around the street during the Middle Ages , including the Bishops of Salibsury and St Davids and the Abbots of Faversham , Tewksbury , Winchcombe and Cirencester . Tanning of animal hides became established on Fleet Street owing to the nearby river , though this increased pollution leading to a ban on dumping rubbish by the mid @-@ 14th century . Many taverns and brothels were established along Fleet Street and have been documented as early as the 14th century . Records show that Geoffrey Chaucer was fined two shillings for attacking a friar in Fleet Street , though modern historians believe this is apocryphal .
An important landmark in Fleet Street during the late Middle Ages was a conduit that was the main water supply for the area . When Anne Boleyn was crowned Queen following her marriage to Henry VIII in 1533 , the conduit flowed wine instead of water . By the 16th century , Fleet Street , along with much of the City , was chronically overcrowded , and a Royal proclamation in 1580 banned any further building on the street . This had little effect , and construction continued , particularly timber . Prince Henry 's Room over the Inner Temple gate dates from 1610 and is named after Henry Frederick , Prince of Wales , eldest son of James I , who did not survive to succeed his father .
The eastern part of the street was destroyed by the Great Fire of London in 1666 , despite attempts to use the River Fleet to preserve it . Fire damage reached to about Fetter Lane , and the special tribunal of the ' Fire Courts ' was held at Clifford 's Inn , an inn of Chancery at the edge of the extent of the fire , to arbitrate on claimants ' rights . Properties were rebuilt in the same style as before the fire . During the early @-@ 18th century , a notorious upper @-@ class gang known as the Mohocks operated on the street causing regular violence and vandalism . Mrs Salmon 's Waxworks was established at Prince Henry 's Room in 1711 . It had a display of macabre and black @-@ humoured exhibits , including the execution of Charles I ; a Roman lady , Hermonie , whose father survived a sentence of starvation by sucking her breast ; and a woman who gave birth to 365 children simultaneously . The waxworks were a favourite haunt of William Hogarth , and survived into the 19th century . In 1763 , supporters of John Wilkes , who had been arrested for libel against the Earl of Bute , burned a jackboot in the centre of the street in protest against Bute . It led to violent demonstrations and rioting in 1769 and 1794 .
Tanning and other industries declined sharply after the River Fleet was routed underground in 1766 . The street was widened during the late @-@ 19th century , when Temple Bar was demolished and Ludgate Circus was constructed . The headquarters of the Anti @-@ Corn Law League were based at No. 67 Fleet Street , and a blue plaque marks the location .
= = = Printing and journalism = = =
Publishing started in Fleet Street around 1500 when William Caxton 's apprentice , Wynkyn de Worde ,
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works . The eponymous club in The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club , more commonly known as The Pickwick Papers , is set in the street , as is Tellson 's Bank In A Tale of Two Cities . The poet John Davidson wrote two works in the late 19th century titled the Fleet Street Eclogues . Arthur Ransome has a chapter in his Bohemia in London ( 1907 ) about earlier inhabitants of the street : Ben Jonson , the Doctor ( Samuel Johnson ) , Coleridge , Hazlitt and Lamb ; and about Temple Bar and the Press Club .
Fleet Street is a square on the British Monopoly board , in a group with the Strand and Trafalgar Square . One of the Chance cards in the game , " You Have Won A Crossword Competition , collect £ 100 " was inspired by rival competitions and promotions between Fleet Street @-@ based newspapers in 1930s , particularly the Daily Mail and Daily Express .
= Battle of Bound Brook =
The Battle of Bound Brook ( April 13 , 1777 ) was a surprise attack conducted by British and Hessian forces against a Continental Army outpost at Bound Brook , New Jersey during the American Revolutionary War . The British objective of capturing the entire garrison was not met , although prisoners were taken . The American commander , Major General Benjamin Lincoln , left in great haste , abandoning papers and personal effects .
Late on the evening of April 12 , 1777 , four thousand British and Hessian troops under the command of Lieutenant General Charles Cornwallis marched from the British stronghold of New Brunswick . All but one detachment reached positions surrounding the outpost before the battle began near daybreak the next morning . During the battle , most of the 500 @-@ man garrison escaped by the unblocked route . American reinforcements arrived in the afternoon , but not before the British plundered the outpost and began the return march to New Brunswick .
= = Background = =
Following the Battles of Trenton and Princeton in December 1776 and January 1777 , the Continental Army of Major General George Washington entered winter quarters in Morristown , New Jersey , while the British and German forces of Lieutenant General William Howe settled into winter quarters in New York City and northeastern New Jersey . Throughout the winter months , a guerrilla war of sorts went on , in which American militia companies , sometimes with Continental Army support , harassed British and German outposts and ambushed their foraging and raiding expeditions . One of the forward bases used for these operations was at Bound Brook , located on the Raritan River upriver from New Brunswick , the major British camp in New Jersey . The post was responsible for patrolling three bridges across the Raritan likely to be used by the British in moves against the main camp at Morristown .
In February 1777 , the Bound Brook outpost consisted of 1 @,@ 000 men under the command of Major General Benjamin Lincoln , but this was reduced by expiring militia enlistments to 500 in mid @-@ March . The troops that remained were from the 8th Pennsylvania Regiment , a company from the 4th Continental Artillery , and two independent companies from the Wyoming Valley in what is now northeastern Pennsylvania , but was then also claimed by Connecticut as Westmoreland County . Lincoln expressed concern over his exposed position to General Washington , noting that many units were not in a position to " render the least assistance to this post in case it is attacked " , and that he was keeping wagons ready in case a precipitate departure was needed . Lieutenant General Lord Charles Cornwallis , in command of the British forces in New Jersey , had had enough of the ongoing petite guerre , and organized a reprisal action against the Bound Brook outpost . According to the Hessian jäger Captain Johann Ewald , Cornwallis asked him to draft a plan of attack in February , but the plan could not be executed until springtime because it necessitated fording the Raritan . On the night of April 12 , the plan was put into action .
= = Battle = =
Under the overall command of Cornwallis , 4 @,@ 000 British and Hessian troops marched from New Brunswick to make a multi @-@ pronged surprise attack . The right flank , under the command of Major General James Grant , consisted of the Hessian jäger corps , grenadiers from the English Brigade of Guards , and a detachment of British light dragoons . While most of this column advanced from Raritan Landing ( opposite New Brunswick on the left , or Bound Brook side , of the river ) , two companies of light infantry went further right , aiming to cut off the main road from Bound Brook to the Continental Army camp at Morristown . The center , under the command of Hessian Colonel Carl von Donop , consisted of the Hessian grenadier battalions von Linsing and Minnigerode , and the left , commanded by Cornwallis , consisted of two battalions of British light infantry , the 1st battalion of grenadiers , and another detachment of light dragoons . Donop 's column advanced up the right bank of the Raritan , aiming to gain control of the bridge directly at Bound Brook , while Cornwallis took a longer route to ford the river above Bound Brook and thus cut off the possibility of retreat in that direction .
Ewald and a few of his jägers were in the vanguard of Grant 's column and engaged the American sentries to the south of Bound Brook . Unaware that this was supposed to be a feint , Ewald drove the sentries back nearly to the main redoubt where the outpost 's cannons were located . By sunrise he was nearly surrounded ; the timely arrival of von Donop 's column just over the river , and the attack by Cornwallis 's column prompted the Americans to begin abandoning the post . The surprise was very nearly complete ; the Pennsylvania artillery company , which had been manning the redoubt , was severely mauled , with numerous killed and captured . Colonel von Donop reported that General Lincoln " must have retired en Profond Négligé " ( " profoundly undressed " , or naked ) , and Lincoln 's papers were taken . The British plan was marred by the early skirmishing involving Ewald , and the too @-@ late arrival of the companies sent to cut off the road to Morristown ; Many Americans escaped via this route . The British captured also cannons , ammunition , and supplies , and looted Bound Brook , but returned to New Brunswick later that morning .
= = Aftermath = =
The Continental Army response was immediate ; Washington sent a large force under Major General Nathanael Greene to reoccupy Bound Brook . The British had already left by the time they arrived ; Greene sent a detachment to harass their rear guard . This detachment caught up with the British near Raritan Landing , where they killed 8 and captured 16 .
General Howe reported that about 30 Americans were killed and 80 to 90 were captured , while General Lincoln reported that 60 of his men were killed or wounded . Howe claimed no deaths and seven wounded among the British and Hessians . Washington reported that " [ t ] he enemy lost the post at Eleven O 'Clock the same day , & our people took possession of it again " , and that the army 's losses were " trifling and not worth mentioning " . He did , however , also report that between 35 and 40 killed or captured , and the loss of three field cannons . In a report to the Board of War , Washington admitted the capture of two cannons , two officers and 20 men from Colonel Proctor 's Regiment . General Greene reported to his wife , " The British Generals breakfasted and I [ dined ] at the same house that day " .
Washington , concerned that the attack presaged an early start to the campaign season , worried that his troops were not yet in place to deal with major British movements . Two weeks later , after no further major activity , the Americans learned that " the Enemy are to take the field the first of June . "
Washington recognized that Bound Brook itself was a difficult place to defend . On May 26 he withdrew the garrison , and on May 28 , he moved part of his army from Morristown to a new entrenched camp near Middle Brook , just north of Bound Brook but well protected between the first and second Watchung Mountain ranges ; other troops were stationed near Princeton . From the top of the Watchung Mountains Washington monitored British movements while the two sides continued to skirmish . Both sides also engaged in intelligence gathering , each trying to determine the strength and intentions of the other .
On June 12 Howe marched a significant force ( more than 18 @,@ 000 men ) out of New Brunswick , through Bound Brook , and as far as Somerset , apparently in an attempt to draw Washington out of the hills . Washington , aware that Howe had left the army 's heavy baggage behind , was not fooled and refused to move . Howe then abruptly retreated back to Piscataway on June 19 , upon which Washington had some of his troops give chase , and he moved down out of the hills . A week later Howe tried to spring a trap on one of Washington 's detachments that would have cut the American retreat into the hills off ; this effort was repulsed in the Battle of Short Hills . After this failure , Howe embarked his army on transports and set sail for Chesapeake Bay , intending to take Philadelphia from the south .
The battle site in Bound Brook is marked by signs and interpretive plaques .
= 2015 Liège – Bastogne – Liège =
The 2015 Liège – Bastogne – Liège was a one @-@ day cycling classic that took place in the Belgian Ardennes on 26 April 2015 . It was the 101st edition of the Liège – Bastogne – Liège one @-@ day cycling race and was the fourth cycling monument of the 2015 season . It was part of the 2015 UCI World Tour and was organised by the Amaury Sport Organisation ( ASO ) , who also organise the Tour de France .
200 riders raced over a 253 @-@ kilometre ( 157 mi ) route that started in Liège , travelled south to Bastogne , then returned north by an indirect route to finish in Ans on the outskirts of Liège . The route included many hills , especially in the final 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) , which were the principal difficulty in the race .
There were many attacks in the final part of the race , with several groups breaking away from the peloton and subsequently being caught . A small group came together on the final ascent to the finish line , where the race was decided in a sprint . It was won by the pre @-@ race favourite , Alejandro Valverde ( Movistar Team ) , ahead of Julian Alaphilippe ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) and Joaquim Rodríguez ( Team Katusha ) . This was Valverde 's third victory in Liège – Bastogne – Liège and put him into the lead of the World Tour standings .
= = Background = =
Liège – Bastogne – Liège was established in 1892 and is one of the oldest races on the cycling calendar . Milano – Torino is the only current race to have begun earlier , although it did not exist as a regular event until the 1920s . Liège – Bastogne – Liège was founded as a precursor to a planned Liège – Paris – Liège event , which never came about , but eventually became one of the most important races on the cycling calendar in its own right . The race has come to be seen as one of the cycling Monuments , alongside Milan – San Remo , the Tour of Flanders , Paris – Roubaix and the Giro di Lombardia . Because Liège – Bastogne – Liège is the oldest of the major races on the cycling calendar , it has been given the nickname La Doyenne ( English : The Old Lady ) . It is particularly known as a race where the best one @-@ day riders and the best Grand Tour riders can compete on relatively equal terms . In his book The Monuments , Peter Cossins wrote that Liège – Bastogne – Liège " is generally regarded as the toughest one @-@ day race on the calendar " . Eddy Merckx holds the record for the most victories : he won five times between 1969 and 1975 .
Liège – Bastogne – Liège was the fourth of the Monuments to take place in the 2015 season . Milan – San Remo and Paris – Roubaix has been won by John Degenkolb ( Giant – Alpecin ) , while the Tour of Flanders was won by Alexander Kristoff ( Team Katusha ) . Liège – Bastogne – Liège was the final event of the spring classics season and came as the conclusion to the Ardennes classics , following the Amstel Gold Race and La Flèche Wallonne . It was also part of the 2015 UCI World Tour , a season @-@ long competition that included both one @-@ day events and stage races .
= = Teams = =
As it is part of the UCI World Tour , the 17 UCI WorldTeams were automatically invited and obliged to send a team to Liège – Bastogne – Liège . The race organisers ( ASO , which also organises the Tour de France ) also made eight wildcard invitations to UCI Professional Continental teams . The peloton was therefore made up of 25 teams . Six of the teams were also invited to La Flèche Wallonne . These included two Belgian teams ( Wanty – Groupe Gobert and Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) , two French teams ( Cofidis and Team Europcar ) , Team Roompot and MTN – Qhubeka . The final two teams to be invited to Liège – Bastogne – Liège were Bora – Argon 18 ( whose invitation meant that they would participate in all five Monuments in 2015 ) and Cult Energy Pro Cycling . As each team was required to enter between five and eight riders , the maximum size of the peloton was 200 riders .
= = Route = =
The route for the 2015 race was announced on 15 April . The route was 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) shorter than in 2014 ; it was therefore 253 kilometres ( 157 mi ) in length . The changes came in the final section of the route , with the Côte de la Vecquée removed and the Col du Rosier and the Col du Maquisard added instead . The second change was a reduction in distance between the third @-@ last and second @-@ last climbs : the distance was cut from 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) to 16 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) , with a small unclassified climb also added . Cyclingnews.com described the first change as a " much harder combination " suggested that the new route would make the race more interesting than the 2014 edition , which it described as " painfully dull " .
The race began in Liège , in Place Saint @-@ Lambert outside the Prince @-@ Bishops ' Palace , with a neutral zone that took the riders out of the town to the south . The first 75 kilometres ( 47 mi ) of the race brought the peloton south , through Aywaille to La Roche @-@ en @-@ Ardenne ; although the roads were not flat there were no difficult or categorised climbs . Here the riders encountered the first classified climb of the day , the Côte de la Roche @-@ en @-@ Ardenne ( 2 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 7 mi ) at an average gradient of 6 @.@ 2 % ) . After reaching the summit , the riders continued south for another 28 kilometres ( 17 mi ) . This took them through Bertogne to Bastogne , which they reached after 107 kilometres ( 66 mi ) of racing . This was the turning @-@ point : from here the route turned to the north to return towards Liège . The northern leg of the race was both longer – 146 kilometres ( 91 mi ) – and more difficult – it included nine categorised climbs .
After turning around at the Rond @-@ point La Doyenne ( named after the race itself ) , the peloton left Bastogne to the north @-@ east . The first 17 kilometres ( 11 mi ) were fairly flat and took the riders to Houffalize . After a fast descent came the Côte de Saint @-@ Roch ( 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) at 11 @.@ 2 % ) . Another fairly flat section followed : the route continued north for approximately 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) on fairly major roads through Gouvy and Vielsalm . At this point , with 86 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 53 @.@ 7 mi ) to the finish line , there were still eight categorised climbs remaining .
The first three of these climbs came in quick succession . These were the Côte de Wanne ( 2 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 7 mi ) at 7 @.@ 4 % ) , the Côte de Stockeu ( 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) at 12 @.@ 5 % ) and the Côte de la Haute @-@ Levée ( 3 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 2 mi ) at 5 @.@ 6 % ) . The Côte de Wanne was narrow and badly surfaced , with a dangerous descent following . The Côte de Stockeu was described by Cycling Weekly as a " killer climb " , because of its steep gradient , its narrowness and its poor road surface . The Côte de la Haute @-@ Levée was unique on the course because it included a 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) section of cobblestones .
These climbs brought the riders to Stavelot . Soon afterwards , there was a hairpin turn that took them towards the two climbs new to the 2015 edition . The first of these was the Col du Rosier ( 4 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 7 mi ) at 5 @.@ 9 % ) , which was the longest climb of the day . The riders then descended through the town of Spa and turned west onto the Col du Maquisard ( 2 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) at 5 % ) , which they crossed with 46 kilometres ( 29 mi ) to the finish line . The route then crossed over the roads used for the southern leg as the riders entered the final section of the race .
The following climb was Côte de La Redoute ( 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) at 8 @.@ 9 % ) , with 34 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 21 @.@ 4 mi ) from the summit to the finish line . Cyclingnews.com described La Redoute as " the most emblematic climb of the entire race " . It had an uneven gradient : the first 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) was at about 8 % , before 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) at around 13 % and another 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) at 6 % . The riders descended down twisting roads , crossed over the uncategorised Côte de Sprimont , before coming to the penultimate climb , the Côte de la Roche @-@ aux @-@ Faucons ( 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) at 9 @.@ 4 % ) with 19 kilometres ( 12 mi ) to the finish line . This was one of the most difficult climbs of the race , with frequent changes of gradient and a poor road surface . There was then another uncategorised climb and a steep descent into the outskirts of Liège .
The final climb of the day came with 6 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 9 mi ) remaining . This was the Côte de Saint @-@ Nicolas ( 1 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) at 8 @.@ 6 % ) . Cycling Weekly described it as " a succession of steep corners with nothing between " . After the descent from the climb , the riders entered Ans , the finishing town . There was a long , straight road that started 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) from the finish line . After 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) of flat , the road climbed towards the finish at around 5 % . With around 300 metres ( 980 ft ) to go , there was a left @-@ hand turn that took the riders to the finish line .
= = Pre @-@ race favourites = =
Recent editions of Liège – Bastogne – Liège had been won in several different ways . Andy Schleck ( then riding for Team Saxo Bank ) had won a solo victory with a long @-@ distance attack in 2009 , while Dan Martin ( Cannondale – Garmin ) had attacked late on to win in 2013 . The 2010 edition was won by a two @-@ man breakaway and the 2011 edition by a three @-@ man group . The defending champion , Simon Gerrans ( Orica – GreenEDGE ) won the 2014 edition in a bunch sprint after a large group came to Ans together . The pattern of the 2015 edition was therefore hard to predict . One consistent pattern , however , was that recent editions of the race had been won by major names rather than by outsiders .
Alejandro Valverde ( Movistar Team ) had won La Flèche Wallonne during the week that preceded Liège – Bastogne – Liège and he was one of the major favourites to take the victory . Valverde had won the race on two previous occasions ( in 2006 and 2008 ) and had also been on the podium on four other occasions . Valverde 's status as the major favourite had the potential to work against him , however , as other riders were expected to mark him closely and perhaps prevent him from winning . Philippe Gilbert ( BMC Racing Team ) had suffered from this problem in the Amstel Gold Race .
The other major favourite for the race was the reigning world champion , Michał Kwiatkowski ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) . Kwiatkowski had finished third in the 2014 Liège – Bastogne – Liège and had already won the Amstel Gold Race in 2015 . Although he had not been as strong as had been expected in La Flèche Wallonne , the longer climbs of Liège – Bastogne – Liège were expected to suit him better .
Other favourites included Joaquim Rodríguez ( Katusha ) , Rui Costa ( Lampre – Merida ) and Dan Martin , as well as Vincenzo Nibali ( Astana ) and Tim Wellens ( Lotto – Soudal ) . Simon Gerrans had suffered an injury earlier in the season and had not fully recovered ; he was not expected to be able to defend his title . Similarly , Philippe Gilbert had suffered a fall in La Flèche Wallonne ; he was also not as well suited to the route of Liège – Bastogne – Liège as he was to the other Ardennes classics .
= = Race report = =
The race began with hard racing for the first hour until the day 's main breakaway was formed , with around 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) raced . The breakaway involved eight riders . These were Diego Ulissi ( Lampre – Merida ) , Matteo Montaguti ( AG2R La Mondiale ) , Otto Vergaerde ( Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) , Clément Chevrier ( IAM Cycling ) , Marco Minnaard ( Wanty – Groupe Gobert ) , Anthony Turgis ( Cofidis ) , Cesare Benedetti ( Bora – Argon 18 ) and Rasmus Quaade ( Cult Energy Pro Cycling ) . The group 's lead soon extended to nearly eight minutes , while the peloton was led by Team Europcar . Europcar 's work reduced the breakaway 's lead by around three minutes by the time of the Côte de La Roche @-@ en @-@ Ardenne , 79 kilometres ( 49 mi ) into the race .
After the turn in Bastogne , the breakaway continued . It was , however , reduced in numbers , as Quaade , Chevrier and Vergaerde all fell back before the peloton reached the Côte de Wanne , four hours into the race . Katusha led the peloton as it approached the climb . On the climb itself , Astana came to the front of the peloton and led the chase , with the breakaway 's lead reduced to under a minute . On the Côte de Stockeu , Andriy Hrivko ( Astana ) , Gorka Izagirre ( Movistar ) and Simon Yates ( Orica – GreenEDGE ) attacked and joined the lead group ; more riders then bridged across to form a 21 @-@ man group . This included five Astana riders , though not Nibali . On the Côte de la Haute @-@ Levée , several riders attacked again to form a smaller breakaway ; these were Tanel Kangert and Michele Scarponi ( both Astana ) , Manuele Boaro ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , Esteban Chaves ( Orica @-@ GreenEDGE ) and Julián Arredondo ( Trek Factory Racing ) . They had a 25 @-@ second lead at the summit and , although Boaro and Arredondo were dropped on the Col du Rosier , this increased to more than a minute for a short while . It was reduced to 45 seconds on the Col du Maquisard , however , as Movistar worked hard in the peloton to bring them back .
As the peloton approached the Côte de la Redoute , there was a large crash . Among the riders to crash were two previous winners of the race , Dan Martin and Simon Gerrans , as well as Fränk Schleck ( Trek Factory Racing ) , Nicolas Roche ( Sky ) , Mathias Frank ( IAM ) and Yukiya Arashiro ( Europcar ) . Vincenzo Nibali was forced to unclip himself from his bike , but avoided crashing . The peloton was reduced to around 40 riders at the foot of the climb . Although there were no bad injuries in the crash , Roche and Arashiro took some time to stand up , with Roche looking particularly dazed . Many of the riders who crashed attempted to get back into the peloton , with Gerrans and Martin among them . Gerrans was forced to abandon the race shortly afterwards after he crashed for a second time .
On the Col de la Redoute itself , Kangert was dropped from the breakaway ; Scarponi and Chaves had a 35 @-@ second lead at the summit and were caught around 10 kilometres ( 6 mi ) later . The riders then entered the Côte de la Roche @-@ aux @-@ Faucons , where Roman Kreuziger ( Tinkoff @-@ Saxo ) and Giampaolo Caruso ( Katusha ) attacked ; they were quickly joined by Jakob Fuglsang ( Astana ) and had an 18 @-@ second lead at the summit . Several riders attempted to form chase groups ; eventually a six @-@ man chase group was formed by Giovanni Visconti ( Movistar ) , Julian Alaphilippe ( Etixx @-@ Quick Step ) , Rui Costa ( Lampre @-@ Merida ) , Samuel Sánchez ( BMC Racing Team ) and Daniel Moreno ( Katusha ) . They stayed away for a short while and were then joined by around 20 other riders with 15 kilometres ( 9 mi ) remaining as rain began to fall .
Zdeněk Štybar ( Etixx @-@ Quick Step ) took over the pace @-@ setting in the peloton as it approached the Côte de Saint @-@ Nicolas and he reduced the gap to Kreuziger , Caruso and Fuglsang . On the climb , Valverde came to the front of the group to control the pace . Nibali then attacked and , while he was not able to escape the group , several riders were dropped . These included Michał Kwiatkowski and Philippe Gilbert . Nibali 's attack also brought the chasing group back to the leaders . The next attack came from Romain Bardet ( AG2R La Mondiale ) on the descent from the Côte de Saint @-@ Nicolas . While he too was unable to break away from the group , his attack did cause Nibali to lose contact and reduced the group to ten riders .
Giampaolo Caruso led the group into Ans and towards the climb to the finish . At the foot of the climb , Daniel Moreno , Caruso 's teammate , attacked and built a small gap ahead of the group . The group did not initially chase him , as all the other riders looked for Valverde to do the work . Eventually Valverde did start to chase Moreno and caught him at the final bend . He opened his sprint from a long way out , with Joaquim Rodríguez ( Katusha ) right behind him . Rodríguez slowed as they approached the line , however , and Valverde took the victory . Julian Alaphilippe came around Rodríguez in the final metres to take second place .
= = Result = =
= = Post @-@ race analysis = =
= = = Rider reactions = = =
Valverde 's win was the third victory at Liège – Bastogne – Liège in his career . He became one of only six riders to have three or more victories in the race . Liège – Bastogne – Liège also concluded a very successful Ardennes week for him : he had two victories and one second @-@ place finish in the three races . Valverde was the first rider since Philippe Gilbert in 2011 to win both La Flèche Wallonne and Liège – Bastogne – Liège in the same week and , although he was one place away from imitating Gilbert 's Ardennes triple , he described it as a " great week " .
Alaphilippe 's second @-@ place finish was the best for any French rider since Laurent Jalabert in 1998 . He had entered the race in support of Kwiatkowski . When Kwiatkowski was struggling on the Côte de Saint @-@ Nicolas , the Etixx @-@ Quick Step directeur sportif sent a radio message to Alaphilippe to ride for himself ; this was similar to the events in La Flèche Wallonne , where Alaphilippe also finished second to Valverde . He was frustrated on the finish line and waved his arm in the air ; he said after the race " today I really felt I could have done something more " . Cyclingnews.com suggested after the race that he had the potential to win a Monument in the future .
Several riders were injured in the crash 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) from the finish . The worst @-@ affected was Yukiya Arashiro , who suffered several broken bones . Gianluca Brambilla ( Etixx @-@ Quick Step ) broke his collarbone . LottoNL – Jumbo had two riders with injuries : Paul Martens broke his hand and Bram Tankink suffered from concussion and bruises . Nicolas Roche and Simon Gerrans both suffered some discomfort after their crashes , but neither had significant injuries . Dan Martin rode the Tour de Romandie the following week . After he suffered with his breathing through the race , he discovered that he had broken two ribs in the crash in Liège – Bastogne – Liège .
= = = UCI World Tour rankings = = =
After his strong Ardennes week , Valverde moved into the lead of the UCI World Tour individual rankings , with Richie Porte ( Team Sky ) dropping to second place . Rui Costa also moved into the top ten . Spain moved ahead of Australia in the nations ' standings , while Etixx @-@ Quick Step retained their lead of the team rankings .
= Skinny Jeanz and a Mic =
Skinny Jeanz and a Mic was the debut studio album by jerkin ' crew and rap duo New Boyz , Legacy and Ben J. It was released on September 15 , 2009 , via Shotty Music , Asylum Records and Warner Bros. Records . The album was heavily influenced by jerkin ' music . It received generally positive reviews , being called the sixth best album of 2009 by The New York Times . The album was released after the duo brought jerkin ' to national attention with their viral hit " You 're a Jerk " , which later became a commercial success and the first single off their album . The second single " Tie Me Down " , featuring Ray J , was released and also was successful . The album debuted at fifty @-@ six on the Billboard 200 , and at number twelve on Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums and eight on Top Rap Albums . The album was produced by New Boyz member , Legacy , and also contributions from producers , Jay @-@ Nari , D & D and DJ Felli Fel .
= = Background = =
The album was originally scheduled for release , August 18 , 2009 , but plans were changed for unknown reasons . Legacy received main production credits on the album . In an interview with Format Magazine he said , " I started making beats because I didn ’ t want everybody else ’ s sound . We wanted our own sound . So , I had no choice but to make my own beats to get that sound . " In an interview with Ozone Magazine , when asked about their music and the revival of the " newer west " movement , Ben J stated , " Everything is becoming positive out here . People are growing out of that old mentality . Rapping about gangs ain ’ t really what it ’ s about out here now . Everybody is having fun . " In the same interview , Legacy said , " I think music like ours is coming from people being tired of the same ol ’ thing . People thought they had to bang to be the cool kid but now the smart kid is the cool kid . People being creative are the people coming up right now . "
In an interview with HipHopDX , Legacy said the album was , " [ It ’ s ] pretty much like the lifestyle and the culture of the typical California teenager put in [ to ] music . It ’ s going to surprise a lot of people , because a lot of people think we just make the jerk songs [ and ] dance music . " According to Legacy , only two tracks on the album are jerking songs . He also stated that the album is about a lot of different topics , and was quick to point out that most of them were pre- " Jerk " stating they were fifteen songs in before ' You 're a Jerk ' . Most of the producers on the album were mostly unknown , local producers . Legacy said , " We have no big producers on our album . All of our producers are like kids our age . Everything compliments each other , because the style and the music are so new to the game . "
= = Composition = =
Many critics noted Several songs are built on the same formula of " You 're a Jerk " , with Allmusic noting that , " Dot Com , " " Colors , " " Turnt , " and " So Dope " ( which the chorus is a sound bite from the 1992 film Class Act ) all have the cheesy drum machines , samples , and off @-@ kilter lyric approach that make " Jerk " so good . The review also said " R & B ballad " Tie Me Down " featuring smooth Auto @-@ tuned vocals from Ray J , the B.A.S.S.-inspired " Bunz " , the slow jam " New Girl , " and the rollicking " Cashmere , " which bumps along like a New Jack rap jam , are nice diversions . " On the album split , The Los Angeles Times said , " The album begins to lose circulation toward its end , when the pair lose their lambent wit in favor of mawkish lover @-@ boy ballads better left to Sean Kingston albums . " Jeff Weiss of the newspaper used " Tie Me Down " as an example , noting that its sounds have " a saccharine sappiness and contrived tone that feels at odds with the otherwise organic @-@ sounding album . "
Some points of the work were inspired by Pharrell Williams , Kanye West , and other " hip @-@ hop style eccentrics " . The songs on the album have heavy lyrical underlies , noted by several critics . The comic @-@ esque " Way 2 Many Chickz " described as talking about " a string of almost @-@ conquests better left unvanquished " : " Chick had a cold sore that looked like John McCain . " On " Cashmere " , Ben J and Legacy " try to outdo each other to win the attention of a young woman , but , predictably , she spurns them both " . The lyrics also cover their difference in style , as seen in " Cricketz " , as Legacy raps , " Jeans stay skinny like I starve my fabric , Another damn thing / You ’ ll never see me care about another man ’ s jeans . " Jon Caramanica of The New York Times responded , " Baggy has been de rigueur in hip @-@ hop for so long it ’ s easy to forget that 25 years ago , rappers gladly wore tight denim . Now it ’ s cause for a fight . " Some of the lyrics use double entendre , with the duo referring to themselves as " rejects " and " jerks " on " Dot Com " , which The Los Angeles Times called " both a double @-@ entendre for the dance moves spurring the craze , and illustrative of their generation ’ s reclamation of formerly nerdy archetypes . "
= = Singles = =
" You 're a Jerk " was released as the album 's first single on April 2 , 2009 . The song was a viral success , and later succeeded peaked at number twenty @-@ four on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 , thirteen on Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs and four on Hot Rap Songs .
" Tie Me Down " was released as the album 's second single on August 31 , 2009 , it peaked at number twenty @-@ two on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 , and five on Hot Rap Songs . It reached forty two on Hot R & B / Hip Hop Songs , and fared better on mainstream airplay , the duo 's first entry at pop radio , peaking at twenty @-@ three on the Mainstream Top 40 ( Pop Songs ) chart .
There are music videos for three of the album 's songs , " Cricketz " featuring Tyga , " So Dope " and " Dot Com " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial response = = =
The album debuted at number fifty @-@ six on the U.S. Billboard 200 , and spent four weeks on the chart . It debuted and peaked at number eight on the Top Rap Albums chart and number twelve on the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart . Before falling off the chart in November 2009 , the album had sold around 35 @,@ 000 copies . The album has sold 133 @,@ 500 copies til ' the beginning of 2011 .
= = = Critical response = = =
Tim Sendra of Allmusic gave the album three out of five stars review , and said the album had the " cheesy drum machines , samples , and off @-@ kilter lyric approach that make " Jerk " so good " , " the duo stick to the template [ of " Jerk " ] , considering the uniqueness of the sound they 've created and also the fact that it 's a debut record made by teenagers , and an impressive and unfailingly fun debut at that . " The review goes on to point out that " the reliance on the " Jerk " sound can be a little monotonous , there are enough variations along the way to keep things interesting . " He also says " The duo 's flow is not incredible but they spit convincingly . If you were looking for undisputedly pop @-@ rap with a fresh sound and a light lyrical touch , the New Boyz debut is a fine destination . " XXL said that the album delivered " unexpected lyrical talent " but that it lacked " sonic variety " . The review also goes on to say that the album " is no hip @-@ hop classic , but rather the breath of fresh air rap needs . " Jeff Weiss of The Los Angeles Times gave the album three stars , commenting that the album " is a catchy and charismatic debut that should engender pleasant teen nostalgia in anyone old enough to vote and help explain why for the last six months , the kids have been saying out with the old , in with the New Boyz . " . The review also said that the album " successfully strikes a balance between introducing a new sound ( the minimalist bass @-@ heavy bounce of jerk music ) and style ( skinny jeans , Vans and " colors that ain ’ t even on the rainbow " ) , with traditional teenage themes ( girls , the desire for self @-@ expression , adults who don ’ t understand , girls ) . The result is a West Coast antidote to the South ’ s veritable monopoly on homeroom rap — a relentlessly breezy and fun ride through the lives of a pair of class clowns bent on enjoying the face cards that fate dealt . " The Selby Times said that the album " is about as happening as it gets for teenage music with an attitude , even if it makes adults ' eyes roll in disgust . " Wendy Roby of BBC said that , " But overall their sheer chutzpah wins you over – and with its day @-@ glo tongue wedged so very firmly in its cheek , Skinny Jeanz and a Mic is hard to resist . " Jon Caramanica of The New York Times called the album " one of the year ’ s most charming rap debuts , and certainly the least expected . " In a separate review , he named the album the sixth best album of the year , commenting , " Emerging from Southern California ’ s jerk scene , this teenage duo made an album that ’ s appealingly young , simultaneously wide @-@ eyed and knowingly lewd . " DJBooth.net 's Nathan Slavik was less positive , predicting that the album would be " the last time we hear from the New Boyz . "
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= Blood Feud ( The Simpsons ) =
" Blood Feud " is the twenty @-@ second and final episode of The Simpsons ' second season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on July 11 , 1991 . In the episode , Mr. Burns falls ill and desperately needs a blood transfusion . Homer discovers Bart has Burns ' rare blood type and urges his son to donate some , promising that they will be handsomely rewarded . However , after receiving the blood , all Burns does is send the family a card . Enraged , Homer writes an insulting reply , but Marge convinces him at the last minute not to send it , although Bart mails it anyway .
The episode was written by George Meyer and directed by David Silverman . Executive producer Sam Simon and writers Al Jean and Mike Reiss came up with the idea for the episode . A co @-@ worker had recently needed a blood transfusion and the writers thought it would be funny if Mr. Burns had one . Although Meyer was credited with writing the episode , Jean and Reiss re @-@ wrote and polished the script . The episode includes the debut of the Olmec head Xtapolapocetl , which would become a common background prop in the Simpson home .
" Blood Feud " was part of the season two production run , but was completed behind schedule . It was originally broadcast on July 11 , 1991 as part of " premiere week " , the Fox Network 's attempt to expand the normal 30 week prime time season and gain new viewers for the fall . In its original broadcast , the episode finished 24th in ratings for the week with a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 8 .
= = Plot = =
Mr. Burns falls ill with hypohemia ( a fictional condition in which the body naturally runs out of blood , though it is akin to a real condition called hypovolemia ) and needs a blood transfusion . His blood type , double O negative , is very rare , however , and none of the employees at Springfield Nuclear Power Plant have it . Homer discovers that Bart has double O negative blood and urges his son to donate , promising that he will be handsomely rewarded . Bart reluctantly agrees and his blood donation saves Mr. Burns ' life . Burns is rejuvenated by the blood and he sends the Simpson family a thank you card . Enraged at Burns ' paltry gesture , Homer writes an insulting reply , but Marge convinces him at the last minute not to send it . The next morning , Homer discovers that the letter is gone as Bart has mailed it .
Bart explains that he knew Homer would probably change his mind , and decided to send the letter before that could happen . Homer desperately tries to prevent the letter from reaching Burns , but fails . Mr. Burns becomes furious and demands that Homer be beaten . However , Mr. Smithers calls off the beating on the grounds that that is no way to thank the man who saved Mr. Burns 's life . Smithers convinces Burns to instead reward the Simpson family . The Simpsons receive an antique Xtapolapocetl , an Olmec head ( a massive , Tiki @-@ god @-@ like affair ) that Bart , the blood donor , likes , and which Homer hates .
At the end , as the family stare at the head , the Simpsons debate on what the moral of this whole story is . It cannot be ' A good deed is its own reward ' as Bart got a reward he likes , but at the same time it is not ' No good deed goes unrewarded ' as they never would have received anything if Homer had not written the angry letter . Homer decides that there is not a lesson to be learned from this , as it 's " just a bunch of stuff that happened " .
= = Production = =
" Blood Feud " was written by George Meyer and directed by David Silverman . Executive producer Sam Simon and writers Al Jean and Mike Reiss came up with the idea for the episode while they were trying to fill up the rest of the production run . A co @-@ worker had recently needed a blood transfusion , and the writers thought it would be funny if Mr. Burns had one . Although Meyer was credited with writing the episode , Jean and Reiss re @-@ wrote and polished the script . Harry Shearer , the voice of Mr. Burns and Smithers , could not attend the table read for the episode , so his parts were read by Dan Castellaneta ( the voice of Homer ) . " Blood Feud " includes a first act that is much longer than a normal episode of the show . The producers were going to end the act with Mr. Burns feeling better , but decided to extend it to show how the Simpson family was affected . " Blood Feud " ends with the family discussing what the message of the episode was , but decide that there was no message . The writers were having trouble conceiving an ending , but decided that since there was no point , they would discuss it . In his book Planet Simpson , Chris Turner writes that the ending is meant to openly mock the " notion of the tidy sitcom @-@ style moral " and the " formulaic plots of sitcoms " .
David Silverman describes the episode as " one of my very favorite episodes that I had the pleasure to direct " . He notes that several " standard Homerisms " appear for the first time in the episode , such as Homer 's conversations with his brain and his high @-@ pitched " fairy voice " . Silverman inserted a red herring into the episode in a scene where Mr. Burns says that he was rejuvenated . Silverman used a close @-@ up of Burns when he says " blood of a young boy " in hopes of misleading viewers into thinking that the rest of episode would be about Burns seeking more of Bart 's blood .
The episode includes the debut of the Olmec head Xtapolapocetl . After the episode , it was moved into the Simpsons ' basement , where it has since reappeared as a prop in the background of several episodes , although never in a major role . The design was partially based on real Olmec heads , but changed to look more interesting and grotesque .
= = Cultural references = =
The composition and setting of the scene where Smithers and Dr. Hibbert discuss Mr. Burns ' health is partially inspired by a scene from Citizen Kane where Kane talks to his wife Susan Alexander after she attempts suicide . Otto is heard humming " Iron Man " by Black Sabbath . The ghostwriter Mr. Burns hires mentions that he wrote " Like Hell I Can 't " . The title is a play on Sammy Davis , Jr . ' s autobiography Yes , I Can . Homer mistells the story of " Androcles and the Lion " , instead referring to it as " Hercules and the Lion " . A mural in the post office resembles Michelangelo 's The Creation of Adam . Burns 's line about getting " A frabulous , grabulous , zip @-@ zoop @-@ zabulous present " is similar to lines used in Dr. Seuss books . The scene where Homer dictates the angry letter to Mr. Burns , and the scene where he and Bart attempt to get it out of the mailbox , are inspired by the Honeymooners episode " Letter to the Boss " .
= = First broadcast = =
" Blood Feud " was part of the season two production run , but was completed behind schedule . It was originally broadcast on July 11 , 1991 as part of the Fox Network 's " premiere week " . Fox aired new episodes of several of its top shows , including The Simpsons and Beverly Hills , 90210 , in hopes of expanding the normal 30 week prime time season and gaining new viewers for the fall . Although " Three Men and a Comic Book " was the official season two finale , " Blood Feud " is considered part of the second season and was included in The Complete Second Season DVD boxset .
In its original broadcast , " Blood Feud " finished 24th in ratings for the week of July 8 – 14 , 1991 , with a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 8 . It was the second highest rated program on Fox after Beverly Hills , 90210 . The episode beat a rerun of The Cosby Show , which aired at the same time on NBC , which had a Nielsen Rating of 10 @.@ 3 . Fox finished second overall on July 11 , with an average rating of 10 @.@ 4 .
= = Reception = =
The episode has received positive reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote , " One of those shows that people always talk about when discussing The Simpsons – and rightfully so . Homer 's transformation from angry parent to sensible , calm husband is excellent , as is his reaction to Bart posting his angry letter . Their attempts to retrieve the letter and Burns ' eventual reaction are fabulous . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson wrote : " In many ways , " Feud " seemed more derivative than usual . Not only did it resemble parts of " Two Cars in Every Garage and Three Eyes on Every Fish " , but Homer ’ s attempts to regain the letter before Burns reads it appear reminiscent of an episode of The Flintstones . Despite those similarities , " Feud " still provided a very entertaining show . The program packed in a slew of hilarious moments , from Homer ’ s description of a Bible story to his visit to the post office . " A reviewer for DVDTown gave the episode a grade of C , describing it as " a fun episode , but far from great . " Ben Rayner of The Toronto Star included " Blood Feud " in his list of the top ten episodes of The Simpsons , noting that " Homer 's efforts to thwart the mail service still kill me 15 years later . "
= 2010 Toyota / Save Mart 350 =
The 2010 Toyota / Save Mart 350 was a NASCAR Sprint Cup Series stock car race held on June 20 , 2010 , at Infineon Raceway in Sonoma , California . Contested over 110 laps , it was the sixteenth race of the 2010 Sprint Cup Series season and the first of two road course competitions on the schedule . The race was won by Jimmie Johnson , for the Hendrick Motorsports team . Robby Gordon finished second , and Kevin Harvick , who started fourth , clinched third .
Conditions were sunny at the start of the race , making the track potentially slippery . Pole position driver Kasey Kahne maintained his lead into the first corner , but Johnson , who had started in the second position on the grid , took the lead before the first lap was over . Kahne suffered an ill @-@ handling car during the beginning of the race , causing him to fall to seventh by the sixth lap . Seven laps before the finish , race leader Marcos Ambrose , turned his car off to try to save fuel , but he could not refire the engine and subsequently stalled . He dropped back from the lead to sixth place with seven laps remaining , allowing Kahne to finish fourth and Jeff Gordon fifth .
There were eight cautions and twelve lead changes among eight different drivers throughout the course of the race , Johnson 's fourth win of the season and his first ever at Infineon . The result moved him up four spots to second in the Drivers ' Championship , 140 points behind of leader Kevin Harvick and one ahead of Kyle Busch . Chevrolet maintained its lead in the Manufacturers ' Championship , nine points ahead of Toyota and forty @-@ three ahead of Dodge , with twenty races remaining in the season .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Prior to the race , Kevin Harvick led the Drivers ' Championship with 2 @,@ 169 points , and Kyle Busch stood in second with 2 @,@ 147 points . Denny Hamlin was third in the Drivers ' Championship with 2 @,@ 122 points in a Toyota , Kyle Busch 's brother Kurt was fourth with 2 @,@ 051 points , and Matt Kenseth was in fifth with 2 @,@ 019 points . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet was leading with 103 points , six points ahead of their rival Toyota , which had been closing the gap between the two teams in the four previous races . Dodge , with 65 points , was tied with Ford in the battle for third .
Two teams chose to temporarily replace their regular drivers with road course ringers . Because of an accident at the previous race in between Scott Speed and Casey Mears , Red Bull Racing Team chose to replace Mears with Mattias Ekström while Phoenix Racing chose Jan Magnussen to replace Landon Cassill .
Infineon Raceway is one of two road courses to hold NASCAR races , the other being Watkins Glen International . The standard road course at Infineon Raceway is a 12 @-@ turn course that is 2 @.@ 52 miles ( 4 @.@ 06 km ) long ; the track was modified in 1998 , adding the Chute , which bypassed turns 5 and 6 , shortening the course to 1 @.@ 95 miles ( 3 @.@ 14 km ) . The Chute was only used for NASCAR events such as this race , and was criticized by many drivers , who preferred the full layout . In 2001 , it was replaced with a 70 @-@ degree turn , 4A , bringing the track to its current dimensions of 1 @.@ 99 miles ( 3 @.@ 20 km ) .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Three practice sessions were held before the Sunday race — one on Friday , and two on Saturday . The first session lasted 90 minutes . The Saturday afternoon session lasted 45 minutes , and the evening session lasted 65 minutes . In the first practice session , Marcos Ambrose was the quickest , leading Clint Bowyer , Ryan Newman , Kasey Kahne , and Kevin Harvick , who were in second , third , fourth , and fifth , respectively . In the second practice session , Ambrose was again the fastest with a fastest lap time of 1 : 16 @.@ 40 , less than seven @-@ tenths of a second quicker than second @-@ placed Jeff Burton . A. J. Allmendinger took third place , ahead of fourth @-@ placed Jimmie Johnson and Martin Truex , Jr .. There were two cautions in the second session ; one of them was caused by Kevin Conway , who stopped on track , and the other was waved for Sam Hornish , Jr . , who had spun out and collided in the wall . The Saturday evening session was held around the same time of day the race would start . Once more , Ambrose was the quickest , posting a time of 1 : 16 @.@ 82 , narrowly faster than both McMurray in second and Burton in third . Johnson and Harvick , rounded out the top five positions . Juan Pablo Montoya , who won this race in 2007 , only managed twelfth .
During qualifying , forty @-@ six cars were entered , but only forty @-@ three were able to race because of NASCAR 's qualifying procedure . Kahne clinched his seventeenth career pole position , with a time of 1 : 16 @.@ 30 . He was joined on the front row of the grid by Johnson . Kurt Busch qualified third , Harvick took fourth , and Jeff Gordon started fifth , after being quickest earlier in the session . The three drivers that did not qualify were Brian Simo , Brandon Ash , and Michael Waltrip .
= = = Race = = =
The race , the sixteenth out of a total of thirty @-@ six in the season , began at 3 pm EDT and was televised live in the United States on TNT . Conditions were sunny with a high of 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) , making the track potentially slippery . Infineon Raceway volunteer coordinator Tim Boeve began the pre @-@ race ceremonies by giving the invocation . Next , CNN news anchor Robin Meade performed the national anthem , and former NFL running back Roger Craig and Northern California Toyota Dealer Association 's Henry Hansel gave the command for drivers to start their engines . On the pace laps , Sam Hornish , Jr. and David Ragan had to go to the rear of the starting grid because they switched to back @-@ up cars due to accidents during practice and qualifying .
Kasey Kahne held the lead going through the first corner with Jimmie Johnson behind him . Going through turn seven , Kurt Busch went three @-@ wide with Kahne and Johnson for the lead , and Kahne slowed as Johnson claimed the lead . Kahne 's vacated third position was filled by Kevin Harvick . Marcos Ambrose moved into fifth , passing Jeff Gordon on the sixth lap . After starting in the pole position , Kahne lost six positions in the first seven laps . Johnson continued to increase his lead over Kurt Busch to 3 @.@ 17 seconds . On lap 11 , the first caution flag was waved for an accident involving Clint Bowyer , A. J. Allmendinger , Kyle Busch , and Jamie McMurray . Four laps later , some teams decided to pit as Kyle Busch went to the garage for repairs . Johnson made a good restart , retaining the first position as Ambrose passed Kurt Busch for the second position .
Tony Stewart also improved his position by passing Harvick for fourth when McMurray spun out on the restart . Johnson built a lead of one second over Ambrose within two laps of the restart . On lap 17 , Jeff Gordon improved his position to sixth after passing Martin Truex , Jr . , and Johnson continued to pull away with a three @-@ second lead after lap 21 . On lap 23 , Denny Hamlin reported that he was struggling due to damage on the hood of his race car . A lap later , Biffle passed Ryan Newman for ninth while Jeff Gordon emerged in third after passing Juan Pablo Montoya and Kurt Busch . On lap 27 , green flag pit stops began when Ambrose came to pit road for fuel and four new tires . A few laps later , Bobby Labonte received a drive @-@ through penalty for exiting pit road too fast .
On lap 35 , Johnson went to pit road and received four new tires and fuel , allowing Stewart to claim the lead . Debutant Mattias Ekström gained the lead as Stewart went to pit lane . On lap 44 , Hamlin continued to have trouble ; his hood began to cover his windshield under green flag conditions . Johnson soon built a 1 @.@ 58 second lead over second place Ambrose . Hamlin was then given a drive @-@ through penalty for speeding on pit road . On lap 52 , Ambrose made a pit stop because of his team 's three pit stop strategy .
Johnson 's lead — 13 seconds over Truex , Jr. by lap 54 — was reduced to nothing when the safety car was deployed on the fifty @-@ eighth lap . Dave Blaney had spun out and his car stopped in the middle of the track . After pit stops were completed , the top five positions were filled by Boris Said in first , Stewart in second , Ambrose in third , Ekström in fourth , and David Ragan in fifth . Said made a good restart , but because of his older tires , Ambrose passed him . One lap later , Johnson had all ready passed four cars and was in the third position when Truex Jr. spun going through turn eleven . The third caution flag was waved because Brad Keselowski turned sideways at turn ten ; he had major damage to the splitter from going through the dirt off the track . Said made a slow restart , making cars collide with each other , prompting a red flag on lap 67 .
After twenty @-@ two minutes , drivers restarted their engines as cleanup crews were still working . Ambrose made a good restart on lap 70 to keep Johnson behind him . Six laps later , Stewart went to pit lane as Johnson was catching Ambrose . On lap 79 , Johnson went to pit lane for fuel and four new tires ; he was scored in seventeenth afterward . On the following lap , Ambrose went to pit lane for new tires and fuel , so Bowyer became the leader . Elliott Sadler and Boris Said both held the lead during the pit stops . The fifth caution flag came out on lap 85 because Montoya and Joey Logano collided . Boris Said led the field on the restart , but he went off track in turn two and fell to the fifth position as Ambrose , Johnson , Robby Gordon and Biffle passed him . Shortly after the restart , the sixth caution came out because Ekström and David Gilliland both spun out . Ambrose made a good restart to maintain the first position , while Johnson defended second .
On lap 100 , Bowyer and Sadler both spun sideways because Jeff Gordon collided with them . Three laps later , the seventh caution came out because Keselowski had fluid coming out of his race car after being spun around by Gilliland . Under caution , Ambrose in the first turn stopped his car to save fuel in case of green @-@ white @-@ checkered finishes and came to a stop going up a hill ; he lost six positions and went back to the lead under caution thinking that that was where he was to be on the restart . However NASCAR ruled soon afterwards that Ambrose failed to maintain any speed under caution by stalling his car and ordered Ambrose to go back to 7th place on the restart costing Ambrose a chance at his first NSCS victory . Ambrose obeyed and slowed his lead to 7th place and Johnson restarted well to take the lead from Robby Gordon . On the final lap ( 110 ) , Matt Kenseth spun and collided with the tire barriers after his brakes failed . Johnson crossed the finish line in first to take his fourth win of the season and his first ever at a road course . Robby Gordon followed in second , ahead of Harvick in third , Kahne in fourth , and Jeff Gordon in fifth . The race had a total of eight cautions and twelve lead changes among eight different drivers .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
Jimmie Johnson appeared in victory lane after his victory lap to start celebrating his fourth win of the season , and his first on a road course . Before the race , he had stated , “ I have a lot of confidence but at the same time , after eight years of trying , I ’ m hopeful we have overturned a stone that we have missed in the past . I don ’ t think we have forgotten any area or missed something , but we ’ ll go out and give it a shot and see what we can do and I am ready mentally , physically and we did some testing . I think we found a couple of small things that will bring speed to the cars . ” Following his win , he added , " This win is important , but it ’ s not what it ’ s going to take to win a championship . "
Although Marcos Ambrose was leading near the end of the race , he stalled his car while going uphill when coasting in order to conserve fuel . NASCAR ruled that he had failed to maintain reasonable speed under the caution which caused him to drop to seventh . In the subsequent press conference , Johnson said , " I feel bad for him . It was definitely a gift kind of handed to us . " Johnson expressed his enjoyment of winning the race , but he also stated :
" Normally , you shut off the car downhill to save fuel . I don ’ t think you do that going up the hill — that ’ s the last place to do it . I thought he was out of fuel , or it was electrical . His car came to a stop and I just thought , ‘ Wow . ’ I know he is kicking himself for whatever happened there . It ’ s the last type of mistake I would expect to see . I was just hoping that I could stay alongside of him . You can count on some guys making mistakes , but I didn ’ t think Marcos would make one . To see him make that was totally off the wall . "
Martin Truex , Jr. was furious because of the accident involving himself and Jeff Gordon . Gordon apologized for the collision , but Truex vowed , " We ’ ll get him . " From a second @-@ place finish , Robby Gordon said , " My team needs a little bit of morale here and there . This will be a morale boost back at the workshop . " The race result left Kevin Harvick leading the Driver 's Championship with 2 @,@ 334 points . Johnson , who failed to finish three of the past six races , was second on 2 @,@ 194 , one point ahead of Kyle Busch and eleven ahead of Denny Hamlin . Jeff Gordon was fifth with 2 @,@ 142 points . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet maintained their lead with 112 points . Toyota remained second with 103 points . Ford followed with 69 points , one point ahead of Dodge in fourth . The race took two hours , fifty @-@ six minutes and thirty @-@ eight seconds to complete , and the margin of victory was 3 @.@ 105 seconds .
= = Results = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
= = Standings after the race = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
= Franklin Knight Lane =
Franklin Knight Lane ( July 15 , 1864 – May 18 , 1921 ) was a political progressive and American Democratic politician from California who served as United States Secretary of the Interior from 1913 to 1920 . He also served as a commissioner of the Interstate Commerce Commission , and was the Democratic nominee for Governor of California in 1902 , losing a narrow race in what was then a heavily Republican state .
Lane was born July 15 , 1864 , near Charlottetown , Prince Edward Island , in what was then a British colony but is now part of Canada , and in 1871 , his family moved to California . After attending the University of California while working part @-@ time as a reporter , Lane became a New York correspondent for the San Francisco Chronicle , and later became editor and part owner of a newspaper . Elected City Attorney of San Francisco in 1898 , a post he held for five years , Lane ran in 1902 for governor and in 1903 for mayor of San Francisco , losing both races . In 1903 , he received the support of the Democratic minority in the California State Legislature during the legislature 's vote to elect a United States Senator from California .
Appointed a commissioner of the Interstate Commerce Commission by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt in 1905 and confirmed by the Senate the following year , Lane was reappointed in 1909 by President William Howard Taft . His fellow commissioners elected him as chairman in January 1913 . The following month , Lane accepted President @-@ elect Woodrow Wilson 's nomination to become Secretary of the Interior , a position in which he served almost seven years until his resignation in early 1920 . Lane 's record on conservation was mixed : he supported the controversial Hetch Hetchy Reservoir project in Yosemite National Park , which flooded a valley esteemed by many conservationists , but also presided over the establishment of the National Park Service .
The former Secretary died of heart disease at the Mayo Clinic in Rochester , Minnesota , on May 18 , 1921 . Because of two decades of poorly paid government service , and the expenses of his final illness , he left no estate , and a public fund was established to support his widow . Newspapers reported that it was often said of Lane that had he not been born in what is now Canada , he would have become president . In spite of that limitation , Lane was offered support for the Democratic nomination for Vice President , though he was constitutionally ineligible for that office as well .
= = Early life = =
Lane was born near Charlottetown , Prince Edward Island , on July 15 , 1864 , the first of four children of Christopher Lane and the former Caroline Burns . Christopher Lane was a preacher who owned a farm outside Charlottetown ; when his voice began to fail , he became a dentist . The elder Lane , disliking the island colony 's cold climate , moved with his family to Napa , California in 1871 , and to Oakland in 1876 , where Franklin graduated from Oakland High School . Franklin Lane was hired to work in the printing office of the Oakland Times , then worked as a reporter , and in 1884 campaigned for the Prohibition Party . From 1884 to 1886 , he attended the University of California at Berkeley , though he did not graduate . Lane later wrote , " I put myself through college by working on vacation and after hours , and I am very glad I did it . " He later received honorary Doctor of Laws degrees from the University of California , from New York University , Brown University , and the University of North Carolina . After leaving college , he worked as a reporter for the San Francisco Chronicle . In 1889 , he was admitted to the California Bar , having attended Hastings Law School .
Rather than practicing law , Lane moved to New York City to continue his newspaper career as a correspondent for the Chronicle . There he became a protégé of the reformer Henry George and a member of New York 's Reform Club . He returned to the West Coast in 1891 as editor and part owner of the Tacoma News . He was successful in driving a corrupt chief of police into exile in Alaska , but the business venture as a whole was unsuccessful , and the paper declared bankruptcy in 1894 , a victim of the poor economy and Lane 's espousal of Democratic and Populist Party causes . In 1893 , Lane married Anne Wintermute ; they had two children , Franklin Knight Lane , Jr. and Nancy Lane Kauffman .
Lane moved back to California in late 1894 , and began to practice law in San Francisco with his brother George . He also wrote for Arthur McEwen 's Letter , a newspaper which crusaded against corruption , especially in the San Francisco Bay area and in the Southern Pacific Railroad . In 1897 – 98 , he served on the Committee of One Hundred , a group which was tasked with drafting a new city charter . The charter required the city to own its own water supply .
= = California politician = =
In 1898 , Lane , running as a Democrat , was elected to the combined position of City and County Attorney , defeating California 's sitting Attorney General , W. F. Fitzgerald , by 832 votes in a year that otherwise saw most offices across the state fall to the Republicans . He was re @-@ elected in 1899 and 1901 .
Lane ran for Governor of California in 1902 on the Democratic and Non @-@ Partisan tickets . At a time when California was dominated by the Republican Party , he lost by less than a percentage point to George Pardee . ( Theodore Roosevelt won the state by 35 points two years later . ) Between 8 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 votes were disqualified on various technicalities , possibly costing him the election . During the campaign , the influential San Francisco Examiner slanted its news coverage against him . Examiner owner William Randolph Hearst later denied responsibility for this policy , and stated that if Lane ever needed anything , he should send Hearst a telegram . Lane retorted that if Hearst received a telegram purportedly signed by Lane , asking him to do anything , he could be sure it was a forgery .
Journalist Grant Wallace wrote of Lane at the time of the gubernatorial campaign :
That Lane is a man of earnestness and vigorous action is shown in ... every movement . You sit down to chat with him in his office . As he grows interested in the subject , he kicks his chair back , thrusts his hands way to the elbows in his trouser pockets and strides up and down the room . With deepening interest he speaks more rapidly and forcibly , and charges back and forth across the carpet with the heavy tread of a grenadier .
At the time , the state legislatures still elected United States Senators , and in 1903 , Lane received the vote of the state legislature 's Democratic minority in the Senate election . However , the majority Republicans backed incumbent George Clement Perkins , who was duly re @-@ elected . Later that year , City Attorney Lane ran for mayor of San Francisco , but again was defeated , finishing third in the race . He returned to the private practice of law , and would not again stand for elective office .
Even before the mayoral election , there was support for Lane as a potential Democratic candidate for Vice President , though since he was born in what was by then a Canadian province he was ineligible under the Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution . In an era when political convention delegates were far more free to make their own choices than they are today , Lane wrote that he had heard that he could gain the support of the New York delegation , which he declined to do . While returning to California from a trip to Washington , D.C. , as an advocate for the Hetch Hetchy Reservoir project , he stopped in Austin , Texas , to confer with Democratic leaders and address the legislature . The New York Times saw this as part of a campaign to secure the vice @-@ presidential nomination , and stated that he had been promised help from Texas .
= = Interstate Commerce Commission = =
= = = Appointment and confirmation = = =
The railroad companies , which were loosely regulated by the Interstate Commerce Commission ( ICC ) , exercised great power in California because of the lack of alternate means of shipping freight . Lane had taken cases against those corporations in his law practice , and , in his gubernatorial campaign , had argued that they had too much power . In early 1904 , Benjamin Wheeler , president of the University of California , suggested to President Roosevelt that Lane would be an admirable choice to serve on the ICC . Roosevelt agreed , and promised to name him to the next ICC vacancy . When that vacancy occurred in early 1905 , Roosevelt forgot his promise and instead named retiring five @-@ term Senator Francis Cockrell of Missouri . Wheeler wrote to remind Roosevelt that he had said he would name Lane . Roosevelt apologized for his oversight , but noted that , as he had just been re @-@ elected , " I shall make ample amends to Lane later " .
In December 1905 , Commissioner Joseph W. Fifer resigned from the ICC and on December 6 , 1905 , President Roosevelt named Lane to fill the remaining four years in his term . Opposition to the appointment came from Republicans , who pointed out that were the nominee to be confirmed by the Senate , three of the five commissioners would be from the minority Democratic Party . Historian Bill G. Reid , in his journal article about Lane , suggests that Lane 's liberal record was a factor in the Senate 's hesitation to confirm him . The dispute held up Senate approval . However , Republican Congressman William Peters Hepburn proposed legislation which , though its primary purpose was increased railroad regulation , would expand the Commission by two members . Roosevelt indicated that he would appoint Republicans to the new positions , and opposition to Lane 's nomination dissipated . The resultant Hepburn Act was signed by President Roosevelt on June 29 , 1906 , while his nominee was confirmed the same day and was sworn in on July 2 , 1906 .
The City of San Francisco suffered a severe earthquake on April 18 , 1906 . Lane , who was living in north Berkeley while awaiting Senate confirmation , hurried to the city within hours of the earthquake to do what he could to help . Mayor Eugene E. Schmitz immediately appointed him to the Committee of Fifty to deal with the devastation of the earthquake and subsequent fire , and plan the rebuilding of the city . According to Lane 's friend , writer Will Irwin , Lane did not content himself with committee work , but personally fought the fire , helping to save much of the Western Addition . In late April , the commissioner @-@ designate took the train east to Washington , where he unsuccessfully fought to obtain Federal money to help the city 's recovery .
= = = Commission work = = =
The new commissioner spent the second half of 1906 attending ICC hearings around the country . The Hepburn Act had given the Commission broad powers over the railroads , and the Commission worked to deal not only with past railroad abuses , but to strike a balance between the desires of railroads and those of shippers .
There was a severe shortage of coal in the Upper Midwest in late 1906 , especially in North Dakota , and President Roosevelt ordered an investigation . Railroad companies were accused of failing to send cars with coal to that region that could then be used to transport grain from that region to Great Lakes ports . It was alleged the companies were waiting for the lakes to freeze over before sending cars so that the grain would have to be transported by rail all the way to market instead of by water transport . Lane led the inquiry and held hearings in Chicago , and concluded that the car shortage was due to demand for cars further west , and that it would actually cause area railways to lose money since they could not transport the grain to port . In January 1907 , he submitted his report to Roosevelt , which set out the causes of the shortage . He found that fifty million bushels of grain still remained on North Dakota farms or in the state 's grain elevators , because of lack of space in eastbound railroad cars . He recommended that railroad companies pool their cars with neighboring lines .
The Commission spent much of 1907 investigating the railroads and other companies owned by Edward H. Harriman , holding hearings across the country . In October , Lane determined that the Southern Pacific Railroad , one of Harriman 's lines , was engaged in rebating , a practice of effectively giving special rates to favored shippers that had been outlawed by the Hepburn Act .
Lane was reappointed as commissioner by President William Howard Taft on December 7 , 1909 , this time to a full seven @-@ year term , and was confirmed by the Senate three days later . He was also approached by , as he put it , " a good many people " who urged him to seek the Democratic nomination for Governor of California in 1910 . He did not run , remaining an ICC commissioner . Taft designated Lane as a U.S. delegate to the 1910 International Railways Congress . The Congress , which convened every five years , met in Berne , Switzerland . Before adjourning in anticipation of meeting in 1915 in Berlin , it elected Lane to its Permanent International Commission .
On July 1 , 1911 , the ICC ordered a " sweeping investigation " into the activities of express companies , which transported and delivered parcels . Lane presided over a lengthy hearing in New York in November 1911 . Fellow Commissioner James S. Harlan noted that after hearing of the abuses of the express system , Lane recommended to Congress that it establish a parcel post service as part of the United States Post Office Department . Parcel post began on January 1 , 1913 , and was an immediate success .
Early in 1912 , Commissioner Lane returned to New York to preside over hearings ( begun on the Commission 's own initiative ) into oil pipelines . While investigating the sale of pipelines to the Standard Oil Company , he grew frustrated with the testimony of a witness who , though secretary of several pipeline companies , could not say who authorized the sales . " I don 't want to deal with a clerk or one of your $ 5 @,@ 000 a year men . I want testimony from someone who can speak with authority . " The Commission held that oil pipelines were common carriers , and ordered the companies owning them to file rate schedules and otherwise comply with the Interstate Commerce Act .
Lane also gave attention to improving the ICC 's internal capabilities . Lane and his ally , fellow Commissioner Balthasar H. Meyer , supported increasing the Commission 's ability to compute marginal rates , and the Commission engaged noted economist Max O. Lorenz ( inventor of the Lorenz curve ) for this task . Lane also advocated the creation of a new commission with powers over any corporation engaged in interstate commerce , as the best way to prevent trusts .
= = Secretary of the Interior = =
= = = Selection by Wilson = = =
In the 1912 presidential election , Lane supported Democratic candidate and New Jersey Governor Woodrow Wilson , though he declined to make campaign speeches on Wilson 's behalf , citing ICC policy that commissioners act in a nonpartisan manner . Wilson was elected on November 5 , 1912 , and on November 21 the commissioner spent much of the day with Colonel Edward House , the President @-@ elect 's advisor , who would play a key role in selecting Cabinet appointees . The possibility of Lane becoming Secretary of the Interior was discussed , but he indicated he was happy in his present position . After the meeting , Lane had second thoughts , and asked House if he would have a free hand as Interior Secretary . House indicated that were he to prove capable in the position , Wilson would not interfere . Colonel House did not immediately recommend Lane for the job , but went on to consider other candidates , such as former San Francisco mayor James D. Phelan and Wilson friend Walter Page .
At the ICC meeting on January 8 , 1913 , the commissioners elected Lane as the new chairman , effective January 13 . Wilson continued to keep his Cabinet intentions quiet , and Lane noted in January 1913 of those who met with the President @-@ elect in New Jersey , " nobody comes back from Trenton knowing anything more than when he went " . On February 16 , House met again with him ( on Wilson 's instructions ) to get a better sense of the ICC chairman 's views on conservation . According to House 's diaries , Lane , while reluctant to leave his position as chairman , was willing to serve in the Interior position if offered . He considered the position the most difficult Cabinet post but was also willing to serve in any other capacity .
As Wilson adjusted his lineup of potential Cabinet appointees , he and House considered Lane for the positions of Attorney General and Secretary of War . Finally , Wilson wrote to him on February 24 , 1913 , offering him the Interior position , and , although the two had never met , he accepted the post . According to The New York Times , Chairman Lane was selected since he was one of the few California Democrats who had fought the railroads and who was not beholden to Hearst . At the time , it was customary not to make an official announcement of Cabinet appointments until the new President formally submitted the names to the Senate on the afternoon of Inauguration Day , March 4 ; however , The New York Times obtained the list of Wilson 's appointees a day early . The Senate met in special session on March 5 , and approved all of President Wilson 's Cabinet appointees .
= = = Department activities = = =
The Department of the Interior in 1913 was a hodgepodge of different agencies . Many of them , such as the Pensions Office , Indian Office , and General Land Office had been departmental responsibilities since the Interior Department was organized in 1849 . Others , such as the Bureau of Education , the Geological Survey and the Bureau of Mines , had been added later . The Department was also responsible for national parks , the Patent Office , the United States Capitol building and grounds , Howard University , Gallaudet University , St. Elizabeths Hospital and the Maritime Canal Company of Nicaragua , charged with building a canal upon which work had been suspended for twenty years .
Soon after taking office in 1913 , Lane became involved in the Hetch Hetchy Valley dispute . San Francisco had long sought to dam the Tuolumne River in Yosemite National Park to create a reservoir that would assure a steady flow of water to the city . Lane had supported the project as City Attorney and continued his advocacy as the new Interior Secretary . The Hetch Hetchy project was strongly opposed by many conservationists , led by John Muir , who said , " Dam Hetch Hetchy ! As well dam for water tanks the people 's cathedrals and churches ; for no holier temple has ever been consecrated by the heart of man . " In spite of Muir 's objections , Lane was successful : Congress authorized the project after a long and bitter battle .
The new Secretary sought allies in Congress to implement his agenda . One such ally was the new junior senator from Montana , Thomas J. Walsh , whose support was key to the passage of the Hetch Hetchy legislation . While Walsh dissented from Lane 's policies on national parks , for example by supporting local control of development in his home state 's Glacier National Park , he sided with him on subjects ranging from development of Alaska to reclamation projects . The Interior Secretary advocated leasing , rather than selling , public lands with possible mineral deposits , and Senator Walsh pursued legislation in this area . While the two were successful in providing for coal land leasing in Alaska , a general minerals leasing bill would not be passed until shortly after Lane left office in 1920 .
In July 1913 , Lane left on a long inspection tour of National Parks , Indian reservations , and other areas under the Interior Department 's jurisdiction . Fearful that local employees would control what he was allowed to see , he sent an assistant to visit each site and provide him with a complete report on it two weeks in advance of his arrival . The tour was interrupted in August , when President Wilson asked his Interior Secretary to go to Denver and serve as his representative at the Conference of Governors . Lane did , and then rejoined his inspection party in San Francisco . After several days of meetings there , he collapsed because of an attack of angina pectoris . After three weeks recuperating , he returned to Washington against medical advice to resume his work .
As Interior Secretary , Lane was responsible for the territories , and advocated the development of the Alaska Territory . While private railroads had been established there , they were not successful , and he pushed for a government @-@ built railroad , which he believed would lead to large @-@ scale population movement into Alaska . In 1914 , Congress passed a bill authorizing construction of the Alaska Railroad , which passed the Senate following a two @-@ day speech in support by Walsh . Lane was the first Interior Secretary to appoint an Alaska resident , John Franklin Alexander Strong , as territorial governor . Secretary Lane 's vision for the territory was , " Alaska should not , in my judgment , be regarded as a mere storehouse of materials on which the people of the States may draw . She has the potentialities of a State . And whatever policies may be adopted should look toward an Alaska of homes , of industries , and of an extended commerce . "
Despite his role in the Hetch Hetchy controversy , Lane was friendly towards the National Park movement , and in 1915 hired Stephen Mather to oversee the parks for which the Department was responsible . Mather , a self @-@ made millionaire and member of the Sierra Club , had written Lane a bitter letter in late 1914 , complaining that the national parks were being exploited for private profit . Lane was intrigued by Mather 's letter , made inquiry , and found that Mather was well thought of by Lane 's friends — and had , like Lane , attended the University of California . Mather 's advocacy led to the establishment of the National Park Service in 1916 .
In 1915 , Lane returned to San Francisco to open the Panama @-@ Pacific International Exposition . The President was supposed to open the fair , but was unable to attend , and sent the Interior Secretary in his place . In 1916 , Wilson appointed Lane to lead the American delegation and meet with the Mexican commissioners at Atlantic City , New Jersey about the unstable military situation in Mexico . These negotiations led to the withdrawal of United States troops from Mexico .
The Interior Department had never had a central headquarters , but had worked from offices scattered across Washington , with the bulk of the department located in the old Patent Office building . The Secretary lobbied for a new building for the Department , and , after Congress appropriated the funds , construction went ahead and the building was opened in early 1917 . The structure , located at 1800 F Street N.W. , now houses the General Services Administration .
Mather , who had been appointed the first director of the National Park Service , began to display apparent mental illness in 1917 . His assistant , Horace Albright , reported this condition to Lane . The Secretary chose to keep Mather in his position , while allowing Albright to perform the functions of Mather 's job until Mather recovered , keeping all of this secret . According to Albright , Lane was not a conservationist , but did not care to interfere in the decisions of his officials , and so let Mather and Albright have free rein . Lane wrote in 1917 :
A wilderness , no matter how impressive and beautiful , does not satisfy this soul of mine , ( if I have that kind of thing ) . It is a challenge to man . It says , ' Master me ! Put me to use ! Make me something more than I am.'
= = = World War I responsibilities = = =
In 1916 , Wilson appointed Lane to the Council of National Defense ( CND ) , where he urged cooperation between the private and public sectors . He defused a difficult situation for the CND when it decided to merge its male @-@ dominated state and local organizations with the separate Women 's Committee into a unified Field Division . Lane headed the Division , leading a board of five men and five women .
Lane bitterly opposed what he saw as the President 's hesitation to commit the country to war . He wrote to his brother George in February 1917 :
... in Mexico , Cuba , Costa Rica , and Europe we have trouble . The country is growing tired of delay , and without positive leadership is losing its keenness of conscience and becoming inured to insult . Our Ambassador in Berlin is held as a hostage for days — our Consuls ' wives are stripped naked at the border , our ships are sunk , our people killed — and yet we wait and wait ! What for I do not know . Germany is winning by her bluff , for she has our ships interned in our own harbors .
Lane was a strong advocate of preparedness in the prelude to U.S. involvement in World War I. In early 1917 , he urged Wilson to authorize the arming and convoying of merchant vessels . Wilson refused , but changed his mind when informed of the Zimmermann Telegram . In a critical Cabinet meeting in March 1917 , Lane , with other Cabinet members , urged American intervention in the war .
With Lane 's support , the nation 's railroads voluntarily united to form a Railroad War Board to meet the emergency . Lane made many effective speeches for the Committee on Public Information . The Secretary penned two brief works for the Committee , Why We Are Fighting Germany and The American Spirit , which were well received and widely distributed . He urged businessmen to make " sacrifices as worthy as those of the men on their way to the trenches " . President Wilson reportedly stopped discussing matters of importance at Cabinet meetings because the " gregarious " Lane divulged confidential matters .
Lane was a supporter of the Treaty of Versailles and of the League of Nations . He wrote articles urging , in vain , U.S. ratification of the treaty establishing the international organization .
= = Later life and legacy = =
On December 17 , 1919 , Lane confirmed rumors that had been circulating in Washington for some months that he would be leaving the Cabinet . Secretary Lane stated that he had not done so earlier because of President Wilson 's illness . While he gave no specific reason for his departure , The New York Times reported that Lane had found it difficult to make ends meet on a Cabinet officer 's salary of $ 12 @,@ 000 and desired to make more money for himself and his family .
As Lane prepared to leave office in January 1920 , he reflected on the postwar world :
But the whole world is skew @-@ jee , awry , distorted and altogether perverse . The President is broken in body , and obstinate in spirit . Clemenceau is beaten for an office he did not want . Einstein has declared the law of gravitation outgrown and decadent . ... Oh God , I pray , give me peace and a quiet chop . I do not ask for power , nor for fame , nor yet for wealth .
Lane resigned in February 1920 , and left office on March 1 . He subsequently accepted employment as Vice President and legal advisor to the Mexican Petroleum Company , which was run by Edward Doheny ( who , after Lane 's death , would be implicated in the Teapot Dome scandal ) , as well as a directorship of the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company .
In a letter to Democratic Presidential candidate and Ohio Governor James M. Cox in July 1920 , Lane set forth his vision for America :
We want our unused lands put to use . We want the farm made more attractive through better rural schools , more roads everywhere ... [ W ] e want more men with garden homes instead of tenement homes . We want our waters , that flow idly to the sea , put to use ... [ W ] e want fewer boys and girls , men and women , who cannot read or write the language of our laws , newspapers , and literature ... [ T ] he framing of our policies should not be left to emotional caprice , or the opportunism of any group of men , but should be result of sympathetic and deep studies by the wisest men we have , regardless of their politics ... [ W ] e want our soldiers and sailors to be more certain of our gratitude ... [ W ] e are to extend our activities into all parts of the world . Our trade is to grow as never before . Our people are to resume their old place as traders on the seven seas . We are to know other people better and make them all more and more our friends , working with them as mutually dependent factors in the growth of the world 's life
By early 1921 , Lane 's health was failing , and he sought treatment at the Mayo Clinic . He was able to leave the Clinic and spend the remainder of the winter in warmer areas as advised by his physicians , but soon returned . Lane 's heart was in such poor condition that the Clinic could not give him general anesthesia during his heart operation . Lane survived the operation , and wrote of the ordeal , but died soon afterward . According to his brother , George Lane , the former Secretary left no will or estate . The vice @-@ president of Lane 's company noted that the Californian had worked 21 years for the Government on a " living salary " , and the earnings from the one year of substantial wages had been heavily sapped by illness . Lane 's body was cremated , and his ashes thrown to the winds from atop El Capitan peak in Yosemite National Park .
According to newspapers reporting Lane 's death , it was said that had he been born in the United States he would have been elected President . Following Lane 's death , a memorial committee was formed by Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover , former Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt and former Lane assistant and member of the Federal Reserve Board Adolph C. Miller . The committee established a Franklin K. Lane Memorial Fund , initially dedicated to the support of Lane 's widow , Anne Lane , and upon her death to be used to promote causes in which her husband believed . The two future presidents , Miller , and National Park Service Director Mather were among the major contributors to the fund . In 1939 , after Mrs. Lane 's death , the corpus of the trust ( just over $ 100 @,@ 000 ) was transferred to the former Secretary 's alma mater , the University of California , to promote the understanding and improvement of the American system of democratic government . Fifty years later , the entrusted amount , still administered by the University , had grown to almost $ 1 @.@ 9 million . In November 1921 , Lane Peak in Mount Rainier National Park was named for the former Secretary . Other tributes to Lane included a World War II Liberty ship , a New York City high school , and a California redwood grove . Lane 's patriotic essay " Makers of the Flag " adapted from a speech he delivered to Interior Department employees on Flag Day 1914 , continues to be reprinted as a speech and in schoolbooks .
= Hisar ( city ) =
Hisar pronunciation , previously spelled Hissar , is the core of Hisar Urban Agglomeration and administrative headquarters of Hisar district of Hisar division in the state of Haryana in northwestern India . It is located 164 km ( 102 mi ) to the west of New Delhi , India 's capital , and has been identified as a counter @-@ magnet city for the National Capital Region to develop as an alternative center of growth to Delhi .
The city was ruled by several major powers , including the Mauryans in the third century BC , the Tughlaqs in the 14th century , the Mughals in the 16th century , and the British in the 19th century . After India achieved independence , it was unified with the state of Punjab . When the Punjab was divided in 1966 , Hisar became part of Haryana .
The current name was given in 1354 AD , as Hisar @-@ e @-@ Firoza by Firuz Shah Tughlaq , the Sultan of Delhi from 1351 to 1388 . The Ghaggar and Drishadvati Rivers once flowed through the city , but they have now changed their course . Hisar has a continental climate , with very hot summers and relatively cool winters . The most commonly spoken languages are Hindi , Haryanvi , and Bagri .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Archeological excavations at nearby locations of AntarcticaRakhigarhi , Siswal , and Lohari Ragho suggest the presence of human habitation from pre @-@ Harappan period . Later , Aryan people settled around Drsadvati River . The Jain literature Uttaradhayana Sutra mentions a town Isukara in the Kuru country which is believed to be the earlier name of Hisar . The kingdom of Hisar , with its capital at Agroha , possibly assisted Chandragupta Maurya in his war against the Greeks . The kingdom was then included in the Mauryan Empire , as evidenced by the discovery of Ashokan pillars in the vicinity of the city . The city later came under the Kushan Empire and the Gupta Empire . In the 12th century , the Chauhan king Prithviraj Chauhan made Hansi , located in the present day Hisar district , his capital and built a fort . It remained a strategic place for Chauhan Empire until Prithviraj was defeated in the Second Battle of Tarain by the invading Ghurid ruler Muhammad Ghori .
= = = Tughlaq era = = =
Hisar was founded in 1354 AD , as ' Hisar @-@ e @-@ Firoza ' by Firoz Shah Tughlaq , who reigned over the Sultanate of Delhi from 1351 to 1388 . He built a walled fort with four gates , the Delhi Gate and Mori Gate to the east , the Nagori Gate to the south , and the Talaqi Gate to the west . The construction of the fort started in 1354 AD and was completed in 1356 AD . In the middle of the fort stood the Firoz Shah Palace . Apart from its several underground apartments , the complex had different buildings such as Baradari , Lat ki Masjid , Diwan @-@ e @-@ Aam , and Shahi Darwaza . Near the palace was the Gujri Mahal built by the emperor for his wife Gujri . The city was named as Hisar @-@ e @-@ Firoza , which means Fort of Firoz in Persian . Timur invaded the city in 1398 AD and his soldiers set fire to the fort .
The city later come under the rule of Sayyid dynasty and Lodi dynasty before Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle of Panipat .
= = = Mughal era = = =
When Babur invaded India in the 1524 – 1526 , Hisar was part of Ibrahim Lodi 's empire . In the battle of Panipat in 1526 , Babur sent prince Humayun , who succeeded in defeating the army of Ibrahim Lodi . Babur handed over the city of Hisar to Humayun as a reward for his success on his first military expedition . In 1540 , Hisar came under the control of Sher Shah Suri when he defeated Humayun but Humayun took it back in 1555 and assigned it to Akbar . During Akbar 's reign ( 1556 – 1605 ) Hisar became once more a place of considerable importance . The city remained under the rule of Mughals until 1760 .
= = = British era = = =
Hisar was occupied by George Thomas , an Irish adventurer , in 1798 . The arrangement continued until 1801 , when Thomas was driven out by the Sikh @-@ Maratha @-@ French confederacy . The region came under the rule of British East India Company in 1803 and remained a part until the Indian Rebellion of 1857 when Muhammad Azim and Rao Tula Ram conquered it away for a short period . The company sent forces under General Van Cortlandt , who defeated Azim and Tula Ram on 16 November 1857 . Between 1803 and 1879 , British constructed a 4 @,@ 000 @-@ km @-@ long Great Hedge of India , for levying the customs duty on salt and sugar , that ran through Hisar and Hansi . Hisar became a municipality in 1867 .
The city remained as a major center of the Indian independence movement from the rebellion of 1857 until the independence , as many national leaders visited the city during the movement such as Lala Lajpat Rai in 1886 , Subhas Chandra Bose in 1938 , and Jawaharlal Nehru in 1946 .
= = = After independence = = =
After independence , the city became a part of Punjab and later Haryana in 1966 .
= = Geography = =
Hisar is located at 29 @.@ 09 ° N 75 @.@ 43 ° E / 29 @.@ 09 ; 75 @.@ 43 in western Haryana . It has an average elevation of 215 m ( 705 ft ) above mean sea level . The region is part of the alluvial Ghaggar @-@ Yamuna plain and its southern and western portions mark a gradual transition to the desert . Ghaggar and Drishadvati Rivers once flowed through the city . According to tectonic map , the district lies on Delhi @-@ Lahore Ridge which is bounded by thrusts and no earthquake of any significance has originated in the zone in the past . Only one instance has been recorded of a famine occurring in the city in 1837 – 38 .
= = Neighborhoods = =
Main residential areas include :
Popular commercial areas include :
= = Climate = =
Hisar has a continental climate , with very hot summers and relatively cool winters . The main characteristics of climate in Hisar are dryness , extremes of temperature , and scanty rainfall . The maximum daytime temperature during the summer varies between 40 and 46 ° C ( 104 and 115 ° F ) . During winter , its ranges between 1.5and 4 ° C. Maximum temperature recorded is 48 @.@ 3 ° C ( 118 @.@ 9 ° F ) in May 1944 , whereas the minimum temperature recorded is − 3 @.@ 9 ° C in January 1929 . Annual average maximum and minimum temperature is 31 @.@ 5 ° C ( 88 @.@ 7 ° F ) and 16 @.@ 2 ° C ( 61 @.@ 2 ° F ) , respectively . Relative humidity varies from 5 to 100 % .
Hisar is located on the outer margins of the south @-@ west monsoon region . The average annual rainfall is around 450 mm ( 18 in ) , most of which occurs during July and August . The annual highest rainfall of 793 @.@ 6 mm ( 31 @.@ 24 in ) was recorded in 1976 and the lowest of 145 @.@ 2 mm ( 5 @.@ 72 in ) in 2000 . Dew is observed in December and January . Hot winds , locally known as loo , are strong and frequent from May to July . Occasionally , dust @-@ storms are experienced during summer and hail @-@ storms during February to April . Fog prevails generally in December and January . Thunderstorms also occur during postmonsoon season and summer .
= = Civic administration = =
Hisar became a municipality in 1867 . It was made the headquarters of the Hisar district in 1832 . The Municipal Corporation of Hisar ( Hisar Nagar Nigam ) , consisting of 20 wards , is headed by Mayor of Hisar and the functions of the Nagar Nigam include registration of birth & death and marriage , water supply , drainage and sewerage , sanitation , solid waste management , street lighting , and building regulation . Law and order in the city are maintained by Haryana Police , which is headed by Superintendent of Police . The city also serves as headquarters of the Hisar Range of Haryana Police which covers Sirsa , Jind , Bhiwani , and Hisar and is headed by Inspector General of Police . District court was set up at Hisar in 1832 and was upgraded as a Sessions Division in 1915 . It is headed by Chief Judicial Magistrate . The district court has a bar association which was founded in 1870 .
Hisar elects its member to the legislative assembly for Hisar ( Vidhan Sabha constituency ) and a member to the parliament for Hisar Lok Sabha constituency . It serves as the headquarters of 33rd Battalion of Border Security Force and 3rd Battalion of Haryana Armed Police . The 33rd Armoured Division of Indian Army is stationed at Hisar and is a part of I Corps . In 1996 , Brigade of the Guards arrived here for conversion to mechanized profile and the unit is now a fully mechanized battalion .
= = Economy = =
The city has a large steel industry and is known as the ' city of steel ' . As of June 2012 , Hisar is India 's largest manufacturer of galvanized iron . Textile and automobile industry is also a major contributor to the economy of the city . It also has a large number of livestock farms with the Central Livestock Farm , established in 1809 being one of the Asia 's largest cattle farms . The Jindal Group and Jindal Steel and Power headed by Savitri Jindal , the 10th @-@ wealthiest woman in the world is based in Hisar . The city has been identified as a counter @-@ magnet city for the National Capital Region to attract migrants and develop as an alternative center of growth to Delhi .
= = Demographics = =
According to the 2011 census of India , Hisar has a population of 301 @,@ 249 and is currently the 141st @-@ most populated city in India . Males constitute 54 % of the population and females 46 % , with 844 females per thousand males . Hisar has an average literacy rate of 81 @.@ 04 % , higher than the national average : male literacy is 86 @.@ 13 % and female literacy is 75 @.@ 00 % . In Hisar , 11 % of the population is under 6 years of age and the child sex ratio is 860 girls per thousand boys . Although Hisar city has population of 301 @,@ 249 , its urban population is 306 @,@ 893 , of which 166 @,@ 623 are males and 140 @,@ 270 are females . The decadal growth rate was 27 @.@ 06 % .
= = = Religion = = =
Over 97 % of the city 's population are followers of Hinduism . The remaining 3 % are followers of Sikhism , Jainism , Islam , and Christianity . The city had a major Muslim population before Indian Independence in 1947 , following which most Muslims migrated to Pakistan during the Partition of India . It was also a major centre of learning for Digambara Jains and was once the seat of Bhattaraka , head of Digambara Jain institutions .
= = Culture = =
Most of the popular Indian festivals are celebrated in the city , the most important being Diwali , Dussehra , Ram Navami , Janamashtami , Shivratri , Gugga Navami , Holi , Basant Panchami , Teej , and Makar Sankranti . The festivals of Jains , Christians , Sikhs and Muslims are also celebrated . Sweets are popular , with Hansi ka Peda being the most popular amongst them . Ghoomar is the primary folk dance performed by people during festivals and other occasions and Saang is the folk @-@ theatre of the region . Classical Indian vocalist Jasraj and poet Vishnu Prabhakar belong to Hisar .
= = = Architecture = = =
Signs of pre @-@ Harappan settlements have been found at Siswal and Lohari Ragho . One of the four pre @-@ Harappan phases has been named Sothi @-@ Siswal period ( 3200 – 2600 BC ) on this site . Harappan settlements can be found as well in Rakhigarhi . The site covers 2180 hectares , making it the largest Harappan site known in India and the second @-@ biggest overall after Mohenjodaro . All the sites are maintained by Archaeological Survey of India . Agroha is another place of historical importance . It is situated about 24 km from the city and was once the capital of king Agrasena , who is believed to have lived during the last stages of Dwapar Yuga in the Mahabharat era . Remains of his capital have been excavated , known as Agroha Mound or locally as Ther , and belong to around 3000 BC . The city was also a major centre during the Mauryan period as Buddhist and Jain temples have also been revealed in the excavations .
Firoz Shah Palace Complex is another prominent historical site located inside the city . It was built by Firuz Shah Tughlaq in 1354 . Asigarh Fort , a centrally protected monument , was built in 1304 – 1305 . Historical places from the British era include St. Thomas Church and Jahaj Kothi Museum , a Jain temple converted to a museum .
= = Places of interest = =
Siswal , Banawali , Kanwari , and Rakhigarhi are some of the sites of Indus Valley Civilization of now lost ancient Drishadvati river flowing through Hisar , Drishadvati river was a tributary of ancient Sarasvati River which still flows as remnant Ghaggar @-@ Hakra River . Historic Agroha Mound and Agroha Dham is a prominent religious place located on the outskirts of the city about 22 km away on Fatehabad @-@ Sirsa @-@ Bhatinda road . A local deity Banbhori is worshipped by local people . Delhi Sultanate era Firoz Shah Palace Complex and Pranpir Badshah tomb are located in the city .
The oldest park located in the city is the Krantiman Park , located across the historic St. Thomas Church . The park was built in the 19th century and was then known as Company Bagh . Other parks include Madhuban Park , Town Park , and O. P. Jindal Knowledge Center . The O. P. Jindal Knowledge Centre , inaugurated in 2009 a museum , library , park and houses a 25 @-@ storied , 282 @-@ ft- high steel tower modeled on the Space Needle in Seattle . Haryana Rural Antique Museum , which is maintained by CCS HAU in its Gandhi Bhawan , exhibits evolution of agriculture and vanishing antiques . Jahaj Kothi Museum , named after George Thomas , is located inside Firoz Shah Palace Complex and maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India . Rakhigarhi Indus Valley Civilisation Museum is located at Rakhigarhi , which is a Indus Valley civilisation site 60 km away .
Blue Bird Lake , an artificial lake and tourist complex maintained by the Haryana Tourism , offers boating and watersports , birding , picnicking , and recreation . The deer park and Shatavar Vatika Herbal Park are located at the outskirts of the city and maintained by the Haryana State Forest Department . It was established in 1971 and endangered species such as blackbuck , chital , sambar , and nilgai can be found here . Hisar Police Lines Golf Course is located near the Hisar Airport .
= = Media = =
DD Haryana Doordarshan Kendra headquartered at in Hisar was set up in 2002 . Besides Doordarshan , local cable operators offer over 900 local , regional , national and international channels in the city . An All India Radio Hisar station is located at Hisar . Private FM stations operating in Hisar are BIG FM , Radio Mantra , Radio Dhamaal and Radio Tarang . CCS HAU Community Radio Station ( CHCRS ) was started in 2011 by CCS HAU as the first community radio station of North India at 91 @.@ 2 MHz for farming community .
= = Facilities = =
= = = Utility services = = =
Before independence of India , monsoon or groundwater were the main sources of irrigation . The main source of water now is Balsamand branch of Western Yamuna Canal . Municipal Corporation of Hisar supplies potable water to the city . The city first got electricity in 1936 . It is now produced by the Rajiv Gandhi Thermal Power Station and distributed by Dakshin Haryana Bijli Vitran Nigam Limited . Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited ( BSNL ) provides landline and broadband services . Cell phone coverage is extensive , and the main service providers are Vodafone Essar , Airtel , MTNL , Reliance Communications , Idea Cellular and Tata Indicom . The planning of the city is done by Haryana Urban Development Authority .
= = = Healthcare = = =
People from Punjab and Rajasthan come to Hisar for medical treatment . The district Red Cross Society caters to specially abled people .
= = Transport = =
= = = Road = = =
The city lies on National Highway 10 and National Highway 65 . National Highway 10 from Delhi to Fazilka connects it to Rohtak and Sirsa and National Highway 65 from Ambala to Pali connects it to Kaithal and Jodhpur . The state highways of Haryana that pass through Hisar are State Highways 10 , 13 , and 20 . Besides , there are district roads , village link roads and canal inspection roads . In 1947 , the total metalled road length in the city was 137 km ( 85 mi ) which increased to 1 @,@ 188 km ( 738 mi ) in 1978 .
Hisar Bus Stand is the hub of bus service that is the major means of transport in the district . Bus services are provided by Haryana Roadways and other private operators . Hisar Bus Stand came into being on 11 August 1969 and has a subdepot at Hansi . As of 2012 , the depot has a total of 198 buses with daily ridership of 73 @,@ 500 . Bus stands are located at Hisar , Adampur , Barwala , Hansi , Narnaund and Uklana . All the 290 villages of Hisar district are connected to the city through either public transport provided by Haryana Roadways or through private buses . Auto rickshaws are a major means of transport for travelling within the city . In August 2012 , city bus service was started in the city . The city is a part of Delhi Mumbai Industrial Corridor Project which aims at developing strong road and rail connections between the cities lying on it and develop them as an industrial area .
= = = Rail = = =
Hisar is a railway junction station , and it falls under Bikaner division of North Western Railway Zone . The first railway line to the city was laid down in 1883 when Delhi Rewari Railway was extended to Bhatinda . Currently , four broad gauge railway lines are at the station . The railway station is a part of Western Dedicated Rail Freight Corridor according to which the city is to be developed as an export @-@ oriented industrial unit . The city is well connected to the neighboring states through rail links .
= = = Air = = =
Hisar Airport ( IATA : HSS , ICAO : VIHR ) is located on the outskirts of the city . In August 2012 , the DGCA approved the Haryana state government 's plan to develop the airport to operate domestic passenger services . Its 4 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) runway will be extended to 6 @,@ 000 ft ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) to accommodate air service .
= = Education = =
Before the British Raj , indigenous schools provided elementary education . Till 1892 , the city had only one middle school . The first private school , CAV High School , was set up by Arya Samaj in 1918 . Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University , one of Asia 's biggest agricultural universities was the first university established in Hisar , in 1971 . Other universities located in the city are Guru Jambheshwar University of Science and Technology , Lala Lajpat Rai University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences and Shanti Niketan Vidyapeeth , Hisar . Commercial and private pilot license training is provided by the Haryana Institute of Civil Aviation ( HICA ) from Hisar Airport built in 1965 .
A few agricultural and veterinary research centers are also situated in the city such as National Research Centre on Equines , Central Sheep Breeding Farm , Government Livestock Farm , Hisar Northern Region Farm Machinery Training and Testing Institute , Regional Fodder Station , Hisar and Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes . In 1988 , the city hosted the 2nd World Buffalo Congress . The major library in the city is Nehru Library .
= = Sports = =
Mahabir Stadium , Haryana Agricultural University Stadium and HAU Giri Centre host state sponsored sports academies . Hisar hosted the 51st National Boxing Championship in 2004 and 22nd Haryana State Women Sports Festival in 2008 . It has a sports center run by Sports Authority of India at Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University which has a synthetic track of international standard apart from other facilities . Other major sporting venue in Hisar is Mahabir Stadium for multiple sports which was completed in the year 1972 , run by District Olympic Association . Sports persons from Hisar include Chandgi Ram , Geetika Jakhar in wrestling , Krishna Poonia in discus throw , Manvinder Bisla in cricket , Nirmala Devi in wrestling , Udey Chand , and Vikas Krishan Yadav in boxing . In April 2012 , 18 @-@ year @-@ old Ajay Kumar from Hisar qualified for 2012 Summer Olympics .
= Destination X ( 2008 ) =
Destination X ( 2008 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event produced by the Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) promotion , which took place on March 9 , 2008 , at the Norfolk Scope in Norfolk , Virginia . It was the fourth event under the Destination X chronology and the third event in the 2008 TNA PPV schedule . Eight professional wrestling matches were featured on the event 's card , two of which involved championships , while one match was held prior to the event .
The main event was a Six Man Tag Team match where The Unlikely Alliance ( Christian Cage , Kevin Nash , and Samoa Joe ) defeated The Angle Alliance ( Kurt Angle , A.J. Styles , and Tomko ) . On the undercard was an Elevation X match in which Rhino defeated James Storm . Robert Roode defeated Booker T in a Stand By Your Man Strap match . The team of Curry Man and Shark Boy defeated Team 3D ( Brother Devon and Brother Ray ) in a Fish Market Street Fight .
This event marked the second time the Elevation X match was used by TNA . Jason Clevett of the professional wrestling section of the Canadian Online Explorer rated the event a six of ten , lower than the seven out of ten given to the 2007 event 's ranking by Chris Sokol .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
It was reported in December 2007 that Destination X was planned to be held on March 16 outside of the TNA Impact ! Zone in Orlando , Florida . However , in January 2008 TNA announced that Destination X would be held on March 9 instead . TNA issued a press release in mid @-@ January 2008 stating that Destination X would be held at the Norfolk Scope in Norfolk , Virginia on March 9 , 2008 . Tickets for the event went on sale January 25 , 2008 . In Demand listed a preview of Destination X in late @-@ January 2008 promoting the return of the Elevation X match . TNA released a poster featuring The Motor City Machine Guns ( Alex Shelley and Chris Sabin ; MCMG ) sometime prior to help promote the event . The song Life Story by the band Crash Anthem was used as the official theme for the show .
= = = Storylines = = =
Destination X featured eight professional wrestling matches and one match prior to the event that involved different wrestlers from pre @-@ existing scripted feuds and storylines . Wrestlers portrayed villains , heroes , or less distinguishable characters in the scripted events that built tension and culminated into a wrestling match or series of matches .
The main event at Destination X was a Six Man Tag Team match pitting The Unlikely Alliance of Christian Cage , Kevin Nash , and Samoa Joe against The Angle Alliance ( Kurt Angle , A.J. Styles , and Tomko ) . The storyline behind this match was Joe 's quest to win the TNA World Heavyweight Championship from Angle , with the two scheduled to fight for the title at TNA 's next PPV event Lockdown on April 13 , 2008 . Also connected was Cage 's feud with Styles and Tomko , after the two betrayed him and cost him the TNA World Heavyweight Championship twice against Angle in the storyline at TNA 's Final Resolution PPV event on January 6 , 2008 , and at TNA 's Against All Odds PPV event on February 10 , 2008 . This bout was announced on the February 21 , 2008 , episode of TNA 's television program TNA Impact ! during a backstage segment between Joe and Management Director Jim Cornette . On the March 6 , 2008 , episode of Impact ! , the participants in the match fought in a series of matches to determine who would get a five @-@ minute man advantaged at Destination X. Nash defeated Styles , Tomko defeated Joe in a First Blood match , and Cage defeated Angle in a Six Sides of Steel Cage match , leaving it two to three , with The Unlikely Alliance gaining the advantage .
TNA held the second @-@ ever Elevation X match at Destination X between Rhino and James Storm . At Against All Odds , Rhino returned from injury to attack Storm during his encounter with Eric Young over the TNA World Beer Drinking Championship , reigniting their feud from mid @-@ 2007 . Prior to this match , Rhino and Storm were involved in a storyline over past alcoholic issues by Rhino . This led to the two fighting at TNA 's Victory Road PPV event on July 15 , 2007 , which Storm won . The two fought again at TNA 's Hard Justice PPV event on August 12 in a Bar Room Brawl , which Storm also won . Rhino defeated Storm at TNA 's No Surrender PPV event on September 9 , 2007 , thus ending the feud . In late @-@ 2007 , Rhino suffered an injury sidelining him until his return at Against All Odds . On the February 14 , 2008 , episode of Impact ! Rhino challenged Storm to an Elevation X match . The match was later promoted for the event by TNA .
Robert Roode versus Booker T in a Stand By Your Man Strap match was another highly promoted match heading into the event . The feud regrading this contest began at Final Resolution , where Roode accidentally punched Booker T 's wife Sharmell , fracturing her jaw in the storyline , after a Mixed Tag Team match pitting Roode and his then @-@ manager Ms. Brooks against Booker T and Sharmell . Booker T and Roode then fought at Against All Odds to a double count @-@ out . Cornette announced on the February 14 episode of Impact ! that Booker T and Roode would face in another match at Destination X. On the February 28 , 2008 , episode of Impact ! , Roode handcuffed Booker T to the ring ropes and beat him with a belt , until Roode 's former manager Ms. Brooks , now Traci Brooks , came to Booker T 's defense . However , Roode and his new manager Payton Banks ended up attacking both with belts . On the March 6 episode of Impact ! , Cornette announced that Booker T and Roode would face in a Stand By Your Man Strap match , in which if Booker T won then Brooks would be allowed to beat Banks with a strap ten times and vice versa .
Curry Man and Shark Boy fought Team 3D ( Brother Devon and Brother Ray ) in a Fish Market Street Fight at Destination X. At Against All Odds , Team 3D and Johnny Devine lost a Six Man Tag Team Street Fight to Jay Lethal and MCMG ( Alex Shelley and Chris Sabin ) . Due to pre @-@ match stipulations , Team 3D was then forced to work with a weight @-@ limit in TNA in order to compete in matches , with the limit set at 275 lb ( 125 kg ) . On the February 14 episode ofImpact ! , Team 3D fought Curry Man and Shark Boy in which Ray did not make weight , leaving Devon to face them alone . Devon won the contest after help from Ray . On the February 21 , 2008 , episode of Impact ! , another match was held between the teams , in which Devon did not make weight , but Ray still won the bout after cheating . On the February 28 episode of Impact ! , neither of Team 3D made weight , losing the match by disqualification . Curry Man and Shark Boy won a battle royal on the March 6 episode of Impact ! to add a stipulation to a match between them and Team 3D at Destination X. The two chose that if Team 3D did not make weight then Team 3D would be forced to leave TNA , but if they did then the contest would be a Fish Market Street Fight .
The TNA Women 's Knockout Championship was defended in a Three Way match by Awesome Kong against Gail Kim and ODB , also on the card . Build to this encounter began on December 2 , 2007 , at TNA 's Turning Point PPV event , where then @-@ TNA Women 's Knockout Champion Kim defeated Kong by disqualification . Kim then fought Kong again at Final Resolution in a No Disqualification match , in which Kim retained the title . On the January 10 , 2008 , episode of Impact ! , Kong defeated Kim to win the title in a match which gave Kim an injury in the storyline . Kong then defended the title against ODB at Against All Odds , which Kong won . Leading up to Destination X , Kim and ODB started a partnership in order to try and take the championship from Kong on the February 14 episode of Impact ! . TNA later promoted a Three Way match between the three leading up to the event .
= = Event = =
Prior to the show , TNA held a match for the crowd between Roxxi Laveaux and Angelina Love , which Roxxi won .
= = = On @-@ air employees = = =
The event featured employees other than the wrestlers involved in the matches . Mike Tenay and Don West were the commentators for the telecast . Jeremy Borash and David Penzer were ring announcers for the event . Andrew Thomas , Earl Hebner , Rudy Charles , and Mark " Slick " Johnson participated as referees for the encounters . Crystal Louthan and Borash were used as interviewers during the event . Besides employees appearing in a wrestling role , Salinas , Christy Hemme , Rhaka Khan , Scott Steiner , Sonjay Dutt , SoCal Val , Raisha Saeed , Jim Cornette , Johnny Devine , Payton Banks , Traci Brooks , and Jackie Moore all appeared on camera , either in backstage or ringside segments .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The event opened with a Three Way Tag Team match to determine the number one contenders to the TNA World Tag Team Championship between The Latin American Xchange ( Hernandez and Homicide ; LAX ) , who were accompanied by Salinas , MCMG ( Alex Shelley and Chris Sabin ) , and The Rock ' n Rave Infection ( Jimmy Rave and Lance Hoyt ) , who were accompanied by Christy Hemme . The bout lasted ten minutes and twenty @-@ eight seconds . LAX won the bout thus becoming number one contenders after Hernandez pinned Rave following his signature Border Toss maneuver .
Jay Lethal defended the TNA X Division Championship against Petey Williams , who was accompanied by Rhaka Khan , in a contest lasting eleven minutes and forty @-@ one seconds . Near the end of the bout , Khan distracted the referee , at which time Steiner came down to the ring and interfered in the match , allowing Williams to perform his signature Canadian Destroyer maneuver . SoCal Val then interfered as the referee was counting the pinfall , removing him from the ring . Khan began to chase Val , before Sonjay Dutt came to her rescue . When Williams went for another pin attempt , Lethal countered it into a small package pin , winning the match and retaining the TNA X Division Championship .
The team of Eric Young and Kaz were pitted against the team of Black Reign and Rellik in the third match . The duration of the encounter was ten minutes and three seconds . During the contest , Young left the ring , leaving Kaz to fight off both Reign and Rellik by himself . Later , Young returned to the ring dressed as a superhero , where he performed a double Death Valley Driver on Reign and Rellik slamming them both into the mat , thus winning the match .
A Three Way match for the TNA Women 's Knockout Championship was held in which then @-@ champion Awesome Kong , who was accompanied by Raisha Saeed defended the title against Gail Kim and ODB . Near the end , ODB was tripped by Saeed , which led to Kong performing her signature Awesome Bomb maneuver at eleven minutes and thirty @-@ three seconds to win the contest .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The team of Curry Man and Shark Boy were pitted against Team 3D ( Brother Devon and Brother Ray ) , who were accompanied by Johnny Devine , in a thirteen @-@ minute @-@ and @-@ twelve @-@ second Fish Market Street Fight . Prior to this bout , Management Director Jim Cornette announced that if Team 3D made weight , then the weight restriction on them would be lifted . Also , that Kurt Angle originally won the Six Sides of Steel Cage match against Christian Cage , however the decision with The Unlikely Alliance gaining the advantage in the Six Man Tag Team match was still in effect . Before the bout , both members of Team 3D were weighed , with both coming in below the mark . In a Fish Market Street Fight the match is won by pinfall or submission , in which there are no disqualifications and the ring area is covered by fish paraphernalia . Devine interfered in the match near the end , accidentally throwing white powder in Ray 's face . This led to Shark Boy tossing him out of the ring and through a table . Afterwards , Ray mistakenly performed Team 3D 's signature tag team maneuver the 3D on Devon with Curry Man , allowing Shark Boy to cover for the pinfall victory .
Robert Roode , who was accompanied by Payton Banks , fought Booker T , who was accompanied by Traci Brooks , in a Stand By Your Man Strap match . The duration of the contest was seven minutes and fifty @-@ six seconds . In a Stand By Your Man Strap match , both competitors are connected with a ten @-@ foot @-@ long strap , with the match won by either pinfall or submission . Roode gained the pinfall after punching Booker T with a pair of handcuffs . After the match , Banks got to lash Brooks with a strap ten times , until Sharmell made her return attacking Roode and Banks with a strap .
The second @-@ ever Elevation X match was held between Rhino and James Storm , who was accompanied by Jackie Moore . The bout lasted thirteen minutes and eighteen seconds . In an Elevation X match , both opponents fight on a scaffolding several feet above the ring , in which the only way to win is for one to fall off and down to the ring . The two brawled at ringside during the opening minutes . Rhino won the match after kicking Storm off the scaffold and down to the ring through a table .
The main event was a Six Man Tag Team match pitting The Unlikely Alliance ( Christian Cage , Kevin Nash , and Samoa Joe ) against The Angle Alliance ( Kurt Angle , A.J. Styles , and Tomko ) . The match duration was twelve minutes and twenty @-@ nine seconds . Angle was forced to sit out of the match for five minutes , giving The Unlikely Alliance the three on two advantage . Joe won the encounter after he forced Tomko to submit with his signature Coquina Clutch submission maneuver .
= = Reception = =
A total of three thousand two hundred people attended the event . Canadian Online Explorer writer Jason Clevett rated the entire event a six out of ten , which was lower than the seven out of ten given to the 2007 Destination X event by Chris Sokol . Destination X 's rating was lower than TNA 's previous event Against All Odds , which was given a seven and a half out of ten . It was also lower than the six and a half given to TNA 's next event Lockdown . Compared to rival World Wrestling Entertainment 's WrestleMania XXIV PPV event held on March 30 , 2008 , Destination X was rated lower as WrestleMania was given a nine out of ten by Dale Plummer . The highest rating of Clevett 's review , an eight out of ten , was given
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the first child born to Suddhodana and Queen Maya in twenty years of marriage and much interest surrounded the infant from royal society and the public alike . All the other scholars raised two fingers and offered a twofold prediction : That Siddhartha would either become a Chakravarti ( supreme king ) or would renounce the world and become a supreme religious leader . Koṇḍañña was the only one that explicitly predicted that Siddhartha would renounce the world to become a Buddha , raising one finger and stating his prediction .
Koṇḍañña thereafter vowed that he would follow when Siddhartha became an ascetic to learn from the future Buddha 's findings . In the meantime , Suddhodana attempted to foil Koṇḍañña 's prediction because he wanted his son to succeed him in ruling and expanding the kingdom . Suddhodana made intricate arrangements to shield Siddhartha from all worldly suffering in order to steer his mind away from spiritual matters , pampering him with all the material luxury and sense pleasures that he could find . However , Siddhartha finally persuaded his father to allow him out of the palace to meet his subjects . Suddhodana agreed , but attempted to present a sanitised image of human existence by ordering beggars , old people and sick people to be kept from the streets . Despite this , Siddhartha saw the four sights which prompted him to reevaluate his view of the world .
= = Renouncement and Arahanthood = =
When Siddhartha was aged 29 , he renounced the world to become a samaṇa ( ascetic ) . Koṇḍañña , along with Bhaddiya , Vappa , Mahanama and Assaji , variously described as four of the other scholars who had read Siddhartha 's future or the sons of those scholars , followed him into the ascetic life , with the approval of Suddhodana , who was worried about Siddhartha 's safety . They were known as " the group of five " or " the group of five fortunate ones " . After Siddhartha had mastered all the teachings of Alara Kalama and then Uddaka Ramaputta , he left and began practicing self mortification along with Koṇḍañña and his four colleagues at Uruvela . Koṇḍañña and his colleagues attended to Siddhartha in the hope that he would become enlightened through self @-@ mortification . These involved self @-@ deprivation of food and water , and exposing themselves to the elements to near @-@ death for six years , at which point Siddhartha rejected self @-@ mortification . Koṇḍañña and his colleagues became disillusioned , believing Siddhartha to have become a glutton and moved away to Sarnath near Varanasi to continue their practices .
After Siddhartha became the enlightened Gautama Buddha , he sought to find his former teachers Arada Kalama and Udraka Ramaputra in order to teach them . Realising that they had died , the Buddha decided to find Koṇḍañña and his colleagues to share his teachings . Koṇḍañña and his companions were skeptical of Gautama Buddha after his abandonment of asceticism , and initially refused to acknowledge his presence , except to offer a seat on the ground . However , the ascetics were soon won over when they sensed that the Buddha had changed since they left him . The Buddha preached the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta , which deals with the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path , the core pillars of Buddhist teaching regarding the intrinsic suffering of existence and how to deal with it . Koṇḍañña reached the sotāpanna stage of arahathood upon hearing this , becoming the first human to comprehend the teachings . The Buddha acknowledged this by remarking " annasi vata bho Kondanno ( meaning " you have realised , Kondanna " ) .
Five days later , hearing the subsequent Anattalakkhana Sutta regarding anatta , Koṇḍañña gained full arahantship . Koṇḍañña thus became first arahat . Having realised arahanthood , he requested the Buddha for permission to retire from the world , which was granted with the words " ehi bhikkhu " . Koṇḍañña thus became the first bhikkhu ( monk ) in the Buddha 's dispensation , known as the sangha . Later , the assembly at Jetavana declared him to be the foremost among the first bhikkhus and the disciples of long standing .
= = After enlightenment = =
Following the emergence of the sangha , Koṇḍañña and the other monks travelled with the Buddha by foot through the Gangetic plains area of what is now Bihar and Uttar Pradesh to spread the dharma . Koṇḍañña helped to convert many followers to the Buddha 's teaching , the foremost being his nephew Punna , born to his sister Mantani . This occurred while the Buddha was at Rajagaha , where he had immediately gone after first communicating his Realisation in order to honour his promise to show his teachings to King Bimbisara . In the meantime , Koṇḍañña returned to his home town of Kapilavastu and ordained Punna . Punna attained arahantship and 500 of his clansmen become monks . Punna was later acknowledged by the Buddha as the foremost of the disciples in preaching skills .
As one of the senior monks of Gautama Buddha , some of Koṇḍañña 's writings and discourses to other monks are recorded in the literature . A poem consisting of sixteen verses in the Theragatha is attributed to him . The first of these is said to have been recited by Sacca in praise of Koṇḍañña , after Koṇḍañña had preached the Four Noble Truths to Sacca . In other verses , Koṇḍañña is shown admonishing monks who had fallen into ways contrary to Buddhist teaching . Koṇḍañña also acknowledged his own struggles against Mara , the demon who attempted to prevent the enlightenment of the Buddha . Koṇḍañña was also praised in the Udana by the Buddha , who observed his deliverance from the destructiveness of craving .
After a period within the sangha , Koṇḍañña retired to the Himalayas for the last twelve years of his life . This is attributed to two reasons in Buddhist literature . The first reason was that Koṇḍañña considered his presence to be a source of inconvenience for Sariputra and Moggallana , the two chief disciples of The Buddha . As the seniormost member of the sangha , Koṇḍañña lead the monks on the alms @-@ round , but during dharma talks , the two chief disciples sat on either side of the Buddha and Koṇḍañña behind them . The two chief disciples were uncomfortable sitting in front of Koṇḍañña , so he decided to solve the problem by absenting himself . The other reason to which Koṇḍañña 's leave is attributed was to spend more quiet time in religious practice , which was rendered difficult due to the attention that the sangha gained from the public .
According to the Samyutta Nikaya , Koṇḍañña retired to the banks of the Mandakini Lake in the Chaddanta forest , said to be the abode of the paccekabuddhas . It was said that the 8000 elephants in the forest took turns to catering for his needs . Koṇḍañña only left once , to farewell Gautama Buddha . Koṇḍañña kissed the Buddha 's feet and stroked them with his hands . He advised his disciples not to mourn him before returning to the forest to pass away the following morning . He was cremated on a large sandalwood pyre which was constructed with the help of the elephants , and the ceremony was presided over by Anuruddha , one of the ten chief disciples and five hundred other monks . The ashes were later taken to Veluvana , where they were enshrined in a silver stupa .
= = Previous and future rebirths = =
In line with the Buddhist doctrine of rebirth , the previous existences of Koṇḍañña are described in Buddhist texts . They repeatedly show a theme of Koṇḍañña having displayed religious inclinations in previous rebirths , many of which involve experiences with previous rebirths of the Buddha and his other leading disciplines . This is a common theme among the leading disciples , all of whom had many encounters with the future Gautama Buddha in previous lives , and is consistent with the Buddhist concepts of cause and effect and karma . In Pali language Theravada literature , Koṇḍañña is said to have begun striving for enlightenment in the time of Padumuttara Buddha , the 13th Buddha . The son of a wealthy householder at Hamsavati , Koṇḍañña saw the monk who was the first disciple of Padmuttara Buddha . Koṇḍañña 's previous rebirth bestowed on the Buddha and the sangha and wished that he was to be the first disciple of a future Buddha . Padumuttara is said to have prophesied the fulfilment of this in the era of Gautama Buddha , 1000 aeons into the future . After the passing of Padmuttara Buddha , Koṇḍañña constructed a jewelled chamber inside the cetiya in which the relics were stored and also made an offering of jewel festoons . The Apadana offers a variant on this reincarnation . It states that Koṇḍañña was the first person to offer a meal to Padumuttara and became a deva in the Tusita world . It further says and that during the time of Vipassī Buddha , Koṇḍañña was a householder named Mahakala who offered the Buddha the first fruits of his field in their nine stages of production . The Mahavastu gives another account explaining the origin of Koṇḍañña 's vow to attain arahanthood in his final rebirth . This account asserts that he was a potter at Rajagaha in a previous existence . A Paccekabuddha who was suffering from biliousness sought shelter in the potter 's hut and was cured . In time , several more Paccekabuddhas came to visit the hut to inquire about their colleagues health status . The potter asked which of them had realised the dharma first , to which the patient answered in the affirmative . Thereupon the potter made his vow .
Despite the differences in the accounts , all of them agree on his words when announcing his vow :
By the merit I have acquired by doing this service of attending on you , may I be the first of all to realise the dharma when proclaimed by an Exalted One . May I not crave for gain and honour . May I wish only for a solitary bed and begging bowl . May I lay aside my body among the cascades and forest glades , dying all alone .
Numerous previous rebirths in which Koṇḍañña and Gautama Buddha crossed paths are also noted in Pali literature . The Mahavastu cites a previous birth in which Koṇḍañña was a seafaring merchant who had lost all his wealth after a mid @-@ ocean shipwreck . Koṇḍañña then went in search of the king of Kosala , who had a widely known reputation for philanthropy . However , the Kosalan monarch had left his kingdom and surrendered his kingdom to the neighbouring Kasi king . The king of Kosala had done so to avert bloodshed , since the Kasi king had threatened to invade . Nevertheless , the Kasi king wanted to capture the Kosalan king and decreed a large reward for it . The Kosalan king ( Gautama Buddha in a previous rebirth ) tied himself and asked the merchant to deliver him to Kasi so that the merchant would no longer be in poverty . However , when the Kasi king heard this , he withdrew his army and restored the Kosalan monarchy . The Kosalan king subsequently bestowed wealth on the merchant . Gautama Buddha cited this occurrence to illustrate how the ties between living beings extended into their previous existences . In another rebirth described in the Mahavastu , Koṇḍañña and his four colleagues who were to become the first bhikkhus were seafaring merchants under the command of the future Gautama Buddha . The future Buddha sacrificed himself to save them from an ocean death . The Divyavadana describes two further rebirths of Koṇḍañña . In one he was a bird named Uccangama . In another , he was a tigress and Gautama Buddha another tiger . The future Buddha sacrificed his own life by offering himself as meat to the hungry tigress so that it would not eat its own cubs .
The " Five Hundred Disciples " ( eighth ) chapter of the Mahayana Lotus Sutra predicts that in the future he will become a Buddha named Universal Brightness .
= Echo & the Bunnymen ( album ) =
Echo & the Bunnymen is the fifth studio album by the English post @-@ punk band Echo & the Bunnymen , and the last with their drummer Pete de Freitas , who died in 1989 at age 27 in a motorcycle accident . The album was produced by Laurie Latham who recorded the album in Germany , Belgium , London and Liverpool after an aborted attempt at recording the album without de Freitas and with producer Gil Norton . With Latham being an exacting producer and singer Ian McCulloch receiving star treatment and drinking heavily , the recording of the album was more difficult than the band had initially hoped . The album made more use of keyboards than their previous albums , which had been string heavy .
Although Echo & the Bunnymen was successful in the United Kingdom and , to a lesser degree , the United States , it received mixed reviews from the music press following its release in July 1987 . The album reached number four on the UK Albums Chart , number 51 on the United States Billboard 200 , number 51 on the Canadian RPM100 Albums and number 22 on the Swedish Albums Chart . Since its release , the album has been certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry . The album includes the singles " The Game " , " Lips Like Sugar " and " Bedbugs and Ballyhoo " .
= = Background = =
Echo & the Bunnymen took time off from touring , writing and recording after the release of the critically acclaimed Ocean Rain in 1984 , because the band 's manager , the fabled prankster Bill Drummond , felt that a year off would help the band write different kinds of songs in preparation for the next album . During the time off , drummer Pete de Freitas travelled Spain and France on his motorcycle , bass guitarist Les Pattinson worked on his new boat , singer Ian McCulloch released a solo single " September Song " , leaving guitarist Will Sergeant as the only band member to spend the time doing nothing . Even though the band enjoyed an excellent and creative working relation with Drummond , by the end of 1984 they had mutually parted company as the band were not making enough money .
Under the new management of Mick Hancock , Duran Duran 's tour manager , the band returned to work in May 1985 with a tour of Scandinavia . They also made a headline appearance at the Glastonbury Festival on 21 June 1985 , when they played live for the first time two new songs which would later be included on the album – " Satellite " and " All in Your Mind " . Now ready to start recording , they entered the studio with their former producer Ian Broudie and Clive Langer to record the songs they had played at Glastonbury as well as " Like a Rollercoaster " and " Jimmy Brown " . Not liking the results of this session , the band considered Eddy Grant and ABBA 's production team , before settling on Laurie Latham as their producer . McCulloch had been impressed by the sharp quality of Latham 's production on The Stranglers ' single " Skin Deep " . The band met with Latham in Brussels and recorded " All in Your Mind " , " Like a Rollercoaster " and " Jimmy Brown " , which was renamed " Bring on the Dancing Horses " . " Bring on the Dancing Horses " appeared on the WEA compilation album Songs to Learn & Sing in November 1985 and was released as a single in the same month . An early version of " Bedbugs and Ballyhoo " , a song that would appear on the album , appeared on the B @-@ side to the 12 @-@ inch version .
The band faced 1986 with a commitment to record an album , but without their drummer ; a musician who was considered fundamental to the band 's creative success . On 31 December 1985 , de Freitas had gone to New Orleans with the road crew on a drug binge and there announced his resignation from the band . The band then hired former Haircut One Hundred drummer Blair Cunningham for the spring 1986 tour of the United States ; but he didn 't fit in , and after the tour left to join The Pretenders . The band then hired former ABC drummer David Palmer , and recorded a few sessions with producer Gil Norton for the new album . However , by July 1986 Palmer had decided he did not want to remain with the band . As Palmer left the band , de Freitas returned to the United Kingdom and expressed a wish to rejoin . Uncertain of de Freitas 's commitment to the band , and his fragile mental state , they took him back as a hired hand rather than a full member . Now with the line @-@ up that would record Echo & the Bunnymen , the band gave a live television appearance for the BBC in September 1986 when they played two new songs , " The Game " and " Lips Like Sugar " . According to Will Sergeant , the band were under pressure from Warner Music chairman Rob Dickins to produce an album that would replicate the success of Peter Gabriel 's recent number one album So : " I couldn 't believe it when Rob Dickins brought us into his office and played us Peter Gabriel 's album : ' I want you to sound like this ! ' I think he escaped with his life that day . "
= = Recording , production and music = =
Recording of the tracks that were to appear on Echo & the Bunnymen began at Conny Plank 's studio in Cologne . Both Echo & the Bunnymen and their label , WEA Records , were unhappy with the results of the Norton sessions with Palmer playing drums . Keen to record again with de Freitas , the band decided to scrap the Norton sessions and to start recording a new album with Latham who had previously worked with the band on their 1985 single " Bring on the Dancing Horses " . The sessions moved from Cologne to ICP Studios in Brussels before returning to Cologne and finishing off at The Workhouse in London and Amazon Studios in Liverpool . The band hoped that the album would be a collection of simple songs ; however , Latham was very specific and exacting , and he would work on one song for as long as a month . Recording was also complicated by the star treatment received by McCulloch . This , along with his heavy drinking , alienated him from the rest of the band . In a 1995 interview , band guitarist Will Sergeant said of McCulloch 's treatment , " We just found it all ridiculous . He had people running around behind him , basically wiping his arse . " McCulloch later said in a 1997 interview : " I knew I was losing it . I was on another planet but then I didn 't want to be on the one [ the other Bunnymen ] were on . "
While making the album , the band recorded a version of The Doors ' 1967 single " People Are Strange " for the soundtrack of the 1987 film The Lost Boys . Ray Manzarek , former keyboard player with The Doors , was brought in to provide keyboards on the song . While in the studio , he also contributed keyboards to a re @-@ recording of " Bedbugs and Ballyhoo " , which had previously been the B @-@ side to the 12 @-@ inch version of " Bring on the Dancing Horses " . Once Echo & the Bunnymen had been recorded the band 's management company , Direct Management , decided to have it mixed by Bruce Lampcov in the United States . While the album was mixed , the band was on tour in Brazil and listened to the finished tracks over the phone .
Latham moved the band away from the use of strings , which featured heavily on Ocean Rain and to a lesser extent on Porcupine ( 1983 ) , and introduced keyboards to the melody of the tracks . De Freitas 's drumming was contained and discreet and McCulloch 's vocals were more restrained . Although the album contained hook @-@ heavy tracks such as " Lips Like Sugar " , the guitars on tracks such as " Lost and Found " are more representative of the album as a whole .
The resulting album was disliked by the entire band . Describing what he thought of as the over @-@ production of the album Sergeant described it as " an overcooked fish " in 1987 ; bass guitarist Les Pattinson said , " I like the songs , just hated the mixes " ; and in 1995 McCulloch said , " It still sounds crap . "
= = Release and critical reception = =
After previewing the album with a short concert on top of the HMV shop on Oxford Street in London , Echo & the Bunnymen was first released on 6 July 1987 as an LP and CD by WEA Records in the United Kingdom and elsewhere and by Sire Records in the United States . The album reached a peak of number four on the UK Albums Chart . The album became the band 's most successful in the United States where it reached number fifty @-@ one on the Billboard 200 . The album also reached number fifty @-@ one on the Canadian RPM100 Albums chart and number twenty @-@ two on the Swedish Albums Chart . The album has also been certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry for having shipped more than 60 @,@ 000 copies . Along with the other four of the band 's first five albums , Echo & the Bunnymen was remastered and reissued on CD in 2003 – these were released for the band 's twenty @-@ fifth anniversary . Seven bonus tracks were added to the album and included early versions of " Bring on the Dancing Horses " ( title " Jimmy Brown " ) , " The Game " and " Bedbugs and Ballyhoo " . Also included was a cover version of The Doors ' " Soul Kitchen " , an extended version of " Bring on the Dancing Horses " and the previously unreleased track " Hole in the Holy " . The reissued album was produced by Andy Zax and Bill Inglot and released by Rhino Entertainment .
In his 1987 review of the album for Rolling Stone magazine , music journalist J. D. Considine described Latham 's production of the album as " ineffectual " and " well mannered " . He went on say that there was no " anxious energy or knife @-@ edged irony that made the group 's earlier albums so compelling " . He finishes his review by saying the album is " as vacant as it is pretty " . Reviewing the 2003 remastered album , Andrew Harrison for Blender magazine 's website said , " Egomania and off @-@ message electronics experiments sank their eponymous 1987 comedown ... " Taking a more positive stance , David Cleary for AllMusic describes the album as " the hookiest and most memorable the band would ever write " . Having described de Freitas 's drumming as solid and veering toward the danceable , and McCulloch 's singing as " restrained and tasteful " , Cleary added that , " The production values were excellent , with many subtle touches that do not detract from the album 's overall directness . " Although he stated that the production " watered the band 's sound down " , Joe Tangari for Pitchfork Media said , " The band 's attempt to reach a wider audience worked out . "
Three tracks from the album were released as singles . The first of these was " The Game " , which was released on 1 June 1987 . This was followed by " Lips Like Sugar " , which was released in August 1987 . The final single to be released from the album was " Bedbugs and Ballyhoo " , which was also released before the year 's end in the United States and Germany . " The Game " and " Lips Like Sugar " reached numbers 28 and 36 respectively on the UK Singles Chart .
= = Track listing = =
All tracks written and composed by Will Sergeant , Ian McCulloch and Les Pattinson except where noted .
Additional tracks
= = Personnel = =
= Zvi Hecker =
Zvi Hecker ( Hebrew : צבי הקר ; born May 31 , 1931 ) is a Polish @-@ born Israeli architect . His work is known for its emphasis on geometry and asymmetry .
= = Biography = =
Zvi Hecker was born as Tadeusz Hecker in Kraków , Poland . He grew up in Poland and Samarkand . He began his education in architecture at the Cracow University of Technology . He immigrated to Israel in 1950 . There he studied architecture at the Technion - Israel Institute of Technology , graduating in 1955 . At the Technion , Eldar Sharon was a classmate , and Alfred Neumann was their professor . Between 1955 and 1957 , he studied painting at the Avni Institute of Art and Design , before beginning his career as an architect . Between 1957 and 1959 , Hecker served in the Combat Engineering Corps of the Israel Defense Forces .
= = Architectural career = =
After his military service , he founded a firm with Eldar Sharon ( until 1964 ) and Alfred Neumann ( until 1966 ) . The physical and economic conditions in Israel at the time , allowed them to complete a fair number of works in a relatively brief period of time , which brought international attention . Their joint works include the Mediterranean Sea Club in Achzib ( 1960 – 1961 ) , Dubiner House ( 1963 ) , the Chaim Laskov Officer Training School ( 1963 – 1967 ) Bahad 1 , the main officer training school of the Israel Defense Forces , just later the synagogue ( 1969 – 1971 ) at the same academy , and the Bat Yam city hall ( 1963 – 1969 ) . Their designs shared aspects in common with the metabolist movement , borrowing metaphoric shapes from nature for use in planning morphological structures . The modularity of these works , such as the Dubiner House , provided an architectural precedent for the Habitat 67 project by Moshe Safdie .
Hecker resides in Berlin and Tel Aviv . He has been involved in planning projects for the German Jewish community as well as other international projects .
= = Academic career = =
Hecker taught in Canada , the United States , Israel , and Austria at the Université Laval , University of Texas at Arlington , Washington University in St. Louis , Iowa State University , Technion – Israel Institute of Technology , and the University of Applied Arts Vienna . Zvi Hecker writes about his work periodically , co @-@ authoring books with Sir Peter Cook , John Hejduk , and others .
= = Projects = =
The early projects of Zvi Hecker , designed in partnership with Sharon and Neumann , have architectural qualities that were developed later in his career . The officer school ( Bahad 1 ) was built to give a respectable living environment to soldiers in the Negev desert , and special emphasis was given to the large spaces between the structures , in order to form a micro @-@ environment there , separating the people inside from the harsh desert outskirts . Raw concrete was chosen because it did not require constant maintenance and renovation in light of the strong sandy winds . About the school , Hecker said : " The location of the base has a special relevance to the vision of David Ben @-@ Gurion . To build such an important school in a place which isn 't the center of the country – in my opinion , that 's the positive side of the State of Israel " . The academy was supplemented later with a synagogue , whose form was complementary and contrasting . The Oxford Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture says of the architect 's approach to its design , " Eschewing the right angles of international modernism , he turned to crystalline geometry found in nature [ ... ] "
Another of the Zvi Hecker 's projects in partnership , the Bat Yam City Hall shows the recurrence of geometrical invention that exists throughout his work . One architectural significance of the Bat Yam City Hall- its formal concept , is that it is an inverted pyramid . It is linked to other works of architecture such as Boston City Hall through this form , in addition to their program , similar materials , and time period . The building is patterned on a diagonal grid with concrete , which provides both its structure and aesthetics . The importance of this building was recognized in 1975 with perspective and section illustrations on a postage stamp in the Architecture in Israel series . As of 2003 , Bat Yam City Hall was removed of its signature light shafts , rather than having them renovated . This was because of a perceived structural instability due to weathering over time . Of this removal Dr. Ami Ran wrote , " From an architectural standpoint , removing them is equivalent to dousing the Statue of Liberty 's torch . "
Among several projects for memorials , Zvi Hecker designed the solemn Page Memorial ( 1996 ) with Micha Ullmann and Eyal Weizman . This site @-@ specific memorial commemorates the Jewish community of Kreuzberg , and their Lindenstrasse synagogue which was designed in 1891 by architects Cremer & Wolffenstein . What was once one of the largest religious buildings in Berlin , with a capacity of 1800 ; was ruined by the Nazis in the 1938 Kristallnacht pogrom . On the original floor plan , the benches of the synagogue were recreated in concrete , and where the bimah stood , trees are now planted . The designers conceived of the benches as sentences on the pages of the Talmud .
= = Architectural style = =
Zvi Hecker architecture has continued to emphasize geometry and modularity , but with increasing asymmetry . Ramot Polin ( 1972 – 75 ) is a rare prefabricated apartment complex with 720 non @-@ rectangular components . The apartments were expanded later , incorporating more cubic rather than pentagonal components . The design idea of this neighborhood may seem to be the more purely geometrical , however it is likened to a chemical structure , and in plan view to an open hand , and a leaf- therefore imparting it with metaphorical qualities . More examples of advanced geometry in Hecker 's work are the Spiral Apartment House in Ramat Gan , ( 1981 – 1989 ) , and the Heinz @-@ Galinski @-@ Schule ( 1992 – 1995 ) in Berlin , noted for their high degree of complexity . The Heinz @-@ Galinski @-@ Schule won Zvi Hecker the Deutscher Kritikerpreis in 1995- it was stated that the decision of the jury was based on their appreciation of the " expressive geometry of his construction . " The Spiral Apartment House is located adjacent to his earlier Dubiner house , providing a juxtaposition of two important moments in his career . The work of Zvi Hecker has been compared to that of Antonio Gaudi , for expressiveness and expanding of architectural ideas .
More of his later works are the Jewish community center in Duisburg ( 1996 – 1999 ) , and with Rafi Segal , the Palmach Museum in Tel Aviv ( 1995 – 2000 ) . The Duisburg Jewish community center is located on a park , the Garten der Erinnerung designed by Dani Karavan . The community center shares a similar concept to the Page Memorial in its likening to the open pages of a book , and symbolically the Torah of Moses . The Palmach Museum has an angular zig @-@ zag plan positioned around the preservation of trees on the site . It is clad in a local sandstone that was found in excavations for the project . It was exhibited at the Venice Biennale .
= = Museum exhibits = =
Hecker was the subject of a solo exhibition at the Israel Museum in 1976 . He had solo exhibitions at the Tel Aviv Museum of Art in the 1980s and in 1996 . He also took part in the Jewish Identity in Contemporary Architecture at the Jewish Museum Berlin in 2005 , and has participated in the Venice Biennale on a number of occasions .
= Split Agreement =
The Split Agreement or Split Declaration ( Bosnian and Croatian : Splitski sporazum or Splitska deklaracija ) was a mutual defence agreement between Croatia , the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina , signed in Split , Croatia on 22 July 1995 . It called on the Croatian Army ( HV ) to intervene militarily in Bosnia and Herzegovina , primarily in relieving the siege of Bihać .
The Split Agreement was a turning point in the Bosnian War as well as an important factor in the Croatian War of Independence . It led to a large @-@ scale deployment of the HV in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the capture of strategic positions in Operation Summer ' 95 . This in turn allowed the quick capture of Knin , the capital of the Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) , and the lifting of the siege of Bihać soon thereafter , during Operation Storm . Subsequent HV offensives in Bosnia and Herzegovina , supported by the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( ARBiH ) and the Croatian Defence Council ( HVO ) , as well as NATO air campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina , shifted the military balance in the Bosnian War , contributing to the start of peace talks , leading to the Dayton Agreement .
= = Background = =
In November 1994 , the Siege of Bihać entered a critical stage as the Army of the Republika Srpska ( VRS ) — the Bosnian Serb military — and forces of the Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) ( an unrecognized state established following the Serb insurrection in Croatia ) came close to capturing the Bosnian town . Bihać was a UN @-@ designated " safe area " , controlled by the 5th Corps of the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( ARBiH ) , supported by the Croatian Defence Council ( HVO ) — the main military force of the Bosnian Croats . It was thought that the capture of Bihać by Serb forces would escalate the war and worsen a growing rift between the United States , France and the United Kingdom , with the U.S. and European powers advocating different approaches to preservation of the area . In addition , it was feared that Bihać would turn into the worst humanitarian disaster of the war . Furthermore , denying Bihać to the RSK or Republika Srpska was strategically important to Croatia , which was fighting the Croatian War of Independence against the RSK . The Chief of the Croatian General Staff Janko Bobetko thought that the possible fall of Bihać would represent the end of Croatia 's war effort . It was considered that if the area were captured by Serb forces , it would allow for the consolidation of the territory held by Serb forces in Croatia and in Bosnia and Herzegovina , as well as redeployment of RSK and VRS troops to reinforce other areas .
In a meeting of the Croatian and US Governments and military officials held on 29 November 1994 , the Croatian representatives proposed an attack on Serb @-@ held territory from Livno in Bosnia and Herzegovina , in order to draw off part of the forces besieging Bihać and to prevent its capture by the Serbs . The U.S. officials gave no response to the proposal and Operation Winter ' 94 was ordered the same day . Besides contributing to the defence of Bihać , the attack advanced positions held by the HV and the HVO nearer to supply routes vital to the RSK .
The meeting was one in a series held in Zagreb and Washington , D.C. following the March 1994 Washington Agreement . The agreement ended the Croat – Bosniak War , re @-@ allied the ARBiH and the HVO against the VRS and provided Croatia with US military advisors from the Military Professional Resources Incorporated ( MPRI ) . MPRI was hired because a UN arms embargo was still in place , ostensibly to prepare the HV for NATO Partnership for Peace programme participation . The organization trained HV officers and personnel for 14 weeks from January to April 1995 . It was also speculated that the MPRI also provided doctrinal advice , scenario planning and US government satellite information to Croatia . MPRI and Croatian officials dismissed such speculation . In November 1994 , the US unilaterally ended the arms embargo against Bosnia and Herzegovina , in effect allowing the HV to supply itself as arms shipments entered through Croatia . The US involvement reflected a new military strategy endorsed by President Bill Clinton since February 1993 .
= = Call for Croatian intervention = =
On 17 July , the militaries of the RSK and the VRS started a fresh effort to capture Bihać by expanding on gains made during Operation Spider . The offensive , codenamed Operation Sword ' 95 , aimed to capture Cazin — a transportation route hub , situated in the centre of the ARBiH / HVO @-@ controlled Bihać pocket . The attack was spearheaded by the RSK Special Units Corps and supported by the " Pauk " ( Spider ) operational group of the Autonomous Province of Western Bosnia ( APWB ) forces — who had been RSK allies since 1993 — advancing from the northwest , with the RSK 39th Banija Corps from the northeast and the VRS 2nd Krajina Corps from the southeast . The effort was also supported by about 500 Yugoslav Army special forces and Željko Ražnatović Arkan 's Serb Volunteer Guard — for a total of about 19 @,@ 000 attacking or sector @-@ holding troops arrayed against the ARBiH 5th Corps . By 21 July , the RSK troops managed a 7 @-@ kilometre ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) breakthrough , but failed to sever the Bihać – Cazin road . A renewed push by the RSK and APWB troops four days later brought their forces within 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 miles ) of Cazin and put them in control or in favourable positions to strike several key passes and dominant points of the battlefield by 26 July . The ARBiH 5th Corps was left in a critical defensive situation , dependent on outside help .
As the situation around Bihać deteriorated for the ARBiH , the government of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina realized that it could not hold the area on its own and asked Croatia for military intervention . ARBiH Chief of Staff Rasim Delić appealed to the HV and the HVO to assist the ARBiH 5th Corps on 20 July , proposing HV attacks towards Bosansko Grahovo , Knin and Vojnić . His plea was supported by President of Turkey Süleyman Demirel when he met Croatian President Franjo Tuđman in the Brijuni Islands the next day .
This led to signing of the Split Agreement — a mutual defence agreement — by Tuđman and the President of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina , Alija Izetbegović in Split on 22 July , permitting large @-@ scale deployments of the HV in Bosnia and Herzegovina . Besides Tuđman and Izetbegović , the agreement was signed by President of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina Krešimir Zubak , and the Prime Minister of Bosnia and Herzegovina Haris Silajdžić . It was mediated by Demirel . The agreement specifically stated that Croatia requested urgent military aid , especially for the Bihać area , and that the parties to the agreement intended to coordinate their military activities . The full title of the Split Agreement , or Split Declaration , is Declaration on implementation of the Washington Agreement , joint defence against Serb aggression and achievement of a political solution in accordance with the efforts of the international community ( Deklaracija o oživotvorenju Sporazuma iz Washingtona , zajedničkoj obrani od srpske agresije i postizanju političkog rješenja sukladno naporima međunarodne zajednice ) . The US Ambassador to Croatia , Peter Galbraith , and a German ambassador , representing the European Union , were present at the signing ceremony .
= = Aftermath = =
The agreement provided the HV with the opportunity to extend its territorial gains from Operation Winter ' 94 by advancing from the Livanjsko field . The move was expected to relieve pressure on the ARBiH 5th Corps defending Bihać , while positioning the HV in a more favourable position to strike Knin , the RSK capital . The HV and HVO responded quickly through Operation Summer ' 95 ( Ljeto ' 95 ) . The offensive , commanded by HV Lieutenant General Ante Gotovina , succeeded in capturing Bosansko Grahovo and Glamoč on 28 – 29 July . The attack drew off some RSK units away from Bihać , but not as many as expected at the outset of the operation . Nevertheless , the offensive put the HV in an excellent position , as it isolated Knin from Republika Srpska and FR Yugoslavia , and led to the capture of Bosansko Grahovo and Glamoč , which sat astride the only direct route between the two .
Regardless of the limited scope of Operation Summer ' 95 , the Split Agreement became a fundamental instrument to change the overall strategic situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina where Bosnian Serbs had had the upper hand since the beginning of the Bosnian war , as well as in Croatia , where the front lines had been largely static since the 1992 Sarajevo armistice . As Operation Summer ' 95 concluded , the RSK and Republika Srpska changed their priority from smashing the Bihać pocket to fending off a possible Croatian offensive to capture Knin ( advancing from the recently gained territory in Bosnia and Herzegovina ) . RSK leaders Milan Martić and Mile Mrkšić agreed with UN Special Representative Yasushi Akashi to withdraw from the Bihać area on 30 July , hoping the move would contribute to averting the Croatian attack . Albeit , the attack materialized days later as Operation Storm , a decisive victory to the HV in the Croatian War of Independence .
Success of Operation Storm also represented a strategic victory in the Bosnian War as it lifted the siege of Bihać , and allowed Croatian and Bosnian leaderships to plan a full @-@ scale military intervention in the VRS @-@ held Banja Luka area , based on the Split Agreement — aimed at creating a new balance of power in Bosnia and Herzegovina , a buffer zone along the Croatian border , and contributing to the resolution of the war . In September 1995 , the intervention came about as Operation Mistral 2 , supported by the ARBiH offensive Operation Sana , combined with a NATO air campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina . The offensives broke the VRS defences and captured large swathes of territory . The feat was repeated in Operation Southern Move ( Operacija Južni potez ) carried out in October , advancing within 25 kilometres ( 16 miles ) of Banja Luka , and contributing to the start of peace talks that would result in the Dayton Agreement soon thereafter . Overall , deployment of the HV based on the Split Agreement , proved decisive in the defeat of the VRS in the Bosnian War .
= Benedict Arnold =
Benedict Arnold ( January 14 , 1741 [ O.S. January 3 , 1740 ] – June 14 , 1801 ) was a general during the American Revolutionary War who originally fought for the American Continental Army but defected to the British Army . While a general on the American side , he obtained command of the fortifications at West Point , New York ( future site of the U.S. Military Academy after 1802 ) , overlooking the cliffs at the Hudson River ( upriver from British @-@ occupied New York City ) , and planned to surrender it to the British forces . The plan was exposed in September 1780 , and he was commissioned into the British Army as a brigadier general .
Arnold was born in Connecticut and was a merchant operating ships on the Atlantic Ocean when the war broke out in 1775 . He joined the growing army outside Boston and distinguished himself through acts of intelligence and bravery . His actions included the Capture of Fort Ticonderoga in 1775 , defensive and delaying tactics at the Battle of Valcour Island on Lake Champlain in 1776 ( allowing American forces time to prepare New York 's defenses ) , the Battle of Ridgefield , Connecticut ( after which he was promoted to major general ) , operations in relief of the Siege of Fort Stanwix , and key actions during the pivotal Battles of Saratoga in 1777 , in which he suffered leg injuries that ended his combat career for several years .
Despite Arnold 's successes , he was passed over for promotion by the Continental Congress , while other officers claimed credit for some of his accomplishments . Adversaries in military and political circles brought charges of corruption or other malfeasance , but most often he was acquitted in formal inquiries . Congress investigated his accounts and found that he was indebted to Congress after having spent much of his own money on the war effort . Arnold was frustrated and bitter at this , as well as with the alliance with France and the failure of Congress to accept Britain 's 1778 proposal to grant full self @-@ governance in the colonies . He decided to change sides and opened secret negotiations with the British . In July 1780 , he was awarded command of West Point . Arnold 's scheme was to surrender the fort to the British , but it was exposed when American forces captured British Major John André carrying papers which revealed the plot . Upon learning of André 's capture , Arnold fled down the Hudson River to the British sloop @-@ of @-@ war Vulture , narrowly avoiding capture by the forces of George Washington , who had been alerted to the plot .
Arnold received a commission as a brigadier general in the British Army , an annual pension of £ 360 , and a lump sum of over £ 6 @,@ 000 . He led British forces on raids in Virginia and against New London and Groton , Connecticut before the war effectively ended with the American victory at Yorktown . In the winter of 1782 , Arnold moved to London with his second wife Margaret " Peggy " Shippen Arnold . He was well received by King George III and the Tories , but frowned upon by the Whigs . In 1787 , he returned to the merchant business with his sons Richard and Henry in Saint John , New Brunswick . He returned to London to settle permanently in 1791 , where he died ten years later .
His name quickly became a byword in the United States for treason or betrayal because he betrayed his countrymen by leading the British army in battle against the men whom he once commanded . His earlier legacy is recalled in the ambiguous nature of some of the memorials that have been placed in his honor .
= = Early life = =
Benedict was born the second of six children to Benedict Arnold ( 1683 – 1761 ) and Hannah Waterman King in Norwich , Connecticut on January 14 , 1741 . He was named after his great @-@ grandfather Benedict Arnold , an early governor of the Colony of Rhode Island — as were his father and grandfather , as well as an older brother who died in infancy . Only Benedict and his sister Hannah survived to adulthood ; his other siblings succumbed to yellow fever in childhood . His siblings were , in order of birth : Benedict ( August 15 , 1738 – April 30 , 1739 ) , Hannah ( December 9 , 1742 – August 11 , 1803 ) , Mary ( June 4 , 1745 – September 10 , 1753 ) , Absolom ( April 4 , 1747 – July 22 , 1750 ) , and Elizabeth ( November 19 , 1749 – September 29 , 1755 ) . Arnold was a descendant of John Lothropp through his maternal grandmother , an ancestor of at least six U.S. presidents .
Arnold 's father was a successful businessman , and the family moved in the upper levels of Norwich society . When he was ten , Arnold was enrolled in a private school in nearby Canterbury , with the expectation that he would eventually attend Yale . However , the deaths of his siblings two years later may have contributed to a decline in the family fortunes , since his father took up drinking . By the time that he was fourteen , there was no money for private education . His father 's alcoholism and ill health kept him from training Arnold in the family mercantile business , but his mother 's family connections secured an apprenticeship for him with two of her cousins , brothers Daniel and Joshua Lathrop , who operated a successful apothecary and general merchandise trade in Norwich . His apprenticeship with the Lathrops lasted seven years .
In 1755 , Arnold was attracted by the sound of a drummer and attempted to enlist in the provincial militia for service against the French , but his mother refused permission . In 1757 when he was sixteen , he did enlist in the Connecticut militia , which marched off toward Albany and Lake George . The French had besieged Fort William Henry in northeastern New York , and their Indian allies had committed atrocities after their victory . Word of the siege 's disastrous outcome led the company to turn around ; Arnold served for 13 days . A commonly accepted story that Arnold deserted from militia service in 1758 is based on uncertain documentary evidence .
Arnold was very close to his mother , who died in 1759 . His father 's alcoholism worsened after the death of his wife , and the youth took on the responsibility of supporting his father and younger sister . His father was arrested on several occasions for public drunkenness , was refused communion by his church , and eventually died in 1761 .
= = Businessman = =
Arnold established himself in business in 1762 as a pharmacist and bookseller in New Haven , Connecticut with the help of the Lathrops . He was hardworking and successful , and was able to rapidly expand his business . In 1763 , he repaid money borrowed from the Lathrops , repurchased the family homestead that his father had sold when deeply in debt , and re @-@ sold it a year later for a substantial profit . In 1764 , he formed a partnership with Adam Babcock , another young New Haven merchant . They bought three trading ships , using the profits from the sale of his homestead , and established a lucrative West Indies trade .
During this time , he brought his sister Hannah to New Haven and established her in his apothecary to manage the business in his absence . He traveled extensively in the course of his business throughout New England and from Quebec to the West Indies , often in command of one of his own ships . On one of his voyages , Arnold fought a duel in Honduras with a British sea captain who had called him a " damned Yankee , destitute of good manners or those of a gentleman " . The captain was wounded after the first exchange of gunfire , and apologized after Arnold threatened to aim to kill on the second .
The Sugar Act of 1764 and the Stamp Act of 1765 severely curtailed mercantile trade in the colonies . The latter act prompted Arnold to join the chorus of voices in opposition to those taxes , and also led to his entry into the Sons of Liberty , a secret organization that was not afraid to use violence to oppose implementation of those and other unpopular Parliamentary measures . Arnold initially took no part in any public demonstrations but , like many merchants , continued to trade as if the Stamp Act did not exist , in effect becoming a smuggler in defiance of the act . Arnold also faced financial ruin , falling £ 16 @,@ 000 in debt , with creditors spreading rumors of his insolvency to the point where he took legal action against them . On the night of January 28 , 1767 , Arnold and members of his crew , watched by a crowd of Sons of Liberty , roughed up a man suspected of attempting to inform authorities of Arnold 's smuggling . Arnold was convicted of a disorderly conduct charge and fined the relatively small amount of 50 shillings ; publicity of the case and widespread sympathy for his view probably contributed to the light sentence .
On February 22 , 1767 , Arnold married Margaret Mansfield , daughter of Samuel Mansfield , the sheriff of New Haven , an acquaintance that may have been made through the membership of both Mansfield and Arnold in the local Masonic Lodge . Their son Benedict was born the following year , and was followed by brothers Richard in 1769 and Henry in 1772 . Margaret died early in the revolution on June 19 , 1775 , while Arnold was at Fort Ticonderoga following its capture . The household , even while she lived , was dominated by Arnold 's sister Hannah . Arnold benefited from his relationship with Mansfield , who became a partner in his business and used his position as sheriff to shield Arnold from creditors .
Arnold was in the West Indies when the Boston Massacre took place on March 5 , 1770 . He wrote that he was " very much shocked " and wondered " good God , are the Americans all asleep and tamely giving up their liberties , or are they all turned philosophers , that they don 't take immediate vengeance on such miscreants ? "
= = Early Revolutionary War = =
Arnold began the war as a captain in Connecticut 's militia , a position to which he was elected in March 1775 . His company marched northeast the following month to assist in the siege of Boston that followed the outbreak of hostilities at Lexington and Concord . Arnold proposed to the Massachusetts Committee of Safety an action to seize Fort Ticonderoga in New York , which he knew was poorly defended . They issued him a colonel 's commission on May 3 , 1775 , and he immediately rode off to the west , arriving at Castleton in the disputed New Hampshire Grants ( present @-@ day Vermont ) in time to participate with Ethan Allen and his men in the capture of Fort Ticonderoga . He followed up that action with a bold raid on Fort Saint @-@ Jean on the Richelieu River north of Lake Champlain . A Connecticut militia force arrived at Ticonderoga in June ; Arnold had a dispute with its commander over control of the fort , and resigned his Massachusetts commission . He was on his way home from Ticonderoga when he learned that his wife had died earlier in June .
The Second Continental Congress authorized an invasion of Quebec , in part on the urging of Arnold — but he was passed over for command of the expedition . Arnold then went to Cambridge , Massachusetts and suggested to George Washington a second expedition to attack Quebec City via a wilderness route through present @-@ day Maine . Arnold received a colonel 's commission in the Continental Army for this expedition . He left Cambridge in September 1775 with 1 @,@ 100 men . Arnold arrived before Quebec City in November , after a difficult passage in which 300 men turned back and another 200 died en route . He and his men were joined by Richard Montgomery 's small army and participated in the December 31 assault on Quebec City in which Montgomery was killed and Arnold 's leg was shattered . His chaplain Rev. Samuel Spring carried him to the makeshift hospital at the Hôtel Dieu . Arnold was promoted to brigadier general for his role in reaching Quebec , and he maintained an ineffectual siege of the city until he was replaced by Major General David Wooster in April 1776 .
Arnold then traveled to Montreal where he served as military commander of the city until forced to retreat by an advancing British army that had arrived at Quebec in May . He presided over the rear of the Continental Army during its retreat from Saint @-@ Jean , where he was reported by James Wilkinson to be the last person to leave before the British arrived . He then directed the construction of a fleet to defend Lake Champlain , which was overmatched and defeated in the October 1776 Battle of Valcour Island . However , his actions at Saint @-@ Jean and Valcour Island played a notable role in delaying the British advance against Ticonderoga until 1777 .
During these actions , Arnold made a number of friends and a larger number of enemies within the army power structure and in Congress . He had established decent relationships with George Washington , commander of the army , as well as Philip Schuyler and Horatio Gates , both of whom had command of the army 's Northern Department during 1775 and 1776 . However , an acrimonious dispute with Moses Hazen , commander of the 2nd Canadian Regiment , boiled over into a court martial of Hazen at Ticonderoga during the summer of 1776 . Only action by Gates , then Arnold 's superior at Ticonderoga , prevented his own arrest on countercharges leveled by Hazen . He also had disagreements with John Brown and James Easton , two lower @-@ level officers with political connections that resulted in ongoing suggestions of improprieties on his part . Brown was particularly vicious , publishing a handbill which claimed of Arnold , " Money is this man 's God , and to get enough of it he would sacrifice his country " .
= = Saratoga and Philadelphia = =
General Washington assigned Arnold to the defense of Rhode Island following the British seizure of Newport in December 1776 , where the militia were too poorly equipped to even consider an attack on the British . Arnold took the opportunity to visit his children while near his home in New Haven , and he spent much of the winter socializing in Boston , where he unsuccessfully courted a young belle named Betsy Deblois . In February 1777 , he learned that he had been passed over by Congress for promotion to major general . Washington refused his offer to resign , and wrote to members of Congress in an attempt to correct this , noting that " two or three other very good officers " might be lost if they persisted in making politically motivated promotions .
Arnold was on his way to Philadelphia to discuss his future when he was alerted that a British force was marching toward a supply depot in Danbury , Connecticut . He organized the militia response , along with David Wooster and Connecticut militia General Gold S. Silliman . He led a small contingent of militia attempting to stop or slow the British return to the coast in the Battle of Ridgefield , and was again wounded in his left leg .
Arnold continued on to Philadelphia , where he met with members of Congress about his rank . His action at Ridgefield , coupled with the death of Wooster due to wounds sustained in the action , resulted in Arnold 's promotion to major general , although his seniority was not restored over those who had been promoted before him . Amid negotiations over that issue , Arnold wrote out a letter of resignation on July 11 , the same day that word arrived in Philadelphia that Fort Ticonderoga had fallen to the British . Washington refused his resignation and ordered him north to assist with the defense there .
Arnold arrived in Schuyler 's camp at Fort Edward , New York on July 24 . On August 13 , Schuyler dispatched him with a force of 900 to relieve the siege of Fort Stanwix , where he succeeded in the use of a ruse to lift the siege . Arnold had an Indian messenger sent into the camp of British Brigadier General Barry St. Leger with news that the approaching force was much larger and closer than it actually was ; this convinced St. Leger 's Indian support to abandon him , forcing him to give up the effort .
Arnold then returned to the Hudson , where General Gates had taken over command of the American army , which had by then retreated to a camp south of Stillwater . He then distinguished himself in both Battles of Saratoga , even though General Gates removed him from field command after the first battle , following a series of escalating disagreements and disputes that culminated in a shouting match . During the fighting in the second battle , Arnold operated against Gates ' orders and took to the battlefield to lead attacks on the British defenses . He was again severely wounded in the left leg late in the fighting . Arnold himself said that it would have been better had it been in the chest instead of the leg . Burgoyne surrendered ten days after the second battle , on October 17 , 1777 . In response to Arnold 's valor at Saratoga , Congress restored his command seniority . However , Arnold interpreted the manner in which they did so as an act of sympathy for his wounds , and not an apology or recognition that they were righting a wrong .
Arnold spent several months recovering from his injuries . Rather than allowing his shattered left leg to be amputated , he had it crudely set , leaving it 2 inches ( 5 cm ) shorter than the right . He returned to the army at Valley Forge in May 1778 to the applause of men who had served under him at Saratoga . There he participated in the first recorded Oath of Allegiance along with many other soldiers , as a sign of loyalty to the United States .
The British withdrew from Philadelphia in June 1778 , and Washington appointed Arnold military commander of the city . Even before the Americans reoccupied Philadelphia , Arnold began planning to capitalize financially on the change in power there , engaging in a variety of business deals designed to profit from war @-@ related supply movements and benefiting from the protection of his authority . Such schemes were not exactly uncommon among American officers , but Arnold 's schemes were sometimes frustrated by powerful local politicians who eventually amassed enough evidence to publicly air charges against him . Arnold demanded a court martial to clear the charges , writing to Washington in May 1779 , " Having become a cripple in the service of my country , I little expected to meet [ such ] ungrateful returns " .
Arnold lived extravagantly in Philadelphia , and was a prominent figure on the social scene . During the summer of 1778 , he met Peggy Shippen , the 18 @-@ year @-@ old daughter of Judge Edward Shippen , a Loyalist sympathizer who had done business with the British while they occupied the city . Peggy had been courted by British Major John André during the British occupation of Philadelphia . Peggy and Arnold married on April 8 , 1779 . Peggy and her circle of friends had found methods of staying in contact with paramours across the battle lines , despite military bans on communication with the enemy . Some of this communication was effected through the services of Joseph Stansbury , a Philadelphia merchant .
= = Plotting to change sides = =
As early as 1778 , there were signs that Arnold was unhappy with his situation and pessimistic about the country 's future . On November 10 , 1778 , General Nathanael Greene wrote to General John Cadwalader , " I am told General Arnold is become very unpopular among you oweing to his associateing too much with the Tories . " A few days later , Greene received a letter from Arnold , where Arnold lamented over the " deplorable " and " horrid " situation of the country at that particular moment , citing the depreciating currency , disaffection of the army , and internal fighting in Congress for the country 's problems , while predicting " impending ruin " if things would not soon change .
Some time early in May 1779 , Arnold met with Joseph Stansbury ( whose testimony before a British commission apparently erroneously placed his meeting with Arnold in June ) . Stansbury said that he then " went secretly to New York with a tender of [ Arnold 's ] services to Sir Henry Clinton . " Stansbury ignored instructions from Arnold to involve no one else in the plot , and crossed the British lines and went to see Jonathan Odell in New York . Odell was a Loyalist working with William Franklin , the last colonial governor of New Jersey and the son of Benjamin Franklin . On May 9 , Franklin introduced Stansbury to Major André , who had just been named the British spy chief . This was the beginning of a secret correspondence between Arnold and André , sometimes using his wife Peggy as a willing intermediary , that culminated over a year later with Arnold 's change of sides .
= = = Secret communications = = =
André conferred with General Clinton , who gave him broad authority to pursue Arnold 's offer . André then drafted instructions to Stansbury and Arnold . This initial letter opened a discussion on the types of assistance and intelligence that Arnold might provide , and included instructions for how to communicate in the future . Letters would be passed through the women 's circle that Peggy Arnold was a part of , but only Peggy would be aware that some letters contained instructions , written in both code and invisible ink , that were to be passed on to André , using Stansbury as the courier .
By July 1779 , Arnold was providing the British with troop locations and strengths , as well as the locations of supply depots , all the while negotiating over compensation . At first , he asked for indemnification of his losses and £ 10 @,@ 000 , an amount that the Continental Congress had given Charles Lee for his services in the Continental Army . General Clinton was pursuing a campaign to gain control of the Hudson River Valley , and was interested in plans and information on the defenses of West Point and other defenses on the Hudson River . He also began to insist on a face @-@ to @-@ face meeting , and suggested to Arnold that he pursue another high @-@ level command . By October 1779 , the negotiations had ground to a halt . Furthermore , Patriot mobs were scouring Philadelphia for Loyalists , and Arnold and the Shippen family were being threatened . Arnold was rebuffed by Congress and by local authorities in requests for security details for himself and his in @-@ laws .
= = = Court martial = = =
The court martial to consider the charges against Arnold began meeting on June 1 , 1779 , but was delayed until December 1779 by General Clinton 's capture of Stony Point , New York , throwing the army into a flurry of activity to react . A number of members of the panel of judges were ill @-@ disposed to Arnold over actions and disputes earlier in the war , yet Arnold was cleared of all but two minor charges on January 26 , 1780 . Arnold worked over the next few months to publicize this fact ; however , Washington published a formal rebuke of Arnold 's behavior in early April , just one week after he had congratulated Arnold on the March 19 birth of his son Edward Shippen Arnold .
The Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief would have been much happier in an occasion of bestowing commendations on an officer who had rendered such distinguished services to his country as Major General Arnold ; but in the present case , a sense of duty and a regard to candor oblige him to declare that he considers his conduct [ in the convicted actions ] as imprudent and improper .
Shortly after Washington 's rebuke , a Congressional inquiry into his expenditures concluded that Arnold had failed to fully account for his expenditures incurred during the Quebec invasion , and that he owed the Congress some £ 1 @,@ 000 , largely because he was unable to document them . A significant number of these documents had been lost during the retreat from Quebec . Angry and frustrated , Arnold resigned his military command of Philadelphia in late April .
= = = Offer to surrender West Point = = =
Early in April , Philip Schuyler had approached Arnold with the possibility of giving him the command at West Point . Discussions between Schuyler and Washington on the subject had not borne fruit by early June . Arnold reopened the secret channels with the British , informing them of Schuyler 's proposals and including Schuyler 's assessment of conditions at West Point . He also provided information on a proposed French @-@ American invasion of Quebec that was to go up the Connecticut River . ( Arnold did not know that this proposed invasion was a ruse intended to divert British resources . ) On June 16 , Arnold inspected West Point while on his way home to Connecticut to take care of personal business , and sent a highly detailed report through the secret channel . When he reached Connecticut , Arnold arranged to sell his home there , and began transferring assets to London through intermediaries in New York . By early July he was back in Philadelphia , where he wrote another secret message to Clinton on July 7 , which implied that his appointment to West Point was assured and that he might even provide a " drawing of the works ... by which you might take [ West Point ] without loss " .
Major André returned victorious from the Siege of Charleston on June 18 , and both he and General Clinton were immediately caught up in this news . Clinton was concerned that Washington 's army and the French fleet would join in Rhode Island , and he again fixed on West Point as a strategic point to capture . André had spies and informers keeping track of Arnold to verify his movements . Excited by the prospects , Clinton informed his superiors of his intelligence coup , but failed to respond to Arnold 's July 7 letter .
Arnold next wrote a series of letters to Clinton , even before he might have expected a response to the July 7 letter . In a July 11 letter , he complained that the British did not appear to trust him , and threatened to break off negotiations unless progress was made . On July 12 , he wrote again , making explicit the offer to surrender West Point , although his price rose to £ 20 @,@ 000 ( in addition to indemnification for his losses ) , with a £ 1 @,@ 000 down payment to be delivered with the response . These letters were delivered by Samuel Wallis , another Philadelphia businessman who spied for the British , rather than by Stansbury .
= = = Command at West Point = = =
On August 3 , 1780 , Arnold obtained command of West Point . On August 15 , he received a coded letter from André with Clinton 's final offer : £ 20 @,@ 000 , and no indemnification for his losses . Due to difficulties in getting the messages across the lines , neither side knew for some days that the other was in agreement to that offer . Arnold 's letters continued to detail Washington 's troop movements and provide information about French reinforcements that were being organized . On August 25 , Peggy finally delivered to him Clinton 's agreement to the terms .
Washington , in assigning Arnold to the command at West Point , also gave him authority over the entire American @-@ controlled Hudson River , from Albany down to the British lines outside New York City . While en route to West Point , Arnold renewed an acquaintance with Joshua Hett Smith , someone whom Arnold knew had spied for both sides and who owned a house near the western bank of the Hudson about 15 miles south of West Point .
Once he established himself at West Point , Arnold began systematically weakening its defenses and military strength . Needed repairs on the chain across the Hudson were never ordered . Troops were liberally distributed within Arnold 's command area ( but only minimally at West Point itself ) , or furnished to Washington on request . He also peppered Washington with complaints about the lack of supplies , writing , " Everything is wanting . " At the same time , he tried to drain West Point 's supplies , so that a siege would be more likely to succeed . His subordinates , some long @-@ time associates , grumbled about Arnold 's unnecessary distribution of supplies and eventually concluded that Arnold was selling supplies on the black market for personal gain .
On August 30 , Arnold sent a letter accepting Clinton 's terms and proposing a meeting to André through yet another intermediary : William Heron , a member of the Connecticut Assembly whom he thought he could trust . Heron , in a comic twist , went into New York unaware of the significance of the letter , and offered his own services to the British as a spy . He then took the letter back to Connecticut , suspicious of Arnold 's actions , where he delivered it to the head of the Connecticut militia . General Parsons laid it aside , seeing a letter written as a coded business discussion . Four days later , Arnold sent a ciphered letter with similar content into New York through the services of the wife of a prisoner @-@ of @-@ war . Eventually , a meeting was set for September 11 near Dobb 's Ferry . This meeting was thwarted when British gunboats in the river fired on his boat , not having been informed of his impending arrival .
= = = Plot exposed = = =
Arnold and André finally met on September 21 at the Joshua Hett Smith House . On the morning of September 22 , James Livingston , the colonel in charge of the outpost at Verplanck 's Point , fired on HMS Vulture , the ship that was intended to carry André back to New York . This action did sufficient damage that she retreated downriver , forcing André to return to New York overland . Arnold wrote out passes for André so that he would be able to pass through the lines , and also gave him plans for West Point .
André was captured near Tarrytown on Saturday , September 23 by three Westchester militiamen named John Paulding , Isaac Van Wart , and David Williams . The papers exposing the plot to capture West Point were found and sent to Washington , where Arnold 's intentions came to light after Washington examined them . Meanwhile , André convinced the unsuspecting commanding officer to whom he was delivered , Colonel John Jameson , to send him back to Arnold at West Point . However , Major Benjamin Tallmadge , a member of Washington 's secret service , insisted that Jameson order the prisoner to be intercepted and brought back . Jameson reluctantly recalled the lieutenant who had been delivering André into Arnold 's custody , but then sent the same lieutenant as a messenger to notify Arnold of André 's arrest .
Arnold learned of André 's capture the following morning , September 24 , when he received Jameson 's message that André was in his custody and that the papers that André was carrying had been sent to General Washington . Arnold received Jameson 's letter while waiting for Washington , with whom he had planned to have breakfast .
He hastened to the shore and ordered bargemen to row him downriver to where HMS Vulture was anchored , which then took him to New York . From the ship , Arnold wrote a letter to Washington , requesting that Peggy be given safe passage to her family in Philadelphia , a request that Washington granted .
When presented with evidence of Arnold 's activities , it is reported that Washington remained calm . He did , however , investigate its extent , and suggested in negotiations with General Clinton over the fate of Major André that he was willing to exchange André for Arnold . This suggestion Clinton refused ; after a military tribunal , André was hanged at Tappan , New York on October 2 . Washington also infiltrated men into New York in an attempt to capture Arnold . This plan very nearly succeeded , but failed when Arnold changed living quarters prior to sailing for Virginia in December .
Arnold justified his actions in an open letter titled To the Inhabitants of America , published in newspapers in October 1780 . In the letter to Washington requesting safe passage for Peggy , he wrote , " Love to my country actuates my present conduct , however it may appear inconsistent to the world , who very seldom judge right of any man 's actions . "
= = After switching sides = =
= = = British Army service = = =
The British gave Arnold a brigadier general 's commission with an annual income of several hundred pounds , but paid him only £ 6 @,@ 315 plus an annual pension of £ 360 because his plot had failed . In December 1780 , Arnold led a force of 1 @,@ 600 troops into Virginia under orders from Clinton , where he captured Richmond by surprise and then went on a rampage through Virginia , destroying supply houses , foundries , and mills . This activity brought out Virginia 's militia , led by Colonel Sampson Mathews , and Arnold eventually retreated to Portsmouth to either be evacuated or reinforced .
The pursuing American army included the Marquis de Lafayette , who was under orders from Washington to hang Arnold summarily if he was captured . Reinforcements arrived in late March led by William Phillips ( who served under Burgoyne at Saratoga ) , and Phillips led further raids across Virginia , including a defeat of Baron von Steuben at Petersburg , until his death of fever on May 12 , 1781 . Arnold commanded the army only until May 20 , when Lord Cornwallis arrived with the southern army and took over . One colonel wrote to Clinton of Arnold , " there are many officers who must wish some other general in command . " Cornwallis ignored advice proffered by Arnold to locate a permanent base away from the coast , advice that might have averted Cornwallis 's later surrender at Yorktown .
On his return to New York in June , Arnold made a variety of proposals for attacks on economic targets to force the Americans to end the war . Clinton was uninterested in most of Arnold 's aggressive ideas , but finally authorized Arnold to raid the port of New London , Connecticut . On September 4 , not long after the birth of his and Peggy 's second son , Arnold 's force of over 1 @,@ 700 men raided and burned New London and captured Fort Griswold , causing damage estimated at $ 500 @,@ 000 . British casualties were high ; nearly one quarter of the force was killed or wounded . Clinton declared that he could ill afford any more such victories .
Even before Cornwallis ' surrender in October , Arnold had requested permission from Clinton to go to England to give Lord George Germain his thoughts on the war in person . When word of the surrender reached New York , Arnold renewed the request , which Clinton then granted . On December 8 , 1781 , Arnold and his family left New York for England .
In London , he aligned himself with the Tories , advising Germain and King George III to renew the fight against the Americans . In the House of Commons , Edmund Burke expressed the hope that the government would not put Arnold " at the head of a part of a British army " lest " the sentiments of true honor , which every British officer [ holds ] dearer than life , should be afflicted . " To Arnold 's detriment , the anti @-@ war Whigs had gotten the upper hand in Parliament , and Germain was forced to resign , with the government of Lord North falling not long after .
Arnold then applied to accompany General Carleton , who was going to New York to replace Clinton as commander @-@ in @-@ chief ; this request went nowhere . Other attempts all failed to gain positions within the government or the British East India Company over the next few years , and he was forced to subsist on the reduced pay of non @-@ wartime service . His reputation also came under criticism in the British press , especially when compared to that of Major André , who was celebrated for his patriotism .
One particularly harsh critic said that he was a " mean mercenary , who , having adopted a cause for the sake of plunder , quits it when convicted of that charge . " In turning him down for an East India Company posting , George Johnstone wrote , " Although I am satisfied with the purity of your conduct , the generality do not think so . While this is the case , no power in this country could suddenly place you in the situation you aim at under the East India Company . "
= = = New business opportunities = = =
In 1785 , Arnold and his son Richard moved to Saint John , New Brunswick , where they speculated in land and established a business doing trade with the West Indies . Arnold purchased large tracts of land in the Maugerville area , and acquired city lots in Saint John and Fredericton . Delivery of his first ship the Lord Sheffield was accompanied by accusations from the builder that Arnold had cheated him ; Arnold claimed that he had merely deducted the contractually agreed amount when the ship was delivered late . After her first voyage , Arnold returned to London in 1786 to bring his family to Saint John . While there , he disentangled himself from a lawsuit over an unpaid debt that Peggy had been fighting while he was away , paying £ 900 to settle a £ 12 @,@ 000 loan that he had taken while living in Philadelphia . The family moved to Saint John in 1787 , where Arnold created an uproar with a series of bad business deals and petty lawsuits . The most serious of these was a slander suit which he won against a former business partner ; and following this , townspeople burned him in effigy in front of his house , as Peggy and the children watched . The family left Saint John to return to London in December 1791 .
In July 1792 , Arnold fought a bloodless duel with the Earl of Lauderdale after the Earl impugned his honor in the House of Lords . With the outbreak of the French Revolution , Arnold outfitted a privateer , while continuing to do business in the West Indies , even though the hostilities increased the risk . He was imprisoned by French authorities on Guadeloupe amid accusations of spying for the British , and narrowly eluded hanging by escaping to the blockading British fleet after bribing his guards . He helped organize militia forces on British @-@ held islands , receiving praise from the landowners for his efforts on their behalf . He hoped that this work would earn him wider respect and a new command ; instead , it earned him and his sons a land @-@ grant of 15 @,@ 000 acres ( 6 @,@ 100 ha ) in Upper Canada , near present @-@ day Renfrew , Ontario .
= = Death = =
In January 1801 , Arnold 's health began to decline . He had suffered from gout since 1775 , and the condition attacked his unwounded leg to the point where he was unable to go to sea . The other leg ached constantly , and he walked only with a cane . His physicians diagnosed him as having dropsy , and a visit to the countryside only temporarily improved his condition . He died after four days of delirium on June 14 , 1801 , at the age of 60 . Legend has it that , when he was on his deathbed , he said , " Let me die in this old uniform in which I fought my battles . May God forgive me for ever having put on another , " but this story may be apocryphal . Arnold was buried at St. Mary 's Church , Battersea in London , England . As a result of a clerical error in the parish records , his remains were removed to an unmarked mass grave during church renovations a century later . His funeral procession boasted " seven mourning coaches and four state carriages " ; the funeral was without military honors .
He left a small estate , reduced in size by his debts , which Peggy undertook to clear . Among his bequests were considerable gifts to one John Sage , perhaps an illegitimate son or grandson .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Infamy in the United States = = =
Arnold 's contributions to American independence are largely underrepresented in popular culture , while his name became synonymous with traitor in the 19th century . The demonization of Arnold began immediately after his betrayal became public . Biblical themes were often invoked ; Benjamin Franklin wrote that " Judas sold only one man , Arnold three millions " , and Alexander Scammell described Arnold 's actions as " black as hell " .
Early biographers attempted to describe Arnold 's entire life in terms of treacherous or morally questionable behavior . The first major biography of Arnold was The Life and Treason of Benedict Arnold , published in 1832 by historian Jared Sparks ; it was particularly harsh in showing how Arnold 's treacherous character was allegedly formed out of childhood experiences . George Canning Hill authored a series of moralistic biographies in the mid @-@ 19th century , and began his 1865 biography of Arnold : " Benedict , the Traitor , was born ... " .
Social historian Brian Carso notes that , as the 19th century progressed , the story of Arnold 's betrayal was portrayed with near @-@ mythical proportions as a part of the national creation story . It was invoked again as sectional conflicts increased in the years before the American Civil War . Washington Irving used it as part of an argument against dismemberment of the union in his 1857 Life of George Washington , pointing out that the unity of New England and the southern states which led to independence was made possible in part by holding West Point . Jefferson Davis and other southern secessionist leaders were unfavorably compared to Arnold , implicitly and explicitly likening the idea of secession to treason . Harper 's Weekly published an article in 1861 describing Confederate leaders as " a few men directing this colossal treason , by whose side Benedict Arnold shines white as a saint . "
Fictional invocations of Arnold 's name also carried strongly negative overtones . A moralistic children 's tale entitled " The Cruel Boy " was widely circulated in the 19th century . It described a boy who stole eggs from birds ' nests , pulled wings off insects , and engaged in other sorts of wanton cruelty , who then grew up to become a traitor to his country . The boy is not identified until the end of the story , when his place of birth is given as Norwich , Connecticut , and his name is given as Benedict Arnold . However , not all depictions of Arnold were so negative . Some theatrical treatments of the 19th century explored his duplicity , seeking to understand rather than demonize it .
The connection between Arnold and treason continued into the 20th and 21st centuries . On an episode of The Brady Bunch , " Everyone Can 't Be George Washington " , Peter is assigned the role of Arnold in the school play , and is ostracized . On one of The Simpsons ' Halloween specials , Treehouse of Horror IV , Arnold is included in a " jury of the damned " – along with other figures like John Wilkes Booth and Richard Nixon – deliberating the ownership of Homer Simpson 's soul .
Dan Gilbert , owner of the National Basketball Association 's Cleveland Cavaliers , subtly invoked Arnold in 2010 , upset over LeBron James 's announcement of leaving the team . Gilbert 's company lowered the price of posters bearing James 's likeness to $ 17 @.@ 41 , referring to the year of Arnold 's birth .
Novels related to the American Revolutionary war sometimes feature Arnold as a character . Kenneth Roberts ' Arundel series treats him more positively , covering his military campaigns .
= = = Canada = = =
Canadian historians have treated Arnold as a relatively minor figure . His difficult time in New Brunswick led historians to summarize it as full of " controversy , resentment , and legal entanglements " and to conclude that he was disliked by both Americans and Loyalists . Historian Barry Wilson points out that Arnold 's descendants ended up establishing deep roots in the country , becoming leading settlers in Upper Canada and later in lands further west , where they established settlements in Saskatchewan . His descendants who adopted the Arnold surname are spread across Canada , most of all those of John Sage . His long woollen British scarlet military jacket with a buff lining continues to be owned by descendants ; as of 2001 , it was held in Saskatchewan . It has reportedly been passed in each generation to the eldest male of the family .
= = Family = =
During his marriage to Margaret Mansfield , Arnold had three sons , all of whom later served in the British Army :
Benedict Arnold ( 1768 – 1795 ) ( Captain )
Richard Arnold ( 1769 – 1847 ) ( Lieutenant )
Henry Arnold ( 1772 – 1826 )
and with Peggy Shippen , he raised a family also active in the British Army :
Edward Shippen Arnold ( 1780 – 1813 ) ( Lieutenant )
James Robertson Arnold ( 1781 – 1854 ) ( Lieutenant General , Royal Engineers )
George Arnold ( 1787 – 1828 ) ( Lieutenant colonel )
Sophia Matilda Arnold ( 1785 – 1828 )
William Fitch Arnold ( 1794 – 1846 ) ( Captain )
= = Tributes = =
There is a memorial to Arnold on the Saratoga battlefield , now preserved within Saratoga National Historical Park , that does not mention his name . Donated by Civil War General John Watts DePeyster , the inscription on the Boot Monument reads : " In memory of the most brilliant soldier of the Continental army , who was desperately wounded on this spot , winning for his countrymen the decisive battle of the American Revolution , and for himself the rank of Major General . " The victory monument at Saratoga has four niches , three of which are occupied by statues of Generals Gates , Schuyler , and Morgan . The fourth niche is empty .
On the grounds of the United States Military Academy at West Point there are plaques commemorating all of the generals that served in the Revolution . One plaque bears only a rank and a date ( " major general ... born 1740 " ) but no name .
A historical marker in Danvers , Massachusetts commemorates Arnold 's 1775 expedition to Quebec . There are also historical markers bearing Arnold 's name in Moscow , Maine , on the western bank of Lake Champlain , New York , and two in Skowhegan , Maine .
The house where Arnold lived at 62 Gloucester Place in central London bears a plaque describing Arnold as an " American Patriot . " The church where Arnold was buried , St Mary 's Church , Battersea , England , has a commemorative stained @-@ glass window , added between 1976 and 1982 . The faculty club at the University of New Brunswick , Fredericton , has a Benedict Arnold Room , in which framed original letters written by Arnold hang on the walls .
= K @-@ 3 ( Kansas highway ) =
K @-@ 3 is a 43 @.@ 262 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 69 @.@ 623 km ) state highway in southeastern Kansas that runs through Crawford , Bourbon and Linn counties from K @-@ 47 near Girard to K @-@ 31 near Blue Mound . It was designated around 1932 , and the entire route was paved by 1958 . The road is maintained by the Kansas Department of Transportation ( KDOT ) , and is a two @-@ lane road for its entire length . The route 's concurrency with U.S. Route 54 ( US @-@ 54 ) is a part of the National Highway System .
= = Route description = =
K @-@ 3 begins at an intersection with K @-@ 47 west of Girard in Crawford County and heads north on a two @-@ lane road through plains . Approximately three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north of its southern terminus , the route passes through the small community of Brazilton . North of here , the highway curves to the west , intersects the eastern terminus of K @-@ 146 , and turns back to the north . K @-@ 3 crosses a branch of the Walnut Creek and continues north and cuts through Hepler . The route then enters Bourbon County . North of the county line , K @-@ 3 turns east and begins a concurrency with K @-@ 39 . Shortly after , the highway leaves K @-@ 39 and turns to the north , continuing in that direction for about seven miles ( 11 km ) before bending to the northwest . K @-@ 3 then curves to the north and crosses the Marmaton River .
Continuing north of the river , the highway twists to the northeast and passes through Uniontown . Just north of Uniontown , K @-@ 3 enters a concurrency with U.S. Route 54 ( US @-@ 54 ) and turns west . The highways curve to the northwest , running through slightly wooded flat lands . K @-@ 3 leaves the concurrency with US @-@ 54 just east of the city of Bronson and turns north . About seven miles ( 11 km ) north of the concurrency , K @-@ 3 serves as the eastern terminus of K @-@ 65 . After this intersection , the highway crosses the Little Osage River , then enters Linn County . North of here , K @-@ 3 meets its northern terminus at an intersection with K @-@ 31 east of Blue Mound .
K @-@ 3 is maintained by KDOT . In 2012 , the traffic on the route , measured in annual average daily traffic , was found to be between 130 and 2060 vehicles per day . Most of the traffic was present on the concurrency with US @-@ 54 . K @-@ 3 's concurrency with US @-@ 54 is included in the National Highway System , a system of highways important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
K @-@ 3 first appears on the 1932 state highway map . At that time , the route was almost completely gravel ; only the concurrency with US @-@ 54 was paved . By 1950 , the portion of K @-@ 3 in Crawford County had been paved . The portion of the route from the Crawford – Bourbon county line to the west end of the concurrency with K @-@ 39 was paved in 1953 , and the remainder of the road was paved by 1958 . No significant changes have been made to the route since then .
= = Major intersections = =
= Firehawk ( roller coaster ) =
Firehawk is a steel flying roller coaster built by Vekoma at Kings Island in Mason , Ohio . It originally opened as X @-@ Flight at Six Flags Worlds of Adventure on May 26 , 2001 . Cedar Fair purchased Worlds of Adventure in 2004 and began efforts to downsize the park . In November 2006 , Cedar Fair announced plans to relocate X @-@ Flight . Kings Island was later revealed as the destination , and it officially reopened as Firehawk on May 26 , 2007 .
Firehawk may not have been the first Flying Dutchman model from Vekoma , a title that belongs to Nighthawk at Carowinds , but it was billed as the Midwest 's first and only flying roller coaster when it opened in 2001 . The notability was short @-@ lived , as the opening of Superman : Ultimate Flight at Six Flags Great America two years later meant it was no longer alone in the region . In addition , Firehawk 's layout is identical to Batwing , another Vekoma Flying Dutchman , located at Six Flags America in Upper Marlboro , Maryland .
= = History = =
= = = Six Flags Worlds of Adventure / Geauga Lake ( 2001 – 2006 ) = = =
While the park was still named Six Flags Ohio , plans for a new roller coaster known as X @-@ Flight were revealed on January 4 , 2001 . Six days later , Six Flags purchased SeaWorld Ohio – next to Geauga Lake – with the intent of merging the two to create Six Flags Worlds of Adventure . The new venture advertised X @-@ Flight as the first Flying roller coaster in the Midwest , and it was the park 's tenth roller coaster overall – the fifth added since 2000 . The new coaster was built on a former bus parking lot , and Geauga Lake Road had to be rerouted around the ride . Regarding the design of the attraction , Jake Bateman , Vice President and General Manager of Six Flags Worlds of Adventure , said :
Land clearing began on December 1 , 2000 , and construction on the footers began February 9 , 2001 . X @-@ Flight was originally supposed to open in early May 2001 , but due to technical difficulties , its opening was delayed . During testing , problems were discovered with several devices including the reclining mechanism on the trains and their restraints . X @-@ Flight 's media day was eventually held on May 24 , 2001 , and the ride officially opened two days later on May 26 .
Cedar Fair purchased the park from Six Flags in 2004 for $ 145 million . They announced intentions of returning the park to its roots as a family @-@ oriented amusement park . The efforts to downsize the park eventually led to X @-@ Flight 's removal . On November 22 , 2006 , Geauga Lake park officials announced that X @-@ Flight was being dismantled to be sent to
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the lift hill – rather than in the station – and returned to an upright position prior to re @-@ entering the station . However , this was changed to occur in the station due to problems that arose during the ride 's first season . The trains feature the Firehawk logo on the front colored yellow and red . Previously at Geauga Lake , the X @-@ Flight logo was colored lime green and dark blue .
= = Incident = =
On August 8 , 2009 , an adult male passenger was rushed to a hospital after he was found with breathing problems following the ride . He died the same evening . The Hamilton County Coroner 's Office reported that a heart condition was the likely cause of death and ruled it natural . The ride was re @-@ opened at 12 : 10 pm on August 9 , 2009 , after an inspection by the Ohio Department of Agriculture – a division of the state government responsible for amusement park ride safety in Ohio . They determined the ride was operating within the manufacturer 's specifications .
= Aliso Creek ( Orange County ) =
Aliso Creek ( Spanish for " Alder Creek " ; also called Alisos Creek ) is a 19 @-@ mile ( 31 km ) -long urban stream that runs through Orange County in the U.S. state of California from the Santa Ana Mountains to the Pacific Ocean , collecting seven main tributaries . The creek is mostly channelized , and as of 2004 , the 30 @.@ 4 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 78 @.@ 7 km2 ) watershed had a population of 149 @,@ 000 divided among seven incorporated cities .
The creek flows generally south @-@ southwest through a narrow coastal watershed at the southern extreme end of the arid Los Angeles Basin in a fairly straight course . Owing to the submersion of Southern California in the Pacific Ocean as recently as 10 million years ago , the creek flows over marine sedimentary rock that dates from the late Eocene to the Pliocene . The present @-@ day form of the watershed , with its broad sediment @-@ filled valleys and deeply eroded side canyons , was shaped by a climate change during the previous Ice Age that produced Aliso Canyon , the creek 's final gorge .
The name was given to the creek by Spanish explorers in the 18th century , although there are now many places in California that use the name . Historically , the creek served as the boundary between the Juaneño ( Acjachemem ) and Gabrieleño ( Tongva ) Indians . The creek 's watershed then became a major portion of the 1842 Rancho Niguel Mexican Land Grant to Juan Avila , later purchased by two American ranchers . Although attempts to use the creek and its watershed as a municipal water source date to the early 20th century , the water it provided was of poor quality and erratic occurrence . As a result , the creek became neglected throughout the late part of the century , eventually becoming little more than an open wastewater drain . Despite this general decline , the Aliso Creek watershed still supports some biodiversity , and it remains a popular recreational area .
Pollution , floods and development of the watershed and the surrounding county have blighted the water quality and wildlife of the creek since the 1960s , when residential suburban development of the eight cities in the watershed began . Pollution continues to be a major problem for the creek — the subject of many water quality and feasibility studies — but , as with many other Orange County streams , little has been done to correct it .
= = Etymology = =
The Native American name for Aliso Creek has almost certainly been lost . The current name of Aliso Creek was given by Spanish conquistadors sometime between the 1750s and the 1800s . The word aliso means " alder tree " in Spanish , and likely refers to the riparian vegetation that lines the creek especially near its mouth . The California sycamore , Platanus racemosa , is also known as aliso in Spanish , and is common in the area around the creek . According to the Geographic Names Information System of the United States Geological Survey , there are now 46 places in California that use the name , as well as five other streams in California that use the name , including as a variant name .
Other derivatives for Aliso Creek 's name have arisen since then — including " Los Alisos Creek " and " Alisos Creek " . Several nearby geographical features also are named for the creek , including Aliso Peak , a 683 @-@ foot ( 208 m ) headland . A middle school in the Saddleback Valley Unified School District , Los Alisos Intermediate School , borders the creek . The creek is also the namesake of Aliso Creek Road , which crosses the creek once and only parallels it for a short length . The city of Aliso Viejo and several other communities that lie near the stream also share their name with the creek .
= = Course = =
Aliso Creek rises in the foothills of the Santa Ana Mountains , near the community of Portola Hills , part of Lake Forest , and at the boundary of the Cleveland National Forest . The Loma Ridge rises about 1 @,@ 500 feet ( 460 m ) above the creek 's headwaters , which are at an elevation of 2 @,@ 300 feet ( 700 m ) . There is no pond , lake or spring at the creek 's ultimate source ; it starts out as a small seasonal gully that courses southwards through a small valley with relatively little development . The creek then continues generally southwest for 19 miles ( 31 km ) to the Pacific Ocean at Laguna Beach , collecting water from seven major tributaries and over forty minor drains and streams . For much of its course , the creek is channelized and confined by urban development . It only flows freely in several stretches in its far upper and lower course . Passing south of several residential areas on the foothills to the north , Aliso Creek and El Toro Road run parallel for much of the creek 's length upstream from Interstate 5 . Flowing southwest in a small ravine along the right side of the road , the creek soon passes underneath the twin bridges of California State Route 241 , and receives from the right an unnamed northern fork . At this confluence , the creek turns more to the south , then crosses under El Toro Road and bisects another residential area . As it enters the city of Lake Forest , it receives from the right Munger Creek and from the left English Canyon Creek , a larger tributary which drains part of the city of Mission Viejo , 16 miles ( 26 km ) from the mouth .
The creek crosses under Trabuco Road and Jeronimo Road ; the latter was once the site of a stream gauge . It makes a bend to the southeast then veers back south , entering a large gulch and crossing beneath Interstate 5 . The creek then enters a culvert beneath Paseo de Valencia , then crosses under Laguna Hills Drive and cascades under Moulton Parkway , through the community of Laguna Hills . It then swings to the southeast and receives the Aliso Hills Channel , which enters from the left , 13 miles ( 21 km ) from the mouth . The Aliso Hills Channel drains much of eastern Laguna Hills , western Mission Viejo , and southeastern Lake Forest . From the confluence , the gradient of the creek flattens sharply and the stream enters a broad and shallow valley that runs between Aliso Creek Road on the west and Alicia Parkway on the east . It passes under California State Route 73 , which crosses the valley on an earthfill and a bridge segment . The creek receives from the right the Dairy Fork , 9 miles ( 14 km ) from the mouth , which drains parts of southern Laguna Hills and northeastern Aliso Viejo . The southwest @-@ flowing Dairy Fork once flowed in a prominent canyon that was filled in the 1960s and 1970s to build the city of Aliso Viejo ; State Route 73 now runs above the former canyon .
After receiving the fork , Aliso Creek passes into three massive culverts that cross under Pacific Park Drive , which crosses also on an earthfill . Flowing past several sports complexes , it begins to form the boundary of Aliso Viejo and Laguna Niguel , then crosses under Aliso Creek Road into Aliso and Wood Canyons Wilderness Park . Here , it receives from the left its largest tributary , Sulphur Creek . This creek is about 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) long and drains a fair portion of northern Laguna Niguel , 7 miles ( 11 km ) from the mouth . From there , Aliso Creek bends west and enters Aliso Canyon , which cuts through the San Joaquin Hills on the creek 's final run to the sea . About 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) downstream of the Sulphur Creek confluence , the creek is briefly impounded behind a small dam , and receives the south @-@ flowing Wood Canyon Creek , the second largest tributary , 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) from the mouth . Wood Canyon Creek drains the largest arm of Aliso Canyon and most of eastern Aliso Viejo . Flowing almost due south through a valley with slopes dissected by many deep side canyons , Aliso Creek turns sharply west as it enters private property less than 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the mouth . This section of the canyon is known for flooding frequently . The creek then enters a reserved size lagoon , crosses under the Pacific Coast Highway and enters the Pacific Ocean .
= = = Tidal lagoon = = =
At Aliso Beach , the mouth of Aliso Creek , lies a freshwater pond that changes frequently in elevation and extent . Tidal activity at the creek 's mouth results in sediment building gradually up into a sandbar , impounding it in a small lake about 0 @.@ 2 miles ( 0 @.@ 3 km ) long at its fullest extent . Afterwards , the water level rises upstream of the sandbar until one of two factors causes it to breach : either waves at high tide wash away the top of the sandbar , or the lagoon rises enough to overtop the sandbar by itself . Once the water level rises above the sandbar , rapid erosion quickly cuts through the sand and drains the approximately 3 – 5 @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 9 – 1 @.@ 5 m ) -deep lake in a matter of minutes . Peak flows through the sandbar can reach 500 cubic feet per second ( 14 m3 / s ) , even if the incoming flow of the creek is nowhere near that size . Because of the raised flow of the creek and the construction of a parking lot in the lagoon area since the 1960s , the lagoon has never been able to fill to its much larger , historic extent without breaching . Species such as the tidewater goby have suffered because of loss of their habitat this way .
= = = Discharge = = =
Aliso Creek is known to have historically contained water for most of the year , averaging 6 @.@ 7 cubic feet per second ( 0 @.@ 19 m3 / s ) in the wet season ; urban runoff has raised the creek 's year @-@ round base flow to close to 9 @.@ 2 cubic feet per second ( 0 @.@ 26 m3 / s ) at the mouth , with routine surges of more than 700 cubic feet per second ( 20 m3 / s ) in the winter . The United States Geological Survey had two stream gauges on the creek — one at the mouth in Laguna Beach , and one at the El Toro Road bridge near Mission Viejo . The Laguna Beach gauge was in operation from 1983 to 1986 , and the El Toro gauge was operational from 1931 to 1980 . The former received runoff from about 95 percent of the watershed , while the latter received runoff from 7 @.@ 91 square miles ( 20 @.@ 49 km2 ) , or 26 percent of the watershed area .
The largest flow recorded at the Laguna Beach streamflow gauge was 5 @,@ 400 cubic feet per second ( 150 m3 / s ) with a water depth of 11 @.@ 3 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) on March 1 , 1983 . The 1983 flood was caused by an El Niño event causing heavy runoff from the overdeveloped watershed . Damage was worst at the mouth of Aliso Canyon , which contains the Aliso Creek Inn and several other structures . On February 16 , 1986 , 2 @,@ 880 cubic feet per second ( 82 m3 / s ) was recorded , and 2 @,@ 870 cubic feet per second ( 81 m3 / s ) was recorded on October 1 , 1983 .
The largest flow recorded at El Toro was 2 @,@ 500 cubic feet per second ( 71 m3 / s ) on February 24 , 1969 , with a water depth of 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) . On January 5 , 1979 , the second largest flow , 2 @,@ 450 cubic feet per second ( 69 m3 / s ) , was recorded , and 1 @,@ 950 cubic feet per second ( 55 m3 / s ) on February 6 , 1937 . There was another nearby gauge — now out of service — at the Jeronimo Road crossing just downstream of El Toro . Before it was taken out of service in the 1980s , it frequently recorded periods of extremely low or nonexistent flow for most of the year .
The dramatic change in Aliso Creek flows from the 1960s onwards can be seen in streamflow data from the El Toro gauge . From 1931 to 1960 , the average peak flow was 511 cubic feet per second ( 14 @.@ 5 m3 / s ) — though peaks recorded ranged from zero to 1 @,@ 950 cubic feet per second ( 55 m3 / s ) . Between 1960 and 1980 , the average peak flow was 1 @,@ 178 cubic feet per second ( 33 @.@ 4 m3 / s ) , nearly twice the average before 1960 . Urban runoff now constitutes nearly 80 percent of the creek 's dry season flow — 7 @.@ 2 cubic feet per second ( 0 @.@ 20 m3 / s ) — and natural runoff , including springs in the Santa Ana Mountains , now supply a negligible amount of the creek 's water .
= = Geology = =
Most of Southern California , including all of Orange County , was periodically part of the Pacific Ocean ; the most recent epoch was approximately 10 million years ago ( MYA ) . The Santa Ana Mountains , which now border the creek to the north and east , began their uplift about 5 @.@ 5 million years ago along the Elsinore Fault . Aliso Creek formed about this time , running from the mountains across the broad coastal plain to the Pacific .
About 1 @.@ 22 million years ago , the San Joaquin Hills along the Orange County coast began their uplift along a blind thrust fault ( the San Joaquin Hills blind thrust ) extending south from the Los Angeles Basin . As Aliso Creek was an antecedent stream , or one that had formed prior to the mountains ' uplift , it cut a water gap through the rising mountains that today is Aliso Canyon . The same phenomenon occurred to the north with Laguna Canyon and San Diego Creek , and to the south at San Juan Creek . The uplift also caused Aliso Creek 's largest tributary , Sulphur Creek , to turn north to join Aliso Creek instead of flowing south to Salt Creek . The Wisconsinian era was responsible for shaping the watershed to its present @-@ day form , with deep side canyons and broad alluvial valleys .
During the last glacial period ( 110 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 years ago ) , especially in the Wisconsinian glaciation ( 31 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 years ago ) , the climate of Southern California changed radically from arid to wet , to a climate likely similar to the present @-@ day Pacific Northwest . Prodigious rainfall gradually turned the small streams of the region into large and powerful rivers . It was this surge in volume that allowed Aliso Creek and other rivers to cut through the San Joaquin Hills . A 400 @-@ foot ( 120 m ) drop in sea level escalated the process , allowing the rivers to flow more rapidly and have more erosive power . As sea levels rose after the Wisconsinian glaciation , the water gaps the rivers had cut through the San Joaquin Hills , including Aliso Canyon , became fjord @-@ like inlets . Aliso Creek and these other streams deposited sediments into the inlets , turning them into flat @-@ floored alluvial valleys with an elevation very close to sea level . Eventually , the sediment deposited met the coastline . By then , the rivers and streams had diminished to their original flow before the glaciation .
In the wake of the periodic inundation of Southern California by the ocean , most of the Aliso Creek watershed is underlain by several layers of marine sedimentary strata , the oldest dating from the Eocene ( 55 @.@ 8 – 33 @.@ 9 MYA ) and the most recent , the Pliocene ( 5 @.@ 33 – 2 @.@ 59 MYA ) . These alluvial sediments range from 13 to 36 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 to 11 @.@ 0 m ) in depth . Generally throughout the watershed , there are five major soil and rock outcrop types — Capistrano sandy loam , Cieneba sandy loam , Marina loamy sand , Myford sandy loam , and Cieneba @-@ rock outcrop . The water table ranges from 6 to 20 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 to 6 @.@ 1 m ) deep .
= = Watershed = =
= = = Geography = = =
The Aliso Creek drainage basin lies in the south central part of Orange County , roughly halfway between the Santa Ana River and the Orange – San Diego County boundary . It is a roughly spoon shaped area of 30 @.@ 4 square miles ( 79 km2 ) , comprising generally hilly and sometimes mountainous land . The watershed borders five major Orange County watersheds : Santiago Creek to the north , San Diego Creek to the west , Laguna Canyon to the southwest , Salt Creek to the southeast , and San Juan Creek to the east . To be more specific , the boundary with San Diego Creek is drained to the west by two tributaries of San Diego Creek — Serrano Creek and the La Cañada Wash . Two tributaries of San Juan Creek — Oso Creek and Trabuco Creek — border Aliso Creek to the northeast and southeast .
As of 2004 , the Aliso Creek watershed had a population of 149 @,@ 087 . Nine communities were established in the creek 's watershed as it was developed in the 20th century . By 2001 seven of them had become cities ( from mouth to source , Laguna Beach , Laguna Niguel , Aliso Viejo , Laguna Hills , Laguna Woods , Lake Forest , and Mission Viejo ) , and the last two , Foothill Ranch and Portola Hills , were incorporated into the city of Lake Forest in 2000 . The largest urban area in the basin is in the middle , where Interstate 5 bisects the watershed east to west . The northern boundary of this urban area stretches a little beyond California State Route 241 and the southern boundary is near California State Route 73 in the south . This area consists primarily of Lake Forest , Laguna Woods , and Laguna Hills .
The Loma Ridge of the Santa Ana Mountains runs east to west in the far northeastern corner of the watershed , forming the water divide with Santiago Creek . The San Joaquin Hills are at the southwestern portion of the watershed , following the coastline , and subranges within form the divides with Laguna Canyon and Salt Creeks . While the Santa Ana Mountains rise to 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) or more , the San Joaquin Hills top out at 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) at Temple Hill ( " Top of the World " ) , which lies to the north of Aliso Canyon — the water gap in the San Joaquin Hills through which Aliso Creek passes . Most of the hills rise to only 600 feet ( 180 m ) or 700 feet ( 210 m ) . The largest body of water in the watershed , Sulphur Creek Reservoir , is located to the northeast of Aliso Canyon .
= = = Bacterial pollution = = =
Aliso Creek 's watershed , as well as most of Orange County , saw a rapid jump in urban development from the 1960s onward , which introduced increased flow , non @-@ native vegetation , and high bacterial levels to the creek , severely hurting its ecology . The creek is part of the Clean Water Act list of impaired waters , which is defined as " impaired by one or more pollutants that do not meet one or more water quality standards " . It is said that Aliso Creek is one of the " most publicized " streams on the list . As of 2001 , the average annual precipitation in the San Juan Hydrological Unit , which Aliso Creek is part of , was 16 @.@ 42 inches ( 417 mm ) .
Bacteria affecting the water quality mainly consist of different types of fecal coliforms , with a high level of E. coli bacteria . This comes from pet waste , fertilizer , manure , and other organic pollutants that are washed into the creek , raising the average bacteria level 34 percent higher than levels declared safe under California law . This in turn affects recreation at popular Aliso Creek Beach at the creek 's mouth , violating state swimming standards 99 percent of the time , especially during storm events , as beachgoers are warned to avoid the creek for 72 hours ( 3 days ) after a major storm event .
According to the county health department , the number of bacteria in the creek , especially at the freshwater lagoon at its mouth , frequently exceeds limits set by California law .
According to the Los Angeles Times , " County health officials acknowledge that the bacterial count at the mouth of the creek — which curls into a warm @-@ water stagnant pond that flushes out onto the beach — is at times alarmingly high , often surpassing the legal limit for California . As a result , the area where the creek meets the sea , and the creek itself , are considered permanently off limits to swimmers and bear prominent signs that warn of the dangers of trespassing into such toxic waters . Nevertheless , people do , almost daily . Officials from the Orange County Environmental Health Department say that skin rashes , infections , " pink eye " and other assorted ailments are not uncommon to those who use Aliso Beach and , unwittingly , come in contact with the creek and its invisible bacteria ... " . The problems facing the creeks are blamed on urbanization , which has deprived the creeks of needed sediment while increasing pollution .
= = = Other pollutants = = =
Chlorine is responsible for the degradation of fish and shrimp in the creek . The sources for chlorine in urban runoff include irrigation and car washing . The only remaining fish species in the creek is carp , which can withstand high amounts of chlorine . Carp up to 18 inches ( 1 @.@ 5 feet / 45 cm ) long have been found in Aliso Creek near the mouth . Temperatures of the creek near the mouth have been known to exceed 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) , although the temperature at the outflow is often much colder because it has been mixed with seawater .
Changes of sediment patterns in the creek have also created another problem . Stemming from the construction of structures interfering with stream flow , and increased runoff from the urban areas adjoining the creek , excessive erosion has created problems not limited to just the creek . The creek is eroding material from its bed and transporting it to the ocean , but naturally , sediment from the whole watershed flowed towards the main stem via a complex network of tributaries . The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers warned in a 1997 study that up to $ 4 @.@ 2 million in damage occurs per year as a result of the pollution of Aliso Creek and its neighbor San Juan Creek . This includes physical damage to creek banks , bridges , pipes and other creekside structures .
In the upper portion of the watershed , spectacular erosion @-@ related events have occurred at English Canyon Creek , where water flowing at high velocity around a bend during a flood caused several landslides in the 1990s .
= = = Recreation = = =
The Aliso Creek watershed includes portions of the Cleveland National Forest in the upper watershed , and two major regional parks — the 3 @,@ 879 @-@ acre ( 1 @,@ 570 ha ) Aliso and Wood Canyons Wilderness Park and its adjoining Aliso Creek Beach , one of the county 's most popular beaches with over one million annual visitors ; and the 236 @-@ acre ( 96 ha ) Laguna Niguel Regional Park , which borders Sulphur Creek . Because of its shallowness and erratic flow , Aliso Creek is not navigable even in the winter and spring ( rainy season ) ; the only spot in the entire watershed where boating is possible is Sulphur Creek Reservoir . A mostly paved trail , the Aliso Creek Trail , follows the creek from Aliso Canyon to the Cleveland National Forest .
The only major fishing spot in the Aliso Creek 's watershed is the 44 @-@ acre ( 18 ha ) Sulphur Creek Reservoir , formed by a large earthfill dam across Sulphur Creek inside Laguna Niguel Regional Park . The lake is regularly stocked with catfish , bass , bluegill , and trout during the winter months . Any other location in the watershed will probably yield only the bottom @-@ dweller carp .
Most of the trails in the watershed are biking and equestrian trails located in the lower portion of the watershed , in the immensely popular Aliso Canyon and its tributary , Wood Canyon . Aside from the main Aliso Creek Trail , the Wood Canyon Trail parallels a tributary of Aliso Creek ( Wood Canyon Creek ) . There is also a bikeway along Sulphur Creek and along parts of English Canyon .
= = Wildlife = =
= = = Historic = = =
Before agricultural and later urban development of the watershed , live oak , sycamore , and alder trees lined the banks of Aliso Creek and its major tributaries , specifically Wood Canyon , Sulphur and English Canyon creeks , in a rich riparian zone . Coyotes , mountain lions , and other large mammals were found throughout the Aliso Creek watershed , especially in the mountainous areas in the San Joaquin Hills and Santa Ana Mountains . These animals can still be found in some number , but they are mostly confined to the wilderness areas that are surrounded by residential development . These " islands " of native vegetation and wildlife still support many native Southern California organisms . As the creek was perennial , the riparian zone surrounding the creek likely was similar to that of San Juan Creek to the south .
Researchers and long @-@ time residents of the lower Aliso Creek watershed have argued for many years over the presence of steelhead trout in Aliso Creek . Up until 2006 the National Marine Fisheries Service stated that Aliso Creek is a " [ coastal basin ] with no evidence of historical or extant of O. mykiss in anadromous waters . " Contrary to that , a 1998 major study co @-@ authored by the US Army Corps of Engineer and US Fish & Wildlife Service declared that steelhead had inhabited the creek until around 1972 when increased density ( urbanization ) resulted in poor water quality conditions ( pollutants and low oxygen levels ) that drove the migrational fish out .
On February 20 , 2009 , in a written rebuke , chastising an Aliso Creek water rights applicant ( South Coast Water District ) a formal letter sent by NOAA Regional Manager Rodney McGinnis to Antonio Barrales of the State Water Resources Control Board , Water Rights Division , revised that 2006 assessment . Carbon copied was California Fish & Game ( Mary Larson ) plus US Fish & Wildlife Service ( Christine Medak ) . This was due to 9 years of constant petitioning by the South Orange County environmental protectionist group Clean Water Now ( CWN ) led by Founder and Executive Director Roger E. Bütow , Board member Michael Hazzard , Joanne Sutch ( Laguna Beach Beautification Committee ) and Devora Hertz ( Planet Laguna ) . Frank Selby , owner of His & Hers Fly Shop in Costa Mesa , was interviewed by Oc Register and lA Times reporters , he confirmed his own steelhead takings from the 1950s and 60s , last sighting in 1972 . Frank then sent a letter to CEMARS ( June 2008 ) titled " Regarding Aliso Creek Steelhead . " He was also personally interviewed by the CWN Board to confirm actual sightings and taking .
NMFS then reversed itself and declared that there was sufficient , credible information to declare that Aliso Creek had been steelhead habitat and was added to the Distinct Population Segment List under the jurisdictional domain of NOAA . It is now considered a candidate for re @-@ colonization .
During the prolonged 9 @-@ year dispute that began in 2000 , Bütow and his working group " Friends of the Aliso Creek Steelhead " provided authentic Native American ( Juañeno ) anecdotes of takings , pictures by upstream fishermen with their catches and other personal accounts by longtime local residents that helped convince the State . It was a negotiated truce between Bütow and NOAA : Only the lower 7 miles of the creek was eventually listed because its conditions were amenable to historical populations . The habitat " termination line " was drawn at about Aliso Creek where it crosses an arterial road : Pacific Parkway in Aliso Viejo . In fact , Mary Larson ( steelhead restoration coordinator for CF & G ) , declared to reporters when the ruling was reversed that it was obviously true , its historical presence a " duh , no @-@ brainer moment . " Many anglers in the 1960s and 1970s reported taking tens or even hundreds of steelhead trout from Aliso Creek 's estuary and Aliso Creek Canyon ( approximately 4 miles ) before suburban development began . This indicates that there was a " possible run or population " of steelhead in Aliso Creek at some point . The creek is also inhabited by bottom @-@ dwellers such as carp , and historically shrimp and other benthic organisms were found throughout perennial pools in the Aliso Creek watershed . Historically , a large population of tidewater goby ( 10 @,@ 000 – 15 @,@ 000 ) was documented at the creek 's mouth by Swift et al .. ( 1989 ) , from a study period that ranged from March 1973 to January 1977 . The tidewater goby , which depended on the transient lagoon at the mouth for survival , has declined in number because of modifications to its habitat .
= = = Human impact = = =
Since urbanization began in the 1960s , sudden high and sediment @-@ lacking flows of polluted water began to destroy the native riparian vegetation once found along much of the creek . Exotic plants , including tobacco tree , castor bean , pampas grass , periwinkle , and Artichoke thistle , but most notably the giant reed , then replaced the historic live oaks , sycamores and alders as riparian vegetation . These plants have crowded out native vegetation , and in the case of giant reed , crowded out native animals — giant reed does not provide habitat for any native Southern California animals . These invasive species are most prevalent along upper Sulphur Creek ( Sulphur Creek Reservoir prevents these plants from spreading downstream ) , much of the Aliso Creek mainstem , and some parts of Wood Canyon Creek .
Many of the trees in Aliso Creek 's riparian zone were cut down in the Spanish Mission period to construct buildings , ships , and other projects . According to the Flood Protection Corridor Program of the Costa Machado Water Act of 2000 , " Aliso Creek was one of the few streams that contained water most of the year , even during the pre @-@ development period . There are documents describing explorers mooring their ships outside the mouth of the river and harvesting large timbers from the river area . Such large timbers could only be available from a relatively lush environment in which water was somewhat plentiful . " Some trees survived into the early 20th century , then a second decline of unknown cause began — either erosion or floods in the creek were responsible for their destruction , or the water table has lowered out of reach of the trees ' roots . The water table began a drastic decline in the 1960s , after the watershed began to become urbanized .
Although historically many fish species used Aliso Creek , the only remaining one is carp , which is known to survive in areas with high toxicity . Bird life was also abundant in the watershed — and 137 species remain in the less developed areas of the watershed . Some of these birds include California least tern , least Bell 's vireo , southwestern willow flycatcher , California gnatcatcher , and western snowy plover . Remaining habitat for native wildlife is now primarily along Wood Canyon Creek , in the upper reaches of Aliso Creek , and along some parts of English Canyon .
Aside from carp , several species of fish and amphibians still inhabited the creek up to the 1980s , when floods destroyed much of the remaining riparian habitat . These included the mosquito fish , bluegill , bass , and channel catfish , as well as several species of native frogs . After the floods , most of these species were reported to have disappeared completely .
= = History = =
= = = First inhabitants = = =
It is believed that in Native American times , Aliso Creek served as part of an important tribal boundary — between the Tongva in the north and the Acjachemen ( or Juaneño ) tribe in the south . The Tongva 's territory extended north , past the Santa Ana River and San Gabriel River , into present @-@ day Los Angeles County , while the Acjachemen 's smaller territory extended from Aliso Creek south , past San Juan Creek , and to the vicinity of San Mateo Creek in present @-@ day San Diego County . The creek 's perennial flow made it a likely spot for Indian settlement , although the Tongva 's main settlements were near the San Gabriel River and the Acjachemen mostly lived at the confluence of San Juan Creek and Trabuco Creek . Even so , some 70 major archaeological sites have been discovered along the creek , and it is believed that there was once an Acjachemen Indian village near the confluence of Aliso Creek and Sulphur Creek , named Niguili , which means " a large spring " in the native Luiseño dialect . The spring still exists near the intersection of Alicia Parkway and Highlands Road in present @-@ day Laguna Niguel , about a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 ) km east of Aliso Creek 's confluence with Sulphur Creek .
The creek 's use as a tribal boundary is disputed . As other southern California Native Americans have done , a tribe typically claimed both sides of a stream or river — and used drainage divides as boundaries instead . However , the presence of Aliso Canyon , a steep and difficult @-@ to @-@ traverse gorge , suggests the opposite . Kroeber ( 1907 ) was the first to support this theory , and many other archaeologists have followed as well . The Juaneño disagree , arguing that their boundary stretches north to the northern drainage divide of the Aliso Creek watershed , which supports the practice of claiming both sides of a stream .
= = = Spanish explorers and missionaries = = =
In 1769 , the Portola expedition camped near Aliso Creek on July 24 – 25 , having come north from the San Juan Capistrano area along the route of today 's Interstate 5 . These first Spanish explorers were accompanied by Franciscan missionaries who took control over nearly all of the coastal Native American groups . They later established Mission San Gabriel Arcángel and Mission San Juan Capistrano near the main native population centers , seeking to convert them to Christianity . Most of the native population was moved to these two missions — the Spanish called the Tongva Gabrielinos and the Acjachemen , the Juaneño , after these two missions . The Spanish began farming and ranching practices on many of the fertile floodplains surrounding the only perennial streams in the area — San Juan and Trabuco Creek , Aliso Creek , and the Santa Ana , San Gabriel and Los Angeles rivers to the north . Many of the trees in the riparian zones surrounding these creeks — specifically Aliso Creek — were cut down , and it was said that the trees near the " river [ ' s ] " mouth were especially tall and there were written accounts of Spanish ships mooring in the large bay at the outlet of Aliso Canyon and men going ashore to chop down and take away these trees for constructing mission buildings , ships and other structures .
= = = The Mexican period = = =
Mexico won independence from Spain in 1822 , keeping the Alta California province , and secularized the missions in the 1830s . Former mission lands were divided into private land grants . In 1842 , Juan Avila received the 13 @,@ 316 @-@ acre ( 53 @.@ 89 km2 ) Rancho Niguel grant . The name of the rancho was partially derived from a corruption of the original name of the village , Niguili . ( The rancho name later became part of the name of the city of Laguna Niguel . )
= = = Statehood = = =
Following the Mexican – American War , California was annexed by the United States , becoming the 31st state in 1850 . In 1871 , the first white settler along Aliso Creek , Eugene Salter , claimed 152 acres ( 0 @.@ 62 km2 ) along the lower creek , inside Aliso Canyon . The following year the 152 acres ( 0 @.@ 62 km2 ) were acquired by George and Sarah Thurston , homesteaders who converted the mouth of the creek into an orchard irrigated by its waters for roughly the next half century .
= = = Urbanization and development = = =
In 1895 , Rancho Niguel was acquired by rancher Lewis Moulton ( 1854 – 1938 ) and his partner , Jean Pierre Daguerre ( 1856 – 1911 ) . The rancho remained under their ownership for approximately thirty @-@ eight years , and the rancho continued to be owned by the Moulton family until the 1960s . Rancho Niguel was eventually assimilated into Laguna Niguel , Aliso Viejo , Laguna Hills , and Aliso and Wood Canyons Wilderness Park .
By the 1920s , Aliso Creek was already being experimented with as a municipal water source . In 1924 , the City of Laguna Beach drilled wells into gravel deposits near the mouth of the creek , in order to provide drinking water . Just four years later , the unusually high and unexplained presence of chloride in the water prompted the city to abandon Aliso Creek as a water source . Taking advantage of the creek 's high winter surges , ranging from 0 to 404 acre feet ( 0 to 498 @,@ 327 m3 ) monthly , local resident A. J. Stead proposed in 1934 to build a dam very near the mouth of the creek , forming a reservoir with a capacity of 2 @,@ 650 acre feet ( 3 @,@ 270 @,@ 000 m3 ) and safe annual yield of 150 acre feet ( 190 @,@ 000 m3 ) . Although the proposal was accepted , the results are unknown — there is no remaining trace of these works today .
By the late 1960s , increasing runoff in the creek from the growing cities in the watershed begun to spell ecological problems and severe erosion for the creek . Although a series of flood control channels upstream of Aliso Creek Road ( near Aliso Canyon ) had already begun to prevent erosion in those heavily developed areas , the creek eroded to depths of 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) or more in any unlined areas .
In 1969 a flow control and erosion mitigation project for Aliso Creek was begun , requiring the construction of two concrete drop structures on the creek . These two vertical barriers , 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) high and 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) long , were built both upstream and downstream of Aliso Creek Road . Several grouted riprap structures were also constructed between and downstream of these drops .
A small dam was built about 1 @.@ 4 miles ( 2 @.@ 3 km ) downstream of Aliso Creek Road in the 1990s — inside Aliso Canyon — as part of a " mitigation bank project " . This project , known as ACWHEP ( Aliso Creek Wildlife Habitat Enhancement Project ) was intended to provide water to 70 acres ( 0 @.@ 28 km2 ) of former riparian areas now several feet higher than the eroded channel of the creek . It was conceived and jointly funded by the county and the Mission Viejo Company . The dam was also supposed to control further erosion downstream . Due to faulty design , however , the dam failed to prevent erosion , which has continued to undermine structures throughout the canyon . The grouted riprap structure is about 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) high and 100 feet ( 30 m ) long , and aside from impounding water , captures debris and temporarily controls wet season flows . The building of these modifications , as well as dry weather runoff from seven municipal storm sewer systems , began to contribute to the infamous pollution of Aliso Creek .
= = = = Cities and protected areas timeline = = = =
In 1927 Laguna Beach became the first city to be incorporated in the Aliso Creek watershed and the second in Orange County . At this time , prior to the 1930s , aside from some farming and ranching practices , the watershed was largely unpopulated . At the end of that decade , the watershed still remained less than 1 percent developed . Up to the 1960s and 1970s , barely 15 percent of the watershed was developed , but by 1990 , after doubling its rate in the past two decades , the watershed was roughly 60 percent developed . The cities of Mission Viejo and Laguna Niguel were incorporated in 1988 and 1989 , respectively . By the end of the 20th century , more than 70 percent of the watershed was developed . The newest city in the watershed , Aliso Viejo , was incorporated in 2001 .
The Cleveland National Forest , the oldest protected area in the Aliso Creek watershed , was created in 1908 , and the next major park to be created was Laguna Niguel Regional Park in 1973 . Land for Aliso and Wood Canyons Regional Park was first secured in April 1979 with 3 @,@ 400 acres ( 14 km2 ) , and small increments were added to the park until the early 1990s forming a total of 3 @,@ 879 acres ( 15 @.@ 70 km2 ) . Also in the 1990s , Aliso and Wood Canyons became part of the Laguna Coast Wilderness , which stretches north to Crystal Cove State Park .
= = = Flooding and mitigation = = =
Like most other coastal Orange County streams , the watershed of Aliso Creek is now heavily urbanized . With 70 percent of the original land surface now underneath impermeable surfaces such as pavement and buildings , far more runoff now enters the creek — not only inducing an increased year @-@ round flow , but much larger rainy season flows . In the 1920s and 1930s , devastating floods wreaked havoc on much of southern California ; the Los Angeles Flood of 1938 was the most famous flooding episode of this period .
The Orange County Flood Control Act of 1927 was created in the wake of some of the earlier flooding events of this era . Dams and reservoirs , some of the largest of which include Irvine Lake and the Sulphur Creek Reservoir , were the first features to be constructed following the passage of this act . Starting from the 1960s , most Orange County rivers , including Aliso Creek , were channelized . Some , like the Santa Ana River , were entirely lined with concrete , but Aliso Creek retains a natural riverbed in most parts despite being bound to a narrow channel .
Several tributaries of Aliso Creek — the Dairy Fork , Aliso Hills Channel , Munger Creek , and other smaller ones — have been replaced by storm drains . Wood Canyon Creek remains much like its original condition , despite degradation due to polluted water . Sulphur Creek has been channelized and diverted into culverts in several stretches , and English Canyon Creek has received some riprap stabilization and bank protection .
Although there are no major flood control dams on Aliso Creek itself , there are 19 drop structures , and while doing nothing to reduce the creek 's rainy season surges , the drop structures were constructed to mitigate the catastrophic erosion that came with the creek 's increased flow . Although the creek has a wide floodplain throughout most of Aliso Canyon , a major bottleneck lies at the south end of the canyon where a sharp bend in the creek is constricted between crowded development and steep cliffs . In flooding events , this area generally sustains heavy damage .
Another major era of floods lasted from the 1980s until the early 21st century . The 1983 El Niño season brought unprecedented rainfall that produced a flow of 5 @,@ 400 cubic feet per second ( 150 m3 / s ) from the creek , an all @-@ time high . The creek overflowed its banks and flooded up to 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) deep in places . There were five large floods throughout the 1990s , including one in 1998 that reputedly destroyed six footbridges . The years of 2004 and 2005 again saw heavy rainfall .
= = Along the creek = =
= = = Crossings = = =
Crossings of the creek are listed from mouth to source ( year built in parentheses ) . The creek is crossed by roughly 30 major bridges .
= = = Tributaries = = =
From mouth to source , Aliso Creek is joined by six major tributaries . All of these tributaries as well as several others are listed . Another 46 minor streams and drains flow into the creek .
= Sutton Valence Castle =
Sutton Valence Castle is a ruined medieval fortification in the village of Sutton Valence in Kent , England . It was built in the second half of the 12th century , probably by Baldwin of Bethune , the Count of Aumale . Overlooking a strategic route to the coast , the original castle probably comprised an inner and an outer bailey and a protective barbican , with a three @-@ storey high keep on its southern side . It was passed into the Marshal and de Montfort families , before being given by King Henry III to his half @-@ brother William de Valence in 1265 , from whom the castle takes its current name . It was abandoned in the early 14th century and fell into ruin . In the 21st century the castle is managed by English Heritage , and the remains of the keep are open to the public .
= = History = =
= = = 12th – 15th centuries = = =
Sutton Valence Castle was probably built in the second half of the 12th century by the Counts of Aumale , most likely by Baldwin of Bethune , but perhaps alternatively by William le Gros , Baldwin 's father @-@ in @-@ law . The castle was built on a commanding position overlooking the strategic route between the towns of Maidstone , Rye and Old Winchelsea. and the location was originally known as Town Sutton . The stone keep of the castle was constructed around 1200 .
In 1203 , Baldwin gave the castle to his daughter Alicia on her marriage to William Marshal , the Earl of Pembroke , who later remarried , passing the property to his second wife , Eleanor . After William 's death , Eleanor married Simon de Montfort , the Earl of Leicester . Simon led a rebellion against King Henry III during the Second Barons ' War , but was killed at the Battle of Evesham in 1265 , after which Eleanor was stripped of the castle .
The King gave Sutton Valence to William de Valence , his half @-@ brother , who had supported him during the conflict . Under William , the castle acquired its current name of Sutton Valence . Aymer de Valence , his son , inherited the castle in 1307 . The Valences travelled around their estates , increasingly focusing their attention on a handful of their various great houses , and stayed at Sutton Valence on at least several occasions .
After Aymer 's death in 1324 , the castle passed by marriage to Lawrence , Lord Hastings , and was held in the Hastings family until 1390 , when Reginald Lord Grey de Ruthin acquired it . There are few historical records of the castle beyond this point , but it appears to have been abandoned in the early 14th century and by the 15th century had become ruined .
= = = 16th – 21st centuries = = =
By the end of the 18th century , the historian Edward Hasted described Sutton Valence Castle as being " now almost covered with ivy , and the branches of the trees which sprout out from the walls of it . " Archaeological excavations were carried out at the site during the mid @-@ 1950s with the assistance of Maidstone Museum and the local Sutton Valence School , focusing on the castle keep . The castle was placed into the guardianship of the state in 1976 ; it is now owned by English Heritage and conservation work was done on the ruins in the 1980s . It is protected under UK law as a Grade II listed building and as a Scheduled Monument .
= = Architecture = =
Sutton Valence Castle occupied a spur of the Chart Hills , adjacent to the village of Sutton Valence , and probably comprised an inner and an outer bailey and a protective barbican . Visitors would have entered through an eastern barbican , coming through to an outer bailey ; these features only survive as earthworks . A dry ditch protected the inner bailey , which was approximately 300 by 34 metres ( 984 by 112 ft ) across , positioned on the southern side of the site . It probably included a hall , chapel and kitchen , but only the castle keep now survives . The keep is 11 metres ( 36 ft ) square , with walls 2 @.@ 4 metres ( 7 ft 10 in ) thick , built from ragstone and flint rubble and surviving up to 7 metres ( 23 ft ) high . It was originally 20 metres ( 66 ft ) tall , with at least three storeys , and entered through an external staircase leading to a doorway in the first floor . The building had a corner tower , in which was a spiral staircase linking the floors , and had clasping buttresses at the corners .
= John Hummer =
John Hummer ( born May 4 , 1948 ) is a venture capitalist and retired professional basketball player who was an original member of the Buffalo Braves after starring for the Princeton Tigers men 's basketball team . He also led his high school to the 1966 Virginia State 1A championship and helped Princeton earn a 1967 @-@ 68 co @-@ Ivy League Championship as well as a 1968 @-@ 69 outright Ivy League Championship . Over the course of his basketball career , he was coached by four National Basketball Hall of Fame members .
In college , Hummer was a three @-@ time All @-@ Ivy League selection ( first @-@ team : 1969 & 1970 , second team : 1968 ) . He played for two Ivy League champion teams and served as team captain as a senior . He was a part of the first of head coach Pete Carril 's thirteen Ivy League champions ( 1968 ) , eleven NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball Tournament teams ( 1969 ) and three undefeated conference champions ( 1969 ) . Although Hummer set no statistical records , his name continues to be ranked high in the Princeton record book by many statistical measures .
He played six seasons in the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) for the Braves , Chicago Bulls and Seattle SuperSonics . He was the 15th overall selection in the 1970 NBA Draft and the first draft choice in the history of the Braves franchise . As a Braves draft choice , he was a somewhat controversial pick in a draft year with two All @-@ American local products available . During his NBA career , he played for Hall of Famers Dolph Schayes , Bill Russell and Jack Ramsay .
After his professional basketball career ended , he went to Stanford University to get an MBA in 1980 . In 1989 , Ann Winblad and he founded Hummer Winblad Venture Partners , a venture capital firm focusing on software companies .
= = Amateur career = =
Hummer attended Washington @-@ Lee High School in Arlington , Virginia . Following in the footsteps of his brother Ed Hummer , he led W @-@ L to the 1966 Virginia 1A state title as a high school senior . Ed had led the team to the 1962 and 1963 titles . His nephew ( Ed 's son Ian ) was a freshman on the 2009 – 10 Princeton team .
In Hummer 's sophomore season at Princeton , the team was co @-@ champion of the Ivy League with a 20 – 6 ( 12 – 3 Ivy ) record . Despite the fact that Princeton had three of the five first @-@ team All @-@ Ivy team members , plus second @-@ team member Hummer , they lost the one @-@ game league playoff to the Jim McMillian @-@ led 1968 Columbia Lions . That year the team rose to as high as 8th in the AP Poll . This was the first of thirteen Ivy League championships for head coach Pete Carril .
The following season , the team accumulated a 19 – 7 ( 14 – 0 ) record and participated in the 1969 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament . They lost to St. John 's in the tournament , but Hummer was joined by Geoff Petrie on the first @-@ team All @-@ Ivy squad . This was the first of eleven NCAA tournament appearance for Carril . It was also the first of three 14 – 0 conference champions for Carril .
As a senior , Hummer was first @-@ team All @-@ Ivy , but the Tigers placed third in the conference to the undefeated ( in Ivy League games ) Corky Calhoun @-@ led Penn Quakers and McMillian 's Lions . Although Princeton did not appear in the 1970 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , they hosted Penn 's game . All three of his varsity years were spent under Carril . Again , following in the footseps of his brother who had served as Princeton captain of the 1966 – 67 team , John was co @-@ captain for the 1969 – 70 team along with classmate Petrie . Hummer was honored with the team 's B. Franklin Bunn ’ 07 Award for play , sportsmanship and influence that contributed most to the sport .
During his career , he shared the spotlight with Petrie and did not set any statistical records at a school and conference where Bill Bradley continues to dominate the record books . Over the course of his career , Hummer was the 9th Tiger to accumulate 1000 career points ( 1031 in 67 games ) and he continued to rank seventh in school history with a 15 @.@ 4 points / game average through the 2009 – 10 season . Since his career ended in 1970 only Brian Taylor has posted a higher average . He stands eighth in career free throws made ( 297 ) , having only been passed since his career ended by Craig Robinson and Kit Mueller . He is tenth in career rebounds .
= = Professional basketball career = =
Following his senior season , Hummer was one of three first @-@ round Ivy League selections in the 1970 NBA Draft ( Petrie – 8th , McMillian 13th and Hummer 15th ) . Hummer was also drafted by The Floridians in the 1970 American Basketball Association draft . The 1970 draft included two promising All @-@ American local @-@ Buffalo area talents : St. Bonaventure University 's Buffalo @-@ born Bob Lanier and Niagara University 's Calvin Murphy . Murphy was a fan favorite that many local fans hoped the Braves would select . However , Braves General Manager Eddie Donovan doubted the 5 feet 9 inches ( 1 @.@ 75 m ) Murphy could make it in the NBA . The Baltimore Bullets traded to improve their draft position on the day of the March 23 , 1970 NBA draft . They traded their # 15 selection and Mike Davis to the expansion Buffalo Braves for the # 9 selection . That day , the Braves selected Hummer with the 15th pick . Hummer averaged 11 @.@ 3 points and 8 @.@ 9 rebounds for the 1970 – 71 Buffalo Braves during an average of 32 @.@ 6 minutes in 81 games played for coach Dolph Schayes . The 22 – 60 Braves finished fourth in the four @-@ team Atlantic Division . Hummer and the Braves struggled for two more seasons with 60 @-@ loss seasons . The 1972 – 73 Braves were Jack Ramsay 's first coaching season with his second NBA team .
After the Braves selected Ernie DiGregorio in the 1973 NBA Draft to complement 1972 NBA Draft selection Bob McAdoo , it was clear the team was going to change to fast @-@ paced offense to leverage DiGregorio 's skills . Hummer was more of a defensive player . Prior to the 1973 – 74 NBA season , Hummer was packaged with a 1974 NBA Draft 2nd round pick and a 1975 NBA Draft 2nd round pick in a trade that sent him to the Chicago Bulls in exchange for Gar Heard and Kevin Kunnert . The deal was part of the resume that earned Donavan the NBA Executive of the Year Award . That season the 54 – 28 Dick Motta @-@ coached 1973 – 74 Bulls team that he was traded to initially would make the playoffs , but the 36 – 46 Bill Russell @-@ coached 1973 – 74 SuperSonics that he would finish the season with would not .
During the season ( on January 7 ) , he was traded by the Bulls to the Seattle SuperSonics in exchange for a 1975 NBA draft 2nd round selection . Russell 's SuperSonics ( 1974 – 75 and 1975 – 76 ) were the only playoff teams that he played in the postseason with . In the 1975 NBA Playoffs , the Sonics defeated the Detroit Pistons 2 – 1 in the first round before losing to the Golden State Warriors 4 – 2 . Hummer appeared in six of the nine playoff games that year , but accumulated no points . The following season the Sonics earned a bye in the first round of the 1976 NBA Playoffs where they lost to the Phoenix Suns . Hummer appeared in three of these games .
Never a strong free throw shooter , Hummer failed to make 50 % of his free throws during his last three seasons in the NBA . In the 1974 @-@ 75 season , he shot an unusually low 0 @.@ 275 from the free throw line .
= = Education and finance career = =
Hummer graduated from Princeton University in 1970 with an A.B. in English and in 1980 with an MBA from Stanford Graduate School of Business . In 1989 , Ann Winblad and he founded Hummer Winblad Venture Partners , which claims to have been the first venture capital firm to focus exclusively on software companies . The company now makes multimillion @-@ dollar investments in several companies per year . The company has financed over 100 ventures that have been on the forefront of trends that have gone from PC software to enterprise computing to Internet applications . The company 's investments have now spanned generations of software applications , architectures , delivery methods , and business models , including Omniture , Voltage Security , Mulesource , Wind River Systems and Hyperion Solutions . Other notable companies that they have provided venture capital for that no longer exist are Napster , Pets.com , and HomeGrocer .
= New York State Route 293 =
New York State Route 293 ( NY 293 ) is a 6 @.@ 82 @-@ mile ( 10 @.@ 98 km ) state highway located entirely within eastern Orange County , New York , in the United States . The highway starts at U.S. Route 6 ( US 6 , known as the Long Mountain Parkway ) in Woodbury , and heads to the northeast , ending at an intersection with US 9W and NY 218 in the community of Highlands . It does not pass through any notable populated areas as most of the land around it is protected either as state parkland or US military reservation . However , it receives much traffic as the major route between the United States Military Academy at West Point and the New York State Thruway ( Interstate 87 or I @-@ 87 ) .
What is now NY 293 was originally designated as part of NY 37 in the mid @-@ 1920s . All of NY 37 became part of a realigned US 6 in 1928 . US 6 was rerouted again c . 1934 to bypass West Point to the south . Its former routing through the academy grounds became NY 293 .
= = Route description = =
NY 293 begins at a junction with US 6 in Woodbury less than 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) east of the Thruway , in Harriman State Park . From there it travels in a roughly east @-@ northeast direction between the Harriman properties and the vast USMA reservation , most of which is only selectively open to the public . NY 293 's next major junction also serves as its northern terminus , at US 9W in Highlands . NY 218 ends its concurrency with US 9W there and takes over the roadway that continues east beyond the underpass . West Point 's Washington Gate is a short distance past the intersection .
The Long Path hiking trail follows in the woods closely alongside NY 293 near its southern terminus . Since truck traffic cannot use US 6 , truck drivers may use NY 293 to reach US 9W .
= = History = =
What is now NY 293 was originally designated as part of NY 37 , an east – west highway extending from Monroe to the Connecticut state line near Brewster over most of modern US 6 , in the mid @-@ 1920s . In 1927 , the first route log of the U.S. Highway System published by AASHO placed US 6 on what is now US 209 from Port Jervis to Kingston within New York . At the time , the US 6 designation ended in Kingston and resumed at the Connecticut state line in Danbury . The gap in the designation was eliminated in 1928 when US 6 was realigned east of Port Jervis to follow most of its modern alignment ; however , from Woodbury to the Bear Mountain Bridge , US 6 followed what had been NY 37 from Central Valley to Highlands and overlapped with US 9W south from Highlands to the bridge . US 6 was realigned c . 1934 to bypass West Point to the south while its former routing through the academy grounds was redesignated as NY 293 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Orange County .
= Pennsylvania Route 997 =
Pennsylvania Route 997 ( PA 997 ) is a 49 @.@ 0 @-@ mile ( 78 @.@ 9 km ) route in Franklin and Cumberland counties in central Pennsylvania . The route runs from the Maryland state line south of Waynesboro , where it continues into that state as Maryland Route 64 ( MD 64 ) , north to PA 233 in the Upper Mifflin Township community of McCrea . PA 997 heads north from the state line through agricultural areas in the Cumberland Valley and passes through Waynesboro , where it intersects PA 16 , and Mont Alto , where it intersects the south end of PA 233 , before coming to U.S. Route 30 ( US 30 ) in Greenwood . From here , the route turns northwest and comes to a junction with Interstate 81 ( I @-@ 81 ) and PA 696 near Scotland and US 11 in Green Village . PA 997 crosses PA 433 in Culbertson and heads north along the eastern border of Letterkenny Army Depot to Pleasant Hall , where it crosses PA 533 . The route continues north through rural areas and intersects PA 433 near Lurgan and PA 641 in Roxbury before heading northeast and reaching an interchange with the Pennsylvania Turnpike ( I @-@ 76 ) near Blue Mountain . PA 997 leaves Franklin County for Cumberland County and intersects the north end of PA 696 before continuing to McCrea .
PA 997 was designated in 1928 between Mont Alto and US 30 in Fayetteville along Mont Alto Road . The same year , the present route between the Maryland border and Waynesboro became part of PA 316 while the section between Lurgan and Roxbury became part of PA 433 . PA 333 was designated in 1928 to run from US 30 in Chambersburg northeast to US 11 in Shippensburg , heading north to Pleasant Hall , west to Upper Strasburg , northeast to Roxbury , east to Newburg , and south to Shippensburg . By 1930 , PA 997 was extended south from Mont Alto to PA 16 in Waynesboro , while PA 333 was moved to a more direct alignment between Pleasant Hall and Roxbury ( running concurrent with PA 433 between Lurgan and Roxbury ) and PA 996 was designated onto the road between Scotland and Green Village . In 1937 , PA 997 was extended south to MD 60 at the Maryland border south of Waynesboro and northwest to US 11 in Green Village , replacing PA 996 between Scotland and Green Village , while the north end of PA 333 was cut back to PA 433 in Lurgan and PA 944 was designated onto the road between Roxbury and McCrea . PA 997 swapped alignments with PA 316 south of Waynesboro in 1941 , being rerouted to end at MD 64 at the Maryland border . PA 333 was rerouted to head southeast from Pleasant Hall to PA 433 in Culbertson in the 1940s , with a section of the former alignment south of Pleasant Hall remvoed for the Letterkenny Army Depot . PA 997 was extended north from Green Village to PA 233 in McCrea , replacing the entire length of PA 333 , PA 433 between Lurgan and Roxbury , and PA 944 between Roxbury and McCrea . The route was shifted east to its current alignment between Mont Alto and north of Fayetteville in 1977 .
= = Route description = =
PA 997 begins at the Maryland state line in Washington Township , Franklin County , where the road continues south into that state as MD 64 . From the state line , the route heads north @-@ northwest as two @-@ lane undivided Anthony Highway through farmland with some trees and homes . The road crosses the East Branch Little Antietam Creek and soon enters the borough of Waynesboro , where the name becomes State Hill Road , where it passes residences and commercial development . PA 997 curves northwest and immediately turns northeast onto Clayton Avenue , passing homes and coming to an intersection with PA 16 . Here , the route turns northwest to form a concurrency with PA 16 on East Main Street , passing homes and businesses before continuing into the downtown area . At the center of town , PA 997 splits from PA 16 by turning northeast onto North Church Street , heading through more residential areas with a few businesses . The route leaves Waynesboro for Washington Township again and becomes Anthony Highway , passing more development before heading into a mix of farms and woods . The road crosses into Quincy Township and curves northwest and north again as it runs through more rural areas with some residential and commercial development , passing through the communities of Quincy and Knepper .
PA 997 curves northeast and heads into the borough of Mont Alto , where it becomes Main Street and passes homes and a few businesses , coming to an intersection with the southern terminus of PA 233 . A short distance past this intersection , the route crosses back into Quincy Township and becomes Anthony Highway again , heading into farmland and entering Guilford Township . The road curves north and passes a golf course and residential development in the community of Ledy before heading through Pond Bank . PA 997 heads north @-@ northeast between farm fields and some homes to the west and a section of Michaux State Forest to the east , passing through the community of Sidetown and crossing into Greene Township , where it continues northeast to an intersection with US 30 in the community of Greenwood .
At this point , PA 997 turns east for a short concurrency with US 30 on Lincoln Way East before turning north onto Black Gap Road . The road curves northwest and heads through wooded areas with some fields and homes . Farther northwest , the route runs through farmland with some residential and commercial development , and gains a center left @-@ turn lane as it passes to the northeast of the Chambersburg Mall . PA 997 widens to a four @-@ lane divided highway and comes to an intersection with the southern terminus of PA 696 and an interchange with I @-@ 81 , with the ramps serving the northbound lanes of I @-@ 81 connecting to PA 696 . Past this interchange , the route narrows to a two @-@ lane undivided road and turns north and northwest through fields and woods to bypass the community of Scotland , coming to a bridge over Norfolk Southern 's Lurgan Branch . The road curves west and then northwest and becomes Cumberland Highway , running through farmland with some woods and residential and commercial development . PA 997 comes to an intersection with US 11 in the community of Green Village , where PA 997 Truck heads south along US 11 . From here , the route passes homes and businesses with some nearby farmland , crossing CSX 's Lurgan Subdivision and passing through the community of Culbertson .
PA 997 intersects PA 433 , where PA 997 Truck returns to the route , and turns north @-@ northwest to run between the Letterkenny Army Depot to the west and agricultural areas to the east . The road crosses into Letterkenny Township and continues north and then northwest through a mix of fields and woods with some development along the eastern border of the military installation . The route curves northeast and heads into the community of Pleasant Hall , where it passes homes and crosses PA 533 . From here , PA 997 runs through a mix of farmland and woodland , crossing the Conodoguinet Creek into Lurgan Township . The road continues north and comes to an intersection with the northern terminus of PA 433 near the community of Lurgan . The route runs through more rural land and curves northwest , passing over the Conodoguinet Creek again and heading back into Letterkenny Township . PA 997 curves north and passes some residential development before heading into wooded areas and crossing the creek a third time and reentering Lurgan Township . At this point , the route heads into the community of Roxbury and comes to a junction with PA 641 , where it turns east to follow that route , passing homes . PA 997 splits from PA 641 by turning northeast onto Cumberland Highway , heading through a mix of farmland and woods with some homes a short distance to the southeast of Blue Mountain . Farther northeast , the route passes businesses and comes to a ramp providing access to the Pennsylvania Turnpike ( I @-@ 76 ) at the Blue Mountain interchange . After this , the road curves east and runs through the community of McKinney .
PA 997 crosses Laughlin Run into Hopewell Township in Cumberland County and winds east along Enola Road through agricultural areas with some trees and homes , coming to an intersection with the northern terminus of PA 696 . At this point , the route turns northeast through more rural land , turning east and northeast again before passing under the Pennsylvania Turnpike . The road enters Upper Mifflin Township and becomes Roxbury Road , continuing through farmland with some wooded areas and residences . PA 997 curves east and then northeast before it makes a turn southeast . In the community of Heberlig , the route makes another turn to the northeast and runs through more rural areas , passing through the community of Little Washington . The road heads into Lower Mifflin Township , where it makes quick turns to the southeast and then to the northeast . PA 997 continues northeast to the community of McCrea , where it comes to its northern terminus at an intersection with PA 233 .
= = History = =
When routes were legislated in Pennsylvania in 1911 , what is now PA 997 between the Maryland border and Waynesboro was designated as part of Legislative Route 44 while a section of the current route south of Roxbury became part of Legislative Route 264 . At this time , an unpaved road ran between Waynesboro , Mont Alto , and Fayetteville . PA 997 was signed in 1928 from Mont Alto , where an unnumbered paved road continued south to Waynesboro , north to US 30 in Fayetteville , following Mont Alto Road . Upon designation , the entire length of PA 997 was paved . The present route between the Maryland border and Waynesboro was designated as part of PA 316 , which was paved , while PA 433 was designated onto the unpaved road between Lurgan and Roxbury . PA 333 was designated in 1928 to run from US 30 in Chambersburg northeast to US 11 in Shippensburg , heading north on North Franklin Street and Letterkenny Road to Pleasant Hall before heading west to Upper Strasburg , northeast to Roxbury , east to Newburg , and south to Shippensburg . Upon designation , PA 333 was paved between Chambersburg and Pleasant Hall and Newburg and Shippensburg and was unpaved between Pleasant Hall and Newburg . On February 25 , 1929 , a bill passed that authorized the state to take over the road between Newburg and McCrea . By 1930 , PA 997 was extended south from Mont Alto to PA 16 in Waynesboro , following a paved road . The same year , PA 333 was shifted east to a more direct alignment between Pleasant Hall and Roxbury that was under construction , running concurrent with PA 433 between Lurgan and Roxbury , while PA 996 was designated onto the paved road between Scotland and US 11 in Green Village . The former alignment of PA 333 became PA 633 ( now PA 533 ) between Pleasant Hall and Upper Strasburg and an unnumbered road between Upper Strasburg and Roxbury . At this time , the road between Mont Alto and Scotland was an unnumbered , unpaved road , the road between Green Village and Culbertson was an unnumbered , paved road , and the road between Roxbury and McCrea was an unnumbered , unpaved road .
In 1937 , PA 997 was extended south from Waynesboro to MD 60 at the Maryland border , following Potomac Street and Wayne Highway , and was extended northwest from Fayetteville to US 11 in Green Village , following Mont Alto Road , Main Street and Mount Pleasant Road before picking up its current alignment . PA 997 replaced the PA 996 designation between Scotland and Green Village . In addition , the north end of PA 333 was cut back to PA 433 near Lurgan , with PA 641 replacing the route between Roxbury and Newburg and PA 696 replacing the route between Newburg and Shippensburg , and an extended PA 944 was designated onto the road between Roxbury and McCrea . In the 1930s , the entire length of both PA 333 and PA 997 were paved along with PA 433 between Lurgan and Roxbury , PA 944 between Roxbury and McCrea , and the unnumbered road between Mont Alto and north of Fayetteville via Black Gap . In 1941 , PA 997 switched alignments with PA 316 south of Waynesboro , with PA 997 rerouted to head south along Clayton Avenue , State Hill road , and Anthony Highway to MD 64 at the Maryland border . In the 1940s , PA 333 was rerouted to head southeast from Pleasant Hall to PA 433 in Culbertson along a new paved road , with a section of the former route between Beautiful and Pleasant Hall removed for the Letterkenny Army Depot . In 1964 , PA 997 was extended north from Green Village to PA 233 in McCrea , replacing the entire length of PA 333 between Culbertson and Lurgan , the section of PA 433 between Lurgan and Roxbury , and the section of PA 944 between Roxbury and McCrea . In the 1960s , PA 997 was rerouted to bypass Scotland to the northeast , with the former alignment now unnumbered Main Street . In 1977 , PA 997 was moved off its alignment on Mont Alto Road , Main Street and Mount Pleasant Road and shifted east onto its current route via Black Gap .
= = Major intersections = =
= = PA 997 Truck = =
Pennsylvania Route 997 Truck ( PA 997 Truck ) is a 3 @.@ 0 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) truck route of PA 997 in Greene Township in Franklin County . The truck route begins at PA 997 in Green Village by heading southwest concurrent with US 11 on Philadelphia Avenue , a three @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane that passes through a mix of farmland and residential and commercial development . The road intersects the southern terminus of PA 433 , where PA 997 Truck splits from US 11 by heading north with PA 433 on two @-@ lane undivided Sunset Pike . The road passes through agricultural areas with some industrial development , crossing CSX 's Lurgan Subdivision railroad line . At this point , the route passes to the east of an industrial area adjacent to the Letterkenny Army Depot . The roadway comes to a junction with PA 997 , where PA 997 Truck ends and PA 433 continues north .
= Reflection ( song ) =
" Reflection " is a song written and produced by Matthew Wilder and David Zippel for the soundtrack of Disney 's 1998 animated film Mulan . In the film , the song is performed by Filipina singer and actress Lea Salonga as Fa Mulan . An accompanying music video for " Reflection " was included as a bonus to the Disney Gold Classic Collection DVD release of the film in 1998 .
A single version of the song was recorded by American singer Christina Aguilera and became her debut single . She was 17 at the time it was released . The single 's commercial success funded Aguilera 's debut album from RCA , in addition to gaining her credibility amongst established writers and producers . Releases of the single were limited , which resulted in the track charting only on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart , at number nineteen . An accompanying music video for the song was included on the DVD release of Mulan . Aguilera has performed the track on four televised performances , including at the CBS This Morning show , which saw her gain the attention of songwriter Diane Warren .
= = Use in Mulan = =
In the film Mulan , the song is performed by Filipina singer and actress Lea Salonga as Fa Mulan . " Reflection " , which lasts for 2 : 27 ( two minutes and twenty seven seconds ) , was written and produced by Matthew Wilder and David Zippel , in the key of A major . The track begins with the lyrics " Look at me , I will never pass for a perfect bride , or a perfect daughter " , with Salonga 's vocal range spanning from the low @-@ note of G ♯ 3 to the high @-@ note of D5 in a moderately slow tempo of 92 beats per minute . Irving Tan from Sputnikmusic labelled " Reflection " a " decent " song .
= = Christina Aguilera single release = =
Aguilera approached record label RCA , then having financial difficulties , and was told to contact Disney . After being given the opportunity to record " Reflection " , it was reported she had gained a record deal with RCA Records . After she was asked to hit a musical note required for " Reflection " , she thought that the song could be the gateway into an album deal . Aguilera spent hours recording a cover of Whitney Houston 's " Run to You " , which included the note she was asked to hit . After successfully hitting the note , which she called " the note that changed my life " , she was given the opportunity to record the song . Due to the success around the recording of " Reflection " , RCA wished for Aguilera to record and release an album by September 1998 to maintain the " hype " surrounding her at that time . The label laid the foundation for the album immediately and started presenting Aguilera with tracks for her debut album , which they later decided would have a January 1999 release .
Aguilera 's version of " Reflection " was released to adult contemporary radio on June 15 , 1998 . The song was released as a CD single in Japan on September 18 , 1999 . In 2000 , Aguilera recorded the Spanish version of " Reflection " titled " Mi Reflejo " which was adapted by Rudy Pérez for the album of the same name .
= = = Reception = = =
Beth Johnson of Entertainment Weekly noted Aguilera has a " who @-@ am @-@ I musings " persona in the song , while Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic commented that the " Matthew Wilder and David Zippel 's full @-@ fledged songs [ on Mulan ] are flat and unmemorable . " " Reflection " peaked at number 19 on the Adult Contemporary chart . After the success of the track , Aguilera 's record label RCA decided to fund her debut album ( costing over one million dollars ) , and eventually funded more than they had predicted initially .
= = = Live performances = = =
Aguilera performed the song on television four times , first on the CBS This Morning , and then on the Donny & Marie show ; neither of these performances were directed at her demographic of teen viewers . Whilst watching the show on This Morning , Aguilera gained the attention of songwriter Diane Warren , who was astonished by such a young performer being as " polished " as she was . Warren later stated that she had seen the potential in Aguilera . The singer also performed " Reflection " on MuchMusic 's Intimate and Interactive on May 17 , 2000 . An ABC special in 2000 , featuring a performance of the song , was recorded and released in a DVD titled My Reflection .
= = = Track listing = = =
CD single
" Reflection " – 3 : 34
= = = Charts = = =
= = Other languages = =
Edyta Górniak recorded a Polish version of the song titled Lustro ( Mirror ) to promote the movie . Anabela Pires , European Portuguese singing voice of Mulan , along with the whole European Portuguese movie cast , won a prize for the best foreign version , while Yè Bēi , who provided Mulan 's singing voice in the Mainland Mandarin Chinese version , was hailed as one of the " 10 best versions of the world " by Disney director of production .
= = Other versions = =
The group Mannheim Steamroller covered the song on their 1999 album , Mannheim Steamroller Meets the Mouse . Michael Crawford covered this song in The Disney Album . His rendition replaces the word " girl " with " man " in order to avoid gender confusion . Singer and American Idol winner Jordin Sparks performed the song on the Dedication Week of the sixth season of the show , with the performance she moved forward to the next round . Jackie Evancho also covered the song on her fourth studio album , Songs from the Silver Screen . In La Voz ... Argentina ( the Argentinian version of The Voice ) , the Spanish version of the song was covered by Sofia Rangone .
= Althorp =
Althorp ( / ˈɔːlθɔːp / or / ˈɔːltrəp / ) is a Grade I listed stately home , estate and small civil parish in Daventry District , Northamptonshire , England of about 13 @,@ 000 acres ( 5 @,@ 300 ha ) . By road it is about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) northwest of the county town of Northampton and about 75 miles ( 121 km ) northwest of central London . It has been held by the prominent aristocratic Spencer family for more than 500 years , and has been owned by Charles Spencer , 9th Earl Spencer since 1992 . It was also the home of his sister , Lady Diana Spencer later Princess of Wales , before her marriage to Charles , Prince of Wales .
Althorp is mentioned as a small hamlet in the Domesday Book as " Olletorp " , and by 1377 it had become a village with a population of more than fifty people . By 1505 there were no longer any tenants living there , and in 1508 , John Spencer purchased Althorp estate with the funds generated from his family 's sheep @-@ rearing business . Althorp became one of the prominent stately homes in England . The mansion dates to 1688 , replacing an earlier house that was once visited by Charles I. The Spencer family amassed an extensive art collection and other valuable household items . During the 18th century , the house became a major cultural hub in England , and parties were regularly held , attracting many prominent members of Great Britain 's ruling class . George John , 2nd Earl Spencer , who owned Althorp between 1783 and his death in 1834 , developed one of the largest private libraries in Europe at the house , which grew to over 100 @,@ 000 books by the 1830s . After falling on hard times , John Spencer , 5th Earl Spencer , known as the Red Earl , in 1892 sold much of the collection to Enriqueta Rylands , who was building the University of Manchester Library . Many of Althorp 's furnishings were sold off during the twentieth century , and between 1975 and 1992 alone approximately 20 % of the contents were auctioned .
The house at Althorp was a " classically beautiful " red brick Tudor building , but its appearance was radically altered , starting in 1788 , when the architect Henry Holland was commissioned to make extensive changes . Mathematical tiles were added to the exterior , encasing the brick , and four Corinthian pilasters were added to the front . The grand hall entrance to the house , Wootton Hall , was cited by Sir Nikolaus Pevsner as " the noblest Georgian room in the county " . The Great Dining Room in the east wing extension of the house was added in 1877 to designs by John Macvicar Anderson , its walls hung with faded , red damask silk . Numerous fireplaces and furnishings were brought to Althorp from Spencer House in London during the Blitz for safekeeping and still remain . The Picture Gallery stretches for 115 feet ( 35 m ) on the first floor of the west wing , and is one of the best remaining examples of the original Tudor oak woodwork and ambiance in the mansion . It has an extensive collection of portraits , including Anthony van Dyck 's War and Peace , a John de Critz portrait of James I , a Mary Beale portrait of Charles II , and many others . Some £ 2 million was spent on redecorating the house in the 1980s , during which time most of the religious paintings of Althorp were sold off .
In total , the grounds of Althorp estate contain 28 listed buildings and structures , including nine planting stones . The former falconry , now a Grade I listed building , was built in 1613 . Gardener 's House is listed as a Grade II * listed building in its own right , as are the Grade II listed West and East Lodges . The mustard @-@ yellow Grade II listed Stable Block , designed by architect Roger Morris with a Palladian influence , was ordered by Charles , Fifth Earl of Sutherland in the early 1730s . The French landscape architect André Le Nôtre was commissioned to lay out the park and grounds in the 1660s , and further alterations were made during the late 18th century under Henry Holland . Following the death of Diana , Princess of Wales in 1997 , she was interred on a small island in the middle of the ornamental Round Oval lake . A Doric @-@ style temple with Diana 's name inscribed on top , situated across from the lake , is a tourist attraction during July and August when the house and estate are open to the public , although the exhibition centre , situated in the old stable block , closed permanently in 2013 .
= = Etymology = =
A manor existed at Althorp in medieval times . It was referred to in the Domesday Book as " Olletorp " , meaning Olla 's Thorp , believed to refer to a medieval lord named Olla . Thorp is a word of Scandinavian origin , which would have been pronounced as " throop " or " thrupp " , and in Danish probably meant " daughter 's settlement " . In the 13th and 15th centuries it was recorded as " Holtropp " and " Aldrop " , although when the estate was bought by John Spencer in 1508 it began being referred to as " Oldthorpe " .
The name today is properly pronounced as " Awltrupp " , which is not officially recognised on paper and by the media . The current owner , Charles Spencer , noted that none of his family refer to it as Althorp , and that his father insisted on pronouncing it " Awl @-@ trupp " . When he assumed ownership in 1992 , the BBC Pronunciation Department contacted him and the current " Althorp " was agreed upon .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
A hamlet named Althorp existed here in medieval times , believed to have been situated on the southwest side of the park , east of West Lodge . It was first mentioned in the Domesday Book as having a population of ten at the time , and being part of the parish of Brington . It was officially designated as an " extra parochial district " for centuries under the New Bottle Grove Hundred of Brington , but by 1874 it was being cited as an independent civil parish . 21 residents were documented in 1327 , and in 1377 fifty people were reported to have paid Poll Tax over the age of 14 . During the 15th century the population of the village diminished , and in 1505 there were no longer any tenants living there . By 1577 most of the land was converted into four substantial sheep pastures .
In 1469 John Spencer 's uncle – also named John Spencer – had become feoffee ( feudal lord ) of Wormleighton in Warwickshire and a tenant at Althorp in Northamptonshire in 1486 . The family 's administration of their Northamptonshire and Warwickshire estates gained them admiration and a following throughout England , and their sheep @-@ rearing business earned large profits . After beginning construction of Wormleighton Manor the previous year with some 60 relatives , John Spencer bought Althorp in 1508 for £ 800 from the Catesby family . At the time Spencer was also lord of the manors of Fenny Compton , Stoneton , Nobottle , Great Brington , Little Brington , Harlestone , Glassthorpe , Flore , Wicken , Wyke Hamon , Upper Boddington , Lower Boddington and Hinton , and owned numerous other properties . The park took some four years to establish , with 300 acres of grassland , 100 acres of woodland and 40 acres of water .
When John Spencer died in 1522 , he passed the estate to his youngest son , Sir William Spencer , High Sheriff of Northamptonshire , who held it until his death in 1532 . Only a boy at the time of William 's death , his son John Spencer inherited Althorp and held it until his death in 1586 , when he passed it to his son , also John , who died in 1600 . John 's son , Robert , was created the 1st Baron Spencer of Wormleighton on 21 July 1603 . King Charles I is documented to have visited Althorp during his reign . The drawing room was built and the main hall enlarged for the occasion , with £ 1 @,@ 300 spent on the banquet , an exorbitant sum for the period . Upon Robert Spencer 's death in 1627 Althorp devolved to William Spencer , 2nd Baron Spencer of Wormleighton who held it until his death in 1636 . William 's eldest son , Henry Spencer , 1st Earl of Sunderland , known as The Lord Spencer between 1636 and June 1643 , fought in the Battle of Edgehill in 1642 and was rewarded for his services on 8 June 1643 when the title of Earl of Sunderland was bestowed upon him , although the title cost him £ 3 @,@ 000 . He then fought in the Siege of Gloucester in August 1643 and the First Battle of Newbury on 20 September 1643 , where he was killed , aged 23 , by a cannonball .
Following Henry 's death , the estate passed to his eldest son Robert Spencer , 2nd Earl of Sunderland , just two years of age at the time . Cosimo III visited Althorp in 1669 , documenting it in his Travels of Cosmo III . Grand Duke of Tuscany , through England , in 1669 . Robert built the current house in 1688 and made a series of changes to Althorp park . However , Robert 's bad temper and his reputation as a ruthless advocate of absolute monarchy made him numerous enemies , and he was forced to leave the country and flee to the Netherlands the same year . He later underwent a political rehabilitation , becoming Lord Chamberlain of the Household in April 1697 and Lord Justice for a short period before retiring from public life in December of that year , after which he lived a secluded life at Althorp until his death in 1702 . Robert passed Althorp to his son , Charles Spencer , 3rd Earl of Sunderland , who held it for twenty years . Described by John Evelyn as " a youth of extraordinary hopes , " Charles inherited his father 's passion for intrigue and repellent manners , and from his early years he had a great love of books , spending his leisure and his wealth in expanding the library at Althorp . Charles 's second marriage to Anne Churchill , daughter of John Churchill , 1st Duke of Marlborough and Sarah Churchill , Duchess of Marlborough in 1700 was an important alliance for the Spencers and for his descendants ; through it he was introduced to political life , and later the dukedom of Marlborough came to the Spencers . In 1722 he was implicated in what became known as the Atterbury Plot , to restore the House of Stuart , and his death was one of the factors which brought the Plot to light . Althorp was then occupied by his son Robert Spencer , 4th Earl of Sunderland , who died childless in 1729 . As a result , his brother , Charles , became 5th Earl of Sunderland , and subsequently 3rd Duke of Marlborough after the death of his aunt , Henrietta Godolphin ( née Churchill ) , 2nd Duchess of Marlborough . Charles later led the naval descent on the French coastal port of St Malo during the Seven Years ' War , after passing Althorp to the 3rd Earl 's son , John Spencer , in January 1733 . John Spencer , along with Charles and Thomas Coram , William Hogarth and others , was involved in the charter of the Foundling Hospital . Upon his death in 1746 , John passed his estates to his son John , only 12 years of age at the time , beneficiary to the greatest inheritance in the kingdom at the time with an income of almost £ 30 @,@ 000 a year .
= = = Social and cultural hub = = =
John served as Member of Parliament for Warwick from 1756 to 1761 . He was renowned for his heavy spending on his political pursuits and campaigns , " indulging in the fiercely competitive and heinously expensive business of fighting elections to Parliament – which effectively meant bribing people to vote for his candidate rather than that of another magnate " . He spent £ 120 @,@ 000 in one campaign alone and spent heavily on his estates , building Spencer House in London . He also wore expensive fashionable attire such as " diamond @-@ buckled shoes " . Althorp frequently hosted parties attended by the political and cultural elite , and it became known as a place of indulgence and festivities . At dinners and picnics in the gardens , John hired musicians to play French horns and organised unusual spectacles to entertain guests , such as a " Hooray Henry Olympics " , as Charles Spencer calls it , with a donkey race for Lord Fordwick , dance competitions offering a guinea as the first prize , and sack races with the first prize of 30 shillings . The Christmas of 1755 was a grand affair . John celebrated his 21st birthday with a ball at the house on 20 December during which he secretly married 18 @-@ year @-@ old Margaret Georgiana Poyntz ; the couple did not inform anyone for several days . Around 5 @,@ 000 guests were invited to a celebration party organised by the Spencers in a shed on the village green in the nearby village of Brington , consuming some 11 @,@ 000 pints of beer . Althorp was " buzzing with activity " , and France 's top chefs were brought to Althorp to cater for the family and their guests during the week . He was created Baron Spencer of Althorp and Viscount Spencer by George III on 3 April 1761 , and on 1 November 1765 , he was given the title Viscount Althorp and made the first Earl Spencer . He was also High Steward of St Albans in 1772 and Mayor of St Albans in 1779 . John 's daughter , Georgiana Cavendish , Duchess of Devonshire , was also known for her liberal spending , and although she became one of Britain 's most prominent socialites in the late 18th century , with many political and literary connections , she suffered from a gambling addiction and had an eating disorder .
John 's son George John , 2nd Earl Spencer inherited Althorp after his father 's death in 1783 . He served as Whig MP for Northampton from 1780 to 1782 and for Surrey from 1782 to 1783 before accepting the title of 2nd Earl Spencer . He was later Home Secretary from 1806 to 1807 under Lord Grenville in the Ministry of All the Talents . Extremely interested in literary pursuits , he developed one of the largest private libraries in Europe at Althorp . He was the instigator and first President of the Roxburghe Club ( an exclusive bibliophilic club ) , founded in 1812 , President of the Royal Institution from 1813 to 1827 , and Commissioner of the Public Records in 1831 , among other literary pursuits . In later life , his collecting habit had become an obsession , and he attempted to collect every volume ever published in Britain . Such was his desire to obtain as complete a collection as possible , that when Napoleon instigated the secularisation of religious houses in south Germany , Spencer used the local British agent and Benedictine monk , Alexander Horn to acquire many of their rare books and manuscripts . Althorp became a major cultural hub of England during his time ; at one Christmas , the actor David Garrick , the historian Edward Gibbon , the playwright Richard Brinsley Sheridan and the painter Joshua Reynolds , among other artistic figures. attended a party there together . However , George John 's spending became problematic for the Spencers , especially as at the time they were feeling the impact of the agricultural depressions brought on by the Napoleonic Wars . By the time of his death in 1834 he had amassed a debt of £ 500 @,@ 000 , which he passed onto his son , John Spencer , 3rd Earl Spencer .
The 3rd Earl became an active statesman , serving as Chancellor of the Exchequer under Lord Grey and Lord Melbourne from 1830 to 1834 . Along with Lord John Russell , he led the fight to pass the Reform Bill of 1832 , making more than twenty speeches , and is generally considered the architect of its victory . Despite his debts , in respect for his father , John managed to retain the massive book collection , and also continue to run the other Spencer houses at Wimbledon and Spencer House in London , as well as his farm in Wiseton and shooting retreat in Norfolk . He achieved this mainly by far less extravagant living , spending much of the year at Wiseton where the running costs were £ 1 @,@ 200 compared with the £ 5 @,@ 000 needed to run Althorp and pay the staff of 40 in the house . As a result , Althorp was largely abandoned during the late 1830s and early 1840s . John also leased out his lands and gardens and sold land in Buckinghamshire and Bedfordshire , repaying all the debt by the time of his death in 1845 , and beginning to run his properties at a profit . His son Frederick Spencer , 4th Earl Spencer , who owned Althorp from 1845 until his death in 1857 , also retained the collection .
John Spencer , 5th Earl Spencer , known as the Red Earl , inherited Althorp in 1857 . He served as a Liberal Party politician and was a close friend of British prime minister William Gladstone , who he served under in all four of his cabinets . Although politically successful , John fell into hard times financially and was forced to eventually sell much of the enormous library collection in 1892 to Enriqueta Rylands , who was building the University of Manchester Library . After dying childless in 1910 , John passed Althorp to his half brother , Charles Spencer , 6th Earl Spencer , who served as Lord Chamberlain from 1905 to 1912 in the Liberal administrations headed by Sir Henry Campbell @-@ Bannerman and H. H. Asquith .
= = = Modern history = = =
Times became more difficult for the Spencers by the late 19th century , and many of their assets had to be sold off . Albert Spencer , 7th Earl Spencer inherited the estate after his father Charles ' death in 1922 . Albert became a well @-@ known art connoisseur and was a trustee of the Wallace Collection , chairman of the Royal School of Needlework , a Fellow of both the Society of Antiquaries of London and the Royal Society of Arts , and from 1961 until 1969 he was Chair of the Advisory Council of the Victoria and Albert Museum . Despite his keen interest in art , he began selling off paintings and other items to pay off debts . In the 1930s he was forced to sell off a small but immaculate Hans Holbein portrait of Henry VIII ( now at the Thyssen @-@ Bornemisza Museum , Madrid ) for £ 10 @,@ 000 to finance his son 's education . Although a large sum at the time , by 1998 it was reputed to be worth around £ 50 million . Unlike many country houses in Britain during the Second World War which were occupied by the military and converted into hospitals , training camps and barracks , Althorp house remained untouched , thanks to Albert who saw to it that they used the stables instead . A Wellington bomber crashed near the ice house during the war , killing all of its crew . Due to Spencer House being in a dangerous location in London during the Blitz , many of the pieces of furniture and items of the house were brought to Althorp for safekeeping , including numerous fireplaces and doors with curled " S " doorknobs , a signature of the Spencer family dating to the 18th century .
The estate was first opened to the public in 1953 by Albert , to mitigate against taxation , and Althorp had its own railway station called Althorp Park on the Northampton Loop Line until 1960 . After his death in 1975 , Albert passed Althorp to his son Edward John , 8th Earl Spencer , who had served as Equerry to King George VI ( 1950 – 52 ) and to Queen Elizabeth II ( 1952 – 54 ) . Edward was a wine connoisseur and had an extensive wine cellar at Althorp . He made his own wine and attracted fellow connoisseurs from around the world to Althorp , although he did not sell much of it . During Edward 's ownership of Althorp approximately 20 % of the furnishings of Althorp were sold off . The divestment included eleven Van Dykes and nearly every religious painting in the collection , as well as estate housing , and drew severe public criticism , including from the heir .
Edward left the estate to his son , the current owner Charles Spencer , 9th Earl Spencer , after his death in 1992 . As a teenager , Charles served as a tour guide at the house and acquired a deep knowledge of Althorp . At the time he inherited the estate it was losing some £ 400 @,@ 000 annually , and the staff of 14 had to be significantly reduced . Charles ' older sister was Diana , Princess of Wales , who grew up with him at Althorp .
Since the 1990s Charles Spencer has done much to increase the revenue earned by the estate to keep it running . The annual Althorp Literary Festival was founded in 2003 . The heir apparent is Charles ' son Louis Frederick John Spencer ( born 1994 ) . Charles has expressed concerns about the future of the estate and whether Louis might be forced to sell it . In 2005 Charles endorsed a furniture collection of replicas from the house , known as the Althorp Living History Collection .
In 2009 a major restoration of the roof , stonework and the mathematical tiles that clad the building was undertaken . Approximately £ 10 million was spent on repairing the roof alone . In 2010 an auction of over 700 items from Althorp 's attics and cellars , as well as a Rubens and other notable works , achieved £ 21 million .
= = Architecture and collections = =
Althorp house is described as standing in a low situation , " approached by a handsome avenue , beautifully shaded with trees " . The house was originally a " classically beautiful " red brick Tudor building , and a Johannes Vorstermans painting dated to 1677 shows a smaller red house at Althorp and Holdenby House in the distance to the far right . Cosmo III noted that the interior of Althorp house was strongly influenced by Italian architecture , and remarked that it " may be said to be the best planned , and best arranged country seat in the kingdom ; for though there may be many which surpass it in size , none are superior to it in symmetrical elegance " . The current building dates to 1688 . Diarist John Evelyn described it that year : " The house , or rather palace , at Althorpe is a noble uniform pile in form of a half H , built of brick and freestone ' a la moderne ' ; the hall is well , the staircase excellent ; the rooms of state , galleries , offices , and furniture , such as may become a great prince . It is situate in the midst of a garden , exquisitely planned and kept and all this in a park walled in with hewn stone , planted with rows and walks of trees , canals and fishponds and stored with game . " Its appearance was radically altered in the 18th century when the architect Henry Holland was commissioned to make extensive changes starting in 1788 . Mathematical tiles were added to the exterior , brought from Ipswich , encasing the old red brick , and four Corinthian pilasters , made from Roche Abbey stone in Yorkshire , were added to the front . The stone used to make the pilasters was reportedly intended by Christopher Wren to be used in the construction of St Paul 's Cathedral . Sash windows with glazing bars and " moulded stone heads and surrounds " were added .
= = = Interior = = =
The interior of the house is generally considered its strongest asset as the Spencer family has assembled an impressive collection of portrait art , including several pieces painted by the Flemish master Anthony van Dyck , and countless valuable pieces of porcelain and furniture . One of the rooms in the estate is called the Queen Mary bedroom , which was used by Queen Mary and George V during their visit to the estate in 1913 . Some £ 2 million was spent on redecorating the house in the 1980s by Raine , Countess Spencer , in a style described by Charles Spencer as having ' the wedding cake vulgarity of a five @-@ star hotel in Monaco ' . This work has been reversed , and the interior returned to its original grand but understated appearance .
= = = = Ground floor = = = =
= = = = = Wootton Hall and Saloon = = = = =
Wootton Hall is the grand hall entrance on the central south side of Althorp house . " Perfectly proportioned " with a two @-@ storey high ceiling , it was cited by Sir Nikolaus Pevsner as " the noblest Georgian room in the county " . It takes its name from the painter John Wootton who was commissioned by the family in 1733 to paint a number of massive paintings in his Marylebone studio to reflect the family 's love of equestrian pursuits , particularly fox hunting . At the time , Wootton was considered to be the finest painter of horses in the country . The paintings still hang on the walls . The hall has a substantial collection of artefacts collected over the years . Aside from the hall porter 's chair , there is a dozen or so lavish @-@ looking hall chairs , one of which is a sedan chair , rediscovered in the Stable Block in 1911 , which had once been in Spencer House .
A prominent feature of the Wootton Hall is its pair of Italian black and Beschia marble blackamoor torchères , originally given to the First Duke of Marlborough as a present from General Charles Churchill . In exceptionally good condition , they stand either side of the door into the Saloon . These were discovered in the silt of the River Tiber and are depictions of slaves who once served in a Roman household . Several flags stand above them , including the White Ensign . The ceiling is intricately made , featuring flowers in the plaster , each one different , the work of Colen Campbell in the early 18th century . The black and white check marble floor is also a distinguishing feature of the room , but through most of its history this floor would have been left plain as horses and carriages would enter the hall inside . In the mid 19th century Frederick , the 4th Earl , had laid down brown and blue tiles , replaced by the marble floor which was added by his son Robert in around 1910 . The floor gives significant depth to the hall and provides fine acoustics , so much that Diana would once practice her tap dancing in the hall as a teenager .
Beyond the Wootton Hall is the Saloon , which was converted from an inner courtyard and roofed in 1650 by Dorothy Spencer , Countess of Sunderland . The Saloon was the first room at Althorp to have electricity installed , and it contains an imposing oak staircase , added in the 1660s . Cosmo III noted Althorp 's " spacious staircase of the wood of the walnut tree , stained , constructed with great magnificence ; this staircase , dividing itself into two equal branches , leads to the grand saloon , from which is the passage into the chambers , all of them regularly disposed after the Italian manner , to which country the Earl was indented for a model of the design . " Historically , the staircase was painted white . It is described as being " surprisingly shallow and delightfully uneven – a physical manifestation of the long history of the house " .
= = = = = Sitting and drawing rooms = = = = =
The South Drawing Room is at the front of the house on the West Wing . In earlier times the room had served as a dining room , despite it being about as far from the kitchen as possible . This section of the house was largely remodelled under Henry Holland , but it retains its Georgian elegance today , " gilded to within an inch of its life " , with walls painted in a duck egg blue colour with forest green drapery and peach @-@ patterned sofas . A large mirror with an exquisite gold frame stands between the two windows . The fireplace was added by the Chelsea stonemason Lancelot Edward Wood in 1802 , and the ceiling by master builder Benjamin Broadbent of Leicester in 1865 . The ceiling in the Yellow Drawing Room , also known as the Rubens Room because of its four Rubens paintings , is also attributed to Broadbent . There are numerous paintings on the walls , including fifteen Joshua Reynolds portraits and a miniature portrait in one of the alcoves of Admiral Lord Nelson , an associate of George John , Second Earl Spencer . Although Higgerson , the night watchman , guarded the place from 8 pm to 8 am , in 1954 one of the lesser valuable paintings in the South Drawing Room was stolen in the night .
The Grandmother 's Sitting Room is situated at the front of the eastern wing . It is noted for its deep blue hand @-@ painted frescoes and formal furniture , and was the favourite room of Charles and Diana 's grandmother , Cynthia Spencer , Countess Spencer . Nearby was the Muniment Room in which the Spencer family records were kept , described as a " musty apartment " which contained over 500 years of history , from medieval household accounts to letters from Jacobeans and accounts of Victorian house parties . The room was a favourite haunt of Spencer 's grandfather , Albert Spencer , who would spend thousands of hours in it perusing over the family history . So guarded was he of the collection that when Winston Churchill once spent time in the room looking for information on his ancestor , John Churchill , 1st Duke of Marlborough ( 1650 – 1722 ) , Albert immediately doused out his cigar in fear of creating a fire . The records were sold to the British Library in the 1980s , leaving the room empty , before it was converted to what is known as the " Steward 's Room Flat " . This part of the house once had an extensive collection of 1830s bull paintings by Richard Ansdell .
The Sutherland Room lies at the rear east wing of the house and was once the bedroom of the Earl of Althorp in the first few centuries of the house when it was fashionable for the occupants to sleep on the ground floor and guests to sleep on the first floor . This was still the case during the Holland restoration , and as a result the room was ignored , so it retains many of the earlier mouldings not seen in many other parts of the house . It contains two fireplaces made by John Vardy and James Stuart which were originally situated in Spencer House , and the room has the original 17th @-@ century cornice . The paintings in the room were selected by the current owner Charles Spencer to honour John , Third Earl Spencer and his passion for foxhunting . After it ceased usage as a bedroom , on special occasions the room would be full of life ; on Christmas Day the room would be " transformed into a Christmas fairyland , with clockwork Santas , snowmen and angels all spinning and chiming in the candlelight " . The children would have their places marked by a small cake with their names written on it in icing .
The Marlborough Room , which contains the Great Parlour , is named after Sarah Churchill , Duchess of Marlborough , and is situated next to the Sunderland Room and at left angles to the Library . The Marlborough Room served as an " uncomfortable " drawing room until the 1990s when a Victorian rosewood dining table accommodating for up to 42 people was added , with ' squiggle @-@ back ' chairs attributed to George Seddon in 1800 . The new room was created after alterations were made to the large drawing room by the 6th Earl Spencer in 1911 , including the removal of a dividing partition from the old billiard room . Part of the restoration work attributed to the 7th Earl Spencer after 1957 includes a replacement of two Victorian chimney pieces in the Marlborough Room with those from Spencer House , one which was crafted by Peter Scheemakers . Portraits by Thomas Gainsborough , Joshua Reynolds , and George Romney , mostly of family members , adorn the walls , and accessions from the Spencer House are placed throughout .
= = = = = Dining rooms = = = = =
The Great Dining Room is situated in the east wing extension of the house and was added in 1877 under J. MacVicar Anderson during the time of the Red Earl . The room was inspired by the ballroom of Buckingham Palace , with walls hung with faded , red damask silk . The Spencers ate their regular meals in the Tapestry Dining Room , an inner room of the east side to the east of the Wooton Hall . Aside from the two fine vividly constructed tapestries , one of gypsies and one of farming , the room is fairly bleak in design compared to other rooms in the house ; the dining table is relatively small , with a drab grey floor and open brick fireplace dated in large letters to 1683 . The " sombre " oak panelling originally came from the family 's other property of Wormleighton Manor in Warwickshire . Charles Spencer recalled that three generations of Spencers would eat their lunch together and that dining conditions were " silent , apart from the noises of my grandfather eating with great gusto , a napkin tucked in around his neck , hanging down over his popping @-@ out tummy , and it was all very sad and tense " .
= = = = = Library = = = = =
The ceiling of the original library at Althorp collapsed in 1773 , and at the same time a new floor was put down in the Picture Gallery . Ionic columns and an Adam style ceiling were added . George John 's fascination in literature began at a young age and there is a Reynolds portrait in the house of him at Trinity College , Cambridge holding a book By his later life , George John 's collecting habit had become something of an obsession and he attempted to collect every volume ever published in Britain .
The books were kept in five apartments in Althorp in the west wing , which , combined , formed the " Long Library " with books from the floor to the ceiling along much of its approximately 200 by 20 feet ( 61 @.@ 0 m × 6 @.@ 1 m ) length . He not only collected British works but imported Greek and Latin classics , and in 1790 , he acquired the collection of Count Charles de Revicksky , paying an initial £ 1000 , and then £ 500 annually until the count 's death , only three years later . George often paid great fees for rare books , including a woodcut of St Christopher dated to 1423 , believed at that time to be the oldest work in ink with a date on it , the Papal Indulgence Letters of 1452 , the Mazarin Bible of 1455 , the Mentz Psalter of 1457 , and some of the earliest works form the printing presses of Augsburg and Nuremberg such as Bonaventurae and Comestiorum Vitiorum . In 1812 , George John was involved in an intense bidding war with his cousin , The Duke of Marlborough , for a copy of Boccacio 's The Decameron of 1471 , one of only three known copies . Marlborough won the auction with a bid of £ 2 @,@ 260 – an amount described by Charles Spencer as " ludicrous " for that time – but he later sold it to George for £ 750 .
In 1802 , George hired Reverend Thomas Frognall Dibdin as an official librarian to look after the collection and the library contains his many catalogues entitled Aedes Althorpianæ , documenting the books of the library . The collection became so enormous that the massive library became inadequate to hold the contents , and books began being stored along the long picture gallery on the first floor above it . By the time of George John 's death in 1834 , he had amassed one of the largest private collections in Europe of some 110 @,@ 000 volumes . Alcoves were added to the ends of the library during the Holland restoration , creating extra room for the growing collection .
= = = = = Billiard Room = = = = =
The Billiard Room is situated between the South Drawing Room and the library , and overlooks the Deer Park . Once known as the " Rubens Room " , the room was once described by Charles Spencer as a " dead space ; desperately uncomfortable furniture , and Ruben 's imposing portraits of several unattractive Habsburgs , against a tightly patterned silver silk , making it anything but welcoming " . The room has now been " brought to life " with numerous horse and sporting paintings and portraits , including a dramatic portrait of Elisabeth , Empress of Austria hunting , and a full @-@ sized billiard table moved from the stables in the 1990s . The chimney piece of the room was made by Derval under Holland , and the room also contains an 1893 bronze sculpture of Forager , the Red Earl 's favourite foxhound . The Broadbent ceiling is dated to 1865 .
= = = = = China Museum and porcelain = = = = =
The old " Painter 's Passage " , parallel to the South Drawing Room was renovated after the Second World War when glass cases were installed along its length to showcase the Spencer crockery , with a range of porcelain including Meissen , Sèvres , Kangxi , Chelsea and Derby pieces . Charles Spencer remarked that his grandfather Albert was trying to say , " This part of Althorp will never be lived in again ; so we may as well use it to show off the treasures in an orderly way " . Today , most of the collection has been moved to the China Museum which lies on the east side of the house , between the Sutherland Room and the Great Dining Room , and the passage now contains a series of busts and paintings in its place , including a self @-@ portrait of Sofonisba Anguisciola , and portraits of the dramatist Molière and the actor David Garrick . Charles Spencer highlights a pair of late 17th century blue and white tulipieres , special vases to hold tulips which were fashionable at the time , as his favourite in the museum .
The Garden Lobby of Althorp also contains a number of pieces of porcelain from reputable European manufacturers , but also several rare Oriental pieces . Of note in the Garden Lobby aside from its many plates is a Sèvres tobacco jar with double strap handles , believed to be painted by Louis Jean Thévenet in 1765 , two Chelsea vases decorated with putti which metaphorically represent the four seasons , which the Red Earl had bought as a gift for his wife Charlotte , an extremely finely carved Meissen flower bowl with hundreds of tiny gilded blooms which dates to around 1745 , a Meissen card box , and a blue and gold cherubic Meissen chocolate set @-@ for @-@ one which was believed to have been made for Marie Antoinette in 1781 as a present celebrating the birth of her son Dauphin .
= = = = First floor = = = =
= = = = = The Picture Gallery and chapel = = = = =
The Picture Gallery stretches for 115 feet ( 35 m ) on the first floor of the west wing , 21 feet ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) wide and 19 feet ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) high . The room is one of the best remaining examples of the original Tudor woodwork and ambiance in the mansion , featuring oak panelling along its length . During the renovation of the 18th century the oak panelling in the gallery was covered with white paint , and it was not until 1904 that it was restored to its former glory , the restoration funded by the sale of a Rubens painting in the housekeeper 's room . Due to its length , during Tudor times the ladies of the mansion used the gallery for exercise on rainy days to avoid dragging their long skirts and dresses through the mud in the grounds . It was also used as a dining hall , and in 1695 the county nobility and gentry all met together and dined in the gallery to pay their respects to William III .
The gallery has an extensive collection of about 60 portraits , including Van Dyck 's War and Peace , a John de Critz portrait of James I , a Frans Pourbus the Younger aristocratic portrait of Claude Lorraine , Duc de Chevreuse , a Mary Beale portrait of Charles II and others of him by court artist Sir Peter Lely , and portraits of George Digby , Second Earl of Bristol and William , First Duke of Bedford . Visiting the gallery in 1748 , the Marchioness Grey described the gallery in a letter to a friend : " Indeed there is a gracefulness and life in the figures beyond what I ever saw , they are quite animated and a strength of colouring that strikes you from one end of that gallery to the other . It is so beautiful that a picture which hangs by it is hurt by its situation . " Horace Walpole once wrote : " Althorp has several very fine pictures by the best Italian hands , and a gallery of all one 's acquaintances by Vandyke and Lely . In the gallery I found myself quite at home ; and surprised the housekeeper by my familiarity with the portraits . " The portraits in the Picture Gallery are set in extravagant baroque gilded frames , designed by Robert Spencer , the Second Earl , which feature as " cartouche at the top and a stylised mask at the bottom , with a moulded inner edge , which softens the line between frame and painting " . Albert Spencer was so protective of War and Peace , once the most valuable item in Althorp , that he had the nearest tall window in the gallery converted into a door with hinges , so in case of a fire it could safely be lifted outside . There is also a small hidden door between War and Peace and " The Windsor Beauties " cut into the oak which leads to a staircase and the Pink Suite , a guest bedroom . Margaret Douglas @-@ Home , sister of Albert Spencer , lived at Althorp from 1910 , and the gallery was a favourite of hers . During the renovation of the 1980s , the old @-@ fashioned celestial and terrestrial globes dating to the George II period were moved from the gallery back to the library .
The chapel on the upper floor became a store room in the early 1980s for pieces being sold off . The stained glass window of the chapel , with the Spencer crest , dates to 1588 , and was brought to Althorp from Wormleigton . The organ on the other hand is far more recent , acquired from the parish of Meriden in the 1990s . A number of earlier occupants of Althorp , particularly George John and Frederick , were devout Christians and would preach in the chapel , and Robert , 6th Earl Spencer would hold a daily service here . It is still used for family christenings , and for services at Christmas , Easter and Harvest Thanksgiving .
= = = = = Bedrooms = = = = =
The Oak Bedroom is at the rear of the house , on the western side between King William Bedroom and the Great Room . The marriage of the first Earl Spencer and Margaret Georgiana took place in secret here on 20 December 1755 , during a ball which was taking place at Althorp to celebrate John 's 21st birthday . Georgiana later recalled , " We both behaved very well , spoke distinctly and loudly but I trembled so much I could hardly stand " . As of 1998 it was furnished with deep red wall paper , rug and chairs , with oak floors , bed and chairs . There are several portraits on the wall , one of them very large above the fireplace . The Spencer " S " features on the blue velvet bed cover , and above the king @-@ sized bed and by the fireplace .
The room to the east of the Oak Bedroom is known as The Great Room . The room was established in the mid 17th century as part of a reception suite , and was used by George John , the Second Earl for important political conferences during his period as First Lord of the Admiralty and Home Secretary . The Great Room , predominantly red and gold in design like many of the first floor rooms , contains a table and chairs with a large gilded mirror with three urns in front of it . The long mirror , designed by James Stuart , who was noted for
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his Athenian designs , features a tableaux at the top with the Spencer coat of arms and the pulling of chariots by cherubs , representing the love between John and Georgiana . The Great Room contains an extensive collection of miniature portraits , including a very rare Lucas de Heere portrait of Lady Jane Grey as a teenage girl at her family residence in Bradgate , Leicestershire . The Portrait of Isaak Abrahamsz . Massa is mentioned in the 1822 Bibliotheca Spenceriana as hanging in one of the bedrooms at Althorp . It was sold in 1924 to art merchant Joseph Duveen , who sold it the following year to Canadian businessman Frank P. Wood .
The Princess of Wales Bedroom is named after the wife of the future King Edward VII , Alexandra , Princess of Wales , who stayed at Althorp in 1863 on a visit to see the Red Earl . Although the fabric of the four @-@ poster bed was designed in 1911 , the room is largely Georgian , with deep red walls and furnishings , and contains a notable portrait of a young princess by the Spanish court painter , Bartolomé Esteban Murillo . The Queen Mary Bedroom is named after Mary , the wife of King George V , who visited Althorp in 1913 . It contains a bed with an extremely tall structure , dated to the 18th century , draped in pea green taffet . Of particular note in the Queen Mary Bedroom are two chairs covered with needlework created by Albert , who was once the chairman of the Royal School of Needlework .
The upper floor also contains the India Silk Bedroom and the Ante Room , which measures 23 ft 4 inches by 32 ft 6 inches . Formerly known as the Patchwork Bedroom , the Ante Room was established by Charlotte , Countess Spencer and her sister during the Victorian period , and today forms part of a suite of state chambers .
= = = Outer buildings = = =
In total , Althorp estate contains 28 listed buildings and structures , of which nine are planting stones , dotted around the park . Two are Grade I listed , including the main house ; two are Grade II * listed , including the Stable Block and Gardener 's House , Althorp , and the remainder have a Grade II designation , mainly garden screens , gates and gateways aside from the planting stones .
The mustard @-@ yellow Grade II * listed Stable Block , designed by architect Roger Morris with a Palladian influence , was ordered by Charles , Fifth Earl of Sutherland in the early 1730s . It replaced an earlier building which had long been in disrepair and could hold 30 to 40 horses . Morris designed the building with a clear Tuscan architectural design , drawing upon earlier inspiration from his stables at Inigo Jones 's St Paul 's Church in Covent Garden . A fountain was installed in the courtyard to provide the horse 's troughs with water . Several rooms were built within the stable block , including hot and cold baths for riders after hunting , a veterinarian 's room with medicines for horses , and what was once a smoking room . It was converted into an exhibition centre for Princess Diana between 1998 and 2013 .
The Grade I listed Falconry was built in 1613 using the same local ironstone as the stables and is of similar Palladian appearance , featuring a " gabled roof with ashlar parapets , kneelers and obelisks " . It is a two storey structure , but a single storey red @-@ brick extension was added in the 19th century . The hall of the falconry contains 2 arcaded openings with keystones , and to the left of the hall is a fireplace with Delft tiles , dated to the 19th century . Over the centuries at various times it has been the home of the park warden , the gamekeeper , and the kennelman who looked after the hounds , hosting puppy shows in the 20th century . Both the Stable Block and Falconry became listed buildings in November 1954 . Nearby was the Lavender Cottage with a thatched roof and a wendy house which the Althorp children would play in , but was accidentally burned down by the son of the chauffeur of Albert , and never rebuilt .
The Fifth Earl also built the Grade II * listed Gardener 's House at the back of the park , in a similar Palladian style . The head gardener of Althorp resided at the villa in the 18th century . Princess Diana had been intent on living in the house following her separation from Prince Charles , but due to security concerns it was considered unfeasible . Of particular note is its Victorian three @-@ quarter life @-@ sized marble sculpture , The Shipwrecked Mariner , depicting a sailor reaching desperately from a raft . Charles Spencer has since moved it from the main portico of Gardener 's House to the main house .
Both of the North and South West Lodges of Althorp date to around 1730 under Roger Morris and are both built from lias ashlar with slate roofs . The North and South East Lodges date to around 1810 and are built from limestone ashlar with slate roofs . All four buildings became Grade II listed buildings in November 1954 . The Grade II listed Dairy Cottage , to the northwest of the lake , dates to the late 18th century under Henry Holland , and was listed in December 1986 . It is a two storey building with an attic and hipped roof . It has a 19th @-@ century central door and a surrounding porch " flanked by casements under flat arch heads " .
= = Grounds = =
The estate of Althorp covers an area of at least 13 @,@ 000 acres ( 50 km2 ) , and not only includes the house grounds but areas of woodland , cottages , farms , and surrounding hamlets . The soil in the area is of a rich , dark coloured loam , and the estate is situated mainly on Jurassic Clay between 85 metres ( 279 ft ) and 125 metres ( 410 ft ) above sea level , with the highest area lying in the southeast of Althorp on Northampton Sand . Within the grounds , there are earthworks of the lost village of Althorp on which the estate was built . To the southwest of the house is High Wood , with the Dog Pond to the east of this . Bircham Spinney is immediately to east , to the south of the pond . Hopyard Spinney lies in the north @-@ east corner of the estate bordering the A428 , and Sir John 's Wood marks the northwest corner . Sir John 's Wood is named after John Spencer was responsible for the planting of a number of woods on the grounds in the latter half of the 16th century . One tablet mentions he planted one of the woods in 1567 @-@ 8 and Sir John 's Wood in 1589 at a time when lords of manors around Britain grew increasingly anxious of their security following the Spanish Armada and planted woodlands around their properties . Between 1567 and 1901 at least seven stone date tablets were erected in the park commemorating the planting of trees . In the north and north @-@ eastern part of Althorp is marshy ground which is natural feeding ground for herons , a prized delicacy historically at the house . They were harvested by the gamekeeper usually from early March , after being fattened up by meal and bullock 's liver . In 1842 one hundred nests were recorded at the estate but this had fallen to ten by 1889 . The herons were moved to a pond about two miles away in 1993 and are no longer produced for domestic consumption at Althorp . Northampton Golf Club , established in July 1893 , is situated immediately to the southeast of Althorp .
Robert Spencer hired the French landscape architect André Le Nôtre to lay out the park and grounds in the 1660s . A map by Kip which appeared in Britannia Illustrata ( 1709 ) showed the result of the changes , depicting the house with a wide rectangular courtyard on the main south front , a formal walled garden structured by rectangular @-@ shaped flower @-@ beds and lawns to the east , and tree @-@ lined avenues to the north and south . During the renovation under Holland in the 18th century , the lake was drained in the Deer Park , which the First Earl had used as a playground with full @-@ sized Venetian gondolas , and remaining traces of the old moat were eradicated . From 1860 onwards the architect William Milford Teulon ( 1823 – 1900 ) updated the gardens at Althorp , and further additions and changes were made in the 1990s under Dan Pearson when the Diana memorial was established and many trees planted . After Teulon 's additions , the Spencers began growing its own fruit and vegetables and flowers . In 1901 a variety of sweet pea , now known " Spencer type " , with " flowers of exceptional size and of an exquisite shade of pink " , was cultivated at Althorp by Silas Cole , the chief gardener to the Fifth Earl Spencer , and exhibited at horticultural shows .
= = = Diana grave , memorial , and exhibition = = =
Diana , Princess of Wales was interred on a small island in the middle of the ornamental Round Oval lake , which was created by Teulon in 1868 . The island was decided as the best place to lay her to rest because the water would , according to Spencer , " act as a buffer against the interventions of the insane and ghoulish , the thick mud presenting a further line of defence . We all agreed that , with its beauty and tranquillity , this was the place for Diana to be " . Her burial place is marked with a white memorial plinth and urn .
A Doric @-@ style temple with Diana 's name inscribed on top is situated across from the lake , as a place where visitors can lay down their floral tributes to the princess . It contains a black silhouette of her in the middle , set in white marble , evocative of the Henry Holland 's material preference , with a tablet on either side . One tablet displays a quote from Diana about her love of charitable work , and the other holds Charles Spencer 's concluding tribute given at her funeral in Westminster Abbey .
Following the death of Diana on 31 August 1997 and the subsequent decision to create a memorial and open the house and estate to the public , the garden designer Dan Pearson was commissioned to update the park and gardens , to accommodate for visitors . A series of 36 oak trees was planted along the access road , symbolic of the years of Diana 's life . Thousands of plants were planted , including 100 white rambling roses on the island and 1000 white water lilies , donated by Stowe School , in the water around it .
The estate stable block was converted into a public exhibition devoted to the memory of Diana , and open between 1998 and 2013 , It was designed by Rasshied Ali Din , who had to seek approval from English Heritage due to it being a Grade II listed building . Din said of the result , " You have a contrast of the modern and the new with the old and the established , which is basically a metaphor for Diana . She was a very modern woman within an established environment . " He created six rooms out of the former carriage houses and stabling areas , and the old tea room was transformed into a restaurant , and toilets installed for visitors .
The first room was called " Spencer Women " , placing Diana in context to the women of her family , with paintings and jewellery of Sarah , Duchess of Marlborough , and portraits of Georgiana Spencer etc . The next room contained four minutes of edited video footage of Diana as a child to show to the world that she did not simply come into being in 1980 when she became the girlfriend of Prince Charles . It featured footage of Diana at her christening , her first winter , her first birthday , her first steps , and footage displaying her affection for animals , swimming , and leaving for boarding school . The room also contained her tuck @-@ box , toy typewriter , ballet shoes , and a childhood photo album .
A third room documented the Royal Wedding and its " glamour and excitement " , with a display of the David Emanuel wedding dress she wore on 29 July 1981 . A fourth room documented her extensive charitable and humanitarian work through video footage edited by Tim Ashton , and a fifth , known as the " Tribute Room " , was an " evocation of those doom @-@ laden days between Diana 's death and burial , when the public were reduced to shocked silence in their attempt to digest the death of a much @-@ loved icon " .
The sixth room was the Exhibition , which was a celebration of her life , and contained large glass cases at the sides with dummies of Diana wearing her notable suits and dresses , with the occasions documented on cards on the floor in front of them . A great glass case at the end underneath a stylish black and white photograph contained a selected few hundred of the thousands of condolence books the Spencer received from around the world , designed to give a " final sense of scale to the impact of Diana 's life and of her death " . A sleek , silk @-@ bound copy of the incendiary address that her brother Charles delivered at Diana 's funeral was available for £ 25 .
The estate and house are open to the public during the summer months ( 1 July to 30 August ) , although the exhibition centre in the stable block was closed in August 2013 . It was believed to be due to concern about the commercial exploitation of Diana 's name , and the desire to " squash the cult of Diana " . The items on display have been packed up , with the intention to give them to her sons William and Harry . All profits made were donated to the Diana , Princess of Wales Memorial Fund , which closed in 2012 .
= = Haunting = =
Although the current owner Charles Spencer professes to have never witnessed a ghost at Althorp or anywhere else , over the years numerous ghostly sightings have been reported in the mansion . In the mid 19th century the Dean of Lincoln was invited to stay at the property by Fredrick , 4th Earl Spencer . He complained the following morning that during the night a figure dressed as a groom ( believed to be the ghost of the deceased servant of the 3rd Earl ) had entered his room holding candles and checking that they were snuffed out around the bed . Margaret Douglas @-@ Home professed to being aware of the ghost of girl with grey slippers in the gallery .
= Æthelred of Mercia =
Æthelred ( / ˈæθəlrɛd / ; died after 704 ) was King of Mercia from 675 until 704 . He was the son of Penda of Mercia and came to the throne in 675 , when his brother , Wulfhere of Mercia , died . Within a year of his accession he invaded Kent , where his armies destroyed the city of Rochester . In 679 he defeated his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Ecgfrith of Northumbria , at the Battle of the Trent : the battle was a major setback for the Northumbrians , and effectively ended their military involvement in English affairs south of the Humber . It also permanently returned the kingdom of Lindsey to Mercia 's possession . However , Æthelred was unable to re @-@ establish his predecessors ' domination of southern Britain .
He was known as a pious and devout Christian king , and he made many grants of land to the church . It was during his reign that Theodore , the Archbishop of Canterbury , reorganized the church 's diocesan structure , creating several new sees in Mercia and Northumbria . Æthelred befriended Bishop Wilfrid of York when Wilfrid was expelled from his see in Northumbria ; Æthelred made Wilfrid Bishop of the Middle Angles during his exile and supported him at the synod of Austerfield in about 702 , when Wilfrid argued his case for the return of the ecclesiastical lands he had been deprived of in Northumbria .
Æthelred 's wife , Osthryth , was a daughter of King Oswiu , one of the dominant 7th @-@ century Northumbrian kings . Osthryth was murdered in unknown circumstances in 697 , and in 704 Æthelred abdicated , leaving the throne to Wulfhere 's son Coenred . Æthelred became a monk at Bardney , a monastery which he had founded with his wife , and was buried there . Ceolred , who was Æthelred 's son ( though apparently not by Osthryth ) , became king after Coenred ; it is also possible that Æthelred had another son named Ceolwald who was briefly king before Ceolred .
= = Mercia in the seventh century = =
By the 7th century , England was almost entirely divided into kingdoms ruled by the Anglo @-@ Saxons who had come to Britain two hundred years before . The kingdom of Mercia occupied what is now the English midlands . The origin of the kingdom is not recorded , but royal genealogies preserved in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle and the Anglian collection agree that the royal houses were descended from a founder named Icel ; the Mercian royal house is hence known as the Iclingas . The earliest Mercian king about whom definite historical information has survived is Penda of Mercia , Æthelred 's father . The larger neighbouring kingdoms included Northumbria to the north , recently united from its constituent kingdoms of Bernicia and Deira , East Anglia to the east , and Wessex , the kingdom of the West Saxons , to the south .
According to Ecclesiastical History of the English People , a history of the English church written by the 8th @-@ century monk Bede , there were seven early Anglo @-@ Saxon rulers who held imperium , or overlordship , over the other kingdoms . The fifth of these was Edwin of Northumbria , who was killed at the battle of Hatfield Chase by a combined force including Cadwallon , a British king of Gwynedd , and Penda . After Edwin 's death , Northumbria briefly fell apart into its two subkingdoms of Bernicia and Deira . Within a year Oswald , Edwin 's nephew , killed Cadwallon and reunited the kingdoms , subsequently re @-@ establishing Northumbrian hegemony over the south of England . In 642 Penda killed Oswald at the battle of Maserfield , and Northumbria was again divided . Oswald 's son Oswiu succeeded to the throne of Bernicia , and Osric 's son Oswine to Deira , the southern of the two kingdoms .
In 655 , Oswiu defeated and killed Penda at the Battle of the Winwaed . Oswiu installed Peada , a son of Penda , as king of southern Mercia and ruled the northern half himself ; after Peada was murdered in 656 Oswiu took direct control of all of Mercia . A coup in 658 threw off Northumbrian overlordship and established Wulfhere as king . By the early 670s , Wulfhere had become the most powerful king in southern Britain , with an effective hegemony over all the Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms except for Northumbria .
The main source for this period is Bede 's History , completed in about 731 . Despite its focus on the history of the church , this work also provides valuable information about the early Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdoms . For Wessex and Kent , Bede had informants who supplied him with details of the church 's history in each province , but he appears to have had no such contact in Mercia , about which he is less well @-@ informed . A further source for this period is the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , compiled at the end of the 9th century in Wessex . The Chronicle 's anonymous scribe appears to have incorporated much information recorded in earlier periods .
= = Ancestry and early reign = =
Æthelred was the son of Penda of Mercia . Penda 's queen , Cynewise , is named by Bede , who does not mention her children ; no other wives of Penda are known and so it is likely but not certain that she was Æthelred 's mother . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle gives Penda 's age as fifty in 626 , and credits him with a thirty @-@ year reign , but this would put Penda at eighty years old at the time of his death , which is generally thought unlikely as two of his sons ( Wulfhere and Æthelred ) were young when he was killed . At least as likely is that Penda was fifty years old at his death , rather than at his accession . Æthelred 's date of birth is unknown , but Bede describes Wulfhere as a youth at the time of his accession in 658 , so it is likely he and Æthelred were in their middle teens at that time . The early sources do not say whether Æthelred was older or younger than Wulfhere .
Nothing is known of Æthelred 's childhood . He had another brother , Peada , and two sisters , Cyneburh and Cyneswith ; it is also possible that Merewalh , king of the Magonsæte , was Æthelred 's brother .
In 674 , according to Stephen of Ripon , Wulfhere " stirred up all the southern nations against [ Northumbria ] " , but he was defeated by Oswiu 's son Ecgfrith who forced him to surrender Lindsey , and to pay tribute . Wulfhere survived the defeat , but died in 675 , possibly of disease , and Æthelred became king .
The first recorded act of Æthelred 's reign is in 676 , when his armies ravaged Kent , destroying Rochester , the seat of the bishops of West Kent . The reason for his attack is not recorded , but he may have wished to prevent King Hlothhere of Kent from regaining control of Surrey , which had been recently brought into the Mercian orbit by Wulfhere . It may also be that Æthelred wished for revenge for the murder of the sons of Eormenred of Kent ; the murders had been instigated by Ecgberht of Kent , Hlothhere 's brother , and it is possible that Æthelred was the uncle of the murdered princes . A third suggestion is that the kings of Essex solicited the invasion , in response to recent Kentish attempts to gain dominance over the East Saxons . Regardless of the reason , Hlothhere was likely then forced to accept Æthelred 's overlordship . The damage to the see of Rochester was so great that the incumbent bishop , Putta , retired from his diocese ; his appointed successor , Cwichhelm , also gave up the see " because of its poverty " .
Early in Æthelred 's reign , Theodore , the Archbishop of Canterbury , began a substantial reorganization of the church in Mercia . In 675 he removed Winfred from his position as Bishop of Lichfield , and over the next four years he divided the vast Mercian see into the five dioceses of Leicester , Lichfield , Worcester , Dorchester and Hereford . Æthelred was a devout king , " more famed for his pious disposition than his skill in war " , and he made several gifts of land to the expanding church , including grants at Tetbury , Long Newton , and Somerford Keynes . There is also a tradition that Æthelred was associated with the founding of Abingdon Abbey , in southern Oxfordshire .
= = Relations with Northumbria = =
Mercia had been in conflict with Northumbria since at least 633 , when Penda of Mercia defeated and killed Edwin of Northumbria at the Battle of Hatfield Chase . However , there were diplomatic marriages between the two kingdoms : Æthelred 's sister Cyneburh married Alhfrith , a son of Oswiu of Northumbria , and both Æthelred and his brother Peada married daughters of Oswiu . Cyneburh 's marriage to Alhfrith took place in the early 650s , and Peada 's marriage , to Ealhflæd , followed shortly afterwards ; Æthelred 's marriage , to Osthryth , is of unknown date but must have occurred before 679 , since Bede mentions it in describing the Battle of the Trent , which took place that year .
Bede does not mention the cause of the battle , simply saying that it occurred in the ninth year of Ecgfrith 's reign . He is more informative on the outcome . Ælfwine , the young subking of Deira , was killed ; Ælfwine was brother to Osthryth and Ecgfrith , and was well liked in both Mercia and Northumbria since Æthelred 's marriage to Osthryth . According to Bede , his death threatened to cause further strife between the two kingdoms , but Theodore , the Archbishop of Canterbury , intervened :
Theodore , the beloved of God , enlisting God 's help , smothered the flames of this awful peril by his wholesome advice . As a result , peace was restored between the kings and peoples , and in lieu of further bloodshed the customary compensation was paid to King Ecgfrith for his brother 's death .
Æthelred took possession of Lindsey again after the battle ; the change in control this time was lasting , and Lindsey remained part of Mercia until the Viking invasion of the 9th century remade the map of England . Conflict between Northumbria and Mercia did not completely cease after this date : Scottish annals record that Æthelbald , an 8th @-@ century Mercian king , ravaged Northumbrian territory in 740 while King Eadberht of Northumbria was absent fighting the Picts . However , the Battle of the Trent effectively ended Northumbrian involvement in southern Britain .
A conflict between Bishop Wilfrid of York and the church and secular establishment led to Wilfrid 's expulsion from Northumbria and the division of his vast diocese , and Æthelred sided with Ecgfrith against Wilfrid . After Ecgfrith 's death in 685 , Archbishop Theodore arranged a reconciliation between Wilfrid and Aldfrith , Ecgfrith 's successor , but in 692 Aldfrith and Wilfrid fell out and Wilfrid went into exile in Mercia . Æthelred now supported Wilfrid , making him bishop of the Middle Angles , and defending him at the Council of Austerfield in about 702 , when Wilfrid argued his case before an assembly of bishops led by Archbishop Berhtwald of Canterbury . Æthelred 's support for Wilfrid embroiled him in dispute with both Canterbury and Northumbria , and it is not clear what his motive was , though it may be relevant that some of Wilfrid 's monasteries were in Mercian territory .
= = The southern kingdoms = =
Two charters of 681 show Æthelred granting land near Tetbury , on what is now the border between Gloucestershire and Wiltshire . This may indicate that Æthelred was able to extend Mercian influence further into the territory of the West Saxons , as Wulfhere had done before him . The West Saxons managed a significant military resurgence under Cædwalla , king of Wessex from about 685 to 688 , but when Cædwalla departed for Rome on pilgrimage there may have been internal strife before Ine , his successor , took the throne . Cædwalla had successfully conquered the kingdoms of Sussex and Kent , and his abdication may have contributed to the unsettled history of the southeast over the next few years . In Kent , Oswine emerged as king , though only in eastern Kent ; the western half of the kingdom was ruled by Swæfheard , son of Sæbbi , the king of Essex . It is possible that Æthelred provided support to both Swæfheard and Oswine ; for each king a charter survives in which Æthelred confirms land grants they made in Kent , and Æthelred 's invasion of Kent in 676 indicates his opposition to the traditional Kentish royal house . A charter of Swæfheard 's dated 691 is also of interest as it indicates that Æthelred had invaded Kent ; it has been suggested that Æthelred intended to place Wilfrid in the Archbishop 's seat at Canterbury , but if so he was unsuccessful . Alternatively , Æthelred may have needed assistance in Kent from the East Saxons who may have been independent of Mercia for a decade or more by that time . The East Saxons did return to the Mercian orbit over the next few years : a charter of Æthelred 's , dated between 693 and 704 , shows him granting land to Wealdhere , the bishop of London , and in 704 Æthelred consented to a grant made by Swæfheard . The latter charter also appears to show that a comes , or local official , was put in place by the Mercians to protect their interests .
Despite this evidence of Mercian involvement in the southeast there is very little indication that Æthelred had expansionist ambitions to the south . The increasing strength of the West Saxons under Cædwalla and Ine would have limited Mercian opportunities in that direction . The Northumbrians were no longer a distraction ; they had been contained north of the Humber since the Battle of the Trent , and became even less of a threat after their disastrous defeat in 685 at the hands of the Picts . A possible explanation is that Æthelred was preoccupied with war with the Welsh . It was also at this time that the Hwicce came more definitely into the Mercian orbit . The last Hwiccean ruler to take the title of king was Oshere , who died in 685 ; but from the mid @-@ 670s he sought Æthelred 's consent for his grants , and Æthelred regarded him as a subking . Further evidence of Æthelred 's involvement among the Hwicce comes from a charter in which he grants land for a minster in Gloucestershire , in Hwiccean territory ; the charter is generally thought to be a fabrication , but it appears to be based on an authentic earlier source .
= = Abdication and final years = =
Osthryth was murdered in 697 , for reasons unknown ; according to Bede the murderers were " her own people , the Mercian chieftains " . Bede records that Peada 's death , forty years earlier , stemmed from " the treachery , it is said , of his own wife " ; Peada 's wife was Ealhflæd , Osthryth 's sister . Hence Osthryth 's murder may have been in revenge for Peada 's assassination , though it has also been interpreted more directly as a sign of continuing hostility between Northumbria and Mercia . Osthryth was buried at Bardney in Lindsey , the monastery where , at her urging , the relics of her uncle , Oswald of Northumbria , were kept and revered , though evidence of resistance at Bardney to the cult of Oswald is also indicative of the poor relations between the two kingdoms .
In 704 , Æthelred abdicated to become a monk and abbot at Bardney , leaving the kingship to his nephew Coenred . Seventh century Mercian rulers often patronised religious establishments outside the Mercian heartlands , perhaps as a way of gaining support in outlying provinces . Æthelred 's and Osthryth 's interest in Bardney is consistent with this pattern . The encouragement of the cult of royal saints in areas beyond the central Mercian lands also seems to have been a deliberate policy , and both Æthelred and Osthryth were later revered as saints at Bardney . It appears that Æthelred continued to have influence in the kingdom after his abdication : a passage in Stephen of Ripon 's Life of Wilfrid shows Æthelred summoning Coenred to him and advising him to make peace with Wilfrid . The date of Æthelred 's death is not recorded ; though it is known that he was buried at Bardney .
Æthelred had at least one son , Ceolred . According to the thirteenth @-@ century Chronicon Abbatiae de Evesham , Ceolred was not the son of Osthryth , although it does not name Ceolred 's mother , and in the view of the historian Ann Williams this may mean that Æthelred remarried after Osthryth 's death . However , Susan Kelly states that Osthryth was " most likely ( though not certainly ) " Ceolred 's mother . Ceolred succeeded to the throne in 709 , after Coenred abdicated in 709 to go to Rome on pilgrimage . One version of the regnal lists for Mercia shows a king named Ceolwald reigning after Ceolred , and it is possible that Ceolwald , if he existed , was also a son of Æthelred 's .
= Ronald Reagan =
Ronald Wilson Reagan ( / ˈrɒnəld ˈwɪlsən ˈreɪɡən / ; February 6 , 1911 – June 5 , 2004 ) was an American politician and actor who served as the 40th President of the United States from 1981 to 1989 . Prior to his presidency , he was the 33rd Governor of California from 1967 to 1975 , following a career as a Hollywood actor and union leader .
Raised in a poor family in small towns of northern Illinois , Ronald Reagan graduated from Eureka College in 1932 and worked as a sports announcer on several regional radio stations . After moving to Hollywood in 1937 , he became an actor and starred in a few major productions . Reagan was twice elected as President of the Screen Actors Guild , the labor union for actors , where he worked to root out Communist influence . In the 1950s , he moved into television and was a motivational speaker at General Electric factories . Having been a lifelong Democrat , his views changed . He became a conservative and in 1962 switched to the Republican Party . In 1964 , Reagan 's speech , " A Time for Choosing " , in support of Barry Goldwater 's floundering presidential campaign , earned him national attention as a new conservative spokesman . Building a network of supporters , he was elected Governor of California in 1966 . As governor , Reagan raised taxes , turned a state budget deficit to a surplus , challenged the protesters at the University of California , ordered National Guard troops in during a period of protest movements in 1969 , and was re @-@ elected in 1970 . He twice ran unsuccessfully for the Republican nominations in 1968 and 1976 ; four years later , he easily won the nomination outright , going on to be elected the oldest President , defeating incumbent Jimmy Carter in 1980 .
Entering the presidency in 1981 , Reagan implemented sweeping new political and economic initiatives . His supply @-@ side economic policies , dubbed " Reaganomics " , advocated tax rate reduction to spur economic growth , control of the money supply to curb inflation , economic deregulation , and reduction in government spending . In his first term he survived an assassination attempt , escalated the War on Drugs , and fought public @-@ sector labor . Over his two terms , his economic policies saw a reduction of inflation from 12 @.@ 5 % to 4 @.@ 4 % , and an average annual growth of real GDP of 3 @.@ 4 % ; while Reagan did enact cuts in domestic discretionary spending , increased military spending contributed to increased federal outlays overall , even after adjustment for inflation . During his reelection bid , Reagan campaigned on the notion that it was " Morning in America " , winning a landslide in 1984 with the largest electoral college victory in history . Foreign affairs dominated his second term , including ending of the Cold War , the bombing of Libya , and the Iran – Contra affair . Publicly describing the Soviet Union as an " evil empire " , he transitioned Cold War policy from détente to rollback , by escalating an arms race with the USSR while engaging in talks with Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev , which culminated in the INF Treaty , shrinking both countries ' nuclear arsenals . During his famous speech at the Brandenburg Gate , President Reagan challenged Gorbachev to " tear down this wall ! " . Five months after the end of his term , the Berlin Wall fell , and on December 26 , 1991 , nearly three years after he left office , the Soviet Union collapsed .
Leaving office in 1989 , Reagan held an approval rating of sixty @-@ eight percent , matching those of Franklin D. Roosevelt , and later Bill Clinton , as the highest ratings for departing presidents in the modern era . While having planned an active post @-@ presidency , in 1994 Reagan disclosed his diagnosis with Alzheimer 's disease earlier that year , appearing publicly for the last time at the funeral of Richard Nixon ; he died ten years later at the age of 93 . An icon among Republicans , he ranks favorably in public and critical opinion of U.S. Presidents , and his tenure constituted a realignment toward conservative policies in the United States .
= = Early life = =
Ronald Wilson Reagan was born in an apartment on the second floor of a commercial building in Tampico , Illinois on February 6 , 1911 , the son of Nelle Clyde ( Wilson ) and John Edward " Jack " Reagan . Reagan 's father was a salesman and a storyteller , the grandson of Irish Catholic immigrants from County Tipperary , while his mother was of half Scots and half English descent ( Reagan 's maternal grandmother was born in Surrey , England ) . Reagan had one older brother , Neil ( 1908 – 96 ) , who became an advertising executive . As a boy , Reagan 's father nicknamed his son " Dutch , " due to his " fat little Dutchman " -like appearance , and his " Dutchboy " haircut ; the nickname stuck with him throughout his youth . Reagan 's family briefly lived in several towns and cities in Illinois , including Monmouth , Galesburg , and Chicago , in 1919 , they returned to Tampico and lived above the H. C. Pitney Variety Store until finally settling in Dixon . After his election as president , residing in the upstairs White House private quarters , Reagan would quip that he was " living above the store again " .
According to Paul Kengor , author of God and Ronald Reagan , Reagan had a particularly strong faith in the goodness of people , which stemmed from the optimistic faith of his mother , Nelle , and the Disciples of Christ faith , which he was baptized into in 1922 . For the time , Reagan was unusual in his opposition to racial discrimination , and recalled a time in Dixon when the local inn would not allow black people to stay there . Reagan brought them back to his house , where his mother invited them to stay the night and have breakfast the next morning .
After the closure of the Pitney Store in late 1920 , the Reagans moved to Dixon ; the midwestern " small universe " had a lasting impression on Reagan . He attended Dixon High School , where he developed interests in acting , sports , and storytelling . His first job was as a lifeguard at the Rock River in Lowell Park , near Dixon , in 1927 . Over a six @-@ year period , Reagan reportedly performed 77 rescues as a lifeguard . Reagan attended Eureka College , a Disciples @-@ oriented liberal arts school , where he became a member of the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity , a cheerleader , and studied economics and sociology . While involved , the Miller Center of Public Affairs described him as an " indifferent student " . He majored in Economics and graduated with a C average . He developed a reputation as a jack of all trades , excelling in campus politics , sports and theater . He was a member of the football team and captain of the swim team . He was elected student body president and led a student revolt against the college president after he tried to cut back the faculty .
= = Entertainment career = =
= = = Radio and film = = =
After graduating from Eureka in 1932 , Reagan drove himself to Iowa , where he held jobs as an announcer at several stations . He moved to WHO radio in Des Moines as an announcer for Chicago Cubs baseball games . His specialty was creating play @-@ by @-@ play accounts of games using as his source only basic descriptions that the station received by wire as the games were in progress .
While traveling with the Cubs in California , Reagan took a screen test in 1937 that led to a seven @-@ year contract with Warner Brothers studios . He spent the first few years of his Hollywood career in the " B film " unit , where , Reagan joked , the producers " didn 't want them good ; they wanted them Thursday " .
His first screen credit was the starring role in the 1937 movie Love Is on the Air , and by the end of 1939 he had already appeared in 19 films , including Dark Victory with Bette Davis and Humphrey Bogart . Before the film Santa Fe Trail with Errol Flynn in 1940 , he played the role of George " The Gipper " Gipp in the film Knute Rockne , All American ; from it , he acquired the lifelong nickname " the Gipper . " In 1941 exhibitors voted him the fifth most popular star from the younger generation in Hollywood .
Reagan 's favorite acting role was as a double amputee in 1942 's Kings Row , in which he recites the line " Where 's the rest of me ? " — later used as the title of his 1965 autobiography . Many film critics considered Kings Row to be his best movie , though the film was condemned by New York Times critic Bosley Crowther .
Although Reagan called Kings Row the film that " made me a star " , he was unable to capitalize on his success because he was ordered to active duty with the U.S. Army at San Francisco two months after its release , and never regained " star " status in motion pictures . In the post @-@ war era , after being separated from almost four years of World War II stateside service with the 1st Motion Picture Unit in December 1945 , Reagan co @-@ starred in such films as , The Voice of the Turtle , John Loves Mary , The Hasty Heart , Bedtime for Bonzo , Cattle Queen of Montana , Tennessee 's Partner , Hellcats of the Navy ( the only film in which he appears with Nancy Reagan ) and the 1964 remake The Killers ( his final film and the only one in which he played a villain ) . Throughout his film career , his mother answered much of his fan mail .
= = = Military service = = =
After completing fourteen home @-@ study Army Extension Courses , Reagan enlisted in the Army Enlisted Reserve and was commissioned a second lieutenant in the Officers Reserve Corps of the cavalry on May 25 , 1937 .
Reagan was ordered to active duty for the first time on April 18 , 1942 . Due to his poor eyesight , he was classified for limited service only , which excluded him from serving overseas . His first assignment was at the San Francisco Port of Embarkation at Fort Mason , California , as a liaison officer of the Port and Transportation Office . Upon the approval of the Army Air Force ( AAF ) , he applied for a transfer from the cavalry to the AAF on May 15 , 1942 , and was assigned to AAF Public Relations and subsequently to the First Motion Picture Unit ( officially , the " 18th Army Air Force Base Unit " ) in Culver City , California . On January 14 , 1943 , he was promoted to first lieutenant and was sent to the Provisional Task Force Show Unit of This Is the Army at Burbank , California . He returned to the First Motion Picture Unit after completing this duty and was promoted to captain on July 22 , 1943 .
In January 1944 , Reagan was ordered to temporary duty in New York City to participate in the opening of the Sixth War Loan Drive . He was reassigned to the First Motion Picture Unit on November 14 , 1944 , where he remained until the end of World War II . He was recommended for promotion to major on February 2 , 1945 , but this recommendation was disapproved on July 17 of that year . While with the First Motion Picture Unit in 1945 , he was indirectly involved in discovering actress Marilyn Monroe . He returned to Fort MacArthur , California , where he was separated from active duty on December 9 , 1945 . By the end of the war , his units had produced some 400 training films for the AAF .
Reagan never left the United States during the war , though he kept a film reel , obtained while in the service , depicting the liberation of Auschwitz , as he believed that someday doubts would arise as to whether the Holocaust had occurred . It has been alleged that he was overheard telling Israeli foreign minister Yitzhak Shamir in 1983 that he had filmed that footage himself and helped liberate Auschwitz , though this purported conversation was disputed by Secretary of State George P. Shultz .
= = = SAG president = = =
Reagan was first elected to the Board of Directors of the Screen Actors Guild in 1941 , serving as an alternate . After World War II , he resumed service and became 3rd vice @-@ president in 1946 . The adoption of conflict @-@ of @-@ interest bylaws in 1947 led the SAG president and six board members to resign ; Reagan was nominated in a special election for the position of president and subsequently elected . He was subsequently chosen by the membership to serve seven additional one @-@ year terms , from 1947 to 1952 and in 1959 . Reagan led SAG through eventful years that were marked by labor @-@ management disputes , the Taft – Hartley Act , House Un @-@ American Activities Committee ( HUAC ) hearings and the Hollywood blacklist era .
= = = = Secret FBI informant in Hollywood = = = =
During the late 1940s , Reagan and his wife provided the FBI with names of actors within the motion picture industry whom they believed to be communist sympathizers , though he expressed reservations ; he said " Do they expect us to constitute ourselves as a little FBI of our own and determine just who is a Commie and who isn 't ? "
Reagan testified before the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee on the subject as well . A fervent anti @-@ communist , he reaffirmed his commitment to democratic principles , stating , " I never as a citizen want to see our country become urged , by either fear or resentment of this group , that we ever compromise with any of our democratic principles through that fear or resentment . "
= = = Television = = =
Though an early critic of television , Reagan landed fewer film roles in the late 1950s and decided to join the medium . He was hired as the host of General Electric Theater , a series of weekly dramas that became very popular . His contract required him to tour GE plants sixteen weeks out of the year , often demanding of him fourteen speeches per day . He earned approximately $ 125 @,@ 000 per year ( about $ 1 @.@ 07 million in 2010 dollars ) in this role . The show ran for ten seasons from 1953 to 1962 and , as a result it increased Reagan 's profile in American households , especially as he had appeared in feature films mostly in supporting role or as a " second lead " .
His final work as a professional actor was as host and performer from 1964 to 1965 on the television series Death Valley Days .
Reagan and Nancy Davis appeared together on television several times , including an episode of General Electric Theater in 1958 called " A Turkey for the President . "
= = Marriages and children = =
In 1938 , Reagan co @-@ starred in the film Brother Rat with actress Jane Wyman ( 1917 – 2007 ) . They were engaged at the Chicago Theatre , and married on January 26 , 1940 , at the Wee Kirk o ' the Heather church in Glendale , California . Together they had two biological children , Maureen ( 1941 – 2001 ) and Christine ( who was born in 1947 but only lived one day ) , and adopted a third , Michael ( born 1945 ) . After arguments about Reagan 's political ambitions , Wyman filed for divorce in 1948 , citing a distraction due to her husband 's Screen Actors Guild union duties ; the divorce was finalized in 1949 . He is the only US president to have been divorced . Reagan and Wyman continued to be friends until his death , with Wyman voting for Reagan in both of his runs and , upon his death , saying " America has lost a great president and a great , kind , and gentle man . "
Reagan met actress Nancy Davis ( 1921 – 2016 ) in 1949 after she contacted him in his capacity as president of the Screen Actors Guild to help her with issues regarding her name appearing on a Communist blacklist in Hollywood . She had been mistaken for another Nancy Davis . She described their meeting by saying , " I don 't know if it was exactly love at first sight , but it was pretty close . " They were engaged at Chasen 's restaurant in Los Angeles and were married on March 4 , 1952 , at the Little Brown Church in the Valley ( North Hollywood , now Studio City ) San Fernando Valley . Actor William Holden served as best man at the ceremony . They had two children : Patti ( born October 21 , 1952 ) and Ron ( born May 20 , 1958 ) .
Observers described the Reagans ' relationship as close , authentic and intimate . During his presidency they were reported to frequently display their affection for one another ; one press secretary said , " They never took each other for granted . They never stopped courting . " He often called her " Mommy " and she called him " Ronnie . " He once wrote to her , " Whatever I treasure and enjoy ... all would be without meaning if I didn 't have you . " When he was in the hospital in 1981 , she slept with one of his shirts to be comforted by his scent . In a letter to U.S. citizens written in 1994 , Reagan wrote " I have recently been told that I am one of the millions of Americans who will be afflicted with Alzheimer 's disease ... I only wish there was some way I could spare Nancy from this painful experience , " and in 1998 , while Reagan was stricken by Alzheimer 's , Nancy told Vanity Fair , " Our relationship is very special . We were very much in love and still are . When I say my life began with Ronnie , well , it 's true . It did . I can 't imagine life without him . " Nancy Reagan died on March 6 , 2016 at the age of 94 .
= = Early political career = =
Reagan began as a Hollywood Democrat ; Franklin D. Roosevelt was his great hero . He moved to the right in the 1950s , became a Republican in 1962 , and emerged as a leading conservative spokesman in the Goldwater campaign of 1964 .
He joined numerous political committees with a left @-@ wing orientation , such as the American Veterans Committee . He fought against Republican @-@ sponsored right @-@ to @-@ work legislation and for Helen Gahagan Douglas in 1950 , when she was defeated for the Senate by Richard Nixon . It was his realization that Communists were a powerful backstage influence in those groups , that led him to rally his friends against them .
Reagan spoke frequently at rallies with a strong ideological dimension ; in December 1945 , he was stopped from leading an anti @-@ nuclear rally in Hollywood by pressure from the Warner Bros. studio . He would later make nuclear weapons a key point of his presidency , specifically his opposition to mutually assured destruction , building on previous efforts to limit the spread of nuclear weapons to a new focus to reduce the numbers and types of them . In the 1948 election , Reagan strongly supported Harry S. Truman , appearing on stage with him during a campaign speech in Los Angeles . However , in the early 1950s , as his relationship with actress Nancy Davis grew , he shifted to the right and endorsed the presidential candidacies of Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1952 and 1956 as well as Richard Nixon in 1960 .
He was hired by General Electric in 1954 to host the General Electric Theater , a weekly TV drama series . Much more important , he crisscrossed the country giving talks to over 200 @,@ 000 GE employees as a motivational speaker . His many speeches — which he wrote himself — were non @-@ partisan but carried a conservative , pro @-@ business message ; he was influenced by Lemuel Boulware , a senior GE executive . Boulware , known for his tough stance against unions and his innovative strategies to win over workers , championed the core tenets of modern American conservatism : free markets , anticommunism , lower taxes , and limited government . Eager for a larger stage , but not allowed to enter politics by GE , he quit and formally registered as a Republican . He often said " I didn 't leave the Democratic Party . The party left me . "
When legislation that would become Medicare was introduced in 1961 , Reagan created a recording for the American Medical Association warning that such legislation would mean the end of freedom in America . Reagan said that if his listeners did not write letters to prevent it , " we will awake to find that we have socialism . And if you don 't do this , and if I don 't do it , one of these days , you and I are going to spend our sunset years telling our children , and our children 's children , what it once was like in America when men were free . " He also joined the National Rifle Association and would become a lifetime member .
Reagan gained national attention in his speeches for conservative presidential contender Barry Goldwater in 1964 . Speaking for Goldwater , Reagan stressed his belief in the importance of smaller government . Consolidating themes he had developed in talks for GE , he argued in " A Time for Choosing " ( October 27 , 1964 ) :
The Founding Fathers knew a government can 't control the economy without controlling people . And they knew when a government sets out to do that , it must use force and coercion to achieve its purpose . So we have come to a time for choosing ... You and I are told we must choose between a left or right , but I suggest there is no such thing as a left or right . There is only an up or down . Up to man 's age @-@ old dream – the maximum of individual freedom consistent with order – or down to the ant heap of totalitarianism .
This " A Time for Choosing " speech was not enough to turn around the faltering Goldwater campaign , but it was the key event that established Reagan 's national political visibility .
= = Governorship of California : 1967 – 75 = =
California Republicans were impressed with Reagan 's political views and charisma after his " Time for Choosing " speech , he announced in late 1965 , his campaign for Governor of California in 1966 . He defeated former San Francisco mayor George Christopher in the GOP primary . In Reagan 's campaign , he emphasized two main themes : " to send the welfare bums back to work , " and , in reference to burgeoning anti @-@ war and anti @-@ establishment student protests at the University of California at Berkeley , " to clean up the mess at Berkeley . " Ronald Reagan accomplished in 1966 what US Senator William F. Knowland in 1958 and former Vice President Richard Nixon in 1962 had tried : he was elected , defeating two @-@ term governor Edmund G. " Pat " Brown , and was sworn in on January 2 , 1967 . In his first term , he froze government hiring and approved tax hikes to balance the budget .
Shortly after the beginning of his term , Reagan tested the presidential waters in 1968 as part of a " Stop Nixon " movement , hoping to cut into Nixon 's Southern support and be a compromise candidate if neither Nixon nor second @-@ place Nelson Rockefeller received enough delegates to win on the first ballot at the Republican convention . However , by the time of the convention Nixon had 692 delegate votes , 25 more than he needed to secure the nomination , followed by Rockefeller with Reagan in third place .
Reagan was involved in high @-@ profile conflicts with the protest movements of the era . On May 15 , 1969 , during the People 's Park protests at UC Berkeley , Reagan sent the California Highway Patrol and other officers to quell the protests , in an incident that became known as " Bloody Thursday , " resulting in the death of student James Rector and the blinding of carpenter Alan Blanchard . Reagan then called out 2 @,@ 200 state National Guard troops to occupy the city of Berkeley for two weeks to crack down on the protesters . A year after " Bloody Thursday , " Reagan responded to questions about campus protest movements saying , " If it takes a bloodbath , let 's get it over with . No more appeasement . " When the Symbionese Liberation Army kidnapped Patty Hearst in Berkeley and demanded the distribution of food to the poor , Reagan joked to a group of political aides about a botulism outbreak contaminating the food . Conversely , in that one afternoon , " Bloody Thursday , " 111 police officers were injured , including one C.H.P. officer who was knifed in the chest . After calling in the National Guard , the Guard remained in Berkeley for 17 days , camping in People 's Park , and demonstrations subsided as the University removed cordoned @-@ off fencing and placed all development plans for People 's Park on hold .
Early in 1967 , the national debate on abortion was beginning . Democratic California state senator Anthony C. Beilenson introduced the " Therapeutic Abortion Act , " in an effort to reduce the number of " back @-@ room abortions " performed in California . The State Legislature sent the bill to Reagan 's desk where , after many days of indecision , he signed it . About two million abortions would be performed as a result , most because of a provision in the bill allowing abortions for the well @-@ being of the mother . Reagan had been in office for only four months when he signed the bill , and later stated that had he been more experienced as governor , he would not have signed it . After he recognized what he called the " consequences " of the bill , he announced that he was pro @-@ life . He maintained that position later in his political career , writing extensively about abortion .
In 1967 , Reagan signed the Mulford Act , which became California penal code 12031 and 171 ( c ) . The bill repealed a law allowing public carrying of loaded firearms . Named after Republican assemblyman Don Mulford , the bill garnered national attention after the Black Panthers marched bearing arms upon the California State Capitol to protest the bill .
Despite an unsuccessful attempt to recall him in 1968 , Reagan was re @-@ elected in 1970 , defeating " Big Daddy " Jesse M. Unruh . He chose not to seek a third term in the following election cycle . One of Reagan 's greatest frustrations in office concerned capital punishment , which he strongly supported . His efforts to enforce the state 's laws in this area were thwarted when the Supreme Court of California issued its People v. Anderson decision , which invalidated all death sentences issued in California before 1972 , though the decision was later overturned by a constitutional amendment . The only execution during Reagan 's governorship was on April 12 , 1967 , when Aaron Mitchell 's sentence was carried out by the state in San Quentin 's gas chamber .
In 1969 , Reagan , as governor , signed the Family Law Act , an amalgam of two bills which had been written and revised by the California State Legislature for over two years and became the first no @-@ fault divorce legislation in the United States .
Reagan 's terms as governor helped to shape the policies he would pursue in his later political career as president . By campaigning on a platform of sending " the welfare bums back to work , " he spoke out against the idea of the welfare state . He also strongly advocated the Republican ideal of less government regulation of the economy , including that of undue federal taxation .
Reagan did not seek re @-@ election to a third term as governor in 1974 and was succeeded by Democratic California Secretary of State Jerry Brown on January 6 , 1975 .
= = 1976 presidential campaign = =
In 1976 , Reagan challenged incumbent President Gerald Ford in a bid to become the Republican Party 's candidate for president . Reagan soon established himself as the conservative candidate with the support of like @-@ minded organizations such as the American Conservative Union which became key components of his political base , while President Ford was considered a more moderate Republican .
Reagan 's campaign relied on a strategy crafted by campaign manager John Sears of winning a few primaries early to damage the inevitability of Ford 's likely nomination . Reagan won North Carolina , Texas , and California , but the strategy failed , as he ended up losing New Hampshire , Florida , and his native Illinois . The Texas campaign lent renewed hope to Reagan , when he swept all ninety @-@ six delegates chosen in the May 1 primary , with four more awaiting at the state convention . Much of the credit for that victory came from the work of three co @-@ chairmen , including Ernest Angelo , the mayor of Midland , and Ray Barnhart of Houston , whom President Reagan would appoint in 1981 as director of the Federal Highway Administration .
However , as the GOP convention neared , Ford appeared close to victory . Acknowledging his party 's moderate wing , Reagan chose moderate Senator Richard Schweiker of Pennsylvania as his running mate if nominated . Nonetheless , Ford prevailed with 1 @,@ 187 delegates to Reagan 's 1 @,@ 070 . Ford would go on to lose the 1976 Presidential election to the Democrat Jimmy Carter .
Reagan 's concession speech emphasized the dangers of nuclear war and the threat posed by the Soviet Union . Though he lost the nomination , he received 307 write @-@ in votes in New Hampshire , 388 votes as an Independent on Wyoming 's ballot , and a single electoral vote from a faithless elector in the November election from the state of Washington , which Ford had won over Democratic challenger Jimmy Carter .
After the campaign , Reagan remained in the public debate with the Ronald Reagan Radio Commentary series and his political action committee , Citizens for the Republic , which was later revived in Alexandria , Virginia , in 2009 by the Reagan biographer Craig Shirley .
= = 1980 presidential campaign = =
The 1980 presidential campaign between Reagan and incumbent President Jimmy Carter was conducted during domestic concerns and the ongoing Iran hostage crisis . His campaign stressed some of his fundamental principles : lower taxes to stimulate the economy , less government interference in people 's lives , states ' rights , and a strong national defense .
Reagan launched his campaign by declaring " I believe in states ' rights . " After receiving the Republican nomination , Reagan selected one of his primary opponents , George H. W. Bush , to be his running mate . His showing in the October televised debate boosted his campaign . Reagan won the election , carrying 44 states with 489 electoral votes to 49 electoral votes for Carter ( representing six states and Washington , D.C. ) . Reagan received 51 % of the popular vote while Carter took 41 % , and Independent John B. Anderson ( a liberal Republican ) received 7 % . Republicans captured the Senate for the first time since 1952 , and gained 34 House seats , but the Democrats retained a majority .
= = Presidency of the United States : 1981 – 89 = =
During his presidency , Reagan pursued policies that reflected his personal belief in individual freedom , brought changes domestically , both to the U.S. economy and expanded military , and contributed to the end of the Cold War . Termed the Reagan Revolution , his presidency would reinvigorate American morale , reinvigorate the American economy and reduce American reliance upon government . As president , Reagan kept a diary in which he commented on daily occurrences of his presidency and his views on the issues of the day . The diaries were published in May 2007 in the bestselling book , The Reagan Diaries .
= = = First term = = =
To date , Reagan is the oldest person elected to the office of the presidency ( at 69 ) and the oldest president at the time of inauguration ( at 69 years , 341 days ) . In his first inaugural address on January 20 , 1981 , which Reagan himself wrote , he addressed the country 's economic malaise arguing : " In this present crisis , government is not the solution to our problems ; government is the problem . "
= = = = Prayer in schools and a moment of silence = = = =
In 1981 , Reagan became the first president to propose a constitutional amendment on school prayer . The school prayer had previously been banned by the Supreme Court in 1962 , and Reagan 's election reflected an opposition to the courts decision . Reagan 's 1981 proposed amendment stated : " Nothing in this Constitution shall be construed to prohibit individual or group prayer in public schools or other public institutions . No person shall be required by the United States or by any state to participate in prayer . " In a message to Congress , Reagan said that his proposed amendment would " restore the simple freedom of our citizens to offer prayer in public schools and institutions . " In a nationally televised speech the following day , Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson lauded Reagan 's speech and said the moment of silence would " ensure that children grow up to be decent and upright . " In 1984 , Reagan again raised the issue , asking Congress " why can 't [ the ] freedom to acknowledge God be enjoyed again by children in every schoolroom across this land ? " In 1985 , Reagan expressed his disappointment that the Supreme Court ruling still bans a moment of silence for public schools , and said he had " an uphill battle . " In 1987 Reagan again renewed his call for Congress to support voluntary prayer in schools and end " the expulsion of God from America 's classrooms . " During his term in office , Reagan campaigned vigorously to restore prayer to the schools , first as a moment of prayer and later as a Moment of Silence .
= = = = Assassination attempt = = = =
On March 30 , 1981 , only 69 days into the new administration , Reagan , his press secretary James Brady , Washington police officer Thomas Delahanty , and Secret Service agent Tim McCarthy were struck by gunfire from would @-@ be assassin John Hinckley Jr . , outside the Washington Hilton Hotel . Although " close to death " upon arrival at George Washington University Hospital , Reagan was stabilized in the emergency room , then underwent emergency exploratory surgery . He recovered and was released from the hospital on April 11 , becoming the first serving U.S. President to survive being shot in an assassination attempt . The attempt had great influence on Reagan 's popularity ; polls indicated his approval rating to be around 73 % . Reagan believed that God had spared his life so that he might go on to fulfill a greater purpose .
= = = = Assistant Secretary of State nomination = = = =
In response to conservative criticism that the state department lacked hardliners , Reagan in 1981 nominated Ernest W. Lefever as Assistant Secretary of State for Human Rights and Humanitarian Affairs . Lefever performed poorly at his confirmation hearings and the Senate committee rejected his nomination by vote of 4 – 13 ; Lefever withdrew his name .
= = = = Air traffic controllers ' strike = = = =
In summer 1981 PATCO , the union of federal air traffic controllers went on strike , violating a federal law prohibiting government unions from striking . Declaring the situation an emergency as described in the 1947 Taft – Hartley Act , Reagan stated that if the air traffic controllers " do not report for work within 48 hours , they have forfeited their jobs and will be terminated . " They did not return and on August 5 , Reagan fired 11 @,@ 345 striking air traffic controllers who had ignored his order , and used supervisors and military controllers to handle the nation 's commercial air traffic until new controllers could be hired and trained . A leading reference work on public administration concluded , " The firing of PATCO employees not only demonstrated a clear resolve by the president to take control of the bureaucracy , but it also sent a clear message to the private sector that unions no longer needed to be feared . "
= = = = " Reaganomics " and the economy = = = =
During Jimmy Carter 's last year in office ( 1980 ) , inflation averaged 12 @.@ 5 % , compared with 4 @.@ 4 % during Reagan 's last year in office ( 1988 ) . During Reagan 's administration , the unemployment rate declined from 7 @.@ 5 % to 5 @.@ 4 % , with the rate reaching highs of 10 @.@ 8 % in 1982 and 10 @.@ 4 % in 1983 , averaging 7 @.@ 5 % over the eight years , and real GDP growth averaged 3 @.@ 4 % with a high of 8 @.@ 6 % in 1983 , while nominal GDP growth averaged 7 @.@ 4 % , and peaked at 12 @.@ 2 % in 1982 .
Reagan implemented policies based on supply @-@ side economics , advocating a laissez @-@ faire philosophy and free @-@ market fiscal policy , seeking to stimulate the economy with large , across @-@ the @-@ board tax cuts . He also supported returning the United States to some sort of gold standard , and successfully urged Congress to establish the U.S. Gold Commission to study how one could be implemented . Citing the economic theories of Arthur Laffer , Reagan promoted the proposed tax cuts as potentially stimulating the economy enough to expand the tax base , offsetting the revenue loss due to reduced rates of taxation , a theory that entered political discussion as the Laffer curve . Reaganomics was the subject of debate with supporters pointing to improvements in certain key economic indicators as evidence of success , and critics pointing to large increases in federal budget deficits and the national debt . His policy of " peace through strength " resulted in a record peacetime defense buildup including a 40 % real increase in defense spending between 1981 and 1985 .
During Reagan 's presidency , federal income tax rates were lowered significantly with the signing of the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 , which lowered the top marginal tax bracket from 70 % to 50 % and the lowest bracket from 14 % to 11 % . Other tax increases passed by Congress and signed by Reagan ensured however that tax revenues over his two terms were 18 @.@ 2 % of GDP as compared to 18 @.@ 1 % over the 40 @-@ year period 1970 – 2010 . Then , in 1982 the Job Training Partnership Act of 1982 was signed into law , initiating one of the United States ' first public – private partnerships and a major part of the president 's job creation program . Reagan 's Assistant Secretary of Labor and Chief of Staff , Al Angrisani , was a primary architect of the bill .
Conversely , Congress passed and Reagan signed into law tax increases of some nature in every year from 1981 to 1987 to continue funding such government programs as Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982 ( TEFRA ) , Social Security , and the Deficit Reduction Act of 1984 ( DEFRA ) . Despite the fact that TEFRA was the " largest peacetime tax increase in American history , " gross domestic product ( GDP ) growth recovered strongly after the early 1980s recession ended in 1982 , and grew during his eight years in office at an annual rate of 7 @.@ 9 % per year , with a high of 12 @.@ 2 % growth in 1981 . Unemployment peaked at 10 @.@ 8 % monthly rate in December 1982 — higher than any time since the Great Depression — then dropped during the rest of Reagan 's presidency . Sixteen million new jobs were created , while inflation significantly decreased . The Tax Reform Act of 1986 , another bipartisan effort championed by Reagan , simplified the tax code by reducing the number of tax brackets to four and slashing a number of tax breaks . The top rate was dropped to 28 % , but capital gains taxes were increased on those with the highest incomes from 20 % to 28 % . The increase of the lowest tax bracket from 11 % to 15 % was more than offset by expansion of the personal exemption , standard deduction , and earned income tax credit . The net result was the removal of six million poor Americans from the income tax roll and a reduction of income tax liability at all income levels .
The net effect of all Reagan @-@ era tax bills was a 1 % decrease in government revenues when compared to Treasury Department revenue estimates from the Administration 's first post @-@ enactment January budgets . However , federal income tax receipts increased from 1980 to 1989 , rising from $ 308 @.@ 7 billion to $ 549 billion or an average annual rate of 8 @.@ 2 % ( 2 @.@ 5 % attributed to higher Social Security receipts ) , and federal outlays grew at an annual rate of 7 @.@ 1 % .
Reagan 's policies proposed that economic growth would occur when marginal tax rates were low enough to spur investment , which would then lead to higher employment and wages . Critics labeled this " trickle @-@ down economics " — the belief that tax policies that benefit the wealthy will create a " trickle @-@ down " effect to the poor . Questions arose whether Reagan 's policies benefited the wealthy more than those living in poverty , and many poor and minority citizens viewed Reagan as indifferent to their struggles . These views were exacerbated by the fact that Reagan 's economic regimen included freezing the minimum wage at $ 3 @.@ 35 an hour , slashing federal assistance to local governments by 60 % , cutting the budget for public housing and Section 8 rent subsidies in half , and eliminating the antipoverty Community Development Block Grant program . The widening gap between the rich and poor had already begun during the 1970s before Reagan 's economic policies took effect . Along with Reagan 's 1981 cut in the top regular tax rate on unearned income , he reduced the maximum capital gains rate to only 20 % . Reagan later set tax rates on capital gains at the same level as the rates on ordinary income like salaries and wages , with both topping out at 28 % . Reagan is viewed as an antitax hero despite raising taxes eleven times over the course of his presidency , all in the name of fiscal responsibility . According to Paul Krugman , " Over all , the 1982 tax increase undid about a third of the 1981 cut ; as a share of GDP , the increase was substantially larger than Mr. Clinton 's 1993 tax increase . " According to historian and domestic policy adviser Bruce Bartlett , Reagan 's tax increases over the course of his presidency took back half of the 1981 tax cut .
Further following his opposition to government intervention , Reagan cut the budgets of non @-@ military programs including Medicaid , food stamps , federal education programs and the EPA . While he protected entitlement programs , such as Social Security and Medicare , his administration attempted to purge many people with disabilities from the Social Security disability rolls .
The administration 's stance toward the Savings and Loan industry contributed to the savings and loan crisis . It is also suggested , by a minority of Reaganomics critics , that the policies partially influenced the stock market crash of 1987 , but there is no consensus regarding a single source for the crash . In order to cover newly spawned federal budget deficits , the United States borrowed heavily both domestically and abroad , raising the national debt from $ 997 billion to $ 2 @.@ 85 trillion . Reagan described the new debt as the " greatest disappointment " of his presidency .
He reappointed Paul Volcker as Chairman of the Federal Reserve , and in 1987 he appointed monetarist Alan Greenspan to succeed him . Reagan ended the price controls on domestic oil which had contributed to energy crises in the early 1970s . The price of oil subsequently dropped , and the 1980s did not see the fuel shortages that the 1970s had . Reagan also fulfilled a 1980 campaign promise to repeal the windfall profit tax in 1988 , which had previously increased dependence on foreign oil . Some economists , such as Nobel Prize winners Milton Friedman and Robert Mundell , argue that Reagan 's tax policies invigorated America 's economy and contributed to the economic boom of the 1990s . Other economists , such as Nobel Prize winner Robert Solow , argue that Reagan 's deficits were a major reason his successor , George H.W. Bush , reneged on a campaign promise and resorted to raising taxes .
During Reagan 's presidency , a program was initiated within the U.S. Intelligence Community to ensure America 's economic strength . The program , Project Socrates , developed and demonstrated the means required for the United States to generate and lead the next evolutionary leap in technology acquisition and utilization for a competitive advantage — automated innovation . To ensure that the United States acquired the maximum benefit from automated innovation , Reagan , during his second term , had an executive order drafted to create a new federal agency to implement the Project Socrates results on a nationwide basis . However , Reagan 's term came to end before the executive order could be coordinated and signed , and the incoming Bush administration , labeling Project Socrates as " industrial policy , " had it terminated .
= = = = Escalation of the Cold War = = = =
Reagan escalated the Cold War , accelerating a reversal from the policy of détente which began in 1979 after the Soviet war in Afghanistan . Reagan ordered a massive buildup of the United States Armed Forces and implemented new policies towards the Soviet Union : reviving the B @-@ 1 Lancer program that had been canceled by the Carter administration , and producing the MX missile . In response to Soviet deployment of the SS @-@ 20 , Reagan oversaw NATO 's deployment of the Pershing missile in West Germany .
In 1984 , journalist Nicholas Lemann interviewed Reagan Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger and summarized the strategy of the Reagan administration to roll back the Soviet Union :
Their society is economically weak , and it lacks the wealth , education , and technology to enter the information age . They have thrown everything into military production , and their society is starting to show terrible stress as a result . They can 't sustain military production the way we can . Eventually it will break them , and then there will be just one superpower in a safe world – if , only if , we can keep spending .
Lemann notes that when he wrote that in 1984 , he thought the Reaganites were living in a fantasy world . But in 2016 , he says , that passage represents " a fairly uncontroversial description of what Reagan actually did . "
Together with the United Kingdom 's prime minister Margaret Thatcher , Reagan denounced the Soviet Union in ideological terms . In a famous address on June 8 , 1982 , to the British Parliament in the Royal Gallery of the Palace of Westminster , Reagan said , " the forward march of freedom and democracy will leave Marxism – Leninism on the ash heap of history . " On March 3 , 1983 , he predicted that communism would collapse , stating , " Communism is another sad , bizarre chapter in human history whose last pages even now are being written . " In a speech to the National Association of Evangelicals on March 8 , 1983 , Reagan called the Soviet Union " an evil empire . "
After Soviet fighters downed Korean Air Lines Flight 007 near Moneron Island on September 1 , 1983 , carrying 269 people , including Georgia congressman Larry McDonald , Reagan labeled the act a " massacre " and declared that the Soviets had turned " against the world and the moral precepts which guide human relations among people everywhere . " The Reagan administration responded to the incident by suspending all Soviet passenger air service to the United States , and dropped several agreements being negotiated with the Soviets , wounding them financially . As result of the shootdown , and the cause of KAL 007 's going astray thought to be inadequacies related to its navigational system , Reagan announced on September 16 , 1983 , that the Global Positioning System would be made available for civilian use , free of charge , once completed in order to avert similar navigational errors in future .
Under a policy that came to be known as the Reagan Doctrine , Reagan and his administration also provided overt and covert aid to anti @-@ communist resistance movements in an effort to " rollback " Soviet @-@ backed communist governments in Africa , Asia , and Latin America . Reagan deployed the CIA 's Special Activities Division to Afghanistan and Pakistan . They were instrumental in training , equipping and leading Mujaheddin forces against the Soviet Army . President Reagan 's Covert Action program has been given credit for assisting in ending the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan , though some of the United States funded armaments introduced then would later pose a threat to U.S. troops in the 2000s ( decade ) war in Afghanistan . However , in a break from the Carter policy of arming Taiwan under the Taiwan Relations Act , Reagan also agreed with the communist government in China to reduce the sale of arms to Taiwan .
In March 1983 , Reagan introduced the Strategic Defense Initiative , a defense project that would have used ground- and space @-@ based systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles . Reagan believed that this defense shield could make nuclear war impossible . There was much disbelief surrounding the program 's scientific feasibility , leading opponents to dub SDI " Star Wars " and argue that its technological objective was unattainable . The Soviets became concerned about the possible effects SDI would have ; leader Yuri Andropov said it would put " the entire world in jeopardy . " For those reasons , David Gergen , former aide to President Reagan , believes that in retrospect , SDI hastened the end of the Cold War .
Critics labeled Reagan 's foreign policies as aggressive , imperialistic , and chided them as " warmongering , " though they were supported by leading American conservatives who argued that they were necessary to protect U.S. security interests . The Reagan administration also backed anti @-@ communist leaders accused of severe human rights violations , such as Efraín Ríos Montt of Guatemala and Hissène Habré of Chad .
= = = = Lebanese Civil War ( 1983 ) = = = =
With the approval of Congress , Reagan in 1983 sent forces to Lebanon to reduce the threat of the Lebanese Civil War . The American peacekeeping forces in Beirut , a part of a multinational force during the Lebanese Civil War , were attacked on October 23 , 1983 . The Beirut barracks bombing killed 241 American servicemen and wounded more than 60 others by a suicide truck bomber . Reagan sent in the USS New Jersey battleship to shell Syrian positions in Lebanon . He then withdrew all the Marines from Lebanon .
= = = = Operation Urgent Fury ( Grenada : 1983 ) = = = =
On October 25 , 1983 , Reagan ordered U.S. forces to invade Grenada , code named Operation Urgent Fury , where a 1979 coup d 'état had established an independent non @-@ aligned Marxist – Leninist government . A formal appeal from the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States ( OECS ) led to the intervention of U.S. forces ; President Reagan also cited an allegedly regional threat posed by a Soviet @-@ Cuban military build @-@ up in the Caribbean and concern for the safety of several hundred American medical students at St. George 's University as adequate reasons to invade . Operation Urgent Fury was the first major military operation conducted by U.S. forces since the Vietnam War , several days of fighting commenced , resulting in a U.S. victory , with 19 American fatalities and 116 wounded American soldiers . In mid @-@ December , after a new government was appointed by the Governor @-@ General , U.S. forces withdrew .
= = = = 1984 presidential campaign = = = =
Reagan accepted the Republican nomination in Dallas , Texas . He proclaimed that it was " morning again in America , " regarding the recovering economy and the dominating performance by the U.S. athletes at the 1984 Summer Olympics , among other things . He became the first American president to open an Olympic Games held in the United States .
Reagan 's opponent in the 1984 presidential election was former Vice President Walter Mondale . With questions about Reagan 's age , and a weak performance in the first presidential debate , his ability to perform the duties of president for another term was questioned . His apparent confused and forgetful behavior was evident to his supporters ; they had previously known him clever and witty . Rumors began to circulate that he had Alzheimer 's disease . Reagan rebounded in the second debate , and confronted questions about his age , quipping , " I will not make age an issue of this campaign . I am not going to exploit , for political purposes , my opponent 's youth and inexperience , " which generated applause and laughter , even from Mondale himself .
That November , Reagan was re @-@ elected , winning 49 of 50 states . The president 's overwhelming victory saw Mondale carry only his home state of Minnesota ( by 3 @,@ 800 votes ) and the District of Columbia . Reagan won a record 525 electoral votes , the most of any candidate in United States history , and received 59 % of the popular vote to Mondale 's 41 % .
= = = Second term = = =
Reagan was sworn in as president for the second time on January 20 , 1985 , in a private ceremony at the White House . Because January 20 fell on a Sunday , a public celebration was not held but took place in the Capitol rotunda the following day . January 21 was one of the coldest days on record in Washington , D.C. ; due to poor weather , inaugural celebrations were held inside the Capitol . In the coming weeks he shook up his staff somewhat , moving White House Chief of Staff James Baker to Secretary of the Treasury and naming Treasury Secretary Donald Regan , a former Merrill Lynch officer , Chief of Staff .
In 1985 , Reagan visited a German military cemetery in Bitburg to lay a wreath with West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl . It was determined that the cemetery held the graves of forty @-@ nine members of the Waffen @-@ SS . Reagan issued a statement that called the Nazi soldiers buried in that cemetery as themselves " victims , " a designation which ignited a stir over whether Reagan had equated the SS men to victims of the Holocaust ; Pat Buchanan , Reagan 's Director of Communications , argued that the president did not equate the SS members with the actual Holocaust . Now strongly urged to cancel the visit , the president responded that it would be wrong to back down on a promise he had made to Chancellor Kohl . He ultimately attended the ceremony where two military generals laid a wreath .
The disintegration of the Space Shuttle Challenger on January 28 , 1986 , proved a pivotal moment in Reagan 's presidency . All seven astronauts aboard were killed . On the night of the disaster , Reagan delivered a speech , written by Peggy Noonan , in which he said :
The future doesn 't belong to the fainthearted ; it belongs to the brave ... We will never forget them , nor the last time we saw them , this morning , as they prepared for their journey and waved goodbye and ' slipped the surly bonds of Earth ' to ' touch the face of God.'
In 1988 , near the end of the Iran – Iraq War , the U.S. Navy guided missile cruiser USS Vincennes accidentally shot down Iran Air Flight 655 killing 290 civilian passengers . The incident further worsened already tense Iran – United States relations .
= = = = War on Drugs = = = =
Reagan announced a War on Drugs in 1982 , in response to concerns about the increasing crack epidemic . Though Nixon had previously declared a war on drugs , Reagan advocated more militant policies .
He said that " drugs were menacing our society " and promised to fight for drug @-@ free schools and workplaces , expanded drug treatment , stronger law enforcement and drug interdiction efforts , and greater public awareness .
In 1986 , Reagan signed a drug enforcement bill that budgeted $ 1 @.@ 7 billion to fund the War on Drugs and specified a mandatory minimum penalty for drug offenses . The bill was criticized for promoting significant racial disparities in the prison population and critics also charged that the policies did little to reduce the availability of drugs on the street , while resulting in a great financial burden for America . Defenders of the effort point to success in reducing rates of adolescent drug use . First Lady Nancy Reagan made the War on Drugs her main priority by founding the " Just Say No " drug awareness campaign , which aimed to discourage children and teenagers from engaging in recreational drug use by offering various ways of saying " no . " Nancy Reagan traveled to 65 cities in 33 states , raising awareness about the dangers of drugs including alcohol .
= = = = Response to AIDS Epidemic = = = =
The Reagan administration largely ignored the AIDS crisis , which began to unfold in the United States in 1981 , the same year Reagan took office . AIDS research was chronically underfunded during Reagan 's administration , and requests for more funding by doctors at the Centers for Disease Control ( CDC ) were routinely denied . By the end of the first 12 months of the epidemic , when more than 1 @,@ 000 people had died of AIDS in the US , the CDC had spent less than $ 1 million on AIDS research . In contrast , funding had been made amply available to the CDC in their efforts to stop Legionnaires ' disease after an outbreak in 1976 ; the CDC had spent $ 9 million in fighting Legionnaires ' disease , though the outbreak had caused fewer than 50 deaths .
By the time President Reagan had given his first speech on the epidemic , some six years into his presidency , 36 @,@ 058 Americans had been diagnosed with AIDS and 20 @,@ 849 had died of it . By the end of 1989 , the year Reagan left office , 115 @,@ 786 people had been diagnosed with AIDS in the United States , and more than 70 @,@ 000 of them had died of it . It has been suggested that far fewer would have died , both then and in the decades that followed , if the Reagan Administration had applied the same determination in combatting AIDS as Gerald Ford 's Administration had applied to fighting Legionnaires ' disease .
= = = = Libya bombing = = = =
Relations between Libya and the United States under President Reagan were continually contentious , beginning with the Gulf of Sidra incident in 1981 ; by 1982 , Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi was considered by the CIA to be , along with USSR leader Leonid Brezhnev and Cuban leader Fidel Castro , part of a group known as the " unholy trinity " and was also labeled as " our international public enemy number one " by a CIA official . These tensions were later revived in early April 1986 , when a bomb exploded in a Berlin discothèque , resulting in the injury of 63 American military personnel and death of one serviceman . Stating that there was " irrefutable proof " that Libya had directed the " terrorist bombing , " Reagan authorized the use of force against the country . In the late evening of April 15 , 1986 , the United States launched a series of air strikes on ground targets in Libya .
The UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher allowed the U.S. Air Force to use Britain 's air bases to launch the attack , on the justification that the UK was supporting America 's right to self @-@ defense under Article 51 of the United Nations Charter . The attack was designed to halt Gaddafi 's " ability to export terrorism , " offering him " incentives and reasons to alter his criminal behavior . " The president addressed the nation from the Oval Office after the attacks had commenced , stating , " When our citizens are attacked or abused anywhere in the world on the direct orders of hostile regimes , we will respond so long as I 'm in this office . " The attack was condemned by many countries . By a vote of 79 in favor to 28 against with 33 abstentions , the United Nations General Assembly adopted resolution 41 / 38 which " condemns the military attack perpetrated against the Socialist People 's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya on April 15 , 1986 , which constitutes a violation of the Charter of the United Nations and of international law . "
= = = = Immigration = = = =
Reagan signed the Immigration Reform and Control Act in 1986 . The act made it illegal to knowingly hire or recruit illegal immigrants , required employers to attest to their employees ' immigration status , and granted amnesty to approximately three million illegal immigrants who entered the United States before January 1 , 1982 , and had lived in the country continuously . Critics argue that the employer sanctions were without teeth and failed to stem illegal immigration . Upon signing the act at a ceremony held beside the newly refurbished Statue of Liberty , Reagan said , " The legalization provisions in this act will go far to improve the lives of a class of individuals who now must hide in the shadows , without access to many of the benefits of a free and open society . Very soon many of these men and women will be able to step into the sunlight and , ultimately , if they choose , they may become Americans . " Reagan also said , " The employer sanctions program is the keystone and major element . It will remove the incentive for illegal immigration by eliminating the job opportunities which draw illegal aliens here . "
= = = = Iran – Contra affair = = = =
In 1986 , the Iran – Contra affair became a problem for the administration stemming from the use of proceeds from covert arms sales to Iran during the Iran – Iraq War to fund the Contra rebels fighting against the government in Nicaragua , which had been specifically outlawed by an act of Congress . The affair became a political scandal in the United States during the 1980s . The International Court of Justice , whose jurisdiction to decide the case was disputed by the United States , ruled that the United States had violated international law and breached treaties in Nicaragua in various ways ( see Nicaragua v. United States ) .
President Reagan professed that he was unaware of the plot 's existence . He opened his own investigation and appointed two Republicans and one Democrat ( John Tower , Brent Scowcroft and Edmund Muskie , known as the " Tower Commission " ) to investigate the scandal . The commission could not find direct evidence that Reagan had prior knowledge of the program , but criticized him heavily for his disengagement from managing his staff , making the diversion of funds possible . A separate report by Congress concluded that " If the president did not know what his national security advisers were doing , he should have . " Reagan 's popularity declined from 67 % to 46 % in less than a week , the greatest and quickest decline ever for a president . The scandal resulted in fourteen indictments within Reagan 's staff , and eleven convictions .
Many Central Americans criticize Reagan for his support of the Contras , calling him an anti @-@ communist zealot , blinded to human rights abuses , while others say he " saved Central America . " Daniel Ortega , Sandinistan and president of Nicaragua , said that he hoped God would forgive Reagan for his " dirty war against Nicaragua . "
= = = = End of the Cold War = = = =
Until the early 1980s , the United States had relied on the qualitative superiority of its weapons to essentially frighten the Soviets , but the gap had been narrowed . Although the Soviet Union did not accelerate military spending after President Reagan 's military buildup , their large military expenses , in combination with collectivized agriculture and inefficient planned manufacturing , were a heavy burden for the Soviet economy . At the same time , Saudi Arabia increased oil production , which resulted in a drop of oil prices in 1985 to one @-@ third of the previous level ; oil was the main source of Soviet export revenues . These factors contributed to a stagnant Soviet economy during Gorbachev 's tenure .
Reagan recognized the change in the direction of the Soviet leadership with Mikhail Gorbachev , and shifted to diplomacy , with a view to encourage the Soviet leader to pursue substantial arms agreements . Reagan 's personal mission was to achieve " a world free of nuclear weapons , " which he regarded as " totally irrational , totally inhumane , good for nothing but killing , possibly destructive of life on earth and civilization . " He was able to start discussions on nuclear disarmament with General Secretary Gorbachev . Gorbachev and Reagan held four summit conferences between 1985 and 1988 : the first in Geneva , Switzerland , the second in Reykjavík , Iceland , the third in Washington , D.C. , and the fourth in Moscow . Reagan believed that if he could persuade the Soviets to allow for more democracy and free speech , this would lead to reform and the end of Communism .
Speaking at the Berlin Wall on June 12 , 1987 , Reagan challenged Gorbachev to go further , saying " General Secretary Gorbachev , if you seek peace , if you seek prosperity for the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe , if you seek liberalization , come here to this gate ! Mr. Gorbachev , open this gate ! Mr. Gorbachev , tear down this wall ! "
Before Gorbachev 's visit to Washington , D.C. , for the third summit in 1987 , the Soviet leader announced his intention to pursue significant arms agreements . The timing of the announcement led Western diplomats to contend that Gorbachev was offering major concessions to the United States on the levels of conventional forces , nuclear weapons , and policy in Eastern Europe . He and Reagan signed the Intermediate @-@ Range Nuclear Forces Treaty ( INF ) at the White House , which eliminated an entire class of nuclear weapons . The two leaders laid the framework for the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty , or START I ; Reagan insisted that the name of the treaty be changed from Strategic Arms Limitation Talks to Strategic Arms Reduction Talks .
When Reagan visited Moscow for the fourth summit in 1988 , he was viewed as a celebrity by the Soviets . A journalist asked the president if he still considered the Soviet Union the evil empire . " No , " he replied , " I was talking about another time , another era . " At Gorbachev 's request , Reagan gave a speech on free markets at the Moscow State University . In his autobiography , An American Life , Reagan expressed his optimism about the new direction that they charted and his warm feelings for Gorbachev . In November 1989 , ten months after Reagan left office , the Berlin Wall was opened , the Cold War was unofficially declared over at the Malta Summit on December 3 , 1989 , and two years later , the Soviet Union collapsed .
= = = Health = = =
Early in his presidency , Reagan started wearing a custom , technologically advanced hearing aid , first in his right ear and later in his left as well . His decision to go public in 1983 regarding his wearing the small , audio @-@ amplifying device boosted their sales .
On July 13 , 1985 , Reagan underwent surgery at Bethesda Naval Hospital to remove cancerous polyps from his colon . He relinquished presidential power to the Vice President for eight hours in a similar procedure as outlined in the 25th Amendment , which he specifically avoided invoking . The surgery lasted just under three hours and was successful . Reagan resumed the powers of the presidency later that day . In August of that year , he underwent an operation to remove skin cancer cells from his nose . In October , additional skin cancer cells were detected on his nose and removed .
In January 1987 , Reagan underwent surgery for an enlarged prostate which caused further worries about his health . No cancerous growths were found , however , and he was not sedated during the operation . In July of that year , aged 76 , he underwent a third skin cancer operation on his nose .
On January 7 , 1989 , Reagan underwent surgery at Walter Reed Army Medical Center to repair a Dupuytren 's contracture of the ring finger of his left hand . The surgery lasted for more than three hours and was performed under regional anesthesia . This procedure was done just thirteen days before he left office . For this reason he had a hand and finger bandage the day of his farewell speech and the day of the Inauguration of George H. W. Bush .
= = = Judiciary = = =
During his 1980 campaign , Reagan pledged that , if given the opportunity , he would appoint the first female Supreme Court Justice . That opportunity came in his first year in office when he nominated Sandra Day O 'Connor to fill the vacancy created by the retirement of Justice Potter Stewart . In his second term , Reagan elevated William Rehnquist to succeed Warren E. Burger as Chief Justice , and named Antonin Scalia to fill the vacant seat . Reagan nominated conservative jurist Robert Bork to the high court in 1987 . Senator Ted Kennedy , a Democrat of Massachusetts , strongly condemned Bork , and great controversy ensued . Bork 's nomination was rejected 58 – 42 . Reagan then nominated Douglas Ginsburg , but Ginsburg withdrew his name from consideration after coming under fire for his cannabis use . Anthony Kennedy was eventually confirmed in his place . Along with his three Supreme Court appointments , Reagan appointed 83 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals , and 290 judges to the United States district courts .
Reagan also nominated Vaughn Walker , who would later be revealed to be the earliest known gay federal judge , to the United States District Court for the Central District of California . However , the nomination stalled in the Senate , and Walker was not confirmed until he was renominated by Reagan 's successor , George H. W. Bush .
Early in his tenure , Reagan appointed Clarence M. Pendleton , Jr . , of San Diego as the first African American to chair the United States Commission on Civil Rights . Pendleton tried to steer the commission into a conservative direction in line with Reagan 's views on social and civil rights policy during his time as tenure from 1981 until his sudden death in 1988 . Pendleton soon aroused the ire of many civil rights advocates and feminists when he ridiculed the comparable worth proposal as being " Looney Tunes . "
In 1984 , Reagan commuted the 18 @-@ year sentence of former Louisiana Commissioner of Agriculture and Forestry Gil Dozier , a Democrat from Baton Rouge , to the time served for violations of both the Hobbs and the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations acts . On September 23 , 1980 , the United States District Court for the Middle District of Louisiana convicted Dozier of extortion and racketeering when he pushed companies doing business with his department to make campaign contributions on his behalf . Reagan determined that the 18 @-@ year sentence was excessive compared to what other political figures in similar circumstances had been receiving .
= = Post @-@ presidency = =
After leaving office in 1989 , the Reagans purchased a home in Bel Air , Los Angeles , in addition to the Reagan Ranch in Santa Barbara . They regularly attended Bel Air Presbyterian Church and occasionally made appearances on behalf of the Republican Party ; Reagan delivered a well @-@ received speech at the 1992 Republican National Convention . Previously on November 4 , 1991 , the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library was dedicated and opened to the public . At the dedication ceremonies , five presidents were in attendance , as well as six first ladies , marking the first time that five presidents were gathered in the same location . Reagan continued publicly to speak in favor of a line @-@ item veto ; the Brady Bill ; a constitutional amendment requiring a balanced budget ; and the repeal of the 22nd Amendment , which prohibits anyone from serving more than two terms as president . In 1992 Reagan established the Ronald Reagan Freedom Award with the newly formed Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation . His final public speech was on February 3 , 1994 , during a tribute to him in Washington , D.C. , and his last major public appearance was at the funeral of Richard Nixon on April 27 , 1994 .
= = = Alzheimer 's disease = = =
= = = = Announcement and reaction : 1994 = = = =
In August 1994 , at the age of 83 , Reagan was diagnosed with Alzheimer 's disease , an incurable neurological disorder which destroys brain cells and ultimately causes death . In November , he informed the nation through a handwritten letter , writing in part :
I have recently been told that I am one of the millions of Americans who will be afflicted with Alzheimer 's Disease ... At the moment I feel just fine . I intend to live the remainder of the years God gives me on this earth doing the things I have always done ... I now begin the journey that will lead me into the sunset of my life . I know that for America there will always be a bright dawn ahead . Thank you , my friends . May God always bless you .
After his diagnosis , letters of support from well @-@ wishers poured into his California home .
But there was also speculation over how long Reagan had demonstrated symptoms of mental degeneration . Former CBS White House correspondent Lesley Stahl recounted that , in her final meeting with the president in 1986 , Reagan did not seem to know who Stahl was , and that she came close to reporting that Reagan was senile , but at the end of the meeting , Reagan had regained his alertness . However , Dr. Lawrence K. Altman , a physician employed as a reporter for the New York Times , noted that " the line between mere forgetfulness and the beginning of Alzheimer 's can be fuzzy , " and all four of Reagan 's White House doctors said that they saw no evidence of Alzheimer 's while he was president . Dr. John E. Hutton , Reagan 's primary physician from 1984 to 1989 , said the president " absolutely " did not " show any signs of dementia or Alzheimer 's . " His former Chief of Staff James Baker considered " ludicrous " the idea that Reagan slept during cabinet meetings . Other staff members , former aides , and friends said they saw no indication of Alzheimer 's while he was president . Reagan did experience occasional memory lapses , though , especially with names . Reagan 's doctors say that he only began exhibiting overt symptoms of the illness in late 1992 or 1993 , several years after he had left office . For example , Reagan repeated a toast to Margaret Thatcher , with identical words and gestures , at his 82nd @-@ birthday party on Feb. 6 , 1993 .
Complicating the picture , Reagan suffered an episode of head trauma in July 1989 , five years before his diagnosis . After being thrown from a horse in Mexico , a subdural hematoma was found and surgically treated later in the year . Nancy Reagan , citing what doctors told her , asserts that her husband 's 1989 fall hastened the onset of Alzheimer 's disease , although acute brain injury has not been conclusively proven to accelerate Alzheimer 's or dementia . Reagan 's one @-@ time physician Daniel Ruge has said it is possible , but not certain , that the horse accident affected the course of Reagan 's memory .
= = = = Progression : 1994 – 2004 = = = =
As the years went on , the disease slowly destroyed Reagan 's mental capacity . He was only able to recognize a few people , including his wife , Nancy . He remained active , however ; he took walks through parks near his home and on beaches , played golf regularly , and until 1999 he often went to his office in nearby Century City .
Reagan suffered a fall at his Bel Air home on January 13 , 2001 , resulting in a broken hip . The fracture was repaired the following day and the 89 @-@ year @-@ old Reagan returned home later that week , although he faced difficult physical therapy at home . On February 6 , 2001 , Reagan reached the age of 90 , becoming the third former president to do so ( the other two being John Adams and Herbert Hoover , with Gerald Ford , George H. W. Bush and Jimmy Carter later reaching 90 ) . Reagan 's public appearances became much less frequent with the progression of the disease , and as a result , his family decided that he would live in quiet semi @-@ isolation with his wife Nancy . Nancy Reagan told CNN 's Larry King in 2001 that very few visitors were allowed to see her husband because she felt that " Ronnie would want people to remember him as he was . " After her husband 's diagnosis and death , Nancy Reagan became a stem @-@ cell research advocate , urging Congress and President George W. Bush to support federal funding for embryonic stem @-@ cell research , something Bush opposed . In 2009 , she praised President Barack Obama for lifting restrictions on such research . Mrs. Reagan has said that she believes that it could lead to a cure for Alzheimer 's .
= = Death = =
Reagan died of pneumonia , complicated by Alzheimer 's disease , at his home in Bel Air , California , on the afternoon of June 5 , 2004 . A short time after his death , Nancy Reagan released a statement saying , " My family and I would like the world to know that President Ronald Reagan has died after 10 years of Alzheimer 's disease at 93 years of age . We appreciate everyone 's prayers . " President George W. Bush declared June 11 a National Day of Mourning , and international tributes came in from around the world . Reagan 's body was taken to the Kingsley and Gates Funeral Home in Santa Monica , California later in the day , where well @-@ wishers paid tribute by laying flowers and American flags in the grass . On June 7 , his body was removed and taken to the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library , where a brief family funeral was held conducted by Pastor Michael Wenning . His body lay in repose in the Library lobby until June 9 ; over 100 @,@ 000 people viewed the coffin .
On June 9 , Reagan 's body was flown to Washington , D.C. where he became the tenth United States president to lie in state ; in thirty @-@ four hours , 104 @,@ 684 people filed past the coffin .
On June 11 , a state funeral was conducted in the Washington National Cathedral , and presided over by President George W. Bush . Eulogies were given by former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher , former Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney , and both former President George H. W. Bush and President George W. Bush . Also in attendance were Mikhail Gorbachev , and many world leaders , including British Prime Minister Tony Blair , Prince Charles , representing his mother Queen Elizabeth II , German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder , Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi , and interim presidents Hamid Karzai of Afghanistan , and Ghazi al @-@ Yawer of Iraq .
After the funeral , the Reagan entourage was flown back to the Ronald W. Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley , California , where another service was held , and President Reagan was interred . At the time of his death , Reagan was the longest @-@ lived president in U.S. history , having lived 93 years and 120 days ( 2 years , 8 months , and 23 days longer than John Adams , whose record he surpassed ) . He is now the second longest @-@ lived president , just 45 days fewer than Gerald Ford . He was the first United States president to die in the 21st century , and his was the first state funeral in the United States since that of President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1973 .
His burial site is inscribed with the words he delivered at the opening of the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library : " I know in my heart that man is good , that what is right will always eventually triumph and that there is purpose and worth to each and every life . "
= = Legacy = =
Since Reagan left office in 1989 , substantial debate has occurred among scholars , historians , and the general public surrounding his legacy . Supporters have pointed to a more efficient and prosperous economy as a result of Reagan 's economic policies , foreign policy triumphs including a peaceful end to the Cold War , and a restoration of American pride and morale . Proponents also argue Reagan restored faith in the American Dream with his unabated and passionate love for the United States , after a decline in American confidence and self @-@ respect under Jimmy Carter 's perceived weak leadership , particularly during the Iranian hostage crisis , as well as his gloomy , dreary outlook for the future of the United States during the 1980 election . Critics contend that Reagan 's economic policies resulted in rising budget deficits , a wider gap in wealth , and an increase in homelessness and that the Iran – Contra affair lowered American credibility .
Opinions of Reagan 's legacy among the country 's leading policy makers and journalists differ as well . Edwin Feulner , president of The Heritage Foundation , said that Reagan " helped create a safer , freer world " and said of his economic policies : " He took an America suffering from ' malaise ' ... and made its citizens believe again in their destiny . " However , Mark Weisbrot , co @-@ Director of the Center for Economic and Policy Research , contended that Reagan 's " economic policies were mostly a failure " while Howard Kurtz of The Washington Post opined that Reagan was " a far more controversial figure in his time than the largely gushing obits on television would suggest . "
Despite the continuing debate surrounding his legacy , many conservative and liberal scholars agree that Reagan has been the most influential president since Franklin D. Roosevelt , leaving his imprint on American politics , diplomacy , culture , and economics through his effective communication , dedicated patriotism and pragmatic compromising . Since he left office , historians have reached a consensus , as summarized by British historian M. J. Heale , who finds that scholars now concur that Reagan rehabilitated conservatism , turned the nation to the right , practiced a considerably pragmatic conservatism that balanced ideology and the constraints of politics , revived faith in the presidency and in American exceptionalism , and contributed to victory in the Cold War .
= = = Cold War = = =
The Cold War was a major political , economic and military endeavor for over four decades , but the confrontation between the two superpowers had decreased dramatically by the end of Reagan 's presidency . The significance of Reagan 's role in ending the Cold War has spurred contentious and opinionated debate . That Reagan played a role in contributing to the downfall of the Soviet Union is agreed , but the extent of this role is continuously debated , with many believing that Reagan 's defense policies , economic policies , military policies and hard line rhetoric against the Soviet Union and Communism , as well as summits with General Secretary Gorbachev played a significant part in ending the Cold War .
He was first among post – World War II presidents to put into practice the concept that the Soviet Union could be defeated rather than simply negotiated with , a post @-@ Détente strategy , a conviction that was vindicated by Gennadi Gerasimov , the Foreign Ministry spokesman under Gorbachev , who said that the Strategic Defense Initiative was " very successful blackmail . ... The Soviet economy couldn 't endure such competition . " Reagan 's aggressive rhetoric toward the USSR had mixed effects ; Jeffery W. Knopf observes that being labeled " evil " probably made no difference to the Soviets but gave encouragement to the East @-@ European citizens opposed to communism .
General Secretary Gorbachev said of his former rival 's Cold War role : " [ He was ] a man who was instrumental in bringing about the end of the Cold War , " and deemed him " a great president . " Gorbachev does not acknowledge a win or loss in the war , but rather a peaceful end ; he said he was not intimidated by Reagan 's harsh rhetoric . Margaret Thatcher , former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , said of Reagan , " he warned that the Soviet Union had an insatiable drive for military power ... but he also sensed it was being eaten away by systemic failures impossible to reform . " She later said , " Ronald Reagan had a higher claim than any other leader to have won the Cold War for liberty and he did it without a shot being fired . " Said Brian Mulroney , former Prime Minister of Canada : " He enters history as a strong and dramatic player [ in the Cold War ] . " Former President Lech Wałęsa of Poland acknowledged , " Reagan was one of the world leaders who made a major contribution to communism 's collapse . " That Reagan had little or no effect in ending the Cold War is argued with equal weight ; that Communism 's internal weakness had become apparent , and the Soviet Union would have collapsed in the end regardless of who was in power . President Harry S. Truman 's policy of containment is also regarded as a force behind the fall of the U.S.S.R. , and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan undermined the Soviet system itself .
= = = Domestic and political legacy = = =
Ronald Reagan reshaped the Republican party , led the modern conservative movement , and altered the political dynamic of the United States . More men voted Republican under Reagan , and Reagan tapped into religious voters . The so @-@ called " Reagan Democrats " were a result of his presidency .
After leaving office , Reagan became an iconic influence within the Republican party . His policies and beliefs have been frequently invoked by Republican presidential candidates since 1989 . The 2008 Republican presidential candidates were no exception , for they aimed to liken themselves to him during the primary debates , even imitating his campaign strategies . Republican nominee John McCain frequently said that he came
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On May 16 of that year , Nancy Reagan accepted the Congressional Gold Medal , the highest civilian honor bestowed by Congress , on behalf of the president and herself .
After Reagan 's death , the United States Postal Service issued a President Ronald Reagan commemorative postage stamp in 2005 . Later in the year , CNN , along with the editors of Time magazine , named him the " most fascinating person " of the network 's first 25 years ; Time listed Reagan one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th century as well . The Discovery Channel asked its viewers to vote for The Greatest American in June 2005 ; Reagan placed in first place , ahead of Lincoln and Martin Luther King Jr .
In 2006 , Reagan was inducted into the California Hall of Fame , located at The California Museum for History , Women , and the Arts . Every year since 2002 , California Governors Gray Davis and Arnold Schwarzenegger have proclaimed February 6 " Ronald Reagan Day " in the state of California in honor of their most famous predecessor . In 2010 , Schwarzenegger signed Senate Bill 944 , authored by Senator George Runner , to make every February 6 Ronald Reagan Day in California .
In 2007 , Polish President Lech Kaczyński posthumously conferred on Reagan the highest Polish distinction , the Order of the White Eagle , saying that Reagan had inspired the Polish people to work for change and helped to unseat the repressive communist regime ; Kaczyński said it " would not have been possible if it was not for the tough @-@ mindedness , determination , and feeling of mission of President Ronald Reagan . " Reagan backed the nation of Poland throughout his presidency , supporting the anti @-@ communist Solidarity movement , along with Pope John Paul II ; the Ronald Reagan Park , a public facility in Gdańsk , was named in his honor .
On June 3 , 2009 , Nancy Reagan unveiled a statue of her late husband in the United States Capitol rotunda . The statue represents the state of California in the National Statuary Hall Collection . After Reagan 's death , both major American political parties agreed to erect a statue of Reagan in the place of that of Thomas Starr King . The day before , President Obama signed the Ronald Reagan Centennial Commission Act into law , establishing a commission to plan activities to mark the upcoming centenary of Reagan 's birth .
Independence Day 2011 saw the unveiling of another statue to Reagan — this time in the British capital of London , outside the American Embassy , Grosvenor Square . The unveiling was supposed to be attended by Reagan 's wife , Nancy , but she did not attend ; former Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice took her place and read a statement on her behalf ; further to the former First Lady 's absence President Reagan 's friend , and the sole British Prime Minister during Reagan 's presidency , Baroness Thatcher , was also unable to attend due to frail health .
= = = Historiography = = =
Johns , Andrew L. , ed . A Companion to Ronald Reagan ( Wiley @-@ Blackwell , 2015 ) . xiv , 682 pp . ; topical essays by scholars emphasizing historiography contents – free at many libraries
= White @-@ bellied sea eagle =
The white @-@ bellied sea eagle ( Haliaeetus leucogaster ) , also known as the white @-@ breasted sea eagle , is a large diurnal bird of prey in the family Accipitridae . Originally described by Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1788 , it is closely related to Sanford 's sea eagle of the Solomon Islands , and the two are considered a superspecies . A distinctive bird , the adult white @-@ bellied sea eagle has a white head , breast , under @-@ wing coverts and tail . The upper parts are grey and the black under @-@ wing flight feathers contrast with the white coverts . The tail is short and wedge @-@ shaped as in all Haliaeetus species . Like many raptors , the female is slightly larger than the male , and can measure up to 90 cm ( 35 in ) long with a wingspan of up to 2 @.@ 2 m ( 7 @.@ 2 ft ) , and weigh 4 @.@ 5 kg ( 9 @.@ 9 lb ) . Immature birds have brown plumage , which is gradually replaced by white until the age of five or six years . The call is a loud goose @-@ like honking .
Resident from India and Sri Lanka through Southeast Asia to Australia on coasts and major waterways , the white @-@ bellied sea eagle breeds and hunts near water , and fish form around half of its diet . Opportunistic , it consumes carrion and a wide variety of animals . Although rated of Least Concern globally , it has declined in parts of southeast Asia such as Thailand , and southeastern Australia . It is ranked as Threatened in Victoria and Vulnerable in South Australia and Tasmania . Human disturbance to its habitat is the main threat , both from direct human activity near nests which impacts on breeding success , and from removal of suitable trees for nesting . The white @-@ bellied sea eagle is revered by indigenous people in many parts of Australia , and is the subject of various folk tales throughout its range .
= = Taxonomy = =
The white @-@ bellied sea eagle was first described by the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1788 , although John Latham had made notes on the species in 1781 , from a specimen obtained in February 1780 at Princes Island off the westernmost cape of Java during Captain Cook 's last voyage . Its specific name is derived from the Ancient Greek leuko- ' white ' , and gaster ' belly ' . Its closest relative is the little @-@ known Sanford 's sea eagle of the Solomon Islands . These form a superspecies , and as is usual in other sea eagle superspecies , one ( the white @-@ bellied sea eagle ) has a white head , as opposed to the other species ' dark head . The bill and eyes are dark , and the talons are dark yellow as in all Southern Hemisphere sea eagles . Both these species have at least some dark colouration in their tails , though this may not always be clearly visible in the white @-@ bellied sea eagle . The nucleotide sequences of the cytochrome b gene of the two sea eagles were among those analysed in a 1996 study . Although they differ greatly in appearance and ecology , their genetic divergence of 0 @.@ 3 % indicates that the ancestors of the two forms might have diverged as recently as 150 @,@ 000 years ago . The study authors conclude that although the genetic divergence is more consistent with subspecies , the distinctness in appearance and behaviour warrants the two being retained as separate species . Mitochondrial sequence of the cytochrome b locus differs very slightly from that of Sanford 's sea eagle suggesting a relatively recent divergence after New Guinea @-@ based white @-@ bellied sea eagles colonised the Solomon Islands .
The white @-@ bellied sea eagle 's affinities beyond the Sanford 's sea eagle are a little less clear ; molecular data indicate that it is one of four species of tropical sea eagle ( along with the African fish eagle and the Madagascar fish eagle ) , while allozyme data indicate it might have a closer relationship with the sea eagles of the northern hemisphere . A further molecular study published in 2005 showed the white @-@ bellied and Sanford 's sea eagles to be basal to the four fish eagles ( the two mentioned above plus the two hitherto untested species of the genus Ichthyophaga ) .
As well as white @-@ bellied sea eagle and white @-@ breasted sea eagle , other recorded names include white @-@ bellied fish @-@ hawk , white @-@ eagle , and grey @-@ backed sea eagle .
= = Description = =
The white @-@ bellied sea eagle has a white head , rump and underparts , and dark or slate @-@ grey back and wings . In flight , the black flight feathers on the wings are easily seen when the bird is viewed from below . The large , hooked bill is a leaden blue @-@ grey with a darker tip , and the irides are dark brown . The cere is also lead grey . The legs and feet are yellow or grey , with long black talons ( claws ) . Unlike those of eagles of the genus Aquila , the legs are not feathered . The sexes are similar . Males are 66 – 80 cm ( 26 – 31 in ) long and weigh 1 @.@ 8 – 3 kg ( 4 @.@ 0 – 6 @.@ 6 lb ) . Females are slightly larger , at 80 – 90 cm ( 31 – 35 in ) and 2 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 kg ( 5 @.@ 5 – 9 @.@ 9 lb ) . The wingspan ranges from 1 @.@ 78 to 2 @.@ 2 m ( 5 @.@ 8 to 7 @.@ 2 ft ) . A 2004 study on 37 birds from Australia and Papua New Guinea ( 3 ° S to 50 ° S ) found that birds could be sexed reliably on size , and that birds from latitudes further south were larger than those from the north . There is no seasonal variation in plumage . The moulting pattern of the white @-@ bellied sea eagle is poorly known . It appears to take longer than a year to complete , and can be interrupted and later resumed from the point of interruption .
The wings are modified when gliding so that they rise from the body at an angle , but are closer to horizontal further along the wingspan . In silhouette , the comparatively long neck , head and beak stick out from the front almost as far as the tail does behind . For active flight , the white @-@ bellied sea eagle alternates strong deep wing @-@ beats with short periods of gliding .
A young white @-@ bellied sea eagle in its first year is predominantly brown , with pale cream @-@ streaked plumage on their head , neck , nape and rump areas . The plumage becomes more infiltrated with white until it acquires the complete adult plumage by the fourth or fifth year . The species breeds from around six years of age onwards . The lifespan is thought to be around 30 years .
The loud goose @-@ like honking call is a familiar sound , particularly during the breeding season ; pairs often honk in unison , and often carry on for some time when perched . The male 's call is higher @-@ pitched and more rapid than that of the female . Australian naturalist David Fleay observed that the call is among the loudest and furthest @-@ carrying of all Australian bird calls , in stark contrast to the relatively quiet calls of the wedge @-@ tailed eagle .
Adult white @-@ bellied sea eagles are unmistakable and unlikely to be confused with any other bird . Immature birds can be confused with wedge @-@ tailed eagles . However , the plumage of the latter is darker , the tail longer , and the legs feathered . They might also be confused with the black @-@ breasted buzzard ( Hamirostra melanosternon ) , but this species is much smaller , has white patches on the wings , and has a more undulating flight . In India , the Egyptian vulture has white plumage , but is smaller and has a whiter back and wings . The white tail of the white @-@ bellied sea eagle in flight distinguishes it from other species of large eagles . In the Philippines , it can be confused with the Philippine eagle , which can be distinguished by its crest ; immature white @-@ bellied sea eagles resemble immature grey @-@ headed fish eagles , but can be identified by their more wholly dark brown underparts and flight feathers , and wedge @-@ shaped tail .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The white @-@ bellied sea eagle is found regularly from Mumbai ( sometimes north to Gujarat , and in the past in the Lakshadweep Islands ) eastwards in India , Bangladesh , and Sri Lanka in southern Asia , through all of coastal Southeast Asia including Burma , Thailand , Malaysia , Indonesia , Indochina , the main and offshore islands of the Philippines , and southern China including Hong Kong , Hainan and Fuzhou , eastwards through New Guinea and the Bismarck Archipelago , and Australia . In the northern Solomons it is restricted to Nissan Island , and replaced elsewhere by Sanford 's sea eagle . In Victoria , where it is otherwise scarce , it is locally more common at Corner Inlet and Gippsland Lakes . Similarly in South Australia , it is most abundant along the north coast of Kangaroo Island . The range extends to the islands of Bass Strait and Tasmania , and it is thought able to move between the islands and the mainland . There is one unconfirmed record from Lord Howe Island and several from New Zealand .
They are a common sight in coastal areas , but may also be seen well inland ( It is reportedly seen at the Panna Tiger Reserve in central India , nearly 1 @,@ 000 km ( 621 mi ) away from the sea shore ) The white @-@ bellied sea eagle is generally sedentary and territorial , although it may travel long distances . They have been reported travelling upriver to hunt for flying foxes ( Pteropus ) . Populations in inland Australia move around as inland bodies of water appear and then dry up . In one instance , a pair came to breed at Lake Albacutya in northwestern Victoria after the lake had been empty for 30 years . The species is easily disturbed by humans , especially when nesting , and may desert nesting sites as a result . It is found in greater numbers in areas with little or no human impact or interference .
= = Behaviour = =
The white @-@ bellied sea eagle is generally territorial ; some birds form permanent pairs that inhabit territories throughout the year , while others are nomadic . The species is monogamous , with pairs remaining together until one bird dies , after which the surviving bird quickly seeks a new mate . This can lead to some nest sites being continuously occupied for many years ( one site in Mallacoota was occupied for over fifty years ) . Immature birds are generally dispersive , with many moving over 50 km ( 31 mi ) away from the area they were raised . One juvenile raised in Cowell , South Australia was reported 3 @,@ 000 km ( 1 @,@ 900 mi ) away at Fraser Island in Queensland . A study of the species in Jervis Bay showed increases in the numbers of immature and subadult birds in autumn , although it was unclear whether these were locally fledged or ( as was considered more likely ) an influx of young birds born and raised elsewhere in Australia . Birds are often seen perched high in a tree , or soaring over waterways and adjacent land . They are most commonly encountered singly or in pairs . Small groups of white @-@ bellied sea eagles sometimes gather if there is a plentiful source of food such as a carcass or fish offal on a ship . Much of the white @-@ bellied sea eagle 's behaviour , particularly breeding , remains poorly known .
= = = Feeding = = =
The white @-@ bellied sea eagle is an opportunistic carnivore and consumes a wide variety of animal prey , including carrion . It often catches a fish by flying low over the water and grasping it in its talons . It prepares for the strike by holding its feet far forward ( almost under its chin ) and then strikes backwards while simultaneously beating its wings to lift upwards . Generally only one foot is used to seize prey . The white @-@ bellied sea eagle may also dive at a 45 degree angle from its perch and briefly submerge to catch fish near the water surface . While hunting over water on sunny days , it often flies directly into the sun or at right angles to it , seemingly to avoid casting shadows over the water and hence alerting potential prey .
The white @-@ bellied sea eagle hunts mainly aquatic animals , such as fish , turtles and sea snakes , but it takes birds , such as little penguins , Eurasian coots and shearwaters , and mammals ( including flying foxes ) as well . In the Bismarck Archipelago it has been reported feeding on two species of possum , the northern common cuscus and common spotted cuscus . It is a skilled hunter , and will attack prey up to the size of a swan . They also feed on carrion such as dead sheep , birds and fish found along the waterline , as well as raiding fishing nets and following cane harvesters .
They harass smaller raptors such as swamp harriers , whistling kites , brahminy kites and ospreys , forcing them to drop any food that they are carrying . Other birds victimised include silver and Pacific gulls , cormorants and Australasian gannets . There is one record of a white @-@ bellied sea eagle seizing a gannet when unsuccessful in obtaining its prey . They may even steal food from their own species , including their mates . The white @-@ bellied sea eagle attacks these birds by striking them with outstretched talons from above or by flying upside down underneath the smaller predator and snatching the prey , all the while screeching shrilly . Southern fur seals have also been targeted for their fish .
White @-@ bellied sea eagles feed alone , in pairs , or in family groups . A pair may cooperate to hunt . Prey can be eaten while the bird is flying or when it lands on a raised platform such as its nest . The white @-@ bellied sea eagle skins the victim as it eats it . It is exceptionally efficient at digesting its food , and disgorges only tiny pellets of fragmented bone , fur and feathers .
A 2006 study of inland bodies of water around Canberra where wedge @-@ tailed eagles and white @-@ bellied sea eagles share territories showed little overlap in the range of prey taken . Wedge @-@ tailed eagles took rabbits , various macropods , terrestrial birds such as cockatoos and parrots , and various passerines including magpies and starlings . White @-@ bellied sea eagles caught fish , water @-@ dwelling reptiles such as the eastern long @-@ necked turtle and Australian water dragon , and waterbirds such as ducks , grebes and coots . Both species preyed on the maned duck . Rabbits constituted only a small fraction of the white @-@ bellied sea eagle 's diet . Despite nesting near each other , the two species seldom interacted , as the wedge @-@ tailed eagles hunted away from water and the white @-@ bellied sea eagles foraged along the lake shores . However , conflict with wedge @-@ tailed eagles over nesting sites in remnant trees has been recorded in Tasmania .
= = = Breeding = = =
The breeding season varies according to location — it has been recorded in the dry season in the Trans @-@ Fly region and Central Province of Papua New Guinea , and from June to August in Australia . A pair of white @-@ bellied sea eagles performs skilful displays of flying before copulation : diving , gliding and chasing each other while calling loudly . They may mirror each other , flying 2 – 3 m ( 6 @.@ 6 – 9 @.@ 8 ft ) apart and copying each other swooping and swerving . A talon @-@ grappling display has been recorded where the pair will fly high before one flips upside down and tries to grapple the other 's talons with its own . If successful , the two then plunge cartwheeling before separating as they approach the ground . This behaviour has also been recorded as an aggressive display against a wedge @-@ tailed eagle .
The white @-@ bellied sea eagle usually chooses tall trees or man @-@ made pylons to nest in . Often , locations are sought where there is a tall dead tree or high branch with good visibility which can be used as a perch to survey the surrounding area , which is generally a low @-@ lying locale near water with some forest cover . The perch becomes covered in faeces and pellets and animal remains litter the immediate surrounding area . The nest is a large deep bowl constructed of sticks and branches , and lined with such materials as grass or seaweed . Yearly renovations result in nests getting gradually bigger . Nests are generally sited in the forks of large trees overlooking bodies of water . Old nests of wedge @-@ tailed eagles or whistling kites have been renovated and used . Cliffs are also suitable nesting sites , and on islands nests are sometimes built directly on the ground . A breeding pair , with the male being more active , spends three to six weeks building or renovating the nest before laying eggs . Normally a clutch of two dull , white , oval eggs are laid . Measuring 73 × 55 mm , they are incubated over six weeks before hatching . The young are semi @-@ altricial , and covered in white down when they emerge from the egg . Initially , the male brings food and the female feeds the chicks , but both parents feed the chicks as they grow larger . Although two eggs are laid , it is unusual for two young to be reared successfully to fledging ( leaving the nest ) . One egg may be infertile , or the second chick may die in the nest . If the first clutch is lost , the parents may attempt a second brood . Nestlings have been recorded fledging when 70 to 80 days old , and remaining around the parents ' territory for up to six months or until the following breeding season .
= = Conservation status = =
The white @-@ bellied sea eagle is listed as being of Least Concern by the IUCN . There are an estimated 10 thousand to 100 thousand individuals , although there seems to be a decline in numbers . They have become rare in Thailand and some other parts of southeast Asia . They are relatively abundant in Hong Kong , where the population increased from 39 to 57 birds between 2002 and 2009 . A field study on Kangaroo Island in South Australia showed that nesting pairs in areas of high human disturbance ( as defined by clearing of landscape and high human activity ) had lower breeding success rates . In the Eyre Peninsula in South Australia , nests have been vacated as human activities have encroached on the eagles ' territories . Elsewhere , the clearing of trees suitable for nesting has seen it largely disappear locally , such as the removal of stands of Casuarina equisetifolia in Visakhapatnam district in Andhra Pradesh in India . In India , nest densities of about one per 4 @.@ 32 km of coastline have been noted in Sindhudurg and one per 3 @.@ 57 km ( 45 nests along 161 km ) in Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra . They also nest on Netrani Island , where about a 100 birds were noted in 1875 ( then known as Pigeon Island ) by Allan Octavian Hume who noted that this was perhaps the largest breeding colony of the species . In 2000 , the disturbance to the island from torpedo @-@ firing exercises conducted by the Indian navy was noted as a threat . Nearly 100 nests have been noted in 2004 on this island .
DDT was a widely used pesticide in agriculture that was found to have significant adverse effects on wildlife , particularly egg thinning and subsequent breakage in birds of prey . A review of DDT 's impact on Australian raptors between 1947 and 1993 found that the average egg @-@ shell thickness had decreased by 6 % . This average level of thinning was not thought likely to result in significantly more breakage overall , however individual clutches that had been even thinner might have broken . The white @-@ bellied sea eagle was one of the more affected species , probably due to its feeding in areas heavily treated with pesticide such as swamps . DDT use peaked in 1973 , but was no longer approved after 1987 and its use had effectively ceased by 1989 .
= = = Australia = = =
The white @-@ bellied sea eagle is listed under the marine and migratory categories which give it protected status under Australia 's federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 . As a mainly coastal species , it is vulnerable to habitat destruction in Australia 's increasingly populated and urbanised coastal areas , particularly in the south and east of the country , where it appears to have declined in numbers . However , there may have been an increase in population inland , secondary to the creation of reservoirs , dams and weirs , and the spread of the introduced common carp ( Cyprinus carpio ) . However , it is rare along the Murray River where it was once common . It is also listed as Threatened under Victoria 's Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act ( 1988 ) , with possibly fewer than 100 breeding pairs remaining in the state . On the 2007 advisory list of threatened vertebrate fauna in Victoria , the white @-@ bellied sea eagle is listed as vulnerable .
There are fewer than 1000 adult birds in Tasmania , where the species is listed as Vulnerable under Schedule 3 @.@ 1 of the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 . In Tasmania it is threatened by nest disturbance , loss of suitable nesting habitat , shooting , poisoning , trapping , and collision with power lines and wind turbines , as well as entanglement and environmental pollution . Estuaries are a favoured habitat , and these are often subject to environmental disturbance. white @-@ bellied sea eagles have been observed to increase their hunting ranges to include salmon fish farms , but the effect of this on breeding success is unknown .
= = Cultural significance = =
The white @-@ bellied sea eagle was important to different tribes of indigenous people across Australia . The guardian animal of the Wreck Bay aboriginal community , it is also the official emblem of the Booderee National Park and Botanic Gardens in the Jervis Bay Territory . The community considered localities around Booderee National Park to be connected with it . A local Sydney name was gulbi , and the bird was the totem of Colebee , the late 18th century indigenous leader of the Cadigal people . The white @-@ bellied sea eagle is important to the Mak Mak people of the floodplains to the southwest of Darwin in the northern Territory , who recognised its connection with " good country " . It is their totem and integrally connected to their land . The term Mak Mak is their name for both the species and themselves . The Umbrawarra Gorge Nature Park was a Dreaming site of the bird , in this area known as Kuna @-@ ngarrk @-@ ngarrk . It was similarly symbolic to the Tasmanian indigenous people — Nairanaa was one name used there .
Known as Manulab to the people of Nissan Island , the white @-@ bellied sea eagle is considered special and killing it is forbidden . Its calls at night are said to foretell danger , and seeing a group of calling eagles flying overhead is a sign that someone has died . Local Malay folk tales tell of the white @-@ bellied sea eagle screaming to warn the shellfish of the turning of tides , and a local name burung hamba siput translates as " slave of the shellfish " . Called Kaulo in the recently extinct Aka @-@ Bo language , the white @-@ bellied sea eagle was held to be the ancestor of all birds in one Andaman Islands folk tale . On the Maharashtra coast , their name is kakan and its call is said to indicate the presence of fish in the sea . They sometimes nest on coconut trees . Owners of the trees destroy the nest to avoid attacks when harvesting the coconuts .
The white @-@ bellied sea eagle is featured on the $ 10 @,@ 000 Singapore note , which was introduced into circulation on 1 February 1980 . It is the emblem of the Malaysian state of Selangor . Malay magnate Loke Wan Tho had a 40 @-@ metre @-@ high ( 130 ft ) tower built for the sole purpose of observing a white @-@ bellied sea eagle nest in the palace gardens of Istana Bukit Serene in Johor Bahru . Taken in February 1949 , the resulting photographs appeared in The Illustrated London News in 1954 . The bird is the emblem of the Manly @-@ Warringah Sea Eagles rugby league team , chosen at the club 's inception in 1947 . From 2010 , a nesting pair of white @-@ bellied sea eagles have had their attempts at raising chicks filmed live on " EagleCam " , with footage on display at the nearby Birds Australia Discovery Centre in Sydney Olympic Park , New South Wales . After raising one brood , however , their nest collapsed in February 2011 . The story attracted statewide attention .
= Guitar Method =
Guitar Method ( subtitled 1996 – 1999 ) is the only album by indie supergroup Kid Kilowatt , initially released by Second Nature Recordings on vinyl in 2003 , and later on CD by Hydra Head Records in 2004 . It consists of material recorded over a period of three years , including after the band 's breakup . Still , it did not see release as a whole for over four years after the last track was recorded .
Kid Kilowatt was formed by members of Cave In and Converge as a side project ; sessions together were sporadic and rare , and the process of writing , recording and release took seven years in all . Reviewers praised the band 's musicianship and the depth and range of the sound ; one " much mellower " than that of the members ' main projects .
= = Context and recording = =
Kid Kilowatt was initially created as ' Ester of Wood Rosin ' by Cave In 's Stephen Brodsky in August 1996 , " inspired by [ his ] love for Giants Chair and [ his ] need for an alter @-@ ego to Cave In " . Other influences upon Kid Kilowatt 's sound , as stated by Brodksy , included Sunny Day Real Estate and " early " Promise Ring . Brodsky recruited Adam McGrath , also of Cave In , on bass guitar , along with local drummer Matt Redmond and Piebald guitarist and vocalist Aaron Stuart . Brodsky took the role of guitarist and lead vocalist , and with this line @-@ up they , in the words of Brodsky , " began to formulate some good ol ' sappy @-@ but @-@ not @-@ too @-@ sappy rock n ' roll tunes " .
The first material destined for Guitar Method was written within the initial few months , including " Teg Nugent " and " the original , 9 minute long opus version " of " Tug of War " . In Autumn 1996 , they recorded a four @-@ song demo with Kurt Ballou at his 8 @-@ track home studio , GodCity . Brodsky hand @-@ crafted the demo inserts in his high school graphic arts room , with around 400 copies pressed . According to Brodsky , they were " gone in no time " . In Spring 1997 , Aaron Stuart left the band in order to concentrate on his primary project , Piebald . Ballou , of Converge , who had recorded and produced their prior four track demo , joined the band in his stead , and they renamed the band " Kid Kilowatt " , inspired by a Guided by Voices song entitled " Cool Off Kid Kilowatt " from their 1993 album Vampire on Titus .
Now with Ballou as a full @-@ time member , the band re @-@ developed songs written with Stuart , including " The Bicycle Song " , " 7th Inning Song Formation " , " The Scope " , " Peeping Tomboy " and " Red Carpet " . They resumed writing fresh material with " Radio Pow for Now " . In their first show as Kid Kilowatt , they performed with Brodsky 's " heroes " , Giants Chair , in his home town of Methuen , Massachusetts . For the following six to seven months , however , all the band members were prepossessed with other musical projects , resulting in infrequent rehearsal and intermittent live performance . They did occasionally play live during this period , however , performing with bands such as Piebald , Jejune , and Regulator Watts .
They recorded as Kid Kilowatt only once before the official demise of the band , in July 1997 . During this session , they recorded " Bicycle Song " and " The Scope " on Ballou 's 8 @-@ track machine ; this version of " Bicycle Song " appeared on Hydra Head Records CD sampler Volume 1 .
After Brodsky joined Converge , whilst still a member of Cave In , in 1997 , the amount of time being devoted to Kid Kilowatt began to wane . Matt Redmond had moved to New Hampshire also , causing " enthusiasm for the band to fizzle " . They played what would be their last show in January 1998 at the Met Café in Providence , Rhode Island . Soon after that show , Brodsky left Converge in order to devote all his time to Cave In , now as not only the guitarist , but as the vocalist . McGrath and Ballou continued their duties with Cave In and Converge , respectively , and Redmond joined a new band called Eulcid . As Brodsky eulogises : " There was simply no time left in our schedules for Kid Kilowatt and the band collapsed " .
In November 1998 , the band decided to try to record everything they had written together . Recording continued at GodCity until October 1999 , occurring " completely sporadically ; a week night here and there , maybe a full day during one weekend of a month or two " . Brodsky describes this as " quite evident from the sound of the record " . During these sessions , some new material was composed , including " Memorial Drive " , " Glass of Shattered Youth " , " Cadence for a Rainy Day " and " Cadence for the Desert Sun " . The last Kid Kilowatt song ever recorded was the album version of " Tug of War " . The record was mastered at M @-@ works in Cambridge , Massachusetts .
= = Release = =
Predating Guitar Method by three years , Second Nature Recordings released a 7 @-@ inch Kid Kilowatt single entitled Hit Single in 2001 . It includes tracks " Peeping Tomboy " and " Glass of Shattered Youth " , described as " a playful companion to their Guitar Method debut full @-@ length " . The vinyl saw two pressings . Second Nature also released the original version of Guitar Method on 12 " on October 14 , 2003 , in slightly abridged form . The vinyl edit excluded the tracks " Glass of Shattered Youth " , " Blue / Green Heart " and " Tug of War " . These three tracks were credited as " bonus tracks " on the Hydra Head Records CD , released on March 9 , 2004 .
= = Reception = =
Critical reception to the album was largely positive ; reviews specifically praised the band 's musicianship and the range of material on the album . Adam Moore , writing for the Tufts Observer , posits that " [ a ] ll of the members bring their great musical abilities to Kid Kilowatt and make them more palatable to the listener who isn 't into blast beats and Jake Bannon 's [ of Converge ] distinctive voice " . The album 's sound is described as " more recent Cave In , but without the spacey effects and meandering songwriting " . Moore likens the sound to that of Thursday , but concedes that " Kilowatt isn ’ t even that metallic or scream @-@ oriented " . Attempting to categorise that band , a ScenePointBlank review writes that " [ o ] ne could narrowly define Kid Kilowatt as either indie @-@ rock or post @-@ hardcore , both are accurate descriptions " . Moore says that " [ o ] verall , the album sounds rather pop @-@ y " , and that their use of " pop hooks combined with post @-@ pop chord progressions " gives the album a " very melodic feel " . Chris Morgan , in a glowing review , writes that Guitar Method is " a sleeper classic of the modern underground " .
Several songs are selected as stand @-@ outs throughout the album . " Tug of War " is labelled as " the strongest song on the album " , with John D. Luerssen writing that " the cohesiveness of the material suggests the lads in Kid Kilowatt exited this side project as friends . After all , only buddies capable of putting their differences aside could craft the soaring , majestic " Tug of War , " where Brodsky 's wide @-@ reaching pipes mesh brilliantly with KK 's ace musicianship " . He continues to say that " the disc shifts from roaring , expansive rockers like " Bicycle Song " to crunching anthems like " Ted Nugent " and on to lilting , near @-@ ballads like " Memorial Drive " with inexplicable ease " . Moore writes that " The Scope " " encapsulates what the rest of the album will sound like . It starts out sounding rather crunchy and smooths out as the album progresses , providing a good contrasting effect that runs throughout the album " . Moore , however , writes that " Memorial Drive " is " only mediocre . It 's the only song on the album over five minutes long . Playing slow just isn 't this band 's forte , although they have the ability to write poignant lyrics " . Similarly , a ScenePointBlank review states that " Cadence for a Rainy Day " and " Memorial Drive " " often diverge and lead the listener off @-@ course " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Kid Kilowatt .
= = Personnel = =
Band members
Kurt Ballou – guitar
Stephen Brodsky – guitar , vocals
Adam McGrath – bass
Matt Redmond – drums
Aaron Stuart – guitar
Other personnel
Aaron Turner – album artwork and design
Nick Zampiello – mastering
= Female genital mutilation =
Female genital mutilation ( FGM ) , also known as female genital cutting and female circumcision , is the ritual removal of some or all of the external female genitalia . UNICEF estimated in 2016 that 200 million women had undergone the procedures in 27 countries in Africa , as well as in Indonesia , Iraqi Kurdistan and Yemen , with a rate of 80 – 98 percent within the 15 – 49 age group in Djibouti , Egypt , Eritrea , Guinea , Mali , Sierra Leone , Somalia and Sudan . The practice is also found elsewhere in Asia , the Middle East , and among communities from these areas around the world .
Typically carried out by a traditional circumciser using a blade , FGM is conducted from days after birth to puberty and beyond ; in half the countries for which national figures are available , most girls are cut before the age of five . Procedures differ according to the country or ethnic group . They include removal of the clitoral hood and clitoral glans ; removal of the inner labia ; and removal of the inner and outer labia and closure of the vulva . In this last procedure ( known as infibulation ) , a small hole is left for the passage of urine and menstrual fluid ; the vagina is opened for intercourse and opened further for childbirth . The United Nations Population Fund estimated in 2010 that 20 percent of women affected by FGM had been infibulated , a practice found largely in northeast Africa .
The practice is rooted in gender inequality , attempts to control women 's sexuality , and ideas about purity , modesty and aesthetics . It is usually initiated and carried out by women , who see it as a source of honour , and who fear that failing to have their daughters and granddaughters cut will expose the girls to social exclusion . The health effects depend on the procedure ; they can include recurrent infections , difficulty urinating and passing menstrual flow , chronic pain , the development of cysts , an inability to get pregnant , complications during childbirth , and fatal bleeding . There are no known health benefits .
FGM has been outlawed or restricted in most of the countries in which it occurs , but the laws are poorly enforced . There have been international efforts since the 1970s to persuade practitioners to abandon it , and in 2012 the United Nations General Assembly , recognizing FGM as a human @-@ rights violation , voted unanimously to intensify those efforts . The opposition is not without its critics , particularly among anthropologists . Eric Silverman writes that FGM has become one of anthropology 's central moral topics , raising difficult questions about cultural relativism , tolerance and the universality of human rights .
= = Terminology = =
= = = English = = =
Until the 1980s FGM was widely known as female circumcision , which implied an equivalence in severity with male circumcision . The Kenya Missionary Council began referring to it as the sexual mutilation of women in 1929 , following the lead of Marion Scott Stevenson , a Church of Scotland missionary . References to the practice as mutilation increased throughout the 1970s . In 1975 Rose Oldfield Hayes , an American anthropologist , called it female genital mutilation in the title of a paper , and in 1979 Fran Hosken , an Austrian @-@ American researcher and feminist , called it mutilation in her influential The Hosken Report : Genital and Sexual Mutilation of Females .
The Inter @-@ African Committee on Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children and the World Health Organization ( WHO ) began referring to it as female genital mutilation in 1990 and 1991 respectively . In April 1997 the WHO , United Nations Children 's Fund ( UNICEF ) and United Nations Population Fund ( UNFPA ) issued a joint statement using that term . Other terms in common use include female genital cutting ( FGC ) and female genital mutilation / cutting ( FGM / C ) , preferred by those who work with practitioners .
= = = Local terms = = =
The many variants of FGM are reflected in dozens of local terms in countries where it is common . These often refer to purification . A common Arabic term for purification has the root t @-@ h @-@ r , used for male and female circumcision ( tahur and tahara ) . It is also known in Arabic as khafḍ or khifaḍ . In the Bambara language , spoken mostly in Mali , FGM is known as bolokoli ( " washing your hands " ) and in the Igbo language in eastern Nigeria as isa aru or iwu aru ( " having your bath , " as in " a young woman must ' have her bath ' before she has a baby " ) .
Sunna circumcision usually refers to clitoridectomy , but is also used for more severe forms . Communities often refer to just two forms of FGM : pharaonic for infibulation and sunna for everything else . Sunna means " path or way " in Arabic and refers to the tradition of Muhammad , although none of the procedures are required within Islam . The term infibulation derives from fibula , Latin for clasp ; the Ancient Romans reportedly fastened clasps through the foreskins or labia of slaves to prevent sexual intercourse . The surgical infibulation of women came to be known as pharaonic circumcision in Sudan , but as Sudanese circumcision in Egypt . In Somalia it is known simply as qodob ( " to sew up " ) .
= = Circumcisers , methods = =
The procedures are generally performed by a traditional circumciser ( cutter or exciseuse ) in the girls ' homes , with or without anaesthesia . The cutter is usually an older woman , but in communities where the male barber has assumed the role of health worker he will perform FGM too .
When traditional cutters are involved , non @-@ sterile devices are likely to be used , including knives , razors , scissors , glass , sharpened rocks and fingernails . A nurse in Uganda , quoted in 2007 in The Lancet , said that a cutter would use one knife on up to 30 girls at a time .
Health professionals are often involved in Egypt , Kenya , Indonesia and Sudan . In Egypt 77 percent of FGM procedures , and in Indonesia over 50 percent , were performed by medical professionals as of 2008 and 2016 . Depending on the involvement of medical professionals , the procedures may include a local or general anaesthetic , or neither . Women in Egypt reported in 1995 that a local anaesthetic had been used on their daughters in 60 percent of cases , a general in 13 percent and neither in 25 percent ( two percent were missing / don 't know ) .
= = Classification = =
= = = Typologies = = =
The WHO , UNICEF and UNFPA issued a joint statement in April 1997 defining FGM as " all procedures involving partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs whether for cultural or other non @-@ therapeutic reasons . "
The procedures vary considerably according to ethnicity and individual practitioners . During a 1998 survey in Niger , women responded with over 50 different terms when asked what was done to them . Translation problems are compounded by the women 's confusion over which type of FGM they experienced , or even whether they experienced it . Several studies have suggested that survey responses are unreliable .
Standard questionnaires from United Nations bodies ask women whether they have undergone the following : ( 1 ) cut , no flesh removed ( pricking or symbolic circumcision ) ; ( 2 ) cut , some flesh removed ; ( 3 ) sewn closed ; and ( 4 ) type not determined / unsure / doesn 't know . The most common procedures fall within the " cut , some flesh removed " category and involve complete or partial removal of the clitoral glans .
= = = WHO Types I – II = = =
The World Health Organization has created a more detailed typology , Types I – II , based on how much tissue is removed . Type III is " sewn closed . " Type IV describes symbolic circumcision and miscellaneous procedures .
Type I is subdivided into Ia , removal of the clitoral hood ( rarely performed alone ) , and the more common Ib ( clitoridectomy ) , the complete or partial removal of the clitoral glans and clitoral hood . ( When discussing FGM , the WHO uses clitoris to refer to the clitoral glans , the visible tip of the clitoris . ) Susan Izett and Nahid Toubia write : " [ T ] he clitoris is held between the thumb and index finger , pulled out and amputated with one stroke of a sharp object . "
Type II ( excision ) is the complete or partial removal of the inner labia , with or without removal of the clitoral glans and outer labia . Type IIa is removal of the inner labia ; IIb , removal of the clitoral glans and inner labia ; and IIc , removal of the clitoral glans , inner and outer labia . Excision in French can refer to any form of FGM .
= = = Type III = = =
Type III ( infibulation or pharaonic circumcision ) , the " sewn closed " category , involves the removal of the external genitalia and fusion of the wound . The inner and / or outer labia are cut away , with or without removal of the clitoral glans . Type IIIa is the removal and closure of the inner labia and IIIb the outer labia . The practice is found largely in Djibouti , Eritrea , Ethiopia , Somalia and Sudan ( though not South Sudan ) in northeast Africa . Estimates of numbers vary : according to one in 2008 , over eight million women in Africa have experienced it . According to UNFPA in 2010 , 20 percent of women with FGM have been infibulated .
Comfort Momoh , a specialist midwife , writes of Type III : " [ E ] lderly women , relatives and friends secure the girl in the lithotomy position . A deep incision is made rapidly on either side from the root of the clitoris to the fourchette , and a single cut of the razor excises the clitoris and both the labia majora and labia minora . " In Somalia the clitoral glans is removed and shown to the girl 's senior female relatives , who decide whether enough has been amputated . After this the labia are removed .
A single hole of 2 – 3 mm is left for the passage of urine and menstrual fluid by inserting something , such as a twig , into the wound . The vulva is closed with surgical thread , agave or acacia thorns , or covered with a poultice such as raw egg , herbs and sugar . The parts that have been removed might be placed in a pouch for the girl to wear . To help the tissue bond , the girl 's legs are tied together , often from hip to ankle , for up to six weeks ; the bindings are usually loosened after a week and may be removed after two . Momoh writes :
[ The entrance to the vagina ] is obliterated by a drum of skin extending across the orifice except for a small hole . Circumstances at the time may vary ; the girl may struggle ferociously , in which case the incisions may become uncontrolled and haphazard . The girl may be pinned down so firmly that bones may fracture .
If the remaining hole is too large in the view of the girl 's family , the procedure is repeated . The vagina is opened for sexual intercourse , for the first time either by a midwife with a knife or by the woman 's husband with his penis . In some areas , including Somaliland , female relatives of the bride and groom might watch the opening of the vagina to check that the girl is a virgin . Psychologist Hanny Lightfoot @-@ Klein interviewed hundreds of women and men in Sudan in the 1980s about sexual intercourse with Type III :
The penetration of the bride 's infibulation takes anywhere from 3 or 4 days to several months . Some men are unable to penetrate their wives at all ( in my study over 15 % ) , and the task is often accomplished by a midwife under conditions of great secrecy , since this reflects negatively on the man 's potency . Some who are unable to penetrate their wives manage to get them pregnant in spite of the infibulation , and the woman 's vaginal passage is then cut open to allow birth to take place . ... Those men who do manage to penetrate their wives do so often , or perhaps always , with the help of the " little knife . " This creates a tear which they gradually rip more and more until the opening is sufficient to admit the penis .
The woman is opened further for childbirth and closed afterwards , a process known as defibulation ( or deinfibulation ) and reinfibulation . Reinfibulation can involve cutting the vagina again to restore the pinhole size of the first infibulation . This might be performed before marriage , and after childbirth , divorce and widowhood .
= = = Type IV = = =
The WHO defines Type IV as " [ a ] ll other harmful procedures to the female genitalia for non @-@ medical purposes " , including pricking , piercing , incising , scraping and cauterization . It includes nicking of the clitoris ( symbolic circumcision ) , burning or scarring the genitals , and introducing substances into the vagina to tighten it . Labia stretching is also categorized as Type IV . Common in southern and eastern Africa , the practice is supposed to enhance sexual pleasure for the man and add to the sense of a woman as a closed space . From the age of eight , girls are encouraged to stretch their inner labia using sticks and massage . Girls in Uganda are told they may have difficulty giving birth without stretched labia .
A definition of FGM from the WHO in 1995 included gishiri cutting and angurya cutting , found in Nigeria and Niger . These were removed from the WHO 's 2008 definition because of insufficient information about prevalence and consequences . Gishiri cutting involves cutting the vagina 's front or back wall with a blade or penknife , performed in response to infertility , obstructed labour and several other conditions . Over 30 percent of women with gishiri cuts in a study by Nigerian physician Mairo Usman Mandara had vesicovaginal fistulae . Angurya cutting is excision of the hymen , usually performed seven days after birth .
= = Complications = =
= = = Short @-@ term and late = = =
FGM harms women 's physical and emotional health throughout their lives . It has no known health benefits . The short @-@ term and late complications depend on the type of FGM , whether the practitioner had medical training , and whether she used antibiotics and unsterilized or surgical single @-@ use instruments . In the case of Type III , other factors include how small a hole was left for the passage of urine and menstrual blood , whether surgical thread was used instead of agave or acacia thorns , and whether the procedure was performed more than once ( for example , to close an opening regarded as too wide or re @-@ open one too small ) .
Common short @-@ term complications include swelling , excessive bleeding , pain , urine retention and healing problems / wound infection . A 2015 systematic review of 56 studies that recorded immediate complications suggested that each of these occurred in more than one in ten girls and women undergoing any form of FGM , including symbolic nicking of the clitoris ( Type IV ) , although the risks increased with Type III . The review also suggested that there was under @-@ reporting . Other short @-@ term complications include fatal bleeding , anaemia , urinary infection , septicaemia , tetanus , gangrene , necrotizing fasciitis ( flesh @-@ eating disease ) and endometritis . It is not known how many girls and women die as a result of the practice , because complications may not be recognized or reported . The practitioners ' use of shared instruments is thought to aid the transmission of hepatitis B , hepatitis C and HIV , although no epidemiological studies have shown this .
Late complications vary depending on the type of FGM . They include the formation of scars and keloids that lead to strictures and obstruction , epidermoid cysts that may become infected , and neuroma formation ( growth of nerve tissue ) involving nerves that supplied the clitoris .
An infibulated girl may be left with an opening as small as 2 – 3 mm , which can cause prolonged , drop @-@ by @-@ drop urination , pain while urinating , and a feeling of needing to urinate all the time . Urine may collect underneath the scar , leaving the area under the skin constantly wet , which can lead to infection and the formation of small stones . The opening is larger in women who are sexually active or have given birth by vaginal delivery , but the urethra opening may still be obstructed by scar tissue . Vesicovaginal or rectovaginal fistulae can develop ( holes that allow urine or faeces to seep into the vagina ) . This and other damage to the urethra and bladder can lead to infections and incontinence , pain during sexual intercourse and infertility .
Painful periods are common because of the obstruction to the menstrual flow , and blood can stagnate in the vagina and uterus . Complete obstruction of the vagina can result in hematocolpos and hematometra ( where the vagina and uterus fill with menstrual blood ) . The swelling of the abdomen that results from the collection of fluid , together with the lack of menstruation , can lead to suspicion of pregnancy . Asma El Dareer , a Sudanese physician , reported in 1979 that a girl in Sudan with this condition was killed by her family .
= = = Pregnancy , childbirth = = =
FGM may place women at higher risk of problems during pregnancy and childbirth , which are more common with the more extensive FGM procedures . Infibulated women may try to make childbirth easier by eating less during pregnancy to reduce the baby 's size . In women with vesicovaginal or rectovaginal fistulae , it is difficult to obtain clear urine samples as part of prenatal care , making the diagnosis of conditions such as pre @-@ eclampsia harder . Cervical evaluation during labour may be impeded and labour prolonged or obstructed . Third @-@ degree laceration ( tears ) , anal @-@ sphincter damage and emergency caesarean section are more common in infibulated women .
Neonatal mortality is increased . The WHO estimated in 2006 that an additional 10 – 20 babies die per 1 @,@ 000 deliveries as a result of FGM . The estimate was based on a study conducted on 28 @,@ 393 women attending delivery wards at 28 obstetric centres in Burkina Faso , Ghana , Kenya , Nigeria , Senegal and Sudan . In those settings all types of FGM were found to pose an increased risk of death to the baby : 15 percent higher for Type I , 32 percent for Type II and 55 percent for Type III . The reasons for this were unclear , but may be connected to genital and urinary tract infections and the presence of scar tissue . The researchers wrote that FGM was associated with an increased risk to the mother of damage to the perineum and excessive blood loss , as well as a need to resuscitate the baby , and stillbirth , perhaps because of a long second stage of labour .
= = = Psychological effects , sexual function = = =
According to a 2015 systematic review there is little high @-@ quality information available on the psychological effects of FGM . Several small studies have concluded that women with FGM suffer from anxiety , depression and post @-@ traumatic stress disorder . Feelings of shame and betrayal can develop when women leave the culture that practises FGM and learn that their condition is not the norm , but within the practising culture they may view their FGM with pride , because for them it signifies beauty , respect for tradition , chastity and hygiene .
Studies on sexual function have also been small . A 2013 meta @-@ analysis of 15 studies involving 12 @,@ 671 women from seven countries concluded that women with FGM were twice as likely to report no sexual desire and 52 percent more likely to report dyspareunia ( painful sexual intercourse ) . One third reported reduced sexual feelings .
= = Distribution = =
= = = Household surveys = = =
The prevalence of FGM is defined as the percentage of the 15 – 49 age group that has exerienced it . These figures are based on nationally representative household surveys known as Demographic and Health Surveys ( DHS ) , developed by Macro International and funded mainly by the United States Agency for International Development ( USAID ) , and Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys ( MICS ) , conducted with financial and technical help from UNICEF .
These surveys have been carried out in Africa , Asia , Latin America and elsewhere roughly every five years , since 1984 and 1995 respectively . The first to ask about FGM was the 1989 – 1990 DHS in northern Sudan . The first publication to estimate FGM prevalence based on DHS data ( in seven countries ) was by Dara Carr of Macro International in 1997 .
= = = Prevalence = = =
FGM is found mostly in what Gerry Mackie called an " intriguingly contiguous " zone in Africa – east to west from Somalia to Senegal , and north to south from Egypt to Tanzania . Nationally representative figures available as of 2016 suggest that the practice is concentrated in 27 countries in Africa , as well as in Indonesia , Iraqi Kurdistan and Yemen . Over 200 million women and girls are thought to be living with FGM in those 30 countries . As of 2013 , 27 @.@ 2 million women had undergone FGM in Egypt , 23 @.@ 8 million in Ethiopia , and 19 @.@ 9 million in Nigeria .
The highest concentrations among the 15 – 49 age group are in Somalia ( 98 percent ) , Guinea ( 97 percent ) , Djibouti ( 93 percent ) , Egypt ( 91 percent ) and Sierra Leone ( 90 percent ) . There is also a high concentration in Indonesia ; national figures for adults are not available , but the prevalence rate for the 0 – 11 age group there is 49 percent , mostly Types I and IV .
Smaller studies or anecdotal reports suggest that FGM is also practised in Colombia , the Congo , Malaysia , Oman , Peru , Saudi Arabia , Sri Lanka , and the United Arab Emirates , as well as among the Bedouin in Israel ; in Rahmah , Jordan ; and among the Dawoodi Bohra in India . It is also found within immigrant communities in Australasia , Europe , North America and Scandinavia .
= = = Downward trend = = =
Women who respond to surveys on FGM are reporting events experienced years ago , so prevalence figures for the 15 – 49 age group do not reflect current trends . Figures for the 15 – 19 age group show , for example , a reduction in Burkina Faso from 89 percent ( 1980 ) to 58 percent ( 2010 ) ; in Egypt from 97 percent ( 1985 ) to 70 percent ( 2015 ) ; and in Kenya from 41 percent ( 1984 ) to 11 percent ( 2014 ) .
From 2010 , household surveys asked women about the FGM status of all their living daughters . The highest concentrations among girls aged 0 – 14 , as reported by UNICEF in 2016 , were in Gambia ( 56 percent ) , Mauritania ( 54 percent ) , Indonesia ( 49 percent for 0 – 11 ) and Guinea ( 46 percent ) .
The figures suggest that , overall , a girl was one third less likely in 2014 to undergo FGM than she was 30 years ago . If the rate of decline continues , the number of girls cut will nevertheless rise from 3 @.@ 6 million a year in 2013 to 4 @.@ 1 million in 2050 because of population growth .
= = = Rural areas , wealth , education = = =
Surveys have found FGM to be more common in rural areas , less common in most countries among girls from the wealthiest homes , and ( except in Sudan and Somalia ) less common in girls whose mothers had access to primary or secondary / higher education . In Somalia and Sudan the situation was reversed : in Somalia the mothers ' access to secondary / higher education was accompanied by a rise in prevalence of FGM in their daughters , and in Sudan access to any education was accompanied by a rise .
= = = Age conducted = = =
FGM is not invariably a rite of passage between childhood and adulthood , but is often performed on much younger children . Girls are most commonly cut shortly after birth to age 15 . In half the countries for which national figures were available in 2000 – 2010 , most girls had been cut by age five .
Over 80 percent ( of those cut ) are cut before the age of five in Nigeria , Mali , Eritrea , Ghana and Mauritania . The 1997 Demographic and Health Survey in Yemen found that 76 percent of girls had been cut within two weeks of birth . The percentage is reversed in Somalia , Egypt , Chad and the Central African Republic , where over 80 percent ( of those cut ) are cut between five and 14 . Just as the type of FGM is often linked to ethnicity , so is the mean age . In Kenya , for example , the Kisi cut around age 10 and the Kamba at 16 .
= = = Ethnicity = = =
A country 's national prevalence often reflects a high sub @-@ national prevalence among certain ethnicities , rather than a widespread practice . In Iraq , for example , FGM is found mostly among the Kurds in Erbil ( 58 percent prevalence within age group 15 – 49 , as of 2011 ) , Sulaymaniyah ( 54 percent ) and Kirkuk ( 20 percent ) , giving the country a national prevalence of eight percent .
The practice is sometimes an ethnic marker , but may differ along national lines . In the northeastern regions of Ethiopia and Kenya , which share a border with Somalia , the Somali people practise FGM at around the same rate as they do in Somalia . But in Guinea all Fulani women responding to a survey in 2012 said they had experienced FGM , against 12 percent of the Fulani in Chad , while in Nigeria the Fulani are the only large ethnic group in the country not to practise it .
= = = Type of FGM = = =
Women are asked during surveys about the type of FGM they experienced :
Was the genital area just nicked / cut without removing any flesh ?
Was any flesh ( or something ) removed from the genital area ?
Was your genital area sewn ?
Most affected women experience one of the " cut , some flesh removed " procedures , which embrace WHO Types I and II . Types I and II are both performed in Egypt . Mackie wrote in 2003 that Type II was more common there , while a 2011 study identified Type I as more common . In Nigeria Type I is usually found in the south and the more severe forms in the north .
Type III ( infibulation ) is concentrated in northeastern Africa , particularly Djibouti , Eritrea , Somalia and Sudan . In surveys in 2002 – 2006 , 30 percent of cut girls in Djibouti had experienced Type III , 38 percent in Eritrea and 63 percent in Somalia . There is also a high prevalence of infibulation among girls in Niger and Senegal , and in 2013 it was estimated that in Nigeria three percent of the 0 – 14 age group had been infibulated . The type of procedure is often linked to ethnicity . In Eritrea , for example , a survey in 2002 found that all Hedareb girls had been infibulated , compared with two percent of the Tigrinya , most of whom fell into the " cut , no flesh removed " category .
= = Reasons = =
= = = Support from women = = =
Dahabo Musa , a Somali woman , described infibulation in a 1988 poem as the " three feminine sorrows " : the procedure itself , the wedding night when the woman is cut open , then childbirth when she is cut again . Despite the evident suffering , it is women who organize all forms of FGM . Anthropologist Rose Oldfield Hayes wrote in 1975 that educated Sudanese men who did not want their daughters to be infibulated ( preferring clitoridectomy ) would find the girls had been sewn up after the grandmothers arranged a visit to relatives .
Gerry Mackie has compared FGM to footbinding . Like FGM , footbinding was carried out on young girls , nearly universal where practised , tied to ideas about honour , chastity and appropriate marriage , and supported by women . FGM practitioners see the procedures as marking not only ethnic boundaries but also gender difference . According to this view , FGM demasculinizes women , while male circumcision defeminizes men .
Fuambai Ahmadu , an anthropologist and member of the Kono people of Sierra Leone , who in 1992 underwent clitoridectomy as an adult during a Sande society initiation , argued in 2000 that it is a male @-@ centred assumption that the clitoris is important to female sexuality . African female symbolism revolves instead around the concept of the womb . Infibulation draws on that idea of enclosure and fertility . " [ G ] enital cutting completes the social definition of a child 's sex by eliminating external traces of androgyny , " Janice Boddy wrote in 2007 . " The female body is then covered , closed , and its productive blood bound within ; the male body is unveiled , opened and exposed . "
In communities where infibulation is common , there is a preference for women 's genitals to be smooth , dry and without odour , and both women and men may find the natural vulva repulsive . Men seem to enjoy the effort of penetrating an infibulation . The local preference for dry sex causes women to introduce substances into the vagina to reduce lubrication , including leaves , tree bark , toothpaste and Vicks menthol rub . The WHO includes this practice within Type IV FGM , because the added friction during intercourse can cause lacerations and increase the risk of infection . Because of the smooth appearance of an infibulated vulva , there is also a belief that infibulation increases hygiene .
Common reasons for FGM cited by women in surveys are social acceptance , religion , hygiene , preservation of virginity , marriageability and enhancement of male sexual pleasure . In a study in northern Sudan , published in 1983 , only 17 @.@ 4 percent of women opposed FGM ( 558 out of 3 @,@ 210 ) , and most preferred excision and infibulation over clitoridectomy . Attitudes are slowly changing . In Sudan in 2010 , 42 percent of women who had heard of FGM said the practice should continue . In several surveys since 2006 , over 50 percent of women in Mali , Guinea , Sierra Leone , Somalia , Gambia and Egypt supported FGM 's continuance , while elsewhere in Africa , Iraq and Yemen most said it should end , although in several countries only by a narrow margin .
= = = Social obligation , poor access to information = = =
Against the argument that women willingly choose FGM for their daughters , UNICEF calls the practice a " self @-@ enforcing social convention " to which families feel they must conform to avoid uncut daughters facing social exclusion .
Ellen Gruenbaum reports that , in Sudan in the 1970s , cut girls from an Arab ethnic group would mock uncut Zabarma girls with Ya , Ghalfa ! ( " Hey , unclean ! " ) . The Zabarma girls would respond Ya , mutmura ! ( A mutmara was a storage pit for grain that was continually opened and closed , like an infibulated woman . ) But despite throwing the insult back , the Zabarma girls would ask their mothers , " What 's the matter ? Don 't we have razor blades like the Arabs ? "
Because of poor access to information , and because circumcisers downplay the causal connection , women may not associate the health consequences with the procedure . Lala Baldé , president of a women 's association in Medina Cherif , a village in Senegal , told Mackie in 1998 that when girls fell ill or died , it was attributed to evil spirits . When informed of the causal relationship between FGM and ill health , Mackie wrote , the women broke down and wept . Mackie argued that surveys taken before and after this sharing of information would show very different levels of support for FGM .
The American non @-@ profit group Tostan , founded by Molly Melching in 1991 , introduced community @-@ empowerment programmes in several countries that focus on literacy , education about healthcare and local democracy , giving women the tools to make their own decisions . In 1997 , using the Tostan programme , Malicounda Bambara in Senegal became the first village to abandon FGM . By 2016 , over 7 @,@ 300 communities in six countries had pledged to abandon FGM and child marriage .
= = = Religion = = =
Surveys have shown a widespread belief , particularly in Mali , Mauritania , Guinea and Egypt , that FGM is a religious requirement . Gruenbaum has argued that practitioners may not distinguish between religion , tradition and chastity , making it difficult to interpret the data .
FGM 's origins in northeastern Africa are pre @-@ Islamic , but the practice became associated with Islam because of that religion 's focus on female chastity and seclusion . There is no mention of it in the Quran . It is praised in several hadith ( sayings attributed to Muhammad ) as noble but not required . In 2007 the Al @-@ Azhar Supreme Council of Islamic Research in Cairo ruled that FGM had " no basis in core Islamic law or any of its partial provisions . "
There is no mention of FGM in the Bible . Christian missionaries in Africa were among the first to object to FGM , but Christian communities in Africa do practise it . UNICEF reported in 2013 that , for example , 55 percent of Christian women and girls in Niger had experienced FGM , compared with two percent of their Muslim counterparts . The only Jewish group known to have practised it are the Beta Israel of Ethiopia . Judaism requires male circumcision , but does not allow FGM . FGM is also practised by animist groups , particularly in Guinea and Mali .
= = History = =
= = = Antiquity = = =
The origins of the practice are unknown . Its east @-@ west , north @-@ south distribution in Africa meets in Sudan . Gerry Mackie has suggested that infibulation originated there with the Meroite civilization ( c . 800 BCE — c . 350 CE ) and imperial polygyny , before the rise of Islam , to increase confidence in paternity .
According to historian Mary Knight , Spell 1117 ( c . 1991 – 1786 BCE ) of the Ancient Egyptian Coffin Texts may refer in hieroglyphs to an uncircumcised girl ( ' m 't ) :
The spell was found on the sarcophagus of Sit @-@ hedjhotep , now in the Egyptian Museum , and dates to Egypt 's Middle Kingdom . ( Paul F. O 'Rourke argues that ' m 't probably refers instead to a menstruating woman . )
The proposed circumcision of an Egyptian girl , Tathemis , is mentioned on a Greek papyrus from 163 BCE in the British Museum :
Sometime after this , Nephoris [ Tathemis 's mother ] defrauded me , being anxious that it was time for Tathemis to be circumcised , as is the custom among the Egyptians . She asked that I give her 1 @,@ 300 drachmae ... to clothe her ... and to provide her with a marriage dowry ... if she didn 't do each of these or if she did not circumcise Tathemis in the month of Mecheir , year 18 [ 163 BCE ] , she would repay me 2 @,@ 400 drachmae on the spot .
The examination of mummies has shown no evidence of FGM . Citing the Australian pathologist Grafton Elliot Smith , who examined hundreds of mummies in the early 20th century , Knight writes that the genital area may resemble Type III , because during mummification the skin of the outer labia was pulled toward the anus to cover the pudendal cleft , possibly to prevent sexual violation . It was similarly not possible to determine whether Types I or II had been performed , because soft tissues had been removed by the embalmers or had deteriorated .
The Greek geographer Strabo ( c . 64 BCE – c . 23 CE ) wrote about FGM after visiting Egypt around 25 BCE ( right ) . The philosopher Philo of Alexandria ( c . 20 BCE – 50 CE ) also made reference to it : " the Egyptians by the custom of their country circumcise the marriageable youth and maid in the fourteenth ( year ) of their age , when the male begins to get seed , and the female to have a menstrual flow . " It is mentioned briefly in a work attributed to the Greek physician Galen ( 129 – c . 200 CE ) : " When [ the clitoris ] sticks out to a great extent in their young women , Egyptians consider it appropriate to cut it out . "
Another Greek physician , Aëtius of Amida ( mid @-@ 5th to mid @-@ 6th century CE ) , offered more detail in book 16 of his Sixteen Books on Medicine , citing the physician Philomenes . The procedure was performed in case the clitoris , or nymphê , grew too large or triggered sexual desire when rubbing against clothing . " On this account , it seemed proper to the Egyptians to remove it before it became greatly enlarged " , Aëtius wrote , " especially at that time when the girls were about to be married " :
The surgery is performed in this way : Have the girl sit on a chair while a muscled young man standing behind her places his arms below the girl 's thighs . Have him separate and steady her legs and whole body . Standing in front and taking hold of the clitoris with a broad @-@ mouthed forceps in his left hand , the surgeon stretches it outward , while with the right hand , he cuts it off at the point next to the pincers of the forceps .
It is proper to let a length remain from that cut off , about the size of the membrane that 's between the nostrils , so as to take away the excess material only ; as I have said , the part to be removed is at that point just above the pincers of the forceps . Because the clitoris is a skinlike structure and stretches out excessively , do not cut off too much , as a urinary fistula may result from cutting such large growths too deeply .
The genital area was then cleaned with a sponge , frankincense powder and wine or cold water , and wrapped in linen bandages dipped in vinegar , until the seventh day when calamine , rose petals , date pits or a " genital powder made from baked clay " might be applied .
Whatever the practice 's origins , infibulation became linked to slavery . Mackie cites the Portuguese missionary João dos Santos , who in 1609 wrote of a group inland from Mogadishu who had a " custome to sew up their Females , especially their slaves being young to make them unable for conception , which makes these slaves sell dearer , both for their chastitie , and for better confidence which their Masters put in them . " The English explorer William Browne wrote in 1799 that the Egyptians practised excision , and that slaves in that country were infibulated to prevent pregnancy . Thus , Mackie argues , a " practice associated with shameful female slavery came to stand for honor . "
= = = Europe and the United States = = =
Gynaecologists in 19th @-@ century Europe and the United States removed the clitoris to treat insanity and masturbation . British doctor Robert Thomas suggested clitoridectomy as a cure for nymphomania in 1813 . The first reported clitoridectomy in the West , described in The Lancet in 1825 , was performed in 1822 in Berlin by Karl Ferdinand von Graefe on a 15 @-@ year @-@ old girl who was masturbating excessively .
Isaac Baker Brown , an English gynaecologist , president of the Medical Society of London , and co @-@ founder in 1845 of St. Mary 's Hospital there , believed that masturbation , or " unnatural irritation " of the clitoris , caused peripheral excitement of the pubic nerve , which led to hysteria , spinal irritation , fits , idiocy , mania and death . He therefore " set to work to remove the clitoris whenever he had the opportunity of doing so " , according to his obituary in the Medical Times and Gazette in 1873 . Brown performed several clitoridectomies between 1859 and 1866 . When he published his views in On the Curability of Certain Forms of Insanity , Epilepsy , Catalepsy , and Hysteria in Females ( 1866 ) , doctors in London accused him of quackery and expelled him from the Obstetrical Society .
In the United States J. Marion Sims followed Brown 's work , and in 1862 slit the neck of a woman 's uterus and amputated her clitoris , " for the relief of the nervous or hysterical condition as recommended by Baker Brown " , after the patient complained of menstrual pain , convulsions and bladder problems . Later that century A. J. Bloch , a surgeon in New Orleans , removed the clitoris of a two @-@ year @-@ old girl who was reportedly masturbating . According to a 1985 paper in the Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey , clitoridectomy was performed in the US into the 1960s to treat hysteria , erotomania and lesbianism .
= = Opposition = =
= = = Colonial opposition in Kenya = = =
Protestant missionaries in British East Africa ( present @-@ day Kenya ) began campaigning against FGM in the early 20th century , when Dr. John Arthur joined the Church of Scotland Mission ( CSM ) in Kikuyu . The practice , an important ethnic marker , was known by the Kikuyu , the country 's main ethnic group , as irua for both girls and boys . It involved excision ( Type II ) for girls and removal of the foreskin for boys . Unexcised Kikuyu women , known as irugu , were outcasts .
Jomo Kenyatta , general secretary of the Kikuyu Central Association and Kenya 's first prime minister from 1963 , wrote in 1938 that , for the Kikuyu , the institution of FGM was the " conditio sine qua non of the whole teaching of tribal law , religion and morality . " No proper Kikuyu man or woman would marry or have sexual relations with someone who was not circumcised . A woman 's responsibilities toward the tribe began with her initiation . Her age and place within tribal history was traced to that day , and the group of girls with whom she was cut was named according to current events , an oral tradition that allowed the Kikuyu to track people and events going back hundreds of years .
From 1925 , beginning with the CSM mission , several missionary churches declared that FGM was prohibited for African Christians . The CSM announced that Africans practising it would be excommunicated , resulting in hundreds leaving or being expelled . The stand @-@ off turned FGM into a focal point of the Kenyan independence movement ; the 1929 – 1931 period is known in the country 's historiography as the female circumcision controversy .
In 1929 the Kenya Missionary Council began referring to FGM as the " sexual mutilation of women , " rather than circumcision , and a person 's stance toward the practice became a test of loyalty , either to the Christian churches or to the Kikuyu Central Association . Hulda Stumpf , an American missionary with the Africa Inland Mission who opposed FGM in the girls ' school she helped to run , was murdered in 1930 . Edward Grigg , the governor of Kenya , told the British Colonial Office that the killer , who was never identified , had attempted to circumcise her .
In 1956 the council of male elders ( the Njuri Nchecke ) in Meru announced a ban on FGM . Over the next three years , as a symbol of defiance , thousands of girls cut each other 's genitals with razor blades . The movement came to be known in Meru as Ngaitana ( " I will circumcise myself " ) , because to avoid naming their friends the girls said they had cut themselves . Historian Lynn Thomas described the episode as significant in the history of FGM because it made clear that its victims were also its perpetrators .
= = = Growth of opposition = = =
The first known non @-@ colonial campaign against FGM began in Egypt in the 1920s , when the Egyptian Doctors ' Society called for a ban . There was a parallel campaign in Sudan , run by religious leaders and British women . Infibulation was banned there in 1946 , but the law was unpopular and barely enforced . The Egyptian government banned infibulation in state @-@ run hospitals in 1959 , but allowed partial clitoridectomy if parents requested it .
In 1959 the UN asked the WHO to investigate FGM , but the latter responded that it was not a medical matter . Feminists took up the issue throughout the 1970s . Women and Sex ( 1972 ) , a book by the Egyptian physician and feminist Nawal El Saadawi , criticized FGM ; the book was banned in Egypt and El Saadawi lost her job as director general of public health . She followed up with a chapter , " The Circumcision of Girls , " in The Hidden Face of Eve : Women in the Arab World ( 1980 ) , which described her own clitoridectomy when she was six years old :
I did not know what they had cut off from my body , and I did not try to find out . I just wept , and called out to my mother for help . But the worst shock of all was when I looked around and found her standing by my side . Yes , it was her , I could not be mistaken , in flesh and blood , right in the midst of these strangers , talking to them and smiling at them , as though they had not participated in slaughtering her daughter just a few moments ago .
In 1975 Rose Oldfield Hayes , an American social scientist , became the first female academic to publish a detailed account of FGM , aided by her ability to discuss it directly with women in Sudan . Her article in American Ethnologist called it " female genital mutilation , " rather than female circumcision , and brought it to wider academic attention .
In 1977 Edna Adan Ismail , who worked at the time for the Somalia Ministry of Health , raised the health consequences of FGM with the Somali Women 's Democratic Organization . Two years later Fran Hosken , an Austria @-@ American feminist , published The Hosken Report : Genital and Sexual Mutilation of Females ( 1979 ) , the first to offer global figures . She estimated that 110 @,@ 529 @,@ 000 women in 20 African countries had experienced FGM . The figures were speculative but consistent with later surveys ; Mackie writes that her work was " more informative than the silence that preceded her efforts . " Describing FGM as a " training ground for male violence , " Hosken accused female practitioners of " participating in the destruction of their own kind . " The language caused a rift between Western and African feminists ; African women boycotted a session featuring Hosken during the UN 's Mid @-@ Decade Conference on Women in Copenhagen in July 1980 .
In 1979 the WHO held a seminar , " Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children , " in Khartoum , Sudan , and in 1981 , also in Khartoum , 150 academics and activists signed a pledge to fight FGM after a workshop held by the Babiker Badri Scientific Association for Women 's Studies ( BBSAWS ) , " Female Circumcision Mutilates and Endangers Women – Combat it ! " Another BBSAWS workshop in 1984 invited the international community to write a joint statement for the United Nations . It recommended that the " goal of all African women " should be the eradication of FGM and that , to sever the link between FGM and religion , clitoridectomy should no longer be referred to as sunna .
The Inter @-@ African Committee on Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children , founded in 1984 in Dakar , Senegal , called for an end to the practice , as did the UN 's World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna in 1993 . The conference listed FGM as a form of violence against women , marking it as a human @-@ rights violation , rather than a medical issue .
= = = United Nations = = =
In December 1993 the United Nations General Assembly included FGM in resolution 48 / 104 , the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women . From 2003 the UN began sponsoring an International Day of Zero Tolerance to Female Genital Mutilation , which is held every 6 February .
UNICEF began in 2003 to promote an evidence @-@ based social norms approach to the evaluation of intervention , using ideas from game theory about how communities reach decisions about FGM , and building on the work of Gerry Mackie on the ending of footbinding in China . In 2005 the UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre in Florence published its first report on FGM .
UNFPA and UNICEF launched a joint programme in Africa in 2007 to reduce FGM by 40 percent within the 0 – 15 age group and eliminate it entirely from at least one country by 2012 , goals that were not met .
In 2008 several United Nations bodies , including the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights , published a statement recognizing FGM as a human @-@ rights violation . In December 2012 the General Assembly passed resolution 67 / 146 , " Intensifying global efforts for the elimination of female genital mutilations . " In July 2014 UNICEF and the UK government co @-@ hosted the first Girl Summit , aimed at ending FGM and child marriage .
= = = Legislation in Africa and the Middle East = = =
Throughout the 1990s and 2000s governments in Africa and the Middle East passed legislation banning or restricting FGM . In 2003 the African Union ratified the Maputo Protocol on the rights of women , which supported the elimination of FGM . By 2015 laws restricting FGM had been passed in at least 23 of the 27 African countries in which it is concentrated , although several fell short of a ban .
= = = Non @-@ practising countries = = =
= = = = Overview = = = =
As of 2013 legislation banning FGM had been passed by 33 countries outside Africa and the Middle East . As a result of immigration the practice spread to Australia , New Zealand , Europe , North America and Scandinavia , all of which outlawed it entirely or restricted it to consenting adults . Sweden outlawed it in 1982 , the first Western country to do so . Several former colonial powers , including Belgium , Britain , France and the Netherlands , followed suit , either with new laws or by making clear that it was covered by existing legislation .
= = = = North America = = = =
Canada recognized FGM as a form of persecution in July 1994 , when it granted refugee status to Khadra Hassan Farah , who had fled Somalia to avoid her daughter being cut . In 1997 section 268 of its Criminal Code was amended to ban FGM , except where " the person is at least eighteen years of age and there is no resulting bodily harm . " As of May 2016 there had been no prosecutions .
In the United States the Centers for Disease Control ( CDC ) estimated in 2015 that 513 @,@ 000 women and girls living there had experienced FGM or were at risk , as of 2012 ; their previous estimate was 168 @,@ 000 as of 1990 . A Nigerian woman successfully contested deportation in March 1994 on the grounds that her daughters might be cut , and in 1996 Fauziya Kasinga from Togo became the first to be granted asylum to escape FGM .
In 1996 the Federal Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation Act made it illegal to perform FGM on minors for non @-@ medical reasons , and in 2013 the Transport for Female Genital Mutilation Act prohibited transporting a minor out of the country for the purpose of FGM . In addition , 24 states have legislation banning FGM . The American Academy of Pediatrics opposes all forms of the practice ; in 2010 it suggested that " pricking or incising the clitoral skin " was a harmless procedure that might satisfy parents , but it withdrew the statement after complaints . The first FGM conviction in the US was in 2006 , when Khalid Adem , who had emigrated from Ethiopia , was sentenced to ten years after severing his two @-@ year @-@ old daughter 's clitoris with a pair of scissors .
= = = = Europe = = = =
According to the European Parliament , 500 @,@ 000 women in Europe had undergone FGM as of March 2009 . France is known for its tough stance against FGM . Up to 30 @,@ 000 women there were thought to have experienced FGM as of 1995 . Colette Gallard , a family @-@ planning counsellor , writes that when FGM was first encountered in France , the reaction was that Westerners ought not to intervene , and it took the deaths of two girls in 1982 , one of them three months old , for that attitude to change .
The practice is outlawed by a provision of France 's penal code dealing with violence against children . All children under six who were born in France undergo medical examinations that include inspection of the genitals , and doctors are obliged to report FGM . The first civil suit was in 1982 and the first criminal prosecution in 1993 . In 1999 a woman was given an eight @-@ year sentence for having performed FGM on 48 girls . By 2014 over 100 parents and two practitioners had been prosecuted in over 40 criminal cases .
Around 137 @,@ 000 women and girls living in England and Wales were born in countries where FGM is practised ( as of 2011 ) . Performing FGM on children or adults was outlawed under the Prohibition of Female Circumcision Act 1985 . This was replaced by the Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003 and Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation ( Scotland ) Act 2005 , which added a prohibition on arranging FGM outside the country for British citizens or permanent residents . The United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women asked the government in 2013 to " ensure the full implementation of its legislation on FGM . " The first charges were brought the following year against a physician and another man , after the physician stitched an infibulated woman after opening her for childbirth . Both men were acquitted in 2015 .
= = Criticism of opposition = =
= = = Tolerance versus human rights = = =
Anthropologist Eric Silverman wrote in 2004 that FGM had " emerged as one of the central moral topics of contemporary anthropology . " Anthropologists have accused FGM eradicationists of cultural colonialism . In turn , anthropologists have been criticized for their moral relativism and failure to defend the idea of universal human rights .
According to the opposition 's critics , the biological reductionism of the opposition to FGM , and the failure to appreciate FGM 's cultural context , serves to " other " the people who practice it and undermines their agency – in particular when African parents are referred to as " mutilators . " Africans who object to the tone of the opposition to FGM risk appearing to defend the practice . Feminist theorist Obioma Nnaemeka – herself strongly opposed to FGM ( " If one is circumcised , it is one too many " ) – argues that the impact of renaming it female genital mutilation cannot be underestimated :
In this name game , although the discussion is about African women , a subtext of barbaric African and Muslim cultures and the West 's relevance ( even indispensability ) in purging the barbarism marks another era where colonialism and missionary zeal determined what " civilization " was , and figured out how and when to force it on people who did not ask for it .
Ugandan law professor Sylvia Tamale argues that early Western opposition to FGM stemmed from a Judeo @-@ Christian judgment that African sexual and family practices – including dry sex , polygyny , bride price and levirate marriage – were primitive and required correction . African feminists " do not condone the negative aspects of the practice " , writes Tamale , but " take strong exception to the imperialist , racist and dehumanising infantilization of African women . "
The debate has highlighted a tension between anthropology and feminism , with the former 's focus on tolerance and the latter 's
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trying to think of a subject for you again . No one in the history of thrillers has had such a totally brilliant artistic collaborator ! "
= = = Reviews = = =
Francis Iles , writing in The Guardian , noting the short @-@ story format , " thought it better than the novels " and wrote that " the first story is full of the old wild improbabilities , but one of the others has a positively Maughamish flavour . " Iles also thought that " it seems that one must either enjoy the novels of Mr. Ian Fleming beyond reason or be unable to read them at all . " Writing in The Guardian 's sister paper , The Observer , Maurice Richardson thought that " our Casanovaesque cad @-@ clubman secret agent is mellowing a bit now " ; Richardson liked the format , saying that " the short form suits him quite well " although the downside is that " if it checks the wilder fantasies it cuts short the love @-@ affairs " . Writing in The Spectator , Cyril Ray ( under the pseudonym Christopher Pym ) wrote that " each episode of the Bond novels meant the adventure was less probable and more preposterous than the last , and now our hero seems to have lost , as well as any claims to plausibility , the know @-@ how , the know @-@ who , know @-@ what and sheer zing that used to carry the unlikely plots along . Perhaps all that mattress pounding is taking it out of poor Bond " .
Writing in The Listener , John Raymond was of the opinion that Bond 's " admirers ... will find him in top form " and that the stories , " all but one of which are well up to 007 's high standard " . Raymond believed that " The Commander seems to be mellowing with the years " and because of this was " less of a show @-@ off ... and , for once , his chronicler has almost cut out the sadism " . In terms of the villains in the book , most notably Milton Krest , Raymond saw that Fleming 's " capacity to create villains is undiminished " .
The critic for The Times reflected that " the mood of For Your Eyes Only is , in fact , a good deal more sober and , perhaps , weary than before " ; the critic also thought that the short form worked well with Bond , and that " the girls , though a short story allows them only walk @-@ on parts , are as wild and luscious as ever " . Philip Stead , writing in The Times Literary Supplement thought that " Mr. Fleming 's licensed assassin is in pretty good form . " Stead considered that in the stories " occasionally there seem to be echoes of Ashenden and glimpses of Rogue Male , but the Bond ambience is persuasive " .
In the US , James Sandoe , writing in the New York Herald Tribune thought that For Your Eyes Only had " urban savagery and mighty smooth tale @-@ spinning " . Writing in The New York Times , Anthony Boucher — described by a Fleming biographer , John Pearson as " throughout an avid anti @-@ Bond and an anti @-@ Fleming man " — described what his main issue with Fleming 's work was : " his basic weakness as a storyteller , which can be summed up in two words : ' no story . ' " In the short story form , however , Boucher finds that Bond 's tales " are proportionate " and that Fleming 's " prose ... is eminently smooth and readable " even if " Bond 's triumphs are too simple and lack ... intricate suspense " .
= = Adaptations = =
Comic strip ( 1961 – 1967 )
Four of the five short stories in For Your Eyes Only were adapted into comic strips published in the British newspaper Daily Express and subsequently syndicated around the world . The first three stories were adapted by Henry Gammidge and illustrated by John McLusky and appeared in the newspaper between 3 April 1961 and 9 December 1961 . All three comics were published again in 2005 as part of the Dr. No anthology by Titan Books . The fourth adaptation , " The Hildebrand Rarity " , did not appear until six years after the comic @-@ strip versions of the other stories . It was adapted by Jim Lawrence and illustrated by Yaroslav Horak . This adaptation was reprinted by Titan Books in 2009 as part of Volume 2 of the The James Bond Omnibus collection .
For Your Eyes Only ( 1981 )
A number of details from the story are used in the film For Your Eyes Only , released in 1981 and starring Roger Moore as James Bond . The film shows the murder of the Havelocks by a hit man , although it names the hitman as Gonzalez , rather than Gonzales . The film also changes the name of the Havelock 's daughter , Judy , to Melina . For Your Eyes Only also uses much of the plot of " Risico " , including the characters of Colombo and Kristatos .
A View to a Kill ( 1985 )
Part of the title of the story From a View to a Kill was used for the 1985 Bond film A View to a Kill , with none of the story used in this or any other film to date .
Licence to Kill ( 1989 )
Milton Krest , his foundation , the Wavekrest , and " the Corrector " were incorporated into the 1989 film Licence to Kill starring Timothy Dalton as Bond .
Quantum of Solace ( 2008 )
Quantum of Solace was chosen as the title of the 22nd Bond film ; none of the story was used for the film 's plot . Daniel Craig , who starred as Bond in the film , said the film also shares the primary thematic element of the story as " it relates to the fact that if you don 't have that Quantum of Solace in a relationship , you should give up . If you are not respecting each other , it 's over , and at the end of the last movie Bond doesn 't have that because his girlfriend has been killed . "
Spectre ( 2015 )
In the 2015 film Spectre M and Bond meet in a London safe house , which carries a name plate labelled " Hildebrand Antiques and Rarities " , a reference to The Hildebrand Rarity .
For Your Eyes Only ( proposed unauthorised Canadian film )
On 1 January 2015 the original Fleming novels and short stories entered the public domain in countries in which the length of copyright remains at the Berne Convention minimum of the life of the author plus 50 years . The Canadian filmmakers Lee Demarbre and Ian Driscoll announced plans to film an unauthorised adaptation of " For Your Eyes Only " which is partly set in Canada . If completed , the film will only be able to be released in Canada , China and other countries in which the copyright has expired .
= Forever and a Day ( Kelly Rowland song ) =
" Forever and a Day " is a song by American recording artist Kelly Rowland . Written by Rowland , Andre Merritt , Samual Watters , and Jonas Jeberg , the uptempo Europop song is the second international single ( fourth overall ) taken from her third studio album , Here I Am ( 2011 ) . It was produced and record by Jeberg at his personal recording studios in Copenhagen , Denmark .
" Forever and a Day " received its world premiere on BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge on August 18 , 2010 , and was released for digital download on September 20 , 2010 . Critics mainly praised the song for Rowland 's vocals , as well as an infectious and refreshing production which uses Europop melodies , guitar riffs , and Glee @-@ like handclaps . An accompanying music video , directed by Sarah Chatfield , features the iPad interface and scenes of Rowland partying with friends in Los Angeles . The single was considerably less successful than its predecessor , " Commander " , only managing to peak in the UK at number forty @-@ nine .
= = Background and composition = =
In an interview with the German editor of her official website , Rowland has said that " On and On " ( produced by Brian Kennedy ) or the Pitbull @-@ assisted " Take Everything " , written by Jim Jonsin , were considered for release as second international singles . However , on August 18 , 2010 , UK station BBC Radio 1 announced that " Forever and a Day " was the name of Rowland 's new single and subsequently played the record for the first time .
" Forever and a Day " is an up @-@ tempo Europop song which makes use of a " subtle guitar riff " and " Glee @-@ like handclaps . " The song was written by Rowland , Jonas Jeberg , Andre Merrit , and Sam Watters . Jeberg produced the song at his personal recording studios in Copenhagen , Denmark . Rowland uses auto @-@ tuning on some of her vocals in the song .
= = Critical reception = =
Becky Bain of Idolator praised the song , saying , " Kelly totally rips it wide open on the chorus with her shrieking @-@ but @-@ not @-@ shrill ' DAAAAY ! ' Once again , David Guetta + Kelly Rowland = musical gold . If we 're lucky , this will also be a US single , but we know how infrequently mass American [ sic ] takes a liking to Europop tunes . " Robert Copsey of Digital Spy agreed , saying that the song was " nothing less than was expected . " He awarded the song four out of five stars , saying that the song could not top " Commander " but " comes pretty close . " It " [ uses ] beats that bounce faster than a chesty lady on a high @-@ powered jetski . It all makes for another infectious club @-@ pop number on which Kel is refreshingly direct with her fella . " Not all reviews were positive . Rick Fullton of the Daily Record was much less impressed with the song , saying it could have " been a session singer " instead of the " dance diva " Rowland is intending on becoming . A reviewer from StarObserver praised the dance remix of the song . The review said , " French DJ Antoine Clamaran has turned K Row ’ s mid @-@ tempo jam into the perfect summer anthem – with killer beats , an uplifting chorus and suitably cheesy video ( below ) . "
= = Release and promotion = =
Following its premiere , " Forever and a Day " was added to the A @-@ playlist on UK urban music radio on September 10 , 2010 . On September 15 , 2010 , " Forever and a Day " was added to B @-@ playlist on the UK 's mainstream radio station , BBC Radio 1 . It was due to be released in the UK on September 27 , 2010 , but for unspecified reasons the release was delayed by a week to October 4 , 2010 . Rowland performed " Forever and a Day " for the first time on The Alan Titchmarsh Show on October 7 , 2010 . Following its release , the single debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number forty @-@ nine , but then fell to number sixty @-@ one the following week . On October 23 , 2010 , the single debuted on the Belgium Flanders Tip chart at number forty @-@ nine before peaking at number forty @-@ two weeks later . The single also peaked at number seventy @-@ three on the Slovkian Airplay Chart . At the end of October 2010 , Rowland performed the new Antoine Clamaran dance remix of the song at the Starfloor 2010 music festival in Paris , France .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and concept = = =
The music video was filmed from August 20 to August 22 , 2010 , and was directed by British pop @-@ culture and video director Sarah Chatfield . The full completed video debuted on the Vevo network , and was added to UK music channels on September 15 , 2010 . It was released in other territories on September 25 , 2010 . The scenes were put together with superimposed images of the workings and interface of the iPad . It was released through the US iTunes Store on September 21 , 2010 . Video Static 's Steven Gottlieb provided clarity on how the interface is integrated into the video . He said , " Logos get tapped to trigger various edits ; pinching makes things zoom in and out , etc , etc . " A video set to the Antoine Clamaran dance remix of the song premiered on Clamaran 's official YouTube page on December 8 , 2010 .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video begins with a still photo of Rowland and a " slide @-@ lock " function from the iPad in the foreground . A single finger appears and unlocks the image by sliding the slider from left to right . The music begins and four small images appear on screen . The finger reappears and clicks on the third image , resulting in that image zooming to fit the whole screen . In this scene , Rowland wears an orange knee @-@ length skirt , T @-@ shirt , and a blue cropped denim jacket . She walks around on a rooftop in Los Angeles . The video then flicks between this scene and another where she is seen partying with her friends . As the chorus begins , Rowland and her friends are seen riding in a convertible car . Then they are seen sitting on some concrete stairs as some skate @-@ boarders ride past them . When the bridge kicks in , the images flicker to a party scene on a rooftop with lots of people enjoying themselves . The finger then re @-@ appears and clicks on the scroll bar , which appears on screen as if to rewind the clip and the original scene of Rowland alone on the rooftop plays as the music fades .
= = = Reception = = =
A review from Idolator said that the futuristic theme to the video might have been better suited to the previous international single , " Commander . " It also said , " The pop diva continues her ascent to grown woman in this sun @-@ soaked video , making good use of palm trees , a convertible , and the Los Angeles skyline , " commenting that she takes " a breezy approach so casual it almost does look like a camera crew just happened to stumble upon a typical day out with the girls . " The reviewer concluded that " it 's hard to imagine better uses for a touch screen than getting as close as possible to the carefree fun on display here . " Steven Gottlieb of Video Static said , " [ ' Forever and a Day ' is ] a casual and sunny pop video gets a bit of a twist , or a flick , via an interface that 's swiped from your iPhone ... It 's possibly not the kind of finger manipulation some Kelly Rowland fans have been dreaming about , but even they should admit it 's a clever conceit . "
= = Track listing = =
= = Chart performance = =
= = Radio dates and release history = =
= Battle of Kalbajar =
The Battle of Kelbajar took place in March and April 1993 , during the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh War . It resulted in the capture by Armenian military forces of the Kelbajar region of Azerbaijan .
Kelbajar lay outside the contested enclave of the former Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Autonomous Oblast , but within Nagorno @-@ Karabakh geographic region of Azerbaijan , that Armenian and Azerbaijani forces had been fighting over for five years . The offensive was the first time Armenian forces from Nagorno @-@ Karabakh had advanced beyond the boundaries of the enclave . Kelbajar rayon , located between Armenia and the western border of former NKAO , was composed of several dozen villages and its provincial capital , also named Kelbajar . According to Russian sources mountain troops from the 128th Regiment ( 7th Russian Army ) stationed in Armenia participated in the seizure of Kelbajar in a blitzkrieg operation . After initial heavy resistance , the Azerbaijani defenses quickly collapsed and the provincial capital fell on April 3 , 1993 . Kelbajar is currently under the control of the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Republic .
= = Background = =
An autonomous oblast during the Soviet era under the jurisdiction of the Azerbaijan SSR , Nagorno @-@ Karabakh 's population was approximately 75 % ethnic Armenian . As the Soviet Union 's disintegration approached during the late 1980s , the enclave 's government expressed its desire to secede and unite with the neighboring Armenian SSR . By 1991 , Armenia and Azerbaijan were independent countries but the nascent Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Republic remained internationally unrecognized despite its government 's declaration of independence . Small @-@ scale violence had flared up between the two ethnic groups in February 1988 but soon escalated to use of Soviet @-@ built tanks , helicopters , and fighter bombers appropriated by both sides after the collapse of the Soviet Union .
On May 9 , 1992 , Armenian forces captured the mountain stronghold of Shusha but remained on the defensive until the next year . Fighting between Armenians and Azeris continued in other parts of the enclave , including Lachin , Khojavend , and Aghdara . However , nearly all offensives launched by Azerbaijan failed or could not hold on to captured territory . By the spring of 1993 the Azerbaijani military , which had the upper hand in the initial stages of the war , had been largely reduced to unorganized and incoherent fighting groups . By March 1993 the fighting had shifted to west and south of Karabakh .
Kelbajar was a raion surrounded by several canyons and an elevated mountain range known as the Murov Mountains . In the attack , Armenian forces from four directions , including Armenia proper , assaulted and captured an area of over 1 @,@ 900 square kilometers . This linked Armenia with Nagorno @-@ Karabakh and opened a second " corridor " for Armenia to send aid through .
= = The region of Kelbajar = =
= = = Rationale for its taking = = =
Kelbajar is located between Armenia and the western boundary of former Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Autonomous Oblast . Situated between a steep mountain range , its wartime population of approximately 45 @,@ 000 – 60 @,@ 000 was primarily made up of ethnic Azeris and Kurds . Throughout the war , the Armenians of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh had been voicing their discontent over seventy years of Azeri rule and said that they were defending themselves from Azerbaijan 's aggression . Their capture of the towns of Khojaly and Shusha stemmed from security concerns in silencing artillery bombardments positioned in those towns , albeit the capture of the former resulted in the Khojaly massacre . They stated that Karabakh had historically been an Armenian region and that their claims for territory did not extend beyond its boundaries .
In March 1993 , military incursions by Azeri forces and artillery barrages were reported to have been coming from the region , prompting military leaders to announce an offensive against the rayon . However , a different reason was given by the Armenians ' most successful commander of the conflict , Monte Melkonian . According to Melkonian , the commander of the southern front in Martuni ( Khojavend ) , the decision to take the town was a matter of certainty rather than choice . He stated , " This is a historical issue ... of course this is historical Armenia ... And we 'll vindicate that reality [ to the Azeris ] with our guns . Unfortunately ! It would be nice if the Azeris would understand that reality is reality , agree and say OK , it 's yours , and that 's that . " Questioned on the possibility of a large expulsion of civilians if the region was captured , Melkonian responded , " A lot of blood has been spilled on both sides ... The emotions are high and that isn 't conducive to living together in near or medium future . "
= = The battle = =
= = = Heavy resistance = = =
Defeats in late March already had the Azeri military evacuating civilians out of the region to the northern town of Yevlakh and Azerbaijan 's second largest city , Ganja . The Armenians had assembled a force of several hundred men to enter Kelbajar from four different directions : Melkonian 's own detachment of tanks and troops from Karabakh would attack from the southeast , one fifty @-@ man unit from the town of Vardenis , Armenia would enter from the west ; the third force would attack from the village of Aghdaban in the north , and the primary attacking force would come from the village of Narınclar .
The battered village of Charektar in Kelbajar had already seen extensive fighting in earlier weeks and was reinforced by both Azerbaijani and foreign fighters as the Armenian offensive commenced on March 27 . However , instead of launching a simultaneous attack , only the units in Aghdaban and Narinclar moved out . Melkonian 's armored column did not move out until later on and his units faced tenacious resistance on an embankment of entrenched defenses where his forces were forced to retreat . The troops in Vardenis began their assault shortly thereafter but their advance was slowed since they had to trek through the snowy passes of the Murov Mountains .
On March 28 , Melkonian 's forces counterattacked Charektar and an eight @-@ hour battle ensued until his forces were able to break through the defenses . The stretched out Azeri forces deployed through the region allowed them to advance twenty @-@ nine kilometers , reaching the Tartar River on March 31 . Within another twenty kilometers of his forces ' positions was the Kelbajar 's namesake capital , a crucial road intersection that led to Lachin and the village of Zulfugarli . By March 29 , Armenian forces encircled the town of Kalbajar . A journalist reported seeing intensive bombardment of Kelbajar , including Grad artillery , originating from Armenia proper .
= = = Melkonian 's advance = = =
The following two days saw a massive refugee column of cars and trucks " laden with bundles ... bumper to bumper " trudging through the intersection . Melkonian ordered his forces to halt their advance until the remnants of the column dried up in the early afternoon of April 1 . Assessing that most refugees had left , he ordered his units to advance and sent a detachment to guard a vital tunnel leading south towards Zulfugarli . While his troops had assumed that most civilians had left Kelbajar , they encountered a GAZ @-@ 52 transport truck in the tunnel and , thinking it was a military vehicle , fired and destroyed it with rocket @-@ propelled grenades and assault rifles . As they observed the wreck of the vehicle , the troops realized they had taken out a vehicle filled entirely with civilians : twenty @-@ five Kurd and Azeri kolkhoz workers . Four of them , including the driver of the truck and his daughter , were killed . The rest were ordered by Melkonian to be taken to a hospital in Karabakh 's capital of Stepanakert ; however , as many as eleven of them died .
After the Zulufgarli incident , his forces pushed forward and reached another vital intersection leading to Ganja , fifteen kilometers away from the capital . Civilians in Kelbajar continued to be evacuated by both air and the through the intersection and Melkonian halted his advance by a further forty hours to allow the traffic column to move through . On April 1 , his forces issued a radio message to the governor of the region , instructing his forces to leave the capital . An ultimatum was placed until 2 pm of the following day . Identified by his radio codename , " Khan " , the governor responded and stated , " We 're never going to leave ... we 'll fight to the end . "
= = = Final push = = =
As the deadline passed on April 2 , Melkonian 's armor entered the intersection and encountered a line of Azeri tanks and infantry . A firefight ensued but lasted for only several minutes as the defense line was soon battered and destroyed . Many of the Azeri forces were ill @-@ prepared for the attack as Melkonian noted when pointing out to their lack of equipment . Despite having his force reduced down to a total of sixty @-@ eight men , a force too weak to take the capital , he ordered them to continue forward .
By April 3 , the Armenian forces had encircled the capital and resistance had weakened . Azeri commander Suret Huseynov and his 709th brigade , which had been tasked to defending the Murov Mountains , had retreated to Ganja after political and military problems began to unravel upon in the battlefield . An account of the war @-@ weariness afflicting the inhabitants of the town was described by Melkonian 's elder brother , Markar :
A downcast enemy soldier with a bandaged hand and a burned leg rides up on a donkey and surrenders . An old man in a faded jacket studded with medals from the Great Patriotic War weeps before leaving his home forever . An elderly woman in a black yazma , waving a torn sheet on a stick , greets Monte and Abo [ his radio operator ] in Azeri Turkish , then suddenly kneels to the ground to kiss Monte 's feet . Surprised and awkward , Monte tries to pull back . Yok ! he shouts , " No ! " He reflexively bends over and brings the woman up by her arm . " What are you doing ? " he asks in Anatolian Turkish , " Don 't ever do that ! " ... [ Melkonian ] found [ in the capital ] a row of neat but bleak storefronts and a few chickens . The townsfolk ... had not bothered to grab the chickens as provisions for the road . The only other sign of life was a BMP idling in the middle of the road through the center of town .
Although his contingent did not reach in time for the fighting , the city 's capital was taken . Aside from some farm life , the town had been largely abandoned . The taking of the region marked a continuous swath of territory held by Armenians stretching from Karabakh to Armenia proper , a total of 3 @,@ 000 square kilometers . In the retreat through the Omar Pass of the Murov mountain range , many Azeri refugees froze to death . With the last helicopters leaving on April 1 , they were forced to walk through the heavy snow at freezing temperatures . Nearly 39 @,@ 000 civilians were processed into the camps at Yevlakh and Dashkesen with as many as 15 @,@ 000 unaccounted for . Four Azerbaijani MI @-@ 8 helicopters ferrying refugees and wounded out of the conflict zone crashed , the last of which was hit by Armenian forces . Human Rights Watch findings concluded that during the Kalbajar offensive Armenian forces committed numerous violations of the rules of war , including forcible exodus of civilian population , indiscriminate fire and hostage @-@ taking .
= = Political ramifications = =
The offensive provoked international criticism against both the Armenians in Karabakh and the Republic . Vafa Guluzade , the chief adviser to then president of Azerbaijan , Abulfaz Elchibey alleged that the region was taken too easily because help arrived from the Russian 128th Regiment ( 7th Russian Army ) stationed in Armenia . This charge was refuted by the operation 's commander , Gurgen Daribaltayan , and others since " Moscow [ i.e. , the Russian government ] was not in total control of Armenian military operations . " Armenia 's western neighbor , Turkey halted humanitarian aid coming through its borders . The United States also condemned the offensive , issuing a " sharp rebuke " and sending an accompanying letter to the Armenian government .
On April 30 , 1993 , Turkey and Pakistan co @-@ sponsored United Nations Security Council Resolution 822 which called for Armenians in the region to withdraw immediately from Kelbajar and other areas of Azerbaijan . Turkey 's President Turgut Özal called for military intervention on Azerbaijan 's side and set forth on a tour of Turkic former Soviet republics on April 14 . ( Özal would die of a heart attack just three days later ) . Iran also condemned the offensive since many refugees in Azerbaijan were fleeing south towards its borders . In an attempt to end the hostilities , U.S. , Russia and Turkey reiterated the call for withdrawal of Armenian troops from Kelbajar region of Azerbaijan on May 6 , which would be followed by formal peace talks .
= Marion L. Brittain =
Marion Luther Brittain , Sr. ( November 11 , 1866 – July 13 , 1953 ) was an American academic administrator and president of the Georgia Institute of Technology from 1922 to 1944 . Brittain was born in Georgia and , aside from a brief stint at the University of Chicago for graduate school , spent most of his life serving the educational community there . After receiving a Bachelor of Arts degree from Emory College in 1886 , Brittain worked his way up the ranks from principal of an Atlanta high school to superintendent of education for the entire state of Georgia .
In 1922 , Brittain accepted the position of president of the Georgia Institute of Technology , then called the Georgia School of Technology , an office he would hold until his retirement in 1944 . During his 22 @-@ year tenure at Georgia Tech , Brittain was credited with doubling student enrollment , establishing what is now the second largest aerospace engineering faculty in the United States , and playing an influential role in securing Georgia Tech 's position as a leading technical institute and research university . After his retirement , Brittain wrote The Story of Georgia Tech ( 1948 ) , a history of the Institute published shortly before his death in 1953 .
= = Early life = =
Marion L. Brittain was born in Wilkes County , Georgia in 1866 to Dr. J. M. Brittain , a Baptist minister , and Ida Callaway , granddaughter of Baptist minister Enoch Callaway . Brittain 's childhood was spent in a variety of towns and cities throughout the state of Georgia due to his father 's career as a minister . He attended Emory College for his undergraduate studies , graduating in 1886 with the commendation that he was the " best student in his department the college had had in ten years . " Brittain then spent ten years as an administrator of several high schools in the Atlanta , Georgia area . In 1897 , he gained local fame for his erudition after winning a contest held by the Atlanta Constitution in which he was able to identify the missing word from a passage taken from an obscure book on English literature . Brittain left his work as a high school administrator in 1898 to pursue graduate studies at the University of Chicago .
On December 5 , 1899 , Brittain and Lettie McDonald , daughter of Baptist minister Dr. Henry McDonald , were married . He returned to academic administration , first as superintendent of the Fulton County School System ( 1900 – 1910 ) and later , at the appointment of Joseph Mackey Brown , the education system for the entire state of Georgia ( 1910 – 1922 ) . In this role , Brittain became well known for fighting corruption and generally improving the education system . Throughout this time , Brittain earned LL.D. degrees from Mercer University ( 1919 ) , and , later , the University of Georgia ( 1927 ) and Emory University ( 1928 ) . He was also president of the Georgia Education Association in 1906 , of the Southern Education Association in 1913 , and of the Council of State School Superintendents of the United States in 1917 . He earned the wrath of Senator Tom Watson during these positions , who attempted to remove Brittain from his position as superintendent of education .
= = President of Georgia Tech = =
On August 1 , 1922 , Brittain was elected president of the Georgia School of Technology ( Georgia Tech ) . During his tenure , Brittain was able to convince the state of Georgia to increase funding for the Institute . He had noted in the 1923 annual report that " there are more students in Georgia Tech than in any other two colleges in Georgia , and we have the smallest appropriation of them all . " Additionally , a $ 300 @,@ 000 grant ( equivalent to $ 4 @,@ 249 @,@ 601 @.@ 59 in 2015 ) from the Guggenheim Foundation allowed Brittain to establish the David Guggenheim School of Aeronautics at Georgia Tech . In 1930 , Brittain 's decision to use the money for a School of Aeronautics was controversial ; today , the David Guggenheim School of Aerospace Engineering boasts the second largest faculty in the United States behind MIT .
Other accomplishments during Brittain 's administration included a doubling of Georgia Tech 's enrollment , the first ROTC unit in the Southern United States , accreditation for the Institute by the Southern Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools , and the creation of a new ceramic engineering department , building , and major that attracted the American Ceramics Society 's national convention to Atlanta . Perhaps most significantly , Brittain is attributed with providing the vision and securing the finances to move Georgia Tech away from its roots as a teaching @-@ oriented trade school and towards a new focus on science and technology research .
Brittain was known by reputation as a kind , gentle man and was well liked by students and faculty . He was especially remembered for his dedication to the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets football team , attending nearly every game including those taking place out @-@ of @-@ state . Outside of Georgia Tech , Brittain taught Sunday school classes and maintained active membership in a number of service organizations . Brittain retired from his position as president of Georgia Tech in 1944 , after which he penned a history of the Institute entitled The Story of Georgia Tech , completed in 1948 . He died in 1953 , survived by three children : McDonald , Marion Luther , Jr . , and Ida , three grandsons , and a great @-@ granddaughter . Flags at the university were flown at half @-@ staff for a month in remembrance of Brittain , and classes were cancelled for the rest of the school week .
= = Legacy = =
Long after his death , Brittain continues to be remembered through several prestigious awards named in his honor . The Marion L. Brittain Fellows Program , established in 1990 , awards postdoctoral fellowships to teach in the Communications Program at Georgia Tech 's School of Literature , Communication , and Culture for up to three years . At Emory University , the Marion Luther Brittain Award is presented annually at commencement to a graduate " who has demonstrated exemplary service to both the university and the greater community without expectation of recognition " and is considered the university 's highest student honor .
A pair of buildings bears the name of Brittain as well . The Dr. Marion Luther Brittain , Sr. , House , built in the Neoclassical Revival style and located at 1109 West Peachtree Street in Atlanta , was added to the National Register of Historic Places on September 23 , 1993 . The building served as Brittain 's home from its construction in 1911 until Brittain and his family moved to the Georgia Tech president 's house in 1922 . It has since been converted into office space and is privately owned . Additionally , the Marion L. Brittain Dining Hall , erected in 1928 , is one of two dining facilities for students living in residence halls on the east side of Georgia Tech 's campus .
= Albertosaurus =
Albertosaurus ( / ælˌbɜːrtəˈsɔːrəs / ; meaning " Alberta lizard " ) is a genus of tyrannosaurid theropod dinosaur that lived in western North America during the Late Cretaceous Period , about 70 million years ago . The type species , A. sarcophagus , was apparently restricted in range to the modern @-@ day Canadian province of Alberta , after which the genus is named . Scientists disagree on the content of the genus , with some recognizing Gorgosaurus libratus as a second species .
As a tyrannosaurid , Albertosaurus was a bipedal predator with tiny , two @-@ fingered hands and a massive head that had dozens of large , sharp teeth . It may have been at the top of the food chain in its local ecosystem . Although relatively large for a theropod , Albertosaurus was much smaller than its more famous relative Tyrannosaurus , probably weighing less than 2 metric tons .
Since the first discovery in 1884 , fossils of more than 30 individuals have been recovered , providing scientists with a more detailed knowledge of Albertosaurus anatomy than is available for most other tyrannosaurids . The discovery of 26 individuals at one site provides evidence of pack behaviour and allows studies of ontogeny and population biology , which are impossible with lesser @-@ known dinosaurs .
= = Description = =
Albertosaurus was smaller than some other tyrannosaurids , such as Tarbosaurus and Tyrannosaurus . Typical Albertosaurus adults measured up to 9 metres ( 30 feet ) long , while rare individuals of great age could grow to be over 10 metres ( 33 feet ) long . Several independent mass estimates , obtained by different methods , suggest that an adult Albertosaurus weighed between 1 @.@ 3 tonnes ( 1 @.@ 4 short tons ) and 1 @.@ 7 tonnes ( 1 @.@ 9 tons ) .
Albertosaurus shared a similar body appearance with all other tyrannosaurids . Typically for a theropod , Albertosaurus was bipedal and balanced the heavy head and torso with a long tail . However , tyrannosaurid forelimbs were extremely small for their body size and retained only two digits . The hind limbs were long and ended in a four @-@ toed foot on which the first digit , called the hallux , was short and did not reach the ground . The third digit was longer than the rest . Albertosaurus may have been able to reach walking speeds of 14 − 21 kilometres per hour ( 8 − 13 miles per hour ) . At least for the younger individuals , a high running speed is plausible .
= = = Skull and teeth = = =
The massive skull of Albertosaurus , which was perched on a short , S @-@ shaped neck , was approximately 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 feet ) long in the largest adults . Wide openings in the skull ( fenestrae ) reduced the weight of the head while also providing space for muscle attachment and sensory organs . Its long jaws contained , both sides combined , 58 or more banana @-@ shaped teeth ; larger tyrannosaurids possessed fewer teeth , Gorgosaurus at least sixty @-@ two . Unlike most theropods , Albertosaurus and other tyrannosaurids were heterodont , with teeth of different forms depending on their position in the mouth . The premaxillary teeth at the tip of the upper jaw , four per side , were much smaller than the rest , more closely packed , and D @-@ shaped in cross section . Like with Tyrannosaurus , the maxillary ( cheek ) teeth of Albertosaurus were adapted in general form to resist lateral forces exerted by a struggling prey . The bite force of Albertosaurus was less formidable , however , with the maximum force , by the hind teeth , reaching 3 @,@ 413 Newtons . Above the eyes were short bony crests that may have been brightly coloured in life and used in courtship to attract a mate .
William Abler observed in 2001 that Albertosaurus tooth serrations resemble a crack in the tooth ending in a round void called an ampulla . Tyrannosaurid teeth were used as holdfasts for pulling meat off a body , so when a tyrannosaur pulled back on a piece of meat , the tension could cause a purely crack @-@ like serration to spread through the tooth . However , the presence of the ampulla distributed these forces over a larger surface area , and lessened the risk of damage to the tooth under strain . The presence of incisions ending in voids has parallels in human engineering . Guitar makers use incisions ending in voids to , as Abler describes , " impart alternating regions of flexibility and rigidity " to the wood they work with . The use of a drill to create an " ampulla " of sorts and prevent the propagation of cracks through material is also used to protect aircraft surfaces . Abler demonstrated that a plexiglass bar with incisions called " kerfs " and drilled holes was more than 25 % stronger than one with only regularly placed incisions . Unlike tyrannosaurs , ancient predators like phytosaurs and Dimetrodon had no adaptations to prevent the crack @-@ like serrations of their teeth from spreading when subjected to the forces of feeding .
= = Classification and systematics = =
Albertosaurus is a member of the theropod family Tyrannosauridae , in the subfamily Albertosaurinae . Its closest relative is the slightly older Gorgosaurus libratus ( sometimes called Albertosaurus libratus ; see below ) . These two species are the only described albertosaurines ; other undescribed species may exist . Thomas Holtz found Appalachiosaurus to be an albertosaurine in 2004 , but his more recent unpublished work locates it just outside Tyrannosauridae , in agreement with other authors .
The other major subfamily of tyrannosaurids is the Tyrannosaurinae , which includes Daspletosaurus , Tarbosaurus and Tyrannosaurus . Compared with these robust tyrannosaurines , albertosaurines had slender builds , with proportionately smaller skulls and longer bones of the lower leg ( tibia ) and feet ( metatarsals and phalanges ) .
Below is the cladogram of Tyrannosauridae based on the phylogenetic analysis conducted by Loewen et al. in 2013 .
= = Discovery and naming = =
= = = Naming = = =
Albertosaurus was named by Henry Fairfield Osborn in a one @-@ page note at the end of his 1905 description of Tyrannosaurus rex . The name honours Alberta , the Canadian province established the same year , in which the first remains were found . The generic name also incorporates the Greek term σαυρος / sauros ( " lizard " ) , the most common suffix in dinosaur names . The type species is Albertosaurus sarcophagus ; the specific name is derived from Ancient Greek σαρκοφάγος ( sarkophagos ) meaning " flesh @-@ eating " and having the same etymology as the funeral container with which it shares its name : a combination of the Greek words σαρξ / sarx ( " flesh " ) and φαγειν / phagein ( " to eat " ) . More than 30 specimens of all ages are known to science .
= = = Early discoveries = = =
The type specimen is a partial skull , collected in the summer of 1884 from an outcrop of the Horseshoe Canyon Formation alongside the Red Deer River , in Alberta . This specimen , found on June 9 , 1884 , was recovered by an expedition of the Geological Survey of Canada , led by the famous geologist Joseph Burr Tyrrell . Due to a lack of specialised equipment the almost complete skull could only be partially secured . In 1889 , Tyrrell 's colleague Thomas Chesmer Weston found an incomplete smaller skull associated with some skeletal material at a location nearby . The two skulls were assigned to the preexisting species Laelaps incrassatus by Edward Drinker Cope in 1892 , although the name Laelaps was preoccupied by a genus of mite and had been changed to Dryptosaurus in 1877 by Othniel Charles Marsh . Cope refused to recognize the new name created by his archrival Marsh . However , Lawrence Lambe used the name Dryptosaurus incrassatus instead of Laelaps incrassatus when he described the remains in detail in 1903 and 1904 , a combination first coined by Oliver Perry Hay in 1902 . Shortly later , Osborn pointed out that D. incrassatus was based on generic tyrannosaurid teeth , so the two Horseshoe Canyon skulls could not be confidently referred to that species . The Horseshoe Canyon skulls also differed markedly from the remains of D. aquilunguis , type species of Dryptosaurus , so Osborn created the new name Albertosaurus sarcophagus for them in 1905 . He did not describe the remains in any great detail , citing Lambe 's complete description the year before . Both specimens ( the holotype CMN 5600 and the paratype CMN 5601 ) are stored in the Canadian Museum of Nature in Ottawa . By the early twenty @-@ first century , some concerns had arisen that , due to the damaged state of the holotype , Albertosaurus might be a nomen dubium , a " dubious name " that could only be used for the type specimen itself because other fossils could not reliably be assigned to it . However , in 2010 , Thomas Carr established that the holotype , the paratype and comparable later finds all shared a single common unique trait or autapomorphy : the possession of an enlarged pneumatic opening in the back rim of the side of the palatine bone , proving that Albertosaurus was a valid taxon .
= = = Dry Island bonebed = = =
On 11 August 1910 , American paleontologist Barnum Brown discovered the remains of a large group of Albertosaurus at another quarry alongside the Red Deer River . Because of the large number of bones and the limited time available , Brown 's party did not collect every specimen , but made sure to collect remains from all of the individuals that they could identify in the bonebed . Among the bones deposited in the American Museum of Natural History collections in New York City are seven sets of right metatarsals , along with two isolated toe bones that did not match any of the metatarsals in size . This indicated the presence of at least nine individuals in the quarry . The Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology rediscovered the bonebed in 1997 and resumed fieldwork at the site , which is now located inside Dry Island Buffalo Jump Provincial Park . Further excavation from 1997 to 2005 turned up the remains of 13 more individuals of various ages , including a diminutive two @-@ year @-@ old and a very old individual estimated at over 10 metres ( 33 feet ) in length . None of these individuals are known from complete skeletons , and most are represented by remains in both museums . Excavations continued until 2008 , when the minimum number of individuals present had been established at 12 , on the basis of preserved elements that occur only once in a skeleton , and at 26 if mirrored elements were counted when differing in size due to ontogeny . A total of 1 @,@ 128 Albertosaurus bones had been secured , the largest concentration of large theropod fossils known from the Cretaceous .
= = = Gorgosaurus libratus = = =
In 1913 , paleontologist Charles H. Sternberg recovered another tyrannosaurid skeleton from the slightly older Dinosaur Park Formation in Alberta . Lawrence Lambe named this dinosaur Gorgosaurus libratus in 1914 . Other specimens were later found in Alberta and the US state of Montana . Finding , largely due to a lack of good Albertosaurus skull material , no significant differences to separate the two taxa , Dale Russell declared the name Gorgosaurus a junior synonym of Albertosaurus , which had been named first , and G. libratus was renamed Albertosaurus libratus in 1970 . A species distinction was maintained because of the age difference . This addition extended the temporal range of the genus Albertosaurus backwards by several million years and its geographic range southwards by hundreds of kilometres .
In 2003 , Philip J. Currie , benefiting from much more extensive finds and a general increase in anatomical knowledge of theropods , compared several tyrannosaurid skulls and came to the conclusion that the two species are more distinct than previously thought . The decision to use one or two genera is rather arbitrary , as the two species are sister taxa , more closely related to each other than to any other species . Recognizing this , Currie nevertheless recommended that Albertosaurus and Gorgosaurus be retained as separate genera , as he concluded that they were no more similar than Daspletosaurus and Tyrannosaurus , which are almost always separated . In addition , several albertosaurine specimens have been recovered from Alaska and New Mexico , and Currie suggested that the Albertosaurus @-@ Gorgosaurus situation may be clarified once these are described fully . Most authors have followed Currie 's recommendation , but some have not .
= = = Other discoveries = = =
In 1911 , Barnum Brown , during the second year of American Museum of Natural History operations in Alberta , uncovered a fragmentary partial Albertosaurus skull at the Red Deer River near Tolman Bridge , specimen AMNH 5222 .
William Parks described a new species in 1928 , Albertosaurus arctunguis , based on a partial skeleton lacking the skull excavated by Gus Lindblad and Ralph Hornell near the Red Deer River in 1923 , but this species has been considered identical to A. sarcophagus since 1970 . Parks ' specimen ( ROM 807 ) is housed in the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto .
Between 1926 and 1972 , no Albertosaurus fossils were found at all ; but , since the seventies , there has been a steady increase in the known material . Apart from the Dry Island bonebed , six more skulls and skeletons have since been discovered in Alberta and are housed in various Canadian museums : specimens RTMP 81 @.@ 010 @.@ 001 , found in 1978 by amateur paleontologist Maurice Stefanuk ; RTMP 85 @.@ 098 @.@ 001 , found by Stefanuk on 16 June 1985 ; RTMP 86 @.@ 64 @.@ 001 ( December 1985 ) ; RTMP 86 @.@ 205 @.@ 001 ( 1986 ) ; RTMP 97 @.@ 058 @.@ 0001 ( 1996 ) ; and CMN 11315 . However , due to vandalism and accidents , no undamaged and complete skulls could be secured among these finds . Fossils have also been reported from the American states of Montana , New Mexico , and Wyoming , but these probably do not represent A. sarcophagus and may not even belong to the genus Albertosaurus .
= = = Other species = = =
Apart from A. sarcophagus , A. arctunguis and A. libratus , several other species of Albertosaurus have been named . All of these are today seen as younger synonyms of other species or as nomina dubia , and are not assigned to Albertosaurus .
In 1930 , Anatoly Nikolaevich Riabinin named Albertosaurus pericolosus based on a tooth from China , that probably belonged to Tarbosaurus . In 1932 , Friedrich von Huene renamed Dryptosaurus incrassatus , not considered a nomen dubium by him , to Albertosaurus incrassatus . Because he had identified Gorgosaurus with Albertosaurus , in 1970 , Russell also renamed Gorgosaurus sternbergi ( Matthew & Brown 1922 ) into Albertosaurus sternbergi and Gorgosaurus lancensis ( Gilmore 1946 ) into Albertosaurus lancensis . The former species is today seen as a juvenile form of Gorgosaurus libratus , the latter as either identical to Tyrannosaurus or representing a separate genus Nanotyrannus . In 1988 , Gregory S. Paul based Albertosaurus megagracilis on a small tyrannosaurid skeleton , specimen LACM 28345 , from the Hell Creek Formation of Montana . It was renamed Dinotyrannus in 1995 , but is now thought to represent a juvenile Tyrannosaurus rex . Also in 1988 , Paul renamed Alectrosaurus olseni ( Gilmore 1933 ) into Albertosaurus olseni ; this has found no general acceptance . In 1989 , Gorgosaurus novojilovi ( Maleev 1955 ) was renamed by Bryn Mader and Robert Bradley as Albertosaurus novojilovi ; today this is seen as a synonym of Tarbosaurus .
On two occasions , species based on valid Albertosaurus material were reassigned to a different genus : in 1922 William Diller Matthew renamed A. sarcophagus into Deinodon sarcophagus and in 1939 German paleontologist Oskar Kuhn renamed A. arctunguis into Deinodon arctunguis .
= = Paleobiology = =
= = = Growth pattern = = =
Most age categories of Albertosaurus are represented in the fossil record . Using bone histology , the age of an individual animal at the time of death can often be determined , allowing growth rates to be estimated and compared with other species . The youngest known Albertosaurus is a two @-@ year @-@ old discovered in the Dry Island bonebed , which would have weighed about 50 kilograms ( 110 lb ) and measured slightly more than 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 feet ) in length . The 10 metres ( 33 feet ) specimen from the same quarry is the oldest and largest known , at 28 years of age . When specimens of intermediate age and size are plotted on a graph , an S @-@ shaped growth curve results , with the most rapid growth occurring in a four @-@ year period ending around the sixteenth year of life , a pattern also seen in other tyrannosaurids . The growth rate during this phase was 122 kilograms ( 269 pounds ) per year , based on an adult 1 @.@ 3 tonnes ( 1 @.@ 4 short tons ) . Other studies have suggested higher adult weights ; this would affect the magnitude of the growth rate , but not the overall pattern . Tyrannosaurids similar in size to Albertosaurus had similar growth rates , although the much larger Tyrannosaurus rex grew at almost five times this rate ( 601 kilograms [ 1 @,@ 325 pounds ] per year ) at its peak . The end of the rapid growth phase suggests the onset of sexual maturity in Albertosaurus , although growth continued at a slower rate throughout the animals ' lives . Sexual maturation while still actively growing appears to be a shared trait among small and large dinosaurs as well as in large mammals such as humans and elephants . This pattern of relatively early sexual maturation differs strikingly from the pattern in birds , which delay their sexual maturity until after they have finished growing .
During growth , through thickening the tooth morphology changed so much that , had the association of young and adult skeletons on the Dry Island bonebed not proven they belonged to the same taxon , the teeth of juveniles would likely have been identified by statistical analysis as those of a different species .
= = = Life history = = =
Most known Albertosaurus individuals were aged 14 years or more at the time of death . Juvenile animals are rarely found as fossils for several reasons , mainly preservation bias , where the smaller bones of younger animals were less likely to be preserved by fossilization than the larger bones of adults , and collection bias , where smaller fossils are less likely to be noticed by collectors in the field . Young Albertosaurus are relatively large for juvenile animals , but their remains are still rare in the fossil record compared with adults . It has been suggested that this phenomenon is a consequence of life history , rather than bias , and that fossils of juvenile Albertosaurus are rare because they simply did not die as often as adults did .
A hypothesis of Albertosaurus life history postulates that hatchlings died in large numbers , but have not been preserved in the fossil record due to their small size and fragile construction . After just two years , juveniles were larger than any other predator in the region aside from adult Albertosaurus , and more fleet of foot than most of their prey animals . This resulted in a dramatic decrease in their mortality rate and a corresponding rarity of fossil remains . Mortality rates doubled at age twelve , perhaps the result of the physiological demands of the rapid growth phase , and then doubled again with the onset of sexual maturity between the ages of fourteen and sixteen . This elevated mortality rate continued throughout adulthood , perhaps due to the high physiological demands of procreation , including stress and injuries received during intraspecific competition for mates and resources , and eventually , the ever @-@ increasing effects of senescence . The higher mortality rate in adults may explain their more common preservation . Very large animals were rare because few individuals survived long enough to attain such sizes . High infant mortality rates , followed by reduced mortality among juveniles and a sudden increase in mortality after sexual maturity , with very few animals reaching maximum size , is a pattern observed in many modern large mammals , including elephants , African buffalo , and rhinoceros . The same pattern is also seen in other tyrannosaurids . The comparison with modern animals and other tyrannosaurids lends support to this life history hypothesis , but bias in the fossil record may still play a large role , especially since more than two @-@ thirds of all Albertosaurus specimens are known from one locality .
= = = Pack behaviour = = =
The Dry Island bonebed discovered by Barnum Brown and his crew contains the remains of 26 Albertosaurus , the most individuals found in one locality of any large Cretaceous theropod , and the second @-@ most of any large theropod dinosaur behind the Allosaurus assemblage at the Cleveland Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry in Utah . The group seems to be composed of one very old adult ; eight adults between 17 and 23 years old ; seven sub @-@ adults undergoing their rapid growth phases at between 12 and 16 years old ; and six juveniles between the ages of 2 and 11 years , who had not yet reached the growth phase .
The near @-@ absence of herbivore remains and the similar state of preservation common to the many individuals at the Albertosaurus bonebed quarry led Currie to conclude that the locality was not a predator trap like the La Brea Tar Pits in California , and that all of the preserved animals died at the same time . Currie claims this as evidence of pack behaviour . Other scientists are skeptical , observing that the animals may have been driven together by drought , flood or for other reasons .
There is plentiful evidence for gregarious behaviour among herbivorous dinosaurs , including ceratopsians and hadrosaurs . However , only rarely are so many dinosaurian predators found at the same site . Small theropods like Deinonychus and Coelophysis have been found in aggregations , as have larger predators like Allosaurus and Mapusaurus . There is some evidence of gregarious behaviour in other tyrannosaurids as well . Fragmentary remains of smaller individuals were found alongside " Sue " , the Tyrannosaurus mounted in the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago , and a bonebed in the Two Medicine Formation of Montana contains at least three specimens of Daspletosaurus , preserved alongside several hadrosaurs . These findings may corroborate the evidence for social behaviour in Albertosaurus , although some or all of the above localities may represent temporary or unnatural aggregations . Others have speculated that instead of social groups , at least some of these finds represent Komodo dragon @-@ like mobbing of carcasses , where aggressive competition leads to some of the predators being killed and cannibalized .
Currie also offers speculation on the pack @-@ hunting habits of Albertosaurus . The leg proportions of the smaller individuals were comparable to those of ornithomimids , which were probably among the fastest dinosaurs . Younger Albertosaurus were probably equally fleet @-@ footed , or at least faster than their prey . Currie hypothesized that the younger members of the pack may have been responsible for driving their prey towards the adults , who were larger and more powerful , but also slower . Juveniles may also have had different lifestyles than adults , filling predator niches between the enormous adults and the smaller contemporaneous theropods , the largest of which were two orders of magnitude smaller than adult Albertosaurus in mass . A similar situation is observed in modern Komodo dragons , with hatchlings beginning life as small insectivores before growing to become the dominant predators on their islands . However , as the preservation of behaviour in the fossil record is exceedingly rare , these ideas cannot readily be tested . In 2010 , Currie , though still favouring the hunting pack hypothesis , admitted that the concentration could have been brought about by other causes , such as a slowly rising water level during an extended flood .
= = = Paleopathology = = =
In 2009 , researchers hypothesized that smooth @-@ edged holes found in the fossil jaws of tyrannosaurid dinosaurs such as Albertosaurus were caused by a parasite similar to Trichomonas gallinae , which infects birds . They suggested that tyrannosaurids transmitted the infection by biting each other , and that the infection impaired their ability to eat food .
In 2001 , Bruce Rothschild and others published a study examining evidence for stress fractures and tendon avulsions in theropod dinosaurs and the implications for their behavior . They found that only one of the 319 Albertosaurus foot bones checked for stress fractures actually had them and none of the four hand bones did . The scientists found that stress fractures were " significantly " less common in Albertosaurus than in the carnosaur Allosaurus . ROM 807 , the holotype of A. arctunguis ( now referred to A. sarcophagus ) , had a 2 @.@ 5 by 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 by 1 @.@ 38 in ) deep hole in the iliac blade , although the describer of the species did not recognize this as pathological . The specimen also contains some exostosis on the fourth left metatarsal . In 1970 , two of the five Albertosaurus sarcophagus specimens with humeri were reported by Dale Russel as having pathological damage to them .
In 2010 , the health of the Dry Island Albertosaurus assembly was reported upon . Most specimens showed no sign of disease . On three phalanges of the foot strange bony spurs , consisting of abnormal ossifications of the tendons , so @-@ called enthesophytes , were present , their cause unknown . Two ribs and a belly @-@ rib showed signs of breaking and healing . One adult specimen had a left lower jaw showing a puncture wound and both healed and unhealed bite marks . The low number of abnormalities compares favourably with the health condition of a Majungasaurus population of which it in 2007 was established that 19 % of individuals showed bone pathologies .
= = Paleoecology = =
All identifiable fossils of Albertosaurus sarcophagus are known from the upper Horseshoe Canyon Formation in Alberta . These younger units of this geologic formation date to the early Maastrichtian stage of the Late Cretaceous Period , 70 to 68 Ma ( million years ago ) . Immediately below this formation is the Bearpaw Shale , a marine formation representing a section of the Western Interior Seaway . The seaway was receding as the climate cooled and sea levels subsided towards the end of the Cretaceous , exposing land that had previously been underwater . It was not a smooth process , however , and the seaway would periodically rise to cover parts of the region throughout Horseshoe Canyon before finally receding altogether in the years after . Due to the changing sea levels , many different environments are represented in the Horseshoe Canyon Formation , including offshore and near @-@ shore marine habitats and coastal habitats like lagoons , estuaries and tidal flats . Numerous coal seams represent ancient peat swamps . Like most of the other vertebrate fossils from the formation , Albertosaurus remains are found in deposits laid down in the deltas and floodplains of large rivers during the later half of Horseshoe Canyon times .
The fauna of the Horseshoe Canyon Formation is well @-@ known , as vertebrate fossils , including those of dinosaurs , are quite common . Sharks , rays , sturgeons , bowfins , gars and the gar @-@ like Aspidorhynchus made up the fish fauna . Mammals included multituberculates and the marsupial Didelphodon . The saltwater plesiosaur Leurospondylus has been found in marine sediments in the Horseshoe Canyon , while freshwater environments were populated by turtles , Champsosaurus , and crocodilians like Leidyosuchus and Stangerochampsa . Dinosaurs dominate the fauna , especially hadrosaurs , which make up half of all dinosaurs known , including the genera Edmontosaurus , Saurolophus and Hypacrosaurus . Ceratopsians and ornithomimids were also very common , together making up another third of the known fauna . Along with much rarer ankylosaurians and pachycephalosaurs , all of these animals would have been prey for a diverse array of carnivorous theropods , including troodontids , dromaeosaurids , and caenagnathids . Intermingled with the Albertosaurus remains of the Dry Island bonebed , the bones of the small theropod Albertonykus were found . Adult Albertosaurus were the apex predators in this environment , with intermediate niches possibly filled by juvenile albertosaurs .
= Donald Cousens Parkway =
Donald Cousens Parkway or York Regional Road 48 , also referred to historically as the Markham Bypass or Markham Bypass Extension , is a regionally maintained arterial bypass of Markham in the Canadian province of Ontario . Named for former Markham mayor Don Cousens in April 2007 , the route initially travelled northward from Copper Creek Drive in Box Grove , south of Highway 407 , to Major Mackenzie Drive ( York Regional Road 25 ) . A southern extension to Steeles Avenue was later completed and the name Donald Cousens Parkway applied along the extension to Ninth Line . In addition to its role of funneling through @-@ traffic around downtown Markham , the route serves as a boundary to residential development as land to the north and east are part of the protected Rouge Park and southwest limits of the planned Pickering Airport .
Construction of the route began in 2002 north of 16th Avenue . In 2004 , an interchange with Highway 407 was constructed along with a connection north to Highway 7 . Both segments and the interchange were opened by December of that year . The following year , construction began to connect these two segments as well as on the Box Grove Bypass along Ninth Line ; the former opened in October 2006 and the latter in the spring of 2007 . Construction of the most recently opened segment , connecting the Box Grove Bypass to the interchange with Highway 407 , began in 2009 . It opened after several delays in 2012 and included a realignment of 14th Avenue .
Donald Cousens Parkway and a planned connection with Morningside Avenue form the East Metro Transportation Corridor , originally envisioned by the province in the 1970s as a six lane municipal expressway . During the mid @-@ 1990s , the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario ( MTO ) conducted studies and identified the need for the corridor by 2011 . Although York had intended for a continuous alignment , the City of Toronto has opposed the direct connection between Morningside and Donald Cousens Parkway . As a result , it is now proposed to connect Morningside Avenue and Donald Cousens Parkway via a widened Steeles Avenue . However , no timeline has been announced as of 2015 .
= = Route description = =
Donald Cousens Parkway is intended to relieve north @-@ south traffic congestion on York Regional Road 68 ( Main Street , former Highway 48 ) and York Regional Road 69 ( Ninth Line ) , with signage suggesting drivers use the parkway as a through route past Markham . As trucks are prohibited along Main Street , signage guides them onto the parkway .
The road begins north of Steeles Avenue East , which serves as the boundary between Markham and Toronto . A two @-@ laned Ninth Line curves northeast after crossing and being crossed by two separate railway tracks ( the Canadian Pacific ( CP ) Havelock Subdivision and the Canadian National Halton subdivision ) and becomes Donald Cousens Parkway , expanding to four lanes and travelling along the eastern fringe of the community of Box Grove , alongside which it was built in the mid @-@ 2000s . On the west side is a new residential subdivision , while on the east side beyond the CP Havelock subdivision , which the road parallels , is the completely undeveloped Bob Hunter Memorial Park . After passing Box Grove Bypass , where for some time the route ended , the road also becomes known as Box Grove Collector Road ( BGCR ) . The route intersects 14th Avenue ( York Regional Road 71 ) and continues as before , eventually curving north and meeting Copper Creek Drive while departing from the railway tracks and park . It passes a supercenter before an interchange with Highway 407 , where it crosses over the toll route .
No longer known by the BGCR name , the route meanders north , slowly edging east towards Reesor Road and now surrounded by undeveloped greenspace . It encounters Highway 7 , north of which it becomes a divided roadway travelling on the eastern edge of Cornell as well as parallel to and alongside Reesor Road . Approaching and intersecting 16th Avenue , the road makes a broad sweeping curve northwest , continuing to serve as the boundary of urban development in Markham . It narrows to a two lane road , with adjacent land along the northern side prepared for future northbound lanes , before encountering Ninth Line again . Quickly curving north then east , sandwiched between the neighbourhood of Greenborough and Little Rouge Creek , the route makes a final curve north to end at Major Mackenzie Drive on the northern edge of urban development in eastern Markham .
A future extension , scheduled to begin construction in April 2018 , will carry Donald Cousens Parkway north , crossing over the Stouffville GO Train line on a new bridge and merging into the current southern terminus of Highway 48 . As a result of this , Highway 48 and Donald Cousens Parkway ( York Regional Road 48 ) will become the through route while Main Street will meet them at an intersection demarcating the two .
= = History = =
= = = Planning = = =
The history of Donald Cousens Parkway dates back to the 1970s , when Metropolitan Toronto and the Department of Highways ( now the MTO ) planned out the East Metro Transportation Corridor . This corridor was originally envisioned as a six lane expressway connecting Highway 401 with the planned but unbuilt Highway 407 to service the future towns of Cornell and Seaton using the greenspace between the two . However , the drive for expressway construction faded through the 1970s and 1980s as a result of opposition and the resulting cancellation of the Toronto expressway network . Studies nonetheless continued to be performed confirming the need for the route . The formation of Rouge Park in 1990 resulted in a commitment for " no new roads " through the park south of Steeles Avenue , ending the potential for any expressway proposals to be approved .
During 1994 and 1995 , the MTO conducted two studies termed the Morningside Transportation Corridor Review . While the study once again confirmed the need for the route , it also suggested that while an expressway was the ideal solution , an arterial road would be the practical solution . It also suggested that the road be a municipal route , rather than a provincial one . In 1997 , the Environmental Assessment for the Markham Bypass extension was completed , approving construction of an interchange at the future Highway 407 ( then open only as far as Highway 404 ) and a divided roadway north from there to Major Mackenzie Drive .
= = = Construction = = =
Construction on the two lane section between 16th Avenue and Major Mackenzie Drive , connecting with the north end of the Old Markham Bypass , began in 2002 , and was completed by the end of 2004 . Phase 2 , which included construction of a partial interchange with Highway 407 , began in 2004 and was completed by the end of the year ; it and the four lane section north of it to Highway 7 opened on December 17 , 2004 . In 2005 , construction began on the third phase of the bypass , connecting the southern segment at Highway 7 with the northern segment north of 16th Avenue . This four lane section opened on October 24 , 2006 . The two lane road between this new section and 16th Avenue was subsequently closed and removed . Phase 1 cost an estimated $ 19 @.@ 3 million ; phase 2 an estimated $ 5 @.@ 5 million ; phase 3 an estimated $ 10 @.@ 8 million .
On October 19 , 2006 , York Regional Council voted to rename the Markham Bypass to honour the work of mayor Don Cousens . Following this decision , a report was prepared outlining the costs ; it was presented to council on February 22 , 2007 , and a bylaw enacted . The name change became effective April 1 , 2007 .
South of Highway 407 , planning for the controversial link to Morningside Avenue has been underway since 2002 . Although York had intended for Donald Cousens Parkway to tie directly into Morningside , thus completing and arterial link the Highway 401 , Toronto has firmly opposed this direct link since 2005 due to the requirement for a new crossing of the Rouge River . After a lengthy and contentious debate between the two , the province brought in former York Region CAO Alan Wells as a mediator in 2007 . In September 2010 , York announced that it had reached a compromise to construct a discontinuous route , with Donald Cousens Parkway ending at the current Steeles Avenue / Ninth Line intersection , widening the two @-@ laned Steeles to six west of that point , and extending Morningside north to Steeles immediately east of Eastvale Drive . The Regional Municipality of York applied for and obtained environmental assessment approval for this undertaking in July 2011 and January 2013 , respectively . In July 2014 it was announced that Toronto and York would begin sharing jurisdiction over 1 @.@ 5 km ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) of Steeles west from Ninth Line in order to move forward on the planned widening project .
In the interim period since the debate erupted in 2005 , York Region and the Town of Markham began collaboration on linking Donald Cousens Parkway between Steeles and Highway 407 . Markham oversaw construction of the Box Grove Bypass ( or Ninth Line Bypass ) and Town Arterial Road , ( or Box Grove Collector Road ) , with construction carried out by it and the developers of the adjacent Box Grove community . The Box Grove Bypass was constructed by the town beginning in 2005 and opened in the spring of 2007 , partially utilizing the Donald Cousens Parkway alignment along the north side of the CP Havelock railway subdivision . Construction of the Box Grove Collector Road , between the Box Grove Bypass and Highway 407 , began in 2009 and included a realignment of 14th Avenue . The developers of the surrounding communities – Box Grove Hill Developments Inc. to the north of 14th Avenue and Box Grove Developers Group to the south – were contracted to build this section , which was scheduled for completion by December 2010 . Although a short portion between Copper Creek Drive and Highway 407 — including the unfinished ramps at the interchange — was opened by 2011 , the remainder of the project was delayed by issues involving a new railway crossing along 14th Avenue . It opened in 2012 at an estimated cost of $ 15 @.@ 5 million .
= = Future = =
The original intention of the Markham Bypass was to link Highway 48 with Highway 401 via the Morningside Avenue extension through Toronto . York Region planned for a continuous connection between the bypass and Morningside , meeting Steeles Avenue west of its intersection with Ninth Line . However , Toronto resisted , citing the environmental effects that would come from two new crossings over the Rouge River . As such , a discontinuous alignment was planned as a compromise beginning in 2010 . However , no timeline or construction has been announced regarding the widening of Steeles to six lanes or the extension of Morningside north of Oasis Boulevard .
Donald Cousens Parkway will be extended north from Major Mackenzie Drive to tie in with Highway 48 , becoming the through @-@ route in the process and completing the Markham Bypass . Poor soil conditions at a planned overpass of the Stouffville GO Train line have required several years of ongoing soil consolidation , beginning in July 2012 and scheduled for completion in the fall of 2017 . Construction is set to begin in April 2018 .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Donald Cousens Parkway . The entire route is located in Markham , Ontario , within the Regional Municipality of York .
= Today ( The Smashing Pumpkins song ) =
" Today " is a song by American alternative rock band The Smashing Pumpkins , written by lead vocalist and guitarist Billy Corgan . The song , though seemingly upbeat , contains dark lyrics . Corgan wrote the song about a day in which he was having suicidal thoughts , exemplified by the reference to self @-@ mutilation in the chorus . The contrast between the grim subject matter of the song and the soft instrumental part during the verses , coupled with use of irony in the lyrics , left many listeners unaware of the song 's tale of depression and desperation . The song alternates between quiet , dreamy verses and loud choruses with layered , distorted guitar similar to the noisy guitar rock of My Bloody Valentine .
" Today " was released in September 1993 as the second single from the band 's second album and major label debut , Siamese Dream . Although Corgan opted for " Cherub Rock " , the lead single from the album , to be the opening track , " Today " and its follow @-@ up " Disarm " are credited in AllMusic for popularizing the band and " sen [ ding ] [ Siamese Dream ] into the stratosphere " . " Today " has been generally well received by critics ; a Blender article described it as having " achieved a remarkable status as one of the defining songs of its generation , perfectly mirroring the fractured alienation of American youth in the 1990s . "
= = Background and recording = =
After the release and minor success of the band 's debut album , Gish , The Smashing Pumpkins were being hyped as " the next Nirvana " . However , the band was experiencing several difficulties at the time . Drummer Jimmy Chamberlin was undergoing an increasingly severe addiction to heroin ; James Iha and D 'arcy Wretzky had recently broken up their romantic relationship ; and Billy Corgan had become overweight , depressed to the point of contemplating suicide , and plagued by writer 's block . Corgan recalled that " after the first album , I became completely suicidal . It was an eight @-@ month depression , give or take a month , and I was pretty suicidal for about two or three months . " Under the pressure and other complications , the Pumpkins entered the Triclops Sound Studios in Atlanta to record the follow @-@ up to Gish .
" Today " was the first song Corgan wrote for Siamese Dream . Corgan said , " The day after I wrote ' Today , ' my manager heard it and said , ' It 's a hit , ' and I guess in a way , it was . " Corgan played the self @-@ recorded demo to producer Butch Vig and to the rest of his band , all of whom responded positively . " Today " already had a chord progression and a melody , but Corgan felt there needed to be an opening riff to the song . One day , " out of the blue , I heard the opening lick note for note in my head " , Corgan said . " When I added the opening riff , it completely changed the character of the song . Suddenly , I had a song that was starting out quiet and then got very loud . " Soon afterwards , Virgin Records executives were sent to check up on the band after hearing about their problems , but were pleased with the demo . The reaction from the executives only served to put more stress on Corgan ; as a result , he recorded most of the guitar and bass guitar parts himself , including on the finished version of " Today " .
Siamese Dream was completed after running four months after the deadline and considerably exceeding its budget . Virgin Records executives saw " Today " as the ideal lead single , but Corgan wanted " Cherub Rock " , one of the last songs written for the album , as the lead single . Ultimately , " Cherub Rock " was released first , but it was only a modest success . " Today " brought the band popularity through wide radio airplay and a successful music video .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Today " is written in the key of E @-@ flat major ( E ♭ ) and played in standard tuning . While Corgan briefly considered simply tuning the guitar down a half @-@ step and playing the song as if it were in the key of E , he said , " There was something about the E ♭ voicing that I liked . So it 's absolutely , intentionally in E ♭ , not E. " " Today " is one of the Siamese Dream songs on which Corgan took over Iha and D 'arcy 's duties on guitar and bass to ensure quality ; Wretzky later stated that Corgan " can do something in three takes where it would maybe take me 20 . "
The song , spanning three minutes and 21 seconds , begins with a one @-@ measure opening guitar riff that alludes to the E ♭ major @-@ pentatonic scale . Corgan uses this riff ( along with variations on it ) to emphasize certain parts and to indicate shifts in the song . After the riff is played four times , the rest of the band enters backed with feedback @-@ driven guitars . Ned Raggett of Allmusic commented on the song 's ability to " alternate between calmer , almost Cure @-@ like sections and the louder crunches , [ and Corgan 's ] soon @-@ to @-@ be @-@ trademark guitar style taking My Bloody Valentine 's own hypnotic riffing to more accessible results . " The chorus , consisting of multiple guitar tracks playing barre chords , is an example of the band 's tendency to overdub several rhythm guitar tracks . While the song does not include a standard guitar solo , a short melodic guitar part appears during the bridge . Corgan explained : " The little guitar break over the C chord is actually a forwards sample that we laid in backwards . Then there 's a weird vocal effect that moves across the speakers , a ' yan @-@ yan @-@ yan @-@ yan ' thing , which was generated by using a Roland Space Echo to regenerate on the last word of the vocal line , ' I wanna turn you on . ' "
The dark , ironic lyrics of " Today " , describing a day when Corgan was feeling depressed and suicidal , contrast with the instrumentation . Michael Snyder of the San Francisco Chronicle said that the song is " downright pretty as rock ballads go " but that " Corgan manages to convey the exhilaration and tragic release he seeks . " Corgan told Rolling Stone that " I was really suicidal ... I just thought it was funny to write a song that said today is the greatest day of your life because it can 't get any worse . " Corgan later compared writing the lyrics of " Today " and " Disarm " to " ripping [ his ] guts out . "
= = Music video = =
The music video , directed by Stéphane Sednaoui , brought even more mainstream success to the band through repeated airplay on MTV . The video debuted in September 1993 . It was shot with low quality photographic equipment , which , like several other early Pumpkins videos , was an intentional stylistic decision . Corgan said that the plot of the video was inspired by a memory he had of an ice cream truck driver who , upon quitting his job , gave out his remaining stock of ice cream to the neighborhood children . This image was then melded with Sednaoui 's own sensibilities inspired by the film Zabriskie Point . The video is available on The Smashing Pumpkins – Greatest Hits Video Collection ( 1991 – 2000 ) DVD , released in 2001 .
The video begins with Corgan reading a comic book dressed in an ice cream man uniform . A clip of the intro to the song is played and stopped repeatedly before the song begins . Groups of two or more people are kissing each other around Corgan as he drives in an ice cream van through a desert . Corgan picks up a dress @-@ wearing Iha and the two drive for a while before stopping at a gas station , where Chamberlin and Wretzky appear as gas attendants . After Iha changes into a yellow and white cowboy outfit , the band paints the van in a multitude of colors . More people are shown kissing in the hills as the band drives away from the gas station in the van . However , Corgan is ultimately kicked out of the van , and the video ends with Corgan walking off the road wearing a cowboy hat as the van drives away .
= = Reception = =
" Today " has received generally positive reviews . Ned Raggett of AllMusic called the song an " at @-@ once storming but catchy smash single " . Johnny Black of Blender noted that the song " has achieved a remarkable status as one of the defining songs of its generation " . Robert Christgau cited " Today " as one of the highlights of Siamese Dream . However , Stylus Magazine 's Brett Hickman said " nothing can make ' Today ' sound fresh again . This is a prime example of the power that radio and MTV have in ruining a great song . " " Today " topped Eye Weekly magazine 's year @-@ end list of best singles , and also appeared at number 32 on NME 's year @-@ end list of best singles .
" Today " was one of the most successful early singles by The Smashing Pumpkins , and additionally has been recognized as one of the songs that brought the Pumpkins into the mainstream . The song was , at the time of its release , the highest @-@ charting song by the band , peaking at number four on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks . The song also reached a peak position of number 28 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Tracks , and was one of the first Pumpkins songs to chart in the UK , peaking at number 44 . " Today " was later called one of the " hits that took the cool alternative band into stadium rock territory " by the BBC 's Dan Tallis in a review of the band 's greatest hits album , Rotten Apples , and similarly referred to as the " Smashing Pumpkins ' red carpet to the glorified frat houses of alternative rock radio " by Nick Sylvester of Pitchfork Media .
= = Other releases = =
" Today " has appeared on several Smashing Pumpkins official releases , including the band 's greatest hits album Rotten Apples and the box set Siamese Singles . A live version of " Today " performed in the band 's hometown of Chicago was included on the 1994 video release Vieuphoria and on its companion album Earphoria , and was praised as " a triumphant recording " by Pitchfork 's Chris Dahlen . A different live recording from Chicago appears on the promotional album Live in Chicago 23 @.@ 10 @.@ 95 and the song is featured on 14 volumes of Live Smashing Pumpkins . The song has also appeared in different versions on several Smashing Pumpkins bootlegs such as Unplugged : 100 % Pure Acoustic Performances , which includes unofficial live recordings and acoustic recordings .
" Today " has been included in a few compilation albums . The eighteenth volume of Indie Top 20 , a Melody Maker @-@ sponsored compilation series which serves as a " time capsule of U.K. indie music " , features " Today " as its fourth track . The song appears on a two @-@ disc MTV Dutch import , Rock Am Ring , a collection of hit singles from the early 1990s .
The song is also included in the video game Rock Band 2 .
= = = Cover versions = = =
The song has been covered for several tribute albums . A Gothic – Industrial Tribute to The Smashing Pumpkins features a dance music @-@ influenced version of the song by industrial band Shining . Solomon Burke Jr . , the son of influential soul musician Solomon Burke , contributed a " radically altered " rendition of " Today " for Midnight in the Patch : Tribute to The Smashing Pumpkins , performing the song in a Motown style . Other covers of " Today " for tribute albums include performances by Armor for Sleep on The Killer in You : A Tribute to Smashing Pumpkins and by Death Rawk Boy on Ghost Children / Friends and Enemies . The main guitar passage was also sampled by Japanese hip @-@ hop act Dragon Ash in its song " Grateful Days " . It was covered by John Craigie on his album Leave the Fire Behind . Deerhunter reinterpreted the song live in 2015 , following a legal dispute between frontman Bradford Cox and Corgan , " transforming the song 's opening riff into a 10 @-@ minute noise @-@ pop improvisation . "
= = Sales chart positions = =
= = Track listings = =
CD single
" Today " – 3 : 22
" Hello Kitty Kat " – 4 : 32
" Obscured " – 5 : 20
7 " single
" Today " – 3 : 22
" Apathy 's Last Kiss " – 2 : 42
Japanese CD single
" Today " – 3 : 22
" Hello Kitty Kat " – 4 : 32
" Obscured " – 5 : 20
" Apathy 's Last Kiss " – 2 : 42
" French Movie Theme " – 3 : 49
= = Personnel = =
Jimmy Chamberlin – drums
Billy Corgan – guitar , vocals , production
James Iha – guitar
Butch Vig – production
D 'arcy Wretzky – bass guitar
= = Accolades = =
( * ) designates unordered lists .
= Tropical Storm Bonnie ( 2016 ) =
Tropical Storm Bonnie was a weak but persistent tropical cyclone that brought heavy rains to the Southeastern United States in May 2016 . The second storm of the season , Bonnie formed from an area of low pressure northeast of the Bahamas on May 27 , a few days before the official hurricane season began on June 1 . Moving steadily west @-@ northwestwards , Bonnie intensified into a tropical storm on May 28 and attained peak winds six hours later . However , due to hostile environmental conditions , Bonnie weakened to a depression hours before making landfall just east of Charleston , South Carolina , on May 29 . Steering currents collapsed afterwards , causing the storm to meander over South Carolina for two days . The storm weakened further into a post @-@ tropical cyclone on May 31 , before emerging off the coast while moving generally east @-@ northeastwards . On June 2 , Bonnie regenerated into a tropical depression just offshore North Carolina as conditions became slightly more favorable . The next day , despite increasing wind shear and cooling sea surface temperatures , Bonnie reintensified into a tropical storm and reached its peak intensity . The storm hung on to tropical storm strength for another day , before weakening into a depression late on June 4 and became post @-@ tropical early the next day .
Lingering over South Carolina for a few days , Bonnie brought heavy rains and widespread floods to the Southeastern United States . Rainfall totals hit 6 inches ( 150 mm ) in much of South Carolina , and exceeded 10 in ( 250 mm ) in some areas . Flooding resulted in the closure of the southbound lanes of Interstate 95 in Jasper County , and also inundated the Jasper County Sheriff ’ s Office and Detention Center . In Ridgeland , several buildings were damaged and the local wastewater treatment plant overflowed , spilling discharge into the nearby Captain Bill Creek . Damage in this county alone exceeded $ 640 @,@ 000 ( 2016 USD ) . Record @-@ breaking rainfall was observed across much of the Outer Banks ; on Hatteras Island , Cape Point Campground was closed for a week due to flooding . Two people drowned in rip currents along the coastline of the Southeast United States .
= = Meteorological history = =
On May 24 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) began monitoring an area of disturbed weather resulting from the interaction of a weakening cold front and an upper @-@ level trough . A surface area of low pressure formed late the next day , and the low eventually gained sufficient organization for the NHC to declare it a tropical depression at 5 : 00 p.m. EDT ( 21 : 00 UTC ) on May 27 . At the time , the depression was located about 435 miles ( 695 km ) southeast of Charleston , South Carolina , and moving west @-@ northwestwards in response to a low over the northwestern Bahamas and a ridge near the coast of North Carolina . Strong vertical wind shear and dry air in the region hindered strengthening , however , the depression was located over the warm waters of the Gulf Stream . In the afternoon of May 28 , a burst of deep convection developed near the northwestern part of the exposed low @-@ level circulation center ( LLCC ) , and the NHC upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Bonnie .
Despite strong southerly shear exposing the LLCC , Bonnie intensified slightly to reach its initial peak intensity with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) as it turned towards the north . However , the continued effects of high wind shear and dry air caused the cyclone 's appearance to significantly degrade early on May 29 , as deep convection dissipated due to more than 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) of southerly shear . Bonnie weakened back to tropical depression strength less than an hour prior to its landfall just east of Charleston , South Carolina . Caught in weak steering currents , the depression meandered over South Carolina for over a day before degenerating to a remnant low over the northeastern portion of the state at 11 : 00 a.m. EDT ( 15 : 00 UTC ) on May 30 .
The remnant circulation continued to move slowly and erratically as it emerged off the coast on May 31 , before accelerating east @-@ northeastwards and reintensifying slightly . Amidst light wind shear and high sea surface temperatures ( SSTs ) , organization improved as convection persisted near the center , and Bonnie regenerated into a tropical depression on June 2 . The next day , despite worsening conditions , a burst of convection around the center led to Bonnie once again being declared a tropical storm , simultaneously attaining a new minimum pressure of 1006 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 71 inHg ) . Increasing northwesterly shear and cooling SSTs soon became evident as the LLCC became exposed to the west , however Bonnie continued to maintain tropical storm strength . On the afternoon of June 4 , Bonnie began to succumb to the unfavorable conditions , and the storm weakened into a tropical depression . Early the next day , Bonnie degenerated once more into a post @-@ tropical cyclone . The storm continued moving east @-@ southeastward over the Atlantic Ocean , and eventually dissipated early the next day .
= = Preparations , impact and records = =
Upon formation , a tropical storm warning was issued , covering the Savannah River to the Little River Inlet in South Carolina . These were discontinued when Bonnie weakened to a depression at 8 : 00 a.m. EDT ( 12 : 00 UTC ) on May 29 . Total rainfall accumulations in South Carolina from Bonnie peaked at 10 @.@ 43 inches ( 265 mm ) in Ridgeland . The heavy rains affected several coastal businesses expecting high numbers of tourists over the Memorial Day weekend . The heavy rains led to significant flooding , prompting the South Carolina Highway Patrol to close at least seven roads in Jasper County , including the southbound lanes of Interstate 95 . Other road closures occurred in Dorchester and Hampton counties , after flooding rendered them impassible . Across Jasper County , four buildings sustained major damage and ten others experienced minor damage , primarily within the town of Ridgeland . Water inundated both the Jasper County Sheriff ’ s Office and Detention Center , prompting the relocation of one @-@ third of its inmates . Ridgeland 's wastewater treatment plant overflowed , spilling 75 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 gallons ( 280 @,@ 000 to 380 @,@ 000 liters ) of discharge into the nearby Captain Bill Creek . Bonnie is estimated to have caused over $ 640 @,@ 000 ( 2016 USD ) in structural damage in Jasper County alone . At Charleston International Airport , a sustained wind of 31 mph ( 50 km / h ) and a gust to 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) were observed ; these were the highest recorded windspeeds related to the cyclone on land .
In Georgia , precipitation reached 7 @.@ 74 in ( 197 mm ) at Oliver . In Bulloch County , several roads were inundated or closed due to high water . Some ponds exceeded their banks . Heavy rainfall , record @-@ breaking in some areas , was observed in much of the Outer Banks of North Carolina . Precipitation peaked at 8 @.@ 21 in ( 209 mm ) at the Billy Mitchell Airport in Hatteras . At that location , 7 @.@ 09 in ( 180 mm ) of rain fell on May 30 , breaking the old record set in 1940 . Furthermore , a new monthly rainfall record for the month of May was observed — 12 @.@ 67 in ( 322 mm ) of rain fell during that month . At least 7 in ( 180 mm ) of rain fell on Hatteras Island , resulting in the closure of Cape Point Campground and its online reservation system for a week . Several beach ramps were inundated with at least 6 in ( 150 mm ) of standing water and some were rendered impassible , however none were closed . Tropical Storm Colin would later combine with Bonnie to produce at least 10 in ( 250 mm ) of standing water in farmlands in Hyde and Beaufort counties , damaging young and newly planted crops .
Swells generated by Bonnie created an elevated risk of rip currents along the coastline of the Southeastern United States . Several water rescues were carried out . A 21 @-@ year @-@ old man went missing at Carolina Beach on May 28 ; his body was recovered in New Hanover County , North Carolina , three days later . Further south , the body of a 20 @-@ year @-@ old man was recovered in Brevard County , Florida , after he drowned .
When Bonnie formed on May 27 , it became the first occurrence of two pre @-@ season Atlantic storms since 2012 , and only the second occurrence since 1951 . The first storm , Alex , had formed in January .
= Ivalice =
Ivalice ( イヴァリース , Ivarīsu ) is a fictional universe setting primarily appearing in the Final Fantasy video game series . The world was conceived by Yasumi Matsuno when he joined Square ( now Square Enix ) in 1995 , and has since been expanded upon by several games , with more yet due with the Ivalice Alliance series . Ivalice is described as a complex world with a very long history , and the stories of Final Fantasy Tactics , Vagrant Story and Final Fantasy XII are said to unfold quite close on the Ivalice map .
Though described often as a world , this was only physically true of Ivalice in Final Fantasy Tactics Advance , in which Ivalice was created parallel to the real world . The ' true ' Ivalice , as witnessed in the remaining games , describes two distinct locations ; a geographical region , and a smaller kingdom , both of which belong to a larger , unnamed world . Generally , however , the term Ivalice is also used to refer to the conceptual setting , rather as one might say the Medieval world of Europe and the Mediterranean .
= = Concept and creation = =
Ivalice was created by Yasumi Matsuno as a fictional world with its own identity ; a medieval @-@ like world where magic and machine exist together . The usual elements of Final Fantasy , such as Chocobos , crystals and magic spells , blend into the setting . This setting first appeared in Final Fantasy Tactics , a game produced mostly by the team that made Ogre Battle and Tactics Ogre , and was Matsuno 's first project with Square following his departure from Quest in 1995 . Matsuno 's next game , Vagrant Story , featured several allusions to Final Fantasy Tactics , and Matsuno stated in 2004 that Vagrant Story , Final Fantasy Tactics , and Final Fantasy XII unfold quite close on the map of Ivalice , " a complex world with a very long history and the stories " .
Following Matsuno 's departure from Square Enix during development on Final Fantasy XII , Square Enix has continued to feature Ivalice in other games .
In 2011 , Matsuno stated that he never originally intended for Vagrant Story to take place in Ivalice . As a result , any references he had made of Final Fantasy Tactics in Vagrant Story , as well as Vagrant Story references in Final Fantasy XII , only serve as " fan service " .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Video games = = =
Final Fantasy Tactics ( 1997 ) , a tactical role @-@ playing game developed and published by Square for the Sony PlayStation video game console , marked the first appearance of Ivalice . The game combined thematic elements of the Final Fantasy video game series with a game engine and battle system unlike those previously seen in the franchise . Final Fantasy Tactics is set in a fictional medieval @-@ inspired kingdom called Ivalice and created by Yasumi Matsuno . The game 's story follows Ramza Beoulve , a highborn cadet who finds himself thrust into the middle of an intricate military conflict known as The Lion War , where two opposing noble factions are coveting the throne of the kingdom . As the story progresses , Ramza and his allies discover a sinister plot behind the war .
In an interview with Akito Inoue , an assistant professor at the International University of Japan , Inoue mentions that Final Fantasy Tactics was made because of how casual gamers are usually put off by games with branching storylines found in Matsuno 's other titles such as Tactics Ogre .
Vagrant Story ( 1999 ) is an action role @-@ playing game featuring no shops and no player interaction with other characters ; instead , the game focuses on weapon creation and modification , as well as elements of puzzle @-@ solving and strategy . The game takes place in the fictional kingdom of Valendia and the ruined city of Leá Monde . The story centers on Ashley Riot , an elite agent known as a Riskbreaker , who must travel to Leá Monde to investigate the link between a cult leader and a senior Valendian Parliament member , Duke Bardorba . In the prologue , Ashley is blamed for murdering the duke , and the game discloses the events that happen one week before the murder .
Final Fantasy Tactics Advance is a tactical role @-@ playing game developed and published by Square for the Nintendo Game Boy Advance . The game shares several traits with Final Fantasy Tactics , although it is not a direct sequel . The game 's story centers on four children ; Marche , Mewt , Ritz , and Doned , who live in a small town named St. Ivalice . The children are transported to a realm of the same name as their town , " Ivalice " , after discovering an ancient magical book . The story then focuses on the exploits of Marche as he attempts to return to the real world while facing opposition from those around him .
Development on the game began when Square announced its publishing agreement with Nintendo , and it was later confirmed by the producer Matsuno . The development team of Tactics Advance , Square 's Product Development Division 4 , was constructed from employees of Quest Corporation , and work began in February 2002 . This comes after Quest announced the handover of its software development team to Square , of which the former is famed for its Tactics Ogre series .
Final Fantasy XII ( 2006 ) is a role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Square Enix for the PlayStation 2 platform . It is the twelfth title in the mainline Final Fantasy series . The game introduced several innovations to the offline titles in the mainline series : an open world , a seamless battle system , a controllable camera , a customizable " gambit " system which lets the player automatically control the actions of characters ; and a " license " system which determines which abilities and equipment are used by characters .
The game takes place in the fictional land of Ivalice , where the empires of Archadia and Rozarria are waging an endless war . Dalmasca , a small kingdom , is caught between the warring nations . When Dalmasca is annexed by Archadia , its princess , Ashe , creates a resistance movement . During the struggle , she meets Vaan , a young adventurer who dreams of becoming a sky pirate in command of an airship . They are quickly joined by a band of allies ; together , they rally against the tyranny of the Archadian Empire .
On December 13 , 2006 , a Square Enix representative informed Tokyo reporters that the already announced Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings would be joined by other games in a new subseries known as the Ivalice Alliance . Final Fantasy Tactics : The War of the Lions is a PlayStation Portable and iOS port of the original Final Fantasy Tactics game . Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift is a Nintendo DS sequel to Final Fantasy Tactics Advance , albeit set in the actual Ivalice world and not an artificial illusory world , unlike its predecessor . Another title in the collection , Final Fantasy XII International Zodiac Job System , was revealed on May 8 , 2007 .
Executive producer Akitoshi Kawazu explained that the aim of the Ivalice Alliance is to " spread the word about the world of Ivalice " , and to bring more players into the franchise , with new titles not restricted to the standard role @-@ playing game genre but also tactical games and games similar to Vagrant Story . Revenant Wings director Motomu Toriyama noted that with the large and original team that worked on Final Fantasy XII , Ivalice became more Square Enix 's world than that of the former Quest team , and that the Ivalice Alliance world is thus slightly more influenced by Final Fantasy XII than the earlier Ivalice titles .
Crystal Defenders is a series of turn @-@ based strategy video games developed by MSF / Winds and published by Square Enix . It comprises several iterations released for mobile phones and through online video game delivery services . The games are set in the fictional world of Ivalice and features job classes , monsters and summoned creatures from the tactical role @-@ playing game Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift .
Fortress is the code name of a cancelled action role @-@ playing video game that was in development by Grin . Director Ulf Andersson devised the concept for Fortress and pre @-@ production began in the second half of 2008 . During development , Square Enix approached the developer and proposed making the game a spin @-@ off of Final Fantasy XII . Grin reconceived the game in the recurring Final Fantasy world of Ivalice , and included elements of Final Fantasy XII such as stylistic motifs and character designs ; additional elements included chocobos and other recurring creatures from the Final Fantasy series . It was to be released on the Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , and Xbox 360 platforms .
During development , Square Enix did not pay Grin over several months , and disapproved of the game 's Nordic art style . Grin worked to bring the game 's art style closer to the Final Fantasy series , but after six months of development was told that no funding would ever come from Square Enix , and the developer filed for bankruptcy several days later . Word of the project leaked out through art portfolios of those who worked on the project and even a tech demo surfaced . In 2011 , Fortress was thought to have been in development by an undisclosed studio , but this was also suspended and the game will not be released in any form .
Final Fantasy Tactics S is a tactical role @-@ playing game with social features and multiplayer battles . It was released in Japan on the Mobage social gaming network in May 2013 .
= = = Other media = = =
In Japan , Final Fantasy Tactics Advance 's story was expanded and broadcast in Japanese radio stations . The radio drama entitled Final Fantasy Tactics Advance Radio Edition was broadcast in four radio stations within Japan from early January 2003 to late March 2003 .
Final Fantasy XII was adapted into a manga by Gin Amou . Square Enix published the series in a total of five tankōbon volumes from December 22 , 2006 to August 22 , 2009 .
= = Setting = =
= = = Geography = = =
= = = = Kingdom of Ivalice = = = =
The events of Final Fantasy Tactics are set in the kingdom of Ivalice , which borders Ordalia in the east and the insular nation of Romanda in the north @-@ west , from which it is separated by the Larner Channel . The kingdom forms a peninsula and is composed of seven provinces which were individual kingdoms before their unification : Gallione , Lionel , Lesalia , Fovoham , Limberry , Zeltennia and Mullonde .
The insular province of Mullonde is home to the Glabados Church and is ruled separately from the royal government . In the game 's backstory , Mullonde 's territory was once connected to the mainland , but was mostly submerged by a disaster involving the Zodiac Stones and which occurred soon after Saint Ajora 's execution , with its city made into a Necrohol , a city of the dead . The city of Bervenia , Ajora 's birthplace , is governed by the Church although it is enclosed in the province of Lesalia .
Prior to the events of Final Fantasy Tactics , the Fara church dominated the kingdom of Ivalice . The remake of Final Fantasy Tactics , Final Fantasy Tactics : The War of the Lions , refers to the Fara Church as Pharism . The life of Ajora saw Fara replaced with the new Glabados church which , by the time of the game , is the major religion of the kingdom . Glabados is monotheistic and intensely political , underscoring much of Ivalice history . Followers of Glabados use the word " Faram " to affirm their prayers . During the events of the game , the church is revealed to have put a large spin on history , particularly the events surrounding the life of Ajora , a messianic figure .
= = = = Leá Monde = = = =
Vagrant Story is set in the ruins of the city of Leá Monde . The kingdom of Valendia is also heavily mentioned , and a few of its locations are featured in the prologue and the ending sequence . In contrast to the other Ivalice games , magic is rare , being suppressed by religious doctrine . Other races are never mentioned , so one can assume that all other races aside from Humes have become extinct by this time .
Vagrant Story centers around the " Dark " , a formless , invisible entity . In places where the Dark runs strongest , those who died will have their corpses controlled by the dark , becoming the undead . The Dark exists within a person as negative energy that unleashes the individual 's latent power . Throughout the story , many individuals crave the powers of the Dark , which centers around the abandoned city of Leá Monde . Another mythological aspect of Vagrant Story is the Kiltia , an ancient cult which built itself upon the Dark and ancient sorcery , and of which the Müllenkamp sect is stemmed from . It can be seen that most rituals and summoning performed in the game involved ancient Kildean magic .
In Vagrant Story , the Iocus priesthood of the kingdom of Valendia is shown to use the Kildean rood as a symbol , although they follow the teachings of a saint named Iocus instead of the original Kildean teachings of the Kiltia religion of Leá Monde . Müllenkamp , founder of the city of Leá Monde featured in the story , used to be a priestess of Kiltia , and bore the rood on her back . The followers of St. Iocus are outwardly intolerant of magic , seeing it as an abomination , and yet its higher members continue to use it behind the scenes . This hypocrisy is revealed over the course of the story , though it goes unresolved .
= = = = St. Ivalice = = = =
In Final Fantasy Tactics Advance , the protagonist lives in a land called St. Ivalice . Following the characters ' discovery of the book called the Gran Grimoire , St. Ivalice was transformed into a " mirror " of the " real " kingdom of Ivalice . The races seen in the world of Tactics Advance — Bangaa , Moogle , Viera and Nu Mou — reappear in the game Final Fantasy XII , the setting of which has come to represent the " real " Ivalice . This is apparently explained as Mewt replied that Final Fantasy was his favorite game ; with the Races and elements such as Ivalice , one would assume St. Ivalice was based on Final Fantasy XII . The sequel to the game , Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift , also takes place in both St. Ivalice and the Ivalice of Final Fantasy XII .
= = = = Galtean Peninsula = = = =
In Final Fantasy XII , Ivalice covers three continents , Ordalia , Valendia and Kerwon . The demography consists of the known races : Humes , Bangaa , Viera , Seeq and Moogles , and other minority races . Civilization is advanced in this world where the use of a magical stone called magicite is extensive in everyday life , airships are a prominent transportation and multi @-@ story buildings cover the cityscape . Ivalice in Final Fantasy XII is designed based on a mixture of cultures . According to the game developers , these designs are inspired from a mixture of medieval Mediterranean countries , Turkish architecture , art @-@ deco from Indian architecture , the cityscape of New York and the Arabic culture found hidden in European countries . As such , many patterns are featured as geometrical and Arabesque in shape . The cityscape is also conceived by Matsuno as being dirty and weather @-@ worn , mirroring the conditions of a medieval landscape . The natural landscape also mirrors Earth 's geographical features , including large expanse of deserts and snowy mountains .
In Final Fantasy XII , the continents in Ivalice are presently home to three nations : Rozarria , Archadia and Dalmasca . There was once the Kingdom of Nabradia and the Republic of Landis in Valendia , now either destroyed or assimilated into the Archadian Empire . Strategically located between the rival neighboring empires of Archadia and Rozarria , Dalmasca 's position as a neutral buffer region between the two countries is eliminated when it is invaded by Archadia at the onset of the game . With the fall of Landis and Nabradia and its reduction to an occupied territory under Archadian rule , Dalmasca is set to play a central role in the still @-@ heated dispute between its neighbors , which is escalating once more .
The events of Final Fantasy XII are focused on the area around the Galtean Peninsula , itself located in the larger Ivalice region . This area of Ivalice is diverse in both geography and climate , ranging from the hilly , clement grasslands of southern Valendia to the deserts of Dalmasca . In Kerwon , south of Dalmasca , the lands are arid at lower altitudes , though the higher elevations are the only places in the region known to receive snow . The north of Kerwon is heavily forested , home to the dense Golmore Jungle , within which lies the magical Feywood .
These various micro @-@ climates are influenced by the magical phenomenon known as Mist , an unstable substance with the ability to cause great variation over small areas . Due to the influence of Mist , several areas of Ivalice are ' jagd ' , areas in which Mist @-@ laden winds and magicite @-@ rich soil interfere with airship mechanisms . As such , jagds tend to be harsh , lawless frontiers , uncontrolled by any nation . Physically , the peninsula area resembles Europe in the east , with the landmasses of Valendia , Ordalia and Kerwon surrounding a central body of water ( the Naldoan Sea ) on three sides . To the west , Valendia and Kerwon curve away from Ordalia , creating the Galtean Peninsula .
Mist is responsible for the existence of ' magicite ' , stones that contain magical powers due to the presence of Mist in their crystalline structure . Magicite is divided into three types ; spellstones that are used in spell casting , skystones that are installed into a component known as ' glossair rings ' that give flight to the vehicles , whether small @-@ sized bikes or large airships , and memstones that function much like recording devices . The quality of magicite depends on the quantity of Mist and not on the size or shape of the stone . The ubiquitousness of magic and magicite , as well as its cost @-@ efficiency , led to it replacing electricity and its various sources as the dominant usable energy in Ivalice .
Nethicite , another type of magicite , works by absorbing Mist , thus nullifying the effects of magic and storing vast amounts of power . Nethicite can be described as either deifacted or manufacted ( literally , god @-@ made or man @-@ made ) . During the course of the game , it is discovered that deifacted nethicite is nethicite created by the Occuria , and that the ultimate source of known pieces of deifacted nethicite is the Sun @-@ Cryst they created . Deifacted nethicite contains a large amount of magic and is known to influence the history of Ivalice .
In Final Fantasy XII , the Light of Kiltia , a polytheistic religion , is the dominant church in Ivalice , having influence in the political affairs of the region around the Galtean Peninsula . Despite this , the church maintains an apolitical stance , with its most high @-@ ranking officials banned from participating in political affairs altogether . At its head is the Gran Kiltias , being the Helgas Anastasis at the time of Final Fantasy XII , until his death during the events of the story . Like Glabados followers in Final Fantasy Tactics , Kiltias swear on the name of Faram , the Father of All , in the manner of the Christian amen . The Final Fantasy XII Ultimania Ω guide considers the Glabados Church a possible branch of Kiltia .
= = = = Purvama Lemurés = = = =
Some of the locations in the Ivalice of Final Fantasy XII returned in its sequel , Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings , along with a new area called Lemurés . A legendary Purvama ( Floating Continent ) raised into the skies by the god Feolthanos long ago , this land is ruled by three " Sacred Crystals " called Auraliths , which erected a barrier to shield the Purvama from the rest of the world . In Revenant Wings , the " Legend of the Floating Land " has become an ambition for Sky Pirates who seek the island for Auracite , pieces of Auralith able to allow one to summon entities called Yarhi . The ruins of Lemurés are where the Aegyl reside . During the course of the game , the main characters learn that the sealing of Lemurés was the work of the Occuria , whom Feolthanos defied prior to using the Auralith to become a god @-@ like being .
In the backstory of Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings , Feolthanos established a personality cult over Lemurés , labeling himself to his people as a god . Though Lemurés still had a sense of peace and paradise , in spite of Yarhi attacks , it was a false paradise due to the Aurcite draining the Aegyl of their anima as part of Feolthanos ' plan to destroy Ivalice as revenge against the Occurians .
= = = = Jylland = = = =
Taking place only a few years after Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings , Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift introduces a new region of Ivalice called Jylland . The region of Jylland is made up of the western half of the Ordalia Continent and the eastern half of the Loar Continent , with Jagd Zellea to the north of the two continents . There are five regions spread out across these two continents , which consist of smaller territories inside of them , twenty being the number of territories throughout Jylland , which contain a varying number of areas ( battlefields ) in each of them ( eighty @-@ six areas in all of Jylland ) . The towns in Jylland include Camoa , Grazston , Moorabella , Fluorgis , and Goug . Goug in particular , is a town of Moogles . Another race similar to the Aegyl also was introduced along with this game . Called Gria , these winged females are small , but pack a mean punch , specializing in three new classes and one old one . Geomancer , Ravager , and Raptor , along with the before @-@ human exclusive class Hunter were given to the Gria , and only the geomancer class uses magic .
= = = Timeline = = =
The timeline of Ivalice as presented in the games was left quite vague , and formerly other official sources had said little on the matter . A few sources have made their own conclusion on the timeline of Ivalice . The official timeline , however , was eventually given in the Final Fantasy XII Ultimania Omega , and placed the events of Final Fantasy XII before those of Final Fantasy Tactics .
There is no direct mention of Ivalice in Vagrant Story . However , several references are made ; the Kingdom of Valendia , the setting for Vagrant Story , shares its name with a continent of Ivalice appearing in Final Fantasy XII . The Kiltia religion , featured in Final Fantasy XII , was the religion of the ghost town Leá Monde , in which the story takes place . Additionally , a quotation from Arazlam J. Durai , a famous historian of Ivalice who lived 400 years after the War of the Lions ( and narrator of the Zodiac Brave Story told in Final Fantasy Tactics ) , is used at the beginning of the game , and the descriptions of several items make direct reference to the same story . This would seem to place Vagrant Story latest in the timeline , given its direct references to the events of Final Fantasy Tactics . Matsuno has said that he never intended Vagrant Story to be in the same world as Tactics and Final Fantasy XII , though he noted that Square Enix advertising might not agree .
Some confusion still persists , particularly due to the facts surrounding Saint Ajora , who was executed 1200 years prior to the events of Final Fantasy Tactics , yet in the Clan Primer of Final Fantasy XII is said to have separated from the Light of Kiltia religion shortly after its foundation , already two thousand years old . While no gender is specified in the North American release of Final Fantasy XII , in both the Japanese Clan Primer and the Ultimania timeline , Ajora is referred to as Seijo Ajora ( 聖女アジョラ , lit . Holy Woman Ajora ) , while Ajora of Final Fantasy Tactics is male .
Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift has been confirmed by the developers to take place after Final Fantasy XII , and both Final Fantasy Tactics Advance and A2 to take place " near " in time to Final Fantasy XII .
= = = Races = = =
The populations seen in Final Fantasy Tactics and Vagrant Story are essentially human . The other intelligent races who appear are hostile or monster @-@ like , such as Goblins or Ogres . Friendly intelligent races appear in later games set in Ivalice , where the human race is called Humes . Monsters and the like are thought not to exist by the general populace in Vagrant Story , with the monsters in the isolated Leá Monde all stemming from the Dark . The races are sorted by appearance and then according to the alphabetical order .
Ivalice as featured in Final Fantasy Tactics Advance is populated by four main intelligent races in addition to Humes ; all of them also reappearing in Final Fantasy XII .
The Bangaa ( バンガ , Banga ) are a reptilian race living almost twice as long as Humes . Being a very socially and cognitively advanced race , they hate being called " lizards " as this is regarded as an offensive slur . Bangaa in Final Fantasy XII are often considered to be the most integrated of all races into Hume society , and are the race most friendly with the latter , as exemplified with Migelo . Bangaa possess great agility and strength , and acute senses of hearing and smell , making them excellent hunters and fighters . However , their eyesight is so poor that some wear blindfolds as part of their clothing . Their magical abilities are generally poor due to problems their unique mouth gives them when chanting magic spells . To make up for this , some Bangaa have developed exclusive high level spells for the race to use . They are also said to be distantly related to lizard men .
The Moogles ( モーグリ , Mōguri ) are a resourceful race known to be skillful in mechanics and engineering ; they were the pioneers of airship construction . They have longer , rabbit @-@ like ears and tend to have more beige or gray fur . In Final Fantasy Tactics Advance , the player is guided through the world of Ivalice by the moogles Montblanc and Nono . In Final Fantasy XII , these two characters return albeit with different roles . Although Moogles were featured in Final Fantasy Tactics only as summoned creatures , their race is mentioned in the backstory as having once lived in the Sweegy Woods .
The Nu Mou ( ン ・ モゥ , N Mou ) are a dog @-@ like race . They are short and hunched ; half the size of an adult Hume , are adept in magic and can speak with monsters . The Nu Mou 's lifespan is three times longer than that of a Hume . Two Nu Mou , Babus Swain and Ezel Berbier , appear as optional playable characters in Final Fantasy Tactics Advance . All of the races have an infinite number of possible playable characters , but these two are the only Nu Mou with special sprites . In Final Fantasy XII , most of the Nu Mou appear as acolytes of the Kiltia religion , found mainly in Mt . Bur @-@ Omisace .
The Viera ( ヴィエラ , Viera ) are a rabbit @-@ like race that can live three times as long as a Hume , and divided into two subraces : The light @-@ skinned Veena and dark @-@ skinned Rava . The Viera have rabbit or deer @-@ like features , most notably their long ears . Their feet are shaped in such a way that in order to stand they must wear high heels . Their slender forms heighten their senses and speed , and although their defense is low , Viera agility and finesse are unmatched by the other races . In Final Fantasy Tactics Advance , Vieras have blue @-@ white , pale green , or purple @-@ white hair , with only a few having hair that is pure white , which is considered to be a blessing . Viera can listen to the surrounding nature and sense Mist , and can sometimes go berserk from feeling an overwhelmingly vast quantity of active Mist . In Final Fantasy XII , they live in hidden villages deep within the vast forests of Ivalice . The Viera believe themselves to be intimately tied to the " Wood " , a part of the forests themselves , and are rarely involved in matters outside the wood . A Viera that moves out of the forest , like Fran , is considered an outcast and dead to her people . Mixed breeds of Veena and Rava Viera have accustomed themselves to coexist within Hume society , dyeing their white hair . Regarding the lack of males seen , it is found that males and females live separately , only meeting when there is a need for it .
Final Fantasy XII introduces several other races to Ivalice , with varying importance in the plot of the game .
The Baknamy ( バクナムス , Bakunamusu ) are a green @-@ skinned humanoid race . Their bodies are relatively small in stature ; even as an adult , their height is only the size of a child Hume . After the kingdom of Nabradia ceased to exist , they designated the Necrohol of Nabudis as their stronghold . The Baknamy are sensitive to the air that they breathe , and living where the air is polluted due to the city 's destruction forces them to wear gas masks . The poorer and less fortunate Baknamy commit crimes to earn a living , targeting adventurers and travelers , causing Humes to view them as a despicable race .
The Garif ( ガリフ , Garifu ) of Final Fantasy XII are depicted as large , thick @-@ furred appreciators of nature and the arts of war , but disliking unnecessary violence . They have high smelling and hearing senses , which make them able hunters . The Garif prefer to adorn themselves with natural ornaments of animal bones and stones over crafted objects , with the exception of a traditional mask which is worn from birth to death . Their villages are sparsely located in the Bancour Region , and each is governed by a council led by a High Elder . Relations with other races are peaceful but rare . Garif merchants are known to trade with the nomads of Giza Plains and the Dalmascans , exchanging items such as Bancour spices . In ancient times , the Occuria granted the Garif nethicite , however the Garif 's dislike for violence hindered them from using its power .
The Helgas ( ヘルガス , Herugasu ) are a long @-@ living , highly intelligent race . Helgas are white @-@ haired , tall , thin , and have long limbs . They can communicate telepathically while asleep , and also probe into the dreams of others . Gran Kiltias Anastasis is the only Helgas who appears within Final Fantasy XII .
The Rev ( レベ , Rebe ) are a minor , feline race that appears in Skycity Bhujerba . They are deeply cultured and a bit aristocratic , and act as advisors and representatives for Marquis Halim Ondore the IV .
The Seeq ( シーク , Shīku ) are a powerful and agile porcine race possessing low intellect and described as barely able to speak human languages . Though somewhat cowardly , they are often hired as mercenaries , guards , or hunters , with a significant amount going into thievery . The Seeq are also attracted by shiny objects , often adorning themselves with such . Seeq often adorn themselves with markings of sorts , the most common being something that resembles a smiley face on their chest . Males and Females are almost impossible to distinguish , the only real sign being that females often wear some clothing on their upper bodies .
The Urutan @-@ Yensa ( ウルタン ＝ エンサ , Urutan @-@ Ensa ) are the " Lords and Masters of the Great Sea " , a name bestowed befitting their presence in the Yensa Sandsea and mastery in taming the Yensa fish for travel . Evolved from crustaceans , their bodies are thin and entirely covered by layers of clothing , which the game 's Bestiary states is either to hide their ugly bodies or to keep themselves protected from the sun . The Urutan @-@ Yensa divided into separate tribes ruled by a queen able to speak the Hume language , and are strictly territorial , attacking anyone who enters their lands . Urutan @-@ Yensa are particularly proud and attached to honor so much that requesting the aid of others outside their race results in a death penalty . They sometimes exile tribe members that show unusual aggressive and violent nature , known as the Urutan @-@ Exile .
Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings introduces two other races :
The Aegyl ( エグル , Eguru ) is a winged , humanlike race appearing in Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings . These wings count as both a blessing ( able to fly in the air ) and a curse ( resulting in a short lifespan of 40 years ) . The Aegyl dwell in the ruins
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